A 


COMMENTARY 


ON 


THE    HOLY    BIBLE 


BY     VARIOUS     WRITERS 


#K<  6f  met 

*     JUL  16  1909 

EDITED    BY  '^^%£6/GAL  St^Aj^ 

The  Rev.   J.    R.    DUMMELOW    M.A. 

queens'    college,    CAMBRIDGE 


COMPLETE    IN    ONE    VOLUME 

WITH   GENERAL   ARTICLES    AND   MAPS 


NEW   YORK 

THE   MACMILLAN   COMPANY 

1909 


Copyright,  1908,  1909, 
By  the  MACMILLAN  COMPANY. 


Set  up  and  electrotyped.     Published  February,  1909.     Reprinted 
March,  1909. 


NorlrcoH  13rf33 : 
Berwick  &  Smith  Co.,  Norwood   Mass.,  U.S.A. 


PREFACE 

A  FEW  words  will  suffice  to  explain  the  purpose  and  plan  of  the  present  volume, 
which  has  been  specially  written  to  meet  the  wants  of  the  ordinary  Bible  reader. 

The  Bible  is  the  inspired  record  of  God's  gradual  revelation  of  Himself,  His 
Nature,  Character,  and  Will, — a  revelation  made  in  the  first  instance  to  a  people 
who  were  chosen  to  be  the  guardians  of  this  treasure  and  to  communicate  it  in 
due  time  to  the  rest  of  mankind, — a  revelation  consummated  in  the  Person,  Life, 
and  Work  of  Jesus  Christ.  In  this  light  it  is  regarded  by  at  least  a  third  of  the 
human  race,  who  have  accepted  it  as  a  sure  guide  through  time  to  eternity.  It 
therefore  demands  and  deserves  constant  and  reverent  study,  which  will  be  richly 
repaid  by  an  ever-growing  appreciation  of  its  beauties,  and  a  clearer  perception 
of  its  spiritual  power  and  truth. 

Yet  it  is  often  forgotten  that  1800  years  have  elapsed  since  the  last  pages  of 
the  Bible  were  written,  that  it  deals  with  events  of  the  remote  past,  with  races 
moved  by  ideas  and  influenced  by  a  civilisation  very  unlike  our  own,  and  that  the 
lano-uage  of  its  larger  half  has  ceased  to  be  a  living  speech  for  more  than  two 
thousand  years.  Even  the  translation  which  is  in  common  use — the  Authorised 
Version — was  made  300  years  ago,  at  a  time  when  Christian  scholars  had  only 
just  become  conversant  with  Hebrew,  and  when  no  one  thought  of  employing  for 
critical  purposes  those  ancient  Versions,  such  as  the  Septuagint,  which  throw  so  much 
light  on  both  text  and  interpretation.  It  is  also  only  within  recent  years  that 
travellei's  have  familiarised  themselves  and  othei-s  with  Eastern  scenes  and  customs, 
and  have  become  acquainted  with  the  literature,  history,  religion  and  archaeology 
of  the  nations  connected  with  Israel. 

It  is  therefore  evident  that  the  reader  who  possesses  only  the  text  of  the 
Bible  is  greatly  hampered  by  ignorance  of  the  circumstances  under  which  the 
various  books  were  originally  composed,  the  mental  habits  of  the  people  to  whom 
they  were  addressed,  and  the  actual  needs  which  they  were  designed  to  meet. 
Oftentimes  he  fails  to  realise  that  the  prophecy,  psalm,  or  epistle  was  sent 
forth  in  response  to  contemporary  circumstances,  as  urgent  and  vital  as  any 
we  experience.  Hence  arises  an  inadequate  apprehension  of  the  intense  reality 
of  the  message  delivered.  Spiritual  help  may,  no  doubt,  be  derived  from  its 
perusal — that  being  the  main  purpose  for  which  God's  providence  has  preserved 
it, — but  even  this  will  be  less  efficacious  than  if  there  had  been  caught  a  more 
distinct  echo  of  the  original  bearing  and  significance  of  the  record. 

The  One  Volume  Commentary  is  an  attempt  to  meet  such  needs  as  have  been 
indicated,  and  to  provide,  in  convenient  form,  a  brief  explanation  of  the  meaning 
of  the  Scriptures.  Introductions  have  been  supplied  to  the  various  books,  and 
Notes  which  will  help  to  explain  the  principal  difficulties,  textual,  moral  or 
doctrinal,  which  may  arise  in  connexion  with  them.  A  series  of  Articles  has, 
also,  been  prefixed,  dealing  with  the  larger  questions  suggested  by  the  Bible  as  a 
whole.  It  is  hoped  that  the  Commentary  may  lead  to  a  perusal  of  many  of  the 
books  of  Holy  Scripture  which  are  too  often  left  unread,  in  spite  of  their  rare 
Hterary  charm  and  abundant  usefulness  for  the  furtherance  of  the  spiritual  life. 


PREFACE 

The  Authoi'ised  Version  has  been  commented  on  as  being  still  in  general  use, 
but  pains  have  been  taicen  to  indicate  the  innumerable  passages  where  the  Revised 
Version  leads  to  a  better  understanding  of  the  original. 

In  recent  years  much  light  has  been  thrown  upon  cjuestions  of  authorship  and 
interpretation,  and  the  contributors  to  this  volume  have  endeavoured  to  incor- 
porate in  it  the  most  assured  results  of  modern  scholarship,  whilst  avoiding 
opinions  of  an  extreme  or  precarious  kind.  Sometimes  these  results  differ  from 
traditional  views,  but  in  such  cases  it  is  not  only  hoped,  but  believed,  that  the 
student  will  find  the  spiritual  value  and  authority  of  the  Bible  have  been 
enhanced,  rather  than  diminished,  by  the  change. 

The  Editor  desires  to  express  his  gratitude  to  the  many  well-known  biblical 
scholars  who  have  responded  so  readily  to  his  appeal  for  help,  and  by  their 
encouragement  and  contributions  have  made  the  production  of  the  Commentary 
possible.  He  regrets  that  the  problem  of  space,  which  has  confronted  him  from 
beginning  to  end,  has  allowed  him  to  assign  to  them  only  sufficient  room  for 
the  briefest  and  simplest  treatment  of  their  several  books. 

For  the  conception  and  methods  of  the  work  the  Editor  is  alone  responsible. 
He  has  been  induced  to  undertake  the  task  from  a  belief  that,  notwithstandino-  the 
many  commentaries  in  existence,  there  is  still  room  for  another  more  suited  to  the 
needs  and  means  of  the  general  public.  To  treat  so  vast  a  subject  in  so  small  a 
space  must  inevitably  evoke  criticism,  but  he  trusts  that  even  within  the  limits 
of  a  single  volume,  much  will  be  found  to  remove  difficulties,  to  strengthen  faith, 
and  to  lead  to  a  wider  study  and  fuller  comprehension  of  the  Word  of  God. 


vf 


CONTRIBUTORS 


OLD   TESTAMENT 


Ayles,  Rev.  H.  H.  B.,  D.D.,  Rector  of  Barrow, 

Suffolk. 
Curtis,    E.   L.,   Ph.D.,  D.D.,    Professor   of 

Hebrew   Language   and   Literature,    Yale 

Divinity  School. 
Davison,   Rev.   W.    T.,  D.D.,   Professor   of 

Theology,  Richmond,  Surrey. 
DuMMELOV^,  Rev.  J.  R.,  General  Editor. 
*Edie,  Rev.  W.,  M.  A.,  B.D.,  formerly  Examiner 

for  the  Degree  of  B.D.,  St.  Andrews. 
Green,  Rev.  E.  T.,  M.A.,  Professor  of  Hebrew, 

St.  David's  College,  Lampeter. 

Jordan,  Rev.  W.  G.,  B.A.,  D.D.,  Professor  of 
OT.  Criticism,  Queen's  University,  Ontario. 

Kennett,  Rev.  Canon  R.,  B.D.,  Regius  Pro- 
fessor of  Hebrew,  Cambridge. 

Kent,  C.  F.,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  Biblical 
History  and  Literature,  Yale  University. 

LoExnousE,  Rev.W.  F.,  M.A.,  Professor  of  OT. 
Languages  and  Philosophy,  Handsworth 
College,  Birmingham. 

McFadyen,  Rev.  J.  E.,  M.A.,  Professor  of  OT. 
Literature  and  Exegesis,  Knox  College, 
Toronto. 

*Moulton,  Rev.  W.  J.,  M. A.,  Professor  of  OT. 
Languages  and  Philosophy,  Headiugley 
College,  Leeds. 


Paton,  Rev.  L.  B.,  D.D.,  Professor  of  OT, 
Exegesis,  Hartford  Seminary,  Conn. 

*Patrick,  Rev.  J.,  B.D.,  B.Sc,  formerly 
Examiner  for  Degrees  in  Divinity,  St. 
Andrews. 

*Ragg,  Rev.  Canon  L.,  M.A.,  sometime 
Warden  of  the  Bishop's  Hostel,  Lincoln. 

Robinson,  G.  L.,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  OT. 
Literature  and  Exegesis,  McCormick 
Theological  Seminary,  Chicago. 

Sanders,  F.  K.,  Ph.D.,  President  of  Wash- 
burn College,  Topeka,  Kansas. 

*Stott,  Rev.  G.  G.,  M.A.,  B.D.,  Examiner  for 
Degrees  in  Hebrew  and  Theology,  St. 
Andrews. 

Streane,  Rev.  A.  W.,  D.D.,  Fellow  of  Corpus 
Christi  College,  Cambridge. 

♦Taylor,  Rev.  J.,  Litt.D.,  Yicar  of  Winch- 
combe. 

Wade,  Rev.  G.  W.,  D.D.,  Professor  and  Senior 
Tutor,  St.  David's  College,  Lampeter. 

Welch,  Rev.  A.,  B.D.,  Glasgow. 

Woods,  Rev.  F.  H.,  B.D.,  Rector  of  Bainton, 
Yorks  ;  sometime  Fellow  and  Tutor,  St. 
John's  College,  Oxford. 


NEW  TESTAMENT 


♦Adeney,  Rev.  W.  F.,  D.D.,  Principal  of  the 
Lancashire  College,  Manchester. 

Campbell,  Rev.  J.,  M.A.,  B.D.,  Monquhitter. 

Curtis,  Rev.  W.  A.,  B.D.,  Professor  of  Sys- 
tematic Theology,  Aberdeen. 

♦Findlay,  Rev.  G.  G.,  D.D.,  Professor  of 
Biblical  Literature  and  Exegesis,  Heading- 
ley  College,  Leeds. 

FuLFORD,  Rev.  H.  W.,  M.A.,  Fellow  and  Dean 
(formerly),  Clare  College,  Cambridge. 

♦Harris,  Rev.  C,  D.D.,  Yicar  of  Claverley ; 

Examining    Chaplain    to    the    Bishop    of 

Llandaff. 
Meyrick,  Rev.  F.,  M.A.  (the  late),  Rector  of 

Blickling,  Norfolk. 

Nairne,  Rev.  A.,  M.A.,  Professor  of  Hebrew, 
King's  College,  London  ;  Examining  Chap- 
lain to  the  Bishop  of  St.  Albans. 


Palmer,  Rev.  F.,  M.A.,  Rector  of  Andover, 
Massachusetts. 

Peake,  a.  S.,  D.D.,  Dean  of  the  Faculty 
of  Theology  in  the  University  of  Man- 
chester. 

Plummer,  Rev.  A.,  D.D.,  sometime  Master  of 

University  College,  Durham. 
Ropes,  Rev.  J.  H.,  D.D.,  Bussey  Professor 

of  NT.    Criticism  and  Exegesis,  Harvard 

University. 
Slattery,  the  Rev.  C.  L.,  D.D.,  Rector  of 

Ch.  Ch.,  Springfield,  Massachusetts. 
Smith,  Rev.  G.  Abbott,  D.D.,  Professor  of 

OT.  and  NT.  Literature,  Diocesan  Theo- 
logical College,  Montreal. 
Smith,  Rev.  H.,  M.A.,  Lecturer  at  St.  John's 

College,  Highbuiy. 
Sturges,  Rev.  M.  C,  M.A.,  sometime  Lecturer 

in  Theology,  Cavendish  College,  Cambridge. 


Vll 


CONTRIBUTORS,  ETC. 


ARTICLES 


CONDER,  Colonel,  R.E.,  D.C.L.,  LL.D. 

Frew,  Rev.  D.,  B.D.,  formerly  Black  Theo- 
logical Fellow,  Glasgow  University. 


Paterson-Smyth,  Rev.  J.,  LL.D.,  Litt.D., 
Rector  of  St.  George's,  Montreal. 

PuLLAN,  Rev.  L.,  M.A.,   Fellow  and  Tutor, 
St.  John's  College,  Oxford. 

And  other  Contributors  marked  thus  *  on  previous  page. 


ABBREVIATIONS 


AV  =  Authorised  Version. 
RV  —  Revised  Version. 
RM  =  Margin  of  RV. 
OT.  =  Old  Testament. 
NT.  =  New  Testament. 
op.  =  compare. 
f .  =  following. 
Heb.  =  Pebrew. 


Gk.  =  Greek. 
MSS  =  Manuscripts. 
VSS  =  Versions. 

WH.  =  Westcott  and  Hort's  text. 
LXX  —  The    Septuagint,  an   ancient   Greek 
translation  of  the  Old  Testament. 
HDB.  =  Hastings'  Dictionary  of  the  Bible,  a 
valuable  work  of  reference. 


COLLECT 

Bi-ESSED  Lord,  who  hast  caused  all  holy  Scriptures  to  be  written  for  our 
learning ;  Grant  that  we  may  in  such  wise  hear  them,  read,  mark,  learn,  and 
inwardly  digest  them,  that  by  patience,  and  comfort  of  thy  holy  Word,  we 
may  embrace,  and  ever  hold  fast  the  blessed  hope  of  everlasting  life,  which  thou 
hast  given  U3  in  our  Saviour  Jesus  Chj'ist.     Amen. 


Vlll 


CONTENTS 

GENERAL   ARTICLES  1 

General  Introduction  to  the  Bible   ......(  ; 

Hebrew  History  to  the  Exile    .......  ^ 

d 

Introduction  to  the  Pentateuch          ......  .r 

The  Creation  Story  and  Science ^-^ 

Genesis  and  the  Babylonian  Inscriptions xxxii 

The  Laws  of  Hammurabi xxxv 

Heathen  Religions  referred  to  in  the  Bible xxxvii 

Introduction  to  Hebrew  Prophecy      .......  xli 

The  Messianic  Hope xlv 

The  History,  Literature,  and   Religious   Development  of  the  Jews 

in  the  Period  between  the  Testaments       .....  xlviii 

The  Life  of  Jesus  Christ            .........  Ixxiv 

The  Teaching  of  Jesus  Christ Ixxix 

The  Synoptic  Problem Ixxxiii 

The  Dynasty  of  the  Herods      ........  Ixxxvi 

The  Life  and  Work  of  St.  Paul       .......  Ixxxviii 

Survey  of  the  Epistles  of  St.  Paul  .......  xci 

Belief  in  God xcix 

The  Person  of  Jesus  Christ cvi 

The  Trinity cxiii 

Miracle cxv 

The  Resurrection cxxiii 

The  Atonement cxxviii 

Inspiration cxxxi 

The  Study  of  the  Bible cxxxiv 

The  Elements  of  Religion cxxxix 

Palestine cxlv 

Bible  Antiquities cxlviii 

Hebrew  Calendar,  Coins,  Weights  and  Measures      ....  cli 

Bible  Chronology         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .  clii 


IX 


CONTENTS 


^^'^HE  Old  Testament 
^HE  New  Testament 


COMMENTARY 


PAGE 
1 

617 


MAPS 

{At  end  of  Volume) 

'The  Holy  Land  as  allotted  by  Joshua  to  the  Twelve  Tribes  of  Israel 

Egypt,  Sinai,  and  Canaan 

Lands  of  the  Jewish  Captivities 

Palestine  in  the  time  of  Christ 

Ancient  Jerusalem 

Plan  of  (a)  Solomon's  Temple,  (6)  Herod's  Temple 

St.  Paul's  Journeys 


GENERAL  INTRODUCTION  TO  THE  BIBLE 


The  Bible  is  the  source  as  well  as  the  result 
of  inspiration.  The  utterances  of  the  men  of 
old,  at  the  suggestion  or  under  the  guidance 
of  the  Holy  Spirit,  live  and  move  again,  with 
informing,  uplifting,  redeeming  power,  under 
the  blessing  of  the  same  Spirit,  in  the  hearts 
and  lives  of  men.  Every  detail  regarding  it 
therefore  is  interesting. 

I.  Titles.  The  Bible  is  not  one  book,  but 
many.  The  original  form  and  meaning  of  the 
word  itself  bear  this  out.  Biblos  in  Greek 
means  '  book,'  so  called  from  byblos^  the  inner 
bark  of  the  papyrus  reed  on  which  early 
writings  were  inscribed.  Biblos  is  used  in 
Mtli,  but  in  Lkii''  a  diminutive  form  bibl/on 
is  used  with  the  same  meaning.  The  early 
Greek  Christians  called  their  Scriptures  Ta 
Biblia,  i.e.  the  books  par  excellence.  So  they 
were  called  for  centuries.  Later,  however, 
the  Latin  form  biblia,  although  plural,  was 
mistaken  for  a  feminine  singular,  this  idea 
being  doubtless  helped  by  the  increasing  view 
that  the  Scriptures  were  a  complete  whole — 
the  unique  Word  of  God  to  the  world.  In 
this  way  the  word  as  a  singular  acquired  popular 
vogue,  and  ultimately  the  Jewish  and  Christian 
sacred  books,  which  had  been  known  at  first 
chiefly  as  '  the  Scriptures'  {hai  graphai),  became 
familiar  in  all  the  languages  of  Europe  as 
'  the  Bible.' 

The  term  '  Testament,'  familiar  to  us  in 
the  phrase,  '  Old  and  New  Testaments,'  is 
due  probably  to  some  misunderstanding  of 
the  Greek  word  diatheke.  This  term  is  used 
by  the  Greek  translators  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment to  render  the  Hebrew  word  Berith, 
'  covenant,'  which  originally  had  a  very  general 
significance,  and  referred  to  decisions  or  judg- 
ments and  agreements  of  different  kinds.  As 
these,  however,  were  usually  accompanied  by 
religious  observances  and  sanctions,  the  word 
'  covenant '  came  to  have  a  specially  religious 
sense,  and  was  applied  to  the  decisions  or 
judgments  of  God,  and  His  agreements  with 
His  chosen  people,  or  their  outstanding  repre- 
sentatives. Thus  we  have  His  '  covenant ' 
with  Noah,  Abram,  etc.,  and  the  new  '  cove- 
nant '  which  He  made  with  men  in  Christ. 
Under  the  former  the  patriarchs  of  Israel  and 
their  descendants  came  under  obligation  to 
render  God  obedience  and  service  ;  while  He, 
on  His  part,  undertook  to  requite  them  with 
His  blessing  and  favour.  Israel's  failure  to 
keep  the  covenant  of  works  necessitated  the 
covenant  of  grace  under  which  forgiveness  and 


righteousness  are  secured  through  faith  in 
Christ.  It  is  in  this  sense  the  word  is  used  by 
St.  Paul  (2  Cor  3  «).  Only  once  (Heb  9 1«.  17)  is 
it  possible  that  it  may  refer  to  a  dhposition  or 
ivill.  But  this  is  the  sense  of  the  Latin  word 
teatamentum  used  to  render  it,  viz.  a  will,  or 
disposition  (of  property).  An  attempt  was 
made  to  supplant  this  word  testanientum 
by  another  word,  i/isfrume/itum,  meaning  an 
authoritative  document.  But  the  former  sur- 
vived and  gave  to  us  the  familiar  words,  '  the 
Old  and  New  Testaments,'  meaning  the  core- 
nants  or  agreements  made  by  God  with  His 
people  in  the  Jewish  and  Christian  times 
respectively. 

2.  Language.  The  Bible  was  written  in 
the  language  of  the  people  among  whom  it 
first  appeared.  The  language  of  the  Old 
Testament  is  Hebrew. 

Hebrew  is  written  from  right  to  left.  In  a 
modern  Hebrew  Bible  the  pages  run  also  from 
right  to  left,  and  the  writing  is  in  square 
characters  (consonants),  with  small  signs  and 
dots  attached  variously  for  vowels.  Originally 
Hebrew  had  no  vowels,  and  the  difficulty  of 
reading  it  must  have  been  to  a  beginner  very 
great.  Thus  DBR  might  be  ddbhdr,  '  a  word,' 
or  dibber,  '  he  spoke,'  or  dobher,  '  a  speaker,' 
or  dobher,  '  pasture,'  or  debhe?;  '  pestilence.' 
The  vowel  system,  as  will  be  seen  hereafter, 
was  only  introduced  in  the  sixth  century  A.D.  in 
order  to  preserve  the  correct  pronunciation. 
This  explains  one  of  the  difficulties  still  experi- 
enced in  the  interpretation  of  the  OT.  Scrip- 
tures. It  is  sometimes  doubtful  whether  the 
correct  vowels  have  been  added  to  the  con- 
sonants of  the  original  text,  and,  if  not,  what 
others  should  be  substituted  for  them. 

Hebrew  includes  Aramaic,  a  kindred  dialect 
with  distinctive  peculiarities.  Parts  of  the 
Old  Testament,  viz.  Ezr4S-6is  712-26  JerlO^ 
Dan  2  ^-7  2S,  are  written  in  Aramaic,  while 
isolated  words  and  phrases  occur  in  many 
other  parts  of  the  Old  Testament,  due  either 
to  the  local  peculiarities  of  the  original  writer, 
or  more  probably  to  careless  copyists.  The 
common  speech  of  our  Lord  and  His  disciples 
is  generally  believed  to  have  been  some  form 
of  Aramaic,  and  a  more  careful  study  of  this 
dialect  has  already  thrown  much  light  on  their 
teaching.  The  allusions  to  Hebrew  in  the 
New  Testament  (Jn52  19i3,i7  Ac  2 1*0  222, 
etc.)  are  mainly  to  Aramaic. 

The  term  '  Chaldee,'  sometimes  applied  to 
the  Ai'amaic  portions  of  the  Old  Testament, 


XI 


GENERAL  INTRODUCTION  TO   THE  BIBLE 


is  a  misnomer.  Chaldea  is  Babylonia,  and 
Chaldee  is  the  language  of  the  Babylonian 
inscriptions. 

In  the  third  century  B.C.  there  began  to 
be  made  at  Alexandria  a  Greek  version  of  the 
Old  Testament.  It  is  called  the  Septuagint 
version  from  the  traditional  belief  that  seventy 
scribes  (Lat.  Septuaginta)  were  employed  in 
its  production.  This  version  was  probably 
completed  some  time  before  the  Christian  era, 
and  is  of  great  value  in  the  study  of  the  Old 
Testament  (see  art.  '  Literature  of  the  Period 
between  Old  and  New  Testaments '). 

The  language  of  the  New  Testament  is 
Greek,  a  particular  form  hitherto  known  as 
Hellenistic  Greek.  Recent  discoveries  have, 
however,  proved  conclusively  that,  in  form  and 
in  substance,  it  was  simply  the  language  of 
the  Greek-speaking  world  of  New  Testament 
times.  The  modes  of  expression  in  the 
Septuagint,  in  the  Epistles  of  St.  Paul,  and  in 
the  Gospels  are  not  peculiar  to  Christianity  or 


its  message,  but  are  due  to  the  style  of  speech 
common  in  that  age.  Some  parts  of  the 
Gospels  may  have  been  originally  in  Aramaic, 
but  this  is  disputed. 

3.  Divisions.  "We  have  already  seen  that 
the  two  main  divisions  of  the  Bible  are  the 
Old  and  New  Testaments.  As  it  stands  in  our 
English  Bible,  the  Old  Testament  consists  of 
thirty-nine  books,  but  these  are  only  reckoned 
as  twenty-four  in  the  Hebrew  Bible,  1  and 
2S,  1  and  2K,  1  and  2Ch,  Ezra,  Neh,  and 
the  twelve  (so-called)  Minor  Prophets,  being 
each  reckoned  as  one  book.  The  Hebrew 
divisions  are  on  large  lines.  The  first  five 
books  are  known  as  the  Torah  (i.e.  '  Law ')  ; 
then  come  the  Nehhiim  (i.e.  '  Prophets  '),  sub- 
divided into  Earlier  (four  books)  and  Later 
(four  books)  ;  while  the  third  great  division 
is  the  Kethubhhn  (i.e.  'writings,'  called  in  the 
Septuagint,  '  Hagiographa ').  The  following 
table  shows  the  grouping  of  the  various  books 
in  the  Hebrew  Bible  : — 


I.  Torah 


rr.  Nebhilm. 


rGenesis. 
I  Exodus. 
A  Leviticus. 
I  Numbers. 
^Deuteronomy. 
rJoshua. 

Earlier  J  J^<^g®^- 
learner-;  g^^^^gi^ 

Kings. 
Isaiah. 


I; 


Later 


Tsalms 
Proverbs 
Job 


Jeremiah. 

Ezekiel. 

-Twelve  Minor  Prophets. 


III.  Kethlibhim 


{Canticles 
P"^*^   X  X-        I  Called  the  five  Megill6th 
Lamentations  V     fj  p   ■Roiia'\ 
Ecclesiastes      I 
Esther  J 

Chronicles 


Hagiographa  means  '  sacred  writings,'  a 
paraphrase  of  Kethuhhim.  The  five  Megilloth 
were  so  called  because  each  was  written  on  a 
separate  roll.  They  were  read  yearly  at  the 
Jewish  festivals  :  Canticles  at  the  Passover  ; 
Ruth  at  Pentecost  ;  Ecclesiastes  at  the  Feast 
of  Tabernacles  ;  Esther  at  the  Feast  of  Purim  ; 
Lamentations  on  the  anniversary  of  the 
destruction  of  Jerusalem. 

A  later  grouping  of  the  Hebrew  books 
given  by  Josephus  enumerates  twenty- two, 
being  designed  to  correspond  with  the  twenty- 
two  letters  of  the  Hebrew  alphabet.  This  was 
accomplished  by  reading  Ruth  as  part  of 
Judges,  and  Lamentations  as  part  of  Jeremiah. 

4.  Arrangement.  From  the  grouping  of 
the  Hebrew  Bible  given  above,  it  will  be  seen 
that    not  only  the    divisions,    but    also    the 


arrangement  of  the  books  differs  considerably 
from  those  adopted  in  our  English  Bible. 
The  latter  follows  the  Latin  Vulgate,  which 
in  turn  is  based  on  the  Septuagint.  Here  the 
division  is  according  to  subject-matter  :  Law 
(five  books).  History  (twelve  books),  Poetry 
(five  books),  and  Prophecy  (seventeen  books). 
This  arrangement  proves,  however,  on  exami- 
nation to  be  superficial  and  inadequate.  It  is 
even  less  satisfactory  than  the  order  in  the 
Hebrew  Bible.  Modern  scholars  have  striven 
rather  to  obtain  some  historical  arrangement 
of  the  books  ;  their  aim  being  to  enable  students 
to  read  the  various  writings  in  the  light  of 
contemporary  events.  A  sketch  of  the  pro- 
phetical books  in  their  historical  order,  given 
by  the  late  Prof.  A.  B.  Davidson,  illustrates  at 
once   the  advantages  and   the  difficulties  of 


xu 


GENERAL  INTRODUCTION   TO   THE   BIBLE 


such  an  arrangement.  '  (1)  Prophets  of  the 
Assyrian  Age — Amos,  Hosea,  Isaiah  (740-700), 
Micah,  Nahum,  Zephaniah  ;  (2)  prophets  of 
the  Babylonian  age — Habakkuk,  Jeremiah 
(626-580),  Ezekiel  (593-576)  ;  (3)  prophets  of 
the  Exile  and  Restoration — Isaiah  xl-lxvi  (550), 
Haggai,  and  Zechariah  (520),  Malachi  (420)  ; 
the  age  of  Joel  and  Obadiah  is  uncertain  ; 
while  Jonah  is  late.'  In  the  case  of  the  other 
two  great  divisions  of  the  Old  Testament  the 
difficulties  would  be  much  greater  (see  under 
'  Canon,'  §  5). 

The  arrangement  of  the  New  Testament, 
on  the  other  hand,  is  easily  explained.  The 
books,  twenty-seven  in  number,  fall  readily  into 
six  groups  :  (1)  The  Gospels,  (2)  The  Acts  of 
the  Apostles,  (3)  The  Epistles  of  St.  Paul,  (4) 
The  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  (5)  The  General 
Epistles,  (6)  The  Book  of  the  Revelation. 
This  order  fits  in,  more  or  less,  to  a  com- 
prehensive scheme  showing  the  origin  of 
Christianity  in  Jesus  Christ,  its  progress  under 
the  Apostles,  early  Christian  letters  unfold- 
ing its  doctrines  and  ideals,  and  finally  its 
consummation  in  apocalyptic  vision.  This 
arrangement,  however,  is  not  chronological — 
St.  Mark  being  probably  the  earliest  of  the 
Gospels,  while  some  of  the  Epistles  of  St. 
Paul  were  written  still  earlier. 

It  is  necessflary  to  add  that  the  arrangement 
of  chapters  and  verses  has  nothing  to  do 
with  the  original  book.  It  was  an  artificial 
invention  of  the  middle  ages.  The  first 
printed  Bible  with  chapters  appeared  in  1525, 
and  the  first  Bible  with  verses  in  1551.  While 
very  convenient  for  reference,  this  arrange- 
ment often  obscures  the  sense  and  needlessly 
interrupts  the  narrative.  The  chapters  and 
verses  have  therefore  by  the  Revisers  of  1885 
been  relegated  to  the  margin. 

5.  The  Canon.  Every  introduction  to  the 
Bible  uses  the  phrase  '  Canon  of  the  Old 
Testament,'  or  '  Canon  of  the  New  Testament,' 
or  '  canonical  books.'  What  is  meant  by  these 
phrases  ?  The  word  '  canon  '  is  Greek,  and 
denoted  originally  a  measuring-rod  or  line. 
Later  it  came  to  mean  a  standard  of  measure- 
ment, and  last  of  all  the  space  covered  by  such 
a  measure.  The  term  '  canon '  came  to  be 
used  in  connexion  with  the  books  of  the  Bible 
about  the  fom-th  century  of  our  era,  to  indi- 
cate either  that  these  books  were  the  standard 
of  faith,  or  that  they  occupied  a  special  place, 
where  they  were  marked  ofE  from  all  other 
books.  Usually  the  Canon  means  the  collection 
of  books  in  the  Old  and  New  Testaments  as 
opposed  to  those  books  (see  Apocrypha)  which 
were  left  out,  and  on  this  subject  two  ques- 
tions are  suggested.  (1)  Why  were  such 
collections  made  ?  (2)  What  principles  guided 
the  choice  of  book  ? 

Taking  the  first  question  as  it  applies  to  the 


Old  Testament,  we  find  the  subject  involved 
in  some  obscurity.  As  early  at  least  as  the 
days  of  Samuel  there  existed  the  '  schools  of 
the  prophets,'  where  the  training  was  not  only 
religious  but  scholastic.  In  these  schools  were 
preserved  the  first  records  of  Israel's  history. 
The  compilation  and  arrangement  of  these 
records  would  be  the  work  of  later  generations, 
and  how  this  was  done  we  cannot  now  say  for 
certain.  We  may,  however,  take  the  great 
divisions  of  the  Old  Testament  as  indicating 
how  the  Canon  was  formed.  The  process  was 
gradual.  In  all  likelihood  the  Pentateuch  was 
the  only  part  recognised  as  canonical  when 
Ezra  read  the  Torah  to  the  people  (NehS). 
This  is  supported  by  the  fact  that  the  Samari- 
tans, who  formed  themselves  into  a  separate 
community  about  that  period,  possess  only 
the  Pentateuch.  The  work  of  Ezra  answers 
the  first  question  asked  above.  Ezra  and 
Nehemiah  were  social  and  religious  reformers. 
They  desired  clear  and  definite  guidance  for 
the  people,  and  so  they  set  up  the  Pentateuch 
as  the  standard  of  faith  and  morals.  Mean- 
while the  works  of  the  various  prophets  would 
be  preserved  along  with  the  histories,  and 
these  would  be  added  to  the  Pentateuch  at  a 
later  date.  Later  still,  and  only  after  much 
discussion,  was  the  third  great  division,  the 
Kethubhim,  added.  The  claim  of  the  pro- 
phetic books  to  a  place  in  the  Canon  would 
readily  be  admitted  in  an  age  when  the  living 
voice  of  the  prophet  was  no  longer  heard. 
The  purpose  of  the  Kethubhim  would  vindicate 
a  place  for  the  Psalms,  so  necessary  for  the 
service  of  the  second  Temple,  and  for  the 
Megilloth  as  read  at  the  various  festivals. 

The  general  principles  on  which  the  books 
were  chosen  to  form  the  Canon  are  threefold. 
(1)  They  were  books  that  had  been  in  exist- 
ence for  a  considerable  time  and  were  well 
known ;  or,  (2)  they  were  books  associated 
with  some  great  name,  e.g.  the  books  of  Moses, 
the  Psalms  of  David,  the  Proverbs  of  Solomon  ; 
or,  (3)  they  were  books  closely  connected  with 
national  history  or  with  national  festivals. 

In  all  the  books  admitted  into  the  Canon, 
it  was  of  course  believed  that  the  voice  of  God 
was  to  be  heard,  as  He  had  spoken  to  the 
fathers,  saints,  and  prophets  of  the  Hebrew 
race,  that  is  to  say,  as  He  had  at  no  time 
spoken  to  men  of  other  lands  :  or  that  His 
power  was  to  be  realised  as  it  had  been  ex- 
hibited not  only  in  the  experiences  of  individ- 
ual lives,  but  in  the  general  history  of  the 
nation.  This  presence  of  God  in  the  books, 
or  the  inspired  element  as  we  would  call  it, 
rendered  them  unique  and  sacred  in  their  eyes. 

The  exact  date  of  the  fixing  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment Canon  is  uncertain.  It  could  hardly  have 
been  earlier  than  the  end  of  the  second  century 
B.C.,  while  even  as  late  as  the  second  century 


Xlll 


GENERAL   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE   BIBLE 


A.D.  the  Jewish  rabbis  were  still  discussing 
the  claims  of  such  books  as  Ecclesiastes  and 
Canticles  to  a  place  in  the  Canon. 

The  history  of  the  New  Testament  Canon 
is  somewhat  different.  It  is  now  generally 
admitted  that  all  the  books  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment as  we  know  them,  were  in  existence 
before  or  soon  after  the  end  of  the  first  cen- 
tury A.D.  But  not  for  many  years  did  the 
New  Testament,  as  a  complete  whole,  receive 
recognition.  So  long  as  the  Apostles  lived 
there  was  no  apparent  need  of  any  written 
word  concerning  Jesus  Christ  and  the  gospel. 
The  first  Christians  believed  that  the  Spirit  of 
God  descended  upon  them  to  lead  them  into 
all  truth.  They  further  believed  that  the  end 
of  all  things  was  at  hand.  And  these  two 
beliefs  made  needless  the  setting  up  of  any 
written  standard  of  authority.  So  late  as 
the  middle  of  the  second  century  a  Christian 
leader,  Papias,  bishop  of  Hierapolis,  expresses 
in  writing  his  preference  for  the  spiritual  gifts 
as  superior  to  any  written  testimony.  But 
when  the  fervour  of  the  Apostolic  age  began 
to  lose  its  first  glow,  and  when  Christianity 
went  forth  to  do  battle  with  pagan  philosophy, 
the  early  Christian  records  became  more  pre- 
cious. Justin  Martyr  about  150  a.d.  tells  how 
'Memoirs  of  the  Apostles' — doubtless  the  Gos- 
pels— and  the  prophets  of  the  Old  Testament 
were  read  on  the  Lord's  Day.  By  the  end  of 
the  second  century  the  Syriac  "Version  of  the 
New  Testament  included  all  the  books  in  our 
Canon,  except  2  and  3  John,  2  Peter,  Jude,  and 
Revelation ;  while  in  the  West,  by  this  time,  all 
the  books  found  acceptance  within  the  Canon, 
except  Hebrews,  James,  and  2  Peter.  Euse- 
bius,  writing  about  325  a.d.,  divides  the  books 
of  the  New  Testament  into  three  classes : 
those  universally  acknowledged  as  authorita- 
tive {Hoinologoumenci),  those  whose  authority 
was  disputed  (Antilegomena) ,  spurious  books 
(Notha).  The  disputed  books  were  James, 
Jude,  2  and  3  John,  2  Peter,  Hebrews,  and 
Revelation.  The  spurious  books  were  the 
Gospel  of  Peter,  the  Acts  of  Paul,  and  various 
other  Gospels  and  Apocalypses,  most  of  which 
are  now  lost.  It  is  well  to  point  out  that  in 
regard  to  the  disputed  books  the  question  at 
issue  was  their  authority  as  standards  in  the 
Church.  Opinions  were  divided.  In  the  East 
opposition  to  Revelation  lingered  even  in  the 
fourth  century;  while  in  the  West  the  book 
whose  authority  was  longest  disputed  was  the 
Epistle  to  the  Hebrews.  The  subject  was 
much  discussed  at  many  councils  of  the  Church, 
and  it  was  not  till  the  third  council  of  Carthage 
in  397  that  the  Canon  of  the  New  Testament 
was  finally  settled  in  its  present  form. 

6.  The  Text  of  the  Bible.  A  comparison 
of  an  English  Bible  in  the  Revised  Version 
with  one  in  the  Authorised  Version  reveals  at 


once  many  changes.  Some  are  due  to  the 
progress  of  the  English  language,  but  many 
others  are  due  to  what  scholars  call  various 
readings  in  the  text.  The  text  is  the  original 
Hebrew  of  the  Old  Testament  and  the  original 
Greek  of  the  New  Testament.  Formerly  an 
idea  largely  prevailed  that  this  text  was  an 
unchanging,  unchangeable  thing,  preserved 
miraculously  from  ancient  times.  The  preser- 
vation of  the  Bible  is  certainly  one  of  the 
greatest  miracles.  When  we  reflect  that  the 
Bible  had  existed  for  a  thousand  years  before 
printing  was  invented  in  Em-ope,  that  all 
copies  had  to  be  made  laboriously  by  hand, 
and  that  thousands  of  copyists  must  have  been 
employed,  the  wonder  is  not  that  there  are 
various  readings  of  the  text,  but  that  these 
are  comparatively  few  and  unimportant.  The 
text  of  the  Bible  was  preserved  by  human 
hands,  working  under  human  limitations,  but 
the  hand  of  God  is  in  it  too. 

7.  The  Text  of  the  Old  Testament.  One  of 
the  old  arguments  against  the  authenticity  of 
the  Old  Testament  was,  that  writing  could  not 
have  been  known  so  early  ;  but  this  argument 
has  vanished.  We  now  possess  tablets  written 
in  the  fifteenth  century  B.C.  by  governors 
of  cities  in  the  south  of  Palestine  to  their 
masters,  the  kings  of  Egypt  ;  while  inscrip- 
tions in  Egypt  itself  carry  us  back  at  least 
five  thousand  years  before  the  Christian  era. 

Scholars  now  agree  that  parts  of  the  Old 
Testament  may  have  existed  in  writing  a  thou- 
sand years  before  the  Christian  era.  These 
were  probably  copied  at  first  on  skins  in  the 
form  of  rolls — megiUoth.  Early  Hebrew  dif- 
fered considerably  in  form  (as  seen  in  the 
Moabite  Stone — about  850  B.C.)  from  modern 
Hebrew,  in  which  the  characters  are  square. 
In  the  work  of  transcription  through  all  these 
centuries  down  to  the  age  of  printing  many 
slips  would  undoubtedly  be  made.  For  many 
centuries  no  vowel  signs  were  used  at  all,  and 
the  consonants  were  written  without  any 
spaces  between  words.  The  scribes  who 
copied  were  undoubtedly  very  careful,  but 
sometimes  the  same  consonant  was  written 
twice.  Sometimes,  of  two  consonants  of  the 
same  form  one  was  omitted  ;  or  a  word  might 
occur  twice  in  one  verse,  and  the  scribe  going 
on  to  the  second  as  he  copied  the  first  would 
omit  the  intervening  words.  About  the  third 
century  a.d.  certain  consonants  began  to  be 
used  to  express  unchangeably  long  vowels. 
This  was  called  scriptio  2>lena,  i.e.  full  writing. 
About  the  middle  of  the  sixth  century,  when 
the  Jews  were  much  scattered,  the  danger 
arose  that  the  proper  pronunciation  of  Hebrew 
would  be  lost.  A  set  of  scribes  called  Mas- 
soretes,  i.e.  Traditionists,  introduced  a  com- 
plete system  of  points  to  indicate  the  vowels 
as    traditionally    pronounced.     Long    before 


XIV 


GENERAL   INTRODUCTION   TO   THE   BIBLE 


that  time  the  consonantal  text  had  come  to  be 
regarded  by  the  Jews  as  absolutely  sacred  in 
every  jot  and  tittle.  The  Massoretes  were 
most  careful  to  change  nothing  in  this  text — 
where  change  was  obviously  necessary  they 
placed  notes  to  that  eifect  in  the  margin.  So 
sacred  was  the  text  that  everything  was  repro- 
duced ;  letters  written  large  were  written 
large,  those  small  were  kept  small ;  even  signs 
unknown,  some  of  them  probably  due  to  acci- 
dent, were  faithfully  copied.  Thus  thousands 
of  copies  of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  must  have 
been  made,  at  first  on  skins,  and  later  on 
papyrus.  But  thousands  perished  in  these 
early  centuries.  The  Jews  themselves  in 
superstitious  reverence  hid  away  many  copies 
that  were  thus  lost  for  ever.  They  also  de- 
stroyed all  worn  copies  lest  the  sacred  text 
should  suffer.  In  the  early  persecutions  of 
the  Christians  under  the  Roman  emperors  the 
most  strenuous  attempts  were  made  to  stamp 
out  Christianity  by  destroying  its  literature, 
which  included  both  Old  and  New  Testaments. 
Even  more  zealous  were  the  followers  of 
Mahomet,  in  their  mad  career  of  conquest,  to 
extirpate  all  religious  books  except  the  Koran. 
The  result  is  that  th^e  oldest  part  of  the  He- 
brew Bible  now  in  existence  is  a  section  of  the 
prophetical  books  made  in  916  a.d.,  while  the 
oldest  complete  MS  of  a  whole  Bible  belongs  to 
the  eleventh  century  a.d.,  and  we  have  very  few 
MSS  to  guide  us  as  to  readings  of  various  texts. 

We  can,  however,  get  much  help  frpm  the 
versions. 

(a)  There  is  Aquila's  Greek  version.  Aquila 
was  a  learned  Jewish  proselyte  who  made 
a  word-for-word  translation  of  the  Hebrew 
text  in  the  second  century  a.d. 

(6)  Symmachus,  an  Ebionite,  also  made-  a 
translation  into  G-reek  in  the  same  century. 

(c)  Theodotion  revised  the  Septuagint  ver- 
sion about  the  same  time. 

(fZ)  Very  important  too,  for  comparison,  is 
a  version  of  the  Scriptures  in  Syriac  made 
from  the  Hebrew  and  Septuagint  probably 
as  early  as  the  second  century,  and  known  as 
the  Peshitto,  i.e.  the  plain  version. 

(e)  We  have  also  fragments  of  an  old 
Latin  version  made  mainly  from  the  Septuagint. 

(/)  More  important  than  the  old  Latin  is 
the  translation  of  the  Old  Testament  made 
by  St.  Jerome.  This  was  made  mainly  from 
Hebrew  into  Latin  about  the  end  of  the  fourth 
century  a.d.,  and  is  now  universally  known  as 
the  Vulgate. 

It  must  be  noted,  however,  that  although 
many  various  readings  exist,  the  vast  majority 
are  of  small  importance,  and  bear  testimony 
both  to  the  marvellous  accuracy  of  the  Jewish 
scribes,  and  to  the  miraculous  preservation  of 
these  Scriptures  through  many  vicissitudes. 
In  recent  years  much  patient   and    laborious 


study  has  been  given  to  the  Old  Testament 
towards  what  may  be  called  the  reconstruction 
of  the  text,  wherein  scholars  making  abundant 
use  of  Hebrew,  Targums  (i.e.  the  marginal 
explanations  given  in  Aramaic  by  early  Jewish 
rabbis),  and  versions,  and  even  going  behind  all 
these,  have  sought  to  reproduce  more  accur- 
ately the  various  books  of  the  Old  Testament. 
8.  The  Text  of  the  New  Testament.  The 
story  of  the  text  of  the  New  Testament  may 
be  told  more  briefly,  although  the  subject  is 
more  complicated.  The  New  Testament  was 
written  in  Greek,  and  when  we  want  to  get  at 
the  original  words  of  any  text  our  materials 
are  threefold. 

(1)  Early  MSS  in  Greek.  Of  these  the  most 
famous  are  the  following  :  (a)  The  Sinaiticus 
(known  as  N,  Aleph),  found  by  Tischendorf  in 
the  Convent  of  St.  Catherine  on  Mount  Sinai 
in  1859.  It  was  made,  probably,  not  later 
than  350  a.d.,  and  contains  the  Old  Testament 
(Septuagint)  and  whole  of  the  New  Testament. 
It  is  now  in  the  Imperial  Museum  at  St.  Peters- 
burg, (b)  The  Alexandrinus  (known  as  A), 
presented  to  Charles  I  by  the  Patriarch  of 
Constantinople  in  1627.  It  belongs  to  the 
fifth  century,  and  contains  the  Old  Testament 
(Septuagint)  and  nearly  all  the  New  Testament. 
It  is  now  in  the  British  Museum,  (c)  The 
Vatican  (B.  4th  cent.)  containing  the  Old 
Testament  (Septuagint) — not  complete — and 
the  New  Testament  down  to  HebB^'*.  It  is 
now  in  the  Vatican  at  Rome,  and  includes  the 
General  Epistles  ;  but  the  Pastoral  Epistles, 
Philemon,  and  Apocalypse  are  wanting.  These 
are  the  three  chief  MSS  ;  while  almost  equally 
important  are  the  MSS  known  as  C,  D,  and  Dg. 

(2)  Quotations  from  the  Early  Fathers. 
These  include  Clement  of  Rome,  Tatian, 
Justin  Martyr,  Irenseus,  and  Origen  in  Greek, 
and  Tertullian,  Cyprian,  Ambrose,  and  Augus- 
tine in  Latin.  The  difficulty  with  such  quota- 
tions is  that  the  writer  often  quotes  from 
memorj,  and  gives  the  sense  rather  than  the 
words.  These  quotations  are  also  as  liable  to 
error  in  transcription  as  the  New  Testament 
itself. 

(3)  Versions  of  the  New  Testament.  Among 
the  more  important  is  the  Diatessaron  of 
Tatian,  a  harmony  of  the  Four  Gospels  inter- 
woven with  texts  (the  word  diatessaron  means 
'according  to  four')  made  about  170  a.d. 
Tatian  was  a  disciple  of  Justin  Martyr,  and 
his  work  survives  both  in  an  Arabic  version, 
and  also  in  a  commentary  on  the  Diatessaron 
by  Ephraim  the  Syrian.  In  addition  we  have 
the  Peshitto  version,  the  Old  Latin,  and  the 
Vulgate,  all  mentioned  in  connexion  with  the 
Old  Testament ;  while,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Old 
Testament,  there  are  less  important  versions  in 
Armenian,  Egyptian,  and  Gothic. 

The  Hebrew  Scriptures  were  printed  in  1488, 


XV 


GENERAL  INTRODUCTION  TO   THE   BIBLE 


but  no  edition  of  the  Greek  New  Testament  ap- 
peared till  1514.  This  was  the  work  of  editors 
acting  under  Cardinal  Ximenes.  Erasmus 
produced  a  different  version  in  1516,  and  the 
so-called  'received  text'  was  the  work  of  R. 
Stephens  (1550),  and  was  printed  by  the  Elze- 
virs at  Leyden  in  1624.  Since  that  time  great 
progress  has  been  made  in  collating  MSS,  and 
several  noteworthy  editions  have  been  issued, 
including  those  of  Tischendorf  (1860),  West- 
cott  and  Hort  (1881),  and  Nestle  (1901). 

The  work  of  the  scholar  who  seeks  to  know 
the  mind  of  the  New  Testament  writers  is 
much  more  difficult  than  similar  work  in  the 
Old  Testament.  To  begin  with,  the  writers 
of  the  Gospels  report  in  Greek  (although  they 
may  have  had  some  Aramaic  sources)  the  say- 
ings of  Jesus  Christ,  who  for  the  most  part 
probably  spoke  Aramaic.  Nor  is  it  likely  that 
these  writers  or  their  copyists  had  any  idea 
that  their  records  would  go  beyond  the  early 
Churches,  with  which  they  themselves  were 
familiar. 

The  same  applies  to  St.  Paul.  His  letters, 
now  so  valued,  were  messages  intended  only 
for  the  Churches  to  which  they  were  addressed. 
Those  who  first  copied  them  would  not  regard 
them  as  at  all '  sacred  '  in  our  sense  of  the  word. 

Nor  even  in  later  centuries  do  we  find  that 
scrupulous  regard  for  the  sacred  text  which 
marked  the  transmission  of  the  Old  Testament. 
A  copyist  would  sometimes  put  in  not  what 
was  in  the  text,  but  what  he  thought  ought  to 
be  in  it.  He  would  trust  a  fickle  memory,  or 
he  would  even  make  the  text  accord  with  the 
views  of  the  school  to  which  he  belonged. 
Besides  this,  an  enormous  number  of  copies 
are  preserved.  In  addition  to  the  versions 
and  quotations  from  the  early  Christian  Fathers, 
nearly  four  thousand  Greek  MSS  of  the  New 
Testament  are  known  to  exist.  As  a  result 
the  variety  of  readings  is  considerable. 

But  while  we  can  see  how  intricate  and 
difficult  is  the  task  of  the  New  Testament 
scholars,  we  must  remember,  on  the  one  hand, 
that  the  vast  majority  of  the  differences  are 
unimportant,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  that 
where  they  are  important  we  have  in  the 
providence  of  God  such  range  of  material  as 
no  age  has  ever  possessed  for  learning  the 
truth.  We  can  still  search  the  Scriptures  in 
perfect  confidence  that  they  will  testify  of 
Christ,  and  that  their  testimony  is  true. 

g.  English  Versions.  The  first  attempts  to 
render  the  Scriptures  in  English  are  repre- 
sented by  some  extant  translations  and  para- 
phrases of  the  Psalms  and  other  books  dating 
from  a  very  early  time.  About  the  end  of 
the  fourteenth  century  (1382)  the  complete 
version  of  Wyclif  was  made  from  the  Latin 
Yulgate,  the  Gospels  being  his  own  work,  and 


the  rest  of  the  Bible  (including  the  Apocrypha) 
being  done  by  some  of  his  followers.     The 
Reformation  and   the    invention    of   printing 
together  stimulated  the  production  of  versions, 
and  the  following  appeared  during  the    six- 
teenth  century :    Tyndale's  New    Testament, 
Pentateuch,    and    other    books  of   the    Bible 
(1525-1535)  ;  Miles  Coverdale's  complete  Eng- 
lish Bible    (1535)  ;    Matthew's   Bible  (1537), 
made  up  out  of  the  earlier  versions,  and  pub- 
lished as  an  '  Authorised  Version '  with  the 
Royal  licence  ;  the  Great  Bible  (1539),  a  revi- 
sion of  Matthew's  ;  the  Geneva  Bible  (1560), 
published  by  the  exiled  reformers  in  Geneva 
dm'ing   the  reign  of  Queen  Mary,  and  long 
popular  with  the  common  people,  being  still 
known  as  the  '  Breeches '  Bible  from  its  render- 
ing of  Gn37  ;  and  the  Bishops'  Bible  (1568), 
produced  by  episcopal  scholars,  mostly  bishops, 
and  vulgarly  termed  the  '  Treacle  '  Bible,  from 
its  rendering  of  Jer  8  2^.     In  1604  a  conference 
was  convened  by  James  I  at  Hampton  Court, 
to  set  in  order  things  amiss  in  the  Church,  and 
one  result  was  a  new  translation  of  the  Scrip- 
tures, done  by  six  committees  of  divines,  two 
sitting  at  Westminster,  two  at  Cambridge,  and 
two  at  Oxford,  the  whole  work  being  finally 
revised  by  a  general  committee.     This  version 
appeared  in  1611,  and  gradually  displaced  the 
previous  versions,  winning  its  way  with  learned 
and  unlearned  alike  by  its  faithfulness  to  the 
original  languages  and  its  peculiar  felicities  of 
English  style.     It  is  the  version  still  generally 
used,  and  known  as  the  'Authorised  '  version. 
In  the  latter  half  of  the  last  century  it  became 
increasingly  felt  that  the  new  materials  which 
had  accumulated  upon  the  Bible  in  the  way  of 
early    MSS,    versions,    and    quotations    from 
ancient  writers  necessitated  a  fresh  translation 
of  the  text,  and  on  the  suggestion  of  the  Con- 
vocation of  Canterbury,  this  was  undertaken  by 
two  companies  of  translators,  one  for  the  Old 
Testament  and  the  other  for  the  New.     With 
them  were  associated  two  similar  companies  of 
American  scholars,   and   the   result   of   their 
joint   labours   was   the   Revised   Version,   of 
which  the  New  Testament  was  published  in 
1881,  and  the  Old  in  1885.     It  retains  so  far 
as   possible   the   character   and   style  of   the 
Authorised  Version  ;  but  it  corrects  its  mis- 
translations, substitutes  modern  English  words 
for  words  that  have  become  obsolete  or  archaic, 
arranges  prose  matter  in  paragraphs  and  poetry 
in  lines  according  to  modern  usage,  and  intro- 
duces such  changes  in  the  text  as  are  required 
by  the  new  sources  of  information  that  have 
come  to  light.     It  is  thus  of  great  value,  not 
to  scholars  only,  but  to  all  who  desire  to  get 
closer  to  the  original  language  of  the  Scriptures 
than  the  limited  range  of  authorities  used  by 
previous  versions  could  render  possible. 


xvi 


HEBHEW  HISTORY  TO  THE  EXILE 


1.  The  unique  value  of  Hebrew  History.     In 

every  record  of  human  progress  the  story  of 
the  Hebrew  people  must  always  take  the  fore- 
most place.  Whilst  other  peoples  have  ruled 
over  vaster  empires,  and  left  behind  them  far 
greater  monuments  in  literature  or  in  art,  it  is 
to  this  race  that  we  owe  the  Christian  religion. 
If  it  is  true  that  on  the  secular  side  our  intel- 
lectual life  is  rooted  in  Greece  and  Rome,  on 
the  religious  side  it  is  rooted  in  Israel.  So 
long  as  men  recognise  the  abiding  value  of 
religion  as  the  answer  to  their  deepest  need, 
they  will  turn  with  inexhaustible  interest  to 
the  story  of  the  first  beginnings  and  the  gradual 
development  of  the  people  whose  faith  has 
conquered  the  civilised  world. 

2.  Need  of  a  Special  Statement.  There  are 
special  reasons  why  a  separate  sketch  of  the 
history  of  the  Hebrews  is  required.  The  Bible 
narratives  differ  from  secular  history  in  that 
all  other  interests^are  entirely  subordinated  to 
the  religious  one.  Hence  public  events  of  the 
utmost  "importance  are  lightly  passed  over, 
whilst  whole  chapters  are  devoted  to  the  re- 
cords of  spiritual  experience.  Moreover,  as 
the  detailed  expositions  of  this  volume  show, 
books  from  widely  differing  ages  lie  side  by 
side  with  very  slight  indications  of  date.  Further 
still,  recent  archaeological  discoveries  have  en- 
abled us  to  understand,  as  never  before,  the 
place  that  Israel  filled  among  the  suri-ounding 
nations.  In  this  brief  sketch  a  twofold  aim 
has  been  followed  :— (1)  The  exhibition  of  the 
history  of  the  Hebrews  in  its  relations  to 
the  great  world-movements  of  other  peoples. 
(2)  The  setting  forth  of  the  emergence  and 
growth  of  the  great  ideas  which  culminated  in 
Jesus  Christ. 

3.  Origin  of  the  Hebrews.  The  Hebrews 
belong  to  the  Semite  branch  of  the  human 
race,  a  branch  whose  original  home,  in  all 
probability,  was  in  Arabia.  Pressing  north 
and  west  these  peoples  established  themselves 
in  Western  Asia,  above  all  in  Mesopotamia, 
between  the  Tigris  and  the  Euphrates.  Here, 
in  the  third  and  fourth  millenniums  B.C.,  the 
earliest  records  show  them  as  settled  nations, 
highly  developed  both  in  civilisation  and  in 
religious  beliefs  and  practices.  About  2400  B.C. 
the  rulers  of  the  ancient  city  of  Babylon  suc- 
ceeded in  establishing  their  supremacy  over 
the  greater  part  of  this  region,  and  founded  a 
dynasty  of  which  Hammurabi  was  the  most 
famous  member  (see  art.  'Laws  of  Hammu- 
rabi ')■  Seeing  that  Hammurabi  is  now  gener- 
ally identified  with  Amraphel  (Gn  14 1).  we  are 


thus  able  to  fix  the  date  of  Abraham,  circ. 
2250  B.C.  Some  scholars  incline  to  bring  Ham- 
murabi's date  down  as  low  as  1900  B.C.  We 
are  safe  in  saying  that  the  Patriarchal  period 
reaches  back  to  the  beginning  of  the  second 
millennium  B.C. 

For  a  discussion  of  the  historicity,  in  broad 
outline,  of  the  Bible  narratives  about  Abra- 
ham, reference  must  be  made  to  the  intro.  to 
Gn  12-25.  The  fact  there  emphasised  that  we 
have  a  right  to  see  in  Abraham  the  founder 
of  the  distinctive  religion  of  Israel  makes  the 
question  as  to  the  religious  influences  amongst 
which  he  grew  up  one  of  vital  interest.  Were 
there  present  in  the  world  before  his  day  any 
tendencies  towards  a  pure  faith  '? 

We  find  that  all  the  records  of  this  period 
are  permeated  with  religion.    Religion  was  the 
mainspring  of  intellectual  activity,  priests  were 
the  leaders  in  all  departments  of  thought.    This 
religion,  at  first  sight,  offers  a  picture  of  hope- 
less confusion.     Gods  of  the  sky,  gods  of  the 
earth,  gods  of  the  deep,  families  of  gods,  fathers 
and  mothers,  sons  and  daughters,  local  gods  of 
cities  and  hills,  gods  directing  and  involved  in 
all  the  powers  of  nature  confront  and  bewilder 
us.     The  whole  effect  is  that  of  a  crass  poly- 
theism, full  of  degrading  superstition.     Yet 
when  we  look  a  little  closer  higher  thoughts 
are  not  wanting.    Looking  upwards  to  the  sky, 
familiar  to  Orientals  in  a  degree  altogether  un- 
known to  us,  the  Babylonian  thinkers  watched 
the  movements  of  the  heavenly  bodies  and  saw 
in  them  the  seats  of  the  great  gods.    To  them 
the  whole    universe  was   divided   into  three 
regions.     First  came  the  northern  heavens,  in 
which  the  pole-star  burned  continually  ;  then 
the    broad  belt  of   the   zodiac   spanning   the 
skies,  within  which  all  the  movements  of  sun, 
moon,  and  planets  were  confined  ;  lastly,  the 
southern  depths.    Over  these  regions  the  three 
great  gods,  Anu,  Bel  and  Ea  presided.     Simi- 
larly in  the  zodiac  itself  there  was  a  threefold 
division,  ruled  over  by  moon,  sun,  and  Yenus 
the  evening  star.     Again  and  again  it  seemed 
as  though  the  thought  of  one  supreme  God,  of 
whom  all  others  were  manifestations,  was  about 
to  break  forth.    So  Sin  the  moon-god  is  hailed 
in  lofty  strains — 

'  Lord,  the  ordainer  of  the  laws   of  heaven  and 

earth, 
)      Whose  command  may  not  be  broken. 
In  heaven  who  is  supreme  ?    Thou  alone,  thou  art 

supreme ! 
On  earth  who  is  supreme  ?    Thou  alone,  thou  art 
supreme ! ' 


xvu 


HEBREW   HISTORY   TO   THE   EXILE 


Similarly  as  the  local  deities  became  more 
and  more  absorbed  into  the  conquering  Marduk 
of  Babylon  ;  or,  as  in  the  '  penitential  psalms,' 
the  worshipper  seems  led  out  far  beyond  the 
limits  of  his  creed,  we  come  again  to  the  very 
verge  of  a  new  revelation.  Yet  the  step  across 
that  verge  was  never  taken.  In  the  highest 
thoughts  of  Babylonia  the  gods  seem  rather 
pale  abstractions  than  living  persons  with  dis- 
tinctive characters.  It  is  here  that  the  Bible 
narrative  of  Abraham  finds  its  place.  Living 
in  the  midst  of  all  this  movement  of  thought 
he  heard  in  his  own  conscience  and  heart  a 
deeper  voice  speaking  to  him,  found  that  he 
could  enter  into  real  communion  with  a  God 
who  was  indeed  a  Person,  and  for  the  sake  of 
that  intercourse  forsook  his  home  and  wandered 
out  into  Canaan.  The  strange  figure  of  Mel- 
chizedek  suggests  that  there  may  have  been 
others  who  found  something  of  the  same  truth. 
Yet  Abraham  alone  was  able  to  pass  on  his 
faith  to  those  that  followed  him.  If  so  he  was 
the  first  to  understand  that  religion  means 
personal  communion  with  God.  We  have  no 
means  of  judging  how  far  his  faith  led  him 
into  a  theoretical  monotheism,  nor  how  high 
his  conceptions  of  morality  were.  But  if  he 
was  led  to  make  the  great  step  that  has  been 
described,  then  he  was  truly  '  the  father  of  the 
faithful,'  and  we  understand  why  the  course  of 
subsequent  revelation  followed  the  line  of  his 
descendants,  rather  than  any  other.  Here  the 
Father  who  had  always  been  seeking  those  who 
would  worship  Him  '  in  spirit  and  truth '  found 
at  last  one  who  could  understand  His  message. 

4.  Israel  and  Egypt.  After  an  indefinite 
period,  during  which  the  Hebrews  lived  as 
nomads  in  the  pasture  lands  between  Hebron 
and  Beersheba,  in  the  district  afterwards  known 
as  the  Negeb,  or  south-country  of  Judah  (Gn 
2219  2810),  they  passed  on  to  Goshen,  an  allu- 
vial region  on  the  border  of  Egypt.  Egypt  at 
this  time  was  under  the  rule  of  the  Hyksos,  or 
Shepherd  kings,  probably  themselves  of  Semitic 
origin,  who  had  established  a  dynasty  there 
which  lasted  till  the  sixteenth  century  B.C. 
The  favour  with  which  the  Hebrews  were 
received  is  easily  explained  by  their  racial 
affinities  with  the  ruling  house.  "When  the 
Hyksos  had  been  expelled,  not  later,  probably, 
than  1530  B.C.,  a  new  king  arose  who  knew  not 
Joseph  (Ex  1 S),  and  the  oppression  began.  It 
is  now  fairly  well  established  that  the  Pharaoh 
of  the  oppression  was  Ramses  II,  who  has 
been  identified  as  the  builder  of  the  treasure 
city  Pithom  (Ex  1  H). 

5.  The  Exodus.  Converging  lines  of  evi- 
dence make  it  probable  that  the  date  of  the 
exodus  was  not  later  than  1180  B.C.  ;  it  may 
have  been  as  early  as  1250  B.C.  Before  that 
time  Palestine  had  been,  as  the  Tel  el  Amarna 
tablets  show,  an  Egyptian  province,  and  the 


control  of  Egypt  was  too  strong  to  admit  of 
the  Hebrew  conquests.  Afterwards  came  a 
time  of  royal  weakness  and  general  anarchy, 
when  the  hold  on  the  outlying  parts  of  the 
empire  was  greatly  relaxed.  The  reign  of 
Ramses  III  (1180-1148  B.C.)  has  been  sug- 
gested as  the  most  likely  period  for  the  desert 
wanderings.  Merenptah,  son  of  Ramses  II, 
is  most  probably  the  Pharaoh  of  the  exodus. 

For  a  discussion  of  the  plagues  and  of  the 
route  from  Goshen,  reference  must  be  made 
to  the  Commentary.  The  Passage  of  the  Red 
Sea,  however  explained,  left  an  abiding  mark 
on  the  national  memory.  As  Cornill  says  : 
'  This  overwhelming  moment  created  the  people 
of  Israel  ;  they  never  forgot  it.  Here  they 
recognised  the  God  of  their  fathers,  who  with 
strong  hand  and  outstretched  arm  had  saved 
His  people,  and  brought  them  out  of  the  house 
of  bondage,  out  of  Egypt.' 

6.  The  Religious  Teaching  of  Moses.  For 
some  time  after  this  deliverance  Israel  remained 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  Sinai,  and  here  the 
great  work  of  Moses,  the  religious  reorganisa- 
tion of  the  people,  was  achieved.  After  all 
the  critical  discussion  of  the  various  sources 
of  the  Pentateuch,  it  remains  abundantly  clear 
that  under  the  guidance  of  Moses  a  covenant 
between  Jehovah  and  the  people  of  Israel  was 
concluded  at  Sinai  (Ex  34 10,  etc.).  This  covenant 
was  no  merely  national  bond.  It  was  the  out- 
come of  the  free  moral  choice  of  the  God  of 
their  fathers,  who,  moved  by  pity,  had  rescued 
them  from  Egypt,  and  was  ready  to  save  them 
in  the  future.  As  the  Commentary  states,  there 
is  no  reasonable  ground  for  denying  the  Deca- 
logue in  its  primitive  form  to  Moses  ;  hence  it 
is  possible  to  summarise  the  faith  of  Moses  as 
follows  : 

(a)  He  believed  in  a  personal  God,  who  had 
revealed  Himself  in  former  days  to  the  fathers, 
and  who  was  once  more  manifesting  Himself 
to  His  people.  This  God,  whose  sacred  name 
was  Jehovah,  was  not  bound  to  the  Hebrews 
because  of  any  blood  relationship  or  any  external 
necessity — the  relationship  between  Him  and 
them  rested  upon  His  own  free  determination  ; 
hence  Israel  was  the  people  of  Jehovah  because 
He  had  chosen  them.  No  other  nation  had 
ever  had  such  a  thought  about  its  god. 

(b)  He  believed  in  a  God  whose  fundamental 
attributes  were  righteousness  and  mercy.  The 
strength  of  this  God  was  greater  than  that  of 
the  mighty  power  of  Egypt ;  but  it  was  not 
brute  force — it  was  always  used  to  serve  moral 
ends. 

(c)  He  taught  that  this  God,  having  con- 
cluded His  covenant  with  the  people,  demanded 
on  their  side  righteous  conduct,  justice,  and 
brotherly  kindness  between  man  and  man  ; 
hence  he  insisted  on  the  indissoluble  bond 
between  religion  and  morality. 


xviu 


HEBREW   HISTORY  TO   THE   EXILE 


So  whilst  for  the  time  of  Moses,  and  for 
long  a:fter,  the  religion  of  Israel  remained  a 
national  one,  there  were  hidden  in  his  teaching 
the  germs  of  a  universal  religion.  His  great 
fundamental  ideas  were  often  forgotten,  and 
sometimes  bm'ied  beneath  the  corruptions  of 
heathenism  ;  yet  it  was  these  truths  that  en- 
abled the  religion  of  Israel  to  resist  the  in- 
fluences of  Canaan,  and  to  outlast  even  the 
nation  itself.  The  victory  of  his  teaching 
is  the  sufficient  proof  of  the  justice  of  his 
claim  to  be  the  specially  chosen  messenger  of 
God. 

7.  The  Conquest  of  Canaan.     Much  of  the 
wilderness  period  was  spent  in  Kadesh-Barnea, 
in  the  desert  S.  of  Canaan,  out  of  reach  of  the 
Egyptians  (Nul32f5  Dtl4<3).     But  meanwhile 
events  had  been  making  possible  the  invasion 
of  Canaan.     Many  alien  races,  amongst  them 
the  pirates  from  the  West  known  to  us  as  the 
Philistines,  had  been  sweeping  down  on  Pales- 
tine.    Ramses  III,  in  a  great  expedition,  re- 
asserted the  Egyptian  power,  but  this  was  the 
last  intervention  of  Egypt  for  some  centuries. 
Egypt  lost  Syria,  which  now  became  the  home 
of  many  independent  city  states,  and  the  way 
was  open  for  a  resolute  assault  upon  the  Land 
of  Promise.     The  first  campaigns  were  on  the 
E.  of  the  Jordan,  where  an  Amorite  kingdom 
had  been  established,  with  its  capital  at  Hesh- 
bon.     Its  king,  Sihon,  was  defeated  and  slain, 
and  his  territory  occupied  (Nu  21 2i-2.5)_     Moses 
having  now  died  was  succeeded  by  Joshua,  and 
with  the  passage  of  the  Jordan  opposite  to 
Jericho    the  invasion  was  begun   (Josh  1-3). 
Combining  the  accounts  in  Joshua  with  those 
in  Jg  1  (see  the  Commentary),  we  gather  that 
the  people,  by  united  victories  under  Joshua, 
gained  a  foothold  in  the  land.     After  his  death, 
since  much  remained  unconquered,  expeditions 
were  undertaken  by  separate  tribes,  Judah  and 
Simeon,    Joseph,    Zebulun,    Asher,  Naphtali, 
and   Dan  (Jgl).     In   the   end   the    maritime 
cities   of    Phoenicia    and    Philistia    remained 
independent,   and    strong    fortresses   such   as 
Taanach,  Megiddo,  Bethshean  (1-^),  secured 
to  their  former  inhabitants  the  richest  inland 
plain,  the  valley  of  the  Kishon,  while  such 
citadels  as  Ajalon  (1 35),  Jebus  (1 21),  and  Gezer 
(129)  siiut  off  Judah  and  Simeon  almost  com- 
pletely from  the  rest  of  the  Israelites.     The 
recent  explorations  of  Palestine  have  proved 
conclusively  the  truth  of  this  representation, 
since  they  make  it  clear  that  the  development 
of  these  Canaanite  cities  went  on  unbrokenly 
for  nearly  two   centuries   after  the   invasion. 
Proofs  of  this  statement  must  be  sought  in  the 
many  publications  of  the  Palestine  Exploration 
Fund. 

8.  The  Period  of  the  Judges.  The  date  as- 
signed to  the  exodus  reduces  this  period  to  less 
than  200  years,  seeing  that  it  closes  about  1050 


B.C.  (see  Intro,  to  the  book  of  Judges).     The 
deliverances  achieved  by  Deborah  and  Barak 
(Jg4,  5)  and  by  Gideon  (Jg6-8),  show  that 
the  people  still  rallied  to  the  name  of  Jehovah. 
Nevertheless  the   religion   of    the    conquered 
country  exercised  a  powerful   influence   over 
the  victors.     Many   altars    standing   on   high 
places,  formerly  consecrated  to  local  deities, 
were  now  adapted  to  the  worship  of  Jehovah. 
This  became  the  fruitful  source  of  many  later 
evils,  as  the  writings  of  the  prophets  so  clearly 
show.     Still,  on  the  whole,  Ewald's  statement 
remains  true  :  '  The   people   learned  by  per- 
petual struggle  to  defend  valiantly  their  new 
home  and  the  free  exercise  of  their  religion, 
and  were  thereby  preparing  for  coming  genera- 
tions a  sacred  place,  where  that  religion  and 
national  culture  might  unfold  itself  freely  and 
fully. '     D  eborah's  Song  ( Jg  5),  admitted  gener- 
ally as  a  product  of  this  age  (see  Commentary 
in  loco),  is  a  striking  proof  both  of  the  national 
consciousness  of  unity,  and  of  the  vigour  of 
the  true  faith  in  Jehovah.     The  period  closes 
with  the  oppression  of  the  Philistines.     This 
bold  and  warlike  race,  much  resembling  the 
Danes  in  the  early  history  of  England,  were 
greatly  superior  in  military  art  to  the  Hebrews. 
They   seem   to    have    conceived    the    idea   of 
subduing  to  their  sway  the  whole  of  Israel. 
Shamgar  (331)  and  Samson  (12  f.)  were  popular 
-heroes  who  by  single-handed  deeds  of  daring 
destroyed  many  marauding  bands.     But   the 
Hebrews  were  quite  unable  to  resist  an  organ- 
ised attack.     With  the  loss  of  the  sacred  ark 
at  Aphek  near  Mizpah  (1  S4),  the  doom  of  the 
nation   seemed    sealed.     The    Philistine    rule 
was  extended  over  the  whole  centre  and  south 
of  Israel,  their  head-quarters  were  established 
at  Geba  in  Benjamin,  even  the  use  of  military 
weapons  is  said  to  have  been  forbidden  to  the 
Israelites  (IS  13 3, 19-23). 

9.  Samuel  and  the  Founding  of  the  Kingdom. 

In  this  crisis  there  arose  a  man  who  has  a  double 
claim  to  honour,  as  the  first  of  the  order  of 
prophets,  and  as  the  founder  of  the  monarchy. 
The  narratives  about  Samuel  are,  as  the  Com- 
mentary shows,  derived  from  sources  of  un- 
equal value.  His  victories  (1S713)  cannot 
have  been  nearly  so  decisive  as  one  source 
represents  them.  In  a  time  of  great  national 
humiliation  he  was  led  to  see  that  a  king  was 
needful  to  weld  the  disorganised  tribes  into  a 
whole,  so  as  to  enable  them  to  face  their 
enemies.  In  his  patriotic  aims  he  was  seconded 
by  the  wandering  bands  of  prophets,  who  were 
enthusiastic  adherents  of  Jehovah.  This  re- 
sort to  a  monarchy,  though  not  ideal  (IS 8), 
was  in  the  situation  the  only  wise  choice.  In 
Saul,  a  Benjamite  of  great  personal  prowess, 
the  destined  leader  was  found.  After  a  bril- 
liant feat  of  arms,  by  which  Jabesh-Gilead 
was  rescued  from  the  Ammonites  (IS  11),  he 


XIX 


HEBREW   HISTORY   TO   THE   EXILE 


succeeded  in  rallying  to  himself  all  the  tribes 
(1114, 15)_  Saul's  reign  was  an  almost  continu- 
ous struggle  against  the  Philistines.  Starting 
from  the  E.  he  gi'adually  regained  the  high- 
lands of  Judah  and  the  centre  of  Palestine 
(IS  14,  17,  etc.).  At  the  close  of  his  reign, 
weakened  by  his  quarrel  with  David,  and  with 
his  mind  clouded  by  his  recurring  melan- 
cholia, he  died  in  battle  on  Mt.  Gilboa,  in  the 
plain  of  Jezreel,  a  fact  which  shows  that 
the  Philistines  had  again  penetrated  into 
central  Israel  (1  S31).  The  date  of  this  battle 
is  about  1017  B.C. 

10.  The  Reign  of  David.  After  a  seven  years' 
interval,  durin^,  which  David  reigned  as  king 
of  Judah  at  Hebron,  and  Saul's  adherents  made 
Mahanaim,  across  the  Jordan,  their  centre  (2  S 
2^.s.ii),  the  murder  of  Ishbosheth  (2  S  4  5-7) 
opened  the  way  for  David's  accession  as  king 
of  a  united  people  (2S51-3).  His  reign  is 
marked  by  the  complete  conquest  of  the  Phil- 
istines, who  henceforth  play  little  further  part 
in  the  history  (2  S  5 1^-^^  8 1),  by  conquests  over 
the  surrounding  peoples,  which  marked  the 
real  foundation  of  an  Israelite  empire  (S^"!"* 
and  c.  10),  and  by  the  capture  of  Jerusalem,  and 
the  transference  thither  of  the  ark  (2S6*'-io 
612-19)_  ^t  this  time  Assyria  was  weak,  the 
northern  empire  of  the  Hittites  had  dis- 
appeared, and  Egypt  was  divided  and  power- 
less. All  this  explains  the  rapid  growth  under 
David  and  Solomon. 

11.  Solomon.  Solomon's  reign  was  marked 
by  the  building  of  the  Temple,  and  great  com- 
mercial prosperity ;  but  his  attempts  to  reduce 
the  free  yeomen  of  Israel  to  the  status  of  the 
subjects  of  an  Oriental  king  caused  deep  dis- 
satisfaction, and  was  one  main  cause  of  the 
disruption  as  soon  as  his  strong  hand  was 
removed  (IK 4 21-28  513  1126,  etc.). 

12.  Relig-ion  in  the  Early  Monarchy,  The 
religious  conditions  of  this  period  may  be 
gathered  from  many  scattered  notices.  The 
strict  law  of  the  central  sanctuary,  which  after- 
wards concentrated  all  sacrificial  worship  at 
Jerusalem,  was  unknown.  Samuel  sacrificed  at 
Mizpah  (1  S  7  %  built  an  altar  at  Ramah  (7 1 ' ), 
sacrificed  on  the  high  place  there  (9  ^2),  also  at 
Gilgal  (1115),  and  at  Bethlehem  (165).  We 
may  gather  from  14^5  that  Saul  built  more 
than  one  altar  to  Jehovah  in  token  of  his 
loyalty.  So  in  20  ^  there  is  a  most  natural 
reference  to  the  yearly  sacrifice  for  Jesse's 
family  at  Bethlehem.  The  simple  and  un- 
forced way  in  which  these  notices  are  given 
shows  that  they  are  not  dealing  with  excep- 
tions, but  relating  the  normal  practice  :  see  on 
Ex  20  24.  At  the  same  time  prophets  such  as 
Nathan  maintained  the  moral  character  of  the 
claims  of  Jehovah,  and  were  treated  with  the 
utmost  respect  (2  S 1 2 1-15).  With  the  founding 
of  David's  kingdom  the  hope  was  raised  of  the 


perpetual  kingdom  of  Jehovah,  which  plays 
so  great  a  part  in  the  writings  of  the  later 
prophets  (2  S  7  i"i"). 

13.  Disruption  ofthe  Kingdom,  937  B.C.  With 
the  disruption  of  the  kingdom  after  Solomon's' 
death  Judah  was  left  relatively  small  and  in- 
significant, and  was  further  weakened  by  the 
invasion  of  Shishak  of  Egypt  (IK  1425,26). 
Egyptian  lists  in  the  temple  of  Amon  at  Karnak 
record  this  raid.  From  the  fact  that  Ephraim- 
ite  cities  also  are  said  to  have  paid  tribute, 
it  is  supposed  that  for  a  time  both  Israel  and 
Judah  became  tributary  to  Egypt ;  but  there 
is  no  record  of  any  warlike  operations  against 
Northern  Israel.  For  a  time  the  two  king- 
doms were  at  war,  Israel  being  the  stronger. 
A  fateful  step  was  taken  when  Asa,  king  of 
Judah,  invited  the  help  of  Benhadad,  king  of 
Syria,  against  Baasha  (IK  1518-21),  circ.  900 
B.C.  The  condemnation  of  this  action  (2  Ch 
1 6  '^-^)  is  fully  justified,  as  it  resulted  in  the  first 
invasion  of  Israelite  territory  by  Syrian  armies. 
After  repeated  revolutions,  a  strong  dynasty 
was  founded  by  Omri,  889  B.C.  (IK  1623-28). 
Omri  built  Samaria  as  his  capital.  Under  him 
peace  was  made  between  Israel  and  Judah, 
and  the  royal  houses  were  afterwards  allied  by 
marriage.  The  Moabite  Stone,  with  Mesha's 
inscription,  shows  that  he  subjugated  Moab. 
References  to  him  on  Assyrian  monuments 
prove  that  he  was  regarded  as  the  founder  of 
the  kingdom  of  Israel.  The  silence  of  the 
Bible  narratives  as  to  the  more  brilliant  ex- 
ploits of  his  reign  is  a  striking  illustration  of 
the  indifference  of  the  Hebrew  writers  to 
purely  secular  interests. 

14.  Jehovah  or  Baal.  In  the  reign  of 
Ahab,  Omri's  son,  came  the  great  conflict 
between  Elijah  and  the  priests  of  Baal.  As 
a  matter  of  state  policy  Jeroboam  had  erected 
golden  bull-shaped  images  of  Jehovah  at 
Bethel  and  at  Dan.  The  official  religion  of 
the  Northern  Kingdom  was  therefore  a  cor- 
rupted form  of  the  worship  of  Jehovah.  It 
is  precarious  to  argue,  as  is  often  done,  that 
Elijah's  silence,  so  far  as  om*  records  go,  as  to 
this  bull-worship,  is  a  proof  that  he  found 
nothing  offensive  in  it.  The  higher  conscience 
of  Israel  was  always  against  any  form  of 
image-worship.  Even  in  Northern  Israel  there 
were  probably  altars  where  the  purer  worship 
of  Jehovah  was  maintained  :  cp.  Elijah's  com- 
plaint IK  19 10,  and  his  action  IK  18 so.  But 
when  Ahab's  Phoenician  wife  Jezebel,  princess 
of  Zidon,  sought  to  establish  the  worship  of  the 
Tyrian  Baal  and  persecuted  the  adherents  of 
Jehovah  (1 K 16  31-33  184),  Elijah  came  forward 
as  the*  champion  of  Jehovah.  The  question 
was  no  longer  that  of  a  pure  or  debased 
worship  of  Jehovah,  but  the  life  and  death 
alternative — Jehovah  or  Baal.  This  explains 
the    relentless    severity    with    which    Elijah 


xs 


HEBREW   HISTORY   TO   THE   EXILE 


pushed  home  his  victory  (IKIS"*"),  and  the 
part  taken  by  Elisha  in  instigating  the  revo- 
lution which  resulted  in  the  overthrow  of 
Omri's  house  and  the  accession  of  Jehu  (2  K  9). 
15.  The  Syrian  Wars.  This  time  of  reli- 
gious conflict  was  marked  by  long-continued 
wars  with  Syria,  which  had  lasted  since  the 
invasion  referred  to  dming  the  reign  of 
Baasha.  The  kings  of  Israel  appear  to  have 
been  reduced  to  the  position  of  vassals  ( 1 K  20  3), 
and  in  854  B.C.  Benhadad  of  Syria,  with  Ahab, 
who  is  said  by  the  monuments  to  have  fur- 
nished a  contingent  of  2,000  chariots  and  10,000 
men,  was  defeated  at  Karkar,  near  Hamath, 
by  Shalmaneser  II  of  Assyria.  Afterwards 
Ahab  succeeded  in  asserting  his  independence 
against  Syria,  and  won  several  victories  (IK 
20).  Syria  at  this  time  was  weakened  by 
successive  Assyrian  campaigns  against  Damas- 
cus, in  850,  849,  and  846.  In  842  Shal- 
maneser received  tribute  from  Jehu  (see  the 
Black  Obelisk  of  Shalmaneser  in  the  British 
Museum),  and  in  839  again  defeated  Hazael 
of  Damascus.  At  this  point  an  insm-rection 
in  Assyria,  headed  by  Shalmaneser's  son,  who 
drove  that  king  to  take  refuge  in  North  Baby- 
lonia, gave  Syria  S,  respite  and  enabled  the 
kingdom  to  recover  its  strength.  Repeated 
invasions  of  Israel  followed,  reducing  the 
people  to  the  last  extremity  (2K1032  IS^-T 
1 4  26).  Then,  under  Ramman-Nirari  of  Assyria 
(812-783),  Damascus  was  once  more  subdued, 
and  under  Joash  and  Jeroboam  II  the  lost 
prestige  of  Israel  was  recovered,  and  all  the 
captured  territory  regained  (2  K  13^5  1425-2S)_ 
In  these  victories  Elisha  appears  as  a  watchful 
and  fearless  patriot  (2  K 13 14-20).  Thus  in 
the  reign  of  Jeroboam  II  (782-741)  Israel 
enjoyed  a  period  of  prosperity  which  had  had 
no  parallel  since  the  days  of  Solomon. 

The  legitimate  succession  in  the  Southern 
Kingdom,  which  had  acted  as  the  ally  of 
Israel  both  against  Syria  and  Moab  (IK 22 
2K3),  was  interrupted  by  the  usurpation  of 
Athaliah  (2K11),  but  restored  through  Jehoi- 
ada  (11**^).  Amaziah,  breaking  the  alliance 
with  Israel,  was  disastrously  defeated  by 
Joash  (148-14).  But  under  Uzziah  (790-749) 
Judah  recovered  her  position,  and  defeated 
the  Philistines  (2Ch276),  whilst  the  army 
was  reorganised  (27 1^- 1*)^  and  frontier  towers 
built  as  barriers  against  the  desert  nomads 
(2710). 

16.  The  Decadence  of  Israel.  With  the 
death  of  Jeroboam  the  Northern  Kingdom's 
brief  period  of  prosperity  passed  away.  Re- 
peated revolutions  weakened  the  strength  of 
Israel  (2K15io-i4).  Meanwhile,  under  Tig- 
lath-pileser  III  (called  Pul  in  2K1519), 
Assyria  resumed  her  aggressive  policy,  and 
Mcnahem  of  Israel  became  tributary  to  him 
(15 19. 20).     In  734-3  Pekah  of  Israel,  in  alli- 


ance with  Rezin  of  Syria,  invaded  Judah, 
apparently  to  coerce  Judah  to  join  a  coalition 
against  Assyria  (2K153''  165  Isa7).  Judah 
was  saved  by  the  intervention  of  Assyria,  and 
Northern  Israel  devastated  (2  K 15  29).  Pekah 's 
murderer,  Hoshea,  was  recognised  as  a  vassal 
king  by  Tiglath-pileser  (so  the  monuments). 
But  Hoshea's  intrigues  with  So  of  Egypt  (17*) 
brought  speedy  retribution.  Shalmaneser  IV 
marched  into  Israel,  but  died  during  the  siege 
of  Samaria.  His  work  was  completed  by  his 
successor,  Sargon,  and  in  722  Samaria  was 
captured  and  the  Northern  Kingdom  finally 
destroyed. 

17.  The  Teaching  of  the  Prophets.  A 
bright  light  is  thrown  on  this  period  by  the 
utterances  of  Amos  and  Hosea.  Amos,  ap- 
pearing in  Jeroboam's  reign,  reasserted  with 
tremendous  force  that  the  moral  claims  of 
Jehovah  extended  not  only  over  Israel,  but 
over  the  surrounding  peoples.  Utterly  re- 
pudiating the  ritual  worship  of  Bethel,  he 
declared  the  approaching  ruin  of  the  nation. 
The  one  hope  that  he  saw  for  the  future  was 
in  the  restoration,  after  heavy  chastisement, 
of  the  kingdom  under  a  Davidic  king  (9  n  :  see 
Commenta.ry  in  loco). 

Hosea,  whose  ministry  lay  in  the  dark  days 
after  Jeroboam's  death,  and  whose  tragic  per- 
sonal history  is  the  key  to  his"^  message  (see 
Commentary),  sounds  another  note,  but  repeats 
Amos's  prophecy  of  doom.  He  treats  the  bull- 
worship  as  sheer  idolatry  :  '  of  their  silver  and 
their  gold  have  they  made  them  idols  '  (8  4). 
The  fact  that  it  is  the  love  rather  than  the 
righteousness  of  God  which  Hosea  emphasises 
only  makes  his  threatenings  more  terrible  ;  yet 
beyond  the  storm  he  also  sees  the  abiding 
kingdom  of  God,  and  believes  in  its  permanence 
(35,  etc.). 

The  importance  of  the  testimony  of  these 
two  piophets  is  supreme.  They  come  forward 
not  as  innovators,  but  as  restorers  of  the 
ancient  faith.  Their  teaching  is  in  essence 
one  with  i."  at  of  Moses  ;  but  the  boldness  with 
which  they  present  Jehovah  as  the  God  of  the 
universe,  and  their  unwavering  conviction  that 
no  past  privileges  can  save  Israel  from  the 
consequences  of  her  breaches  of  the  law  of 
righteousness,  broaden  and  deepen  the  founda- 
tions of  the  true  religion.  It  must  be  said 
that  it  is  extremely  hard  to  believe,  as  is  sug- 
gested, that  Hosea  was  the  first  to  denounce 
the  image-worship  of  Jehovah.  At  any  rate, 
he  shows  not  the  slightest  consciousness  that 
he  is  making  any  new  declaration  when  he 
says, of  the  calf  in  Samaria,  'The  workman 
made  it,  and  it  is  no  god'  (8^). 

1 8.  Judah  during  the  Assyrian  Period.  With 
the  fall  of  Northern  Israel  Judah  was  left  de- 
pendent for  its  existence  on  Assyria.  Despite 
the  protests  of  Isaiah,  Ahaz  freely  imitated 


221 


HEBREW   HISTORY    TO   THE   EXILE 


both  the  customs  and  religion  of  the  conquerors 
(2K16i«-i8).  His  son,  Hezekiah  (720-692  B.C.), 
succeeded  to  a  troubled  inheritance.  In  the 
south  the  Ethiopian  kings  of  Egypt  were  grow- 
ing in  strength,  and  sought  alliance  with  him. 
This  policy  was  strongly  denounced  by  Isaiah 
(301"'',  311"*),  y^Yio  counselled  entire  absten- 
tion from  world-politics  and  simple  trust  in 
Jehovah.  Hezekiah,  however,  pursued  the 
policy  of  alliances.  He  carried  on  negotiations 
with  Merodach-Baladan  (2  K  20 1^-^^),  who  from 
721-710  B.C.  had  succeeded  in  establishing 
himself  in  Babylon,  formed  a  league  against 
Assyria  with  Tyre,  Sidon,  Ashkelon,  and 
Ekron,  and  looked  for  help  from  Egypt.  The 
victorious  advance  of  Sennacherib,  Sargon's 
successor,  broke  up  this  coalition.  Egypt  was 
defeated  at  El-tekeh,  near  Ekron,  and  Heze- 
kiah, after  the  loss  of  forty-six  ■cities  and  many 
subjects,  only  secured  the  safety  of  Jerusalem 
by  the  payment  of  a  huge,  ransom  (2K18i'i"i*^). 
The  Bible  narratives  that  follow  are  extremely 
confusing.  In  the  monuments  nothing  is  said 
of  any  disaster  to  Sennacherib's  army,  and 
some  have  conjectured  that  this  happened  in  a 
later,  unrecorded  campaign  ;  yet  the  fact  that 
Jerusalem  remained  untaken  needs  explanation. 
The  most  probable  explanation  is,  that  after 
receiving  Hezekiah's  ransom,  a  section  of  the 
Assyrian  army  returned  and  treacherously  de- 
manded the  surrender  of  the  city  ;  then  the 
main  body,  lying  on  the  borders  of  Egypt,  was 
smitten  with  plague,  and  Sennacherib  retired 
to  his  own  land.  This  delivei-ance  (701  B.C.) 
was  foretold  by  Isaiah  (31  ^  3733-35),  ^ho  held 
that  Jerusalem,  God's  own  city,  could  not  be 
taken. 

19,  The  Religious  Teaching  of  Micah  and 
Isaiah.  Two  prophets  throw  light  on  this 
period.  Micah  the  countryman,  denouncing 
fiercely  the  social  wrongs  of  the  peasantry, 
prophesied  the  downfall  of  Jerusalem  (3^2)  ; 
yet  he  believed  in  the  permanence  of  the 
divine  rule,  and  looked  for  another  king  like 
David  to  come  from  the  heart  of  ..he  people 
and  restore  the  ruined  state  (5  2*-). 

Isaiah  looked  for  repeated  punishments,  from 
which  only  a  remnant  should  escape  (6  ii-i3,  etc. : 
cp.  the  name  of  his  son  Shear-jashub  =  '  a  rem- 
nant shall  return,'  7  3).  Yet  his  hope  of  a  better 
kingdom  is  borne  witness  to  by  his  prophecy 
of  Immanuel  (713-16),  and  the  magnificent 
promise  of  the  Prince  with  the  four  names 
(9'^''^),  who  will  reign  in  an  age  of  millennial 
peace  and  blessing,  and  who  is  called  '  a  shoot 
out  of  the  stock  of  Jesse '  (11  i-W). 

In  Hezekiah's  reign  partial  attempts  were 
made  to  destroy  the  high  places  and  concen- 
trate the  worship  at  Jerusalem,  but  the 
work  must  have  been  very  incomplete  (2K 
184-22,  etc.). 

20.  The  Reaction  imder  Manasseh.    Manas- 


seh's  long  reign  (692-1341  B.C.),  though  for  the 
most  part  externally  prosperous,  was  marked 
by  a  recrudescence  of  heathenism,  in  which 
much  of  Isaiah's  work  was  undone(2K21i-i'i'). 
Towards  the  close  of  his  reign  he  appears  to 
have  become  involved  in  the  revolt  against 
Assyria  of  the  viceroy  of  Babylon,  and  to 
have  been  taken  to  Babylon  to  expiate  his 
crime  before  his  suzerain,  Assurbanipal  (2  Ch 
3311-13). 

The  survival  of  the  true  faith  is  witnessed 
to  by  the  book  of  Deuteronomy,  probably  com- 
piled during  this  reign,  and  possibly  "by  the  last 
two  chapters  of  Micah  (see  Commentary). 

21.  The  Reign  of  Josiah.  Josiah  (639-608), 
succeeding  his  murdered  father  Amon,  began 
his  reign  under  unfavourable  auspices.  The 
invasion  of  Western  Asia  by  hordes  of  Scythians 
probably  gave  rise  to  the  gloomy  anticipations 
of  Zephaniah,  who  looked  for  the  coming  of 
the  day  of  universal  judgment.  But  these 
invasions,  seriously  shaking  the  power  of 
Assyria,  really  left  Judah  free  to  follow  her 
own  destiny.  The  first  prophecies  of  Jeremiah 
belong  also  to  this  period  (see  Commentary). 
An  earnest  attempt  at  religious  reform  was 
greatly  helped  by  the  providential  finding  of 
the  Book  of  the  Law,  621  B.C.,  almost  certainly 
Deuteronomy  (2K228,  etc.).  On  the  basis  of 
this  book  all  the  high  places  where  Jehovah 
was  worshipped  with  semi-heathenish  accom- 
paniments were  destroyed,  and  the  Temple  at 
Jerusalem  made  the  one  central  sanctuary 
(2  K  23  4-15). 

Meanwhile  Assyria  was  tottering  to  its  fall, 
and,  while  Nineveh  was  besieged  by  Babylonians 
and  Medes,  Pharaoh-Necho  of  Egypt  marched 
northwards  to  make  his  bid  for  the  empire  of 
the  world.  In  resisting  his  progress  Josiah 
was  defeated  and  slain  at  Megiddo,  608  B.C. 
(2  K  23  29. 30).  In  the  following  year  Nineveh 
fell,  and  by  his  defeat  of  the  Egyptians  at 
Carchemish,  on  the  Euphrates,  Nebuchadrezzar 
of  Babylon  became  master  of  the  world,  605  B.C. 
During  the  brief  period  of  Egyptian  supremacy 
in  Palestine  Jehoahaz  was  deposed  and  Je- 
hoiakim  made  king  (2  K  24  31-35).  Rebelling 
against  Babylon  three  years  later  Jehoiakim 
was  deposed  and  carried  to  Babylon  (2  K  24 1 
2Ch36^).  Three  months  later  his  successor 
Jehoiachin  was  taken  after  him,  together  with 
the  flower  of  the  nation,  including  Ezekiel, 
597  B.C.  (2 K  248-16). 

The  prophetic  teaching  during  this  period 
is  found  in  Nahum,  with  his  fierce  exultation 
over  the  doom  of  Nineveh,  and  Habakkuk,  who 
looking  out  over  a  ruined  world  and  finding 
each  successive  conqueror  equally  guilty,  yet 
declares  with  invincible  assurance,  '  the  just 
man  shall  live  by  his  faithfulness '  (2*).  "The 
central  part  of  Jeremiah's  heroic  ministry  also 
falls  here. 


xxu 


HEBREW   HISTORY   TO   THE   EXILE 


22.  The  Fall  of  Jerusalem.  Rejecting 
■warnings  of  Jeremiah,  Zedekiah,  the  last  king  of 
Judah,  involved  himself  in  many  plots  against 
Babylon  ( Jer  27 1-^  Ezk  1 7 1^).  The  inevitable 
result  followed.  Jeremiah  had  long  since 
foretold  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  and 
almost  paid  the  price  of  his  daring  with  his 
life  (Jer  26).  Now,  after  a  siege  of  nineteen 
months,  from  January  588  to  July  586,  the  city 
was  taken  and  destroyed  by  Nebuchadrezzar, 
and  the  Temple  burnt  (2K25). 

Jeremiah's  noble  personality  is  the  chief 
glory  of  these  closing  years.  Despite  his  re- 
peated declarations  of  the  ruin  of  Jerusalem, 
he  looks  forward  to  the  time  when  once  more 
it  shall  be  '  the  throne  of  Jehovah '  (3 1").  De- 
spite his  word  about  Jehoiakim,  '  no  man  of 
his  seed  shall  prosper,  sitting  upon  the  throne 
of  David,  and  ruling  any  more  in  Judah ' 
(22^0),  he  can  still  hope  that  Jehovah  will 
raise  up  a  righteous  branch  unto  David  (23  5). 
His  hope  in  the  kingdom  of  God  was  deeper 
than  his  despair.  But  his  grandest  word  of 
all  came,  as  it  seems,  from  his  prison.  There, 
while  the  Babylonian  armies  surrounded  Jeru- 
salem, he  was  inspired  to  speak  of  the  new 
covenant,  which  God  Himself  would  write  on 
the  hearts  of  the  people,  when  all  from  the 


least  to  the  greatest  should  know  Him,  and, 
pardoned  and  restored,  enjoy  His  favour 
(3131-3^). 

Thus  this  great  history  closes  with  a  note 
of  hope,  and  a  conception  of  religion  that,  far 
below  all  externalism,  rests  on  the  personal 
and  intimate  relationship  between  the  indi- 
vidual soul  and  its  God.  Though  the  hopes 
of  the  prophets  of  a  glorious  kingdom  in 
Jerusalem  under  a  righteous  Ruler  were  never 
realised,  they  have  been  fulfilled  in  a  far 
deeper  sense  than  those  who  uttered  them  ever 
dreamed  by  the  King  whose  kingdom  is  '  not 
of  this  world,'  who  sealed  the  new  covenant 
with  His  own  blood.  So  we  claim  that  the 
faith  of  the  prophets,  embodied  in  many  forms 
and  figures,  has  outlived  them  all  and  is  tri- 
umphant in  the  world  to-day.  Jesus  took  the 
faith  which  they  held,  ennobled  it  and  purged 
it,  and  through  His  life  and  death  established 
a  kingdom  which  will  never  pass  away.  Look- 
ing backwards  we  see  that  all  history  is  one, 
knit  together  by  the  guiding,  inspiring  con- 
trolling Spirit  of  God.  Looking  forward  we 
believe  still,  with  more  assured  faith  than  ever, 
in  the  perfect  establishment  of  that  kingdom 
so  long  desired,  so  wistfully  looked  for,  against 
which  the  gates  of  hell  shall  not  prevail. 


xxiu 


INTRODUCTION  TO  THE  PENTATEUCH 


I.  Divisions  and  Contents.  Pentateuch  is  a 
Greek  word  meaning  the  'fivefold  volume,' 
and  has  been  used,  since  the  time  of  Origen 
(third  century  A.D.)  as  a  convenient  designation 
for  the  first  five  books  of  the  Old  Testament. 
It  serves  to  remind  us  that  these  constitute 
really  one  volume  in  five  parts.  In  the  Old 
Testament  itself  this  is  called  '  The  Law,'  or 
'book  of  the  Law,'  to  which  is  sometimes 
added  '  of  God '  or  '  of  Moses  '  :  see  e.g.  Neh 
8i,2f.  93  131.  Later  Jewish  vsriters  call  it 
the  'book  of  the  Law,'  or  the  'Five  Fifths  of 
the  Law.'  In  Hebrew  manuscripts  the  division 
into  five  books  is  not  so  strongly  marked  as  in 
the  English  Bible,  the  Pentateuch  being  treated 
as  one  and  divided  into  a  number  of  larger 
and  smaller  sections,  which  are  numbered 
consecutively  from  Genesis  to  Deuteronomy. 
The  five  larger  sections  are  usually  named  by 
the  first  word  or  first  important  word  in  each. 
Thus  Genesis  is  called  B'reshith,  i.e.  '  In  the 
Beginning'  ;  Exodus  is  Sheinoth,  i.e.  '  Names  ' ; 
Leviticus  is  Vayyikm,  i.e.  '  And  He  called ' ; 
Numbers  is  Vaydahher,  i.e.  '  And  He  spake,' 
or,  Baminklhar,  i.e.  '  In  the  Wilderness  ' ;  and 
Deuteronomy  is  Ubarim,  i.e.  '  Words.'  Some- 
times titles  more  particularly  descriptive  of 
their  contents  are  applied  to  the  books ;  thus 
Leviticus  is  styled  the  '  Law  of  the  Priests,' 
Numbers  the  '  Fifth '  (part)  '  of  Numberings,' 
and  Deuteronomy  the  '  Second  Law.'  The 
English  titles  are  taken  from  the  Vulgate 
Latin  Version,  which  again  derived  them  from 
the  Septuagint.  The  fivefold  division  of  the 
Pentateuch  is  thus  shown  to  be  earlier  than 
the  origin  of  the  Septuagint,  and  is  prob- 
ably as  old  as  the  time  of  Nehemiah.  It  is 
older  than  the  division  of  the  Psalter,  which 
was  arranged  in  five  books  on  the  model  of 
the  Pentateuch. 

As  the  book  of  Joshua  displays  a  certain 
affinity  with  the  Pentateuch  both  in  spirit  and 
literary  style,  and  forms  its  natural  continua- 
tion and  complement,  modern  scholars  speak 
of  a  Hexateuch,  or  '  sixfold  volume,'  and  re- 
gard the  books  from  Genesis  to  Joshua  as  six 
parts  of  a  complete  whole. 

For  details  of  the  Contents  of  the  Pentateuch 
reference  should  be  made  to  the  introductions 
prefixed  to  the  separate  books  in  the  Commen- 
tary. It  will  suffice  here  to  say  that  they  are 
made  up  of  two  elements,  history  and  legislation. 
The  theme  is  the  Kingdom  of  God  upon  the 
earth,  and  its  gradual  revelation  and  embodi- 
ment in  Israel  as  the  chosen  people,  both  in 


its  external  (historical)  and  intes'-ial  (legislative) 
aspects.  The  Song  of  Moses  (Dt  32)  and  such 
Psalms  as  106,  106  may  be  regarded  as  giving 
a  summary  of  this  history.  From  the  way  iu 
which  the  Pentateuch  opens  it  might  have  been 
supposed  that  its  aim  was  to  outline  the  his- 
tory of  the  whole  human  race.  But  it  soon 
appears  that  the  account  of  the  creation  of 
the  world,  the  entrance  of  sin,  and  the  rise 
and  spread  of  the  races,  is  only  preliminary 
to  the  main  subject.  Little  by  little  the  his- 
tory is  narrowed  down  till  at  Gnl2  we  come 
to  Abraham,  who  is  chosen  as  the  progenitor 
of  the  people  to  whom  God  will  specially 
reveal  Himself.  From  this  point  the  Penta- 
teuch, and  indeed  the  entire  Old  Testament, 
becomes  a  history  of  the  Hebrew  nation.  In 
the  third  generation  from  Abraham  his  de- 
scendants to  the  number  of  seventy,  with  their 
households,  migrate  from  Canaan  to  Egypt. 
There  they  increase  in  spite  of  all  obstacles 
till  they  become  a  great  nation.  The  book  of 
Exodus  tells  of  their  deliverance  from  Egypt 
by  the  hand  of  Moses.  They  come  into  the 
Sinaitic  peninsula  on  their  way  to  the  pro- 
mised land,  and  there  they  enter  into  a  solemn 
covenant  with  Jehovah  on  the  basis  of  the 
Law  given  to  them  at  Mount  Sinai.  Practicallj^ 
the  whole  of  Leviticus  is  occupied  with  legis- 
lation, the  purpose  of  which  is  to  mark  this 
nation  off  from  all  others  as  the  '  peculiar 
people  '  of  Jehovah,  a  '  kingdom  of  priests  ' 
and  a  '  holy  nation.'  The  book  of  Numbers 
continues  the  history  of  the  sojourn  in  the 
wilderness,  until  they  come  to  the  borders  of 
Canaan,  and  is  interspersed  with  numerous 
laws.  Deuteronomy  contains  the  discourses 
addressed  to  the  people  by  Moses  before  his 
death.  It  consists  largely  of  laws,  and  closes 
with  an  account  of  the  solitary  death  of  the 
great  leader  and  Lawgiver.  "The  book  of 
Joshua  relates  the  entrance  into  Canaan,  and 
its  conquest  by  the  Israelites  under  the  leader- 
ship of  Joshua,  the  successor  of  Moses. 

2.  The  Mosaic  Authorship.  The  question 
of  the  authorship  of  the  Pentateuch,  or  rather 
of  the  Hexateuch,  has  been  the  subject  of 
much  discussion  in  modern  times,  and  scholars 
are  still  carefully  investigating  the  subject. 
The  traditional  view  was  that  Moses  was  the 
author  of  the  five  books  which  bear  his  name 
•  in  our  Bibles  ;  and  until  comparatively  recent 
times  this  belief  was  accepted  without  ques- 
tion or  inquiry  regarding  its  grounds.  A 
thorough  study  of  these  books,  however,  has 


XXIV 


INTRODUCTION  TO  THE  PENTATEUCH 


led  many  to  the  conclusion  that  this  view  of 
their  authorship  does  not  fit  in  with  the 
facts  and  that  another  view  is  necessitated 
by  the  evidence  which  the  books  themselves 

^  Two  arguments  are  often  brought  forward 
for  the  Mosaic  authorship  which  demand  some 
notice,  (a)  One  is  the  fact  that  our  Lord  when 
auotine  the  Pentateuch  refers  to  it  as  the 
work  of  Moses:  cp.  Mtl98  Mk7io  1226  Lk 
2444    Jn5*5-47    719.       Regarding  this   it  has 


passages  indicate  that  Moses  wrote  and  laid 
up  for  preservation  records  of  certain  important 
events  and  laws. 

It  is  also  to  be  kept  in  view  that  many  of 
the  laws  preserved  in  the  Pentateuch  relate 
to  circumstances  which  imply  a  nomadic  life 
in  tents,  pointing  to  a  period  contemporary 
with  Moses:  cp.  e.g.  Lvl43  with  143^  IG20-22 
NulOi-7. 

There  is  no  difficulty  in  understanding  the 
rise  of  the  belief  in  the  Mosaic  authorship  or 


sometimes  been  pointed  out  that  these  refer-     in  sympathisi^ng  with  the  feelings  which  sug- 
someLiiuus  uccii  ^  1  .„  j.„  u„i;^„^     „^c+orl    i+       Ar^nrf,   froTYi    Moses   it   would    be 


ences  by  our  Lord  do  not  compel  us  to  believe 
that  Moses  wrote  the  whole  of  the  Pentateuch, 
but  only  that  certain  parts  of  it  were  derived 
from  him,  which  indeed  many  of  the  foremost 
scholars  admit.     But  another  answer  may  be 
given,  and  that  is  that  our  Lord  did  not  come 
to  deal  with  questions  of  literary  authorship, 
but  to  bring  men  salvation  ;  that  He  appeals 
to   the  Pentateuch  entirely  for  the  practical 
purposes  of  quickening  men's  consciences  and 
reproving  their  sins  ;  and  that  He  called  it  the 
Law  of  Moses  because  that  was  the  name  by 
which  it  was  commonly  known.     It  may  be 
accepted  as  a  guiding  principle  in  the  study  of 
the  Scriptures,  that  the  subjects  of  divme  re- 
velation are  not  matters  such  as  biblical  author- 
ship or  physical  processes,  which  men  can  dis- 
cover by  the  exercise  of  their  faculties,  but 
only  those  truths  of  God's  love  and  His  purposes 
of  salvation  '  which  the  angels  'desire  to  look 
into.'     The  force  of  our  Lord's  teaching,  it  is 
hardly  necessary  to  add,  is  not  afCected  by  the 
view  taken  of  the  authorship  of  the  Pentateuch. 
(b)  The    other  argument  for  the  traditional 
view  is,  that    Jewish    tradition  consistently 
ascribes  the  composition  of  the  Pentateuch  to 
Moses.     With  reference  to  this  point  it  must 
be  remembered  that  there  is  no  trace  of  the  ex- 
istence of  this  tradition  until  a  comparatively 
late  period,  and  that  it  is  unsupported  by  any 
strong  evidence.     It  must  also  be  noted  that 
as  a  whole  the  Five  Books  are  anonymously 
written,  and  that  there  is  no  passage  in  the  Old 
Testament  which  claims  Moses  as  their  author. 
The   '  Law    of   Moses '    indeed    is  frequently 
spoken  of,  and  it  is  unquestionable  that  Israel- 
itish  law  did  originate  with  him  ;  but  this  ex- 
pression is  not  evidence  that   Moses  was  the 
writer  of  the  Pentateuch  as  we  have  it,  or 
that   the    laws   which    it    contains   represent 
throughout  his  unmodified  legislation.     On  the 
other  hand,  there  are  parts  of  these  books 
which  are  expressly  ascribed  to  him  ;  e.g.  (1) 
the  account  of  the  defeat  of  Amalek  (Ex  17 1-*); 
(2)  the  book  of  the  Covenant,  Ex  20-23  (Ex 
244,7);  (3)  the  Renewed  Covenant,  Ex34io-26 
(cp  Ex 34^')  ;  (4)  the  Lists  of  Stations  on  the 
March  in  Nu33  (332)  ;  (5)  the  law  spoken  of 
in  Dt319.ii.2-t-26  ;  (6)  the  Song  of  Moses,  Dt 
32  :  cp.  also  Joshl'.s  831.35  23 «  2426.    These 

XXV 


gestedit.  Apart  from  Moses  it  would  be 
impossible  to  account  for  the  religion  of  the 
Old  Testament.  It  was  to  him  that  the  de- 
cisive creative  revelation  of  Jehovah's  nature 
and  His  relation  to  Israel  came.  It  was  he 
who  laid  the  foundations  of  the  ideas,  laws, 
and  institutions,  which  made  Israel  the  nation 
in  which  all  the  families  of  the  earth  have 
been  blessed.  The  later  developments  of 
faith,  custom,  and  ritual  require  him  at  the 
beginning  as  their  primary  explanation.  And 
if  he  was  thus  under  God  the  originator  of  the 
beliefs  and  practices  which  lie  at  the  root  of 
Old  Testament  religion,  it  is  difficult  to  avoid 
the  conclusion  that  he  put  into  writing  some 
of  its  laws  and  some  narratives  of  leading 
events  to  guide  the  conduct  and  inspire  the 
patriotism  of  the  people  whom  he  had  welded 
into  a  nation. 

On  close  examination,  however,  it  must  be 
admitted  that  the  Pentateuch  reveals  many 
features  inconsistent  with  the  traditional  view 
that  in  its  present  form  it  is  the  work  of 
Moses.     For  instance,  it  may  be  safely  granted 
that  Moses  did  not  write  the  account  of  his 
oym  death  in  Dt  34 .     The  statement  in  Dt  1 1 
that  Moses  spoke  these  words  '  beyond  (RV) 
Jordan  in  the  wilderness '  (see  note  there)  is 
evidently  made  from  the   standpoint  of  one 
living  in  Canaan,  which  Moses  never  did  ;  and 
when  we  read  that  the  '  Canaanite  was  then  in 
the  land '  (Gn  126  137),  and  that '  these  are  the 
kings   that    reigned    in   Edom    before    there 
reigned  any  king  over  Israel'  (Gn3G3i),  jt  is 
difficult    to    resist    the    impression    that   the 
speaker  was  living  in  the  one  case  after  the 
conquest,  and  in  the  other  after  the  establish- 
ment of  the  monarchy.     In  Gn  14 1*  and  Dt34 
mention  is  made  of  Dan  ;  but  the  territory  did 
not  receive  that  name  till  it  was  conquered  by 
the  Danites,   long  after  the  death  of  Moses 
(Josh  19  47  Jg  18  29).     Again,inISru  2 114,15  there 
is  quoted  as  an  ancient  authority  '  the  book  of 
the  Wars  of  the  Lord,'  which  plainly  could 
not  have  been  earlier  than  the  days  of  Moses. 
Other  passages  which  can  with   difficulty  be 
ascribed    to    him    are    Ex  6  26, 27    113    1635,36 
Lv  1824-28  Nu  123  Dt2i2. 

Of   course   such   things   do  not  amount  in 
themselves  to  a  disproof  of  the  Mosaic  author- 


INTRODUCTION  TO  THE  PENTATEUCH 


ship,  but  they  naturally  lead  to  the  question  : 
'  On  what  authority  does  this  belief  rest,  that 
Moses  is  the    author   of   the    Pentateuch  in 
its  present  form?'     And  it  appears  that  no 
authority  could  be  cited  except  the  late  tradi- 
tion of  the  Jewish  Church.     Therefore  men 
have  thought  themselves  at  liberty  to  mvesti- 
gate  the  matter,  and  a  careful  examination  has 
led  many  scholars  to  the  conviction  that  the 
writings    of   Moses    formed    only    the    rough 
material  or  part  of  the  material,  and  that  in  its 
present  form  it  is  not  the  work  of  one  man, 
but  a  compilation  made  from  previously  exist- 
ing documents.     In  this  connexion  it  must  be 
remembered  that  editing  and  compiling  is  a 
recognised  mode  of  authorship  in  Old  Testa- 
ment history.     Just  as  St.  Luke  tells  us  (Lk  1 1) 
that,  before  our  Four  Gospels  were  written, 
there  were  many  earlier  accounts  of  our  Lord's 
life  already  in  existence,  so  the  Old  Testament 
writers   tell    us  of   similar    accounts  already 
written  of  the  facts  which  they  record.     And 
not  only  so,  but  they  distinctly  indicate  that 
they  used  these  earlier  accounts  in  composing 
their   own  books.     It  is  most   interesting  to 
find  embedded  in  the  existing  books  fragments 
of   the    old   literature    of   ancient   Israel,    as 
geologists  find  the  fragments  of  the  lost  animal 
life  of  early  ages  embedded  in  the  rocks  of 
to-day.     See,  for  example,  '  the  book  of  the 
Wars  of   Jehovah'   (Nu21ii),   'the    book  of 
Jasher '  (2  S 1  is), '  the  books  of  Gad  and  Nathan ' 
(1  Ch2929),  '  the  books  of  Shemaiah  and  Iddo  ' 
(2 Chi 2 15).     Here  we  have  evidence  of   the 
existence  of  sources  of  information  to  which 
editors    and    compilers    of     later    days    had 
access.     We  find  also  several  ancient  poems 
incorporated  in  the  sacred  text,  e.g.  Gn423f. 
Ex  15,  17 1«  Nu21i7,i8,27f.  jg6^  etc.,  and  it  is 
probable  there  were  other  early  writings  avail- 
able besides  those  which  can  now  be  traced. 
There  is  thus  nothing  strange  in  the  suggestion 
that  the  books  of  the  Pentateuch  were  based 
on  preexisting  materials. 

3.  Composition.  The  following  are  the 
main  grounds  of  the  conviction  that  the  Pen- 
tateuch is  not  the  original  work  of  one  man, 
but  a  compilation  from  previously  existing 
documents. 

(1)  In  the  historical  parts  we  find  duplicate 
accounts  of  the  same  event,  which  do  not 
always  agree  in  detail.  Sometimes  the  two 
accounts  are  set  down  side  by  side  ;  sometimes 
they  are  fused  together  more  or  less  com- 
pletely ;  but  in  many  instances  no  attempt 
has  been  made  either  to  remove  or  to  reconcile 
their  differences.  Thus  two  distinct  and 
independent  accounts  of  the  Creation  are 
given,  one  in  Gnl-24,  the  other  in  Gn24-25. 
Two  accounts  of  the  Flood  may  be  detected 
on  a  careful  reading  of  Gn6-9.  Again, 
we  find  two  sets  of  instructions  for  the  ob- 


servance of  the  Passover  in  Ex  12,  one  in 
vv.  1-13,  the  other  in  vv.  21-27.  We  may 
also  instance  the  contrasts  between  such 
passages  as  Gn  27 1-45  and  27-*6-289,  where 
Eebekah  is  actuated  by  one  motive  in  the 
former  and  by  quite  another  in  the  latter  ; 
Gn28i9  and  35  ^-is,  where  the  name  is  given 
to  Bethel  in  very  different  circumstances  ; 
Gn35io  and  3228.  Compare  also  Ex3i-6i 
with  6  2-7 13,  where  the  latter  section  takes  no 
account  of  the  former,  but  begins  the  story 
of  the  mission  to  Pharaoh  anew,  as  if  3 1-6 1 
had  never  been  written. 

(2)  Similarly  in  the  legislative  portions  of 
these  books  we  find  apparent  contradictions, 
and  these  not  in  minor  or  insignificant  details', 
but  in  fundamental  enactments  ;  and  the  only 
way  in  which  we  can  solve  the  problem  thus 
presented  is  by  understanding  that  in  these 
books  (especially  Exodus  to  Deuteronomy)  we 
have  the  records  of  laws  laid  down  at  various 
periods  of  the  national  history,  and  dealing 
with  radically  different  conditions  of  life.     In 
Ex  20-23,  e.g.,  we  have  a  set  of  laws  which 
are  evidently  suited  to  the  circumstances  of 
an  agricultural  and  pastoral  community  scat- 
tered   over   a    considerable   tract   of  country 
with  their  flocks  and  herds.     This  legislation 
IS  of  a  very  simple  and  practical  nature,  based 
on  the  fundamental   principles  of  truth  and 
righteousness,  and  having  reference  to  a  primi- 
tive   state  of  society.     Thus   the   worship  is 
very  simple  ;  altars  are  to  be  built  of  earth  or 
of  rough  stones  at  amj  place  where  God  has 
blessed  them  (2024-26).  firstlings  and  first  fruits 
are  to  be  offered   o?i    the  eighth  day  (2228-30). 
the  law  of  injuries  is  '  eye  for  eye,  tooth  for 
tooth,  life  for  life'  (21i-2i);  murder  is  to  be 
atoned  by  the  death  of  the  culprit,  but  the 
altar  gives  refuge  to  the  homicide  by  accident 
(2112-H);  special  reference   is   made  to  oxen 
and  sheep,  to  vineyards  and  fields  of  corn,  and 
restitution  for  damage  done  to  these  is  com- 
manded   (2133-23').      Again,    the     poor    are 
provided   for   by   the   produce    of  the   fields 
every  seventh  year  (23io.ii);  the  seventh  day 
is  appointed  as  the  sabbath — a  day  of  rest  for 
man  and  beast  (2312);  three  feasts  are  to  be 
kept — two  of  them  agricultural— the  feast  of 
unleavened  bread  in  memory  of  the  exodus, 
and  those  of  harvest  and  ingathering.     The 
laws  are  suited  to  the  conditions  of  life  ex- 
perienced by  the  Israelites  in  the  wilderness, 
and  in  their  earlier  days  in  Canaan. 

In  the  book  of  Deuteronomy  we  find  a  more 
advanced  type  of  legislation,  applying  evidently 
to  different  circumstances.  Many  injunctions 
indeed,  are  repeated,  but  many  others  are 
changed.  The  principles  are  the  same  as  in 
the  older  legislation,  but  the  rules  are  largely 
modified.  Deuteronomy  is  the  Mosaic  Law 
applied  to  the  altered  conditions  of  a  later 


XXVI 


INTRODUCTION  TO  THE  PENTATEUCH 


and  more  complex  age.  Thus  the  worship  is 
to  be  ceiitvulked  in  one  place,  and  local  altars 
are  to  be  abolished  (Dtl2'*-6. 13-2S)^  because  of 
abuses  that  had  sprung  up  in  connexion  with 
them  ;  firstlings  are  to  be  offered  once  a  year- 
instead  of  on  the  eighth  day,  and  in  place  of 
the  local  altars  cities  of  refuge  are  provided 
for  '  him  who  killeth  his  neighbour  unawares  ' 
(Dtl92).  The  conditions  of  life  are  different 
from  those  in  Ex  20-23  ;  the  people  dwell  in 
cities,  not  in  the  camp  (Dt  1312-15  172  21<3, 
etc.)  ;  a  commercial  element  has  entered  into 
the  nation  (23i9, 20  25i3-i'^),  and  intercourse 
with  foreigners  has  brought  new  dangers  to 
religion  (13  0.7  173.*). 

Again,  in  the  book  of  Leviticus,  with  parts 
of  Exodus  and  Numbers,  we  find  another  type 
of  legislation,  founded  still  upon  the  same 
Mosaic  principles,  but  more  elaborate,  more 
priestly,  more  rigid  than  that  of  Ex  20-23 
or  that  of  Deuteronomy.  Here  we  find 
detailed  rules  for  the  ritual  of  the  Temple, 
for  the  consecration  of  priests,  for  many 
points  in  ordinary  life  and  conduct.  Many  of 
these  are  found  in  the  other  codes  ;  but  many 
are  new  (e.g.  the  feasts  in  Lv  23),  and  in- 
dicate the  result  of  a  long'process  of  develop- 
ment. The  worship  is  highly  developed  and 
centralised  in  the  Temple  ;  the  altar  is  an 
elaborate  structure  (Ex27i-S)  ;  the  duties  of 
priests  and  Levites  are  carefully  detailed,  and 
the  Levites  are  distinguished  from  the  priests 
as  their  servants  (NuS^^  18 1-^). 

(3)  Different  parts  of  the  Pentateuch  ex- 
hibit marked  differences  of  vocabulary  and 
literary  style.  Many  of  these  differences, 
especially  of  vocabulary,  can  only  be  appre- 
ciated by  those  acquainted  with  Hebrew  ;  but 
any  one  can  see  that  the  book  of  Deuteronomy 
is  written  in  a  much  more  rhetorical  style 
than,  say,  the  book  of  Leviticus,  and  can 
appreciate  its  lofty  and  inspiring  eloquence. 
Again,  in  one  set  of  passages,  of  which  Gn  1-24 
is  a  type,  the  Almighty  is  called  God  (Hebrew 
Elohim),  while  in  another  set,  of  which  Gn 
24-26  is  an  example,  He  is  designated  Lord 
(Hebrew  Jehovah)  ;  and  there  are  many 
other  points  of  difference  which  are  most 
satisfactorily  explained  by  the  theory  that  the 
writer  of  the  Pentateuch,  as  we  have  it,  made 
use  of  and  incorporated  into  his  work  docu- 
ments originally  separated. 

Following  up  the  clue  given  by  these 
differences,  scholars  have  endeavoured  to  dis- 
entangle the  separate  documents  from  which 
it  is  suggested  that  the  Pentateuch  was  com- 
piled, and  we  shall  now  give  a  brief  outline  of 
the  results  of  their  investigations. 

4.  Sources. 

(a)  There  is  first  what  we  may  call  the 
Primitive  source  (itself  resting  upon  older 
written  authorities),  usually  denoted  by  the 


symbol  JE.  It  has  sometimes  been  called 
the  Prophetic  document,  because  it  reflects 
the  same  ideas  found  in  more  developed  forms 
in  the  writings  of  the  prophets,  especially 
their  religious  and  moral  teaching.  By  some, 
again,  it  is  styled  Pre- prophetic,  as  earlier  in 
date  than  the  prophets,  and  simpler  in  its 
outlook. 

It  begins  at  Gn24,  and  may  be  said  to 
supply  all  the  more  detailed  and  picturesque 
narratives  in  Genesis,  and  Exodus,  part  of 
Numbers,  and  the  first  twelve  chapters  of 
Joshua.  To  it  we  owe  entirely  the  narratives 
of  the  Fall  and  Cain  and  Abel,  the  details  of 
Abraham's  trials  and  wanderings,  of  Sodom  and 
Gomorrah,  of  Isaac  and  Rebekah,  of  Jacob's 
fraud,  his  journey  to  Haran  and  his  successful 
career,  and  of  the  life  of  Joseph.  A  feature 
in  this  Primitive  source  is  its  fondness  for 
antiquities.  It  reaches  back  into  a  remote 
past,  and  delights  to  record  the  traditions  and 
history  that  centred  round  the  great  figures 
of  the  race.  It  is  this  document  that  pre- 
serves the  early  legislation  already  referred 
to  (Ex  20-23)  with  its  permission  of  local 
sanctuaries  ;  that  gives  us  the  ten  command- 
ments, and  that  records  the  ancient  songs  of 
Lamech,  of  Moses,  and  of  the  conquering 
Israelites  (Nu  2 1  i-t-i5, 17-18, 27-30).  it  makes  use 
of  the  term  '  Jehovah  '  for  God  from  the  very 
outset  of  its  narrative.  Plausible  attempts 
have  been  made  to  analyse  it  into  two  com- 
ponents, J  and  E  ;  but  for  these  reference 
must  be  made  to  larger  works.  In  any  case, 
the  parallel  threads  are  closely  allied,  and  may 
for  our  purpose  be  treated  as  a  unity. 

This  source  presents  a  very  simple,  vivid, 
and  picturesque  narrative,  and  is  characterised 
among  other  things  by  its  naively  anthropo- 
morphic conception  of  God,  i.e.  it  speaks  of 
God  in  language  that  is  strictly  appropriate 
to  man  only.  For  example,  it  represents 
God  as  planting  a  garden  and  walking  in  it  in 
the  cool  of  the  day  (Gn  2^3  §),  as  coming  down 
in  order  to  see  what  men  are  doing  on  the  earth 
(Gnll5  1821),  as  shutting  the  door  of  the  ark 
behind  Noah  (Gn  7 16),  as  smelling  the  sweet 
odour  of  sacrifice  (Gn82i),  and  as  experi- 
encing the  emotions  to  which  men  are  subject 
(cp.  e.g.  Gn6'5),  etc.  This  bold  way  of 
speaking  about  God,  it  may  be  remarked 
here,  is  not  due  to  any  irreverence  or  familiar- 
ity, but  is  the  outcome  of  an  intensely  religious 
spirit  that  is  completely  possessed  by  the  con- 
sciousness of  God's  immediate  presence  and 
power  in  the  world.  The  Primitive  narrative, 
too,  is  not  careful  to  conceal  the  moral  faults 
of  the  patriarchs.  The  English  reader  will 
form  an  idea  of  its  style  and  characteristics 
from  such  passages  as  Gn24i>_324  920-27  111-9 
18,  19,  20,  22,  24,  27,  and  practically  the  whole 
of  the  history  of  Joseph. 


xxvii 


INTRODUCTION  TO  THE  PENTATEUCH 


It  seems  probable  that  the  older  written 
authorities  underlying  this  Primitive  or  Pro- 
phetic narrative  were  drawn  up  not  later  than 
750  B.C.,  and  perhaps  even  a  century  earlier  ; 
they  themselves  in  their  turn  being  founded 
on  writings  like  '  the  book  of  the  Wars  of  the 
Lord,'  and  '  the  book  of  Ja.sher,'  as  well  as  on 
traditions  handed  down  from  generation  to 
generation  in  the  tribes  of  Israel.  The  early 
prophets  make  frequent  and  confident  appeals 
to  events  of  past  history  and  to  promises  of 
God  to  the  fathers  which  are  recorded  in  this 
Primitive  narrative  :  cp.  Hos  910  111  123.4,9,12 
Am29  3i  525. 

(i)  There  is,  secondly,  the  Priestly  docu- 
ment (usually  designated  P),  This  work  is 
so  called  because  it  regards  the  history  of 
Israel  from  the  priestly  point  of  view,  and 
because  it  contains  the  greater  part  of  the 
priestly  and  ceremonial  legislation  in  Exodus, 
Leviticus,  and  Numbers.  It  is  written  in  a 
somewhat  dry  and  formal  style,  with  little 
descriptive  colour  or  poetic  gi-ace  ;  but  in 
parts  (e.g.  the  story  of  Creation)  its  diction  is 
dignified  and  worthy  of  the  subject.  It  gives 
an  outline  of  the  history  of  Israel  from  the 
earliest  times  ;  though  this  is  usually  of  the 
slightest,  many  incidents  detailed  at  length  in 
the  Primitive  document  receiving  a  bare  men- 
tion, and  long  periods  being  passed  over  with 
little  more  than  a  list  of  the  names  of  the  leaders 
who  lived  at  the  time  :  cp.  Gn  1 1  lo.  It  is  only 
when  the  wi'iter  comes  to  some  epoch-making 
event  or  to  the  origin  of  some  well-known 
institution  that  he  enters  into  particulars  (e.g. 
Gn  17 1-27  Ex  12 1-20).  This  writing,  however, 
gives  a  systematic  account  of  the  rise  and 
progress  of  Israel  as  a  theocracy,  paying 
special  attention  to  the  laws  and  institutions, 
and  showing  great  interest  in  everything 
pertaining  to  the  Ceremonial  Law,  the  division 
of  the  nation  into  tribes,  and  the  partition  of 
the  promised  land  among  them  (cp.  e.g.  Nu 
1-4  Josh  13 15-145  151-13,20-62^  and  most  of 
17-22).  It  abounds  in  genealogies  (e.g.  Gn5 
69-22  466-27)^  inventories  (e.g.  Ex  25-31),  and 
chronological  details  (e.g.  Gn  1 1 1^'-).  A  favour- 
ite expression,  usually  beginning  a  list,  is 
'  These  are  the  generations  of  .  . '  (Gn  2^51 
69  101  11102512  361). 

This  Priestly  document  avoids  all  anthropo- 
morphic representations  of  God,  and  in  this 
respect  is  in  striking  contrast  to  the  Primitive 
writing  JE,  which  represents  God  as  thinking 
and  acting  like  a  man  :  cp.  Gnl8, 19  Ex244^ 
In  P  God's  revelations  take  the  form,  not  of 
visible  appearances,  but  of  speech  (Gn  1 28  6 1^ 
Ex  61  121)  ;  except  on  the  one  occasion  of 
the  supreme  revelation  on  Mount  Sinai  (Ex 
24 16  2522).  A  feature  of  its  references  to 
God  is  that  it  makes  use  of  the  name  Elohim 
(God)  for  God  almost  exclusively  (El  Shaddai, 


GnlTi  283  3511  483)  until  Ex 6 3,  where  God 
reveals  His  name  Jehovah  (the  Lord)  to 
Moses.  The  writer  of  this  document  evi- 
dently belonged  to  the  priestly  class  ;  his  aim 
was  entirely  a  religious  one  ;  he  sought  to  show 
from  a  sketch  of  Israel's  history  that  '  God 
was  in  the  midst  of  her.' 

Scholars  are  of  opinion  that  this  document 
was  drawn  up,  in  the  form  in  which  it  is 
embedded  in  the  Pentateuch,  for  the  guidance 
of  the  priests  and  others  after  the  return 
from  the  captivity  in  the  days  of  Ezra.  The 
worship  is  regarded  in  it  as  completely  cen- 
tralised in  Jerusalem;  the  priests  are  exclu- 
sively the  descendants  of  Aaron,  and  the 
Levites  are  distinct  from  them  ;  the  system 
of  sacrifices  and  feasts  is  much  more  de- 
veloped than  even  in  Deuteronomy  (see  under 
(c));  the  idea  of  God  is  purer  and  less  akin 
to  that  of  a  magnified  man.  The  Priestly 
document  thus  exhibits  signs  of  the  disci- 
pline and  purification  which  the  nation  ex- 
perienced in  the  exile  and  is  appropriately 
dated  at  the  close  of  that  event. 

(c)  The  third  document  underlying  the  Pen- 
tateuch (or  rather  the  Hexateuch)  is  the  book 
of  Deuteronomy,  usually  cited  as  D,  and  iden- 
tified in  its  main  parts  with  the  Law-book  dis- 
covered in  the  Temple  by  Hilkiah  in  the 
eighteenth  year  of  King  Josiah,  621  b.o. 
(2K22).  This  book  has  a  strongly  marked 
literary  style,  being  smooth,  redundant,  and 
rhetorical:  cp.  e.g.  Dt  11,  12.  It  insists  on  the 
worship  of  the  one  God  at  the  one  sanctuary, 
and  is  characterised  by  a  lofty  spiritual,  moral , 
and  humanitarian  tone.  In  many  respects  it 
differs  from  the  earlier  legislation  of  the 
Primitive  document  ;  but  alv/ays  in  matters  of 
detail.  Its  laws  are  suited  to  a  later  age  and 
to  a  more  complex  condition  of  society  than 
those  of  JE  ;  the  worship  is  centralised  in 
Jerusalem,  because  the  local  shrines  had  been 
abused  ;  and  the  centralisation  of  the  worship 
necessitated  many  changes  in  detail.  Thus 
Deuteronomy,  or  the  Second  Legislation,  is 
simply  the  development  of  the  first  ;  it  is  the 
Mosaic  principles  applied  to  new  conditions. 
It  is  animated  by  the  same  spirit  as  the  older 
law,  inspired  by  the  same  desire  for  purity  of 
worship,  for  singleness  of  heart,  for  holiness 
of  life. 

It  is  supposed  that  these  three  documents — 
the  Primitive  writing,  the  Priestly  writing, 
and  the  book  of  Deuteronomy — were  welded 
together  somewhat  in  this  way.  The  fii-st 
attempts  to  write  a  history  of  Israel  probably 
originated  in  the  schools  of  the  prophets  in 
the  ninth  century  B.C. ;  and  in  the  Primitive 
writing  JE  we  have  the  finished  result.  About 
the  same  time  as  JE  was  composed,  the  Second 
Legislation  (D)  was  set  down  in  writing  and 
made  public  as  recorded  in  2K22.     This  was 


xxvm 


INTRODUCTION  TO  THE  PENTATEUCH 


afterwards  combined  with  the  earlier  writing, 
which  gave  it  a   historic  background.     Then 
during,   or   immediately  after    the   exile,   the 
ritual   law  was   di'awn  up   in  accordance  with 
priestly  traditions,  and  given  an  appropriate 
setting  in  a  historical  framework,  the  result 
being   the    Priestly    writing  (P).       Finally  a 
later   historian,  taking   these   as   his  author- 
ities, wove    them    together   into    a  complete 
whole,    connecting    them    by    notes  and    ex- 
planations,    where     these     were     necessary  ; 
not  putting  the  history  in  his  own  words   or 
presenting  it  from  his  own   standpoint  as  a 
modern  historian  would  do,  but  piecing  toge- 
ther the  sections  of  the  sources  which  referred 
to  the  same  events,  and  thus  preserving  not 
only  the  history,  but  the  very  words  in  which 
it  had  reached  him,  for  all  coming  generations. 
In  this  writer's  work  we  have  the  Pentateuch 
of  the  Old  Testament  Scriptures. 

This,  then,  is  a  brief  outline  of  the  views 
held  by  most  scholars  who  have  devoted  them- 
selves to  the  thorough  study  of  these  books 
of  the  Bible.  Such  a  theory  of  the  compo- 
sition of  the  Pentateuch,  while  it  may  surprise 
us  at  first  sight,  will  give  us  larger  ideas  of 
God's  working  and  inspiration,  and  will 
strengthen  rather  than  disturb  our  faith.     For 


it  will  remove  many  difficulties  in  the  inter- 
pretation  of    these  books,  and  explain  those 
contradictions  of  which  we   are  all  conscious 
when  we  read  them.     When  we  realise  that 
God  did  not  teach  Israel  only  by  Moses,  but 
'  at  sundry  times   and  in  divers  manners  '  by 
teachers  and  leaders  whom  He  inspired  accord- 
ing to  the  work  He  gave  them  to  perform,  we 
shall  have  worthier  ideas  of  His  government 
of  the  world  and  of  His  watchful  care  over 
His  people.     The  fact  that  the  legislation  of 
the  Pentateuch  was  given  not  all  at  one  time, 
but  to  diflPerent  generations,  according  to  their 
circumstances  and   needs,  surely  teaches   us, 
as  perhaps  nothing  is  better  fitted  to  teach 
us,  that  '  He  that  keepeth  Israel  neither  slum- 
bers nor  sleeps.'     And  the  view  of  the  books 
which  scholars  suggest  to  us  shows  us  that 
His  inspiration  wrought  not  through  one  but 
through  many,  and  that  in  every  age  of  Israel's 
history  there  were  men  inspired  by  the  spirit 
which   animated    their   master,   Moses,   eager 
to  make  known  to  their  fellows  how  great 
things    God    had    wrought,    and    longing    to 
win  them  to  loyalty  and    devotion  to    Him 
who    was    the    God    of    Abraham    and   Isaac 
and  Jacob,  and  who  desired  still  to  be  their 
God. 


ZZIZ 


THE  CREATION  STORY  AND  SCIENCE 


Many  of  the  difficulties  felt  in  connexion 
with  the  Bible  story  of  creation  arise  from  a 
misunderstanding  of  the  bearing  of  modern 
science  upon  it.  A  few  general  considera- 
tions, therefore,  may  help  to  obviate  them. 

(a)  There  is  a  vague  idea  in  many  minds 
that  science  demands  a  much  greater  antiquity 
for  the  world  than  the  Bible  account  will 
allow.  This  impression  has  probably  been 
gathered  from  the  statement  in  the  margin  of 
many  Bibles  that  creation  took  place  in  the 
year  4004  B.C.  It  is  well,  therefore,  to  be 
reminded  that  this  marginal  note  is  not  a  part 
of  the  Bible.  It  originated  in  calculations, 
both  Jewish  and  Christian,  which  are  now 
admitted  to  have  been  based  upon  imperfect 
knowledge.  The  sacred  writer  in  Genesis 
does  not  commit  himself  to  any  definite  limits 
of  time,  but  simply  speaks  of  the  creation  as 
taking  place  'in  the  beginning,'  and  this 
phrase  is  elastic  enough  to  cover  the  modern 
scientific  position. 

(b)  Another  difficulty  is  caused  by  the  ap- 
parent antagonism  between  modern  scientific 
theories  and  the  statement  of  Gnl  that  the 
work  of  creation  was  completed  in  six  days. 
Attempts  have  been  made,  from  several  points 
of  view,   to   get  rid   of    this   antagonism,    by 
taking  the  language  of  Scripture  in  a  figurative 
sense.     For  example,  it   has  been  suggested 
by  some  that  the  sublime  panorama  of  creation 
was  flashed  into  some  primeval  prophet's  con- 
sciousness in  a  series  of  visions  that  occupied 
a  space  of  six  days  ;  and  by  others  that  the 
days  are  not  to  be  interpreted  as  natural  days 
of  twenty-four  hours  each,  but   as  age-long 
periods  of  time   corresponding  to  the  succes- 
sive stages  in  the    evolution   of    the   world. 
Whatever  truth  there  may  be  in  these  sugges- 
tions, and  however  helpful  they  may  be  to 
many  minds,  others  may  be  able  to  obtain  a 
more  satisfactory  rendering  of  the  Bible  ac- 
count of  creation,  by  looking  at  it  in  the  light 
of  the   three    following   considerations.      (1) 
The  story  was  written  in  the  very  childhood 
of  our  race,  when  human  knowledge  was  only 
at  the  dawn,  and  men's  minds  were  awakening 
for  the  first  time  to  Ike  problems  of  life  and 
the  world.     It  was  inevitable,  therefore,  that 
it  should  be  cast  in  a  simple  and  childlike 
form,  if  it  was  to  be  at  all  intelligible  to  those 
among  whom  it  appeared  ;  and  the  wisdom  of 
giving  it  such   a  setting  has  been  more  than 
justified  by   the  impression    it   has   left,  and 
still  continues  to  make,  upon  the  thought  of 


the  world.     (2)  It  is   now   widely   admitted 
that  the  Genesis  account  of  creation  contains 
elements    of   belief    which    existed,    perhaps 
thousands  of  years  before  the  book  of  Genesis    ' 
was  written,  among  the  peoples  of  Babylonia 
and    Assyria.       The    connexion    between  the 
traditions  of  these  early  nations  and  the  story 
of  Genesis  is  still  a  matter  of  discussion,  but 
one  thing  has  emerged  clearly  from  their  com- 
parison.   Whatever  elements  the  sacred  writer 
in   Genesis  may   have   in  common  with   the 
Babylonian  and  Assyrian  beliefs,  he  has  been 
able  to  redeem   and  purify  them  from  their 
baser  form,  and  invest  them  with  the  presence 
and  power  of  a  Sovereign  God,  the  one  only 
Creator  of  heaven  and  earth.     (3)  The  pur- 
pose of   the  writer   in    Gn  1    is  not  scientific 
but  religious.    His  scientific  knowledge  may  be 
bounded  by  the   horizon   of  the  age  in  which 
he  lived,  but  the  religious  truths  he  teaches 
are    irrefutable   and    eternal.      To    put    the 
matter  in  another  way  :  The  scientific  account 
of  creation  has  been  written  by  the  finger  of 
God  upon  the  crust  of  the  earth,  and  men  are 
slowly  spelling  it  out  ;  but  the  religious  ac- 
count of  creation  is  written  in  the  first  chapter 
of  Genesis,  in  letters  that  all  can  read.     Both 
accounts  are  from  God,  and  should  be  received 
accordingly.     As  Dr.  Marcus  Dods  has  said  : 
'  The  greatest  mistake  is  made  when  men  seek 
in  the  one  record  what  can  only  be  found  in 
the  other,  when  they  either  refuse  to  listen  to 
the  affirmations  of  nature  because  they  seem 
to  disagree  with  what  is  found  in  the  Bible, 
or  when  they  are  content  with  the  teaching  of 
nature,  as  if  nature  could  tell  us  all  we  need 
to  know  about  ourselves,  about  the  world,  and 
about   God.'      What    was   necessary   in    the 
primitive  world  to  save  men  from  grovelling, 
debasing  polytheism  was  the  knowledge  that 
it   was   God,    holy   and   good,  who  made  alL 
things,  and  that  the  crown  and  summit  of  Hisfl  - 
work  was  man  ;  and  this  is  the  knowledge  sett 
forth   in  the   book    of    Genesis.      The    rear 
question  for  us  is  then  :  '  Does  the  story  of  1 
Genesis  so  accomplish  what  seems  to  be  ita 
purpose,  that  only  inspiration  from  God  can 
account  for  it  ? '     To  ask  :  '  Is  it  a  completely  > 
scientific  account  of  creation? '  is  to  raise  an 
issue  that  is  scarcely  fair. 

(c)  These  considerations  must  be   kept  in 
mind,  for  they  are  equally  helpful,  in  dealing  i 
with  the  further  difficulty  that  has  arisen  in  ' 
connexion  with  the  theory  of  evolution,  and 
the  marvellous  discoveries  with  which  it  has  i 


THE   CREATION   STORY    AND   SCIENCE 


been  associated.  Science  is  now  teaching  that 
the  order  and  beauty  of  the  world  are  not  the 
result  of  one  directly  creative  act,  but  the 
outcome  of  a  long  and  gradual  process,  con- 
tinued probably  over  myriads  of  years  ;  and 
that  the  varied  life  of  nature  is  not  as  it  was 
fixed  '  in  the  beginning,'  but  as  it  has  been 
evolved,  through  age-long  periods  and  many 
lower  stages,  from  original  germs.  On  the 
face  of  it,  this  teaching  seems  to  conflict  with 
the  teaching  of  the  Bible,  and  in  particular  to 
throw  suspicion  upon  the  story  of  creation  as 
given  in  Genesis.  It  was  thus  it  was  received 
at  first  ;  but  in  recent  years,  as  men  have  gone 
back  to  the  old  creation  story,  and  pondered 
it  afresh,  in  view  of  the  teaching  of  science, 
their  difficulties  and  perplexities  have  largely 
disappeared.  Besides  making  allowances  for 
the  considerations  already  urged  under  (i), 
they  have  come  to  see  that  creation  would  be 
just  as  divine  and  miraculous,  if  it  were  slow 
and  gradual,  as  it  would  be  if  it  were  sudden 
and  complete.  The  power  necessary  to 
originate  and  support  a  ceaseless  and  pro- 
longed process  of  development  in  the  world 
would  be  no  less  than  that  required  to  bring 
it  into  being  in  a  moment,  ^nd  sustain  it  in  its 
ordered  course.  Doubtless,  God  could  in- 
stantaneously make  a  mighty  oak  ;  but  it  is 
no  less  wonderful  that  He  should  make  it 
gradually,  causing  it  to  grow  out  of  the  little 
acorn,  of  which  we  can  carry  a  dozen  in  the 
hand,  yet  every  one  of  which  contains  within 
it  a  germ  endued  with  power  to  carry  on  a 
succession  of   mighty  oaks   through   ages  to 


come.  To  realise  this  is  to  advance  a  long  way 
in  the  solution  of  the  difficulty  arising  from 
the  theory  of  evolution,  and  rob  it  of  its 
power  to  disturb  a  genuine  faith  in  the  Bible. 
A  further  reflection,  however,  may  be  called 
in  to  support  the  mind  of  the  biblical  believer. 
Not  only  is  evolution  itself  only  a  theory, 
which  may  in  the  future  undergo  modification, 
and  may  possibly  be  displaced  by  some  other 
theory,  but  even  if  it  is  a  true  and  final 
account  of  the  origin  of  created  things,  the  old 
creation  story  of  Genesis  is,  to  say  the  least, 
not  incompatible  with  it.  The  process  of 
creation,  as  unfolded  in  Genesis,  when  viewed 
in  the  light  of  the  new  scientific  teaching, 
reveals  a  law  of  continuous  development, 
which  is  at  least  a  foreshadowing  of  the 
process  of  evolution.  And  so  the  apparent 
irreconcilability  between  them  becomes  largely 
reduced,  if  it  does  not  indeed  altogether  dis- 
appear. '  These,'  we  read,  '  are  the  genera- 
tions of  the  heavens  when  they  were  created.' 
'  The  inspired  historian  saw  no  Almighty  hand 
building  up  the  galleries  of  creation  :  he  heard 
no  sound  of  hammer  nor  confused  noise  of 
workmen  :  the  Spirit  of  the  Lord  moved  upon 
the  face  of  the  deep  :  chaos  took  form  and 
comeliness  before  his  inspired  vision  :  and 
the  solar  system  grew  through  a  succession  of 
days  to  its  present  order  and  beauty.'  At 
last,  when  all  things  were  ready — after  how 
many  myriads  of  years  we  know  not — man 
came  forth,  the  summit  of  the  whole  creation, 
for  '  God  breathed  into  his  nostrils  the  breath 
of  life,  and  he  became  a  living  soul.' 


TTTYI 


GENESIS  AND  THE  BABYLONIAN  INSCRIPTIONS 


4 


During  the  last  thirty  years  a  considerable 
amount  of  light  has  been  thrown  on  the  first 
few  chapters  of  Genesis  by  the  recovery  and 
interpretation    of    an    extensive    Babylonian 
literature.     The  Assyrian  king,  Assurbanipal, 
who  reigned  in  the  middle  of  the  seventh  cen- 
tury B.C.,  caused  copies  of  immense  numbers 
of    documents   from    other    libraries    in   the 
country  to  be  made  for  his  library  at  Nineveh, 
some  of  these  writings  dating  from  many  hun- 
dred years  earlier.    They  comprised  works  on 
religion,  history,  mathematics,  law,  magic,  and 
astronomy.      The  copies,   like  the    originals, 
were  on  tablets  of  fine  clay,  inscribed,  whilst 
in  a  soft  state,  with  wedge-shaped  (cuneiform) 
characters,  and  then  burned  in  a  furnace  till 
they  became  hard  and  dry.    These  clay  tablets 
are  of  all  sizes,  from  an  inch  to  more  than  a 
foot  long,  and  the  museums   of  Europe  and 
America  now  possess  thousands  of  them,  de- 
rived from  Assurbanipal's  library  and  other 
places.    Excavations  are  still  being  carried  on, 
with  the  result  that  every  year  sees  a  large 
addition  to  the  recovered  treasures.     In  1872 
Mr.  George  Smith  discovered  on  some  of  the 
tablets,  which  may  now  be  seen  in  the  British 
Museum,   accounts  of  the   Creation  and  the 
Flood,  written  from  the  religious  standpoint 
of  the  Babylonians.     Many  similarities  were 
at  once  observed  between  them  and  the  early 
chapters  of  Genesis.     This  will  not  cause  sur- 
prise, for  the  Hebrew  and  Babylonian  peoples 
were  allied  branches  of  the  great  Semitic  race, 
and  it  was  natural  that  their  ideas  respecting 
the  origin  of  the  world,  and  their  traditions  as 
to  its  primitive  history,  should  have  much  in 
common.    But  these  Babylonian  records,  which 
have  thrown  so  much  light  on  the  character  of 
the  early  narratives  of  Genesis,  have  at  the 
same  time  done  more  than  anything  else  to 
confirm    the    real    divine    inspiration    of    the 
latter,  and  their  peculiar  religious  worth.    The 
biblical  narratives,  when  compared  with  these 
kindred  legends,  present  differences  which  are 
even   more    striking    than    the    resemblances. 
And  it  is  these  differences  which  reveal  their 
spiritual  value.     The   Babylonian  stories  arc 
full  of  grotesque  and  polytheistic  ideas,  while 
those  of   the  Bible    speak   only  of   the  one 
living   and   true    God.      Compared  with    the 
former,  the  Scriptures  are  incomparably  truer 
and  grander  from  a  religious  point  of  view. 
They  conveyed  to  the  Hebrews,  and  they  still 
convey   to   us,   the   worthiest   conceptions   of 
God  and  of  His  relation  to  the  world  and 


xxxii 


men.  They  are  a  standing  witness  to  the  fact 
that  the  nation  of  Israel  enjoyed  a  peculiar 
revelation  of  the  true  God.  If  the  '  folk-lore ' 
of  the  Hebrews,  like  that  of  all  other  peoples, 
was  inconsistent  at  many  points  with  our 
modern  knowledge  of  nature  and  history,  yet 
it  was  so  purified  among  them,  under  the 
guidance  of  the  Spirit  of  God,  from  all  taint 
of  heathenism,  that,  as  it  stands  in  the  open- 
ing chapters 'of  Genesis,  it  contains  nothing 
inconsistent  either  with  the  religion  of  Jeho- 
vah or  with  the  fuller  revelation  of  Jesus 
Christ. 

I.  The  Babylonian  Account  of  the  Creation. 
Two  Babylonian  legends  of  the  Creation  are 
known.  The  longer  and  more  important  is 
inscribed  on  seven  tablets,  some  of  which  are 
imperfect.  According  to  it,  all  things  were 
produced  at  the  first  from  Tiamat,  a  personi- 
fication of  the  primeval  chaos,  represented  as 
a  huge  dragon.  The  gods  came  into  being  in 
a  long  succession,  but  at  length  enmity  arose 
between  them  and  Tiamat,  who  created  mon- 
sters to  oppose  them.  Merodach,  a  solar 
deity,  known  also  as  Bel,  and  regarded  as  the 
supreme  god  and  patron  deity  of  Babylon, 
was  chosen  as  the  champion  of  the  gods.  He 
vanquished  Tiamat,  cut  her  body  in  two,  and 
with  one  half  of  it  made  a  firmament  sup- 
porting the  upper  waters  in  the  sky :  see  on 
Gn  1 6-8.  Merodach  then  fixed  the  signs  of  the 
zodiac  in  the  sky  as  the  stations  of  the  great 
gods,  and  also  placed  the  moon  in  the  heavens 
to  determine  the  months.  The  next  part  of 
the  tablets  is  mutilated,  but  describes  the 
creation  of  the  heavens.  The  seventh  tablet 
contains  a  hymn  to  Merodach. 

The  following  are  a  few  passages  from  the 
Babylonian  Creation  epic,  extracted  mainly 
from  T.  G.  Pinches'  translation — 

'  When,  above,  the  heaven  wsls  not  named, 
Beneath,  the  earth  did  not  record  a  name, 
The  ocean  {Jpsu)  the  prmieval  was  their  begetter, 
The  tumult  Tiamat  was  mother  of  them  all, 
Their  waters  in  one  united  together. 
Then  were  the  gods  born, 
Lahmu  Lahamu  came  forth, 
Ansar,  the  god  Anu  "... 

The  rest  is  fragmentary. 

The  second,  third,  and  fourth  tablets  de- 
scribe the  conflict  between  Merodach  and 
Tiamat.  The  victory  of  the  former  appears 
to  signify  the  conquest  of  light  and  order 
over  darkness  and  chaos.  Then  follows  the 
formation  of  the  firmament  from  the  body  of 


GENESIS  AND   THE   BABYLONIAN   INSCRIPTIONS 


Tiamat   and   creation   of    the   heavens,  as  a 
habitation  for  the  gods — 

'  He  cleft  her  like  a  fish  into  two  parts, 
The  half  of  her  he  set  up  and  made  a  covering  for 

the  heaven, 
Set  a  bar  before  it,  and  stationed  a  watchman. 
Commanding  him  not  to  let  the  waters  escape. ' 

'Then  Bel  (i.e.  Merodach)  measured  the  extent  of 

the  abyss, 
A  palace  he  founded  in  its  likeness,  Esarra  ; 
The  palace  Esarra  which  he  made  (is)  the  heavens, 
A  habitation  for  Anu,  Bel,  and  Ea. ' 

The  fifth  tablet  describes  the  creation  and 
arrangement  of  the  heavenly  bodies. 

'  He  (Merodach)  made  stations  for  the  great  gods. 
Stars  their  likeness — he  set  up  the  Zodiac, 
He  ordained  the  year,  defined  divisions. 
Twelve  months,   each  with  three   stars,   he   ap- 
pointed. 
He  caused  the  moon  to  shine,  ruling  the  night : '  etc. 

In  spite  of  certain  obvious  parallelisms  of 
thought,  the  iirst  chapter  of  Genesis,  it  will  be 
be  seen,  is  greatly  superior  to  the  Babylonian 
account  of  the  beginning  of  the  world.     It  has 

striking  symmetry  of  arrangement,   and  a 


fixed  the  time  of  the  flood.  A  wild  storm  of 
wind  and  rain  raged  for  seven  days  and  caused 
the  gods  to  flee  to  heaven  and  to  cry  out  in 
alarm.  Istar  (Ashtoreth  = '  Venus ')  interceded 
for  men,  and  the  rain  ceased.  Ut-napistim 
looked  out  from  his  ship  and  saw  land  in  the 
distance.  The  ship  grounded  on  a  mountain 
in  the  land  of  Nizir,  E.  of  the  Tigris,  and 
after  seven  days  Ut-napistim  sent  forth  in 
succession  a  dove,  a  swallow,  and  a  raven. 
The  first  two  came  back,  but  the  latter  did  not 
return.  Ut-napistim  thereupon  sent  out  all  the 
animals  and  offered  a  sacrifice  on  the  mountain 
top.  The  gods  gathered  around  it  like  flies. 
Istar  came  and  held  up  the  '  signets '  which 
Anu  had  made.  She  took  an  oath  by  her 
'  necklace '  that  she  would  always  remember 
this  time,  and  asked  that  Bel  might  not  be 
allowed  to  come  to  the  sacrifice.  Bel  came, 
however,  and  was  angry  at  Ut-napistim  for 
his  escape.  But  Ea  reproached  Bel  for  having 
caused  the  flood,  and  advised  him  to  take  some 
other  means  (lions,  hyaenas,  famine,  pestilence) 
for  checking  human  population  in  future.  Bel 
was  appeased,  conferred  immortality  on  Ut- 


A  few  extracts  from  the  tablets  will  show 
the  parallelism  of  ideas  in  the  Babylonian  and 
Hebrew  accounts. 

'  Surippak,  the  city  which  thou  knowest, 
Lies  (upon  the  bank)  of  the  Euphrates, 
That  city  was  old,  and  the  gods  within  it. 
The  great  gods  decided  in  their  hearts  to  make  a 

flood. 
There  was  their  father  Anu 
Their  counsellor,  the  warrior  Bel ' .  . . 


Ea   warns   Ut-napistim   to    save 


simple  dignity  which  contrasts  favourably  with  napistim  and  his  wife,  and  gave  them  an  abode 
the  childish  and  grotesque  elements  of  the  other  '  afar  at  the  mouths  of  the  rivers.' 
narrative.  But,  above  all,  its  religious  teach- 
ing differs  from  that  of  the  Babylonian  story 
as  day  from  night.  Here  we  have  no  multitude 
of  divinities,  but  one  living  and  true  God. 
Here  we  have  no  primeval  matter  from  which 
the  gods  arise,  but  '  In  the  beginning,  God.' 
Here  the  heavenly  bodies  are  not  deities  to  be 
worshipped,  but  the  handiwork  of  God.  Here 
man  is  at  the  head  of  creation,  because  he  shares 
the  image  of  God. 

2.  The  Babylonian  Flood  Legend  bears  more 
directly  upon  the  narrative  of  Genesis.  One 
version  of  it  has  been  preserved  by  Berosus  ; 
but  it  is  now  known  to  us  in  a  fuller  and  more 
authentic  form,  from  the  series  of  cuneiform 
tablets  discovered  in  the  library  of  Assurbani- 
pal.  These  tablets  contain  an  ancient  Baby- 
lonian epic,  the  hero  of  which  is  Gilgamesh, 
whose  adventures  are  related  in  twelve  books. 
The  eleventh  book  tells  how  Gilgamesh  visited 
the  deified  hero  Ut-napistim  (or  Pir-napistim), 
and  heard  from  him  the  story  of  the  flood 
and  of  his  deliverance  from  it.  The  four  gods, 
Anu  ('Lord  of  the  ocean  of  heaven'),  Bel 
('  Lord  of  the  air  '),  Ninip  ('  the  god  of  man  '), 
and  Ennugi  resolved  to  destroy  mankind  with 
a  deluge.  The  god  Ea  ('  Lord  of  the  earth  ') 
warned  Ut-napistim,  who  worshipped  him,  to 
escape  by  building  a  ship,  and  told  him  what 
to  say  to  those  who  should  ask  him  what  he 
was  doing.  Ut-napistim  built  the  ship,  made 
it  watertight  with  pitch,  stored  it  with  food 
and  drink,  and  brought  into  it  all  kinds  of 
living  creatures  along  with  his  family,  his 
workmen,  and  a  pilot.     The  sun-god  Shamash 


The   god 
himself — 

'  Surippakite,  son  of  Umbara-Tiitu, 
Forsake  thy  house,  build  a  ship. 
Leave  what  thou  hast,  see  to  thy  life. 
Take  up  the  seed  of  life  into  the  midst  of  the  ship.' 

A  vivid  description  of  the  storm  is  given — 

'  At  the  appearance  of  dawn  in  tlie  morning 
There  arose  from  the  foundation  of  heaven  a  dark 

cloud : 
Ramman  thundered  in  the  midst  of  it.  .  . 
Then  came  Ninip  casting  down  destruction. 
The  Anmmaki  (spirits  of  the  earth)  raised  their 

torches. 
With  their  brilliance  they  illumined  the  land: 
Everything  bright  to  darkness  turned 
In  lieaven  the  gods  feared  the  flood. 
They  fled,  they  ascended  to  the  heavens  of  Anu ; 
The  gods  kennelled  like  dogs,  crouched  down  in  the 

enclosures. 


Six  days  and  six  nights  the  wind  blew, 
Tlie  deluge  and  flood  overwhelmed  the  land, 
The  seventh  day  when  it  came,  the  storm  ceased, 


XXXIU 


GENESIS  AND   THE   BABYLONIAN   INSCRIPTIONS 


The  sea  shrank  back,  the  evil  wind  ended, 

Like  palings  the  marsh  reeds  appeared. 

I  opened  my  window,  the  light  fell  on  my  face, 

I  fell  back  dazzled,  I  sat  down,  I  wept. 

I  noted  the  region,  the  shore  of  the  sea, 

The  ship  had  stopped  at  the  land  of  Nisir, 

I  sent  forth  a  dove,  and  it  left. 

But  there  was  no  resting-place,  and  it  returned. 

I  sent  forth  a  swallow,  etc., 

I  sent  forth  a  raven,  and  it  left, 

It  ate,  it  waded,  it  croaked,  it  did  not  return. 

I  sent  forth  (the  animals)  to  the  four  winds, 

I  made  an  offering  on  the  peak  of  the  mountain, 

Seven  and  seven  I  set  incense-vases  there. 

The  gods  smelled  a  sweet  savour, 

They  gathered  like  Hies  over  the  sacriiicer. ' 

As  in  the  Creation  story  the  immense  reli- 
gious and  moral  superiority  of  the  biblical 
account  must  be  manifest  to  every  reader. 
There  is  no  multitude  of  gods,  divided  in 
counsel,  crying  out  in  fear,  wrangling  like 
children,  and  changing  from  capricious  hate 
to  capricious  favour.  The  unity  of  God,  His 
hatred  of  evil,  His  love  of  righteousness,  His 
mercy  and  faithfulness  appear  instead  of  the 
vain  conceptions  of  the  heathen. 

One  or  two  interesting  questions  arise  as  to 
the  general  relationship  between  the  biblical 
and  the  Babylonian  accounts  of  the  Creation 
and  the  Flood.  Was  the  one  set  of  traditions 
directly  derived  from  the  other,  and  if  so 
which  was  the  original  one,  and  when  did  the 
borrowing  take  place  ?  Or  must  both  sets  be 
traced  to  a  common  source  which  was  prior 
to  either  of  them  ?  That  the  Babylonian 
accounts  were  derived  from  the  Hebrew  ones 
is  most  unlikely.  The  Creation  and  Flood 
tablets  discovered  in  1872  were  taken  from 
the  library  of  the  Assyrian  king  Assurbanipal, 
who  lived  668-626  B.C.  This  date  shows  that 
the  traditions  recorded  on  the  tablets  were 
current  in  Babylonia  almost  a  century  before 
the  exile.  Further,  the  literature  preserved 
in  Assurbanipal's  library  consists  almost  en- 
tirely of  copies  of  Babylonian  documents, 
belonging  in  all  likelihood  to  a  time  before 
the  beginnings  of  the  Hebrew  nation.  The 
local  colouring  of  the  narratives,  too,  points 
clearly  to  Babylonia  as  their  original  home. 
If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  Hebrews  obtained 
the  traditions  from  the  Babylonians,  it  can- 


not have  been  during  the  exile,  since  the 
Primitive  document,  which  has  an  account  of 
the  Flood,  was  drawn  up  before  that  time. 
As  the  Tel  el  Amarna  tablets  show  that  Pales- 
tine was  under  the  influence  of  Babylonian 
culture  in  the  second  millennium  B.C.,  it  is 
possible  that  the  traditions  in  question  may 
have  passed  from  the  Babylonians  to  the 
Canaanites,  and  from  them  to  the  Hebrews 
after  the  Conquest.  But  as  Abraham,  the 
ancestor  of  the  Hebrews,  himself  came  from 
Babylonia,  it  is  in  every  way  more  natural  to 
suppose  that  the  biblical  narratives  are  to  be 
traced  to  their  source  through  some  such  direct 
channel.  There  still  remains  the  question  as 
to  how  the  difference  between  the  Hebrew  and 
the  Babylonian  traditions  m  their  pre?.ent  form 
is  to  be  explained.  Were  the  polytheism  and 
superstition  of  the  Babylonian  stories  present 
in  them  from  the  first,  and  simply  eliminated 
among  the  Hebrews  before  the  narratives 
passed  into  the  Bible  ?  Or  have  the  present 
Babylonian  legends  degenerated  from  a  purer 
original,  of  which  the  Bible  has  more  faithfully 
preserved  the  religious  tone  ?  Probably  the 
truth  lies  midway  between  these  two  views. 
On  the  one  hand,  both  the  evidence  of  the 
Babylonian  records  and  the  analogy  of  other 
religious  systems,  suggest  that  the  gross  poly- 
theism reflected  in  the  Babylonian  stories,  as 
we  have  them,  was  preceded  by  a  higher  and 
simpler  belief,  approaching  to  monotheism. 
On  the  other  hand,  we  cannot  assume  a  primi- 
tive religion  so  exalted  as  to  do  away  with  the 
reality  of  the  revelation  in  the  after  history  of 
Israel  which  the  Old  Testament  records.  The 
Hebrew  nation  was  set  apart  not  merely  to 
preserve  or  revive  ancient  truth,  but  to  receive 
a  progressive  unfolding  of  God's  character  and 
will.  The  Babylonian  and  biblical  accounts  of 
primitive  times  are  best  regarded  as  two  streams 
of  tradition  flowing  from  one  source  (itself 
Babylonian) — each  in  its  own  direction.  The 
former  has  lost  whatever  religious  value  the 
tradition  originally  had  ;  while  the  latter  has 
preserved  whatever  truth  the  source  contained, 
and  has  developed  it  still  further  under  the 
guidance  of  God's  Spirit,  in  the  course  of 
the  revelation  which  has  been  completed  in 
Jesus  Christ. 


I 


xxxiv 


THE  LAWS  OF  HAMMURABI 


In  Grnl4  we  read  of  a  certain  '  Amraphel, 
king  of  Shinar,'  who  was  contemporary  with 
Abraham.  It  is  generally  agreed  that  this 
Amraphel  is  identical  with  Hammurabi,  the 
sixth  king  of  the  First  Dynasty  of  Babylon, 
under  whom  the  kingdom  was  first  united, 
with  Babel  as  its  capital.  It  has  long  been 
known  that  a  code  of  laws  existed  in  ancient 
times  bearing  the  name  of  the  '  Judgments  of 
Hammurabi.'  Fragments  of  the  code  had  been 
discovered  on  tablets  dating  from  the  reign 
of  Assurbanipal  (Sardanapalus  :  ?  Asnapper, 
Ezr4i0),  king  of  Assyria,  668-625  B.C.,  and 
now  preserved  in  the  British  Museum  and  the 
Berlin  Museum.  But  our  knowledge  of  this 
most  ancient  code  of  laws  was  enormously 
enhanced  by  the  discovery  made  by  the  French 
Exploration  Society  in  Dec.  1901-Jan.  1902 
at  Susa  (Shushan,  Esth  1 2,  Gk.  Persepolis, 
capital  of  an  old  Elamite  kingdom,  and  rival  of 
Babylon)  of  a  block  of  black  diorite  about 
8  ft.  high,  containing  on  one  side  16  and  on 
the  other  28  columns  of -Tvriting,  amounting 
in  all  to  3654  lines.  When  deciphered  this 
monument  was  found  to  contain  the  long-lost 
Code  of  Hammurabi.  At  the  top  there 
is  a  fine  representation  of  King  Hammurabi 
receiving  his  laws  from  the  Sun-god  Shamash. 

The  value  of  this  Code  of  Laws  lies  in  its 
antiquity.  It  is  the  '  oldest  (known)  code  of 
laws  in  the  world.'  It  is  perhaps  a  thousand 
years  older  than  the  time  of  Moses,  and  the 
laws  themselves  must  have  been  in  operation 
long  before  their  codification  and  promulgation 
by  Hammm-abi.  Old  as  it  is,  it  discloses  a 
very  highly  advanced  state  of  civilisation.  We 
find  a  central  government  with  organised  local 
administration.  We  find  professional  men, 
priests,  lawyers,  and  doctors,  business  men  and 
tradesmen,  farmers,  brickmakers,  builders, 
carpenters,  tailors,  merchants,  boatmen,  as 
well  as  a  host  of  slaves.  The  duties  of  each 
class  are  determined,  and  fees,  wages,  rents, 
and  prices  are  regulated  by  statute.  Over 
and  over  again  we  are  impressed  by  what 
seems  the  curiously  '  modern  '  spirit  of  many 
of  these  ancient  regulations.  To  the  student 
of  the  Bible  this  code  is  particularly  interest- 
ing. Abraham  came  from  Ur  of  the  Chaldees, 
and  if  the  identification  of  Hammurabi  with 
Amraphel  is  correct,  the  ancestor  of  the 
Hebrew  people  in  all  probability  not  only 
knew  these  laws,  but  may  have  found  them  to 
some  extent  in  operation  in  Canaan,  where 
Babylonian  influence  was  preponderating. 
The  Laws  of  Hammurabi,  therefore,  may 
have  formed  part  of  the  original  tradition  of 


the  Hebrew  race.  Already  the  question  of 
the  relationship  between  the  Mosaic  legisla- 
tion and  that  of  this  great  Oriental  ruler,  and 
the  possible  dependence  in  parts  at  least  of 
the  former  upon  the  latter,  have  been  much 
discussed,  and  given  rise  to  a  considerable 
literature. 

In  the  space  at  our  disposal  we  can  only 
refer  to  a  few  of  the  more  interesting  features 
of  this  ancient  code,  particularly  those  to 
which  a  parallel  may  be  traced  in  the  Law  of 
Moses. 

Curiously  enough,  considering  that  Baby- 
lonia is  the  home  of  magic  and  witchcraft, 
the  code  opens  with  two  judgments  directed 
against  sorcery.  '  If  a  man  weave  a  spell  and 
put  a  ban  upon  a  man  and  has  not  justified 
himself,  he  .  .  shall  be  put  to  death.'  With 
this  we  may  compare  Ex  22  is.  The  next 
section  prescribes  an  ordeal  by  water.  '  If  a 
man  have  put  a  spell  upon  a  man  and  has  not 
justified  himself,  he  upon  whom  the  spell  is 
laid  .  .  shall  plunge  into  the  holy  river,  and  if 
the  river  overcome  him,  he  who  wove  the 
spell  shall  take  his  house.  If  the  holy  river 
makes  that  man  to  be  innocent  and  has  saved 
him,  he  who  laid  the  spell  upon  him  shall  be 
put  to  death.'  The  same  ordeal  is  prescribed 
in  §  132  in  the  case  of  a  wife  suspected  of 
infidelity,  with  which  should  be  compared 
Nu  5 1^  ^.  Then  follows  a  long  series  of  offences 
punishable  by  death,  including  the  intimidation 
or  bribmg  of  witnesses,  housebreaking,  theft, 
and  reset  of  stolen  property,  etc.  Of  these 
we  may  cite  §  21,  '  If  a  man  has  broken  into 
a  house,  one  shall  kill  him  before  the  breach 
and  bury  him  in  it  (?)'  ;  cp.  Ex22i-4.  §  14, 
'  If  a  man  has  stolen  the  son  of  a  freeman,  he 
shall  be  put  to  death':  cp.  Ex 2 lie.  The 
same  penalty  is  prescribed  against  harbouring 
a  runaway  slave.  An  interesting  series  of 
sections  follows  dealing  with  the  duties  and 
rights  of  officers  or  constables  employed  on 
active  service  as  royal  or  public  messengers,  a 
kind  of  postal  system.  The  laws  relating  to 
agi'iculture  are  most  explicit.  The  rent  of  a 
garden  is  a  tithe  of  the  produce,  the  crop  of 
the  fifth  year  being  divided  between  the  owner 
and  the  tenant.  §  64  reads,  '  If  a  man  has 
neglected  to  strengthen  his  bank  of  the  canal 
.  .  and  the  waters  have  carried  away  the 
meadow,  the  man  in  whose  bank  the  breach 
has  been  opened  shall  render  back  the  corn 
which  he  has  caused  to  be  lost.'  In  §  57  we 
find  a  law  similar  to  that  in  Ex 22 5,  'If  a 
shepherd  has  caused  the  sheep  to  feed  on  the 
green  corn  .  .  without  the  consent  of  the  owner 


XXSV 


THE   LAWS   OF   HAMMURABI 


of  the  field .  .  he  shall  give  20  gar  of  com  per 
gan  to  the  owner  of  the  field.'  In  §  112  a  law 
dealing  with  deposits  is  laid  down  similar  to 
that  in  Ex  22 '''*•,  the  penalty  being  in  some 
cases  fivefold,  in  others  threefold.  §  125 
reads,  '  If  a  man  has  given  anything  of  his  on 
deposit,  and  where  he  gave  it,  either  by  house- 
breaking or  by  rebellion,  something  of  his  has 
been  lost  along  with  something  of  the  owner 
of  the  house,  the  owner  of  the  house  .  .  shall 
make  good  and  render  to  the  owner  of  the 
goods,  and  the  owner  of  the  house  shall  seek  out 
whatever  of  his  is  lost  and  take  it  from  the 
thief.'  §  128f.  deal  with  marriage,  divorce, 
adultery,  etc.  §  128,  'If  a  man  has  married 
a  wife  and  has  not  laid  down  her  bonds,  that 
woman  is  no  wife.'  A  woman  taken  in  adul- 
tery is  to  be  drowned  along  with  the  man  : 
cp.  Lv20io  Dt2222.  Incest  is,  in  general, 
punishable  with  death. 

The    law    of     retaliation    and    restitution 
exhibits  close  analogies  to  that  in   Exodus. 
Thus,  '  If   a  man  has  caused  the  loss  of   a 
gentleman's    (i.e.    noble's)   eye,   his   eye    one 
shall  cause  to  be  lost.'     '  If  a  man  has  made 
the  tooth  of  a  man  that  is  his  equal  to  fall 
out,  one  shall  make  his  tooth  to  fall  out ' :  cp. 
Ex  2 124-27.      Injury   in    the    case    of    a   poor 
man  is  compensated  with  a  money  payment. 
Again,  '  If   a   man   has   struck   a   man    in    a 
quarrel  and  has  caused  him  a  wound,  that  man 
shall  swear,  "  I  do  not  strike  him  knowingly," 
and   shall  answer   for   the    doctor '  :  cp.  Ex 
2118,19      'If  a  man  has  struck  a  gentleman's 
daughter  and  caused  her  to  miscarry,  he  shall 
pay  ten  shekels  of  silver.     If  that  woman  has 
died,  one  shall  put  to  death  his  daughter ' :  cp. 
Ex  21 22,23.     §§   215-223   prescribe    the   fees 
which  a  doctor  is  entitled  to  charge  for  opera- 
tions,   and   the    penalties,  amounting  to    the 
cutting  off  both  hands,  in  the  event  of  the  opera- 
tion proving  fatal.     The  following  are  closely 
analogous  to  enactments  in  the  Mosaic  Law. 
'  If  a  builder  has  built  a  house  for  a  man  and 
has  not  made  strong  his  work,  and  the  house 
he  built  has  fallen  and  he   has   caused   the 
death  of  the  owner  of  the  house,  that  builder 
shall  be  put  to  death'  :  cp.  Dt228.     If  it  is 
the  son  or  slave  who  has  been  killed,  then  the 
son  or  slave  of  the  builder  is  put  to  death. 
'  If  a  wild  bull  in  his  charge  has  gored  a  man 
and  caused  him  to  die,  that  case  has  no  remedy. 
If  the  ox  has  pushed  a  man,  by  pushing  has 
made  known  bis  vice,  and  he  has  not  blunted 
his  horn,  has  not  shut  up  his  ox,  and  that  ox 
has  gored  a  man  of  gentle  birth  and  caused 
him  to  die,  he  shall  pay  half  a  mina  of  silver. 
If  a  gentleman's  servant,  he  shall  pay  one- 
third    of   a   mina  of   silver':  cp.  Ex21 28-32. 
'  If  a  man  has  caused  an  ox  or  sheep  which 
was  given  him  to  be  lost,  ox  for  ox,  sheep  for 
sheep,  he  shall  render  to  their  owner.'     '  If 


in  a  sheepfold  a  stroke  of  God  has  taken  place 
or  a  lion  has  killed,  the  shepherd  shall  purge 
himself  before  God  and  the  accident  to  the 
fold  the  owner  of  the  fold  shall  face  it ' :  with 
this  cp.  Ex  22  9-i3.  '  If  a  man  has  struck  his 
father,  his  hands  one  shall  cut  off ' :  cp.  Ex 
21i'5.  Lastly,  there  maybe  cited,  as  giving 
an  interesting  glimpse  of  the  police  regula- 
tions in  those  early  days,  §  109,  'If  a  wine 
merchant  has  collected  a  riotous  assembly  in 
her  house  and  has  not  seized  those  rioters  and 
driven  them  to  the  palace,  that  wine  merchant 
shall  be  put  to  death.' 

Such  are  a  few  examples  culled  from  this 
most  interesting  and  wonderful  code  of  laws, 
4000  years  old,  and  yet  in  many  ways  so 
modern  in  spirit.  To  read  it  is  to  be  im- 
pressed with  a  feeling  of  reverence  for  this 
old-world  ruler,  who  with  justifiable  pride 
says  in  the  preamble  of  the  code  that  he 
'  established  law  and  justice  in  the  land  and 
made  happy  the  human  race  in  those  days.' 
'  In  that  day  I,  Hammurabi,  the  glorious 
Prince,  the  Worshipper  of  my  God,  decreed 
justice  for  the  land,  for  witness,  plaintiff,  and 
defendant  ;  to  destroy  the  wicked  tyrant  and 
not  to  oppose  the  weak,  like  unto  the  Sun-god, 
I  promulgated.' 

With  regard  to  the  relationship  existing 
between  this  code  and  the  Jaws  promulgated 
by  Moses  at  Sinai,  reference  may  be  made  to 
what  is  said  in  the  Introduction  to  the  book 
of  Exodus,  §  2.  In  the  present  state  of  our 
knowledge  it  is  hazardous  to  dogmatise. 
There  are  resemblances,  but  there  are  also 
differences.  The  resemblances  do  not  neces- 
sarily imply  direct  derivation,  for  most  of  the 
enactments  which  exhibit  them  are  such  as 
might  be  promulgated  by  any  lawgiver 
possessed  of  a  high  sense  of  justice  and 
humanity.  On  the  other  hand,  when  all  due 
allowance  has  been  made  for  the  possibility  of 
suggestions  being  received  from  the  earlier 
code,  the  differences  are  decided,  and  numer- 
ous enough  to  argue  the  independence  and 
originality  of  the  Law  of  Moses.  On  the 
whole,  it  is  more  merciful  than  that  of  Ham- 
murabi ;  it  takes  less  account  of  the  social 
distinctions  between  the  '  gentleman,'  the 
'  poor  man,'  and  the  '  slave  ' ;  it  bases  its 
demands  upon  the  sense  of  indebtedness  and 
responsibility  to  the  Most  High  God.  It  is 
true,  Hammurabi  ascribes  his  legislation  to 
the  Sun-god  ;  and  he  whom  he  '  ignorantly 
worshipped'  under  this  symbol  may  in  reality 
have  been  '  the  true  light  which  lighteth  every 
man  that  cometh  into  the  world.'  In  that 
case,  his  code  of  laws  is  simply  another  illus- 
tration of  the  great  truth  that  God  '  in  times 
past  suffered  all  nations  to  walk  in  their  own 
ways ;  nevertheless  he  left  not  himself  with- 
out witness.' 


I 


XXX  VI 


HEATHEN  RELIGIONS  REFERRED  TO  IN  THE  BIBLE 


Every  careful  reader  of  the  Bible  notices 
the  number  and  variety  of  the  forms  of  idolatry 
with  which  the  Israelites  came  into  contact. 
Nor  was  it  a  mere  external  contact.  Idolatry 
and  the  pollutions  attendant  on  it  appealed 
with  too  much  force  to  something  in  the 
people's  own  character.  Nothing  short  of  the 
great  calamity  which  destroyed  their  national 
life  in  the  year  586  B.C.  could  have  rid  them 
entirely  of  the  taint. 

There  has  been  much  diversity  of  opinion 
as  to  the  origin  of  those  forms  of  heathenism 
which  prevailed  amongst  the  races  with  which 
the  Hebrews  were  related.  Some  have  found 
their  main  root  in  the  worship  of  dead  ances- 
tors. Others  have  discerned  many  tokens  of 
the  adoration  of  animals  supposed  to  be  related 
to  the  communities  which  worshipped  them. 
Others,  again,  have  found,  most  deeply  seated 
of  all,  the  belief  in  a  world  of  spirits,  sug- 
gested by  dreams  and  uncanny  experiences, 
spirits  manifesting  their  power  in  nature, 
dwelling  in  trees  or  animals,  animating  springs 
and  rivers,  moving  in  wind  and  storm.  But 
the  beliefs  of  each  race  must  be  studied  sepa- 
rately, and  when  this  is  done  more  than  one 
cause  may  perhaps  be  found  to  have  been  at 
work. 

Joshua  is  represented  (24  2)  as  reminding 
the  Israelites  that  their  fathers  '  dwelt  of  old 
time  beyond  the  River,  even  Terah,  the  father 
of  Abraham,  and  the  father  of  Nahor  :  and 
they  served  other  gods.'  That  carries  our 
thoughts  to  the  religion  of  the  land  from 
which  Abraham  was  believed  to  have  emi- 
grated. And  there,  in  Babylonia,  two  types 
of  faith  and  practice  may  be  noted.  First, 
the  recognition  of  an  immense  number  of 
deities,  each  with  a  distinct  name  and  indi- 
viduality. There  is  a  clay  tablet  still  in 
existence,  inscribed  on  each  side  with  six 
columns  of  writing,  each  column  containing 
more  than  one  hundred  and  fifty  lines,  and  on 
almost  every  line  the  name  of  a  deity  !  These 
deities  were  conceived  of  as  possessing  human 
form  and  human  attributes.  The  greater  of 
them  were  exceedingly  mighty,  but  were 
actuated  by  the  same  passions  as  ordinary 
men,  and  performed,  on  a  larger  scale,  the 
deeds  which  a  Babylonian  would  have  wished 
to  emulate.  They  were  magnified  men.  On 
the  other  hand,  they  were  impersonations  of 
the  forces  of  nature.  To  one  of  them  the 
motions  of  the  sun  were  ascribed,  to  another 
the  changes  of  the  moon,  to  another  tempests. 


Every  city  had  its  patron  god,  and  when  one 
city  acquired  mastery  over  its  rivals  their 
deities  had  to  take  a  lower  rank.  The  three 
who  stood  first  were  Anu,  the  god  of  heaven  ; 
En-lil  (afterwards  called  Bel),  god  of  the 
earth  and  of  mankind  ;  Ea,  who  presided 
over  the  abyss  of  waters.  Next  came  the 
moon-god.  Sin  ;  the  sun-god,  Shamash  ;  Ram- 
man,  god  of  the  atmosphere.  The  rise  of 
Babylon  to  supreme  power  gave  to  its  local 
deity,  Marduk,  the  headship  of  the  gods.  He 
was  then  identified  with  the  older  Bel,  and 
Nebo,  the  god  of  Borsippa,  became  his  minister 
because  Borsippa  sank  into  a  kind  of  suburb 
of  the  capital  (Isa46i).  With  the  exception 
of  Ishtar  the  Babylonian  goddesses  were 
utterly  devoid  of  importance.  She  presided 
over  love,  magic,  and  battle.  At  Erech,  where 
her  principal  shrine  was  situated,  she  was 
served  by  a  community  of  unmarried  priest- 
esses, who  sacrificed  their  chastity  for  her  glory. 
Originally  Ishtar  was  the  goddess  of  the  morn- 
ing and  the  evening  star.  In  this  connexion 
we  may  notice  the  worship  offered  to  the 
heavenly  bodies.  This  spread  from  Babylonia 
westwards.  '  The  chariots  of  the  sun,'  2  K  23  ii, 
remind  us  of  the  chariot  of  the  sun,  to  which 
sacrifices  were  brought,  at  Sippara  in  Baby- 
lonia :  see  also  2K23S  EzkSie. 

The  other,  gloomier  strain  in  the  religion 
of  Babylon  was  probably  derived  from  an 
older  stratum  of  the  population.  It  came 
from  the  belief  in  a  vast  world  of  spirits, 
unnamed  and  unidentifiable,  mostly  hostile 
to  man  and  easily  provoked  by  unwitting 
offences.  These  demons  were  hideous  in 
shape  and  features.  An  ill-omened  word  was 
sufficient  to  bring  down  their  wrath.  Charms 
and  incantations  were  needed  to  avert  or 
remove  their  displeasure.  Hence  the  majority 
of  the  clay  tablets  from  the  buried  libraries 
of  Babylonia,  so  far  as  they  have  hitherto 
been  read,  are  covered  with  formulas  of  in- 
cantation. The  populace  was  deeply  impressed 
by  this  darker  side  of  their  religion,  and  must 
therefore  have  been  made  very  gloomy  and  un- 
happy by  it.  And  there  is  much  in  the  history 
of  religion  amongst  the  Hebrews  to  remind 
us  of  these  superstitions.  The  teraphim  were 
images  representing  dead  ancestors,  from  whom 
counsel  was  sought  (R  V  of  Gn  3 1 19. 34  1  S 1 9 13,  i6 
Ezk212i  ;  in  all  which  passages  AV  has  the 
inadequate  word  '  images  ').  The  ephod  (cer- 
tainly an  image  at  JgS^ef.)  was  consulted  as 
an  oracle  (1 S 14  is  RM,  239  307).     The  necro- 


XXX  Vll 


HEATHEN   RELIGIONS   REFERRED  TO   IN  THE   BIBLE 


mancers  plied  their  unholy  trade  of  raising 
the  dead  (DtlSH  IS 28 7  Isagi^^'f-)-  The 
wizards  and  sorcerers  found  many  dupes  (Lv 
1931  206    2K216    2324). 

As  a  whole  the  religion  of  Assyria  closely 
resembled  its  parent  in  Babylonia.  But 
there  was  a  strong  tendency  to  concentrate 
faith  and  devotion  on  the  one  god  Asshur, 
who  represented  the  State,  who  is  glorified  by 
the  kings  in  terms  which  a  Hebrew  might 
have  applied  to  Jehovah,  whose  predominant 
qualities,  however,  are  martial  ones,  for  he  is 
praised  above  all  else  for  the  victories  he 
gives  to  the  king,  his  son  and  servant. 

The  student  of    Egyptian  religion  finds  it 
composed  of  three  tangled  threads  which  are 
so  closely  and  so  confusedly  interlaced  that  it 
is  most  difficult  to  separate  them,  and  impos- 
sible to  keep  them  apart.    The  highest  element 
is  that  connected  with  the  name  of  Osiris,  who 
appears    to    have    been    originally  a   deified 
human  king.     He  was  the  god  of  the   other 
world  and  of  the  resurrection.     The  require- 
ments for  admission  to  that  happy  world  were 
such  as  a  Christian  moralist  would  have  no 
hesitation  in  subscribing  to.     But  their  efi'ect 
was  sadly  marred  by  the  value    ascribed   to 
amulets,  spells,    words.     And  the  inveterate 
habit  of  deifying  the  Pharaoh  involved  a  pain- 
ful servility  which  lowered  and  degraded  every 
subject.     The    letters   written    to   him  from 
governors  of    distant    cities   begin    after   this 
fashion  :  '  To  the  king,  my  lord,  my  god,  my 
sun,  the  sun  who  cometh  from  the  heavens  . . 
I  fall  down  before  the  feet  of  the  king  my 
lord  seven  times  and  twice  seven  times,  back  and 
breast.'     Secondly,  there  was  the  adoration  of 
the  sun-god  Ra,  which,  so  far  as  the  official 
cult  was  concerned,  swallowed  up  the  rest ;  all 
the  other  deities    coming   to  be  regarded  as 
forms  and  manifestations  of  him.    This  has  led 
some  modern  scholars  to  write  as  though  the 
Egyptians  believed  firmly  and  always  in  One 
Almighty  God.     But   there  was  a  vagueness 
about  the  belief  which  rendered  it  quite  unlike 
what  we  mean  when  we  speak  of  the  unity  of 
God,  a  changefulness,  a  phantasmagoric  char- 
acter which  must  have  made  it  hard  to  grasp 
the  truth.    On  the  whole,  it  chiefly  meant  the 
adoration  of  the  forces  of  nature.    Attention 
was  called  to  the  lower,  not  the  highest,  in 
God.     The  power  displayed  in  the  universe, 
even  if  it  be  almighty,  is  not  so  high  a  thing 
as  righteousness    and    love.     Thirdly,  origin- 
ating  no   doubt  in   the  least    cultivated  stra- 
tum of  the  population,  but  adopted  perforce 
by  the  priests,   there  was  the  deification  of 
animals — cats,  lions,  bulls,  jackals,  crocodiles, 
and  the  rest.     The  educated  may  have  looked 
on  these  as  symbols  of  the  deity:  to  the  un- 
learned they  were  actually  divine.     It  seems 
most  probable  that  Aaron's  golden  calf  (Ex 


32i"6)  and  the  two  set  up  by  Jeroboam  (IK 
1228,29)  -were  not  suggested  by  the  worship  of 
the  bull  Apis  at  Memphis,  orMnevis  atHeliopo- 
lis.  To  many  primitive  peoples  the  bull  has  been 
an  apt  emblem  of  creative  power  :  Aaron  and 
Jeroboam  intended  that  Jehovah  should  be 
worshipped  by  means  of  this  image.  In  later 
days,  however,  when  the  Hebrews  were  anxious 
to  gather  materials  for  their  religion  from 
every  quarter,  Egypt  contributed  the  forms 
'  of  creeping  things  und  abominable  beasts  ' 
which  Ezekiel  in  his  vision  saw  portrayed  on 
the  walls  of  the  Temple  (EzkSiO). 

Every  Phoenician  town  had  its  divine  lord, 
who   was  in  many  cases  called  Baal,  which 
means  owner,  possessor.     Thus  there  are  in- 
scriptions bearing  the  names  Baal  of  Tyre, 
Baal  of  Sidon,  Baal  of  Tarsus,  Baal  of  Lebanon, 
Baal  of  Heaven.     There  are  also  such  desig- 
nations as  Eshmun,  Tanith  (goddess  of   Car- 
thage), Melkarth  (of  Tyre).     The  sun,  certain 
springs,  rivers,  mountains,  and  trees  were  held 
sacred.      Sacrifices  were  offered  on  elevated 
spots — the  '  high  places '  of  the  Bible — as  being 
nearer   heaven.      Two   foul   enormities  were 
perpetrated.     First,  the  sacrifice  of  children. 
The  image  of  El  at  Carthage  (the  most  famous 
of  Phoenician  colonies)  was  of  metal,  and  was 
heated  inside  :  the  child    placed  in  its   arms 
rolled  into  the  flames  below.    In  days  of  gloom 
and  fanaticism  the   Hebrews   were  only  too 
ready  to  make  the  same  dread  sacrifice  (Dt    " 
1 2  31  2  K 1 6  3  23 10  Jer  1 9  s  Mic  6  7).    More  loath-     I 
some  still  was  the  sacrifice  of  honour.     Refer- 
ence has  already  been  made  to  the  licentious- 
ness practised  at  Erech  in  Babylonia.     The 
goddess  of  that    place,  Ishtar,  was  welcomed 
by  the  Phoenicians  under  the  name  Ashtoreth. 
She  was  the  chief  deity  of  Sidon  (IK  11 5.33 
2  K  23 13),  and  was  regarded  as  the  patroness 
of  sexual  passion.     The  ceremonial  weeping 
for  Adonis,  which  is  one  of  the  outstanding 
features  of  Phoenician  worship,  came  from  the 
same  source,    and  resembled  it  in  character. 
In     Babylonia,    Tammuz  (the    god   of   spring 
vegetation,  slain  by  the  fierce  sun  of  summer) 
was  mourned  by  Ishtar.     In  Phoenicia,  Adonis, 
the  husband  of  Ashtoreth,  killed  by  the  wild 
boar's  tusk,  was  annually  lamented.     All  the 
women  of  the  town  of  Byblus  went  in  a  mad 
procession  to  Aphaka  in  the  Lebanon,  where 
rites  of  so  shameful  a  nature  were  celebrated 
that  Constantine  the  Great  eventually  abolished 
them  by  force.     Similar  unholy  customs  found  a 
footing  in  Israel.     The  women  wept  for  Tam- 
muz (Ezk  8 1*  Zech  12  H).    See  also  IK  1424  1512 
2K237   Gn   3821.22    RM,    Hos4i4,  etc.      Dt 
23 1".  18  shows  how  deeply  such  practices  were 
resented  by   the   representatives    of  a  better 
faith. 

In  Canaan  itself  the  conditions  closely  re- 
sembled those  in  Phoenicia.     The  local  gods 


XXXVlll 


HEATHEN   RELIGIONS   REFERRED  TO   IN  THE   BIBLE 


were  entitled  Baalim,  Baals  of  the  several 
towns  and  districts ;  each  of  them  credited 
with  the  fertility  of  his  own  domain  (Hos  2  ^-S). 
There  were  also  many  Ashtoreths  (IK 7"*  Jg 
213  106).  High  places  abounded,  and  the  He- 
brew immigrants  succumbed  to  the  fatal  fas- 
cination which  hung  around  them.  At  the 
high  place,  near  the  altar,  stood  an  asherah — 
wrongly  translated  'grove'  in  our  AV, — a 
sacred  post,  fixed  in  the  gi-ound  to  represent 
the  tree  which  in  eai'lier  times  had  been  be- 
lieved to  be  animated  by  the  life  of  the  Deity. 
There  was  also  a  mazzebah,  or  pillar,  wrongly 
translated  'image'  in  such  passages  as  DtlG-^ 
Hos  3  4  101.2.  At  first  the  pillar  would  be  a 
natural  stone  (Gn  28  ^^>  22),  in  which  the  divine 
being  was  supposed  to  dwell.  Afterwards  it 
was  shaped  into  the  form  of  an  obelisk.  A 
still  later  development  of  the  mazzebah,  de- 
rived from  Phoenicia  and  connected  with  sun- 
worship,  is  the  sun-pillar  of  Isal?^  27^  2Ch 
142,  etc.  Grave  immoralities  were  common 
at  the  high  places  (Hos  4  ^^  Am  2  <"). 

Little  is  known  about  the  religions  of  Syria 
on  the  one  hand,  or  the  smaller  nations  by 
which  Israel  was  surrounded  on  the  other. 
The  Syrians  of  Damascus^recognised  Hadad  as 
their  greatest  god.  He  seems  to  have  been 
considered  a  sun-god,  but  was  frequently  iden- 
tified with  Ramman,  the  god  of  the  atmo- 
sphere, whom  the  Assyrians  greatly  venerated. 
Besides  him  were  Shamas,  El,  Resheph  (god 
of  fire),  Rekeb-el,  etc.  The  main  object  of 
worship  to  the  Moabites  was  Chemosh,  and 
it  would  appear  from  2K327  that  he  was 
thought  to  be  most  surely  moved  by  human 
sacrifices.  On  the  Moabite  Stone,  which  con- 
tains an  inscription  of  Mesha  (2K3'i''5),  a 
contemporary  of  Ahab,  Ishtar-Chemosh,  as 
well  as  Chemosh,  is  mentioned.  This  points 
to  an  identification  of  the  two,  and  although 
Chemosh  was  a  male  deity  there  was  nothing 
to  prevent  the  identification,  seeing  that  in 
Babylonia  itself  Ishtar  was  sometimes  re- 
garded as  of  both  sexes,  and  in  Arabia  was 
masculine  —  so  shifting  and  uncertain  were 
these  shadowy  products  of  the  imagination  ! 
The  Ammonites  served  Milcom,  which  is  but 
another  form  of  the  word  for  '  king,'  or  of  the 
name  Molech  which  meets  us  so  often  in  the 
Old  Testament.  But  we  are  not  warranted 
in  asserting  that  the  children  burnt  in  the 
valley  of  Hinnom  (2K23i'^)  were  immolated 
to  the  Ammonite  god  :  in  v.  13  he  is  a  distinct 
being  ;  in  v.  10  Molech  is  a  name  for  Jehovah. 
Yet  the  strong  expression, '  Milcom  the  abomi- 
nation of  the  children  of  Ammon,'  indicates 
that  there  were  most  objectionable  details  in 
the  ritual  of  his  worship.  The  Edomite  deities 
of  whom  we  read  bear  foreign  names.  Hadad 
came  from  Syria,  A  from  the  farther  East. 
Dagon  was  supreme  in  Philistia.     He  was  the 


god  of  agriculture,  and  also  gave  his  people 
victory  over  their  enemies  (Jgl623,  etc.).  At 
Ekron  Baal-zebub  (lord  of  flies)  was  revered 
and  consulted  (2  K 1 2, 3) ;  -why  this  title  was 
given  him  remains  uncertain.  Ashtoreth  also 
had  a  temple  in  one  of  the  Philistine  cities 
(IS  31 10). 

This  is  not  the  place  for  discussing  the 
voluminous  subject  of  the  Greek  and  Roman 
religions.  When  Israel  first  felt  the  impact 
of  the  former,  it  had  become  a  mixed  pro- 
duct, imbued  with  many  elements  drawn  from 
Oriental  sources.  Antiochus  IV,  the  Greek 
monarch  of  Syria,  attempted  to  force  it  on 
the  Jews  (1G8  B.C.).  No  wonder  that  they  rose 
in  revolt.  The  Temple  at  Jerusalem  '  was 
filled  with  riot  and  revellings  by  the  heathen, 
who  dallied  with  harlots  within  the  sacred 
precincts '  (2Mac6'*).  Again,  at  a  later  period, 
when  we  come  across  the  name  of  a  Greek 
goddess,  Artemis,  or,  as  our  Bible  calls  her, 
Diana  of  the  Ephesians  (Ac  19  28),  she  is 
Oriental  rather  than  Greek  in  character.  Her 
image,  with  its  numerous  breasts,  symbolises 
the  sustaining  and  reproductive  forces  of 
Nature  :  her  worship  is  defiled  by  wild  and 
immoral  orgies.  At  Daphne,  too,  near 
Antioch  in  Syria,  where  the  Greek  god 
Apollo  was  honoured  and  oracles  from  him 
were  sought,  '  all  that  was  beautiful  in  nature 
and  in  art  had  created  a  sanctuary  for  a  per- 
petual festival  of  vice.'  It  is  not  a  Christian, 
but  one  of  the  worthiest  of  the  heathens  who, 
in  the  fourth  century  of  our  era,  writes  con- 
cerning the  great  annual  festival  at  Antioch, 
that  it  '  consists  only  of  the  perpetration  of 
all  that  is  impure  and  shameless  and  the 
renunciation  of  every  lingering  spark  of 
decency.' 

It  is  hardly  too  much  to  say  that  when  the 
Jews  came  under  the  yoke  of  Rome  the  reli- 
gion of  Rome  might  be  summed  up  as  being 
the  worship  of  the  Roman  State.  The  city 
was  deified,  so  was  the  emperor.  And  so  it 
was  that  all  the  munificent  charities  of  Herod 
the  Great  towards  his  subjects  could  not 
atone  in  their  eyes  for  the  insult  he  offered 
to  their  religion  by  building  at  Csesarea  a 
temple  to  Rome  and  another  to  Augustus. 
Thousands  of  Jews  were  ready  to  die  rather 
than  acquiesce  in  Pilate's  placing  the  standards 
of  the  legions  with  the  image  of  the  emperor 
on  them  in  the  Holy  City.  They  knew  that 
the  soldiers  worshipped  those  images.  The 
distinctive  feature  in  the  religion  of  their 
rulers  was  worship  of  self,  reverence  for 
power,  a  consecration  of  hiunan  pride. 

The  unpopularity  of  the  Jew  in  and  about 
the  Christian  era  was  largely  due  to  the  un- 
compromising intolerance  with  which  he  bore 
himself  towards  the  faiths  and  rituals  of  his 
neighbours.      This  had  been  aroused  in  him 


xxxix 


HEATHEN   RELIGIONS   REFERRED   TO   IN   THE   BIBLE 


by  the  sad  lessons  of  experience  and  the 
teachings  of  his  sacred  books.  It  may  be  that 
a  modern  reader  sometimes  wonders  whether 
the  lawgivers  and  prophets  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment are  not  too  bitterly  contemptuous  or  too 
fiercely  severe  in  their  language  concerning 
idolatry.  But  it  is  to  be  remembered  that 
they  were  engaged  in  a  life  and  death  struggle. 
If  Monotheism,  the  faith  in  One  Only  God, 
had  not  made  unyielding  resistance,  it  would 
have  been  submerged  in  the  floods  of  '  gods 
many  and  lords  many.'  Then  the  soul  of 
man  would  have  known  no  settled  peace. 
There  is  no  security  for  him  who  has  propi- 
tiated one  god,  but  with  whom  another  per- 
chance is  angry.  Think  of  the  confusion 
and  uncertainty  implied  in  the  Babylonian's 
prayer  : 

'  May  the  god  whom  I  know  not  be  appeased  ! 
May  the  goddess  whom  I  know  not  be  appeased  ! 
May  both  the  god  I  know  and  the  god  1  know  not 
be  appeased ! ' 

And  confusion 
An    intelligent 

universe  cannot  coexist  with  a  belief  that  the 
universe  has  been  made  and  sustained  by  a 
plurality  of  independent  powers.  The  uni- 
formity of  Natm-e  depends  on  the  unity  of 
God.  The  adoration  of  the  forces  of  Nature 
which  underlies  so  much  ancient  idolatry  also 
distracts  attention  from  the  highest  elements 


of  the  intellect  also  follows, 
grasp    of   the    order    of    the 


in  the  Nature  of  God.  The  best  we  can  learn 
of  Him  is  that  He  is  a  living  Person,  holy, 
just,  and  good.  And,  as  we  have  sufficiently 
seen,  the  worship  in  question  led  directly  to 
licentiousness.  If  pictorial  representations 
of  the  reproductive  forces  of  Nature  were 
constantly  depicted  on  the  walls  of  heathen 
temples  ;  if  the  Higher  Beings  were  unchaste  ; 
if  impurity  was  part  of  their  service,  what 
chance  was  there  for  morality  ?  Rightly  does 
the  Wisdom  of  Solomon  assert  (14^7)  ; 

'  For  the  worship  of  those  nameless  idols 
Is  a  beginning  and  cause  and  end  of  every  evil.' 

Again,  when  a  man — king  or  emperor,  king 
of  Babylon  or  Assyria,  Pharaoh  of  Egypt, 
AntiocEus  Theos  (God)  of  Syria,  or  the  irre- 
sponsible ruler  of  B,ome — is  held  as  divine, 
and  temples  are  dedicated  to  his  honour  when 
dead,  or  even  whilst  still  alive,  this  is  an  im- 
pregnable barrier  to  liberty  and  progress.  The 
religion  of  the  Old  Testament  has  conferred 
an  inestimable  boon  on  humanity  by  insisting 
on  the  unity  and  unapproachable  majesty  of 
Him  before  whom  all  mankind  are  equal,  and 
by  repudiating  in  His  name  all  that  is  impure 
and  cruel.  The  religion  of  the  New  Testament 
has  softened  down  all  harsher  features  and 
satisfied  all  legitimate  cravings  for  One  higher 
than  man,  yet  in  closest  touch  with  him,  by  its 
revelation  of  the  God-Man,  the  Mediator,  the 
Way,  the  Truth,  and  the  Life. 


INTRODUCTION  TO  HEBREW  PROPHECY 


I.  Place  of  the  Prophetic  Books  in  the 
Canon.  The  second,  or  prophetic,  division  of 
the  Jewish  Canon  of  the  Old  Testament  com- 
prises the  books  of  Joshua,  Judges,  1  and  2 
Samuel,  and  1  and  2  Kings  ('  the  Earlier  Pro- 
phets '),  as  well  as  the  more  strictly  prophetic 
books  ('  the  Later  Prophets  ').  The  second  of 
these  groups  forms  the  special  subject  of  this 
Introduction,  in  the  course  of  which,  however, 
it  will  appear  why  the  historical  books  above 
mentioned  were  also  placed  in  tte  prophetic 
portion  of  the  Canon.  The  '  Later  Prophets  ' 
include  Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  Ezekiel,  and  the 
book  of  the  Twelve  Prophets.  The  last- 
named  collection  consists  of  the  books  from 
Hosea  to  Malachi,  which,  on  account  of  their 
comparative  brevity,  are  generally  known  as 
the  '  Minor  Prophets.'  Daniel  is  not  among 
the  prophetic  books,  but  belongs  to  the  third 
division  of  the  Canon.        , 

2.  Early  History  of  Prophecy.  The  pro- 
phetic books  of  the  Old  Testament  may  all  be 
placed  in  the  period  between  the  middle  of 
the  eighth  and  the  end  of  the  fifth  cen- 
tury B.C.  But  prophecy  in  Israel  dated 
from  much  earlier  times.  The  prophetic  gift 
is  ascribed  to  Moses  (Dt34io  Hosl2i3),  to 
Miriam  (Ex  15  20),  to  Deborah  (Jg44),  and  to 
Samuel  (IS 3 20).  From  the  time  of  Samuel 
onwards  there  was  a  succession  of  prophets, 
like  Nathan,  Gad,  Ahijah  the  Shilonite,  She- 
maiah,  Jehu  the  son  of  Hanani,  etc.,  who 
appeared  as  the  counsellors  and  monitors  of 
David  and  the  subsequent  kings.  In  the 
beginning  of  the  eighth  century  Micaiah, 
Elijah,  and  Elisha  played  a  prominent  part  as 
prophets,  though  they  have  left  no  books 
bearing  their  names.  In  early  times  the 
prophet  was  called  a  'seer,'  and  was  consulted 
in  times  of  perplexity,  even  upon  matters  of 
practical  interest,  receiving  a  present  in  re- 
turn for  his  services  (IS 9 ''■9).  In  those  days 
we  find  also  companies  of  prophets,  who  were 
the  subjects  of  a  sort  of  ecstasy,  which  appears 
to  have  been  contagious  (IS  10 10-12  191S-24). 
It  would  seem  that  Samuel  organised  these 
enthusiasts,  placing  himself  at  their  head,  and 
making  Naioth  in  Ramah  their  centre.  In 
later  times  there  was  a  prophetic  guild,  known 
as  '  the  sons  of  the  prophets,'  with  branches 
in  various  places,  such  as  Bethel  and  Jericho 
(2  K  2  2>  3, 15)_  The  canonical  prophets,  however, 
had  little  direct  connexion  with  these  profes- 
sional communities,  which  became  in  the  end 
the  nurseries  of    false  prophecy.      Amos  in 


xli 


particular    affirms  his  independence  of  them 
(Am  7 1-1). 

The  '  seer  '  of  early  Israel  performed  func- 
tions somewhat  akin  to  those  of  the  sooth- 
sayers of  other  nations.  Divination,  however, 
and  all  allied  practices  were  sternly  discouraged 
by  Jehovah's  revelation  of  Himself  to  Israel; 
and  as  time  went  on  the  work  of  the  true 
prophets  became  more  and  more  ethical  and 
spiritual.  There  were  prophets  of  heathen 
gods,  who  worked  themselves  into  frenzy  by 
various  physical  means  (IK  18 19-29),  and  there 
were  also  false  prophets  who  claimed  to  speak 
in  the  name  of  Jehovah.  But  though  pro- 
phecy in  its  beginnings  had  elements  found 
also  in  the  superstitious  institutions  of  Israel's 
neighbours,  and  though  even  in  later  times  it 
had  its  heathen  parallels  and  its  native  counter- 
feits, yet  in  its  genuine  and  fully  developed 
form  it  was  a  unique  phenomenon,  and  a 
channel  of  the  loftiest  and  most  direct  divine 
revelation. 

3,  Arrangement  of  the  Prophetic  Books. 
These  books  are  not  placed  in  our  Bibles 
according  to  their  order  of  time.  The  three 
longer  books  come  before  the  twelve  shorter 
ones,  and  even  the  latter  do  not  form  a  strictly 
historical  series.  Further,  the  books  of  Isaiah 
and  Zechariah  each  contain  the  work  of  more 
than  one  author,  and  belong  to  more  than 
one  period.  The  table  on  the  following  page 
indicates  how  the  canonical  prophets  may  be 
historically  grouped. 

The  books  of  Joel  and  Obadiah  are  of  un- 
certain date.  Some  place  them  among  the 
earliest  prophets,  and  others  after  the  exile. 
The  same  is  true  of  Zech  9-14.  The 
prophet  Jonah  lived  in  the  eighth  century 
B.C.  (2  K 14  25),  but  the  book  which  bears  his 
name  is  now  regarded  as  post-exilic. 

4.  The  Prophet's  Inspiration  and  Work. 
The  popular  definition  of  a  prophet  is  'one 
who  predicts  the  future.'  This  was  the  con- 
ception which  heathen  nations  had  of  their 
inspired  oracles,  and  it  has  very  largely  pre- 
vailed in  the  Christian  Church  regarding  the 
Old  Testament  prophets.  But  such  a  view  is 
narrow  and  misleading.  The  prophet  is  'one 
who  speaks  for  God  ' — a  forth-teller  rather 
than  a  mere  /ore-teller.  This  is  seen  from 
Ex  71,  where  Aaron's  relation  to  Moses  as  his 
spokesman  is  compared  with  the  prophet's 
relation  to  God.  The  prophets  were  men  who 
claimed  to  have  received  from  Jehovah  the 
truths  which  they  spoke  in  His  name.     The 


INTRODUCTION  TO  HEBREW  PROPHECY 


Period. 

Israel. 

JUDAH. 

Century. 

Assyrian 

Amos,  circ.  760-750  B.C. 
Hosea,  circ.  750-737 

Isaiah,  circ.  740-700  B.C. 
Micah,  circ.  724  and  onwards 
Zephaniah,  circ.  627 
Nahum,  circ.  610-608 

Eighth 

Seventh 

Chaldean 

T     T          1                      S  Habakkuk,  circ.  605-600 
In  Jerusalem j  Jeremiah,  circ.  626-586 

.J-    -p  ,    ,                         i  Ezekiel,  circ.  593-573 

in  ±5abylon -j  j^^j^j^  13-U,  34,  35,  40-66,  circ.  540 

Sixth 

Persian 

Zechariah.  1-8  4 

Malachi,  circ.  460-450 

Fifth 

bestowal  of  their  prophetic  gift  is  described  in 
the  phi-ase  '  The  word  of  Jehovah  came.'  The 
standing  formula  with  which  they  prefaced 
their  messages  was, '  Thus  saith  Jehovah.'  The 
prophet's  inspiration  was  the  process  by  which 
the  truth  was  brought  home  to  him  by  the 
Divine  Spirit.  Though  inscrutable  by  us  it 
was  an  undoubted  reality  to  his  consciousness. 
God's  word  to  him  was  distinct  from  his  own 
thoughts  and  desires  (Jerl4, 15),  as  well  as 
from  the  illusions  of  dreams  (Jer2328).  It 
came  with  a  self- attesting  and  irresistible 
power  (Jer2329'30  Am  38).  It  compelled  the 
prophet  to  utter  it  in  spite  of  all  natural 
hesitation  and  fear  (Jer209).  The  divine 
message  might  be  presented  in  visionary  form 
(Isa6  Ezk);  or  suggested  by  some  sight  of 
everyday  life  (JerlS^.e);  or  by  some  special 
circumstance  to  which  God's  inspiration  gave 
a  new  meaning  (Jer328).  •  It  might  be  uttered 
in  plain  words,  or  in  parables,  or  in  symbolic 
actions,  but  in  every  case  it  was  a  declaration 
made  in  God's  name. 

The  work  of  the  prophets  was  threefold. 

(1)  They  were  first  of  all,  and  chiefly, 
preachers  to  their  contemporaries.  They  ad- 
dressed themselves  to  the  political,  social,  and 
religious  conditions  among  which  they  lived. 
A  great  part  of  their  writings,  which  is  unintel- 
ligible without  a  knowledge  of  these  conditions, 
becomes  in  the  light  of  this  knowledge  full  of 
living  interest  and  meaning.  Each  book,  and 
each  prophecy,  must  be  placed  in  its  historical 
setting.  This  may  be  done  by  the  aid  of  the 
historical  books  of  Scripture,  taken  along  with 
the  allusions  to  dates  and  events  which  the  pro- 
phecies contain,  and  with  the  internal  evidence 
they  furnish  as  to  the  state  of  things  they 
have  in  view.  The  prophetic  books  often  sup- 
plement the  historical  ones,  so  that  a  complete 
picture  of  the  state  of  Israel  at  any  period 


can  be  got  only  by  combining  the  particulars 
obtained  from  the  two  sources  of  information. 
When  their  writings  are  read  in  this  way  the 
prophets  appear  in  their  true  light  as  preachers 
of  righteousness,  whether  as  political  counsel- 
lors, or  as  advocates  of  social  or  religious 
■  reform. 

(2)  They  were  also  interpreters  of  the  past. 
They  reviewed  the  earlier  history  of  Israel, 
and  showed  the  divine  meaning  which  their 
countrymen  were  slow  to  discern  in  it.  Thus 
Jeremiah  drew  a  moral  from  the  desolation 
of  Shiloh  (Jer7i"'^-i5),  and  Ezekiel  repeatedly 
told  the  story  of  Israel's  past  rebelliousness, 
and  of  God's  patient  love  (Ezk  16,  20).  This 
prophetic  interpretation  of  the  past  was  neces- 
sary, because  the  popular  one  was  often  greatly 
at  variance  with  it.  Thus  in  Jer44  the  pro- 
phet traces  the  fall  of  Jerusalem  to  Israel's 
idolatry  (vv.  2-6),  while  the  people  ascribe 
their  troubles  to  their  discontinuance  of  the 
worship  of  the  queen  of  heaven  (v.  18).  The 
great  lesson  which  the  prophets  drew  from  the 
history  of  Israel  was  the  connexion  between 
sin  and  calamity  on  the  one  hand,  and  between 
obedience  and  prosperity  on  the  other.  And 
as  the  historical  books  of  the  Old  Testament 
emphasise  the  same  truth  above  everything 
else  they  are  simply  an  expansion  of  this  side 
of  the  prophets'  work.  They  were  written 
from  the  point  of  view  of  the  prophet  rather 
than  from  that  of  the  mere  historian.  The 
title  '  the  Earlier  Prophets,'  which  has  been 
given  to  some  of  them,  expresses  their  true 
character. 

(3)  The  prophets  were,  lastly,  predictors  of 
the  future.  While  this  has  often  been  wrongly 
regarded  as  their  sole  function,  it  was  a  real, 
though  subordinate,  element  of  their  work. 
Prophetic  prediction  was  of  two  kinds. 

(ci )  Some  predictions  were  definite,  and  related 


xlii 


INTRODUCTION  TO  HEBREW  PROPHECY 


to  the  near  future.  Thus,  when  the  Assyrian 
power  appeared  in  Western  Asia,  Amos  and 
Hosea  foretold  that  it  would  be  the  instrument 
of  Israel's  downfall.  When  Sennacherib's  in- 
vasion of  Judah  took  place,  Isaiah  predicted 
that  king  and  people  would  be  brought  into 
great  peril  through  their  trust  in  earthly  alli- 
ances, but  that  in  the  end  they  would  be 
humbled,  would  seek  God's  help,  and  would 
obtain  deliverance.  When  Nebuchadrezzar  be- 
sieged Jerusalem,  both  Jeremiah  and  Ezekiel 
announced  that  the  capture  of  the  city  was 
inevitable,  and  that  the  exile,  though  certain, 
would  only  last  for  a  limited  time.  When 
Cyrus  had  begun  his  career  of  victory,  the 
author  of  Isa  40-46  foretold  that  he  would 
conquer  Babylon,  and  would  deliver  the  Jews 
from  captivity.  Such  predictions  related  to 
persons  already  alive,  to  nations  already  exist- 
ing, to  the  issues  of  movements  already  in  pro- 
gress. They  cannot  be  explained  as  triumphs 
of  mere  human  foresight  and  sagacity,  and 
must  be  traced  to  the  prophets'  divine  inspira- 
tion. At  the  same  time  they  were  not  wholly 
unintelligible  and  miraculous  revelations  of 
isolated  future  events.  They  were  the  infer- 
ences which  the  prophets  were  enabled  to  draw 
from  the  great  truths  about  God's  character 
and  God's  purpose  with  Israel  which  had  been 
revealed  to  them.  The  essence  of  the  prophets' 
inspiration  lay  in  their  grasp  of  these  princi- 
ples, and  in  their  power  of  applying  them  to 
the  situations  in  which  they  lived. 

In  the  view  of  New  Testament  writers,  some 
definite  predictions  of  the  prophets  extended 
much  further  than  has  been  indicated,  and  in- 
cluded references  to  particular  events  of  the 
remote  future.  Thus  Hos 111,  which  jg  pj-j, 
marily  a  description  of  the  deliverance  of 
Israel  from  Egyptian  bondage,  is  interpreted 
as  a  prediction  of  our  Lord's  flight  into  Egypt 
(Mt2 1^).  JerSl  i^,  which  is  primarily  a  pictvire 
of  the  grief  of  Rachel  (viewed  as  the  ancestral 
mother  of  Israel)  at  the  departure  of  the  exiles 
from  Ramah  (see  Jer40i),  is  regarded  as  a 
prediction  of  the  massacre  at  Bethlehem  (Mt 
2  IS).  And  Mic  5  '^  foretells,  not  only  the  coming 
of  a  ruler  of  David's  line  who  will  deliver 
Judah  from  the  Assyrians  (see  vv.  5,  6),  but 
the  birth  of  Christ  at  Bethlehem  (Mt26).  It 
is  scarcely  to  be  thought  that  these  secondary 
fulfilments  of  their  utterances  were  actually 
present  to  the  minds  of  the  prophets  :  still  the 
suggestiveness,  and  even  the  legitimacy,  of 
interpreting  their  prophecies  in  this  way — as 
foreshadowings  of  events  in  the  life  of  our 
Lord — can  hardly  be  denied  without  incurring 
the  danger  of  setting  arbitrary  limits  to  the 
free  working  of  the  Spirit  of  God. 

(b)  Other  predictions  were  of  a  more  general 
kind,  and  had  to  wait  for  their  fulfilment  till 
a  more  distant  future.     In  them  the  prophets 


presented  their  inspired  ideals  of  a  perfect 
king  (Isa  1 1  i-io  32 1-'^),  of  a  nation  penitent  and 
forgiven,  united  and  restored  (Ezk36,  37),  of 
a  righteous  Servant  of  the  Lord  first  sufi'ering 
and  then  triumphant  (Isa  53),  of  a  divine  Shep-  , 
herd  (Ezk34),  of  a  world-wide  kingdom  of 
God  (Isa  60  Mic4i-7),  of  a  new  and  spiritual 
relationship  between  God  and  His  people  (Jer 
313i-34)_  Such  prophecies  are  usually  termed 
'  Messianic,'  because  they  point  forward  to 
Jesus  Christ;  and  to  the  religious  conditions 
of  New  Testament  times. 

In  our  Lord's  day  the  expectation  of  a  great 
deliverer,  known  as  the  Messiah  (or  the  Christ), 
was  current  among  the  Jews,  and  was  undoubt- 
edly based  on  Old  Testament  prophecy.  It 
is  true  that  none  of  the  prophets  applied  the 
term  Messiah  to  a  single  distinct  figure  in  the 
future.  This  was  rather  done  by  Jewish  writers 
in  the  period  between  the  Old  and  the' New 
Testament.  But  the  ideals  of  the  prophets 
furnished  the  basis  of  the  conception  of  the 
Messiah,  which  was  adopted  by  our  Lord  as 
true,  and  which,  according  to  His  own  teach- 
ing, was  realised  in  Himself  and  His  work 
(Mt  1 1 2-0  Lk  4 17-21  jn  4  25, 2(5).  The  argument 
from  prophecy  in  defence  of  the  truth  of 
Christianity  has  lost  none  of  its  value,  though 
it  can  no  longer  be  stated  in  the  terms  which 
were  formerly  used.  Its  force  depends  not  on 
isolated  predictions  of  single  occurrences  in 
the  far  future,  but  on  the  many  converging 
lines  of  spiritual  anticipation  along  which  the 
prophets  gazed  into  the  coming  time,  and  which 
all  meet  in  Jesus  Christ. 

5.  The  False  Prophets.  The  nature  of  true 
prophecy  receives  additional  illustration  when 
it  is  compared  with  the  spurious  form  of  pro- 
phecy which  accompanied  it  like  a  shadow. 
The  professional  prophets  appear  to  have 
largely  degenerated  into  this  'false'  class. 
Their  peculiar  garb  became  a  symbol  of  decep- 
tion, and  their  self -mutilations  made  them  ob- 
jects of  suspicion  (Zechl34.6).  The  phrase, 
'  the  burden  of  the  Lord,'  was  on  their  lips 
conventional  and  misleading  (Jer  23  33-40).  The 
false  prophets  spoke  in  the  name  of  Jehovah, 
but  without  any  real  inspiration  from  Him 
(Jer  23  21  Ezkl3'^'').  In  some  cases  they  may 
have  been  conscious  impostors,  or  deliberate 
time-servers,  but  in  most  cases  they  were  prob- 
ably sincere  in  believing  their  own  words.  Yet 
their  messages  were  often  in  direct  contradic- 
tion to  those  of  the  real  prophets.  Thus 
Ahab's  prophets  foretold  the  success  of  his 
expedition  against  Ramoth-gilead  (IK 220). 
Hananiah  foretold  the  speedy  return  of  the 
Jewish  exiles  from  Babylon  (Jer  28 1-^).  Pro- 
phets in  Babylon  said  the  same  thing  (Jer  29  s>  9 
Ezkl3i0).  How,  it  may  be  asked,  were  the 
people  to  distinguish  between  the  false  pro- 
phets and  the  true  ?     Various  tests  are  indi- 


xliii 


INTRODUCTION  TO  HEBREW  PROPHECY 


cated  in  Scripture.  When  predictions  were  in 
question,  the  simplest  test  was  that  of  fulfil- 
ment (Dt  18  21. 22)^  but  this  could  not  be  applied 
until  the  fulfilment  had  taken  place.  A  deeper 
principle  is  suggested  in  Jer28S'^.  True  pro- 
phets, as  a  rule,  had  messages  of  warning  to 
deliver.  One  who  foretold  peace  was  therefore 
to  be  regarded  with  suspicion,  and  was  not  to 
be  believed  until  the  event  justified  his  pre- 
diction. Thus  the  nature  of  the  message  was 
to  be  taken  into  account  in  judging  of  its 
truth.  This  principle  is  further  developed  in 
Jer2322.  The  true  prophet  is  the  man  who 
denounces  sin,  and  seeks  to  turn  men  away 
from  it.  The  conflict  between  the  false  pro- 
phets and  the  true  really  arose  from  the  dif- 
ferent conceptions  which  they  had  about  God's 
character  and  His  relation  to  Israel.  The 
false  prophets  held  that  He  was  a  purely 
national  G-od,  and  so  was  bound  to  protect  and 
favour  His  people  in  all  circumstances  ;  while 
the  true  prophets  knew  Him  as  the  one  living 
God,  ruling  the  whole  world  in  righteousness, 
who  had  chosen  Israel  to  be  a  righteous  nation, 
and  could  not  but  punish  them  if  they  fell 
into  sin  (Am.3i'2). 

6.  Interpretation  and  Fulfilment  of  Prophecy. 
Though  the  test  of  fulfilment  could  not  always 
be  applied  to  a  prophet's  predictions  by  his 
contemporaries,  it  can  be  applied  by  us,  and 
we  can  see  that  in  a  great  many  cases,  and, 
indeed,  on  the  whole,  the  words  of  the 
prophets  about  the  future  have  come  true. 
Yet  there  are  some  predictions  which  have 
not  been,  and  cannot  now  be,  literally  ful- 
filled, and  there  are  certain  principles  of  inter- 
pretation which  have  a  special  bearing  upon 
these,  and  which  also  hold  good  of  the 
prophetic  writings  in  general. 

(1)  The  language  of  the  prophets  is  often 
poetic  and  figurative.  The  picture  of  the 
transformation  of  nature,  for  example,  in  Isa 
1 1  ^-^,  is  an  imaginative  description  of  universal 
peace,  and  is  not  to  be  understood  in  a  literal 
sense.  The  same  thing  is  true  of  a  great 
many  other  passages. 

(2)  The  predictions  of  the  prophets  were 
conditional.  They  were  made  to  enforce  the 
appeal  for  righteousness  in  the  present.  They 
foretold  the  consequences  of  sin  on  the  one 
hand,  and  of  righteousness  on  the  other. 
Judgments  might  be  averted  by  repentance. 
Blessings  might  be  forfeited  by  disobedience. 
This  principle  is  clearly  laid  down  in  Jer 
18 '''■1'^,  and  is  of  universal  application.  The 
'if  is  implied  even  when  it  is  not  expressed. 
Thus  Jonah's  prediction  that  Nineveh  would 


be  destroyed  in  forty  days  was  not  fulfilled, 
yet  Jonah  was  not  a  false  prophet,  because 
the  threat  was  only  made  on  the  supposition 
that  Nineveh  remained  impenitent.  Such 
predictions,  it  has  been  said,  were  made  not 
that  they  might,  but  that  they  might  not,  be 
fulfilled. 

(3)  The  prophets'  view  of  the  future  was 
limited  by  the  circumstances  of  their  own 
time.  As  Perowne  justly  remarks, '  Prophecy 
never  seems  wholly  to  forsake  the  ground  of 
history.  However  extended  the  vista  which 
stretches  before  him,  that  vista  begins  at  the 
prophet's  feet.  The  present  is  his  home  and 
starting-point,  though  he  may  make  "  all  ages  " 
his  own.'  Hence  the  prophets  conceived  of 
God's  kingdom  as  continuing  under  the 
national  form  in  which  they  knew  it.  Their 
descriptions  of  the  future  are  often  expressed 
in  terms  of  a  state  of  things  which  was  destined 
to  change  and  pass  away.  Thus  Micah  speaks 
of  Jerusalem  as  the  centre  of  God's  kingdom  i 
of  Peace  (41' 2).  Ezekiel  conceives  the  future  ] 
divine  kingdom  as  a  restored  Israel,  with  its 
Temple  and  sacrifices  (chs.  40-48),  and  of  its 
enemies  as  the  same  nations  that  have  vexed 
Judah  in  the  past  (28  25, 26^.  Even  Jeremiah's 
new  covenant  is  to  be  made  with  the  House 
of  Israel  and  the  House  of  Judah  (31^1). 
Much  that  was  literal  in  the  minds  of  the 
prophets  themselves  can  therefore  be  only 
figurative  for  us.  The  permanent  spiritual 
meaning  has  to  be  separated  from  the  transient 
external  form  in  which  it  is  expressed. 

(4)  It  follows  from  this  that  the  prophets' 
view  of  the  future  often  takes  no  note  of 
what  may  be  called  historical  perspective. 
That  is  to  say,  their  view  of  the  future  king- 
dom of  God  is  so  vividly  present  to  their 
mind  that  any  intervening  stretch  of  time  is 
disregarded.  For  all  of  them  the  Golden 
Age  lies  just  beyond  the  horizon  of  their  own 
times.  Isaiah's  pictures  of  it  are  attached  to 
his  predictions  of  deliverance  from  Assyria. 
Ezekiel  and  the  author  of  Isa  40-66  represent 
it  as  following  the  return  from  Babylon. 
Messianic  prophecy  of  an  ideal  kind  is  con- 
stantly combined  with  more  definite  predictions 
regarding  the  near  future.  Thus  the  King 
whom  Isaiah  describes  as  Immanuel  is  one 
who  is  to  appear  in  the  prophet's  own  time,  to 
share  the  hardships  of  the  Assyrian  invasion,  j 
and  finally  to  conquer  the  oppressor  ;  but  he  * 
is  spoken  of  in  exalted  language,  which  was 
not  applicable  to  any  king  of  Judah,  and  has 
only  been  truly  realised  in  Jesus  Chi'ist.  See 
also  art.  '  Messianic  Hope.' 


xliv 


THE  MESSIANIC  HOPE 


Strictly  speaking  the  Messianic  hope  is 
Israel's  expectation  of  a  Messiah,  the  confident 
assurance  of  men  of  faith,  inspired  in  them  by 
the  prophets,  that  a  king  and  deliverer  of  the 
line  of  David  would  be  sent  by  G-od  to  save 
them  from  their  oppressors,  to  roll  back  the 
overwhelming  tide  of  calamities  that  had 
swept  over  the  nation,  and  to  usher  in  an  era 
of  peace  and  prosperity  such  as  the  world  had 
never  seen  before.  But  in  a  wider  application 
of  the  term  we  may  take  it  to  indicate  the  be- 
lief in  future  divine  deliverance  and  blessed- 
ness apart  from  the  specific  kingly  idea.  The 
whole  subject  is  vague  and  various  in  its  earlier 
appearances.  The  hope  takes  first  one  form, 
then  another.  While  one  school  of  religious 
teachers — that  of  the  prophets — cherishes  it, 
another  school,  consisting  of  the  authors  of 
the  Wisdom  literature,  ignores  it.  But  then 
this  school  has  its  ideal  in  the  conception  of 
wisdom,  not  itself  a  Messianic  idea,  but  a 
thought  which  Christians  have  seen  to  be  real- 
ised  and  consummated  in  Jesus  Christ  quite 
as  much  as  that  of  the  kingly  deliverer.  To 
put  the  case  another  way,  our  Lord  gathers  up 
into  Himself  a  number  of  scattered  hopes  and 
ideas  of  Israel,  fulfilling  them  all  in  His  own 
way,  which  if  it  is  not  always  the  way  ex- 
pected by  the  earlier  dreamers,  differs  from 
that  only  by  being  more  complete,  more  per- 
fect, more  lofty. 

With  this  general  notion  of  the  whole  sub- 


marauding  neighbour-tribes,  it  extended  its 
boundaries,  and  seemed  to  promise  to  become 
a  great  world-empire.  For  a  time  men's  eyes 
were  dazzled  by  the  glamour  of  this  secular 
imperialism.  But  before  long  they  were  un- 
deceived. Solomon's  reign  was  even  more 
magnificent  than  his  father's.  But  it  proved 
to  be  costly  and  burdensome.  The  issue  was, 
that  under  his  ill-advised  and  obstinate  son 
there  was  a  fatal  revolt,  and  the  Israelites  be- 
came two  nations.  The  subsequent  history  of 
these  two  kingdoms  is  of  the  usual  mixed 
character.  Some  kings  were  good  and  great ; 
others  were  bad  and  mischievous.  By  the 
time  of  Isaiah  people  had  come  to  look  back 
on  the  golden  glory  of  a  splendid  past,  mag- 
nified by  the  sentiment  of  antiquity.  The 
ideal  David  was  now  a  much  greater  personage 
than  the  real  David  had  been.  The  dreadful 
crimes  with  which  the  national  hero  had 
stained  his  career  were  forgotten.  Only  his 
successful  achievements  were  remembered. 
Then  there  appeared  the  hope  that  a  second 
David  would  come,  and  do  for  the  later 
age  what  the  founder  of  the  kingly  line  had 
done  in  his  day.  Since  Assyria  was  a  more 
powerful  and  menacing  foe  than  Philistia  had 
been,  a  greater  David  would  be  needed  to 
overthrow  the  Assyrians  than  the  warrior 
king  who  had  mastered  the  Philistines.  At 
this  stage  the  prophets  came  to  the  aid  of  the 
nation  with  inspired  utterances  that  met  the 


ject  we  shall  be  prepared  to  map  out  its  dis-     popular  need,  but  elevated  the  popular  hope 


tinct  branches,  and  trace  the  development  till 
the  scattered  rays  of  the  earlier  revelation  are 
drawn  together  and  focussed  in  the  Gospel 
history. 

In  the  first  place,  we  have  a  sacred  character 
in  the  early  Israelite  kingship.  This  is  brought 
out  very  vividly  by  the  primitive  account  of 
Samuel's  anointing  of  Saul  (1S91*5).  Here 
we  see  the  king  chosen  by  God,  to  be  anointed 
by  God's  prophet  in  sign  of  the  divine  ap- 
pointment, and  so  commissioned  to  deliver 
the  nation  from  its  enemies.  Thus  the  throne 
was  established  with  high  hopes.  But  those 
hopes  were  doomed  to  a  speedy  disappoint- 
ment. Saul  went  his  own  way,  and  Samuel 
in  anger  told  him  that  God  had  rejected  him. 
Then  the  same  process  was  repeated  in  the 
selection  and  anointing  of  David,  and  with 
happier  results.  The  second  king  of  Israel, 
from  being  first  a  great  warrior,  became  also 
in  course  of  time  a  great  monarch.  The  nation 
was  not  only  saved  from  the  ravages  of  petty 


above  its  merely  political  outlook.  Isaiah 
cried,  '  And  there  shall  come  forth  a  shoot  out 
of  the  stock  of  Jesse,  and  a  branch  out  of  his 
roots  shall  bear  fruit :  and  the  spirit  of  the 
Lord  shall  rest  upon  him,  the  spirit  of  wisdom 
and  understanding,  the  spirit  of  counsel  and 
might,  the  spirit  of  knowledge  and  of  the  fear 
of  the  Lord  ;  and  his  delight  shall  be  in  the 
fear  of  the  Lord,'  etc.  (Isalli-^).  This  gi-eat 
oracle  is  the  earliest  clearly  expressed,  defi- 
nite prophecy  of  the  Messiah  as  the  Son  of 
David.  Hints  and  suggestions  of  coming  de- 
liverance have  appeared  earlier,  and  mystic 
thoughts  have  gathered  about  promising  sove- 
reigns ;  but  now  at  length  we  have  the  distinct 
promise  of  a  Second  David.  The  religious 
value  of  this  prophecy  is  seen  in  its  elaborate 
portraiture  of  the  moral  and  spiritual  cha- 
racter of  the  Messiah.  He  is  more  than  a 
conquering  ruler.  He  is  the  righteous  ruler, 
just,  merciful,  pacific,  because  he  is  possessed 
by  the  fear  of  the  Lord. 


xlv 


THE   MESSIANIC   HOPE 


Now  in  the  light  of  this  great  utterance, 
which  is  the  key  to  the  Messianic  ideas  of 
Israel,  we  can  go  back  to  two  earlier  obscure 
oracles.  The  first  is  in  Isa  7,  where  we  read 
of  the  promised  birth  of  Immanuel.  The 
difficulty  about  this  passage  is  that  it  is  deeply 
embedded  in  contemporary  history  ;  it  plainly 
indicates  a  near  approaching  birth.  Some 
have  thought  the  reference  is  to  a  coming  son 
of  Isaiah  himself,  some  to  a  young  prince  to 
be  born  in  the  palace.  But  when  we  go  on 
to  the  second  of  these  earlier  oracles  we  find 
the  mysterious  child  acclaimed  with  the  most 
magnificent  titles  as,  '  Wonderful,  Counsellor, 
Mighty  God,  Everlasting  Father,  Prince  of 
Peace'  (Isa  9  6).  These  are  the  greatest  things 
said  of  the  Messiah  anywhere  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment. Can  they  be  applied  to  a  child  of 
Isaiah's  day  ?  Yet  the  oracle  of  c.  9  seems  to 
refer  back  to  that  of  c.  7,  which  is  plainly 
contemporary. 

The    solution    of    the    difficulty    that   here 
emerges  will  be  found  in  an  explanation  of 
an  important  feature  of  Messianic  prophecy. 
We  have    to    distinguish  between   its    ideas 
and  the  local,  temporal,  personal  application 
of  them.     The  prophets  were  inspired  to  per- 
ceive the  ideas  which  shone  out  on  them  as 
luminous  stars  in  the  firmament.     But  it  was 
not  given  them  to  know  '  the  times  and  the 
seasons.'     Even  our  Lord  confessed  that  He 
did  not  know  the  divinely  appointed  day  or 
hour  of  His  Second  Advent.     Much  less  is  it 
to  be  supposed  that  Old  Testament  prophets 
were  endowed  with  an  exactness  of  foresight 
in  this  matter  that  was  denied    to    the    Son 
of  Man  Himself.     Accordingly,  it  should  be 
no   surprise   to  us  that   they   looked  for  the 
Deliverer    much    earlier    than    He   appeared. 
Being  men  of  large  enthusiasm,  some  of  them 
were  ready  to  hail  one  young  promising  prince 
or  another  as  the  very  man  in  whom  God's 
rich  promises,   that  they   saw   so  clearly  and 
believed  in  so  truly,  were  to  be  fulfilled.     In 
this  way  Isaiah  may  have  dreamed  that  the 
child  to  be  born  in  the  Syrian  crisis,  described 
in  c.  7,  would  possess  all  the  high  qualities 
named  in  c.  9,  and  therefore  appear  as  the 
victorious  and  pacific  ruler  portrayed  in  c.  11. 
History  did  not  verify  the  dream.     God  was 
educating    His    people,    even    His   prophets, 
through  the  illusions  due  to  their  own  limited 
vision.     But  there  was  no  illusion  in  the  ideas 
of  the  prophecy  ;  the  illusion  was  confined  to 
their  historical  setting  and  personal  embodi- 
ment. 

Here  we  come  to  the  wonderful  vitality  of 
the  Messianic  hope.  Disappointment  did  not 
kill  it,  did  not  even  permanently  damp  its 
ardour.  Yarious  persons  were  supposed  to 
realise  the  idea — Hezekiah,  Zerubbabel,  even 
the  pagan  Cyrus,  and  later  the  patriot  Judas 

xlvi 


Maccabseus.  They  all  did  some  good  things 
in  accordance  with  it.  But  the  idea  was  too 
great  for  any  of  them.  So  it  had  to  be  con- 
fessed in  the  end  with  every  case  that  the 
expectation  had  been  disappointed.  Still  it 
survived  ;  it  moved  on  ;  it  hovered  above 
the  prophets  and  the  people — a  divine  idea, 
trying  patience  by  its  tardy  tarrying,  still 
firing  hope  by  its  invincible  vitality. 

It  is  in  view  of  this  remarkable  combina- 
tion of  faith  and  disappointment  that  we  must 
view  many  of  the  passages  of  Scripture  that 
are  commonly  reckoned  Messianic,  although 
they  are  not  prophetic  in  form.     For  instance, 
the  second  Psalm  has  been  assigned  by  scholars 
to  various  personages — David,  Solomon,  Jeho- 
shaphat,  Ahaz,  Hezekiah,  Alexander  Jannaeus. 
Its  glorious  divine  kingship  was  never  fully 
realised  by  any  of  these  men.     Yet  we  cannot 
set  it  down  to  the  adulation  of  a  courtier.    This 
is  not  the  language  of  flattery  ;  it  is  an  utter- 
ance of  faith.     The  Psalmist  is  not  merely 
trying  to  express  exuberant  loyalty.  Trusting  in 
God  he  sees  clearly  that  what  he  here  portrays 
must  be  accomplished  in  the  person  of  God's 
true  king.      When  he  describes  the  king  as 
God's   Son,  he  has  not  attained  to  a  vision 
of  the  mystery  that  St.  Paul  and  St.  John 
perceived  in  the  incarnate  Christ,  but  he  is 
carried  forward  on  luminous  clouds  of  hope 
that  will  some  day  descend  in  the  blessings  of 
the  definite  Christian  revelation.     Similarly, 
Psalm  72  has   been   applied  to  Solomon,  to 
Hezekiah,  to  others.     It  is  fully  true  of  none 
of  them.     These  great  kings  partially  realised 
its   ideas,  but  the  full  realisation   awaited  a 
Christ  who  was  never  seen  till  Jesus  was  born. 
Sometimes  what  perhaps  we  may  call  the 
Messianic  hope  shrinks  to  little  more  than  an 
assurance   of   an  unending   line    of  kings    in 
the  family  of  David.     Psalm  89  seems  to  be 
written  in  this  spirit.     Even  here  it  is  remark- 
able that  the  hope  clinging  to  the  stock  of 
David  should  be  so  persistent  and  confident. 

On  the  other  hand,  there  is  a  large  class  of  pro- 
phecies that  have  no  connexion  with  the  idea 
of  a  personal  Messiah,  but  still  predict  redemp- 
tion and  deliverance.  Some  of  these  pro- 
phecies centre  in  '  the  day  of  the  Lord.' 
Here  it  is  God  Himself  who  is  the  Deliverer. 
There  seems  to  be  no  room  for  any  human 
agent,  nor  does  he  seem  to  be  needed.  A  prince 
of  the  House  of  David,  vho  vas  no  more  than 
this,  could  not  accomplish  all  that  was  needed. 
The  evils  of  the  times  were  too  vast  and  the 
hopes  of  the  golden  age  of  the  future  too 
brilliant  for  any  man,  even  the  gi-eatest 
king,  though  chosen  and  anointed  by  God,  to 
master  or  achieve.  The  Jews  had  been  dis- 
illusioned with  regard  to  the  confidence  they 
had  placed  in  the  throne  of  David.     It  had 


cost  them  much,  and  it  had  not  secured  them 


THE   MESSIANIC   HOPE 


the  boons  they  had  been  promised  with  it. 
Accordingly,  they  turned  from  it  in  weariness 
and  despair,  till  their  hopes  were  kindled  in 
another  quarter.  God  and  God  alone  was  to 
be  the  Redeemer  of  Israel.  This  is  the  domi- 
nant note  of  the  second  Isaiah,  during  the 
captivity  when  human  help  had  proved  a  dis- 
appointment. Then  we  read,  '  Fear  not,  thou 
worm  Jacob,  and  ye  men  of  Israel  ;  I  will  help 
thee,  saith  the  Lord,  and  thy  Redeemer  is  the 
Holy  One  of  Israel '  (Isa41 1^  RV).  The  idea 
of  the  day  of  the  Lord  is  much  earlier  than  this. 
Amos  warns  of  God's  coming  to  judgment  ; 
Zephaniah  sees  a  day  of  God's  vengeance. 
The  common  thought  is  that  the  enemies  of 
Israel  will  be  smitten,  and  God's  people  rescued 
and  exalted.  That  is  the  most  elementary 
idea  of  redemption.  But  a  deeper  note  is 
frequently  struck  by  the  prophets.  The  judg- 
ment is  on  Israel  ;  God's  own  people  will  be 
sifted  and  tried  ;  only  a  remnant  will  be  spared. 
Then  the  great  hope  of  the  future  goes  on 
with  the  remnant. 

These  two  ideas— the  idea  of  David's  glorious 
son,  and  the  idea  of  God's  direct  interference 
and  rectification  of  affairs — are  never  united 
in  the  Old  Testament,  lliey  are  two  broken 
lights  that  await  their  combination  in  the  full- 
orbed  Christian  revelation. 

Three  other  important  ideas  that  were  not 
reckoned  at  the  time  to  be  Messianic  may  here 
be  noted.  The  first  is  the  conception  of  the 
prophet  of  the  future  (Dt  1 8  is).  This  is  never 
connected  with  the  Messiah  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, as  it  is  in  the  New,  where  Jesus  first 
appears  as  a  prophet,  and  is  afterwards  hailed 
as  the  Christ. 

The  second  of  these  associated  ideas  is  the 
great  thought  of  the  suffering  servant  of  the 
Lord  in  the  second  Isaiah.  The  prevalent 
judgment  of  scholars,  after  very  much  dis- 
cussion of  the  subject,  is  that  whoever  this 
strange  personage  may  be — whether  Jeremiah, 
or  Israel,  or  the  pious  remnant  of  Israel — it  is 
scarcely  probable  that  he  was  thought  of  in 
the  first  instance  as  the  Messiah.  A  late  tra- 
dition, little  heeded  by  the  Jews,  makes  men- 
tion of  two  Messiahs — the  triumphant  Son  of 
David,  and  the  suffering  Son  of  Joseph.  But 
this  cannot  be  traced  back  to  the  authorship 
of  the  prophecy.  Here,  however,  we  have  to 
apply  the  principle  that  has  been  our  guide  all 
along.  The  idea  is  great,  and  true,  and  in- 
spii-ed    by  God.     It  matters  little  what  was 


the  prophet's  original  application  of  it,  except 
as  a  question  of  history  and  literary  inter- 
pretation. The  vital  fact  is  that  we  have  the 
idea. 

In  the  third  place,  we  have  Jeremiah's  pre- 
diction of  the  new  covenant  :  see  JerSl^i-^'*. 
This  is  not  associated  with  the  Messiah  by  the 
prophet  himself.  But  it  is  the  most  typical 
anticipation  of  the  spirit  and  character  of 
Christianity  anywhere  to  be  found  in  the  Old 
Testament  ;  and  it  is  a  promise  of  the  good 
time  coming,  that  is  to  say,  the  'Messianic  era. 
As  such  it  was  adopted  by  Jesus  in  the  insti- 
tution of  the  Lord's  Supper,  and  applied  to 
the  gospel  by  the  Apostles. 

When  we  consider  the  fulfilment  of  Mes- 
sianic prophecy  by  Jesus  Christ,  we  must  see 
that  He  did  not  attempt  to  do  this  in  the  out- 
ward way  of  the  earlier  expectation  any  more 
than  to  satisfy  the  hopes  of  contemporary 
Jews  for  a  new  and  greater  David,  a  later 
Maccabfeus,  to  break  the  yoke  of  the  pagan 
oppression.  But  He  came  as  the  king,  because 
He  introduced  the  kingdom  of  God  as  a  rule 
over  society  by  means  of  inward  influences  ;  as 
the  Deliverer,  because  He  came  to  save  from 
the  sin  that  was  worse  than  its  chastisement, 
and  at  the  same  time  as  the  supreme  Prophet  or 
Revealer  of  God's  will,  the  Suffering  Servant 
of  the  Lord,  and  the  Founder  of  the  new 
covenant.  That  Jesus  claimed  to  be  the 
Messiah  cannot  be  denied  without  tearing  the 
gospel  story  to  threads.  Wrede  was  the  most 
conspicuous  scholar  to  make  the  denial  ;  but 
he  has  been  amply  answered.  That  our  Lord 
was  in  fact  the  Messiah  will  be  admitted  by 
those  who  perceive  that  the  spiritual  essence 
of  the  Messiahship  is  its  vital  element,  and 
note  how,  while  He  cast  aside  the  trappings  of 
its  external  form.  He  added  to  it  the  great 
ideas  of  the  Day  of  the  Lord  and  the  divine 
Redeemer,  as  well  as  the  prophetic,  suffering, 
and  covenant  element,  none  of  them  joined  to 
the  Messiah  in  the  Old  Testament,  but  all 
enriching  it  in  His  fulfilment  of  that  hope. 

This  subject  is  discussed  in  Drummond, 
'  The  Jewish  Messiah ' ;  Stanton,  '  The  Jewish 
and  the  Christian  Messiah '  ;  Briggs,  '  Mes- 
sianic Prophecy,'  '  The  Messiah  of  the  Gos- 
pels,' and  '  The  Messiah  of  the  Apostles '  ; 
Schiirer,  '  Jewish  People  in  the  Time  of 
Christ ' ;  Castelli,  '  II  Messia  secondo  gli  Ebrei ' ; 
Dalman,  '  Der  leidende  und  der  sterbende 
Messias.' 


xlvii 


HISTORY,   LITERATURE,   ETC.,   BETWEEN   OT.    AND   NT. 


I 


tention  over  Palestine  renewed,  when  Ptolemy 
IV  Philopator  filled  the  throne  of  Egypt.  The 
weakness  and  dissoluteness  of  this  king  seemed 
to  offer  a  favom-able  opportunity  to  Antiochus 
III  of  Syiia,  commonly  called  the  Great,  and 
he  opened  war  upon  him.  To  the  joy  of  the 
Jews,  Antiochus  was  signally  defeated  at  Ra- 
phia  (217  B.C.),  and  for  a  time  had  to  relin- 
quish his  plans.  On  the  death  of  Philopator, 
and  the  accession  of  his  infant  son  Ptolemy  V 
Epiphanes,  the  Syrian  king  resumed  the  war, 
and  in  198  B.C.  gained  a  decisive  victory  over 
the  Egyptians  at  Panium,  near  the  sources  of 
the  Jordan.  The  Jews,  now  suffering  from 
the  degeneracy  and  misgovernment  of  Egypt, 
welcomed  the  change  of  dominion,  and  assisted 
Antiochus  to  oust  the  Egyptian  garrison  from 
Jerusalem. 

7.  The  Seleucidae.  The  first  Greek  king  of 
Syria,  one  of  the  best  of  Alexander's  generals, 
had  been  Seleucus  ;  and  his  successors  for  a 
while  took  either  his  name  or  that  of  Antio- 
chus, while  the  djmasty  as  a  whole  is  known 
as  the  Seleucidae.  Antiochus  the  Great,  the 
new  overlord  of  Palestine,  was  the  fifth  in  suc- 
cession from  the  founder.  He  made  no  attempt 
to  interfere  with  the  privileges  which  the  Jews 
had  enjoyed  under  the  rule  of  Egypt,  but  on 
the  contrary,  conferred  further  favours  upon 
them,  and  allowed  them  the  free  exercise  of 
their  religion.  The  effect,  however,  of  the 
Syrian  supremacy  was  to  introduce  disunion 
among  the  Jews,  and  involve  them  in  troubles 
such  as  they  had  not  yet  experienced.  Antioch, 
the  Syrian  capital,  was  a  great  centre  of  Hellen- 
ism ;  and  the  intercourse  with  it,  of  which  the 
new  conditions  admitted,  opened  fresh  channels 
for  the  entrance  of  Hellenising  principles  into 
Judah.  Soon  there  arose  a  powerful  Greek 
party  in  Jerusalem,  and  conflicts  ensued  with 
those  who  still  cherished  the  national  ideals, 
and  contended  for  the  righteousness  of  the 
law.  After  the  death  of  Antiochus  the  Great, 
his  son  Seleucus  IV  Philopator  (187-175  B.C.) 
accentuated  the  situation  in  Jerusalem  by  re- 
pressing the  patriotic  party,  and  attempting  to 
plunder  the  Temple.  In  the  time  of  his  suc- 
cessor Antiochus  IV  Epiphanes  (175-164  B.C.), 
matters  came  to  a  head.  Onias,  the  high  priest 
and  leader  of  the  orthodox  party,  drove  the 
sons  of  Tobias  and  their  Hellenising  adher- 
ents out  of  Jerusalem  ;  Epiphanes  intervened, 
and  replaced  Onias  with  creatures  of  his  own, 
first  Jason,  then  Menelaus  ;  Onias  retired  to 
Egypt,  with  many  others  of  the  devout,  and 
at  Leontopolis  founded  a  new  Jewish  temple 
(170  B.C.).  Jerusalem  now  seethed  with  dis- 
content ;  and,  a  report  obtaining  ground  that 
Epiphanes  had  died  campaigning  in  Egypt,  a 
rising  took  place,  in  which  many  of  the  sup- 
porters of  Menelaus  were  put  to  death.  Epi- 
phanes, on  his  return  from  Egypt,  set  himself 


not  only  to  extinguish  the  revolt,  but  to  pre- 
vent its  recurrence.  Besides  treating  the  in- 
surgents with  merciless  severity,  he  entered 
the  Temple  and  despoiled  it  of  its  treasures 
and  sacred  vessels,  recast  the  service  according 
to  the  forms  of  the  Greek  religion,  and  set  up 
an  image  of  the  Greek  god  Zeus,  probably 
bearing  his  own  features.  At  the  same  time, 
he  remodelled  the  little  state  after  the  pattern 
of  a  Greek  republic,  and  appointed  over  it  a 
royal  commissioner.  Not  so  much,  perhaps, 
from  real  hostility  to  the  Jewish  religion,  as 
from  the  desire  to  extirpate  the  cause  of  dis- 
affection and  rebellion,  torture  and  death  were 
decreed  against  those  who  persisted  in  their 
Jewish  practices,  and  refused  to  sacrifice  to  the 
heathen  god. 

At  this  point  we  come  upon  what  is  gener- 
ally considered  the  most  sublime  moment  in 
Jewish  history.  Many  of  the  old  patriotic 
party,  now  called  the  Hasidim,  or  '  righteous 
ones,'  willingly  gave  up  their  lives,  rather 
than  betray  their  principles,  thus  setting  a 
noble  example  for  the  martyrs  of  future 
ages.  Some  of  them  escaped  to  the  wilder 
parts  of  the  country,  and,  if  taken  on  the 
sabbath,  refused  to  defend  themselves,  lest 
they  should  desecrate  the  holy  day.  Passive 
submission  was  their  answer  to  the  hatred 
and  cruelty  of  their  persecutors.  Human 
endurance,  however,  is  not  unlimited,  and  at 
length  they  stood  at  bay,  and  made  a  brave 
struggle  for  freedom.  The  fii'st  blow  was 
struck  at  Modin,  between  Beth-horon  and 
Lydda,  by  Mattathias,  an  old  country  priest, 
and  head  of  the  house  of  Hashmon.  His 
anger  rising  at  the  sight  of  a  Jew  offering 
heathen  sacrifice,  he  cut  him  down,  as  well  as 
the  Syrian  officer,  Apelles,  who  was  with  him. 
Fleeing  to  the  wilderness,  with  his  five  sons, 
he  gathered  others  round  him,  and  raised  the 
standard  of  revolt. 

8.  The  Maccabees.  On  the  death  of 
Mattathias  in  16G  B.C.,  his  son  Judas,  known 
as  Maccabaeus,  or  '  the  hammer,'  took  over  the 
leadership,  and  in  less  than  two  years,  by  a 
series  of  remarkable  victories,  at  Beth-horon, 
Emmaus,  and  Beth-zur,  cleared  Judah  of  the 
Syrians,  except  for  the  garrison  in  the  citadel 
(Acra)  at  Jerusalem.  On  25  Dec.  165  B.C., 
the  Temple  was  rededicated,  and  its  worship 
restored — an  event  commemorated  in  the 
Feast  of  the  Dedication,  still  observed  by  the 
Jews.  In  163  B.C.  Lysias,  the  regent  of  Syria 
for  the  young  king,  Antiochus  V  Eupator, 
advanced  with  an  overwhelming  force  to  re- 
lieve the  garrison  in  the  Acra,  but  Judas  was 
able  to  make  honourable  terms  with  him, 
according  to  which  the  fortresses  of  Judah 
were  to  be  dismantled,  but  the  rights  of  the 
Jewish  religion  conserved.  This  settlement 
deprived  the  wai*  of    its  religious  character, 


1 


HISTORY,   LITERATURE,   ETC.,   BETWEEN   OT.    AND   NT. 


and  many  of  the  Hasidim  laid  down  their 
arms  ;  but  Judas  was  not  content  with  it,  and 
determined  to  continue  the  struggle,  till 
political  liberty  was  achieved.  Resisting  the 
elevation  to  the  high  priesthood  of  Alcimus, 
a  flagrant  Helleniser  and  nominee  of  the 
Syrian  king,  he  gained  a  fm-ther  victory  over 
the  Syrian  general  Nicanor,  but  in  161  B.C. 
was  himself  defeated  by  Bacchides,  and  fell 
in  battle,  at  Eleasa. 

Jonathan,  the  brother  of  Judas,  succeeded 
to  the  leadership,  and,  after  the  death  of  Al- 
cimus (160  B.C.),  had  full  charge  of  affairs. 
An  adroit  and  vigorous  man,  he  made  good 
use  of  the  opportunity,  offered  by  the  troubles 
that  thickened  round  the  Syrian  government, 
to  win  advantages  for  the  Jewish  state. 
Treacherously  done  to  death  in  144  B.C.  by 
the  Syrian  general  Trypho,  he  was  foliawed 
by  Simon,  another  son  of  Mattathias,  who 
forced  the  Syrian  garrison  to  withdraw  from 
Jerusalem,  and  thus  delivered  his  country 
from,  the  last  vestige  of  foreign  control. 
"With  great  solemnity,  he  was  appointed  by 
the  people  to  the  threefold  office  of  high 
priest,  commander-in-chief,  and  ethnarch  ; 
and  the  first  Jewish  coins  were  struck  in  his 
name  (141  B.C.). 

9.  Independence.  In  the  breaking  up  of 
the  Syrian  kingdom,  Simon  was  able  to  con- 
solidate the  new  Jewish  state,  extend  its 
influence,  and  secure  for  it  the  friendship  of 
the  Romans.  In  135  B.C.  he,  and  two  of  his 
sons,  were  murdered  at  the  castle  of  Dok 
near  Jericho,  by  his  ambitious  son-in-law, 
Ptolemaeus  ;  and  his  third  son,  John  Hyrcanus, 
took  his  place.  In  spite  of  the  attempts  of 
the  Syrians  to  regain  their  supremacy,  Hyr- 
canus maintained  the  independence  of  the 
state,  and  extended  its  narrow  limits  by  the 
conquest  of  (1)  Samaria,  where  he  destroyed 
the  temple  on  Mount  Gerizim,  and  (2)  Idumssa, 
whose  inhabitants  he  compelled  to  accept  the 
Law,  and  submit  to  circumcision.  In  his 
time,  the  Hasmonaean  house  began  to  lose  the 
confidence  of  the  orthodox,  patriotic  party, 
now  called  the  Pharisees,  and  to  cultivate 
closer  relations  with  the  Sadducees,  the  party 
of  cosmopolitan  ideas  and  worldly  ambition. 

Hyrcanus  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Aristo- 
bulus  I,  who  assumed  the  title  of  king,  and 
imitated  the  style  of  a  foreign  court.  He 
only  reigned  a  year  (103  B.C.),  but  managed 
to  annex  Iturea  (the  Galilee  of  the  Gospels) 
and  compel  its  people  to  embrace  Judaism. 
His  brother,  Alexander  Jannseus  (103-76 
B.C.),  a  fierce  and  warlike  king,  extended  still 
further  the  frontiers  of  the  kingdom,  and 
made  Judaea  the  dominant  power  in  Palestine. 
With  him  the  house  of  Hashmon  reached  its 
greatest  height,  and  began  that  downward 
course,  which  ended  in  its  complete  collapse. 


li 


His  character  and  conduct,  ill-suited  to  a  high 
priest,  made  him  hated  by  the  Pharisees,  on 
whom  he  inflicted  many  cruelties,  and  some 
3,000  of  whom  sought  safety  in  flight.  At 
his  death  he  bequeathed  his  high  priesthood  to 
his  son  Hyrcanus,  and  his  political  power  to 
Alexandra  his  wife,  whom  he  is  said  to  have 
urged  to  peace  with  the  Pharisees.  Under 
her  the  Pharisees  controlled  affairs,  and  the 
kingdom,  which  equalled  in  power  and  extent 
the  old  Davidic  dominion,  had  peace  and  rest; 
but  at  her  death  (67  B.C.)  a  fierce  and  pro- 
longed contest  for  supremacy  ensued  between 
her  sons,  Aristobulus  and  Hyrcanus  :  the 
former,  an  active  and  daring  man  ;  the  latter, 
feeble  and  irresolute,  and  almost  entirely  in 
the  hands  of  a  prominent  Idumagan  called 
Antipater.  The  Romans  having  now  estab- 
lished themselves  in  Asia,  both  parties  sought 
by  presents  and  promises  to  enlist  them  in 
their  favour.  In  63  B.C.  appeals  were  made 
at  Damascus  to  the  Roman  general  Pompey, 
who  promptly  marched  upon  Jerusalem,  and, 
installing  Hyrcanus  as  high  priest,  with  a 
small  territory  subject  to  tribute,  sent  Aristo- 
bulus and  his  two  sons  to  Rome.  Thus,  after 
eighty  years  of  freedom,  Judaea  again  came 
under  foreign  domination. 

10.  The  Roman  Dominion.  (1)  The 
Herods.  For  the  next  twenty  years  Hyr- 
canus (II)  was  high  priest,  but  Antipater 
really  exercised  the  power  accorded  under 
the  Roman  governor  of  Syria.  During  this 
time  certain  towns  on  the  coast  and  in  Pe- 
r£ea  were  released  from  Jewish  control,  and 
formed  themselves  into  a  league,  under  the 
name  of  the  Decapolis  (Mt  4  25).  The  attempts 
of  Aristobulus  and  his  sons,  on  escaping  from 
Rome,  to  recover  the  crown,  only  added  to  the 
authority  of  Antipater.  On  his  death  by 
poison  at  the  hands  of  a  Jewish  notable  in 
43  B.C.,  the  government  was  divided  between 
his  sons  Herod  and  Phasael,  who  received  the 
titles  of  tetrarchs.  Shortly  afterwards  the 
Parthians  invaded  Syria,  and  driving  the  Ro- 
mans before  them  put  Antigonus,  son  of  Ari- 
stobulus, on  the  Jewish  throne.  Phasael  was 
captured  and  killed  ;  Hyrcanus  had  his  ears 
cropped,  to  disqualify  him  for  the  high 
priesthood  ;  Herod  fled  to  Rome,  where  he 
was  favourably  received,  and  nominated  by 
the  Senate  king  of  the  Jews.  Returning  to 
JudiBa  with  Roman  help,  Herod  soon  re- 
captured Jerusalem,  and  had  Antigonus  put 
to  death  (37  B.C.)  ;  thereafter  maintaining  his 
position  till  the  dawn  of  the  Christian  era. 

The  material  splendours  of  the  reign  of 
Herod  have  gained  him  the  name  of  '  the 
Great,'  but  he  was  unscrupulous  and  cruel  in 
his  character,  and  dissolute  in  his  life.  To 
secure  his  power,  he  ingratiated  himself 
adroitly  with  successive  parties  at  Rome ;  and, 


HISTORY,   LITERATURE,   ETC.,   BETWEEN   OT.   AND  NT. 


on  one  pretext  or  another,  killed  out  the 
survivors  of  the  Hasmonsean  house,  including 
his  own  wife  Mariamne  and  her  two  sons. 
Political  intrigue  and  brutal  murder  were 
leading  characteristics  of  his  reign.  At  the 
same  time,  be  aimed  at  magnificence,  and  exe- 
cuted many  public  works,  besides  restoring 
order  and  encouraging  intercourse  through- 
out the  kingdom.  Posing  as  a  Hellenistic 
king,  he  built  new  cities  upon  Greek  lines, 
such  as  Sebaste  (27  B.C.),  on  the  site  of  the 
old  Samaria,  and  Csesarea  (22-10  B.C.),  which 
became  the  second  city  of  the  kingdom.  He 
also  added  a  theatre  and  amphitheatre  to  Je- 
rusalem, and  built  temples,  porches,  and  baths 
in  foreign  cities.  One  of  his  greatest  works 
was  the  rebuilding  of  the  Temple  at  Jeru- 
salem, which  was  begun  in  20  B.C.,  and  was 
not  quite  finished  in  the  time  of  our  Lord 
(Jn  2  20).  In  other  ways  he  tried,  but  without 
success,  to  conciliate  his  Jewish  subjects,  re- 
specting their  traditions,  and  using  his  influ- 
ence to  protect  their  settlements  abroad.  To 
the  end  he  was  hated,  especially  by  the 
Pharisees,  who  gave  themselves  more  than 
ever  to  the  minute  observance  of  the  Law, 
the  study  of  the  prophecies,  and  the  hope  of 
the  Messianic  kingdom. 

On  the  death  of  Herod  in  4  B.C.,  his  domin- 
ions were  divided,  with  the  consent  of  the 
Romans,  between  his  three  sons  :  Archelaus 
becoming  ethnarch  of  Judaea  and  Samaria  ; 
Herod  Antipas,  tetrarch  of  Galilee  and  Per^a; 
and  Philip,  tetrarch  of  the  region  beyond 
Jordan.  In  6  a.d.  Archelaus  was  removed  for 
misconduct,  and  his  principality  put  under  the 
charge  of  a  Roman  Procurator — so  called 
from  the  original  function  of  collecting  the 
imperial  taxes. 

(2)  Procurators.  The  following  were  pro- 
curators of  Judaea  and  Samaria  (6-41  a.d.): 
Coponius,  M.  Ambivius,  Annius  Rufus,  Vale- 
rius Gratus  (15-26),  Pontius  Pilate  (26-36), 
Marcellus  (36,  37),  and  Marullus  (37-41). 
Wittingly  and  unwittingly,  they  often  offended 
the  susceptibilities  of  the  Jews  ;  and,  apart 
from  the  extortion  which  they  generally  prac- 
tised, the  duties  and  taxes  which  they  were 
authorised  to  exact  were  a  continual  grievance. 
Pontius  Pilate,  whose  condemnation  of  Christ 
has  covered  him  with  lasting  infamy,  aroused 
such  exasperation  otherwise  that  he  was 
summarily  recalled.  The  seat  of  the  pro- 
curators was  at  Csesarea,  but  Pilate  happened 
to  be  at  Jerusalem  for  the  great  feast,  when 
the  outburst  against  Christ  took  place.  The 
outcome  of  the  procuratorial  system  was  wide- 
spread discontent,  which  was  fomented  by  the 
Zealots — a  new  party  aiming  at  revolution, 
and  the  establishment  of  the  Messianic  king- 
dom by  force. 

(3)  Herod  Agrippa.     For  a  short   time,  a 


reversion  took  place  to  the  old  monarchical 
form  of  government,  as  it  had  existed  in  the 
time  of  Herod  the  Great.  In  34  a.d.  Philip, 
the  tetrarch  of  the  north,  died  ;  and  in  37  a.d. 
his  dominions  were  given  to  Agrippa,  a  grand- 
son of  the  Great  Herod,  with  the  title  of  king. 
To  these  were  added  in  40  a.d.  the  tetrarchy 
of  Herod  Antipas,  the  murderer  of  John  the 
Baptist,  whose  misdoings  and  ambition  were 
punished  by  his  banishment  to  Gaul.  A  year 
later,  the  procuratorship  of  Judaea  and  Samaria 
was  abolished,  and  Agrippa's  dominions  were 
extended  to  include  these  provinces,  so  that  he 
now  held  sway  over  the  whole  of  his  grand- 
father's kingdom.  His  policy  was  to  please 
the  Pharisees,  without  offending  the  Romans  ; 
consequently  he  conformed  to  Pharisaic  prac- 
tices, respected  Jewish  prejudices  and  tradi- 
tions,»and  persecuted  as  schismatic  the  early 
Christian  Church  (Ac  121-19).  After  a  reign 
of  thi'ee  years,  he  died  suddenly  at  Caesarea 
(Ac  12 23);  and,  his  son  Agrippa  II  being  set 
aside  as  too  young  for  rule,  the  whole  kingdom 
was  placed  under  procurators,  subordinate  to 
the  governor  of  Syria. 

(4)  Palestinian  Procurators.  The  order  of 
these  was  :  Cuspius  Fadus  (44-46  a.d.),  Tibe- 
rius Alexander  (46-48  a.d.),  Ventidius  Cuma- 
nus  (48-52  a.d.),  Felix  (52-60  a.d.),  Porcius 
Festus  (60-62  a.d.),  Albinus  (62-64  a.d.),  and 
Gessius  Florus  (64-66  a.d.).  Under  them  the 
condition  of  things  that  had  prevailed  under 
the  former  procurators  was  accentuated  ;  mis- 
understanding, oppression,  and  extortion  ripen- 
ing the  hatred  and  disaffection  of  the  Jews. 
Alexander,  though  of  JeM'ish  descent,  was  an 
implacable  tyrant  ;  Felix  was  so  cruel  and 
intolerant  that  lawlessness  grew  rampant,  and 
the  Zealots,  increasing  in  numbers  and  daring, 
and  now  called  Sicarii,  from  the  weapon  (sica) 
which  they  can-ied,  kept  the  country  seething 
with  revolt  ;  Florus  strained  the  patience  and 
endurance  of  the  people  to  the  breaking  point. 
Caesarea  was  the  scene  of  the  first  outbreak. 
In  that  Gentile  city  there  was  a  large  colony 
of  Jews,  who  at  this  time  had  settlements  all 
over  the  civilised  world,  in  Babylonia,  Asia 
Minor,  Upper  and  Lower  Egypt,  Greece,  and 
Italy.  The  Jews  of  Caesarea,  having  been 
deprived  of  their  civil  rights,  were  insulted  and 
maltreated  in  the  streets,  and  forced  to  quit 
the  town.  Florus  chose  this  critical  moment 
to  plunder  the  Temple  treasure  and  the  upper 
city  of  Jerusalem,  and  put  many  of  the  in- 
habitants to  death.  Retaliations  followed,  and 
soon  throughout  the  country  Jew  and  Gentile 
were  locked  in  deadly  strife.  The  procurator 
appealed  for  help  to  the  Governor  of  Syria, 
Cestus  Gallius,  who  marched  to  his  relief  with 
23,000  men,  and,  quickly  subduing  Galilee, 
appeared  before  Jerusalem.  Forced  to  retreat, 
he  was  followed  by  the  Jews,  and  defeated  at 


lii 


HISTORY,   LITERATURE,   ETC.,   BETWEEN   OT.   AND   NT. 


Beth-horon  with  heavy  loss.  Rome  now  sent 
her  most  experienced  general,  Vespasian,  with 
a  large  increase  of  forces,  to  carry  on  the  war. 
During  the  summer  of  67  A.D.  he  brought  the 
country  districts  into  subjection,  and  took 
many  of  the  smaller  towns,  Josephus,  the  his- 
torian, being  one  of  the  prisoners  captured. 
Jerusalem  he  let  alone  for  the  time,  as  panic  and 
fanaticism  were  there  doing  their  deadly  work, 
and  thinning  the  ranks  of  the  defenders.  With 
the  help  of  26,000  Idumseans,  the  Zealots  had 
secured  complete  control,  and  the  consequent 
feuds  and  murders,  aggravated  by  pestilence 
and  famine,  were  fast  bringing  the  city  to  a 
terrible  pass.  In  the  summer  of  69  a.d.  Ves- 
pasian was  proclaimed  emperor  at  Rome,  and 
his  son  Titus  took  over  the  conduct  of  the 
war.  Jerusalem  fell  to  him  in  August  of 
70  A.D.,  after  a  four  months'  siege  of  terrible 
suffering  and  almost  incredible  orgies  of  rage 
and  bloodshed.  Titus  would  have  spared  the 
Temple  and  city,  but  they  were  set  on  fire  by 
his  soldiers,  and  burned  to  the  ground.  Most 
of  the  inhabitants  were  massacred  ;  those  who 
survived  were  sold  into  slavery,  or  reserved 
to   grace  the  conqueror's   triumph  at  Rome. 


Thus  was  fulfilled  the  warning  of  Christ  forty 
years  before  (Lkig'i^-is). 

Three  fortresses  held  Qut  for  a  while,  but 
were  ultimately  taken  :  Machserus,  to  the  E. 
of  the  Dead  Sea,  Herodeion  and  Massada  to 
the  W.  The  last-mentioned,  which  stood  on 
an  almost  inaccessible  mountain-top,  was  only 
captured  after  a  prolonged  siege  (73  a.d.),  and 
then  the  besiegers  found  to  their  horror  that  all 
the  defenders  had  committed  suicide  together. 

(5  )  The  end.  Judasa  became  a  colony  under 
a  Roman  governor,  the  condition  of  the  in- 
habitants resembling  that  of  their  brethren 
of  the  Dispersion.  Without  political  rights, 
without  their  Sanhedrin,  without  their  Temple 
and  priests,  they  were  like  strangers  in  a 
strange  land.  Once  again,  in  Hadrian's  time, 
they  rebelled  and,  under  the  leadership  of 
Simon  Bar-Kocheba,  resisted  the  Roman  power 
for  over  three  years  (132-135  A.D.)  ;  but  the 
revolt  was  stamped  out  in  blood,  and  Jeru- 
salem turned  into  a  Gentile  city,  under  the 
name  of  ^lia  Capitolina,  into  which  the  Jews 
were  forbidden  to  enter.  Here  their  history 
closes,  so  far  as  their  association  with  the  land 
of  their  fathers  is  concerned. 


LITERATURE    OF   THE   PERIOD   BETWEEN   THE    OLD 
AND   NEW   TESTAMENTS 


According  to  the  theory  of  the  Jewish 
Church,  direct  revelation  ceased  with  the  pro- 
phets ;  hence  no  books  were  admitted  into  the 
Old  Testament  Canon  which  were  known  to 
have  been  produced  after  the  time  of  Ezra 
and  the  Great  Synagogue.  A  considerable 
body  of  religious  literature  is  extant,  belong- 
ing to  the  period  that  supervened  before  the 
rise  of  the  New  Testament  Canon.  Emanat- 
ing from  centres  so  widely  diifused  as  Egypt, 
Palestine,  and  Babylonia,  it  is  not  only  inter- 
esting in  itself,  but  an  indispensable  source 
of  information  upon  the  course  of  contem- 
porary thought  and  events.  The  books  of 
which  it  is  composed  vary  in  character,  from 
the  narrative  and  legendary  to  the  didactic 
and  prophetic,  but  as  a  whole  reflect  the  later 
developments  of  social  and  religious  life 
among  the  Jews,  their  national  vicissitudes, 
and  the  foreign  influences  to  which  they  were 
subjected.  They  thus  help  to  bridge  the 
chasm  between  the  Old  Testament  and  the 
New,  and  throw  light  upon  the  preparation 
proceeding  in  the  world  for  the  advent  of  the 
Christian  faith,  and  the  environment  in  which 
it  originally  found  itself. 

Many  of  them  are  distinguished  from  the 
canonical  Scriptures  by  their  manifest  infe- 
riority of  thought  and  style,  which  betrays 
itself  in  a  want  of  freshness  and  originality, 
and  a  tendency  to  rhetorical  and  artificial  ex- 


pression. Reverence  for  the  past  is  a  prevail- 
ing feature  of  these  books ;  and  this  appears, 
sometimes,  in  the  modification  and  enlarge- 
ment of  Old  Testament  narratives  and  the 
imitation  of  books  like  Proverbs  and  Job  :  at 
other  times,  in  exaggerated  accounts  of  the 
doings  of  Jewish  heroes,  and  fulsome  esti- 
mates of  their  characters.  Not  infrequently, 
however,  they  rise  to  a  higher  level ;  and  not 
only,  as  in  1  Maccabees,  contain  reliable, 
historical  matter  of  the  utmost  importance, 
but  also,  as  in  Wisdom  and  Ecclesiasticus,  ex- 
hibit a  felicity  of  diction  and  grasp  of  religious 
truth  which  put  them  on  a  level  with  some  of 
the  books  of  the  Canon.  The  higher  elements 
of  their  teaching,  the  hopes  they  originated 
or  sustained,  and  their  anticipations  of  New 
Testament  thought  and  phraseology,  will  be 
indicated  in  the  review  of  the  development  of 
Jewish  religion  that  follows  this  article  (p.  Ixvi). 

I.  The  Apocrypha 


1  Esdras. 

2  Esdras. 
Tobit. 
Judith. 

The  rest  of  Esther. 
Wisdom. 
Ecclesiasticus. 
Baruch. 


Song  of  the  Three  Holy 

Children. 
History  of  Susanna. 
Bel  and  the  Dragon. 
Prayer  of  Manasses. 

1  Maccabees. 

2  Maccabees. 


liii 


This   is  a   collection   of    books   important 


HISTORY,   LITERATURE,  ETC.,   BETWEEN   OT.   AND  NT. 


enough  to  have  had  canonical  authority  claimed 
for  them.  They  have  never,  however,  been 
able  to  secure  more  than  the  general  approval 
of  the  Jewish  or  the  Christian  Church.  Among 
the  Alexandrian  Jews  they  were  held  in 
such  high  repute  as,  with  the  exception  of 
2  Esdras,  to  be  embodied  in  their  (Greek)  ver- 
sion of  the  Old  Testament  Scriptures.  Some 
of  the  early  Christian  Fathers,  notably  Au- 
gustine, accepted  and  used  them  as  sacred 
literature,  thereby  establishing  a  tradition  in 
the  Roman  Church,  which  led  to  the  recogni- 
tion of  their  canonicity  at  the  Council  of 
Trent.  In  connexion  with  this  view,  the 
term  deutero-canonical  is  sometimes  applied 
to  them  :  it  indicates  that  they  belong  to  a 
second  canon  of  Scripture  only  slightly,  if  at 
all,  inferior  to  the  first.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  Palestinian  Jews  rigidly  excluded  them 
from  the  Hebrew  Canon,  and  were  followed 
in  their  unfavourable  estimate  by  the  great 
Christian  scholar  Jerome.  Generally  speak- 
ing, his  position  with  respect  to  them  is  that 
which  prevails  in  the  modern  Reformed 
Church :  they  may  be  read  for  edification,  as 
they  contain  valuable  lessons  for  the  conduct 
of  life,  but  they  are  not  to  be  used  as  a  basis 
of  doctrine. 

The  term,  '  Apocrypha,'  by  which  they  are 
known,  is  derived  from  the  Greek,  and  means 
'  secret '  or  '  hidden.'  It  used  to  be  applied 
to  the  doctrinal  writings  of  religious  and 
philosophical  sects,  which  were  concealed  from 
the  world,  and  even  withheld  from  many  of 
their  own  members.  Originally,  therefore, 
there  was  nothing  objectionable  about  it :  it 
simply  implied  that  the  books  so  designated 
were  confined  in  their  use  to  a  limited  circle  ; 
but,  as  some  of  them  were  found  to  assume 
an  authorship  to  which  they  were  not  entitled, 
and  as  all  of  them  had  their  claims  of  canon- 
icity rejected,  the  word  acquired  a  disparaging 
sense,  and  '  apocryphal '  came  to  be  an  equi- 
valent for  spurious  or  false.  This  no  doubt 
has  affected  the  estimate  put  upon  these 
books,  and  the  treatment  they  have  received  ; 
though  their  uncertain  origin  and  uncanonical 
authority  in  no  way  detract  from  their  historic 
significance  and  usefulness.  Some  of  the 
books  of  the  Canon  are  in  similar  case  so  far 
as  uncertainty  of  origin  is  concerned.  Like 
them,  the  'apocryphal'  books  must  be  con- 
sidered on  their  merits,  when  it  will  be  found 
that  they  are  of  great  value  both  from  the 
religious  and  historical  point  of  view.  They 
are  the  oldest  and  most  important  witnesses 
to  the  period  that  succeeded  the  Captivity  ; 
they  help  to  bring  its  great  movements  of 
thought  and  activity  before  us  ;  they  provide 
an  independent  testimony  to  the  place  and 
influence  which  the  canonical  books  of  Scrip- 
ture had  already  acquired  among  the  Jews  ; 


and  they  show  us,  in  actual  operation,  that 
fusion  of  Hellenistic  language  and  culture 
with  Jewish  speech  and  modes  of  thought, 
which  is  reflected  in  the  New  Testament,  and 
which  prepared  the  way  for  the  expansion  and 
development  of  the  Christian  religion. 

(1)  The  First  Book  of  Esdras 

Esdras  is  the  Greek  form  of  '  Ezra,'  the 
name  of  the  great  Jewish  scribe,  with  whom 
two  of  the  canonical  books  are  intimately  con- 
cerned. These  are  frequently  conjoined  in 
a  sequence  with  the  two  apocryphal  books, 
which  then  become  3rd  and  4th,  1st  and  4th, 
or  1st  and  3rd  Esdras  respectively.  The 
English  usage,  however,  which  follows  the 
method  of  the  Geneva  Bible,  is  to  give  the  names 
of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah  to  the  canonical  books, 
and  call  the  apocryphal  1st  and  2nd  Esdras. 
This  arrangement  is  sufficiently  convenient, 
and  is  warranted  by  the  fact  that  the  apo- 
cryphal books  exist  only  in  Greek  and  Latin 
versions,  not  in  Hebrew  or  Chaldaic. 

For  the  most  part,  1  Esdras  is  a  compilation 
from  the  canonical  Scriptures,  probably  done 
by  various  hands.  The  passages  transcribed, 
with  unimportant  alterations,  are  the  last  two 
chs.  of  2  Chi'onicles,  considerable  portions  of 
Ezra,  and  Nehemiah  7  '^'^-8 1^  ;  all  dealing  with 
the  destruction  and  rebuilding  of  the  Temple, 
and  the  promulgation  of  the  Law  by  Ezra. 
There  is,  however,  an  original  section  (chs. 
3-5'^),  in  which  a  striking  incident  or  legend 
is  introduced.  Zerubbabel,  at  the  Persian 
court,  gives  such  an  exhibition  of  wisdom,  as 
to  secure  the  favour  of  king  Darius,  and  the 
return  of  the  captive  Jews.  In  a  contest  of 
wits,  he  carries  off  the  palm  by  his  eloquent 
praise  of  truth,  and  vindication  of  the  superi- 
ority of  its  power  over  that  of  wine,  the  king, 
or  woman.  '  Great  is  the  earth,'  he  says, 
'  high  is  the  heaven,  swift  is  the  sun  in  his 
course.  .  .  Is  he  not  great  that  maketh  these 
things  ?  therefore  great  is  the  truth,  and 
stronger  than  all  thnigs.  .  .  With  her  there  is 
no  accepting  of  persons  or  rewards.  . .  Neither 
in  her  judgment  is  any  unrighteousness ;  and 
she  is  the  strength,  kingdom,  power,  and 
majesty  of  all  ages.  Blessed  be  the  God  of 
truth.'  To  this  all  the  people  answer,  '  Great 
is  Truth,  and  mighty  above  all  things  '  ;  which, 
with  some  slight  variation,  has  passed  into  a 
proverbial  expressifin  {i^^-'^^). 

The  date  of  this  book  cannot  be  determined 
with  certainty,  as  there  is  no  external  evidence 
of  its  existence  earlier  than  .Tosephus  (100  A.D.). 
It  is  supposed,  however,  to  have  been  written 
in  Alexandria,  about  the  end  of  the  second  or 
the  beginning  of  the  first  centviry  B.C.  Its 
emphatic  representation  of  the  favour  shown 
to  the  Jews  by  the  Persian  kings  would  sug- 
gest, as  the  aim  of  the  author,  the  desire  to 


1 

i 


4 


I 


HISTORY,  LITERATURE,  ETC.,   BETWEEN   OT.   AND  NT. 


obtain  similar  benefits  from  the  king  of  Egypt, 
but  there  is  hardly  support  for  the  view  that 
the  occasion  was  the  building  of  the  Temple 
of  Onias  for  the  Jews  of  Alexandria  in  170  B.C. 

(2)  The  Second  Book  of  Esdras 

As  cast  in  a  prophetic  rather  than  a  historic 
mould,  this  book  differs  widely  from  the  fore- 
going, and  used  to  be  called  '  the  Revelation 
of  Ezra.'  It  is  a  combination  of  three  distinct 
writings,  or  an  original  writing  supplemented 
by  two  considerable  additions  from  different 
hands.  There  are  16  chs.  in  all,  but  the  first 
and  last  pairs  form  sections  by  themselves,  and 
are  evidently  of  later  date  than  the  main  body 
of  the  work.  Their  affinities  with  New  Testa- 
ment thought  and  phraseology  suggest  for  each 
of  them  a  Christian  source  :  cp.  1  ^0-33  ^ith 
Mt2337f._  213  ^th  Mt2534,  158  with  Rev6i«, 
and  1654  with~^kl6i5.  The  burden  of  these 
chs.  is  the  rebuke  of  Israel  for  her  rebellions, 
and  the  summoning  of  the  Gentiles  to  the 
enjoyment  of  the  blessings  forfeited  by  her, 
with  denunciations  of  judgment,  quite  in  the 
vein  of  the  Old  Testament  prophets,  upon  the 
nations  that  provoke  and  withstand  Grod.  They 
are  probably  as  late  as  the  third  century  a.d. 

Chs.  3-14,  which  form  the  larger  section  of 
the  book,  are  of  purely  Jewish  origin,  though 
they  were   known    from    early   times   to    the 
Christian  Church.     They  describe  a  series  of 
revelations   and    visions   purporting   to   have 
been   communicated  to  Ezra  in  the  thirtieth 
year  of  the  Babylonian  captivity.     Depressed 
with  the  sorrows  of  his  people  and  doubts  of 
the  righteous  government  of  God,  he  is  visited 
by  the  angel  Uriel,  who  reproves  his  sadnes-^ , 
and  throws  light  upon  the  moral  mysteries  of 
the    world.     In    three    revelations    and    five 
visions  Uriel  shows  him  that,  though  the  pur- 
poses of  God  are  unsearchable,  his  Providence 
is  surely  working  for  the  defeat  of  evil  and 
the  triumph  of  good.     Iniquity  may  succeed 
for  a  time,  but  it  has  its  appointed  limit,  and 
when  the   signs  indicated  in  the   visions  are 
fulfilled,  the  Son  of  God,  the  Anointed  One, 
shall  appear  and  reign.     The  powers  of  the 
heathen  shall  be  broken,  and  the  lost  tribes  of 
Israel  gathered  together  again  into  their  city 
of  Zion.     Meantime  Ezra  is  to  have  the  Law 
written  out  for  the  people,  and  seventy  books 
of  mysteries  prepared  for  those  worthy  to  par- 
ticipate in  the  secret  things  of  God.     In  several 
places  there  are  noteworthy  references  to  the 
Messiah  (7  27f.    I23if.   1332,37,52)^  and   in   one 
passage  (729)  a  curious  statement   regarding 
His  death  :  '  after  these  years  shall  my  son 
Christ  die,  and  all  men  that  have  life.' 

A  clue  to  the  date  of  the  book  is  afforded 
by  the  vision  of  the  eagle  (1 1  i-125i),  the  wings 
and  heads  of  which  are  evident  allusions  to 
successive  emperors  of  Rome.     The  last  to 

Iv 


whom  reference  is  made  is  Domitian  ;  in  his 
reign  accordingly  the  composition  of  the  book 
is  generally  placed  (81-96  a.d.).  The  destruc- 
tion of  Jerusalem  by  Titus,  and  the  consequent 
troubles  of  the  Jews,  may  account  for  the 
melancholy  of  the  writer  and  his  choice  of 
subject.  Some  remains  of  a  Greek  version  are 
extant  ;  but  since  the  discovery  of  a  missing 
fragment  by  Professor  Bensly,  in  1875,  the 
whole  exists  in  a  Latin  translation,  and  on  this 
account  is  sometimes  called  the  Latin  Esdras, 
as  distinguished  from  the  other  or  Greek 
Esdras. 

(3)  The  Book  of  Tobit 

This  is  a  religious  tale,  cast  in  very  pleas- 
ing form.  It  may  have  had  a  historical  basis, 
but  that  would  be  of  little  importance  in  com- 
parison with  its  purpose.  The  scene  is  laid 
in  Nineveh,  in  the  time  of  the  Assyrian  cap- 
tivity. Tobit,  a  pious,  God-fearing  man,  of 
the  tribe  of  Naphtali,  loses  his  eyesight,  and 
falls  into  such  other  grievous  misfortunes  as 
cause  him  to  pray  for  death.  Calling  to  mind 
ten  talents  of  silver  which  he  had  left  with  a 
kinsman  in  Media,  he  sends  his  son  Tobias  for 
them,  accompanied  by  a  stranger  hired  for  the 
journey.  At  Ecbatana  they  lodge  in  the  house 
of  Raguel,  whose  daughter  Sara  is  in  great 
distress  and  desirous  of  death,  owing  to  the 
slaying  of  her  seven  successive  husbands  on 
the  wedding  night  by  the  evil  spirit  Asmodeus. 
Tobias  marries  her,  and  she  is  delivered  from 
the  power  of  the  evil  spirit.  The  ten  talents 
of  silver  are  recovered,  the  eyesight  of  Tobit 
is  miraculously  restored,  and  both  households 
enjoy  renewed  prosperity — all  through  the 
instrumentality  of  the  travelling  companion 
of  Tobias,  who  proves  to  be  the  angel  Raphael, 
sent  by  God  in  answer  to  the  prayers  of  Tobit 
and  Sara. 

The  story  was  doubtless  intended  to  en- 
courage and  comfort  the  Jews  of  foreign  lands, 
and  stimulate  their  observance  of  the  Law. 
Incidentally,  considerable  emphasis  is  laid 
upon  almsgiving  (e.g.  4"-ii  128' 9)^  and  the 
marriage  of  Tobias  may  be  introduced  to  point 
the  advantages  of  Jews  intermarrying  with 
their  own  people. 

It  is  difficult  to  assign  a  date  to  the  book, 
but  various  indications  suggest  either  the 
second  or  the  beginning  of  the  first  century 
B.C.  It  seems  to  have  had  a  Hebrew  original, 
but  there  is  no  Hebrew  text  extant  earlier  than 
the  LXX  version. 

(4)  The  Book  of  Judith 

This  is  another  historical  romance,  though 
different  in  kind  from  that  of  Tobit.  Judith, 
the  heroine,  a  pious  and  beautiful  widow,  per- 
forms a  deed  of  daring  for  her  people  not 
unlike  that  of  Jael  in  the  book  of  Judges. 


HISTORY,   LITERATURE,   ETC.,   BETWEEN   OT.    AND   NT. 


Her  native  city  of  Bethulia  (said  in  4^  7^  to 
be  over  against  Esdraelon,  though  identified  by 
some  modern  scholars  with  Jerusalem,  on  the 
interpretation  of  the  name  as  '  House  of  God '), 
being  besieged  by  Holofernes,  the  general  of 
Nebuchadnezzar,  she  determines  to  effect  its 
deliverance.  Making  her  way  with  a  single 
attendant  into  the  camp  of  Holofernes,  she 
captivates  him  with  her  beauty,  and  secures 
his  favour  ;  then,  when  he  is  filled  with  wine, 
she  cuts  off  his  head,  and  returns  with  it  to 
the  city.  The  courage  of  the  besieged  is 
roused  to  such  a  pitch  that  they  rush  out  upon 
the  enemy,  and  put  them  to  complete  rout. 

The  story  has  been  a  frequent  subject  of 
art,  and  may  have  had  its  origin  in  some  actual 
occurrence  ;  but  as  it  stands,  it  can  hardly  be 
historical.  Its  general  features  are  improbable, 
and  it  contains  many  historical  and  geographical 
misconceptions.  Its  purpose  evidently  is  to 
animate  the  patriotic  zeal  of  the  Jews,  and 
confii'm  them,  not  only  in  the  observance  of 
their  own  Law  and  customs,  but  in  their  re- 
sistance of  foreign  oppression.  The  time  of 
the  Maccabean  struggle  would  accord  well^with 
its  spirit,  and  many  are  disposed  to  ascribe  its 
composition  to  that  period,  about  the  middle 
of  the  second  century  B.C.  Others  bring  it 
down  a  century  later — to  the  time  of  Hyr- 
canus  II — and  find  veiled  allusions  in  the  high 
qualities  with  which  the  heroine  is  credited  to 
queen  Alexandra,  a  strong  supporter  of  the 
Pharisees  (76-67  B.C.).  It  probably  belongs 
to  one  or  other  of  these  periods. 

(•5)  The  rest  of  the  Book  of  Esther 

In  the  LXX  version  of  the  canonical  book 
of  Esther  a  number  of  passages  appear  which 
are  not  in  the  Hebrew  text.  These  interpola- 
tions were  probably  introduced  in  the  Jewish 
schools  of  Alexandria,  in  which  it  was  not  un- 
usual to  work  up  traditional  narratives  into 
longer  form  and  embellish  them  with  striking 
details.  Collected  together  by  Jerome,  and 
placed  at  the  end  of  his  translation  of  Esther, 
they  now  form  the  apocryphal  book.  Besides 
amplifying  the  scriptural  story,  they  evidently 
aim  at  giving  it  a  more  distinctly  religious 
turn,  by  ascribing  the  deliverance  of  the  Jews 
from  their  Gentile  enemies  to  the  intervention 
of  God  in  answer  to  the  prayers  of  Mordecai 
and  Esther.  In  the  six  and  a  half  short  chap- 
ters of  which  the  supplement  consists  these 
prayers  are  given,  as  well  as  a  dream  of 
Mordecai,  and  two  letters  of  Artaxerxes  the 
king — one  commanding  a  wholesale  destruction 
of  the  Jews,  and  another  revoking  that  order 
and  enjoining  the  thirteenth  day  of  the  twelfth 
month  Adar  to  be  kept  as  a  memorial  feast. 

These  additions  are  generally  supposed  to 
belong  to  the  first  or  second  century  B.C.  It 
is   easy    to   see   why    the    Alexandrian   Jews 


would  admit  them  into  their  Canon.  They 
illustrated  the  care  of  God  over  His  people  in 
foreign  lands,  and  made  up  by  the  frequent 
mention  of  His  name  for  the  marked  absence 
of  it  in  the  older  book. 

(6)  The  Wisdom  of  Solomon 

This  is  a  book  of  great  interest  and  import- 
ance. As  its  title  indicates,  it  belongs  to  the 
class  of  '  Wisdom  '  literature,  of  which  it  is  one 
of  the  most  striking  examples.  In  it  may  be 
seen  the  stream  of  revealed  truth  coming  into 
contact  with  the  current  of  heathen  specu- 
lation, and  the  '  wisdom '  idea  of  Old  Testament 
times  passing  into  the  later  Logos  doctrine. 
The  ascription  of  its  authorship  to  Solomon 
is,  of  course,  an  example  of  a  common  literary 
device  of  the  period,  and  implies  no  intention 
of  imposing  upon  the  readers.  The  adoption 
of  Solomon's  name  is  only  meant  to  suggest 
the  character  and  scope  of  the  work.  It  was 
quite  in  accordance  with  ancient  usage,  to 
affix  to  an  original  production  the  name  of  a 
great  predecessor,  in  whose  spirit  it  might  be 
presumed  to  be  written,  or  whose  work  it 
professed  to  continue.  In  the  present  in- 
stance, neither  the  author's  contemporaries 
nor  his  future  critics  were  likely  to  be  deceived 
by  the  sponsorship  assumed. 

The  book  is  a  hymn  in  praise  of  Wisdom, 
and  falls  naturally  into  two  parts.     (1)  Chs. 
1-9.    Wisdom    is   regarded    in   a   speculative 
aspect  ;   its  origin  and  effects  are  discussed, 
and  the  pursuit  of  it  is  earnestly  commended 
to  men.     Beginning  with    an  exhortation   to 
seek  Wisdom,  these  chapters  then  lay  down 
the  conditions  of  success — purity  of  thought, 
truthfulness    of   speech,    and   uprightness   in 
deed.     The  position  of  the  Materialist  is  can- 
vassed, and  shown  to  be  the  result  of  voluntary 
ignorance  of   God,  and   the   introduction   of 
death   and   sin   into  the  world    through   the 
envy   of    the    devil.      This    leads   on   to   an 
elaborate  contrast  of  the  righteous  with  the 
wicked,    in    regard    to    their    families,    their 
length  of  life,  and  fate  in  the  world  to  come. 
Wisdom  is  then  eulogised  as  the  true  guide  of 
life  ;    her   properties   are    represented   under 
the   figure    of   a   bride,  and   men,   especially 
rulers,  are  enjoined  to  seek  and  pray  for  her 
after  the  example  of  Solomon. 

(2)  Chs.  10-19.  Wisdom  is  discussed  in  its 
historical  aspect,  as  exhibited  in  the  history 
of  Israel.  First,  a  sketch  is  given  of  the 
lives  of  the  fathers  from  Adam  to  Moses, 
to  illustrate  the  effects  of  the  guidance  of 
Wisdom  ;  this  is  followed  up  by  warnings 
against  the  neglect  of  it,  drawn  from  the 
punishments  that  overtook  the  Egyptians  and 
the  Canaanites  ;  then  the  revolting  character 
and  results  of  idolatry  are  described,  and  a 
comparison  is  instituted  between  the  Israelites 


Ivi 


HISTORY,   LITERATURE,   ETC.,   BETWEEN   OT.    AND   NT. 


and  the  Egyptians,  greatly  in  favour  of  the 
former,  which  is  kept  up  to  the  end  of  the 
book. 

Its  apparently  abrupt  termination  has  sug- 
gested the  idea  that  part  of  it  has  been  lost, 
and  a  supposed  diiference  of  manner  between 
the  two  sections  has  been  taken  to  betray  a 
diiference  of  authorship  ;  but  it  is  doubtful 
whether  there  are  sufficient  grounds  for  either 
surmise.  The  book  is  generally  regarded  as 
complete,  and  the  work  of  one  person — a  Jew 
of  Alexandria,  probably  writing  about  the 
period  217-145  B.C.,  though  the  date  of  his 
composition  is  sometimes  put  considerably 
before  and  after  that  period.  The  style 
throughout  is  in  keeping  with  the  sustained 
loftiness  of  its  thought,  and  both  alike  are 
influenced  by  the  fusion  of  Hebrew  and  classi- 
cal learning  that^ook  place  in  Egypt  before 
the  dawn  of  the  Christian  era.  On  the  one 
hand,  the  point  of  view  is  Jewish,  and  the 
more  valuable  elements  of  the  ancient  faith 
are  justified  and  enforced.  Occasional  Hebraic 
phrases  are  also  used,  and  expressions  and 
ideas  borrowed  from  the  Old  Testament,  as 
well  as  the  name  of  Solomon,  and  the  manner 
of  the  canonical  writings  previously  assigned 
to  him.  On  the  other  hand,  the  language  is 
Greek,  of  a  pure  and  polished  character,  some- 
times rising  into  strains  of  great  eloquence  ; 
and  there  are  frequent  allusions  to  Greek 
customs  and  ideas,  which  could  only  come 
from  one  intimately  acquainted  with  the  cul- 
ture of  the  West.  Thus  in  2^,  the  revellers 
crown  themselves  with  garlands  ;  in  4  2,  con- 
querors in  a  strife  are  rewarded  with  a  wreath  ; 
in  13^^,  every  household  has  its  gods  ;  in  14 1, 
every  ship  has  its  protecting  deity  ;  and  in 
1921,  manna  is  termed  'ambrosial  food.' 
Again,  there  are  evident  references  to  Platonic 
and  Stoic  philosophy,  in  the  '  formless  matter  ' 
(1117)  out  of  which  the  world  is  created  ;  in 
the  application  of  the  phrase  '  understanding 
spirit '  to  Wisdom  (7  22)  ;  in  the  enumeration 
of  the  four  cardinal  virtues  (8'''),  and  else- 
where. There  are  many  compound  words 
peculiar  to  the  book,  such  as  '  infant-slaying  ' 
(117),  'child-killing'  (1423),  'ill-labouring' 
(15^),  and  '  sounding-around  '  (17^)  ;  and  the 
word  '  Protoplast,'  now  used  as  a  scientific 
term,  probably  appears  in  it  for  the  first  time 
(71  10 1).  There  are,  also,  some  felicitous  ex- 
pressions that  have  now  become  current  in 
religious  speech  ;  for  example,  '  a  hope  full 
of  immortality'  (3 4),  and  'the  souls  of  the 
righteous  are  in  the  hand  of  God '  (3 1). 

The  purpose  of  the  book  was  to  vindicate 
the  essentials  of  the  Jewish  faith  against 
materialism,  idolatry,  and  speculative  philoso- 
phy, and  encourage  the  Alexandrian  Jews  to 
adhere  to  the  religion  of  their  fathers,  in  spite 
of  the  seductions  of  heathenism,  and  the  ad- 


verse circumstances  in  which  they  were  placed. 
That  it  had  its  effect  in  this  direction,  even 
to  succeeding  generations,  may  be  seen  from 
the  influence  it  has  exerted  upon  the  New 
Testament.  Some  of  the  books,  such  as  the 
Gospel  of  John  and  Hebrews,  show  consider- 
able affinities  of  thought  with  it,  while  most 
of  them  reflect  its  phraseology.  The  com- 
bination 'gi-ace  and  mercy'  (3^415)  reappears 
in  1  Tim  1  2  and  elsewhere  ;  the  expression  '  for 
truly  they  perhaps  err  while  they  seek  after 
God,  and  have  the  will  to  find  Him'  (13*5)  is 
almost  the  same  as  'that  they  should  seek  the 
Lord  if  haply  they  might  feel  after  Him,  and 
find  Him  '  (Ac  17  2^)  ;  and  the  likeness  between 
517-20  and  Paul's  description  of  the  Christian 
armour  in  Eph  6  ^^'^"  is  too  exact  to  be  acci- 
dental:  cp.  also  35  with  RevS*  166,  726  with 
Hebli3,  132  with  1  Cor  8  5,  etc. 

(7)  The  Wisdom  of  Jesus,  the  Son  of  Sirach, 
or  Ecclesiasticus 

The  former  of  these  two  titles  is  the  more 
ancient,  being  that  of  the  LXX  version,  and 
indicates  the  character  and  authorship  of  the 
book.  The  latter,  which  means  '  pertaining  to 
the  Church'  or  *  Churchly,'  is  the  title  given  to 
it  from  the  fourth  century  onward,  on  account 
of  the  use  made  of  it  in  the  worship  and 
instruction  of  the  Western  Church :  it  ap- 
pears in  the  Latin  and  English  versions.  The 
shorter  forms  '  Proverbs '  and  '  Ben-Sira '  are 
also  found. 

It  is  a  book  of  the  same  class  as  the  preceding, 
having  for  its  subject  the  praise  and  inculca- 
tion of  Wisdom ;  but  it  is  ViTitten  upon  more 
practical  lines,  and  from  a  more  distinctively 
Hebraistic  point  of  view.  In  style  and  thought 
it  stands  between  the  Wisdom  books  of  the 
Old  Testament  Canon  and  the  book  of  Wisdom 
in  the  Apocrypha.  Its  closest  affinities  are 
with  the  book  of  Proverbs.  It  starts  from 
the  same  general  conception  of  Wisdom,  and 
follows  a  similar  method  in  applying  it  by 
means  of  short,  pithy  sayings,  to  moral  con- 
duct and  behaviour.  It  broadens  and  develops 
the  standpoint  of  Proverbs,  but  not  to  the 
same  extent  as  the  Wisdom  of  Solomon,  nor 
does  it  exhibit  the  same  speculative  bias  and 
admixture  of  Greek  philosophical  notions. 
The  one  is  the  native,  Palestinian  type  of  later 
Wisdom  thinking :  the  other  is  its  cosmopoli- 
tan, Alexandi'ian  expression. 

There  is  no  apparent  plan  in  the  book  of 
Ecclesiasticus.  It  is  a  series  of  reflections 
upon  life,  some  doubtless  original,  some  simply 
gathered,  rather  than  a  reasoned  treatise.  Its 
contents,  however,  may  be  roughly  divided  into 
two  unequal  sections.  (1)  Chs.  1-43.  This 
section  opens  with  a  chapter  in  praise  of  Wis- 
dom, and  closes  with  a  sublime  and  powerful 
passage  upon  the  works  of  Nature.    The  inter- 


Ivii 


HISTORY,   LITERATURE,   ETC.,   BETWEEN   OT.  AND   NT. 


vening  chapters  are  devoted  to  the  discussion 
of  Wisdom,  mostly  in  its  practical  bearings,  a 
gi'eat  variety  of  topics  being  introduced,  such 
as  obedience  to  parents,  regard  for  the  poor, 
friendship,  prudence,  envy,  pride,  boastful- 
ness,  women,  and  money.  These  are  sometimes 
called  the  Sayings  of  the  Wise.  They  repre- 
sent the  kind  of  instruction  that  was  needed 
in  the  circumstances  of  the  time.  The  decay 
of  the  national  idea,  consequent  upon  the  exile, 
had  given  rise  to  questions  of  individual  be- 
haviour and  responsibility,  which  had  not  been 
pressing  at  the  time  the  older  canonical  books 
were  written.  Something  was  needed  to  sup- 
plement the  word  of  revelation,  and  this  the 
son  of  Sirach  undertakes  to  supply.  Many  of 
the  sentiments  are  exalted  enough,  but  others 
merely  worldly  wise,  and  some  rather  repellent 
to  the  modern  mind.  Even  at  their  lowest, 
however,  they  seldom  fail  to  be  interesting  for 
the  light  they  shed  upon  contemporary  life  and 
thought. 

(2)  Chs.  44-51.  This  section  passes  in  re- 
view the  great  names  of  Hebrew  history,  and 
eulogises  the  bearers  of  them  for  their  faith- 
fulness to  God  and  the  Law.  The  names  of 
Ezra,  Daniel,  and  Mordecai  are  omitted  from 
the  list,  and  in  a  kind  of  Epilogue  the  feeling 
of  the  time  to  the  Samaritans  is  shown  in  a 
passing  reference  to  them  as  '  a  nation  which 
my  heart  abhorreth '  (50  ^s.  26).  it  closes  with 
an  appendix  in  the  form  of  a  prayer  or 
thanksgiving,  the  genuineness  of  which  has 
been  disputed,  but  which  is  perhaps  the  author's 
own  afterthought. 

If  there  are  any  traces  of  Greek  influence 
in  the  book,  they  are  confined  to  a  few  general 
conceptions,  such  as  the  identification  of  virtue 
with  knowledge,  and  the  emphasis  laid  upon 
moderation  in  action.  These  may  quite  well 
be  accounted  for  by  the  Hellenistic  atmosphere 
that  prevailed  even  in  Palestine  itself.  The 
thought  is  predominantly  Jewish,  and  of  a 
period  antecedent  at  least  to  the  rise  of  the 
Maccabees.  Wisdom  is  viewed  in  its  later 
scriptural  significance,  as  the  knowledge  of 
God,  and  the  guide  and  inspiration  of  life  ; 
God  is  regarded  as  the  universal  Lord,  the 
Creator  and  Governor  of  the  whole  world  of 
men  and  things ;  no  account  is  taken  of  inter- 
mediate beings,  except  in  quotations  from  the 
Old  Testament ;  prominence  is  given  to  the 
Law,  but  there  is  no  indication  of  a  belief  in 
the  resurrection,  and  no  definite  Messianic 
anticipation  ;  the  rewards  of  a  good  life  are 
still  to  be  found  in  temporal  prosperity  and 
posthumous  fame. 

This  is  quite  in  agreement  with  the  author- 
ship which  the  book  itself  claims,  and  the  date 
which  is  accordingly  assumed  for  it.  Unlike 
the  rest  of  the  Apocrypha,  it  carries  its  real 
author's  name  with  it.     In  50  27,  he  calls  him- 


self 'Jesus  the  son  of  Sirach  of  Jerusalem'; 
and  there  is  a  preface  to  the  book  containing 
further  details.  According  to  it,  the  book  was 
composed  by  Jesus,  in  Hebrew,  and  translated 
into  Greek  by  his  grandson  (the  writer  of  the 
preface),  in  the  thirty-eighth  year  of  Euergetes, 
king  of  Egypt,  in  which  country  the  translation 
is  also  stated  to  have  been  made.  This  is 
generally  understood  to  refer  to  Ptolemy  YII 
Physcon  (170-116  B.C.),  the  thirty-eighth  year 
of  whose  reign  would  give  132  B.C.  as  the  date 
of  the  translation.  Going  back  two  genera- 
tions, we  come  to  the  first  quarter  of  the 
century,  in  which  accordingly  the  composition 
of  the  original  must  be  placed.  Corroboration 
of  this  date  is  found  in  the  fact  that  the  list 
of  gi-eat  men  mentioned  in  the  book  closes 
with  Simon  the  high  priest,  understood  to  be 
Simon  II  (218-198  B.C.)  ;  and  the  account  given 
of  him  is  so  circumstantial  as  to  suggest  most 
strongly  actual  knowledge  on  the  part  of  the 
author.  This  interpretation  of  the  preface  is 
sometimes  disputed,  on  the  strength  of  an 
ambiguity  in  the  Greek,  and  the  references  ap- 
plied to  a  previous  Euergetes  and  Simon  ;  but 
the  probabilities  are  all  in  favour  of  it.  Nearly 
one-half  of  the  original  Hebrew  text,  it  may 
be  mentioned,  has  been  discovered  in  recent 
years. 

The  preface  of  the  translator,  besides  help- 
ing to  solve  the  questions  of  date  and  author- 
ship, throws  a  valuable  light  upon  the  authority 
and  contents  of  the  Old  Testament  Canon  in 
his  day.  He  speaks  of  it  as  the  Law,  the 
Prophets,  and  the  rest  of  the  books. 

There  are  no  direct  citations  from  Ecclesi- 
asticus  in  the  New  Testament ;  but  various 
passages  seem  to  show  an  acquaintance  with  it : 
cp.  29i2f.  with  Lkl2i9f-,  2 1-5  with  Jasl2-4,  and 
511  with  Jasl^^.  Later  writers,  however, 
frequently  appeal  to  it  ;  and  John  Bunyan,  in 
his  '  Grace  Abounding,'  relates  how  he  was 
'  greatly  enlightened  and  encouraged '  by  the 
passage  :  '  Look  at  the  generations  of  old,  and 
see  ;  did  ever  any  trust  in  the  Lord,  and  was 
confounded  ?  or  did  any  abide  in  His  fear,  and 
was  forsaken  ?  or  whom  did  He  ever  despise, 
that  called  upon  Him  ?  For  the  Lord  is  full 
of  compassion  and  mercy,  longsuffering,  and 
very  pitiful,  and  forgiveth  sins,  and  saveth  in 
time  of  affliction  '  (2 10,  ii).  Here,  as  at  18  w-is^ 
the  conception  of  God's  forbearance  approaches 
very  close  to  the  thought  of  Ps  103. 

(8)  The  Book  of  Baruch 

In  this  book,  which  is  not  to  be  confounded 
with  the  Apocalypse  of  Baruch,  several  docu- 
ments are  brought  together  under  the  name  of 
Baruch,  the  faithful  friend  and  secretary  of 
the  prophet  Jeremiah.  Most  of  it  professes 
to  have  been  written  by  him,  at  Babylon,  five 
years  after  Jerusalem  was  destroyed  by  the 


Iviii 


HISTORY,   LITERATURE,   ETC.,   BETWEEN   OT.    AND   NT. 


Chaldeans ;  but  linguistic  and  historical  con- 
siderations alike  preclude  this.     It  consists  at 
least  of  two  distinct  sections  and   a  supple- 
mentary chapter,  each  in  all  probability  eman- 
ating from  a  different  hand.     (1)  1-3*^.  After 
a  short  historical  introduction,  a  confession  of 
sin  is  put  into  the  mouths  of  the  captive  Jews, 
and  a  prayer  that  God  will  forgive  them  their 
offences,  especially  that   of   disregarding  the 
prophets.    (2)  3^-5^.  A  discourse  is  addressed 
to  the  Israelites  scattered  among  the  nations, 
ascribing  their  afflictions  to  their  disobedience 
to  God  the  fountain  of  Wisdom,  and  comfort- 
ing them  with  the  hope  of  a  glorious  restora- 
tion.    There  is  no  organic  connexion  between 
these  two   sections,  and  they  even  appear  to 
have  been  originally\,written  in  different  lan- 
guages— the  one  in  Hebrew,  and  the  other  in 
Greek.     Both  of   them,   however,  adopt  the 
prophetic  style  of  utterance  :  the  first  being 
largely  modelled  upon  Jeremiah  and  Daniel, 
the  second  upon  Job  and  Isaiah.    It  is  difficult 
to  assign  dates  to  them.     If,  as  seems  most 
probable,  the  mention  of  the  fall  of  Jerusalem 
is  an  allusion  to  its  destruction  by  the  Romans, 
and  not,  as  is  sometimes  supposed,  to  its  cap- 
ture by  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  the  former  section 
would  require  to  be  placed  after  70  A.D.     On 
the  other  hand,  the  latter  section  may  be  some- 
what  earlier.     Its   closing   verses   bear  some 
resemblance  to  a  passage  in  the  Psalms  of 
Solomon,  which  are  usually  referred  to  the 
middle  of  the  first  century  B.C.,  so  that  it  is 
generally  put  subsequent  to  that,  or  about  the 
beginning  of  the  Christian  era.    The  combina- 
tion of  the  two  sections,  as  we  have  them  in 
the  book  of  Baruch,  could  not  take  place  much 
before  the  end  of  the  first  century  A.D.     It 
does  not  seem  to  have  been  held  in  much 
esteem  by  the  Jews. 

The  supplementary  chapter  (6)  purports  to 
be  a  letter  written  by  Jeremiah,  the  prophet, 
to  the  Jews  about  to  be  led  captive  to  Baby- 
lon. It,  too,  is  unauthentic,  being  most  likely 
the  production  of  an  Alexandrian  Jew  of  the 
first  century  B.C.  It  is  a  curious  piece  of 
writing,  and  deals  chiefly  with  the  folly  of 
idolaters  and  the  impotency  of  idols.  Pro- 
bably it  was  suggested  to  the  writer  by  the 
letter  mentioned  in  Jer  29 1,  and  offered  a  safe 
medium  for  the  conveyance  to  his  fellow- 
countrymen  of  a  warning  against  the  dangers 
and  temptations  which  surrounded  them  in 
Egypt. 

(9)  The  Song  of  the  Three  Holy  Children 

This  and  the  two  following  pieces,  each 
of  a  single  chapter,  appear  in  the  Greek  Bible 
as  additions  to  Daniel.  They  illustrate  the 
tendency  of  the  Jewish  schools,  especially  in 
Alexandria,  to  weave  moral  and  religious 
legends  round  the  striking  names  of  sacred 


lix 


history.  Nothing  is  known  of  their  origin, 
which  may  have  been  quite  independent  of  the 
canonical  book  :  in  any  case,  they  were  incor- 
porated with  it  before  the  beginning  of  the 
Christian  era. 

The  Three  Holy  Children  are  Shadrach, 
Meshach,  and  Abed-nego,  under  their  Hebrew 
names  of  Ananias,  Misael,  and  Azarias  (Dan 
l*^'^).  Their  Song  is  inserted  in  the  Greek 
Daniel  between  vv.  23  and  24  of  the  third 
chapter,  at  the  point  where  they  '  fell  down 
bound  into  the  midst  of  the  burning  fiery 
furnace.'  It  consists  of  (a)  (vv.  1-22)  a 
prayer  of  Azarias,  which  is  quite  general  in 
its  terms,  and  makes  confession  and  suppli- 
cation for  Israel  as  a  whole,  after  the  manner 
of  Dan  9  and  E5:r9  ;  (b)  (vv.  23-27)  a  con- 
necting narrative  which,  in  its  description  of 
the  preservation  of  the  three  Hebrews  from  the 
flames  that  consume  some  of  the  Chaldeans, 
seems  to  give  the  answer  to  the  prayer  ;  (c) 
(vv.  28-68)  a  thanksgiving  or  invocation  to 
creation  in  all  its  different  orders  to  praise 
and  bless  the  Lord. 

The  last  section,  which  is  the  Song  proper, 
has  only  one  reference  to  the  deliverance 
which  purports  to  be  the  occasion  of  it.  It  is 
largely  dependent  upon  such  thanksgiving 
Psalms  as  10320f.^  136,  148,  and  Ecclus  43. 
Under  the  name  of  '  The  Benedicite,'  or  '  The 
Song  of  the  Three  Children,'  it  was  sung  in 
the  Christian  Church  as  early  as  the  fourth 
century.  It  is  still  used  in  the  Anglican 
Church  at  morning  service  as  an  alternative 
canticle  to  the  '  Te  Deum.' 

(10)  The  History  of  Susanna 

In  the  Greek  Daniel,  this  story  stands  as  a 
supplement  to  the  twelve  canonical  chapters. 
It  tells  how  Daniel,  in  his  youth,  by  his  great 
wisdom,  delivered  tlie  chaste  and  beautiful 
Susanna  from  condemnation  to  death  upon  a 
shameful  charge.  The  story  recalls  Ahab  and 
Zedekiah,  the  two  evil  prophets  of  Babylon, 
who  roused  the  anger  of  Jeremiah  (29 -O"^^), 
and  who  are  frequently  mentioned  in  later 
Jewish  writings.  It  may  have  been  intended 
to  reprobate  iniquity  in  high  places,  or  simply 
to  glorify  the  wisdom  of  Daniel.  Shakespeare 
must  have  had  it  in  mind,  when  he  made  Shy- 
lock  exclaim,  '  a  Daniel  come  to  judgment ' 
('  Mer.  of  Yen.'  IV,  1). 

(11)  The  History  of  the  Destruction  of  Bel 
and  the  Dragon 

Here  are  given  two  further  stories  of 
the  wisdom  and  piety  of  Daniel.  They  are 
attached  to  the  Greek  text  of  the  canonical 
book  as  a  concluding  or  fourteenth  chapter. 
In  the  first  (vv.  1-22),  Daniel  exposes  the 
deceit  practised  by  the  priests  of  Bel,  in  pre- 
tending that  the  god  devours  the  large  daily 


HISTORY,   LITERATURE,   ETC,   BETWEEN   OT.    AND 


offerings  of  food  and   wine,  while   they  and 

their  wives  and  children  steal  in  by  a  secret 

entrance,  and  consume  them  during  the  night. 

The  result  is  that  the  priests  and  their  families 

are  put  to  death,  and  Daniel  is  permitted  to 

destroy   Bel    and    his    temple.      The    secoad 

story  (vv.  23-42)  tells  of  the  destruction  of  a 

sacred  dragon,  to  which  the  Babylonians  paid 

divnie  honours.      The  Jewish   hero  feeds   it 

with  indigestible  materials,  which  cause  it  to 

burst,  and  he  is  thrown  into  a  den  of  lions 

at  the  instigation  of  its  enraged  worshippers. 


NT. 


r:-r^rzirz±  -^-^  =- «^.^e  s  ^r  s^  - 


IS  supported  by  food  brought  miraculously 
from  Judaea  by  the  prophet  Habakkuk.  On 
his  release,  his  enemies  are  given  to  the  lions, 
and  at  once  devoured.  This  was  supposed  by 
the  later  Jews  to  be  quite  a  different  incident 
from  that  preserved  in  the  canonical  book. 

The  Greek  title  of  the  double  narrative  is, 
'  From  the  prophecy  of  Habakkuk,  the  son  of 
Jesu,  of  the  tribe  of  Levi.'  Its  aim  is  to 
contrast  the  impotence  of  idols  with  the 
omnipotence  of  God,  and  expose  the  futility 
and  absurdity  of  worshipping  them.  It  may 
have  been  suggested  by  the  references  of 
Jeremiah  (IQi-i  5134)  to  the  falsehood  of 
images,  and  the  dragon-like  voracity  of  Nebu- 
chadrezzar, king  of  Babylon. 

(12)  The  Prayer  of  Manassas 
This  is  a  short  confession  of  personal  sin, 
and  fervent  supplication  for  the  divine  forgive- 
ness, cast  in  a  very  beautiful  form.    It  purports 
to  be  the  prayer  of  the  penitent  Manasseh, 
king  of  Judah,  during  his   imprisonment   in 
Babylon  (2  Ch  33  n-is)  .  but,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  one  expression,    '  I  am  bowed  down 
with  many   iron  bands,'  there  is  nothing  that 
applies    distinctively    to   him.      There    is    no 
mention  of  specific  sins  that  might  have  been 
expected  to  form  the  chief  burden  of  his  con- 
fession.    The  ascription  of  the  prayer  to  him 
was  probably  suggested  by  2  Ch33is.i9,  which 
states  that  his  prayer  was  written,  along  with 
his  acts,  '  in  the  book  of  the  kings  of  Israel,' 
and     'among    the     sayings    of    the     seers.'' 
Already   in  existence,  it  may  have  had   the 
name  of  Manasseh  affixed  to  it,  on  the  strength 
of  this  passage  ;  or  it  may  have  been  expres'sly 


1  Maccabees  is  a  history  of  the  forty  years 
(175-135  B.C.)  during  which,  under  the  famous 
family,  the  Jews  carried  on  their  struo-gle  for 
religious  freedom  and  political  independence 
Its  general   reliability,  fulness  of  detail,  and 
accuracy  m  regard  to  dates,  render  it  of  the 
highest  value  for  the  knowledge  of  the  period 
After  a  brief  introduction  upon  the  conquests 
ot  Alexander  the  Great  and  the  origin  of  the 
Syrian  empire,  it  follows  the  course  of  events 
almost  m  strict  chronological  order,  from  the 
persecutions  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  to  the 


brothers,  (a)  (1  iO-9)  An  account  of  the  suf- 
ferings of  the  Syrian  persecutions  is  given,  and 
the  revolt  described  which  Mattathias  initiated 
at  Modin.  (b)  (3-922)  The  heroic  efforts 
and  achievements  of  Judas  Maccabeus  are 
detailed  (167-161  B.C.),  including  his  recovery 
of  the  Temple  and  dedication  of  a  new  altar 
to  God.  (c)  (923_i6)  The  further  fortunes 
of  the  nation  are  followed,  through  the  reign 
of  Jonathan  (160-143  B.C.),  to  their  climL 
under  Simon  (143-135  B.C.).  A  brief  mention 
ot  John  Hyrcanus,  Simon's  successor,  brines 
the  book  to  a  close. 

The  narrative  hardly  ever  fails  to  be  interest- 
ing   being  written   in  simple,   succinct  style, 
with  due  proportion  observed  throughout  and 
numerous  graphic  touches  that  suggest  a 'con- 
temporary knowledge  of  places  and  events 
Ihe  only  exceptions  that  have  been  taken  to 
Its  general  trustworthiness  are,  the  statement 
m   16  that  Alexander  parted   his  dominions 
among  his  generals  while  yet  alive,  the  refer- 
ence to  the  Eoman   Senate  in  8i5,i6^  and  a 
tendency  to  exaggerate  the  numbers  of  the 
Syi-ians  m  the  various  battles  opposed  to  the 
Jews.     Except  in  the  wonderful  successes  of 
the  Jews,  in  view  of  the  statements  of  the 
odds  against  them,  there  is  no  appearance  of  a 
miraculous  element  ;  and  seldom,  as  in  other 
books  of  the  kind,  is  the  flow  ot  the  narrative 
interrupted  by  the  personal  reflections  of  the 
author.     One  outstanding  feature  of  the  book 
IS  the  method  of  dating  events  from  the  begin- 
ning of  'the  kingdom  of  the  Greek'  •  that  is 
to  say,  from  the  foundation  of  the  Seleucid 
dynasty  in  Syria  (312  B.C.).     There  is  no  such 


^x  ^^1,^  paBSctye  ;  or  IT,  may  nave  been  expressly  -j— ■'j  "'  >^jiia  ^ui^  a.c.j.  mere  is  no  such 
composed  for  insertion  in  the  canonical  Scrip-  ^^^curate  reckoning  upon  the  line  of  a  recognised 
tures  at  this   r>lnr>o       T+  ic   i.,„ — u.   j .i.    i      era  in  nrevions  .TpwisVi  ]ifor.r.+,ir.^ 


tures  at  this  place.  It  is  largely  dependent 
upon  biblical  phraseology  and  ideas,  and  is 
poetical  in  form.  It  is  supposed  to  have  had 
a  Hebrew  or  Aramaic  original. 

(13)  The  First  Book  of  the  Maccabees 

There  are  four  books  of  the  Maccabees  in 

all— so  called  from  the  name  of  the  family 

that  rose  to  supreme  power  in  Judeea  during 

the  second  century  B.C.— but  only  two  of  them 


era  in  previous  Jewish  literature. 

The  composition  of  1  Maccabees  is  usually 
assigned  to  the  beginning  of  the  first  century 
B.C.  On  the  one  hand,  it  is  said,  the  terms  of 
friendliness  and  admiration  in  which  it  refers 
to  the  Romans  (c.  8)  necessitate  the  dating  of 
It  some  years  before  the  capture  of  Jerusalem 
by  Pompey  (63  B.C.),  and,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  last  verses  of  the  book  (1623,24)^  i„  T^^jch 
it  asserts  that  '  the  rest  of  the  acts  of  John 


that  hi8  reign  (135-105  B.C.)  was  concluded 
be 


HISTORY,   LITERATURE,   ETC.,   BETWEEN   OT.    AND   NT. 


)ef ore  it  was  composed.  The  latter  inference, 
lowever,  is  sometimes  disputed,  on  the  ground 
hat  the  verses  quoted  embody  a  stereotyped 
Lormula,  with  which  the  author  merely  rounds 
off  his  book,  and  which  he  might  quite  well 
have  used,  though  he  wrote  in  the  time  of 
Hyrcanus.  The  tone  of  the  book,  it  is  argued, 
its  remarkable  accuracy,  and  certain  specific 
references,  require  an  earlier  date,  and  so  it 
is  placed  at  the  beginning  of  the  reign  of 
Hyrcanus,  or  between  136  and  125  B.C. 

■^  There  is  little  doubt  that  it  was  originally 
written  in  Hebrew  by  a  Palestinian  Jew.  This 
was  the  opinion  of  Origen  and  Jerome,  and  it 
is  confirmed  by  the  number  of  Hebrew  idioms 
in  the  Greek  text  and  occasional  evidences  of 
mistranslation  and  transliteration  of  proper 
names.  The  interest,  too,  of  the  author  in 
Palestine,  and  his  minute  acquaintance  with 
its  topography  go  to  corroborate  it.  Other 
facts  regarding  the  author  may  be  gathered  by 
inference  from  his  book.  It  is  plain  that  he 
was  a  patriotic  Jew,  devoted  to  the  customs 
I  and  religion  of  his  country.  He  was  also  in- 
'  timately  acquainted  with  political  affairs,  being 
probably  a  man  of  rank,  who  moved  in  the 
highest  circles.  At  the  same  time,  he  must 
have  been  a  loyal  adherent  of  the  Hasmonsean 
family,  whose  deeds  he  extols,  and  to  whom  he 
asci-ibes  the  prosperity  and  glory  of  Israel. 
That  he  refrains  from  the  mention  of  the  name 
of  Grod,  generally  substituting  for  it  the  term 
'  heaven,'  is  only  in  accordance  with  the  prac- 
tice of  his  time,  arising  from  the  growing  view 
of  God's  transcendence  ;  but  his  silence  upon 
the  resurrection,  coupled  with  his  uniform 
reverence  for  the  Jewish  priesthood,  suggests 
that,  of  the  two  rising  parties,  he  belonged  to 
that  of  the  Sadducees.  He  has  no  references 
to  the  Messianic  hope,  unless  we  count  as  such 
the  remark  that  follows  the  statements  of  the 
laying  up  of  the  stones  of  the  old  altar  (4'*6), 
and  of  the  appointment  of  Simon  as  governor 
and  high  priest  for  ever  (14^1)  :  'until  there 
should  arise  a  faithful  prophet.' 

(14)  The  Second  Book  of  the  Maccabees 

This  book  also  purports  to  be  a  Maccabtean 
history,  but  is  in  no  way  related  to  the  first 
book  ;  on  the  contrary,  though  covering  part 
of  the  same  period,  it  seems  written  in  entire 
ignorance  of  it,  and  is  quite  unlike  it  in  char- 
acter and  style.  Its  narrative  begins  shortly 
before  the  accession  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes 
to  the  Syrian  throne  (175  B.C.),  and  ends  with 
the  defeat  and  death  of  Nicanor,  and  the 
triumph  of  Judas  Maccabfeus  (161  B.C.).  In 
the  intervening  chapters  are  related,  with  con- 
siderable detail,  the  unsuccessful  attempt  of 
Heliodorus  to  plunder  the  Temple  treasury, 
the  intrigues  of  the  leaders  at  Jerusalem  for 
the    high    priesthood,  the  desecration  of  the 


hd 


Temple  by  Antiochus,  the  subsequent  calamities 
of  the  great  persecution,  and  the  wars  by  which 
Judas  achieved  the  freedom  of  his  country. 

The  author  makes  no  pretence  to  originality, 
but  asserts  that  his  book  is  merely  an  abridge- 
ment of  an  earlier  woi'k  in  five  volumes  by 
Jason  of  Cyrene  (223).  Qf  Jason  and  his 
history  nothing  certain  is  known,  though  the 
probabilities  are  that  he  wrote  in  Greek,  some- 
where about  the  end  of  the  second  century  B.C., 
and  drew  his  materials  from  oral  sources.  The 
method  of  his  abridger  seems  to  have  been  to 
leave  out  large  sections  of  the  original  work, 
and  embody  others  very  much  as  he  found 
them.  Of  him  we  may  almost  certainly  con- 
clude, from  the  style  of  his  Greek,  and  the 
earliest  allusions  to  his  compilation,  that  he 
was  a  Jew  of  Alexandria  ;  and  certain  char- 
acteristics, in  which  he  differs  from  the  author 
of  1  Maccabees,  suggest  that  he  belonged  to 
the  Pharisaic  party.  Besides  his  unhesitating 
mention  of  the  divine  name,  he  has  clear  re- 
ferences to  the  belief  in  a  resurrection  (7  ^>  i* 
12  ■IS),  and  the  practice  of  prayers  for  the 
dead  ;  and  he  loves  rather  to  exalt  the  glory 
of  the  Lord,  who  uses  all  men  as  His  instru- 
ments, than  dwell  upon  the  prowess  of  the 
Maccab^an  heroes.  The  date  of  his  work  is 
uncertain  ;  but,  as  it  was  known  to  Philo  and 
the  author  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  (cp. 
2  Mac  6 18-7 -12  with  Hebll^sf.),  it  cannot  be 
placed  later  than  the  beginning  of  the  Christian 
era. 

Prefixed  to  the  history  proper,  which  only 
begins  at  2 19,  are  two  letters  which  profess  to 
have  been  sent  by  the  Jews  of  Palestine  to 
their  brethren  in  Egypt. 

II.  Apocalyptic  Writings 
Baruch.  Testament    of    Twelve 

Enoch.  Patriarchs. 

Ascension  of  Isaiah.     Psalms  of  Solomon. 
Jubilees.  Sibylline  Oracles. 

Assumption  of  Moses. 

The  name  Apocalypse,  which  is  derived  from 
the  Greek  word  for  '  revelation,'  is  applied  to 
a  number  of  Jewish  and  early  Christian  works, 
to  mark  their  distinctive  character.  The  aim 
of  these  works  is  to  solve  the  problem  in- 
volved in  the  apparent  discordance  of  events 
with  the  moral  government  of  God.  The 
Jewish  thinker,  who  believed  in  the  righteous- 
ness of  God,  and  the  rewards  promised  to  the 
keeping  of  the  Law,  could  not  rest  in  the 
actual  condition  of  things,  when  the  servants 
of  God  were  subjected  to  calamity  and  op- 
pression, and  the  heathen  enjoyed  prosperity 
and  power.  A  method  had  to  be  sought  of 
reconciling  the  sufferings  of  the  righteous  with 
the  demands  of  the  religious  conscience.  This 
was  found  by  the  Apocalyptists  in  a  moral  and 


HISTORY,   LITERATURE,  ETC.,   BETWEEN   OT.   AND   NT. 


religious  interpretation  of  the  history  of  the 
world  as  a  whole.  Contact  with  the  great 
empires  of  East  and  West  had  broadened  their 
minds,  and  made  them  acquainted  with  the 
larger  movements  of  human  history :  through- 
out it  all,  in  the  fate  of  individuals  as  in  the 
rise  and  fall  of  nations,  they  saw  the  gradual 
unfolding  of  a  divine  purpose,  of  which  the 
future  held  the  complete  fulfilment.  The 
righteousness  of  God  would  be  abundantly 
justified,  and  His  faithful  people  vindicated 
in  the  eyes  of  the  heathen.  In  a  series  of 
visions  or  revelations,  generally  attached  to 
the  name  of  an  ancient  prophet,  they  gave  a 
rapid  sketch  or  outline  of  the  world's  history, 
and  depicted  the  glorious  consummation  to  be 
confidently  expected. 

The  variety  of  style  and  contents  in  these 
writings  is  considerable.  Some  are  addressed 
to  the  Gentiles,  by  way  of  showing  the 
excellence  of  the  Jewish  faith,  and  the  danger 
of  neglecting  its  claims  ;  others  are  written 
for  the  comfort  and  encouragement  of  the 
author's  co-religionists.  Some  are  almost 
entirely  mystical  and  apocalyptic  ;  others  are 
largely  taken  up  with  the  exposition  and  en- 
forcement of  the  Law.  Some  point  generally 
to  a  revival  of  the  glory  and  dominion  of 
Israel  ;  others  anticipate  more  definitely  a 
world-wide  Messianic  kingdom,  and  a  resur- 
rection life,  while  the  nature  and  duration  of 
these  are  also  differently  conceived  by  different 
writers.  As  a  whole,  they  had  an  undoubted 
influence  upon  the  development  of  Jewish 
life  and  thought,  and  so  have  an  appreciable 
value  for  the  historian.  On  the  one  hand, 
they  helped  to  prepare  the  higher  minds  of 
Judaism  for  the  reception  of  the  gospel,  with 
its  world-denying  precepts,  and  its  glorious 
outlook  upon  the  future.  On  the  other  hand, 
they  stimulated  the  patriotic  zeal  of  those 
who  strove  time  after  time  to  throw  off  the 
Roman  bondage,  and  ultimately  brought 
destruction  upon  the  Jewish  nation. 

Two  examples  of  apocalyptic  literature 
have  been  admitted  into  the  Canon — the  book 
of  Daniel  in  the  Old  Testament  and  the 
Revelation  of  John  in  the  New.  In  the 
Apocrypha,  2  Esdras  comes  under  the  same 
denomination  ;  but  there  are  many  others  of 
which  those  cited  above  are  the  more  im- 
portant. 

(1)  The  Apocalypse  of  Baruch 

In  points  of  doctrine,  as  well  as  in  other 
characteristic  features,  this  book  bears  a  strong 
resemblance  to  2  Esdras.  It  purports  to  be  a 
prophecy  of  Baruch,  son  of  Neriah,  uttered 
shortly  before  the  Chaldean  invasion  of  586 
B.C.,  and  foretelling  the  destruction  of  Jeru- 
salem, and  its  subsequent  restoration.  There 
are  seven  distinct  sections  in  it,  mostly  com- 


posed of  prayers  and  visions,  with  connecting 
narrative  portions,  and  separated  from  each 
other,  except  in  one  instance,  by  the  observ- 
ance of  a  fast.  The  concluding  chapters  em- 
body a  letter  of  Baruch  to  the  tribes  in 
captivity.  This  letter  has  been  known  for  a 
considerable  time,  but  the  book,  as  we  now 
have  it,  was  only  discovered  in  a  Latin  version 
so  late  as  1866.  It  seems  to  have  come, 
through  Syriac  and  Greek  versions,  from  a  | 
Hebrew  original.  Besides  the  fact  that  part 
of  it  appears  to  have  been  written  before  the 
fall  of  Jerusalem  to  the  Romans  in  68  a.d., 
and  part  of  it  afterwards,  there  are  other 
grounds  for  concluding  that  it  is  a  composite 
work,  by  various  hands,  produced  at  intervals 
between  50  and  100  A.D.  It  has  a  strongly 
Pharisaic  cast  of  thought,  and  its  language  is 
occasionally  reminiscent  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment. 

(2)  The  Book  of  Enoch 

The  assumption  of  Enoch's  name  for 
apocalyptic  purposes  was  probably  suggested 
by  the  statement  of  Gn524.  His  supposed 
intercourse  with  God  would  furnish  suflicient 
reason  for  ascribing  to  him  revelations  of 
things  present  and  future,  of  things  on  earth 
and  in  heaven.  A  considerable  body  of 
apocalyptic  literature  seems  to  have  been  put 
forward  in  early  times  as  proceeding  from 
him,  and  portions  of  it  that  have  been  pre- 
served now  form  the  book  called  by  his  name. 
These  are  generally  believed  to  have  been 
written  in  Palestine  during  the  last  two  cen- 
turies B.C.,  but  the  Hebrew  or  Aramaic 
original  has  disappeared,  and  the  complete 
text  is  only  known  in  an  Ethiopic  version. 

The  contents  of  Enoch  are  supposed  to  fall 
into  five  sections,  all  by  different  hands,  and 
varying  in  date  from  170  B.C.  almost  to  the 
beginning  of  the  Christian  era.  Interspersed 
through  these  are  passages  purporting  to  be 
written  by  Noah,  and  evidently  interpolated 
by  the  editor  from  another  Apocalypse  circu- 
lating under  that  patriarch's  name.  The 
general  theme  is  the  overthrow  and  judgment 
of  the  enemies  of  God  and  His  people,  and 
the  final  establishment  of  the  divine  kingdom 
in  righteousness  and  power.  In  one  vision, 
seventy  angels  or  shepherds  are  commissioned 
to  watch  in  turn  over  Israel,  but  proving  un- 
faithful to  their  trust,  as  the  national  history 
is  adduced  to  show,  they  are  cast  with  their 
adherents  into  an  abyss  of  fire.  Enoch  visits 
heaven,  and  learns  much  of  the  destiny  of 
men  and  angels  ;  he  also  penetrates  the  re- 
cesses of  nature,  and  discovers  its  secret 
processes.  In  the  middle  of  the  book  there 
is  a  series  of  three  allegories  (chs.  37-70), 
belonging,  as  some  think,  to  the  period  90-60 
B.C.,  and  certainly  not  later  than  the  reign  of 


Ixii 


HISTORY,   LITERATURE,    ETC,   BETWEEN   OT.  AND   NT. 


King  Herod.  With  the  usual  apocalyptic 
matter,  there  is  in  them  a  striking  and  original 
presentation  of  the  person  of  the  Judge,  who 
is  to  redress  the  oppressions  and  injustices  of 
the  world.  He  is  no  mere  descendant  of 
David,  but  the  Elect  or  Righteous  One,  the 
Christ  or  the  Anointed,  and  still  more  '  the 
Son  of  Man  who  hath  righteousness,  with 
whom  dwelleth  righteousness,  and  who  reveal- 
eth  all  the  treasures  of  that  which  is  hidden, 
because  the  Lord  of  Spirits  hath  chosen  him ' 
(461-3).  All  four  titles  were  subsequently 
applied  to  Jesus  by  Himself  or  His  early 
followers.  In  addition  to  this,  however,  there 
are  many  other  indications  of  the  esteem  in 
which  the  book  of  Enoch  was  held  in  the 
primitive  days  of  Christianity.  The  language 
of  the  New  Testament  reflects  it  in  quite  a 
number  of  passages,  and  in  one  place  it  is 
directly  quoted  (Jude  vv.  14f.).  Its  doctrine, 
too,  bears  distinct  traces  of  its  influence,  espe- 
cially in  connexion  with  the  belief  in  the  resur- 
rection, the  rewards  and  punishments  of  the 
future,  the  ministry  of  angels,  and  the  nature 
and  activities  of  demons.  Among  the  earliest 
Fathers  of  the  Church,  the  book  of  Enoch 
was  quoted  with  approval,  and  the  Epistle 
of  Barnabas  even  ascribes  to  it  canonical 
authority. 

A  few  years  ago,  a  book  came  to  light,  called 
'  The  Secrets  of  Enoch,'  which  contains  further 
fragments  of  Enochic  Apocalypse.  From  the 
language  in  which  it  is  written  it  is  called  the 
Slavonic  Enoch,  to  distinguish  it  from  the 
older  Ethiopic  book.  Some  of  it  seems  to 
have  been  drawn  from  Hebrew  originals,  but 
the  gi'eater  part  of  it  has  evidently  been  com- 
posed in  Greek,  about  the  beginning  of  the 
Christian  era.  It  describes  the  mysteries  re- 
vealed to  Enoch  during  his  wanderings  in  the 
seven  heavens,  and  is  chiefly  valuable  for  the 
light  it  sheds  on  the  New  Testament,  some 
of  the  ideas  of  which,  such  as  the  millennium 
and  the  sevenfold  division  of  the  celestial 
regions,  appear  in  it  for  the  first  time. 

(3)  The  Ascension  of  Isaiah 

This  book,  of  which  an  Ethiopic  version 
is  the  only  complete  text,  comprises  (a)  an 
account  of  the  martyrdom  of  Isaiah,  (h)  a 
short  Apocalypse,  in  which  the  history  of  the 
early  Church  (50-80  a.d.)  is  outlined,  and  (c) 
a  vision  of  Isaiah,  in  which  he  visits  the  seven 
heavens,  and  learns  amongst  other  things  of 
the  coming  advent,  crucifixion,  and  resurrec- 
tion of  the  Saviour.  The  first  part  was 
probably  written  by  a  Jew  about  the  be- 
ginning of  the  first  century  A.D.;  the  other 
two  parts  are  of  Christian  authorship,  and 
belong  to  the  second  half  of  the  century. 
Hebll37f.  is  probably  a  reference  to  this 
book. 


Ixiii 


(4)  The  Book  of  Jubilees 

This  Apocalypse  is  cast  in  the  form  of  a 
homiletic  commentary  upon  the  book  of  Gene- 
sis, after  the  manner  of  the  Jewish  Haggadic 
teaching.  Passing  in  review  the  period  from 
the  creation  of  the  world  to  the  institution  of 
the  Passover,  it  gives  a  rendering  of  the 
patriarchal  history  from  the  standpoint  of  the 
Jewish  theologian  of  the  century  before  the 
Christian  era.  The  leading  aim  of  the  author 
is  to  emphasise  the  antiquity  of  the  Law  and 
the  Levitical  ordinances  by  carrying  back 
their  observance,  even  with  heightened  strict- 
ness, to  the  earliest  times.  At  the  same  time 
he  seeks  to  excuse  or  smooth  over  statements 
and  facts  that  were  calculated  to  give  offence 
to  the  Hellenic  mind  ;  for  example,  the  ex- 
pulsion from  Eden,  the  curse  upon  Cain,  the 
deceit  of  Abraham  and  Jacob,  and  the  severi- 
ties inflicted  upon  the  Canaanites  by  the 
Israelites  on  their  entrance  into  the  Promised 
Land.  There  is  no  doctrine  of  the  resurrec- 
tion taught  in  the  book,  though  there  are 
evident  references  to  the  immortality  of  the 
soul.  The  title  of  Jubilees  is  given  to  it 
from  its  system  of  time-reckoning,  which  is 
based  upon  Jubilee  cycles  of  forty-nine  years 
each,  it  is  also  called,  from  its  subject-matter, 
'  The  Little  Genesis ' ;  not  because  it  is 
shorter  than  the  canonical  book,  which  it  is 
not,  but  on  account  of  its  inferior  authority. 

Though  the  only  entire  text  extant  is  the 
Ethiopic  version,  it  has  evidently  been  written 
originally  in  Hebrew,  and  by  a  Pharisee. 
The  date  cannot  be  fixed  more  definitely  than 
within  the  period  of  fifty  years  on  either  side 
of  the  birth  of  Christ.  On  the  one  hand,  it 
assumes  the  existence  of  the  Temple,  and  so 
must  have  been  written  before  the  fall  of 
Jerusalem  in  68  a.d.  ;  and  on  the  other  hand, 
it  quotes  largely  from  a  section  of  the  book 
of  Enoch,  which  is  regarded  as  not  later  than 
60  B.C.,  and  may  have  seen  the  light  any  time 
thereafter.  It  is  of  considerable  value,  not 
only  for  the  study  of  Pharisaism  and  the  New 
Testament,  but  also  for  the  determination  of 
the  Hebrew  text  of  Genesis. 

(5)  The  Assumption  of  Moses 

In  this  book,  Moses,  knowing  that  he  is 
about  to  die,  entrusts  to  the  care  of  Joshua 
a  collection  of  prophecies.  These  relate  to 
the  history  of  Israel,  and  subsequent  chapters 
work  over  that  history,  from  the  apocalyptic 
point  of  view,  down  to  the  time  when  Judsea 
became  a  Eoman  province.  A  statement  by 
the  author  (c.  6)  is  significant  for  the  deter- 
mination of  the  date.  He  says  that  the  sons 
of  Herod  should  reign  for  a  shorter  time  than 
their  father ;  and  as  three  of  them  reigned 
for  longer  periods,  the  book  must  have  been 


HISTORY,   LITERATURE,   ETC.,   BETWEEN   OT.    AND   NT. 


written  during  their  lifetime,  and  therefore 
not  later  than  30  a.d.  The  author  was  pro- 
bably a  Pharisee,  and  wrote  in  Hebrew, 
though  the  book  is  chiefly  known  to  us  in  a 
Latin  version. 

(6)  The  Testament  of  the  Twelve 
Patriarchs 

Here  the  twelve  sons  of  Jacob  are  repre- 
sented as  delivering  their  dying  instructions 
to  their  descendants.  Each  in  turn  goes 
over  the  story  of  his  life,  and  points  the 
moral  of  it ;  exhorts  his  children  to  emulate 
his  virtues  and  shun  his  vices  ;  and  utters  a 
prediction  of  the  calamities  and  oppressions 
that  will  come  on  account  of  sin.  The  mixed 
nature  of  the  contents  favours  the  theory  that 
the  book  is  based  upon  an  original  Jewish 
writing,  largely  interpolated  by  later  Jewish 
and  Christian  hands.  The  oldest  portions 
probably  belong  to  the  second  century  B.C., 
but  the  interpolations  extend  from  that  date 
well  into  the  Christian  era.  Our  chief  author- 
ity for  it  is  a  Latin  translation  of  the 
thirteenth  century.  It  has  the  same  system 
of  time-reckoning  as  the  book  of  Jubilees, 
and  agrees  with  it  in  many  of  its  biographical 
details. 

(7)  The  Psalms  of  Solomon 

These  eighteen  Psalms,  fictitiously  ascribed 
to  Solomon  in  the  usual  literary  sense,  evi- 
dently emanate  from  one,  or  possibly  two, 
of  the  later  Pharisees.  It  is  certain  that  they 
were  originally  written  in  Hebrew,  though  they 
are  known  to  us  now  only  in  versions.  In  fig- 
urative language  which  is  easily  interpreted, 
they  depict  the  course  of  events  in  Jerusalem 
from  its  capture  by  Pompey  in  63  B.C.  to  his 
death  fifteen  years  afterwards.  The  Has- 
monaean  princes  who  welcomed  him  to  the 
city  are  denounced  as  usurpers  of  the  throne 
of  David  ;  the  defeat  and  massacre  of  the 
party  of  Aristobulus  (II)  are  described,  and 
the  subsequent  calamities  depicted  ;  while 
Pompey  is  portrayed  as  a  dragon,  who  would 
assume  divine  power  and  rule  the  world,  but 
dies  miserably  on  the  shores  of  Egypt,  with 
none  to  bury  him.  Not  only  in  his  rendering 
of  events,  but  in  his  religious  views  and  refer- 
ences, the  author  betrays  his  affinities  with 
the  Pharisees  rather  than  with  the  Sadducees. 
The  former  are  the  '  saints  '  and  '  righteous  '  ; 
the  latter  are  '  proud  sinners '  and  '  trans- 
gressors.' The  theocratic  view  of  the  Jewish 
state  is  emphasised,  and  righteousness  chiefly 
presented  as  fulfilment  of  the  Ceremonial 
Law.  Throughout  the  book  there  are  the 
usual  warnings  of  judgment,  but  there  are  also 
distinct  anticipations  of  a  resurrection  of  the 
dead  to  rewards  and  punishments.  The  Mes- 
sianic hope  is  clearly  defined  only  in  the  last 


two  Psalms,  which  suggests  the  necessity  of 
ascribing  them  to  a  different  author  than  the 
others ;  but  the  whole  collection  may  be 
safely  assigned  to  the  period  with  which  it 
deals,  70-40  B.C. 

(8)  The  Sibylline  Oracles 

Sibyls  in  the  ancient  world  were  supposed 
to  be  inspired  prophetesses,  unconnected  with 
any  official  order,  through  whom  the  gods  re- 
vealed their  thoughts  and  indicated  their  will. 
Their  utterances  were  held  in  great  esteem, 
especially  at  Rome,  where  upon  momentous 
occasions  they  were  consulted  by  the  authori- 
ties. It  is  not  surprising  that  the  Jews  of 
Alexandria,  and  after  them  the  early  Christians, 
sought  to  gain  attention  to  their  distinctive 
principles  and  beliefs  by  adopting  a  Sibylline 
style  and  guise.  These  were  more  likely  to 
attract  the  notice  of  the  Gentile  world  than 
the  assumed  authorship  of  one  of  their  own 
prophets  or  patriarchs. 

The  writings  thus  put  forth  as  Sibylline 
Oracles  form  a  heterogeneous  collection,  ex- 
tending ovpr  several  centuries  and  by  many 
difi'erent  hands.  Originally  they  consisted  of 
fourteen  books,  but  only  twelve  now  exist. 
The  third  book  probably  contains  the  nucleus 
round  which  the  rest  of  the  collection  was 
gathered,  jind  which  may  have  been  produced 
as  early  as  the  middle  of  the  second  fcentury 
B.C.  It  gives  an  apocalyptic  review  of  the 
history  of  Israel  from  the  building  of  Babel 
to  the  time  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  and  closes 
with  a  prediction  of  the  coming  glory  and 
prosperity  of  the  Messiah's  kingdom.  The 
other  books  pursue  a  similar  vein,  with  a  large 
admixture  of  Christian  elements  and  frequent 
veiled  allusions  to  the  Roman  power.  They 
are  of  varying  dates,  some  of  them  being 
supposed  to  be  even  as  late  as  the  second  and 
third  centuries  of  the  Christian  era. 

Besides  the  above  there  are  other  apocalyptic 
writings,  bearing  the  names  of  Adam,  Abraham, 
Moses,  Elias,  Zephaniah,  etc.  ;  but  these  are  not 
of  sufficient  importance  to  require  separate 
treatment. 

III.  The  Septuagint 

References  have  already  been  made  to  the 
ancient  Greek  version  of  the  Old  Testament, 
which  originated  among  the  Jews  of  Alexandria. 
It  is  called  '  The  Septuagint '  (LXX),  from  a 
tradition  that  persisted  in  Egypt  regarding  its 
inception.  The  story  is  told  in  a  fictitious 
Jewish  letter  of  the  Ptolemaic  period,  pur- 
porting to  have  been  written  by  Aristeas,  a 
courtier  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus  (284-247 
B.C.).  It  relates  how  that  Egyptian  king  sent 
to  Jerusalem  for  seventy-two  learned  men — 
being  six  from  each  of  the  tribes — and  set  them, 
to  work  upon  a  translation  of  the  Hebrew 


Ixiv 


HISTORY,   LITERATURE,   ETC.,   BETWEEN   OT.    AND   NT. 


Scriptures  for  the  great  library  of  Alexandria, 
and  how,  without  collusion,  they  agreed  upon 
their  renderings  and  completed  their  version 
in  seventy-two  days,  which  thereafter  became 
the  authorised  Scripture  of  all  the  Greek- 
speaking  Jews.  In  part,  no  doubt,  the  story 
is  apocryphal,  and  in  later  years  it  received 
still  further  embellishments  ;  but  the  main 
elements  of  it  may  be  perfectly  true.  It  is 
highly  probable  that  the  Pentateuch  at  least 
was  translated  at  the  instigation  of  Philadel- 
phus,  who  was  a  great  patron  of  learning,  and 
had  the  laws  of  all  nations  collected  for  his 
library.  In  that  case,  his  Jewish  subjects 
would  readilj'^  receive  the  new  version  as 
supplying  the  want  that  had  arisen  from  their 
general  adoption  of  the  Greek  tongue.  The 
remaining  books  (which,  as  we  have  seen,  in- 
cluded most  of  the  Apocrypha)  were  translated 
at  different  times  by  various  hands  between 
the  reign  of  Philadelphus  and  the  beginning  of 
the  Christian  era.  The  translator  of  Ecclesias- 
ticus  (132  B.C.)  refers  to  a  Greek  version  of 
'  the  Law  and  the  Prophets  and  the  rest  of  the 
Books,'  but  does  not  specify  the  writings  com- 
prised under  the  last-mentioned  section.  Philo, 
tho  Jewish  philosopher  of  Alexandria,  about 
the  time  of  Christ,  shows  an  acquaintance  with 
the  whole  of  the  Old  Testament  Scriptures, 
with  the  exception  of  three  or  four  books. 
About  the  end  of  the  third  century  a.d.  three 
recensions  or  critical  revisions  of  the  Septua- 
gint  appeared,  which  were  the  work  of  Hesy- 
chius,  Lucian,  and  Eusebius.  These  form  the 
basis  of  the  manuscripts'  from  which  our  text 
is  derived. 

The  diversity  of  hands  employed  upon  the 
Septuagint  is  patent  from  the  contents,  which 
exhibit  great  variety  of  style  and  merit.  On 
the  whole,  the  Pentateuch  reaches  the  highest 
degree  of  excellence,  being  a  careful  and 
scholarly  rendering  of  the  original :  among 
the  other  books,  the  historical  generally  stand 
upon  a  higher  level  than  the  poetical.  Some 
of  the  translations  are  done  in  very  good 
Greek ;  others  are  faulty,  and  abound  in 
idioms  carried  over  from  the  Hebrew.  Some 
evince  considerable  capacity,  but  omit,  alter, 
or  expand,  from  mere  arbitrariness,  or  the 
desire  to  avoid  irreverence  and  the  wounding 
of  Jewish  or  Egyptian  susceptibilities  ;  others 
are  more  conscientious,  but  frequently  mis- 
read, mistranslate,  or  merely  transliterate  the 
original.  Some  aim  at  a  correct  reproduction 
of  the  Hebrew  text ;  others  are  more  of  a 
paraphrase  or  commentary  than  a  translation. 
The  order  of  the  books,  too,  and  in  some  in- 
stances even  the  order  of  the  various  chaptera, 
differs  from  that  in  the  Hebrew  text  known 
to  us ;  and  the  Apocryphal  additions  inter- 
spersed throughout  accentuate  the  divergence. 

In   spite    of    these    discrepancies,    and   the 


problems  which  they  raise,  this  ancient  trans- 
lation of  the  Old  Testament  Scriptures  is  of 
gi-eat  interest  and  value.  It  is  supposed  to  be 
the  earliest  translation  of  any  considerable 
extent  from  one  language  into  another ;  and 
that  alone  would  render  it  remarkable.  Apart 
from  that,  however,  it  is  of  immense  service, 
if  it  is  not  indeed  indispensable,  for  the  de- 
termination and  elucidation  of  the  text  both 
of  the  Old  and  the  New  Testament.  As  evi- 
dently the  translation  of  an  ancient  text  of 
the  Old  Testament,  now  lost,  it  not  only  cor- 
roborates but  enables  us  to  correct  the  received 
text.  On  the  other  hand,  as  the  Authorised 
Version  circulating  in  Palestine,  in  the  time 
of  our  Lord  and  the  New  Testament  writers, 
it  helped  to  shape  their  language,  and  affords 
a  key  to  its  interpretation.  There  is  no  doubt 
also,  that  in  making  the  Hebrew  Scriptures 
known  to  the  Gentile  world,  it  had  its  influ- 
ence in  preparing  the  way  for  the  reception  of 
the  gospel. 

IV.  Other  Eemains 
3  Maccabees.  Logia. 


4  Maccabees. 
Josephus. 


Didache. 


(1)  3  Maccabees 

The  only  justification  for  the  title  of  this 
book  is  that,  like  the  genuine  Maccab^ean 
Avritings,  it  deals  with  the  sufferings  of  the 
Jews  under  foreign  persecution.  The  scene 
of  its  story  is  not  even  laid  in  the  Mac- 
caba3an  age,  but  in  the  reign  of  Ptolemy  IV 
Philopator  (222-204  B.C.).  The  Egyptian 
king  is  miraculously  prevented  from  entering 
the  Temple  at  Jerusalem,  and  afterwards 
frustrated  by  successive  divine  interpositions, 
from  wreaking  his  vengeance  upon  his  Jewish 
subjects.  A  similar  story  is  related  by  Jose- 
phus of  Ptolemy  VII  Physcon,  and  it  may 
have  had  a  foundation  in  fact.  All  that  can 
be  said  of  the  date  of  the  book  is  that  it  was 
written  between  100  B.C.  and  100  a.d. 

(2)  4  Maccabees 

This  book  derives  its  title  from  the  fact 
that  the  greater  part  of  it  is  taken  up  with 
reflections  upon  the  story  of  the  martyrs  in 
2  Mac  (5 18-7^1.  The  purpose  of  the  author, 
according  to  his  own  showing  (1 1),  is  to  prove 
that  '  the  pious  reason  is  absolute  master  of 
the  passions.'  His  work  falls  into  two  parts, 
(a)  a  discourse  upon  the  general  philosophic 
question,  and  (b)  a  restatement  of  the  story  of 
the  Maccabsean  martyrs,  with  the  lessons  to 
be  drawn  from  it.  Evidently  he  is  a  devout 
Jew,  desirous  of  fortifying  the  faith  of  his 
brethren  against  the  seductions  of  pagan  phi- 
losophy. Incidentally  he  evinces  his  belief 
in  universal  immortality,  and  a  state  of  future 


Ixv 


HISTORY,   LITERATURE,   ETC.,   BETWEEN   OT.    AND   NT. 


I 


rewards  and  punishments.  It  is  presumed 
that  he  belonged  to  Alexandria  or  some  other 
Hellenistic  city,  and  wrote  about  the  begin- 
ning of  the  Christian  era. 

(3)  The  Works  of  Josephus 

Flavius  Josephus  was  born  at  Jerusalem  in 
37  A.D.,  and  lived  at  least  to  the  end  of  the 
century.  He  received  a  superior  education, 
and  rose  to  such  esteem  among  the  Pharisaic 
patriots  that,  on  the  outbreak  of  the  war  with 
Rome,  he  was  appointed  governor  of  Galilee. 
In  the  subsequent  operations  he  distinguished 
himself  by  his  wisdom  and  courage,  but  was 
taken  prisoner  by  Vespasian,  and  ultimately 
retired  to  Rome,  where  he  devoted  himself  to 
literary  pursuits.  His  works  are  (1)  '  The 
History  of  the  Jewish  Wars,'  giving  an  out- 
line of  events  from  the  time  of  Antiochus 
Epiphanes,  and  a  full  account  of  the  struggle 
in  which  he  himself  had  been  engaged  ;  (2) 
'  Jewish  Antiquities,'  relating  the  story  of  his 
country  from  the  earliest  times  to  the  close  of 
Nero's  reign  ;  (3)  a  '  Treatise  against  Apion,' 
which  is  chiefly  valuable  for  its  copious  extracts 
from  profane  historical  writers  ;  and  (4)  his 
'  Autobiography,'  which  is  an  elaborate  vindi- 
cation of  his  defence  of  Galilee  during  the 
war. 

For  centuries  the  works  of  Josephus  were 
almost  the  only  source  of  information  possessed 
by  the  Christian  world  upon  Jewish  history, 
and  even  yet  they  are  of  great  value  in  this 
respect.  They  are  written  in  good  Greek 
style,  with  a  wonderful  freedom  from  bias, 
though  occasionally  they  may  soften  down 
statements  and  facts  in  deference  to  the 
Roman  audience  they  were  expected  to  secure. 

(4)  The  Papyrus  Logia 

Several  papyrus  fragments  have  come  to  light 
in  recent  years,  containing  short  collections  of 


the  sayings  (logia)  of  Jesus.  The  first  was 
published  by  Bickell  in  1885  from  the  collec- 
tion of  the  Archduke  Rainer,  and  is  simply  a 
parallel  to  Mkl4  2<3-30,  The  second  was  pub- 
lished in  1897  by  Grenfell  and  Hunt,  who  had 
discovered  it  at  Oxyrhynchus.  It  gives  six 
sayings  and  the  first  word  of  a  seventh  ; 
three  of  them  being  parallels  to  LkG*^  424 
MtS^"*,  and  three  new  and  distinctive.  Har- 
nack  supposes  the  second  group  to  be  extracted 
from  the  '  Gospel  according  to  the  Egyptians,' 
but  there  is  no  definite  agreement  yet  as  to 
the  origin  of  either  of  them,  and  the  same 
may  be  said  of  those  still  more  recently  dis- 
covered. 

(5)  The  Didache 

The  'Didache  (Teaching)  of  the  Twelve 
Apostles'  was  first  printed  in  1883  from  a 
Greek  manuscript  of  1056,  discovered  at 
Constantinople.  It  consists  of  two  distinct 
parts  :  (a)  a  number  of  moral  precepts,  called 
'  The  Doctrine  of  the  Two  Ways,'  which  does 
not  refer  to  any  of  the  Gospels,  and  may  have 
had  a  Jewish  origin  ;  and  (b)  a  collection  of 
Church  rules  for  discipline  and  worship,  in 
which  use  has  probably  been  made  of  the 
Gospel  of  Matthew.  It  is  generally  assigned 
to  the  period  80-110  a.d.,  but  in  its  present 
form  may  be  as  late  as  the  middle  of  the 
second  century. 

In  addition  to  the  above,  the  names,  and 
sometimes  a  few  fragments  of  Apocryphal 
Gospels,  Acts,  and  Epistles,  have  come  down 
from  the  early  days  of  the  Christian  Church. 
Of  these  it  may  be  sufficient  to  mention  :  the 
Gospels  according  to  Peter,  the  Hebrews,  and 
the  Egyptians  ;  the  book  of  James  usually 
called  '  Protevangelium  '  ;  The  Acts  of  Pilate, 
and  of  Paul  and  Thecla  ;  the  Abgarus  Letters  ; 
the  Epistles  of  Paul  to  the  Laodiceans,  the 
Alexandrines,  and  the  Corinthians  (the  third). 


DEVELOPMENT    OF   JEWISH   RELIGION   IN   THE   PERIOD   BETWEEN 
THE    OLD   AND   NEW   TESTAMENTS 


Though  founded  on  divine  revelation,  and 
essentially  conservative,  the  religion  of  the 
Jews  did  not  escape  modification  from  the 
ordinary  human  influences  to  which  it  was  sub- 
jected. As  encountered  in  the  New  Testament, 
it  exhibits  considerable  variation  from  the  pre- 
vailing type  of  Old  Testament  times.  The 
intervening  centuries  had  been  characterised, 
not  only  by  great  political  movements  and 
momentous  social  changes,  but  also  by  a  high 
degree  of  intellectual  activity  ;  and  these  have 
left  their  mark  upon  the  national  religion. 
Old  beliefs  and  practices  have  undergone  a 
change  of  emphasis,  if  not  a  complete  trans- 
formation ;  new  ideas  have  been  introduced. 


and  become  the  starting-points  of  fresh  de- 
velopments. The  process  is  reflected  in  the 
literature  of  the  period  (of  which  an  account 
has  been  given)  ;  and  some  knowledge  of  it  is 
necessary  for  the  appreciation  of  the  attitude 
of  Jesus  and  the  Apostles  towards  the  religion 
of  their  day. 

I.  The  Doctrine  or  Idea  of  God.  During 
the  exile  this  central  element  of  belief  was 
purged  of  the  heathen  corruptions  and  accre- 
tions to  which  in  former  days  it  had  been 
liable.  After  many  warnings  and  chastise- 
ments, the  people  learned  in  national  humilia- 
tion and  personal  suffering  to  adore  the  God 
of  their  fathers  as  the  one  supreme  God  of 


Ixvi 


HISTORY,   LITERATURE,   ETC.,    BETWEEN   OT.  AND  NT. 


the  world,  and  to  dissociate  His  worship  from 
the  impure  rites  of  the  heathen.  Idolatry  was 
abjured  and  never  again  permitted  to  corrupt 
their  faith,  or  foul  the  stream  of  their  devo- 
tion. Even  the  severities  of  persecution — as 
in  the  instance  of  AntiochusEpiphanes — served 
only  to  confii'm  their  attachment  to  the  unity 
and  spirituality  of  God. 

As  the  sense  of  national  abandonment  and 
desolation  increased,  and  the  ideal  methods  of 
Greek  thought  gained  ground  among  Jewish 
theologians,  the  tendency  appeared  to  refine 
upon  this  idea,  and  remove  God  entirely  from 
the  world  of  material  things.  What  is  called 
the  transcendent  view  of  God  became  pre- 
dominant ;  that  is  to  say,  He  was  regarded  as 
BO  far  exalted  above  the  world  as  to  be  out  of 
touch  or  communication  with  men.  He  who 
had  formerly  tabernacled  with  His  people  and 
spoken  familiarly  to  the  prophets,  seemed  now 
to  -dwell  in  a  far-off  heaven  where  no  personal 
intercourse  could  be  had  with  Him.  This  con- 
ception colours  the  literature  of  the  period, 
which  generally  abstains  from  expressions  that 
would  suggest  human  passions  or  parts  in  God, 
and  even  avoids  the  mention  of  His  name. 
Strongly  imbued  with  it,  the  Jews  of  the  time 
of  Jesus  resented  the  familiarity  with  which 
He  spoke  of  God  as  Father,  and  asserted  His 
interest  in  the  humblest  human  concerns. 

2.  The  Law.  The  sublimation  of  the  idea 
of  God  was  accompanied  by  an  increasing 
reverence  for  the  Divine  Law.  When  God  had 
retired  within  the  clouds,  and  discontinued  His 
communications  with  His  people,  the  know- 
ledge of  His  will  could  only  be  obtained  in- 
directly, through  His  actions  and  utterances  in 
the  past.  No  longer  having  the  living  voice 
I  to  guide  them,  they  could  but  fall  back  upon 
the  written  word  ;  and  the  more  perplexing 
and  painful  their  circumstances,  the  more  neces- 
sary it  became  for  them  to  search  and  study  it. 
Stimulated  by  the  exile,  the  regard  for  the 
Law  was  deepened  and  confirmed  by  subse- 
quent calamities,  and  grew  to  a  passion  with 
the  Pharisaical  section  of  the  nation,  as  the 
chains  of  foreign  oppression  were  riveted  upon 
them,  and  the  shadow  of  impending  dissolution 
fell  upon  the  national  life.  It  became,  not 
only  the  basis  of  the  civil  polity,  but  the 
sovereign  rule  and  standard  of  private  con- 
duct ;  and  the  scribes,  whose  special  function 
was  to  expound  and  enforce  it,  rose  to  a  position 
of  great  power  and  prominence. 

In  a  previous  article  it  has  been  shown  how 
the  various  parts  of  the  Pentateuch  were 
probably  conjoined  to  form  a  rule  of  religious 
practice  and  belief.  By  the  third  century  B.C., 
the  prophetic  books  had  been  gathered  together 
and  invested  with  almost  equal  authority.  Other 
books  were  subsequently  added  which  were 
believed  to  date  from  the  prophetic  period. 


Ixvii 


and  the  Old  Testament  Canon  was  finally  com- 
pleted and  closed  by  the  end  of  the  first  cen- 
tury of  our  era.  Alongside  this  written  standard 
of  faith  and  practice,  there  was  an  ever-grow- 
ing body  of  oral  tradition,  which  was  supposed 
to  have  been  delivered  to  Moses  on  Sinai,  and 
handed  down — through  Joshua,  the  elders,  and 
the  prophets — to  the  men  of  the  Great  Syna- 
gogue (Ezra — 291  B.C.),  and  the  schools  of  the 
scribes.  It  consisted  of  two  parts,  called 
Halakah  or  '  walking,'  and  Aggadah  or  '  teach- 
ing ' ;  the  former  supplementing  and  defining 
the  written  Law,  the  latter  explaining  it  and 
illustrating  it  with  narrative  matter.  The 
whole  was  the  care  of  the  scribes,  who  in  general 
united  with  the  Pharisees  in  the  scrupulous 
observance  of  its  numerous  minute  and  exact- 
ing precepts.  It  is  the  '  tradition  of  the  elders ' 
referred  to  in  the  Gospels  (Mt  152  Mk73,  etc.), 
and  was  probably  in  Christ's  mind  when  He 
spoke  of  the  sayings  of  '  them  of  old  '  (Mt  5  ^i), 
and  the  burdens  of  the  Pharisees  '  grievous  to 
be  borne  '  (Mt23'i  Lk  ll-*").  In  the  early  cen- 
turies of  our  era,  this  oral  Law,  with  the  ampli- 
fications and  discussions  which  had  gathered 
round  it,  was  gradually  committed  to  writing 
at  two  different  centres,  and  formed  what  are 
called  the  Babylonian  and  Palestinian  Talmuds. 
3.  Individuality.  With  the  new  conception 
and  predominating  influence  of  the  Law,  the 
emphasis  was  shifted  from  the  national  to  the 
personal  point  of  view.  Hitherto  the  people 
as  a  whole  had  been  the  chief  object  of  re- 
ligious consideration  :  the  duties  and  privi- 
leges of  the  nation,  its  errors  and  backslidings, 
had  been  the  main  occupation  of  the  religious 
mind  :  now  the  way  of  thinking  is  reversed, 
and  the  responsibilities  and  claims  of  the  in- 
dividual come  into  prominence.  The  virtual 
abolition  of  the  nation  at  the  exile  awakened 
the  individual  sense  of  sin,  and  stimulated  in- 
dividual effort  to  regain  the  favour  of  God.  The 
hope  was  still  cherished  that  the  nation  would 
be  restored  ;  indeed,  as  their  outlook  upon  the 
world  and  mankind  was  widened  by  their  Baby- 
lonian experiences,  a  larger  vision  began  to 
flit  before  the  devout — the  overthrow  of  the 
heathen  empires,  and  the  recognition  of  the 
God  of  Israel  by  all  the  inhabitants  of  the 
earth.  This,  however,  was  only  to  be  realised 
by  the  righteousness  of  individual  men  :  it 
was  to  be  the  reward  of  the  faithful  keeping 
of  God.'s  La.w.  On  the  return  to  Jerusalem, 
political  claims  were  practically  given  up,  and 
the  community  was  rearranged  and  constituted 
upon  a  religious,  not.  a  national,  foundation. 
Its  head  was.  the  high  priest  :  its  centre  the 
Temple  worship  :  its  members  individually 
paid  the  Temple  tax,  made  acknowledgment  of 
sin,  and  promised  obedience  to  the  Divine  Law. 
The  result  was  to  develop  and  strengthen  the 
individual  conscience,  and  make  piety  a  per- 


HISTORY,   LITERATURE,   ETC.,   BETWEEN   OT.   AND   NT. 


sonal  concern  (witness  the  narratives  of  Daniel 
and  Susanna)  ;  also,  as  time  went  on,  to  beget 
a  proselytising  spirit,  which  encouraged  and 
even  compelled  men  of  other  nationalities  to 
accept  the  Jewish  faith.  To  understand  the 
persistence  of  Judaism,  especially  among  the 
Dispersed,  it  must  be  remembered  that,  from 
the  exile  onwards,  except  during  the  period 
of  the  Hasmonaean  supremacy,  the  Jewish 
people  were  a  religious  fellowship,  rather  than 
a  political  combination  ;  a  body  of  individuals 
held  together  by  a  common  rite  (circumcision), 
a  common  faith,  training,  and  worship. 

4.  Angels  and  Demons.  The  doctrine  of 
Grod's  transcendence  and  absolute  supremacy 
over  the  world  left  room  for  a  development 
of  belief  in  the  action  of  intermediate  beings 
between  Him  and  men.  Accordingly  we  find 
in  the  later  Jewish  literature  statements  about 
angels  and  demons,  compared  with  which  the 
references  in  preexilic  writings  are  meagre 
and  obscure.  In  the  earlier  books  of  the 
Old  Testament  superhuman  beings  other  than 
God  are  occasionally  introduced,  and  even 
the  name  '  angels '  is  applied  to  them  ;  but 
they  have  not  the  definite  doctrinal  signifi- 
cance of  later  times,  which  regarded  them  as 
helpful  and  harmful  spirits,  entering  into 
close  relations  with  men,  and  influencing  their 
lives.  To  the  contemporaries  of  Jesus  they 
were  real  heavenly  messengers,  or  equally  real 
messengers  of  Satan,  countless  in  numbers, 
but  divided  into  ranks,  and  occasionally  bear- 
ing specific  names.  The  development  of  this 
belief  was  probably  encouraged  liy  the  contact 
of  the  Jews  with  other  nations,  and  especially 
with  the  Persians,  in  whose  religion  the  hier- 
archies of  good  and  evil  spirits  had  been  set 
forth  with  great  elaboration.  The  movement, 
however,  so  far  retained  its  native  character 
that  Satan  and  his  hosts  were  never,  as  in 
Persian  dualism,  coordinated  with  God  and 
the  angels,  but  always  relegated  to  an  inferior 
position.  The  belief,  as  a  whole,  was  rejected 
by  the  Sadducees  (Ac  23  8),  but  it  was  fully 
shared  by  the  Pharisaic  party,  and  among  the 
Essenes  had  an  exaggerated  importance  given 
to  it.  To  some  extent  it  was  countenanced 
by  Christ.  He  accepted  the  belief  in  the  ex- 
istence of  spirits,  but  disf avom-ed  some  of  the 
notions  popularly  associated  with  it,  and  in 
particular  claimed  for  Himself  and  the  Com- 
forter, or  Holy  Spirit,  the  sole  power  of 
imparting  divine  revelation  and  blessing. 

5.  Wisdom.  Along  with  the  belief  in 
angels  and  demons,  there  gi'ew  up  an  idea  of 
the  divine  '  wisdom '  which  is  closely  related 
to  it.  This  idea  is  responsible  for  the  tone 
and  character  of  a  section  of  the  contemporary 
literature,  embracing  the  book  of  Job,  some 
Psalms,  Proverbs,  Ben-Sira  or  Ecclesiasticus, 
Ecclesiastes,    and   the   Wisdom   of    Solomon, 


which  are  hence  called  the  Wisdom  Books. 
Here  again  the  roots  were  planted  in  the 
days  before  the  exile,  but  the  gi'owth  was 
stimulated  and  brought  to  fruit  by  the  re- 
flexions and  foreign  influences  of  later  times. 
The  idea  probably  had  its  origin  in  the  general 
conception  of  human  sagacity,  and  the  need  of 
sympathy  with  the  thought  and  will  of  God 
for  its  higher  manifestations.  Wisdom  thus 
became  associated  with  the  Word  of  God, 
which  by  an  easy  extension  of  its  meaning  was 
applied  to  His  whole  message  or  revelation  to 
men.  In  this  sense  it  was  personified  in  a 
kind  of  poetical  way,  and  not  only  had  divine 
attributes  ascribed  to  it,  but  was  regarded  as 
having  been  seen  by  the  prophets  (Isa2i). 
The  Wisdom  Books  take  up  the  process  at  this 
point,  and  carry  forward  the  personification 
upon  more  definite  and  elaborate  lines.  Wis- 
dom is  the  agent  or  messenger  of  God,  through 
whom  He  reveals  His  will  to  men,  and  gives 
expression  in  the  world  to  His  benevolence 
and  power  (Prov8).  She  is  His  first  creation, 
and  the  friend  of  all  who  love  Him  (Ecclus 
1  "1-10)  ;  her  thoughts  are  more  than  the  sea,  and 
her  counsels  profounder  than  the  great  deep 
(Ecclus  24  29).  In  vivid  style,  the  Wisdom  of 
Solomon  describes  the  origin  and  character  of 
Wisdom,  recounts  her  praises,  and  expatiates 
upon  her  benefits  (chs.  7,  8,  9). 

That  this  way  of  thinking  took  firm  hold  of 
the  Jewish  mind  is  evident  from  the  Targums 
or  Aramaic  expositions  of  the  Old  Testament, 
which  were  current  in  the  earlj^  Christian  age. 
In  them,  the  Word  of  God  (Memra)  appears 
almost  as  a  real  person,  standing  in  the  place 
of  God  Himself,  as  the  vehicle  of  His  self- 
expression,  and  the  agent  through  whom  He 
executes  His  purposes.  Exalted  above  the 
world.  He  yet  communicates  with  it,  and  acts 
upon  it,  through  His  Word.  A  somewhat  simi- 
lar doctrine,  though  more  largely  marked  by 
the  influence  of  the  Greek  theory  of  ideas,  was 
developed  in  Alexandria  by  the  Jewish  philo- 
sopher Philo.  Accepting  the  Jewish  concep- 
tion of  the  transcendence  of  God,  he  found  in 
the  Word  {Logos)  of  Old  Testament  Scripture 
the  power,  or  medium,  through  which  His 
reason  and  energy  still  come  into  touch  with 
the  world.  The  Logos  is  His  first-born  Son. 
the  highest  Angel,  even  a  second  God  :  through 
Him  the  world  of  men  and  things  is  created 
and  preserved.  The  widespread  currency  of 
these  speculations,  and  the  allegorical  method 
of  Scripture  interpretation  by  which  they  were 
supported,  are  reflected  in  the  New  Testament, 
especially  in  such  books  as  the  Epistle  to  the 
Hebrews  and  the  Fourth  Gospel.  In  the  pro- 
logue to  the  latter,  the  author  seizes  an  idea 
familiar  to  his  contemporaries  and  containing  an- 
ticipations of  the  truth,  and  applies  it  in  his  own 
way  to  Him  who  is  the  Light  and  Life  of  men. 


Ixviii 


I 


HISTORY,   LITERATURE,   ETC.,   BETWEEN   OT.    AND   NT. 


6.  Hellenism.  At  various  other  points  the 
influence  of  Greek  thought  may  be  traced  in 
the  later  beliefs  of  the  Jews.  In  spite  of  their 
exclusiveness,  the  Hellenistic  movement  which 
overspread  the  civilised  world  in  the  wake  of 
the  conquests  of  Alexander  the  Great  did  not 
leave  them  untouched  ;  and  for  centuries  there- 
after, especially  in  the  Dispersion,  they  were 
largely  affected  by  the  close  contact  into  which 
they  were  brought  with  the  great  speculative 
nation  of  the  West.  Their  knowledge  of  its 
language  and  familiarity  with  its  customs  and 
ideas  inspired  them  with  a  new  breadth  of 
thought  which  appears,  not  only  in  the  later 
Jewish  literature,  but  throughout  the  New 
Testament.  The  Wisdom  of  Solomon,  for 
instance,  is  largely  Greek  in  its  way  of  think- 
ing, and  uses  phraseology  borrowed  from  the 
schools  of  Greek  philosophy.  It  enumerates 
with  approval  the  four  cardinal  virtues  of 
Greek  morality  (8^)  ;  it  speaks  in  Platonic 
terms  of  a  creation  of  the  world  from  formless 
matter  instead  of  from  nothing  (11  ^^)  ;  it  calls 
manna  ambrosial  food  (19'^^),  and  pictures 
virtue  crowned  with  a  wreath  like  the  victor 
in  the  athletic  games  (4  2).  Similarly  the  book 
of  Revelation  (79),  in  its  description  of  the 
saints,  uses  a  figure  taken  from  the  Greek 
contests,  and  St.  Paul  draws  illustrations  of 
Christian  virtues  and  ideas  from  the  circus  and 
racecourse,  which  in  former  times  were  abhorred 
and  avoided  by  the  Jews.  These  are  indica- 
tions of  a  considerable  interchange  of  thought, 
in  the  course  of  which,  not  only  moral  and 
political  ideas,  but  philosophical  and  religious 
conceptions,  were  communicated  and  received. 
To  the  Greeks  the  Jews  are  said  to  have  been 
indebted  for  the  distinction  between  the  king- 
dom of  heaven  and  the  kingdom  of  the  world, 
and  they  certainly  found  in  the  Greek  thinkers 
clear  and  definite  statements  of  gi'eat  truths, 
like  the  immortality  of  the  soul  and  the  rewards 
and  punishments  of  the  future  life,  which  had 
been  but  faintly  outlined  and  suggested  by 
their  own  religious  teachers.  The  greatest 
consequences,  however,  of  the  familiarity  with 
Western  language  and  thought  were  the  under- 
mining of  the  old  division  between  the  Jew 
and  Gentile,  and  the  preparation  of  the  world 
for  the  preaching  of  the  universal  gospel.  Only 
in  the  light  of  it  is  it  possible  to  understand 
the  wonderful  success  that  attended  the  labours 
of  St.  Paul  and  other  Apostles  of  the  Cross. 

7.  The  Messianic  Hope.  The  circumstances 
of  the  Jews  conjoined  with  their  new  thoughts 
of  God  and  mankind  to  bring  eschatological 
ideas  into  prominence  :  that  is  to  say,  ideas 
relating  to  the  Last  Things.  So  far  as  the 
world  in  general  was  concerned,  these  gathered 
round  the  Messianic  Hope — the  expectation  of 
a  God-sent  Deliverer,  who  would  restore  the 
vanished  greatness  of  Israel,  and  establish  the 


rule  of  God's  people  in  righteousness  and 
power.  The  foundations  of  this  expectation 
were  laid  in  Old  Testament  prophecy,  in  which 
also  numerous  suggestions  were  afforded  for 
the  fulness  of  colour  and  detail  which  it  event- 
ually assumed.  The  earlier  as  well  as  the 
later  prophets  had  their  visions  of  the  salvation 
of  Israel  from  all  internal  and  external  evils, 
and  the  complete  reconciliation  of  the  nation 
to  God,  with  the  consequent  blessings  of  devo- 
tion and  obedience.  Their  descriptions  vary, 
according  to  the  age  in  which  they  lived,  and 
the  circumstances  of  the  people  ;  but  the  stress 
invariably  falls  upon  the  realisation  of  God's 
undisputed  sovereignty,  and  the  beneficent 
results  of  the  holiness  and  submissiveness  of 
the  nation.  Hints  are  given  of  a  great  out- 
standing figure,  through  whom  the  purpose  of 
God  is  to  be  accomplished :  he  is  '  a  prophet 
like  unto  Moses,'  '  a  king  of  David's  line,' 
'  the  servant  of  the  Lord ' ;  but  the  conception 
as  often  is  that  God  will  employ  no  inter- 
mediate personality,  but  intervene  Himself. 
The  Old  Testament,  indeed,  has  no  precise 
or  uniform  doctrine  of  the  Messiah's  person  ; 
it  does  not  even  employ  the  term  Messiah 
('  Anointed ')  in  the  particular  sense  that 
afterwards  attached  to  it — though  Jew  and 
Christian  alike,  in  later  years,  could  find  in  it 
prophetic  anticipations  of  their  own  beliefs 
(see  art.  '  Messianic  Hope  '). 

After  the  exile,  the  prospect  of  national 
greatness  and  prosperity  was  too  dim  and 
distant  to  serve  as  a  practical  religious  or 
political  stimulus.  The  contact  of  the  Jews 
with  other  nations,  too,  broadened  their  ideas 
of  the  world,  and  corrected  the  perspective  in 
which  the  movements  of  history  had  appeared 
to  them.  As  the  scribes  succeeded  the  pro- 
phets, and  the  sense  of  individuality  took  the 
place  of  the  old  national  sentiment,  the  bulk 
of  the  people  fell  back  upon  an  external 
religiosity,  which  lacked  the  confidence  and 
inspiration  of  former  days.  At  the  same  time, 
there  were  not  wanting  more  reflective  spirits, 
that  still  cherished  the  ancient  hope,  and  saw 
nothing  in  the  altered  circumstances  of  the 
time  to  exclude  the  possibility  of  God's  inter- 
vention. Transcendent  as  He  was,  could  He 
not  bend  the  firmament  of  heaven,  and  come 
down  for  the  restoration  of  His  penitent 
people  ?  Could  He  not  arise  for  the  shaking 
of  the  heavens  and  the  earth,  and  the  over- 
throw of  the  throne  of  kingdoms  (Hag  2^1)? 
Side  by  side  with  the  study  of  the  Law,  there 
went  an  anxious  scrutiny  of  the  promises  and 
predictions  of  the  prophets,  with  the  result 
that  a  new  and  grander  form  of  the  old  ex- 
pectation took  possession  of  many  minds.  In 
this  form  it  was  to  be  fulfilled  by  supernatural 
power,  and  with  a  world-wide  significance ; 
the  heathen  empires  were  to  be  overthrown ; 


Ixix 


HISTORY,   LITERATURE,   ETC.,   BETWEEN   OT.   AND  NT. 


the  dispersed  of  Israel  gathered  to  their  own 
land ;  the  worship  of  Jehovah  reestablished 
at  Jerusalem,  and  all  the  inhabitants  of  the 
earth  made  to  do  Him  reverence.  This  is  the 
view  of  Daniel,  and  there  are  sufficient  refer- 
ences to  it  in  other  books  of  the  period  to 
prove  its  persistence  both  before  and  after 
the  Maccabsean  struggle.  So  far,  however,  no 
symptoms  appear  of  the  prominence  of  the 
idea  of  a  personal  Messiah,  so  characteristic  of 
later  Jewish  thought ;  and  during  the  rise  and 
supremacy  of  the  Hasmonsean  family,  the  hope 
itself  of  a  future  ideal  kingdom  fell  into 
almost  utter  abeyance.  At  first,  the  fierceness 
of  the  struggle  for  independence  monopolised 
the  thoughts  of  the  Jews,  and  discouraged 
reflexion  upon  ideal  eventualities ;  then  the 
success  of  their  cause  secured  to  them  such 
freedom  and  prosperity  as  served  to  withdraw 
their  minds  from  the  future.  They  were  con- 
tent to  enjoy  the  good  already  attained,  and 
postpone  further  questions  till  a  new  prophet 
should  arise  among  them  (1  Mac  1441). 

A  marked  change  is  noticeable  early  in  the 
century  immediately  preceding  the  birth  of 
Christ.  The  Hasmonaean  house  was  tottering 
to  its  fall :  the  excesses  and  feuds  of  its 
princes  were  bringing  hopeless  ruin  upon 
themselves,  and  confusion  and  distress  upon 
their  country  ;  the  Pharisees  and  other  kin- 
dred spirits  repudiated  the  actual  government 
of  the  land,  and  turned  for  consolation  to  the 
old  hope  of  an  ideal  kingship.  Under  the 
Hasmonaean  rule,  their  sentiment  of  nationality 
had  been  revived  and  accentuated  ;  now  that 
their  confidence  had  been  betrayed  and  their 
hopes  disappointed,  they  threw  themselves 
with  new  ardour  into  the  old  prophetic  ex- 
pectations of  a  divinely-established  kingdom. 
The  feeling  of  the  time  is  indicated  in  the 
ninetieth  chapter  of  the  book  of  Enoch, 
and  still  more  clearly  in  the  Psalter  of 
Solomon.  In  the  latter,  for  the  first  time, 
the  name  and  person  of  the  Messiah  are  dis- 
tinctly set  forth.  Probably  the  idea  of  a 
Messianic  king  had  been  shaping  itself  for 
some  time  in  the  Jewish  mind  ;  thereafter 
it  possessed  it  with  increasing  force,  as  the 
centre  of  religious  hope,  and  the  theme  alike 
of  theological  study  and  devout  reflexion. 
Under  the  tyranny  of  the  Herods  and  the 
Roman  Procurators,  it  took  on  almost  a  fever- 
ish intensity,  the  people  praying  and  longing 
for  the  consolation  of  Israel,  and  eagerly 
watching  the  signs  of  the  times  for  the  evi- 
dences of  the  Messiah's  advent,  and  the 
coming  of  God's  kingdom  (Lkl,  2,  etc.).  The 
hold  it  had  obtained  upon  the  popular  imagina- 
tion is  abundantly  evidenced  in  the  pages  of  the 
New  Testament.  It  helps  to  explain  the  efl^ects 
of  the  preaching  of  .lohn  the  Baptist,  and  the 
favour  with  which  the  contemporaries  of  our 


Lord  regarded  His  early  ministry  :  it  also 
throws  light  upon  the  vehemence  with  which 
Christ  was  ultimately  rejected,  when  He  failed 
to  exhibit  the  expected  characteristics  of  the 
Messiah,  and  proclaimed  a  spiritual  kingdom 
which  conflicted  with  preconceived  notions. 
Later  on,  it  led  them  to  try  those  conclusions 
with  the  Roman  power,  which  eventuated  in 
their  national  eifacement. 

8.  Personal  Immortality.  No  greater  ad- 
vance was  made  during  the  period  than  in  the 
determination  and  development  of  those 
eschatological  ideas  which  bear  upon  the 
future  life  and  condition  of  the  individual 
soul.  The  stimulus  to  this  advance  may  be 
found,  not  only  in  the  new  emphasis  laid  upon 
individuality,  and  the  Persian  and  Greek  in- 
fluences already  noticed,  but  still  more,  per- 
haps, in  the  internal  condition  of  the  country, 
which  was  distracted  by  political  and  religious 
factions.  In  the  strife  and  commotion  of 
the  time,  the  sudden  reversal  of  fortune,  and 
the  eclipse  of  the  hopes  of  national  power 
and  greatness,  it  was  natural  for  the  Jews  to 
turn  to  the  thought  of  a  life  after  death,  in 
which  all  inequalities  would  be  adjusted,  and 
all  wrongs  redressed.  Especially  would  this 
thought  be  cherished  in  times  of  persecution, 
when  they  were  called  to  sacrifice  their  lives 
for  their  country  and  their  faith.  Belief  in  a 
future  dispensation  of  judgment  is  a  condition 
of  the  martyr  spirit,  and  was  probably  found 
necessary  to  support  the  fortitude  of  the 
early  martyrs    of  the  Jewish  faith. 

The  Old  Testament  has  little  to  say  upon 
the  subject  of  individual  immortality.  In 
some  of  the  later  books,  such  as  the  Psalms 
(16,  17,  49,  73),  and  Job  (14i3-i5  1925-29)^  sug- 
gestive hints  are  given  of  a  continued  exist- 
ence beyond  the  grave  ;  and  it  is  possible  to 
see  in  the  accounts  of  the  translation  of  Enoch 
and  Elijah  at  least  the  faint  anticipation  of 
the  later  view  of  death  ;  but  in  general  the 
faith  of  the  Hebrew  people  does  not  seem  to 
have  been  attracted  by  the  prospect  of  a 
future  life.  It  seldom  rose  above  the  con- 
sideration of  earthly  things,  the  continued 
enjoyment  of  which  is  the  blessing  they 
expect  from  God.  The  salvation  for  which 
they  long  is  mostly  of  a  national  and  tem- 
poral kind :  deliverance  from  the  ordinary 
calamities  of  life,  or  from  the  fear  and  power 
of  their  enemies.  When  they  think  at  all  of 
the  future  life,  it  is  as  a  state  of  deprivation 
and  loss,  compared  to  which  their  earthly 
present  life  is  an  incalculable  boon.  They 
can  see  in  it  only  the  grim  shadows  and  terrors 
of  Sheol — an  uncertain  state  of  bodiless 
existence,  into  which  death  gathers  good  and 
bad  alike,  and  from  which  even  the  most 
fervent  piety  and  trust  in  God  will  not  avail 
for  deliverance. 


Ixx 


I 


HISTORY,   LITERATURE,   ETC.,   BETWEEN   OT.    AND   NT. 


Starting  from  this  slender  basis  of  eschato- 
logical  belief,  Jewish  thoug'ht  was  now  led 
to  richer  and  clearer  conceptions  of  things  to 
come.  To  begin  with  the  cardinal  idea,  there 
was  undoubtedly  a  steadily-growing  sense  and 
assurance  of  personal  immortality.  This  is  a 
conclusion  forced  upon  us  by  a  comparison  of 
the  confident  utterances  of  the  Apocryphal 
and  Talmudic  writers  with  the  vaguer  refer- 
ences of  the  Old  Testament  Scriptures.  Even 
the  words  'immortal'  and  'immortality' 
seem  now  to  have  come  into  general  use,  as 
if  the  ideas  conveyed  by  them  formed  part  of 
the  intellectual  furniture  of  the  ordinary  Jew. 
Men  certainly  looked  for  a  continued  con- 
scious existence  after  death  as  different  as 
could  be  from  the  dim  and  shadowy  condition 
expressed  in  the  old  popular  conception  of 
Sheoi.  Very  soon,  too,  the  idea  of  immortality 
became  filled  up  with  a  wealth  and  intensity 
of  meaning,  which  raised  it  to  a  prominent 
place  in  the  regulation  and  government  of 
life.  There  became  associated  with  it,  at 
least,  two  supplementary  conceptions,  which 
went  to  render  it  more  tangible  and  effective  : 
the  thoughts  of  a  resurrection  of  the  body, 
and  of  a  future  distribution  of  rewards  and 
punishments.  Both  of  these,  with  some 
variations,  have  been  adopted  into  the  Christian 
system,  and  have  exercised  an  untold  influence 
upon  modern  thought. 

It  seems  to  have  been  about  the  time  of  the 
Maccabaean  wars  that  the  belief  in  immortality 
came  to  be  most  strongly  felt,  and  to  include 
the  resurrection  of  the  body  as  an  essential 
part.  Twenty  years  before  these  wars  the 
greatest  teacher  of  the  time — the  Son  of 
Sirach — could  speak  of  departure  from  the 
world  in  strains  of  pathetic  hopelessness 
(Ecclus41i-4  17-27-32).  but  during  them  the 
tone  is  completely  changed,  and  afterwards 
we  have  the  most  precise  utterances  regarding 
the  resurrection  (Dan  1 2  ^  Ps  Sol  7 1«3).  In  the 
second  book  of  Maccabees  (c.  7)  we  find  the 
seven  sons  and  their  mother  witnessing  before 
the  persecuting  king  to  the  hope  of  resurrec- 
tion to  eternal  life,  and  (14  ■i'^)  Razis,  at  his 
death,  throwing  his  entrails  upon  the  people, 
and  calling  upon  the  Lord  of  life  and  spirit  to 
restore  him  those  again.  Other  references 
might  be  given  (PsSollS^  14^  15i3  Enoch 
9Q23  91 10^  etc.)  ;  but  perhaps  the  best  evidence 
of  this  belief,  subsequent  to  the  time  of  the 
Maccabees,  is  the  fact  that  in  the  time  of 
Christ  it  was  a  current  popular  doctrine, 
rejected  apparently  as  an  innovation  by  the 
Sadducees,  but  strenuously  advocated  by  the 
Pharisees,  and  acquiesced  in  by  the  great 
bulk  of  the  nation  who  held  with  them. 

The  idea  of  the  resurrection,  as  it  presents 
itself  in  the  thought  of  the  period,  exhibits 
considerable  variety  of  form,  if  not  a  definite 


process  of  development.  At  first  it  seems  to 
have  been  restricted  to  the  godly,  and  antici- 
pated as  an  accompaniment  of  the  establish- 
ment of  the  Messiah's  kingdom.  That  king- 
dom had  been  delayed,  but  those  who  had 
lived  in  the  hope  of  it,  and  had  been  over- 
taken by  death  before  its  realisation,  would 
be  raised  to  life  again  at  the  Messiah's  advent, 
and  share  in  the  Lord's  salvation.  This  is 
the  view  taken  in  the  Psalter  of  Solomon. 

Afterwards  there  arose,  as  part  of  the  gener- 
ally accepted  Jewish  belief,  the  doctrine  of  a 
universal  resurrection  to  judgment  before  the 
divine  throne  and  a  life  of  eternal  retribu- 
tion. Judging  from  2  Esdras  (7  27  f-),  vrritten 
towards  the  close  of  the  first  century  of  our 
era,  this  view  was  probably  current  in  the 
time  of  Christ.  In  some  quarters  it  was  com- 
bined with  the  more  limited  view,  so  that  both 
a  particular  and  a  universal  resurrection  were 
anticipated  :  a  resurrection  of  the  just,  at  the 
coming  of  the  Messiah,  to  participation  in  the 
blessings  of  His  earthly  reign  ;  and,  after- 
wards, at  the  end  of  the  world,  a  resurrection 
of  the  remainder  of  mankind  to  judgment  and 
retribution.  Evidences  of  this  combination, 
in  connexion  with  the  Second  Coming  of  Christ, 
are  to  be  found  in  the  New  Testament,  and 
especially  in  the  eschatological  ideas  of  the 
author  of  Revelation.  As  time  went  on,  how- 
ever, the  hope  of  the  individual  tended  to 
dissociate  itself  from  the  national  Messianic 
expectation,  and  become  entirely  independent 
of  it.  Reaching  forward  to  a  blessedness,  of 
which  after  all  the  Messianic  blessedness 
could  only  be  the  prelude,  it  gradually  with- 
drew the  thoughts  of  men  from  the  Messianic 
hope,  and  gathered  them  about  itself.  Appar- 
ently, uniformity  of  belief  on  the  nature  of 
the  resurrection  life  had  not  been  attained  at 
the  close  of  our  period  ;  in  the  time  of  Christ 
and  afterwards  questions  regarding  it  still 
continued  to  be  keenly  agitated  (Mt  22  23-33 
Ac  23  6  lTh4i3-iS). 

The  other  adjunct  to  the  idea  of  immortality 
— the  thought  of  a  future  distribution  of  re- 
wards and  punishments — seems  also  to  have 
come  into  prominence  about  the  time  of  the 
Maccabasan  wars.  Like  the  belief  in  the  re- 
surrection of  the  body,  no  trace  of  it  is  to  be 
found  in  the  book  of  the  Son  of  Sirach.  At 
first  it  meets  us  in  the  simple  undeveloped 
form  of  a  division  of  the  future  world  into 
two  opposite  states  of  happiness  and  misery, 
corresponding  to  the  simplest  moral  classifica- 
tion of  men  as  good  and  bad.  The  book  of 
Wisdom  says,  '  the  souls  of  the  righteous  are 
in  the  hand  of  God,  and  there  shall  no  torment 
touch  them '  ;  '  having  been  a  little  chastised, 
they  shall  be  gi'eatly  rewarded  ' ;  '  but  the  un- 
godly shall  be  punished  according  to  their  own 
imaginations'  (Bi'^.io  514-16^  etc.).     The  same 


Ixxi 


HISTORY,   LITERATURE,   ETC.,   BETWEEN   OT.    AND   NT. 


conception  appears  in  the  books  of  the  Macca- 
bees (e.g.  in  the  words  of  the  martyrs  before 
the  king,  2  Mac  7  35-37).     This  is  the  first  vague 
form  of  the  belief  in  future  retribution  ;  but 
it  could  not  have   been  long  till  it   acquired 
definiteness  and  precision,  for  we  find  from 
the    rabbinical     traditions    that    a    tolerably 
elaborate  theory  on  the  subject  was  in  exist- 
ence by  the  time  of  Christ.     The  two  divisions 
of  the  future  world  were  called  Paradise  (or 
sometimes,  metaphorically,  Abraham's  Bosom) 
and  Gehenna — a  name  derived  from  the  valley 
in    the    neighbourhood    of    Jerusalem,    which 
served  as  a  common  sewer  and  receptacle  for 
the  bodies  of  executed  felons.     To  Paradise, 
the   righteous   were    admitted    without   delay 
immediately  after  death  ;  but  all  others  were 
consigned  to  Gehenna  for  longer  or  shorter 
periods,  according  to  the  degree  of  their  iniquity. 
The  former  class  was  supposed  to  include  only 
the   true   Israelites — those   who   believed   the 
whole  Law,  and  regulated  their  conduct  accord- 
ing to  its   precepts  ;   but  occasionally  it  was 
extended  to  embrace  men  of  other  creeds  and 
nations  who   lived   holy  and   righteous   lives. 
The  other  class  was  composed  of  Gentiles  and 
imperfectly  righteous  Israelites — that  is  to  say, 
Israelites,  who  neglected  or  despised  the  Law 
and   committed    sin    with   their    bodies.     For 
them  a  retribution  of  suffering  was  reserved 
amid  the  gloom  and  misery  of  Gehenna.     It 
is,  however,   to   be   noticed   that   the   punish- 
ments of  Gehenna  were  seldom,  if  ever,  con- 
sidered to  be  of  endless  duration  ;  they  were 
rather  regarded  as  terminable  in  their  nature 
and  reformative  in  their  effects.     Between  the 
two  opposite  states  of  the  future  world  there 
was  but  a  short  space,  which  might  be  bridged 
over  by  the  repentance  and  amendment  of  the 
sinner  ;  hence  it  was  believed  that  the  less  sin- 
ful Jews  confined  in  Gehenna — those  who  were 
not    irredeemably    bad — passed    upward    into 
Paradise    after    enduring    pain    for   a   period 
sufficient  to  purge   them  from   sin  and  bring 
them  to  repentance.     It  is  probable,  also,  that 
both  Gehenna  and  Paradise   were   sometimes 
regarded  as  divisions  of  an  intermediate  state 
— the  old  Sheol — from  which  the  righteous  and 
those  who  had  repented  of  their  unrighteous- 
ness passed  ultimately  to  the  blessedness  of 
Heaven.     About  the  fate  of  the  remainder — 
the    incurably   wicked — the    common   opinion 
seems  to  have  been  that  they  were  annihilated, 
but  this  is  not  so  clearly  established  as  to  be 
beyond    dispute.     Certain    rabbinical    expres- 
sions are  supposed  to  suggest  a  belief  in  end- 
less punishment  for   the  finally  unrepentant. 
But   against  this   it  is  urged  that,  if   such  a 
belief  existed,  it  must  have  been  dropped  in 
later  years  ;  for  the  teaching  of  the  Talmud 
as   a  whole   is  decidedly  against  the  idea  of 
everlasting   damnation,  and   in   favour   of    a 


Ixxii 


temporary  punishment  even  for  the  worst  of 
sinners. 

Christ  did  not  dispute  these  current  concep- 
tions of  His  time,  but  occasionally  made  use  of 
them  in  His  teaching  ;  for  example,  in  the 
parable  of  the  rich  man  and  Lazarus,  and  in 
His  promise  to  the  thief  upon  the  cross  (Lk 
leiof.  2.3^3).  Doubtless,  too,  they  underlie 
His  sayings  about  '  the  many  stripes  and  the 
few'  (Lk  12 47, 48)^  'the  payment  of  the  utter- 
most farthing'  (Mt526),  and  'the  more  toler- 
able judgment  upon  the  sins  of  ignorance' 
(Mtll22f.).  (His  general  attitude  to  the 
future  life  is  discussed  in  art.  '  Teaching  of 
Jesus   Christ.') 

9.  Worship  and  Practice.  During  the  exile 
a  more  spiritual  note  began  to  pervade  Jewish 
worship.  Deprived  of  the  ritual  and  sacrifices 
of  the  Temple,  the  better  spirits  of  the  nation, 
while  maintaining  the  circumcision  rite  and  the 
observance  of  the  sabbath,  betook  themselves 
to  more  frequent  prayer  and  meditation  on  the 
Law  of  God.  It  is  probable,  too,  from  the 
religious  zeal  afterwards  exhibited  by  the  exiles, 
that  they  met  together  periodically  in  local 
assemblies  for  mutual  edification  and  encourage- 
ment. This,  at  any  rate,  is  the  origin  generally 
assumed  for  the  well-known  institution  of  the 
Synagogue,  which  was  already  regarded  as 
ancient  in  New  Testament  times  (AclS^i). 
In  the  cu'cumstances  of  the  exile,  worship 
could  only  be  an  affair  of  scattered  individuals, 
not  of  the  nation  as  a  whole  ;  consequently  it 
lost  much  of  its  official  aspect,  and  acquired  a 
more  personal  character. 

After    the    Return,    a    rearrangement    and 
elaboration  of  the  Temple  services  took  place. 
The  daily  sacrifices  of  a  yearling  lamb,  morn- 
ing and  CA^ening,  were  reestablished  and  main- 
tained without  intermission — except  for  a  short 
period  during  the    persecution   of  Antiockus 
Epiphanes— until  the  fall  of  Jerusalem.    Burnt 
offerings  and  sin  offerings  were  appointed  for 
the   sabbaths  and  new  moons  and  the  great 
annual  feasts.     In  course  of  time  several  other 
festivals  were  added  to  those  that  had  been  in 
existence  before  the  exile — of  these  the  chief 
were  the  Feast  of  Purim,  supposed  to  celebrate 
the  frustration  of  Haman's  plots  against  the 
Jews  of  Persia  (Esth  9  23-32)^  and  the  Feast  of 
the  Dedication,  commemorative  of  the  restitu- 
tion of  the   Temple  worship  by  Judas  Mac- 
cabeus in  165  B.C.     The  sacrifices  on  all  these 
occasions  were   no   longer  provided  by  royal 
munificence,   but  by  individual   contributions 
from  the  Jews  scattered  over  the  world  ;  con- 
sequently they  took  on  a  more  representative 
character,  and  became  the  symbols  of  a  wide- 
spread religious  fellowship.    At  the  same  time, 
as  an  effect  of  the  increased  study  of  the  pro- 
phets, a  deeper  religious  spirit  was  infused  into 
them  ;  they  were  regarded  as  well -pleasing  to 


HISTORY,   LITERATURE,   ETC.,   BETWEEN   OT.  AND    NT. 


Grod,  not  so  much  for  any  virtue  in  themselves  as 
in  the  expression  they  gave  to  pious  and  penitent 
feeling.  It  had  come  to  be  seen  that  God  cared 
more  for  the  doing  of  His  will  than  for  the 
blood  of  bulls  and  of  goats  (Pss406f.  50 '?f- 
Prov213  Ecclus 34 18-35^  etc.).  Jesus,  though 
He  sets  less  value  on  the  sacrifices  than  the 
Jewish  teachers  of  His  time,  did  not  interfere 
with  them,  but  in  this,  as  in  other  respects, 
conformed  to  the  ordinary  practices  of  the 
Law  (Lk2«f.  Mkl4i2f-  Jn^isf-  51*-  72f.). 

Other  elements  of  worship  were  introduced 
or  emphasised,  which  detracted  from  the 
prominence  of  the  sacrifices,  and  gave  the 
laity,  as  distinct  from  the  priests,  a  larger 
interest  in  the  services.  This  was  partly  the 
result  and  partly  the  cause  of  the  multiplica- 
tion of  synagogues  as  local  places  of  worship 
apart  from  the  Temple,  one  of  which,  and 
sometimes  more,  were  to  be  found  in  every 
considerable  Jewish  community.  Both  in 
the  Synagogue  and  the  Temple,  the  Law  was 
read  and  expounded  for  the  popular  benefit  : 
in  later  times,  the  prophets  also  (Lk4  i"),  and 
other  Old  Testament  books ;  while  sacred 
songs  (many  of  which  are  preserved  in  the 
book  of  Psalms)  were  chanted  or  sung,  gener- 
ally by  trained  choirs,  but  yet  as  the  praises 
of  the  congregation.  Prayer  was  an  import- 
ant element  in  the  worship,  as  well  as  in  the 
individual  life  ;  with  praise  and  thanksgiving, 
it  accompanied  every  offering  of  incense  or 
sacrifice.  There  were  several  stated  forms  of 
it  for  public  use,  the  chief  of  which  were 
'  The  Eighteen  Benedictions,'  a  short  recension 
of  which  is  called  '  The  Habinenu,'  and  '  The 
Kaddish.' 

In  keeping  with  the  eschatological  ideas  of 
the  time,  the  practice  seems  to  have  grown  up  in 
the  second  century  B.C.  of  making  sacrifices  and 
prayers  for  the  dead.  It  may  have  been  sug- 
gested by  the  heathen  custom  of  making  ob-  ' 
lations  at  the  graves  of  the  departed  ;  but  it 
differs  from  it  in  the  fact  that,  according  to 
the  higher  ideas  of  the  Jewish  religion,  the 
offerings  were  made,  not  to  the  souls  of  the 
dead,  but  on  behalf  of  them  to  God.  In  the 
form  of  prayer  alone,  without  the  accompani- 
ment of  sacrifice,  the  practice  afterwards 
passed  into  the  early  Christian  Church.  The 
origin  of  it  cannot  be  exactly  determined,  but 
it  is  easy  to  see  how  natural  it  was  to  pious 
Jewish  minds,  that  had  come  to  a  strong  and 
earnest  faith  in  the  immortality  of  the  soul, 
the  resurrection  of  the  body,  and  the  purifying 
purposes  of  the  punishments  of  Gehenna. 
They  might  well  believe  that  the  souls  that 
had  been  benefited  by  their  prayers  in  this 
world  might  still  be  helped  by  them  in  the 
world  beyond  the  grave.  An  instance  of  such 
prayers  has  been  supposed  to  occur  in  Ps  132, 


assuming  the  post-Davidic  date  of  the  Psalm  : 
'  Lord,  remember  David  and  all  his  afflictions  ' ; 
but  we  cannot  lay  much  weight  upon  that. 
For  the  first  time,  the  usage  comes  clearly 
into  view  in  the  history  of  the  Maccabasan 
wars,  where  a  case  of  it  is  found  on  a  toler- 
ably large  scale  (2Macl240-45).  The  teaching 
of  the  Jewish  schools  was  quite  in  accordance 
with  it ;  and  there  is  reason  to  believe  that, 
during  the  life  and  ministry  of  Christ,  though 
He  is  practically  silent  about  it,  prayers  for 
the  dead  were  offered  in  the  synagogues,  and 
repeated  by  the  mourning  relatives.  In 
Jewish  cemeteries  of  the  first  and  second 
centuries  after  Christ,  inscriptions  have  been 
found  bearing  witness  to  the  usage  ;  and 
a  trace  of  it  may  appear  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment in  St.  Paul's  prayer  for  Onesiphorus 
(2  Tim  118). 

Except  in  small  devout  circles,  such  as  those 
in  which  the  gospel  of  Christ  found  a  ready 
soil,  Judaism,  towards  the  close  of  our  period, 
degenerated  into  pure  legalism  and  formality. 
The  doctrine  of  God's  transcendence  had  be- 
gotten harsh  conceptions  of  His  nature,  and 
arbitrary  ideas  of  His  judgments  ;  caprice  and 
partiality,  rather  than  love,  were  ascribed  to 
Him  ;  His  requirements  were  supposed  to  be 
contained  in  the  Law  and  the  traditions  of  the 
elders,  which  by  this  time  had  become  a  vast 
conglomerate  of  precepts  bearing  upon  the 
minutest  actions  and  circumstances  of  life. 
Only  the  strictest  observance  of  the  Pharisaic 
rules  could  make  a  man  righteous  before  God  ; 
but  that  need  not  be  more  than  an  external 
observance,  and  so  the  religious  life  came  to 
be  divided  between  the  performance  of  rites 
and  ceremonies,  in  which  purifications  played 
a  great  part,  and  punctilious  attention  to 
matters  of  outward  conduct.  The  whole 
Pharisaic  system  aimed  at  making  clean  the 
outside  of  the  cup  and  platter  ;  it  tithed 
mint  and  rue  and  all  manner  of  herbs,  but 
passed  over  judgment  and  the  love  of  God 
(Lk  11 39-42).  Expedients  were  devised  to 
atone  for  the  shortcomings  of  those  who 
failed  in  their  efforts  to  keep  the  whole  Law  ; 
exceptional  suffering  and  works  of  surpassing 
merit,  especially  almsgiving,  even  the  good 
works  and  virtues  of  ancestors  and  friends 
were  regarded  as  compensating  for  personal 
deficiencies.  Under  such  a  system  a  healthy 
spiritual  life  was  hardly  likely  to  be  fostered  ; 
its  only  outcome  could  be,  as  the  New  Testa- 
ment shows,  pride  and  hypocrisy  on  the  one 
hand,  and  hopelessness  on  the  other.  Jesus 
protested  against  it  till  His  lips  were  closed 
on  the  cross,  and  in  striking  contrast  to  it 
presented  that  pure  moral  teaching  and  pro- 
found spiritual  faith  which  have  since  conquered 
the  world. 


Ixxiii 


THE  LIFE  OF  JESUS  CHRIST 


In  the  estimation  of  His  followers,  Christ's 
life  is  the  central  fact  in  the  history  of  the 
world.  Tliis  is  indicated  externally  in  their 
manner  of  computing  time,  and  dating  other 
events,  with  reference  to  it.  More  particularly, 
however,  they  regard  it  as  the  most  significant 
fact  for  their  personal  lives,  the  basis  of  their 
individual  thinking  and  behaviour  in  the  world. 
Christianity  revolves  so  closely  round  the 
person  and  work  of  Christ  that  a  knowledge 
and  understanding  of  His  life  are  requisite  for 
the  comprehension  of  Christian  truth.  Besides, 
as  a  life  of  absolute  purity  and  devotion  to 
God,  it  presents  not  only  the  perfect  standard 
for  moral  conduct,  but  the  ideal  type  of  re- 
ligious aspiration  and  devotion.  It  deserves, 
therefore,  the  closest,  most  reverent  study  ; 
and  in  such  study  the  following  short  sketch 
may  be  helpful,  as  bringing  the  various  details 
of  the  Gospels  together,  and  arranging  them 
so  far  as  possible  in  chronological  order. 

1.  The  accepted  date  of  Christ's  birth  is 
wrong  by  several  years.  In  reality  He  was 
born  in  B.C.  6  or  7,  at  a  little  village  5  m.  S. 
of  Jerusalem,  called  Bethlehem.  There  His 
mother  gave  Him  birth  in  a  stable,  there  being 
no  room  for  her  in  the  inn.  His  mother,  Mary, 
and  His  reputed  father,  Joseph,  were  devout 
Jews  of  the  tribe  of  Judah.  They  claimed 
descent  from  the  royal  house  of  David,  but, 
like  others  of  his  descendants,  were  in  poor 
circumstances.  According  to  the  Gospel  nar- 
rative, based  probably  on  the  testimony  of 
Joseph  and  Mary,  Joseph  was  not  in  a 
literal  sense  the  father  of  Jesus.  Before  their 
marriage  Jesus  had  already  been  miraculously 
conceived  by  His  mother,  in  accordance  with 
an  angel's  message.  A  marvel  so  stupendous, 
which,  if  alleged  of  an  ordinary  person,  could 
not  be  credited,  is  rendered  credible,  and  almost 
natural,  by  the  extraordinary  subsequent  career 
of  Jesus.  There  is  no  need  to  enlarge  upon 
the  subject  in  this  place,  as  it  is  fully  discussed 
in  the  Commentary  upon  St.  Matthew's  Gospel. 
See  on  Mt  1 18-25. 

2.  Childhood  and  Youth  of  Jesus.  When 
Jesus  was  bom,  Herod  the  Great  ruled  Judaea 
and  all  Palestine.  Soon  afterwards  he  died 
(B.C.  4),  and  his  kingdom  was  divided  among 
his  sons.  Archelaus  received  Judaea,  Samaria, 
and  Idumaea  ;  Herod  Antipas  received  Galilee 
and  Peraea  ;  Herod  Philip  received  Trachonitis 
and  Ituraea.  These  princes  were  not  inde- 
pendent, but  subject  to  Rome.  While  Jesus 
was  quite  young,  Archelaus  was  banished  to 


Gaul  for  misgovernment,  and  Judaea  was  placed 
under  direct  Roman  government  (a.d.  5).  An- 
tipas and  Philip  were  allowed  to  retain  their 
dominions. 

Joseph  had  intended  to  settle  permanently 
in  Bethlehem,  that  being  the  proper  home  of 
the  Messiah  (MicS^),  but  the  hostility  first  of 
Herod  the  Great,  from  which  he  took  refuge 
in  Egypt,  and  afterwards  of  Archelaus,  caused 
him  to  alter  his  plans.  He  returned  to  Naza- 
reth, his  own  city,  in  the  dominions  of  Antipas, 
and  brought  up  Jesus  to  his  own  trade,  which 
was  that  of  a  carpenter,  or  possibly  a  smith. 

Jesus  did  not  enter  a  rabbinical  academy, 
but  doubtless  received  the  usual  education  of 
a  Jewish  boy  in  the  synagogue  of  Nazareth. 
This  consisted  of  reading,  writing,  and  perhaps 
the  elements  of  arithmetic.  Schooling  began 
at  the  age  of  six  or  seven.  Before  this  age 
Jewish  fathers  were  accustomed  to  teach  their 
sons  the  Shema  (DtG'^),  certain  proverbs,  and 
certain  verses  from  the  Psalms.  In  school  the 
children  sat  on  the  ground,  and  repeated  the 
words  of  the  lesson  after  the  master  until  they 
knew  it.  Great  attention  was  paid  to  pronuncia- 
tion and  learning  by  heart.  The  principal 
study  was  the  Law,  of  which  Leviticus  was 
taken  first,  as  containing  the  information  about 
legal  observances  most  necessary  for  a  boy 
approaching  manhood  to  know.  The  boys  were 
very  anxious  to  read  well,  because  the  best 
readers  were  allowed  to  read  the  lessons  from 
the  Law  in  the  synagogue  services. 

The  Jewish  system  of  education  was  entirely 
different  from  the  Greek.  The  Jewish  school- 
masters were  scribes,  trained  in  the  narrowest 
ideas  of  traditional  rabbinism.  They  rigidly 
excluded  from  the  curriculum  all  secular  sub- 
jects, and  every  Gentile  influence.  Jewish 
boys  had  no  sports  or  athletics  like  the  Greeks, 
though  we  read  that  they  played  with  one 
another  in  the  streets  (Mt  1 1  ^^).  It  may  be 
safely  affirmed  that  Jesus  gi'ew  up  entirely 
uninfluenced  by  Greek  culture,  although  it  is 
probable  that,  owing  to  the  presence  of  so 
many  Gentiles  in  Galilee,  He  found  it  neces- 
sary to  learn  the  Greek  language.  Some  have 
maintained  that  He  was  acquainted  only  with 
the  vernacular  Aramaic  (called  Hebrew  in  the 
New  Testament),  but  it  is  more  probable  that 
He  was  bilingual,  speaking  Aramaic  or  Greek 
according  to  circumstances. 

It  is  doubtful  whether  Jesus  during  His 
whole  life  ever  read  any  other  book  than  the 
Bible.  With  this  He  was  intimately  acquainted. 


Ixxiv 


THE   LIFE   OF   JESUS   CHRIST 


In  His  recorded  discourses,  He  quotes  nearly 
every  book  of  the  Old  Testament,  and  shows  a 
profound  knowledge  of  its  spirit  and  meaning. 

Only  one  incident  of  His  childhood  is 
recorded  (Lk2'*i),  but  it  is  interesting  as  show- 
ing that  even  at  twelve  years  of  age  He  pos- 
sessed the  consciousness  of  His  divine  Sonship 
(Lk2**9)_  The  childhood  of  Jesus  was  marked 
by  no  miracle.  Like  other  children  He  grew  in 
wisdom  and  stature  (Lk2S2)  jje  showed  ex- 
ceptional, but  not  superhuman  ability  (Lk  2  ^'i')^ 
Passing  through  every  stage  of  human  life, 
He  showed  the  virtues  and  capacities  suitable 
to  each.  There  is  no  scriptural  support  for 
the  common  idea  that  from  the  moment  of 
the  Incarnation  His  human  nature  possessed  all 
knowledge  and  every  possible  perfection.  On 
the  contrary,  the  Scripture  teaches  that  the 
growth  of  His  human  mind  in  grace  and 
knowledge  was  real,  and  that  He  was  subject 
to  real  temptations  like  other  men. 

Jesus  was  brought  up  with  several  other 
children,  who  are  called  His  brothers  and 
sisters.  These  were  either  children  of  Joseph 
by  a  former  wife,  or  children  of  Joseph  and  Mary 
born  after  Jesus,  or,  as  some  would  prefer  to 
believe  with  Jerome,  cousins  of  our  Lord 
(see  on  Mt  1 2  47-50)_  They  appear  to  have  been 
jealous  of  the  superior  talents  of  Jesus,  and 
for  some  time  refused  to  believe  in  Him 
(Jn75).  After  the  Resurrection  they  were 
converted,  and  two  of  them,  James  and  Jude, 
became  prominent  Christians. 

3.  The  Ministry  of  Jesus.  No  teacher  ever 
achieved  so  much  in  so  short  a  time  as  Jesus. 
His  ministry  did  not  exceed  two  years  and  six 
months  (according  to  some  authorities  three 
years  and  six  months),  and  yet  in  that  short 
time  He  founded  a  Church  strong  enough  to 
survive  the  greatest  political  and  social  revo- 
lutions, and  enlightened  enough  to  adapt  itself 
to  the  continual  advance  of  human  knowledge. 
Christianity  to-day  is  as  new  as  it  was  two 
thousand  years  ago.  It  already  embraces  more 
than  a  third  of  the  human  race,  and  is  still 
extending  its  sway  over  the  hearts  and  lives 
of  men. 

The  plan  of  Christ's  ministry  is  quite  defi- 
nite and  clear.  He  felt  that  His  first  duty 
was  to  ofier  Himself  to  the  Jewish  authorities 
at  Jerusalem,  and  to  the  nation  at  large,  as  the 
promised  Messiah.  This  He  accordingly  did 
(Jn  2 13-3  36).  But  He  knew  from  the  first 
that  they  would  reject  Him.  His  ideal  of  what 
the  Messiah  was  to  be,  and  theirs,  were  too  far 
asunder  for  any  other  result  to  follow.  They 
sought  an  earthly  king  to  lead  a  revolt  against 
foreign  domination,  and  to  found  a  world- 
wide Jewish  state.  He  sought  a  kingdom  not 
of  this  world.  Gradually  the  nation  which  at 
first  received  Him  favourably  became  estranged, 
and  He  devoted  Himself  more  and  more  to 


training  the  Twelve  for  their  future  work. 
The  outlook  of  Jesus  was  never  confined  to 
the  limits  of  Judaism.  H^  looked  forward  to 
the  conversion  of  all  the  nations,  and  laid  His 
plans  accordingly  (Mt8ii  Jn  101*5  Mt28i9). 
The  idea  of  the  Catholic  Church  is  due,  not  to 
St.  Paul,  but  to  Jesus. 

4.  The  Localities  of  the  Ministry.  Roughly 
speaking,  Jesus  spent  a  year  teaching  in  Jud^a, 
a  year  (some  say  two  years)  in  Galilee,  and 
six  months  in  Peraea  and  other  places.  The 
Synoptic  Gospels  do  not  describe  the  Judsean 
ministry,  and  very  rarely  allude  to  it  (Mt2337 
Lk4«  RM  and  Westcott  and  Hort).  The 
omission  is,  no  doubt,  remarkable,  but  is 
capable  of  a  simple  explanation.  Eight  months 
of  the  Judsean  ministry  took  place  before  the 
death  of  the  Baptist  and  the  public  appearance 
of  Jesus  in  Galilee,  and  were  relatively  un- 
important. The  rest  of  the  Judaean  ministry 
consisted  of  occasional  visits  to  Jerusalem. 
On  these  visits  Jesus  probably  took  with  Him 
the  Apostle  John,  who  had  a  house  at  Jeru- 
salem, leaving  Peter  and  the  rest  behind  in 
Galilee  to  carry  on  His  work.  Hence  the 
Synoptists,  who  depend  upon  St.  Peter,  omit 
the  Judsean  ministry,  while  St.  John,  who  alone 
witnessed  it,  alone  records  it. 

5.  The  Baptism.  Jesus  was  baptised  by 
John  the  Baptist,  who  claimed  to  be  the  Fore- 
runner of  the  Messiah,  in  the  latter  half  of 
A.D.  2(3.  After  the  Baptism,  both  John  and 
Jesus  saw  a  vision  of  a  dove  descending  upon 
Jesus,  and  heard  a  voice  from  heaven  saying  : 
'  This  is  my  beloved  Son,  in  whom  I  am  well 
pleased.'  This  sign  convinced  John  that  Jesus 
was  the  Messiah  and  the  Son  of  God,  and 
henceforth  he  openly  proclaimed  the  fact. 
The  recognition  of  Jesus  as  the  Messiah  by 
John,  which  is  most  explicit  in  the  Fourth 
Gospel,  was  of  the  greatest  assistance  to  the 
future  ministry  of  Jesus.  John  was  universally 
recognised  as  a  prophet,  and  his  words  carried 
weight  ;(Mt  2 126,  etc.).  From  the  disciples  of 
John  Jesus  obtained  His  first  and  most  in- 
fluential followers  ( Jn  1 35-42). 

6.  The  Temptation.  After  His  Baptism, 
Jesus  retired  to  the  wilderness  to  prepare  for 
His  ministry  by  a  period  of  seclusion.  He 
was  wholly  occupied  in  meditation,  fasting, 
and  prayer.  Here  He  overcame  the  tempta- 
tion, suggested  to  Him  by  the  Evil  One,  to 
take  the  easy  and  pleasant  road  to  success  by 
falling  in  with  the  ideas  of  the  multitude, 
founding  an  earthly  kingdom,  and  using  His 
miraculous  powers  for  unworthy  ends.  He 
resolved  to  live  a  life  of  self-denial,  humility, 
and  suffering,  and  to  appeal  for  the  spread  of 
His  principles,  not  to  force,  or  to  popular 
favour,  but  to  the  religious  instincts  of  pious 
and  holy  minds.  His  should  be  a  Kingdom  of 
Truth(Mt4i). 


Ixxv 


THE   LIFE   OF   JESUS   CHRIST 


7.  The  First  Disciples.  After  the  Tempta- 
tion Jesus  returned  to  the  neighbourhood  of 
the  Baptist,  and  several  of  the  Baptist's  dis- 
ciples attached  themselves  to  Him.  They  were 
Peter,  John,  Andrew,  Philip,  and  Bartholomew 
(Nathanael).  They  joined  Him  in  the  belief, 
or  rather  in  the  hope,  that  He  was  really  the 
Messiah.  But  they  did  not  commit  themselves 
irrevocably  at  first.  They  followed  Him,  but 
did  not  entirely  abandon  their  ordinary  avoca- 
tions. It  was  not  till  the  end  of  a  year  of 
personal  experience  of  what  Jesus  was,  that 
they  left  all  and  followed  Him  (Jnl^s 
Lk5ii). 

8.  Sketch  of  the  Ministry.  The  Synoptic 
Gospels  ignore  chronology,  and  it  is  only  by 
the  help  of  the  Fourth  Gospel  that  anything 
like  a  chronological  scheme  of  our  Lord's 
ministry  can  be  constructed.  Following  St. 
John,  we  may  divide  the  ministry  into  eight 
periods. 

(1)  From  the  Baptism,  September  A.D.  26,  to 
the  First  Passover  of  the  Mi)iistry,  April  a.d. 
27.  This  period  of  about  six  months  embraces 
the  Baptism,  the  Temptation,  the  gathering 
of  the  first  disciples,  and  the  first  miracle  at 
Cana.  The  early  part  of  the  period  was  spent 
in  the  wilderness,  the  later  part  in  Galilee. 
The  life  of  Jesus  was  still  more  private  than 
public,  but  the  faith  of  His  little  band  of 
disciples  was  growing,  and  His  position  as  a 
teacher  or  rabbi  was  beginning  to  be  recognised 
(Jn  129-2 12). 

(2)  From  the  First  Passover  of  the  Ministry, 
April  A.D.  27,  to  December  of  the  same  year. 
This  period  of  eight  months  was  spent  entirely 
in  Judaea.  At  the  Passover  He  cleansed  the 
Temple  for  the  first  time,  prophesied  His 
death  and  resurrection  in  words  afterwards 
quoted  against  Him  at  His  trial  (Mt2G6i), 
converted  a  leading  member  of  the  Sanhedrin, 
and  afterwards  spent  several  months  in  Judaea 
teaching  and  baptising.  He  made  many  con- 
verts, but  was  not  satisfied  with  their  faith  or 
earnestness.  The  apparent  success  of  Jesus 
roused  the  envy  of  the  disciples  of  John,  who 
was  obliged  to  rebuke  them,  and  to  renew 
His  strong  testimony  to  Jesus'  Messiahship 
(Jn  2 13-3  36). 

(3)  From  December  a.d.  27  to  the  Feast  of 
Purim,  March.  A.D.  28.  This  period  of  three 
months  was  passed  chiefly  in  Galilee.  The 
hostility  of  the  Pharisees,  due  to  the  success 
of  Jesus,  drove  Him  from  Judsea.  On  His 
way  to  Galilee  He  passed  through  Samaria, 
where  he  made  a  number  of  converts,  thus  for 
the  first  time  extending  His  work  beyond  the 
limits  of  Judaism.  This  return  to  Galilee 
marks  the  beginning  of  the  active  Galilean 
ministry,  which  the  Sjmoptists  so  graphically 
record  (Mkli^*-).  At  this  period  John  was 
cast  into  prison,  so  that  the  eyes  of  all  Galilee 


Ixxvi 


were  now  concentrated  upon  Jesus.  Making 
Capernaum  His  head-quarters.  He  went  on 
preaching  tours  through  Galilee,  proclaiming 
the  kingdom  of  God,  casting  out  devils,  and 
healing  the  sick.  A  profound  impression  was 
produced.  He  was  everywhere  taken  for  a 
prophet,  and  it  began  to  be  the  popular  belief 
of  Galilee  that  He  must  in  truth  be  the 
Messiah.  To  this  period,  generally  called  the 
great  Galilean  ministry,  in  which  the  success 
of  Jesus  was  most  pronounced,  are  to  be 
assigned  the  second  miracle  at  Cana  (Jn446), 
the  final  call  of  the  Apostles  (Mt4i9  Lk5ii), 
the  choice  of  the  Twelve,  the  Sermon  on  the 
Mount,  much  of  the  teaching  by  parables,  and 
numerous  miracles  worked  at  Capernaum  and 
throughout  Galilee.  The  bulk  of  the  work  of 
Jesus  recorded  by  St.  Matthew  and  St.  Mark 
belongs  to  this  period.  So  crowded  is  it  with 
incidents,  and  so  extensive  are  the  journeys 
which  Jesus  is  said  to  have  undertaken,  that 
some  suppose  that  it  cannot  have  been  com- 
pressed within  the  narrow  limits  of  three 
months,  and  assign  a  year  and  three  months 
to  it.  Towards  the  end  of  the  period  the 
Apostles  were  sent  on  a  preaching  tour 
(MtlOS). 

The  whole  period  was  one  of  intense  activity, 
and  full  of  hope  and  promise.  Although  Jesus 
did  not  openly  call  Himself  the  Messiah  (the 
Christ),  He  assumed  an  authority  which  could 
only  be  justified  on  that  assumption.  Ap- 
pa,rently  He  avoided  the  title,  because  in  the 
minds  of  the  Jews  it  was  inseparably  connected 
with  the  idea  of  a  temporal  king  and  a  tem- 
poral kingdom.  But  among  the  Samaritans, 
whose  idea  of  the  Messiah  was  not  political, 
He  showed  no  such  reticence,  and  openly  de- 
clared Himself  to  be  'the  Christ'  (Jn426). 
In  the  Fourth  Gospel,  which  does  not  describe 
the  Galilean  ministry,  Jesus  appears  to  be  less 
reluctant  to  allow  Himself  to  be  recognised 
as  the  Messiah  than  He  does  in  the  Synoptics. 

(4)  From  the  Feast  of  Purim,  March 
A.D.  28,  to  the  Second  Passover,  April  a.d.  28.  jj 
This  period  of  about  a  month  began  with  a 
visit  to  Jerusalem  to  keep  the  Feast  of  Purim 
(Jn5i),  but  was  chiefly  spent  in  Galilee.  At 
Jerusalem  Jesus  healed  a  man  at  the  pool  of 
Bethesda,  and  delivered  an  important  discourse 
asserting  His  lordship  over  the  sabbath,  His 
equality  with  the  Father,  and  His  power  to  J 
raise  the  dead.  His  words  caused  great  of-  1 
fence,  and  henceforth  plots  were  formed  against 
His  life.  While  Jesus  was  at  Jerusalem  the 
Apostles  were  engaged  on  their  mission  of 
healing  and  preaching  in  Galilee  (MtlO'). 
Returning  from  Jerusalem,  Jesus  rejoined 
the  Apostles,  who  reported  with  joy  the 
success  of  their  mission  (LkQiO).  Then 
followed  the  feeding  of  the  five  thousand  on 
the  E.  of  the  Lake  (Jn6i),  an  event  recorded 


THE   LIFE   OF  JESUS   CHRIST 


by  all  the  evangelists.  This  is  the  really 
critical  point  of  the  ministry.  Hitherto,  at 
least  in  Galilee,  all  had  been  most  favourable. 
Now  a  change  began.  The  multitudes  for 
whose  benefit  the  miracle  was  wrought  were 
for  the  most  part  enthusiastic  Galileans, 
journeying  to  Jerusalem  to  keep  the  Feast  of 
the  Passover.  They  insisted  that  Jesus  should 
be  conducted  to  Jerusalem  and  proclaimed 
king.  Jesus  r^iused,  and  in  so  doing  dis 
pleased  not  only  the  multitudes  but  even 
the  Apostles.  On  the  next  day  He  offended 
His  followers  still  more  by  declaring  in  the 
synagogue  at  Capernaum  that  He  was  the 
living  bread  that  came  down  from  heaven, 
and  that  those  who  would  have  eternal  life 
must  eat  His  flesh  and  drink  His  blood.  At 
this  many  of  His  followers  left  Him,  but  the 
Apostles,  though  grievously  disappointed, 
stood  firm.  For  the  Passover  which  fol- 
lowed, the  second  (or,  as  some  think,  the 
third)  of  the  ministry,  Jesus  does  not  seem 
to  have  visited  Jerusalem  (Jn7^).  See 
Jn  5 1-6  71. 

(5)  From  the  Second  Passover^  April  a.d.  28, 
to  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles  in  October  of  the 
same  year.  This  period  of  about  six  months 
embraces  the  second  and  closing  period  of  the 
Galilean  ministry.  The  time  was  spent  partly 
in  Galilee  proper,  and  partly  in  extensive 
excursions  through  Phoenicia,  and  the  districts 
of  Csesarea  Philippi  and  Decapolis.  The  period 
is  one  of  opposition,  disappointment,  and  gloom, 
during  which  Jesus  withdraws  more  and  more 
from  public  life,  and  devotes  Himself  to  His 
disciples. 

The  Pharisaic  party,  which  Jesus  had  deeply 
offended  a  month  before  by  His  speech  at  the 
Feast  of  Purim,  now  sent  emissaries  into  Galilee 
to  undermine  His  influence  with  the  people, 
who  were  already  beginning  to  be  dissatisfied 
with  Him  for  reasons  of  their  own.  A  stormy 
encounter  took  place,  in  which  Jesus  denounced 
their  pedantic  traditions  which  in  effect  made 
void  the  Law  of  God  (Mk7i*-).  Nevertheless 
He  still  went  on  a  tour  through  the  land  of 
Gennesaret,  and  perhaps  through  the  whole 
of  Galilee,  and  healed  multitudes  of  sick  (Mk 
g53-56)_  Perhaps  at  this  period  He  visited 
Nazareth  for  a  second  time,  and  was  again 
rejected  (Lk4i6).  At  last  He  determined  to 
leave  Galilee  and  to  undertake  a  tour  through 
heathen  territory.  But  first  He  pronounced  a 
doom  of  woe  upon  those  Galilean  cities  in 
which  so  many  of  His  mighty  works  had  been 
wrought,  and  wrought  in  vain  (Mt  1 1 20).  The 
motive  for  this  extensive  journey  was  probably 
not  so  much  to  undertake  new  work  among  the 
heathen,  though  this  to  some  extent  was  done, 
as  to  be  alone  with  the  Apostles  and  to  pre- 
pare them  for  His  death.  Passing  through 
the  land  of  Tyre  and  Sidon,  He  healed  the 

Ixx 


daughter  of  the  Canaanitish  woman  (MkT^*), 
and  then  made  a  circuit  to  the  other  side  of 
the  sea  of  Galilee  (Decapolis),  where  the  popu- 
lation was  mainly  heathen.  Here  He  performed 
certain  cures  and  fed  the  four  thousand,  who 
probably  were  mainly  Gentiles.  Then,  cross- 
ing to  Bethsaida,  He  healed  a  blind  man  (Mk 
73i_826).  Finding  the  Pharisees  still  active, 
and  the  country  hostile  (MkSH),  He  started 
on  another  tour  to  Cassarea  Philippi,  in  the 
extreme  N.  of  Palestine.  Here  occurred  the 
great  confession  of  St.  Peter,  in  which  in  the 
face  of  apparent  failure  the  Apostle  expressed 
his  faith  not  only  in  Jesus'  Messiahship,  but  in 
His  Divinity  (Mt  161*5).  Jesus,  deeply  moved, 
declared  him  to  have  fully  merited  the  honour- 
able surname,  which  at  their  fii-st  meeting  had 
been  bestowed  upon  him  (Jn  1  ^3).  Then  fol- 
lowed the  announcement  of  the  Passion  and  of 
the  Resurrection  ;  the  Transfiguration  ;  and  a 
secret  return  to  Capernaum  (MkO^^).  Here 
occurred  the  miracle  of  the  coin  in  the  fish's 
mouth  (Mt  17  24),  the  incident  of  the  little  child 
taken  into  Jesus'  arms  (MkQ^^),  and  the  con- 
versation with  His  brethren,  in  which  they 
taunted  Him  with  the  failure  of  His  mission, 
and  the  present  obscurity  of  His  life  (Jn72f-). 

(6)  From  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles,  early  in 
October  a.d.  28,  to  the  Feast  of  Dedication  in 
December  of  the  same  year.  See  Jn  7 10-1022. 
Jesus  went  up  to  Jerusalem  secretly  to  keep 
the  Feast  of  Tabernacles,  skirting  the  borders 
of  Samaria  (Lk952),  and  healing  ten  lepers  on 
His  way  (Lk  17  H).  Finding  a  certain  amount 
of  support  at  Jerusalem,  He  ventured  from 
His  retirement,  and  publicly  asserted  His  claims 
to  divine  dignity.  On  one  occasion  He  nar- 
rowly escaped  stoning  (JnS^^).  The  only 
miracie  recorded  at  this  period  is  the  healing 
of  the  man  born  blind.  It  is  generally  sup- 
posed that  Jesus  spent  the  whole  of  this  period, 
which  consisted  of  nearly  three  months,  in 
Jerusalem. 

(7)  From  the  Feast  of  the  Dedication,  Decem- 
ber A.D.  28,  to  the  Raising  of  Lazarus.,  March 
A.D.  29.  This  period  of  about  three  months 
was  chiefly  spent  in  Peraea.  At  the  Feast  of 
the  Dedication  Jesus  again  nearly  lost  His 
life,  and  was  obliged  to  retreat  into  Peraea, 
beyond  Jordan.  Here  He  preached  and  made 
many  converts,  the  way  having  been  prepared 
for  Him  by  the  preaching  of  John  the  Baptist : 
see  Jn  10  22-42.  This  period  is  full  of  incidents, 
and  IS  not  unlike  the  earlier  Galilean  ministry 
in  character.  Here,  as  in  Galilee,  Jesus  was 
continually  <ipposed  by  the  scribes  and  Phari- 
sees. To  this  period  are  to  be  assigned  the 
successful  mission  of  the  Seventy  (LklQif-), 
the  question  of  divorce  (Mkl02),  the  blessing 
of  little  children  (Mkl0i3),  the  interview  with 
the  rich  young  ruler  (Lk  18  is),  and  the  message 
of   Jesus   to    Herod   (LklS^i).     The    period 

vii 


THE   LIFE   OF   JESUS   CHRIST 


culminates  in  the  great  miracle  of  the  raising 
of  Lazarus  ( Jn  1 1 1). 

(8)  From  the  Raising  of  Lazarus,  March  A.D. 
29,  to  the  Crucifixion,  April  A.D.  29.  This  period 
of  about  three  weeks  was  passed  chiefly  in 
retirement  at  Ephraim.  From  this  place  He 
returned  to  Jerusalem,  to  keep  the  last  Pass- 
over and  to  suffer  death,  by  way  of  Jericho 
and  Bethany:  see  Jnllo^-12ii.  At  Jericho 
he  healed  two  blind  men  (Mt  20  29),  and  stayed 
with  Zacchseus  (Lkl9i).  On  the  sabbath 
before  the  Passover  He  arrived  at  Bethany, 
and  there  in  the  evening  Simon  the  leper 
entertained  Him  at  a  banquet  (Jn  1 2 1  Mk  143). 
On  Sunday  (Palm  Sunday)  He  entered  in 
triumph  into  Jerusalem  as  the  Messiah.  His 
bold  action  rallied  to  His  side  once  more  His 
Galilean  supporters.  His  recent  miracle  of 
the  raising  of  Lazarus  had  also  made  a  sensation 
in  Jerusalem  itself.  He  could,  if  He  had  so 
willed,  have  led  a  successful  revolution  ;  but 
He  would  not,  and  His  supporters  gradually 
deserted  Him  (Mt21i*-).  Nevertheless,  Jesus 
taught  daily  in  the  Temple,  and  was  heard 
with  intense  earnestness  from  morning  to 
night  (Lk2138).  In  the  Temple  He  healed 
many  who  were  blind  and  lame,  and  so  great 
was  the  enthusiasm  that  even  the  children 
cried, '  Hosanna  to  the  Son  of  David '  (Mt  2 1 1*). 
On  Monday  Jesus,  who  had  spent  the  night  at 
Bethany,  cursed  the  fig-tree  (Mt21i8).  He 
then  cleansed  the  Temple  for  the  second  time 
(Mk  1 1 1^).  On  Tuesday  His  authority  to  teach 
was  challenged  by  the  Saiihedrin  (Mt2123), 
and  Jesus  spoke  the  parables  of  the  Two  Sons 
(Mt2128),  the  Wicked  Husbandmen  (Mt2133), 
and  the  Wedding  Garment  (]VIt22i).  He  also 
solved  the  question  of  the  Tribute  Money 
(Mt  22 15),  confounded  the  Sadducees  (Mt.22  23), 
and  denounced  in  the  strongest  terms  the 
general  teaching  of  the  scribes  and  Pharisees 
(Mt23i).  The  chief  event  of'  the  day,  which 
practically  closed  the  ministry,  was  the  great 


prophecy  of  the  fall  of  Jerusalem  and  the  end 
of  the  world,  pronounced  on  the  Mount  of 
Olives  (Mt  24 1).     See  also  Jn  1 2  20-50. 

Wednesday  was  passed  in  retirement  with 
the  Apostles.  On  this  day,  if  not  before, 
Judas  betrayed  Jesus,  for  thirty  pieces  of 
silver  (Mt26i'^).  On  Thursday  evening,  a  day 
earlier  than  the  proper  day  for  the  Passover, 
Jesus  celebrated  the  Last  Supper,  and  in- 
stituted the  Holy  Communion  (JnlS^  Mt 
26 1^).  This  day  is  commonly  called  Maundy 
Thursday,  from  the  '  Command  '  (Ma)idatuin) 
given  by  Jesus  to  His  disciples  to  wash  one 
another's  feet.  That  night  He  was  arrested, 
and  in  the  early  morning  of  Friday  was  tried 
before  the  Sanhedrin,  Pilate,  and  Antipas. 
His  crucifixion,  death,  and  burial  were  followed 
by  the  Jewish  Passover,  which  in  that  year 
coincided  with  the  sabbath  day.  Saturday 
(Easter  Eve)  was  passed  by  Jesus  in  the  abodes 
of  the  dead.  According  to  the  usually  accepted 
view  (which,  however,  is  not  entirely  free  from 
difficulties).  He  visited  both  the  place  of  bliss 
(Lk23'i3)  and  the  place  of  misery  (1  PetS^Sf.). 
In  the  latter  He  preached  (1  Pet  3 19  4  6)  ;  per- 
haps also  in  the  former. 

9.  The  Resurrection  and  Ascension.  Early 
on  Easter  Sunday  morning  Jesus  rose  from ' 
the  dead,  in  His  true  body,  which  was,  how- 
ever, transformed  into  a  glorious  and  spiritual 
body,  and  for  forty  days  appeared  at  intervals 
to  the  disciples,  proving  the  reality  of  His 
Resurrection,  and  instructing  them  in  the 
things  pertaining  to  the  kingdom  of  God. 
Then,  having  given  to  the  Apostles  a  com- 
mission to  convert  the  world.  He  ascended 
into  heaven  in  their  presence  from  the  Mount 
of  Olives,  and  sat  down  at  the  right  hand  of 
God,  henceforth  to  rule  over  the  universe 
(Ac  1  i-ii).  From  heaven  he  sent  down  the 
Holy  Spirit  at  Pentecost,  and  it  is  believed  by 
Christians  that  He  will  one  day  come  in  person 
to  judge  mankind  according  to  their  works. 


Ixxyfii 


THE  TEACHING  OF  JESUS  CHRIST 


The  teaching  of  Jesus,  though  not  given  in 
systematic  form,  but  in  such  instalments  as 
were  suited  to  the  needs  and  capacities  of  the 
hearers,  will  be  found  to  form  a  uniform  and 
consistent  whole. 

In  external  form  it  is  thoroughly  Jewish 
and  rabbinical,  as  parallel  passages  from  the 
rabbis  adduced  in  the  Commentary  on  St. 
Matthew  will  abundantly  prove.  In  particular 
it  makes  free  use  of  parables,  a  form  of  in- 
struction familiar  to  the  rabbis,  but  employed 
by  Jesus  more  systematically  and  effectively 
than  by  them.  In  substance,  however,  the 
teaching  is  not  Jewish,  but  in  the  widest  sense 
human,  and  as  such  equally  adapted  to  all 
times  and  conditions  of  society.  To  secure 
this  universality  Jesus  refrained  from  con- 
structing a  detailed  code  of  morals,  and  from 
issuing  a  directory  of  worship.  He  laid  down 
principles  of  conduct  and  principles-of  worship, 
leaving  the  disciples  to  work  out  their  practical 
application  for  themselves.  The  teaching  of 
Jesus  was  thus  of  a  stimulating  character.  It 
forced  men  to  think.  It  did  not  supply  a  cut 
and  dried  solution  of  moral  problems,  but 
supplied  the  point  of  view  from  which  the 
true  solution  might  be  attained.  Often  the 
teaching  was  purposely  paradoxical  and  seem- 
ingly contradictory,  in  order  to  indicate  that 
moral  principles  ought  not  to  be  reduced  to 
practice  without  thought,  and  without  due 
consideration  of  the  competing  claims  of  other 
principles  (Mt  5  ^''-i^  Lk  1 4  '^'^,  etc.).  Sometimes 
the  paradoxical  form  was  due  to  the  '  ideal '  or 
'  absolute  '  character  of  the  teaching  (Mt  5  33-37^_ 
The  Sermon  on  the  Mount  in  particular  is 
of  this  character.  It  is  a  sketch  of  perfect 
behaviour  in  a  perfect  society,  and  its  precepts 
cannot  be  applied  to  the  world  as  it  now  is 
without  qualification.  Yet  there  may  come  a 
time  when  the  principles  of  that  Sermon  may 
be  put  in  practice  without  any  qualification 
whatever. 

The  teaching  of  Jesus  was  authoritative 
teaching.  Whereas  the  sages  of  Greece  re- 
garded their  opinions  as  guesses  at  truth,  and 
the  prophets  of  Israel  spoke  only  as  the  voice 
of  God  from  time  to  time  reached  them,  Jesus 
taught  with  an  authority  which  was  inherent 
in  His  person.  He  revised  not  only  the  details 
of  the  Ceremonial  Law  by  His  own  authority, 
but  even  the  Decalogue  itself  (MtS^i^-),  and 
in  general  adopted  such  an  attitude  towards 
the  whole  Old  Testament  revelation  as  no 
prophet  had  ever  assumed.     From  the  begin- 


ning of  His  ministry  His  hearers  '  were  aston- 
ished at  His  doctrine,  for  He  taught  them  as 
one  having  authority  and  not  as  the  scribes ' 

(Mt72S). 

I.  The  Fatherhood  of  God  and  human  son- 
ship.  Without  any  doubt  the  leading  religious 
doctrine  of  Jesus  was  the  Fatherhood  of  God. 
This  idea,  rarely  and  in  a  more  limited  sense 
expressed  in  the  Old  Testament,  and  seldom, 
if  ever,  in  any  other  religion,  was  made  by 
Jesus  the  foundation  of  His  teaching.  That 
'  God  is  love,'  and  cares  with  the  intensity 
and  impartiality  of  a  father's  affection  for 
every  individual  soul  that  He  has  created,  is 
the  essence  of  the  gospel  (MtlO^^).  But 
according  to  Jesus  God  is  'Father,'  not  pri- 
marily because  He  is  the  Father  of  angels  and 
men,  but  because  He  is  the  Father  of  His 
only-begotten  Son  (JnS^S).  From  all  eternity 
God  loved  the  Son,  and  the  Son  loved  God, 
so  that  even  if  the  universe  had  never  been 
created,  God  would  still  have  been  eternally 
a  God  of  love  (Jnl7^^).  Men  become  the 
'  sons  of  God '  in  the  higher  spiritual  sense 
not  directly,  but  through  their  relation  to  Jesus 
Himself  (Jnl42i).  By  faith  in  Jesus  and  the 
new  birth  of  water  and  the  Spirit  they  become 
sons  of  God  and  heirs  of  eternal  life.  Of 
course,  in  a  general  way,  men  by  nature  belong 
to  God,  and  so  may  be  called  His  children, 
inasmuch  as  He  is  the  author  of  their  life 
and  being,  the  source  of  all  the  powers  and 
capabilities  they  possess.  This  natural  rela- 
tionship, however,  does  not  make  them,  in  a 
true  and  proper  sense,  the  sons  of  God;  it 
only  constitutes  the  ground  and  possibility  of 
their  becoming  such,  and  still  leaves  it  open 
to  them  to  become  something  quite  opposite 
and  contradictory.  For  real  filial  relationship 
with  God,  something  more  is  needed  than  the 
derivation  of  our  being  from  Him  :  mutual 
understanding  and  acknowledgment,  com- 
munity of  will,  interest,  and  activity.  This 
was  made  possible  in  Christ.  Himself  the 
everlasting  Son  of  God,  He  turned  the  hearts 
of  God's  human  (or  natural)  children  to  their 
Father,  and  opened  the  floodgates  of  His  love 
to  them.  He  taught  them  to  claim  and  exer- 
cise their  birtlu'ight  in  God.  He  put  into 
their  hands  the  charter  of  their  divine  son- 
ship.  He  signed  and  sealed  it  with  His 
blood.  '  As  many  as  received  Him,  to  them 
gave  He  power  to  become  children  of  God, 
even  to  them  that  believe  on  His  name  '  (Jn 
1 1-).     It  is  only  to  be  expected,  then,  that 


Ixxix 


THE   TEACHING   OF  JESUS   CHRIST 


Jesus  should  always  sharply  distinguish  His 
own  Sonship  from  the  sonship  of  other  men. 
He  says,  '  My  Father  and  your  Father,'  and 
'  My  God  and  your  God,'  never  '  our  Father  ' 
and  '  our  God.'  To  maintain,  as  is  sometimes 
done,  that  the  Sonship  of  Jesus  was  only  a 
sense  of  human  sonship  strongly  developed,  is 
to  contradict  not  simply  an  isolated  passage 
here  and  there,  but  the  whole  tenor  of  Christ's 
teaching. 

The  life  of  sonship  which  the  baptised 
Christian  enjoys  begins  with  repentance,  and 
a  complete  surrender  of  the  will  to  Jesus  as  a 
divine  Saviour.  Without  this  surrender  of 
the  life  to  Him,  to  be  moulded  absolutely 
according  to  His  holy  will,  the  unique  blessed- 
ness and  power  of  Christianity  cannot  be 
experienced.  Only  through  faith  in  Christ 
can  men  in  the  full  sense  '  come  to  the 
Father.'  '  I  am  the  way  and  the  truth  and 
the  life :  no  man  cometh  unto  the  Father  but 
by  me '  :  '  He  that  loveth  Father  or  mother 
more  than  me,  is  not  worthy  of  me  '  :  '  No 
man  having  put  his  hand  to  the  plough,  and 
looking  back,  is  fit  for  the  kingdom  of  God ' 
( Jn  1 4  6  Mt  1 0  37  Lk  9  62).  The  great  sacrifice 
which  Christianity  demands  is  the  sacrifice  of 
the  will.  He  who  has  learnt  to  merge  his 
own  will  in  the  will  of  God,  and  to  take 
delight  only  in  that  which  is  well  pleasing  to 
Him,  has  learnt  the  great  secret  of  Jesus,  and 
is  filled  with  the  inward  joy  of  sonship. 

2.  The  Motive  of  Love.  God  being  thus  the 
loving  Father  of  men,  it  followed  of  necessity 
that  men  should  regard  one  another  as  brothers. 
The  chief  stress,  therefore,  in  Christian  morality 
is  laid  upon  love  (Mt2237).  This  love  shows 
itself  in  various  ways.  (1)  In  ready  forgive- 
ness. Just  as  God  is  always  ready  to  forgive 
for  Christ's  sake  every  penitent  sinner,  so  He 
insists  that  the  forgiven  sinner  should  forgive 
his  brother  also,  not  only  unto  seven  times,  but 
unto  seventy  times  seven  (Mt6i5  18  ■-2'-').  (2)  In 
avoiding  unkind  criticism.  Christians  are 
warned  to  '  judge  not,'  that  they  be  not  judged 
(Mt?!).  (3)  In  a  peaceful  disposition.  'Blessed 
are  the  peacemakers,  for  they  shall  be  called 
sons  of  God'  (MtS^).  (4)  In  active  benevo- 
lence. This  is  often  inculcated  in  an  extreme 
and  paradoxical  form — '  Give  to  him  that 
asketh  thee,  and  from  him  that  would  borrow 
of  thee  turn  not  thou  away  '  (Mt  5  42).  'Sell 
that  ye  have  and  give  alms '  (Lk  1 2  ^3)  ;  but  it 
receives  its  perfect  expression  in  the  Golden 
Eule,  '  Therefore  all  things  whatsoever  ye 
would  that  men  should  do  to  you,  do  ye  even 
so  to  them  ;  for  this  is  the  law  and  the  pro- 
phets '  (Mt  7 12).  (5)  In  loving  enemies  and 
persecutors.  Christ  speaks  of  this  as  a  chief 
and  distinctive  mark  of  Christian  perfection 
(Mt  5  43).  (6)  In  not  resisting  or  resenting  in- 
juries.    '  Eesist  not  him  that  is  evil,  but  who- 


soever smiteth  thee  on  thy  right  cheek,  turn 
to  him  the  other  also  '  (Mt  5  39).  Throughout 
Christ's  teaching  constant  stress  is  laid  upon 
conduct,  and  especially  upon  the  duties  of 
practical  benevolence.  The  final  judgment 
will  be  according  to  works,  works  being  re- 
garded as  the  only  trustworthy  indication  of 
a  living  faith,  and  the  works  which  Christ 
approves  are  thus  described  :  '  I  was  an 
hungered,  and  ye  gave  me  meat ;  I  was  thirsty, 
and  ye  gave  me  drink  ;  I  was  a  stranger,  and  ye 
took  me  in  ;  naked,  and  ye  clothed  me  ;  I  was 
sick,  and  ye  visited  me  ;  I  was  in  prison,  and  ye 
came  unto  me.'  For  those  who  do  such  works 
the  kingdom  of  heaven  is  reserved  (Mt2634). 

3.  The  General  Type  of  Christian  Character. 
Christianity  has  approved  a  type  of  character 
in  most  respects  the  very  opposite  of  that 
which  is  approved  by  the  world  :  instead  of 
pride,  humility  ;  instead  of  standing  upon  one's 
rights,  submission  to  wrong ;  instead  of  ambition, 
contentment.  Gentleness,  meekness,  patience, 
sympathy,  the  power  of  rejoicing  in  tribula- 
tion, and  of  extracting  pleasure  from  pain,  are 
the  gifts  of  Christianity  to  the  world.  The 
Christian  ideal  is  sometimes  depreciated  as 
lacking  in  manliness  and  courage,  but  in  truth 
it  requires  much  more  manliness  to  be  humble 
than  to  be  proud,  much  more  courage  to  turn 
the  cheek  to  the  smiter  than  to  smite  again. 
Another  great  note  of  the  Christian  character 
is  truthfulness  and  sincerity.  According  to 
Christ  a  Christian  man's  word  should  be  as 
good  as  his  oath.  This  is  the  meaning  of  the 
paradoxical  saying,  '  Swear  not  at  all,'  etc.  (Mt 
534).  But  perhaps  the  best  general  description 
of  a  Christian  man's  character  is  to  say  that 
he  is  a  single-minded  man.  He  cannot  have 
one  foot  in  the  world  and  the  other  in  the 
Church,  he  cannot  serve  God  and  mammon. 
He  must  have  one  main  purpose  in  life  to 
which  all  others  are  to  be  subordinated  : 
'  Seek  ye  first  the  kingdom  of  God  and  his 
righteousness,  and  all  these  things  shall  be 
added  unto  you'  (MtGss). 

4.  Christ  and  Wealth.  Christ  regarded 
wealth  as  the  great  means  by  which  the  world 
binds  men  to  its  service.  Detachment  from 
wealth,  therefore,  is  a  necessary  preliminary 
to  being  a  Christian.  In  some  cases,  where 
the  love  of  wealth  was  strong,  Christ  coun- 
selled its  complete  abandonment  (Mtl92i). 
From  this  detachment  from  wealth  flow  inward 
peace  and  absence  of  care.  '  Be  not  anxious 
for  your  life,  what  ye  shall  eat,  or  what  ye 
shall  drink,  nor  yet  for  your  body,  what  ye 
shall  put  on '  (Mt  6  25).  Although  Christ  warned 
His  followers  against  the  peril  of  wealth,  and 
exhorted  them  to  give  liberal  alms,  there  is  no 
ground  for  the  opinion  that  He  regarded  com- 
munity of  goods  as  a  necessary  mark  of  a 
Christian  society.     Accordingly  the  surrender 


Ixxx 


THE   TEACHING   OF  JESUS   CHRIST 


of  wealth  has  always  been  regarded  by  Chris- 
tians as  a  counsel  of  perfection,  not  as  a  precept 
(Mtl9^i). 

5.  The  Future  Life.  The  moral  teaching 
of  Christ  is  based  on  the  idea  that  this  life  is 
a  state  of  probation  for  another.  He  taught 
His  disciples  not  to  seek  their  reward  in  this 
life,  but  in  the  next,  when  all  the  injustices 
of  this  world  will  be  redressed,  and  all  sor- 
rows swallowed  up  in  fulness  of  joy.  Not  as 
if  the  Christian  has  absolutely  no  reward  in 
this  world.  Communion  with  God  through 
Christ  is  itself  joy  unspeakable,  and  may  be 
called  '  eternal  life,'  yet  its  full  fruition  will 
not  be  experienced  until  the  final  consumma- 
tion of  all  things.  This  assurance  of  a  blessed 
immortality  transforms  the  face  of  the  world 
to  a  Christian.  Pain,  unhappiness,  and  even 
injustice,  become  part  of  a  cleansing  discip- 
line, by  which  God  prepares  his  soul  for 
eternity.  Pain  is  transfigured,  injustice  is 
meekly  borne. 

6.  Death.  To  some  extent,  in  speaking  of 
death  and  the  future  world,  Christ  accommo- 
dated His  language  to  the  ideas  in  the  minds 
of  His  hearers.  It  is  unsafe,  therefore,  to 
build  up  specific  views  upon  a  literal  inter- 
pretation of  every  reference,  however  casual, 
which  He  made  to  the  subject.  The  following 
ideas,  however,  may  be  deduced  with  con- 
siderable probability  from  the  general  trend 
of  His  utterances.  At  death  the  souls  of  men 
do  not  pass  at  once  to  their  final  reward,  but 
into  a  state  (called  '  Hades '  in  the  RY,  and 
'  hell '  in  the  Apostles'  Creed)  in  which  they 
await  the  Judgment  and  the  Resurrection. 
Yet  even  in  this  condition  there  is,  as  it  were 
by  anticipation,  a  distinction  made.  The  souls 
of  the  just  enjoy  such  a  measure  of  felicity 
that  they  can  be  spoken  of  as  in  '  Paradise '  or 
'  Abraham's  bosom.'  From  this  it  has  been 
inferred  that  their  state  is  one  of  progi'essive 
sanctification  and  glory,  culminating  in  the 
resurrection.  It  was  an  inference  of  this  kind 
that  originated  the  practice  of  praying  for  the 
dead,  which  had  already  gained  gi-ound  in  the 
Jewish  Church  (see  2 Macl 2 42-45)  before  the 
time  of  our  Lord,  and  seems  to  have  been 
carried  forward  by  some  of  the  primitive 
Christians  into  the  worship  of  the  Church  of 
Christ :  cp.  2  Tim  1  i^-is  419.  The  souls  of  the 
wicked,  on  the  other  hand,  pass  into  a  state  of 
unhappiness,  which  is  a  foretaste  of  their 
future  woe  (Lkl623).  Whether  the  pains 
endured  by  them  are  in  some  cases  remedial, 
being  intended  to  effect  the  reformation  of 
those  who  are  not  absolutely  hardened  in  sin, 
is  not  distinctly  revealed,  but  has  been  largely 
entertained  as  a  pious  hope.  It  was  believed 
in  the  primitive  Church,  and  is  still  held  by 
many  Christians,  that  good  men  among  the 
heathen   who    die   without   a    knowledge    of 


f 


Christ  are  given  an  opportunity  of  Chi-istian 
instruction  in  the  other  world,  or  at  least  are 
admitted  to  the  '  more  tolerable  judgment.' 
There  is  a  statement  in  1  Peter  that  may  be 
interpreted  in  the  light  of  this  hope.  He  says 
that  Christ  Himself,  when  He  descended  into 
'  hell,'  preached  the  gospel  to  the  dead  (1  Pet 
31946). 

7.  The  Resurrection.  At  the  Last  Day 
Christ  will  raise  from  the  dead  by  His  own  power 
( Jn  5  2S)  both  the  just  and  tlie  unjust  ( Jn  h  2f). 
The  resurrection  body,  though  not  materially 
identical  with  the  present  body,  will  be  in 
some  sense  continuous  with  it.  It  will  be  a 
glorious  and  spiritual  body,  fitted,  not  for  an 
earthly  life,  but  for  a  new  and  higher  state  of 
existence  (Mt2230).  In  the  Judgment  Christ 
will  sit  as  Judge  '  because  He  is  the  Son  of 
man '  (JuS^"),  and  it  is  He  who  will  give  the 
sentence  (Mt2534)  of  eternal  glory  or  eternal 
woe  (Mt2546). 

8.  Eternal  Punishment.  Of  late  years 
current  ideas  of  future  punishment  have 
undergone  extensive  revision.  The  preval- 
ence of  more  enlightened  views  of  the 
character  of  God,  and  the  more  general 
recognition  of  the  distinction,  very  strongly 
marked  in  the  New  Testament,  and  now  in 
the  RV  made  evident  even  to  the  English 
reader,  between  Hades  and  Gehenna,  have  led 
in  some  quarters  to  more  hopeful  views,  and 
almost  everywhere  to  less  positive  and  dog- 
matic assertions,  regarding  the  ultimate  fate 
of  those  who  at  death  do  not  seem  to  be  in  a 
state  of  grace.  Nevertheless,  eternal  punish- 
ment (though  many  of  the  notions  associated 
with  it  may  be  given  up)  is  still  believed  in, 
at  least  as  a  possibility.  The  doctrine  seems 
to  be  taught  by  our  Lord  Himself  (Mt2546 
Mk94S,  etc.),  and  the  attempts  to  eliminate 
it  from  the  Gospel,  or  to  explain  it  away,  have 
not  been  very  successful.  It  seems,  in  fact, 
to  be  an  almost  necessary  deduction  from  the 
generally  accepted  truths  of  the  immortality 
of  the  soul  and  the  freedom  of  the  will.  If 
the  soul  is  free  to  choose  between  good  and 
evil,  and  cannot  die,  it  follows  of  necessity 
that  the  soul  which  makes  evil  a  permanent 
part  of  its  nature  will  be  permanently  excluded 
from  fellowship  with  God.  That  is  the  very 
essence  of  eternal  punishment.  Eternal 
punishment  is  not,  as  has  been  sometimes 
represented,  an  arbitrary  vindictive  act  of 
God,  but  a  result  which  follows  naturally,  in 
certain  cases,  from  the  known  nature  of  man 
and  the  known  nature  of  God.  God  cannot, 
even  if  He  would,  make  a  man  good  by  force, 
because  the  very  essence  of  goodness  consists 
in  its  being  voluntarily  embraced.  If  a  man 
deliberately  embraces  evil  and  identifies  him- 
self with  it  permanently,  even  God  cannot  save 
him.     Of  the  exact  nature  of  this  punishment 


Ixxxi 


THE   TEACHING   OF  JESUS   CHRIST 


nothing  is  revealed,  except  that  there  may  be 
degrees  of  it  suited  to  the  various  degrees  of 
delinquency  (Lkl247).  It  is  possible  that  an 
essential  part  of  it,  in  the  case  both  of  angels 
and  men,  will  be  the  loss  of  free  will.  This 
view  provides  for  the  ultimate  extinction  of 
moral  evil. 

9.  Eternal  Bliss.  Of  the  nature  of  the 
final  reward  of  the  righteous,  which  is  expressly 
stated  to  be  eternal  (Mt  25 '**'),  we  can  speak 
only  in  the  most  general  terms.  The  language 
of  Christ  which  describes  it  is  in  all  cases 
figurative  (MtS^i  251°,  etc.).  Nevertheless 
it  seems  to  be  indicated  that  there  will  be 
degrees  of  blessedness  (Jnl42),  and  perhaps 
of  authority  (Lkl9i")  in  heaven.  Some  have 
imagined  that  heaven  will  be  a  state  of  passive 
contemplation  or  ecstatic  worship,  but  it  seems 
more  likely  that  contemplation  will  be  united 
with  practical  activity  suited  to  the  capacity 
of  each  individual  soul  (LklQi'^-i^).  Christ 
taught  that  the  future  life  of  the  blessed  will 
be  lived  in  a  transfigured  and  glorified  universe 
(Mtl92S),  an  idea  which  is  in  harmony  with 
the  doctrine  of  the  resurrection  of  the  body. 
Heaven  is  uniformly  conceived  in  the  New 
Testament  as  a  society  or  city.  Its  citizens 
find  their  happiness  not  merely  in  the  con- 
templation, worship,  and  love  of  God  (though 
this  is  their  supreme  delight),  but  in  the 
loving  fellowship  which  they  enjoy  with  one 
another.  Heaven  is  a  perfect  society,  of 
which  the  basis  is  perfect  love — love  of  God 
and  love  of  all  God's  creatures. 

10.  Other  teaching  of  Christ,  Large  por- 
tions of  the  teaching  of  Christ  are  entirely 
passed  over  in  this  article,  which  simply  aims 


at   supplementing  what   is  stated   elsewhere. 
The  title  '  Son  of  God '  which  He  claimed  at 
His  trial,  is  discussed  in  the  article  '  The  Per- 
son of  Jesus  Christ '  ;  the  title  '  Son  of  man,' 
which  was  His  favourite  designation  of  Him- 
self, is  discussed  in  a  note  on  MtS^o.     The 
'  Kingdom  of  God,'   or  '  of   heaven,'  one  of 
the  leading  religious  ideas  of  Christ,  is  dealt 
with  in  the  Introduction  to  St.  Matthew  and 
in  the  prefatory  remarks   to  the  Sermon  on 
the    Mount   (Mt5).      For    Christ's    teaching 
about  His  Death,  which  He  regarded  as  an 
atonement  for  the  sins  of  the  world,  and  as 
establishing  a  new  covenant  between  God  and 
the    human    race,    see  on  Mt2028   2628,  and 
article  '  The  Atonement.'     For  His  teaching 
upon  the  Law  and  the    Old   Testament,  see 
Mt  5 17-19  2237-40  Lkl6i6 
45-47.     For    public    and 
Mt65-i5    77-11     Lkll5-s 
1623,24   Mt  21 13. 21, 22    26*0.^1    Jn42i,24.     For 
the  sabbath  day,  see  Mt  123-12  Mk-S*  Jn  7  21-24 
Lkl3i5>i6.      For   fasting,    see   Mt6i6-18    9  is. 
On     almsgiving,     see     Mt542      61-4      2531-46 
Lkl233,34  1412-19,21-23  1030-37  213,4   109.     For 
repentance,  see  on   Mt4i7    2128-32    Lk  5  31.32 
132-5   15 10, 17-20  1 6  30, 31  24  46, 47.    Qn  gratitude, 
see  Lk  7  40-47  839   1717,18.     Qn  hypocrisy,  see 
Mt23.    On  marriage,  see  Mt  5  27-32  194,12.    Qn 
Church  and  State,  see  Mt222i.    On  scepticism, 
see  Mt  14  31   1717-20  Jn.3is.i9  448  824   1522-24. 
On  the  work  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  see  Jn33f- 
1416-18,26   1526   167-14.    On  Satan  and  demonic 
possession,    see   on   Mt425.      On    missionary 
work,  see  Mt28 18-20  Lk  24 46-49.    Qn  the  Church, 
see  Mtl6i8  1817.     On   the    Sacraments,   see 
Mt  26  26-29  2819  Jn35  63if. 


2444    2653    Jn539,40, 

private    prayer,     see 
181-8  9-14    Jn  14 13, 14 


Ixxxu 


THE  SYNOPTIC  PROBLEM 


The  chief,  and  also  the  most  difficult,  criti- 
cal question  connected  with  the  Synoptic 
Gospels  is  their  relation  to  one  another  and 
to  their  presumed  sources.  Prolonged  investi- 
gations, extending  over  more  than  a  century, 
have  not  yet  reached  final  results,  but  a  con- 
siderable consensus  of  opinion  inclines  to  the 
following  conclusions. 

I.  That  St.  Mark  is  the  oldest  of  the 
synoptists,  and  has  been  used  by  St.  Matthew 
and  St.  Luke,  who  have  incorporated  the  bulk 
of  his  Gospel  into  their  own  with  comparatively 
few  alterations. 

The  evidence  for  this  is  extremely  strong. 
In  the  first  place,  the  whole  of  St.  Mark's 
Gospel,  except  from  thirty  to  forty  compara- 
tively unimportant  verses,  is  contained  either 
in  St.  Matthew  or  in  St.  Luke,  and  most  of  it 
in  both  ;  whereas  large  portions  of  St.  Matthew 
and  St.  Luke,  and  those  very  important  ones, 
are  peculiar  to  each  of  those  Evangelists. 
Hence,  if  there  was  borrowing  at  all,  it  must 
have  been  from  St.  Mark.  The  other  pos- 
sibilities will  not  bear  examination.  St.  Mark 
did  not  copy  from  St.  Matthew,  for  he  would 
not  have  omitted  the  Nativity,  the  Sermon  on 
the  Mount,  and  such  parables  as  the  Unmerci- 
ful Debtor,  the  Labourers  in  the  Vineyard, 
the  Ten  Virgins,  the  Talents,  and  the  Sheep 
and  the  Goats.  St.  Matthew  did  not  copy 
from  St.  Luke,  for  he  would  not  have  omitted 
the  parables  of  the  Good  Samaritan,  the  Rich 
Fool,  Dives  and  Lazarus,  and  the  Prodigal 
Son.  Finally,  St.  Luke  did  not  borrow  from 
St.  Matthew,  for  he  would  not  have  omitted 
those  striking  parables  of  St.  Matthew  which 
have  been  already  mentioned. 

We  shall  now  prove  that  there  was  actual 
borrowing,  and,  in  order  to  do  so,  shall  quote 
and  comment  on  a  few  parallel  passages. 


must  conclude  that  one  of  them  copied  from 
the  other. 


Mkl3i4 
But  when  ye  see  the  abom- 
ination of  desolp-tion  stand- 
ing wliere  he  nught  not  (let 
hira  that  readeth  understand), 
then  let  them  that  are  m 
Judaea  flee  vinto  the  moun- 
tains. 


Mt24l5.J6 

When,  therefore,  ye  see  the 
abomination  of  desolation, 
which  was  spoken  of  by 
Daniel  the  prophet,  standing 
in  tlie  holy  place  (let  lum 
that  readeth  understand), 
then  let  them  that  are  in 
Judsea  flee  unto  the  moun- 
tains. 


Here  we  have  an  author's  comment  (viz. 
'let  him  that  readeth  understand')  verbally 
identical  in  the  two  Gospels,  and  inserted  at 
precisely  the  same  point  in  our  Lord's  speech. 
As  it  is  impossible  to  believe  that  the  two 
Evangelists  hit  upon  the  same  comment  and 
inserted  it  at  the  same  place  by  accident^  we 


Mk  6 16, 17 
But  Herod  when  he  heard 
thereof,  said,  John,  wliora  I 
belieaded,  he.  is  risen.  For 
Herod  himself  liad  sent  forth 
and  laid  hold  upon  John,  and 
bound  him  in  prison  for  the 
sake  (if  Herodias,  his  brother 
Philip's  wife,  etc. 


Mtl4i-3 

At  that  season  Herod  the 
tetrarch  heard  the  report 
concerning  Jesus,  and  said 
unto  his  servants,  This  is 
Jchn  the  Baptist,  he  is  risen 
from  the  dead,  and  therefore 
do  these  powers  work  in  him. 
For  Herod  had  laid  hold  on 
John  and  bound  him,  and  put 
him  in  prison  for  the  sake  of 
Herodias,  his  brother  Pliilip's 
wife,  etc. 

Here  the  death  of  John  the  Baptist  is  intro- 
duced and  described  by  both  Evangelists  at 
the  same  point  in  the  history,  but  out  of  its 
true  historical  order.  Nothing  but  copying 
will  account  for  this. 


Mklis 

And  passing  along  by  the 
sea  of  Ga'ilee,  he  saw  Simon, 
and  Andrew  the  brother  of 
Simon,  casting  a  net  in  the 
sea  ;  for  they  were  fishers. 


Mt4i8 
And  walking  by  the  sea  of 
Galilee,  he  saw  two  Vtrethren, 
Simon  who  is  called  Peter, 
and  Andrew  liis  brother,  cast- 
ing a  net  into  the  sea,  for 
they  were  fishers. 


Observe  here  the  comment  upon  the  narra- 
tive ('  for  they  were  fishers ')  made  by  both 
Evangelists.  We  cannot  conceive  that  it  oc- 
curred to  them  to  make  such  a  remark  just  at 
this  point  independently. 


Mk  3 19 
And    Judas    Is- 
cariot,  which  also 
betrayed  him. 


Mtl04 
And    Judas    Is- 
cariot,     who     also 
betrayed  him. 


Lk6l6 
And    Judas    Is- 
cariot,   which  was 
the  traitor. 


It  cannot  be  an  accident  that  the  three 
Evangelists  concur  at  this  point  in  calling 
Judas  a  traitor  any  more  than  it  can  be  an 
accident  that,  at  the  arrest  of  Jesus,  all  three 
Evangelists  are  careful  to  remind  us  that 
Judas  Iscariot  was  '  one  of  the  Twelve '  (Mk 
14i0Mt26i4Lk223). 


Mk524 

And  he  went 
with  him,  and  a 
great  multitude 
followed  him,  and 
they  thronged  him. 
And  a  woman, 
which  had  an  issue 
of  blood  twelve 
years,  and  had  suf- 
fered many  things 
of  manyphysicians, 
etc. 


Mt  9 19 
And  Jesus  arose 
and  followed  him, 
and  so  did  liis  dis- 
ciples. And  behold 
a  woman  which  had 
an  issue  of  blood 
twelve  years,  etc. 


LkS42 

And  as  he  went 
the  multitude 

thronged  him.  Ai\d 
a  woman  ha^^ng 
an  issue  of  blood 
twelve  years,  which 
had  spent  all  lier 
living  upon  iihysi- 
cians,  etc. 


Observe  here  how  all  three  Evangelists 
break  off  the  story  of  Jairus's  daughter  pre- 
cisely at  the  same  point  to  describe  the  cure  of 
the  woman  with  an  issue,  who,  they  all  agree, 
had  been  ill  twelve  years. 


Ixxxiii 


THE   SYNOPTIC   PR(3BI.EM 


Mkl32 

And  at  even, 
when  the  sim  did 
set,  tliey  brought 
unto  him  all  that 
were  sick  a  d  tiieui 
that  were  possessed 
with  devils. 


Mt8i6 

And  when  even 
«as  come,  thai 
brought  uiiti)  him 
many  possessed 
with  devils. 


Lk4  40 

And  when  the 
sun  was  setting, 
kU  they  that  had 
any  sick  with 
divers  diseases 

brought  them  unto 
him. 


Here  we  have  a  clear  indication  that  it  is 
St.  Mark's  Gospel  which  is  used  by  the  other 
two  ;  for  of  St.  Mark's  two  expressions  to 
describe  the  close  of  day  ('  even  '  and  '  when 
the  sun  did  set '),  St.  Matthew  adopts  one  and 
St.  Luke  the  other.  Cases  of  this  kind  occur 
throughout  the  Gospel  history.  St.  Mark's 
account  of  the  common  incidents  is  generally 
the  longest  and  the  richest  in  detail,  and  what 
is  found  is  that  some  of  St.  Mark's  details  are 
in  St.  Matthew,  and  some  of  them  in  St.  Luke, 
and  not  all  in  both. 

Two  other  considerations  tend  to  confirm 
the  priority  of  St.  Mark  :  (1)  St.  Mark's  order 
of  events  is  always  supported  either  by  St. 


speaks  of  St.  Matthew  as  having  compiled 
'  the  oracles '  in  the  Hebrew  (or  Aramaic) 
tongue.  The  exact  meaning  of  '  oracles '  is 
doubtful,  but  the  tendency  of  modern  criti- 
cism is  to  suppose  that  St.  Matthew's  Hebrew 
'  Logia '  was  a  collection  of  our  Lord's  dis- 
courses, rather  than  a  continuous  narrative. 
These  '  logia '  of  St.  Matthew,  in  the  form  of 
a  Greek  translation,  were  probably  used  by  the 
author  of  the  First  Gospel,  perhaps  even  incor- 
porated entire,  so  that  it  is  not  without  reason 
that  the  present  Gospel  is  called  '  according 
to  Matthew.'  Whether  the  'logia'  were  also 
used  by  St.  Luke,  and  if  so  to  what  extent, 
is  a  difficult  question.  St.  Luke  and  St.  Mat- 
thew have  about  200  verses  common  to  them 
alone.  The  question  is  whether  St.  Luke's 
deviations  from  St.  Matthew  in  these  verses, 
which  are  generally  very  considerable,  are  not 
altogether  too  great  to  allow  the  supposition 
that    he    used    a    common    document.      The 


Matthew  or  by  St.  Luke,  w"hereas  St.  Matthew's     reader  will  be  able  to  form  his  own  judgment 

upon  this  matter  by  comparing  the  parallel 
passages,  a  complete  list  of  which  is  given  in 
the  following  table. 


deviations  from  St.  Mark's  order  are  never 
supported  by  St.  Luke,  nor  St.  Luke's  by  St. 
Matthew's  ;  (2)  the  close  resemblances  between 
St.  Matthew  and  St.  Luke  are  generally  con- 
fined to  the  incidents  which  they  record  in 
common  with  St.  Mark.  Their  accounts  of 
the  Nativity  have  practically  nothing  in 
common,  and  the  differences  between  their 
versions  of  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount  are  very 
great. 

2.  The  version  of  St.  Mark  used  by  St. 
Matthew  and  St.  Luke  was  probably  the  pre- 
sent Greek  Gospel.  For  a  long  time  it  was 
customary  to  attribute  the  resemblances  of 
the  three  Synoptic  Gospels  to  a  supposed 
'  original  Mark '  ;  but  recent  research  has 
demonstrated  that  this  '  original '  Mark  re- 
sembled the  present  St.  Mark  so  closely  that 
the  simplest  view  is  to  suppose  them  identical, 
as  accordingly  is  now  very  generally  done. 

3.  Oral  tradition  probably  exercised  some 
influence  over  the  composition  of  the  Synoptic 
Gospels,  especially  of  the  First  and  Third  ;  but 
the  resemblances  are  altogether  too  close  to 
allow  us  to  suppose  that  the  principal  common 
source  was  mere  oral  tradition.  The  '  original 
Mark'  was  certainly  icritten,  for  the  author 
of  it  once  addressed  his  readers  (Mkl3i*  =  Mt 
2415,  see  above),  and  St.  Luke  refers  to 
numerous  written  sources  (Lk  1 1). 

4.  There  is  much  less  agreement  among 
critics  as  to  the  sources  of  St.  Matthew  and  St. 
Luke  in  those  portions  of  their  works  which 
are  not  parallel  with  St.  Mark.  These  sources 
would  include  (1)  oral  tradition  ;  (2)  in  the 
case  of  St.  Luke,  at  least,  personal  researches 
and  enquiries  in  Palestine  ;  (3)  earlier  docu- 
ments which,  though  numerous,  were  probably 
rather  fragmentary  (Lk  1 1).  A  very  early 
writer,  Papias,  who  flourished  about  130  a.d.. 


Mt. 

Lk. 

37-10,12. 

37-9,17. 

43-11. 

43-13. 

5 1-6, 10-12 

6  20-23  .  .  25. 

513. 

1434,35. 

5 18. 

161". 

525,26. 

1257-59. 

538-48. 

627-30,32-36 

63,4.' 

1413,14. 

69-13. 

111-4. 

619-21. 

1233,34. 

6  22,  23. 

1134-36,' 

624. 

1613. 

6  25-34. 

1222-32. 

71.2.' 

637,38. 

73-5. 

641,42. 

77-11. 

119-13. 

712. 

631. 

713,14. 

1323,24. 

7  15-20.  -» 
1233-37./ 

643-45. 

721. 

646. 

7  22, 23. 

1325-27. 

7  24-27. 

6  47-49. 

85-13. 

/    7  1-3,  6-10. -i 
\  13  28,  29.      / 

819,20. 

957,58. 

821,22. 

9  59. 60. 

9  32-34. 
cp.  1222-24 

}  1114,15. 

9  36-38. 

102. 

Preaching  of  John. 

Temptation. 

Sermon  on  the  Mount. 


>» 


n 


11 


»> 
n 


>» 


n 


n 
n 


n 


105-16. 


1024-33. 


101-12. 
640  122-9. 


Ixxxiv 


Centurion's  servant. 

'  The  foxes  have  holes.' 
'Let   the    dead    bury 
their  dead.' 

The  deaf  demoniac. 

'  The  harvest  truly  is 

plenteous.' 
Charges  to  the  Twelve 

and  the  Seventy. 


THE   SYNOPTIC    PROBLEM 


Mt. 

1034-36. 

1037,38. 

1039. 
1040,41. 

111-6. 
117-11. 

1 1 12-14. 
1 1 16-19. 

1 1  20-24. 

1  1  25-27. 
[129-14* 

12  27,28,30. 
1238-42. 
1243-45. 

1316.17. 

1333. 
1614 

162.3. 

1719,20. 

187. 

1812-14. 
1815,16,21,22 

1928. 

[2131,32. 
2144. 

[221-10. 

234-7,12,13. 
2323-33, 


Lk. 

1251-53. 

1426,27. 

1733. 

1016. 
7 18-23. 

6  24-28. 

1616. 

7  31-35. 
1012-15. 

1021,22. 

141-6.] 

1 1 19,  20, 23. 
1 1  29-32. 

I  1  24-26. 

1023,24. 

1320,21. 
639. 

1254-56. 
175.6. 

181. 

153-7. 
.173,4. 

2228-30. 

7  29, 30.] 

2018. 
1415-24] 

I I  43, 45, 46, 52 

1411. 

1137-44,47,48. 


Charges  to  the  Twelve 
and  the  Seventy. 


John  sends  disciples. 
Christ's     opinion     of 
John. 


'  Woe  to  thee,  Chora- 

zin.' 
'  I  thank  thee,  Father.' 
? 

Beelzebub. 

The  sign  of  Jonah. 

The  house  swept  and 

garnished. 
'  Blessed      are      your 

eyes.' 
Parable  of  the  Leaven. 
Blind  leaders  of    the 

blind. 
'  Ye   can   discern  the 

face  of  the  sky.' 
Faith   as   a   grain   of 

mustard-seed. 
'  Woe  to  the  world  be- 
cause of  offences.' 
The  lost  sheep. 
'  If  thy  brother  sin.' 
Judging    the    twelve 

tribes  of  Israel. 
? 

'  He  that  falleth  upon 
this  stone.' 

\Woe  to  the  Scribes 
J        and  Pharisees. 


Mt. 

2334-36. 
2337-39. 


24  26-28. 

2437-39. 
2440,41. 
2443-51. 
2514-30. 


Lk. 

1149-51. 
1334,35. 


1723,24,37. 

1726,27. 
1734-36. 
1239-46. 
1911-28. 


Woe  to  the  Scribes 
and  Pharisees. 

'  Jerusalem,  Jerusa- 
lem, that  killest 
the  prophets.' 

Sayings  about  the 
Second  Advent. 


The  Talents  and  the 
Pounds. 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  common  matter 
is  mainly,  though  not  exclusively,  sayings  and 
discourses,  and  that  its  order  and  arrangement 
in  the  two  Gospels  is  generally  very  different. 
This  variation  in  order  and  arrangement,  which 
is  extreme,  constitutes  a  real  objection  to  the 
view  that  the  authoi-s  of  the  First  and  Third 
Gospels  both  used  the  '  logia,'  at  least  as  a 
principal  common  source.  When  they  copy 
St.  Mark,  they  preserve,  as  a  rule,  not  only 
his  words,  but  also  his  order  and  context, 
but  when  they  are  supposed  to  copy  the 
'  logia,'  they  deal  much  more  freely  with  the 
words,  and,  as  to  the  order  and  context, 
they  either  take  no  account  of  them  at  all, 
or  differ  from  each  other.  Even  if  we  admit 
that  St.  Matthew's  habit  was  to  collect  our 
Lord's  sayings  into  large  masses,  and  St.  Luke's 
to  preserve  the  separate  sayings  in  their  original 
context,  there  still  remain  numerous  diverg- 
ences of  order  and  context,  which  are  most 
diflticult  to  account  for  on  the  hypothesis  of  a 
single  common  source. 

It  seems  most  natural  to  suppose  that  if 
St.  Luke  used  the  '  logia,'  he  used  them  only 
to  a  limited  extent,  and  is  indebted  for  his 
knowledge  of  our  Lord's  sayings  mainly  to 
other  sources. 


Ixxxv 


THE  DYNASTY  OF  THE  HERODS 


1.  Herod  I  (The  Great).  The  Herods  were 
not  Israelites  by  race,  but  Idumeans.  Herod 
I's  grandfather,  Antipater  (Antipas),  was  the 
chief  ruler  of  Idumea.  His  father,  also  called 
Antipater  (or  Antipas),  embraced  the  Jewish 
religion  when  Idumea  was  taken  by  John 
Hyrcanus,  and  Herod  I  was  consequently 
brought  up  a  Jew.  In  47  B.C.  his  father  was 
made  procurator  of  Judasa  by  Julius  Csesar, 
and  he  immediately  assigned  subordinate  juris- 
dictions to  his  four  sons.  Herod  received 
Galilee,  which  he  governed  with  great  vigour, 
putting  down  brigandage  with  a  strong  hand. 
In  40  H.C.  the  Roman  senate,  at  the  instigation 
of  Antony,  made  Herod  king  of  Judfea,  but 
it  was  not  till  37  B.C.  that  he  succeeded  in 
establishing  himself  in  Jerusalem,  the  people 
being  still  strongly  attached  to  the  Asmonean 
dynasty  which  had  ruled  in  Palestine  for  126 
years.  At  last  Herod  captured  Jerusalem, 
and  signalised  his  triumph  by  massacring  the 
whole  Sanhedrin  except  two  persons,  and 
putting  to  death  all  the  adherents  of  the  rival 
prince  Antigonus.  Antigonus  himself  was 
beheaded  by  Antony.  Herod  was  a  wise,  far- 
seeing,  firm,  and  enlightened  ruler,  altogether 
free  from  Jewish  narrowness  and  prejudice, 
and  inclined  to  adopt  the  learning  and  culture 
of  the  Romans  and  Greeks.  On  the  other  hand, 
he  was  suspicious,  cruel,  selfish  and  implacable. 
Towards  the  end  of  his  life,  when  he  was 
afflicted  by  a  painful  disease,  his  thirst  for 
blood  amounted  almost  to  insanity.  Among 
his  victims  were  his  tenderly  loved  wife 
Mariamne,  her  brother  Aristobulus,  her  grand- 
father Hyrcanus,  and  his  own  sons  Alexander, 
Aristobulus,  and  Antipater.  The  great  work 
of  his  lifetime  was  the  building  of  the  Temple, 
which  was  begun  in  20  B.C.,  and  was  not  com- 
pletely finished  till  65  A.D.,  just  before  the 
outbreak  of  the  war  with  Rome.  On  his 
deathbed  (4  B.C.)  he  ordered  the  principal 
Jews  to  be  shut  up  in  the  circus  at  Jericho, 
and  slaughtered  as  soon  as  he  had  breathed 
his  last,  in  order  that  there  might  be  some 
real  mourners  at  his  funeral.  He  had  ten 
wives,  and  numerous  children. 

2.  Herod  Antipas  was  the  son  of  Herod  I 
by  Malthake,  a  Samaritan.  By  the  will  of  his 
father  he  received  the  tetrarchy  of  Galilee 
and  Perea,  which  yielded  a  yearly  revenue  of 
200  talents.  He  married  the  daughter  of 
Aretas,  king  of  Arabia  Petrsea,  but  was  guilty 
of  an  intrigue  with  Herodias,  his  brother 
Philip's  wife,  whom  he  afterwards  incestuously 


married,  in  spite  of  the  expostulations  of 
John  the  Baptist,  whose  execution  Herodias 
managed  to  procure  by  an  artifice  which  is 
recorded  only  in  the  Gospels.  Antipas  was 
a  great  friend  of  Tiberius,  in  whose  honour 
he  built  and  named  the  city  of  Tiberias.  In 
38  A.D.  he  was  banished  to  Lugdunum  in 
Gaul,  and  eventually  died  in  Spain.  Herodias 
voluntarily  shared  his  exile. 

3.  Herod  Archelaus  was  also  the  son  of  Herod 

1  and  Malthake,  and  was  junior  to  Antipas. 
In  spite  of  this,  his  father's  will  assigned  to 
him  a  superior  position,  giving  him  the  govern- 
ment of  Judsea  and  the  title  of  king.  He 
was  extremely  unpopular  in  Judaea,  and  when 
he  sailed  to  Rome  to  ask  to  be  confirmed  in 
his  kingdom,  his  subjects  sent  a  message  after 
him,  requesting  that  he  might  be  removed 
from  the  kingdom,  and  Judasa  placed  under 
direct  Roman  government.  To  this  circum- 
stance our  Lord  alludes,  Lkig^^-ST,  Augustus 
assigned  to  Archelaus  Jud^a,  Samaria,  and 
Idumea,  with  the  title  of  ethnarch,  not  king. 
In  6  A.D.  he  was  deposed  by  Augustus  for 
tyranny,  and  banished  to  Vienna  in  Gaul. 
His  dominions  were  placed  under  the  govern- 
ment of  a  Roman  procurator,  and  this  arrange- 
ment continued  till  41  a.d.     We  are  told,  Mt 

2  22^  that  Joseph  avoided  entering  the  territory 
of  the  tyrant  Archelaus,  and  retired  to  Naza- 
reth to  live  under  the  government  of  the  milder 
Antipas. 

4.  Herod  Philip  I,  called  Herod  by  Josephus, 
and  Philip  in  the  Gospels  (Mtl43  Mk6i7 
Lk3i9),  must  be  carefully  distinguished  from 
Philip,  tetrarch  of  Iturea  and  Trachonitis 
(Lk3i).  He  was  the  son  of  Herod  I  by  the 
second  Mariamne,  daughter  of  Simon  the 
high  priest.  Owing  to  his  mother's  treason, 
he  was  left  out  of  his  father's  will,  and  lived 
all  his  life  as  a  private  gentleman,  chiefly 
at  Rome.  He  was  the  first  husband  of 
Herodias,  who  divorced  him  to  marry  her 
uncle  Antipas. 

5.  Herod  Philip  II,  generally  known  as 
Philip  the  tetrarch,  was  the  son  of  Herod  I 
and  Cleopatra  of  Jerusalem.  He  was  brought 
up  with  Archelaus  and  Antipas  at  Rome.  His 
father's  will  assigned  to  him  certain  territories 
to  the  N.  and  E.  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee  (Bata- 
nea,  Trachonitis,  Auranitis),  and  the  title  of 
tetrarch.  St.  Luke  calls  him  tetrarch  of 
Iturea  and  Trachonitis  (Lk3i).  He  reigned 
from  4  B.C.  to  34  A.D.,  and  was  celebrated  for 
his  moderation,  justice,  and  good  government. 


Ixxxvi 


THE  DYNASTY  OF  THE  HERODS 


He  built  Caesarea  Philippi,  and  Bethsaida 
Julias,  whither  our  Lord  on  one  occasion 
retired  to  avoid  Antipas  (LkQ^*^).  His  wife 
was  Salome,  daughter  of  Herod  Philip  I  and 
Herodias.  Since  he  was  childless,  his  domin- 
ions were  annexed  on  his  death  to  the  Roman 
province  of  Syi'ia. 

6.  Herodias  (see  Mtl4i  Mk6i4  Lk3i«)  was 
the  daughter  of  Herod  I's  son  Aristobulus,  and 
his  niece  Berenice.  She  first  married  her 
uncle  Herod  Philip  I,  by  whom  she  had  a 
daughter  Salome,  who  danced  before  Antipas 
and  pleased  him.  Afterwards  she  divorced 
him  and  married  his  brother  Antipas,  who  for 
her  sake  put  away  his  wife,  and  thus  provoked 
a  disastrous  war  with  his  indignant  father-in- 
law.  Herodias  procured  the  death  of  John 
the  Baptist,  and  shared  her  husband's  exile. 
She  was  sister  to  Herod  Agrippa  I. 

7.  Herod  Agrippa  I,  called  Agrippa  the 
Great  by  Josephus,  was  the  son  of  Aristobulus 
and  Berenice,  and  grandson  of  Herod  I.  He 
was  brought  up  at  Rome  on  terms  of  the 
closest  intimacy  with  the  imperial  family,  and 
was  particularly  friendly  with  Caligula  and 
Claudius.     When  Caligula  became  emperor  in 

37  A.D.  he  at  once  gave  Agrippa  the  tetrarchy 
of  Philip,  who  had   died   in  34  A.D.,  and   in 

38  A.D.  added  to  this  the  tetrarchy  of  the  exiled 
Antipas  (Galilee  and  Persea).  In  41  a.d.,  in 
return  for  great  services  rendered  to  Claudius, 
he  received  in  addition  Judaea  and  Samaria, 
and  the  title  of  king.  He  now  ruled  over  all 
the  dominions  of  Herod  the  Great.  He  con- 
stantly lived  in  Jerusalem,  and  kept  the 
Mosaic  Law  with  the  utmost  strictness,  allowing 


no  day  to  pass  without  offering  sacrifice.  His 
zeal  for  the  Law  caused  him  to  persecute  the 
Church  (Ac  12).  He  died  in  44  a.d.  The 
account  of  his  end  given  by  Josephus  is  in 
substantial  agreement  with  that  of  St.  Luke. 
His  wife  was  named  Cypros,  and  among  his 
children  by  her  were  Herod  Agrippa  II, 
Bernice,  and  Drusilla. 

8.  Herod  Agrippa  II,  son  of  Herod 
Agrippa  I  and  Cypros,  was  only  17  years  old 
when  his  father  died,  and  Claudius,  thinking 
him  too  young  to  govern  the  kingdom,  made 
it  once  more  a  Roman  province.  In  48  a.d. 
Claudius  assignod  to  him  the  small  kingdom 
of  Chalcis,  and  in  53  a.d.  gave  him  in  exchange 
for  this  the  tetrarchies  of  Philip  and  Lysanias, 
with  the  title  of  king.  Nero  added  to  his 
dominions  certain  cities  in  Galilee  and  Persea. 
He  was  entrusted  with  the  general  oversight 
of  the  Temple,  and  to  him  is  due  the  credit  of 
completing  it.  His  capital  was  Caesarea  Phil- 
ippi, which  he  enlarged  and  renamed  Neronias, 
in  honour  of  Nero.  He  advised  his  country- 
men not  to  rebel  against  Rome,  and  when  war 
broke  out  sided  with  the  Romans.  After  the 
fall  of  Jerusalem,  70  a.d.,  he  received  a  con- 
siderable accession  of  territory.  His  later 
years  were  spent  in  Rome,  where  he  died, 
about  100  A.D. ,  the  last  of  the  Herodian 
dynasty.  Although  '  expert  in  all  customs 
and  questions  which  are  among  the  Jews,'  and 
well  able  to  form  an  opinion  as  to  the  ortho- 
doxy of  St.  Paul's  opinions  (Ac  25, 26),  he  was 
of  vicious  life. 

9.  Berenice,  or  Bernice,  see  on  Ac  25^3. 

10.  Drusilla,  see  on  Ac  24  24. 


ABRIDGED  GENEALOGY  OF  THE  HERODS  TO  ILLUSTRATE  THE  NT. 

Antipater  (ruler  of  Idumaea) 

Antipater  (procurator  of  Judsea) 
Herod  I 


Aristobulus  Herod  Philip  I  Antipas  Archelaus 

(by  Mariamne,     (by  Mariamne,  d.  of      (by  Malthake)      (by  Malthake) 
granddaughter  of  Simon) 

Hyrcanus  I)  | 


Herod  Philip  II 
(by  Cleopatra) 


Agrippa  I 


Herodias 


Salome  •-- 
(by  Herodias) 


Agrippa  II 


Bernice 


Drusilla 


Ixxxvii 


THE  LIFE  AND  WORK  OF  ST.  PAUL 


Of  all  the  personalities  of  the  apostolic  age 
St.  Paul  shines  brightest.  Modern  opponents 
of  Christianity  have,  indeed,  interpreted  him 
very  diiferently.  They  have  never  solved  the 
problem  that  he  presents  to  them.  Some  of 
them  assert  that  he  did  little  more  than  suc- 
ceed in  corrupting  Christianity.  Others  regard 
him  as  the  real  founder  of  Christianity  in  spite 
of  the  positive  evidence  which  he  gives  to  show 
he  was  only  its  disciple.  A  few  have  had  the 
audacity  to  assert  that  none  of  the  Epistles 
which  bear  his  name  were  the  product  of  his 
pen.  But  even  those  who  maintain  this  in- 
credible theory  cannot  deny  that  St.  Paul  made 
a  profound  impression  upon  the  mind  of  early 
Christendom.  No  one  indeed  would  have 
taken  the  trouble  to  forge  Epistles  in  his  name 
if  it  had  not  already  been  venerated  and  loved 
as  the  name  of  one  of  the  very  foremost  mis- 
sionaries of  Christ.  All  indeed  admit,  whether 
they  are  Christians  or  not,  that  no  person  of 
the  apostolic  age  laboured  more  successfully 
than  St.  Paul. 

Our  sources  for  a  knowledge  of  his  life  are 
the  Acts  written  by  his  companion  St.  Luke, 
and  St.  Paul's  own  letters.  Early  traditions 
also  preserve  a  few  facts  of  value.  Then  there 
seem  to  be  a  few  genuine  traits  in  the  apocry- 
phal '  Acts  of  Paul  and  Thekla,'  a  romance  of 
the  second  century,  and  there  is  no  reason  for 
doubting  the  statement  of  St.  Clement  that  he 
visited  '  the  limit  of  the  West,'  and  the  ancient 
belief  that  he  suffered  martyrdom  at  Rome. 
At  the  present  time  the  more  moderate  op- 
ponents of  orthodox  Christianity  admit  that 
the  evidence  of  the  second  century  is  too  strong 
to  be  brushed  aside,  and  say  that  none  of  the 
Epistles  can  be  safely  called  pseudonymous, 
and  that  eight  are  almost  certainly  genuine 
(Gal,  Ro,  1  and  2  Cor,  Phil,  Col,  Philemon, 
1  Th).  We  believe  that  we  are  most  fully  jus- 
tified in  asserting  the  genuineness  of  all  the  thir- 
teen letters,  and  shall  therefore  regard  them 
as  trustworthy  evidence  for  the  Apostle's  life. 

I.  Early  Life  and  Conversion.  Saul,  also 
called  Paul,  was  of  purely  Jewish  ancestry,  of 
the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  born  at  Tarsus  in  Ci- 
licia.  The  fact  that  he  was  called  by  two 
names  is  probably  to  be  explained  by  his  in- 
heriting a  Roman  name  with  Roman  citizen- 
ship. At  the  present  day  it  is  quite  common 
for  Jews  to  have  a  Jewish  and  a  Gentile  name, 
and  as  '  Saulos '  in  Greek  bears  the  ignoble 
sense  of  '  waddling,'  it  was  not  likely  to  be 
used  in  Gentile  circles.     Like  all  Jewish  boys. 


Paul  learnt  a  trade,  in  his  case  that  of  making 
tents,  for  the  manufacture  of  which  the  hair 
of  the  Cilician  goat  was  peculiarly  fitted.  His 
father  was  apparently  well-to-do,  and  Paul  was 
carefully  educated.  He  studied  rabbinical 
theology  under  Gamaliel  at  Jerusalem,  and 
his  literary  method  and  stjde  show  a  strong 
rabbinical  and  Pharisaic  influence.  He  was, 
nevertheless,  not  uninfluenced  by  the  broader 
and  more  Greek  type  of  Judaism  prevalent  at 
Alexandria.  His  character  was  charged  with 
zeal,  courage  and  emotion.  His  physical  powers 
were  not  equal  to  his  intellectual.  His  presence 
was  not  imposing,  his  health  was  uncertain,  and 
the  '  thorn  in  the  flesh '  of  which  he  speaks, 
signifies  some  humiliating  ailment  which  was 
most  likely  of  an  hysterical  or  even  epileptic 
character.  His  early  life  was  guileless,  but  his 
education  developed  within  him  an  overpower- 
ing sense  of  the  majesty  of  God's  law,  and  with 
a  sense  of  the  meaning  of  the  law  there  came 
also  a  sense  of  the  meaning  of  sin.  The  com- 
mandment which  was  destined  to  be  '  unto  life  ' 
he  found  to  be  '  unto  death.'  The  knowledge 
that  sin  was  forbidden,  and  that  sin  was  pos- 
sible, led  him  into  a  severe  inward  conflict 
(Ro  7 :  see  Liddon's  and  Sanday  and  Headlam's 
Commentaries). 

The  consciousness  of  inward  failure  seems 
to  have  stimulated  his  outward  zeal  for  the 
Law.  He  regarded  Christianity  as  a  vile  im- 
posture, and  the  work  of  persecuting  it  as  one 
of  the  highest  duties.  He  was  known  as  an 
enthusiast  before  the  martyrdom  of  Stephen. 
After  it  the  Jewish  ecclesiastical  leaders  saw 
in  him  an  excellent  instrument  for  the  exter- 
mination of  the  new  creed.  Neither  they  nor 
he  were  content  to  persecute  the  Christians  of 
Palestine  only,  and  they  commissioned  him  to 
go  to  Damascus.  On  his  journey  thither  he 
became  a  Christian  as  the  result  of  a  personal 
revelation  of  Jesus  Christ  (.35  or  36  A.D.).  His 
own  statements  and  the  three  accounts  in  Acts 
show  that  the  revelation  was  miraculous  (Ac 
91-16  224-16  269-18).  Li  1  Cor  158  he  puts  the 
appearance  of  Christ  to  himself  on  a  level  with 
the  appearance  to  Cephas  and  the  other  Apo- 
stles. An  outward  vision  with  an  audible  mes- 
sage having  accompanied  the  inward  revelation 
(Gal  1  !<>),  St.  Paul  never  ceased  to  believe  that, 
like  the  original  Apostles,  he  was  an  eye- 
witness of  the  risen  Christ.  With  this  vision 
he  connected  his  call  to  be  an  Apostle  to  the 
Gentiles.  And  in  writing  to  Corinth  he  as- 
sumes that  his  enemies  could  not  well  admit 


Ixxxviii 


THE   LIFE   AND   WORK   OF  ST.    PAUL 


the  outward  vision  and  then  deny  his  apostolic 
vocation. 

2.  Beginning-  of  Missionary  Career.  After 
three  days  spent  at  Damascus  the  future  Apostle 
of  the  Gentiles  was  baptised  by  Ananias.  And 
now,  as  a  member  of  the  Christian  Church,  he 
began  to  proclaim  in  the  synagogues  that  '  this 
Jesus  is  the  Son  of  God.'  But  the  great 
mental  strain  which  he  had  undergone  soon 
made  rest  imperative.  He  retired  for  three 
years  to  Arabia,  and  then  returned  with  new 
force  to  Damascus.  In  consequence  of  Jewish 
plots  against  his  life,  he  went  to  Jerusalem  in 
order  to  become  acquainted  with  St.  Peter 
(38  A.D.).  He  remained  there  only  fifteen  days, 
and,  in  accordance  with  his  policy  not '  to  confer 
with  flesh  and  blood,'  saw  none  of  the  apostles 
except  Peter  and  James,  '  the  Lord's  brother.' 
Ac92'5-30  shows  us  that  it  was  Barnabas  who 
introduced  him  to  these  apostles.  He  was  con- 
veyed by  the  disciples  to  the  seaport  of  Csesarea 
Stratonis,  and  thence  took  ship  for  Tarsus 
(Gal  1 21. 23  Ac  9  30  1 1 25, 26).  He  appears  to  have 
spent  about  seven  years  in  Syria  and  Cilicia, 
and  made  converts  there  :  cp.  Ac  1523. 

Summoned  by  St.  Barnabas  to  Antioch,  St. 
Paul  took  a  leading  position  in  this  important 
Church.  The  next  year,  46  a.d.,  he  was  sent 
with  Barnabas  to  take  alms  from  Antioch  to  the 
needy  Christians  of  Judaea  (Ac  1 1  30).  After 
this  the  Holy  Spirit  singled  out  the  two  friends 
to  begin  the  definite  evangelisation  of  the 
Roman  empire,  47  A.D.  In  company  with  John 
Mark,  they  set  out  for  Cyprus,  where  they  won 
a  triumph  in  the  conversion  of  Sergius  Paulus, 
the  Roman  proconsul.  They  then  set  sail  for 
Perga  on  the  mainland,  and,  though  deserted 
by  John  Mark,  began  boldly  to  preach  in  South 
Galatia.  St.  Paul  persevered  in  preaching 
first  to  the  Jews.  They  replied  by  hunting 
him  from  city  to  city.  The  missionaries  every- 
where found  that  the  Gentile  proselytes  heard 
them  gladly,  the  heathen  Gentiles  also  showed 
that  they  were  willing  to  receive  the  gospel. 
The  romantic  and  perilous  adventures  of  the 
missionaries  were  not  in  vain.  Churches  were 
founded  at  Pisidian  Antioch,  Iconium,  Lystra, 
Derbe,  and  probably  in  other  places.  It  was 
already  clear  that  God  '  had  opened  to  the 
Gentiles  a  door  of  faith,'  and  that  St.  Paul  had 
a  special  vocation  to  convert  men  who  were 
not  of  his  own  race. 

3.  The  Council  at  Jerusalem,  49  a.d.  The 
influence  of  St.  Paul  was  now  to  receive  a 
fresh  acknowledgment.  A  revelation  (Gal  2  2) 
directed  him  to  go  from  Antioch  to  Jerusalem, 
where  he  laid  before  the  Apostles  the  gospel 
that  he  preached  among  the  Gentiles.  It  was 
a  time  of  acute  crisis.  Certain  Judaising  con- 
verts of  the  original  apostles  maintained  that 
the  promises  of  the  gospel  only  belonged  to 
those  who  observed  the  Mosaic  Law.     St.  Paul 


had  asserted  the  justification  of  all  Gentiles 
who  believed  on  Jesus  Christ,  without  the  Law. 
He  saw  that  if  the  Gentiles  had  to  be  circum- 
cised, it  meant  that  the  Gentile  had  to  become 
a  Jew  in  order  to  become  a  Christian,  and  the 
gospel  was  then  not  primary  but  secondary. 
The  '  pillar '  apostles  supported  St.  Paul.  They 
gave  him  the  '  right  hands  of  fellowship,'  and 
he  returned  to  Antioch  with  complete  liberty 
to  act  as  the  appointed  head  of  the  mission  to 
'  the  uncircumcision.'  All  risk  of  Christianity 
becoming  a  mere  sect  of  Judaism  was  now 
removed. 

4.  Second  Missionary  Journey,  49-52  a.d. 
Ac  1 5  3*5— 1 8  2-  gives  us  an  account  of  this  journey, 
which  was  marked  by  the  Apostle's  greatest 
missionary  successes,  by  the  earliest  of  his 
letters  now  extant  (1  and  2  Th),  and  by  the 
extension  of  the  gospel  to  Europe.  It  began 
with  a  rupture  between  St.  Paul  and  St.  Bar- 
nabas, occasioned  by  St.  Paul's  refusal  to  be 
accompanied  by  Mark,  with  whom,  however, 
he  was  afterwards  reconciled.  In  company 
with  Silas,  a  Jewish  Christian  of  Roman 
citizenship,  he  visited  the  Churches  which  he 
had  founded  on  his  first  journey.  At  each 
place  the  decisions  of  the  Council  of  Jerusalem 
were  communicated  to  the  faithful  (AclG^'^). 
At  Lystra  St.  Paul  took  as  an  assistant  Timo- 
theus,  whom  he  circumcised,  as  he  was  the  son 
of  a  Jewess.  The  Holy  Spirit  forbade  the 
missionaries  to  preach  in  the  province  of  Asia, 
and  a  vision  summoned  St.  Paul  to  Europe. 
At  the  seaport  of  Troas  he  was  joined  by  St. 
Luke,  who  has  told  us  the  story  (St.  Luke  uses 
the  pronoun  '  we  '  in  97  vv.  of  Acts.  They  are 
1 6 10-17  -20  5-15  211-18  27 1-28 1«).  They  crossed 
to  Macedonia  and  began  to  preach  at  Philippi. 
Hitherto,  with  the  exception  of  Antioch,  St. 
Paul  had  not  preached  in  any  really  large  town 
since  his  mission  began.  Henceforward  he  was 
to  preach  mainly  in  great  centres  of  population. 
He  was  cruelly  opposed  at  Philippi,  the  first 
town  where  we  find  that  the  relations  between 
the  missionaries  and  the  civil  authorities  became 
a  difficulty.  As  afterwards  at  Ephesus,  the 
opposition  was  not  religious  or  political,  but 
came  from  the  mercenary  hatred  of  men  whose 
interests  were  bound  up  with  superstition. 
At  Thessalonica  and  Beroea  St.  Paul  won 
staunch  converts,  in  spite  of  a  deadly  per- 
secution directed  against  him  by  the  Jews  of 
Thessalonica. 

From  Beroea  he  went  to  Athens,  the  educa- 
tional centre  of  Greece,  where  he  delivered 
an  earnest  address  on  the  hill  of  the  Areo- 
pagus. One  member  of  the  court  of  the 
Areopagus  was  converted,  but  the  intellectual 
men  of  Athens  were  not  sufficiently  conscious 
of  their  inward  moral  failure  to  receive  the 
gospel  seriously.  The  huge  city  of  Corinth, 
the  commercial  capital  of  Greece,  offered  a 


Ixxxix 


THE   LIFE   AND   WORK   OF  ST.    PAUL 


very  diflEerent  field.  It  was  notorious  for  the 
sensuality  of  the  rich  and  the  misery  of  the 
poor.  While  there  St.  Paul  lived  as  a  poor 
man  with  the  poor,  and  made  it  his  determin- 
ation to  preach  nothing  but  '  Jesus  Christ, 
and  Him  crucified.'  Protected  by  Roman  law, 
he  won  many  converts,  including  some  persons 
of  distinction.  While  at  Corinth  he  wrote 
twice  to  the  Thessalonians.  The  second  jour- 
ney closed  with  a  visit  to  Jerusalem.  It  was 
probably  soon  after  this  visit  that  an  incident 
happened  which  showed  the  Vitality  of  the 
Judaising  party  in  the  Church.  They  no  longer 
denied  that  the  uncircumcised  believers  were 
Christians,  but  they  tried  to  gain  a  distinct  and 
higher  status  for  the  circumcised.  When  St. 
Paul  went  from  Jerusalem  to  Antioch  in  52  a.d., 
St.  Peter,  fearing  to  offend  these  Judaisers, 
was  guilty  of  pretending  to  believe  that  he 
agreed  with  them.  He  refused  to  eat  with 
uncircumcised  Christians.  St.  Paul  then  openly 
rebuked  him  for  this  'dissembling'  (Gal2ii), 
i.e.  for  acting  in  a  manner  contrary  to  his  true 
convictions.  (Some  authorities  place  this  in- 
cident earlier,  shortly  before  the  Council  of 
Jerusalem,  49  a.d.  :  see  on  Acl5.  It  is  still 
debated  among  scholars  whether  St.  Paul  ever 
visited  North  Galatia,  or  whether  '  the  Phry- 
gian and  Galatian  country'  (Ac  16'')  means 
one  district  known  by  two  different  names, 
extending  from  Iconiiun  to  Pisidian  Antioch, 
Phrygian  racially  and  Galatian  politically.  For 
list  of  authorities  on  either  side  see  HDB. 
vol.  iii.  pp.  706,  707.) 

5.  Third  Missionary  Journey,  52-56  a.d. 
The  Judaisers  took  their  revenge  by  visiting 
the  Churches  founded  by  St.  Paul,  where  they 
presented  themselves  with  '  letters  of  com- 
mendation,' pretending  that  they  represented 
the  original  Apostles,  and  came  to  supply  the 
defects  of  St.  Paul's  teaching.  In  the  mean- 
time St.  Paul  visited  Galatia  and  Phrygia, 
made  a  long  stay  at  Ephesus,  and  went  to 
Macedonia  and  Greece.  During  these  few 
years  St.  Paul  reached  the  pinnacle  of  his 
power.  Forced,  against  his  will,  to  engage  in 
controversy,  he  wrote  the  four  Epistles,  1  and 
2  Corinthians,  Galatians,  and  Romans,  which 
rank  among  the  greatest  masterpieces  of  all 
literature.  The  whole  period  was  one  of  diffi- 
cult but  victorious  conflict.  In  Acts  19  we 
are  told  the  dramatic  story  of  the  riot  at 
Ephesus,  where  the  craftsmen  who  made 
images  of  Artemis  stirred  up  the  mob  to 
expel  him.  On  leaving  Ephesus  he  brought 
the  gospel  to  Troas,  and  went  on  to  Mace- 
donia, Illyria,  and  Greece,  making  Corinth  his 
real  goal.  He  had  previously  visited  it  '  in 
sorrow  '  from  Ephesus  (2  Cor  2 1  13 1>  2),  but  was 
compelled  to  return  there  on  account  of  re- 
newed controversies.  These  controversies  oc- 
casioned the  Apostle  the  greatest  anxiety,  and 


though  2  Corinthians  shows  that  his  anxiety 
was  partly  allayed  before  he  left  Macedonia, 
he  continued  his  journey,  and  arrived  at 
Corinth  at  the  end  of  55  a.d.  He  stayed 
there  three  months  (Ac  20  3),  during  which  he 
wrote  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans.  Wishing 
to  return  to  Syria,  he  was  prevented  by  a 
plot  of  the  Jews  from  taking  ship  at  Corinth 
for  Syria.  He  therefore  went  round  by  Phil- 
ippi,  where  he  spent  the  Easter  of  56  a.d., 
and  Troas.  St.  Luke  describes  the  journey  in 
Acts  20  and  21.  St.  Paul  met  with  a  friendly 
reception  from  St.  James  and  '  all  the  elders  ' 
at  Jerusalem,  a  fact  which  shows  that  there 
was  no  split  among  the  leaders  of  the  Church, 
however  much  the  partisans  of  those  leaders 
might  differ.  Recognised  in  the  Temple  by 
certain  Asiatic  Jews,  the  Apostle  was  attacked 
by  a  hostile  mob,  and  after  defending  himself 
in  an  address  to  the  people  and  another  ad- 
dress to  the  Sanhedrin,  he  was  sent  to  the 
Roman  procurator  Felix  at  Caesarea. 

6.  Period  of  Imprisonment,  56-61  a.d.  The 
course  of  proceedings  taken  against  St.  Paul 
is  made  perfectly  intelligible  by  St.  Luke. 
St.  Paul  was  a  Roman  citizen,  and  the  Roman 
procurators  were  too  just  to  deliver  him  to  the 
Jews,  though  Felix  was  not  above  hoping  for 
a  bribe.  St.  Paul  finally  determined  to  cut 
the  matter  short  by  appealing  to  the  emperor, 
an  appeal  which  the  procurator  Festus  could 
not  disregard.  The  voyage  to  Rome  is  de- 
scribed by  St.  Luke  with  picturesque  accuracy, 
and  shows  St.  Paul  manifesting  that  easy 
ascendency  over  his  fellows  which  he  always 
gained  in  unprejudiced  surroundings.  At  Rome 
the  Jewish  leaders  did  not  oppose  him,  but 
the  majority  of  the  Jews  deserted  him.  He 
remained  at  Rome  until  61  A.D.,  living  in  his 
own  hired  house  under  the  supervision  of  a 
soldier.  During  this  period  he  wrote  Colossians, 
Philemon,  Ephesians  and  Philippians.  They 
do  not  show  the  same  exuberance  of  argu- 
ment as  the  four  preceding  Epistles.  But 
their  tenderness  and  devotion,  their  combina- 
tion of  authority  and  humility,  their  insight 
into  the  true  significance  of  Christ  and  of  the 
Church,  prove  that  St.  Paul  was  still  advancing 
'  from  strength  to  strength.' 

7.  Conclusion.  St.  Paul  was  released  from 
his  first  imprisonment  at  Rome,  as  he  seems 
to  have  hoped  would  be  the  case  when  he 
wrote  Philippians  (1^"  224).  jj^  had  long 
wished  to  visit  Spain  (R0I528),  and  though 
his  Epistles  do  not  record  such  a  visit,  St. 
Clement  of  Rome,  writing  about  95  a.d., 
speaks  of  him  as  going  '  to  the  limit  of  the 
West,'  which  in  a  Roman  writer  probably 
means  Spain.  From  the  Epistles  to  Timothy 
and  Titus  we  learn  that  he  returned  to  the 
East.  His  last  Epistle  is  2  Timothy,  written 
with  winter  in  prospect  and  when   the  first 


xc 


SURVEY   OF  THE   EPISTLES   OF   ST.  PAUL 


stage  of  his  last  trial  was  over.  He  had  been 
lately  at  Troas  and  in  Crete,  and  probably  at 
Miletus  and  Corinth.  1  Timothy  was  ap- 
parently written  from  Macedonia  on  the  way 
to  Corinth,  and  the  letter  to  Titus  was  written 
from  Corinth  when  he  was  expecting  to 
spend  the  next  winter  at  Nicopolis  opposite  to 
Italy  (Tit  31^).  He  must  have  been  arrested 
soon  after  the  letter  to  Titus  was  despatched. 
According  to  the  traditions  of  the  primitive 


Church  he  was  beheaded  about  three  miles 
from  Rome  on  the  Ostian  Way,  close  to  the 
place  now  occupied  by  the  great  basilica  of 
St.  Paul.  The  basilica  contains  his  tomb, 
marked  by  an  inscription  of  the  fourth  century. 
The  year  of  his  death  was  probably  64  a.d., 
though  it  was  formerly  dated  67  A.D.  The 
year  of  his  conversion  was  probably  36  a.d. 
No  Christian  in  all  history  accomplished  as 
much  work  in  a  period  of  twenty-eight  years. 


SURVEY  OF  THE  EPISTLES  OF  ST.  PAUL 


I.  Form  of  St.  Paul's  Writings.  We  have 
from  the  hand  of  the  Apostle  Paul  thirteen 
Epistles — addressed  four  of  them  to  individual 
helpers,  and  the  rest  to  Christian  societies  of 
his  foundation  or  lying  within  the  circuit  of 
his  mission  (Romans,  Colossians).  They  are 
primarily  not  treatises  upon  religious  doctrine, 
nor  homilies  enforcing  specific  duties,  but 
letters  of  a  friend  to  his  friends,  of  the  absent 
missionary  and  pastor  to  his  flock.  They  are 
selections  from  a  larger  correspondence,  and 
in  several  instances  (notably  1  and  2  Cor) 
imply  letters  and  messages  from  the  other 
side.  The  acquaintance  and  mutual  affection 
of  the  parties,  their  common  interests  in 
Christ,  supply  the  basis  of  the  communications. 
They  are  essentially  personal  documents,  origin- 
ating in  the  relationship  between  writer  and 
readers  ;  from  this  standpoint  the  questions, 
of  theology  or  morals  or  church  administration, 
that  arise  in  them  should  be  approached,  as 
being  the  questions  of  the  hour  to  the  corre- 
spondents. In  the  Epistles  we  watch  the 
vital  Christian  problems  emerging  in  the 
experience  of  the  earliest  Churches  and  taking 
shape  and  colour  from  their  constitution  and 
surroundings.  These  writings  give  to  the 
subjects  of  which  they  treat  the  actuality  and 
living  interest  that  attach  to  the  career  of  the 
Apostle  of  the  nations  engaged  in  his  mission- 
ary labours  and  in  the  shepherding  of  his 
strangely  mingled  flock. 

With  this  personal  origin  is  connected  the 
incidental  nature  of  St.  Paul's  writings.  The 
Apostle  took  up  the  pen  to  supply  the  lack  of 
his  presence  (IThS^^)^  when  his  field  of 
labour  became  too  wide  to  admit  of  frequent 
visits  to  the  Churches.  He  wrote  for  the 
most  part  upon  the  spur  of  the  moment 
(Romans  was  an  exception) — on  occasion  of 
recent  news,  in  response  to  some  message  or 
enquiry,  in  self-explanation  and  in  expression 
of   the  thankfulness  or  solicitude  concerning 


his  readers  that  occupies  his  mind  :  see,  e.g., 
IThSS  ICorlii  71  2Corl8  7^  13io  Phil2i2 
410  Coll 4, 8  21  Philemon  v.  10,  etc.  Yet 
through  these  disconnected  and  seemingly 
casual  letters,  thrown  off  in  the  intervals  of 
travel,  in  prison,  or  from  the  Apostle's 
winter-quarters,  there  runs  one  master  pur- 
pose, one  all-embracing  conception  of  human 
life  and  of  the  things  of  God. 

2.  Style  of  the  Epistles.  The  saying  that 
'  the  style  is  the  man '  holds  especially  of 
epistolary  wi-itings.  The  letters  of  a  gifted 
man  are  often  more  attractive  than  his  laboured 
work,  because  they  are  written  in  freedom  of 
heart  and  are  the  frank  and  unstudied  expres- 
sion of  himself.  In  this  quality  of  St.  Paul's 
Epistles  is  found  at  once  their  charm  and 
their  difficulty.  His  'epistolary  style  is  the 
most  personal  that  ever  was — a  rapid  con- 
versation reported  verbatim  and  without 
correction '  (Renan).  There  is  nothing  in 
literature  that  reflects  more  vividly  the 
personality  of  the  writer  than  some  of  these 
Epistles. 

Now  St.  Paul's  is  not  an  easy  style,  for  he 
was  not  a  man  framed  to  take  things  easily. 
Life  was  for  him  a  continual  struggle,  both 
without  and  within.  Beneath  his  restless 
missionary  activity  and  the  calm  of  his  prison- 
daj's,  there  went  on  in  him  an  unceasing 
effort  to  '  apprehend  that  for  which  he  was 
apprehended  by  Christ.'  He  is  '  travailing  in 
birth  '  not  only  over  his  wayward  offspring  in 
the  faith,  but  over  the  grand  '  mystery  of 
God,'  of  which  he  is  the  appointed  dispenser, 
striving  to  explore  the  unsearchable  riches 
and  sound  the  unfathomed  depths  of  the  love 
revealed  in  Christ.  The  strain  of  the  author's 
mind  is  manifest  in  the  involved  sentences  of 
which  some  of  his  greatest  passages  consist 
—such  as  Ro  5 12-21  Gal23-io,  or  Ephis-i*. 
With  broken,  impetuous  utterance  he  sweeps 
us  breathless  through  his  long-drawn  periods, 


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SURVEY   OF  THE   EPISTLES   OF   ST.    PAUL 


until  he  reaches  his  lofty  climax  and  the 
tangled  path  lies  clear  beneath  our  feet. 
St.  Paul  was  a  pioneer  in  religious  thought, 
opening  a  way  for  the  truth  of  the  gospel  to 
the  conscience  and  intellect  of  the  Gentile 
world.  The  difficult  task  has  left  its  mark  on 
his  writings,  like  the  lame  thigh  that  witnessed 
to  wrestling  Jacob's  victory.  This  subtle 
and  eager  thinker  was  at  the  same  time  a  man 
of  ardent  feeling.  In  many  places  the  en- 
tanglement of  St.  Paul's  style  is  due  to 
contending  currents  of  feeling,  to  the  quick 
play  of  emotion  in  his  singularly  mobile 
nature:  see,  e.g.,  1  Cor 4 "-21  2Cor5ii-i5  75-9 
Gal  4 12-20  Logic  and  sentiment,  passion  and 
severe  thought,  are  fused  in  his  utterance 
to  form  a  combination  of  singular  pliancy, 
tenderness,  and  strength.  In  his  gram- 
matical constructions  and  the  connexion 
of  phrase  with  phrase  there  is  frequent 
uncertainty  arising  from  the  throng  and  press 
of  his  thoughts  ;  the  thoughts  themselves  are 
clear  and  luminous..  His  leading  terms  are 
as  crystalline  in  definition,  as  they  are  massive 
and  profound  in  significance.  The  great 
watchwords  of  St.  Paul's  doctrine  were 
framed  to  last  for  ever. 

A  native  of  Tarsus,  St.  Paul  knew  Greek 
from  childhood  ;  the  niceties  of  its  idiom  come 
to  him  instinctively.  The  groundwork  of  his 
dialect  was  not,  however,  the  literary  Greek 
of  the  times,  but  the  vernacular  of  every-day 
speech.  Behind  the  Greek  dress  there  lived 
in  him  a  Hebrew  spirit.  Saul's  youth  had 
been  spent  '  at  the  feet  of  Gamaliel '  (Ac  22  3), 
and  his  mind  formed  by  the  rabbinical  dis- 
cipline (Gallic).  He  draws  freely  on  the 
language  and  ideas  of  the  Old  Testament,  fol- 
lowing, though  not,  slavishly,  the  Septuagint 
Greek  Version  which  was.in  the  hands  of  his 
readers.  His  imagery  is  mainly  borrowed  not 
like  that  of  Jesus  from  nature  and  the  open 
fields,  but  from  the  scenes  of  city  life  and 
the  throngs  of  men.  The  Apostle's  mind 
was  fertile  and  plastic  in  expression  ;  each 
group  of  Epistles  contains  its  distinctive  locu- 
tions. He  has  his  mannerisms  and  idiosyn- 
crasies, but  is  tied  to  no  hackneyed  formulae  ; 
his  speech  reflected  the  colour  of  its  surround- 
ings, and  suited  itself  to  the  constituency  ad- 
dressed. Compare  from  this  point  of  view 
the  stateliness  and  measured  argument  of 
Romans  with  the  incisiveness,  poignancy,  and 
pathos  of  Galatians  and  1  and  2  Corinthians, 
the  affectionate  frankness  and  spontaneity  of 
1  Thessalonians  and  Philippians,  and  the  play- 
ful familiarity  of  the  little  letter  to  Philemon. 

3.  The  Matter  of  the  Epistles.  St.  Paul's 
letters  were  cast  in  the  epistolary  mould  of 
the  time.  The  salutation  '  Grace  and  peace  ' 
is  adapted  from  the  ordinary  courtesies  of 
greeting.     The  salutation,  variously  expanded 


and  qualified,  serves  sometimes  to  strike  the 
keynote  of  the  Epistle,  as  in  Romans  and 
Galatians.  A  thanksgiving  is  next  offered  to 
God  for  the  Christian  worth  of  the  corre- 
spondents (Galatians  is  the  signal  exception), 
commonly  supplemented  by  an  appropriate 
prayer  ;  in  Ephesians  the  opening  acts  of 
praise  and  prayer  swell  into  a  principal  part 
of  the  letter.  After  the  introductory  devo- 
tions, the  writer's  purpose  comes  into  view  ; 
where  his  object  is  theological,  we  may  look 
for  some  fundamental  statement  of  principle 
at  this  point :  see  Ro  1 16,  iv  Col  1  is,  etc.  The 
specific  truth  thus  asserted  is  expounded 
and  vindicated  as  need  may  require  ;  and  its 
exposition  is  followed  up  by  moral  and  prac- 
tical eidiortation.  Details  of  personal  news, 
messages,  and  greetings,  with  a  final  bene- 
diction, close  the  letter.  Such  is  the  order 
of  the  doctrinal  Epistles — Romans,  Galatians, 
Ephesians,  Colossians,  and  2  Thessalonians. 
Where,  however,  the  writer's  main  business  is 
personal  and  practical,  no  such  plan  suggests 
itself  :  the  explanations,  discussions,  or  expos- 
tulations called  for  by  the  occasion  naturally 
occupy  the  foreground,  while  directions  of  a 
more  general  bearing  come  in  afterwards  ;  and 
theological  passages  occur  here  and  there, 
wherever  the  handling  of  the  matter  strikes 
upon  the  underlying  principles  of  the  Gospel. 
Such  is  the  case  with  Philippians,  and  the  two 
Epistles  to  the  Corinthians. 

The  contents  of  the  Epistles  may  be 
arranged,  therefore,  under  the  following  heads  : 
personal,  theological,  ethical,  administrative, 
and  devotional.  These  constituent  elements  are 
combined  with  perfect  freedom  ;  no  strict  line 
can  be  drawn  between  them.  The  proportion 
in  which  they  are  blended,  and  the  prepon- 
derance of  the  one  strain  or  the  other,  give  to 
each  letter  its  complexion.  Romans  is  above 
all  the  theological  Epistle  ;  2  Corinthians,  Phi- 
lippians, and  Philemon  are  intensely  personal ; 
in  1  Corinthians  and  the  Pastorals  the  prac- 
tical and  administrative  interests  predominate, 
with  a  large  infusion  of  the  ethical  and  doc- 
trinal ;  in  1  Thessalonians  the  personal  and 
ethical  ;  in  2  Thessalonians,  Colossians,  and 
Ephesians  doctrine  and  ethics  are  equally 
balanced,  with  a  conspicuous  development  of 
the  devotional  vein  in  the  last  named  ;  Gala- 
tians is  the  best  example  of  the  union  of  the 
personal,  theological,  and  moral  in  St.  Paul's 
writings,  the  theological  dominating  the  other 
two. 

The  chapter-  and  verse-divisions — a  modern 
invention  of  convenience — must  be  ignored  by 
the  reader  who  wishes  to  understand  St.  Paul's 
Epistles  ;  the  paragraphic  arrangement  of  the 
Revised  Version  is  preferable.  Furnishing 
himself  with  a  preliminary  outline,  and  noting 
difficult  expressions  for  later  examination,  he 


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SURVEY   OF  THE   EPISTLES   OF   ST.   PAUL 


should  read  each  document  right  through  and 
allow  it  to  make  its  complete  impression,  as 
he  would  treat  a  letter  from  a  friend,  return- 
ing to  the  salient  passages  and  critical  points 
of  the  Epistle,  in  order  to  fasten  upon  his 
mind  its  essential  import. 

4.  Order  and  Connexion  of  the  Epistles. 
The  accepted  order  of  St.  Paul's  letters  has 
prevailed  from  early  times.  Originally  they 
formed  a  distinct  volume  (to  which  Hebrews 
was  attached),  under  the  title  of  '  The 
Apostle/  with  the  several  letters  headed,  'To 
the  Romans,'  '  To  the  Corinthians  1,'  and 
so  on.  First  came  the  nine  letters  addressed 
to  (seven)  Churches,  then  the  four  to  (three) 
friends — the  two  sections  being  arranged  in 
the  order  of  size  and  importance,  not  of  time. 

(a)  The  first  four  in  the  traditional  succession 
form  a  coherent  group,  in  which  First  and 
Second  Corinthians  and  Romans  followed  con- 
secutively at  intervals  of  a  few  months.  The 
date  of  Galatians  is  disputed  ;  but  it  clearly 
belongs  in  character  and  subject-matter  to  this 
group,  and  is   akin  to  Romans  (56-57  a.d.). 

(b)  The  next  three,  along  with  the  little 
note  to  Philemon,  fall  into  a  later  group  ; 
amongst  these  Colossians  and  Ephesians  are 
synchronous  and  '  twin '  Epistles,  Philemon 
coming  in  as  a  private  enclosure  accompany- 
ing the  former.  Philippians  stands  somewhat 
apart,  in  character  as  in  destination,  from  its 
neighbours  ;  opinions  differ  as  to  whether  it 
preceded  or  followed  them.  These  four  were 
prison-letters — issued  (Philippians  certainly, 
the  rest  almost  certainly)  from  Rome  during  the 
years  60-61  of  St.  Paul's  first  captivity  there. 

(c)  1  and  2  Thessalonians,  separated  only 
by  a  few  months,  are  the  oldest  of  St.  Paul's 
extant  writings,  having  been  v/ritten  shortly 
after  the  Apostle's  mission  in  Thessalonica 
(Acl7),  while  he  was  labouring  at  Corinth  in 
the  latter  period  of  his  Second  Missionary 
Journey,  probably  during  50-51  A.D.  (Acl8). 

((I)  The  three  Pastoral  Epistles  presuppose 
St.  Paul's  acquittal  in  Rome  from  the  charges 
against  which  he  had  '  appealed  to  Caesar '  at 
Festus'  tribunal  (Ac  25),  the  extension  of  his 
missionary  course  to  a  period  which  lay  out- 
side the  narrative  of  the  Acts,  his  re-arrest 
and  approaching  martyrdom  in  Rome  (2  Tim). 
They  are  dated  in  the  year  64,  on  the  pre- 
sumption that  the  Apostle  fell  in  the  great 
Neronian  persecution,  or  about  67  by  those 
who  think  it  likely  that  he  escaped  this  storm, 
and  who  recognise  the  lengthened  course 
of  ministry  necessary  to  account  for  the  new 
complexion  of  the  Pastoral  Epistles,  if  brought 
within  his  life-time.  Their  succession  was  : 
1  Timothy,  Titus,  2  Timothy. 

(c),  (a),  (ft),  (d)  is  therefore  the  historical 
order  of  the  four  groups.  Their  composition 
extended  over  some  sixteen  years:  (c)  50-51, 


(a)  55-57,  (b)  61-62,  and  (d)  about  67  (?  64) 

A.D. 

5.  Course  of  Thought  in  the  Epistles.  The^ 
general  course  of  St.  Paul's  thought  in  the 
later  part  of  his  life  is  revealed  by  the 
tenor  and  outstanding  features  of  the  several 
groups  of  his  letters.  When  the  earliest  of 
them  was  written,  the  Apostle  was  midway  in 
his  career,  and  had  been  a  Christian  believer 
and  preacher  for  at  least  fourteen  years  ;  his 
mind  was  ripe,  his  doctrine  in  all  essentials 
complete.  The  progress  marked  in  the 
Epistles,  while  indicating  certain  changes 
of  inward  experience  and  the  growth  in- 
evitable in  an  active  mind,  was  principally 
due  to  the  advance  of  the  Apostle's  mis- 
sion, the  development  of  his  Churches  and 
the  trials  through  which  they  passed.  As 
time  goes  on,  his  preoccupations  become  in- 
creasingly those  of  the  pastor  and  teacher, 
rather  than  the  missionary  and  evangelist ; 
compare  1  Thessalonians  at  the  beginning 
with  1  Timothy  at  the  end  of  the  series  of 
Epistles.  His  work  as  Gentile  Apostle  and 
Church-founder  was  exposed  to  three  chief 
assaults — the  first  of  these  proceeding  from 
Jewish  Christians  of  Pharisaic  temper,  who 
desired  to  subject  all  believers  in  Christ 
to  the  Law  of  Moses  ;  the  second  from  the 
reaction  of  heathen  idolatry  and  immorality 
upon  Gentile  converts.  The  second  group  of 
the  Epistles  marks  the  crisis  of  the  former 
struggle,  which  was  decisive  for  St.  Paul's 
authority,  and  gave  shape  to  his  characteristic 
doctrines  of  Justification  by  faith  and  Redemp- 
tion through  the  cross;  in  Galatians  we  witness 
the  climax,  in  Romans  the  practical  conclu- 
sion of  this  controversy.  1  and  2  Corinthians, 
during  the  same  period,  illustrate  most  vividly 
the  dangers  of  relapse  to  paganism  ;  1  Thes- 
salonians earlier,  and  Ephesians  later,  witness 
to  the  same  effect.  A  more  subtle  type  of 
error  betrayed  itself  at  Colossas,  and  reappears 
in.  the  evils  denounced  hy  the  Pastorals  of  the 
last  group — .viz.  the  perversion  of  Christian 
truth  by  Greek  'philosophy'  (Col 2 ^.7  ITim 
6  20)^  from  which  sprang  the  imposing  Gnostic 
systems  of  the  second  century.  This  move- 
ment had  its  source  in  the  conception  of  the 
evil  of  matter  and  the  consequent  separation 
of  God  from  the  finite  world — an  idea  which 
precluded  any  real  incarnation  or  atonement, 
and  perverted  the  whole  ethics  of  Christianity; 
its  working  is  seen  already  in  the  denial  at 
Corinth  of  bodily  resurrection  (1  Cor  15).  The 
Gnostic  tendency  took  sometimes  an  ascetic 
(Col  2  20-23  1  Tim43-5)j  sometimes  an  an tinomian 
turn  (2  Tim  3 1-9  Tit  114-16)  in  morals.  Some 
Jewish  ingredients  entered  into  this  amalgam, 
which  originated  probably  in  the  attempt  to 
assimilate  the  gospel  to  Essenic  or  Alexan- 
drian theosophy.     As  the  Apostle's  doctrines 


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SURVEY   OF  THE   EPISTLES   OF   ST.   PAUL 


of  Salvation  were  wrought  out  in  the  heat  of     to  young  converts,  whom  he  had  left  in  the  in- 


the  legalist  controversy  (Galatians,  Romans), 
so  the  incipient  Gnosticism  served,  by  contra- 
diction, to  bring  into  relief  his  conception  of 
the  person  of  Christ  and  the  nature  of  the 
Church,  and  to  develop  his  ethical  principles 
(Colossians,  Ephesians,  Philippians). 

The  dangerous  illness  from  which  the  Apo- 
stle suffered  in  the  year  5G,  between  the  date 
of  1  and  2  Corinthians,  formed  a  crisis  in  his 
life,  and  materially  affected  his  views  of  the 
future.  Previously  he  had  written  as  one  ex- 
pecting the  Lord's  coming  within  the  present 
generation  (1  Th4i5-i7  i  Cor  7^9-31 1552),  though 
guarding  himself  against  positive  assertion  on 
the  subject  or  fixing  of  the  date  (1  Th52  2  Th 
2 1,  etc.) ;  from  this  time  he  anticipates  his 
own  death  ;  the  parousia  recedes  into  the  back- 
ground, and  a  wider  prospect  opens  out  for  the 
Church  and  for  the  progress  of  humanity  (see 
2  Cor  1 9  5 1-8  Phil  1 21-23  2  Tim  4  6  Eph  2  7  1  Tim 
116  26  2  Tim  2  2).  The  influence  of  Rome  prob- 
ably counted  for  a  good  deal  in  the  direction 
of  St.  Paul's  thought  and  work.  The  memory 
of  the  impious  emperor  Caius  Caligula  (37-; 
41  A.D.)  and  the  popular  Caesar-worship  of 
Asia  Minor  supply  a  clue  to  the  mystery  of 
the  Antichrist  in  2  Th  2.  On  the  other  hand, 
St.  Paul's  conception  of  the  universal  Church 
under  the  headship  of  Christ  owed  something 
of  its  breadth  and  grandeur  to  the  spectacle 
of  the  world-empire  unfolding  before  his  eyes. 
His  mission  was  laid  out  on  an  imperial  scale  ; 
he  planted  his  Churches  at  the  strategic  points 
of  Roman  commerce  and  administration.  By 
the  time  St.  Paul  (in  the  words  of  2  Tim  4  '^) 
had  '  fought  his  fight '  and  '  finished  his  course,' 
he  had  carried  the  gospel  through  every  land 
from  Syria  to  Spain,  and  through  every  class 
of  Gentile  society  from  the  slave  to  the  em- 
peror. This  outward  progress  was  matched  by 
the  development  of  his  doctrine.  His  spirit 
has  penetrated  to  the  depths  of  the  mystery 
of  Christ ;  his  inspired  logic  and  force  of  char- 
acter have  won  for  the  gospel  a  decisive  victory 
over  the  Jewish  and  the  pagan  reaction,  and 
over  the  antagonism  of  philosophic  thought. 
He  sees  himself  the  recognised  '  herald '  of 
Christ  to  the  nations,  the  '  teacher  of  the  Gen- 
tiles in  faith  and  truth '  (1  Tim  2  7)  ;  his  teach- 
ing is  embodied  in  a  line  of  organised  Churches 
extending  through  the  empire.  The  perma- 
nence of  the  gospel  and  its  propagation  amongst 
mankind  are  guaranteed  ;  '  a  pillar  and  ground ' 
are  set  up,  on  which  '  the  truth  '  will  stand  for 
ever  (1  Tim  3 15). 

6.  Characterisation  of  the  Epistles.  There 
is  a  crescendo  and  diminuendo  of  vigour  and 
fulness  of  thought  in  the  sequence  of  the  four 
groups  :  I.  the  forenoon  ;  ii.  the  noontide  ;  III. 
the  afternoon  ;  iv.  the  evening  Epistles. 

I.  (a)  1  Thessalonians  :  a  missio)iary's  letter 


fancy  of  their  faith  ;  full  of  tender  recollection 
and  solicitude  ;  consoling,  edifying,  non-con- 
troversial ;  comparatively  simple  in  style.  Its 
chief  warning  is  against  heathen  impurity  (4 1-^). 
The  one  error  corrected  is  due  to  a  too  eager 
expectation  and  narrow  view  of  Christ's  Second 
Advent  (4i3-5ii).  The  full  '  gospel '  set  forth 
in  Romans  is  implied  in  1  Th4i^  5^.  io_ 

(b)  2  Thessalonians  deals  with  the  con- 
tinued unsettlement  of  the  Church  in  regard 
to  the  Second  Advent  (1^-212),  and  the  conse- 
quent neglect  of  secular  labour  (3''"i5). 

II.  (a)  1  Corinthians  is  the  Epistle  of  the 
doctrine  of  the  Cross  in  apjAication,  and  holds  in 
the  practical  sphere  a  place  similar  to  that  of 
Romans  in  the  theological.  Its  first  part  (chs. 
1-6)  arises  out  of  disquieting  news  received 
from  Corinth  (see  1  H'  12  5 1)  j  Jts  second  part 
from  questions  put  to  the  Apostle  in  a  letter 
from  the  Church  (chs.  7-16).  In  the  piercing 
light  that  shines  from  Calvary  the  manifold 
problems  confronting  the  Apostle  of  the  Gen- 
tiles are  surveyed ;  Greek  wisdom  and  Cor- 
inthian vice,  church  parties  and  rival  ministries, 
and  disorders  in  worship,  spiritual  gifts  and 
their  use  and  abuse,  great  social  questions  such 
as  mari'iage  and  slavery,  lighter  matters  of  diet 
and  dress,  the  restoration  of  the  body  and  the 
final  state  of  the  dead,  are  all  discussed  in  their 
bearing  on  the  relationship  of  men  to  Clirist 
and  upon  principles  deduced  from  '  the  word 
of  the  cross'  (l^"  2  2).  This  'word'  embraces 
the  truths  of  the  resurrection  of  Jesus  along 
with  His  death  (IS^. *)  of  the  new  life  in  the 
Spirit  and  the  union  of  the  believer  with  the 
dyingand  exalted  Saviour  (1 30  2 12  3 16  g  19^ etc.). 

(b)  2  Corinthians  :  St.  PauVs  apologia  pro 
vita  sua.  Since  1  Corinthians  much  has  hap- 
pened— '  fightings  within,  fears  without ' :  the 
Apostle's  all  but  fatal  sickness  (1^  4^-5^),  a 
revolt  quelled  with  difficulty  and  followed  by 
a  revulsion  of  loyal  feeling  toward  him  (25-ii 
72-16),  changes  in  his  plans  bringing  the  re- 
proach of  vacillation  (1  i^-is)^  the  coming  to 
Corinth  of  Judisan  emissaries  who  disparage 
him  and  set  up  as  his  rivals  (3i  10 12  114, 12-15)^ 
Chs.  1-7,  addressed  to  the  reconciled  majority 
(see  2^),  are  St.  Paul's  defence  of  his  ministry 
before  the  Church  ;  chs.  10-13,  the  vindication 
of  h i mself  Agamst  his  adversaries.  The  inter- 
jected chs.  8,  9  urge  a  more  liberal  contribu- 
tion for  Jerusalem  :  cp.  1  Cor  16.  This  letter 
best  reveals  St.  Paul  as  a  minister  of  Christ 
and  a  man  amongst  men — the  wealth  of  his 
heart,  the  ascendency  and  fire  of  his  genius,  and 
the  charm  of  his  disposition. 

(c)  Galatians  is  St.  Paul's  vindication  of 
the  gospel  against  legalism.  '  Another  gospel ' 
(1^)  is  being  preached  with  seductive  effect 
(3 1)  in  Galatia  :  the  Judaisers  at  Corinth  as- 
sailed St.  Paul's  authority  ;  here  they  impugn 


xciv 


SURVEY   OF  THE   EPISTLES   OF   ST.    PAUL 


his  doctrine,  by  insisting  on  circumcision  as 
essential  to  the  full  Christian  status  (3i-^  5  ^'4), 
thus  seeking  to  bring  Gentile  believers  under 
the  Mosaic  yoke  and  incorporate  them  in 
Judaism.  The  legalists  appealed  to  the  au- 
thority of  St.  Peter  and  the  Jerusalem  Church, 
from  which  (they  asserted)  St.  Paul  had  re- 
ceived his  knowledge  of  Christ.  The  Apostle 
exposes  their  statements  by  telling,  in  chs.  1 
and  2,  how  he  received  his  commission  from 
Jesus  Christ,  and  had  won  from  the  mother- 
church  the  recognition  of  Gentile  liberties. 
31-5^2  is  the  core  of  the  Epistle,  demonstrat- 
ing the  salvation  of  men  by  faith  in  Christ 
crucified  only,  and  the  subordinate  and  pre- 
paratory office  of  Mosaism.  S^^-G^o  jg  an 
ethical  homily  addressed  to  the  faults  of  the 
readers,  and  Q^^-'^^  a  trenchant  summary  of 
the  letter.  In  historical  interest  and  contro- 
versial power  Galatians  ranks  first  amongst 
the  Epistles. 

(d)  Romans  is  the  most  abstract  and  ob- 
jective of  the  Epistles  :  the  grand  exposition  of 
GocVs  plan  of  salvation  for  manhind.  St.  Paul 
will  soon  visit  Rome,  where  he  claims  author- 
ity as  Apostle  to  the  Gentiles.  In  this 
Church,  which  has  existed  for  some  years,  he 
has  already  a  number  of  friends  (1 5. 10-15 
1515-29  161-16).  At  this  crisis  of  his  work,  it 
is  well  to  deliver  a  full  manifesto  in  face  of 
the  '  other  gospel '  with  which  he  has  been  in 
conflict ;  he  will  thus  best  introduce  himself 
at  Rome,  and  counteract  by  anticipation  the 
legalist  propaganda.  Chs.  1-8  unfold  in  posi- 
tive, systematic,  and  deliberate  fashion  '  the 
word  of  the  cross,'  which  Galatians  ar- 
gued negatively  and  polemically,  and  which 
1  and  2  Corinthians  have  assumed  and  built 
upon.  Chs.  9-11  discuss  the  difficulty  raised 
by  the  repudiation  of  the  gospel  on  the  part 
of  the  Jewish  people,  who  had  a  prior  claim 
to  it  (1-^^)  —  a  distressing  problem  to  the 
Apostle  personally,  and  a  very  serious  objec- 
tion to  his  argument.  Chs.  121-15  13  is  a 
digest  of  Christian  ethics,  social  and  civil, 
based  on  the  consecration  of  the  body  and 
the  '  renewal  of  the  mind  '  under  Christ's  all- 
embracing  law  of  love.  The  rest  of  the  letter 
is  of  personal  and  local  interest. 

The  above  are  '  the  four  evangelical  Epistles,' 
containing  the  heart  and  sum  of  the  Apostle's 
teaching. 

III.  (a)  COLOSSIANS,  like  Galatians,  is  con- 
troversial. This  is  the  Epistle  of  the  exaltation 
of  Christ,  whose  headship  of  the  Church  is 
affirmed  to  rest  upon  His  anterior  headship 
over  the  created  universe  (1 15-20).  The  right 
understanding  of  Christ's  lordship  in  the 
realms  of  nature  and  grace,  and  of  the  bound- 
less scope  of  His  atonement  (lis-20  2^'i0), 
leaves  no  room  for  the  angel-mediations  and 
ritual  appliances  by  which  the  Colossian  error- 


ists  would  have  supplemented  the  Redeemer's 
work  :  see  p.  xciii  above,  and  Intro,  to  Colos- 
sians.  In  the  ethical  half  of  the  letter  (3 1-4  6), 
each  duty  is  enforced  by  the  lordship  of  Christ : 
family  relationships  are  dwelt  upon  with  an 
emphasis  new  in  the  Epistles  (318-41)  :  cp. 
p.  xciii. 

(h)  Philemon  should  be  attached  to  Colos- 
sians.  This  exquisite  little  note — a  specimen 
probably  of  many  such — reveals  St.  Paul's  char- 
acter in  private  life.  It  appeals  for  the  reception 
by  his  master  of  Onesimus,  a  runaway  slave  now 
converted  to  Christ,  '  as  a  brother  beloved.' 

(c)  Ephesians  is  the  Epistle  of  the  glory  of 
the  Church,  regarded  as  Christ's  body  and  His 
bride.  Ephesians  and  Colossians  are  kindred 
in  thought  and  language  ;  the  former  reads  as 
the  complement  and  continuation  of  the  latter. 
Yet  there  is  a  marked  difference  of  manner — 
Colossians  being  polemical,  incisive,  sometimes 
very  abrupt  and  obscure  ;  Ephesians  the  most 
calm,  expansive,  and  diffuse  of  St.  Paul's 
writings.  He  has  dismissed  the  Colossian 
error  from  his  mind,  and  gives  himself  up  to 
the  train  of  meditation  on  the  glory  of  Christ 
and  the  Church  which  the  controversy  has 
occasioned.  In  richness  of  ethical  and  hor- 
tatory matter  (4 1-6  ^O)^  transfused  with  theo- 
logical thought,  Ephesians  resembles  Romans, 
to  which  Colossians  and  Ephesians  stand  next 
in  point  of  doctrinal  importance. 

(cZ)  Philippians  is,  above  all,  the  Epistle  of 
heartfelloimhip.  Its  simplicity  and  discursive 
freedom  remind  us  of  1  Thessalonians.  As 
2  Corinthians  discloses  the  loftiness  of  the 
writer's  character  and  the  supernatural  powers 
of  the  ministry,  Philippians  reveals  the  depths 
of  his  inner  faith  and  communion  with  Christ. 
It  supplies  essential  matter  for  the  Apostle's 
biography.  25-ii  is  a  passage  of  surpassing 
theological  interest.  This  is  the  most  serene 
and  beautiful  of  St.  Paul's  writings. 

IV.  The  three  Pastorals  are  letters  on 
Church  discipiline.  In  1  Timothy  and  Titus 
the  Apostle's  delegates,  at  Ephesus  and  in 
Crete,  are  instructed  about  the  appointment 
of  elders  (or  bishops)  and  deacons,  the  stress 
being  laid  on  qualifications  of  character.  They 
are  exhorted  as  to  their  own  conduct  in  the 
ministry,  especially  in  face  of  the  heretical 
and  vicious  teaching  now  coming  into  vogue. 
The  like  admonitions,  mingled  with  personal 
reminiscences  and  forebodings  of  the  writer's 
death,  occupy  2  Timothy — St.  Paul's  '  swan 
song.'  These  are  conservative  and  valedic- 
tory Epistles  ;  '  guard  the  good  deposit,' 
'speak  the  things  that  become  the  sound 
doctrine,'  are  their  watchwords. 

7.  Summary  of  Doctrine.  The  Godhead. 
'  To  us  there  is  one  God,  the  Father,  of  whom 
are  all  things  and  we  for  Him'  (ICorS'^). 
This  '  one  God  '  is  known  as  '  The  Father  of 


xcv 


SURVEY   OF  THE   EPISTLES   OF   ST.    PAUL 


our  Lord  Jesus  Christ ' — ours  thi-ough  Him  ; 
there  is  '  one  mediator  between  God  and  men, 
the  man  Christ  Jesus,  who  gave  Himself  a 
ransom  for  all'  (lTim25>6).  Christ  appears 
by  the  Father's  side  as  the  '  one  Lord  Jesus 
Christ,  through  whom  are  all  things  and  we 
through  Him  '  (1  Cor  8  6).  Li  Him,  '  the  Son 
of  God's  love,'  '  dwells  all  the  fulness  of  the 
Godhead'  (Collin  29);  in  Him,  since  He 
'  came  in  the  likeness  of  men,'  a  complete  and 
sinless  humanity  is  realised  (Gal  4 '^  Phil  2  ">■>  §, 
etc.).  The  interests  and  destinies  of  mankind 
are  lodged  with  Him,  for  salvation  and  for 
judgment  (Ro52i  2  Cor  510,  etc.).  Li  the  end 
'  every  knee  shall  bow '  to  Him  ;  Christ  will 
then  '  deliver  up  the  kingdom  to  God  even 
the  Father,'  and  '  the  Son  Himself  will  be 
subject  to  Him  that  subjected  all  things  unto 
Him,  that  God  may  be  all  in  all '  (Phil  2 10,11 
1  Cor  15-^i-28).  The  divine  Lordship  of  Christ 
does  not  impair,  but  vindicates,  the  unity  of 
the  Godhead.  This  is  equally  true  of  the 
Deity  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  whom  the  Apostle 
associates  with  the  Father  and  the  Son  in  the 
benediction  of  2  Cor  131-1  and  elsewhere.  '  The 
Spirit '  is  God  dwelling  and  working  in  the 
soul  and  in  the  Church  (1  Cor  2 12  3i«3  619  Ro 
826  Gal  4  6  Eph22i,  etc.).  He  comes  to  men 
as  the  '  Spirit  of  God's  Son,'  and  is  the  witness 
of  their  '  adoption  '  in  Christ,  the  '  earnest  of 
their  inheritance,'  the  agent  of  their  sanctifica- 
tion,  the  imparter  of  all  gifts  and  powers  of 
grace  (Ro  8  n-i^  Gal  5 16-25  2  Cor  1 21-22  Eph  1  is,  14 
lTh47,s  1  Cor  12  4-11,  etc.).  As  the  Holy 
Spirit  wrought  in  the  resurrection  of 
Jesus,  He  will  be  the  means  of  '  quickening 
the  mortal  bodies '  of  those  in  whom  He  dwells 
(R086-11).  Grace— -the  grace  of  God,'  'of 
our  Lord  Jesus  Christ' — is  the  conspicuous 
attribute  of  the  Godhead  in  Christianity. 

Sin  mid  Redemption.  Except  '  the  one  man 
Jesus  Christ,'  who  is  God's  '  own  Son,'  '  all 
have  sinned  and  are  destitute  of  the  glory  of 
God  '  (R0323  83).  The  sin  of  mankind,  call- 
ing forth  '  God's  wrath,'  has  brought  both 
Gentiles  and  Jews  to  their  present  shameful 
and  guilty  state  (Ro  11^-320);  it  is  '  laying  up 
in  store  '  for  the  impenitent  a  dreadful  retribu- 
tion (Ro  2  s  1  Th  1 10,  etc.).  From  Adam  down- 
wards our  race  has  been  in  bondage  under 
'the  law  of  sin  and  death'  (Ro 5 12-14  723,24 
82).  The  law  of  Moses,  which  expressed  in 
a  more  definite  and  imperative  form  the 
universal  law  of  God  engraved  on  the  human 
conscience  (Ro  2 14-16  3  9, 19  5 13)^  has  served  to 
provoke  and  aggravate,  rather  than  to  prevent, 
transgression  (Ro3i5  7  7-24  Gal  3 19,  etc.).  In 
the  fulness  of  time,  when  the  law  had  done 
its  work, '  Christ  redeemed  us  from  its  curse  ' ; 
'  He  was  made  sin  for  us,  who  knew  no  sin, 
that  we  might  become  God's  righteousness  in 


Him'  (Gal  3 13  2Cor52i).  Our  Lord  in  '  the 
death  of  the  cross '  submitted  on  His  brethren's 
behalf  to  the  judicial  consequence  of  human 
sin,  meeting  in  its  course  that  holy  '  wrath  ' 
which  deals  out  death  to  transgressors.  So 
dying  '  one  for  all,'  He  offered  '  a  propitiatory 
sacrifice  in  His  blood  '  and  effected  '  recon- 
ciliation (atonement)'  for  mankind — a  fact 
certified  by  His  resurrection  (Ro  3  22-26  425 
58-11  2  Cor  5 18.19).  Faith  in  Him  who  thus 
'  died  and  rose  again  '  for  us,  makes  the  indi- 
vidual man  participator  in  the  common  salva- 
tion and  brings  '  peace  with  God  '  (Ro  3  22, 25 
51,2  Eph 2 13-18,  etc.);  faith  is  the  trustful  and 
submissive  hand  of  the  sinner  meeting  God's 
outstretched  hand  of  grace  in  Christ.  The  act 
of  God  in  saving  '  him  who  is  of  faith  in 
Jesus,'  St.  Paul  speaks  of  as  '  justification.' 
By  this  he  means  not  merely  the  (negative) 
forgiving  of  past  sins,  but  the  (positive)  giving 
to  the  sinner  of  the  status  of  a  righteous  man 
(Ro5i^-i'7),  who  is  for  Christ's  'sake  counted 
for  and  treated  as  righteous,  his  past  sin 
being  regarded  as  though  it  had  not  been 
(Ro  4  3-8  52  2  Cor  5  21  Col  2 14),  and  is  set  there- 
by in  the  way  of  becoming  righteous  in  life  and 
conduct  (Ro  6  4,  is  8  4).  Hence  justification  im- 
plies 'adoption,'  the  receiving  of  the  alien  into 
the  divine  household,  his  endowment  with  '  the 
Spirit  of  God's  Son,'  and  his  investiture  with 
the  inheritance  of  God's  children  (Ro  8I6, 17, 31-34 
Gal  4  4-7  Eph  1 5).  In  view  of  Ckrist's  '  propiti- 
ation,' this  restitution  of  the  sinner  is  not 
merely  an  act  of  love  on  God's  part :  He  is 
'  just '  though  He  '  justifies  the  ungodly  '  (Ro 
326  46)^  and  His  action  is  legal  in  the  highest 
sense  (Ro 3 27-31).  The  'redemption  that  is  in 
Christ  Jesus  '  includes  with  the  soul  the  body, 
won  also  for  God  by  the  price  of  His  blood 
(1  Cor  6  20);  of  its  recovery  from  the  grave, 
completing  man's  salvation,  the  resurrection 
of  Jesus  gives  pledge  (Ro324  816-23  Ephl7,i4 
1  Cor  15  20, 23, 45-57  iTh4i4  2  Tim  110,  etc.). 

The  New  Life  in  Christ.  '  Justification ' 
through  faith  in  the  death  of  Christ  leads 
to  '  sanctification '  by  union  with  the  living 
Christ  (Ro  6  i-H).  All  believers  in  Christ  are 
'  saints  '  (1  Cor  1  2  6II,  etc.),  however  defective 
their  saintship  ;  they  were  consecrated  to  God 
in  the  act  of  saving  faith  (Ro  6 18, 22)^  and  regard 
themselves  as  no  longer  '  their  own  '  (1  Cor 
619,20).  They  practically  '  live  to  God,'  in  so 
far  as  faith  identifies  them  with  Christ ;  they 
'  have  coalesced  with  Him  by  the  likeness ' 
first  '  of  His  death '  and  then  '  of  His  resur- 
rection'  (Ro  6  4-11  Col  3 1-4,  etc.).  All  human 
relations  and  earthly  events  are  transformed 
for  the  man  who  is  '  in  Christ  Jesus  '  (2  Cor 
5 15, 16)  ;  he  '  knows  no  one  '  merely  '  after  the 
flesh,'  for  he  is  a  man  of  the  Spirit,  '  renewed 
in  the  spirit  of  his  mind'   (Eph 4 23, 24)^  and 


xcvi 


SURVEY   OF  THE   EPISTLES   OF   ST.    PAUL 


carries  spiritual  estimates  and  aims  into  every- 
thing (Ro89  Gal 5 25,  etc.).  'The  law  of 
Christ,'  summed  up  in  the  two  commands  of 
love  to  God  and  man,  rules  his  whole  con- 
duct (Ro55  12  9,  etc.).  Impurity  is  shunned 
as  a  defilement  of  '  the  temple  of  God '  and 
an    outrage  upon    the  Holy  Spirit   (1  Cor  6^9 

1  Th  4  8) ;  lying  is  impossible  amongst  those 
who  are  '  members  one  of  another  '  (Eph  4  25)  ; 
unkindness  contradicts  the  example  of  Christ's 
self-sacrifice  (Eph  4  31-52)  ;  these  are  examples 
of  the  ethical  logic  of  '  the  word  of  the  cross.' 
The  obligations  of  the  family  and  the  state 
are  not  destroyed  for  the  Christian,  but 
assume  a  deeper  meaning  and  a  new  sanctity. 
Even  his  eating  and  drinking  are  done  to  the 
glory  of  God  (ICorlO^i  Col3i7,  etc.).  '  All 
things'  become  his  servants  and  '  work  together 
for  his  good'  (1  Cor 2 21-23  Ro828,  etc.).  For 
himself,  his  supreme  desire  is  to  be  '  sanctified 
completely'  (lTh523),  to  be  'conformed' — in 
spirit  now,  in  body  hereafter — '  to  the  image 
of  God's  Son'  (Ro829  Phil .39-21);  for  others, 
that  they  may  be  saved  from  sin  and  finally 
'presented  perfect  in  Christ'  (RolO^  Coll 28 

2  Tim  2 10,  etc.).  Thus  his  entire  being  is  '  rooted 
and  built  up,'  and  wrapped  up,  '  in  Christ,'  the 
Head  and  Soul  of  redeemed  humanity  (Gal  2  20 
Col  2  6, 7  311  Eph  4 10  1  Cor  8  6  113,  etc.). 

The  Church.     The  Christian  redemption  is 
as  truly  social  as  personal  ;   Christ  '  loved  me 
and  gave  Himself  up  for  me ' ;  He  also  '  loved 
the   Church    and  gave   Himself  up   for  her ' 
(Gal 2 20  Eph 5 25).     'The  saints  and  faithful 
brethren  '  addressed  in  the  Epistles  belong,  all 
of  them,  to  the  Christian  community  and  owe 
allegiance  to  it  (Gal  6  2  Eph  5  21    1  Cor  12 12-27, 
etc.)  ;  they  were  '  called  into  the  fellowship  of 
God's  Son,  Jesus  Christ  our  Lord  '  (1  Cor  1  lO). 
In  earlier  letters  we  read  of  this  or  that  local 
Church,  or  '  churches  of  God.'     Gradually  the 
idea  of  '  the  Church,'  as  the  '  body  of  Christ ' 
and  '  habitation  of  God  in  the  Spirit,'  which 
embraces  the  particular  Churches  and  consists 
of  all  without  distinction  who  '  hold  fast  the 
Head,'  grows  upon  St.  Paul's  mind  (Gal  3  26-28 
Col  3 11) ;    we    see    it    completely    formed    in 
Ephesians  (2  21  22)  and  the  Pastorals  (1  Tim  3  is 
2  Tim  2  20).    The  Church  is  necessary  to  Christ 
as  the  body  to   the  head ;    in  Eph  1 23  she  is 
called   His  '  fulness  '    or    '  complement '  ;    He 
'  cherishes  '  her,  as  the  husband  does  his  spouse 
(Eph  5  23-32).     The  Church  is  no  mere  temporal, 
provisional  institute ;  through  '  all  the  genera- 
tions of  the  age  of  the  ages  '  she  shares  the 
glory  of  Christ,  and  will  appear  in  her  splendour 
of  holiness  at  the  Lord's  coming  (Eph  3  21  527). 
'  Our   gathering  together  unto   Him,'  in  the 
perfected  fellowship  of  the  redeemed,  is  the 
goal  of  Christian  hope  (2Th2i,  etc.). 

The  grace  given  to  individuals  is  corporate 


property.     Each  Christian  must  '  look  on  the 
things    of    others '    and    '  by   love    serve '   his 
brethi-en ;    no   feeblest   limb   of   the   body  of 
Christ  is  without  its  use  (Eph  4  7, 16,25  Gal  5^3 
Phil 2 1-5  lCorl2i4f.).     Christ,  who  'emptied 
Himself  '  and  '  humbled  Himself  unto  death  ' 
for  His  brethren's  sake,  is  the  Christian  model 
(Ro  14  3    Phil  2  5-S).      The  various  '  ministries  ' 
with  their  specific  '  gifts  of  grace  '  (charisms), 
exist  for  the  common  benefit,  and  must  be 
controlled  for  this  end  by  the  spirit  of  love 
(1  Cor  1 2  ■i-l  4  "10)  ;  their  object  is  to  furnish  and 
enable  '  the  saints'  for  their  'work  of  ministry,' 
and  to  promote  a  mutual  edification  through 
the  entire  fabric  of  the  Church  (Eph4iii6)_ 
Hence  it  is  character  and  soundness  of  faith, 
not  ability,  for  which  St.  Paul  is  supremely 
anxious   in  his   instructions   to  Timothy   and 
Titus    about    appointments    to   Church-office. 
Christian  teachers  and  pastors  '  have  no  lord- 
ship over  the  faith '  of  the  flock ;  they  must 
'  commend  themselves  to  every  conscience  of 
men  in  the  sight  of  God  '  (1  Cor  10  is  2  Cor  123 
42  2  Tim  2 15).     At  Christ's  tribunal  they  will 
'  give   account,'   as   being  His   '  servants   and 
stewards  of  the  mysteries  of  God'  (1  Cor 41-* 
2  Cor  5  9).     Fidelity  to    Christ,  possession   of 
His  '  mind,'  and  a  love  for  men  that  dictates 
unlimited    self-denial,  distinguish   the   gospel 
minister  (1  Cor  2-4,  9,  2  Cor  12 15  Roli^-is  93). 
The  Apostle  lays  stress  upon  the  ordinances 
of  Baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper  in  respect 
both  of  their  doctrinal  significance  and  their 
covenantal  force  (Ro63,4  1  Corl0i6-22  1123-34)^ 
while  he  attaches  small  importance  to  his  per- 
sonal administration  of  them  (1  Cor  1 16. 17). 

The  Kingdom  of  God,  and  the  Consummation. 
The  thought  of  '  the  kingdom  of  God  and  of 
Christ '  retires  in  the  Epistles  somewhat  behind 
that  of  '  the  Church,'  but  it  was  never  dis- 
placed in  the  Apostle's  mind.  He  took  over 
the  Old  Testament  Messianic  conception  of 
'  the  kingdom,'  as  it  was  transformed  by  Jesus. 
The  Church  consists  of  the  '  citizens  '  of  God's 
kingdom  (Eph 2 19  Phil320);  'the  kingdom' 
embraces  the  entire  order  of  things  determined 
by  the  will  of  God  in  Christ,  including  the 
natural  and  secular  provinces  of  life,  which 
are  bound  up  with  the  economy  of  grace  (Ro 
13 1-5  Col  3  22-4 1  1  Tim  4  3-5  6  is).  Creation  and 
redemption  are  parts  of  one  scheme,  and  Christ 
is  their  unifying  principle  (Col  1 15-18). 

The  history  of  God's  kingdom  pursues  a 
hidden  '  purpose  of  the  ages,'  conceived  in  His 
prescient  wisdom  and  executed  according  to 
'  the  good  pleasure  of  His  will,'  which  centres 
in  the  mission  of  Christ  and  is  revealed  by  the 
preaching  of  the  gospel  to  mankind  (Ro  1 6  25-27 
Eph  3  2-11  2  Tim  1 9, 10,  etc.).  The  throne  of  this 
kingdom  is  'the  heart'  (RolQio  2 Cor 4 6  Col 
3 15)  ;  its  power  is  that  of   '  the   Spirit '  ;   its 


xcvu 


SURVEY   OF  THE   EPISTLES   OF   ST.   PAUL 


■wealth  lies  in  '  righteousness  and  peace  and 
joy  in  the  Holy  Ghost'  (1  Cor24  420  RoUi^)- 
It  is  destined,  however,  to  dominate  all  mun- 
dane affairs  (1  Cor  3  21, 22  62  1525),  and  to 
liberate  nature  along  with  '  the  children  of 
God  '  '  from  the  bondage  of  corruption  '  (Eo 
319-23)  The  Satanic  powers  regnant  in 
heathenism,  and  all  evil  men,  are  the  enemies 
of  God  and  of  Christ  (Eph6io-i3  1  Cor  10  20-22, 
etc.)  ;  these  constitute,  in  alliance,  a  '  dominion 
of  darkness '  warring  against  '  the  kingdom  of 
the  Son  of  God's  love '  (Col  1 1^)  ;  they  are 
doomed  to  an  utter  overthrow.  '  Death,  the 
last '  of  Christ's  foes,  is  in  course  of  abolition 
(1  Cor  15  26, 54-57  2  Tim  110). 

The  Apostle  oftenest  speaks  of  '  the  king- 
dom of  God '  in  the  light  of  its  future  con- 
summation, as  matter  of  hope  and  '  inheritance ' 
(2  Th  1 5  1  Cor  G  9,  etc.).  '  The  fashion  of  this 
world  is  passing  '  (1  Cor  7  29  31)  ;  at '  the  revela- 
tion,' or  '  coming  (paromia)  of  our  Lord  Jesus 
Christ,'  it  will  vanish  (ICorl^  2  Cor 51  1  Th 
313  2Th2i,  etc.).  God's  kingdom  will  then 
come  in  its  '  glory  '  (1  Th2i2) — the  manifested 
'  glory  of  God '  streaming  through  the  world 
(R052  Tit  2 13),  and  centring  in  the  person  of 
the  enthroned  Christ  (Phil  2  n  2  Th  2  «.  i"  1  Tim 
61'!).  But  there  are  those  to  whom  Chi-ist's 
'appearing'  will  bring  shame  and  ruin  (ITh 
52,3  2Th2S-iO);  for  He  comes  the  second 
time  as  Judge.  '  All  must  be  manifested 
before  Christ's  tribunal,'  where  doom  will  be 
pronounced  on  '  the  works  of  darkness  '  (1  Cor 
4  5  2  Cor  5 10  Ro  2 16).  '  The  day  of  the  Lord  ' 
to  the  impenitent  is  '  a  day  of  wrath  and 
revelation  of  the  righteous  judgment  of  God ' 
(Ro25.6,8,9)_  The  risen  saints,  approved  at 
His  coming,  will  be  '  conformed '  to  Christ's 
'body  of  glory'  (Phil 3 21  Col3i-4  1  Cor  15^9). 
For  Christians  living  in  the  flesh  at  His  return 
the  Apostle  anticipates  a  transformation,  with- 
out dissolution,  of  the  '  earthy '  into  the 
'  heavenly  '  or  '  spiritual  body  '  ;  they  will 
'  put  on '  the  latter  '  over  '  the  former,  so  that 
'  the  mortal '  part  of  them  will  be  '  swallowed 
up  of  life'  (lCorl55i-55  2Cor5i-5  lTh4i5-i7). 
In  Christ's  resurrection  the  Apostle  sees  the 
'  firstfruits '  of  the  glory  destined  for  '  those 
who  are  Christ's  at  His  coming'  (1  Cor  15 20. 23 
2  Cor  4 10-14  2  Tim  2 11. 12)— 'a  weight  of  glory' 
irradiating  all  created  nature,  with  which  their 
severest  tribulations  '  are  not  worthy  to  be 
compared'  (Ro8l'^-2i).  Meanwhile,  the  saints 
'  dying  in  the  Lord '  pass  away  to  be  '  with 
Christ,'  in  a  state  '  very  far  better '  than  their 
present  toil  and  warfare  (Phil  1 21-23  2  Cor  58). 
'  God,  all  things  in  all,'  is  the  goal  to  which 
creation  and  redemption  move  (1  Cor  1528). 

8.  Authenticity  and  Integrity  of  the  Epistles. 
The  Pauline  authorship  of  Romans,  1  and  2 


Corinthians,  and  Galatians  has  never  been 
denied,  except  by  a  few  eccentric  scholars. 
1  Thessalonians,  Philippians,  and  Philemon 
are  added  to  the  list  of  homologume7ia,  as  docu- 
ments which,  though  questioned  for  a  while 
during  the  last  century,  have  vindicated  their 
genuineness  by  the  clearness  with  which  they 
reflect  the  personality  of  the  Apostle.  The 
other  six  are  still  counted  as  antilegomena — 
Colossians  being  the  least  disputed  of  them, 
the  tliree  Pastorals  the  most,  while  2  Thes- 
salonians is  held  in  considerable  suspicion,  and 
Ephesians  in  still  more.  Adverse  critics  re- 
cognise a  Pauline  nucleus  in  the  personal  data 
of  Titus  and  2  Timothj'.  Some  regard  Colos- 
sians and  2  Thessalonians — perhaps  1  Timothy 
— as  Pauline  in  basis,  but  interpolated.  Ephe- 
sians must  be  treated  as  genuine  or  pseudony- 
mous in  its  entirety.  A  good  and  sufficient 
defence  can  be  made  for  St.  Paul's  full 
authorship  in  each  case :  see  the  several 
Introductions. 

Where  Pauline  authenticity  is  maintained, 
the  lauty  of  some  Epistles  is  called  in  question. 
The  difference  in  tone  between  101-13 10  and 
the  rest  of  2  Corinthians  leads  some  able  in- 
terpreters to  regard  this  section  as  imported 
from  another  Epistle  of  Paul  to  Corinth — pos- 
sibly the  lost  '  letter'  of  23,4  and  78.  2  Cor 
614-71,  again,  is  a  paragraph  that  fits  badly 
into  its  context,  and  that  seems  suitable  to  the 
earlier  letter  alluded  to  in  1  Cor  5  9.  It  has 
been  asked,  moreover,  whether  the  long  chain 
of  greetings  found  in  R0I6  may  not  have 
been  attached  to  a  copy  of  this  Letter,  or  of 
the  principal  parts  of  it,  sent  to  some  other 
Church  than  Rome — say  to  that  of  Ephesus, 
where  the  Apostle  had  laboured  for  three 
years.  The  triple  ending  of  this  Epistle  (in 
1533  1620  and  1625-27),  and  the  absence  of  the 
words  '  in  Rome '  (17)  from  certain  ancient 
copies,  decidedly  suggest  the  hypothesis  of  a 
manifold  destination  :  see  Intro,  to  Ro. 

It  is  to  be  noted  that  the  most  important  of 
the  thirteen  Letters  are  the  most  certainly 
authentic.  Whatever  else  may  be  denied,  no 
one  can  reasonably  doubt  that  there  was  such 
a  man  as  Paul  the  Apostle  of  Christ  Jesus, 
who  wrote  letters  that  are  in  our  hands  to 
Christian  societies  in  Asia  Minor,  Corinth,  and 
Rome,  within  thirty  years  of  his  Master's 
death.  This  is  an  historical  fact  of  immense 
importance  ;  for  these  Epistles  contain  all  the 
vital  truths  of  Christianity,  and  exhibit  them 
as  living  and  transforming  powers  in  society. 
These  documents  presuppose  the  person  and 
teaching,  the  death  and  resurrection  of  the 
Lord  Jesus.  Without  the  Christ  of  the 
Foiu-  Gospels,  the  Paul  of  the  Epistles  is 
unintelligible. 


XCVlll 


BELIEF  IN  GOD 


The  central  subject  of  the  Bible  is  God. 
The  Book  opens  with  an  account  of  His  crea- 
tion of  the  heavens  and  the  earth  (Gn  1 1),  and 
concludes  with  a  description  of  the  '  new 
heavens  and  earth'  (Rev 21) — the  ideal  to 
which  creation  is  moving,  and  wherein  God 
Himself  shall  be  the  immediate  source  of 
illumination  and  the  object  of  worship. 

Throughout  the  Bible  God  is  referred  to 
as  almighty,  all-wise,  all -holy,  the  eternal 
creator,  sustainer,  and  moral  governor  of  the 
universe.  He  is  represented  as  entering  into 
special  relations  with  his  highest  creature, 
man,  who  is  created  in  His  image,  after  His 
likeness  (Gn  1 26, 27)^  to  be  His  vicegerent  upon 
earth  (Gn  1 26-28^^  and  to  increase  in  sympathy 
and  fellowship  with  Himself.  Man  has, 
however,  abused  His  highest  gift  of  free-will, 
and  so  introduced  sin  into  the  world,  a  blot 
upon  the  fair  creation,  and  a  hereditary  taint 
upon  his  own  stock.  Henceforth  God's  rela- 
tion to  man  is  changed.  The  glad  love  of 
pure  beneficence  becomes  the  wistful  love  of 
redemptive  purpose.  And  in  due  time  is 
chosen  out  for  specially  intimate  relations  with 
God,  a  single  tribe — the  '  seed  of  Abraham.' 
Israel  is  '  elected,'  i.e.  chosen  out  for  special 
privilege  and  guidance,  not  from  any  motives 
of  favouritism,  but  in  order  that  he  may  be 
the  vehicle  of  blessing  to  all  mankind.  To 
Israel — and  through  Israel  to  all  men — is  given 
an  even  deeper  and  clearer  revelation  of  the  cha- 
racter and  will  of  God — that  revelation  which 
we  see  running  through  all  the  Old  Testament, 
and  reaching  its  climax  in  Jesus  Christ :  cp. 
Heb  1 1-^  ^  Different  misconceptions  are  succes- 
sively purged  away  as  opportunity  occurs.  At 
Sinai  any  lingering  taint  of  idolatry  and  crude 
anthropomorphism  is  purged  by  the  revelation 
of  the  ten  commandments,  and  the  natural 
tendency  to  irreverent,  easy-going  approach 
to  the  Almighty  is  met  by  the  elaborate  system 
of  strict  ceremonial.  The  prophets  of  the 
eighth  centm-y  B.C.  point  out  the  futility  of 
ceremonial  reformation  apart  from  righteous- 
ness of  character,  and  go  far  towards  removing 
the  still-prevailing  misconceptions  by  which 
the  Lord  was  regarded  as  the  tribal  God  of 
Israel,  pledged  to  protect  and  support  them, 
irrespective  of  their  deserts.  The  Lord  is 
'  exalted  in  judgment '  (Isa  5 1^),  and  no  re- 
specter of  persons.  Special  closeness  involves 
special  responsibility  (Am  3  2).  Side  by  side 
with  this  comes  a  universalising  tendency,  a 
growing  realisation  of  the  one  God's  equal  rule 


and  care  of  all  mankind  (Am  9  "  Isa2  2>  3  1 9 18-25)^ 
which  finds  strong  emphasis  in  some  of  the 
later  Psalms  (cp.  e.g.  Pss96,  100,  117),  and  in 
the  book  of  Jonah. 

Meanwhile  the  discipline  of  suffering  and 
perplexity,  which  had  its  effect  upon  the 
Hebrew  people  throughout  their  history,  but 
most  markedly  during  the  Babylonian  exile, 
purified  and  spiritualised  the  conception  of  the 
meaning  of  religion  and  of  life  ;  carried  forward 
the  thoughts  of  the  faithful  more  and  more 
wistfully  to  a  future  life,  in  which  righteous- 
ness should  be  vindicated  and  the  balance  of 
happiness  redressed  ;  and  while  it  brought  home 
to  them  the  weakness  and  impurity  of  human 
nature,  intensified  the  desire  for  personal  holi- 
ness and  communion  with  God ;  and,  finally, 
gave  occasion  for  the  portrayal  of  the  '  Suffer- 
ing Servant  of  the  Lord  '  (Isa  4 1-53)  gather- 
ing up  into  Himself  at  once  human  penitence 
and  divine  redemption — that  most  wonderful 
figure  in  all  the  Old  Testament,  which  is 
strikingly  typical  of  the  central  Figure  of  the 
New  Testament. 

The  statements  about  God  in  Holy  Scrip- 
ture are  uttered  with  an  air  of  authority, 
dogmatically  ;  not  as  the  result  of  a  long  chain 
of  reasoning:  'The  Lord  said'  this  —  'did' 
that — or  more  emphatically,  in  the  form  of  a 
message,  '  Thus  saith  the  Lord.'  The  teaching 
of  the  Bible  is  not  the  result  of  deductive  or 
inductive  reasoning.  No  direct  arguments  are 
adduced  to  prove  the  existence  of  God — that 
is  assumed  throughout.  His  attributes  may 
be  the  subject  of  argument;  His  existence, 
never.  His  justice,  His  wisdom.  His  power 
may  be  momentarily  obscured  by  the  mystery 
of  evil  in  the  world — as  in  the  book  of  Job. 
Incidentally  we  may  get  argumenis  dealing 
with  the  nature  of  the  Deity,  as  e.g.  the  inter- 
esting a  fortiori  argument  from  creature  to 
Creator  in  Ps  94,  'He  that  made  the  eye, 
shall  he  not  see  ?  '  etc.,  which  logically  carried 
out  becomes  an  inference  of  Personality  in 
God  from  man's  personality — there  are  argu- 
ments such  as  these  either  stated  or  suggested 
in  Holy  Scripture,  but  the  existence  of  God 
never  comes  within  their  scope.  It  lies  behind 
all  else  ;  it  is  the  fundamental  conception  in 
the  light  of  which  all  else  is  viewed.  Not 
only  in  the  Pentateuch  and  the  Prophets  and 
the  Psalms,  but  in  the  historical  narratives — 
in  the  brief  and  apparently  barren  records  of 
the  accession,  regnal  years,  and  death  of  the 
various  kings,  it  is  made  clear  that  OQd'§  Han^ 


XCi? 


BELIEF   IN   GOD 


is  at  work  throughout  guiding  the  course  of 
events,  and  that  He  is  the  ever-present  Judge 
by  wTiom  the  actions  of  king  and  subject  alike 
are  weighed.  Even  in  the  book  of  Esther,  in 
which  the  divine  Name  never  once  occurs,  no 
doubt  is  left  upon  the  mind  as  to  the  provi- 
dential overruling  of  events  both  great  and 
small.  Nay,  in  those  books  which  are  least 
formally  theological — Job,  Proverbs,  and  Ec- 
clesiastes,  the  works  of  the  '  wise  men,'  the 
humanists  or  philosophers  of  Israel  —  the 
thought  of  God  is  present  from  first  to  last. 
They  do  not  grope  and  search  after  Him  like 
the  great  pagan  thinkers.  They  set  out,  not 
to  discover,  but  to  recognise  Him ;  to  learn 
from  His  dealing  with  nature  and  human 
nature  more  about  that  divine  Personality 
who  is  the  primary  presupposition  of  all  their 
system,  and  with  whom  their  heart  holds 
sacred  communion  even  while  the  intellect 
stands  baffled  before  the  insoluble  problems 
involved  in  His  permission  of  evil  in  the  world 
He  rules. 

The  Bible,  as  we  have  said,  does  not  offer 
arguments  to  prove  the  existence  of  the  Deity, 
but  it  offers  something  which  is  far  more 
valuable  to  most  of  us  than  any  abstract  proof. 
It  gives  us  a  concrete,  experimental,  descrip- 
tive theology.  It  shows  us  a  pictm^e  of  the 
world  with  God  at  work  in  it,  which  the 
devout,  appreciative  soul  instinctively  recog- 
nises as  true.  It  offers  us,  largely  in  the 
concrete  form  of  narrative  and  history,  a 
theory  of  the  universe  which,  rightly  under- 
stood, is  found  to  meet  the  demands  of  hearts 
and  minds  alike  :  revealing  a  God  whose 
character  is  such  and  whose  relation  to  man  is 
such  that  in  Him  both  our  needs  and  our 
aspirations  find  satisfaction.  At  the  same 
time  it  incidentally  provides  a  theory  of 
human  nature  (see  especially  Gn  1-3)  that 
affords  the  only  satisfactory  key  to  the  raison 
d'etre  of  those  needs  and  aspirations — the 
explanation  of  man's  actual  littleness  and  his 
potential  greatness. 

"We  will  consider  first  the  message  of  the 
Bible  to  man's  heart,  and  then  its  message  to 
his  understanding. 

The  needs  and  aspirations  of  heart  and 
spirit  can  only  be  satisfied  by  personal  com- 
munion with  the  Deity,  such  as  the  Psalter  so 
wonderfully  delineates  (see  especially  Pssl6, 
17,  63,  73),  a  communion  which  attains  its 
fullest  expression  in  the  religion  of  the  New 
Testament. 

This  heart-knowledge  is  after  all,  to  each 
individual  who  has  it,  the  most  direct  form  of 
evidence  for  the  existence  of  God — the  per- 
sonal intercourse  with  Him  of  our  personal 
spirit — the  communion  in  virtue  of  which  we 
can  say,  '  I  know  that  there  is  a  God  becmine 
I  know  Him.      I  experience   in  prayer   and 


sacrament  and  meditation  a  conviction  of  His 
reality  and  His  presence  which  is  quite  as 
real  to  me  as  is  the  conviction  that  those  things 
exist  which  I  can  touch  and  see.  This  convic- 
tion is  clearest  and  strongest  when  I  am  at 
my  best,  and  I  attribute  all  that  is  best  and 
highest  in  my  character  to  such  communion, 
as  thousands  have  done  before  me.' 

This  is  the  kind  of  '  knowledge  of  God ' 
that  cries  aloud  to  us  from  the  Psalms  and 
Prophecies,  and  underlies  the  other  writings 
of  the  Old  Testament.  And  the  perfection  of 
this  communion  is  to  be  found  in  Jesus  Christ, 
as  portrayed  for  us  in  the  Synoptic  Gospels 
(Lkl022;  cp.  Mkl332),  but  especially  in  St. 
John  (5i9f-  1015,30  1411^  etc.),  and  reaches  its 
climax  in  the  great  high-priestly  prayer  of 
Jnl7.  After  our  Lord's  Ascension  and  the 
descent  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  it  takes  the  form, 
for  Christ's  members,  of  a  fellowship  with 
the  blessed  Trinity,  Father,  Son,  and  Holy 
Ghost  (2  Cor  13 14;  cp.  IJnlS). 

Being,  however,  in  one  sense,  a  purely  per- 
sonal and  individual  matter,  this  sense  of 
communion  is  commonly  thought  to  be  too 
subjective  to  be  adduced  as  an  argument  for 
the  existence  of  God.  It  is  always  open  to 
an  objector  to  say,  '  You  assert  that  you 
have  this  feeling  ;  I  am  willing  to  admit 
your  sincerity,  but  you  may  be  the  victim  of 
illusion.  All  I  can  say  is  that  I  have  no  such 
feeling  myself.'  To  such  an  assertion  it  seems 
perhaps  inadequate  to  reply,  '  If  you  will  but 
assume  first  provisionally  (as  we  have  to 
assume  many  things  in  practical  life)  that 
existence  which  you  cannot  demonstrate,  and 
then  act  upon  the  assumption,  conviction  will 
come  with  experience.'  Yet  such  a  reply  may 
be  enforced  and  corroborated  with  all  the 
weight  of  more  than  nineteen  centuries  of 
personal  experience.  Generation  after  genera- 
tion of  martyrs  and  saints  have  testified  in  the 
strongest  possible  manner  to  their  conviction 
that  '  God  is,  and  is  a  rewarder  of  them  that 
diligently  seek  Him  '  (Heb  1 1  '^),  and  have 
been  ready  to  seal  the  conviction  with  their 
life's  blood. 

That  such  evidence  is  not  without  scientific 
value,  is  very  strongly  argued  by  no  less  a 
scientist  than  the  late  G.  J.  Romanes,  who 
speaks  of  those  who  would  ignore  it  as  untrue 
to  the  principles  of  an  impartial  Agnosticism. 
Still  it  fails  to  appeal  to  a  large  class  of 
enquirers,  who  look  for  a  more  definitely  in- 
tellectual proof  and  one  less  intimately  asso- 
ciated with  personal  feeling  and  emotion. 

There  are  such  arguments  for  the  being  and 
character  of  God,  and  some  of  them  have  come 
down  to  us  from  very  ancient  times.  It  may 
be  admitted  that  they  do  not — either  singly  or 
even  in  combination — amount  to  demonstra- 
tive proof  ;  yet  they  form,  as  we  shall  see,  a 


BELIEF  IN   GOD 


very  strong  presumption  in  favour  of  belief  in 
just  such  a  Grod  as  the  Bible  claims  to  reveal. 

We   will  now  briefly  sketch  the  more  im- 
portant of  these  types  of  argument,  and  then 
we  may  be  better  able  to  estimate  the  extent 
to  which  the   Biblical  revelation  corresponds 
to,  and  completes,   man's  intellectual  search 
after  God.     We  must  remember,  however,  at 
the  outset  that  these  traditional  arguments  are 
not  the  originating  cause  of  man's  belief,  even 
where  belief  is  found  outside  the  influence  of 
revelation,    rather,    they    represent    an   intel- 
lectual  analysis   or   justification    of   a   belief 
already  existing.     As  far  back  as  Cicero  in  the 
first    century    B.C.,    or    even    earlier,    pagan 
thinkers  had   observed  that  religion  in  some 
form  or  other  is  a  universal  trait  in  human 
nature.     And  though  in  modern  days  apparent 
exceptions   of  '  atheistical    tribes '  have    been 
adduced  to  prove  the  contrary,  the  trend  of 
anthropological  science    may  be   said  on  the 
whole  to  support  the  judgment  of  antiquity. 
There   may   indeed  be    savages    (though    the 
point  has  not  been  proved)  among  whom  no 
definite  trace  of  religious  observance  can  be 
discerned  ;  but  are   they  normal   representa- 
tives  even    of    undeveloped   humanity  ?      Is 
there  no    such  thing   as   degradation  ?     And 
have  not  even  these  poor  savages  some  vestige 
at  least  of  the  religious  faculty  ?  for  that  is 
all  our  argument  really  requires.     The  world- 
wide progress    of    Christian   missions   to    the 
heathen  seems  to  testify  quite   triumphantly 
that  no  race  or  tribe  of  men,  however  degraded 
and  apparently  atheistic,  lacks  that  spark  of 
religious  capacity  which  may  be  fanned  and 
fed  into  a  mighty  flame. 

Granted,  then,  that  the  religious  faculty  is 
practically  universal  among  mankind,  what  is 
the  significance  of  this  fact  ?  From  ancient 
times  it  has  been  regarded  as  an  argument — 
often  (wrongly)  as  a  proof — that  God  exists. 
It  is  called  the  argument  '  from  the  general 
consent  of  mankind  ' :  in  Latin,  aryumentum  e 
consensu  gentium.  The  whole  world,  it  is  urged, 
must  surely  be  right — securus  jucUcat  orbis 
terrarum. 

Of  a  truth  it  is  exceedingly  unlikely,  if  (as 
we  must  presume)  the  world  is  rational,  that 
a  phenomenon  so  universal  as  religion,  so  inti- 
mately and  intricately  interwoven  with  the 
central  facts  of  human  life  and  progress,  should 
be  founded  on  illusion.  But  the  outward  ex- 
pression of  the  religious  principle  in  different 
ages  and  climes  exhibits  so  much  variety,  in- 
consistency, and  vagueness,  that  we  ought  not 
perhaps  to  speak  of  this  argument  (at  least  in 
this,  its  broader  and  vaguer  form)  as  directly 
evidencing  the  existence  and  character  of  God. 
What  it  really  amounts  to  is,  as  has  been  well 
said, '  an  evidence  that  there  are  evidences.'  If 
the  religious  instinct  is  observed  to  be  practi- 

d 


cally  universal,  it  will  be  worth  while  to  see 
whether  it  is  not  essential  to  human  nature. 
And  this  quest  leads  us  to  the  formal  argu- 
ments for  God's  existence.  The  grounds  of 
this  religious  instinct  will  be  found  to  lie  partly 
in  man's  relation  to  the  external  world,  partly 
in  the  constitution  of  human  natm-e  itself. 

The   consideration   of   the    external   world 
around  him,  even  in  its  broadest  aspect,  leads 
man  up  to  the  thought  of  an  Eternal  Cause  ; 
the  study  of  its  phenomena  in  detail  with  its 
marvellous  intricacy  of  harmonious  interaction 
produces  the  impression  of  design,  and  leads 
to  the  thought  of  a  Designer — i.e.  of  an  Eternal 
Cause  that  is  intelligent  and  free.     Reflexion 
on  his  own  consciousness  and  the  fact  that  the 
external  world   corresponds   in  a  mysterious 
way  to  his  own  thought  leads  to  the  idea  of  a 
primal  and  Universal  Consciousness  embracing 
all  reality  and  forming,  as  it  were,  a  meeting- 
place  between  Thought  and  Things.     Lastly, 
his  own  moral  nature — conscience,  with  its  au- 
thoritative voice,  clearly  distinguishable  from 
mere   wish,  taste,  desire,   and   self-interest — 
speaks  to  him  of  a  Universal  Lawgiver,  supreme 
and  perfect,  to  whom  alone  the   '  categorical 
imperative  '  of  the  inner  monitor  can  be  ade- 
quately referred.     The  Eternal  Cause  is  thus 
found  to  be  endowed  with  all  the  attributes 
characteristic  of  personality  as  seen  in  man. 

Of  the  first  of  these  arguments  little  further 
need  be  said.    Man  finds  in  himself  a  principle 
of  causality  in  the  light  of  which  he  interprets 
the  external  world.    He  cannot  help  regarding 
the  succession  of  phenomena  which  he  observes 
as   effects — attributing   each   to   some  cause. 
When  he  examines  that  again  he  discovers  it 
to  be  no  true  or  absolute  cause,  but  itself  the 
effect  of  something  further  back,  and  so  on. 
He  finds  in  himself  the  nearest  approach  to  a 
vera  causa:  yet  he   would   recognise   the  ab- 
surdity of  calling  himself  self-caused.     And 
the  mind  cannot  rest  in  an  endless  chain  of 
cause-effects.     There  must  be,  it  feels,  if  you 
go  far  enough  back,  a  real  Cause,  akin,  in  some 
way,  to  man's  own  power  of  origination,  yet 
transcending  it — a  cause  that  owns  no  cause — 
no  source  of  being — but  itself.     And  to  this 
Eternal  Cause  all  things,  including  man  him- 
self, must  be  ultimately  referable. 

The  third  argument,  again,  in  favour  of  a 
Universal  Consciousness,  which  has  several 
different  forms,  is  too  abstruse  for  the  ordinary 
reader,  requiring  for  its  appreciation  some 
degree  of  metaphysical  training.  The  second 
and  the  fourth — the  '  Design '  and  '  Conscience ' 
arguments — demand  a  somewhat  fuller  treat- 
ment here,  being  specially  important  in  view  of 
the  light  thrown  on  them  by  recent  scientific 
theory. 

The  Design-argument  is  perhaps  the  most 
ancient  and  the  most  popular  of  all.     It  is 


BELIEF  IN   GOD 


never  actually  formulated  in  the  Bible,  for  the 
Bible,  as  we  have  seen,  never  treats  God's  ex- 
istence as  the  subject  of  argument.  But  its 
basis,  the  marvellous  harmony  of  the  created 
world,  is  the  theme  of  more  than  one  of  the 
Psalms  (cp.  e.g.  PsslO,  104, 147,  148)  ;  and  St. 
Paul  comes  very  near  to  stating  the  argument 
in  so  many  words,  when  he  says  (Ro  1 20)  in 
depreciation  of  pagan  superstitions  and  immor- 
ality, that  the  '  everlasting  power  and  divinity ' 
of  the  Creator  are  clearly  discernible  from  His 
works. 

Granted  that  the  very  existence  of  the  world 
implies  an  Eternal  Cause,  what  can  we  learn 
about  that  Cause  ?  The  nearest  thing  to  a 
true  first  Cause  of  which  I  have  experience,  is 
my  own  personality :  hence  there  is  a  pre- 
sumption that  the  world's  first  Cause  will  be 
at  least  what  we  know  as  personal.  But  that 
presumption  is  not  all  we  have  to  go  upon. 
There  are  definite  indications  in  nature,  when 
more  closely  observed,  that  make  it  impossible 
to  regard  the  Eternal  Cause  as  a  merely  me- 
chanical originator  of  the  world-process,  that 
stamp  it — or  rather  Him — as  intelligent  and 
free,  a  nature  like  my  own  rational  nature,  only 
far  above  and  beyond  it. 

Everywhere  in  nature  we  see  the  teleological 
principle  (as  it  is  called)  at  work,  i.e.  we  see 
means  adapted  to  ends,  and  the  present  sub- 
ordinated to  the  future.  This  adaptation  of 
means  to  ends  manifests  itself  in  a  bewilder- 
ingly  complex  way — in  each  individual  member 
of  the  great  organism,  in  the  lesser  and  greater 
groups,  and  in  the  whole.  Everywhere,  in  fact, 
I  see  traces  of  purpose  and  design — for  such 
adaptation  speaks  to  me  irresistibly  of  these. 
My  only  direct  experience  of  like  phenomena 
is  in  my  own  personality,  and  so  I  am  led  to 
infer  a  Designer. 

Some,  however,  have  thought  that  this  in- 
ference is  invalidated  by  a  closer  scrutiny  of 
those  means  by  which  the  evolution  of  physical 
organisms  is  effected,  according  to  modern 
scientific  theory.  Evolution,  they  say,  has  upset 
the  Design-argument  altogether.  The  marvel- 
lously adjusted  interaction  of  forces  and  inter- 
ests which  we  observe  in  nature  is  not,  as  we 
have  hitherto  supposed,  a  perfect  piece  of 
elaborate  machinery  fresh  from  the  Designer's 
Hand.  It  has  a  history  behind  it,  and  a  history 
which  we  have  only  just  begun  to  trace  aright. 
The  present  state  of  things  is  not  the  result 
of  a  serene  and  orderly  procession  wherein 
every  member  has  found  its  due  and  rightful 
place.  On  the  contrary,  it  is  the  result  in  every 
department  of  a  struggle  for  existence  fierce 
and  unintermitted,  in  which  only  a  small  pro- 
portion— '  the  fittest ' — have  survived.  Nature's 
waste  products,  far  outweighing  her  successes 
— how  do  they  affect  the  Design-argument  ? 
Again,  we  can  see  in  part  the  actual  means 


by  which  this  relative  progress  in  evolution 
has  been  made.    On  the  one  hand,  there  is  the 
principle  of   Variation,  whereby  the  offspring 
always  varies  in  some  degree  from  the  parent, 
and,  on  the  other  hand,  that  of  Natural  Selec- 
tion, which  results  in  the  survival  of  the  type 
best  fitted  to  survive.     Where,  then,  is  there 
room  for  Design  and  a  Designer  ?    The  answer 
seems  to  be  that  the  origin  or  root-principle  of 
evolution  has  not  yet  been  disclosed.     "^^'Tiat 
is  it  that  produces  the  Variation  which  Natural 
Selection    fixes    and  makes    the   basis  of    an 
upward     step  ?      The    choice    seems    to    lie 
between  God  and — chance.     That  chance,  or 
some  non-rational  force,  could  work  on  such 
definitely  '  teleological '   lines,  could  produce 
such  ordered  and  systematic  results,  is  a  theory 
harder  to  believe  than  the  theistic  theory.     And 
the  difficulty  of  it  is  rather  enhanced  than 
otherwise  by  recent  scientific  discovery.     For 
if  a  mechanically  regular  world  in  which  neither 
failures  nor  waste  products  had  place,  would 
produce  the  impression  of  design  and  purpose, 
much  more  forcil^ly  are  we  driven  to  the  same 
conclusion  when  we  see  order  growing  out  of 
chaos,  peace  out  of  strife,  and  apparently  in- 
tractable material  moulded  to  artistic  perfec- 
tion.    The  background  of  struggle,  pain,  decay 
and  seeming  waste  may  be  in  itself  difficult  to 
account  for ;  but  the  result  shows  that  behind 
the  working  of  the  principles  of  Variation  and 
Natural  Selection  there  must  be  uitelligence, 
will,  purpose. 

The  Design-argument  may  have  been  stated, 
in  the  past,  in  such  a  way  as  to  expose  it  to 
the  criticism  of  scientists  ;  but  the  argument 
itself — especially  when  broadly  and  generally 
treated — has  only  gained  strength  and  illumin- 
ation from  the  modern  view  of  nature's 
working  methods  ;  for  '  Evolution,'  as  Asa  Gray 
said  to  Darwin,  '  has  brought  back  teleology 
to  science.' 

The  Moral  argument — that  drawn  from  the 
phenomena  of  Conscience — has  been  similarly 
assailed,  but  with  no  better  success.  Attempts 
have  been  made  to  discredit  the  authoritative 
character  of  conscience  by  claiming  for  it  a 
non-moral  origin.  Conscience,  it  is  urged,  is 
the  result  of  a  long  and  complicated  process 
of  evolution,  and  really  represents  not  the 
divine  voice  of  an  inward  monitor,  but  the 
outcome  of  ages  and  ages  of  racial  self-interest. 
To  reduce  it  to  a  principle  of  individual  self- 
interest  is  obviously  absurd  considering  how 
frequently  conscience  and  immediate  self- 
interest  are  found  to  be  ranged  on  opposite 
sides.  But  the  interest  of  the  community  or 
the  race  is  a  different  thing.  Generation  after 
generation  has,  as  it  were,  mechanically  im- 
pressed upon  its  members  the  tendency  to  act 
in  a  direction  salutary  to  the  race,  so  that  at 
last  this  unselfish  or  '  altruistic  '  principle  has 


cii 


BELIEF   IN   GOD 


become  a  sort  of  instinct  or  second  natiire, 
varying  indeed  in  its  range,  intensity,  and  degree 
of  enlightenment,  but  a  constant  characteristic 
of  man  as  man. 

This  line  of  argument  is  supported  by  the 
consideration  that  there  are  traces  of  ap- 
parently conscientious  action  in  animals  cus- 
tomarily regarded  as  irrational,  and  that 
conscience  in  mankind  exhibits  extremely 
various  and  inconsistent  results  in  different 
circumstances  and  stages  of  civilisation. 

But  to  treat  conscience  and  the  moral  argu- 
ment on  these  lines  involves  a  misconception 
of  the  scope  of  Natural  Science.  The  scope 
of  Natural  Science,  properly  so  called,  does 
not  include  the  origin  of  things  nor  the  pur- 
pose and  end  of  their  being.  It  is  merely  con- 
cerned with  a  description  of  their  present  state 
and  the  discovery  and  analysis  of  the  process 
by  which  they  arrived  thereat.  Conscience  is 
what  it  is,  quite  independently  of  the  process 
by  which  it  may  have  been  evolved  ;  just  as 
man  is  man — an  intelligent,  rational,  moral, 
spiritual  being,  whatever  may  have  been  the 
stages  whereby  the  physical  side  of  him  climbed 
up  from  the  humblest  places  of  the  realm  of 
organic  life.  Undoubtedly  the  truer  view  of 
things  is  the  teleological — that  which  sees  in 
the  humble  beginning  the  germ  of  a  great 
future — and  not  the  view  which  refuses  to  man 
and  conscience  their  proper  names  because 
there  may  have  been  a  time  when  they  were 
far  removed  from  their  present  stage  of 
development. 

As  for  the  startlingly  inconsistent  ways  in 
which  conscience  vents  itself  in  action,  that 
only  emphasises  the  one  underlying  principle, 
the  principle  expressed  in  the  words  '  I  ought.' 
The  .sMi/ec^-ma^fer  of  conscience  audits  practical 
range  of  influence  may  vary  indefinitely  accord- 
ing to  the  surroundings,  circumstances,  and 
moral  attainment  of  its  particular  possessor, 
and  it  is  on  this  side  that  we  speak  of  conscience 
as  capable  of  education  and  enlightenment ;  but 
the  form  of  conscience  remains  constant.  It 
may  be  stronger  or  weaker  according  to  the 
measure  of  its  use,  but  it  remains  in  essence 
ever  the  same  ;  a  principle  of  moral  constraint, 
recognising  in  extreme  cases  no  human  tri- 
bunal whatever — not  even  the  expressed  will 
or  the  obvious  immediate  interest  of  society  in 
general,  and  witnessing  to  an  obligation  that  can 
only  have  reference  to  a  Universal  Moral  Ruler 
and  Lawgiver,  whose  will  is  regarded  as  at  once 
morally  perfect  and  absolutely  without  appeal. 

Whatever,  then,  may  be  the  history  of  the 
evolution  of  conscience,  the  testimony  of  man's 
moral  nature  would  seem  to  be  direct  and  un- 
mistakable. It  points  to  an  Eternal  Cause  of 
the  Universe  and  of  mankind  characterised 
not  merely  by  creative  power  and  wisdom,  but 
also  by  moral  holiness. 


Is  it  corroborated  by  the  testimony  of 
history  ?  for  if  the  actual  ordering  of  the 
world  of  mankind  clearly  contradicts  the 
testimony  of  conscience,  we  may  still  be 
tempted  to  treat  that  tefstimony  as  illusory. 

Bishop  Butler  has  shown  convincingly  that 
though  the  government  of  the  world  repre- 
sents a  scheme  imperfectly  comprehensible  to 
us,  yet  there  exist  quite  undeniable  marks  of 
moral  rule — tokens  that  the  Power  which 
guides  the  world  is,  in  more  modern  phrase, 
'  something  —  not  itself  —  which  makes  for 
righteousness.'  The  rise  and  fall  and  the 
succession  of  empires  ;  the  advance  and  deca- 
dence of  races,  tribes,  families  ;  the  fortunes 
of  individual  men — all  these,  while  they  pre- 
sent many  puzzling  and  inexplicable  features, 
about  which  we  shall  have  more  to  say  later 
on — bear  witness  on  the  whole  to  the  right- 
eousness of  Him  who  sits  on  the  world's 
throne. 

On  the  physical  side  of  human  nature, 
where  we  should  expect  things  to  work  them- 
selves out  most  mechanically,  the  moral  law 
is  perhaps  most  clearly  vindicated.  Immoral 
conduct  produces  its  own  punishment  in  so 
large  a  number  of  cases  that  sin  and  suffering 
have  sometimes  been  regarded  as  simply  and 
in  every  case,  cause  and  effect.  Experience 
teaches  us,  however — and  the  Bible  teaches  it 
too,  in  the  book  of  Job — that  not  all  which 
we  commonly  regard  as  evil — all  pain,  suffer- 
ing or  material  loss — is  the  direct  consequence 
of  moral  wrong-doing  in  the  individual  who 
suffers.  And  Christ  Himself  expressly  dis- 
countenances this  attribution  of  suffering  to 
sin,  as  its  necessary  cause  (Lk  1 3  2>  3, 4^.  Indeed, 
suffering  is  not  always  an  evil,  as  things  are 
now,  though  we  rightly  look  upon  it  as  belong- 
ing to  an  imperfect  state  of  existence.  Some- 
times it  seems  to  be  the  consequence  of  virtue 
and  intended  to  stimulate  the  aspiring  soul  to 
still  higher  ideals. 

In  history,  the  most  striking  picture  of 
moral  government  is  to  be  found  in  the 
fortunes  of  Israel.  Here  we  are  leaving 
Natural  Religion  and  bordering  upon  Reve- 
lation. But  if  the  Bible  picture  of  Hebrew 
history  be  taken  as  substantially  true,  it  will 
be  found  to  supply  a  key  to  history  in  general, 
and  to  justify  the  believer's  conviction  that 
Old  Testament  history  differs  from  secular 
history  not  so  much  in  its  subject-matter  as 
in  its  treatment — that  it  is  unique  not  mainly 
because  the  Chosen  People  were  uniquely 
nurtured,  guided,  and  disciplined,  but  because 
here  alone  the  veil  is  lifted  and  the  true 
issues  of  personal  and  national  conduct  are  made 
plain  as  they  appear  to  Him  whose  hand  has 
guided  the  history  of  mankind  from  its  begin- 
ning until  now.  For  this  reason,  in  spite  of 
our  enormous  advance  in  historical  method, 


cm 


BELIEF   IN  GOD 


and  of  the  advantage  that  comes  from  an 
indefinitely  wider  horizon,  it  may  be-  boldly 
said  that  the  historians  of  to-day  can  never 
hope  to  surpass  or  even  to  equal  the  funda- 
mental grasp  of  truth  achieved  in  the  early 
and  unscientific  efforts  of  the  inspired  historians 
of  Israel. 

Revelation.  '  Natural  Religion,'  as  it  is 
called — i.e.  the  witness  of  human  nature  to 
God — needs  Revealed  Religion  to  complete 
it.  Man's  mind,  dwelling  on  external  nature, 
is  led  up  to  the  thought  of  an  immensely 
wise,  mighty  and  beneficent  Creator  and 
Ruler.  But  there  are  many  considerations 
which  tend  to  depreciate  the  design-argument 
and  rob  it  of  its  force.  Man  needs  some 
direct  assurance  from  outside  the  circle  of  his 
ordinary  thought,  to  combat  the  problems 
raised  by  the  presence  of  anomaly,  failure,  and 
waste,  to  say  nothing  of  pain. 

Again,  man's  nature  bears  on  it  the  impress 
of  moral  law,  and  would  lead  him  up  to  belief 
in  an  all-holy  Universal  Lawgiver.  Yet  there 
is  much  in  the  facts  of  human  society  that 
would  draw  him  in  a  quite  opposite  direction. 
No  one  can  read  the  Psalms  or  the  book  of 
Job,  no  one  can  face  honestly  the  facts  of 
human  society  around  him  to-day,  without 
feeling  .something  of  the  almost  overwhelming 
difficulty  that  is  involved  in  the  spectacle  of 
successful  wickedness,  unpunished  oppression, 
and  unmerited  suffering. 

We  need  some  more  direct  assurance  than 
conscience  itself  can  give  us  if  we  are  to  exclaim 
with  real  conviction — 

'  God  's  in  His  heaven  ; 
All 's  right  with  the  world.' 

And  it  is  natural  to  ask  :  If  there  be  a  God 
such  as  human  nature  seems  to  suggest  or 
demand,  could  He  not — would  He  not  find 
some  means  of  making  Himself  known  to  His 
rational  creatures  ? 

The  presupposition  of  the  Bible  is  that  he 
has  found  such  means,  and  supplemented  and 
completed  Natural  Religion  by  direct  Revela- 
tion. This  Revelation  is  focussed  in  the 
divine-human  figure  of  Jesus  Christ,  fore- 
told and  expected  in  the  Old  Testament, 
present  to  teach  and  work  in  the  New,  and 
ever  abiding  by  His  Spirit  in  the  Church. 

The  fact  of  divine  revelation  is,  of  course, 
denied  by  Atheism  :  but  apart  from  revela- 
tion altogether.  Atheism  is  self-condemned  by 
its  presumption.  To  prove  a  negative  is  con- 
fessedly a  difficult  task  in  any  field,  and  the 
Atheist  claims  to  have  proved  it  in  the  widest 
field  of  all — the  universe — and  in  face  of  the 
many-sided  testimony  of  Nature  and  Human 
Nature.  To  be  justified  in  a  flat  and  categorical 
denial  of  the  existence  of  a  deity  I  must  be 
furnished  with  a  full  knowledge  of  the  universe 


both  as  a  whole  and  in  its  details,  so  as  to  be 
competent  to  declare  that  nowhere  in  all  the 
realms  of  things  existing  is  there  any  trace  of 
evidence  which  might  even  probably  tell  in 
favour  of  Theism.  None  but  a  mind  practically 
infinite,  omnipresent,  and  all-knowing  could 
compass  this.  And  so  it  might  be  suggested 
that  the  Atheist  really  claims  for  himself  the 
divine  qualities  and  attributes  of  which  he 
denies  the  existence  in  a  God. 

Another  line  of  thought  antagonistic  to  reve- 
lation goes  by  the  name  of  Agnosticism.  It 
dwells  on  the  obvious  limitations  of  our 
mental  powers,  which  find  themselves  baffled 
in  every  department  when  they  attempt  to 
pass  beyond  a  certain  point ;  and  says  that 
the  circumscribed  human  mind,  excellent  as 
it  is  in  its  own  sphere,  can  never  hope  to 
comprehend  the  Infinite,  the  Absolute.  '  The 
Power,'  it  says,  '  which  the  universe  manifests 
to  us,  is  inscrutable.'  It  dwells  also  on  the 
difficulties  and  anomalies  in  nature  ;  on  the 
darker  side  of  evolution — its  aspect  of  failure, 
struggle  and  decay  ;  on  the  darker  side  of 
human  nature — the  presence  of  evil,  especially 
of  moral  evil,  in  the  world  ;  and  says  these 
so  far  balance  the  tokens  of  goodness  observ- 
able, that  we  cannot  be  sure,  if  there  be  a 
government  of  the  world,  whether  it  is  one 
that  really  '  makes  for  righteousness.' 

There  is  considerable  justification  for  the 
emphasis  laid  by  Agnosticism  on  these  two 
factors  in  human  life  ;  but  it  is  just  in  regard 
to  them  that  Revelation  is  our  greatest  help. 
The  problem  of  evil  scarcely  falls  to  be  dis- 
cussed here  :  but  it  may  be  remarked  that,  while 
a  very  real  and  pressing  problem,  it  can  be  seen, 
in  the  light  of  Revelation,  to  be  no  insuperable 
obstacle  to  faith.  With  regard  to  the  other 
point,  the  inadequacy  of  our  faculties,  it  may 
be  said  at  once  that  Natural  Religion  does  fall 
short  of  certainty  and  completeness,  and  that 
this  is  fully  admitted  in  the  Bible.  There 
is  a  sense  in  which  the  God  of  the  Bible 
is  '  incomprehensible,'  '  inscrutable.'  He  is 
as  high  above  man  in  His  ways  and  thoughts 
as  heaven  is  above  earth  (IsaSS^).  His 
essential  inaccessibility  is  expressed  as  a 
'dwelling  in  the  thick  darkness'  (1K81"-),  or 
in  'light  inapproachable'  (ITimei*^).  'No 
man  hath  seen  God  at  any  time  . .  '  (Jn  1  is)  ; 
'  No  man  knoweth  who  the  Father  is  save  the 
Son'  (Lkl022).  Again,  man  as  we  know  him 
is,  of  himself,  utterly  incapable  of  any  true 
knowledge  of  God  :  the  natural  man  is  in- 
capable of  discerning  the  things  of  the  Spirit 
(1  Cor  2 14). 

At  the  same  time  no  duty  is  more  persistently 
impressed  on  their  hearers  by  the  prophets  than 
'  to  know  the  Lord.'  To  its  neglect  are  ascribed 
the  woe  and  failures  of  the  Chosen  People  (Isa 
1 3  5 13  Hos  4  ^),  and  its  presence  is  a  guarantee 


BELIEF   IN   GOD 


of  righteous  conduct.  In  the  New  Testament 
the  knowledge  of  the  Father  and  the  Son  is 
identified  with  'everlasting  life'  (Jnl?^). 
What  is  the  meaning  of  this  apparent  con- 
tradiction ?  Fallen  man,  though  sin  has 
blurred  in  him  the  image  of  his  Creator,  re- 
tains still  the  potentiality  of  that  communion 
for  which  he  was  created ;  and  though  he 
cannot  of  his  own  initiative  '  by  searching  find 
out  God '  (Job  1 1  '^),  he  can  still,  by  penitent 
cooperation  with  Divine  grace,  attain  to  a  true 
knowledge  of  One  who  has  been  seeking  him 
ever  since  the  first  days  of  alienation  in 
Paradise  (Gn  3  9),  and  has  revealed  Himself  to 
receptive  hearts  in  times  past  '  by  divers  por- 
tions and  in  divers  manners  '  (Heb  1 1).  In 
Himself  essentially  inscrutable,  God  wills  to 
be  known  with  the  knowledge  of  personal  com- 
munion. He  has  given  man  the  capacity  for 
such  communion,  and  though  man  has  rejected 
Him,  God  has  devised  means  that  His  banished 
be  not  outcast  from  Him:  cp.  SSHi-i.  The 
greatest  prophet  of  the  Old  Testament  por- 
trays in  wonderful  words  this  paradox  of 
divine  condescension  (IsaST^^).  The  New 
Testament  presents  it  to  us  in  concrete  form, 
in  the  Messiah  on  whom  the  wistful  gaze  of 
Prophet  and  Psalmist  had  for  centuries  been 
fixed.  Then  was  given  once  and  for  all  a 
revelation  of  God  and  of  Man  together  in  a 
single  life. 

The  revelation  of  God  in  Jesus  Christ  has 
stood  the  test  of  many  generations  as  corre- 
sponding to  the  highest  aspirations  and  most 
urgent  demands  of  human  nature.  Consider- 
ation of  its  characteristics  shows  it  is  just  the 
revelation  that  man  needs.  On  the  one  hand, 
it  is  a  revelation  of  the  character  of  Almighty 
God,  as  in  the  highest  and  supremest  sense 
'  our  Father.'  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  a 
revelation  of  Ideal  Manhood:  the  bewildered 
question  of  ages  about  the  meaning,  purpose, 
and  destiny  of  the  human  life  is  cleared  up 
in  the  New  Testament.  What  He  tells  us. 
in  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount  and  elsewhere, 
about  our  duty  and  our  hopes  in  this  life 
and  beyond  the  grave — what  He  shows  us 
in  His  own  person  of  communion  with  the 
Heavenly  Father,  and  successful  resistance 
of  temptation  in  the  strength  of  that  com- 
munion— what  He  shows  us  of  absolute  self- 
surrender,  even  to  the  point  of  death,  of 
triumph  through  suffering,  and  of  new  life 
and  glory  after  the  grave — all  these  are  essen- 
tial parts  of  His  Revelation.  But  the  Revelation 
is  no  bare  presentation  of  truth  and  of  an 
ideal  utterly  inaccessible  to  weak  and  fallen 
man.  Grace  as  well  as  Truth  came  by  Jesns 
Christ  (Jn  1 1'^).     And  what  differentiates  this 


than  perfection 
same  time  the 
arriving  at  the 


from  all  other  so-called  Revelations  is  that, 

while   the   ideal  it   holds    up    before   man   is 

uniquely  lofty — nothing  less 

(MtS'*^) — it  supplies   at   the 

motive    force    necessary   for 

ideal. 

The  Revelation  of  Truth  by  itself  might 
well  generate  despair.  Its  most  characteristic 
effect  has  always  been  the  production  of  a  sense 
of  sin :  resulting  from  the  felt  contrast  between 
the  absolute  holiness  of  Almighty  God,  re- 
quired by  Him  in  man,  and  exhibited  actually 
in  the  Man  Christ  Jesus,  and  the  tale  that 
conscience  tells  us  of  our  own  impurity  and 
pollution.  This  terrible  contrast — viewed  in 
the  light  of  God's  revealed  Love — would  by 
itself  produce  an  unspeakably  bitter  remorse  ; 
but  that  remorse  is  transformed  into  penitence 
by  the  further  revelation  of  Grace — i.e.  of  the 
means  which  Divine  Love  has  devised  for  man's 
restoration.  And  so  the  sense  of  sin  leads  to 
'  Conversion.'  In  the  Bible  teaching  about 
Atonement — culminating  in  the  Self -offering 
of  Christ — we  see  the  true  Representative  of 
Mankind  removing  the  barrier  set  up  by  sin, 
opening  once  more  the  avenue  of  access  to 
God,  and  so  rendering  possible  to  man  a 
sacramental  sharing  of  the  divine  life  and 
strength.  Here  find  iheir  satisfaction  that 
instinct  and  yearnijjj^  ^t  led  to  the  primitive 
institution  of  sao  ij^J^,  Js  old  apparently  and 
as  universal  as  the  human  race.  In  the 
teaching  about  the  Incarnation — '  the  Word 
made  flesh' — the  Son  of  God  taking  upon 
Him  not  an  isolated  individual  human  person- 
ality, but  our  nature  in  a  universal  way,  so  as 
to  become  true  representative  man  ;  we  find 
the  fulfilment  of  the  true  idea  underlying  those 
strange  dreams,  clothed  often  in  unworthy 
guise  which  find  expression  in  the  '  Incarna- 
tion Myth '  of  Hindoo  and  other  religions. 
While  in  the  outcome  of  the  Incarnation — 
the  incorporation  of  human  personalities  one 
by  one  as  members  into  the  body  of  Christ, 
that  incorporation  which  renders  the  atoning 
sacrifice  effectual  in  each  one — we  see  realised 
the  ideal  of  the  social  instinct  :  all  other  social 
'  membership  '  being  but  a  poor  metaphor 
beside  the  living  membership  in  the  Church, 
'  which  is  His  Body.' 

Finally,  the  Revelation  in  both  its  sides 
receives  a  magnificent  corroboration,  when  we 
see  the  life  of  Christ  reproduced  really,  if  not 
completely,  in  the  thousands  of  His  followers 
who,  conscious  of  their  own  shortcomings,  have 
yet  been  able  to  say  with  lips  and  life  at  once, 
'  I  live,  yet  not  I  but  Christ  liveth  in  me'  (Gal 
2  20).  '  I  can  do  all  things  through  Christ  which 
strengtheneth  me.' 


cv 


THE  PERSON  OF  JESUS  CHRIST 


1.  Present  Position  of  Christianity.  Christi- 
anity is  now  the  religion  of  at  least  a  third  of 
the  human  race.  So  rapid  has  been  its  advance 
during  the  past  century,  and  so  hopeful  are  its 
present  prospects,  that  the  remarkable  prophecy 
of  its  Founder,  that  the  whole  world  would 
ultimately  be  converted,  is  already  within 
measurable  distance  of  fulfilment.  To  investi- 
gate the  origin  of  so  remarkable  a  movement, 
and  to  attain  to  a  clear  conception  of  the 
character  and  personality  of  its  great  Founder, 
is  the  purpose  of  the  present  article. 

2.  What  is  Christianity  ?  Among  the  nations 
of  the  West,  even  those  who  reject  Christianity 
as  a  creed,  still  revere  Jesus  of  Nazareth  as  the 
noblest  and  purest,  and  probably  the  greatest 
character  which  has  ever  appeared  on  the  scene 
of  history.  '  About  the  life  and  sayings  of 
Jesus,'  says  John  Stuart  Mill, '  there  is  a  stamp 
of  personal  originality  combined  with  a  pro- 
fundity of  insight,  '  'hich  .  .  must  place  the 
prophet  of  Na"-  ^'^  "•  in  the  estimation 
of  those  who  1:  "P^  thffunpui  ^n  His  inspiration, 
in  the  very  first  Cfi."*^...  :»ie  men  of  sublime 
genius  of  whom  our  species  can  boast.  .  .  Re- 
ligion cannot  be  said  to  have  made  a  bad  choice 
in  pitching  on  this  man  as  the  ideal  representa- 
tive and  guide  of  humanity  ;  nor  even  now 
would  it  be  easy  even  for  an  unbeliever  to  find 
a  better  translation  of  the  rule  of  virtue  from 
the  abstract  into  the  concrete  than  to  endeavour 
so  to  live  that  Christ  would  approve  our  life.' 
'  Jesus,'  says  Renan,  'is  in  every  respect  unique, 
and  nothing  can  be  compared  with  Him.  Be 
the  unlooked-for  phenomena  of  the  futm-e 
what  they  may,  Jesus  will  not  be  surpassed. 
Noble  Initiator,  repose  now  in  Thy  glory  !  Thy 
work  is  finished,  Thy  divinity  established.  A 
thousand  times  more  living,  a  thousand  times 
more  loved  since  Thy  death  than  during  the 
days  of  Thy  course  here  below.  Thou  shalt 
become  the  corner-stone  of  humanity,  inso- 
much that  to  tear  Thy  Name  from  this  world 
would  be  to  shake  it  from  its  very  foundations. 
No  more  shall  men  distinguish  between  Thee 
and  God.' 

To  Christians,  however,  Jesus  is  more  even 
than  this.  A  few,  generally  called  Unitarians, 
are  satisfied  with  regarding  Him  as  the  greatest 
of  human  prophets,  but  to  the  immense  majority 
of  Christians,  in  this  as  in  every  preceding  age, 
He  is  the  divine  Son  of  God,  who  took  our 
nature  upon  Him  to  redeem  it,  and  after  suffer- 
ing upon  the  Cross,  rose  from  the  dead,  and 
ascended  into  heaven,  where,  seated  upon  the 


throne  of  the  universe,  He  receives  a  homage 
indistinguishable  from  that  paid  to  the  eternal 
Father. 

3.  The  Christian  Doctrine  of  the  Incarnation. 
The  belief  that  the  historical  person  Jesus 
Christ  is  the  eternal  Son  of  God  made  man, 
and  that  accordingly  (to  use  the  words  of  an 
ancient  hymn).  He  is  '  God  of  the  substance  of 
the  Father,  begotten  before  the  worlds,  and 
man  of  the  substance  of  His  mother,  born  in 
the  world  ;  perfect  God  and  perfect  man,  of 
a  reasonable  soul  and  human  flesh  subsisting, 
equal  to  the  Father  as  touching  His  Godhead, 
and  inferior  to  the  Father  as  touching  His 
manhood,'  is  called  the  doctrine  of  the  Incar- 
nation. The  idea  of  incarnation  as  a  mode  of 
manifestation  of  the  divine  nature  is  not  alto- 
gether peculiar  to  Christianity.  It  is  character- 
istic of  several  Eastern  religions,  particularly 
of  those  of  India.  According  to  the  teaching 
of  Brahmanism,  Vishnu,  one  of  the  triad  of 
supreme  gods,  became  incarnate  many  times. 
His  best-known  incarnation  is  the  ninth,  in 
which  he  appeared  as  Crishna,  literally  '  the 
black  one.'  After  achieving  various  heroic 
exploits,  such  as  the  avenging  of  the  murder 
of  his  parents,  and  the  slaying  of  the  serpent 
Caliga,  he  was  put  to  death  by  being  shot  with 
an  arrow,  leaving  behind  him  the  prediction 
that  thirty  years  after  his  death  the  iron  age 
would  begin.  The  resemblance,  however,  of 
these  Eastern  incarnations  to  that  of  Jesus 
Christ  is  altogether  superficial.  Those  were 
temporary,  Christ's  was  permanent.  In  those 
the  incarnate  god  practices  without  shame 
every  species  of  vice  ;  Christ's  life  was  sinless, 
and  a  perfect  model  for  imitation.  In  those 
no  salvation  is  achieved,  except  occasionally 
from  the  oppression  of  some  earthly  tyrant  ; 
in  Christ  salvation  from  sin  and  eternal  life  are 
offered  to  all  mankind.  Puerile,  vulgar,  un- 
spiritual,  degrading,  and  limited  in  scope,  the 
incarnations  of  other  religions  cannot  for  a 
moment  compare  with  the  splendour  of  the 
Incarnation  of  Christ,  the  aim  of  which  is  to 
atone  for  sin,  to  destroy  the'  power  of  evil,  and 
to  raise  the  whole  human  race  into  fellowship 
with  God. 

4.  The  Reasonableness  of  the  Incarnation. 
The  Incarnation  is  not  accepted  by  Christians 
simply  because  it  is  taught  in  the  Bible,  or 
because  it  is  part  of  the  traditional  creed  of 
the  Church,  but  because  it  is  itself  intrinsically 
reasonable  and  in  harmony  with  the  highest 
and  best  ideas  about  God  and  man. 


cvi 


THE   PERSON   OF  JESUS   CHRIST 


(1)  It  harmonises  ivith  the  idea  that  man  is 
made  in  God's  image.  All  the  higher  forms  of 
religion  assume  that  the  nature  of  God  and 
the  nature  of  man  are  closely  analogous.  The 
gift  of  reason,  the  knowledge  of  right  and 
wrong,  the  freedom  of  the  will,  the  desire  of 
holiness,  and  the  instinctive  seeking  after  God 
which  is  found  to  some  extent  even  in  the 
most  degraded  races,  are  regarded  as  indicating 
that  there  is  a  real  spiritual  affinity  between 
the  Creator  and  the  creature.  The  nature  and 
character  of  God  are  manifested  to  some 
extent  in  the  works  of  physical  nature,  but  far 
more  fully  and  adequately  in  the  rational  and 
spiritual  nature  of  man,  which,  even  in  its 
fallen  state,  is  the  most  God-like  thing  known 
to  us.  It  is,  therefore,  altogether  credible 
that  human  nature  should  be  chosen  as  the 
medium  of  God's  final  revelation  to  the  human 
race.  An  ideally  perfect  human  life,  lived 
under  human  conditions,  and  in  the  midst  of 
ordinary  human  difficulties,  is  a  far  more  satis- 
fying and  morally  fruitful  revelation  than  a 
number  of  abstract  propositions  about  God 
written  in  a  book. 

(2)  T7ie  Incarnation  reveals  GocPs  love  more 
effectually  than  any  other  kind  of  revelation. 

I  That  God  truly  loves  His  creatures  is  in  theory 
a  truth  of  natural  religion,  but  the  present 
order  of  nature  contains  so  much  which  seems 
to  contradict  it,  that  a  special  revelation  in- 
tended to  confirm  it  is  lu'gently  needed.  The 
earthquake,  the  tornado,  and  the  pestilence, 
overwhelm  in  a  common  destruction  the  saint 
and  the  sinner.  Nature  seems  an  adamantine 
system  of  blind  resistless  forces,  which  roll  on 
for  ever,  careless  of  human  needs  and  human 
tears  or  groans.  What,  therefore,  is  impera- 
tively required  in  a  revelation  designed  to 
satisfy  human  needs  is  some  definite  and  tan- 
gible proof,  other  than  words,  that  nature  is 
ruled  by  a  personal  Being  friendly  to  the 
human  race,  and  attentive  to  the  needs  of 
individual  men.  Such  proof  is  offered  by  the 
Incarnation.  God  did  not  simply  send  a  mes- 
sage from  heaven  announcing  that  He  is 
friendly  to  the  human  race  ;  He  sent  His  own 
Son  to  live  a  human  life,  to  struggle  like  other 
men  against  sin,  to  suffer  human  sorrow,  toil  and 
disappointment,  and  finally  to  die  a  martyr's 
death.  In  Christ  God  shows  His  sympathy 
with  our  sufferings  by  suffering  with  us  ;  '  for 

,we  have  not  a  high  priest  that  cannot  be 
touched  with  the  feeling  of  our  infirmities, 
but  one  that  hath  been  in  all  points  tempted 
as  we  ire,  yet  without  sin.' 

But  it  was  not  only  in  suffering,  but  also  in 
acting,  that  Jesus  Christ  manifested  the  love  of 
God.  He  '  went  about  doing  good,  and  healing 
all  who  were  oppressed  with  the  devil,  for  God 
was  with  him.'  He  restored  reason  to  the 
insane,  sight  to  the  blind,  muscular  power  to 


the  paralysed,  life  to  the  dead.  Every  miracle 
which  He  wrought  was  a  miracle  of  benevolence, 
intended  to  convince  men  that  the  Father 
whose  nature  He  came  to  manifest,  was  truly 
a  lover  of  men,  and  truly  kind  and  just. 

(3)  The  Incarnation  is  the  most  adequate  loay 
that  ive  can  imagine  of  atoning  for  sin.  The 
chief  barrier  between  God  and  man  is  sin,  and 
the  religious  instinct  of  our  race  recognises  that 
man  cannot  of  himself  remove  that  barrier. 
Superficial  thinkers  sometimes  affirm  that  no 
reconciliation  with  God  is  necessary,  or  that, 
if  it  is,  it  can  be  effected  by  human  penitence. 
There  is  truth  in  this,  but  only  a  half-truth. 
It  is  quite  true  that  penitence  is  the  natural 
and  fitting  atonement  for  sin.  Thus  when  one 
human  being  sins  against  another,  penitence 
is  accepted  as  an  adequate  atonement.  Even 
in  the  case  of  a  sin  against  God,  a  really 
adequate  repentance  would  be  an  adequate 
atonement.  But  the  awakened  conscience  of 
man  knows  that  this  is  impossible.  His  peni- 
tence for  sin,  like  all  his  other  virtuous  acts, 
is  weak  and  ineffectual,  and  he  needs  some 
transforming  power  which  will  make  his  peni- 
tence perfect.  The  Incarnation  provides  for 
this.  The  Incarnate  Son  of  God  as  head  of 
the  human  race,  and  as  responsible  for  it, 
renders  to  God  adequate  sorrow  for  the  sins 
of  the  world,  and  gives  individual  men,  through 
their  union  with  Him,  grace  to  attain  deeper 
and  deeper  penitence,  until  in  the  end  their 
penitence  will  become  perfect,  and  God  will 
accept  it  as  adequate. 

(4)  The  It/carnation  is  designed  to  make  siji- 
less  perfection  possible,  not  at  o?ice,  hut  in  due 
course.  It  effects  this  not  simply  by  the  in- 
spiring influence  of  Chi-ist's  perfect  example, 
but  by  means  of  constant  supplies  of  super- 
natural grace  given  to  those  who  are  really 
walking  by  faith.  According  to  the  Christian 
theory,  Christ  by  virtue  of  His  holy  Incarna- 
tion becomes  the  new  ancestor  of  the  human 
race.  As  by  our  natural  birth  and  training 
we  inherit  the  evil  nature  and  sinful  tendencies 
of  our  ancestors,  so  by  our  new  and  spiritual 
birth  we  are  made  partakers  of  Christ's  holy 
and  sinless  human  nature,  and  in  its  strength 
are  enabled  to  obtain  complete  victory  over 
sin.  This  sounds  mystical,  and  to  some  minds 
fanciful,  but  it  represents  the  central  and  vital 
religious  experience  of  Christians.  All  who 
have  advanced  far  in  the  religious  life  testify 
that  through  Christ  they  have  been  brought 
into  vital  union  with  God,  and  have  received 
a  new  strength  against  the  powers  of  evil. 

(5)  The  Incarnation  achieves  most  perfectly 
the  supreme  end  of  religion,  the  complete  union 
hetween  the  worshipper  and  tlif  object  of  toor- 
ship.  In  Christ  human  nature  is  personally 
united  to  God,  and  since  individual  believers 
are  related  to  Christ  as  members  to  the  head, 


cvu 


THE   PERSON   OF  JESUS   CHRIST 


or  as  branches  to  the  trunk,  they  are  thereby 
brought  into  supernatural  union  with  the 
life  of  God.  In  this  world  the  full  fruition 
of  the  divine  life  is  not  attained ;  but  in  the 
world  to  come,  when  human  nature  has  been 
perfected  through  suif  ering,  and  cleansed  from 
all  stain  of  sin,  every  true  believer  will  see 
God  as  He  is,  and  will  be  united  to  Him  per- 
fectly by  knowledge  and  love,  and  will  so  fully 
partake  of  His  nature  as  to  be  in  a  manner 
'  deified.' 

(6)  The  Incamatio7i  emphasises  human  soli- 
darity a7i(l  human  brotherhood.  The  humanity 
of  Christ  is  not  individual  or  racial,  but  uni- 
versal. He  is  the  ideal  of  humanity  as  a  whole 
realised,  and  in  Him  races  and  individuals  are 
brought  into  spiritual  fellowship  with  one 
another,  and  form  one  Church,  family,  or 
brotherhood.  The  Incarnation  saves  men 
not  as  individuals,  btit  as  members  of  the  body 
of  Christ,  and  makes  the  performance  of  social 
duties  indispensable  to  admittance  into  the 
Kingdom  of  Heaven. 

4.  Christ's  Deity.  Having  shown  the 
reasonable  character  of  the  Christian  doctrine 
of  the  Incarnation,  we  shall  now  proceed 
to  state  briefly  the  direct  evidence  for  Christ's 
Divinity. 

(1)  Christ's  Divinity  ivas  accepted  hy  the 
earliest  believers^  not  only  of  the  Gentile,  but 
also  of  the  Jewish-Christian  Churches. 

The  Pauline  Epistles,  of  which  all  except 
the  Pastorals  are  practically  undisputed,  fall 
between  the  dates  .51  a.d.  (1,2  Th)  and  about 
67  A.D.  (2  Tim).  From  them  it  appears  that 
as  early  as  twenty  years  after  the  Ascension 
the  doctrine  of  Christ's  Deity  was  already 
firmly  established  in  the  Church.  It  is  not 
argued  about  or  proved,  but  assumed  as  one 
of  those  fundamental  ideas  about  which  Chris- 
tians are  agreed.  Thus  it  is  stated  that  He 
existed  before  He  was  born  into  the  world 
(1  Cor  10 '1' 9),  and  indeed  before  all  creation 
(Col  1 1'^),  in  a  state  of  equality  with  God 
(Phil  2  6)  ;  that  He  created  the  world  as  the 
Father's  agent,  and  still  sustains  it  in  exist- 
ence (Col  116, 17  1  Cor  8  6)  ;  that  to  redeem  the 
human  race  He  became  man  (Gal  4  *),  and  died 
upon  the  Cross  (Col  1 20)  ;  that  He  dwells  in 
believers  as  the  source  of  their  spiritual  life 
(2  Cor  135);  that  He  is  the  Son  of  God  (Ro832), 
and  actually  God  (RoO^  Tit  2  is  RV),  and 
therefore  to  be  worshipped  with  divine  honours 
by  angels  and  men  in  His  divine  and  human 
natures  (Phil  2  lO).  Prayer  to  Him  is  so  much 
a  matter  of  course,  that  Christians  are  spoken  of 
as  '  those  that  call  upon  His  name  '  (1  Cor  1  2). 
A  certain  real  subordination  of  Christ  to  the 
Father,  as  being  His  Son,  St.  Paul  admits 
(1  Cor  15  28),  but  He  constantly  unites  His 
name  with  that  of  the  Father  on  terms  of 
equality    as    the    author   of    grace,    blessing, 


and  all  well-being  (2  Cor  13 1*).  That  in  all 
the  Churches  founded  by  St.  Paul,  Jesus 
was  reverenced  as  a  Divine  Being,  can 
scarcely  be  doubted  by  any  careful  reader  of 
his  Epistles. 

But  now  perhaps  it  will  be  said,  '  How  can 
we  be  sure  that  St.  Paul's  view  was  shared  by 
the  other  Apostles  ?  Is  it  not  possible  that 
the  Twelve  regarded  Jesus  as  a  purely  human 
Messiah,  and  that  it  was  St.  Paul  who  first 
introduced  into  the  Church  the  idea  that  He 
was  divine  ?  '  We  are  fortunately  not  without 
the  means  of  answering  this  question.  The 
Pauline  Epistles  themselves  furnish  us  with 
important  evidence.  From  them  we  learn 
that  though  the  relations  between  St.  Paul 
and  the  Twelve  were  not  always  harmonious, 
and  that  theological  disputes  at  times  waxed 
hot,  yet  those  disputes  were  about  questions 
of  inferior  moment  (e.g.  the  obligation  of 
Circumcision  and  of  the  Ceremonial  Law,  the 
position  of  Gentile  Christians  in  the  Church, 
the  relative  authority  of  St.  Paul  and  the 
Twelve),  and  that  on  all  matters  of  funda- 
mental importance  the  parties  were  agreed. 
We  learn  that  the  Apostle  of  the  Gentiles 
laid  before  the  pillars  of  Jewish  Christianity 
a  statement  of  the  gospel  which  he  preached, 
that  they  declared  themselves  satisfied,  de- 
manded no  modifications  whatever  in  his 
doctrine,  and  gave  him  '  the  right  hands  of 
fellowship '  as  an  Apostle  of  the  true  faith 
(Gal  2 1-10).  In  accordance  with  this,  St.  Paul 
uniformly  assumes  that  his  own  gospel  and 
that  of  the  Twelve  is  identical  (see,  e.g., 
1  Cor  1511,  'Therefore  whether  it  were  I  or 
they,  so  we  preach,  and  so  ye  believed '), 
which  he  could  not  have  done  unless  there 
had  been  agreement  upon  the  crucial  doctrine 
of  Christ's  person,  and  His  relationship  to 
God  and  man. 

But  we  have  still  more  definite  evidence 
than  this.  The  leader  of  the  Twelve  has  left 
an  Epistle,  which  was  unquestioned  in  the 
early  Church,  and  which  is  supported  by 
testimonies  so  numerous  and  so  ancient,  that 
to  reject  it  is  most  hazardous.  From  Clement 
of  Rome  (95  a.d.),  Polycarp  (110  a.d.),  and 
Papias  (130  a.d.),  a  long  line  of  definite  and 
coherent  testimony  establishes  the  antiquity 
and  authority  of  the  First  Epistle  of  Peter. 
This  document  presents  a  view  of  the  person 
of  Christ  in  essential  agreement  with  that  of 
St.  Paul.  According  to  this  Epistle,  Christ 
existed  before  His  nativity,  for  it  was  He  who 
inspired  the  Old  Testament  prophets  (lH). 
His  death  has  a  supernatural  efficacy,  being 
an  atoning  sacrifice,  which  procured  for  man- 
kind the  remission  of  sins  (12,  is  921,24  3 16). 
He  is  now  at  God's  right  hand,  invested  with 
supreme  authority  over  the  universe,  so  that 
even  the  angels  obey  Him  (3  22).     He  will  come 


cvui 


THE   PERSON   OF  JESUS   CHRIST 


again    to    judge    the    world  (l^.is   45,12  53) 
He  is  the  centre  of  Christian  love  and  devo- 
tion (1^).     He  is  the  one  Mediator  through 
whom  the  Father  can  be  approached  in  wor- 
ship and  prayer  (2'^  4ii).     He  is  mystically 
united  to   His  people,   and   present    in   their 
hearts    (Si^'i^    S^O'i'*).      Salvation    is    given 
through  Him,  and  through  faith  in  Him  (l^ 
5^*^).     The  absolute  Divinity  of  Christ  is  espe- 
cially apparent  in  1 11,  where  the  Holy  Ghost 
who  inspired  the  ancient  prophets,  is  declared 
to   be   the   Spirit  of   Christ.     Less  certain   is 
the  doxology  (4ii),  which,  though  it  probably 
refers  to   Christ,   may   perhaps    refer   to   the 
Father.     It  is  clear,  therefore,  that  St.  Peter's 
doctrine  of  the- person  of  Christ  closely  resem- 
bles that  of  St.  Paul,  and  that  not  only  in  the 
Gentile,  but  also  in  the  Hebrew  Churches  a 
very  high  conception  of  Christ's   person  was 
taught.      Such    other    evidence    as   we    have 
points  in  the  same  direction.     The  strongly 
attested,  and  in  ancient  times  undisputed.  First 
Epistle  of  John  regards  Christ  as  existing  with 
the    Father    before    His    Incarnation    as    His 
'  Logos,'  or  '  Word,'  and  sharing  His  eternal 
divine  life  (1^'-),  as  manifested  in  the  flesh  to 
destroy  the  works  of  the  devil,  to  take  away 
sin,  and  to  give  eternal  life  to  men  (1^  3^  4^ 
3^),  as  atoning  by  His  death  for  the  sins  of 
the  whole  world,  and  by  His  blood  cleansing 
the  soul  from  sin  (1^  2  2,  etc.),  and  as  so  in- 
separably one  with  the  Father,  that  both  are 
equally  the  objects  of  saving  faith  (2  23-25^  etc.). 
The  disputed,  but  very  ancient  and  probably 
genuine  Epistle  of  James,  coordinates  Christ 
with  God  quite  in  the  manner  of  St.  Paul 
(11),  calls  Him  'the  Lord  of  glory'  (2i),  a 
title  suggestive   of    superhuman    dignity   and 
power,  and  looks  for  His  Second  Coming  to 
Judgment  (2  §'  9).     The  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews, 
which,  though  not  by  an  Apostle,  was  written 
by  a  disciple  of  the  Apostles,  regards  Christ 
as  eternal  (1 12  13  s),  as  the  agent  of  the  leather 
in  creation    (l^.iO),    as  the    sustainer   of    the 
universe  (1^),  as  the  superior  of  the  angels 
and  the  object  of  their  worship  (1  ■*-•').     The 
early  speeches  of  St.  Peter  in  Acts,  recorded 
by  a  companion  of  St.  Paul,  represent  Christ 
as  '  Lord  of   all,'  i.e.  of  the  whole  universe 
(10  ^•'),   as  the  Dispenser  of  the   Holy  Spirit 
(232),  as  the  Prince  or  Author  of  life  (3i5),  as 
the  sole  Mediator  between  God  and  men,  and 
only  giver    of   salvation   (4  2j,    as    sinless  (3** 
7^2),   and   as  the  future   judge  of  quick  and 
dead  (10  "^2),      Already   at    this    early    period 
Christ  was  invoked  in  prayer  by  the  Church 
of  Jerusalem  (Ac  7  s^,  probably  also  1  2-1),  and 
Christians  were  described  as  those  '  who  call 
upon  the  Name  '  of  Jesus  (9  !•*). 

(2)  Christ  taufiht  His  oion  divine  Souship. 
The  prevalence  of  such  a  type  of  teaching 
in  the  Apostolic  Church  renders  it  certain  that 


Jesus  must  have  claimed  for  Himself  a  far 
higher  place  in  the  system  of  religion  which 
He  came  to  found,  than  has  been  claimed  by 
the  founders  of  other  religions.  Whei-eas  such 
teachers  as  Gautama,  Mahomet,  and  Confucius 
have  claimed  faith  in  their  doctrines,  not  in 
their  persons,  Jesus  evidently  claimed  faith 
in  His  person,  and  submission  to  His  authority, 
of  an  altogether  unique  kind.  Our  direct 
knowledge  of  the  teaching  of  Jesus  is  almost 
confined  to  the  Four  Gospels.  Of  these  the 
Second  is  universally  recognised  to  be  based 
upon  the  reminiscences  of  St.  Peter,  the  First 
to  have  behind  it  (at  least  in  its  reports  of  our 
Lord's  discourses)  the  authority  of  St.  Matthew, 
and  the  Third  to  have  been  compiled  by  a 
companion  of  St.  Paul  from  authentic  sources. 
As  to  the  Fourth  Gospel  there  is  less  agree- 
ment among  critics.  Its  direct  authorship  by 
St.  John  is  strongly  maintained  in  this  Com- 
mentary in  accordance  with  the  prevailing 
opinion  among  English  scholars,  but  as  there 
is  less  agreement  upon  the  point  among 
German  critics,  and  we  wish  to  reach  abso- 
lutely unquestionable  results,  we  shall  only 
use  its  testimony  in  this  article  to  corroborate 
the  statements  made  by  other  authorities. 

St.  Mark's  Gospel  contains  hardly  any  of 
our  Lord's  discourses,  and  therefore  very  little 
that  bears  directly  upon  our  present  enquiry. 
Nevertheless,  it  is  clear  even  from  this  Gospel 
that  Jesus  claimed  superhuman  dignity.  He 
was  put  to  death  as  a  blasphemer  for  claiming 
to  be  not  merely  the  Messiah,  but  the  Son  of 
God,  and  prophesying  His  future  session  at 
God's  right  hand,  and  Second  Coming  to 
Judgment  (Mkl4e2).  To  His  death  He  at- 
tributed a  significance  unintelligible  on  the 
assumption  that  He  was  a  mere  human  being. 
His  death.  He  taught,  was  '  a  ransom  for  many' 
(10-*5),  a  propitiation  for  sin,  and  the  establish- 
ment of  a  new  covenant  between  God  and  man 
(1424).  Even  while  admitting  His  ignorance 
as  man  of  the  day  and  hour  of  His  Second 
Coming,  He  assigned  to  Himself  a  position  in 
the  scale  of  being  above  the  angels,  and  second 
only  to  that  of  the  Supreme  Father  Himself 
('But  of  that  day  or  that  hour  knoweth  no 
one,  not  even  the  angels  in  heaven,  neither 
the  Son,  but  the  Father,'  1332,  where  notice 
the  absolute  use  of  the  title  '  the  Son  '  as  in 
the  Fourth  Gospel). 

St.  Mark's  evidence  is  confirmed  by  the 
more  copious  evidence  of  the  discourses  of 
Jesus,  recorded  in  the  First  and  Third  Gospels. 
Here  we  find  Jesus  demanding  unlimited  faith 
in  His  own  Person — a  faith  so  intense,  and  a 
devotion  so  consuming,  that  none  but  God  can 
rightly  claim  it  (Lk  142(3  Mt  10 1*.  is,  32, 33, 37, 40 
1 1 2S).  He  speaks  with  an  authority  higher 
than  that  of  a  prophet  ;  by  His  own  authority 
revising  the  Mosaic  Law,  even  the  sacred  words 


cix 


THE   PERSON   OF  JESUS   CHRIST 


spoken  by  God  Himself  on  Sinai  (MtS^i*-). 
Specially  insistent  is  His  claim  to  be  the 
future  judge  of  the  world.  It  is  found  even 
in  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount,  which  is  some- 
times stated  to  be  a  purely  ethical  discourse 
(Mt722.23)^  and  again  and  again  in  the  dis- 
courses which  follow  (Mtl627  Lk  128.40  Mt 
25^^).  It  often  occurs  in  the  parables,  the 
most  characteristic  of  the  utterances  of  Jesus, 
and  the  least  capable  of  alteration  or  per- 
version, e.g.  in  the  parable  of  the  Tares  ('  Let 
both  grow  together  until  the  harvest,  and  in 
the  time  of  harvest  /  will  say  to  the  reapers, 
Gather  ye  together  first  the  tares,  and  bind 
them  in  bundles  to  burn  them  :  but  gather  the 
wheat  into  my  barn.  .  .  So  shall  it  be  in  the 
end  of  the  world.  The  Son  of  man  shall  send 
forth  His  angels,  and  -they  shall  gather  out  of 
His  kingdom  all  things  that  cause  stumbling 
and  them  that  do  iniquity,  and  shall  cast  them 
into  the  furnace  of  fire  ;  there  shall  be  the 
weeping  and  gnashing  of  teeth,'  Mt  IS^'^'^o-^S); 
also  in  the  parable  of  the  Ten  Yirgins,  where  it 
is  undoubtedly  Christ  Himself  who  pronounces 
the  sentence  of  exclusion  (Mt'^251^),  and  in  the 
parable  which  follows  it,  where  Christ  is  repre- 
sented as  going  into  a  far  country,  and  then 
returning  and  recompensing  His  servants  ac- 
cording to  their  behaviour  during  His  absence 
(Mt25l4f.;  cp.  Lkl9i2f).  More  striking  still 
is  the  description  of  the  Last  Judgment  (Mt 
253if-),  where  the  Son  of  man  sits  on  the 
throne  of  His  glory,  summons  all  nations  into 
His  awful  presence,  separates  the  good  from 
the  wicked  as  a  shepherd  divideth  his  sheep 
from  the  goats,  and  says  to  the  former,  '  Come, 
ye  blessed  of  My  Father,  inherit  the  kingdom 
prepared  for  you  from  the  foundation  of  the 
world,'  and  to  the  latter,  '  Depart  from  me,  ye 
cursed,  into  the  eternal  fire  which  is  prepared 
for  the  devil  and  his  angels.' 

Specially  instructive,  as  illustrating  the 
sense  in  which  Jesus  called  Himself  the  Son 
of  God,  is  Mtll27  =  Lkl022,  'All  things  have 
been  delivered  unto  Me  of  My  Father  ;  and 
no  one  knoweth  the  Son  save  the  Father  ; 
neither  doth  any  know  the  Father  save  the 
Son,  and  he  to  whomsoever  the  Son  willeth 
to  reveal  Him.'  In  this  passage,  which  is 
admitted  on  all  hands  to  belong  to  the  original 
'  Logia '  of  St.  Matthew,  the  point  of  greatest 
significance  is  neither  the  omnipotence  granted 
to  the  Son,  nor  the  fact  that  He  alone  knows  the 
Father,  but  the  remarkable  statement  that  the 
nature  of  the  Son  is  so  transcendent,  that  it 
is  apprehended  by  the  Father  alone.  Is  it 
not  clear  that  a  Being  so  exalted  that  He 
shares  the  Father's  omnipotence,  and  is  in- 
capable of  being  understood  by  any  but  Him 
is  no  creature,  but  is  the  Father's  alter  ec/o, 
His  consubstantial  Son,  and  the  sharer  of  His 
throne  and  attributes  ? 


The  divinity  of  Christ  is  so  clearly  the 
doctrine  of  the  Synoptic  Gospels  that  there  is 
no  need  to  adduce  in  its  support  the  evidence 
of  the  baptismal  formula  (Mt28i9).  The 
testimony  for  and  against  the  genuineness  of 
that  formula  has  been  given  with  considerable 
fulness  in  the  Commentary,  and  it  has  been 
shown  that  the  balance  of  evidence  is  decidedly 
in  its  favour  ;  but  whether  it  is  original  or 
whether  it  is  a  later  addition,  the  doctrine  which 
it  represents,  the  essential  divinity  of  the 
Founder  of  Christianity,  is  certainly  original, 
and  forms  an  important  part  of  the  teaching 
of  Christ  Himself  in  the  oldest  strata  of  our 
oldest  authorities.  It  is  certainly  not  the 
fact,  as  is  sometimes  asserted,  that  the  doctrine 
of  Christ's  divinity  is  a  later  addition  to  the 
simplicity  of  the  primitive  Gospel. 

5.  Further  evidence  for  Christ's  Deity.  We 
have  shown  that  the  doctrine  of  the  Incarna- 
tion is  in  full  harmony  with  what  we  know  of 
the  divine  nature  and  of  human  nature,  and 
is  therefore  reasonable.  We  have  also  shown 
that  the  New  Testament  teaches  this  doctrine, 
affirming  that  the  Founder  of  Christianity, 
J  esus  Christ,  is  both  God  and  man.  We  shall 
conclude  with  a  few  plain  reasons  for  accepting 
this  belief,  reminding  the  reader  that  a  full 
discussion  would  require  a  treatise,  not  a  short 
article  like  the  present. 

(1)  Chrisfs  sinlessness.  If  Jesus  Christ  was 
really  God,  His  life  must  have  been  one  of 
absolute  holiness  and  beneficence.  And  this 
was  really  the  case.  His  goodness  is  shown 
in  part  by  the  excellence  of  His  moral  and 
religious  teaching,  which  is  not  derived  from 
other  teachers,  but  is  stamped  with  the 
impress  of  His  own  beautiful  personality. 
The  best  rationalist  opinion  confesses  this. 
Keim  speaks  of  '  the  complete  domination ' 
in  His  life,  '  of  the  idea  of  moral  good,'  and 
adds,  '  The  life  of  Jesus,  both  in  public 
and  private,  was  in  an  eminent  degree  holy 
and  pure,  and  allows  us  as  such  to  infer  a 
previous  unsullied  youth  striving  towards  the 
noble  and  the  exalted.  The  small  defects 
that  have  been  detected  are  no  sins .  .  and 
vanish  like  a  drop  in  the  ocean  of  brilliant 
and  superhuman  achievement.  .  .  We  are  still 
able  to  retain  the  strong  and  joyful  conviction 
that  it  was  Virtue  herself  who  trod  the  earth 
in  Him,  and  that  the  dolorous  confession  made 
by  antiquity  of  the  impossibility  of  sinlessness 
and  of  the  non-existence  of  the  ideal  of  virtue 
and  wisdom  found  in  Him  its  refutation  and 
its  end.'  Similarly  Strauss  says  :  '  This  intui- 
tion of  a  God  good  to  all  [as  expressed  in  the 
Sermon  on  the  Mount]  Jesus  could  only  have 
di-awn  out  of  His  own  being  ;  it  could  only 
have  emanated  out  of  that  universal  benevo- 
lence which  was  the  fundamental  characteristic 
of  His  own  nature,  and  by  which  He   felt 


ex 


THE   PERSON   OF  JESUS   CHRIST 


Himself  in  perfect  harmony  with  God.  .  .  The 
dominant  feature  of  His  character  was  that 
love  which  embraces  all  creatures,  and  He 
makes  of  that  the  fundamental  characteristic 
of  the  Divine  Essence.' 

The  goodness  of  Jesus  is  affirmed  in  the 
strongest  language  by  those  who  have  the  best 
right  to  pronounce  upon  it — those,  namely, 
who  for  nearly  three  years  were  brought  into 
the  closest  daily  contact  with  Him.  Thus  St. 
Peter  represents  Him  as  absolutely  sinless  : 
'  A  lamb  without  blemish  and  without  spot ' 
(1  Pet  1  ^^)  ;  '  who  did  no  sin,  neither  was  guile 
found  in  His  mouth  :  who,  when  He  was 
reviled,  reviled  not  again '  ( 1  Pet  2  22, 2S)  .  '  Christ 
also  suffered  for  sins  once,  the  righteous  for 
the  unrighteous,  that  He  might  bring  us  to 
God  '  (1  Pet  3  1^)  ;  with  which  we  may  compare 
St.  Peter's  confession  (Jn6<59RV),  'We  have 
believed  and  know  that  Thou  art  the  Holy  One 
of  God.' 

St.  John,  the  bosom  friend  of  Jesus,  who 
knew  Him  even  more  intimately  than  St. 
Peter,  speaks  of  Him  as  sinless  :  '  Jesus  Christ 
the  righteous  '  (1  Jn2 1)  ;  'If  ye  know  that  He 
is  righteous,  ye  know  that  every  one  also 
that  doeth  righteousness  is  begotten  of  Him' 
(1  Jn  2  29)  ;  '  We  know  that  He  was  manifested 
to  take  away  sins  ;  and  in  Him  is  no  sin ' 
(lJn35). 

Even  the  traitor  Judas  recognised  the  good- 
ness of  Jesus,  for  '  he  repented  himself,'  and 
said,  '  I  have  sinned  in  that  I  have  betrayed 
the  innocent  blood'  (Mt273.4). 

The  goodness  of  Jesus  is  also  affirmed  by 
those  who  were  in  no  way  connected  with 
Him  :  by  Pilate  ('  I  am  innocent  of  the  blood 
of  this  just  person,'  Mt27  24  ;  'Why,  what  evil 
hath  He  done  ? '  MklS^*  ;  '  I  find  no  fault  in 
this  man,'  Lk234,H,22  Jnlgss  194,6,12);  by 
Pilate's  wife  ('  Have  thou  nothing  to  do  with 
that  just  man,'  Mt27 1'^)  ;  by  one  of  the  thieves 
('  This  man  hath  done  nothing  amiss,'  Lk234i); 
by  the  centurion  ('  Certainly  this  man  was 
righteous,'  Lk  23 '*'■). 

Specially  to  be  noted  in  this  connexion  is 
the  fact  that  Jesus  was  without  that  conscious- 
ness of  sin  which  exists  in  the  holiest  of  men 
in  proportion  to  their  holiness.  This  is  a 
point  of  deep  significance.  The  general 
opinion  of  mankind  has  pronounced  sinless- 
ness  impossible.  Demosthenes  attributed  it 
to  the  gods  alone.  Cicero  had  never  found 
or  heard  of  a  perfectly  wise  man.  Mahomet 
expressly  disclaimed  sinlessness,  and  recorded 
in  the  Koran  God's  command  to  him,  '  Pray 
for  the  forgiveness  of  thy  sins.'  Gautama  is 
not  represented  as  having  been  sinless  from 
the  first,  but  as  gradually  attaining  it.  Socrates 
detected  in  his  evil  heart  the  germs  of  all  the 
vices.  Moses  was  guilty  of  serious  sin  (Ex  2 12). 
'  Isaiah  was  a  man  of  unclean  lips '  (Isa  6  ^). 


Elijah  confessed,  '  I  am  not  better  than  my 
fathers'  (IK  194).  St.  Peter  wept  tears  of 
penitence  (Mkl4'^2)  gt.  Paul  confessed  him- 
self the  chief  of  sinners  (1  Tim  1 1^).  St.  John, 
one  of  the  most  blameless  of  all  the  New 
Testament  characters,  says,  '  If  we  say  that 
we  have  no  sin,  we  deceive  ourselves,  and  the 
truth  is  not  in  us  ;  but  if  we  confess  our  sins. 
He  is  faithful  and  just  to  forgive  us  our  sins, 
and  to  cleanse  us  from  all  unrighteousness. 
If  we  say  that  we  have  not  sinned,  we  make 
Him  a  liar  '  (1  Jn  1 S).  Jesus,  on  the  other 
hand,  never  recognised  in  Himself  the  least 
moral  blemish  (for  MklO^'^,  see  the  Com- 
mentary). The  most  explicit  statements  of 
His  sinlessness  are  found  in  the  Fourth  Gospel 
(Jn84G  1430  829  10 11  174),  but  the  synoptic 
evidence  is  really  as  strong.  The  claim  to  be 
the  personified  Moral  Law  of  the  human  race, 
and  in  particular  to  be  not  one  of  the  subjects 
of  judgment  but  the  Judge,  implies  sinless- 
ness. So  does  His  claim  that  His  death  is  a 
propitiatory  sacrifice  for  the  sins  of  the  whole 
world  (Mkl045)_  Quite  decisive  also  is  the 
passage  (Mt  1 1  '^^)  where,  after  declaring  that 
'  no  man  knoweth  the  Father,  save  the  Son,' 
He  says,  '  Come  unto  Me,  all  ye  that  labour 
and  are  heavy  laden,  and  I  will  give  you  rest. 
Take  my  yoke  upon  you  and  learn  of  Me  ; 
for  I  am  meek  and  lowly  in  heart  :  and  ye 
shall  find  rest  unto  your  souls.'  An  invitation 
like  this  could  never  have  been  addi-essed, 
without  extreme  arrogance  and  impiety,  by  a 
sinner  to  fellow-sinners. 

We  have,  therefore,  in  Jesus  the  absolutely 
unique  case  of  a  man  of  vinexampled  holiness, 
and  yet  without  any  consciousness  of  sin. 
This  harmonises  well  with,  and  indeed  suggests 
the  belief,  that  the  personality  of  Jesus  was 
not  merely  human,  but  superhuman. 

(2)  Christ's  miracles.  From  human  nature 
we  expect  works  of  human  capacity,  from 
superhuman  nature  works  of  superhuman 
capacity.  A  natural  Christ  may,  perhaps, 
afford  to  dispense  with  miracles.  A  super- 
natural Christ  cannot.  From  a  supernatural 
Christ  supernatural  works  are  imperatively 
and  rightly  demanded,  and,  if  they  are  not 
forthcoming,  sober  reason  will  be  inclined  to 
conclude  that  the  '  supernatural '  Christ  is  not 
supernatural.  Now  the  ministry  of  Christ  is 
simply  full  of  mighty  works  which  exceed 
human  capacity,  and  can  only  be  regarded  as 
miracles.  The  credibility  of  these  miracles  is 
discussed  in  a  special  article,  to  which  the 
reader  is  referred  ;  all  that  we  have  here  to 
do  is  to  point  out  their  bearing  upon  the 
doctrine  of  Christ's  person.  Every  unpreju- 
diced mind  which  has  come  to  the  conclusion 
that  they  are  true  will  surely  admit,  (1)  that 
they  harmonise  with  and  confirm  the  view 
that  Christ's  personality  was  superhuman  ;  and 


CXI 


THE   PERSON   OF  JESUS   CHRIST 


(2)  that  they  must  be  regarded  as  setting  the 
stamp  of  divine  approval  upon  the  teaching  of 
Jesus,  part  of  which  was,  as  we  have  shown. 
His  Divine  Sonship.  This  is  particularly  the 
case  with  regard  to  the  Resurrection.  Jesus 
was  put  to  death  as  a  blasphemer,  because  He  re- 
affirmed at  His  trial  His  claim  to  be  the  Son  of 
God.  God  the  Father,  by  raising  Him  from  the 
dead,  proclaimed  to  the  world  that  this  claim 
was  true.  St.  Paul,  therefore,  is  perfectly 
justified  in  saying  that  Jesus  was  '  declared  to 
be  the  Son  of  God  with  power,  according  to  the 
spirit  of  holiness,  by  the  resurrection  of  the 
dead  '  (Ro  1  "*)  :  see  art.  '  The  Resurrection.' 

(3)  Chrisfs  influence  upon  the  ivorld.  The 
moral  and  spu'itual  influence  of  Jesus  Christ 
upon  the  world  during  the  last  two  millenniums 
has  been  so  exceedingly  great  as  to  harmonise 
thoroughly  with  the  view  that  He  was  a  divine 
person.  '  It  is  needless,'  says  a  judicious 
writer,  '  to  attempt  to  prove  that  the  supreme 
attractiveness  of  the  Person  of  the  Founder 
of  Christianity  has  imparted  to  the  Church 
the  whole  of  its  vitality.  To  this  fact  all 
history  bears  witness.  Nor  is  its  testimony 
less  certain  that  of  all  the  influences  that  have 
been  exerted  in  this  earth,  that  of  Jesus  has 
been  the  most  potent.  Enumerate  all  the 
great  men  who  have  ever  existed,  whether 
kings,  conquerors,  statesmen,  patriots,  poets, 
philosophers,  or  men  of  science,  and  their 
influence  for  good  will  be  found  to  have  been 
as  nothing  compared  with  that  which  has  been 
exerted  by  Jesus  Christ.  .  .  He  who  was 
in  outward  form  a  Galilean  peasant,  who 
died  a  malefactor's  death,  has  founded  a 
spiritual  empire  which  has  endured  for 
eighteen  centuries  of  time,  and  which,  despite 
the  vaticinations  of  unbelievers,  shows  no  signs 
of  decrepitude.  Commencing  with  the  smallest 
beginnings.  His  empire  now  embraces  all  the 
progressive  races  of  men.  Those  by  whom  it 
has  not  been  accepted  are  in  a  state  of  stagna- 
tion and  decay.  It  is  the  only  one  which  is 
adapted  to  every  state  of  civilisation. 

'  It  differs  from  all  other  states  and  com- 
munities in  that  it  is  founded  neither  on  force 
nor  on  self-interest,  but  on  persuasion  and  the 
supreme  attractiveness  of  the  character  of  its 
Founder.  .  .  History  affirms  that  Jesus  has  not 
only  been  a  great  man  among  great  men,  or  even 
the  greatest  of  them,  but  that  He  stands  at  an 
immeasurable  height  above  them.  He  is  the  one 
only  catholic  man,  the  one  ideal  of  humanity, 
for  whose  presence  in  and  action  on  history 
none  of  the  known  forces  that  energise  in  the 
moral  and  spiritual  worlds  can  account.  "What 
is  the  necessary  inference  from  this  ?  I  answer 
that,  as  those  forces  which  have  energised  in 
man  from  the  day  of  his  appearance  on  this 
earth  have  failed  to  produce  His  fellow,  we 
must  be  in  the  presence  of  a  moral  miracle.' 


(4)  The  argument  from  Christian  experience. 
The  argument  which  looks  weakest  upon  paper, 
but  which  is  really  in  many  ways  the  strongest, 
is  the  argument  from  the  experience  of  be- 
lievers. What  keeps  people  Christian,  and 
adds  to  the  number  of  Christ's  adherents,  is  the 
fact  that  He  really  does  give  to  His  followers 
that  joy,  and  peace,  and  blissful  communion 
with  God,  and  victory  over  the  powers  of  evil, 
which  He  declared  that  He  would.  Those 
who  come  to  Jesus  in  faith  do  not  find  Him 
wanting.  They  receive  from  Him  spiritual 
life  and  vital  power.  Their  characters  are 
gradually  transformed,  and  they  become  capa- 
ble of  acts  of  heroism  and  exalted  virtue, 
which  without  Christ  they  could  not  possibly 
perform.  Their  souls  are  filled  with  serenity 
and  peace  beyond  human  understanding,  which 
not  even  the  fiercest  storms  of  life  can  seriously 
disturb.  Labouring  and  heavy  laden  they 
go  to  their  Lord,  and  in  Him  find  rest  unto 
their  souls. 

(5)  The  great  dilemma.  We  have  been  led 
to  the  conclusion  that  the  Founder  of  Christi- 
anity, who  is  revered  not  only  by  Christians 
but  also  by  most  Freethinkers  as  the  best  of 
men,  and  the  greatest  of  religious  and  moral 
reformers,  claimed  to  be  divine.  This  con- 
clusion is  supported  by  such  varied  and  con- 
vergent evidence,  that  real  doubt  upon  the 
subject  is  precluded.  We  are  therefore  brought 
face  to  face  with  a  very  serious  dilemma  : 
either  the  Author  of  Christianity  was  divine, 
or  He  was  not  good  (aut  Deus  aut  homo  noti 
bonus).  Of  attempts  to  evade  this  dilemma 
the  following  are  the  chief,  (a)  It  has  been 
maintained  that  Jesus  was  insane.  We  reply 
that  it  is  strictly  impossible  that  a  system  of 
religion  and  morality  which  has  commended 
itself  to  the  intellect  and  conscience  of  the 
highest  races  of  the  earth  can  have  been  origin- 
ated by  a  madman,  (i)  It  has  been  maintained 
that  Jesus  believed  Himself  to  be  divine,  not 
because  He  had  any  internal  knowledge  of  the 
fact,  but  because  He  interpreted  the  Old 
Testament  prophecies,  especially  those  of 
Daniel,  as  indicating  that  the  Messiah  would 
be  a  Divine  Person.  We  reply  that  no  mere 
man  who  interpreted  the  prophecies  in  this 
way,  could  (unless  he  was  insane)  possibly 
imagine  Himself  to  be  the  Messiah. 

The  dilemma,  then,  cannot  be  evaded. 
Either  Christ  was  divine,  as  He  claimed  to 
be,  or  He  was  a  deceiver.  A  deceiver  He 
cannot  have  been,  because  He  founded  the 
purest  system  of  religion  and  morals  that  has 
ever  been  presented  to  the  world.  He  must, 
therefore,  have  been  divine,  as  the  Apostles 
themselves,  and  the  Church  ever  since  their 
day,  have  believed. 

The  notes  on  Lk2iO  Mkl332  and  Phil  2  7 
should  be  consulted. 


cxn 


THE  TRINITY 


Although  the  exact  theological  definition 
of  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  was  the'  result 
of  a  long  process  of  development,  which  was 
not  complete  till  the  fifth  century  or  even 
later,  the  doctrine  itself  underlies  the  whole 
New  Testament,  which  everywhere  attributes 
divinity  to  the  Father,  the  Son,  and  the  Spirit, 
and  assigns  to  them  distinct  functions  in  the 
economy  of  human  redemption.  The  New 
Testament  mainly  contemplates  the  relations 
of  the  Divine  Persons  to  man  and  the  universe, 
regarding  the  Father  as  Creator,  the  Son  as 
Mediator  and  Redeemer,  and  the  Spirit  as 
Sanctifier  (the  '  economic  '  Trinity)  ;  but  hints 
are  not  wanting  that  this  threefold  function  in 
creation  and  redemption  is  an  outward  mani- 
festation of  certain  inward  and  eternal  dis- 
tinctions in  the  Godhead  Itself  (the  '  essential ' 
Trinity).  In  the  early  Church  the  Monarch- 
ians,  and  especially  the  Sabellians,  laid  such 
exclusive  stress  upon  the  '  economic '  Trinity, 
that  they  denied  that  there  are  any  real  dis- 
tinctions in  the  Godhead  at  all,  and  taught 
that  Father,  Son,  and  Spirit  are  only  three 
different  modes  in  which  the  One  Personal 
God  reveals  Himself  to  and  acts  upon  man. 
The  main  current  of  Christian  thought,  how- 
ever, has  always  held  firmly  to  the  belief  that 
the  terms  Father,  Son,  and  Holy  Spirit  repre- 
sent eternal  and  necessary  distinctions,  and 
those  of  a  personal  and  ethical  as  well  as  of  a 
merely  metaphysical  kind,  within  the  Divine 
Substance.  Christians  have  seen  in  the  doc- 
trine of  the  Trinity  not  only  an  intellectual, 
but  also  a  moral  and  spiritual  revelation  of  the 
highest  importance. 

I.  Personality  Human  and  Divine.  Theism 
regards  God  as  personal,  and  Christianity  as 
tri-personal,  but  the  term  '  person,'  as  applied 
to  God  and  to  the  '  Persons '  in  God,  is  not 
used  in  quite  the  same  sense  as  that  in  which  it 
is  used  of  human  beings.  The  first  distinction 
is  that  human  personality  is  finite,  and  Divine 
Personality  infinite.  This  constitutes  so  enor- 
mous a  difference,  that  some  thinkers  deny  that 
God  can  be  conceived  of  as  personal.  Person- 
ality, they  say,  is  essentially  finite  ;  it  is  a 
definite  thing  marked  off  and  distinguished  by 
certain  boundaries  from  other  things,  and  if 
those  boundaries  are  removed,  personality 
ceases  to  be.  Moreover,  they  maintain,  even 
if  personality  could  be  predicated  without 
contradiction  of  God,  it  is  of  the  nature  of  a 
limitation  or  imperfection,  and  therefore  could 
not  be  appropriately  attributed  to  a  Perfect 
Being. 

h  cxiii 


We  reply  that  though  limitation  character- 
ises the  imperfect  personality  of  man,  it  is 
no  part  of  the  essential  idea  of  personality. 
When  a  being  is  spoken  of  as  '  personal,'  it  is 
meant  among  other  things  less  important  (1) 
that  he  is  intelligent,  (2)  that  he  is  self- 
conscious,  (3)  that  he  possesses  will.  Now 
not  one  of  these  qualities  implies,  of  itself, 
any  limitation  or  imperfection.  It  is  as  easy 
to  conceive  a  perfect  intelligence,  knowing  all 
actual  and  possible  things,  as  to  conceive  a 
limited  intelligence  like  man's.  Intelligence, 
therefore,  in  a  perfect  and  infinite  degree  can 
be  legitimately  predicated  of  God.  Self- 
consciousness,  again,  is  implied  in  perfect  in- 
telligence ;  for  if  a  perfectly  intelligent  Being 
did  not  know  Himself,  His  intelligence  would 
be  limited.  Will,  in  like  manner,  is  capable 
of  real  perfection  ;  it  does  not  necessarily  imply 
any  limitation  of  nature.  It  is  as  easy  to 
conceive  of  a  Will  absolutely  free  and  in- 
finitely powerful,  as  to  conceive  of  a  limited 
will  like  man's.  It  is  perfectly  legitimate, 
therefore,  to  say  that  God  possesses  a  Will 
adequate  to  His  Intelligence — that  is,  that  He 
is  able  to  achieve  all  that  is  possible.  Person- 
ality, therefore,  being  potentially  infinite,  can 
be  ascribed,  not  only  without  contradiction,  but 
with  propriety  and  truth,  as  the  least  inade- 
quate term  known  to  us,  to  the  Infinite  and 
Absolute  God. 

The  second  distinction  is  that,  whereas 
human  personality  stands  outside  and  excludes 
every  personality  except  its  own,  the  Divine 
Persons  of  the  Trinity  mutually  pervade,  inter- 
penetrate, include,  and  contain  one  another. 
This  wonderful  quality  (technically  known  as 
perichoresis,  c/rcumhicessio,  or  circuminseKfiio) 
cannot  be  distinctly  conceived  of  by  us  from 
lack  of  any  analogous  experience  among  human 
persons.  Perhaps  the  best  way  of  gaining 
some  faint  glimpse  of  what  it  means,  is  to  start 
with  the  idea  of  human  sympathy,  and  to 
imagine  it  infinitely  deepened  and  extended. 
If  it  were  possible  in  the  case  of  two  friends, 
for  the  one  not  only  to  know  the  thought  or 
feeling  or  resolution  present  in  the  mind  of 
the  other,  but  also  to  feel  it  in  his  own  mind 
as  his  own  thought  or  feeling  or  resolution,  we 
should  have  a  human  analogy,  real  though 
extremely  inadequate,  of  the  far  closer  and 
more  exalted  union  and  communion  which 
subsist  among  the  Divine  Persons. 

2.  The  Trinity  and  the  Divine  Self-Con- 
sciousness. In  man  self-consciousness  only 
arises  when  the  self  distinguishes  itself  from 


THE   TRINITY 


the  not-self,  i.e.  when  the  thinking  subject  has 
present  to  its  consciousness  some  object  of 
thought  distinct  from   itself. 

Now  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  indicates 
that  what  is  true  of  man  is  true  also  of 
God.  From  eternity  the  Father  and  the  Son 
were  personally  distinct  beings,  knowing  one 
another  and  themselves  as  such,  and  conse- 
quently for  the  Trinitarian  there  is  no  difficulty 
in  understanding  how  God  was  self-conscious 
even  before  the  world  was  created,  i.e.  before 
there  was  any  created  not-self  from  which  He 
could  distinguish  Himself. 

3.  The  Trinity  and  God's  Moral  Perfection. 
Since  Christ  taught  the  supremacy  of  love 
and  the  duty  of  universal  benevolence,  it  has 
come  to  be  felt  and  acknowledged  with  increas- 
ing clearness,  that  love  is  the  most  beautiful 
of  human  virtues,  and  the  most  adorable  of 
the  Divine  Perfections.  But  perfect  love  is 
only  possible  between  equals.  Just  as  a 
man  cannot  satisfy  or  realise  his  powers  of 
love  by  loving  the  lower  animals,  so  God 
cannot  satisfy  or  realise  His  love  by  loving 
man  or  any  creature.  If  God  is  truly  Love, 
in  the  full  sense  of  that  term.  He  must  have 
always  possessed  some  equal  object  of  His 
love,  some  alter  ego,  or,  to  use  the  language  of 
Christian  theology,  a  consubstantial,  co-eternal, 
and  co-equal  Son. 

4.  The  Trinity  and  Social  Life.     An  ideally 


perfect  life  is  a  social  life.  A  life  lived  in 
the  exercise  of  friendship,  social  intercourse, 
and  benevolence,  is  a  far  higher  life  than  that 
of  a  recluse,  who  seeks  to  attain  perfection  in 
solitude.  If,  therefore,  the  life  of  the  God- 
head is  as  perfect  as  can  be  conceived,  it  must 
be  a  social  life — that  is  to  say,  there  must 
exist  within  the  Divine  Unity  a  plurality 
of  Persons,  among  whom  the  most  perfect 
fellowship  exists.  This  conception  of  the 
Godhead  as  a  Perfect  Society,  characteristic 
of  Trinitarianism,  is  ethically  more  fruitful, 
and  practically  more  stimulating  than  that  of 
Unitarianism,  which  regards  God  as  an  iso- 
lated Person,  incapable  of  social  life,  or  of  any 
real  love  but  self-love.  The  Trinitarian,  and 
the  Trinitarian  alone,  is  able  to  discern  perfect 
love  realised  in  his  object  of  worship,  and  to 
recognise  in  the  essential  Nature  of  the  God- 
head, the  perfect  pattern  of  the  Family,  of  the 
Church  and  of  the  State. 

5.  The  Ne-w  Testament  Doctrine.  The 
leading  Trinitarian  texts  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment are  discussed  in  the  Commentary. 
Reference  should  be  made  to  Mt3i3f.  28i9 
Lkl35  Jnl4,  15,  16  (especially  1416  1526 
1613-15),  lCorl23-6  2Corl3i3  lPetli.2  (IJn 
5'^).  For  the  Deity  of  the  Son,  see  art.  '  Person 
of  Jesus  Christ.'  For  the  Deity  and  Person- 
ality of  the  Holy  Ghost,  see  also  Jnl4is-26 
1526  167  2022  Ac233  Ro826  Gal46. 


CUV 


MIRACLE 


I.  Introductory.  The  attitude  of  the  op- 
ponents of  supernatural  religion  towards 
Miracle  has  changed  very  considerably  during 
the  last  two  centuries.  The  old  frontal  assault 
of  the  Deists,  routed  by  men  like  Butler  and 
Paley  with  weapons  that  are  now  largely  out 
of  date,  has  been  succeeded  by  flank  attacks, 
(1)  from  the  direction  of  historical  and  literary 
criticism,  and  (2)  from  that  of  a  more  modern 
natural  science.  First  a  vigorous  attempt 
was  made  by  the  celebrated  Tubingen  school 
of  critics  to  discredit  the  documentary  evi- 
dence, and  the  New  Testament  passed  through 
a  severe  fire  of  criticism  from  which  it  issued 
stronger  than  ever.  The  old  traditional  and 
uncritical  views,  though  modified  at  points, 
were  in  general  deliberately  and  distinctly 
confirmed.  As  a  result  of  this  fierce  attack 
the  relation  of  the  documents  to  the  tra- 
ditional Christian  faith  remains  unaltered, 
and  their  unique  value  as  historical  evidence 
of  the  first  importance  has  been  established  on 
a  new  basis.  Criticism  of  a  more  or  less 
hostile  tendency  and  of  a  progressively  search- 
ing character  still  continues,  and  from  time 
to  time  throws  important  light  on  some  aspect 
of  the  problems  concerned.  But  the  trust- 
worthy character  of  the  New  Testament 
documents  as  a  whole  may  be  regarded  as 
established  permanently,  on  firmer  ground 
than  ever  before. 

After  the  New  Testament,  the  Old.  We 
axe  all  familiar  with  the  recent  controversies 
raised  by  what  is  called  '  the  Higher  Criti- 
cism '  ;  and  we  may  readily  admit  that  it  has 
modified  very  considerably  our  views  of  the 
external  history  and  development  of  the 
documents  in  question.  It  has  not,  however, 
shaken  our  belief  in  inspiration,  nor  impaired 
the  value  of  the  Old  Testament  writings  as 
the  record  of  the  earlier  stages  of  God's 
progressive  revelation  to  mankind.  On  the 
contrary,  we  may  thankfully  admit  that  the 
assured  results  of  criticism,  as  distinct  from 
its  unverifiable  speculations,  have  made  clearer 
the  stages  of  that  revelation,  and  have  given 
back  to  us  the  human  aspect  of  the  Bible 
without  taking  away  the  divine. 

We  shall  be  justified,  then,  in  approaching 
our  subject  in  the  simplest  and  most  straight- 
forward way,  taking  for  granted  the  general 
trustworthiness  of  the  documents,  though 
ready,  as  we  go  along,  to  deal  with  any  special 
points  that  may  come  up  before  us. 

If  the  Bible  really  contains,  as  we  believe, 


the  record  of  God's  revelation  of  Himself  to 
men,  we  should  expect  it,  while  clearly  in  touch 
with  every-day  human  life,  to  abound  in 
traces  of  its  special  origin  and  purpose.  We 
should  expect  it  to  offer  us  frequent  glimpses 
of  a  higher  order  of  things,  beyond  the  range 
of  our  ordinary  perception — to  exhibit,  in  fact, 
a  miraculous  element. 

And  such,  indeed,  is  the  case.  The  purpose 
of  this  article  is  to  emphasise  and  illustrate 
this  fact  :  to  show  that  the  Miraculous  is  too 
closely  interwoven  into  the  texture  of  the 
Bible  to  be  removable  ;  then  to  consider  the 
cause  and  purpose  of  its  presence  there,  and 
its  place  as  an  integral  and  essential  part  of 
Revelation.  Thus  we  may  find  ourselves  in 
a  position  to  meet  the  objections  that  are 
often  urged  against  the  possibility  of  Miracle, 
on  the  ground  that  it  contradicts  the  scientific 
principle  of  Natural  Law.  A  general  treat- 
ment alone  will  be  possible  here.  For  further 
suggestions  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  notes 
on  the  various  passages  in  which  the  most 
important  miracles  are  recorded. 

2.  Miracle  inseparable  from  the  Bible, 
When  we  assert  that  Miracle  is  an  integral 
part  of  the  Bible  we  mean  that  the  miracu- 
lous considered  generally — whatever  may  be 
thought  of  particular  instances — is  too  closely 
interwoven  into  the  texture  of  the  Bible  to 
be  removable  without  destroying  the  character 
of  the  records. 

The  consideration  of  the  claims  of  individual 
miracles  is  quite  another  question.  We  are 
not  compelled  to  put  all  miracles  on  the  same 
footing,  either  as  regards  their  importance  or 
as  regards  their  attestation.  We  may  be  will- 
ing to  admit  that  the  evidence  for  the  different 
events  recorded  in  the  Bible,  or  the  evidence 
that  such  and  such  recorded  events  were 
miraculous,  varies  considerably. 

For  instance,  the  external  attestation  of  our 
Lord's  Resurrection  is  stronger  than  that  avail- 
able for  any  other  of  the  biblical  miracles,  or 
indeed  for  any  other  event  of  ancient  history. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  documentary  evidence 
for  His  Virgin  birth  is  less  strong,  though  it 
has  the  combined  and  (in  general)  harmonious 
witness  of  two  obviously  independent  nar- 
ratives, and  receives  full  corroboration  from 
the  otherwise  unaccountal)le  difference  be- 
tween His  recorded  life  and  character  and  that 
of  any  other  human  being.  In  the  case  of 
the  Old  Testament  the  external  evidence  is, 
throughout,    naturally    less   abundant.      But 


cxv 


MIRACLE 


here  also  we  find  varying  degrees  of  attest- 
ation. That  an  exodus  from  Egypt,  in  some 
sense  miraculous,  took  place  in  the  time  of 
Moses,  is  a  fact  which — as  the  many  and 
varied  references  testify — has  stamped  itself 
too  clearly  upon  the  Hebrew  consciousness  to 
be  seriously  questioned,  save  by  those  who 
deny  the  miraculous  altogether,  and  even  they 
would  probably  admit  a  basis  of  historic  fact. 
But  the  miracle  of  the  'sun  standing  still,'  as 
popularly  understood,  is  scarcely  referred 
to  again  in  the  canonical  books,  and  the 
poetical  setting  of  the  passage  puts  the  problem 
of  the  actual  miracle  on  an  entirely  different 
footing  from  the  fact  of  the  battle  in  which 
the  miracle  is  thought  to  have  occurred  ;  see 
note  on  JoshlO^^^  Similarly,  it  has  been 
suggested  (and  the  context  gives  some  colour 
to  the  idea)  that  the  incident  of  the  ass  speak- 
ing occurs  in  a  dream  of  Balaam's,  after  which 
he  arose  and  '  went  with  the  princes  of  Balak ' 
(Nu2235).  Again,  the  story  of  Jonah  is  by 
many  regarded  as  an  allegory  of  God's  dealings 
with  the  Jewish  Church,  of  which  it  certainly 
supplies  a  fruitful  parable.  Individual  miracles, 
then,  may  be  treated  each  on  its  own  merits 
according  to  the  evidence  available.  The 
question  before  us  is  a  wider  one. 

Can  the  miraculous  element  as  a  whole  be 
regarded  as  an  accidental  or  non-essential 
adjunct  to  the  Bible  ?  Can  the  miracles  be 
explained  away  altogether  or  one  by  one,  or  is 
there  an  '  irreducible  minimum  '  which  refuses 
to  be  explained  away  ? 

Now  there  are  two  ways  in  which  an  attempt 
may  be  made  to  explain  away  miracles  alto- 
gether. (1)  By  the  first,  they  are  regarded  as 
the  result  of  a  superstitious  tendency  to  '  super- 
naturalise'  distant  events  ;  (2)  by  the  second,  as 
the  outcome  of  an  unscientific  tendency  to 
regard  as  miraculous  all  that  contemporary 
knowledge  cannot  explain.  We  do  not  deny 
that  each  of  these  explanations  may  possibly 
be  applicable  to  some  of  the  more  obscure 
events  usually  regarded  as  miraculous,  but 
we  do  deny  emphatically  that  they  have  any 
general  application  to  the  miracles  of  the 
Bible. 

(1)  If  the  first  argument  were  sound,  we 
should  expect  to  find  the  miraculous  element 
concentrated  in,  if  not  confined  to,  the  earlier 
portions  of  Eevelation,  so  as  to  give  the 
impression  that  the  idea  of  miracle  belongs  to 
the  dawn  of  Hebrew  thought.  But  this  is  far 
from  being  the  case.  Miracle  is  not  found 
exclusively  or  chiefly  in  the  earlier  or  more 
obscure  portions  of  the  Old  Testament,  nor  is 
it  confined  within  the  limits  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament, but  occupies  a  like  or  even  a  more 
important  place  in  the  New.  And  in  par- 
ticular the  miraculous  is  so  intricately  inter- 
woven into  the  life  of  Christ  that  the  attempt 


to  disentangle  it  from  the  Gospels  necessitates 
such  a  grievous  mutilation  of  the  records  as 
would  change  their  entire  character.  If  the 
Gospel  material  be  reduced  to  the  comparatively 
small  residuum  of  matter  which  is  common  to 
all  three  synoptists,  Miracle  would  still  be 
there  ;  and,  indeed,  the  Gospels  denuded  of 
the  supernatural  would  be  as  inexplicable  as 
the  long  discourse  in  the  sixth  chapter  of  St. 
John  would  be  if  deprived  of  the  miracle  of 
the  '  Five  Thousand  '  which  forms,  as  it  were, 
its  text.  If  the  point  of  view  of  the  writers 
themselves  and  their  contemporaries  counts  for 
anything,  we  cannot  fail  to  observe  that  the 
first  preachers  of  the  gospel  boldly  staked  the 
truth  of  Christianity  on  the  fact  that  Christ 
was  risen,  and  regarded  themselves  in  a  special 
sense  as  '  witnesses  of  the  Resurrection '  (an 
essential  qualification  for  apostleship,  as  in  the 
case  of  Matthias:  see  Acl  22  and  cp.  2^2 
315  420,33^  etc.).  While  St.  Paul,  in  whose  life 
and  teaching  the  Resurrection  plays  a  su- 
premely important  part — as  he  himself  tes- 
tifies, according  to  the  narrative  of  the  Acts, 
at  Antioch,  Thessalonica,  and  Athens,  and 
before  the  Sanhedrin,  Felix,  Festus,  and 
Agrippa — adduces,  in  an  important  argument 
on  this  subject  addressed  to  the  alert  and 
critical  Corinthians,  more  than  five  hundred 
witnesses  for  the  fact  of  the  miracle  (1  Cor  15*^). 

Taking  the  Bible,  then,  as  it  stands,  it  may 
be  confidently  stated  that  the  miraculous  ele- 
ment is  as  strong  (or  stronger)  in  the  later 
portions  as  in  the  earlier.  But  the  question 
is  complicated  by  the  date  of  the  documents. 
Are  not  the  miracles,  it  may  be  asked,  concen- 
trated in  those  documents,  whether  earlier  or 
later  in  the  Bible  series,  which  may  be  sup- 
posed to  have  been  written  at  the  furthest 
distance  of  time  from  the  events  which  they 
record  ? 

It  would  be  easy  to  show,  did  space  permit, 
that,  even  on  the  hypotheses  adopted  by  the 
majority  of  modern  '  Higher  Critics,'  this  is  not 
the  case.  In  the  Old  Testament,  e.g.,  the  re- 
cord of  the  Mosaic  miracles  does  not  come  down 
to  us  wholly  or  mainly  through  the  group  of 
documents  called  by  the  critics  the  '  Priestly 
Traditions  '  ;  the  older  '  Prophetic  Narratives ' 
supply  a  full  account  of  the  Flood,  Egyptian 
Plagues,  Crossing  of  the  Red  Sea,  and  many 
more.  The  miracles  of  the  Kingdom  period, 
again,  are  not  confined  to  the  book  of  Chro- 
nicles, which  is  rightly  regarded  as  much  later, 
in  its  present  form,  than  the  book  of  Kings ; 
on  the  contrary,  the  most  striking  and  signi- 
ficant instances  occur  in  one  of  the  undoubt- 
edly oldest  sections  of  the  latter  book — in  the 
narrative  of  Elijah  and  Elisha. 

As  regards  the  New  Testament,  the  case  is 
even  stronger,  for  it  is  at  least  far  from  im- 
probable that  the  last  of  its  books  was  written 


cxvi 


MIRACLE 


before  the  first  century  of  the  New  era  was 
well  passed,  while  the  earliest  (1  Th)  may  be 
confidently  dated  at  no  more  than  twenty-five 
years  after  the  Crucifixion. 

And  so,  whether  we  consider  the  narratives 
in  their  biblical  order,  or  regard  them  in  rela- 
tion to  the  nearest  ascertainable  date  of  the 
documents  which  record  them,  we  find  that  in 
neither  way  is  the  view  supported  which  would 
regard  Miracle  as  the  outcome  of  that  super- 
stitious tendency  which  leads  a  later  age  to 
magnify  far  distant  events — especially  events 
connected  with  crises  in  the  national  history 
— and  endue  them  with  a  supernatural 
colouring. 

So  far  from  the  supernatural  being  confined 
to  those  documents  which  originated  at  a 
period  furthest  distant  from  the  events^  they 
record,  the  most  stupendous  miracle  of  all, 
and  the  most  important,  viz.  Christ's  Resur- 
rection, is  attested  by  evidence  which  may, 
without  any  straining  of  language,  be  called 
contemporaneous. 

(2)  We  now  have  to  face  the  second  objec- 
tion. Admitting  that  the  events  occurred,  and 
occurred  to  a  large  extent  in  the  manner  re- 
corded, may  not  the  supernatural  interpreta- 
tion of  them  be  questioned  ?  Even  the 
descriptions  of  contemporaries  or  eye-wit- 
nesses are  sure  to  take  colour  from  the  age  in 
which  they  originate.  Must  we  not  take  into 
consideration  the  absence  of  scientific  know- 
ledge of  nature's  laws  characteristic  of  early 
ages,  and  especially  the  unscientific  character 
of  the  Hebrew  mind — its  notorious  tendency 
to  ignore  secondary  causes,  and  find  the  im- 
mediate working  of  the  finger  of  God  in  all 
events  alike  ?  May  it  not  be  true  that  events 
described  in  the  Old  Testament  as  involving 
the  direct  interposition  of  the  Almighty  might, 
with  the  fuller  knowledge  of  a  later  and  more 
scientific  generation,  be  traced  to  the  working 
out  of  natural  forces,  and  be  characterised, 
not  as  miracles,  but  as  unusually  striking  co- 
incidences ?  May  not,  e.g.,  the  drying  up  of 
the  Red  Sea  and  of  Jordan  be  explained  as 
due  to  the  combined  action  of  known  natural 
forces,  acting  only  more  powerfully  than  has 
otherwise  been  observed?  Have  we  not,  in 
many  at  least  of  the  Egyptian  plagues,  rather 
an  emphasising  of  phenomena  already  common 
in  Egypt,  than  an  entirely  new  experience  ?  Do 
not  the  majestic  accompaniments  of  the  law- 
giving at  Sinai  recall  the  associations  of  a 
volcanic  eruption,  or  a  more  than  ordinarily 
lengthy  and  terrific  electric  disturbance  ?  Or 
again,  to  tread  on  still  more  sacred  gi'ound, 
may  not  many  of  Christ's  miracles  of  healing, 
whether  in  cases  of  demoniacal  possession  or 
otherwise,  be  explained  as  exhibiting  an  un- 
usually intense  form  of  that  many-sided  influ- 
ence of  mind  over  both  mind  and  matter  with 


which  modern  mental  science  has  made  us 
familiar  ? 

In  attempting  to  meet  this  form  of  objec- 
tion, we  shall,  as  in  the  former  case,  be  ready 
to  admit  the  possibility  that  it  may  apply  in 
some  cases.  Let  each  be  judged,  as  far  as  pos- 
sible, on  its  own  merits,  when  the  principle 
has  been  allowed.  "We  shall  maintain,  how- 
ever, two  positions:  first,  that  the  objection  does 
not  cover  the  whole  ground,  and,  secondly, 
that  it  misconceives  what  we  mean  by  Miracle. 

(a)  It  does  not  cover  the  whole  ground. 
So  far,  at  any  rate,  as  science  has  yet  gone, 
many  of  the  miracles,  and  some  of  them 
among  the  most  strongly  attested,  remain 
outside  its  range.  There  is  an  irreducible 
minimum  which  is  not  amenable  to  such  ex- 
planation. It  will  be  sufficient  to  take  the 
New  Testament.  Here  we  find  that,  while 
many  of  Christ's  miracles  of  healing  find 
some  sort  of  analogy  in  modern  scientific 
treatment  of  hysteria  and  the  like — and  may 
thus  be  possibly  regarded  as  miraculous  rather 
in  their  inexplicable  anticipation  of  the  results 
of  later  human  progress,  than  in  anything 
else — many  also  are  admitted  by  medical  ex- 
perts to  involve,  if  true,  such  organic  changes 
in  the  patient  as  cannot  be  accounted  for  by 
reference  to  any  power  of  mind  over  matter 
known  to  modern  science.  Further,  there 
are  the  miracles  wrought  upon  Nature,  e.g. 
the  turning  of  the  water  into  wine,  the  feed- 
ing of  the  4,000  and  5,000,  the  stilling  of  the 
storm,  the  walking  on  the  sea,  which  physical 
science  coiifessedly  cannot  as  yet  explain  ;  and 
above  all,  there  is  the  central  miracle  of  the 
Resurrection  so  uniquely  attested. 

(i)  It  is  a  misconception  of  the  meaning  of 
Miracle  as  we  understand  it,  to  suppose  that 
the  defender  of  the  miraculous  is  concerned 
to  prove  a  contradiction  of  Law  as  such,  or 
to  minimise  or  exclude  the  operation,  in  these 
cases,  of  secondary  causes.  He  does  not  argue 
in  favour  of  a  contradiction  of  Law,  for 
according  to  his  own  belief  the  Author  of 
miracles  is  also  the  Author  of  Nature  and  its 
laws.  Neither  does  he  hold  a  brief  against 
secondary  causes.  If  there  be  such  a  thing 
as  Miracle,  working  definite  effects  upon  the  ex- 
ternal world,  then  it  will  be  true  of  miraculous  as 
of  non-miraculous  events  that  they  are  capable, 
in  their  measure,  of  scientific  description. 

The  physical  condition,  e.g.,  of  Naaman,  or 
of  the  blind  man  healed  by  Christ  at  Beth- 
saida  (MkS-^-"-*^)  would  have  been  capable,  no 
doubt,  of  medical  diagnosis  at  any  stage  of 
the  cure.  The  only  factor  which  would  re- 
main outside  the  range  of  medical  science 
would  be  the  force  that  originated  the  series  of 
reactions  which  resulted  in  physical  soundness. 

Again,  to  take  an  instance  of  a  rather  differ- 
ent kind.     The  miracle  of    the  stoppage  of 


cxvu 


MIRACLE 


Jordan's  waters  (see  on  Josh  3 1^)  is  curiously 
paralleled  by  an  Arabic  narrative  of  the  middle 
ages,  which  records  a  similar  stoppage  in  the 
same  river,  and  accounts  for  it  as  the  result  of 
a  damming  up  of  the  stream  by  an  extensive 
landslip  higher  up.  It  is  at  least  possible 
that  a  scientific  account  of  the  great  event 
recorded  in  the  book  of  Joshua  would  trace 
it  to  secondary  causes  of  a  similar  kind.  What 
physical  science  could  not  do  would  be  to 
explain  Joshua's  foreknowledge  of  this  very 
remarkable  natural  phenomenon,  and  its  co- 
incidence with  the  needs  and  purposes  of  the 
Israelite  army. 

Many  other  miracles  of  the  Old  Testament 
may  be  similarly  treated  and  with  a  similar 
result.  We  may  strip  them  of  much  of  their 
'portentous'  clothing — of  that  which  our 
present  habit  of  thought  is  inclined  to  regard 
as  crude  and  arbitrary.  We  may  explain  this 
as  the  outcome  of  a  mode  of  speech,  gi-aphic, 
figurative,  poetical,  insulted  by  translation 
into  the  prose  of  hard  fact.  We  may  make 
full  allowance  for  the  imaginative  tendency  of 
the  Oriental  mind  :  its  pictorial  and  dramatic 
genius.  But  we  shall  not  even  so  get  rid  of 
the  miraculous.  The  miracles  are  not  miracles 
merely  or  chiefly  because  of  their  intrinsic 
character.  Their  claim  to  be  miraculovis  lies 
rather  in  the  moment  of  their  occurrence,  and 
its  obvious  relation  to  the  necessities  and  pro- 
prieties of  the  great  scheme  in  which  they  are 
set,  and  in  the  fact  that,  in  so  many  cases, 
they  could  be  predicted.  And  the  belief  that 
they  involved  the  personal  interposition  of 
the  Deity  for  a  definite  purpose,  is  not  shaken 
in  the  least  by  the  consideration  that  the 
Author  of  Nature  may  have  chosen  to  inter- 
pose by  the  employment  of  those  natural 
forces  through  which  He  normally  works. 

3.  Miracleessentialtothe  Biblical  Revelation. 
So  far  we  have  seen  that  miracle  is  practically 
inseparable  from  the  Bible  ;  that  the  miracu- 
lous element  in  Holy  Scripture  cannot  be 
explained  away  as  being  simply  a  superstitious 
and  unscientific  interpretation  of  events  which 
a  later  age  could  have  explained  satisfactorily 
on  a  basis  of  physical  science.  And  in  the 
course  of  our  enquiry  we  have  seen  hints  at 
least  that  there  is  some  reason  for  this  stub- 
born and  unremovable  presence  of  the  mira- 
culous. 

If  we  can  make  clear  to  ourselves  what  is 
the  place  of  Miracle  in  the  Bible,  and  what 
is  its  relation  to  Revelation,  we  may  also 
go  far  towards  finding  an  answer  to  the 
further  problems  that  arise  in  connexion 
with  the  relation  of  Miracle  to  Natural  Law. 

In  theology  and  biblical  exegesis  there  has 
been  a  change  of  ideas  corresponding  in  some 
degree  to  that  which  has  marked  the  last 
century    in   the  matter   of    physical  science. 


The  old  mechanical  conception  of  the  universe 
which  finds  expression  in  Milton's  description 
of  creation,  has  given  place  to  an  organic  con- 
ception. The  world,  we  say  now,  is  less 
fitly  symbolised  by  Paley's  '  Watch  '  than  by 
a  living  organism — growing,  developing,  pro- 
gressively fulfilling  the  law  of  its  being,  and  in 
consequence  witnessing  more  rather  than  less 
convincingly  to  the  divine  wisdom  and  power 
and  purpose  of  its  Originator  and  Sustainer, 
who  is  also  its  immanent  principle  of  life. 
Similarly  the  problem  of  the  miraculous  has 
received  a  new  setting.  Miracles  are  not  now 
regarded  in  the  old  way  as  external  creden- 
tials to  Revelation — a  sort  of  artificial  adjunct 
or  added  appendix.  The  evidential  value  of 
the  miraculous  may  be  fully  recognised,  but 
at  the  same  time  it  is  viewed  as  an  organic 
part  of  the  Revelation  itself.  The  miracles 
of  Christ,  e.g.,  as  we  now  see,  were  not 
isolated  manifestations  of  supernatural  power 
put  forth  simply  and  solely  to  excite  wonder 
and  astonishment,  and  as  it  were  to  compel 
belief.  He  refused,  very  definitely,  to  work 
a  miracle  of  this  kind  (Mk  8  ^1  and  parallels). 
Rather  they  are  the  outcomes  of  His  won- 
derful and  gracious  character,  integral  portions 
of  His  teaching ;  touches  which,  if  removed, 
would  leave  a  blank  which  would  be  felt 
in  the  complete,  harmonious,  and  supremely 
natural  if  also  supernatural  portrait  which  the 
evangelists  have  artlessly  combined  to  paint 
for  us.  And  the  supreme  miracle,  as  we  shall 
see  shortly,  is  Christ  Himself.  His  '  mighty 
works  '  were,  of  course — and  some  of  them 
especially — tokens  of  His  divinity.  The 
Resurrection,  e.g.,  is  classed  as  such  by  St. 
Paul  (in  Rol4:  cp.  Jn53«  1025,38  Mt  112-5). 
They  were  signs,  not  to  compel  belief — for 
compelled  belief  is  no  longer  faith — but  signs 
to  stimulate  and  strengthen  and  develop  the 
germ  of  faith  already  present,  and  to  trans- 
form it  into  assured  conviction.  Thus  St.  John 
(2 11)  speaks  of  Christ's  first  miracle  at  Cana — 
which  was  obviously  a  sign  of  sympathy  and 
kindness — as  being  also  a  manifestation  of  His 
glory ;  but  the  manifestation  is  to  the  inner 
circle  of  His  disciples.  Similarly  Christ  Him- 
self enumerates  His  characteristic  miracles  of 
healing,  together  with  other  works,  as  cre- 
dentials of  His  Messiahship.  But  the  evidence, 
be  it  observed,  is  addressed  to  St.  John  the 
Baptist. 

This  view  of  Miracle  as  an  integral  part  of 
Revelation  may  explain  to  some  extent  the 
difference  in  character  between  the  miracles 
of  the  Old  Testament  and  those  of  the  New. 
The  Revelation,  as  we  are  observing  more  and 
more,  is  a  progrefisire  one,  a  gradual  unfold- 
ing of  divine  truth  to  man,  in  divers  parts  and 
divers  manners  (Heb  1 1),  as  he  was  able  to  bear 
it.     Will  not  the  miraculous  element,  then, 


cxvui 


MIRACLE 


show  itself  progressive  too  ?  Shall  we  be  sur- 
prised if  some  of  the  Old  Testament  miracles, 
e.g.  the  shadow  on  Ahaz'  dial,  or  the  trans- 
formation of  Moses'  rod,  seem  to  lack  the 
obvious  appropriateness  and  the  richness  of 
spiritual  teaching  and  symbolism  that  shine 
forth  from  the  recorded  works  of  Christ  ? 

If  miracles  are  acted  teaching^  should  we  not 
expect  those  which  belong  to  an  earlier  and 
more  elementary  stage  of  Revelation  to  be  of 
a  simpler  and  more  elementary  sort  ?  One 
might  venture  to  say  that  just  as  divine  com- 
mands could  be  laid  on  Abraham  and  Joshua, 
in  the  childliood  of  morality,  which  could  not 
be  laid  on  us  :  so  miracles  could  be  wrought 
and  be  helpful  in  an  earlier  stage  which  in  a 
later — such  as  our  own  age-^would  be  simply 
a  stumbling-block  to  belief.  Yet  even  the 
earliest,  and,  if  we  may  so  say,  '  crudest '  of 
Old  Testament  miracles  display  a  marked 
superiority,  from  this  point  of  view,  to  many 
of  the  meaningless  and  ludicrous  '  miracles ' 
of  the  Apocryphal  Gospels  and  mediaeval 
hagiologies. 

The  accepted  view  of  the  universe  has  ad- 
vanced, and  Natural  Science  has  taught  us  so 
well  the  lesson  that  the  Almighty  is  a  God  of 
Law  and  order,  that  we  instinctively  suspect 
as  unworthy  of  Him  anything  which  seems  to 
verge  on  the  arbitrary  or  capricious.  Many  of 
the  Old  Testament  miracles,  if  wrought  to-day, 
would  be  as  inappropriate  as  in  their  context 
they  were  appropriate.  Let  us  consider  for  a 
moment  some  broad  facts  about  them.  At 
first  sight  they  seem  quite  incidental  and  un- 
systematic. Possibly  a  progress  may  be  dimly 
discerned,  allowing  for  exceptions.  The  mi- 
racles, e.g.,  of  the  ninth  century  B.C. — especi- 
ally the  more  beneficent  miracles  recorded  of 
Elijah  and  Elisha,  seem  more  like  those  of 
Christ  than  the  Mosaic  miracles  of  some  seven 
centuries  earlier.  These  earlier  ones,  again, 
adapted  as  they  are  to  the  special  circumstances 
of  their  occasion,  have  a  more  exclusively 
general  appeal  to  masses  of  people,  while  the 
later  ones  involve  more  individual  dealing. 

Other  indications  of  law  and  system  are  to 
be  found  in  the  miracles  of  the  Bible.  Chief 
among  these  is  their  threefold  group'mg.  The 
miracles  are,  for  the  most  part,  concentrated 
in  three  epochs,  epochs  when  a  vindication  of 
God's  supremacy  was  specially  to  be  looked 
for ;  and  they  are  grouped  around  those  three 
figures  which  find  places  together  on  the  mys- 
terious Mount  of  Transfiguration  :  Moses — 
Elijah — Christ. 

(1)  The  first  or  Mosaic  group  ushers  in  the 
redemption  from  Egypt,  the  giving  of  the 
divine  Law,  and  the  foundation  of  the  Hebrew 
theocracy.  (2)  The  second  marks  a  new  crisis, 
when  owing  to  the  religious  innovations  of 
Ahab  and  Jezebel  the  worship  of  the  true  God 


in  Israel  was  first  formally  menaced  by  a  new 
and  hostile  cult  actively  supported  by  the 
Court.  (3)  The  third  group  is  the  climax  of 
all.  The  miracles  of  Jesus  Christ,  with  their 
peculiar  appeal  to  reason,  affection  and  con- 
science, throw  back  a  flood  of  light  upon  the 
obscurer  miracles  of  the  Old  Testament.  '  The 
central  point,'  as  Dr.  Sanday  has  said,  '  in  the 
Old  Testament  revelation  was  that  God  is  a 
living  God;  that  the  world  is  not  a  dead  world, 
but  instinct  with  life,  which  is  all  derived  from 
Him.  The  New  Testament  takes  up  this  and 
tells  us  that  Christ  the  Word  was  the  Light 
and  Life  of  men.' 

The  miracles  of  the  Old  Testament  certainly 
exhibit  God  as  a  living  God,  and  culminate  in 
the  Incarnate  Life — the  Christ  of  the  Gospels, 
whose  career  on  earth  issues  in  a  Resurrection 
and  Ascension  which  have  brought  new  life  to 
the  world.  And  in  this  supernatural  figure 
we  see  Miracle  exhibited  to  us  most  natur- 
ally and  in  closest  contact  with  all  that  we 
instinctively  recognise  as  highest  and  noblest. 
His  character  is  indeed  the  supreme  wonder 
of  all  :  more  marvellous  than  any  of  those 
particular  miracles  which  were,  after  all,  but 
partial  '  signs '  of  the  fulness  that  was  in  Him. 
Whether  we  read  it  in  the  pages  of  the  Gospels, 
or  in  St.  Paul's  description  (1  Cor  13)  of  Love 
at  work,  we  perceive  in  it  an  ideal  perfection 
combining  all  the  recognised  manly  virtues 
with  those  usually  thought  of  as  womanly. 
We  mark  its  union  of  opposites — patience, 
gentleness,  meekness,  with  a  sternness  and  a 
force  unequalled  in  history  ;  the  cosmopolitan 
breadth  of  ideas  found  in  one  brought  up  in 
what  would  naturally  have  been  the  narrowest 
surroundings.  Its  superhuman  claims  are  com- 
bined with  an  unparalleled  humility  and 
reasonableness  ;  its  superhuman  powers  are 
controlled  always  and  focussed  on  His  mis- 
sion, never  employed  for  His  own  material 
comfort  or  the  earthly  advancement  of  His 
followers.  Above  all,  there  is  the  ideal  morality 
exhibited,  as  even  opponents  admit,  in  His 
life  and  teaching,  and  the  marvellous  fact 
that  none  of  His  many  recorded  sayings, 
whether  in  the  ethical  sphere  or  in  any  other, 
have  become  obsolete  or  subject  to  revision 
in  the  subsequent  growth  of  human  knowledge. 

But  if  Christ  on  earth  is  a  wonder,  still 
more  is  Christ  ascended.  It  is  the  character 
of  Christ  as  exhibited  and  developed  in  the 
history  of  His  Church,  impressing  itself  fruit- 
fully on  successive  ages  and  on  divers  races, 
at  home  in  each  and  bringing  out  the  best  in 
each  regardless  of  diversity  of  clime,  race, 
tradition,  antecedents,  and  civilised  status  ;  it 
is  the  vital  power  of  Him,  exercised  in  the 
tremendous  if  familiar  phenomenon  of  conver- 
sion, which  persists  to-day  to  prove  that  the 
age  of  miracle  is  not  past.     Believers  see  in 


cxix 


MIRACLE 


this  but  the  fulfilment  of  His  own  recorded 
promise, '  Greater  things  than  these  shall '  the 
believer  '  do '  ;  '  because  I  go  to  the  Father  ' 
(Jnl4i2). 

That  systematic  and  rhythmical  sequence 
of  miracle  which  is  represented  by  the  names, 
Moses,  Elijah,  Christ,  does  not  suddenly  come 
to  an  end  with  the  close  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, though  its  character,  as  we  have  seen, 
tends  to  change  with  the  changing  require- 
ments of  successive  ages.  To  us  children  of 
a  practical,  matter-of-fact,  and  scientific  century 
'  signs  and  wonders '  like  some  of  those  in  the 
Bible  would  be  a  hindrance  and  not  a  help, 
even  had  we  the  strength  of  faith  necessary 
to  evoke  them.  Yet  He  who  after  His  Ascen- 
sion wrought  '  many  signs  and  wonders '  '  by 
the  hands  of  the  Apostles'  (Ac 2 43  512)  and 
'confirmed  the  word  with  sigiis  following' 
(Mk  1 6  20  ;  cp.  Ac  4  29. 30)^  has  continued  by  moral 
and  spiritual  miracles  to  give  evidence  of  His 
living  presence  throughout  the  centuries,  ac- 
cording to  the  terms  of  His  recorded  promise, 
'  Lo,  I  am  with  you  alway,  even  unto  the  end 
of  the  world'  (Mt2820). 

4.  Miracle  essential  to  Revelation  as  such 


knowledge  of  materia  medica  arrests  the  natural 
course  of  a  disease.  So,  too,  without  any  real 
contradiction  of  the  system  of  Law  which 
He  has  established  for  the  working  of  the 
universe,  the  Personal  Creator  and  Ruler  of 
all  things  may  be  conceived  as  '  interposing ' 
— either  directly  or  by  means  of  His  creatures 
— and  so  diverting  or  interrupting  what 
would  otherwise  have  been  the  inevitable 
course  of  events.  Such  interposition,  if 
definite  and  striking  in  its  external  results, 
would  be  what  we  know  as  Miracle.  It  would 
differ  from  the  action  of  our  limited  minds 
and  wills  in  many  points  :  notably  in  the 
range  of  its  power  and  influence  and  in  the 
constant  perfection  of  its  purpose.  These 
exclude  the  element  of  capriciousness  that 
makes  the  action  of  our  wills  so  often  un- 
accountable and  out  of  harmony  with  the  course 
of  nature. 

In  this  conception  of  Miracle  as  a  display  of 
personality  is  to  be  found,  we  believe,  the  true 
solution  of  the  various  problems  with  which 
the  question  is  encumbered.  It  helps  us  to 
understand,  by  the  analogy  of  our  own  volition, 
what  else  would  look  like  the  introduction  of 


We  may  claim,  perhaps,  to  have  shown  that     a  capricious  principle  into  a  world  where  we 


Miracle  is  essential  to  the  biblical  Revelation 
May  we  not  go  further,  and  say  that  it 
would  seem  to  be  essential  to  Revelation  con- 
sidered in  the  abstract — that  is,  to  any  con- 
ceivable method  by  which  God  might  reveal 
Himself  to  man  in  a  manner  more  direct  and 
more  unmistakable  than  is  afforded  by  His 
revelation  of  Himself  in  the  course  of  nature  ? 
On  this  subject  it  was  formerly  considered 
■  enough  to  observe  that  a  divine  message  could 
only  be  sufficiently  accredited  by  obviously 
supernatural  accompaniments,  and  that  there- 
fore miracles  were  appended  to  Revelation  as 
its  necessary  '  credentials.'  Such  a  statement 
is,  however,  from  a  modern  point  of  view,  far 
from  satisfactory. 

We  can  no  longer  (as  was  pointed  out 
above)  look  upon  miracles  as  an  external 
appendix  added  to  Revelation  by  way  of 
credentials.  Miracle,  we  should  say,  has  a 
great  credential  value,  but  its  witness  is 
intrinsic — from  within  ;  it  witnesses  to  the 
truth  of  Revelation  by  witnessing  to  the 
character  of  the  person  revealed.  The 
miracles  of  Christ  hold  a  supreme  place  as 
the  work  of  Incarnate  God  ;  but  the  other 
miracles  also  as  emanating  from  the  one  per- 
sonal Deity  may  be  expected  to  bear  the 
stamp  of  a  personal  consciousness  and  will. 
We  know  that  a  succession  of  phenomena  in 
nature  can  be  diverted  by  the  action  of  our 
own  human  wills,  and  that  without  any  real 
breach  of  Nature's  laws.  This  is  done,  for 
instance,  whenever  a  surgeon  performs  a 
successful  operation,  or  a  physician  using  his 


have  been  accustomed  to  see  Law  reigning 
it  helps  us,  moreover,  to  realise  the  place  and 
purpose  of  miracle  as  evidencing,  in  the  only 
way  possible,  the  ^jersowaZ  character  of  the 
Ruler  of  the  universe  :  and  it  supplies  a  link 
between  what  we  regard  as  the  ordinary  works 
of  Providence — the  normal  phenomena  which 
the  world's  process  exhibits — and  those  ab- 
normal phenomena  inexplicable  by  our  accus- 
tomed methods,  which  we  call  miracles.  Both 
alike  are  manifestations  of  a  personal  mind 
and  will  and  power,  working  according  to  the 
law  of  a  perfect  nature ';  but  the  one  class  of 
manifestations  is  deliberately  intended  to 
supplement — and  interpret — the  other. 

So  we  are  led  back  again  to  Christ  as  the 
supreme  miracle  and  the  revealer  of  the  ultimate 
naturalness,  if  we  may  so  speak,  of  the  super- 
natural. For  He  in  whom  meet  heaven  and 
earth,  the  human  and  the  divine,  expresses 
uniquely  in  His  recorded  miracles  as  in  His 
words  and  life,  the  perfect  character  of  Him 
'  whom  no  man  hath  seen,  nor  can  see,'  yet 
concerning  whom  He  Himself  hath  said  : 
'  He  that  hath  seen  me  hath  seen  the  Father.' 
In  the  Incarnate  what  we  ordinarily  call 
Miracle  is,  as  it  were,  normal  ;  for  in  Him  is 
God  personally  revealed  to  man,  personally 
acting  under  conditions  of  human  life. 

5.  Miracle  and  Natural  Law.  But  since  it 
is  reverence  for  Natural  Law  that  is  responsi- 
ble for  most  of  the  modern  distrust  of  Miracle, 
it  will  be  necessary  to  enter  a  little  more  fully 
into  the  relation  between  Miracle  and  Natural 
Law. 


cxx 


MIRACLE 


Of  course  the  whole  structure  of  modern 
science  is  built  upon  the  foundation  of  the 
uniformity  of  Nature.  If  things  happen 
anyhow,  as  in  a  nightmare,  then  there  can 
be  no  use  in  attempting  to  study  Nature 
at  all.  And  if  the  presence  of  Miracle 
disturbs  the  uniformity  of  Nature  and  in- 
troduces absolute  chaos  into  the  world,  we 
can  forgive  people  for  refusing  to  consider 
the  possibility  of  the  miraculous.  But  is  it 
true  that  a  belief  in  Miracle  contradicts  the 
reign  of  Law  in  Nature  ?  As  a  matter  of 
fact,  the  average  believer  in  Miracle  speaks 
and  acts  in  his  daily  life  as  one  who  believes 
also  that  Nature  is  normally  constant  and 
uniform.  His  expectations,  his  forecasts,  his 
plans  imply  just  as  steady  and  practical  a 
reliance  on  this  principle  as  do  those  of  the 
veriest  sceptic.  And  why  ?  Because  the 
very  possibility  of  Miracle  depends  on  the 
fact  of  uniformity.  Miracle  needs  the  ordi- 
nary working  of  Natural  Law  as  its  back- 
ground. It  does  not  exclude  Natural  Law, 
but  it  is  relative  to  it.  If  all  things  were 
unaccountable,  where  would  be  place  for 
Miracle  ?  St.  Augustine  had  arrived  at  a 
really  profound  conception  of  the  relation  of 
Miracle  to  Natm-al  Law,  when  he  suggested 
that  all  God's  ordinary  works  are  wonderful 
— miraculous — but  that,  since  familiarity  has 
so  blunted  men's  minds  that  they  fail  to  appre- 
ciate the  yearly  miracle  of  harvest  and  vintage, 
the  Lord  of  Nature  who,  year  by  year,  by 
natural  processes  which  He  has  ordained, 
multiplies  bread-substance  for  hungry  men, 
and  turns  rain-water  into  wine  to  gladden 
man's  heart,  once  on  a  time  saw  fit  to  do  these 
things  by  a  momentary  act  of  that  Will  to  which 
one  day  is  as  a  thousand  years. 

Miracles,  if  they  occur  at  all,  must  be,  as  St. 
Augustine  saw,  the  work  of  the  same  Lawgiver 
who  day  by  day  exhibits  to  us  the  orderly 
wonders  of  Nature's  processes.  But  if  this 
be  so  it  follows  that  miracles  themselves  must 
conform  to  Law,  albeit  some  higher  law  than 
those  with  which  physical  science  is  convers- 
ant. Nature  and  conscience  alike  demand 
that  we  should  regard  God  as  the  author  '  not 
of  confusion,  but  of  peace  '  (1  Cor  14^3)^  i.e.  as 
self -consistent  because  absolutely  perfect.  It 
is  true  that  there  is  a  disturbing  element  in  the 
world  ;  that  there  is  a  principle  at  work  abso- 
lutely contrary  to  the  principle  of  Law — what 
the  Bible  calls  shi.  '  Sin,'  as  St.  John  says, 
'is  lawlessness'  (lJn3*).  But  sin  is  not  a 
positive  entity,  a  created  thing  ;  it  is  rather 
the  abuse  of  a  choice  offered  to  man  by  his 
Maker,  and  offered  of  necessity  if  man  was  to 
be  a  free  agent.  The  possibility  of  clwoaitig 
to  do  right  necessarily  involves  the  possibility 
of  choosing  to  do  vrnng.  How  far  human  or 
angelic  sin  is  responsible  for  the  anomalies  in 


the  physical  world  which  occasionally  perplex 
and  baffle  the  student  of  Natural  Law,  we  are 
not  here  concerned  to  consider.  There  is  one 
consideration,  however,  suggested  by  the  pres- 
ence of  this  disturbing  factor.  If  Miracle 
seems  arbitrary  and  violent,  may  it  not  be 
because  some  forcible  method  is  necessary  to 
redress  the  balance  already  upset  by  the 
introduction  of  evil  into  a  world  originally 
'  very  good  '  ? 

And  further,  may  not  this  forcible  redress- 
ing of  the  balance,  if  such  it  be,  be  still 
performed  in  accordance  with  some  higher 
principle  of  Law  ? 

The  analogy  of  human  personal  action 
suggested  above  may  help  us  here.  When 
the  physician — acting,  it  must  be  remembered, 
in  accordance  with  the  laws  of  medical  science 
— restores  the  body  to  health,  although  he 
forcibly  interrupts  a  series  of  physical  pro- 
cesses which  apart  from  him  must  have  worked 
themselves  out,  he  is  really  ranged  on  the  side 
of  the  natural  and  normal.  And  it  may  per- 
haps be  worthy  of  remark  that  the  abnormal 
conditions  which  his  skill  and  determination 
have  fought  and  conquered  are  often  directly, 
more  often,  probably,  indirectly,  the  result  of 
human  sin.  May  we  not  say  then  that  in  the 
sphere  of  biblical  miracle  '  the  real  intervention 
is  not  the  intervention  of  grace,  but  that  of 
the  sin  which  required  it '  ? 

We  have  seen  above  that  there  are  traces  of 
law  and  system  discernible  in  the  miracles  of 
the  Bible  viewed  generally,  and  that  in  the 
case  of  many  of  them  the  entire  physical 
results  may  have  been  achieved  by  a  disposi- 
tion of  natural  forces  at  a  particular  time  and 
for  a  particular  purpose.  There  are  other 
cases,  however,  where  such  an  explanation 
seems  inadequate  to  account  for  the  result. 
These  cases  cannot,  it  is  true,  be  referred  to 
Natural  Law  ;  but  may  they  not-  be  glimpses 
of  a  higher  system  which,  for  want  of  a  better 
name,  we  must  call  '  Supernatural  Law '  ? 
Nature  herself  supplies  us  with  an  illustration 
(and  it  is  more  than  a  mere  illustration)  which 
may  enable  us  to  realise  the  probability  and, 
so  to  speak,  naturalness  of.  there  being  above 
and  beyond  the  laws  which  our  reason  is  able 
to  discover,  a  higher  stratum  of  law  such  as 
must  appear  to  our  ordinary  intelligence 
supernatural,  miraculous. 

In  external  Nature  we  see  four  different 
worlds  ;  the  higher  in  each  case  built  upon 
the  lower,  in  a  sense  including  it,  and  yet 
remaining  for  ever  distinct  from  it  and 
apparently  inaccessible  to  it. 

(a)  First  there  comes  the  Inorganic  World 
— chemical  elements  and  their  products — dead 
matter.  This  is  subject  to  its  own  elementary 
laws  of  gravitation,  cohesion,  and  the  like. 

(h)  Above  that  stands  the  Orgaiiic  World, 


CXXl 


MIRACLE 


which  takes  up  the  inorganic  into  its  cell- 
structure,  and  is  in  this  respect  amenable  to 
the  laws  of  Matter  ;  but  has  in  it,  besides, 
potentialities  and  conditions  of  existence 
wholly  unknown  to  the  inorganic,  and  is 
subject,  in  consequence,  to  a  fresh  set  of  laws 
which  do  not  touch  the  lower  sphere — the 
laws  of  organic  life. 

(c)  Higher  up  we  have  Animal  Life,  with 
its  own  peculiar  gifts,  conditions,  laws  of 
growth,  nutrition,  locomotion,  etc.  ;  (d)  and 
higher  up,  again,  the  rational,  self-conscious, 
moral   life  of  Ma?i. 

Each  member  of  this  ascending  series  of 
worlds  is  supernatural  and  miraculous  from 
the  point  of  view  of  those  below  it,  while 
subject  in  a  real  sense  to  the  laws  governing 
its  inferiors.  None  is  lawless,  arbitrary,  capri- 
cious in  reality,  though  the  higher  you  go 
up  the  scale,  the  more  apjyearance  there  is  of 
absence  of  law  and  uniformity.  The  truth  is 
that  they  are  subject  to  ever  higher,  grander, 
more  complex,  more  mysterious  laws. 

The  teaching  of  the  Bible  seems  to  be  that 
above  these  familiar  orders  of  the  inorganic, 
the  organic,  the  animal,  and  the  rational  as 
known  in  man,  there  is  yet  another  order,  (e) 
the  sphere  of  the  purely  spiritual,  glimpses  of 
which  appear  now  and  again  to  us  as  '  miracles.' 
These  glimpses  are  possible,  because  man  is 
himself  on  one  side  a  spiritual  being,  made 
'  in  the  image  of  God,'  and  so  akin  to  the 
supernatural  world.  They  appear  to  him 
miraculous,  because  his  intelligence,  which 
lives  and  moves  habitually  in  the  natural 
world,  is  not  at  home  yet  in  the  spiritual. 
They  are  given  because  the  Ruler  of  that 
supernatural  world  is  Ruler  also  of  the  natural, 
and  desires  personal  contact  and  communion 
with  His  rational  creature,  man. 

If  the  relation  of  the  supernatural  to  the 
natural  world  be  such  as  our  illustration 
suggests — if,  that  is,  the  former  interpenetrates 
and  completes  while  it  also  transcends  the 
latter,  we  should  expect  that,  though  the  laws 
to  which  miracles  conform  be  beyond  our 
reason  as  such,  there  would  yet  be  something 
in  them  vvhich  would  appeal  to  us  as  reason- 
able, and  would  have  contact  at  least  with  the 
principle  of  Law  as  we  see  it  working  in  the 
world  around  us.  This  we  have  already,  to 
some  extent,  found  to  be  the  case,  and  deeper 
consideration  will  confirm  the  impression  that 
the  Bible  miracles  may  be  explained  as  in- 
stances rather  of  the  controlling  action  of  a 
higher  law  than  of  sheer  violation  of  the 
lower. 

One  further  suggestion  may  be  made  in  this 
connexion — not  as  though  it  would  cover  the 
whole  field  of  Miracle  or  offer  in  any  sense  an 
adequate  explanation  of  all  the  miraculous 
phenomena  of  the  Bible. 


We  have  already  spoken  of  some  of  the 
miracles  of  Christ  as  involving  an  inexplicable 
anticipation  of  the  results  of  later  human  pro- 
gress ;  and  surely  it  is  true  to  say  that  a 
marked  anticipation  of  a  distinctly  later  stage 
of  the  advance  of  humanity  is  in  itself  of 
the  nature  of  Miracle.  It  would  have  been 
nothing  short  of  a  miracle — e.g.  if  any  one 
had  made  use  of  wireless  telegraphy  in  the 
days  of  Queen  Anne — because  it  would  have 
been  an  advance  quite  out  of  touch  with  any- 
thing else  in  the  conditions  and  circumstances 
of  the  time.  From  this  point  of  view  the 
mighty  works  of  Christ  would  lose  nothing  of 
their  miraculous  character  if  it  could  be  shown 
that  modern  or  future  medical  science  could 
produce  identical  results.  The  system  of 
religion  and  morality  set  forth  by  Christ 
— which  is  intrinsically  far  more  important 
than  the  miracles  usually  so  called — gathers 
up  into  itself  all  the  yearnings  and  gropings 
of  the  ancients,  and  at  the  same  time  repre- 
sents the  goal  towards  which  the  ethical 
advance  of  humanity  has  been  gradually  mov- 
ing, so  that  His  words  have  '  never  passed 
away '  like  the  utterances  of  other  ancient 
teachers.  May  not  His  wonderful  dealings 
with  matter  and  with  mind  in  like  manner 
represent  the  capacity  oi perfect  humanity — the 
goal  towards  which  mankind  is  moving  in- 
tellectually and  scientifically  by  the  help  of 
the  accumulated  experience  of  centuries  ? 
This,  as  we  have  seen,  would  render  them 
no  less  miraculous  ;  and  it  strikes  out  a  line  of 
thought  that  has  a  much  wider  reference,  in- 
cluding in  its  scope  the  Old  Testament  as  well 
as  the  New.  For  if  an  inexplicable  advance, 
out  of  all  proportion  to  the  contemporary 
development  of  the  race,  be  miraculous,  what 
claims  may  not  be  made  for  the  Law,  Prophecy, 
and  History  of  the  Old  Testament. 

Conclusion.  Man  moves  on  the  borderland 
of  the  rational  and  spiritual  worlds.  He 
belongs  in  part  to  both.  The  higher  is  his 
heritage  as  much  as  the  lower ;  but  of  the  first 
he  enjoys  as  yet  but  rare  glimpses.  One  great 
purpose  of  the  Bible's  miraculous  record, 
culminating  as  it  does  in  that  ResmTCction 
miracle  without  which  subsequent  history  is 
inexplicable,  is  to  warn  us  against  the  spirit 
which  would  discredit  and  reject  those  price- 
less glimpses  when  they  are  presented,  and 
elect  to  live  always  on  the  lower  plane. 

Such  a  despising  of  man's  birthright  is  not 
possible  to  those  for  whom  the  statements  of 
the  Christian  creed  represent  historic  facts. 
Christ,  the  Incarnate  Deity,  at  once  natural 
and  supernatural  ;  Christ  crucified,  risen, 
ascended,  glorified,  has  achieved  for  them  per- 
petual access  to  the  higher  realm  ;  they  '  see 
heaven  open  and  the  angels  of  God  ascending 
and  descending  upon  the  Son  of  man '  (Ju  1  ^^). 


cxxu 


THE  RESURRECTION 


It  cannot  be  said  of  the  Resurrection,  as  is 
sometimes  said  of  other  miracles,  that  it  lacks 
an  adequate  motive.  The  greatest  of  all 
questions  that  it  concerns  man  to  know,  is 
whether  there  is  or  is  not  a  future  life.  '  It 
matters,'  says  Pascal,  '  to  the  whole  of  life  to 
know  whether  the  soul  is  mortal  or  immortal.' 
If  a  supernatural  revelation  is  possible  at  all 
(and  all  who  believe  in  a  Personal  God  who 
loves  His  creatures,  must  believe  that  it  is),  a 
revelation  on  the  subject  of  a  future  life  is  of  all 
others  the  most  credible.  For  in  the  presence 
of  this  great  question  all  human  knowledge  is 
bankrupt.  Science  can  only  trace  the  history 
of  the  conscious  soul  to  the  moment  of  death. 
The  human  heart  may  yearn  for  immortality, 
philosophy  may  speculate  about  it,  but  neither 
can  prove  it.  Socrates  more  than  any  other 
man  applied  himself  to  prove  the  immortality 
of  the  soul,  but  when  the  death-sentence  was 
passed  upon  him,  he  could  only  say  :  '  The 
hour  of  departure  has  arrived,  and  we  go  our 
ways,  I  to  die,  and  you  to  live.  Which  is 
better  God  only  knows.' 

The  Christian  Church  claims  to  have 
received  from  God  a  special  revelation  upon 
this  great  question.  According  to  her  settled 
belief,  God  raised  her  Founder  from  the  dead 
for  the  special  purpose  of  revealing  to  man- 
kind (1)  the  existence  of  a  future  life,  and 
(2)  the  nature  of  that  life. 

I.  The  Character  of  the  Evidence.  The  evi- 
dence for  the  Resurrection  is  of  a  kind  which 
appeals  primarily  to  the  spiritual  faculty  of 
spiritual  men.  Those  who  already  know  and 
love  God,  who  feel  in  their  souls  a  yearning 
for  eternal  commxmion  with  Him,  and  a  deep 
sense  that  the  injustices,  disappointments,  and 
failures  of  this  life  point  to  a  future  life  in 
which  God's  righteousness  and  love  will  be 
finally  vindicated,  will  be  drawn  to  examine 
attentively  the  evidence  for  the  Resurrection 
of  Jesus  Christ.  Those,  on  the  other  hand, 
who  are  living  without  faith  in  a  personal 
God,  and  to  whom  Nature  therefore  mani- 
fests only  a  series  of  unvarying  mechanical 
laws,  will  either  reject  the  evidence  without 
examination,  or,  if  they  examine  it,  will  pro- 
nounce it  insufficient.  Yet,  although  the 
final  decision  will  depend  largely  upon  a  man's 
general  attitude  towards  spiritual  and  moral 
truth,  the  Resurrection  claims  to  be  a  historical 
fact,  and  therefore  the  evidence  for  it,  so  far 
as  it  is  historical,  admits  of  being  tested  by 
the  samt  canons  of  criticism  as  other  historical 


evidence.  It  is  the  duty  of  Christians,  there- 
fore, to  subject  the  evidence  for  the  Resurrec- 
tion to  the  most  rigid  scrutiny,  a  scrutiny  all 
the  more  penetrating  and  searching  in  propor- 
tion as  the  practical  results  which  follow  from 
the  alternative  decisions  of  the  question  are 
momentous. 

2.  The  Documents.  All  modern  criticism, 
except  that  which  is  carried  to  the  point  of  per- 
versity, acknowledges  the  genuineness  of  the 
chief  Epistles  of  St.  Paul,  and  since  that 
Apostle  was  converted  soon  after  the  Resur- 
rection (according  to  Harnack  as  early  as  30 
A.n.,  and  certainly  not  later  than  36  a.d.),  his 
Epistles  will  be  admitted  to  be  a  valuable  wit- 
ness as  to  what  the  belief  of  the  first  Christians 
was  upon  this  subject.  That  the  Resurrection 
of  Jesus  was  firmly  believed  not  only  in  the 
Chm-ches  founded  by  St.  Paul,  but  also  in 
those  founded  by  the  original  Apostles,  is 
manifest  from  these  writings.  The  leading 
passage  is  1  Cor  15 3'-,  in  which  St.  Paul 
rehearses  the  fundamental  articles  of  the 
Christian  faith.  Of  the  Resurrection  he  says 
(see  RV) :  '  For  I  delivered  unto  you  first  of 
all  [this  was  in  50  a.d.,  about  twenty  years 
after  the  event]  that  which  also  I  received, 
how  that  Christ  died  for  our  sins  according 
to  the  Scriptures  ;  and  that  He  was  buried  ; 
and  that  He  hath  been  raised  [the  perfect 
represents  the  permanence  of  the  result]  on 
the  third  day  according  to  the  Scriptures  ; 
and  that  He  appeared  to  Cephas  [i.e.  Peter], 
then  to  the  Twelve  [in  reality  to  the  eleven, 
but  '  the  Twelve  '  is  a  recognised  title  of  the 
apostolic  body]  ;  then  He  appeared  to  above 
five  hundred  brethren  at  once,  of  whom  the 
gi-eater  part  remain  until  now,  but  some  are 
fallen  asleep  ;  then  He  appeared  to  James  ; 
then  to  all  the  Apostles  ;  and  last  of  all,  as  unto 
one  born  out  of  due  time.  He  appeared  to  me 
also.  .  .  Whether  then  it  be  I  or  they,  so  W6 
preach,  and  so  ye  believed.' 

We  learn  from  this  passage  that  the  Resur- 
rection of  Jesus  Christ  was  regarded  as  one 
of  the  foundation  doctrines  of  Christianity, 
and  that  faith  in  it  was  taught  to  all  converts 
'  first  of  all,'  or  more  literally,  '  among  the 
first  or  most  important  truths '  of  the  new 
faith  ;  that  St.  Paul's  teaching  upon  this 
subject  was  identical  with  that  of  the  other 
Apostles  ;  and  that  more  than  five  hundred 
private  Christians  (most  of  whom  were  still 
alive  when  St.  Paul  wrote)  could  testify  that 
they  had  seen  thw  risen  Lord.     So  fai-  trom 


cxxiu 


THE   RESURRECTION 


the  Resurrection  being  based,  as  is  sometimes 
alleged,  on  the  all  but  unsupported  evidence 
of  a  single  hysterical  woman,  there  is  no 
mention  of  any  appearances  to  women  at  all. 
The  list  is  clearly  an  official  one  of  appear- 
ances to  the  Church  and  its  officers.  There 
is  an  appearance  to  St.  Peter,  the  leader  of 
the  Apostles;  one  to  the  Twelve,  the  recognised 
heads  of  the  Christian  community  ;  one  to 
James  the  Lord's  brother,  destined  soon  to  rule 
the  great  mother-church  of  Jerusalem  ;  one 
to  all  the  Apostles,  i.e.  to  other  leading  men 
besides  the  Twelve,  perhaps  to  the  whole 
Seventy  (Lk  10 1)  ;  one  to  the  whole  Church,  on 
which  occasion  over  five  hundred  were  present ; 
and  one  to  St.  Paul,  the  founder  of  Gentile 
Christianity.  It  is  important  to  notice  that 
two  of  these  appearances  were  to  unbelievers. 
The  unbelief  of  James  is  particularly  noted 
in  the  Gospels  (Jn75  Mk32i  Mtl537),  and  it 
was  probably  this  appearance  which  effected 
his  conversion  (Ac  1 1*).  As  to  St.  Paul,  his 
companion  and  biographer  tells  us  that  he  was 
'  yet  breathing  out  threatenings  and  slaughter 
against  the  disciples  of  the  Lord '  (Ac  9  ^), 
when  the  risen  Lord  appeared  to  him  outside 
the  gates  of  Damascus.  Taken  altogether, 
the  evidence  to  which  St.  Paul  alludes  in  this 
passage  represents  a  truly  impressive  mass  of 
testimony.  This  is  the  opinion  not  only  of 
defenders  of  traditional  views,  but  even 
of  recent  negative  criticism.  Schmiedel,  for 
example,  says,  '  This  passage  must  be  regarded 
as  the  earliest  account  of  the  appearances  of 
the  risen  Jesus  ;  unquestionably  it  goes  back 
to  the  communications  made  by  Peter  during 
the  fifteen  days'  visit  of  Paul,  three  years 
after  the  conversion  of  the  latter '  (Gal  1 1^)  ; 
Weizsiicker  says,  '  Paul's  knowledge  of  these 
things  must  have  come  from  the  heads  of  the 
primitive  Church '  ;  Wernle  says,  '  In  the  very 
earliest  time  St.  Paul  obtained  this  informa- 
tion from  St.  Peter '  ;  Keim  says,  '  Paul 
wishes  in  pious  earnestness  to  give  the  truth.  .  , 
It  is  beyond  doubt  that  the  facts  were  really 
experienced  and  believed  as  they  were  faith- 
fully related  to  him,  and  as  he  has  again  faith- 
fully reported  them. . .  Paul's  help  supplies 
the  v?hole  question  with  its  fixed  point,  its 
Archimedean  fulcrum.' 

The  important  evidence  of  St.  Paul  is  con- 
firmed by  the  first-hand  evidence  of  St.  Peter. 
St.  Peter's  First  Epistle  is  one  of  the  best 
attested  of  all  ancient  documents,  and  since 
its  contents  are  in  harmony  with  its  reputed 
date  and  authorship,  we  need  have  no  hesita- 
tion in  accepting  its  evidence.  Its  testimony 
to  the  Resurrection  is  remarkably  strong. 
For  St.  Peter  the  Resurrection  is  not  a 
speculation,  but  a  most  certain  fact,  the  basis 
of  the  Christian's  hope.  '  Blessed,'  he  says, 
'be  the  God  and  Father  of  our  Lord  Jesus 


Christ,  who  according  to  His  great  mercy 
begat  us  again  into  a  living  hope  by  the  Re- 
surrection of  Jesus  Christ  from  the  dead' 
(13).  And  again,  'God  raised  Him  from  the 
dead,  and  gave  Him  glory  ;  so  that  your  faith 
and  hope  might  be  in  God  '  (1  ^i).  The  testi- 
mony of  two  other  Apostles  can  be  added. 
The  Gospel  of  St.  Matthew,  whether  it  be 
directly  by  that  Apostle,  or  based  upon  his 
original  Hebrew  'Logia,'  apparently  rests  upon 
his  authority.  Its  testimony  to  the  Resurrec- 
tion is  quite  explicit  (Mt28).  The  Gospel  of 
St.  John,  though  questioned  in  modern  times 
by  certain  schools  of  criticism,  was  in  ancient 
times  universally  accepted,  and  is  in  truth 
attested  by  weighty  evidence,  both  internal 
and  external,  as  the  work  of  the  Apostle. 
Its  writer  offers  a  personal  testimony  to  the 
Resurrection,  and  gives  a  detailed  account  of 
three  appearances  of  the  risen  Lord  which  he 
himself  beheld. 

Besides  these  primary  authorities  the  second- 
ary witnesses  are  of  great  importance.  St. 
Luke,  probably  a  Gentile  of  Antioch,  during 
his  long  sojourn  at  Caesarea  (Ac  24  27)  from 
56-58  A.D.,  had  ample  opportunities  of  con- 
sulting the  actual  eye-witnesses,  and  we  have 
every  reason  to  suppose  he  did  so  (Lk  1 1-^). 
His  Gospel  and  Acts  must  therefore  be  re- 
garded as  valuable  authorities.  Their  testi- 
mony to  the  Resurrection  is  unmistakable. 
As  for  St.  Mark,  his  position  as  secretary  and 
interpreter  to  St.  Peter  (cp.  1  Pet  5  ^3)  gave 
him  exceptional  opportunities  of  knowing  the 
truth.  Unfortunately  the  conclusion  of  his 
Gospel  has  been  lost,  but  it  is  certain  that  his 
narrative  was  written  from  the  point  of  view 
of  a  believer  in  the  Resurrection,  and  that  in 
its  complete  form  it  contained  an  accoimt  of 
that  event  (MklG^,  etc.). 

3.  The  Number  of  Appearances.  It  is  im- 
plied by  the  sacred  writers  that  the  appear- 
ances of  the  risen  Lord  were  numerous 
(Jn2125  Ac  13).  At  least  ten  or  eleven  are 
definitely  mentioned. 

(1)  To  Mary  Magdalene  (Jn20i6  •  op.  Mk 
169). 

(2)  To  the  other  women  (]Mt289). 

(3)  To  Peter  (Lk2434  1  Cor  15  5). 

(4)  To  two  disciples  on  their  way  to  Emmaus 
(Lk24i5). 

(5)  To  the  ten  Apostles  without  Thomas 
(Lk2436  Jn20i9). 

(6)  To  the  Apostles  with  Thomas  (Jn  20  26). 

(7)  To  seven  disciples,  among  whom  were 
Peter,  Thomas,  Nathanael,  James,  and  John 
(Jn21i). 

(8)  To  the  eleven  disciples  on  a  mountain 
in  Galilee  (Mt28i6),  ^th  which  is  probably 
to  be  identified — 

(9)  The  appearance  to  over  500  brethren  at 
once  (1  Cor  15  6). 


cxxiv 


THE   RESURRECTION 


(10)  To  James the:iord'sbrother(l  Cor  157). 

(11)  To  the  Apostes  on  the  occasion  of  the 
Ascension  (Ac  1  *). 

(12)  To  St.  PauU Ac  9  3,  etc.). 

4.  Alleged  Discepancies  in  the  Evidence. 
The  above  passages  taken  together  represent 
an  impressive  msss  of  cumulative  evidence, 
the  weight  of  vhich  would  not  be  sensibly 
diminished,  even  if  it  could  be  shown  that  dis- 
crepancies exst  between  the  narratives.  For 
it  is  one  of  the  established  rules  of  historical 
criticism  that  the  disagreement  of  the  witnesses 
in  matters  of  detail,  does  not  invalidate  their 
testimoiiy  to  the  main  facts  which  they  agree 
in  relating.  Up  to  a  certain  point,  indeed,  the 
presence  of  discrepancies  in  different  narratives 
is  rather  a  favourable  indication  than  other- 
wise, because  fictitious  narratives,  intended 
•jO  win  credit  as  history,  would  inevitably  be 
precise,  chronological,  and  harmonious  not 
only  in  reality,  but  in  appearance. 

The  only  question  is  whether  the  discrep- 
ancies in  the  accounts  of  the  Resurrection  are 
so  numerous  and  important,  as  to  throw  dis- 
credit upon  the  history  as  a  whole.  The  chief 
difficulties  are  the  following.  St,  Luke  and 
St.  John  mention  two  angels,  St.  Matthew 
and  St.  Mark  only  one.  According  to  the 
synoptists,  the  angels  were  seen  by  the  women  ; 
according  to  St.  John  by  Mary  Magdalene 
oaly.  According  to  St.  Luke  and  St.  Matthew, 
news  was  brought  by  the  women  that  the  tomb 
was  empty,  and  that  Jesus  had  risen  ;  accord- 
ing to  St.  Mark,  '  they  said  nothing  to  any 
one,  for  they  were  afraid '  ;  whereas,  according 
to  St.  John,  news  of  the  empty  tomb  (but  not 
of  the  Resurrection)  was  brought  by  Mary 
Magdalene  only,  though  there  is  a  hint  (Jn 
202)  that  other  women  also  had  been  present. 
Again  the  words  of  the  angel  announcing  a 
Galilean  appearance  are  given  in  substantial 
agreement  by  St.  Matthew  and  St.  Mark  ;  but 
in  St.  Luke  an  important  change  is  made. 
The  word  Galilee  is  retained,  but  the  reference 
to  a  Galilean  appearance  is  obliterated,  pro- 
bably because  it  is  not  St.  Luke's  design  to 
record  any  appearances  in  Galilee. 

These  are  all  the  discrepancies  of  any 
moment  which  can  plausibly  be  alleged  against 
the  scriptural  narratives.  They  relate  almost 
entirely  to  the  proceedings  of  the  women  on 
the  morning  of  the  Resurrection,  and  are 
easily  explained  by  the  fact  that  the  women 
were  so  much  startled  by  the  appearance  of 
the  angel  (Mt288  MklG^  Lk245),  that  they 
were  unable  to  give  an  entirely  consistent 
account  of  their  experience  :  cp.  Lk24ii. 
As  to  the  often  repeated  statement  that  the 
authorities  contradict  one  another  as  to  the 
locality  of  the  appearances,  some  placing  them 
in  Judaea  and  others  in  Galilee,  we  can  only 
say  that  no  sufficient  reason  has  been  shown 


why  there  should  not  have  been  appearances 
in  both  localities.  The  biblical  wi-iters,  at  any 
rate,  recognise  no  such  incompatibility.  Not 
one  of  them  says  that  the ,  appearances  were 
all  in  one  locality.  St.  Matthew  records  one 
appearance  in  Jerusalem  and  one  in  Galilee  ; 
St.  John  three  in  Jerusalem  and  one  in  Galilee  ; 
while  St.  Paul  does  not  mention  the  locality 
of  any  of  the  appearances. 

The  discrepancies,  therefore,  are  too  slight 
to  discredit  the  narratives  as  a  whole.  This 
is  the  opinion  even  of  many  leaders  of  modern 
rationalism — of  F.  C.  Baur,  for  example,  who 
says, '  For  the  disciples  the  Resurrection  was  as 
real  as  any  historical  fact — whatever  may  have 
been  the  medium  of  this  persuasion ' ;  and  of 
Mr.  Macan,  who  says,  '  Two  broad  facts  may 
be  taken  as  certain — that  Paul  and  the  other 
Apostles  had  certain  visions,  and  that,  in  con- 
sequence of  these  visions,  they  believed  that 
Jesus  had  risen  from  the  dead.' 

5.  The  interpretation  of  the  facts.  Various 
attempts  have  been  made  to  explain  the  facts 
which  have  just  been  described,  most  of  them 
without  supposing  that  a  mn-acle  occurred. 
The  chief  are — 

(1)  The  theory  of  fraud.  This  is  the  oldest. 
Soon  after  the  Resurrection  the  Jews  spread 
a  report  that  the  disciples  had  stolen  Christ's 
body,  and  pretended  that  He  had  risen 
(Mt  28 13-15).  This  calumny  is  alluded  to  by 
Justin  Martyr,  Tertullian,  and  Origen  ;  is 
found  in  the  heathen  Acts  of  Pilate,  and  the 
mediaeval  Jewish  Toledoth  Jeshua ;  and  was 
advocated  by  the  German  rationalist  Reimarus 
(1694-1767).  In  our  day  even  rationalists 
reject  this  theory  as '  repellent  and  disgraceful ' 
(Keim).  It  is  acknowledged  on  all  hands  that 
so  pure  an  ethical  movement  as  Christianity 
cannot  have  originated  in  conscious  fraud. 

(2)  Tlie  theory  of  the  natural  dimjjpearance 
of  the  body.  The  body  is  supposed  to  have 
been  removed  by  some  person  or  persons 
unknown  (e.g.  the  gardener,  unknown  Galilean 
disciples,  Mary  Magdalene,  the  Sanhedrin, 
Pilate,  etc.).  But  these  unknown  persons 
would  either  have  produced  the  body,  or  at 
least  have  explained  that  they  had  removed 
it,  as  soon  as  the  Apostles  began  to  proclaim 
that  Christ  had  risen  from  the  tomb. 

(3)  The  theory  of  apparent  death.  It  is 
alleged  that  Jesus  did  not  die  upon  the  cross, 
but  fainted,  and  after  burial  revived  and 
came  out  of  the  tomb,  thus  giving  rise  to  the 
belief  that  He  had  risen  from  the  dead. 
This  theory,  once  the  usual  one  among 
rationalists,  is  now  nearly,  if  not  quite, 
obsolete.  Strauss  (1864)  says  of  it  :  'A  man 
half-dead,  dragging  Himself  in  languor  and 
exhaustion  out  of  His  tomb,  with  wounds 
requiring  careful  and  continuous  medical 
treatment — could  He,  in  such  a  state,  have 


cxxv 


THE   RESURRECTION 


produced  upon  the  minds  of  the  disciples  the 
impression  that  He  was  victor  over  death  and 
the  grave,  the  Prince  of  Life — an  impression 
which  nevertheless  was  the  source  and  spring 
of  all  their  subsequent  activity  ?  ' 

(4)  The  theory  of  subjective  visions.  This 
view,  now  the  accepted  one  among  rationalists, 
was  already  stated,  nearly  in  its  modern  form, 
by  Celsus  (a.d.  170),  who  says,  '  Who  beheld 
the  risen  Jesus  ?  A  half -frantic  woman,  as 
you  state,  and  some  other  person,  perhaps,  of 
those  who  were  engaged  in  the  same  system 
of  delusion,  who  had  either  dreamed  so,  owing 
to  a  peculiar  state  of  mind,  or,  under  the 
influence  of  a  wandering  imagination,  had 
formed  to  himself  an  appearance  according  to 
his  own  wishes,  which  has  been  the  case  with 
numberless  individuals  '  (see  Origen,  '  Against 
Celsus,'  ii.  55).  Modern  advocates  of  this 
view  maintain  that  they  can  account  for 
the  appearances  by  the  ordinary  laws  of 
psychology,  without  introducing  supernatural 
agency.  Hallucinations  are  known  to  occur, 
(a)  to  persons  afflicted  with  certain  physical 
diseases,  (h)  to  insane  persons,  (c)  to  persons, 
not  insane,  but  suffering  from  certain  disorders 
of  the  nervous  system,  (cl)  to  healthy  persons 
intensely  preoccupied  with  an  idea  which  they 
have  allowed  to  obtain  exclusive  possession  of 
their  minds.  {c)  It  is  also  maintained  by 
good  authorities,  but  is  not  yet  generally 
accepted,  that  the  thought  of  one  mind  acting 
'  telepathically '  (i.e.  without  any  material 
means  of  communication)  upon  the  thought 
of  another  mind  of  a  certain  type  of  psycho- 
logical sensitiveness  may  induce  a  visual 
hallucination. 

Now  it  cannot  be  fairly  said  that  the  appear- 
ances of  the  risen  Christ  can  be  explained  on 
any  of  these  principles.  For  as  to  (o)  none  of 
the  perceivers  were  sick ;  as  to  (6),  none  of 
them  were  insane  ;  as  to  (c),  even  if  it  be  sup- 
posed that  Mary  Magdalene  and  St.  Paul  suf- 
fered from  some  form  of  nervous  ailment,  this 
cannot  be  said  of  the  Twelve,  or  of  James,  or 
of  the  five  hundred  brethren  ;  as  to  (r/),  the 
disciples  were  certainly  not  intensely  preoccu- 
pied with  the  idea  of  the  Resurrection.  The 
ignominious  death  of  Jesus  had  scattered  His 
followers,  and  thrown  them  into  the  deepest 
despondency.  They  were  in  the  position  of 
men  who,  having  placed  implicit  trust  in  a 
leader,  were  beginning  to  wonder  whether, 
after  all,  they  had  not  made  a  great  mistake. 
All  the  Gospels  represent  our  Lord's  prophe- 
cies of  His  Resurrection  as  falling  upon  deaf 
ears  (Mtl622  MkO^o  Jn209,  etc.),  and  depict 
the  despondency  of  the  disciples  (Mt26'^*^ 
Mkie^O),  and  their  unwillingness  to  believe 
the  good  news  (Mt28i7  Mkl6ii.i2,i4  Lk24ii. 

25,37,38  Jn  20  25). 

As  to  (e),  if  hallucinations  can  be  telepathic- 


ally  induced  at  all  (and  ths  is  doubtful),  this 
can  only  happen  to  persons  of  a  very  rare  and 
quite  abnormal  psychologicil  sensitiveness.  To 
suppose  that  the  nervous  systems  of  the  Twelve 
and  of  the  five  hundred  wert  all  so  abnormally 
'  sensitive,'  that  the  visions  o:  Mary  Magdalene 
could  be  '  telepathically '  communicated  to  them 
all,  surpasses  credence.  Nor  isthis  all.  Recent 
research  has  demonstrated  (see  the  voluminous 
evidence  collected  by  the  Psych'jcal  Research 
Society)  that  visual  phantoms  lardly  ever 
speak,  and,  when  they  do,  never  more  than  a 
word  or  two.  But  the  risen  Lord  spdie  every 
time  that  He  appeared,  and  carried  en  long 
conversations  with  the  disciples.  On  the  sig- 
nificance of  the  empty  tomb,  of  the  handling, 
and  of  the  eating — all  which  circumstances  are 
inconsistent  with  the  theory  we  are  consideriiig 
— more  will  be  said  in  the  next  sections. 

(5)  TJie  theory  of  objective  visions^  or  of  a 
'  spiritual  resurrection.''  Many  who  reject  the 
traditional  belief  in  a  corporeal  resurrection, 
and  yet  desire  to  find  a  mediating  position 
between  that  and  the  purely  negative  view, 
adopt  the  theory  of  objective  visions.  They 
suppose  that,  after  Jesus  had  been  put  to 
death.  His  body  did  not  rise,  but  that  His 
glorified  and  immortal  sj^irit  was  allowed  by 
God  to  appear  to  the  disciples,  as  a  token  that 
the  teaching  of  Jesus  had  been  ratified  by  the 
divine  approval,  and  that,  in  particular,  human 
immortality  is  a  fact.  This  theory,  often 
spoken  of  as  that  of  a  '  spiritual  resurrection,' 
approximates  very  closely  in  practical  effect 
to  that  usually  denominated  '  orthodox,'  and 
deserves  sympathetic  and  respectful  considera- 
tion. Our  objection  to  it  is,  that  while  it  re- 
moves none  of  the  real  difiiculties  involved  in 
the  older  view,  it  introduces  new  and  greater 
difficulties  of  its  own.  The  great  difficulty  of 
believing  in  our  Lord's  Resurrection  is  its 
miraculous  character.  The  theory  of  objective 
visions  tries  to  eliminate  the  element  of  mira- 
cle by  denying  our  Lord's  corjioreal,  while 
admitting  His  spiritual,  Resurrection.  But 
even  on  such  a  view  the  Resurrection  of  Jesus 
remains  a  miracle.  It  is  as  much  a  breach  of 
the  order  of  nature,  and,  therefore,  as  much  a 
miracle,  for  a  disembodied  spirit  to  return  and 
hold  conversations  with  living  persons,  or  for 
God  to  send  'a  telegram  from  heaven'  (Keim), 
as  for  a  corpse  to  rise.  It  is  a  mistake  to 
think  that  the  philosophic  objections  to  mira- 
cles apply  exclusively,  or  even  with  especial 
force,  to  physical  miracles.  They  apply  equally 
to  all  miracles.  It  is  more  difficult,  doubtless, 
to  determine  the  limits  of  natural  possibility 
in  the  case  of  mind  than  in  the  case  of  matter  ; 
but  when  those  limits  are  plainly  transcended, 
as  they  are  when  the  facts  require  the  hypo- 
theses of  spirit  return  and  of  telegi-ams  from 
heaven   to    be    entertained,   the    philosophic 


cxxvi 


THE   RESURRECTION 


objections  against  alleged  psychical  miracles  are 
as  strong  as  those  against  alleged  physical 
miracles.  The  half-hearted  Rationalism,  there- 
fore, which  accepts  a  spiritual,  while  denying 
a  corporeal  resurrection,  is  as  incapable  as 
Orthodoxy  of  removing  the  great  stumbling- 
block  of  miracle,  and  is  under  the  additional 
disadvantage  of  being  forced  to  deal  with  the 
evidence  in  a  thoroughly  arbitrary  way.  It  is 
compelled,  for  instance,  to  disbelieve  what 
even  Schenkel  regarded  as  incontrovertible, 
that  the  tomb  was  empty  on  the  third  day, 
and  that  the  risen  Jesus,  in  order  to  convince 
the  disciples  that  He  was  not  a  phantom, 
allowed  Himself  to  be  handled,  and  ate  before 
them. 

(6)  Tlie  theory  of  a  corporeal  resurrection. 
Upon  the  whole,  no  theory  will  be  found  to 
satisfy  the  facts,  except  the  traditional  one  of 
a  bodily  resurrection.  On  the  morning  of  the 
third  day  the  tomb  was  empty.  This  fact,  in 
spite  of  recent  denials  in  the  interest  of  the 
theory  of  a  spiritual  resurrection,  stands  firm. 
It  is  attested  not  only  by  Luke,  who  had 
good  sources  of  information,  but  also  by 
Mark  (that  is,  by  Peter),  by  Matthew,  by  John, 
by  the  Jews  (Mt  28 1^),  and  apparently  by  Paul 
also,  for  that  is  the  natural  conclusion  to  draw 
from  the  fact  that  he  mentions  the  burial  in 
connexion  with  the  Resurrection  (1  Cor  15*1). 
To  deny  a  fact  so  amply  attested  is  not  sound 
criticism.  The  tomb,  then,  was  empty,  and, 
since  the  removal  of  the  body  either  by  the 
disciples  or  by  the  Jews  is  (as  we  have  shown) 
an  inadmissible  hypothesis,  we  must  conclude 
that  the  body  of  Jesus  rose  to  a  new  life. 
Other  evidence  points  in  the  same  direction. 
Thus  the  risen  Lord  sought  to  dispel  the  idea 
which  the  Apostles  at  first  entertained,  that 
He  was  a  disembodied  spirit,  by  offering 
Himself  to  be  handled,  and  by  showing  the 
wounds  in  His  hands,  feet,  and  side  (Lk 
2437f.  Jn20-0*-);  ''ilso  by  eating  before  and 
with  the  disciples  (Lk2442  AclO"  ;  cp.  Ac 
14  RM,  MklQi^).  It  is  no  sufficient  reply  to 
this  to  say  that  the  risen  body  could  pass 
through  solid  matter  (Jn  20 1^-  '^^)^  could  appear 
and  vanish  suddenly  (Lk  2431. 3(3)^  could  trans- 
port itself  instantaneously  from  place  to  place 
(cp.  Lk243i-3^),  and  therefore  must  have 
been  a  phantom  or  spirit.  If  we  adopt  the 
usual  view,  that  at  the  Resurrection  the  body 
of  Jesus  was  transfigured,  and  became  a 
glorious  and  spiritual  body,  no  longer  limited 
by  the  laws  and  conditions  of  ordinary  matter,  . 
no  contradiction  arises.  We  shall  suppose 
that  our  Lord's  risen  body  belonged  naturally 
to  the  sphere  of  heaven,  not  to  that  of  earth, 
and  that  it  was  by  way  of  condescension  and 
to  confirm  the  faith  of  the  disciples,  that  He 
made  it  visible  to  earthly  eyes,  tangible  to 
human  hands,  and  capable  of   eating  earthly 


food.  His  risen  body  was  not  like  that  of 
the  widow's  son  or  of  Lazarus,  but  like  that 
of  the  saints  in  glory  (1  Cor  153'5^-). 

6.  The  Permanent  Significance  of  the  Re- 
surrection. From  many  points  of  view  the 
Resurrection  is  the  most  important  event  in 
human  history,  and  a  large  treatise  would 
hardly  exhaust  its  many-sided  significance. 
Only  the  briefest  outline  of  its  bearing  upon 
human  life  and  thought  can  be  given  here. 

(1)  The  Resurrection  has  brought  new  hope 
and  happiness  into  the  world  by  the  light  it 
throws  upon  human  immortality  (1  Pet  13,4). 
This  is  recognised  even  by  rationalists.  For 
example,  John  Stuart  Mill  says  :  '  The  bene- 
ficial effect  of  such  a  hope  (in  human  im- 
mortality) is  far  from  trifling.  It  makes  life 
and  human  nature  a  far  greater  thing  to  the 
feelings,  and  gives  greater  strength  as  well  as 
solemnity  to  all  the  sentiments  which  are 
awakened  in  us  by  our  fellow-creatures,  and 
by  mankind  at  large.  It  allays  the  sense  of 
that  irony  of  Nature  which  is  so  painfully  felt 
when  we  see  the  exertions  and  sacrifices  of 
a  life  culminating  in  the  formation  of  a  wise 
and  noble  mind,  only  to  disappear  from  the 
world  when  the  time  has  just  arrived  at  which 
the  world  seems  about  to  begin  reaping  the 
benefit  of  it.  The  truth  that  life  is  short  and 
art  long  is  from  of  old  one  of  the  most  dis- 
couraging parts  of  our  condition  ;  this  hope 
(of  immortality)  admits  the  possibility  that 
the  art  employed  in  improving  and  beautifying 
the  soul  itself  may  avail  for  good  in  some  other 
life,  even  when  seemingly  useless  for  this.' 

(2)  The  Resurrection  makes  it  possible  to 
vindicate  God's  justice  and  benevolence  in  the 
government  of  the  world.  If  this  life  is  all, 
God  cannot  be  regarded  as  perfectly  just  and 
benevolent,  because  he  frequently  permits  the 
righteous  to  be  afflicted,  and  even  to  be  un- 
justly put  to  death,  while  the  wicked  go  un- 
punished and  enjoy  worldly  prosperity.  But 
if,  as  the  Resurrection  indicates,  there  is  a  life 
beyond  the  grave  in  which  all  earthly  wrongs 
are  righted  and  all  wickedness  adequately 
punished,  the  moral  character  of  God  can  be 
successfully  vindicated. 

(3)  The  Resurrection  indicates  that  the 
future  life  will  be  not  that  of  the  soul  only, 
but  of  the  soul  united  to  a  suitable  organ  or 
'  body.'  Christians  regard  matter  as  possessed 
of  an  intrinsic  excellence  of  its  own.  It  has 
reached  its  present  perfection  as  the  result  of 
many  ages  of  cosmical  development,  and  there- 
fore it  is  probable,  on  the  theory  that  there  is 
a  final  goal  to  which  all  creation  moves,  that 
matter  as  well  as  spirit  will  be  ultimately  per- 
fected and  glorified  (cp.  Ro  8 18-25  2Pet3i3 
Rev  2 1 1),  and  that  in  the  future  life  we  shall 
be  surrounded  by  a  '  material '  environment  of 
some  kind.    Unless  hereaf terwe  possess  bodies, 


cxxvii 


THE   ATONEMENT 


it  is  difficult  to  understand  how  we  shall  even 
recognise  one  another,  and  unless  there  are 
beautiful  objects,  it  is  difficult  to  understand 
how  the  soul  will  enjoy,  as  Plato  says  it  will, 
the  contemplation  of  perfect  beauty  for  ever. 
(4)  The  Resurrection  sets  the  seal  of  the 


divine  approval  upon  the  Teaching  of  Jesus, 
and  in  particular 

(5)  Declares  Him  to  be  the  Divine  Son  of 
God. 

On  the  last  two  points  see  art.  '  The  Person 
of  Jesus  Christ.' 


THE  ATONEMENT 


The  meaning  of  the  word  '  atonement ' 
becomes  plain  when  it  is  divided  into  syllables, 
'  at-one-ment.'  It  signifies  the  setting  at  one 
of  those  who  have  been  estranged.  '  We 
actually  find  the  word  "  onement,"  reconcilia- 
tion, in  old  authors  '  (Skeat). 

In  the  New  Testament  the  word  only  occurs 
in  Ilo6  11  AV,  but  in  RV  it  has  disappeared 
even  from  that  passage,  and  is  replaced  by 
'reconciliation'  :  cp.  RoS^o  His  2Cor5i^^-. 
where  the  Greek  word  is  the  same  as  inRoS^i. 

The  word  '  atonement '  is  really  taken  from 
the  Old  Testament,  where  it  occurs  about  fifty 
times,  generally  in  conjunction  with  the  verb 
'  to  make.'  Thus  ExSO^^,  '  to  make  an  atone- 
ment for  your  souls  '  ;  Lv  9  '^,  '  make  an  atone- 
ment for  thyself,  and  for  the  people,'  etc.  It 
is  given  there  as  the  translation  of  a  form  of 
a  Hebrew  word,  which  literally  means  '  to 
cover,'  and  describes  the  effect  of  the  sacrifices 
of  the  Jews  in  '  covering, '  i.e.  removing  sin 
and  uncleanness,  and  so  restoring  communion 
between  God  and  man.  Therefore,  used  of 
the  death  of  Christ,  the  word  may  be  taken  to 
imply  that  Christ's  death  was  sacrificial,  and 
that  its  effect  is  to  do  away  with  that  separa- 
tion between  God  and  man  which  has  been 
brought  about  by  sin. 

Although  the  word  '  atonement '  is  absent 
from  the  New  Testament  (RY),  yet  the  thought 
runs  throughout  the  sacred  volume.  Thus  in 
Mkl0*5  Christ  speaks  of  giving  'his  life  a 
ransom  for  many,'  and  in  Mk  14 24  says,  'This 
is  my  blood  of  the  New  Testament,  which  is 
shed  for  many.'  InJnl^s  the  Baptist  pro- 
claims, '  Behold  the  Lamb  of  God,  which 
taketh  away  the  sin  of  the  world  '  ;  in  Ro  5  ^^ 
St.  Paul  says,  '  When  we  were  enemies  we 
were  reconciled  to  God  by  the  death  of  his 
Son '  ;  and  in  1  Pet  1 1^  we  read  of  being  re- 
deemed '  with  the  precious  blood  of  Christ,  as 
of  a  lamb  without  blemish,  and  without  spot.' 
Cp.  Jn3i4f.  6511011.15  1224  1513  Ro324f.  425 
83,32,34  iCorl30  620  723  153  2Cor5i8*-  Gall* 
313  4f.  Ephl7  2  16  52  Phil28f-  Colli4'20f.  21* 
lTh5ioiTim26Tit2i4Heb727  9iif-26f.  iQiof, 


1224  i3iof.  iPetl2  224  318   iJnir  22  35,i6 
4iORevl5  56.9  714  i43f. 

In  these  passages  the  teaching  of  the  New 
Testament  may  be  clearly  discerned.  It  may 
be  briefly  summed  up  thus  :  Christ  died  for 
us  ;  He  became  a  Ransom,  and  redeemed  us  ; 
He  became  a  Propitiation  for  our  sins  ;  He 
became  a  '  curse  '  for  us,  and  was  '  made  sin  ' 
on  our  behalf  ;  by  His  death,  by  the  shedding 
of  His  blood,  by  the  giving  of  His  life,  by  His 
Cross  come  forgiveness,  cleansing,  the  taking 
away  of  sin,  eternal  life. 

Although  the  connexion  between  His  death 
and  our  salvation  is  so  clearly  stated  in  the 
New  Testament,  when  we  ask  in  what  manner 
the  death  of  Christ  brings  about  our  forgive- 
ness, no  precise  answer  is  given  in  Scripture  ; 
and  yet  it  seems  impossible  for  man  to  rest 
satisfied  without  an  answer.  His  heart  may 
find  rest  and  peace  with  God  in  the  Cross  of 
Christ,  but,  none  the  less,  his  mind  calls  out 
for  an  explanation  of  the  mystery  of  the 
Cross.  Various  attempts  have  been  made  to 
supply  this  intellectual  need. 

It  was  thought  in  the  earlier  Christian  cen- 
turies that  the  death  of  Christ  was  a  ransom 
paid  to  Satan,  that  mankind  might  be  released 
from  bondage  to  him.  Afterwards  it  was 
taught  that  Christ  gave  up  to  God  His  sinless 
life  in  payment  of  the  debt  which  man  had 
incurred  to  God,  by  not  rendering  the  obedience 
and  honour  due  to  Him.  Again,  it  was  held 
that  God  satisfied  His  justice  by  inflicting  on 
Christ  the  punishment  which  the  sins  of  man- 
kind deserved  ;  or,  that  Christ  suffered  to  show 
God's  justice,  bearing  a  punishment  instead 
of  us,  that  we  might  recognise  the  wickedness 
of  sin. 

Whatever  support  these  theories  may  still 
obtain,  they  present  such  difficulties  to  modern 
religious  thought  as  necessitate  an  advance  to 
something  more  satisfactory.  We  cannot  think 
either  that  God  would  punish  the  innocent, 
or  that  for  the  sake  of  punishment  inflicted 
on  the  innocent  He  could  justly  spare  the 
guilty.     We  cannot  think  that  there  can  be 


cxxvm 


THE   ATONEMENT 


anything  formal  and  fictitious  about  our  rela- 
tion to  God.  These  unsatisfying  theories  have 
largely  come  from  unduly  pressing,  in  a  literal 
manner,  the  details  of  metaphors  which  should 
be  interpreted  broadly  and  freely.  The  meta- 
phors of  'ransom'  and  'redemption'  are  meant 
to  express  the  greatness  of  Christ's  self-sacri- 
fice, and  its  purpose  and  eifect  in  delivering 
us  from  sin  and  its  consequences.  The  meta- 
phors of  '  propitiation,'  '  reconciliation,'  and 
'  justification,'  are  meant  to  express,  not  that 
God  needs  to  be  appeased,  but  that  the  effect 
of  the  work  of  Christ,  when  taken  into  the 
heart  of  sinful  man,  is  to  do  away  with  the 
barrier  which  sin  has  built  between  him  and 
God,  and  to  bring  him  back  to  God  in  peni- 
tence and  obedience.  Christ  in  His  sacri- 
fice was  at  one  with  the  mind  of  the  Father. 
God  did  not  hate  the  world,  but  '  so  loved 
the  world  that  He  gave  His  only-begotten 
Son.' 

In  opposition  to  the  penal  theories,  some 
have  supposed  that  the  death  of  Christ  became 
the  means  of  our  salvation  simply  by  giving  us 
such  a  manifestation  of  God's  love  as  would 
win  our  hearts,  and  lead  us  to  surrender  our- 
selves in  love  and  gratitude  to  Him.  This 
theory  contains  a  measure  of  truth,  but  does 
not  seem  to  take  sufficient  account  of  the 
representation  of  the  death  of  Christ  as  a 
sacrifice  offered  to  God  for  our  sins  to  '  shew 
God's  righteousness.' 

The  meaning  of  the  Atonement  must  be 
found  in  the  facts.  The  great  fact,  of  course, 
was  the  death  of  Christ.  It  was  His  death  on 
which  the  main  stress  was  laid  both  by  Christ 
Himself  and  by  His  apostles.  It  is  not  said 
that  His  life  was  lived  for  the  remission  of 
sins,  but  that  His  blood  was  shed  for  that 
purpose. 

Now,  historically  considered,  the  death  of 
Christ  was  a  natural  event.  The  manner  of 
His  death  was  the  natural  consequence  of  the 
life  which  He  lived.  The  outstanding  feature 
of  His  life  was  its  deliberate  and  unceasing 
submission  to  the  will  of  His  Father  in  every 
point.  The  human  society  in  which  He  lived, 
the  human  social  organism  by  which  He  was 
surrounded,  sought  to  bring  Him  into  line 
with  its  own  will,  its  own  desires  ;  and  those 
desires  were  self-centred,  self-seeking.  At 
the  same  time,  the  human  nature  which  He 
shared  with  us  had  the  natural  feelings  of  man, 
which  shrink  from  pain  and  sacrifice,  and 
which  desire  self -gratification.  So  that,  as 
has  been  said.  He  had  '  all  the  external 
machinery '  for  disobedience.  But  the  will 
of  human  society,  and  the  temptations  of 
human  nature,  beat  upon  Him  in  vain.  His 
life  was,  all  through,  the  complete  repre- 
sentation, the  perfect  realisation,  of  the  will 
of  God. 


Such  a  life  naturally  led  to  the  Cross.  The 
sinful  passions  of  man,  which  could  not  bend 
Christ  to  yield  to  them,  rose  against  Him  in 
hatred,  and  put  Him  to  death.  Thus,  on  the 
part  of  men,  the  Crucifixion  was  a  murder. 
But  on  the  part  of  Christ,  the  death  of  the 
Cross  was  the  culmination  of  His  righteous 
life,  the  crowning  act  of  assent  to  the  will 
of  God.  It  was  a  '  death  unto  sin.'  It  was 
the  refusal  of  sin,  carried  to  its  last  and  vic- 
torious extremity. 

Looked  at  in  this  way,  then,  the  death 
of  Christ  was  the  perfect  display  of  right- 
eousness, the  complete  achievement  of  union 
with  the  Divine  will,  the  absolute  condemna- 
tion of  human  sin. 

But  the  life  and  death  of  Christ  were  more 
than  individual.  He  was  not  one  among 
many,  but  the  man  of  all  men,  the  son  of 
man,  the  second  Adam,  the  perfect  represent- 
ative of  the  human  race.  He  was  made  in 
all  points  like  unto  His  brethren,  that  He 
might  express,  before  man  and  before  God, 
what  the  thoughts  and  wishes  and  acts  of  man 
should  be.  His  life  was  an  offering  to  God, 
and  that  not  merely  for  Himself,  but  for 
others,  as  expressing  the  return  to  God  of 
sinful  humanity.  It  was  the  beginning  of  a 
new  and  reformed  order  of  things  for  human 
nature.  In  the  life  and  death  of  Christ,  the 
best  man,  the  natural  leader  of  men,  spoke  to 
God  for  man.  It  remained  for  the  rest  of 
mankind  to  utter  their  '  Amen  '  to  that  perfect 
prayer. 

Christ,  then,  is  the  elder  brother  of  the 
human  race,  bound  to  mankind  in  such  inti- 
mate relationship  that  some  have  liked  to 
think  that  the  Son  of  God  would  have  become 
Incarnate  even  if  man  had  not  sinned.  But 
since  mankind  has  sinned,  the  righteousness 
and  holiness  and  love  for  man  of  the  Son 
of  God  must  have  produced  in  Him  sorrow 
for  the  sin  of  man.  A  sinner's  sorrow  for 
his  sin,  when  it  is  true,  is  penitence.  Christ 
was  sinless.  But  seeing  that  His  relationship 
to  man  is  so  intimate,  and  His  love  for  man 
so  great,  we  can  imagine  that  His  sorrow  for 
man's  sin  would  be  filled  with  shame,  and  be 
that  true  penitence  which  man  himself  did 
not  rightly  feel.  For  as  a  loving  and  saintly 
mother  suffers  shame  and  penitence  for  the 
sin  of  her  son,  so  even  more,  and  to  an  infinite 
degree,  would  the  loving  and  holy  Son  of 
God  feel  shame  and  penitence  for  the  sin 
of  mankind  which  He  '  bore '  when  He 
identified  Himself  with  our  sins  in  such  a 
manner  that  it  is  said  that  He  was  '  made 
sin '  (2  Cor  5  -i).  The  burden  of  our  sins 
thus  borne  upon  His  heart  would  explain 
His  agony  in  the  garden  and  His  cry  of 
desolation  upon  the  Cross. 

Accordingly,    Christ    accepted    the    Cross 


CXXIX 


THE   ATONEMExNT 


when  it  came  in  His  way,  instead  of  escaping 
from  it.  He  did  so,  not  only  because  it  was  the 
culmination  of  His  union  with  the  will  of  the 
Father,  but  also  because  in  the  shame  of  that 
death,  and  in  its  utter  emptying  of  Himself 
before  God,  He  expressed  the  true  penitence 
of  man  for  the  sin  of  man. 

Thus  the  death  of  the  Cross  was  a  double 
sacrifice  offered  in  man's  name.  It  expressed 
the  sacrifice  of  self  to  the  holy  and  righteous 
will  of  God,  and  the  sacrifice  of  true  peni- 
tence and  righteousness.  This  sacrifice,  joined 
as  it  was  to  self-sacrificing  love,  was  '  the 
noblest  act  that  God  had  ever  looked  upon.' 
It  was  acceptable  to  God,  '  an  offering  and  a 
sacrifice  to  God  for  an  odour  of  a  sweet  smell ' 
(Eph52). 

But  how  could  a  sacrifice  of  penitence  and 
righteousness,  offered  by  Christ,  alter  the  rela- 
tionship in  which  we  stand  to  God  ?  The 
answer  is  to  be  found,  partly,  in  the  union 
between  Christ  and  the  human  race,  through 
which,  in  an  ideal  and  sacramental  way,  '  one 
died  for  all,  therefore  all  died'  (2 Cor 5 1*). 
Practically  and  actually,  for  each  individual 
the  answer  is  to  be  found  in  the  union  of  the 
believer  with  Christ.    As  St.  Paul  makes  clear 


in  his  Epistles,  he  who  has  faith  in  Christ  can 
be  justified,  i.e.  accepted  by  God,  because  his 
face  is  set  in  the  right  way,  because  the  seed 
has  been  sown  which  bears  the  fruit  of  life. 
Faith  is  more  than  abstract  belief.  It  is  even 
more  than  trust.  It  is  that  loving  adhesion 
to  Christ  which  loves  all  He  is  and  all  He  did, 
which  '  loves  the  Crucified  because  of  the 
Cross  and  the  Cross  because  of  the  Crucified.' 
Therefore  the  character  of  the  believer  is 
altered  by  his  faith.  He  enters  into  the 
meaning  of  Christ's  Cross  and  makes  it  his 
own.  He,  too,  takes  up  his  Cross  and  follows 
Christ.  He.  too,  seeks  the  will  of  God, 
through  his  union  with  Christ,  even  at  the 
cost  of  '  cutting  off  his  hand '  or  '  plucking 
out  his  eye.'  He,  too,  dies  to  the  sin  of  the 
world,  in  his  heart  and  will  and  life.  He 
shares  the  righteousness  of  Christ  as  well  as 
His  repudiation  of  sin.  And  he  can  do  all 
this,  not  only  through  the  transforming  power 
of  loving  faith,  but  also  because  the  Holy 
Spirit,  which  is  the  Spirit  of  the  Crucified,  is 
given  to  him,  reproducing  Christ  in  Him,  and 
changing  him  '  into  the  same  image.'  He  of 
whom  this  has  become  true  is  one  with  Christ 
in  God. 


oxxx 


INSPIRATION 


The  -word  '  inspire  '  means  '  breathe  into.' 
In  the  Authorised  Version  Wisd  15  ^^  illustrates 
this  meaning,  '  Forasmuch  as  he  knew  not  his 
Maker,  and  Him  that  inspired  into  him  an 
active  soul,  and  breathed  in  a  living  spirit.' 
The  word  '  inspiration  '  occurs  twice  in  the 
Authorised  Version  :  (1)  Job  32  s, '  But  there  is 
a  spirit  in  man  :  and  the  inspiration  of  the 
Almighty  giveth  them  understanding ' ;  and 
(2)  2Tim3i'5,  'All  Scripture  is  given  by  in- 
spiration of  God,  and  is  profitable  for  doctrine.' 
The  last  instance  is,  however,  doubtful,  and 
we  shall  probably  do  well  to  accept  the  render- 
ing of  the  Revised  Version,  '  Every  Scripture 
inspired  of  God  is  also  profitable,'  an  inter- 
pretation which  agrees  with  some  of  the  oldest 
English  versions.  We  must  content  ourselves 
with  noticing  that  in  any  case  this  verse  shows 
how  the  word  '  inspire,'  like  many  other  M^ords, 
gradually  passed  from  a  physical  to  a  spiritual 
meaning.  St.  Paul's  phrase  corresponds  with 
that  of  St.  Peter,  who  speaks  of  the  prophets 
as  '  moved  by  the  Holy  Ghost '  (2  Pet  1  ^i). 

Inasmuch  as  every  faithful  Christian  is  moved 
by  the  Holy  Ghost  who  dwells  within  him,  it 
is  possible  to  speak  of  every  Chi'istian  as  in- 
spired. But  this  does  not  imply  that  the  Holy 
Spirit  grants  to  every  Christian  the  same  degree 
of  insight  into  truth,  or  that  there  is  no  pro- 
gress in  the  apprehension  of  different  parts  of 
truth,  or  that  the  Holy  Spirit  bids  every  man 
to  manifest  his  inspiration  in  the  same  way. 
To  assume  that  it  does,  is  to  raise  needless 
difficulties  in  the  interpretation  of  the  Bible, 
which  clearly  exhibits,  not  only  varying  degrees 
of  inspiration,  and  different  ways  of  manifest- 
ing it,  but  also  individual  and  general  pro- 
gressiveness  in  the  apprehension  of  divine 
truth.  Bearing  this  in  mind,  then,  we  must 
enquire  what  is  meant  by  the  inspiration  of  the 
writers  of  the  Bible. 

Speaking  broadly,  the  Christian  means  by 
their  inspiration  an  impulse  from  God  causing 
certain  persons  to  write,  and  directing  them 
how  to  write,  for  the  edification  of  others. 
Though  it  is  closely  connected  with  rexelation, 
it  is  not  identical  with  it.  By  revelation  God 
makes  known  to  a  soul  truths  which  were  un- 
known to  it  before.  But  it  is  not  at  all  neces- 
sary that  an  inspired  writer  should  receive  any 
new  truths  by  way  of  revelation.  Thus  St. 
Mark  was  inspired  to  write  his  Gospel,  but  he 
was  inspired  to  write  down  truths  which  were 
already  familiar  to  him  and  to  others  through 
the  instructions  given  by  St.  Peter.    While  the 


Church  has  continuously  witnessed  to  her 
belief  in  the  inspiration  of  those  Scriptures 
which  she  decided  to  include  in  the  Canon,  she 
has  never  defined  the  method  of  inspiration  by 
saying  how  the  Holy  Spirit  acted  upon  the 
natural  faculties  of  the  writers.  Therefore  the 
method  of  inspiration  may  still  be  regarded  as, 
in  a  certain  sense,  an  open  question.  But  it  is, 
nevertheless,  not  so  open  as  to  be  unaffected 
by  certain  definite  limits  which  we  must  now 
consider. 

The  nature  of  inspiration  must  be  ascertained 
(1)  by  a  careful  and  exact  study  of  the  Holy 
Scriptures  themselves  :  their  own  testimony  as 
to  their  origin,  design,  and  authority  must  be 
scrupulously  observed.  (2)  From  the  action 
of  the  Church  with  regard  to  Holy  Scripture 
and  its  meaning.  To  learn  what  inspiration 
is,  we  must  not  only  see  how  the  books  were 
written,  but  also  see  their  effect  on  the  life 
of  the  Church  and  the  testimony  which 
the  Church  gave  to  them.  (3)  The  Christian 
must  ascertain  the  meaning  of  inspiration 
by  submission  to  it.  The  man  whose  own 
life  is  not  under  the  influence  of  the  Holy 
Spirit  cannot  expect  to  understand  inspiration. 
And  a  Christian  can  only  learn  to  look  upon 
the  Scriptures  from  the  right  point  of  view  in 
proportion  as  he  acts  as  a  member  of  that 
divine  society  which  produced  the  Scriptures 
and  set  its  seal  to  them. 

Fidelity  to  the  above  principles  will  keep  us 
from  the  extreme  theories  which  men  have 
constructed  with  regard  to  the  divine  and  the 
human  elements  in  the  Bible  respectively.  By 
saying  '  extreme,'  we  do  not  mean  that  any 
opinion  which  is  called  '  extreme '  is  necessarily 
wrong,  or  that  any  opinion  which  is  called 
'  moderate  '  is  necessarily  right.  It  is  our  duty 
to  accept  a  doctrine,  not  because  it  is  moderate, 
but  because  it  is  true.  And  the  more  extreme 
theories  about  the  Bible  must  be  rejected,  not 
because  they  are  extreme,  but  because  they  are 
false.  They  either  lay  such  an  emphasis  on 
the  divine  element  in  the  Bible  as  to  make  the 
human  element  unreal,  or  they  lay  such  an 
emphasis  on  the  human  element  as  to  leave  no 
room  for  the  divine  element.  Thus  they  offer 
a  striking  parallel  to  certain  errors  with  regard 
to  the  Person  of  our  Lord.  In  early  times 
the  Gnostics,  Apollinarians,  and  Monophysites 
allowed  our  Lord  no  true  human  nature,  while 
certain  of  the  Adoptionists  and  all  the  Nestor- 
ians  insisted  so  strongly  upon  the  human  nature 
as  to  limit  or  even  eliminate  the  divine.     One 


cxxxa 


INSPIRATION 


extreme  was  sometimes  an  actual  reaction 
against  the  other.  So  it  has  been  with  the 
Bible.  At  the  time  of  the  Reformation  there 
was  among  Protestants  a  strong  tendency  to 
appeal  to  the  Bible  against  the  traditions  of 
the  Church.  And  in  order  to  make  the  appeal 
as  effective  as  possible  every  attempt  was  made 
to  safeguard  the  divine  authority  of  the  in- 
spired books.  This  attempt  led  to  some  extra- 
ordinary exaggerations.  Many  scholars  were 
led  to  adopt  the  opinion  of  a  Jew  named  de 
Biossi,  who  held  that  the  little  points  in  the 
Hebrew  Bible  denoting  the  vowels  were  in- 
spired, a  theory  which  de  Rossi  defended  by 
holding  that  the  origin  of  the  vowels  was  com- 
municated to  Adam  in  Paradise  and  transmitted 
to  Moses.  In  1675  a.d.  some  Swiss  Protestants 
actually  made  the  divine  inspiration  of  the 
vowel-points  a  doctrine  of  their  articles  of 
religion.  The  result  was  that  people  pinned 
their  faith  on  separated  passages  in  the  Bible 
instead  of  its  general  teaching,  and  derived 
from  it  maxims  for  condemning  historical  and 
scientific  enquiries  which  the  authors  of  the 
Bible  would  not  have  condemned  themselves. 
Thus  the  Old  Testament  was  quoted  to  sup- 
port slavery  when  circumstances  no  longer 
justified  its  retention,  and  a  line  of  poetry  was 
employed  to  condemn  Galileo  for  asserting 
that  the  earth  moves  round  the  sun.  It  is  to 
be  feared  that  many  men  were  turned  away 
from  the  doors  of  Christian  churches  for  not 
accepting  claims  made  for  the  Bible  which  the 
Bible  does  not  make  for  itself. 

Then  came  the  reaction.  Atheists  and 
Agnostics  began  to  lecture  on  the  '  mistakes 
of  Moses,'  assuming  that  if  they  could  show 
that  Moses  committed  some  errors  in  science, 
their  Christian  hearers  would  give  up  Christ. 
Rationalistic  writei-s  deliberately  tried  to  erase 
everything  that  is  supernatural  in  the  Old 
Testament,  and  all  the  miracles  in  the  New 
Testament  were  treated  as  legendary  wonders 
rising  from  a  desire  to  enforce  some  pet  theory 
held  by  the  evangelists,  or  from  a  love  of  the 
marvellous  in  the  minds  of  ignorant  peasants. 
Thus  the  divine  element  in  the  Bible  was 
either  wholly  denied  or  was  reduced  to  such 
guidance  as  might  be  granted  by  God  to  any 
man  in  any  place. 

The  true  and  middle  way  is  for  us  to  see 
the  divine  element  of  inspiration  in  the  human 
element  of  human  words  and  thoughts. 

The  Human  Element.  This  can  be  recog- 
nised (a)  in  the  cooperation  of  human  minds 
with  the  mind  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  The 
Psalmist  who  unburdened  his  soul  in  Ps51 
must  have  been  deeply  conscious  that  he  was 
himself  imploring  forgiveness,  and  like  other 
humble  saints  may  have  been  scarcely  aware 
that  the  Divine  Spirit  was  prompting  his 
prayer.     In  the  same  way  the  prophets  were 


perhaps  often  unaware  of  the  full  divine 
meaning  which  God  intended  their  words  to 
bear  ultimately.  When  the  Psalmist  says, 
'  They  pierced  my  hands  and  my  feet,'  and 
when  Hosea  says,  '  When  Israel  was  a  child 
then  I  loved  him,  and  called  my  son  out  of 
Egypt,'  we  need  not  suppose  that  they  were  at 
all  conscious  that  their  words  would  correspond 
with  the  experiences  of  the  Messiah. 

The  human  element  can  be  recognised  (6)  in 
the  materials  employed  by  the  sacred  writers, 
and  in  the  manner  in  which  they  are  combined. 
The  writers  used  various  sources  of  informa- 
tion as  modern  writers  do.  Thus  in  Nu21i* 
we  find  a  reference  to  a  'Book  of  the  Wars 
of  the  Lord,'  and  in  Samuel,  Kings,  and  Chroni- 
cles several  documents  are  quoted.  Even  in 
the  New  Testament  the  writers  felt  at  liberty  to 
rearrange  or  modify  earlier  inspired  writings, 
for  St.  Luke  and  St.  Matthew  both  appear  to 
have  absorbed  much  of  St.  Mark's  Gospel,  and 
St.  Luke  has  endeavoured  to  make  the  Greek 
more  elegant.  Again,  the  fact  that  MklG^'^O 
and  Jn  7  ^^-8  ii  were  probably  not  written  by 
those  evangelists  themselves  does  not  affect 
their  inspiration.  The  Church  has  recognised 
them  as  true,  and  has  connected  them  with  the 
sacred  narrative  that  embraces  them. 

The  human  element  can  be  recognised  (c)  in 
those  occasional  statements  which  appear  to 
be  inaccuracies.  St.  Jerome  says  plainly  that 
there  is  an  error  both  in  MtlS^^  and  in  Mt 
279,  points  which  are  well  known  to  modem 
students.  When  different  narratives  have  been 
combined  we  find  some  apparent  contradictions ; 
thus  in  Gn3228  and  35^*^  we  find  two  different 
explanations  of  the  name  Israel.  In  spite  of 
such  contradictions  the  biblical  histories  are 
of  immense  value  even  as  histories,  and  apart 
from  the  precious  instructions  which  they  con- 
vey with  regard  to  faith  and  morality. 

The  human  element  can  be  recognised  {(f) 
in  the  fact  that  the  inspiration  of  the  books 
and  of  the  authors  is  progressive.  Only  to 
our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  was  the  Holy  Spirit 
given  '  without  measure.'  The  inspiration  of 
all  other  teachers  was  intermittent  (Jer42'' 
1  Cor  7 10).  They  received  different  measures 
of  enlightenment.  Inspiration  was  commen- 
surate with  the  medium  through  which  it 
passed,  and  with  the  development  of  the 
minds  for  whose  benefit  it  was  originally 
given.  We  can  readily  admit,  for  example, 
that  in  the  imprecatory  Psalms  the  writers 
were  probably  so  goaded  by  the  persecution 
and  cruelty  which  they  experienced  at  the 
hands  of  their  enemies,  that  those  necessary 
ideals  of  religion — mercy  and  forgiveness — 
were,  for  a  time  at  least,  quite  obscured.  In 
a  less  degree,  the  human  limitations  of  cir- 
cumstances and  environment  probably  influ- 
enced such  books  as  the  Song  of  Solomon, 


cxxxu 


INSPIRATION 


Ecclesiastes  and  Esther,  although  each  of  these 
has  a  place  and  purpose  in  the  Old  Testament 
well  understood  by  every  student  of  Jewish 
history.  The  value  of  many  of  the  laws  of 
the  Old  Testament  consists  not  in  the  fact 
that  they  afford  a  moral  standard  for  all  time, 
but  in  the  fact  that  they  afforded  the  best 
moral  standard  for  their  own  age  and  prepared 
for  the  best  moral  standard  in  the  future. 
And  the  history  of  the  Old  Testament  shows 
us  how  God  made  use  of  imperfect  men, 
and  of  literary  methods  which  bslonged  to 
the  child-mind  of  the  race.  But  though  these 
are  earthen  vessels,  they  contain  heavenly 
treasure. 

The  Divine  Element.  This  is  (a)  discernible 
in  prophecy,  which  is  a  characteristic  of  the 
New  Testament  as  well  as  of  the  Old.  St. 
John  in  the  Revelation  (2"29)  is  shown  to  be 
among  the  prophets  as  Isaiah  and  Amos  had 
been.  The  prophets  were  filled  with  the 
certain  conviction  that  their  inspiration  came 
not  from  within  them,  but  from  without. 
The  call  of  Moses  (Ex  3,  4)  shows  that  he  is 
forced  to  be  a  prophet  against  his  will. 
Isaiah  receives  his  call  with  reluctance  and 
self-abasement.  It  is  the  same  with  Jeremiah. 
We  find  repeatedly  in  the  prophets  that  an 
irresistible  impulse  came  upon  them,  and  that 
after  some  deep  communion  with  God  they 
felt  forced  to  speak.  Ac'2i"'is  shows  that 
the  Apostles  on  the  day  of  Pentecost  knew 
the  same  kind  of  impulse,  and  in  Gal  1 1'^  St. 
Paul  testifies  to  an  inward  revelation  similar 
to  that  given  to  Moses.  The  inspiration  was 
sometimes  regarded  as  an  '  answer '  from  God 
like  an  answer  to  prayer  (Jer2335  Mic3'^). 
Sometimes  the  inspiration  implied  a  direct 
command  to  write  (Isa  8^  JerSG^s  Rev  21 5). 
The  prophets  are  '  men  of  God,' '  interpreters.' 
They  always  insist  on  morality  and  religion  in 
closest  union,  interpreting  current  events  in 
the  light  of  God's  will.  They  foretell  the 
fall  of  the  Jewish  state  as  St.  John  foretold 
the  fall  of  Rome,  and  they  insist  that  the 
destroying  powers  are  instruments  of  God. 
But  their  teaching  about  the  nature  of  God 
and  the  duties  of  the  people  are  coordinate 
with  an  inspired  outlook  into  the  future.  The 
prophets  are  '  seers,'  and  the  predictive  element 
in  their  teaching  is  essential  (see  Isa  1,  5,  6  Hos 
11  Am  2).  They  foretell  the  punishment  of 
the  wicked,  the  kingdom  of  God  that  is  to  come, 
and  the  perfect  king.  We  cannot  always  say 
that  all  the  details  of  the  prophecies  have 
been  fulfilled,  but  we  can  often  say  that  these 
details  are  a  setting  and  shrine  of  the  brilliant 
truths  which  have  come  to  pass. 

(6)  The  divine  element  can  be  discerned  in 
the  laws  and  in  the  worship  of  the  Bible.    The 


strong  commands  and  prohibitions  of  the 
Decalogue  lay  down  conditions  that  are  neces- 
sary for  the  human  race,  and  show  us  that  a 
violation  of  the  laws  which  are  for  the  good 
of  human  society  is  an  offence  against  God, 
who  constituted  human  society.  The  elabor- 
ate regulations  of  external  worship  had  a 
divine  purpose  in  teaching  man  his  need  of 
the  Saviour  and  in  foreshadowing  the  priestly 
work  of  Christ.  In  the  prayers  and  praises 
of  private  or  of  public  worship  which  we  read 
in  the  Old  Testament  we  find  a  spiritual  joy 
and  self-humiliation  which  are  unparalleled  in 
other  literature. 

(c)  The  divine  element  can  be  discerned  in 
the  history  of  the  Bible.  The  events  of  his- 
tory are,  in  a  sense,  the  words  of  God,  and 
the  inspired  historians  interpret  these  words. 
The  intention  of  God,  in  the  development  or 
decline  of  Israel  and  Judah  and  the  nations 
around  them,  was  grasped  by  the  writers  and 
described  for  the  religious  education  of  the 
world.  The  traditions  and  fortunes  of  the 
race  are  represented  to  us  as  illustrating 
God's  dealings  with  man,  '  God's  judgment  on 
sin  ;  His  call  of  a  single  man  to  work  out  a 
universal  mission  ;  His  gi-adual  delimitation 
of  a  chosen  race  ;  His  care  for  the  race  ;  His 
overruling  of  evil  to  work  out  His  purpose.' 
To  the  historians  of  the  Old  Testament,  as  in 
a  far  deeper  sense  to  the  historians  of  the  New, 
their  records  were  not  a  series  of  disconnected 
facts,  or  the  tale  of  a  physical  and  material 
continuity.  They  were  the  story  of  God's 
purpose  in  establishing  His  own  kingdom. 

(d)  The  divine  element  can  be  discerned  in 
the  action  of  the  word  of  God  upon  the  souls 
of  men.  We  are  sometimes  told  that  we 
ought  to  read  the  Bible  like  any  other  book. 
This  is  true  with  regard  to  the  language  and 
grammar  of  the  Bible.  But  it  is  not  true 
with  regard  to  the  matter  which  the  Bible 
contains.  For  the  Bible  is  not  like  any  other 
book.  It  bears  the  stamp  of  the  divine,  and 
it  gathers  round  the  person  and  word  of  Jesus 
Christ,  who  is  the  central  figure  of  human 
history.  The  Bible  tells  us  how  the  world 
can  be  regenerated,  and  how  we  can  be  saved. 
The  remedy  for  its  frequent  misuse  is  not  to 
read  it  less,  but  to  read  it  more,  and  to  read 
it  with  greater  reverence.  We  need  forgive- 
ness :  where  can  we  find  language  better  than 
the  Lord's  Prayer,  and  Ps51  ?  We  need 
courage  :  what  words  are  better  than  '  The 
Lord  is  my  shepherd '  ?  We  need  comfort  : 
where  can  we  find  it  better  than  in  the  story 
of  Him  who  bore  our  griefs  ?  We  need  re- 
calling to  the  great  simplicities  of  the  moral 
life  :  what  can  we  do  better  than  ponder  the 
words  of  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount  ? 


CXXXlll 


THE  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 


1.  Function  of  Conscience  in  Bible 
Study 

God  has  given  to  men  a  conscience  as  well 
as  a  Bible.  They  are  made  to  correspond 
with  each  other,  as  the  eye  is  made  to  corre- 
spond with  the  light  and  the  light  to  correspond 
with  the  eye.  The  chief  function  of  the  Bible 
is  to  develop  the  conscience.  One  great  func- 
tion of  the  conscience  is  to  interpret  the  Bible. 
If  you  read  your  Bible,  ignoring  this  function 
of  conscience,  you  will  misinterpret  it. 

Conscience  is  constituted  to  appreciate  the 
distinction  between  right  and  wrong,  between 
ought  and  ought  not.  If  we  make  two  lists 
— if  truth,  fairness,  generosity,  self-sacrifice 
be  put  in  one  list,  and  falsehood,  unfairness, 
meanness,  selfishness  in  the  other,  we  are 
compelled  by  conscience  to  label  the  one  set 
'  ought '  and  the  other  '  ought  not.'  We  can- 
not help  it.  No  one  in  his  senses  could  reverse 
these  labels.  We  know  that  if  practising  the 
first  set  bring  pain,  and  the  second  set  pleasure, 
yet  we  cannot  reverse  our  decision.  Nay, 
more,  we  feel  certain  that  the  distinction 
belongs  not  to  this  earth  alone — that  the 
ought  and  ought  not  stretch  to  the  furthest 
planets,  to  the  angels  of  God,  to  God  Himself. 
Wrong  would  be  no  less  wrong  if  it  were 
attributed  to  God.  No  revelation,  no  external 
portent,  could  persuade  us  of  the  opposite.  If 
even  a  voice  from  heaven  should  declare  to 
us  that  lying  and  dishonesty  were  right,  we 
should,  as  St.  Anselm  says  ('  Cur  Deus  Homo,' 
1. 12),  be  forced  to  believe  not  that  they  were 
right,  but  rather  that  the  voice  which  spoke 
was  not  God.  We  must  carry  this  belief  into 
our  Bible  reading  ;  that  is  true  faith.  Faith 
in  God  means  faith  in  a  Person,  faith  in  a 
character  ;  faith  in  an  infinite  justice  and  love 
and  nobleness  and  generosity — faith  in  a  God 
to  whom  it  would  be  absolutely  impossible  to  do 
what  was  unfair  or  ungenerous  to  any  man. 

Therefore,  if  we  are  offered  a  certain  inter- 
pretation in  Scripture  that  clashes  with  men's 
highest  sense  of  what  is  generous  and  fair,  we 
must  not  ignore  that  clashing.  We  must 
refuse  to  accept  that  interpretation  for  the 
present  till  we  have  enquired  more  about  it. 
For  example,  if  we  are  told  that  in  the  '  hard- 
ening of  Pharaoh's  heart '  God  punished 
Pharaoh  for  something  that  Pharaoh  could 
not  have  helped,  we  must  decline  that  inter- 
pretation. If  we  read  in  Ro  9  St  Paul's 
famous  passage  about  election,  and  if  any  man 


should  explain  it  to  mean  that  God  destines 
some  men  to  eternal  heaven  and  some  to  eter- 
nal hell,  not  for  anything  of  good  or  evil 
in  them,  but  for  His  own  glory  to  magnify 
Himself,  we  are  bound  to  reject  such  a  mean- 
ing without  hesitation.  This  is  not  a  question 
of  doubting  the  Bible,  but  of  doubting  men's 
interpretation  of  it.  True  faith  will  not  accept 
an  interpretation  that  is  dishonouring  to  God. 
It  is  as  if  a  schoolboy  got  a  letter  from  his 
father  containing  a  passage  capable  of  an  evil 
meaning.  A  companion  suggests  such  a  mean- 
ing. The  boy,  though  he  does  not  understand 
the  passage,  instinctively  rejects  that  inter- 
pretation as  unworthy  his  father's  character. 
If  he  can  find  no  other  meaning  he  prefers  to 
leave  the  passage  a  mystery  for  the  present. 

It  is  very  necessary  to  say  this  ;  yet  it  is 
necessary  also  to  add  a  grave  caution  against 
the  attitude  that  would  make  every  man  set 
up  his  own  judgment  as  to  what  he  would 
believe  or  disbelieve.  It  is  not  at  all  safe  to 
judge  from  the  recoil  of  this  or  that  man's  in- 
dividual conscience,  lest  there  may  be  in  it  any- 
thing abnormal.  It  is  only  when  one  can  feel 
sm-e  that  a  certain  interpretation  of  Scripture, 
though  otherwise  possible,  clashes  with  the  best 
men's  sense  of  what  is  right  and  true,  that  he 
is  justified  in  rejecting  it. 

Such  humble,  prayerful,  yet  fearless  use  of 
conscience  soon  sets  us  asking  questions  which 
lead  to  important  results.  For  we  begin  to 
find  in  the  Old  Testament  utterances  that  fall 
below  the  level  of  the  enlightened  Christian 
conscience,  and  actions  that  one  feels  would 
not  win  the  approval  of  Christ.  We  find  per- 
mission of  slavery,  plurality  of  wives,  divorce, 
etc.  We  find  fierce,  vengeful  words  in  the 
imprecatory  Psalms.  Conscience  insists  on  our 
questioning  these  things,  and  the  more  con- 
science is  enlightened  by  the  main  teaching  of 
the  Bible  the  more  will  it  insist  on  such 
questioning. 

II.  The  Divine  and  Human  in  the 
Bible 

There  are  two  answers.  First,  that  in  the 
Bible  the  divine  and  human  are  blended 
(see  art.  '  Inspiration  ').  We  must  not  regard 
the  Bible  as  an  absolutely  perfect  book  in 
which  God  is  Himself  the  author  using  human 
hands  and  brains  only  as  a  man  might  use 
a  typewriter.  God  used  men,  not  machines — 
men  with  like  weakness  and  prejudice  and 
passion    as    ourselves,    though    purified    and 


cxxxiv 


THE   STUDY   OF  THE   BIBLE 


ennobled  by  the  influence  of  His  Holy  Spirit ; 
men  each  with  his  own  peculiarities  of  manner 
and  disposition — each  with  his  own  education 
or  want  of  education — each  with  his  own  way 
of  looking  at  things — each  influenced  difi^er- 
ently  from  another  by  the  different  experi- 
ences and  discipline  of  his  life.  Their  in- 
spiration did  not  involve  a  suspension  of 
their  natural  faculties  ;  it  did  not  destroy 
their  personality,  nor  abolish  the  differences 
of  training  and  character  ;  it  did  not  even 
make  them  perfectly  free  from  earthly  passion  ; 
it  did  not  make  them  into  machines — it  left 
them  men. 

Therefore  we  find  their  knowledge  some- 
times no  higher  than  that  of  their  contem- 
poraries, and  their  indignation  against  oppres- 
sion and  wrong-doing  sometimes  breaking  out 
into  desire  of  revenge.  This  would  not 
surprise  us  in  the  least  in  other  good  men 
who  were,  we  knew,  striving  after  God  and 
righteousness.  It  surprises  us  in  the  Bible, 
because  of  our  false  preconceptions  ;  because 
it  is  in  the  Bible  we  do  not  expect  the  actors 
to  be  real  and  natural  ;  because  of  our  false 
theory  of  Verbal  Inspiration  we  are  puz'zled 
when  the  divine  is  mingled  with  the  human. 
We  must  learn  that  the  divine  is  mingled 
with  the  human. 

We  cannot  draw  a  line  between  the  divine 
and  the  human.  We  cannot  say  of  any  part, 
'  This  is  divine,'  or  '  That  is  human.'  In 
some  parts,  as  the  Gospels,  there  is  more  of 
the  divine  ;  in  others,  as  the  Chronicles, 
more  of  the  human.  It  is  as  a  mine  of 
precious  ore  where  the  gold  is  mingled  with  the 
rock  and  clay — the  ore  is  richer  in  one  part 
than  another,  but  all  parts  in  some  degree  are 
glittering  with  gold.  It  is  as  sunlight  through 
a  painted  window — the  light  must  come  to 
us  coloured  by  the  medium — we  cannot  get 
it  any  other  way.  In  some  parts  the  medium 
is  denser  and  more  imperfect,  in  others  the 
golden  glory  comes  dazzlingly  through.  It  is 
foolish  to  ignore  the  existence  of  the  human 
medium  through  which  the  light  has  come  ; 
it  is  still  more  foolish  to  ignore  the  divine 
light,  and  think  that  the  tinted  dome  is 
luminous  itself,  that  the  light  of  heaven  has 
only  come  from  earth.  Both  must  be  kept  in 
mind — the  divine  and-  the  human — if  the  Bible 
is  to  be  rightly  understood. 

III.  Progressiveness  of  Kevelation 

And  the  other  answer  to  the  questionings 
of  conscience  is  this — that  we  must  think  of 
human  life  as  the  great  school  of  God,  where 
gi-adually,  patiently,  through  all  the  ages  He 
has  been  training  humanity  for  nobleness  of 
life.  The  Old  Testament  is  to  be  read  not  as 
a  series  of  perfect  precepts  equally  applicable 
to  all  men  in  all  ages  of  the  world,  but  rather 


as  the  story  of  God's  gradual  education  of 
humanity.  It  was  like  our  gradual  education 
of  our  children  to-day.  We  begin  with  the 
lowest  rudiments  of  knowledge.  Very  crude 
and  imperfect  conceptions  must  satisfy  us  at 
first.  Though  all  the  glory  of  the  highest 
knowledge  lie  before  the  child  by  and  by, 
yet  he  can  only  partially  receive  it  now  until 
his  mind  has  grown.  Perhaps  a  better  illus- 
tration of  the  attitude  of  the  Old  Testament 
is  seen  in  the  attitude  of  the  missionary 
to-day  in  dealing  with  the  lower  races  of 
heathendom.  He  knows  how  little  is  to  be 
expected  from  them  at  first.  He  has  to 
tolerate  and  overlook  much  that  grieves  him. 
He  must  be  content  to  move  slowly.  He 
rejoices  at  every  effort  after  good,  even 
though  it  be  largely  mixed  with  evil.  He 
gives  warm  approval  to  acts  which  for  these 
poor  savages  really  mean  progress  upward, 
though  to  the  Christian  world  at  home  they 
may  seem  worthier  censure  than  praise.  He 
believes  that  God  is  helping  men  by  His 
Holy  Spirit,  even  though  error  and  wrong- 
doing yet  remain.  By  and  by,  when  some  of 
his  converts  have  grown  into  noble,  faithful 
strugglers  after  Christ,  will  they  not  look 
back  on  the  early  training  and  the  early 
notions  as  on  a  lower  stage  that  they  have 
long  since  passed,  and  yet  confess  that  it  was 
a  necessary  stage  in  their  progress  upward  ? 

Such  was  God's  progressive  education  of 
the  race.  Many  things  in  the  early  stages 
were  overlooked  or  'winked  at'  (Ac  17^0). 
Slavery  was  not  at  once  swept  away,  but  its 
cruelties  were  forbidden  and  its  abuses  checked 
— divorce  was  not  absolutely  prohibited,  but 
laid  under  stringent  regulations.  When  we 
read  of  these  evils  so  allowed  to  exist — when 
we  find,  as  in  the  Psalms,  the  lofty  teachings 
and  burning  aspirations  after  God  now  and 
then  marred  by  the  fierce  prayer  for  vengeance 
on  the  wicked — we  must  remember  that  we 
are  judging  men  in  the  lower  classes  of  the 
great  school  of  God,  and  that  the  presence  of 
His  Spirit  with  men  did  not  necessarily 
involve  absolute  perfection  in  teaching  and 
conduct.  Notice  in  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount 
how  clearly  our  Lord  teaches  this  progressive- 
ness of  revelation  :  '  Ye  have  heard  that  it 
was  said  to  them  of  old  time  .  .  but  I  say 
unto  you,'  etc. :  see  Mt  5 17,21,27,33, 38, 43  uy, 

IV.  The  Bible  in  the  Twentieth  Century 

In  the  beginning  of  this  new  century  there 
are  other  questions  arising  about  the  Bible 
besides  those  already  referred  to.  There  are 
questions  of  scientific  accuracy,  and  questions 
as  to  the  '  Higher  Criticism,'  as  it  is  called. 
People  have  learned  that  the  first  chapter -of 
Genesis  cannot  be  reconciled  with  science  ;  that 
the  stories  of   the    Creation   and   the    Flood 


cxxxv 


THE   STUDY   OF  THE   BIBLE 


had  existed  as  legends  of  other  races  long 
before  the  Bible  was  written.  They  have 
learned  that  there  are  certain  books  of  Scrip- 
ture which  bear  on  the  face  of  them  marks  of 
being  not  original  work,  but  compilations  from 
earlier  lost  documents.  And  most  of  these 
things  that  they  have  learned  are  true.  There 
is  no  doubt  that  the  ordinary  Bible  reader 
will  be  compelled  in  the  new  century  to  shift 
his  point  of  view.  We  have  learned  much 
during  the  past  fifty  years  which  has  thrown 
new  light  on  the  meaning  of  parts  of  om* 
Bible,  which  has  at  any  rate  made  doubtful 
some  of  our  old  views  and  interpretations  of 
it.  But  we  must  learn  not  to  be  disturbed  at 
changing  our  view-point,  and  we  especially 
must  try  in  educating  the  younger  generation 
to  prepare  them  for  changes  which  must  come. 
For  example,  we  must  not  insist  that  the  Bible 
teaches  as  God's  infallible  truth  that  the  world 
was  created  in  six  literal  days,  and  finished  ofi: 
on  Saturday  night  as  a  carpenter  would  finish 
his  week's  work,  or  that  the  order  of  Creation 
must  be  accurately  given  in  the  first  chapter  of 
Genesis.  We  cannot  teach  positively  that  the 
story  of  the  Fall  is  an  exactly  literal  narrative 
of  facts.  Some  people  think  that  it  is,  and 
others,  who  are  certainly  no  less  holy  and  no 
less  learned,  think  that  it  is  an  ancient  allegory 
embodying  a  deep  and  vital  truth.  We  must 
keep  an  open  mind  about  many  such  things  as 
these.  We  must  endeavour  in  our  Bible  study 
to  be  thoroughly  real  and  thoroughly  truthful, 
'to  assert  nothing  as  certain  which  is  not 
certain,  nothing  as  probable  which  is  not 
probable,  and  nothing  as  more  probable  than 
it  is.'  We  must  keep  in  mind  that  God's  way 
of  helping  the  world  to  the  light  may  have 
been  very  different  from  what  we  thought  it 
was,  and  that  it  is  a  dangerous  thing  to  put  in 
the  place  of  inspiration  certain  popular  notions 
as  to  what  inspiration  should  be.  We  must 
therefore  seek  to  let  in  the  light  on  all  sides, 
however  it  may  ultimately  modify  our  precon- 
ceived notions  of  inspiration.  And  if  we  do 
so  we  shall  find  by  and  by  that  the  result 
will  be  not  loss,  but  great  gain  to  the  Bible. 
There  is  a  story  of  an  ancient  land  where  a 
fire  once  swept  over  the  hills  destroying  the 
flowers  and  the  foliage  and  changing  the 
familiar  aspect  of  the  scene.  But  as  the 
people  were  grieving  for  their  loss  they  dis- 
covered that  the  fire  which  had  destroyed  the 
flowers  and  the  foliage  had  opened  by  its  heat- 
deep  fissures  in  the  rocks,  disclosing  to  their 
view  rich  veins  of  silver — so  it  shall  be  with 
us  if  we  face  the  new  questions  wisely.  If  by 
the  searching  fire  of  literary  and  scientific 
criticism  we  lose  some  cherished  traditional 
notions,  we  shall  gain  in  a  deeper  knowledge 
of  truth.  We  shall  gain  in  knowledge  of  the 
nature  and  limits  of  inspiration  and  in  under- 


standing God's  methods  of  communication 
with  men,  and  we  shall  be  saved  from  many 
of  the  errors  and  misapprehensions  that  are 
turning  men  away  from  the  Bible  to-day. 

And  for  the  questions  of  the  Higher  Critic- 
ism, if  we  believe  that  the  Old  Testament 
story  is  true,  that  the  inspired  men  who  wrote 
it  had  access  to  soui'ces  of  knowledge  in  the 
past,  why  should  it  matter  if  the  books  in 
their  present  form  were  written  much  later 
than  we  thought,  or  that  they  are  the  result 
of  compiling  and  editing  again  and  again  under 
the  mysterious  fi-ee  supervision  of  the  Spirit 
of  God  ?  We  do  not  all  believe  that  all  the 
statements  of  Higher  Criticism  will  ultimately 
be  accepted — many  of  them  are  being  already 
relinquished  and  forgotten — but  no  doubt 
there  will  ultimately  remain  a  residuum  of 
established  fact  which  must  modify  in  some 
measure  our  views  about  the  Bible.  And  we 
do  not  believe  that  in  that  residuum  of  fact 
will  be  anything  to  prevent  thoughtful  men 
from  believing  in  the  divine  origin  of  the 
Bible. 

In  these  times  of  questioning  and  doubt 
about  the  Old  Testament  there  are  some 
reassuring  thoughts  that  men  should  keep  be- 
fore them.  First  think  of  the  wonder  of  this, 
that  any  set  of  old  documents  always  open 
to  scrutiny  and  question  should  have  been 
accepted  as  of  divine  origin  and  yielded  to  by 
men  as  having  authority  to  impose  on  them 
commands  often  disagreeable  to  them.  What 
gave  them  that  authority  ?  There  seems  no 
possible  answer  but  that  they  possessed  it 
of  themselves  ;  they  commanded  the  position 
they  held  by  their  own  power.  Men's  moral 
sense  and  reason  combined  to  establish  them. 
Where  there  were  no  miracles  or  portents,  no 
external  voices  from  heaven  to  compel  alle- 
giance, men  must  have  received  these  books 
largely  because  of  their  appeal  to  the  God- 
given  conscience  within.  That  is  to  say,  the 
authority  of  the  Scriptures  through  all  the 
ages  primarily  rests  on  the  conviction  which 
they  themselves  produced  that  they  came  from 
God.  That  conviction  forces  itself  on  us  still 
to-day.  In  the  records  of  other  nations  we 
see-  the  chief  stress  laid  on  power  and  pros- 
perity and  comfort  and  wealth.  In  these 
strange  records  goodness  is  the  only  thing  of 
importance.  The  chief  business  of  prophet 
and  historian  and  legislator  seems  to  be  to 
rebuke  men  for  sin  and  point  them  to  holiness. 
Look  at  the  wonderful  national  poems  and 
hymns :  '  Have  mercy  on  me,  O  God,  after 
Thy  great  goodness'  (Ps51)  ;  'Praise  the 
Lord,  0  my  soul  '  (Ps  103)  ;  '  The  Lord  is  my 
shepherd'  (Ps23),  and  think  of  the  dark, 
horrible  history  of  the  outside  Avorld  at  the 
time  that  all  these  wonderful  national  poems 
were  written.     Then   notice  the  compulsion 


cxxxvi 


THE   STUDY   OF  THE   BIBLE 


that  seemed  laid  upon  the  prophets,  the  mys- 
terious Spirit  striving  with  them,  enlightening 
them,  compelling  them  to  speak  of  God's 
righteousness.  Hear  the  constant  iteration, 
'  The  Word  of  the  Lord ' ;  '  Thus  saith  the 
Lord.'  Surely  these  are  not  the  phenomena 
of  ordinary  human  history  !  Then  see  how 
the  whole  Bible  centres  in  Jesus  Christ.  The 
Old  Testament  tells  of  the  preparation  for 
Christ ;  the  New  Testament  tells  that  when 
that  preparation  was  complete  '  in  the  fulness 
of  time  God  sent  forth  His  Son.'  Jesus  Christ 
as  it  were  stands  between  the  Old  Testament 
and  the  New,  and  lays  His  hand  on  them  both. 
The  Old  Testament,  He  insists  again  and 
again,  is  the  Word  of  God,  and  bears  witness 
of  Him.  The  New  Testament  is  the  story  of 
the  words  and  works  of  Himself  and  of  the 
Apostles  sent  forth  by  Him.  And  both  to- 
gether form  this  Bible  of  ours,  which  beyond 
all  the  books  of  the  world  has  proved  its 
power  to  turn  men  towards  righteousness. 
We  never  hear  man  speak  of  the  power  and 
peace  and  hope  that  come  from  the  study 
of  the  Latin  classics,  or  of  lives  wrenched 
round  from  darkness  to  light  by  any  other 
teaching  than  that  of  the  Bible. 

Therefore  let  us  rest  our  hearts  on  these 
foundations  and  be  at  peace,  while  men  are 
questioning  and  finding  out  for  us  what  we 
did  not  know  before  about  the  inspired  Word 
of  God. 

V.  Hints  and  Suggestions  for  Study 

I.  On  using  Common  Sense.  The  old  objec- 
tion is  often  repeated  that  the  Bible  is  like 
a  '  nose  of  wax '  that  can  be  turned  every  way  ; 
that  one  can  gather  all  sorts  of  contradictory 
teaching  from  its  pages.  Yes,  if  you  read  it 
foolishly ;  for  the  Bible  is  no  formal  system 
of  teaching  with  every  precept  accurately  de- 
fined and  limited,  and  every  exception  carefully 
pointed  out.  It  deals  with  broad  principles 
rather  than  with  particular  precepts.  We  are 
trusted  to  apply  these  principles  ourselves  to 
the  practical  guiding  of  our  lives.  Sometimes 
its  commands  are  of  universal  application ; 
sometimes  they  apply  only  to  such  special 
cases  as  are  before  the  writer  ;  sometimes 
they  are  figurative  and  intended  to  prescribe 
the  spirit  and  temper  of  our  lives,  such  as 
'  Give  to  him  that  asketh  thee,'  etc.  The 
same  caution  is  needed  about  the  types  and 
prophecies  of  the  Old  Testament.  If  man 
will  not  diligently  use  the  common  sense  that 
God  has  given  him  he  must  make  mistakes 
in  reading  the  Bible.  The  inspired  writers 
express  themselves  quite  freelj',  and  usually 
without  showing  any  anxiety  to  prevent  mis- 
understandings. They  seem  to  assume  that 
their  readers  will  be  sensible  people.  They 
see  no  need  of  constantly  guarding  and  quali- 


fying their  statements,  and  reminding  us  that 
they  are  to  be  taken  in  connexion  with  other 
statements  made  elsewhere. 

There  are  many  ways  in  which  this  absence 
of  common  sense  shows  itself.  There  is  the 
thoughtless  habit  of  quoting  all  parts  of  the 
Bible  as  Scripture,  whether  they  be  the  words 
of  our  Lord  or  the  words  of  Bildad  the 
Shuhite  and  Zophar  the  Naamathite,  in  the 
book  of  Job,  who  are  afterwards  represented 
as  condemned  and  contradicted  by  God.  There 
is  the  habit  often  indulged  in  by  preachers  of 
twisting  the  obvious  meaning  of  words,  and 
the  commoner  and  more  dangerous  habit  of 
quoting  for  the  support  of  doctrines  isolated 
texts  utterly  regardless  of  the  context  or  of 
the  circumstances  under  which  they  were 
originally  uttered.  One  might  as  well  take 
as  a  general  proposition  a  single  sentence  of  a 
letter  without  considering  the  context  or  the 
writer,  or  the  purpose  of  the  letter  or  the  per- 
son to  whom  it  was  wi'itten.  Thus  people 
put  St.  Paul  and  St.  James  in  opposition  with 
regard  to  Faith  and  Works.  It  is  quite 
natural  that  two  teachers,  or  even  the  same 
teacher  at  different  times,  should  make  these 
different  statements.  A  preacher  dealing  with 
penitents  who  in  their  misery  were  trying  to 
win  God's  favour  by  piling  up  good  deeds 
might  very  wisely  tell  them  that  God  desired 
not  this,  but  that  they  should  come  with 
simple  trustful  faith,  as  a  little  child  to  its 
father.  But  just  as  wisely  might  he,  in  deal- 
ing with  people  who  justify  frequent  lapses 
into  impurity  and  meanness  and  ill-temper  by 
talking  much  about  their  faith  and  their  rest- 
ing on  the  finished  work  of  Christ  and  not  on 
their  own  righteousness — just  as  wisely  might 
he  insist  as  indignantly  as  St.  James  that  faith 
without  works  is  dead. 

2.  On  Taking  Pains.  Using  common  sense 
implies  taking  considerable  pains  in  one's 
reading.  Take  two  readers,  say,  of  the  Epistle 
to  the  Galatians.  The  first  makes  no  attempt 
to  get  into  touch  with  his  author.  He  begins 
each  day  at  the  beginning  of  his  daily  chapter. 
Quite  possibly,  owing  to  faulty  chapter  divi- 
sion, this  may  begin  in  the  middle  of  an  argu- 
ment, or  not  be  at  all  the  logical  commencement 
of  the  subject  discussed  ;  so  he  reads  over  the 
chapter  feeling  very  hazy  as  to  its  meaning. 
As  he  has  read  the  previous  chapter  in  the 
same  hazy  way,  he  never  thinks  of  looking 
back  to  find  the  connexion  ;  thus  he  wastes  a 
good  deal  of  time,  turns  away  dissatisfied,  or 
contents  himself  with  culling  out  one  or  two 
disconnected  texts.  The  other  reader  takes 
pains.  He  knows  that  to  understand  any 
man's  letter  one  must  find  out  its  drift  and 
purpose,  and  get  in  touch  with  the  writer  and 
his  original  readers  ;  so  he  looks  int6  the  Acts 
of  the  Apostles  to  find  out  St.  Paul's  connexion 


cxxxvii 


THE   STUDY  OF  THE   BIBLE 


with  these  Gralatians.  Then  he  reads  over  the 
whole  Epistle  two  or  three  times  for  a  general 
view  of  it.  He  notices  its  severe,  indignant 
tone.  He  sees  that  the  writer  is  hurt  and 
offended  about  the  fickleness  of  his  converts 
and  their  reception  of  false  teachers  who 
oppose  him.  He  seems  very  self-assertive  as 
to  his  position.  Perhaps  this  is  all  that  a 
first  or  second  perusal  of  the  Epistle  reveals. 
But  this  sets  him  thinking.  He  has  kept  clear 
of  commentaries,  trying  to  get  his  view  o-f  the 
Epistle  by  himself.  But  now  he  turns  to  his 
commentary,  and  with  its  assistance  he  goes 
back  again  to  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles.  He 
finds  reason  to  believe  that  after  Paul  had 
left  Galatia,  his  constant  opponents,  the 
emissaries  of  the  Judaising  party,  had  come 
proclaiming  (as  in  the  case  recorded  Acl5), 
'  Except  ye  he  circumcised  and  obedient  to 
the  Law  ye  cannot  be  saved.'  The  reader  at 
once  understands  the  vexation  of  t"he  Apostle 
at  these  fickle  -converts  deserting  him  for  false 
teachers,  and  putting  in  jeopardy  the  whole 
future  of  Christianity  in  that  region.  With 
this  key  he  turns  back  again  to  his  perusal  of 
the  Epistle,  and  it  becomes  at  once  full  of  life 
and  interest.  Let  this  hint  suffice.  We  cannot 
go  further  with  the  subjecii  in  our  limited 
space. 

3.  Devotional  Study.  Surely  it  is  not 
necessary  to  say  that  one  should  study  regu- 
larly— should  study  with  the  object  of  growing 
acquainted  with  God,  and  with  the  purpose  of 
finding  God's  will  and  doing  it  when  he  has 
found  it.  Still  less  is  it  necessary  to  say  to 
any  honest  Bible  reader  study  prayerfully, 
though  it  may  be  well  to  suggest  to  him  the 
habit  of  reading  his  regular  portion  first,  and 
then  on  his  knees  trying  to  turn  it  into  prayer, 
so  that  there  should  be  not  only  God's  speak- 
ing to  him,  but  also  his  speaking  back  to  God 
in  God's  inspired  words. 

All  these  things  are  matters  of  course  to  a 
devout  reader.  What,  perhaps,  he  is  most  in 
need  of  is  a  help  towards  meditation.  In 
Liddon's  '  Clerical  Life  and  Work '  there  is  a 
valuable  section  on  this  subject  which  has 
much  helped  the  writer.  So  few  know  how 
to  read  their  Bible  profitably,  especially  few 


know  how  to  meditate  on  it.  Let  us  very 
diffidently  suggest  what  a  meditation  should 
be.  Not  the  leaning  lazing  on  your  elbow 
with  the  Bible  open  before  you,  reading  the 
verses  silently,  and  letting  the  thoughts  fre- 
quently wander  ;  it  is  no  such  listless  dream- 
ing over  the  text  ;  it  is  an  act  of  the  whole 
soul  rising  in  the  fulness  of  its  energy  to- 
wards God — memory,  imagination,  intellect, 
will,  fully  engaged  ;  it  is  the  soul  placing  itself 
in  the  presence  of  Jehovah  ;  it  is  an  effort 
after  the  Vision  of  God. 

First  of  all,  let  your  imagination  play  freely 
on  the  passage.  Think  of  the  actor  or  writer. 
Put  yourself  in  his  place.  Try  to  enter  into  the 
feeling  of  the  formalist  Pharisees,  the  jealous 
scribes,  the  ignorant  mob,  and  especially  of 
the  great  loving  heart  of  Him  who  loved 
and  understood  and  watched  over  them  all. 
Try,  as  you  read  a  passage  of  St.  Paul,  to  '  put 
yourself  in  the  place '  of  the  writer,  with  his 
keen,  highly-strung  nature,  now  glad,  now 
despondent,  now  vexed  and  dissatisfied,  but 
always  with  every  thought  full  of  loyalty  to 
his  Master.  This  use  of  the  imagination  will 
help  you  to  the  heart  of  the  passage.  Then 
the  intellect  is  summoned  before  God  to  enter 
into  His  message,  to  grapple  with  the  subject 
and  select  the  leading  thought  in  it. 

This  is  but  preparatory  ;  then  bring  the 
will  to  bear  on  it — Will  to  love  the  highest, 
Will  to  imitate  the  noblest.  Will  to  cast  your- 
self down  in  lowly  adoration  before  all  the 
love  and  self-sacrifice  told  of  God,  of  Jesus 
Christ. 

Get  the  habit  of  doing  it — if  not  once  a  day, 
then  once  a  week  ;  but  as  often  as  you  can.  Se- 
lect the  fittest  portions — the  story  of  the  Pas- 
sion, the  words  of  Christ,  the  prayers  of  St.  Paul 
for  his  beloved  people.  Thus  let  the  soul  linger 
in  the  presence  of  God,  laying  the  inmost  being 
before  Him,  and  entering  into  reverent  and 
affectionate  yet  trustful  conference  with  Him. 
Lie  low  before  Him.  Let  Him  speak  to  your 
soul,  and  speak  back  to  Him,  face  to  face,  as 
a  man  speaketh  to  his  friend.  Take  a  great 
deal  of  trouble  to  learn  and  acquire  the  habit 
of  meditation.  It  is  there  the  soul  learns  most 
to  blame  itself  and  to  adore  and  love  its  Lord. 


CXXXVlll 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  RELIGION 


The  opening  pages  of  the  Bible  reveal  to 
us  the  elements  of  religion,  in  language  which, 
though  figurative,  is  unmistakable  in  its  im- 
port. We  are  told  of  the  Creator  who  called 
the  universe  into  being  (Gn  1 1  *•),  and  formed 
man  '  in  His  own  image  '  (Gn  1  2(5, 27)^  with  the 
gift  of  free-will.  We  are  told  how  man 
abused  this  gift,  and,  seeking  a  false  independ- 
ence, fell  under  the  bondage  of  sin  and  death 
(Gn3;  cp.  RoS^^f):  a  bondage  from  which 
divine  succour  alone  could  redeem  him.  The 
law-books,  especially  Leviticus,  emphasise  this 
need  of  divine  help,  in  their  doctrine  of 
Sacrifice,  laying  stress  on  the  awful  holiness 
of  God  (Lvll45  192  207,  etc.),  and  man's  need 
of  purification  and  self -surrender ;  while  the 
Psalmists  and  Prophets  dwell  on  the  inner 
spiritual  character  of  repentance  and  of  that 
obedience  of  the  heart  to  God's  moral  law, 
without  which  sacrifice  is  worse  than  a  mockery 
(IS  1622  Pss406  Slit^-iT  Isaliif-  Hos6G). 

Some  of  these  thoughts  are  found,  in  a  more 
or  less  incomplete  or  distorted  form,  in  every 
religion.  The  dependence  on  an  unseen 
spiritual  being,  or  beings  ;  the  consciousness 
of  broken  communion ;  the  consequent  need 
of  some  new,  heaven-given  means  of  access 
— these  ideas,  as  well  as  the  simpler  and  more 
childlike  thought  of  tribute  or  of  free-will 
offerings  of  homage  and  thankfulness,  lie  at 
the  root  of  those  sacrificial  customs  in  which 
religion  has  always  expressed  itself  even 
among  pagans.  The  Bible's  teaching  about 
religion,  if  we  compare  it  with  what  we  can 
learn  of  contemporary  heathen  customs,  and 
especially  those  of  the  pagan  Semites,  seems 
to  take  up  these  common  ideas,  to  purify  and 
transfigure  them,  and  make  them  the  vehicle 
of  a  doctrine  valuable  for  all  ages. 

I.  The  Covenant  of  God  with  Man.  One  of 
the  leading  conceptions  of  the  Old  Testament 
— the  one,  in  fact,  from  which  the  volume 
derives  its  name — is  that  of  a  Covenant  be- 
tween God  and  man  (Covenant  with  Noah, 
Gn6i8;  with  Abraham,  Gn  121-3  171-14  22i6-i8 ; 
with  Jacob,  Gn  28  i^-is ;  with  the  people  of 
Israel.  Ex  24  7  34 10, 27  Lv269  Dt  29  9-15  3124-30. 
with  David,  Ps  89  3. 28, 33-39)  ;_a  Covenant  which, 
as  St.  Paul  points  out  (Gal3i-5^-,  especially  v. 
17),  is  prior  to  the  Law,  and  superior  to  it. 
Herein  the  Almighty  condescends  to  pledge 
Himself,  that  if  man  fulfil  certain  conditions, 
He,  on  His  part,  will  pardon  his  sins  and  bless 
him.  The  true  inner  meaning  of  this  Cove- 
nant is  manifested  in  that  New  Covenant  (of 


which  the  Old  is  but  a  shadow),  foretold 
by  prophets  (JerSl^if- ;  cp.  Heb8S-i2  and  2 
Cor  3  6),  and  announced  by  Christ  in  His  in- 
stitution of  the  Lord's  Supper,  in  the  words  : 
'  This  is  my  blood  of  the  New  Covenant,'  or 
'  This  cup  is  the  New  Covenant  in  my  Blood ' 
(Mt2628Mkl42't  Lk2220  l  Cor  11 25). 

2.  Covenant  and  Sacrifice.  The  Covenant 
of  which  the  Bible  speaks  is  made  with  sacri- 
fice (Ex  24  5  f.  Ps  .50  5  Heb  9  is  f •).  Its  principle 
is  an  Atonement  (At-one-ment)  between  man 
and  God  (Leviticus,  especially  c.  16,  Day  of 
Atonement,  and  Heb  9).  The  sacrifices  of  the 
Old  Covenant,  in  their  three  leading  types  of 
sin-offering  (Lv4-6),  Burnt-offering  (Lv  l^t)^ 
Peace-offering  (Lv3if),  while  revealing  the 
true  character  of  man's  relation  to  God,  and 
ministering  in  a  provisional  way  to  the  devo- 
tional needs  of  the  faithful,  led  up  to  the  great 
Atonement  of  the  New  Covenant,  in  which  all 
their  defects  were  remedied,  and  their  imperfec- 
tions removed.  The  Sin-offering  teaches  that 
communion  is  broken  and  that  access  to  God 
can  only  be  reopened  by  the  shedding  of  life- 
blood  (Lvl7ii),  symbolising  expiation  and 
cleansing ;  the  Burnt-offering,  in  which  the 
entire  sacrifice  is  consumed  upon  the  altar, 
speaks  of  that  unreserved  self-surrender  which 
is  the  only  homage  God  can  accept  from  man; 
the  Peace-offering,  in  which  priest  and  offerer 
feast  together  at  '  God's  board '  symbolises  the 
life  of  joyful  communion  between  man  and 
his  Maker. 

3.  Christ's  Sacrifice  of  Atonement.  All  these 
conceptions  are  realised  completely  in  our 
Lord's  self -offering  as  displayed  to  us  in  the 
New  Testament.  He  gives  Himself  as  an 
atonement  for  sin  (Ro325  lJn22  410),  as  an 
offering  of  perfect  obedience  to  the  Father 
(Phil  2  8),  as  a  gift  of  communion  and  life  to 
His  member^  (Jn632f,  10 10  1125  146  Col34). 
What  are,  after  all,  but  types  and  shadows 
(Heb  101;  cp.  Col2i7)  in  the  Old  Testament, 
the  New  Testament  reveals  in  real  substance. 
For  instance,  the  victim  in  the  Old  Covenant 
was  unconscious  and  unwilling  :  Christ  offers 
Himself  of  His  own  free-will  ( Jn  1 0 1^.  18)^  and 
looks  forward  to  the  dread  moment  with  wist- 
ful yearning  (Lkl250).  (go  false,  we  may 
notice  in  passing,  is  that  Idea  of  the  Atone- 
ment which  pictures  it  as  an  angry  Father 
punishing  an  innocent  Son.)  Again,  the  victim 
under  the  Old  Covenant  was  only  by  a  sort  of 
'  legal  fiction  '  identified  with  the  offerer,  who 
laid  his  hand  on  the  beast's  head,  and  pre- 


cxxxix 


THE   ELEMENTS   OF   RELIGION 


sented  its  life  instead  of  his  own  (Lv  l-*).  But 
Christ's  offering  is  in  a  very  real  sense  iden- 
tical with  those  on  whose  behalf  it  is  made. 
The  Victim  is  indeed  Himself  the  offerer  ; 
offering,  however,  as  representative  of  all 
mankind.  "When  St.  John  tells  us  that  the 
"Word  was  made  flesh  ( Jn  1 1*),  he  speaks  of  an 
incarnation  in  which  the  Son  of  God  took 
upon  Him  not  the  physique  of  an  individual 
man,  but  assumed  our  human  nature  in  a 
general  way  ;  an  assuming  which  is  the  more 
universal  in  its  effects  because  of  the  omni- 
potence and  omnipresence  of  the  Person  who 
assumed  it.  Christ  thus  becomes,  as  St.  Paul 
teaches,  a  second  Founder  of  the  race — the 
'Second  Adam'  (ICorlS^s-*^  Ro5i2-2i).  In 
this  character,  as  being  truly,  and  by  no  fiction, 
representative  of  the  whole  race.  He  was  able 
to  offer  up  to  Almighty  God  the  threefold 
sacrifice  of  expiation,  homage,  and  communion 
on  behalf  of  all  mankind.  Further,  what  He 
thus  accomplished  for  all  of  us,  He  is  able,  if 
we  are  willing,  to  accomplish  in  each  one  of  us 
individually :  His  divinity  effectuating  in  de- 
tail, through  the  power  of  His  Spirit,  what 
His  perfect  humanity  achieved  once  for  all. 
Thus  the  redemption  and  sanctification  which 
His  Atonement  brings  to  individual  souls  by 
His  indwelling  is  no  more  a  '  legal  fiction ' 
than  His  self -offering  on  behalf  of  all.  '  Christ 
in  you,'  says  St.  Paul,  is  'the  hope  of  glory' 
(Col  1  2").  His  victorious  might,  working  in 
those  who  are  united  to  Him  as  members  of 
His  Body,  and  blending  their  wills  with  His, 
is  able  to  transform  them,  step  by  step,  into 
His  own  likeness,  as  He,  literally,  grows  to 
maturity  in  them  :  and  the  effect  of  righteous- 
ness thus  produced,  is  then  quite  truly  both 
-His  and  ours — He  is,  in  fact,  'our  righteous- 
ness' (1  Cor  1^0).  Dwelling  in  us.  He  frees 
us  not  only  from  the  guilt  of  sin  by  His  ex- 
piatory death,  of  which  He  makes  us  partakers 
(Ro  6  3, 4  2  Cor  4  lo  Col  2 1^,  20  2  Tim  2  n),  but  also 
from  its  bondage  and  its  taint,  by  the  power 
of  His  resurrection  life  (Col2i3*-  31^-).  His 
Holy  Spirit,  by  whom  He  indwells  in  the  be- 
liever, transforms  the  soul  from  glory  to  glory, 
making  it  a  '  mirror '  of  the  Lord's  perfection 
(2  Cor  3 17,  IS). 

4.  Material  Pledges  of  the  Atonement. 
Sacraments.  As  in  the  Old  Covenant  God 
deigned  to  work  by  material  pledges,  so  also 
in  the  New.  Here  again,  however,  we  have 
no  longer  symbol  but  reality.  '  Except  a  man 
be  born  anew — be  born  of  water  and  the 
Spirit,'  says  our  Saviour,  '  he  cannot  see — he 
cannot  enter  into — the  kingdom  of  God '  (Jn 
S^'^'^).  And  later  on  He  bids  His  followers 
'  make  disciples  of  all  the  nations,  baptising 
them  into  the  name  of  the  Father  and  of  the 
Son  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost '  (Mt  28  is>).  Again, 
He  says  :  '  I  am  the  bread  which  came  down 


from  heaven  .  .  the  bread  of  life  .  .  the  bread 
which  I  will  give  is  my  flesh  for  the  life 
of  the  world  .  .  except  ye  eat  the  flesh  of 
the  Son  of  Man  and  drink  His  blood,  ye  have 
not  life  in  yourselves  '  (Jn  6  3*'  ■*!'  '^^'  ^i>  ^3).  And 
later  on  He  takes  up  bread  and  wine  in  His 
Holy  Supper,  saying,  '  This  is  my  body,'  '  this 
is  my  blood,'  'do  this  in  remembrance  of  me'; 
and  speaks  of  His  Blood  as  that  of  the  '  New 
Covenant '  (Lk  22 1^,  20  and  parallels).  So  it  is 
that  the  two  great  Sacraments  of  the  Gospel, 
though  they  have  been  the  subject  of  much 
discussion,  especially  since  the  Reformation, 
are  recognised  by  all  Christians  as  having  a 
special  importance  in  relation  to  the  New 
Covenant,  as  pledges  of  our  union  with  the 
Incarnate  Redeemer.  That  He  should  use  such 
humble  material  means  as  vehicles  of  spiritual 
blessing  is  not  only  appropriate  to  our  own 
composite  nature — part  matter  and  part  spirit 
— but  of  a  piece  also  with  the  marvel  of  His 
Incarnation,  whereby  heaven  and  earth  are 
wedded  together  :  cp.  Jn  1  ^i.  The  Sacraments 
are  rightly  considered  as  moral  instruments 
for  the  conveying  of  G-od's  grace  in  Christ  to 
us.  What  God  offers  us  therein  is  no  mechan- 
ical or  magical  power,  still  less  a  mere  symbol 
or  fiction,  but  an  indubitable  spiritual  boon. 
The  effect  upon  ourselves  depends  on  the 
attitude  of  our  own  souls.  Repentance,  faith, 
obediejice  are  the  requisites  for  a  right  recep- 
tion of  either  of  these  Sacraments,  as  they  are 
necessary  conditions  of  a  right  relation  to 
God  :  and  these  requisites  are  themselves  gifts 
of  the  Holy  Spirit,  to  be  won  by  earnest 
prayer. 

5.  Infant  Baptism.  Those  many  Christians 
who  practise  infant  baptism,  do  so  because  they 
believe  (1)  that  it  is  in  accordance  with  the 
mind  of  Christ  and  a  proper  understanding  of 
the  sacred  rite,  and  (2)  that  its  significance 
and  effect  are  secured  by  the  pledges  of  the 
sureties  that  as  the  child  develops  he  shall 
be  taught  what  are  the  privileges  and  responsi- 
bilities of  a  member  of  Christ  and  the  initial 
gift  be  fostered  by  '  the  nurture  and  admoni- 
tion of  the  Lord'  (Eph64). 

The  adult  who  is  admitted  to  baptism  takes 
these  pledges  upon  himself,  promising  to  for- 
sake sin,  to  accept  trustfully  the  revelation  of 
God's  mercy  in  Christ,  and  to  walk  in  the 
path  of  the  divine  commandments.  In  pagan 
lands  it  is  usually  as  a  result  of  preaching 
(cp.  Ro  10 14, 15)  that  the  light  dawns  upon 
him,  and  he  experiences  what  we  know  as 
'Conversion'  ;  then,  after  fuller  instruction, 
he  is  brought  to  the  baptism  of  the  Covenant. 

6.  Conversion.  This  phenomenon  of  con- 
version often  happens,  and  sometimes  in  a 
striking  way  to  those  who  have  been  brought 
up  in  Christian  surroundings,  and  those  who 
have   been  baptised  in  infancy.      The  grace 


cxl 


THE   ELEMENTS   OF  RELIGION 


of  God  in  them  has  been  so  far  quenched  by 
contending  influences — worldliness,  careless- 
ness, vicious  passions,  or  the  like — like  the 
seed  in  thorny  ground  whose  growth  is  choked 
by  worldly  cares  and  riches  (Mt  1 3  -2).  At 
last  the  Voice  of  God  makes  itself  heard  ; 
with  conviction  of  sin  and  sincere  repentance 
union  with  Christ  is  realised  and  the  divine 
forces  of  the  indwelling  Spirit  are  brought 
into  play.  The  result  is  seen  in  a  fruitful 
life  of  communion  with  God.  This  conver- 
sion is  not  to  be  confused  with  the  gift  of 
baptism.  In  adults  converted  from  alien 
beliefs  it  normally  precedes  baptism,  as  in  the 
case  of  St.  Paul  (Ac93f.  and  v.  18  22  6  f.  and 
V.  16),  while  in  those  who  are  baptised  as 
infants  it  naturally  follows  the  rite.  In  some 
cases,  as  in  that  of  St.  Paul,  the  conversion 
comes  in  a  single  moment  ;  in  others  it  is  a 
gradual  process,  more  or  less  continuous,  of 
more  intimate  approach  to  God.  Often  it  has 
a  kind  of  rhythmical  or  recurring  character, 
marked  by  definite  stages  in  the  external  or 
internal  life  of  the  individual,  as  at  confirma- 
tion and  at  first  communion,  in  times  of  sick- 
ness or  bereavement,  or  on  the  occasion  of 
marriage  or  parenthood — these  crises  forming 
steps  in  a  more  or  less  regular  evolution  of 
the  spiritual  life. 

For  all  alike  conversion  in  some  sense  is 
necessary,  and  for  all  alike  it  involves  the 
individual  realisation  of  our  relation  of  son- 
ship  to  the  heavenly  Father.  '  Except  ye  be 
converted,'  says  the  Saviour,  '  and  become  as 
little  children,  ye  shall  in  no  wise  enter  into 
the  kingdom'  (Mtl83). 

7.  Religious  Duties.  The  typical  duties 
on  which  our  Lord  lays  stress  in  His  Sermon 
on  the  Mount — Fasting  (Mt6i''-18),  Almsgiving 
(Mt6i-4),  and  Prayer  (Mt  6  5-i5)_cover  the 
whole  field  of  the  religious  life,  representing 
respectively  the  three  aspects  of  our  Lord's 
atoning  sacrifice,  as  sin-offering,  burnt-offering, 
and  peace-offering. 

(1)  Prayer.  Prayer  is  the  soul's  communion 
with  its  Maker.  Its  importance  and  some- 
thing of  its  nature  are  revealed  to  us  by  our 
Lord's  example  (we  are  told  of  His  spending 
long  hours  alone  in  prayer,  Mtl423  LkG^^ 
Mkl35),  by  His  precepts  (MtO^s  Lk2136  Mk 
7  7f.  Il22f.^  etc.),  and  by  the  pattern  prayer 
which  He  has  given  iis  (MtG^'-is  Lkll2-4). 
It  is  the  outpouring  of  the  child's  soul  to  the 
heavenly  Father,  with  whose  will  the  child's 
will  is  blent.  In  a  wide  sense  it  is  an  attitude, 
not  necessarily  expressed  in  words,  so  that 
St.  Paul  can  say,  '  Pray  without  ceasing ' 
(IThS^'^).  Yet  that  there  is  something  more 
in  prayer  than  a  mere  spiritual  self -surrender 
— a  '  Thy  will  be  done  ' — is  clear  from  Christ's 
words  and  works.     Always  in  submission  to 


the  all-wise  will  of  the  Father,  He  encourages 


cxli 


us  to  ask  for  definite  things.  For  spiritual 
blessings,  first  of  all,  where  there  can  be  no 
doubt  about  God's  will,  and  the  only  necessary 
condition  is  faith  (Lk  11  is  ;  cp.  1  Cor  1231 
14:1).  By^;  j^q^  f^j,  gpiHtual  blessings  only. 
In  His  agony  He  prayed  definitely  to  have  the 
'cup'  removed,  if  it  were  the  Father's  will 
(Lk22-i2  ;  cp.  HebS*").  In  His  model  prayer 
He  bids  us,  after  the  petitions  of  which  God 
is  the  subject,  to  ask  for  daily  bread  (Mt  6  H). 
In  His  works  of  healing  He  Himself  answers 
the  prayers  of  parents  and  friends  for  the 
restoration  of  their  loved  ones  to  health  (Mt 
85f-  92f.  and  v.  18f.  1435,36  15221^  etc.). 

In  modern  times  people  have  often  been 
puzzled  about  prayer.  Science  has  taught  us 
that  God  works  in  the  world  by  law  and 
system,  and  that  everything  works  together 
in  an  extremely  complicated  interaction.  "What 
place  is  there  then,  it  is  asked,  for  individual 
prayers  ?  If  I  ask  for  a  definite  thing  for 
myself  or  my  friend,  even  though  it  be  not 
what  we  commonly  call  a  '  miracle,'  am  I  not 
presuming,  and  presuming  in  vain,  to  beg  for 
a  breach  of  the  laws  by  which  God  works  ? 

The  answer  is,  first  of  all,  that  if  God 
works  by  law  and  system,  marshalling  the 
forces  of  nature  in  harmonious  interaction, 
the  force  of  the  prayer  of  faith  is  not  outside 
that  system,  but  is  one  of  its  most  potent 
factors.  Furthermore,  we  ask  all  subject  to 
God's  will,  confessing  our  own  ignorance  ; 
and  as  we  advance  in  the  knowledge  and  love 
of  Him,  our  own  wills  inevitably  become 
more  and  more  attuned  to  His,  and  it  becomes 
growingly  impossible  that  we  should  approach 
Him  with  extravagant  and  unworthy  petitions. 
Again,  as  St.  Augustine  observes,  we  are 
bidden  to  ask  all  in  the  name  of  Jesus  (Jn 
15 16  1623,26)^  the  Saviour  :  anything  asked  in 
ignorance  which  would,  if  granted,  run  counter 
to  God's  redemptive  purposes,  we  shall  expect 
to  be  withheld,  as  not  being  really  in  the  Sa- 
viour's name.  Finally,  as  we  suggested  above, 
Christ  makes  it  quite  clear  that  it  is  normal 
and  right  for  the  faithful  to  ask  for  such  things 
as  they  need,  and  gives  us  many  object  lessons, 
in  His  works  of  mercy  on  earth,  of  answers 
to  the  prayer  of  faith  in  what  must  have  seemed 
like  desperate  cases.  It  is  noticeable  also  that 
He  frequently  combined  with  the  physical 
boon  prayed  for,  a  corresponding  spiritual 
boon,  adding  the  healing  of  the  soul  to  that  of 
the  body  (Mt  9  2-6,  etc.). 

The  prayer  of  which  our  Lord  is  specially 
speaking  in  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount  is  that 
private  intimate  communion  with  God  which 
the  '  Father  who  seeth  in  secret '  is  pledged  to 
recompense  (MtG^).  This  aspect  of  prayer  is 
emphasised  in  contrast  to  the  ostentatious 
praying  in  the  streets  of  the  contemporary 
Pharisees  (MtG^),  and  is  not,  of  course,  meant 


THE   ELEMENTS   OF   RELIGION 


to  condemn  those  regular  meetings  for  prayer     ating  advance.     As  there  have  been  retrograde 


in  which  the  corporate  life  of  God's  people  ex- 
pressed itself  alike  in  the  Old  Covenant  and 
the  New. 

(2)  Fasting.  Fasting — the  spirit  of  the 
sin-offering — i.e.  of  purification  and  self- 
discipline,  and  almsgiving — the  spirit  of  the 
burnt -offering,  i.e.  of  self-surrender,  are, 
like  prayer,  assumed  and  taken  for  granted 
in  the  Sermon  on  the  Mouci,  the  necessity 
of  unostentatious  sincerity  being  similarly 
emphasised. 

Self -discipline,  the  inner  principle  of  fasting, 
is  rendered  necessary  by  the  disorder  in  our 
nature  wrought  by  sin.  Not  even  an  apostle 
can  do  without  it :  '  I  keep  under  my  body,' 
says  St.  Paul,  '  and  bring  it  into  subjection  ' 
(lCor927  ;  cp.  2 Corf? 5  11  ^r).  It  is,  in  fact, 
that  renunciation  of  the  world,  the  flesh,  and 
the  devil  which  from  the  earliest  ages  has  ac- 
companied Christian  baptism,  and  represents 
the  penitent  cooperation  of  man  with  the 
Holy  Spirit  in  the  work  of  self -purification. 
It  naturally  expresses  itself  in  acts  of  self- 
denial,  a  mark  of  Christ's  sincere  disciples 
(Mtl6-^),  and  still  more,  perhaps,  in  the  glad 
acceptance  of  God's  manifold  discipline  in 
life. 

(3)  Almsgiving.  Self-surrender,  the  inner 
principle  of  almsgiving,  is  the  recognition  that 
all  we  have  and  are  is  doubly  due  to  God, 
who  has  first,  as  Creator,  granted  us  our  exist- 
ence, and  then,  as  Redeemer,  bought  us  with 
a  price  (1  Cor  6  20  723) — the  precious  blood  of 
Jesus  Christ. 

8.  In  these  practices  we  realise  our  union 
with  Christ.  Thus  in  the  three  principles 
represented  by  fasting,  almsgiving  and  prayer, 
the  believer  is  united  with  the  Saviour  in  His 
thi-eefold  act  of  atonement  ;  and  by  the 
power  of  the  divine  indwelling  his  sinful  body 
is  progressively  purified  and  assimilated  to  the 
stainless  humanity  of  Christ,  his  warped  will 
is  brought  more  and  more  into  line  with  that 
perfect  will,  his  whole  life  is  caught  up  into 
an  ever  closer  communion  with  the  life  of 
God.  And  thus  individual  believers  are 
gathered  up  into  the  pure  offering  of  a  re- 
deemed humanity,  the  sacrifice  which  He 
offered  up  once  for  all  upon  the  Cross,  and 
effectuates  successively  and  in  detail  in  those 
whom  He  unites  to  Himself.  The  sanctifica- 
tion  of  individual  Christians  is  thus  a  kind  of 
propagation  of  Christ  Himself,  and  is  a  little 
type  of  that  great  corporate  perfection  of  the 
whole  body  of  the  redeemed  of  which  St. 
Paul  speaks  as  the  coming  to  a  perfect,  i.e. 
full-grown.  Humanity,  the  measure  of  the 
stature  of  the  fulness  of  Christ  (Eph4i3). 

9.  Penitence  :  Sins  of  Believers.  It  would 
be  misleading,  however,  to  describe  this  process 
of  sanctification  as  one  of  steady  and  undevi 


moments  and  periods  of  decline  and  disloyalty 
in  the  Church  in  general  (both  under  the  Old 
Covenant  and  under  the  New),  so  too  the 
individual  Christian  life  is  often  a  perplexing 
mixture  of  ascents  and  downfalls.  The  Old 
Testament  is  full  of  such  instances,  alike  in 
the  Church  and  in  the  individual.  The  fre- 
quent backslidings  of  the  nation  are  paralleled 
by  the  failures  of  patriarchs  like  Israel  him- 
self, and  of  subsequent  saints  of  eminence 
like  Moses  and  David — grave,  though  inci- 
dental failures,  which  do  not  affect  the  favour- 
able character  of  the  final  verdict.  In  the 
New  Testament  the  mention  of  the  single 
name  of  Peter  is  sufficient  to  show  the  po.ssi- 
bility  of  defection  after  an  intimate  walk  with 
Christ,  and  the  certainty  of  a  full  restoration 
after  sincere  repentance. 

There  is,  indeed,  a  passage  in  the  Epistle 
to  the  Hebrews  which  speaks  of  a  form  of 
disloyalty  after  which  renewal  is  impossible 
(Heb6^-'5),  and  our  Lord  Himself  has  words 
of  deepest  solemnity  about  a  blasphemy  against 
the  Holy  Spirit '  which  hath  never  forgiveness  ' 
(Mk.329).  We  shall  be  justified  in  identifying 
these  two  sins — a  deliberate  and  wilful  ranging 
oneself  against  known  truth — and  in  dis- 
tinguishing from  this  unforgivable  offence 
the  constant  instances  of  frailty  in  the  re- 
deemed for  which  Chi-ist  expressly  invites  us 
to  ask  pardon  (MtG^^,  14).  For  though  the 
New  Testament  speaks  of  believing  members 
of  Christ  as  '  saints '  or  holy  people  (e.g.  Ro 
17  1526  1615  iCorl2  61  1433,  etc.,  etc.),  and 
St.  John,  speaking  of  the  believer  ideally  con- 
sidered, says  that  '  whosoever  is  begotten  of 
God  doeth  no  sin'  .  .  'cannot  sin  '  (1  Jn3^'9)  ; 
yet  the  Lord  clearly  contemplated  in  the 
faithful  some  deviations  from  the  path  of 
perfection,  else  He  would  not  have  inserted 
into  His  model  prayer  the  clause  '  forgive  us 
our  trespasses.'  Nor  can  we  forget  that  St. 
John,  in  the  same  Epistle  just  quoted,  speaks 
clearly  and  strongly  to  believers  about  the 
forgiveness  and  cleansing  that  can  be  won  by 
confession  of  sins  (IJnl^.iO),  The  Christian 
consciousness  has  rightly  regarded  confession 
of  sins  as  a  normal  part  of  private  as  well  as 
public  devotions,  and  a  necessary  condition  of 
continuance  in  God's  grace.  It  is  especially 
appropriate  as  a  preparation  for  the  reception 
of  Holy  Communion,  and  has  been  so  recog- 
nised by  all  Christian  denominations.  Con- 
fession accompanied  by  contrition  and  pui'pose 
of  amendment,  by  which  the  soul  renews 
from  time  to  time  its  renunciation  of  the 
world,  the  flesh  and  the  devil,  wins,  so  Scrip- 
ture assures  us,  the  forgiveness  of  the  Father 
and  restoration  to  effective  communion  with 
Him. 

ID.   Eternal  Life.     The  communion  of  the 


cxlii 


THE   ELEMENTS   OF   RELIGION 


spirit   with   God   in    Christ,  which  the  New 
Testament,   taking  up    the    language    of   the 
Old,  describes  as  'knowledge  '  of  God  (Hos4i 
63>6  Jnl73  Phill9  Coll  10,  etc.),  is  called  by 
St.  John  'Eternal  Life'  (Jnl?^)  ;  a  phrase  by 
which  the  Apostle  clearly  means,  not  a  future 
gift,  but  a  present  possession.     It  is  a  gift,  no 
doubt,   but    imperfectly   appropriated    here — 
the    '  crown '   of  it,    its  full    and  triumphant 
fruition,  is  to  be  attained  by  the  faithful  after 
death  (2  Tim  4  §  Rev  2  lO)  ;  yet  it  is  neverthe- 
less a  real  possession  on  this  side  of  the  grave. 
Even    the    Psalmists    of   the    Old  Testament 
recognised  this  truth,  and  the  fact  of  present 
communion  with  God  was  to  them  the  supreme 
argument  for  a  futm-e  life  (PsslG^-ii  1715)  . 
an  argument  clinched  by  our  Lord  when  He 
said  the  God  of  Abraham,  Isaac  and  Jacob  is 
not  a  God  of  the  dead,  but  of  the  living,  for 
all  live  unto  Him  (Lk2037,3S)_     Just  as  the 
phrase  '  kingdom  of  God  '  or  '  of  Heaven  '  is 
used  sometimes  of   the  Church  militant  and 
imperfect  (e.g.  MtlS'^**-  47 f.)^  and  sometimes 
of   the    perfect,    triumphant    Church    of    the 
future  (Mt25^4) — and  rightly  so,  because  these 
are   really  two  different    stages  of  the   same 
thing  ;  so  too  with  '  Eternal  Life.'     It  begins 
as  soon  as  Christ  is  appropriated,  as  soon  as 
the  believer  is  first  united  to  His  triumphant 
resurrection    life  ;    it   is   to  be   consummated 
when  the  Son  of  man  shall  come  in  His  glory. 
II.   Death  and  Judgment,  Heaven  and  Hell. 
Over  against  Life  stands  Death,  the  penalty 
incurred  by  man  as  the  result  of  his  wilful 
breach    with    God  :     '  in    the    day    that    thou 
eatest  thereof  thou  shalt  surely  die  '  (Gn  2 1''). 
The  death  thus  spoken  of  in  Scripture  is  not 
primarily  or    exclusively  the    physical    disso- 
lution of  the  body,  but  rather  that  death  of 
body  and  soul  together  of  which  Christ  speaks 
in  such  solemn  and  mysterious  tones  (Lkl25). 
If  God  is  Life  and  man's  eternal  life  consists 
in  close  and  constant  communion  with  Him, 
it  needs  no  dogmatic  statement  to  make  clear 
the  terrible  character  of  a  permanent  alienation 
from    Him.      The    language   of    Scripture    is 
forcible  enough  on  this  head  (Mt2.5-ii'-t6  Mk 
9^8)  ;  but  there   is  no  more  powerful  aid  to 
the    realisation    of    the    appalling    alternative 
than   the   consideration  of  the  extent  of  the 
Saviour's  sufferings  for  our  redemption.     The 
value  of  the  redemption  can  only  be  estimated 
by  an   appreciation  of  the  price  paid.     It  is 
thus  that  Christ's  passion,  from  the  agony  in 
the  garden  to  the   death  on  the   Cross,   has 
always   been  the    strongest    stimulus  to  con- 
version ;  it  draws  us  with  a  twofold  cord  of 
love   and  fear— fear  of   that    ineffable  doom 
which  it  cost  so  much  to  avert,  and  love  to 
Him  who  for  love  of  us  willingly  paid  the 
price.     The  Cross  is  the  only  adequate  measure 
of  the  hatefulness  of  sin  and  of  the  horror  of 


its  consequences.  Those  consequences  are 
not  to  be  regarded  as  belonging  entirely  to 
the  future,  any  more  than  are  the  consequences 
of  saving  union  with  the  Redeemer.  As  it 
was  said  in  the  Old  Testament  that  '  in  the 
day  that '  man  disobeyed  '  he  should  surely 
die,'  so  also  in  the  New  Testament  we  are  told 
by  St.  John  that  '  he  that  hath  not  the  Son 
of  God  hath  not  the  life'  (1  Jn5i2),  and  that 
'  he  that  loveth  not  abideth  in  death '  (1  Jn 
314,15^  In  both  cases,  however,  the  consum- 
mation, whether  of  life  or  death,  lies  beyond 
the  gi-ave,  and  Scripture  describes  the  eternal 
future  of  mankind  as  following  upon  a  Judg- 
ment in  which  all  alike  are  to  pass  before 
Chi-ist's  throne  (R0I410  2  Cor  510).  This  is 
clear  from  our  Lord's  own  words  as  well  as 
from  those  of  His  Apostle  (Mt  25  31, 32).  The 
Judgment  is  represented  as  preceded  by  the 
general  resurrection  of  the  dead,  at  Christ's 
Second  Coming  (Jn5^^'"^). 

12.  Paradise.  If  we  ask  what  is  the  con- 
dition, meanwhile,  of  those  who  have  passed 
away  from  this  life,  our  Lord's  words  to  the 
penitent  robber  :  '  T'o-day  shalt  thou  be  with 
me  in  Paradise'  (Lk 23-13),  to  which  the  parable 
of  Dives  and  Lazarus  (LklG^of.)  form  a  kind 
of  commentary,  suggest  to  us  a  state  in  which 
the  believer's  soul  is  in  a  special  sense  '  with 
Christ,'  in  a  more  intimate  relation  than  is 
possible  for  us  here  :  a  state  to  which  St. 
Paul  seems  to  be  looking  forward  when  he 
says  that  '  to  depart  and  be  with  Christ '  is 
far  better  (Phill  23).  This  'waiting  state' 
(Hebll39,40.  cp.  Rev  6  9)  of  the  faithful  has 
as  its  background  in  the  parable  the  '  torment ' 
of  Dives,  which  seems,  correspondingly,  a  fore- 
taste of  that  'Gehenna  of  fire'  (MkQ'is-^S)^ 
under  the  symbolism  of  which  our  Lord  refers 
to  the  eventual  condition  of  the  permanently 
wicked — the  '  fire  prepared,'  He  says,  '  for  the 
devil  and  his  angels  '  (Mt254i).  Any  attempt 
to  reveal  to  us  in  our  present  state  either  the 
joys  of  heaven  or  the  woes  of  hell  must 
necessarilj'  be  couched  in  figurative  language  ; 
but  the  language  of  Scripture  on  this  subject, 
though  to  be  interpreted  with  caution,  is 
certainly  of  a  kind  to  be  received  with  the 
utmost  seriousness  ;  and  when  all  has  been 
said,  no  more  appalling  definition  can  be  given 
of  the  state  of  the  lost  than  that  it  is  one  of 
wilful,  permanent,  and  absolute  alienation 
from  God  who  is  Life  and  Love. 

13.  Faith  in  Christ.  It  was  to  save  us 
from  this  doom  that  the  Redeemer  was  given, 
'for  God  so  loved  the  world,  that  He  gave 
His  only  begotten  Son,  that  whosoever  be- 
lieveth  in  Him  should  not  perish,  but  have 
everlasting  life  '  ( Jn  .3 16).  This  belief  in  Him 
— not  a  mere  intellectual  assent  to  certain 
doctrines,  but  a  going  forth  of  the  whole 
nature  in  trustful  homage — brings  with  it  of 


cxliii 


THE  ELEMENTS   OF  RELIGION 


necessity  a  fervent  love,  and  with  the  love  a 
patient  submission  and  obedience.  Thus  the 
doctrine  of  St.  James  is  complementary  to 
that  of  St.  Paul,  and  though  in  a  sense  faith 
is  the  one  thing  needful,  because  it  opens  the 
soul  to  accept  God's  grace,  and  thus  makes 
His  entry  into  us  possible  ;  yet  faith  without 
works  is  not  only  dead  but  inconceivable  (Jas 
2i7f.). 

Faith,  as  we  have  said,  is  God's  gift  to  those 
who  desire  it  and  are  ready  to  receive  it.  It 
is  in  all  ages  a  requisite  to  the  effective  work- 
ing of  the  Holy  Spirit  in  man's  soul  ;  even  as 
in  the  days  of  our  Lord's  ministry  it  was  an 
indispensable  condition  without  which  even 
He  could  do  no  mighty  works  on  men  (Mt  13  ^8). 

It  is  perhaps  to  stimulate  faith  that  certain 
difficulties — like  the  problems  of  evil  and  of 
suffering — are  allowed  to  remain  unsolved  for 
us,  and  certain  eventualities  unrevealed. 
Enough  is  told  us  to  command  our  trust  and 
to  justify  the  venture  of  belief.  If  all  were 
clear,  there  would  be  no  place  for  the  discip- 
line of  faith  ;  we  would  walk,  not  by  faith, 
but  by  sight  (2  Cor  5  7  ;  cp.  Jn  20  29  1  Pet  1  §). 

Such  are  the  leading  elements  of  the  Chris- 
tian religion  ;  and  if,  like  its  individual 
professors,  it  is  to  be  judged  by  its  fruits,  we 
need  have  no  fear  of  the  result.  To  compare 
it,  not  merely  with  the  polytheistic  religions 
which  once  held  sway  in  Europe,  but  with  its 
great  contemporary  rival  5  for  the  homage  of 
mankind — Buddhism  and  Mohammedanism — 
is  to  gain  a  fresh  appreciation  of  its  superiority, 
and  be  confirmed  in  our  conviction  of  its 
truth.  Consider  what  the  Church  has  done 
for  Europe  ^nd  for  Western  civilisation 
during  the  nineteen  centuries  of  her  existence. 
She  leavened  the  great  Roman  Empire  when 
it  was  festering  with  moral  corruption,  and  so 
prolonged  and  purified  the  good  mfluence  of 
its  ideals  of  law  and  government.  When  the 
knell  of  the  old  Empire  as  mistress  of  the 


world  sounded,  and  the  northern  barbarians 
rushed  in  upon  her  borders,  the  Church  took 
up  her  task  of  taming  and  civilising  these 
barbarians,  offering  to  each  race  and  people 
from  the  inexhaustible  treasury  of  Christ's 
perfect  humanity  the  gifts  specially  adapted 
to  develop  its  own  peculiar  character,  and 
thus  under  her  influence  nationality  slowly 
came  into  view  ;  that  spirit  to  which  modern 
Europe  owes  so  much  of  her  best.  And  what 
she  has  done  for  individual  nations,  bringing 
some  sort  of  order  out  of  chaos,  she  is  doing 
gradually  for  the  comity  of  nations,  leavening 
the  public  opinion  of  the  world  in  favour  of 
peace  and  justice. 

In  the  social  sphere,  her  teaching  has  trans- 
formed the  family,  especially  in  regard  to  the 
status  of  woman,  has  abolished  slavery,  and 
has  brought  out  what  the  ancient  world  never 
di-eamed  of,  the  infinite  worth  of  the  in- 
dividual personality,  while  inculcating  at  the 
same  time  the  highest  altruistic  ideals  of 
universal  brotherhood  and  membership  in  a 
common  Body.  In  the  sphere  of  knowledge, 
where  the  Christian  Church  is  often  blamed 
as  a  reactionary  and  obscurantist  influence  (a 
blame  which,  no  doubt,  is  well  deserved  in 
certain  cases),  she  has  on  the  whole  exercised 
a  salutary  check  upon  wild  and  fantastic 
speculation,  while  supplying  at  the  same  time 
the  strongest  possible  stimulus  to  research, 
declaring  the  wonders  of  creation  and  of 
human  nature  to  be  a  mirror  of  the  glory  and 
beauty  of  its  Creator.  The  religion  of  the 
Bible  is  one  which,  while  it  fixes  our  ultimate 
gaze  on  the  world  to  come  (2  Cor  4^8),  gives  a 
new  and  inexhaustible  interest  to  God's  visible 
creation,  in  which  it  reads  a  record  of  His 
everlasting  power  and  divinity  (Ro  1  ^^),  and, 
above  all,  to  the  study  of  mankind — history, 
anthropology,  and  kindi-ed  studies — for  there 
are  written  the  records  of  His  educative  and 
redemptive  dealings  with  the  being  whom  He 
formed  in  His  own  image  (Gn  1 26, 27), 


oxliv 


PALESTINE 


Palestine  is  a  little  country,  no  bigger  than 
Wales  ;  but  it  was  in  the  centre  of  the  ancient 
civilised  world,  and  the  highway  of  the  nations 
led  along  its  borders  from  Egypt  to  Assyria. 
It  was  a  mountain  land,  with  fresher  climate 
than  either  the  Delta  or  the  plains  of  Baby- 
lonia, and  it  was  rich  in  corn  and  oil.  It  was 
therefore  always  coveted  by  the  kings  of  Egypt 
and  Assyria  ;  and  though  it  had  no  ports,  yet 
in  the  immediate  N.  the  Phoenicians  developed 
a  great  sea-traffic,  and  sent  out  colonies  to  Africa 
and  Europe. 

The  land  from  Dan  to  Beersheba — i.e.  from 
N.  to  S. — was  about  150  m.  long,  and  contained 
6,000  sq.  m.  W.  of  Jordan  and  4,000  to  the  E. 
in  Moab,  Gilead,  and  Bashan.  Western  Pales- 
tine consists  of  a  chain  of  mountains  rising 
generally  not  more  than  3,000  ft.  above  the 
sea,  having  a  wide  plain  on  the  W.  and  the 
deep  Jordan  valley  on  the  E.  The  mountains 
are  of  limestone,  the  plain  of  good  soil,  bordered 
by  sand  dunes  or  by  crumbling  sandy  cliffs. 
In  Lower  Galilee  the  ridge  of  Carmel  juts  out 
NW.,  and  the  range  of  Gilboa  runs  further  E., 
leaving  the  triangular  inland  plain  of  Esdraelon 
between  them,  bounded  on  the  N.  by  the  hills 
of  Nazareth  and  of  Lower  Galilee,  with  Tabor 
as  an  outlier  on  the  E.  N.,  again,  are  the 
mountains  of  Upper  Galilee,  sloping  down  to 
the  narrow  plains  and  hills  between  Accho  and 
Tyre.  In  the  centre  of  the  land  Ebal  and 
Gerizim  are  among  the  highest  summits,  divided 
by  the  narrow  valley  of  Shechem.  Between 
the  mountains  of  Jerusalem  and  Hebron  and 
the  plains  of  Sharon  and  Philistia  is  the  region 
of  the  foot-hills,  called  the  Shephelah  in  the 
Bible.  This  continues  N.  to  Carmel.  The 
western  spurs,  which  receive  the  W.  winds 
from  the  sea,  are  clothed  with  copses  ;  the 
foot-hills  are  covered  with  olive  groves,  while 
the  plains  are  fit  for  corn.  The  Hebron 
mountains — and,  indeed,  most  of  those  through- 
out the  country — are  green  with  vineyards  ; 
but  the  appearance  of  the  hills,  especially 
round  Jerusalem  and  Shechem,  is  rugged  and 
barren.  The  land  is  well  supplied  with  springs 
throughout.  The  eastern  steep  slopes  are  very 
rocky  and  bare,  and  on  this  side,  towards  the 
S.,  the  desert  of  Judah  is  a  waste  of  white 
ridges  with  tall  precipices  above  the  Dead  Sea. 
On  the  S.  the  mountains  fall  fi'om  Hebron  to 
the  rolling  grassy  downs  of  Beersheba. 

There  are  several  perennial  streams  in 
Sharon  ;  and  under  Carmel  the  boggy  Kishon, 
rising  at  Tabor,  enters  the  sea  in  the  only  bay 
S.  of  Tyre.     There  are  others,  again,  flowing 


k 


to  the  Jordan,  of  which  the  chief  are  the 
waters  of  ^non,  NE.  of  Shechem,  and  the 
stream  in  the  Valley  of  Jezreel.  The  Jordan 
rises  near  Dan,  at  the  foot  of  Hermon,  and 
runs  through  the  papyrus  swamps  of  the  Huleh 
lake  to  the  pear-shaped  Sea  of  Galilee,  which 
is  flanked  by  precipices  mirrored  in  its  waters. 
Thence,  still  descending,  it  reaches  the  Dead 
Sea,  which  is  1,300  ft.  below  the  Mediterranean. 
It  winds  through  a  thicket  of  tamarisks  and 
other  low  trees,  never  being  broader  than  about 
30  yds.,  and  having  some  30  fords,  the  last 
opposite  the  plain  of  Jericho  ;  but  the  current 
is  rapid,  especially  near  the  mouth.  The  Dead 
Sea  is  10  m.  wide  and  40  m.  long,  and  on 
either  side  sheer  precipices  rise  sometimes 
1,000  ft.  above  the  water. 

The  country  E.  of  Jordan  includes  half  the 
Jordan  Valley,  which  has  on  an  average  a  total 
width  of  10  m.  Very  steep  slopes  lead  up  to 
a  plateau  which  stretches  E.  to  the  Syrian 
Desert.  These  slopes  are  sandstone  below 
and  hard  limestone  higher  up.  In  Moab  the 
plateau  is  bare  and  treeless,  but  in  Gilead,  to 
the  N.,  the  hills  are  covered  in  parts  with 
woods  of  fir  and  oak.  The  only  real  forest  in 
Western  Palestine  has  now  been  sadly  thinned, 
but  presented  twenty  years  ago  a  dense  wood 
of  oaks  between  Nazareth  and  Carmel.  In 
Gilead,  where  there  are  many  beautiful  streams, 
especially  the  Jabbok,  opposite  Shechem,  the 
scenery  is  at  times  park-like,  at  times  presents 
only  grey  mountain  slopes.  N.  of  this,  again, 
are  the  rich  corn  plains  of  Bashan,  and  the 
basalt  regions  of  Golan  and  Argob,  with  their 
extinct  volcanoes  ;  while  far  to  the  E.  the 
'Hill  of  Bashan'  rises  over  the  plains. 

There  is  thus  much  variety  of  scenery  in 
Palestine,  and  while  the  plains  are  hot  and 
fever-stricken  in  summer  and  autumn,  the  hills 
are  healthier  and  cooler,  especially  when  the 
W.  wind  blows  daily  in  June  from  the  sea. 
The  climate  of  Palestine  is  like  that  of  Southern 
Italy.  In  spring  the  plains  are  gay  with  flowers, 
and  the  Jordan  Valley  is  carpeted  with  bright 
colours.  In  autumn  all  is  brown  and  grey, 
parched  by  the  summer  sun  and  the  searching 
E.  winds  of  May  and  October.  But  the 
country  is  famous  in  the  East  for  its  fruits ; 
and  figs,  grapes,  pomegi-anates,  melons,  and 
apricots  are  found  in  all  parts  of  it.  It  is  a 
'  good  land,'  ruined  only  by  the  evil  deeds  of 
inan.  Amid  the  copses  the  traveller  often 
lights  on  the  wine-pressee  and  vineyard  towers, 
which  betoken  former  cultivation. 

Palestine  is  capable  of  supporting  ten  times 


cxlv 


PALESTINE 


its  present  population,  and  could  well  have 
held  the  numbers  which  we  are  told  dwelt 
there  in  the  days  of  the  Hebrews.  All  the 
ancient  fauna  of  the  Bible — beasts,  birds,  and 
reptiles — still  remain,  except  the  lion,  whose 
bones  are  found  in  the  Jordan  gravel  beds  ; 
the  wild  bull  (miscalled  by  Greek  translators 
the  '  unicorn '),  which  was  still  hunted  in 
Lebanon  in  1130  B.C.  ;  and  the  bear,  which  is 
now  only  found  on  the  snowy  slopes  of 
Hermon,  9,000  ft.  above  the  sea.  Even  the 
fallow-deer  has  been  found  among  the  oaks 
of  Tabor,  and  the  roebuck  in  the  copses  of 
Carmel  and  Galilee,  and  in  the  woods  of 
Gilead.  The  antelope  runs  in  herds  in  the 
plains  ;  the  ibex  leaps  among  the  '  rocks  of 
the  wild  goats '  in  the  Desert  of  Judah.  The 
'  coney,'  or  hyrax,  has  there,  too,  its  home  in 
the  clifis  ;  the  leopard  and  wolf  haunt  the 
Jordan,  and  the  fox,  jackal,  and  hyena  are 
common,  as  are  all  birds  of  prey,  and  the  wild 
doves  which  fill  the  oak  woods  ;  while  the 
partridge  runs  in  the  higher  hills.  '  The  trees 
of  Palestine  are  also  the  same  as  of  old,  though 
the  '  apple '  is  rarely  found  in  the  S.  Even 
Leviathan — the  crocodile — survives  in  the 
Crocodile  river  S.  of  Carmel,  though  Behe- 
moth— the  elephant — is  unknown.  In  the 
sixteenth  century  B.C.  there  were,  however, 
herds  of  wild  elephants  on  the  Euphrates,  as 
mentioned  in  the  annals  of  Thothmes  III,  and 
the  great  beast  was  no  doubt  well  known  when 
Solomon  and  Hezekiah  had  thrones  of  ivory 
and  Ahab  made  an  ivory  shrine. 

We  may  turn  briefly  to  consider  the  chief 
towns  of  the  country  noticed  in  the  Bible. 
In  the  mountains  W.  of  Jordan  Hebron  was 
the  chief  city  of  the  S.,  standing  in  a  flat 
mountain  vale  surrounded  by  vineyards,  and 
having  under  the  floor  of  its  Mosque  the 
ancient  rock  sepulchi-e  which  appears  to  have 
been  that  of  the  Patriarchs. 

Jerusalem — which  was  already  a  strong  city 
of  Amorites  in  Joshua's  time — occupied  a 
defensible  position,  surrounded,  except  on  the 
N.,  by  deep  ravines.  The  old  city  occupied 
two  spurs  on  the  W.,  separated  by  interior 
valleys  from  the  Temple  ridge,  which  sank 
gi-adually  to  Ophel  —  the  priests'  quarter, 
walled-in  later — beyond  which  on  the  E. 
was  the  gorge  of  the  Kidron,  with  its  pre- 
cipices ;  and  E.  again  the  chalky  slopes  of 
Olivet  dotted  with  olives.  All  that  now  re- 
mains of  ancient  Jerusalem  are  the  ramparts 
of  Herod's  outer  Temple  enclosure,  and  part 
of  the  western  wall  and  its  great  tower — also 
of  the  same  age.  The  old  city  was  rather 
larger  than  the  present  walled  town  ;  and 
after  30  a.d.  it  had  extended  N.  to  include  a 
total  of  300  acres,  requiring  a  new  third 
wall  on  this  side.  Exploration  shows  that 
the  traditional  site  of  Calvary,  in  the  Cathe- 


dral, is  the  summit  of  a  knoll,  with  a  steep 
southern  slope,  which  appears  to  have  formed 
the  citadel  of  the  lower  city  ;  and  it  is  prac- 
tically impossible  that  this  should  not  have 
been  very  early  included  in  Jerusalem.  The 
more  probable  site  of  Golgotha  is  the  hillock 
outside  the  N.  gate  of  the  city,  to  which 
Jewish  tradition  still  points  as  the  site  of  the 
ancient  place  of  execution. 

Passing  N.  by  Bethel,  a  hamlet  on  the  grey 
rocks,  we  reach  the  ancient  capital  at  Shechem, 
close  to  which  on  the  E.  is  Jacob's  Well — one 
of  the  few  spots  where  we  can  feel  certain  of 
the  presence  of  Christ  ;  it  is  now  preserved 
in  the  ruins  of  a  Crusaders'  church.  In 
Shechem  the  last  remnant  of  the  Samaritans 
preserve  their  ancient  copies  of  the  Law,  and 
yearly  observe  the  Passover  on  Gerizim.  W. 
of  this,  Samaria,  in  the  low  hills,  presents  the 
ruins  of  Herod's  temple  and  colonnades  on  a 
long,  low  hillock.  Thence  we  pass  to  the 
small  brown  plain  of  Dothan,  with  its  well,  at 
the  site  still  keeping  the  ancient  name  ;  and 
so  on  to  Jezreel  on  a  spur  of  Gilboa,  where 
we  find  remains  of  wine-presses  to  the  E., 
where  was  Naboth's  vineyard.  A  little  to  the 
N.  is  Shunem  with  its  lemon  gardens  and 
springs  ;  and  on  the  N.  of  the  volcanic  peak 
of  Moriah,  is  the  hamlet  of  Endor  with  its 
cave,  and  Nain,  a  little  village  to  the  W.,  hard 
by.  The  only  other  towns  needing  notice  in 
the  N.  are  Accho,  on  the  N.  side  of  its  bay,  a 
city  mentioned  on  monuments  very  early  ; 
and  Tyre,  with  its  two  harbours  N.  and  S., 
now  a  fair-sized  place,  and  no  longer  a  ruin. 
Sidon,  which  has  a  larger  port,  is  beyond  the 
limits  of  the  Holy  Land. 

On  the  sea-coast  Gaza  alone — on  its  hillock 
surrounded  by  long  olive  avenues — is  left  as  a 
city,  out  of  the  five  towns  of  the  Philistines. 
Ascalon,  on  the  shore,  is  a  ruin  half  covered 
with  sand,  with  remains  of  the  walls  built  by 
Richard  Lion  Heart.  Ashdod,  on  a  hill  of 
red  sand,  is  but  a  mud  village,  as  is  Ekron 
further  N.  The  site  of  Gath  is  probably  the 
present  Tell  es  Safi,  at  the  mouth  of  the  valley 
of  Elah.  Lachish  is  a  Tell,  or  mound,  further 
S.,  where  remains  have  been  excavated  dating 
back  to  Joshua's  time.  Joppa  remains  the  port 
of  Jerusalem  (connected  now  by  rail),  and  is  a 
considerable  place,  famous  for  its  orange  groves. 
In  the  plain  of  Sharon  to  the  N.,  CaBsarea  is 
now  a  ruin  with  a  few  cottages,  and  remains  of 
the  walls,  the  theatre,  the  race-course,  and 
the  temple  of  Herod's  time,  extending  beyond 
the  walls  of  the  small  Crusader  city.  In  the 
Jordan  Yalley,  Jericho  is  represented  by 
mounds  of  sun-dried  brick,  close  to  the  hills 
at  'Ain  es  Sultan,  N.  of  the  Valley  of  Achor 
(Wady  Kelt) ;  while  a  solitary  tamarisk  in 
the  plain  to  the  E.  marks  the  site  of  Gilgal. 
The  only  other  town  W.  of  the  river  is  Beth- 


cxlvi 


PALESTINE 


shean,  N.  of  the  Valley  of   Jezreel,  now   a     foot  of  the  mountains.     The  latter  site  seems 


mud    hamlet,    but   with    walls,    theatre,    and 
temple,  of  the  Roman  age. 

E.  of  Jordan,  all  Moab  lies  in  ruins  ;  and 
these,  though  retaining  their  ancient  names, 
are  mostly  of  the  Christian  period,  such  as 
those  at  Dibon,  Medeba,  Heshbon,  Rabbath- 
Ammon,  and  Gerasa.  The  hill  slopes,  how- 
ever, are  strewn  with  cromlechs  and  standing 
stones,  probably  of  the  Canaanite  age.  Maha- 
naim  in  Gilead  is  a  ruin  in  the  circular  hollow 
plain  on  the  hills,  and  is  now  called  Mukhmah; 
while,  N.  of  the  Jabbok,  Ramoth  Gilead  stands 
on  a  high  hill  at  the  present  village  of  Reimun, 
and  Suf  further  N.  may  be  the  Mizpeh  of  Jacob 
and  Jephthah.  Mizpeh  in  Benjamin  is  not  to 
be  confused,  and  is  probably  the  present  ruined 
mound  Tell  Nasbeh,  S.  of  Bethel,  near  Geba, 
and  Ramah,  and  Michmash  with  its  deep 
'Valley  of  Thorns,'  and  its  cliffs  Seneh  and 
Bozez.  In  Bashan  there  are  also  few  villages  ; 
and  the  sites  of  Ashtaroth  Karnaim  (Tell  'Ash- 
terah),  and  Edrei  (Adra)  are  ruined  mounds. 
This  region  is  full  of  fine  houses  and  temples, 
now  overthrown,  which  bear  dated  Greek  in- 
scriptions of  the  second  and  third  centuries  a.d. 
— these  have  no  connexion  with  the  old  cities 
of  Og  and  Sihon  ;  but  further  E.,  at  Sia,  is  a 
temple,  which  by  its  inscriptions  is  known  to 
have  been  built  for  Herod  the  Great,  to  the 
god  Baal  Shemim.  Damascus  by  the  rush- 
ing Abana,  beyond  the  limits  of  Palestine,  is 
still  a  city  under  Hermon,  with  some  250,000 
inhabitants.  Banias,  at  the  source  of  Jordan, 
above  Dan  (Tell  el  Kady),  represents  Csesarea 
Philippi  ;  and  the  scenery,  where  the  river 
bursts  full-grown  from  the  rocky  cave  with  its 
Greek  shrine  of  Pan,  is  amongst  the  most 
picturesque  in  Palestine,  tall  poplars  lining 
the  river,  while  the  ruins  of  the  Crusader 
castle  tower  over  the  village,  and  the  snowy 
Hermon  dome  rises  to  the  N. 

The  scenery  of  the  New  Testament  is 
mostly  connected  with  Lower  Galilee.  Naza- 
reth was  a  remote  village,  otherwise  unnoticed 
in  history,  lying  in  a  hollow  plateau  on  the 
hills,  with  a  cliff  behind  to  the  N.  It  is  now 
a  thriving  town.  Tiberias,  which  was  a  new 
city  in  the  days  of  Christ,  is  now  a  walled 
town  on  the  W.  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  and  the 
remains  of  older  walls,  enclosing  a  larger  area, 
are  traced  on  the  slopes  above. 

Chorazin  with  its  ruined  synagogue  is  a  cer- 
tain site.  N.  of  the  lake,  as  is  Magdala,  a  village 
near  the  shore  on  the  W.,  N.  of  Tiberias. 
The  site  of  Capernaum  has  been  disputed. 
Christian  tradition  placing  it  at  Tell  Hum 
(Caphar-Ahim  of  the  Talmud)  on  the  N.  shore, 
where  too  are  remains  of  a  synagogue  ;  while 
Jewish  mediaeval  tradition  places  it  further 
W.,  at  the  ruin  of  Minyeh,  on  the  shore  in  the 
Plain  of    Gennesaret — a  small  recess  at  the 


best  to  meet  the  requirements  of  the  account 
by  Josephus,  who  speaks  of  the  Fountain  of 
Capernaum  as  watering  the  Gennesaret  plain. 
As  to  Bethsaida,  there  appears  to  have  been 
only  one  place  so  named — at  the  mouth  of  the 
Jordan  where  it  enters  the  lake,  and  E.  of 
the  river.  It  is  now  called  et-Tell,  and  a 
sort  of  delta  has  been  formed  which  now 
makes  the  mouth  of  the  river  nearly  a  mile 
further  S. 

The  site  of  the  Baptism  at  Bethabara  was 
only  a  day's  journey  from  Cana  of  Galilee 
(now  Kefr  Kenna),  N.  of  Nazareth,  and  it 
was  also  about  two  or  three  days  from  Bethany 
(Jn  128, 35, 45  22  iQio  11(5,17)  on  the  Mount  of 
Olives.  Thus  the  Christian  tradition  which 
places  it  E.  of  Jericho  appears  to  be  incor- 
rect ;  and  the  name  occurs  only  once  in  Pales- 
tine, at  the  gi'eat  ford  of  'Abfirah,  not  far  S. 
of  the  Sea  of  Galilee.  This  situation  fulfils 
all  requisites  in  a  satisfactory  manner.  Other 
doubtful  sites,  such  as  Gergesa  and  Ephraim, 
need  not  be  discussed  ;  but  the  fact  that 
Dalmanutha  stands  (Mk  8  ^O)  instead  of  Magdala 
may  be  explained  by  the  latter  being  the 
Hebrew  term  for  '  tower,'  while  the  former 
is  probably  an  Aramaic  name,  meaning  '  place 
of  the  fort.'  Aramaic  was  the  common  tongue 
of  Palestine  when  the  Gospels  were  written, 
and  probably  the  language  spoken  by  Christ 
Himself. 

The  last  scenes  of  His  ministry  are  con- 
nected with  Bethany,  now  a  little  stone  village 
on  the  S.  slopes  of  the  central  top  of  Olivet, 
where  is  an  old  ruined  castle,  once  guarding 
the  Benedictine  Nunnery  of  Queen  Milicent 
of  Jerusalem.  The  first  scene  of  His  life  is 
laid  at  Bethlehem,  which  is  now  a  well-built 
Christian  town  not  far  S.  of  Jerusalem,  on  a 
long  spur  with  terraced  sides  planted  with 
olives.  The  cathedral  here  is  the  oldest 
church  in  the  world  ;  the  pillars  of  its  basilica 
are  those  erected  by  Constantine.  The  rocky 
grotto  beneath,  with  its  rock-cut  manger,  is 
the  traditional  stable  by  the  inn — the  only 
sacred  site  of  Gospel  history  mentioned 
earlier  than  the  fourth  century  a.d.  by  Chris- 
tian writers  ;  for  it  was  known  to  Justin 
Martyr  and  Origen,  as  well  as  to  Jerome. 
Such  rock  stables  often  occur  in  ruined  towns 
of  the  Hebron  mountains  ;  and  the  site  is  at 
least  possible. 

Space  does  not  allow  further  description  of 
places  like  AduUam,  Debir,  Gezer,  Megiddo, 
Antipatris,  Bezek,  Taanach.  and  other  cities 
recently  rediscovered  with  many  more  ;  for 
of  some  600  towns  in  Palestine  noticed  in  the 
Bible  at  least  400  are  well  known;  and  about 
150  of  them  were  not  to  be  found  on  any 
map  before  the  survey  of  Palestine  was 
carried  out  between  1872  and  1882  a.d. 


cxlvii 


BIBLE  ANTIQUITIES 


The  most  distinctive  characteristic  of  Bible 
study  during  the  past  century  has  not  been 
criticism  (which  began  in  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury), but  rather  discovery.  The  comparative 
method,  as  in  other  studies,  has  gradually  taken 
the  place  of  older  forms  of  comment  ;  and 
a  mass  of  independent  and  reliable  informa- 
tion has  come  to  light,  in  an  unexpected  man- 
ner, due  to  scientific  exploration  of  Eastern 
lands,  and  of  their  hidden  treasures.  For 
more  than  twelve  centuries  Western  Asia  was 
practically  closed  to  the  scholar  and  explorer 
by  Moslem  fanaticism  ;  but  when  at  length 
the  increase  of  civilisation,  and  of  facilities  for 
travel,  enabled  Europeans  to  study  the  real- 
ities of  Eastern  life  on  the  ground,  unhoped- 
for treasures,  forgotten  civilisations,  languages, 
and  scripts,  which  had,  for  thousands  of  years, 
been  preserved  under  the  sands  of  Egypt,  or 
the  foundations  of  Asiatic  palaces,  were  gradu- 
ally recovered,  and  made  available  by  the 
zeal  of  explorers  and  the  genius  of  scholars. 
Through  such  discovery  the  study  of  the  Bible 
has  been  placed  on  an  entirely  new  basis  ;  and, 
while  many  of  the  theories  of  the  eighteenth 
and  earlier  centuries  have  thus  been  rendered 
obsolete,  the  testimony  of  monuments  so  pre- 
served has  more  and  more  served  to  confirm 
the  history,  and  to  explain  the  ideas  and  cus- 
toms, of  the  Hebrews  and  of  their  neighbours, 
as  described  in  both  the  Old  and  the  New 
Testament,  by  the  light  of  original  and  en- 
tirely independent  evidence.  We  have  prob- 
ably not  as  yet  by  any  means  exhausted  the 
possibilities  of  such  study  ;  and  almost  every 
year  now  adds  some  welcome  detail  to  the 
total  of  our  knowledge,  through  research  in 
Palestine,  in  Egypt,  in  Mesopotamia,  or  in 
Asia  Minor,  and  through  the  better  under- 
standing of  the  languages  and  written  char- 
acters of  the  monuments,  in  which  such  records 
are  preserved  as  contemporary  accounts  of 
events  noticed  in  the  Bible. 

Before  about  1820  a.d.  only  Greek,  Roman, 
and  a  few  Phoenician  monuments,  of  late  date, 
were  available  to  the  scholar  ;  and  study  was 
chiefly  devoted  to  the  comparison  of  manu- 
scripts and  versions  of  the  Scriptures,  which 
only  carry  us  back  to  916  A.D.  for  the  Hebrew, 
and  to  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries  of  our 
era  for  the  Greek,  Syriac,  and  Samaritan 
manuscripts.  Egyptian  hieroglyphs,  and  cu- 
neiform tablets,  had,  it  is  true,  excited  the 
curiosity  of  observers  even  in  the  middle  ages, 
but  it  was   not  mitil  1822  that   an   impetus 


was  given  to  such  study  through  the  decipher- 
ment of  the  Egyptian  by  ChampoUion,  the 
famous  French  scholar.  Already  in  1812  the 
first  Hittite  monuments  had  been  described  by 
Burckhardt  at  Hamath  ;  yet  their  importance, 
and  the  wide  diffusion  of  this  civilisation,  re- 
mained unsuspected  till  about  twenty  years 
ago.  In  1835  Sir  Henry  Rawlinson  began  the 
study  of  cuneiform,  which  by  his  genius  was 
developed  into  a  new  special  science  ;  but  it 
was  not  till  1888  that  proof  of  the  civilisation 
of  Canaan,  in  the  time  of  Moses  and  Joshua, 
was  afforded  by  the  recovery  of  the  political 
correspondence  of  Asiatic  kings  and  chiefs 
with  the  Pharaohs,  found  at  the  village  of 
Amama,  between  Memphis  and  Thebes  in 
Egypt.  The  discoveries  of  E.  Chantre  (1893) 
and  of  Dr.  H.  Winckler  (1907),  in  Cappadocia, 
have  added  cuneiform  texts  which  give  us  the 
history  of  Hittites,  Egyptians,  and  Babylonians 
in  wonderful  detail  in  the  fifteenth  and  four- 
teenth centuries  B.C. 

The  modern  scholar  no  longer  relies  on 
second-hand  information  derived  from  Greek 
or  Roman  writers,  who  were  often  ignorant  of 
the  realities  of  foreign  civilisations  ;  or  on  the 
corrupted  text  of  Josephus,  the  Hebrew  his- 
torian, and  of  Manetho,  the  Egyptian  chron- 
icler of  Ptolemaic  times  ;  or  on  the  few 
fragments  of  Berosus  the  Babylonian.  He 
can  study  the  original  sources  on  monuments 
of  granite,  basalt,  and  limestone,  or  in  pottery 
tablets  and  in  papyri,  as  easily  as  the  later 
Phoenician  texts,  or  the  coins  of  Palestine, 
Persia,  Greece,  and  Rome.  Languages  the 
existence  of  which  had  been  entirely  forgotten 
— such  as  the  Akkadian  (in  Chaldea),  the 
Assyrian,  the  Egyptian,  the  Sabean  (in  Arabia), 
the  ancient  Persian, Vannic,  and  Lycian — have 
been  recovered  ;  and  have  been  explained  by 
aid  of  living  tongues,  such  as  Turkish,  Arabic, 
Coptic,  etc.  ;  while  others,  found  later,  still 
form  the  subject  of  discussion  among  scholars, 
such  as  the  Hittite  and  cognate  dialects,  which 
have  only  recently  come  to  light. 

Egyptian  research,  while  receiving  perhaps 
more  general  attention  than  any  other  branch, 
still  suffers  from  the  fragmentary  nature  of 
the  information  recovered,  and  from  the 
absence  of  systematic  chronicles.  We  know 
that  the  civilisation  of  the  Delta  was  very 
ancient,  but  the  age  in  which  it  first  arose  is 
still  uncertain  within  some  two  thousand  years. 
From  about  IfiOO  to  1200  B.C.  the  Egj'ptians 
were  masters  of  the  great  trade-route,  through 


cxlviii 


BIBLE   ANTIQUITIES 


Palestine  and  Syria,  to  Mesopotamia.  Monu- 
ments of  Rameses  II  occur  (about  1330  B.C.) 
at  Sidon,  Beirut,  and  even  in  Bashan,  where 
also  an  inscription  of  Seti  I  (about  1400  B.C.) 
has  quite  recently  been  found  ;  but  as  yet  we 
have  only  a  single  allusion  to  the  Hebrews  in 
Egyptian  texts,  namely,  to  the  attack  on 
'  Israel '  in  Palestine  by  Mineptah  after  1300 
B.C.  On  the  other  hand,  the  most  important 
contribution  to  early  Bible  history  as  yet 
recovered  is  found  in  the  Canaanite  letters, 
already  mentioned  as  preserved  in  Egyptian 
archives  ;  and  in  these  we  have  probably  the 
earliest  monumental  notice  of  the  Hebrews 
in  the  fifteenth  century  B.C.,  at  the  time  of 
Joshua's  conquest  of  Palestine. 

Babylonian  and  Assyrian  monuments  con- 
tain much  more  that  has  direct  bearing  on 
the  Bible  than  is  found  in  Egypt.  The 
chronicles  of  Babylon  preserve  an  exact 
chronology,  back  to  the  date  of  the  founding 
of  that  great  city  about  2250  B.C.  ;  and  the 
existence  of  Chaldean  kings  many  centuries 
earlier  has  been  ascertained,  although  the 
earlier  chronology,  befoi'e  the  date  above 
given,  still  remains  very  uncertain.  From 
the  ninth  century  B.C.  onwards  the  names  of 
kings  of  Israel  and  Judah  occur  in  the  records 
of  their  Assyrian  contemporaries  who  are 
noticed  in  the  Old  Testament  ;  and  texts  of 
Nebuchadnezzar,  others  referring  to  the 
Belshazzar  of  the  book  of  Daniel,  and  later, 
Persian  inscriptions  of  Darius  and  Artaxerxes 
serve  to  illustrate  and  to  confirm  biblical 
history.  The  famous  excavations  of  Layard 
at  Nineveh,  which  led  to  the  recovery  of  most 
of  this  information,  were  first  undertaken  in 
1845  ;  but  quite  recent  explorations  by  Ameri- 
cans at  Nippur  (Calneh)  in  Chaldea,  south  of 
Babylon  ;  by  Germans  at  Babylon  itself,  and 
in  North  Syria  ;  by  French  Govei'nment  Ex- 
peditions at  Tell  Loh  in  Chaldea,  at  Shushan 
(east  of  the  lower  course  of  the  river  Tigris), 
and  in  Cappadocia,  immediately  north  of  Syria, 
have  materially  added  to  our  general  know- 
ledge of  the  earliest  ages  of  civilisation  in 
Western  Asia. 

Phoenician  records  are  generally  too  late  to 
be  of  assistance  in  respect  to  Bible  history, 
though  interesting  as  showing  the  influence 
of  Hebrew  speech  on  this  famous  maritime 
nation,  which  held  the  shores  from  Tyre 
northwards  under  Lebanon.  In  the  fifteenth 
century  B.C.  the  Phoenicians  spoke  the  same 
language  used  in  Babylonia  and  Assyria,  and 
wrote  in  the  cuneiform  character,  then  com- 
monly employed  throughout  "Western  Asia  ; 
but  their  later  inscriptions,  about  the  fourth 
century  B.C.,  are  in  alphabetic  characters,  and 
in  a  dialect  closely  akin  to  Hebrew,  while  the 
texts  of  the  Samala  ruins  (in  the  extreme 
north  of  SjTia),  in  the  eighth  century  B.C., 


give   an    Aramaic   dialect,   whence   the  later 
Palmyrene  and  Syriac  are  derived. 

Palestine  has  so  far  only  yielded  three 
very  ancient  texts,  namely,  the  Moabite  Stone 
(ninth  century  B.C.),  the  Siloam  inscription 
(before  703  B.C.),  and  a  cuneiform  tablet  of 
the  fifteenth  century  B.C.,  found  at  Lachish, 
in  which  Zimrida — a  local  governor  whose 
letters  also  occur  in  the  Tell  el  Amarna  collec- 
tion— is  noticed.  The  Galilean  synagogues  of 
the  second  century  a.d.  present  square  Hebrew 
texts,  and  one  somewhat  earlier  occurs  on  the 
tomb  of  the  Beni  Hezir  at  Jerusalem  ;  but 
as  yet  very  few  ancient  inscriptions — even 
including  coins  and  seals — have  been  found  in 
the  Holy  Land. 

Hittite  monuments  present  a  very  archaic 
art,  with  human  figures  which  are  recognised 
to  be  Mongolic,  wearing  a  peculiar  costume, 
and  long  pigtails  like  the  Tartars.  These 
carvings  occur  at  Hamath  and  Aleppo  in  North 
Syria,  accompanied  by  a  distinct  hieroglyphic 
system  of  writing  ;  and  they  are  probably  as 
old  as  2000  B.C.  They  are  found  in  the  region 
where,  as  we  know  from  other  monuments, 
the  Hittites  lived  from  the  earliest  times  down 
to  the  reign  of  Nebuchadnezzar  (600  B.C.)  ;  but 
they  extend  also  all  over  Asia  Minor  ;  and 
two  examples  have  been  found  in  Babylon 
itself,  while  Hittite  seals  have  been  recovered 
in  Nineveh.  The  Hittites  themselves  were 
confined  to  North  Syria  and  Cappadocia,  but 
this  class  of  antiquities  belongs  to  a  race 
evidently  akin  to  the  ancient  Akkadians  of 
Babylonia,  of  which  the  Hittites  formed  only 
one  tribe  or  branch  among  many  others. 

Greek  antiquities  in  Western  Asia  are  valu- 
able for  comparative  purposes,  in  studying  the 
New  Testament.  The  most  important  example 
is  the  stone  found  in  Jerusalem,  which  pre- 
sents a  text  prohibiting  any  Gentile  from 
entering  the  inner  courts  of  Herod's  temple. 
It  was  standing  in  place  in  the  time  of  our 
Lord,  and  of  St.  Paul.  Other  texts  witness 
the  existence  of  a  Greek-speaking  population 
in  Decapolis  (east  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee, 
within  the  province  of  Bashan)  in  the  same 
age.  Others  again,  further  east,  belong  to 
the  pagan  temple  of  Sia,  built  by  a  subject  of 
Herod  the  Great.  It  is  well  known  that  the 
technical  expressions  used,  especially  in  the 
Acts  of  the  Apostles,  agree  in  a  very  remark- 
able manner  with  the  wording  of  Greek  texts, 
and  of  classic  writings,  which  refer  to  the 
government  of  Syria  and  Asia  Minor  by  the 
Romans  in  the  first  century  of  our  era.  The 
Greek  papyri  from  Egypt  have  also  added 
much  that  is  interesting  to  our  knowledge  of 
early  Christianity. 

Palestine  Exploration  has  been  an  important 
feature  in  the  general  development  of  the 
comparative   method   of    Bible    studv.      The 


cxlix 


BIBLE   ANTIQUITIES 


first  scientific  enquiry  into  geography  in  Pales- 
tine, undertaken  in  1838  by  the  famous  Ameri- 
can explorer  Dr.  Robinson,  substituted  for 
the  contradictory  (and  sometimes  ignorant) 
traditions  of  the  Latin  and  Greek  Churches  a 
real  study  of  Bible  topography  on  the  ground, 
with  the  identification  of  ancient  sites,  where 
the  old  names  still  remain  almost  unchanged 
in  modern  Syrian  speech.  In  1864  the  survey 
of  Jerusalem  was  carried  out  by  Sir  C.  W. 
Wilson,  K.C.B.,  and  in  1867-70  important 
excavations  on  the  Temple  hill,  and  in  the 
city,  were  made  by  Sir  Charles  Warren,  K.C.B. 
The  survey  of  Western  and  Eastern  Palestine 
by  the  present  writer  followed  (1872-1882); 
and  about  150  Bible  towns  were  then  dis- 
covered, which  had  not  appeared  on  older 
maps.  The  survey  of  Sinai,  begun  in  1867, 
with  later  researches,  has  done  much  to  clear 
up  disputed  questions  as  to  the  story  of  the 
exodus.  But  in  addition  to  geographical  re- 
search, the  study  of  archaeology  in  Palestine 
has  dispelled  many  false  conceptions,  and  has 
brought  to  light  many  indications  of  ancient 
civilisation,  both  Hebrew  and  Canaanite,  al- 
though at  present  the  task  of  excavation,  at 
sites  other  than  Jerusalem,  has  only  been  re- 
cently begun,  and  much  remains  still  to  be 
done.  At  Lachish,  and  at  the  probable  site  of 
Gath,  at  Gezer,  at  Taanach  in  Galilee,  and 
elsewhere,  English,  American,  and  German 
explorers  have  recently  laid  bare  the  founda- 
tions  of   ancient   cities,  in   south  and  north 


alike.  They  have  recovered  inscriptions,  He- 
brew weights  and  gems  and  coins,  remains  of 
early  Canaanite  idols,  and  other  valuable  indi- 
cations of  the  early  civilisation  of  the  country 
which  illustrate  Bible  statements.  The  de- 
struction of  Canaanite  idolatrous  emblems  by 
the  Hebrews  renders  it  impossible  to  find  such 
remains,  on  the  surface,  in  the  Holy  Land  ; 
and  it  is  only  by  excavation  that  they  can  be 
recovered. 

The  general  result  of  such  practical  work 
has  been  to  confirm  the  historical  statements 
of  the  Bible  as  a  whole,  whenever  these  can 
be  compared  with  contemporary  records.  The 
history  of  Babylonia  is  accurately  traced  to 
the  days  of  Abraham  ;  and  the  civilisation  of 
Canaan,  as  described  in  the  time  of  Moses 
and  Joshua,  is  proved  by  the  Egyptian  chro- 
nicles of  victory,  and  by  the  extant  remains, 
which  equally  attest  the  early  wealth  and  cul- 
ture of  the  Hebrew  kings.  We  find,  more- 
over, that  records  on  permanent  materials — 
stone  or  brick — existed  as  early  as  the  time 
when  Moses  wrote  the  tablets  of  the  Law ; 
that  gems  were  then  carved,  and  tents  with 
golden  pillars  used  ;  that  ancient  scribes  were 
able  to  preserve  their  records  correctly  through 
the  lapse  of  more  than  a  thousand  years,  and 
were  careful  and  faithful  in  copying  their 
yet  older  authorities ;  and  in  general,  that 
there  is  nothing  that  suggests  any  anachronism 
or  misrepresentation  in  the  picture  of  ancient 
civilisation  preserved  to  us  in  the  Pentateuch. 


cl 


HEBREW  CALENDAR,  COINS,  WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES 


Calendar 

The  growth  of  the  Hebrew  Calendar  cannot 
be  traced  here,  but  its  general  form  in  later 
times  may  be  given.  The  year,  determined 
by  the  recurrence  of  the  seasons,  was  divided 
into  twelve  months,  according  to  the  changes 
of  the  moon,  numbering  alternately  twenty- 
nine  and  thirty  days.  There  is  some  difference 
of  opinion  as  to  when  the  year  was  supposed 
to  begin  at  different  epochs  of  Hebrew  history. 
Before  the  exile,  it  may  have  begun  in  autumn  ; 
but  afterwards  there  seems  to  have  been  a 
double  arrangement,  by  which  the  civil  year 
was  reckoned  to  begin  in  autumn  and  the 
sacred  year  in  spring.  The  months  are  usually 
indicated  in  the  Old  Testament  by  numbers, 
as  the  '  first '  month  ;  but  the  following  names 
gradually  became  affixed  to  them.  Abib,  or 
Nisan,  corresponded  approximately  to  our 
April,  and  the  others  in  order  were  :  Zif, 
Sivan,  Thammuz,  Ab,  Elul,  Tishri  or  Ethanim, 
Bui,  Chisleu,  Tebeth,  Shebat,  and  Adar.  The 
month  was  divided  into  weeks  of  seven  days 
each,  the  last,  not  the  first  as  with  us,  being 
the  sabbath  day  of  rest.  The  day  was  reckoned 
from  sunset  to  sunset,  and  was  divided  into 
watches  or  hours,  according  as  night-time  or 
daytime  was  in  question. 

Money 

The  earliest  Jewish  coins  were  struck  in 
the  time  of  Simon  Maccabseus,  about  140  B.C., 
but  Persian,  Egyptian,  and  Phoenician  money 
was  in  use  before  that,  and  later  on  Greek 
and  Roman  coins  were  in  circulation.  Of 
course,  from  very  early  times,  various  precious 
metals  were  used  as  means  of  exchange,  either 
in  the  lump  or  in  the  form  of  rings,  the  value 
being  determined  by  the  weight  as  shown  by 
the  balance.  The  following  are  the  principal 
values  of  gold  and  silver  as  estimated  by  the 
weight  : — 

Early  Hebrew.     Jewish. 
£    s.    d.  s.  d. 

Light  Shekel,  silver  18  12 

Heavy  Shekel,  silver  3  4  2  4 

Light  Manah,  silver  4     3  4 

Light  Manah,  gold  66   13  4 

Light  Talent,  silver        250     0  0 
Light  Talent,  gold        4000     0  0 

Coins  were  not  in  use  before  700  B.C.,  and 
none  are  noticed  in  the  Bible  before  the  time 
of   Ezra.      In   Ezr269    and    Neh  7  7o,  71, 72   ^e 


cli 


find  darJcei)io)i,  and  in  1  Ch29  7  Ezr827  adarhon, 
probably  the  same  piece  of  money,  and  trans- 
lated '  dram '  in  the  Authorised  Version  and 
'  daric  '  in  the  Revised  Version.  It  is  a  foreign 
word,  probably  of  Persian  origin,  the  Persians 
having  a  'daric'  which  weighed  130  grains. 
In  the  New  Testament  the  following  words 
are  to  be  noticed,  belonging  to  the  Greek  or 
Roman  coinage  : — 

Mite  {Leptori),   Mkl242,  the  smallest  Jewish 

(bronze)  coin  =  J  farthing. 
Farthing  {Kodrantes),  MtS^*^,  \  Roman  As  =  ^ 

farthing. 
Farthing  (^.5sano«),  MtlO^^,  the  Roman  As  = 

a  halfpenny  or  cent. 
Penny  (^Denarius  or  Denarioii)^  MtlS^s,  etc.,  a 

Roman  coin  =  %\d. 
Piece  of  silver  (Z>?-ac/i/«e),  LklS^,  a  coin  of 

Antioch  =  the  denarius. 
Tribute  money  (Didrachmo/i),  Mtl724,  equiva- 
lent to  two  drachms  of  Antioch  =  l.s.  -id. 
Piece  of  silver  (Argurion),  Mt26i^,  equal  in 

value  to  three  denarii,  or  2s.  l^d. 
Piece  of  money  (Stater),  Mtl727,  same  value 

as  last. 

Weights 

Light  Shekel  =  160  grains. 

Heavy  Shekel  =  320  grains. 

Light    Manah  =  50     Light     Shekels  =  8,000 

grains  =  1  lb.  4  oz.  13  dwt.  8  grs. 
Heavy  Manah  =  100  Shekels  =  16,000  grains. 
Light  Talent  =  3,000  Light  Shekels  =  480,000 

grains. 
Heavy  Talent  =  3,000  Heavy  Shekels  =  960,000 

grains. 
Bekah  =  i  Shekel. 
Rebah  =  i  Shekel. 
Gerah  =  ^  Shekel. 
Talent,  or  Kikkar  =  60  Manahs. 

Measures  of  Length 

The  Egyptians  had  a  cubit  of  20*6  inches, 
and  used,  later,  one  of  about  21-6  inches. 
The  ancient  Akkadians  of  Chaldea  used  a 
unit  of  10"5  inches  ;  we  do  not  know  if  this 
was  used  by  Babylonians  and  Assyrians.  The 
length  of  the  Siloam  tunnel  (1,200  cubits) 
shows  that,  in  Hezekiah's  age,  the  Hebrew 
cubit  cannot  have  exceeded  1 7  inches.  Accord- 
ing to  Maimonides  the  building  cubit  was  16 
inches,  and  the  smaller  cubit  13  "3  inches, 
equal  to  half  of  an  Arabic  Drad,  or  'arm  ' 


HEBREW   CALENDAR,   COINS,    WEIGHTS   AND   MEASURES 


The  word  cubit  means  a '  forearm.'     The  cubit 
was  divided  as  follows  : — 


Barley 

corn 

•33  inches 

Finger 

,                  , 

•66 

Palm 

,                  , 

2-66 

Hand 

,                  , 

5-33 

Span 

•                  > 

.       8-00 

Foot 

, 

.     10-66 

Small 

3ubit 

.     13-33 

Building  cubit   . 

.     16-00 

Large 

cubit 

.     18-66 

Square  Measure 
The  Hebrew  square  measure  (Ex  27  9- 12) 
•was  based  on  a  square  of  50  cubits,  so  that  a 
Kor  of  land  (with  a  16-inch  cubit)  would  be 
3-03  acres,  or  very  close  to  the  Arabic  Fecldan^ 
or  '  yoke  '  of  land,  of  3^3  acres. 

Dry  Measure 

According  to  the  rabbis  the  Hebrew  Lug 
was  equal  to  the  contents  of  six  hen's  eggs, 


and  held  6,000  grains  weight  of  water.     This 
measure    agrees    closely    with    that    used    in 


Log 

24 

cubic 

inches 

0^69  pints. 

Cab 

96 

n 

11 

2-76     „ 

Omer 

172^8 

1) 

I) 

4-96     „ 

Hin 

288 

)) 

)) 

104  gallons. 

Seah 

576 

?? 

n 

2-08       „ 

E2jhah  1728 

7) 

)) 

6^20       „ 

Kor 

17280 

7) 

M 

62^00       „ 

Liquid  Measure 

This,  as  described  by  Josephus,  agrees  with 
Grreek  measures  : — 


Hebrew. 

Greek. 

cub.  in. 

L6g 

32-7 

0^81  pts. 

I  Xesta        0-94  pts. 

Cab 

130^8 

3^24     „ 

4  Xcstce       3-76     ,, 

Omer 

236  •O 

6-70     „ 

7  Xedx       6-58     ,, 

Hin 

393  0 

1  •40  gals. 

2  Choas        1  ^39  gals. 

Seah 

785^0 

2^90     „ 

li  Modii     2-80     ,, 

Bath 

2.353  •e 

8-40     „ 

1  Mctretes    8^40     „ 

Kor 

23536 •O 

84-00     ,, 

10  Metretes  84  ^0       ,, 

BIBLE  CHRONOLOGY 


For  the  period  before  the  Call  of  Abraham 
no  chronology  is  possible,  and  for  many  years 
after  that  event,  indeed  until  the  times  of  the 
kings,  the  dates  are  more  or  less  doubtful.  The 
duration  of  the  Oppression  and  of  the  rule  of 
the  various  Judges  as  given  in  the  book  of 
Judges  is  greatly  in  excess  of  the  interval 
probably  to  be  assigned  to  them  ;  but  it  is 
likely  that  many  of  the  events  described  were 
really  contemporaneous,  not  successive.  The 
dates  assigned  to  the  successive  Hebrew  kings 
are  based  upon  the  length  of  their  reigns  as 
given  in  the  books  of  Samuel  and  Kings, 
corrected  so  far  as  possible  by  the  evidence  of 


the  Assyrian,  inscriptions  which,  in  the  matter 
of  Clironology,  are  of  great  value. 

Dates.  Events. 

B.C.  ?2300     Abraham. 
?1700     Joseph. 

Descent  into  Egypt. 
?  1250     Moses. 

The  exodus. 
1200-1050     Period  of  the  Judges. 
1040     Saul. 
1017     David. 
977     Solomon. 
973     Foundation  of  Temple. 
987     Division  of  Monarchy. 


Dates. 
B.C.  937 


920 

917 

915 

914 

900  (890) 

899  (889) 

899  (889) 


876 


Israel. 

Judah. 

Jeroboam  I. 

Rehoboam. 
Invasion     of 
shak. 

. 

. 

Abijah. 
Asa. 

Nadab. 

L^  .-^  c%  e-\  1^  n 

rJaasna. 
Elah. 

Zimri. 

Omri. 

Foundation 

of  Sa- 

niaria. 

.         .         . 

. 

Jehoshaphat, 

After  Division  of  Monarchy 


Shi- 


Dates. 

Israel. 

Juds 

B.C.  875 

Ahab. 

854 

Ahab  at  battle  of 

Karkar. 

853 

Ahaziah. 

852 

Jehoram  (Joram). 

851 

. 

, 

Jehoram. 

843 

■                  •                  ■ 

. 

Aliaziah. 

842 

Jehu. 

. 

Athaliah. 

Pays     tribute 

to 

Assyria. 

8.36 

. 

• 

Joash. 

•    815 

Jehoahaz. 

798 

Joash. 

II 


BIBLE  CHRONOLOGY 


Dates. 


B.C. 


796 
789 
782 
739 
741 

740 
738 

736 
735 
734 


Israel. 


Jeroboam  II. 


Judah. 


Amaziah. 
Azariali  (Uzziali). 

Jotham. 


729 


Zechariah.      Slial- 

lum. 
Menahem. 
Pays     tribute     to 

Assyria. 
Pekahiah. 
Pekah. 

Alliance  with  Rezin 

of  Syria  against 

Judah. 
Invasion    of    Tig- 

lath-pileser,king 

of  Assyria. 
Hoshea. 


Ahaz. 


Dates. 

Israel. 

Judah. 

B.C.  722 

Fall  of  Samaria. 

720 

Hezekiah. 

701 

Invasion  of  Senna 
cherib. 

692 

Manasseh. 

641 

Amon. 

639 

Josiah. 

608 

Battle  of  Megiddo 
Jehoahaz. 

608 

Jehoiakim. 

607 

Fall  of  Nineveh. 

605 

Battle  of  Carchem 
ish. 

604 

Nebuchadrezzar, 
king  of  Babylon 

597 

Jehoiachin.  Zede 
kiah. 

586 

•                             O                             0                             • 

Fall  of  Jerusalem. 

Later   Events 


B.C.  586-538 

538 

536 

536-330 

515 

458 
445 
433 
330 
322 

312 

320-198 

197-167 

167 

165 

160 

143 
142-135 
134-104 

103 


Period  of  the  exile  in  Babylon. 

Capture  of  Babylon  by  Cyrus. 

Return  of  the  Jews  from  e.xile. 

Period  of  Persian  dominion. 

Building  of  Second  Temple  com- 
pleted. 

Ezra's  arrival  at  Jerusalem. 

Nehemiah's  first  visit. 

Nehemiah's  second  visit. 

Conquest  of  Persia  by  Alexander. 

Beginning  of  Greek  (Ptolemaic) 
dynasty  in  Egypt. 

Beginning  of  Greek  (Seleucid) 
dynasty  in  Syria. 

Period  of  Ptolemaic  dominion. 

Period  of  Syrian  dominion. 

Revolt  of  the  Maccabees. 

Temple  services  resumed. 

Judas  Maccabseus  (166-160)  falls  in 
battle. 

Jonathan  (160-143)  put  to  death. 

Simon  High-Priest  and  Prince. 

Hyrcanus  I. 

Aristobulus  I,  king. 


B.C. 


102-76 

75-67 

66-63 

63 

62-40 


40 
40-37 

37-4 
7-6? 

B.C.   4-A.D.  6 
A.D.   6-41 

26-36 

26-29 

29 

29-61 

41-44 

44-70 
64 


70 


Jannseus. 

Alexandra. 

Hyrcanus  II  and  Aristobulus  II. 

Jerusalem  taken  by  Pompey.  Be- 
ginning of  Roman  dominion. 

Hyrcanus  II  under  Roman  sove- 
reignty. 

Parthian  invasion. 

Autigonus. 

Herod  the  Great. 

Birth  of  Jesus  Christ. 

Archelaus  ethnarch  of  Judfea,  etc. 

Roman  Procurators  in  Judaia. 

Pontius  Pilate  Procurator  of  Judsea. 

Ministry  of  Jesus. 

Death  of  Jesus. 

The  story  of  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles. 

Agrii)pa  I  (grandson  of  Herod), 
king  of  Judpea. 

Second  Period  of  Roman  Procurators. 

Fire  at  Rome.  Persecution  by 
Nero. 

Destruction  of  Jerusalem. 


cliii 


THE    COMMENTARY 


GENESIS 


INTRODUCTION 


1.  Title  and  Contents.  Genesis  is  the  first 
of  the  five  books  which  compose  '  The  Pen- 
tateuch '  and  deal  with  the  history  and  religion 
of  the  Hebrews  before  their  final  settlement 
in  Canaan.  It  is  known  in  Hebrew  as  '  B're- 
shith  '  ('  In  the  beginning'),  from  the  word  with 
which  it  opens.  '  Genesis '  is  a  Greek  word 
meaning  '  origin '  or  '  beginning,'  and  is  the 
name  applied  to  it  in  the  LXX  version.  It 
has  passed  into  general  use  as  an  appropriate 
description  of  the  contents. 

The  book  is  divided  into  two  main  sections  : 
chs.  1-11,  giving  an  outline  of  the  Hebrew 
traditions  regarding  the  early  history  of  the 
world  and  man  ;  and  chs.  12-50,  containing  an 
account  of  the  lives  of  Abraham,  Isaac,  Jacob, 
and  Joseph,  in  their  bearing  upon  the  origin 
of  the  Hebrew  race.  More  particularly,  its 
contents  may  be  summarised  as  follows.  Part 
1.  The  Primeval  History  :  (a)  chs.  1-5,  the 
story  of  Adam  and  his  descendants  ;  (b)  chs. 
6-11,  the  story  of  Noah  and  his  sons.  Part  2. 
The  Patriarchal  History :  (a)  chs.  12-26,  the 
lives  of  Abraham  and  Isaac ;  (b)  chs.  27-.36, 
the  life  of  Jacob  ;  (c)  chs.  37-50,  the  life  of 
Joseph.  The  first  eleven  chapters  may  be  re- 
garded as  an  introduction,  designed  to  show 
the  relation  of  the  Hebrew  race  to  other  na- 
tions, and  connect  their  history  with  that  of 
the  world.  The  real  history  of  the  book 
commences  with  the  twelfth  chapter,  where 
the  call  of  Abraham  marks  the  beginning  of 
an  epoch.  As  a  whole,  the  book  presents  an 
account  of  the  origin  and  rise  of  the  Hebrew 
nation,  written  from  a  religious  point  of  view, 
to  show  how  God  chose  them  to  be  His  pe- 
culiar people,  and  made  with  them  those 
covenants  and  promises  which  were  fulfilled 
in  their  later  history. 

2.  Religious  value.  While  recognising  the 
progressiveness  of  revelation,  and  finding  the 
standard  of  Christian  morals  in  the  New  Tes- 
tament rather  than  in  the  Old,  we  must  still 
regard  the  book  of  Genesis  as  '  profitable  for 
teaching,  for  reproof,  for  correction,  for  in- 
struction which  is  in  righteousness.'  Certain 
great  fundamental  truths  of  the  religious  and 
moral  life  are  woven  into  the  texture  of  its 
narratives,  and  the  lessons  to  be  derived  from 
them  have  lost  little  or  nothing  of  their 
original  significance  and  force.  That  God  is 
one,   the   Source    of  all  that    is,    the  Supreme 


Lord  and  Ruler  of  the  world  ;  that  what  He 
creates  and  does  is  all  '  very  good '  ;  that  He 
does  not  brook  disobedience  to  His  will,  but 
punishes  the  sinner,  while  He  rewards  them 
that  diligently  seek  and  serve  Him :  these  are 
some  of  the  ideas  on  which  it  insists,  ideas 
which  lie  at  the  root  of  all  morality  and  re- 
ligion. It  has  even  a  gospel  to  proclaim,  for 
the  love  and  grace  of  God  are  brought  out 
conspicuously,  not  only  in  His  normal  rela- 
tions with  man,  but  amid  the  ruin  and  havoc 
wrought  by  sin.  He  holds  communion  with 
the  creature  whom  He  has  created  in  His  own 
image ;  He  loves  and  cares  for  him  in  his  state 
of  innocence  or  rectitude ;  He  has  mercy  on 
him  when  he  has  sinned  and  forfeited  the 
blessings  of  Paradise.  Throughout  the  book 
there  is  a  conception  of  God  as  one,  holy, 
spiritual,  and  an  insight  into  His  relationship 
with  man  and  the  world,  neither  of  which 
can  be  paralleled  in  ancient  literature.  Some 
of  its  earlier  portions  have  points  of  re- 
semblance to  the  primitive  traditions  of  other 
nations,  but  they  are  clearly  distinguished 
from  them  in  their  representations  of  moral 
and  religious  truths.  They  may  be  cast  in 
simple  language,  and  embody  ideas  of  their 
time ;  but,  unlike  the  ancient  mythologies, 
they  are  never  immoral  or  unreal,  and  they 
trace  everything  to  the  thought  and  action  of 
a  living,  personal  God. 

The  teaching  of  Genesis,  then,  is  still  ap- 
plicable in  Christian  times.  It  is  the  more 
valuable  that  it  is  enforced,  not  by  precept 
merely,  but  by  concrete  examples  in  personal 
and  family  life.  Its  characters  are  real  men, 
not  fictitious  heroes  or  demigods.  And  God 
is  actually  in  touch  with  them,  working  out 
His  purposes  in  the  events  of  their  lives.  He 
is  the  God  of  Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob;  in 
all  the  incidents  of  their  careers,  in  the  general 
march  of  human  history  in  which  they  bear 
their  part,  we  see  Him  moving  and  acting 
with  merciful,  redeeming  aim.  The  promise 
that  '  the  seed  of  the  woman  shall  bruise  the 
head  of  the  serpent,'  the  covenant  with  Noah 
after  the  Flood,  the  choice  and  call  of  Abra- 
ham, the  covenants  with  him  and  his  successors, 
the  election  of  the  Hebrew  nation  and  its 
progressive  consolidation  into  a  theocracy  or 
kingdom  of  God,  are  all  indications  of  His 
underlying  purpose  to  redeem  the  whole  world 


INTRO. 


GENESIS 


INTRO. 


from  the  effects  of  '  man's  first  disobedience.' 
Genesis  thus  graphically  and  realistically  de- 
picts the  beginning  and  partial  development 
of  that  long  and  patient  process  which  cul- 
minated in  the  work  of  Christ. 

3.  Authorship.  Until  recently,  Genesis, 
like  the  rest  of  the  Pentateuch,  was  regarded 
as  the  work  of  Moses.  This  view  was  ac- 
cepted on  the  authority  of  Jewish  tradition, 
which  generally  seeks  to  attribute  the  sacred 
books  of  the  nation  to  the  most  famous 
names  in  its  history.  The  tradition,  how- 
ever, did  not  arise  until  a  comparatively  late 
period  ;  and,  in  the  absence  of  corroboration, 
its  evidence  can  hardly  be  regarded  as  con- 
clusive. The  book  itself  is  anonymous,  and 
contains  nothing  to  suggest  a  Mosaic  author- 
ship. On  the  contrary,  it  bears  traces  of 
having  been  put  together  in  its  present  form, 
many  years  after  the  death  of  the  great 
Hebrew  patriot,  when  the  Canaanite  was  no 
longer  in  the  land  (Gn  12  6),  and  the  Jewish 
monarchy  indeed  had  been  established  (Gn 
36^1).  Dual  accounts  are  sometimes  given  of 
the  same  event,  and  different  passages  exhibit 
such  diversity  of  literary  and  other  character- 
istics as  point  to  an  origin  in  independent 
sources.  Accordingly  the  view  is  now  largely 
entertained  that  Genesis  is  the  work  of  an 
unknown  editor  who  had  access  to  documents 
containing  the  traditions  and  early  records  of 
the  Hebrew  race,  and  welded  them  together 
into  a  whole.  For  a  fuller  discussion  of  the 
subject,  reference  should  be  made  to  art.  '  The 
Origin  of  the  Pentateuch.'  Of  the  three 
documents  there  mentioned  as  underlying  the 
Pentateuch,  only  two  are  to  be  met  with  in 
Genesis,  viz.  the  so-called  Primitive  and 
Priestly  documents.  The  latter  supplies  the 
framework  of  the  book,  and  the  various  parts 
of  the  former  are  dovetailed  into  it,  as  it 
were,  by  way  of  heightening  the  effect,  and 
giving  more  detailed  information. 

As  is  pointed  out  in  the  general  article,  the 
difference  of  style  in  the  two  documents  is 
clearly  marked.  The  Primitive  document  is 
lively  and  picturesque,  and  abounds  in  descrip- 
tive touches,  which  lighten  up  the  narrative, 
and  impart  a  living  interest  to  the  people  and 
places  described.  The  Priestly  document,  on 
the  other  hand,  is  written  in  a  more  formal 
manner  :  it  is  much  taken  up  with  chronologies 
and  genealogies,  and  loves  to  dwell  upon 
covenants  and  religious  ordinances.  In  illus- 
tration of  these  characteristics,  the  Priestly 
account  of  the  end  of  the  Plood  in  Gn  8^-^ 


may  be  compared  with  the  picturesque  descrip- 
tion of  the  same  event  taken  from  the  Primi- 
tive document  in  8  ^^^  j  also  the  appearance 
of  God  to  Abraham  in  c.  17  with  the  ac- 
counts of  similar  appearances  in  16 ''-^^ 
and  181-8.16.  "^he  two  threads  of  narrative, 
Primitive  and  Priestly,  are  supposed  to  have 
been  based  upon  older  written  accounts  com- 
piled from  oral  traditions,  and  to  have  been 
put  together,  to  form  the  present  book  of 
Genesis,  in  the  days  of  Ezra. 

4.  Analysis.  The  framework  of  the  book 
is  marked  by  the  repetition  of  the  formula, 
'These  are  the  generations  of,'  a  phrase  which 
occurs  ten  times,  and  always  at  the  beginning 
of  a  new  section,  except  in  2*,  where  it  is  put 
at  the  end  of  the  first  account  of  the  Creation, 
to  which  it  properly  belongs.  The  instances 
of  its  occurrence,  with  the  references,  are 
these  :  2  *  (of  the  Creation)  ;  5 1  (of  Adam)  ; 
6  9  (of  Noah)  ;  10 1  (of  Shem,  Ham,  and  Ja- 
pheth)  ;  1110  (of  Shem)  ;  1127  (of  Terah)  ;  25 12 
(of  Ishmael)  ;  25 19  (of  Isaac)  ;  361-  9  (of  Esau); 
37^  (of  Jacob).  The  passages  derived  from 
the  Priestly  document  which  constitutes  the 
framework  are  roughly  as  follow :  in  Part  1 
(chs.  1-11)  :  11-2  4a  51^  6  9-22  7  6-8  5  813-19  9  1-17 
8  28-10  T  10  20-23,31-32  1110-32.  jn  Part  2  (chs. 
12-50)  :  (a)  the  history  of  Abraham  and  Isaac, 
1615-17  27  211-6  231-20  257-20  26  34-35.  (b)  the 
history  of  Jacob,  27  *6-28  9  34  (parts)  35  9-i5. 23-29 
36  ;  (c)  the  history  of  Joseph  37  1-2^  46  ^^  47  ^-n 
48  3-7  49  2g^  5012-13.  The  Primitive  document 
is  traced   in  these  passages  :    in  Part  1,   2**^-4 

QIS     71-5      §6-12,20-22     918-27      10  8-19,24-30      111-9-      Jq 

Part  2,  (a)  12i-16i^  18i-20i8  217-2224  24 1^25  « 
25  21-26  33;  (b)  27i-«  2810-.3320  34  (parts) 
351-8,16-22.  (c)  37  2b-46  6  46  28-47*  4712-48  = 
48  8-49  27  50 1-11'  1^26, 

The  discovery  of  the  composite  character 
of  Genesis,  it  may  be  added,  need  not  be 
regarded  as  affecting  the  question  of  the 
inspiration  of  the  book.  That  question  re- 
mains practically  the  same,  whether  Genesis  be 
the  work  of  one  or  of  several  hands.  The 
dates  assigned  to  the  parts  of  which  it  is  sup- 
posed to  be  composed,  as  well  as  to  the  re- 
casting of  them  in  their  present  form,  are  all 
embraced  within  the  age  of  the  prophetic 
activity  in  Israel ;  and  the  whole  bears  all  the 
marks  of  true  and  genuine  inspiration.  In 
this  respect  Genesis  will  stand  comparison  with 
any  of  the'  historical  books  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment. God,  it  must  be  remembered,  '  at  sundry 
times  and  in  divers  manners  spake  in  time  past 
unto  the  fathers  by  the  prophets  '  (Heb  1 1). 


1.1 


GENESIS 


1.  1 


CHAPTERS   l-2*» 

The  Creation 

'  The  foundation  of  foundations  and  pillar 
of  all  wisdom  is  to  know  that  the  First  Being 
is,  and  that  He  giveth  existence  to  everything 
that  exists! '  Thus  wrote  Moses  Maimonides, 
a  Jewish  scholar  of  the  12th  cent,  a.d.,  con- 
cerning whom  the  Jewish  proverb  rmis : 
'  From  Moses  to  Moses  there  arose  none  like 
Moses.'  He  had  in  his  mind  the  opening  chap- 
ter of  the  Bible,  the  object  of  which  is  to  lay 
this  foundation ;  to  declare  the  existence  of 
the  One  God  ;  to  teach  that  the  Universe  was 
created  by  Him  alone,  not  by  a  multitude 
of  deities ;  that  it  is  the  product  of  a  living, 
personal  Will,  not  a  necessary  development  of 
the  forces  inherent  in  Matter  ;  that  it  is  not 
the  sport  of  Chance,  but  the  harmonious  result 
of  Wisdom.  The  writer,  and  the  Blessed 
Spirit  who  guided  him,  had  but  one  object  in 
view,  to  insist  on  the  two  truths  which  under- 
lie all  others,  the  Unity  of  God  and  the  deri- 
vation of  all  things  from  Him. 

If  we  remember  that,  we   shall  be  relieved 
of    a    difficulty    which     has    greatly    troubled 
devout    and  tlioughtful  men.      Many  are    the 
essays  and  books  which  have  been  written  on 
the  discrepancies  between  the  scientific  account 
of  the  mode    in  which    our    globe    came    into 
being,  and  the  account  given  in  this  first  chapter 
of  the  Bible.       Astronomy  has  shown  it  to  be 
highly  probable  that,  millions  of  years  ago,  an 
inconceivably    immense    mass    of    glowing   gas 
gradually  cooled  down  and  took  the  form  of  a 
rotating    sphere.      This  threw   off  the  planets, 
our  earth  amongst   the  number.      The  central 
part  is  now  the  sun.      The  earth  by  slow  stages 
grew  fit  to  be  the  abode  of  life.      Assuming 
that  the  astronomers  are  right,  or,  indeed,   on 
any  reasonable  supposition,  the  sun  and  moon 
were  not  created  later  than  the  earth,  on  the 
Fourtinbay    (1  i^-  i'').       Again,    Geology    has 
proved  that   animal   life  cannot  be  dated  later 
than  vegetable  (l^*  ^"  compared  with  1^^),  and 
the   remains    of    animals    found    in     the   rocks 
testify  by  their    structure   to   their  feeding   on 
other    animals,  not  on   fruit   and   herbs    (l^*^). 
But  such  discrepancies  do  not  detract  from  the 
real  value  of  our  narrative,  which  is    intended 
to   teach  Religion,    not   Science.      For  the  ex- 
ercise and  training  of  human  faculties  God,  in 
His  Wisdom  and    Goodness,  has    left    men  to 
find   out    physical    truths    by   the   use    of    the 
powers    He   has    given    them.        The    biblical 
writer  availed  himself  of  the  best  ideas  on  the 
subject  then  attainable,  put  them  into  a  worthy 
form,    freed    them     from     all    disfigurements, 
stamped   them   with   the    impress   of   Religion. 
And  the  miracle  of  it  is  that  the  result  con- 
tinues valid  and  precious  for  all  time,  a  noble 
presentation  of  the  Unity   and    Spirituality  of 


God,  of  the  Omnipotence  of  His  Will  and  of 
the  Wisdom  of  His  operations.  (For  a  fuller 
consideration  of  this  subject  see  art.  '  Creation 
Story  and  Science.' 

The  question  will  be  asked,  whence  did  the 
OT.  writer  derive  his  ideas  about  the  creation 
of  the  world  which  we  find  in  this  passage  ?  It 
used  to  be  generally  supposed  that  they  were 
given  to  him  by  direct  revelation  of  God. 
Some  competent  authorities  maintain  that,  if 
not  appearing  for  the  first  time  in  his  work, 
they  were  at  least  original  to  the  nation  to 
which  he  belonged.  Something  may  be  said 
for  this  view,  but  the  majority  of  scholars, 
upon  historical  and  literary  grounds,  incline 
to  the  opinion  that  they  were  more  or  less 
derived.  All  the  great  nations  of  antiquity,  it 
is  argued,  endeavoured  to  account  for  the 
origin  of  the  world,  and  there  are  striking 
similarities  in  the  pictures  they  drew.  There 
is  little  doubt  that  the  Hebrews  were  deeply 
affected  by  Babylonian  influences,  political 
and  literary,  and  the  Creation  Story  written 
on  the  clay-tablets  of  Babylonia  has  so  many 
features  in  common  with  that  before  us  as  to 
warrant  the  conclusion  that  there  is  a  historical 
connexion  between  them. 

In  an  article  '  Genesis  and  the  Babylonian 
Inscriptions,'  extracts  are  given  from  the  Ba- 
bylonian stories  of  the  Creation  and  the  Flood, 
and  the  relationship  of  the  two  accounts  is 
discussed.  It  is  sufiicient  to  say  here  that  no- 
where is  the  force  of  inspiration  more  manifest 
than  in  the  way  the  whole  subject  is  treated  in 
the  Bible.  The  Babylonian  poem  describes  the 
Creation  as  an  episode  in  the  history  of  the  gods; 
the  Bible  places  it  in  its  right  position  as  the 
first  scene  in  the  drama  of  human  history :  the 
former  represents  the  deities  themselves  as 
evolved  from  Chaos  ;  the  latter  assumes  God 
to  be  before  all  things,  and  independent  of 
them :  the  former  loses  itself  in  a  confused, 
conflicting  medley  of  deities  ;  to  the  latter 
there  is  but  One  God:  the  wild  grotesqueness 
of  the  one  story  is  in  startling  contrast  with 
the  gravity,  dignity,  and  solemnity  of  the 
account  with  which  we  have  been  familiar 
from  childhood,  which  has  also  its  message  for 
our  maturer  years. 

The  present  passage  is  full  of  the  character- 
istics which  mark  the  Priestly  source.  See  on 
2*"^  and  art.  '  Origin  of  the  Pentateuch.' 

1-3.  Render,  '  In  the  beginning,  when  God 
created  the  heavens  and  the  earth  —  now  the 
earth  was  waste  and  void,  and  darkness  was 
over  the  deep,  and  the  spirit  of  God  was 
brooding  over  the  waters  — then  God  said:  Let 
there  be  light.'  On  this  rendering  '  Creation  ' 
is  not  '  out  of  nothing,'  but  out  of  pre-existing 
chaos.  Vv.  1  and  3  tell  how,  when  God  deter- 
mined on  the  creation  of  the  ordered  universe. 


8 


1.2 


GENESIS 


1.  11 


the  first  work  was  the  formation  of  light  as 
essential  to  life  and  progress.  The  first  half 
of  2*  was  probably  prefixed  originally  to  v.  1. 
See  on  2  i-s. 

2.  God]  Heb.  Eloliim.  The  word  probably 
signifies  '  strength,'  but  the  etymology  is  obscure  ; 
cp.  Arabic  Allah.  The  Heb.  word  is  plural  in 
form,  but  as  a  rule  it  is  significantly  followed 
by  verbs  in  the  singular,  except  when  used  of 
heathen  gods.  The  plural  form  may  be  used 
to  express  the  variety  of  attributes  and  powers 
which  are  combined  in  the  divine  nature,  or  it 
may  indicate  that  with  the  Hebrews  one  God 
had  taken  the  place  of  the  many  gods  who 
were  worshipped  by  their  heathen  kindred. 
Created]  Heb.  Bara ;  a  word  used  only  of  the 
creative  action  of  God.  The  heaven  and 
the  earth]  the  ordered  universe  as  contrasted 
with  the  dark  watery  waste  of  v.  2.  The 
creation  of  the  heaven  and  the  earth  did  not 
precede  the  work  of  the  six  days,  but  com- 
prised it,  cp.  2 1.  There  was  no  '  heaven ' 
until  the  second  day.  With  the  whole  v.  cp. 
Col  1^6,  17,  Heb  3*  113.  Without  form  (RV 
'  waste')  and  void]  The  word  rendered  void  is 
hohu.  It  reminds  us  of  the  Phoenician  myth 
that  the  first  men  were  the  offspring  of  '  the 
wind  Kolpia  and  his  wife  Baau  which  is 
interpreted  Night,'  and  of  the  yet  earlier 
Babylonian  Bau,  '  the  great  mother,'  who  was 
worsliipped  as  the  bestower  of  lands  and  flocks 
on  mankind,  and  the  giver  of  fertility  to  the 
soil.  The  deep]  Heb.  tehom :  the  mysteri- 
ous primeval  watery  mass  which,  it  was  con- 
ceived, enveloped  the  earth.  The  Babylonians 
personified  it  as  Tiamat,  the  dragon  goddess  of 
darkness  whom  Merodach  must  conquer  before 
he  can  proceed  to  the  higher  stages  of  creation. 
The  Spirit  (RV  '  spirit '  :  lit.  '  breath '  or  '  wind ') 
of  God]  In  the  Bab.  myth  the  gods  are  first 
evolved  from  the  primeval  deep :  here  the 
Divine  agency  is  described  as  working  on 
formless  matter  from  the  beginning.  Moved] 
rather,  '  was  brooding '  with  life-giving  power 
as  a  bird  on  her  nest. 

3-5.    First  day  :  —  Creation  of  Light. 

3.  And  God  said.  Let  there  be  light]  A 
sublime  sentence  1  '  By  the  word  of  the  Lord 
were  the  heavens  made.'  Light  and  darkness 
are  regarded  as  two  objects,  each  occupying  a 
place  of  its  own  (Job  38 1^).  Light  is  created 
on  the  first  day,  the  luminaries  on  the  fourth. 
Not  as  an  explanation,  for  this  it  is  not,  but 
merely  as  an  illustration,  it  may  be  remembered 
that,  according  to  the  generally  approved 
modern  theory,  the  matter  composing  our 
solar  system  existed  at  first  in  the  shape  of  an 
inconceivably  vast  mass  of  fiery  vapour,  which 
gradually  cooled  down  and  took  the  form  of  a 
rotating  sphere.  This  threw  off  the  planets, 
our  earth  amongst  the  number.  The  central 
part  is  now  the  sun.     So  that  light  in  itself 


may  be  regarded  as  prior  to  the  specific  lights 
that  stood  related  as  luminaries  to  the  earth. 
The  earth  by  slow  stages  grew  fit  to  be  the 
abode  of  life. 

4.  Good]  i.e.  perfect  for  the  purpose  for  which 
God  designed  it. 

5.  And  the  evening,  etc.]  RV  '  and  there  was 
evening  and  there  was  morning,  one  day.'  In 
the  endeavour  to  bring  the  Creation  story  into 
harmony  with  the  ascertained  results  of  science, 
it  is  often  maintained  that  the  writer  meant 
indefinite  periods  of  time  by  the  term  '  days.' 
But  the  science  of  Geology  was  entirely  un- 
known to  the  ancients,  and  it  is  not  legitimate 
to  read  a  knowledge  of  modern  discoveries 
into  these  ancient  records.  The  author  meant 
days  in  the  sense  of  v.  16.  Evidently,  he  had 
in  mind  the  Jewish  week,  which  he  regarded 
not  only  as  prefigured,  but  rendered  obligatory, 
by  God's  example  in  creating  the  world,  as 
God  worked  six  days,  and  rested  the  seventh  : 
so  the  week  was  to  consist  of  six  working  days, 
and  a  vSabbath  day  of  rest.  At  the  same  time 
the  writer  intended  to  show  that  there  was  an 
orderly  process  in  the  work  of  creation.  Note 
that  evening  is  put  before  morning,  probably 
because  the  Jewish  day  began  at  sunset. 

6-8.  Second  day :  —  Creation  of  the  Firma- 
ment. 

6.  The  firmament]  the  sky,  heavens.  The 
word  means  something  'solid'  or  'beaten  out,' 
like  a  sheet  of  metal.  The  ancients  supposed 
that  the  sky  was  a  solid,  vaulted  dome  stretched 
over  the  earth,  its  ends  resting  on  the  moun- 
tains, and  the  heavenly  bodies  fastened  to  its 
inner  surface.  It  served  as  the  throne  of  God, 
cp.  Ex  2410  Ezk  126_  Its  purpose  here  was  to 
divide  in  two  the  primeval  mass  of  waters. 
Above,  it  supported  the  upper  waters  which 
fell  upon  the  earth  through  '  the  windows  of 
heaven '  (7 1^)  in  the  form  of  rain  ;  below  were 
the  waters  on  which  the  earth  rested,  and  from 
which  it  emerged.  These  waters  were  sup- 
posed to  form  a  subterranean  abyss  which 
supplied  the  springs  and  seas  ;  for  the  idea  cp. 
Gn  711  4925  Dt  3313  Job  3816  Ps  242  Prov  828, 
also  Ex  2410  Ezk  126.  This  thought  of  the 
division  of  the  primeval  ocean  into  an  upper 
and  lower  portion  is  represented  in  the  Baby- 
lonian story  by  the  cleaving  of  the  body  of 
Tiamat. 

9-13.  Third  day:  —  Separation  of  land  and 
water.     Creation  of  vegetation. 

9.  Let  the  dry  land  appear]  by  emerging  from 
the  lower  waters  which  were  now  gathered 
into  seas.  See  Ps  1046-8.  n,  12.  Grass  .  . 
herb  yielding  seed  .  .  tree  yielding  fruit]  a 
simple  and  popular  classification  of  the  vege- 
table world.  Whose  seed  is  in  itself]  RV 
'  wherein '  (i.e.  in  the  fruit)  '  is  the  seed 
thereof.'  After  his  kind]  i.e.  according  to 
their  several  species. 


1.  14 


GENESIS 


2.3 


14-19.  Fourth  day:  —  Creation  of  sun, 
moon,  and  stars. 

The  special  value  of  this  part  of  the  story- 
lies  in  its  opposition  to  the  worship  of  the 
heavenly  bodies  as  deities,  which  was  such  a 
prominent  feature  of  heathenism  in  Babylonia 
and  elsewhere.  Here  they  are  declared  to  be 
created  for  the  service  of  man,  fulfilling  a 
definite  purpose.  That  purpose  was  threefold  : 
(a)  '  to  divide  the  day  from  the  night '  ;  (b)  to 
be  'for  signs,  and  for  seasons,  and  for  days, 
and  years,'  i.e.  to  give  the  means  of  reckoning 
time  ;  (c)  '  to  give  light  upon  the  earth.' 

14.  Lights]  rather,  '  luminaries,'  to  hold  and 
distribute  the  light  created  on  the  first  day. 
In]  rather,  '  on  '  or  '  before  '  the  firmament ; 
so  vv.  17-20.  See  on  v.  6.  Signs  .  .  seasons 
.  .  days  .  .  years]  For  some  of  the  modes  in 
which  the  heavenly  bodies  were  believed  to 
serve  as  signs  see  2  K  20^-11  IsaT^i  Jer  10  ^ 
Joel  2  30  Mt  2  2  2429.  The  seasons  of  the  year 
are  of  course  determined  by  them.  The  sun 
and  moon  rule  the  day  and  night ;  the  length, 
temperature,  etc.,  of  day  and  night  depending 
on  their  positions. 

20-23.  Fifth  day  :  —  Creation  of  fishes  and 
birds. 

20.  Let  the  waters]  render,  '  let  the  waters 
swarm  with  swarms  of  living  creatures,'  animal- 
culfe,  insects,  fish,  etc.  Fowl  that  may  fly] 
RV  'let  fowl  fly.'  21.  Great  whales]  Heb. 
denotes  rather  creatures  like  serpents,  croco- 
diles, etc.  22.  Blessed  them]  As  animate 
creatures  they  received  a  divine  blessing, 
which  suggests  God's  jDleasure  in  the  creation 
of  beings  capable  of  conscious  enjoyment. 

24-31.  Sixth  day:  —  Creation  of  animals  and 
man. 

26.  Let  us  make  man]  the  crowning  work 
of  creation  and  its  highest  development.  The 
plural  form  'us,'  which  occurs  again  3 22  117 
and  Isa  6  8,  has  been  interjareted  of  the  Holy 
Trinity,  but  this  would  be  anticipating  a 
doctrine  which  was  only  revealed  in  later  ages. 
The  thought  is  perhaps  that  of  God  speaking 
in  a  council  of  angelic  beings,  or  the  form  of 
the  word  may  indicate  a  j)lural  of  majesty : 
see  on  '  God  '  v.  1.  The  point  of  the  expres- 
sion, however,  is  that  it  marks  a  closer  relation 
of  God  to  man  than  to  the  rest  of  His  creation. 
It  is  not  '  Let  man  be  made  '  but  '  Let  us  make 
man.'  Man]  Heb.  adam,  the  name  of  the  race 
which  becomes  the  name  of  the  first  man. 

In  our  image,  after  our  likeness]  The 
likeness  to  God  lies  in  the  mental  and  moral 
features  of  man's  character,  such  as  reason, 
personality,  free  will,  the  capacity  for  com- 
munion with  God.  These  distinguish  man 
from  the  animals  with  which  on  the  physical 
side  he  has  much  in  common,  and  inevitably 
ensure  his  dominion  over  them  (cp.  Ps8^'6)_ 
When  the  perfect  Image  of  the  Father  (Heb  1^) 


had  fully  manifested  His  character,  it  became 
possible  to  declare,  in  yet  more  adequate  lan- 
guage, what  true  likeness  to  God  is  (Eph  4^* 
Col  3 10). 

27.  Male  and  female]  There  is  nothing  in 
this  account  of  the  Creation  to  suggest  that  the 
sexes  were  not  simultaneously  created  :  contrast 
2-1-23,  which  is  from  the  earlier  document. 
29,  30.  The  writer  of  the  Priestly  narrative 
here  represents  men  and  animals  as  living  only 
on  vegetable  food.  We  seem  to  trace  the 
thought  of  a  primitive  golden  age,  when  the 
animals  did  not  prey  on  each  other,  but  lived 
at  peace  together  :  cp.  Isa  11 ''-^  6525  Hos  2^^. 
It  is  he  also  who  records  the  permission  to  use 
animal  food  after  the  Flood  (92.3).  But  the 
parrallel  narrative  from  the  Primitive  document 
refers  to  the  keeping  of  flocks  (4  2.  *,  20-)  ^  ^nd 
takes  no  notice  of  any  prohibition  of  animal 
food.  31.  Very  good]  Certain  systems  of 
philosophy  and  morality,  ancient  and  modei'n, 
have  proceeded  on  the  assumption  that  evil  is 
inherent  in  matter,  and  therefore  that  God 
and  the  world  are  antagonistic.  This  idea  is 
quite  foreign  to  the  Scriptures,  which  teach 
that  'every  creature  of  God  is  good.'  Genesis 
teaches  that  evil  enters  the  world  from  without : 
see  on  3 1. 

2 1-3.  Seventh  day  :  —  God  ceases  from  His 
work  and  sanctifies  the  day  on  which   He  rests. 

Vv.  1-3  clearly  belong  to  the  first  narrative 
of  the  Creation,  of  which  they  form  the 
natural  conclusion.  The  first  part  of  v.  4, 
'  These  are  the  generations  of  the  heavens  and 
of  the  earth  when  they  were  created,'  has 
probably  been  transposed  from  its  original 
place  before  P,  as  in  all  other  cases  the  phrase 
stands  at  the  beginning  of  the  section  to  which 
it  refers,  cp.  5 1  6  ^  10 1.  The  second  account  of 
Creation  begins  in  the  latter  half  of  v.  4,  and 
should  have  formed  the  commencement  of  c.  2. 

I.  All  the  host  of  them]  i.e.  '  all  the  contents 
of  heaven  and  earth.'  2.  He  rested  on  the 
seventh  day]  God  ceased  (as  the  word  means) 
from  His  creative  work. 

3.  God  blessed  the  seventh  day  and  sanctified 
(RV  'hallowed')  it]  This  is  adduced  in 
Exodus  as  the  ground  for  the  observance  of 
the  sabbath  (see  Ex  20  ^-H  notes,  Sfi^  Heb  4*). 
It  was  separated  from  ordinary  days,  and  set 
apart  as  a  day  for  rest,  and  at  a  later  time  for 
holy  observance.  Further  instructions  as  to 
its  use  will  be  found  in  Ex  31^3  352.  The 
Babylonians  observed  the  7th,  14th,  19th,  21st 
and  28th  days  of  the  lunar  month,  as  days 
when  men  were  subjected  to  certain  re- 
strictions :  the  King  was  not  to  eat  food 
prepared  by  fire,  nor  offer  sacrifice,  nor  consult 
an  oracle,  nor  invoke  curses  on  his  enemies. 
But  the  weekly  sabbath  came  to  have  a 
peculiar    religious      significance      among     the 


2.4 


GENESIS 


2.4 


Hebrews,  which  is  not  evident  among  other 
nations ;  and  by  its  regular  recurrence  every 
seventh  day  it  was  dissociated  from  its 
connexion  witli  the  moon,  and  with  lunar 
superstitions. 

4.  These  are  the  generations  of  the  heavens 
and  of  the  earth  when  they  were  created]  i.e. 
this  is  the  history  of  their  creation.  See  on 
vv.  1-3.  The  phrase  '  These  are  the  gener- 
ations '  occurs  ten  times  in  Genesis,  viz.  2  *  5 1 
69  101  1110  1127  2512  2519  301  372. 

CHAPTERS  24b_324 
Paradise  and  the  Fall 

In  this  famous  passage  we  possess  a  wealth 
of  moral  and  spiritual  teaching  regarding  God 
and  man.  The  intention  of  the  writer  is 
evidently  to  give  an  answer  to  the  question : 
How  did  sin  and  misery  find  their  way  into 
the  world  ?  As  is  natural  among  Orientals 
he  put  his  reply  into  narrative  form ;  and 
though  it  is  generally  accepted  that  the  details 
are  to  be  interpreted  symbolically  rather  than 
literally,  yet  they  are  in  marvellous  agreement 
with  the  real  facts  of  human  nature  and  ex- 
perience. Adam  is  the  representative  of  the 
human  race.  The  story  of  his  temptation,  fall, 
and  consequent  forfeiture  of  Paradise  shadows 
forth  some  of  the  greatest  mysteries  of  the 
human  lot  —  the  strangely  mingled  gloiy  and 
shame  of  man,  his  freedom  of  action,  the  war 
between  the  law  in  his  members  and  the  law 
of  his  mind.  It  thus  comes  to  have  a  universal 
significance  and  shows  each  man,  as  in  a  mirror, 
his  own  experience.  When  he  reads  this  nar- 
rative, his  conscience  says  to  him,  like  a  prophet 
of  God  :  '  Thou  art  the  man ;  the  story  is  told 
of  thee ! ' 

In  c.  2  the  nature  of  man  is  unfolded.  It 
has  two  sides,  a  higher  and  a  lower  ;  on  the  one 
hand,  he  is  connected  with  the  material  world, 
as  made  of  dust  of  the  earth  :  on  the  other 
hand,  he  is  related  to  God,  who  breathes  into 
his  nostrils  the  breath  of  life.  He  stands  above 
the  animal  creation  by  his  endowments  of 
reason,  discrimination,  and  language  ;  he  gives 
names  to  the  beasts.  The  ideal  relationship 
of  the  sexes  appears  in  the  creation  of  woman 
from  the  side  of  man,  and  his  delight  in  finding 
in  her  an  adequate  companion  and  helper. 
Special  emphasis  is  laid  upon  the  moral  and 
spiritual  aspects  of  human  nature.  Man  is 
created  with  the  faculty  of  holding  free  and 
trustful  communion  with  God,  and  with  the 
power  of  exercising  freedom  of  choice.  It  is 
chiefly  in  virtue  of  these  high  prerogatives  that 
he  can  be  said  to  be  created  in  the  image  of 
God.  Liberty  of  choice,  however,  or  free  will, 
is  a  perilous  gift.  It  may  be  used  either  rightly 
or  wrongly,  and  so  there  arises  the  possibility 
of  temptation,   of  sin,   of  a  'fall':  see  on  2 1*. 


C.  3  shows  how  man  misuses  his  freedom. 
He  is  tempted  by  a  mysterious  power  of  evil, 
and  falls  before  the  temptation.  Immediately 
the  direst  results  ensue,  both  for  his  inward 
and  outward  condition.  '  The  fruit  of  man's 
first  disobedience '  is  seen  at  once  in  his  con- 
sciousness of  guilt,  his  interrupted  communion 
with  God,  his  miserable  state,  and  even  the 
altered  condition  of  the  world  in  which  he 
dwells.  Yet  God  does  not  abandon  him.  He 
continues  His  care  over  him,  and  comforts  him 
with  the  promise  of  final  victory  over  the  power 
of  evil.  See  on  3 1^  for  the  significance  of  this 
passage  in  the  light  of  Christianity. 

It  is  to  be  expected  that,  in  externals  at  least, 
the  Bible  narrative  should  resemble  the  tradi- 
tions of  other  Oriental  peoples.  Accordingly 
we  find,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Creation  and  Flood 
narratives,  that  certain  parallels  to  the  Paradise 
story  existed  among  the  ancient  Babylonians. 
This,  and  the  further  fact  that  Eden  is  placed 
in  the  vicinity  of  the  Euphrates,  have  been 
taken  to  suggest  that  the  Hebrews  brought 
the  original  tradition  with  them  from  their 
home  in  the  plains  of  Babylonia.  The  Bible 
narrative,  however,  differs  from  all  others  in 
its  worthy  conception  of  the  divine  nature,  its 
freedom  from  polytheistic  and  heathen  associa- 
tions, and  its  embodiment  of  such  profound 
religious  truths  as  stamp  it  with  the  mark  of 
inspiration. 

The  passage  (2^^-S'^^)  now  under  considera- 
tion begins  with  a  second  account  of  the  Crea- 
tion forming  an  introduction  to  the  story  of 
man's  temptation  and  fall.  Some  scholars 
regard  this  account  as  simply  complementary 
to  that  given  in  c.  1.  They  maintain  that  it 
is  not  a  separate  story  of  the  Creation,  but  a 
continuation  of  the  former,  with  special 
reference  to  man's  position  in  the  universe. 
There  are  strong  reasons,  however,  for  regard- 
ing 2  ^^^-s  as  a  narrative  independent  of  l-2'*a. 
(a)  The  primeval  chaos,  the  creation  of  man  and 
woman,  vegetation  and  animals,  are  described, 
but  there  are  striking  differences  in  the  two 
accounts,  (b)  The  Creator  is  no  longer  called 
'God'  (Elohim)  but  'The  Lord  God'  (Jehovah 
Elohim),  a  fact  which  first  suggested  that  the 
Pentateuch  was  compiled  from  different 
sources,  and  gave  its  name  '  Jehovistic '  to 
the  continuous  Primitive  document  of  which 
this  passage  forms  the  commencement.  (c) 
The  writer  speafe  of  the  universe  and  its 
Author  in  different  terms  to  those  of  c.  1. 
God  is  regarded  as  intimately  concerning  Him- 
self with  men  rather  than  in  His  transcendental 
power ;  and  this  concern  of  His  is  expressed 
in  terms  which  are  properly  applicable  to  the 
only  living  persons  we  directly  know,  viz. 
men.  This  anthropomorphism  runs  through 
the  whole  of  the  Paradise  story  (cp.  2">^>i9>2i' 
38).      (d)   The  lordship  of  man  over  creation 


6 


2.4 


GENESIS 


2.14 


is  expressed,  not  by  setting  him  up  as  the  goal 
to  which  all  tended  (cp.  l-^*-)i  but  by  represent- 
ing him  as  the  first  created,  before  plants  or 
herbs  (2^),  the  being  for  whom  the  animals 
were  afterwards  made,  and  finally  woman  as  a 
fitting  mate,  (e)  The  formal,  orderly  style  of 
c.  1,  which  characterises  the  Priestly  docu- 
ment, is  exchanged  here  for  the  imaginative, 
poetical  style  which  marks  the  Primitive  (cp. 
2  8,9,15,19,31-6,7,8).  (f)  Finally,  if  the  two 
accounts  of  Creation  liad  been  originally  the 
work  of  one  writer,  he  would  surely  have  ex- 
plained that  he  was  describing  the  same  event 
from  different  standpoints,  giving  reasons  for 
so  doing.  But  he  does  not,  and  it  is  reason- 
able to  conclude  from  all  the  variations  which 
have  been  pointed  out,  that  we  possess  two 
accounts  of  the  Creation  and  of  the  origin 
of  man  upon  earth,  drawn  from  different 
sources. 

4^-7.  Render,  '  In  the  day  that  the  Lord 
God  made  earth  and  heaven,  when  no  plant  of 
the  field  was  yet  in  the  earth  ;  and  no  herb  of 
the  field  had  yet  sprung  up  .  .  the  Lord  God 
formed  man,'  etc.  Vv.  5,  6,  from  '  For  the 
Lord  God,'  thus  form  a  parenthesis. 

4.  The  Lord  God]  Where  Lord  is  thus 
printed  in  capitals  in  the  English  Bible  it 
stands  for  the  Heb.  JHVH,  the  sacred 
divine  name  which  was  probably  pronounced 
*  Yahweh.'  In  later  times  the  word  was  con- 
sidered to  be  too  sacred  to  be  uttered  ;  the 
title  Adonai  (i.e.  My  Lord)  was  substituted  in 
reading,  and  thus  the  true  pronunciation  was 
lost.  Hebrew  was  originally  written  witliout 
vowel-signs  ;  when  these  were  added  to  the 
MS  text,  the  vowels  of  the  name  as  read 
(Adonai)  were  attached  to  the  consonants 
JHVH,  and  thus  the  artificial  form  '  Jehovah ' 
was  produced,  which  has  come  into  common 
Christian  use.  See  on  Ex  S^^  for  the  signifi- 
cance of  the  word,  which  means  perhaps  '  The 
Self-existent'  (or  'Self-unfolding').  Yahweh 
(Jehovah)  is  the  proper  name  of  the  God 
of  Israel  rather  than  a  title,  and  as  such  was 
used  by  other  nations  who  regarded  Jehovah 
as  the  tribal  God  of  the  Jews  (cp.  Isa  36*)  ; 
the  name  also  occurs  on  the  Moabite  stone  set 
up  by  Mesha  (2  K  3*).  The  American  re- 
visers have  substituted  '  Jehovah '  for  '  the 
Lord  '  throughout  the  OT.  In  Gn  2  and  3 
Jehovah  is  joined  with  Elohim  ('the  Lord 
God').  The  latter  name  was  probably  added 
by  the  editor  who  combined  the  narratives  in 
order  to  show  that  the  Jehovah  of  this  section 
(the  God  of  Israel)  is  the  same  as  the  Elohim 
(the  Creator  of  the  world)  of  the  previous 
one.  The  earth  and  the  heavens]  RV  '  earth 
and  heaven.'  Note  the  difference  in  the  order 
from  that  in  1^.  The  centre  of  interest  in 
this  c.  is  man  on  the  earth. 

6.    Mist]     The  kindred  word  in  the  Assyrian 


language  denotes  the  annual  inundation  of  the 
Euphrates  ;  see  on  v.  8  and  on  3'^. 

7.  Man]  Heb.  adam  as  in  c.  1.  AV  renders 
the  word  as  a  proper  name  frequently  in  chs. 
2-4;  RV  gives  'man'  throughout  except  S^^ 
42^,  Ground]  Heb.  adamah.  A  connexion 
is  thus  suggested  between  the  two  words,  but 
the  derivation  of  Adam  is  uncertain.  Formed 
man  of  the  dust  of  the  ground]  The  lowly  origin 
of  man,  and  his  derivation  on  the  physical  side 
from  the  lower  elements  of  creation,  are  here 
implied.  To  '  become  a  living  soul '  means 
no  more  than  to  possess  the  principle  of  life 
possessed  by  the  animals  ;  cp.  v.  19,  where  the 
Heb.  for  'living  creature'  is  the  same  as  for 
'  living  soul '  here.  But  it  is  not  said  of  the 
animals  that  God  breathed  into  their  nostrils 
the  breath  of  life,  only  of  man  :  this  implies 
that  man  stands  in  a  special  relation  to  God, 
and  may  be  taken  as  referring  to  the  gift 
of  those  spiritual  faculties  by  which  he  holds 
communion  with  God,  and  possesses  a  '  like- 
ness '  to  Him  ;  see  on  l^s. 

8.  A  garden]  LXX  renders  by  '  Paradei- 
sos'  (a  Persian  word  meaning  'a  park'), 
hence  the  English  'Paradise.'  Eastward] 
i.e.  of  Palestine,  such  as  Babylonia  would  be. 
Eden]  The  Heb.  word  ede7i  means  '  de- 
light,' but  there  is  a  Babylonian  word  edinu, 
meaning  'plain,'  and  there  maybe  a  reference 
to  the  great  plain  in  Babylonia  between  the 
Tigris  and  the  Euphrates.  In  the  southern 
portion  of  this  plain  an  ancient  hymn  placed 
a  garden  of  the  gods  wherein  '  a  dark  vine 
grew  .  .  its  appearance  as  lapis  lazuli.' 

9.  Every  tree]  The  garden  was  planted 
with  trees,  like  a  king's  pleasure  park.  The 
trees  are  specially  mentioned,  partly  because 
they  were  to  provide  man's  food,  and  partly  be- 
cause attention  is  directed  to  two  of  them  for  a 
particular  reason.  As  life  was  to  be  sustained 
by  them,  so  immortality  was  to  be  received 
through  the  fruit  of  the  tree  of  life,  and 
knowledge  of  good  and  evil  with  death  in  the 
end  were  the  possible  consequences  of  eating 
of  the  forbidden  tree.  The  garden  was  di- 
vinely planted,  and  the  trees  had  miraculous 
powers  of  good  and  evil.  The  tree  of  life] 
The  Egyptians  believed  that  in  the  blissful 
fields  of  Alu  in  the  other  world  grew  the 
tree  of  life,  which  the  stars  gave  to  the 
departed  that  they  might  live  for  ever;  cp. 
also  Rev  222. 

10-14.  There  are  many  theories  regarding 
these  rivers.  Perhaps  the  most  likely  is  that 
the  ancients,  with  their  very  limited  notions 
of  geography,  regarded  the  four  great  rivers 
known  to  them,  Euphrates,  Tigris,  Indus 
(Pishon)  and  Nile  (Gihon),  as  having  a  com- 
mon source  in  some  large  lake  in  Eden.  Cush 
will  then  be  Ethiopia.  It  is  possible,  how- 
ever, that  the  main  river  stands  for  the  Persian 


2.  15 


GENESIS 


3.1 


Gulf,    which   was    anciently   called   '  The    Salt  two,  the  former  being  the  noun  and  the  latter 

River,'   and  the  four  heads  were  four  streams  the   qualifying  adjective    on    which    the    main 

connected  with  it,   viz.   (1)  the  Euphrates;  (2)  emphasis   lies.     Man   might   have   many   helps; 

the    Hiddekel,    which    the    Persians   called   the  the  vegetable  and  animal  creation  might  minis- 

Tigra,  and  Greeks   the   Tigris  ;  (3)   the  Gihon,  ter  to   his   welfare   and   comfort.     But    though 

which  is  said  to   'compass'   tlie  land  of  Gush,  these  are  'helps,'  they  are  not  '  meet,' i.e.  suit- 

the  country  of  the  Kashshu  in   W.   Elam,  and  able   for  him.      Only    a    creature    like    himself 

which    may   therefore    be    the    Kerkha,   which  can  be  an  adequate  companion;   and  so  woman 

once  ran   with   the   Euphrates  and   Tigris   into  is    formed:    see   v.    20.       ig.    The   giving   of  a 

the  Persian  Gulf ;  and   (4)    the  Pishon,    which  name    implies   a   power   of   discrimination   and 

has  not    been    identified.     Havilah]   the  sandy  reflection  not   possessed  by  the   lower   animals, 

region   of  N.    Arabia,    and   thus   not   far  from  Even    proper     names    in    the      Scriptures    are 

the  other  localities.      Bdellium]  an  odoriferous  usually    significant    and    descriptive     of    some 

transparent    gum.     Onyx]    RM    'beryl.'     Vv.  quality  supposed  to  be  possessed  by  the  person 

10-14    are  regarded   by   many  as  a    later  ad-  who  bears  it.     Cp.   e.g.  the  importance  attached 

dition  to  the  narrative.  to  the  '  name  '  by  which  God  is  known  :  see  on 

15.    Dress]  i.e.    cultivate.     Keep]  i.e.  protect  Ex  3^^.      21.    The   symbolical    account  of    the 

(from  the  beasts).  creation  of  woman  teaches  the  close  relation- 

17.    Knowledge  of  good  and  evil]  i.e.  moral  ship    of    the    sexes,   and     the    dependence    of 


consciousness  issuing  in  moral  judgment  ;  the 
power  to  distinguish  between  good  and  evil, 
not   in  act   only   but   in   consequence    as   well. 


woman  on  man.  23.  This  is  now]  Render, 
'  This  time  it  is  bone  of  my  bones,'  etc.  It  is 
Adam's  cry  of  delight  at  finding  a   congenial. 


This  faculty  is  necessary,    in   order  that   man  sympathising   companion,    after   failing   to   find 

may  reach  moral  maturity.     The  narrative  ira-  one  among  the  animals  (v.  20).     She  shall  be 

plies  that  it  would  have  come  gradually  to  man,  called    Woman]   The  similarity  of  the  English 

through  the  teaching  of  God,  and  without  the  words  'man,'  'woman'  (wife-man)  is  also  found 

loss  of  his   own  uprightness.     It  is  a  faculty  in  tbe   Hebrew  Ish,    Ishshah.      24.    The  crea- 

which  is  developed   from  within,  not  conferred  tion  of  one  man  and  one  woman  in  the  ideally 

from   without.     By   discipline    and    self-control  perfect  state  of   Eden   implies   that   monogamy 

man  gains  character  and  moral  strength,  or  the  is  the  ideal   of  the    married    life.       Polygamy 

kaowledge  of  good  and  evil,  and  the  power  to  and     divorce     were     later    accommodations    to 

discriminate  between  them.      Hence  '  the  fruit  man's  '  hardness  of  heart.'     But   '  from  the  be- 

of  the  tree  of  the  knowledge  of  good  and  evil '  is  ginning'    (i.e.    in   the   original    purpose    of   the 

forbidden  to  man,   not  given   to  him  like  that  Creator)   'it  was  not  so'  (Mtl94>8).     25.    See 

of   the   others.     It  can    impart    the  knowledge  on  3  ^. 


of  good  and  evil  at  once,  without  a  prolonged 
process  of  discipline  or  education  ;  but  the 
attainment  of  it  in  this  summary  way  is  made 
an  act  of  disobedience,  perhaps  to  assist  man's 
moral  development  by  affording  a  test  of  his 
self-control.  Man's  freedom  of  choice,  how- 
ever, makes  it  possible  for  him  to  disobey,  and 
so  come  to  the  required  knowledge  by  a  wrong 
way ;  for  the  knowledge  of  good  and  evil  is 
bought  dearly  by  doing  ill. 

Shalt  surely  die]  Man,  it  is  implied,  was 
created  mortal,  but  had  the  privilege  of  attain- 
ing immortality  by  means  of  the  tree  of  life. 
But  by  eating  of  the  tree  of  the  knowledge  of 
good  and  evil  man  forfeited  his  liberty  to  eat 
of  the  tree  of  life  (see  3-2-24).  This  implies 
that   the   physical    is   the    consequence    of    the 


CHAPTER  3 

The    Temptation   and   the   Fall   of   Man 

This  chapter  describes  how  '  by  one  man  sin 
entered  into  the  world  and  death  by  sin' 
(Ro  512).  Although  there  is  here  no  ambitious 
attempt  to  search  out  the  origin  of  evil  in  the 
universe,  the  biblical  account  of  the  Pall 
pierces  the  depth  of  the  human  heart,  and 
brings  out  the  genesis  of  sin  in  man.  The 
description,  as  already  said,  is  true  to  life  and 
experience. 

There  is  no  certain  Babylonian  counterpart 
to  the  biblical  narrative  of  the  Fall. 

I.  The  serpent]  The  writer  here  sets  him- 
self to  answer  the  question  how  evil  came  into 
the  heart  of  man,  who  was  created  pure.  His 
moral  death.  '  Some  of  the  older  expositors  answer  is  that  it  came  from  without ;  it  did 
observe  that  the  troubles  and  sufferings  to  not  originate  with  man.  And  herein  lies  the 
which  man  became  liable  through  sin,  are  hope  of  victory.  The  wrong  approaches  us 
nothing  else  than  disturbances  of  life,  the  be-  from  outside  ourselves,  and  is  not  the  native 
ginning  of  death  '  (D.).*  product  of  our  own  heart.     There  are  present 

18-25.  Now  the  other  animals  and  woman  in  our  world  beings  and  objects  which,  con- 
are  formed.  The  order  of  Creation  is  not  the  sciously  or  unintentionally,  draw  us  towards 
same  as  in  1^*-^.  that  which   is  wrong;   channels  of  sense,  intel- 

18.    Help    meet]    This  is  not  one   word  but     lect,  aspirations  by  which  we  may  be  touched 

*  A.  von  Dilliuann,  the  greatest  of  all  commentators  on  Genesis. 

8 


3.  1 


GENESIS 


3.  8 


The  narrative  tells  us  that  man  was  tempted 
by  some  evil  power,  whose  personality  remains 
in  the  background.  But  this  power  must  have 
made  use  of  a  medium,  which  could  not  have 
been  another  human  being,  seeing  there  were 
as  yet  only  Adam  and  Eve.  That  it  was  an 
animal  was  therefore  a  natural  assumption. 
On  two  grounds  the  writer  was  left  to  fix 
upon  the  serpent  as  the  medium  of  the  tempt- 
ation. One  was  the  natural  habits  of  the 
creature,  its  stealthy  movements,  its  deadly 
venom,  and  the  instinctive  feeling  of  repulsion 
which  the  very  sight  of  it  provokes.  These 
things  are  all  suggestive  of  the  insidious 
approach  and  fatal'power  of  temptation.  The 
other  was  the  fact  that  already  the  serpent  in 
older  mythologies  was  associated  with  the 
powers  of  darkness.  In  Babylonian  belief 
Tiamat,  the  power  of  darkness  and  chaos,  and 
the  opponent  of  the  god  of  light,  was  repre- 
sented as  a  gigantic  dragon,  also  known  as 
Eahab  and  Leviathan  (Job  9  is  RV  26i2Ry 
Ps74i3,ii  8910  Isa27iAm93);  while  to  the 
Persians  the  serpent  was  the  emblem  of  Angra- 
Mainyu,  the  hostile  god.  In  later  times,  when 
the  power  of  evil  was  more  definitely  personi- 
fied by  the  Israelites  as  Satan,  the  serpent 
remained  as  the  symbol  under  which  he  was 
popularly  conceived.     See  e.g.  Rev  129  20^. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  our  author  in- 
tended to  teach  that  an  actual  serpent  was  the 
tempter.  As  one  of  our  deepest  thinkers  puts 
it  :  '  There  was  an  animal  nature  in  Eve  to 
which  the  animal  nature  in  an  inferior  animal 
could  speak.'  We  who  have  been  taught  that 
'  our  wrestling  is  not  against  flesh  and  blood,  but 
against  the  principalities,  against  the  powers, 
against  the  world-rulers  of  this  darkness, 
against  the  spiritual  hosts  of  wickedness  in  the 
heavenly  places,'  are  almost  irresistibly  led  to 
think  of  the  serpent  as  a  mere  agent  of  him 
that  is  called  the  Devil  and  Satan  (Rev  12  9)  ; 
but  we  shall  miss  something  of  the  instructive- 
ness  of  the  narrative  if  we  do  not,  in  the  first 
instance,  take  the  simple  view  originally  in- 
tended. St.  Paul,  we  must  remember,  adhered 
to  it  :  '  The  serpent  beguiled  Eve  in  his 
craftiness'  (2 Cor  11 3). 

And  he  said]  An  ancient  Jewish  legend 
represents  all  the  animals  as  having  had  the 
gift  of  speech,  and  using  one  language,  imtil 
the  day  when  Adam  was  expelled  from  Eden. 

The  woman]  She  is  first  addressed,  as  an 
easier  prey  to  temptation  (cp.  1  Tim  2 1'l). 
Observe  that  the  serpent  exaggerates  the 
prohibition,  and  suggests  that  it  is  an  undue 
curtailment  of  liberty.  Sin  usually  begins 
as  a  revolt  against  authority.  2,  3.  The 
woman  denies  that  the  prohibition  extends  to 
every  tree.  It  applies  only  to  one,  and  its 
object  is  man's  own  safety.  She  also  adds 
that  the  danger  is  such  that  they  are  forbidden 


even  to  touch  the  tree.  Evil  is  to  be  kept  at 
arm's  length.  4.  The  serpent  grows  bolder 
on  seeing  that  the  woman  is  willing  to  argue 
the  matter,  and  now  flatly  denies  the  truth  of 
the  divine  warning.  It  is  due  not  to  a  solici- 
tude for  man's  safety,  but  to  an  ulterior  motive, 
the  envy  or  jealousy  of  God.  The  serpent 
avers  that  the  threatened  penalty  will  not  be 
exacted,  that  God  has  selfishly  kept  out  of 
their  sight  a  great  boon  which  men  may  gain  ; 
that  He  is  unwilling  to  see  them  rise  too  high. 
So  the  serpent  sows  discord  between  man  and 
his  Maker,  by  misrepresenting  God's  character. 
5.  As  gods]  RV  'as  God.'  It  probably 
means  here,  as  divine  beings,  like  the  angels. 
Cp.  V.  22.  6.  '  Our  great  security  against 
sin  consists  in  our  being  shocked  at  it.  Eve 
gazed  and  reflected  when  she  should  have  fled ' 
(Newman).  Here  we  see  the  physical  basis  of 
temptation,  the  lust  of  the  flesh,  which  '  when 
it  hath  conceived  bringeth  forth  sin '  (Jas 
115).  She  gave  also  unto  her  husband]  It 
is  not  in  malice,  but  with  a  sincere  view  to  his 
advantage,  that  she  persuades  the  man  to  eat 
of  the  fruit. 

7.  They  knew  that  they  were  naked]  The 
serpent's  promise  (v.  5)  is  fulfilled,  but  not  in 
the  way  expected.  '  To  the  pure  all  things 
are  pure '  (cp.  2  25),  but  the  act  of  sin  is  im- 
mediately followed  by  the  sense  of  guilty 
shame.  '  To  innocence,  standing  in  undis- 
turbed union  with  God,  everything  natural  is 
good  and  pure  (225).  go  goon  as,  however, 
by  the  act  of  disobedience,  the  bond  of  union 
with  God  is  broken,  and  the  sensuous  nature 
of  man  has  released  itself  from  the  dominion 
of  the  spirit  which  rests  in  God,  it  stands 
there  naked  and  bare  and  calls  forth  in  its 
possessor  inevitably  the  feeling  of  weakness, 
un worthiness  and  impurity '  (D.).  The  first 
result  of  disobedience  is  the  awakening  of 
conscience.  '  They  lost  Eden  and  they  gained 
a  conscience  '  (Newman).  The  whole  story  of 
the  Fall  is  a  parable  of  every  sinner's  experi- 
ence. In  every  temptation  there  are  an 
exciting  cause  without  and  an  answering  in- 
clination within  :  every  act  of  submission  to 
temptation  is  a  choice  exercised  by  the  will  : 
and  the  result  of  sin  is  an  uneasy  conscience 
and  a  haunting  sense  of  shame.  Aprons] 
RM  'girdles.'  There  is  a  Jewish  legend  to 
the  effect  that  at  the  moment  of  the  Fall  the 
leaves  dropped  off  all  the  trees  but  the  fig. 

8-13.  Conscience  is  a  witness-bearer  to  God. 
Accordingly  the  accusing  voice  of  conscience 
is  followed  by  that  of  God  in  judgment. 

8.  On  the  anthropomorphism  of  this  v.  see 
Intro,  to  2'i-325.  Cool  of  the  day]  lit.  'in 
the  evening  breeze,'  i.e.  in  the  evening  when 
the  heat  of  the  day  is  tempered  with  a  cool 
breeze,  enabling  Orientals  to  walk  abroad  ; 
cp.  Gn  24  63  Song  2 17.       Adam]  RV  '  the  man ' : 


3.  10 


GENESIS 


3.24 


see  on  2'^.  Hid  themselves]  Hitherto  they 
have  been  able  to  meet  God  in  trustful  sim- 
plicity :  now  conscious  guilt  moves  them  to 
hide  from  His  presence.  But  the  attempt  is 
vain.  10.  The   man's   answer  shows  that 

a  change  has  come  over  him.  He  was  not  wont 
to  be  afraid  of  God. 

n.  The  question  does  not  imply  that  God 
does  not  already  know  what  has  occurred. 
But  He  compels  the  man  to  make  a  full  con- 
fession. 12.  Instead  of  frankly  confessing 
his  sins,  the  man  lays  the  blame  upon  the  woman. 
Observe  also  that  he  even  tries  to  lay  part  at 
least  of  the  blame  upon  God  Himself  (whom 
Thou  gavest  to  be  •with  me).  This  is  a  most 
life-like  touch  in  the  picture  of  the  moral  state 
which  sin  produces.  13.  The  woman  in  turn 
blames  the  serpent.  Man  is  always  inclined 
to  blame  the  outward  incitement  to  sin,  rather 
than  the  inward  inclination. 

14-19.   The  Judgment. 

14.  The  serpent,  being  the  tempter  and 
prime  mover  in  the  transgression,  is  judged 
first.  It  would  appear  that  the  writer  con- 
ceived of  the  serpent  as  originally  walking  on 
feet.  Its  crawling  in  the  dust,  and  taking 
dust  into  its  mouth  with  its  food  (cp.  Isa6525 
Mic  7 1"  and  the  figurative  expression  '  to  lick 
the  dust,'  Ps729  Isa4923)  are  marks  of  its 
degradation. 

15.  Nature's  social  union  is  also  broken. 
The  serpent  race  is  an  object  of  abhorrence, 
even  though  many  kinds  of  serpents  possess  a 
remarkable  beauty  and  grace.  The  curse, 
however,  goes  beyond  this.  There  is  a  min- 
gling of  the  literal  and  the  allegorical  in  the 
sentence.  The  serpent,  as  representing  the 
spirit  of  revolt  from  God,  will  continue  to 
be  the  tempter  of  man.  Man  and  the  power 
of  evil  will  be  at  constant  feud.  It  shall 
bruise  thy  head,  and  thou  shalt  bruise  his  heel] 
cp.  Rol6"^o.  While  each  will  hurt  the  other, 
it  is  here  implied  that  man  will  have  the  best 
of  the  serpent  in  the  end.  The  seed  of  the 
woman  means  the  human  race  as  sprung  from 
her.  But  in  the  course  of  history  it  becomes 
more  and  more  evident  that  mankind  is  unable 
of  itself  to  gain  the  complete  victory  over  evil. 
This  has  been  achieved  by  One  alone,  in  whom 
this  word  of  hope  has  been  fulfilled.  It  is, 
therefore,  with  justice  that  Christians  read  in 
this  promise  the  Protevangelium,  or  first  procla- 
mation of  the  Good  Tidings  of  the  final  victory 
over  sin.  It  is  in  Christ  that  the  seed  of  the 
woman  crushes  the  serpent. 

16.  The  woman  is  now  judged.  Her  doom 
is  pain,  chiefly  the  pain  of  child-bearing,  and  a 
position  of  subjection  to  and  dependence  on 
man.  There  is  abundant  evidence  in  human 
nature  of  the  close  connexion  of  sin  and 
Buffering,  though  our  Lord  warns  us  against 
uncharitably  arguing  back  from  the  fact  of 


suffering  to  previous  sin,  in  special  instances, 
and  in  the  case  of  others.  See  e.g.  Lk  13  ^-^ 
Jn9i'3,  and  cp.  the  whole  argument  of  the 
book  of  Job.  In  the  case  of  child-bearing,  it 
is  not  unreasonable  to  suppose  that  the  pain 
and  danger  connected  with  it  have  been  in- 
creased by  the  accumulated  wrongdoing  of 
mankind.  Among  the  lower  animals  the  pro- 
cess of  birth  is  much  easier. 

17.  The  judgment  on  the  man.  Work  had 
already  been  appointed  as  the  duty  of  men 
(2 15).  But  it  was  not  laborious.  The  change 
from  innocence  to  sin  is  marked  by  the  change 
of  order  from  the  keeping  of  the  garden  to 
the  tilling  of  the  ground  (v;  23).  Henceforth 
work  is  to  be  done  under  adverse  conditions. 
The  connexion  between  the  sin  of  man  and 
the  productiveness  of  the  earth  is  not  so  easily 
traced,  but  the  conditions  of  labour  are  un- 
doubtedly made  harder  by  the  evils  and 
inequalities  of  human  society  due  to  man's  sin 
and  selfishness.  19.  Till  thou  return  unto 
the  ground]  The  story  does  not  assume  that 
man  was  created  physically  immortal.  But 
the  inevitable  certainty  of  death  is  now  seen 
to  increase  the  sadness  of  his  earthly  lot.  It 
is  sin  which  gives  death  its  sting  (1  Cor  15^6)  ; 
and  though  the  Redemption  of  Christ  has  not 
abolished  physical  death,  yet  it  gives  victory 
over  death,  by  removing  the  guilt  and  fear 
that  make  it  so  appalling  and  hopeless  :  cp. 
Heb2i4.i5.      20.  Eve]   Heb.  ^awm/?,  '  life.' 

21.  God  does  not  cease  to  care  for  man, 
even  though  he  has  rebelled  against  Him  :  cp. 

Mt545. 

22-24.  Now  that  man  has  used  his  power 
of  free-will  to  disobey  God  and  become  alien- 
ated from  Him,  a  perpetuation  of  his  sinful 
life  would  have  been  a  curse  rather  than  a 
blessing.  Physical  immortality  which,  accord- 
ing to  the  writer,  he  might  have  gained  by 
eating  of  the  tree  of  life,  is  therefore  denied 
to  him.  But  the  blessing  forfeited  '  by  one 
man's  offence '  is  restored  '  by  the  obedience 
of  one'  (Ro 5 12-21).  In  Christian  thought 
Adam  is  '  a  figure  of  Him  that  was  to  come.' 
Adam  and  Christ  are  the  originators  of  two 
different  streams  of  humanity  ;  and  as  those 
descended  from  Adam  by  physical  generation 
inherit  the  consequences  of  his  disobedience, 
in  virtue  of  an  undoubted  law  or  principle  of 
heredity,  or  of  the  solidarity  of  the  human 
race,  so  those  regenerated  in  spirit  through 
Christ  enjoy  the  fruit  of  His  perfect  obedi- 
ence, and  have  a  right  to  the  tree  of  life. 
'  As  in  Adam  all  die,  even  so  in  Christ  shall 
all  be  made  alive.' 

24.  Cherubims]  RV  'the  Cherubim'  (plur. 
of  '  Cherub  ').  These  mystic  beings  are  men- 
tioned as  attendants  of  God  in  various  passages 
of  the  OT.  (Ps  1 8 10  Ezk  1  and  10).  Here  they 
appear  as  the  guardians  of  God's  abode  :   cp. 


10 


3.  24 


GENESIS 


4.11 


Ezk  28 13-17,  also  on  Ex  25  is  324.  When  the 
Psalmist  says  that '  Jehovah  rode  upon  a  cherub 
and  did  fly,'  he  is  obviously  describing  a 
thunderstorm  with  its  swift  storm-clouds  ;  and 
when  he  goes  on  to  speak  of  the  '  brightness 
before  Him,'  he  suggests  a  connexion  between 
the  flaming  sword  of  this  v.  and  the  lightning- 
flash. 

To  keep  the  way  of  the  tree  of  life]  Man,  it 
would  appear,  had  not  yet  eaten  of  the  tree  of 
life,  not  having  felt  the  need  of  it.  But  now, 
when  his  knowledge  of  evil  has  brought  him 
the  fear  of  death,  and  he  has  realised  the  value 
of  this  tree,  he  is  prevented  even  from  approach- 
ing it.  The  tree  of  life,  however,  though 
denied  to  man  on  this  side  the  grave,  will  be 
found  by  those  who  overcome  in  the  conflict 
with  evil,  in  the  midst  of  the  Paradise  of  God 
(Rev  2  7  222). 

CHAPTEE  4 

Cain  and  Abel.    The  Descendants  of 
Cain 

The  narrative,  which  forms  part  of  the 
Primitive  document,  impressively  shows  how 
sin,  having  once  appeared,  became  hereditary 
in  the  human  race,  and  speedily  developed 
into  its  most  revolting  form.  Its  details  en- 
able us  to  see  how  jealousy,  when  indulged, 
leads  to  hatred  and  murder,  and  violates  not 
only  the  ties  of  humanity  but  those  of  family 
affection  ;  how  the  sinner  casts  off  all  regard 
for  the  truth  and  for  his  natural  obligations  ; 
how  progress  in  sin  adds  to  the  misery  of 
man's  lot  ;  and  '  conscience  doth  make  cowards 
of  us  all.'  The  truths  taught  are,  that  God 
looks  on  the  hearts  of  His  worshippers, 
seeks  to  restrain  the  sinner  ere  he  yields  to 
passion,  marks  the  death  of  the  innocent,  and 
graciously  mitigates  His  punishment  when  His 
mercy  is  sought. 

The  story  is  but  loosely  attached  to  that  of 
Paradise.  It  assumes  that  there  is  already  a 
considerable  population  in  the  world,  for  no 
explanation  is  given  whence  Cain  got  his  wife, 
or  who  were  the  people  whose  vengeance  he 
feared.  It  presupposes  the  institution  of 
sacrifice,  of  which  nothing  has  been  said  pre- 
viously, and  of  blood  revenge.  Various  solu- 
tions of  these  difficulties  have  been  suggested, 
but  scholars  now  generally  suppose  that  the 
story  occupied  originally  a  later  position 
among  the  traditions  than  that  in  which  we 
find  it. 

I.  Adam]  RV  'the  man.'  Cain]  Heb. 
Kayin^ '  a  spear,'  in  Arabic  '  smith '  (see  v.  22). 
Here  connected  with  Ka/iah,  'gotten,'  or 
'  acquired.'  The  Hebrews  attached  a  gi'eat 
importance  to  names,  which  were  mostly  re- 
garded as  descriptive  of  some  characteristic 
in  the  thing  or  person  on  whom  they  were 
bestowed.     In  the   giving  of   a  name,"  or  in 


11 


explaining  one  already  given,  strict  regard  was 
not  paid  to  the  actual  derivation  of  the  word. 
It  was  enough  if  the  name  resembled  in  any 
way  a  word  which  might  be  taken  as  applicable 
to  the  subject  :  cp.  Abel,  Noah  (5^9),  Babel 
(11 9),  and  the  names  of  Jacob's  sons  in  chs.  29, 
30.  From  the  LORD]  RV  'with  the  help 
of  the  Lord.' 

2.  Abel]  perhaps  from  the  Assyrian  ablu, 
'  a  son.'  Here  it  may  be  connected  with  Heb. 
hebel,  '  a  breath,'  a  fitting  name  for  one  whose 
life  was  so  brief  :  see  on  v.  1.  3.  On  the 
nature  and  origin  of  sacrifice  see  Intro,  to 
Leviticus. 

4.  And  the  LORD  had  respect,  etc.]  The 
characters  of  the  brothers  rather  than  their 
offerings  are  kept  chiefly  in  view.  Many 
passages  show  that  the  decisive  reason  why  a 
worshipper  is  accepted  or  rejected  lies  in  the 
disposition  with  which  he  draws  nigh  (cp.  1  S 
1 5  22  Isa  111-17  Ps  50  8-15  Heb  1 1 4).  The  man- 
ner in  which  God's  approval  was  declared 
is  not  mentioned,  but  see  Jg62i  IKIS^* 
2Ch7i.  Possibly  the  contrast  between  his 
toilsome  life  in  tilling  the  soil  and  the  easier 
existence  of  Abel,  makes  Cain  envious. 

7.  We  may  paraphrase  thus,  '  If  thou  doest 
well,  is  there  not  lifting  up  of  the  countenance, 
banishment  of  depression  and  gloom  ?  And 
if  thou  doest  not  well.  Sin  is  at  the  door, 
crouching  in  readiness  to  spring  on  thee  and 
make  thee  a  prey,  but  thou  must  resist  its 
promptings '  (RM  '  Unto  thee  shall  be  its 
desire,  but  thou  shouldest  rule  over  it ').  "What 
is  suggested  is  that,  if  a  sullen  and  jealous 
disposition  is  harboured,  it  will  only  require 
opportunity  to  tempt  to  malice  and  cruelty. 

8.  And  Cain  told  (RV)  Abel]  Heb.  'said 
unto.'  LXX  and  other  versions  insert  here 
'  Let  us  go  into  the  open  country,'  showing 
Cain's  intention  to  murder.  In  his  case  the 
harboured  jealousy  tempted  him  not  merely  to 
take  an  opportunity  of  using  violence,  but  to 
make  one.  9.  Cain  sounds  a  much  lower 
depth  of  depravity  than  his  parents.  Besides 
the  guilt  of  murder,  there  is  the  impudent 
denial  that  he  has  harmed  Abel,  and  the 
repudiation  of  responsibility  for  his  safety. 

ID.  Crieth  unto  Me]  The  thought  of  great 
evils  crying  to  God  is  frequently  met  with  in 
Scripture  :  cp.  18^0  1913.  The  ground,  which 
has  been  unwillingly  obliged  to  di-ink  the 
blood  of  Abel,  is  represented  as  refusing  to 
tolerate  his  murderer,  or  to  make  him  an 
adequate  return  for  his  toil:  cp.  Job  16 is 
3138-40.  In  Hebl22i  the  blood  of  Jesus, 
which  appealed  for  men's  pardon,  is  contrasted 
with  that  of  Al)el,  which  demanded  retribution. 

II.  The  earth]  RV  '  the  ground.'  Cain  is 
banished  from  the  ground  which  he  had 
formerly  tilled  and  had  now  polluted,  to  the 
wide    world  (v.    12),    a   sterner   punishment 


4  14 


GENESIS 


5.  2 


than  that  of  Adam  and  Eve.  14.  From  Thy 
face  shall  I  be  hid]  Cain  supposes  that  God's 
presence  and  protection  are  limited  to  his  old 
home.  Vagabond]  RV  '  wanderer.'  Who- 
soever findeth  me]    See  prefatory  remarks. 

15.  Sevenfold]  Vengeance  should  be  taken 
upon  seven  of  the  murderer's  family  :  cp.  2S 
218.  Set  a  mark  upon  Cain]  RV  '  appointed 
a  sign  for  Cain.'  Perhaps  it  was  some  token 
to  assure  him  of  safety,  like  the  rainbow  at 
the  Flood.  Others  take  it  that  Cain  was 
marked  in  some  way  to  show  that  he  was 
under  God's  protection.  16.  Went  out  from 
the  presence  of  the  LORD]  from  the  land  he 
had  before  inhabited.  See  on  v.  14.  Nod] 
The  word,  which  means  '  wandering,'  is  bj- 
some  regarded  as  merely  a  figurative  expres- 
sion for  a  nomadic  life,  but  Cain  appears  to 
have  built  a  city  there  (v.  17). 

17-24.  The  descendants  of  Cain.  In  these 
vv.  is  traced  the  origin  of  the  different  forms 
of  civilisation  and  culture.  Their  religious 
value  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  inventions  are 
attributed  to  men,  whereas  in  heathen  myth- 
ologies they  were  thought  to  be  due  to  various 
deities. 

It  will  be  observed  that  great  similarity 
exists  between  the  names  of  the  descendants 
of  Adam  in  this  c.  and  those  given  in  c.  5. 
The  two  accounts  come  from  different  docu- 
ments, and  although  the  names  differ  somewhat 
in  form  and  order,  it  is  now  generally  supposed 
that  they  are  merely  two  versions  of  the  same 
traditional  list  of  the  Patriarchs  before  the 
Flood.  The  most  important  difference  is  that, 
whereas  in  c.  5  Seth  and  Enos  are  given  as  the 
son  and  grandson  of  Adam,  and  Cainan  (whom 
we  may  identify  with  Cain)  appears  as  the 
great-grandson,  in  the  present  c.  Seth  and 
Enos  are  put  in  a  supplementary  list  (vv.  25, 
2(5)  and  Cain  appears  as  Adam's  son.  If  the 
list  in  c.  5  is  correct  and  the  Cain  of  this 
c.  be  identified  with  Cainan  there,  it  is  evident 
that  there  must  have  then  existed  a  consider- 
able population  of  his  tribe.  And  this  is 
indeed  presupposed  in  v.  14  where  Cain  ex- 
presses his  dread  of  Abel's  avengers,  and  in 
V.  17  where  he  is  said  to  have  built  a  city. 

17.  Builded  a  city]  The  '  city '  of  course 
would  be  a  collection  of  huts  surrounded  by  a 
defensive  palisade.  19.   The  first  mention 

of  polygamy  in  the  Bible.  The  custom  of 
having  more  than  one  wife  does  not  seem  to 
have  been  uncommon  among  the  Hebrews, 
and  we  find  legislation  on  the  subject  in  Dt 
2115-17;  but  the  divine  intention  was  that  a 
man  should  have  but  one  wife  :  cp.  2^1  Mt  19^. 

20.  The  father]  i.e.  '  originator '  ;  the  first 
to  lead  a  pastoral  life.  21.  Organ]  RV 
'pipe.' 

22.  Tubal-cain]  i.e.  '  Tubal  the  smith '  :  see 
on  4 1.        An  instructer  of  every  artificer  in]  R  V 


'  the  forger  of  every  cutting  instrument  of.' 
Br£iss]  rather,  '  copper  '  (RM),  or  bronze. 

23.  I  have  slain,  etc.]  RM  '  I  will  slay  a 
man  for  wounding  me,  and  a  young  man  for 
bruising  me.'  On  this  rendering  it  would 
seem  that  Lamech,  rejoicing,  perhaps,  in  his 
son's  invention  of  weapons,  boasts  that  he 
would  be  able  to  amply  repay  any  one  who 
injured  him.  The  words  of  Lamech  are 
metrical  and  are  the  fii'st  instance  of  poetry  in 
the  Bible.  Hebrew  poetry  does  not  depend 
on  rhythm  as  with  us,  but  in  parallelism  of 
ideas  in  each  couplet,  as  may  be  traced  in  this 
instance  ;  see  Intro,  to  Psalms.  24.  See 
V.  15  and  note.  25,  26.  A  supplementary 
note  mentioning  the  birth  of  Seth  and  Enos  : 
see  on  V.  17.  Seth]  'appointed' or 'substi- 
tuted.' Enos]  '  man.' 

26.  Then  began  men  to  call  upon  the  name 
of  the  Lord]  Tlie  Primitive  or  Jehovistic 
document  uses  Jehovah  as  the  name  of  the 
God  of  Israel  from  the  first  ;  but  the  Priestly 
document  speaks  of  the  name  being  first 
revealed  to  Moses.  See  Ex.^i"!  6^.  What  is 
here  suggested  is,  either  that  Enos  worshipped 
God  as  Jehovah  (reading  '  he  began  to  call '), 
or  that  in  his  day  men  began  to  worship 
Jehovah  by  public  invocation  and  sacrifice. 

CHAPTER   5 

The  Descendants  of  Adam  to  Noah 

The  purpose  of  the  historian  in  giving  the 
names  and  ages  of  the  antediluvian  Patriarchs 
was,  no  doubt,  to  show  the  glorious  ancestry 
of  the  chosen  race,  and  to  account  for  the 
period  between  the  Creation  and  the  Flood. 
This,  according  to  the  Hebrews,  was  1656 
years.  (See  on  10  ^2.)  "Various  attempts  have 
been  made  to  explain  the  great  ages  attributed 
to  these  Patriarchs,  but  they  are  purely  con- 
jectural, and  the  view  now  generally  held  is 
that  the  Hebrews,  like  all  other  ancient 
nations,  had  a  tradition  that  the  forefathers  of 
the  race  were  vastly  longer  lived  than  their 
descendants.  The  golden  age  of  the  Hebrew 
lay  in  the  past  ;  and  he  attributed  in  pre- 
eminent degree  to  his  ancestors  in  these  far-off 
days  the  blessing  he  valued  most  of  all — length 
of  days  upon  the  earth. 

The  similarity  of  the  lists  of  names  in  chs. 
4  and  5  has  been  discussed  in  a  note  on  4^'''. 
C.  5  continues  the  narrative  of  the  Priestly 
document  which  we  met  with  in  1^-2  ■i'^,  as 
appears  from  (a)  the  recurrence  of  1 2",  2S  jn 
vv.  1,  2,  (b)  the  phrase  'the  generations  of 
characteristic  of  P  (see  on  2"**),  (c)  the  divine 
name  God,  and  (d)  the  formal  statistical  style 
of  the  chapter. 

I.  The  generations  of  Adam]  i.e.  the 
genealogy  of  Adam's  descendants,  cp.  2*  and 
note.    •     2.  Called   their   name   Adam]    This 


12 


5.3 


GENESIS 


6.5 


shows  that  the  word  '  Adam '  was  originally 
applied  to  the  race,  and  was  not  a  proper 
name.  In  the  previous  v.  it  is  so  used  for 
the  first  time  in  the  Priestly  narrative. 

3.  His  own  likeness]  as  he  himself  was 
created  in  the  likeness  of  God. 

21-24.  Enoch]  the  one  figure  which  breaks 
the  formality  of  this  c.  His  conduct  is  men- 
tioned in  a  way  which  implies  that  the  majority 
of  men  lived  differently.  In  all  his  actions  he 
recognised  the  duty  which  he  owed  to  God  ; 
from  none  of  his  thoughts  was  God  absent  ; 
he  lived  in  communion  with  Him.  The  mean- 
ing of  the  expression  He  was  not ;  for  God 
took  him,  is,  no  doubt,  correctly  given  by  the 
writer  of  Hebll,  as  that  Enoch  never  died, 
but  was  translated  to  heaven,  like  Elijah,  as  a 
reward  for  the  holiness  of  his  life.  In  Jewish 
tradition  Enoch's  walking  with  God  was  taken 
to  mean  initiation  into  the  mysteries  of  the 
universe,  and  the  secrets  of  the  past  and  future. 
A  whole  circle  of  apocalyptic  literature  was 
ascribed  to  him  in  the  post-exilic  days,  which  is 
embodied  in  the  so-called  book  of  Enoch. 
This  book  is  quoted  in  Jude  14  as  the  work  of 
'  Enoch  the  seventh  from  Adam.'  23.  The 

days  of  Enoch]  It  is  noteworthy  that  the  life 
of  Enoch  is  the  shortest  mentioned  in  this  c. 

29.  Noah]  here  connected  with  7iahem,  '  to 
comfort.'  'The  name  is  really  derived  from 
7iuah,  '  to  rest.'  The  comfort  may  refer  to  the 
invention  of  wine,  which  is  attributed  to  Noah 
in  9^0-27^  a  passage  perhaps  from  the  same 
source  as  the  present  one. 

CHAPTEE   61-4 

The  Sons  of  God  and  the  Daughters 
OF  Men 

1-4.  This  fragment  seems  to  have  been 
placed  here  as  an  instance  of  the  wickedness 
which  necessitated  the  Flood.  Stories  of 
unions  between  deities  and  the  women  of 
earth,  which  resulted  in  gigantic  and  corrupt 
races,  were  common  to  many  nations  of  an- 
tiquity ;  and  it  is  now  generally  held  that  we 
have  here  traces  of  a  similar  tradition  among 
the  Hebrews,  which  had  survived  to  the  writer's 
day.  But  though  the  passage  retains  signs  of 
these  primitive  ideas,  it  is  free  from  the 
polytheistic  and  impure  features  which  are 
found  in  the  pages  of  heathen  mythology. 
Probably  such  passages  as  2  Pet  2  ^  Jude  6  f., 
which  speak  of  the  fall  of  the  angels,  are  based 
on  these  verses. 

2.  The  sons  of  God]  This  expression  occurs 
in  other  passages,  e.g.  Jobl'^  38^  DanS^^RV, 
where  it  is  evident  that  the  angels  are  meant, 
and  this  seems  the  only  possible  explanation 
here.  It  used  to  be  supposed  that  the  '  sons  of 
God '  meant  the  Sethites,  who  became  corrupted 
by  marriage  with  the  Cainites.    But  the  phrase 


is  nowhere  else  used  to  describe  them,  and,  as 
Bishop  Ryle  remarks,  '  the  popular  assumption 
that  Cain's  descendants  were  pre-eminently 
wicked  has  no  foundation  either  in  c.  4  or  c. 
6.'  Nor  could  such  unions  have  produced  the 
race  of  giants  mentioned  in  v.  4.  The  religious 
idea  suggested  is  that  the  wickedness  that  pre- 
vailed was  too  great  to  be  entirely  of  mere 
human  origin.  3.   The  general  meaning  is 

that  God  now  sets  a  limit  (an  hundred  and 
twenty  years)  to  human  life,  which  up  to  this 
time  had  been  indefinitely  long.  My  spirit] 
refers  to  the  spirit  of  life  with  which  the  fleshly 
nature  of  man  had  been  endowed.  It  will  not 
sustain  man  for  ever  (RV)  in  this  world. 

4.  There  were  giants]  RV  '  the  Nephilim 
were.'  The  Nephilim,  a  race  of  giants,  famous 
in  popular  legend,  are  represented  as  being  men 
of  renown  at  the  same  time  as  these  angels 
formed  unions  with  the  daughters  of  men. 
They  are  alluded  to  by  the  spies  (Nu  1 3  33  R V) 
as  ancestors  of  the  giant  races  of  Canaan  :  and 
this  is  probably  what  is  referred  to  by  the 
words  and  also  after  that. 

CHAPTERS  65-917 
The  Flood 

This  narrative  records  the  judgment  of  God 
upon  the  sinful  forefathers  of  mankind,  and 
His  preservation  of  a  righteous  family,  in  whom 
the  divine  purposes  for  men  might  be  carried 
out.  The  spiritual  teaching  of  Noah's  deliver- 
ance has  always  been  recognised  by  Christians, 
who  see  in  the  ark  a  symbol  of  the  Church 
into  which  they  are  admitted  by  baptism,  God 
thereby  graciously  providing  for  their  deliver- 
ance from  the  wrath  and  destruction  due  to 
sin.  The  story  of  the  Flood  was  fittingly  used 
by  our  Lord  and  the  NT.  writers  to  convey 
lessons  of  judgment  (Mt2437  Lkl7  26  2  Pet 
3  5-7),  righteousness  (2  Pet  2  5),  repentance  (1  Pet 
3 20),  and  faith  (Hebll 7). 

No  section  of  these  early  chs.  of  Genesis  has 
.excited  more  interest  than  the  account  of  this 
terrible  catastrophe.  Traditions  of  a  great 
primeval  deluge,  similar  to  the  one  here  re- 
corded, exist  in  the  annals  of  many  nations 
besides  the  Hebrews.  Of  these  the  Babylonian 
Flood  story  is  the  most  closely  allied  to  the 
Bible  narrative.  Josephus  and  Eusebius  both 
preserve  fragments  of  a  history  of  Chaldea 
which  was  written  by  Berosus,  a  priest  of 
Babylon  250  B.C.,  and  which  he  had  gathered 
from  the  archives  of  the  temple  of  Bel  at 
Babylon.  Among  these  fragments  is  a  record 
of  the  Flood  story  as  it  occurred  in  his  country. 
Two  thousand  years  later,  in  1872,  Mr.  G. 
Smith  of  the  British  Museum  discovered  frag- 
ments of  a  tablet  of  baked  clay  at  Nineveh, 
inscribed  in  the  cuneiform  character,  and  of 
greater  antiquity  than  the  chronicle  of  Berosus, 


13 


6.5 


GENESIS 


6.5 


which  strikingly  confirm  the  latter's  account 
of  the  Flood.  As  is  well  known,  the  Hebrews 
and  Babylonians  belonged  to  the  same  Semitic 
stock,  and  the  ancestors  of  the  Hebrew  race 
came  from  Babylonia.  A  comparison  of  the 
biblical  and  Babylonian  stories  shows  clearly 
that  they  are  two  versions  of  the  same  nar- 
rative, although  great  differences  exist  in  the 
religious  standpoint.  See  art.  '  Genesis  and  the 
Babylonian  Inscriptions.' 

The  question  has  been  discussed  whether 
the  Flood  was  limited  in  its  extent  to  the  early 
home  of  man  and  the  birth-place  of  the  tradi- 
tion, viz.  Central  Asia,  or  whether  it  was 
world-wide.  Various  scientific  objections  to 
a  universal  immersion  of  the  earth  have  been 
brought  forward,  such  as  its  inconsistency 
with  the  existing  distribution  of  animals,  the 
impossibility  of  the  different  species  of  animals 
finding  accommodation  in  the  ark,  the  want  of 
sufficient  moisture  in  our  world,  either  in  the 
form  of  vapour  or  in  that  of  water,  to  cover 
the  highest  mountains,  and  the  disturbance  to 
the  solar  system  which  would  have  been  caused 
by  the  sudden  creation  of  the  amount  required. 
In  considering  these  objections,  we  must  re- 
member that  the  impression  of  a  general 
divine  judgment  would  be  quite  adequately 
produced  by  the  submergence  of  the  com- 
paratively small  district  inhabited  at  the  time 
by  man  ;  also,  that  the  preservation  of  the 
record  could  only  be  due  to  the  survivors, 
whose  ideas  of  the  extent  of  the  catastrophe 
were  drawn  from  their  personal  experiences, 
and  the  limited  geographical  knowledge  of 
the  time.  In  this  way  the  statements  of  6^'^ 
and  74,21-23  may  be  satisfactorily  accounted 
for.  '  The  language  relating  to  the  catastrophe 
is  that  of  an  ancient  legend,  describing  a  pre- 
historic event.  It  must  be  judged  as  such. 
Allowance  must  be  made,  both  for  the  ex- 
aggeration of  poetical  description  and  for  the 
influence  of  oral  traditions  during  generations, 
if  not  centuries,  before  the  beginnings  of 
Hebrew  literature '  (Bishop  Ryle).  We  need 
not  hesitate,  therefore,  to  accept  the  opinion 
now  generally  held  that  the  Flood  was  only 
local  in  its  extent. 

The  scene  of  the  Flood  is  indicated  by  the 
traditions.  Both  mention  the  mountainous 
range  on  the  borders  of  Ai'menia,  Mesopo- 
tamia and  Kurdistan  as  the  region  where  the 
ark  rested.  The  Babylonian  account  also 
places  the  building  of  the  '  ship '  at  Shurippak, 
a  city  on  the  Euphrates.  This  district  was 
the  original  home  of  both  Hebrews  and  Baby- 
lonians; and  it  is  reasonable  to  conclude  that 
the  two  accounts  preserve  the  tradition  of  a 
calamitous  occurrence  in  the  early  annals  of 
their  race,  which  left  a  lasting  impression 
upon  the  two  peoples,  and  which  they  both 
regarded  as  a  divine  visitation. 


A  word  must  be  added  regarding  the  natural 
phenomena  which  occasioned  the  catastrophe. 
The  chief  cause  may  have  been,  in  addition 
to  excessive  rains,  an  earthquake  which  drove 
the  waters  of  the  Persian  Gulf  over  the  low- 
lying  plains  of  Babylonia,  turning  them  into 
an  inland  sea.  Something  of  this  kind  is  sug- 
gested in  7^1.  The  same  agency  may  have 
di'iven  the  ark  towards  the  mountains.  Such 
upheavals  of  ocean  beds,  or  subsidences  of 
the  earth,  resulting  in  a  disastrous  inrush  of 
the  ocean,  have  occurred  in  modern  times. 
In  1819,  in  a  district  known  as  the  Runn  of 
Cutch  in  India,  2,000  sq.  m.  of  land  were 
turned  into  an  inland  sea,  owing  to  sudden 
depression  of  land  followed  by  an  earthquake. 

The  whole  story  emphasises  the  righteous- 
ness of  God,  who  is  '  of  purer  eyes  than  to 
behold  iniquity,'  His  stern  punishment  of  sin, 
and  His  abundant  mercy  towards  them  that 
fear  Him. 

The  narrative  of  the  Flood  affords  an  illus- 
tration of  the  composite  character  of  Genesis. 
Many  difficulties  in  the  story  are  removed  if 
we  assume  that  the  narrator  made  use  of  two 
distinct  traditions.  To  the  Priestly  document 
may  be  assigned  69-22  76,ii,i3-i6a,i8-2i,24 
8 12a,  3b,  13a,  14-19  9 1-17.  This  fumishes  the 
groundwork  of  the  story;  the  vv.  assigned  to 
the  Primitive  document  are  7 1-^.  7-io,  i2,iob,  17, 22,23 
8  2b,  3a,  6-12, 13b,  20-22.  In  77-10  the  Primitive  ac- 
count has  been  modified  by  the  introduction 
of  some  expressions  from  the  Priestly  narra- 
tive. The  following  are  the  chief  points  in 
which  the  two  versions  of  the  Flood  story 
differ  from  each  other.  According  to  the 
Priestly  narrative  only  one  pair  of  every  kind 
of  creature  is  preserved  in  the  ark;  the  cause 
of  the  deluge  is  the  opening  of  the  fountains 
of  the  gi-eat  deep  as  well  as  of  the  windows 
of  heaven;  the  waters  prevail  for  an  hundred 
and  fifty  days;  it  is  five  months  after  the  be- 
ginning of  the  Flood  when  the  ark  rests  on 
the  mountains  of  Ararat;  more  than  two 
months  still  pass  before  the  mountain  tops  are 
visible;  other  two  months  elapse  before  the 
waters  disappear;  and  almost  two  months 
more  before  the  ground  is  perfectly  dry; 
God's  promise  is,  that  He  will  not  again 
destroy  the  earth  with  a  Flood.  According 
to  the  Primitive  document,  seven  pairs  of  all 
clean  beasts  and  fowls,  and  one  pair  of  all 
unclean  animals,  are  taken  into  the  ark;  the 
Flood  is  caused  simply  by  a  prolonged  rain 
which  lasts  for  forty  days  and  nights;  forty 
days  after  the  rain  ceases,  Noah  sends  forth  a 
raven  and  a  dove;  seven  days  later,  the  dove 
is  sent  out  a  second  time,  and  again  after  other 
seven  days ;  the  ground  is  then  dry  ;  God 
promises  to  curse  the  gi-ound  no  more,  and  to 
maintain  the  fixed  order  of  all  natural  seasons. 
God's  covenant  with  Noah  is  peculiar  to  the 


14 


6.6 


GENESIS 


9.9 


former,  and  Noah's  sacrifice  to  the  latter 
account. 

6.  It  repented  the  LORD]  The  writer,  as  in 
c.  3,  interprets  God's  acts  from  man's  point  of 
view,  and  explains  them  on  the  analogy  of 
human  motives.     See  on  11 5.  g.   Perfect] 

i.e.  '  upright,' a  man  of  integi'ity.  13.  With 
the  earth]   rather,  '  from  the  earth.' 

14-16.  The  Hebrew  word  for  ark  means  a 
'  vessel,'  that  which  contains  anything.  It 
was  shaped  like  a  chest,  with  a  flat  bottom 
and  a  roof.  If  the  cubit  measured  18  in., 
the  ark  was  450  ft.  long,  75  ft.  broad,  and 
45  ft.  in  depth;  and  therefore  smaller  than 
many  modern  steamships.  It  had  three  decks, 
and  was  divided  into  compartments.  It  was 
built  of  gopher  wood,  which  was  probably  the 
cypress;  and  was  coated  with  pitch.  The  win- 
dow of  v.  16  (RV  'light,'  EM  'roof')  was 
probably  an  open  space  for  light  and  air  left  all 
round  the  ark,  just  under  the  roof,  which  was 
supported  at  intervals  by  posts.  16.    In   a 

cubit,  etc.]  EV  '  to  a  cubit  shalt  thou  finish  it 
upward,'  i.e.  a  space  of  18  in.  was  to  be  left. 

18.  My  covenant]    see  on  9  9. 

19.  Every  living  thing  of  all  flesh]  This 
comprehensive  command  is  limited  in  the 
Primitive  narrative  (7  -)  to  clean  animals  (such 
as  sheep,  oxen,  and  goats),  and  to  beasts  that 
are  not  clean  (which  by  analogj'  means  do- 
mestic animals,  such  as  camels,  asses,  horses, 
etc.),  and  fowls.  The  inclusion  of  all  living 
animals  in  the  ark  is  the  explanation  which 
the  tradition  had  to  give,  to  account  for  a 
fact,  otherwise  inexplicable  on  its  theory  of  a 
universal  flood;  namely,  the  presence  in  the 
world  of  so  many  difl^erent  species  of  animals 
after  such  a  destructive  event. 

CHAPTER    7 
The  Flood  (continued) 

2.  By  sevens]  RV  '  seven  and  seven,'  or 
seven  pairs.  The  clean  animals  might  be 
used  for  food,  and  would  also  be  required  for 
sacrifice.  Observe  that  in  6^^  this  distinction 
between  clean  and  unclean  is  not  noticed, 
and  that  there  also  the  animals  are  chosen  in 
single  pairs,  '  two  of  every  sort.'  Lists  of 
'  clean '  and  '  unclean  '  animals  are  given  in 
Lv  11. 

II.  The  second  month]  The  year  is  here 
supposed  to  begin  in  autumn  (cp.  Ex  34  22)^  so 
that  the  second  month  would  be  Marchesvan 
(middle  of  Oct.  to  middle  of  Nov.).  That 
was  about  the  beginning  of  the  rainy  season 
in  Palestine.  The  great  deep]    See  on  the 

ancient  Semitic  conception  of  the  world,  1  6. 
Evidently  some  vast  inrush  of  water  is  in- 
tended, beyond  heavy  rains.  16.  Sit-napisti 
says,  '  I  entered  into  the  midst  of  the  ship 
and  shut  my  door.'     In  our  narrative  Provi- 


dence is  nearer  at  hand,  The  LORD  shut  him 
in.  20.  Fifteen  cubits  upward]  The  waters 
are  supposed  to  be  15  cubits  higher  than  the 
loftiest  mountains.  The  ark  is  conceived  as 
immersed  up  to  15  cubits;  so  that  whenever 
the  waters  decreased,  the  ark  grounded  on  a 
mountain-top  (8*). 

CHAPTER    8 
The  Flood  (continued) 

4.  The  mountains  of  Ararat]  Ararat  is 
the  Assyrian  '  Urardhu,'  the  country  round 
Lake  Van,  in  what  is  now  called  Armenia; 
but  the  word  also  signifies  '  highlands,'  and 
perhaps  it  is  a  general  expression  for  the  hilly 
country  which  lay  to  the  N.  of  Assyria.  Mt. 
Masis,  now  called  Mt.  Ararat  (a  peak  17,000 
ft.  high),  is  not  meant  here.  11.  The  olive 
leaf  indicated  that  the  tree  was  above  water, 
and  as  the  olive  does  not  grow  at  a  great 
elevation,  the  inference  was  that  the  waters 
had  greatly   abated. 

21.  The  Lord  smelted  a  sweet  savour] 
A  common  expression  for  the  favourable  ac- 
ceptance of  an  offering,  cp.  Lv  1  ^>  is,  iV. 

I  will  not  again  curse,  etc.]  An  acknowledg- 
ment of  man's  innate  propensity  to  evil.  If 
wicked  thoughts,  desires,  and  actions  were 
always  to  be  followed  by  the  judgments  they 
merit,  disaster  would  never  be  far  off  (Isa  1  5). 

22.  Practically  there  are  but  two  seasons  in 
the  land  where  this  was  written  :  one  may  be 
called  Seed-time,  Cold,  Winter  (middle  of 
Sept.  to  middle  of  March)  ;  the  other.  Harvest, 
Heat,  Summer  (the  rest  of  the  year). 

CHAPTER  9 

The  Divine  Blessing  and  Covenant. 
Noah  and  the  Vine.  The  Curse  of  Canaan 

1-7.  The  primeval  benediction  of  man 
(1 2S)  is  now  repeated  and  enlarged.  Animal 
food  is  allowed  (cp.  1 29),  but  blood  is  forbidden. 
The  blood  makes  the  life  manifest,  as  it  were, 
to  our  senses,  and  the  life  belongs  to  God,  and 
must,  therefore,  be  offered  to  Him. 

5,  6.  The  ground  of  the  sacredness  of  human 
life  here  is  the  existence  of  the  divine  image 
in  man.  It  is  not  conceived  as  being  wholly 
destroyed  by  sin. 

9.  My  covenant]  This  word  occurs  some  two 
hundred  times  in  the  OT.,  and  the  idea  lies  at 
the  root  of  the  whole  conception  of  law  among 
the  Jews.  Covenants,  as  made  between  men, 
form  the  beginnings  of  civilised  government  : 
cp.  2626  3144  etc.  The  M^ord  is  also  used  of 
the  relation  of  God  to  man  ;  of  His  justice. 
His  unchangeable  nature,  and  His  protecting 
power,  on  the  one  side,  and  the  corresponding 
duties  devolving  upon  man,  especially  as  em- 
bodied in  the  law  of  Moses,  on  the  other.  A 
series  of  covenants  (with  Abraham  and  his 


15 


9.  13 


GENESIS 


10. 


successors,  with  Israel  in  the  wilderness,  with 
David)  runs  through  OT.  history.  The  par- 
ticular idea  in  the  covenant  with  Noah  is  that 
of  the  uniform  working  of  God  in  Nature 
(cp.  8  22),  and  of  His  loving  care  for  His  crea- 
tion. On  these  two  ideas  are  based  all  physical 
science,  which  could  not  exist  if  there  were  no 
laws  of  nature,  and  all  religion,  which  other- 
wise would  become  mere  superstitious  dread  of 
unseen  powers.  Jeremiah  (3131-34)  speaks  of 
a  new  covenant  which  is  to  take  the  place  of 
the  covenant  of  the  exodus.  The  New  Testa- 
ment claims  that  this  new  covenant  has  been 
introduced  by  Chi-ist  (Lk22  20  1  Cor  11 25 
2  Cor  3  6  Heb  8).  Hence  the  two  divisions  of 
the  Scriptures  are  properly  not  '  Testaments ' 
but  '  Covenants.' 

13-17.  We  are  not  to  understand  that  the 
bow  was  now  first  created.  From  the  begin- 
ning a  rainbow  would  be  formed,  whenever 
the  sunshine  and  the  rain  met  together.  But 
it  was  now  designated  to  be  the  token  of  God's 
gracious  promise,  and  its  use  for  this  purpose 
is  in  harmony  with  the  feelings  which  it 
naturally  excites.  The  rain-storm  is  on  us, 
but  the  sun  is  in  the  skies  :  the  dark  back- 
ground brings  out  the  glorious  arc  of  colour. 
Man  need  not  yield  wholly  to  depression,  for 
he  knows  that  the  clouds  will  pass.  Hindoo 
mythology  calls  the  rainbow  Indra's  war-bow, 
laid  aside  by  him  after  he  had  vanquished  the 
demons.  Scandinavian  legend  speaks  of  it  as 
a  bridge  built  by  the  gods  to  join  heaven  and 
earth.  It  is  also  alluded  to  in  the  Babylonian 
narrative  of  the  Flood. 

18-27.  Noah  and  the  Yine.  The  curse  of 
Canaan. 

The  purpose  of  the  passage  is  (1)  to  explain 
by  a  story  the  origin  of  the  cultivation  of  the 
vine,  and  (2)  to  set  forth  the  moral  and  re- 
ligious position  of  Israel  among  the  other 
nations  of  the  world.  On  the  ground  of  the 
mention  of  Canaan  instead  of  Ham  in  vv.  25, 
27,  it  has  been  suggested,  with  some  probability, 
that  in  the  Primitive  document  the  sons  of  Noah 
were  originally  Shem,  Japheth  and  Canaan, 
and  that  the  explanations  in  vv.  18,  22  (Ham 
the  father  of  Canaan)  were  introduced  to 
harmonise  the  story  with  the  Priestly  docu- 
ment, which  speaks  of  Shem,  Ham  and 
Japheth. 

18,  19.  These  vv.  are  a  link,  inserted  to 
connect  the  incident  with  the  account  of  the 
Flood.  20.  Noah  is  represented  as  the  first 
cultivator  of  the   vine.  21.  Noah's  intoxi- 

cation was  not  due  to  deliberate  excess,  but 
was  his  practical  discovery  of  the  properties  of 
wine.  The  story  therefore  contains  nothing 
inconsistent  with  the  character  already  ascribed 
to  him.  25.   Canaan  represents  the  nations 

of  Palestine  subdued  by  Israel.  The  justifica- 
tion of  the  conquest  lay  in  the  impure  character 


of  their  worship,  which  was  foreshadowed  in 
the  immodest  conduct  of  their  ancestor. 

26.  The  Lord  God  of  Shem]  RV  'the 
Lord  (Jehovah),  the  God  of  Shem.'  Shem 
was  the  ancestor  of  Israel,  and  these  words 
assert  Israel's  unique  position  and  calling,  as 
the  chosen  people  of  the  true  God.  Canaan 
shall  be]  RV  '  let  Canaan  be '  :  so  in  v.  27. 

27.  God  shall  enlarge]  RV  '  God  enlarge 
Japheth.'  Japheth  represents  the  remaining 
peoples  of  the  world.  They  have  a  share  in 
God's  favour,  even  though  they  do  not  know 
Him  in  His  true  character  as  Jehovah.  He 
shall  dwell]  RV  '  let  him  dwell,'  in  friendly  alli- 
ance. We  may  see  in  the  words  a  forecast  of 
the  days  when  the  descendants  of  Japheth 
should  come  to  worship  the  Lord  God  of 
Shem  :  cp.  Isa  60  ^i  5. 

CHAPTER  10 

The  Nations  descended  from  Noah 

This  section  gives  the  origins  and  situations 
of  the  nations  of  the  world,  as  their  relation- 
ships were  conceived  by  the  early  Hebrews. 
Before  passing  to  the  history  of  the  chosen 
race,  the  author  traces  the  ties  by  which  the 
rest  of  mankind  are  united  with  kis  own  people, 
and  shows  the  position  of  Israel  among  the 
nations.  Each  nation  is  regarded  as  a  unity, 
and  is  summed  up  in  the  person  of  its  sup- 
posed ancestor.  The  nations  being  treated  as 
individuals,  it  follows  that  their  mutual  rela- 
tions are  put  in  terms  borrowed  from  family 
life  ;  Gomer  is  the  '  son '  of  Japheth,  and  so 
on.  But  this  relationship  is  not  to  be  under- 
stood literally.  The  names  are  in  many  cases 
plainly  national  (the  Jebusite,  the  Canaanite, 
etc.).  Others  are  well-known  names  of  coun- 
tries (Mizraim  or  Egypt,  Asshur,  etc.)  ;  and 
nearly  all  appear  elsewhere  in  OT.  in  a 
geographical  sense  (see  especially  Ezk  27  and 
381-13).  "\;Ve  may  therefore  consider  that  the 
arrangement  is  determined  chiefly  by  geograph- 
ical considerations,  nations  in  proximity  to 
each  other  being  regarded  as  related.  Thus 
the  races  assigned  to  Japheth  (vv.  2-5)  are 
all  in  the  N.,  those  to  Ham  in  the  S.  (vv. 
6-20),  whilst  Shem's  descendants  (vv.  21-31) 
are  in  the  centre.  These  come  last  because  it 
is  this  line  which  is  followed  out  in  the  sequel. 
The  classification  of  the  nations  is  a  rough  and 
approximate  one,  made  in  far  distant  days 
when  the  science  of  ethnology  was  unknown. 
The  limitations  of  the  Hebrew  author's  know- 
ledge of  the  extent  of  the  world  are  also  appa- 
rent. The  nations  mentioned  are  mainly  those 
which  were  grouped  round  the  Mediterranean 
Sea,  and  are  generally  known  as  Caucasian,  no 
reference  being  made  to  Negro,  Mongolian  or 
Indian  races.  But  it  may  be  truly  said  that 
the  list  upon  the  whole  proves  itself  to  be  an 


16 


10.  2 


GENESIS 


10.15 


excellent  historico-geographical  monument  of         8.   Begat]   was  the  progenitor  of. 


an  age  from  which  we  no  longer  have  other 
comprehensive  sources  of  information.  While 
the  groundwork  of  the  section  is  from  the 
Priestly  document,  this  has  been  combined 
with  extracts  from  the  Primitive  document 
(108-19,21,24-30),  -jvhich  do  not  perfectly  har- 
monise with  it.  Thus  Sheba  (10  28)  and  Hav- 
ilah  (1029)  are  descendants  of  Shem,  while 
in  10"^  they  are  Cushites,  descended  from 
Ham.  The  identification  of  the  following 
names  is  uncertain :  Abimael,  Almodad, 
Anamim,  Casluhim,  Diklah,  Gether,  Hadoram, 
Hul,  Jerah,  Lud,  Ludim,  Mash,  Obal,  Eesen, 
Sabtechah,  Salah.  The  notes  on  the  names 
follow  the  groupings  of  the  text. 

2-5.  The  sons  of  Japheth.  These  are 
nations  mostly  N.  or  W.  of  Palestine. 

Gomer]  the  Cimmerians,  near  the  Crimea. 
Ashkenaz]  perhaps,  Phrygia.  Riphath]  per- 
haps,Paphlagonia  on  S.  borders  of  the  Black  Sea. 
Togarmah]     Armenia.  Magog]   supposed 

to  be  Scythians,  cp.  Ezk  382,  -v^rhere  they  are 
associated  with  Gomer.  Madai]  the  Medes. 

Javan]  Ionian  Greece.  Elishah]  some  coast 
or  island  in  the  Greek  seas  (Ezk  27")  :  Crete, 
Cyprus,  and  Greece  (Hellas)  have  been  sug- 
gested. Tarshish]  Though  of  ten  mentioned 
in  OT.,  the  identity  is  quite  uncertain.  Sug- 
gestions are  either  Tarsus  in  Cilicia,  Tartessus 
in  S.  Spain,  or  the  Etruscans  of  Italy.  Kittim] 
Citium,  the  modern  Larnaca  in  Cyprus.  Do- 
danim]  (in  1  Ch  1 "  Rodanim)  Rhodes.  Tubal] 
the  Tibareni  ;  Meshech]  the  Moschi,  both  SE. 
of  the  Black  Sea.  Tiras]  uncertain.  Per- 
haps the  Turusha,  a  seafaring  people  men- 
tioned in  Egyptian  inscriptions,  or  the  Tyrseni, 
a  people  dwelling  on  the  shores  of  the  ^gean 
Sea. 

5.  It  is  likely  that  this  v.  in  its  complete 
form  ran  :  '  Of  these  were  the  coasts  and 
islands  of  the  peoples  divided.  These  are  the 
sons  of  Japheth,  in  their  lands,  each  according 
to  his  language,  after  their  families,  in  their 
peoples.'     Cp.  vv.  20,  31. 

6,  7,  13-19.  The  sons  of  Ham. 

6.  Ham]  a  name  for  Egypt.  The  'sons  of 
Ham  '  means  the  nations  connected  with  Egypt 
geographically  or  politically.  They  were  all 
S.  of  Palestine.  Cush]  Ethiopia  or  Nubia, 
S.  of  Egypt.  Phut]  probably  the  'Punt'  of 
Egyptian  inscriptions,  on  the  E.  African  coast. 

7.  Seba  .  .  Havilah  . .  Sabtah  .  .  Raamah  .  . 
Sheba  .  .  Dedan  .  .]  all  countries  bordering  on 
the  African  or  Arabian  coasts  of  the  Red  Sea. 

8-12.  This  paragraph  interrupts  the  con- 
nexion. Before  and  after  it  are  simple  geneal- 
ogies. The  Cush  of  v.  8  is  thought  to  be  dis- 
tinct from  the  African  Cush  of  v.  7,  and  to 
stand  for  the  Kashshu  or  Cossisi,  who  were 
the  dominating  power  in  Babylonia  between 
the  16th  and  13th  centuries  B.C. 


Nimrod]  the  one  personal  figure  of  the 
chapter.  Here  his  name  is  proverbial  as  that 
of  a  mighty  hunter  (v.  9).  He  founds  both 
Babylonian  and  Assyrian'  civilisation  (vv.  10- 
12).  There  is  no  trace  of  Nimrod  as  an  his- 
torical character  on  the  monuments,  and  it  has 
been  suggested  that  the  name  (as  if  from 
marad^  '  to  rebel ')  was  a  deliberate  mutilation 
and  corruption  of  that  of  Merodach,  the  god 
of  Babylon,  made  by  one  who  wished  to  deny 
his  divine  character.  If  this  was  the  case,  the 
heathen  deity  who  caught  Tiamat  in  his  net 
has  been  transformed  in  the  Bible  story  into 
a  mere  human  huntsman,  a  creature  of  the  true 
God  (cp.  before  Jehovah,  v.  9),  and  the  ancient 
cities  that  boasted  of  their  divine  origin  are 
traced    to    a    human   founder.  10.   Babel] 

Babylon.  Erech]   Warka,  on  the  left  bank 

of  the  Euphrates.  Accad]  the  ancient  name 

of  N.  Babylonia  ;  also  a  city,  the  capital  of 
Sargon  I,  the  earliest  historical  ruler  of  all 
Babylonia.  Calneh]   probably  the  same  as 

Nippur,  the  modern  Niffer,  recently  excavated 
by  the  Pennsylvanian  expedition.  Shinar] 

an  ancient  name  for  S.  Babylonia. 

II.  Out  of  that  land  went  forth  Asshur]  RV 
'  out  of  that  land  he  (Nimrod)  went  forth  into 
Assyria.'  This  v.  correctly  indicates  that 
Assyria  owed  its  civilisation  to  Babylonia  :  it 
was  also  politically  dependent  until  the  10th 
cent.  B.C.  Nineveh]  the  modern  Kouyunjik 

on  the  Tigi'is,  the  ancient  capital  of  Assyria. 
Its  ruins  have  been  excavated  in  recent  years, 
and  numbers  of  tablets,  inscriptions,  and  carv- 
ings collected  from  its  palaces.  The  city 
Rehoboth]  RV  '  Rehoboth-ir '  ('  broad  spaces 
of  the  city ')  :  probably  a  suburb  of  Nineveh. 
Calah]  the  modern  Nimrud,  20  m.  S.  from 
Kouyunjik.          Resen]   not  known. 

The  same  is  the  (RV)  great  city]  i.e. 
Nineveh  and  the  other  three  together  formed 
the  '  gi'eat  city.' 

13,  14.   The  descendants  of  Mizraim. 

Mizraim]  the  Hebrew  name  for  Egypt. 
The  plural  form  is  supposed  to  indicate  Upper 
and   Lower  Egypt.  Lehabim]   Libya,    W. 

of     Egypt.  Naphtuhim]   perhaps     N.      of 

Lower    Egypt.  Pathrusim]    S.    or    Upper 

Egypt.  The  clause  '  Whence  went  forth  the 
Philistines '  (RV)  should  be  placed  after 
Caphtorim,  or  people  of  Crete,  with  whom  the 
Philistines  are  elsewhere  said  to  be  connected 
(Jer47i  Am 9').  They  settled  on  the  SW. 
coast  of  Canaan,  and  gave  the  name  Palestine 
to  the  country. 

15-19.  Canaan]  Phoenicia  and  Palestine. 
The  Canaanites  were  a  Semitic  race,  speaking 
a  language  near  akin  to  Hebrew.  They  are 
here  assigned  to  Ham,  perhaps  contemptuously, 
or  possibly  because  Palestine  was  a  province 
of  Egypt  previous  to  the  exodus.         Sidon] 


17 


10.  19 


GENESIS 


11.  4 


the  Phoenician  seaport.  Heth]  The  Hittites 
are  now  well  known  from  Egyptian  and 
Assyrian  inscriptions  to  have  been  a  powerful 
nation  to  the  N.  of  Palestine,  with  Carchemish 
on  the  Euphrates  and  Kadesh  on  the  Orontes 
as  their  chief  cities.  An  oiishoot  of  the  nation 
is  found  at  Hebron  :  cp.  Gn233  25  lo.  The 
Jebusite]  the  tribe  in  and  around  Jerusalem  : 
cp.  Josh  15 8.63  2 S 56-9.  The  Amorite]  one 
of  the  most  powerful  Palestinian  tribes.  In 
Assyrian  and  Egyptian  inscriptions  they  are 
called  the  Amurru,  and  "Amorite"  seems  to 
have  been  a  general  term  for  the  old  inhabit- 
ants of  Canaan  :  see  on  12  5.  According  to 
Nu  1329  they  dwelt  chiefly  in  the  mountainous 
districts.  Sihon  and  Og  were  Amorite  kings. 
The  Girgashite]  perhaps  connected  with 
Gergesa,  near  the  Sea  of  Galilee.  The 
Hivite]  a  petty  tribe  of  Central  Palestine. 
The  Arkite]  the  tribe  connected  with  the 
Phoenician  city  of  Arka,  12  m.  N.  of  Tri- 
polis.  The  Sinite]  probably  connected  with 
a  city  called  Sin,  near  Lebanon.  The  Arvad- 

ite]  Arvad  was  a  city  built  on  an  island  off 
the  Phoenician  coast  (now  Ruwad).  The 
Zemarite]  Sinsyra,  S.  of  Arvad.  The  Ha- 
mathite]  Hamath  was  a  city  on  the  Orontes. 
The  '  entering  in  of  Hamath '  was  the 
northern  limit  of  Palestine.  Most  of  these 
tribes  were  afterwards  driven  out  by  the  con- 
quering Israelites.  19.  The  border  of  the 
Canaanite]  from  Zidon  in  the  north,  to  Gaza, 
a  Philistine  city  in  the  direction  of  Gerar. 
The  other  cities  mentioned  in  v.  19  were 
probably,  but  not  certainly,  at  the  S.  end 
of  the  Dead  Sea. 

21-31.  The  sons  of  Shem.  The  nations 
connected  racially  or  geographically  with  the 
Hebrews. 

Shem  also,  the  father  of  all  the  children  of 
Eber]  Attention  is  thus  called  to  Shem  as  the 
ancestor  of  the  Hebrews  ('  children  of  Eber '). 
The  Amarna  tablets  speak  of  a  tribe  called 
the  Habiri  invading  Canaan  in  the  days  of 
Joshua,  and  many  scholars  identify  them  with 
the  Hebrews.  The  brother  of  Japheth  the 
elder]  RV  '  the  elder  brother  of  Japheth.' 
This  is  mentioned  to  show  that  though  Shem 
is  put  last,  he  was  not  the  youngest. 

22.  Elam]  NE.  of  Babylonia.  Its  capital 
was  Susa.  Asshur]  Assyi-ia.  Arphaxad] 
RY  '  Arpachshad  ' :  uncertain.  Some  connect 
it  with  the  Kasdim  or  Chaldeans  who  lived  on 
the  Persian  Gulf  and  became  rulers  of  Baby- 
lonia. Lud]  uncertain,  possibly  Lydia  in 
Asia  Minor.  Aram]  Syria,  ISTE.  of  Pales- 
tine. Damascus  was  a  Syi-ian  kingdom.  The 
Jews  in  later  times  spoke  Aramaic. 

23.  Uz]   probably  near  Edom,  see  Job  1 1. 
25.   Peleg]   '  divided.'         In  his  days  was 

the  earth  divided]  alluding  perhaps  to  the 
dispersion  of  man  described  in  c.  11. 


18 


26-30.  The  sons  of  Joktan  represent  various 
Arabian  tribes. 

Hazarmaveth]  Hadramaut  in  S.  Arabia. 
Uzal]  the  capital  of  Yemen.  Sheba  and 
Havilah]  See  prefatory  remark  and  on  v.  7. 
Ophir]  a  famous  region,  the  locality  of  which 
is  still  in  dispute.  Some  place  it  in  E.  Africa 
in  Mashonaland,  where  remarkable  remains  of 
ancient  mining  works  have  been  found,  some 
in  India,  and  some  in  S.  Arabia.  Mesha] 
NE.  Araiaia.  Sephar]  SW.  Arabia.  Unto 
Sephar,  etc.]  RM  '  toward  Sephar,  the  hill 
country  of  the  East.' 

CHAPTER  11 

The  Tower  of  Babel.    The  Descendants 
OF  Shem  to  Abraham 

We  have  here  the  ancient  Hebrew  explana- 
tion of  the  diversity  of  human  language,  and 
of  the  wide  dispersion  of  the  human  race. 
Babylon  is  represented  as  the  original  centre 
of  human  civilisation  after  the  Flood.  The 
splendid  buildings  of  Babylonia  were  among 
the  most  remarkable  achievements  of  human 
power  and  pride.  But  they  were  repugnant 
to  the  Jews  as  being  associated  with  idolatry, 
and  their  erection  is  here  regarded  as  rebellion 
against  Jehovah,  who  confounds  the  language 
of  the  builders,  and  brings  about  their  dis- 
persion. '  The  story  emphasises  the  supremacy 
of  the  One  God  over  all  the  inhabitants  of  the 
world,  and  ascribes  to  His  wisdom  that  dis- 
tribution into  languages  and  nations  which 
secured  the  dissemination  of  mankind  .  .  and 
provided  for  the  dispersion  of  civilising  influ- 
ences into  different  quarters  of  the  globe. 
Above  all,  it  teaches  that  rebellion  against 
God  is  the  original  source  of  discord.  The 
gift  of  Pentecost,  as  the  Fathers  saw,  is  the 
converse  of  the  story  of  the  Tower  of  Babel. 
The  true  unity  of  the  race,  made  known  in 
Christ  (cp.  Col  3  ^i)  is  confirmed  by  the  utter- 
ance of  the  Spirit  which  is  heard  by  all  alike. 
The  believer  "  journeys  "  not  away  from  God's 
presence,  but  draws  nigh  to  Him  by  faith ' 
(Bishop  Ryle).  The  narrative  is  from  the 
Primitive  source. 

I.  It  used  to  be  conjectured  that  Hebrew 
was  the  primitive  language  of  mankind,  but  it 
is  now  known  that  that  language  is  only  one 
branch,  and  that  not  the  oldest,  of  the  Semitic 
group  of  languages  including  Assyrian.  Ara- 
maic, Phoenician  and  Arabic.  2.  From  the 
east]  RM  '  in  the  east.'  The  writer  is  in 
Palestine.          Shinar]  S.  Babylonia. 

3.  Brick  .  .  slime  (RM  '  bitumen  ')]  These 
were  the  regular  materials  of  ancient  Baby- 
lonian architecture,  as  the  remains  of  the 
oldest  cities  still  show.  There  was  no  stone 
available  in  these  alluvial  plains. 

4.  A   city   and    a    tower]     The    principal 


11.5 


GENESIS 


11.  32 


building  in  every  ancient  city  was  its  temple, 
and  the  chief  feature  of  a  Babylonian  temple 
was  its  ziggurat  or  stage-tower.  The  remains 
of  these  towers  are  the  most  prominent  of  the 
mounds  which  mark  the  sites  of  ruined  cities. 
The  pile  of  vitrified  brick  near  Babylon, 
known  as  Birs  Nimrud,  is  the  best  known 
example  of  such  a  ziggurat,  and  early  travellers 
supposed  it  to  be  the  biblical  Tower  of  Babel. 
The  most  famous  temple-tower,  however,  and 
the  one  which  probably  gave  rise  to  the  tradi- 
tion here,  was  that  of  E-Sagila,  the  temple  of 
Bel  in  Babylon,  built  of  brick  in  seven  stages, 
the  topmost  of  which  formed  a  shrine  for  the 
god.  It  was  of  extreme  antiquity,  and  was 
restored  and  beautified  by  Nebuchadnezzar. 

Whose  top  may  reach  unto  heaven]  cp. 
Dt  1  '^^.  The  expression  '  Whose  top  is  in  the 
heavens '  has  been  found  on  inscriptions  con- 
cerning these  storied  towers,  but  it  seems  as  if 
the  writer  regarded  the  enterprise  as  an  impious 
attempt  to  scale  heaven.  Let  us  make  us  a 
name,  etc.]  The  tower  was  meant  to  procure  re- 
nown for  its  builders,  and  to  serve  as  a  centre 
and  bond  of  unity,  so  that  none  would  think  of 
leaving  it.  The  writer  seems  to  indicate  the 
intention  of  establishing  a  universal  empire. 

5.  The  LORD  came  down,  etc.]  The  words 
are  meant  to  teach  that  God  is  concerned  in 
men's  doings.  But  '  it  is  not  to  be  thought 
from  such  modes  of  expression  that  human 
characteristics  are  intended  to  be  ascribed  to 
the  Creator.  In  any  age  it  is  necessary  to 
describe  the  unknown  by  the  help  of  the 
known  ;  and  as  the  mysterious  personality  of 
God  must  ever  be  incomprehensible  to  men, 
there  is  no  means  in  which  we  can  represent 
His  relations  to  us,  except  by  using  words 
borrowed  from  our  own  faculties,  emotions, 
and  modes  of  action '  (Geikie).  6,  7.  God 
is  here  represented  as  dreading  lest  men  make 
themselves  so  powerful  as  to  become  His 
opponents.  The  v.  is  a  good  example  of  the 
anthropomorphism  characteristic  of  the  Primi- 
tive document. 

7.  Us]  God  is  conceived  as  taking  counsel 
with  the  angels  His  attendants  :  cp.  322. 

9.  Babel]  as  if  from  halal,  '  to  confound.' 
The  true  etymology,  however,  is  Bah-ilu^ 
'gate  of  God.'     See  on  4^. 

10-32.  The  descendants  of  Shem  to  Abra- 
ham. 

The  formal  list  here  is  the  continuation  of 
that  in  c.  5,  and  both  belong  to  the  Priestly 
document.  The  early  period  of  the  world's 
history  from  the  Creation  to  Abraham  is  thus 
represented  in  the  form  of  a  genealogical 
table.  The  figures  given  here  cannot  be 
regarded  as  literally  historical.  Only  300 
years  are  reckoned  to  have  elapsed  between 
the  Flood  and  the  birth  of  Abraham  (say 
2200  B.C.),  whereas  the  beginnings  of  Baby- 


lonian civilisation  can  be  traced  back  to  5000 
B.C.  As  in  c.  5,  the  number  of  generations  is 
ten,  a  number  which  is  common  in  the  lists  of 
other  ancient  nations.  It  may  have  been  sug- 
gested by  the  ten  fingers,  as  indicating  com- 
pleteness. We  may  therefore  regard  the 
present  list  as  a  conventional  arrangement  for 
bridging  over  the  interval  between  the  Flood 
and  the  beginnings  of  the  Hebrew  race,  based 
on  ancient  tradition.  It  will  be  observed 
that  the  ages  assigned  to  the  Patriarchs  enu- 
merated in  this  c.  are  much  lower  than  those 
in  c.  5.  There  is  a  continuous  reduction  from 
the  600  years  of  Shem  to  the  138  of  Nahor. 
The  names  of  the  generations  from  Shem  to 
Eber  have  already  been  given  in  1022-25^  and 
the  latter's  Arabian  descendants  in  the  line  of 
Joktan  were  there  traced.  Now  (vv.  18-26) 
his  successors  in  another  line  are  followed,  until 
the  point  of  supreme  interest  is  reached  in  the 
Birth  of  Abraham. 

14.  Eber]  the  ancestor  of  the  Hebrews. 
See  on  14^3.  26.  For  the  meaning  of  Abram 
and  Sarai  (v.  29)  see  on  c.  17.  27.  Haran] 
son  of  Terah.  The  Jewish  Book  of  Jubilees 
declares  that  he  was  bmmt  to  death,  whilst 
attempting  to  save  some  of  the  images  of  the 
gods,  when  Abraham  burnt  the  house  in  which 
they  were. 

31.  Ur  of  the  Chaldees]  or  '  Ur  Kasdim.' 
The  Chaldeans  lived  in  S.  Babylonia.  The 
modern  Mugheir,  near  the  Euphrates,  125 
m.  NW.  of  the  Persian  Gulf,  marks  the 
site  of  an  ancient  city  called  Uru,  which 
is  by  many  identified  with  the  Ur  of  this 
passage.  But  in  the  Accadian  inscriptions 
the  whole  province  of  Accad  or  N.  Babylonia 
was  called  Uri.  Haran,  the  town  (see  next 
note),  was  also  in  this  district,  and  the  difficulty 
of  explaining  why  Terah  made  the  long  journey 
of  600  m.  from  Mugheir  disappears,  if  the  Ur 
of  Genesis  ma,y  be  identified  with  Uri.  The 
family  of  Terah  was  evidently  a  pastoral  one, 
and  it  was  natural  that  they  should  make  a 
new  settlement  from  time  to  time. 

31.  Haran]  (the  Roman  Carrhce)  was  a  city 
in  Mesopotamia.  It  was  an  ancient  seat  of  the 
worship  of  the  moon  god  Sin.  Caravan  roads 
led  from  Haran  to  Syria  and  Palestine.  Terah, 
who  had  intended  to  settle  in  Canaan,  remained 
at  Haran,  and  died  there.  C.  12  tells  us  how 
Abraham  received  the  divine  command  to 
leave  his  home  and  relatives,  and,  in  reliance 
on  God's  promise,  to  settle  in  a  new  country, 
there  to  found  a  race  who  should  preserve 
the  knowledge  of  the  true  God,  and  prove  a 
blessing  to  all  mankind. 

32.  The  days  of  Terah  were  two  hundred 
and  five  years]  According  to  the  Samaritan 
text  Terah  was  145  years  old  when  he  died. 
As  Terah  was  70  at  the  birth  of  Abram  (11  26) 
and  the  latter  left  Haran  when  he  was  75, 


19 


12. 


GENESIS 


12. 


the  Samaritan  text  confirms  the  statement  in 
Ac  7  ■*  that  Abram  waited  till  after  his  father's 
death  to  leave  Haran. 

CHAPTERS  12-25 
The  History  op  Abraham 

At  this  point  the  specific  purpose  of  the 
writer  of  the  Pentateuch  begins  to  appear 
more  clearly.  Speaking  generally,  that  pur- 
pose is  to  trace  the  development  of  the  king- 
dom of  God  in  the  line  of  Israelitish  history. 
To  this  subject  the  preceding  chs.  of  Genesis 
have  formed  an  introduction,  dealing  with 
universal  history,  and  indicating  the  place  of 
Israel  among  the  other  nations  of  the  world. 
The  narrative  now  passes  from  universal 
history  to  the  beginnings  of  the  chosen  people 
and  their  subsequent  fortunes.  The  connect- 
ing link  is  furnished  in  the  person  of  Abraham, 
and  interest  is  now  concentrated  on  him,  and 
the  promises  made  to  him. 

Abraham  is  one  of  the  very  greatest  fibres 
in  the  religious  history  of  the  human  race. 
Three  great  religions  look  back  to  him  as  one 
of  their  spiritual  ancestors,  and  accept  him  as 
a  type  of  perfect  faith  and  true  religion, 
viz.  the  Jewish,  the  Mohammedan,  and  the 
Christian.  The  world  owes  to  him  its  first 
clear  knowledge  of  the  true  God,  His  spiritual 
and  holy  nature,  and  the  way  in  which  He  is 
to  be  served  and  worshipped.  How  much  of 
this  Abraham  may  have  brought  with  him 
from  Ur  of  the  Chaldees  we  do  not  know. 
Recent  discovery  points  to  a  very  close  con- 
nexion between  the  religions  of  Babylonia 
and  Israel.  That  need  not  surprise  us,  nor 
does  it  impair  the  truth  and  value  of  the 
biblical  narrative.  Every  religious  system, 
not  excepting  Christianity  itself,  is  based  upon 
the  foundations  of  the  past.  What  we  find 
in  Abraham  is  a  new  point  of  departure. 
Religious  beliefs,  opinions,  laws,  and  ideals, 
which  he  inherited,  are,  by  a  power  which  we 
cannot  explain  but  can  only  define  as  the  in- 
spiration of  God,  purified  and  elevated,  with 
the  result  that  religion  starts  afresh  with  him 
on  a  higher  level.  The  affirmation  of  the 
truth  of  monotheism  and  the  rejection  of 
human  sacrifice  in  the  worship  of  God  would, 
apart  from  other  considerations,  make  Abraham 
rank  among  the  foremost  religious  reformers 
the  world  has  seen. 

In  recent  times  an  attempt  has  been  made 
to  date  the  beginnings  of  Israel's  religion  from 
Moses,  and  to  represent  the  patriarchs  as 
'  shadows  in  the  mist '  of  antiquity  of  whose 
personal  existence  and  religious  views  nothing 
can  be  said  with  certainty.  In  particular  the 
attempt  has  been  made  to  reduce  Abraham, 
Isaac,  and  Jacob  to  later  personifications  of 
ancient  tribes.    The  patriarchs,  it  is  said,  were 


not  individuals  but  tribes,  and  what  are  repre- 
sented as  personal  incidents  in  their  lives  are 
really  events,  naively  and  vividly  described, 
in  the  history  of  the  various  tribes  to  which 
the  nation  of  Israel  owed  its  descent.  In 
some  cases  such  personification  of  tribes  may 
be  admitted  ;  e.g.  Canaan,  Japheth,  and  Shem 
clearly  represent  tribes  in  the  blessing  of 
Noah  (Gn  9^5-27  u)  1-3-2),  cp.  also  intro.  to  Gn 
49.  The  same  is  true  of  Ishmael  in  Gn  16 1-, 
and  of  Esau,  who  is  called  Edom  in  Gn  25^0 
36 1'  ^'  19.  But  admitting  that  there  may  be  an 
element  of  truth  in  this  theory,  and  that  the 
biographies  of  the  patriarchs  may  have  been 
idealised  to  some  extent  by  the  popular  feel- 
ings and  poetical  reflection  of  later  times,  the 
view  that  sees  in  the  story  of  the  patriarchs 
nothing  that  is  personal  and  historical  is 
certainly  extreme  and  improbable.  Popular 
imagination  may  add  and  modify  but  it  does 
not  entirely  create.  It  requires  some  historical 
basis  to  start  from.  That  basis  in  the  case  of 
Abraham  and  the  other  patriarchs  is  popular 
oral  tradition,  and  that  this  preserved  a  genuine 
historical  kernel  cannot  be  denied.  The 
amount  of  personal  incident,  the  circum- 
stantiality, the  wealth  of  detail  contained  in 
the  patriarchal  narratives,  can  only  be  rightly 
accounted  for  on  the  ground  that  Abraham, 
Isaac,  and  Jacob  were  real  historical  person- 
ages, leaders  of  distinct  national  and  religious 
movements,  who  made  their  mark  upon  the 
whole  course  of  subsequent  history.  Some 
time  ago,  when  an  utterly  impenetrable  veil 
of  obscurity  hung  over  all  contemporary  pro- 
fane history,  the  biblical  narrative  of  the  patri- 
archs could  find  no  corroboration  elsewhere. 
But  of  late  a  flood  of  light  has  been  thrown 
upon  ancient  Assyria,  illuminating  the  very 
period  to  which  Abraham  belongs.  A  back- 
ground has  been  provided  for  the  patriarchal 
age  ;  and  our  increasing  knowledge  of  Baby- 
lonian civilisation  and  religion  goes  to  sub- 
stantiate the  historical  nature  of  the  stories  of 
Abraham  and  the  other  patriarchs,  and  shows 
that  they  might  well  be  the  products  of  such 
a  country  and  such  an  age.  We  may  go  further, 
and  say  that  later  Jewish  history  seems  to  re- 
quire such  a  historical  basis  as  the  patriarchal 
narratives  furnish,  as  its  starting-point  and 
explanation.  Abraham,  and  not  Moses,  is  the 
father  of  the  Jewish  nation,  and  the  founder 
of  its  distinctive  religion.  It  was  no  new  and 
unknown  God  in  whose  name  Moses  spoke  to 
his  brethren  in  Egypt.  He  was  able  to  appeal 
to  Israel  in  the  name  of  a  God  who  had  already 
revealed  Himself,  in  the  name  of  '  the  God  of 
their  fathers,  the  God  of  Abraham,  the  God 
of  Isaac,  and  the  God  of  Jacob.'  See  Ex3645, 
and  note  on  the  former  passage. 

The    sections  of   the  history  of   Abraham 
(chs.    12-25)   which    are    attributed    to    the 


20 


12.  1 


GENESIS 


12.  17 


Priestly  source  are  the  following  :  1 1 27-32  1 2  ^ 

13  6,  lib,  12    161-3,15,16    171-27    1929    211^2b-5    23, 

25  ^■1''.  Those  which  form  part  of  the  Primitive 
narrative  are:    12i-'i.f3-135.7-iia,i2b-i8^  14^  15^ 

164-14,  18,  19  (except  v.  29),  20,  21  (mostly), 
22,  24,  26 1-6. 18-34.  They  afford  a  good  ex- 
ample of  the  characteristic  difEerences  in  style 
of  the  two  sources,  as  explained  in  the  art. 


'  Origin  of  the  Pentateuch.' 


CHAPTER  12 

The  Call  of  Abraham.     The  Removal  to 
Canaan.     The  Visit  to  Egypt 

I.  Had  said]  RV  'said,'  when  he  was  in 
Haran.  In  what  manner  the  call  came  to 
Abraham,  whether  through,  some  outward  in- 
cident which  he  recognised  as  the  prompting 
of  Providence,  or  through  the  suggestions  of 
the  Divine  Spirit  in  his  inmost  soul,  we  do 
not  know.  Anyhow  he  regarded  it  as  divine 
and  authoritative,  and  it  was  too  definite  to  be 
misunderstood.  Get    thee    out    of  .  .  and 

from  .  .  and  from]  The  repetition  emphasises 
the  complete  severance  of  all  connexion  with 
his  early  home  and  friends.  A  land  that  I 
will  shew  thee]  The  fact  that  the  land  was 
not  named  increased  the  demand  on  Abraham's 
faith  and  made  his  self -surrender  the  more 
absolute  ;  cp.  Heb  11.  2.  Thou  shalt  be  a 

blessing]  RV  '  Be  thou  a  blessing,'  i.e.  the 
very  embodiment  of  blessing  :  blessed  thyself, 
and  the  source  of  blessing  to  others. 

3.  In  thee  shall  all  families  of  the  earth 
be  blessed]  or,  '  bless  themselves.'  Through 
Abraham  and  his  descendants  raen  everywhere 
would  come  to  know  God  as  One  and  Holy, 
and  to  long  for  '  the  Desire  of  all  nations.' 

4.  Lot  went  with  him]  Haran,  Lot's  father, 
was  dead,  1 1  ^s.  5.  They  went  forth  to  go] 
Haran,  the  starting-place,  was  some  300  miles 
from  Canaan.  They  would  go  through  Syria, 
halting  perhaps  at  Damascus  (see  15  2),  then 
proceeding  southwai'ds  through  Bashan  to  the 
fords  of  the  Jordan  S.  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee, 
and  thence  to  Shechem  in  the  centre  of  Pales- 
tine. The  soitls  that  they  had  gotten]  i.e. 
their  slaves.  The  land  of  Canaan]  the  ancient 
name  of  Palestine.  At  this  time  much  of  Syria 
and  Canaan  was  ruled  by  the  Amorites,  who 
were  for  centuries  the  dominant  race. 

6.  Sichem]  RV  '  Shechem.'  The  term  '  the 
place  of  Shechem'  intimates  that  this  was  an 
ancient  sanctuary,  and  this  is  confirmed  by  354 
Dt  1129  274  Josh  833  2426.  The  'terebinth 
(or  turpentine  tree)  of  the  director '  (as  we  may 
render  plain  of  Moreh)  points  to  the  same 
conclusion.  Most  likely  there  was  a  grove 
of  trees,  the  rustling  of  whose  leaves  was 
interpreted  as  an  oracle  (cp.  2S524).  Oracles 
of  this  kind  were  much  resorted  to.  The 
Canaanite]  see  on  13  7. 


7.  The  Lord  appeared  unto  Abram]  see 
on  v.  1.  The  faith  of  Abraham,  in  leaving 
Haran  in  obedience  to  the  divine  call,  is  now 
rewarded  by  the  definite  promise  of  possession  of 
the  land  by  his  descendants.  There  builded 
he  an  altar]  thus  consecrating  the  place  to  God, 
who  had  there  manifested  Himself  to  him. 
The  building  of  an  altar  was  the  recognised 
act  of  worship  :  cp.  820  13  is,  etc. 

8.  Beth-el]  5  m.  S.  of  Shechem  ;  see  on 
2819.         Hai]   or,  Ai,  near  Bethel. 

9.  The  south]  or,  '  the  Negeb,'  the  district 
between  Palestine  and  the  wilderness  N.  of 
Sinai.  It  forms  a  transition  from  the  cultivated 
land  to  the  desert  ;  and,  though  not  fertile, 
yields  much  pasture  for  flocks  ;  see  Josh  1521-32. 

10-20.  Abraham's  visit  to  Egypt.  Owing 
to  a  famine,  to  which  Palestine  is  sometimes 
liable  if  the  winter  rains  fail,  Abraham  moves 
down  to  Egypt.  There,  owing  to  the  inunda- 
tions of  the  Nile  and  the  system  of  irrigation 
practised,  crops  rarely  failed,  and  neighbouring 
countries  had  their  wants  supplied :  cp.  Ac 
276,  38_  Egypt  was  already  a  highly  civilised 
country  in  Abraliam's  time.  Many  of  the 
pyramids  were  built  long  before  his  day. 

The  patriarch  on  this  occasion  appears  in  a 
very  unfavourable  light.  Admitting  the  great 
dangers  which  threatened  him  at  the  hands  of 
a  licentious  despot,  admitting  also  that  among 
Easterns  duplicity  is  admired  rather  than 
scorned,  the  readiness  he  showed  to  risk  his 
wife's  honour  in  order  to  secure  his  own  safety, 
and  his  lack  of  trast  in  God's  protection,  are 
inexcusable.  But  we  esteem  our  Bible  all  the 
more  for  its  candour  in  not  hiding  the  faults 
of  its  greatest  characters.  Of  only  One  can  it 
be  said  that  He  was  '  without  sin.' 

13.  Thou  art  my  sister]  Sarah  was  Abra- 
ham's half-sister  (20 12).  By  this  prevarication 
he  doubtless  thought  the  danger  to  himself 
would  be  less  than  if  he  had  confessed  that  she 
was  his  wife. 

15.  Pharaoh]  the  official  title  of  the  kings 
of  Egypt;  cp.  Pharaoh-Necho  (2  K  23  29). 
It  is  the  Egyptian  word  Pr^o,  '  great  house,' 
which  was  originally  applied  to  the  royal 
palace  and  estate,  and  afterwards  to  the 
king  :  cp.  our  use  of  the  word  '  Court '  to 
designate  the  king  and  his  household.  It  is 
probable  that  at  this  time  Egypt  was  governed 
by  Asiatic  conquerors  known  as  the  Hyksos, 
or  Shepherd  kings  :  see  Intro,  to  Exodus. 
1 6.  It  is  usual  in  the  East  to  give  presents  to 
the  bride's  relatives  on  such  occasions,  to  make, 
in  fact,  payment  for  the  bride  ;  cp.  Ex  22 1^ Ruth 
410.  Camels]  It  is  doubtful  if  these  were 
used  by  the  ancient  Egyptians.  Perhaps  the 
Semitic  conquerors  of  Egypt  may  have  intro- 
duced them  from  Asia  at  this  period.  17.  Cp. 
Ps  10514,  'He  suffered  no  man  to  do  them 
wrong  ;  yea,  he  reproved  kings  for  their  sakes.' 


21 


13.  1 


GENESIS 


14.  3 


CHAPTEE   13 

The   Return    op   Abraham   from  Egypt, 

AND  HIS  Separation  from  Lot 

I.  Into  the  south]  see  on  129. 
5,  6.  There  was  not  sufficient  pasturage 
and  water  (especially  after  the  recent  famine 
and  drought)  for  the  two  encampments  with 
their  flocks  and  herds,  which  doubtless  num- 
bered many  thousands. 

7.  The  Perizzite]  'dweller  in  open  villages.' 
It  is  thought  by  some  that  they  were  the 
original  inhabitants  of  the  country  who  had 
been  subdued  by  Canaanite  invaders.  The 
words  dwelled  then  in  the  land  indicate  that 
the  writer  lived  long  after  the  conquest  of 
Canaan.  8,  9.  Abraham's  offer  was  marked 
by  a  generosity  towards  his  nephew,  and  a 
readiness  to  leave  his  own  future  entirely  in 
God's  hands,  which  called  forth  at  once  the 
divine  approval:  see  vv.  14-17. 

10.  If  they  were  standing  on  the  'mountain 
east  of  Bethel'  (128  133),  Lot  would  look 
eastward  over  the  fertile  Ghor  or  Jordan 
valley,  whilst  in  all  other  directions  only  the 
barren  limestone  hills  of  Judea  would  be  visi- 
ble. Garden  of  the  Lord]  Eden.  As  thou 
comest  unto]  i.e.  in  the  direction  of.  Zoar] 
Zoar  was  a  city  near  the  Dead  Sea:  see  on  143. 
But  the  Syriac  text  reads  '  Zoan,'  i.e.  Tanis, 
a  city  in  the  Nile  Delta. 

11-13.  Lot's  choice  showed  that  he  cared 
chiefly  for  worldly  prosperity  ;  the  evil  reputa- 
tion of  his  neighbours  did  not  affect  his  decision, 
which provedafatal one:  seechs.  14andl9.  The 
sacred  narrative  now  becomes  confined  to  the 
history  of  Abraham  and  his  direct  descendants. 

12.   Land  of  Canaan]  see  on  NulS^i. 

14-17.  The  promises  of  c.  12  are  confirmed 
to  Abraham,  only  more  fully  and  definitely. 

18.  Plain]  RM  'terebinths';  see  on  126. 
Mamre]  an  Amorite  chief.  It  is  evident 
from  1413  that  Abraham  now  settled  down 
among  this  community  of  Amorites,  and  en- 
tered into  a  confederacy  with  them. 

Hebron]  an  ancient  city  20  m.  S.  of  Jeru- 
salem, earlier  called  Kirjath-Arba,  23  2.  From 
its  connexion  with  Abraham  it  soon  came  to 
be  regarded  as  a  holy  place.  Joshua  appointed 
it  to  be  one  of  the  six  cities  of  refuge,  and 
assigned  it  to  the  Levites.  For  7  years  it  was 
the  seat  of  David's  kingdom  (2S51-5).  It  is 
now  called  el-KhaUl^  '  the  friend,'  after  Abra- 
ham, '  the  friend  of  God  '  (Isa418).  Hard  by 
is  the  cave  of  Machpelah  where  the  patriarchs 
were  buried. 

CHAPTER    14 

The   Battle   of   the   Kings,   and  the 

Capture  and  Rescue  of  Lot 

Chedorlaomer,  king  of  Elam,  had  subdued 
the  Canaanites  of  the  Jordan  valley  some  years 
before  the  events  narrated  in  this  chapter.    The 


latter  had  rebelled,  and  a  campaign  for  their 
fresh  subjugation  was  undertaken,  which  in- 
cluded a  general  punitive  expedition  from  Syria 
to  the  Gulf  of  Akaba. 

Within  the  last  few  years  Assyrian  tablets 
of  great  antiquity  have  been  found,  throwing 
considerable,  if  indirect,  light  on  this  narrative, 
and  helping  to  determine  its  date.  The  cunei- 
form inscriptions  on  them  refer  to  a  series  of 
campaigns  by  the  kings  of  Elam  NE.  of 
Chaldea,  perhaps  about  2150  B.C.  Their  con- 
quests extended  over  the  vast  territories, 
which  became  later  the  Babylonian  and  As- 
syrian empires,  and  included  Syria  and  Canaan. 
"The  names  Amraphel,  Arioch,  and  (perhaps) 
Chedorlaomer  occur  in  these  inscriptions,  and 
help  to  give  a  historical  setting  to  the  present 
narrative.  The  Tel  el  Amarna  tablets  dis- 
covered in  Egypt  testify  to  the  dominion 
exercised  by  these  northern  nations  over  Syria 
and  Canaan  some  centuries  later,  perhaps 
whilst  Israel  was  still  in  Egj^t  ;  see  on  Nu 
1317. 

1.  Amraphel]  king  of  Shinar  or  Babylonia. 
He  eventually  expelled  the  Elamites  who  had 
invaded  his  territory.  Amraphel  has  by  many 
authorities  been  identified  with  Hammurabi  of 
the  inscriptions.  A  tablet  of  laws  issued  by 
this  monarch  was  discovered  at  Susa  in  1902, 
and  has  been  translated  :  see  art.  '  Laws  of 
Hammurabi.'  Arioch]  identified  with  Eri- 
akit,  king  of  Larsa  (EUasar),  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Euphrates  in  S.  Babylonia.  He  was  a 
contemporary  and  rival  of  Amraphel,  and  of 
Elamitic  family.  Chedorlaomer]  A  name 
read  by  Prof.  Sayce  as  Kudurlaghgamal  was 
found  on  a  tablet  of  Hammurabi  in  189G. 
This  reading  is,  however,  questioned.  The 
element  Kudur  (perhaps  '  servant ')  is  found  in 
the  names  of  other  Elamite  kings,  e.g.  Kiidur- 
Nahumli.  and  '  bricks  have  been  found  at 
Mugheir  (Ur)  due  to  a  king  Kndur-Mabug  who 
calls  himself  Adda-Martu^  "  ruler  of  the  west 
country,"  viz.  Canaan'  (D.).  Tidal]  identifi- 
cation uncertain.  Of  nations]  RV  '  Goiim' ; 
perhaps  the  Heb.  word  is  intended  to  describe 
the  (?«//,  a  powerful  nation  N.  of  Babylonia. 

2.  The  five  towns  (Pentapolis)  mentioned 
here  lay  round  the  Dead  Sea.  The  kings 
were  mere  chieftains,  tributaries  of  Chedor- 
laomer, who  now  threw  off  his  yoke. 

3.  The  vale  of  Siddim  which  is  the  Salt 
Sea]  The  words  imply  that  what  had  been 
the  fertile  vale  of  Siddim  was  covered,  in  the 
author's  time,  by  the  Salt  (Dead)  Sea.  It  is  a 
disputed  question  whether  this  vale  in  which 
were  the  '  cities  of  the  plain,'  was  situated  at 
its  N.  or  S.  end.  'For  the  N.  end,  it  is  argued 
that  Abraham  and  Lot  looked  upon  the  cities 
from  near  Bethel  (13^0)^  whence  it  would  be 
impossible  to  see  the  S.  end  of  the  Dead  Sea; 
that  the  name  "  Circle  (or  plain)  of  Jordan  "  is 


22 


14.  4 


GENESIS 


14.  14 


inapplicable   to   the    S.    end  ;    and   that   the 
presence  of  five  cities  there  is  impossible.    On 
the  other  hand,  at  the  S.  end  of  the  Dead  Sea 
there  lay,  through  Roman  and  mediaeval  times, 
a  city  called  Zoara  by  the  Greeks  and  Zughar 
by  the  Arabs,  which  was  identified  by  all  as 
the  Zoar  of  Lot.     Jebel  Usdum,  at  the  SE. 
end,    is    the    uhcontested    representative    of 
Sodom.     The   name    Kikhar  ("  circle ")  may 
surely  have  been  extended  to  the  S.  of  the 
Dead  Sea  ;  just  as  to-day,  the   Ghoi-  (lower 
Jordan  valley)  is  continued  a  few  miles  to  the 
S.  of  Jebel  Usdum.     Jewish  and  Arab  tradi- 
tions fix  on  the  S.  end  ;  and  finally  the  material 
conditions  are  more  suitable  there  than  on  the 
N.  end  to  the  description  of  the  region  both 
before  and  after  the  catastrophe,  for  there  is 
still  sufficient  water  and  verdure  on  the  E. 
side  of  the  Ghor  to  suggest  the  Garden  of  the 
Lord,  while  the  shallow  bay  and  long  marsh 
at  the  S.   end  may,  better  than   the    ground 
at  the  N.  end  of  the  sea,  hide  the  secret  of 
the  overwhelmed  cities '  (G.  A.  Smith).     The 
Dead  Sea,  which  is  about  46  m.  long  by  9  m. 
wide,    is   now    nearly   divided   in    two    parts 
towards  the  S.  end  by  a  tongue  of  land  jutting 
from    the   E.   shore.     This    tongue   probably 
once  joined  the  opposite  shore,  and  formed 
the  S.  limit  of  the  Sea:  but  it  is  conjectured 
that,  by  the  action  of  an  earthquake,  a  subsi- 
dence took  place,  and,  as  Prof.  Smith  hints, 
what   had  been   the   fertile    vale    of    Siddim 
became  a  desolate  lagoon.     The  saltness  of 
the  water  (26  per  cent,  as  compared  with  the 
4  per  cent,  of  the  ocean)  is  due  to  the  presence 
of  a  mountain  of  rock  salt  (Jebel  Usdum)  at  the 
S.  end  of  the  sea.     Fish  cannot  live  in  it,  not 
so  much  owing  to  its  saltness  as  to  the  excess 
of  bromide  of  magnesium  ;  and  the  extreme 
buoyancy  of  its  waters  is  well  known.     The 
position  of  this  salt  mountain,  taken  in  con- 
nexion   with     19 -'5    and    the    occurrence    of 
bitumen   pits   at   the    S.  end   (see  on  v.  10), 
supports  the  theory  of  the  position  of   the 
cities  just  mentioned.     The  name  '  the  Dead 
Sea '  occurs  nowhere  in  the  Bible,  and  has  not 
been  found  earlier  than  the  2nd  cent.  a.d. 

4.  They]  i.e.  the  Canaanite  chieftains. 
They  refused  to  pay  tribute. 

5  f .  The  Campaign  of  Chedorlaomer.  Pass- 
ing Hamath  in  Syria,  and  Damascus,  the  in- 
vaders first  attacked  the  Rephaim,  a  race  of 
great  stature,  who  lived  in  the  Bashan  dis- 
trict, E.  of  Jordan.  Their  chief  city  was 
Ashteroth  Karnaim,  meaning,  perhaps,  'Ashta- 
roth  of  the  two  horns.'  '  Ashtoreth,  the 
goddess  of  the  Zidonians,  and  associated  com- 
monly with  Baal  in  worship  (1 K 11 5  2  K  23 13), 
was  the  female  or  productive  principle  in  nature. 
She  is  identified  with  Ishtar  (Assyria)  and  As- 
tarte  (Greece  and  Rome).  Sometimes  she  is 
regarded  as  the  Moon-goddess  (Baal  =  Sun,  cp. 


Gnl45),  sometimes   as  Venus,  the  goddess  of 
love.    Her  image  of  wood,  cp.  Dt  1 6  21 2  K  23  ^^^ 
was  called  an  Asherah  (AV  "  grove  ")  '  ('  Camb. 
Compn.  Bible').       Zuzims]   or  Zamzummims, 
in  the  country  between  the  rivers  Ai'non  and 
Jabbok:  cp.  Dt220.        Ham]  Perhaps  Rabbath 
Ammon   to    S.   of    Bashan,    or    Hameitat,    6 
m.   S.  of  the  Dead  Sea.     The    Peshitto  and 
the  Yulgate  render  '  among  them  '  for  in  Ham. 
Emims]    They  held  what  became  the  land  of 
Moab:  cp.  Dt2iof.       Shaveh  Kiriathaim]   i.e. 
'  the  plain  of  Kiryathaim.'     It  is  mentioned 
on  the  Moabite  Stone,  but  the  site  is  disputed : 
cp.  Nu3237.         6.   Proceeding  S.  the  invaders 
smote  the  Horites,  cave-dwellers  in  the  moun- 
tainous district  of  Seir,  afterwards  held  by 
the   Edomites,    descendants   of    Esau.      This 
district   extends   from  the  Dead  Sea  to  the 
Gulf   of   Akaba.     The   wonderful   rock   city 
Petra  may  have  been  hollowed  out  by  them. 
Thence   they  proceeded   to  Elath,    near   the 
wilderness  of  Paran,  the  scene  of  the  forty 
years'  wandering,  known    as  Et-Tih:  see  on 
2121.      Turning    to    the    north-west    further 
victories  were  gained  over  the  Amalekites  at 
Kadesh  Barnea,  called  also  En-Mishpat  ('well 
of  judgment'),  and  over  the  Amorites  at  Ha- 
zezon-tamar,  or  Engedi,  on  the  W.  side  of  the 
Dead  Sea.         8-10.   The  vale  of  Siddim  was 
now  reached,  and  was  the  scene  of  a  fierce 
battle  with  the  five  Canaanite  kings.         10. 
Slimepits]   Wells   of  inflammable  bitumen,   a 
mineral  pitch  allied  to  naphtha.     Masses  of 
bitumen  are  still  thrown  up  in  the  S.  portion 
of  the  lake.     The  Canaanite  armies  seem  to 
have    been    snared    in    the    slimy   substance. 
The  king  of  Sodom  .  .  fell  there]     This  refers 
rather  to  his  army,  as  we  find  him  welcoming 
Abraham  on  his  return  (v.  17).         12.  Lot 
with  his  wealth  would  be  a  desirable  prisoner. 

13.  The  Hebrew]  Abraham  may  have  been 
so  called  from  his  ancestor  Eber  (11 1*).  As 
the  Heb.  ibrl^  however,  means  '  of  the  country 
beyond,'  the  title  may  have  been  given  to  him 
by  the  Canaanites  because  he  had  come  from 
across  the  Euplirates.  LXX  renders,  '  Abra- 
ham the  crosser.'  In  OT.  the  word  generally 
occurs  in  the  mouth  of  foreigners  or  in  con- 
nexion with  them:  cp.  Gn40i5  4332  IS  13, 14, 
and  some  scholars  consider  it  probable  that 
the  present  narrative  may  come  from  a 
Canaanite  source.  The  Jews  called  them- 
selves '  Israel,'  '  Israelites.'  Plain  of  Mamre] 
i.e.  Hebron:  see  on  13 1^. 

14.  This  number  of  able-bodied  men  in 
Abraham's  household  shows  that  he  was  now 
a  chieftain  of  great  importance.  He  also 
had  allies  in  the  venture :  see  v.  24.  14.  Dan] 
known  in  Abraham's  day  as  Laish.  It  was 
near  the  sources  of  the  Jordan,  some  30  m. 
N.  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee.  In  later  days  part 
of  the  tribe  of  Dan  settled  there  (Jg  18  27-29). 


23 


14.  15 


GENESIS 


15.  5 


15.  The  Elamite  army  was  doubtless  much 
larger  than  Abraham's  following,  but  the  attack 
from  different  quarters  in  the  darkness  created 
a  panic,  similar  to  that  caused  by  Gideon's 
men  (Jg7).         Hobah]  N.  of  Damascus. 

17.  The  king  of  Sodom]  see  on  v.  10. 
The  king's  dale]  unknown.  Perhaps  the 
place  where  Absalom  set  up  a  pillar :  see 
2  S 18 1®.    Josephus  says  it  was  near  Jerusalem. 

18.  Melchizedek]  The  word  may  mean 
'  Sidik'  (a  deity)  'is  my  king,'  although  in  Heb 
7  the  Jewish  writer  in  connexion  with  his 
argument  explains  it  as  '  King  of  righteous- 
ness.' In  Josh  103,  five  hundred  years  later, 
we  find  another  king  of  Jerusalem  whose 
name  has  the  same  termination,  viz.  Adoni- 
zedec,  i.e.  '  Sidik  is  my  lord.'  Melchizedek 
was  king  of  Salem,  the  chief  town  of  the 
Jebusites,  known  to  us  as  Jerusalem.  The 
Amarna  letters  (1400  B.C.,  written  in  cunei- 
form characters  on  clay  tablets)  which  passed 
between  the  rulers  of  Egypt  and  their  officers 
in  Canaan  (at  that  time  tributary  to  Egypt), 
show  that  its  name  was  then  Uru-Salim,  '  the 
city  of  peace.'  Among  these  tablets  are 
letters  from  its  king  Ebed-tob  to  the  Pharaoh 
of  the  time,  in  one  of  which  he  states  that 
his  office  was  not  an  hereditary  one,  but  that 
he  owed  his  position  to  the  Egyptian  king. 
Cp.  Heb  7  3,  '  without  father  or  mother.' 

Brought  forth  bread  and  -wine]  to  refresh 
Abraham  and  his  party. 

He  was  the  priest  of  the  most  high  God] 
This  Canaanite  chieftain  was  both  king  and 
priest,  a  combination  not  uncommon  in 
those  days:  cp.  Jethro  (Ex  1812).  'He 
(Melchizedek)  is  designated  priest  of  El 
Elyon,  the  most  high  God,  whom  Abra- 
ham, as  we  see  from  v.  22,  could  in  a  general 
way  acknowledge  as  his  god.  This  agrees 
very  well  with  the  findings  of  the  history 
of  religions.  There  is  abundant  evidence 
for  the  name  El  or  11  as  the  oldest  proper 
name  of  deity  among  the  Babylonians,  As- 
syrians, Phoenicians,  and  Sabeans,  .  .  among 
foreign  peoples  he  was  early  pushed  into  the 
background  by  younger  gods  who  only  ex- 
pressed particular  aspects  of  his  being  .  .  but 
Melchizedek  in  his  worship  still  held  fast  to 
him  as  the  old  sovereign  god,  the  ruler  of  the 
universe  '  (D.).  20.  Abraham,  recognising  in 
Melchizedek  a  priest  of  the  true  God,  receives 
his  blessing,  and  gives  him  as  God's  repre- 
sentative a  tithe  (tenth  part)  of  the  spoils  he 
has  just  taken  as  a  thank  offering.  Other 
instances  of  the  payment  of  tithes  are  Gn  28  22 
Lv2730  Nu313i*-  2S811. 

21.  Give  me  the  persons,  and  take  the  goods 
to  thyself]  The  victor  used  to  keep  the  whole 
booty,  including  prisoners  who  became  his 
slaves.  The  king  of  Sodom  proposes  that 
Abraham  should  restore  the  captives  but  keep 


the  spoil.  22-24.  Abraham  nobly  refuses  to 
keep  anything  for  himself,  but  claims  their 
share  of  the  spoils  for  his  Amorite  allies. 
Possibly  the  character  of  the  Sodomites  made 
any  transaction  with  them  odious  to  him. 

22.  I  have  lift  up  mine  hand]  a  form  of  swear- 
ing :  cp.  Ex  68.  The  LORD,  the  most  high 
God]  Jehovah  El  Elyon.  Note  that  Abraham 
prefixes  Jehovah  to  the  title  used  by  Mel- 
chizedek, '  as  if  to  claim  for  Him  the  exclusive 
right  to  supreme  divinity.' 

23.  Shoelatchet]  or  '  sandal  thong  '  :  i.e.  a 
thing  of  the  least  value. 

Note.  Melchizedek  is  referred  to  again  twice 
in  the  Bible  (PsllQ-^  Heb  5-7),  and  each  time 
as  a  type  of  the  priesthood  of  Christ.  '  The 
Melchizedek  type  of  priesthood  is,  first,  a  royal 
priesthood  (king  of  righteousness)  ;  second,  a 
righteous  priesthood  (king  of  righteousness)  ; 
third,  a  priesthood  promotive  of  peace,  or  ex- 
ercised in  the  country  of  2^^(^(^^  (king  of 
Salem  =  king  of  j^eace)  ;  fourth,  a  personal., 
not  an  inherited,  dignity  (without  father,  with- 
out mother,  i.e.  so  far  as  the  record  is  con- 
cerned) ;  fifth,  it  is  an  eternal  priesthood 
(without  beginning  of  days  or  end  of  life — so 
far  as  the  record  is  concerned) '  (HDB.  art. 
'  Hebrews ').     See  on  Heb  5,  6,  7. 

CHAPTER  15. 

God  Promises  an  Heir  to  Abraham  and 
THE  Land  of  Canaan  for  his  Descend- 
ants. The  Promise  is  Ratified  by  a 
Covenant 

The  passage  is  from  the  Primitive  source. 
A  somewhat  similar  account  from  the  Priestly 
narrative  is  given  in  c.  17.  The  repetition 
shows  the  importance  attached  by  the  com- 
piler of  Genesis  to  these  records  of  the  pro- 
mises as  testifying  to  the  divine  purposes  for 
the  Hebrew  people. 

I .  Vision]  probably  a  trance,  with  the  senses 
dormant,  but  the  mind  awake  to  spiritual  im- 
pressions: cp.  Nu  243>4, 15, 16_  Fearnot]  It 
is  thought  that  Abraham  was  depressed  at  the 
thought  (1)  of  his  childlessness,  and  (2)  of  the 
powerful  enemies  he  had  made  through  the 
rescue  of  Lot.  To  remove  the  latter  fear  God 
promises  Himself  to  be  his  shield.  Thy  ex- 
ceeding great  reward]  RM  '  thy  reward  shall  be 
exceeding  gi-eat.'  2.  What  wilt  thou  give 
me]  of  what  avail  are  these  promised  posses- 
sions, with  no  child  to  inherit  them  ?  The 
steward,  etc.]  RV '  he  that  shall  be  possessor 
of  my  house,'  i.e.  the  heir,  would  be  Eliezer 
of  Damascus,  a  servant.  The  Damascenes  have 
always  boasted  a  connexion  with  Abraham. 

4.  Abraham  is  assured  that  his  heir  should 
be    a  child   of   his   own  begetting.  5.   He 

brought  him  forth]    This  was  probably  part  of 
the  vision.        Tell  the  stars]  i.e.  count  them. 


24 


15.  6 


GENESIS 


16.  12 


6.  He  counted  it  to  him  for  righteousness] 
Faithful  Abraham  gave  up  his  own  will  to 
the  will  of  God,  did  not  seek  to  force  his 
way  in  the  world  (1422),  but  awaited  God's 
blessing  in  His  good  time.  And  this  attitude 
of  trust  and  submission  was  esteemed  by  God. 
St.  Paul  quotes  this  passage  to  show  that  man- 
kind are  accepted  by  God  through  their  faith 
apart  from  any  observance  of  the  Mosaic  law, 
which  indeed  had  not  at  the  period  referred 
to  in  this  passage  come  into  existence.  See  Ro 
4  and  5  Gal 3  Hebll  Jas2. 

8.  Abraham  asks  for  some  pledge  of  the 
fulfilment  of  the  promises.  9.  God  con- 
descends to  confirm  the  promise  of  the  pos- 
session of  the  land  by  a  visible  sign.  Abraham 
is  directed  to  make  the  usual  preparations 
observed  in  old  times  when  two  parties  were 
about  to  make  an  important  covenant  or  alli- 
ance :  cp.  Jer34i'^.  Certain  animals  and  birds 
used  in  sacrifice  were  slain,  and  the  bodies  of 
the  former  divided  in  two  parts  :  hence  the 
expression  to  '  strike  '  or  '  cut '  a  covenant. 
The  two  parties  then  passed  between  the  parts, 
met  in  the  middle,  and  took  an  oath  of  agree- 
ment, the  position  signifying  that  if  they  were 
false  to  the  covenant  they  merited  a  similar 
fate  to  that  of  the  slain  animals. 

ID.  The  birds  divided  he  not]  see  on  Lv 
1 1'''.  Probably  they  were  put  opposite  one 
another.  ii.   Fowls]   RV  '  birds  of  prey  '  : 

an  omen  of  the  troubles  which  his  descendants 
must  encounter  before  entering  into  their 
possession.  12.  An  horror  of  great  dark- 

ness] lit.  '  a  terror,  even  great  darkness,'  pre- 
ceding the  wondrous  sight  of  v.  17. 

13.  Abraham  is  given  a  glimpse  of  the 
fortunes  of  his  descendants.  A  land  that 
is  not  theirs]  i.e.  Egypt.  Centuries  must 
elapse  before  the  family  of  Abraham  had 
grown  into  a  nation  fit  to  take  possession  of 
Canaan.  Much  of  this  time  was  to  be  spent 
in  Egypt,  where  trials  and  afflictions  would 
discipline  them  to  become  the  consecrated 
nation  who  were  to  preserve  the  knowledge 
of  Jehovah. 

Four  hundred  years]  see  on  Ex  1 2*10.  The 
four  generations  of  v.  16  taken  in  agreement 
with  this  V.  must  mean  periods  of  a  hundred 
years  each,  but  there  are  no  data  by  which  we 
can  verify  or  correct  the  figures.  15.  Go  to 
thy  fathers]   see  on  2.5^.  16.  The  iniquity 

of  the  Aniorites  is  not  yet  full]  The  Amorites 
here  stand  for  the  races  of  Canaan  generally. 
They  are  to  be  spared  for  400  years,  until 
their  idolatry  and  gross  vices  have  exhausted 
the  forbearance  of  God  :  cp.  Dt  7  ^  and  Intro, 
to   Joshua.  17.   Burning    lamp]    probably 

'  torch,'  though  the  meaning  is  uncertain.  The 
ratification  of  the  covenant  now  took  place  by 
a  bright  light  enveloped  in  cloud,  the  symbol 
of  God's  presence,  passing  between  the  victims  : 

25 


cp.  Ex  3  2, 3  4034^  etc.  God  gave  the  promise 
of  the  inheritance  of  the  land  :  Abraham's 
part  was  continued  trust,  patience,  and 
obedience. 

18.  The  river  of  Egypt]  probably  the  Wady 
el  Arish  on  the  border  of  Egypt.  In  the 
days  of  Solomon  the  promise  was  fulfilled 
(IK 4 21, 24).  19.  Kenites  and  Kenizzites] 
Tribes  of  the  Negeb  and  Southern  Desert. 
The  Kenites  were  widely  spread  from  Midian 
to  Naphtali  :  cp.  Jg  1 16  4  n.  Kadmonites]  of 
the   Syro- Arabian  Desert.  20,  21.    Periz- 

zites]  see  on  137.  Rephaims]  see  on  145. 
The  others  were  peoples  of  Canaan  :  see 
on  1016. 

CHAPTER    16 

The  Circumstances  connected  with 
THE  Birth  of  Ishmael 

I,  2.  Abraham  was  now  eighty -five  years 
old,  Sarah  was  seventy-five,  and  the  promise 
of  an  heir  seemed  no  nearer  fulfilment. 
Despairing  of  offspring  herself,  Sarah  per- 
suades Abraham  to  take  her  Egyptian  maid 
Hagar  as  a  secondary  wife,  intending,  accord- 
ing to  ancient  custom,  to  regard  the  issue  as 
her  own.  But  her  lack  of  faith  in  God's 
promises  was  productive  of  very  unhappy 
consequences.  4.  Hagar]  The  Arabs  claim 
descent  from  Hagar  tkrough  Ishmael.  Her 
name,  which  means  '  flight,'  is  akin  to  the 
word  Hegira,  used  of  the  flight  of  Mohammed 
from  Medina  to  Mecca  (622  a.d.),  an  event 
from  which  the  Mohammedans  date  their  era. 

Her  mistress  was  despised  in  her  eyes]  be- 
cause she  was  fruitful  while  Sarah  was  barren  : 
cp.  Hannah  and  Peninnah  (1  S  1  6).  It  was 
accounted  a  great  disgrace  and  a  sign  of  God's 
displeasure  to  be  without  offspring  :  cp.  3023. 

5.  My  wrong  be  upon  thee]  i.e.  May  the 
blame  for  the  wrong  done  to  me  (by  Hagar's 
conduct)  fall  on  thee. 

7.  The  angel  of  the  Lord]   see  on  Ex  3  2. 

Shur]  The  word  means  '  wall '  and  was 
probably  applied  to  the  chain  of  fortresses  on 
the  NE.  frontier  of  Egj'pt.  The  Desert  of 
Shur  was  the  wilderness  bordemng  on  these 
fortresses  which  were  built  to  keep  out  Asiatic 
invaders.  7,  8.   Hagar  might  flee  from  the 

presence  of  Sarah,  but  not  from  the  knowledge 
and  sight  of  God.  He  finds  her,  and  addresses 
her,  as  He  did  Adam,  when  he  concealed  him- 
self in  the  Garden  of  Eden  :  cp.  1  §.  9. 

10.  A  promise  fulfilled  in  the  Arab  race  : 
see    on    v.    4.  11.   Ishmael]    'El    (God) 

hears.'  12.  A  wild  man]  RV  '  as  a  wild-ass 
among  men.'  The  wild  ass  is  of  an  untame- 
able  nature,  ever  roving  :  cp.  Job  39  ^f.  Such 
was  Ishmael,  and  such  are  his  Arab  descend- 
ants. He  shall  dwell  in  the  presence  of  all 
his  brethren]  i.e.  shall  preserve  his  independ- 
ence, though  close  to  them  ;  a  true  forecast  of 


16.  13 


GENESIS 


17.  25 


the  history  of  Ishmael's  descendants.  But 
another  translation  gives,  '  He  shall  dwell  to 
the  east  of  his  brethren.'  13.   Have  I  also 

here,  etc.]  Hagar  realises  that  she  still  lives 
though  God  has  looked  upon  her. 

14.  Beer-lahai-roi]  'the  well  of  the  living 
one  who  hath  seen '  God  :  see  on  c.  21  for  St. 
Paul's  references  to  Hagar. 

CHAPTER    17 
The  Covenant  of  Circumcision 

This  c.  is  from  the  Priestly  document,  of 
which  it  shows  marked  characteristics  :  see 
preface  to  c.   15. 

I.  Ninety  years  old  and  nine]  Ishmael  was 
now  thirteen  years  old,  and  Abraham  probably 
expected  no  other  heir.  But  his  faith  was 
to  be  put  to  a  further  test.  The  Almighty 
God]  Heb.  el  Shaddal :  the  name  of  power 
shows  the  ability  to  perform  what  was  pro- 
mised. Walk  before  me,  and  be  thou  per- 
fect] i.e.  always  conscious  of  My  presence, 
and  living  a  pious,  whole-hearted,  upright  life. 
These  are  the  conditions  required  by  God  in 
connexion  with  the  covenant  about  to  be 
made.  2.  God,  on  His  part,  promises  to 
make  Abraham  the  ancestor  of  many  nations, 
and  to  give  Canaan  to  his  descendants. 

4,  5.  The  patriarch's  name  in  Babylonia  had 
been  Abram,  meaning,  perhaps,  'exalted 
father,'  or,  according  to  others,  'Ram  (the 
lofty  one)  is  father '  ;  cp.  Hiram,  '  Ram  is 
brother.'  Under  the  form  Abu-Ramu  it 
appears  to  be  a  recognised  proper  name  in  the 
Assyrian  inscriptions.  On  entering  into  a  new 
relationship  with  God  by  covenant,  of  which 
the  sign  was  circumcision,  the  patriarch  received 
a  new  name,  '  Abraham.'  This  is  probably  a 
variation  on  '  Abram,'  but  its  meaning  is  un- 
known, the  popular  explanation  '  father  of 
multitude '  being  considered  untenable.  In 
commemoration  of  this  event  Jewish  children 
receive  their  name  when  admitted  to  the 
covenant  by  circumcision  (Lk  1  ^9),  as  do 
Christian  children  when  baptised  into  the 
Church  of  Christ.  The  '  many  nations '  of 
w.  4  and  6  "included  not  only  Israelites  but 
also  Ishmaelites,  Edomites  (through  Esau), 
Midianites  (by  Keturah),  Arabs  (by  Hagar). 

ID.  This  is  my  covenant]  i.e.  this  is  the 
sign  of  the  covenant,  A^iz.  circumcision.  Note 
that  both  parties  undertake  obligations  here 
as  contrasted  with  the  covenant  in  c.  15. 

Circumcision]  (lit.  '  cutting  round ')  is  the 
removal  of  the  foreskin.  The  rite  has  always 
been  practised  by  the  Jews  from  Abraham's 
time  to  the  present  day.  Other  ancient  nations 
also  observed  the  ceremony,  such  as  the 
Egyptians  and  Phoenicians,  but  not  the  Philis- 
tines, Babylonians,  Greeks  or  Romans.  It 
is  still  observed,  not  only  by  Mohammedan 
nations  who    claim   to   be    descended    from 


Abraham,  but  by  the  Abyssinian,  Egyptian, 
Polynesian  and  other  peoples.  Among  these 
latter  the  rite  is  generally  performed  about 
the  age  of  ten  or  twelve  years,  as  a  preliminary 
to  marriage,  and  as  admitting  to  full  civil 
and  religious  tribal  privileges.  With  the 
Hebrews  circumcision  had  a  special  significance. 
They  regarded  it  as  a  sign  of  the  covenant 
between  God  and  His  people,  and  they  alone 
of  all  nations  circumcised  their  infants,  thereby 
devoting  them  from  their  birth  to  Jehovah. 
With  them,  too,  the  shedding  of  the  blood  of 
that  part  upon  which  depends  the  perpetuation 
of  life  was  the  symbol  of  the  continuous  con- 
secration of  the  nation  from  one  generation  to 
another.  The  spiritual  significance  of  the  rite 
is  frequently  insisted  on  by  the  inspired  writers. 
The  outward  sign  must  be  accompanied  by  the 
putting  away  of  fleshly  and  sinful  desires  :  cp. 

Dtl016Ro228,29. 

The  Acts  of  the  Apostles  and  the  Epistles 
to  the  Romans,  Galatians,  and  Colossians 
witness  to  the  desire  of  the  Jewish  Christians 
to  impose  the  obligation  of  circumcision  on 
their  Gentile  brethren,  and  to  the  struggle  in 
which  St.  Paul  was  successful  in  freeing  his 
converts  from  the  yoke  of  Judaism. 

11.  The  flesh  of  your  foreskin]  better,  'the 
foreskin  of  your  flesh.'  12.  Eight  days  old] 
Until  the  eighth  day  children  were  considered 
unclean,  and  so  unfit  to  be  offered  to  God. 

12,  13.  The  law  of  circumcision  applied  to 
all  male  members  of  Jewish  households,  who 
were  henceforth  regarded  as  Israelites,  and 
shared  in  the  national  and  religious  privileges 
of  the  chosen  race.  14.  That  soul  shall  be 
cut  off  from  his  people]  This  expression  seems 
usually  to  mean  that  the  offender  is  to  be 
excommunicated,  or  cut  off  from  all  connexion 
with  the  Hebrew  community,  and  from  any 
share  in  the  blessings  of  the  covenant,  nor 
could  he  claim  protection  for  life  or  property  : 
cp.  Ex  12 15, 19  Nu  913 19 13.  But  the  sentence  of 
death  seems  sometimes  to  be  added  in  the  case 
of  presumptuous  sins,  such  as  the  sacrificing 
of  children  to  Moloch,  and  the  deliberate 
nonobservance  of  the  sabbath  :  see  Ex  3 1 1* 
L V  20 1-6  Nu  1 5  30-36.  '  Cutting  off '  in  such  cases 
is  plainly  equivalent  to  putting  to  death. 

15.  Sarah's  name,  like  Abraham's,  is  changed 
on  admission  to  the  covenant.  Sarah  means 
'princess'  :  the  exact  meaning  of  Sarai  is 
doubtful.  18.   Abraham  was  imwilling  that 

Ishmael  should  be  deposed  from  his  position 
as  heir:  but  God  would  prosper  him  also  (v.  20). 

19.  Isaac]  i.e.  he  laughs.  The  name  would 
recall  an  event  which  made  Abraham  laugh 
with  joy  and  probably  also  with  wonder. 

20.  Twelve  princes]   see  25 12  f. 

25.  Ishmael  was  circumcised  when  thirteen 
years  old,  the  age  still  observed  by  Moham- 
medans: cp.  on  17-^^. 


26 


18.  1 


GENESIS 


19.  1 


CHAPTER   18 

The  Visit  of  the  Angels  to  Abraham. 
The  Judgment  of  Sodom  announced. 
Abraham  intercedes  on  its  behalf 

In  this  beautiful  narrative  the  writer  dwells 
on  the  unique  revelations  of  God's  purposes 
with  which  Abraham  was  favoured.  In  after 
times  the  patriarch  received  the  title  of  '  the 
friend  of  God '  (2  Ch  20  7  Isa  4 1 8  Jas  2  23). 
The  c.  is  from  the  Primitive  document. 
The  religious  lessons,  the  vivid  description, 
and  the  consciousness  of  God's  immediate 
presence  and  interest  in  the  aifairs  of  men  are 
all  characteristic  of  that  source.  See  on  11  ^ 
Ex  24 10  and  Intro.  Exodus,  §  3,  for  the  anthi-o- 
pormorphisms  of  the  c. 

1.  In  the  plains  of  Mamre]  RV  'by  the 
oaks  of  Mamre,'  i.e.  Hebron  :  cp.  13 1^. 

2.  Three  men]  heavenly  visitors,  angels,  as 
appears  from  19 1.  With  one,  God  identifies 
Himself  (v.  13). 

3.  My  Lord]  This  was  only  a  title  of  re- 
spect; it  is  not  Lord,  i.e.  Jehovah.  Abraham 
was  entertaining  angels  unawares  (Heb  13  2). 

4.  The  difliculty  of  procuring  the  neces- 
saries of  life  when  travelling  in  the  East  causes 
the  duty  of  hospitality  to  be  observed  to  an  ex- 
tent unknown  to  ourselves.  Lane,  in  '  Modern 
Egyptians,'  says  that  we  have  here  a  perfect 
picture  of  the  manner  in  which  a  modern  Beda- 
wee  sheikh  receives  travellers  arriving  at  his 
encampment.  He  immediately  orders  his  wife 
or  woman  to  make  bread;  slaughters  a  sheep 
or  some  other  animal,  and  dresses  it  in  haste  ; 
and  bringing  milk  and  any  other  provisions 
that  he  may  have  ready  at  hand,  sets  all  before 
his  guests.  If  these  be  persons  of  high  rank, 
he  stands  by  them  while  they  eat,  as  Abraham 
did  in  this  case.  The  ready  hospitality  of 
Abraham  is  in  striking  contrast  with  the  con- 
duct of  the  Sodomites  to  the  same  visitors. 
Wash  your  feet]  since  they  only  wore  sandals. 

6.  Measure]  Heb.  Sfiuh,  nearly  a  peck  and 
half.  From  Mt  1 3  ^^  it  seems  that  three  mea- 
sures made  a  batch  of  bread.  Cakes]  thin 
biscuits  of  meal,  baked  on  an  iron  plate  on  the 
heated  hearthstone.  7.  A  calf]  Owing  to 
the  hot  climate  only  fresh  meat  can  be  used, 
but  it  is  tender  if  cooked  at  once.  Animal  food 
is  very  rarely  eaten  except  at  festivities,  or  on 
the  arrival  of  a  distinguished  visitor.  A  quick 
method  usually  practised  is  to  broil  slices  of 
meat  on  skewers.  8.  Butter]  rather,  '  curdled 
milk,'  which  is  very  refreshing  and  still  con- 
stantly drunk  in  Palestine  and  Arabia.  Cp. 
Jg5-^.  The  Arabs  make  butter  by  shaking 
cream  in  a  leather  bag  :  but  owing  to  the  heat 
it  does  not  get  firmly  set. 

10.  According  to  the  time  of  life]  RV  'when 
the  season  cometh  round,'  'at  the  time  reviv- 
ing,' i.e.  'when  this  time  revives,  a  year  from 

27 


now'  (D.):  cp.  2K4i6,i7.  12.   Laughed] 

in   unbelief,   not  in  joy.  14.   Is  any  thing 

too  hard,  etc.]  Cp.  the  Angel  Gabriel's  words 
to  Mary,  '  With  God  nothing  shall  be  impos- 
sible '  (Lk  1 3T). 

17-21.  God  reveals  to  Abraham  the  purpose 
of  the  visit  to  Sodom.  It  was  essential  that 
His  servant  as  founder  of  a  great  nation  should 
understand  God's  dealings  with  nations  gener- 
ally ;  that  He  is  concerned  in  their  aifairs,  and 
that  whilst  '  slow  to  anger  and  of  great  kind- 
ness '  He  is  a  righteous  God  who  will  by  no 
means  clear  the  guilty.  19.   I   know  him, 

that  he  will  command]  rather,  '  I  have  known 
Him  in  order  that  He  may  command,'  etc.  To 
'  know  '  means  to  take  notice  of,  regard.  '  The 
mission  of  Israel  was  to  preserve  a  pure  faith 
and  pure  morals  amid  the  corruptions  of  man- 
kind till  the  Messiah  should  come.'  20.  Cry] 
i.e.  evil  report.  21.   I  will  go  down  now, 

and  see]  The  expression  means  that  in  His 
visitations  on  men  God  acts  with  absolute 
justice  and  a  perfect  knowledge  of  all  the 
circumstances.  I  will  know]  the  whole  truth. 
22.  Stood  yet  before  the  LORD]  as  if  to  stay 
His  departure  until  he  had  interceded  for 
Sodom,  and  especially  with  a  thought  for  his 
kinsman  Lot,  who  dwelt  there. 

23-32.  We  have  here  '  the  effectual  fervent 
prayer  of  a  righteous  man,'  humble,  yet  earnest, 
and  even  bold.  In  his  anxious  sympathy  for 
others  Abraham  forgot,  perhaps,  that  '  the  love 
of  God  is  broader  than  the  measures  of  man's 
mind,'  but  he  was  right  in  believing  that  God 
allows  His  purposes  to  be  influenced  by  prayer 
and  repentance  :  cp.  Jon  3.  For  we  observe 
that  God's  sentence  upon  Sodom  was  not  yet 
passed  (v.  21)  :  He  would  gi-ant  the  prayer  of 
His  servant  if  the  necessary  conditions  were 
forthcoming.  They  were  not,  however,  as  the 
people  of  Sodom  were  universally  depraved  ; 
but  Abraham  learned  that  God  prefers  mercy 
to  judgment,  and  that  those  who  have  the  least 
claim  on  His  mercy  receive  it,  as  was  the  case 
with  Lot  and  his  family.  Nor  should  we 
overlook  another  side  of  this  narrative,  viz. 
the  value  of  a  good  man.  Ten  righteous 
men  in  Sodom  will  save  the  city.  So  our 
Lord  calls  His  disciples  'the  salt  of  the  earth,' 
Mt  5 13.  Another  point  to  be  noted  is  that 
while  Abraham  thought  all  along  that  the 
righteous  would  perish  with  the  wicked  unless 
the  whole  city  was  saved,  God  distinguished 
between  the  innocent  and  the  guilty,  and  saved 
four  persons. 

CHAPTER  19 

The  Destruction  of  the  Cities  of  the 

Plain 

I.   The  visit  of  the  two   angels  (who   are 

'  the  men  '  of  c.   18)  may  be  regarded  as  the 

final  test  of  Sodom.     If  they  were  hospitably 


19.  2 


GENESIS 


20.  4 


received  and  honourably  treated  they  might 
still  be  spared. 

In  the  gate]  The  entrance  gate  of  walled 
Eastern  cities  is  a  great  place  of  resort.  In 
front  of  it  the  market  was  held  and  justice 
administered.  See  Ruth  4  2S152  Am5io-i5 
Job  3 1^1  Dt21i9  Jer387. 

2.  We  will  abide  in  the  street  all  night]  To 
sleep  out  of  doors  is  no  hardship  in  a  hot  cli- 
mate. Lot  shows  that  he  retained,  at  all  events, 
the  virtues  of  hospitality  and  of  bravery  in  the 
defence  of  strangers.  3.  Unleavened  bread] 
bread  made  quickly  without  yeast :  cp.  Ex  12^9. 

4,  5.  The  causes  which  led  to  the  fall  of 
Sodom  are  alluded  to  in  Ezk  1 6  ^9'  so.  gee  also 
Christ's  comparison  of  the  punishments  of 
Sodom  and  Capernaum  (Mtll^O).  7.  Do 
not  so  wickedly]  So  St.  Peter  speaks  of  '  just 
Lot  vexed  with  the  filthy  conversation  of  the 
wicked,'  2  Pet  2 '''.  But  Lot  himself  was  only  re- 
latively righteous.  8.  Lot's  sense  of  the  sacred 
duty  of  hospitality  was  no  excuse  for  neglecting 
his  still  greater  duty  of  caring  for  his  daugh- 
ters' honour.  9.  He  w^ill  needs  be  a  judge] 
Evidently  Lot  had  reproved  them  before  this. 

II.  Blindness]  probably  confused  or  indis- 
tinct vision  :  cp.  2K618. 

14.  Sons  in  law]  By  comparing  this  ex- 
pression with  vv.  8  and  16  it  seems  that  the 
men  were  only  betrothed,  not  married,  to 
Lot's  daughters.  Indeed,  RV  has  '  were  to 
marry  '  instead  of  '  married.'  17.  The  moun- 
tain] the  momitains  of  Moab,  E.  of  the  Dead 
Sea.  18-22.   The  motive  of  Lot's  request 

is  uncertain.  He  either  feared  that  there 
would  not  be  time  to  reach  the  mountain,  or 
he  was  reluctant  to  leave  the  place  where  he 
had  long  lived  ;  the  latter  view  seems  perhaps 
most  in  accordance  with  his  character. 

21.  Zoar  was  spared,  not  because  its  insigni- 
ficant size  excused  its  sinfulness,  but  as  a  refuge 
for  Lot.  22.  Zoar]  '  littleness,'  perhaps 
at  the  SE.  end  of  the  Dead  Sea,  but  position 
disputed.     It  is  called  Bela  in  14  2. 

24.  A  consideration  of  the  probable  nature 
of  this  awful  visitation  will  explain  the  vivid 
statement  of  the  text.  As  was  pointed  out  in 
c.  14,  the  whole  neighbourhood  of  the  Dead 
Sea  abounds  in  sulphur  and  bitumen,  furnish- 
ing the  materials  for  the  terrible  conflagration 
which  ensued.  Probably  a  convulsion  of  the 
earth  released  some  springs  of  naphtha  which 
flowed  through  the  cities  and  ignited.  In  our 
own  days  when  the  petroleum  springs  at  Baku 
in  the  Caspian  become  accidentally  ignited, 
they  burn  for  days.  The  note  on  14  3  explains 
in  what  sense  the  site  of  the  guilty  cities  can 
be  said  to  be  covered  by  the  waters  of  the 
Dead  Sea.  Their  destruction  was  due  to  the 
agency  of  fire,  not  of  water.  The  latter  con- 
dition of  this  once  fertile  and  populous  district 
is  referred  to  in  Dt2923  and  2Esdras28,9. 


28 


On  the  religious  significance  Dean  Payne 
Smith  says  :  '  Though  God  used  natural  agen- 
cies in  the  destruction  of  the  cities  of  the 
plain,  yet  what  was  in  itself  a  catastrophe  of 
nature  became  miraculous  by  the  circumstances 
which  surrounded  it.  It  was  thus  made  the 
means  not  merely  of  executing  the  divine 
justice,  of  strengthening  Abraham's  faith,  and 
of  warning  Lot,  but  also  of  giving  moral  and 
religious  instruction  for  all  time.' 

26.  She  became  a  pillar  of  salt]  This  may 
mean  that  she  was  overwhelmed  in  the  rock 
salt  of  the  district  which  was  thrown  up  by 
the  earthquake  :  see  on  143.  xhe  story  of 
Josephus  that  this  particular  '  pillar '  of  salt 
was  still  to  be  seen  in  his  day  may  be  explained 
by  the  presence  of  cones  of  salt  which  are  to 
be  seen  standing  detached  from  the  salt  moun- 
tain of  Usdum  at  the  SW.  end  of  the  Dead 
Sea  :  see  on  14^3.  Our  Lord  alludes  to  the 
fate  of  Lot's  wife  as  a  warning  to  His  follow- 
ers against  clinging  too  closely  to  the  world 
(Lkl732). 

29.  God  remembered  Abraham]  i.e.  his  in- 
tercession for  Lot  :  see  c.  18. 

30-38.  The  only  explanation  of  the  shame- 
ful conduct  of  Lot's  daughters,  if  understood 
literally,  is  to  be  found  in  their  motive,  which 
was  probably  based  on  the  strong  views  enter- 
tained by  Orientals  regarding  childlessness  and 
the  extinction  of  the  family  ;  they  seem  also, 
from  V.  31,  to  have  really  thought  that  they 
were  the  sole  survivors  of  the  terrible  cata- 
strophe just  narrated.  The  Moabites  and 
Ammonites  settled  to  the  E.  of  the  Dead 
Sea.  They  afterwards  became  bitter  enemies 
of  Israel  who  first  came  into  contact  with 
them  when  nearing  Canaan  at  the  end  of  the 
wanderings.  See  Nu21-25,  also  Jg3  ISll 
1447  2S82  2K3  2Ch20  Isal5  Jer48  Zeph28. 
Some  scholars,  however,  look  upon  this  story 
as  the  expression  of  the  Hebrews'  hatred  of 
their  two  neighbours  and  enemies.  Many  of 
the  customs  of  these  people  were  doubtless 
abhorrent  to  the  purer-minded  Israelites  ;  and 
their  feelings  are  expressed  in  this  account  of 
a  current  belief  among  the  people  of  a  later 
age. 

CHAPTER   20 

Abraham  at  Gerar 

I.  Abraham  leaves  Mamre  (Hebron)  for 
Gerar,  SW.  of  Philistia.  It  seems  from  21^4 
that  he  remained  in  that  district  for  some 
years.  2.  She  Is  my  sister]  Twenty  years 
earlier  Abraham  had  used  the  same  device  in 
Egypt  and  now  again  he  incurs  a  rebuke  from 
one  outside  the  Covenant.  See  12ii-20  and 
notes.  Abimelech]  perhaps,  '  Molech  is  my 
father,'  in  honour  of  the  false  god.  Cp. 
Abijah.  '  Jehovah  is  my  father.' 

4.  Wilt  thou  slay  also  a  righteous  nation] 


20.  5 


GENESIS 


22. 


Abimelech's  people,  at  all  events,  had  not  been 
guilty  of  any  sin.  5.   In  the  integrity  of  my 

heart]  Abimelech  was  'not  consciously  violat- 
ing any  of  his  own  rules  of  morality.'  Had 
he  known  that  Sarah  was  Abraham's  wife  he 
would  not  have  taken  her  into  his  harem. 

7.  He  ?.s  a  prophet]  i.e.  one  to  whom  God 
reveals  His  will,  and  who  in  turn  declares  it 
to  men  ;  and  so  one  who  can  mediate  between 
God  and  man,  as  in  this  case:  see  on  ExT^. 

11-13.  Abraham  explains  that  he  was  only 
following  an  arrangement  made  with  his  wife 
when  they  first  came  among  the  licentious 
Canaanites.  12.  Cp.  12i3.  Sarah  was  daugh- 
ter of  Terah  by  another  wife,  and  so  was  half- 
sister  to  Abraham.  It  is  thought  that  these 
marriages  between  relatives  in  early  days  were 
partly  intended  to  keep  the  blood  of  the 
family  or  tribe  pure  and  unmixed. 

16.  Thy  brother]  ironical.  Behold,  he  is, 
etc.]  RV  '  Behold,  it  is  for  thee  a  covering  of 
the  eyes  to  all  that  are  with  thee  ;  and  in 
respect  of  all'  (MGor,  'before  all  men')  'thou 
art  righted.'  Apparently  this  means  that  the 
gift  was  to  render  those  with  Sarah  willing 
to  overlook  the  wrong  to  which  she  had  been 
exposed. 

CHAPTER   21 

Birth  of  Isaac.  Dismissal  of  Hagar  and 
IsHMAEL.  Covenant  between  Abraham 
AND  Abimelech 

8.  Weaned]  in  his  second  or  third  year,  as 
is  usual  among  Orientals. 

9.  Ishmael  had  no  doubt  been  regarded  as 
Abraham's  heir  until  the  birth  of  Isaac.  The 
change  in  his  prospects  may  account  for  his 
conduct,  which  St.  Paul  uses  to  illustrate  the 
persecution  of  the  Christians  by  the  Jews 
(Gal  4 -9).  Proud  of  their  natural  descent  as 
children  of  Abraham,  the  Jews  scorned  the 
idea  that  God  could  regard  others  as  His 
spiritual  children  and  allow  them  to  share  in 
their  privileges  and  blessings  :  see  Gal  3,  4. 
The  story  affords  painful  evidence  of  the  jea- 
lousies and  unhappiness  caused  by  polygamy. 

12.  In  Isaac  shall  thy  seed  be  called]  i.e. 
the  promises  should  centre  in  Isaac. 

14.  Beer-sheba]  30  m.  S.  of  Hebron. 

15.  Bottle]  (RM  '  skin ')  :  made  of  the 
skin  of  a  sheep  or  goat.  All  openings  are 
sewn  up  and  made  watertight  with  pitch 
except  the  neck,  which  is  tied  up  when  the 
skin  is  full.  17,  18.  Formerly  (16 '"-S)  God 
sought  out  Hagar  to  reprove  her,  and  bid  her 
go  back  upon  her  course  :  now  He  appears  to 
her  to  comfort  her,  and  supply  her  needs  and 
those  of  her  child.  In  both  ways,  He  displays 
His  grace.  19.  A  miraculous  supply  of 
water  is  not  suggested  here.  God  enabled 
Hagar  to  see  an  existing  spring  of  water. 

21.    Wilderness    of     Paran]     Et-Tih,    the 


country  between  Canaan  and  the  Peninsula  of 
Sinai.  The  descendants  of  Ishmael,  Bedouin 
Ai'abs,  still  possess  the  country.  It  was  the 
scene  of  the  wanderings  of  the  Israelites:  cp. 
Dtli9Nul0i2. 

22-34.  Abraham  was  still  living  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Abimelech,  king  of  Gerar: 
see  c.  20.  He  was  now  regarded  as  a  chieftain 
of  great  importance  (cp.  23*'),  and  the  king 
here  seeks  to  enter  into  a  covenant  of  friend- 
ship with  him.  Abraham  takes  the  opportunity 
to  secure  his  right  to  a  well  which  he  had 
made.  Abimelech  acknowledges  Abraham  to 
be  the  rightful  possessor  by  accepting  the 
seven  lambs  which  he  offers.  The  place  was 
henceforth  called  Beer-sheba,  '  well  of  the 
seven,'  or  'well  of  the  oath,'  because  the 
covenant  had  been  ratified  by  the  sacred  or 
perfect  number  seven  which  was  the  usual 
number  of  things  sworn  by.  Some  very 
ancient  wells  have  been  discovered  at  Beer- 
sheba  which  marks  the  southern  limit  of 
Palestine.  33.  A  grove]  RV  '  a  tamarisk 
tree ':  see  on  12*'. 

CHAPTER   22 

The  Offering  of  Isaac  on  Mount 
Moriah 

In  this  narrative  we  have  the  crowning 
proof  that  Abraham  was  willing  to  resign  all 
that  was  dearest  to  him  at  the  bidding  of  God, 
even  that  son  on  whose  life  depended  the  ful- 
filment of  the  divine  promises.  But  his  trial 
must  be  also  regarded  as  the  occasion  of  bring- 
ing about  an  advance  in  the  moral  standard  of 
the  men  of  his  time,  which  was  gradually  to 
become  universal.  In  Abraham's  day  the 
sacrifice  of  the  firstborn  was  a  common  prac- 
tice among  the  Semitic  races,  and  was  regarded 
as  the  most  pleasing  service  which  men  could 
offer  to  their  deities.  It  was  the  '  giving  of 
their  firstborn  for  their  transgression,  the  fruit 
of  their  body  for  the  sin  of  their  soul '  (Mic  6  '^). 
The  horrible  custom  was  even  practised  by 
the  Jews  in  the  dark  days  of  Ahaz  and 
Manasseh  :  cp.  2  K  23 10  2Ch283  336,  ^nd  the 
cases  of  Jephthah  (Jgll)  and  Mesha,  king  of 
Moab  (2 K 3 ■-'').  The  custom  probably  pre- 
vailed among  the  tribes  in  whose  midst 
Abraham  dwelt,  and  it  was  borne  in  upon 
him  that  he  should  show  his  devotion  to  God 
in  this  way  also.  Regarding  the  suggestion, 
however  it  was  made,  as  coming  from  God,  he 
did  not  hesitate  or  delaj%  though  his  heart 
must  have  been  wrung  by  the  very  thought. 
He  had  covenanted  to  give  up  his  own  will 
to  the  will  of  God,  and  in  fulfilment  of  his 
obedience  he  was  willing  to  sacrifice  his  own 
son.  Self-sacrifice  is  the  supreme  test  of  faith, 
and  Abraham  was  not  found  wanting  :  cp. 
Heblli^-is.     The   will,   however,  was   taken 


29 


22.  1 


GENESIS 


23.  16 


for  the  deed,  and  regarded  as  sufficient  proof 
of  his  loyalty  and  obedience.  And  Abraham, 
and  through  him  the  world,  learnt  that,  far  from 
desiring  human  sacrifice,  Jehovah  abhors  it  : 
that  His  worship  is  to  be  attended  by  mercy 
and  justice  and  humanity  in  His  followers,  and 
that  the  most  acceptable  oflEering  is  a  life  of 
obedience  and  faith  and  love. 

1.  Tempt]  EV  '  prove,'  i.e.  put  his  faith 
and  obedience  to  the  proof. 

2.  The  land  of  Moriah]  only  mentioned 
again  2Ch3i,  'Then  Solomon  began  to  build 
the  house  of  the  Lord  at  Jerusalem  in  Mount 
Moriah.'  Beneath  the  dome  of  the  Mosque 
of  Omar,  which  now  stands  on  the  site  of  the 
Jewish  Temple,  is  the  rock  which  is  tradition- 
ally supposed  to  have  been  the  scene  of  the 
sacrifice.  It  is  uncertain  whether  the  two 
places  are  to  be  identified,  but  we  may  gather 
from  V.  14  that  the  writer  wished  Jerusalem  to 
be  understood  here.  The  Samaritans  assert 
that  Mt.  Gerizim  was  the  scene  of  the  event, 
regarding  Moriah  as  Moreh  in  Sichem. 

5.  Abraham's  assurance  that  he  would  return 
with  Isaac  indicates  his  hope  that  God  would 
in  some  way  preserve  liis  son  to  him.  '  He 
accounted  that  God  was  able  to  raise  him  up 
even  from  the  dead  :  from  whence  also  he 
received  him  in  a  figure  '  (Heb  1 1 1^).  He 
could  not  believe  that  the  solemn  promises 
respecting  his  son  would  fail  of  fulfilment. 

6.  Fire]  embers  from  the  hearth  carried  in 
a  vessel.  10.  By  this  action  Abraham  in 
spirit  and  intention  completed  the  sacrifice 
and  showed  his  faith  and  obedience. 

13.  The  substitution  of  the  ram  involves  a 
recognition  of  God's  right  to  demand  sacrifice 
for  His  sake,  and  preserves  the  spirit  which 
prompted  Abraham's  act,  while  at  the  same 
time  it  indicates  the  objectionableness  of 
human  sacrifice. 

14.  Jehovah-jireh]    '  The  Lord  will  see.' 

In  the  mount .  .  seen]  Render,  '  In  Jeho- 
vah's mount  (the  Temple  hill)  He  is  seen,'  i.e. 
'  He  sees '  the  needs  of  His  worshippers  and 
'  is  seen '  by  revealing  Himself  to  them  and 
'  providing  '  (as  RV  renders)  for  their  wants. 
The  words  received  their  highest  fulfilment 
when  God  withheld  not  His  only  Son,  but 
freely  gave  Him  up  for  men  in  this  very 
place.  15-18.   Abraham's  victory  of  faith 

is  rewarded  by  a  confirmation  of  the  promises 
already  made  to  him  :  cp.  Heb  6  ^^. 

20-24.  The  family  of  Nahor.  The  names 
are  to  be  identified  with  tribes  on  the  eastern 
borders  of  Canaan.  21.  Huz]  RV  '  Uz.' 
Cp.  10-3,  where  Uz  is  given  as  the  name  of  a 
son  of  Aram.  Job  is  described  as  of  the  land 
of  Uz,  and  his  friend  Elihu  is  called  a  Buzite. 
Aram]   probably  the   Syrians.  24.   Concu- 

bine] a  secondary  but  lawful  wife.  By  such 
alliances  the  influence  and  importance  of  the 


family  in  early  times  were  increased.  Re- 
garding these  names  as  those  of  tribes,  what 
is  suggested  here  is  that  the  last  four  were 
related  to  the  main  group  somewhat  distantly. 

CHAPTER    23 
Death  of  Sarah  and  Purchase  of  the 

BURYINGPLACE  OF  MaCHPELAH  BY  ABRAHAM 

This  section  is  from  the  Priestly  source  and 
dwells  on  the  legal  transaction. 

2.  Came]  rather,  '  went  in,'  perhaps  from 
his  own  tent  to  that  of  Sarah.  3.  Stood  up 
from  before  his  dead]  To  sit  upon  the  ground 
was  the  posture  of  mourning  :  cp.  Job  2  ^^. 
Sons  of  Heth]   i.e.  the  Hittites  :  see  on  10 1^. 

6.  After  true  Eastern  custom,  there  was 
excessive  courtesy  in  the  transaction,  but  a 
large  sum  was  in  the  end  required.  '  In 
Damascus,  when  a  purchaser  makes  a  lower 
offer  than  can  be  accepted,  he  is  answered, 
"  What,  is  it  a  matter  of  money  between  us  ? 
Take  it  for  nothing,  friend,  it  is  a  present 
from  me  "  '  (Delitzsch). 

9.  The  cave  of  Machpelah]  This  spot,  over 
which  now  stands  the  great  Mohammedan 
mosque  at  Hebron,  is  generally  admitted  to 
be  the  original  buryingplace  of  the  Jewish 
patriarchs,  and  the  spot  where  their  remains 
still  rest.  It  is  most  religiously  guarded  by 
the  Mohammedans  (who  regard  Abraham  as 
the  founder  of  iheir  race  through  Ishmael) 
from  all  intrusion.  The  cave  is  a  double  one, 
and  visitors  are  permitted  entrance  only  to  the 
upper  storey,  where  there  is  little  to  see  ex- 
cept counterfeit  tombs.  '  Only  one  European, 
Pierotti,  an  Italian  architect  in  the  service  of 
the  Sultan,  has  succeeded,  at  the  risk  of  his 
life,  in  entering  the  lower  cavern.  He  noticed 
there  sarcophagi  of  white  stone,  the  true 
tombs  of  the  illustrious  dead,  in  striking  cor- 
roboration of  the  statement  of  Josephus,  that 
•these  were  of  fair  marble,  exquisitely  wrought ' 
(Geikie).  Machpelah]  is  not  the  name  of 
the  cave,  but  the  name  of  the  locality  in  which 
the  piece  of  land  containing  the  cave  was 
situated  :  cp.  vv.  17,  19. 

9.  For  a  possession,  etc.]  RY  '  in  the  midst 
of  you  for  a  possession  of  a  buryingplace.' 
Abraham  wished  that  the  Hittites  should  be 
present  as  witnesses  of  the  purchase. 

10.  And  Ephron  dwelt]  RV  'Now  Ephron 
was  sitting.'  12.  Bowed]  in  thanks  for 
granting  his  request.  13.  In  the  audience 
of  the  people]  The  Hittites  were  thus  wit- 
nesses to  the  agreement.  15.  Four  hundred 
shekels  of  silver]  Reckoning  the  shekel  at 
half-a-crown,  this  would  be  about  £50,  but 
the  purchasing  power  of  silver  was  much 
greater  in  those  days.  16.  Current  inu)iey'] 
Note  that  the  word  '  money '  is  not  in  the 
original.     The  word  '  shekel '  means  '  weight,' 


30 


23.  19 


GENESIS 


25.  13 


and  it  is  believed  that,  in  these  early  days, 
rings  of  silver  of  a  marked  weight  were  used, 
and  not  coins  bearing  a  definite  value.  Abra- 
ham probably  weighed  them  to  show  they 
were  of  full  value.  '  Coined  money  was  not 
known  to  the  Hebrews  before  the  Captivity, 
when  first  Persian  and  then  Greek  or  Syriac 
currency  was  employed,  till  Simon  the  Macca- 
bee  (about  140  B.C.)  struck  Jewish  coins,  espe- 
cially shekels  and  half  shekels,  specimens  of 
which  have  been  preserved  to  us  '  (Kalisch). 

19.  Abraham  and  Sarah,  Isaac  and  Rebekah, 
Jacob  and  Leah,  were  all  buried  here. 

CHAPTEE  24 

The  JMarriage  of  Isaac  and  Rebekah 

A  charming  picture  of  patriarchal  marriage 
customs.  It  is  very  characteristic  of  the 
Primitive  source. 

2.  Put .  .  thy  hand  under  my  thigh]  a  form  of 
taking  an  oath,  only  mentioned  again  in  47  ^9. 
'  It  is  from  the  thighs  that  one's  descendants 
come,  so  that  to  take  an  oath  with  one  hand 
under  the  thigh  would  be  equivalent  to  calling 
upon  these  descendants  to  maintain  an  oath 
which  has  been  fulfilled,  and  to  avenge  one 
which  has  been  broken'  (D.).  Modern  in- 
stances are  recorded  of  Egyptian  Bedouins  act- 
ing similarly  in  making  a  solemn  asseveration. 

3.  Marriage  with  Canaanites  was  afterwards 
strictly  forbidden  (Ex  34 11-1^').  4.  My  coun- 
try] Haran,  in  Mesopotamia,  where  Nahor's 
family  still  lived.  5-8.  Isaac  was  on  no 
account  to  leave  Canaan,  the  land  promised  by 
God  as  his  inheritance. 

10.  The  sending  of  a  deputy  instead  of 
Isaac  himself  is  quite  in  accordance  with 
Eastern  custom.  The  Jews  of  the  jjresent 
day  employ  a  professional  matchmaker,  the 
ShadchcDi,  who  arranges  alj  the  preliminaries 
of  the  marriage  contract.  For  all  the  goods 
of  his  master  ivere  in  his  hand]  RV  '  having 
all  goodly  things  of  his  master's,'  i.e.  presents 
for  the  bride  and  her  family  :  see  53. 

Mesopotamia]  (from  Gr  mesos,  '  middle,' 
and potamos,  'river  ')  Heb.  Aram-Naharaliii,  i.e. 
'Aram  (or  Syria)  of  the  two  rivers,'  the  country 
lying  between  the  Khabour  and  the  Orontes. 

CityofNahor]  Haran.  12-14.  Through- 
out this  beautiful  story  the  direct  guidance  of 
God  in  all  that  happened  is  emphasised. 

16.  Went  down  to  the  well]  To  this  day 
there  is  but  one  well  of  drinkaljle  water  at 
Haran,  and  the  women  still  fill  their  water- 
skins  at  it.  It  bears  every  mark  of  great  age 
and  wear.  22.  Earring]  rather, 'nose-ring.' 
It  hung  from  the  left  nostril.  Such  rings  are 
still  the  betrothal  present  in  Arabia  :  see  on 
rings  at  Ex  32  2.         24.  See  2223. 

49.  Turn  to  the  right  hand,  or  to  the  left] 
i.e.  '  to  search  in  other  families  for  the  woman 


he    desires '     (D.).  50.   Speak .  .  bad    or 

good]   say    '  yes '    or    '  no.'  53.    See    on 

Gn  ^^i^.  58.   Wilt  thou  go  with  this  man  ? 

And  she  said,  I  will  go]  '  In  W.  Asia  marriage 
consists  in  the  betrothal  or  the  contract,  some- 
times written,  but  more  commonly  verbal,  of 
the  parties  concerned,  after  which  nothing 
remains  but  the  removal  of  the  bride  from 
her  father's  house  to  that  of  the  bridegroom 
or  of  his  father.  Isaac  married  Rebekah  by 
proxy  through  a  simple  verbal  contract ' 
(Van  Lennep).  59.  Her  nurse]  Deborah. 
Her  death  is  mentioned  in  35*^.  In  292-1,29 
we  have  other  instances  that  a  handmaid 
formed  part,  if  not  all,  of  the  bride's  dowry. 

62.  Lahai-roi]   near  Beer-sheba  :  see  IG^^. 

63.  Meditate]  naturally,  on  the  bride  he 
had  not  seen  and  whose  coming  he  awaited. 
But  the  Syriac  version  reads,  '  to  walk  in  the 
fields.'  64.  She  lighted  off]  to  show  re- 
spect. 65.  She  took  a  vail]  It  is  the  cus- 
tom for  the  bride  to  appear  veiled  before  the 
bridegroom  until  they  are  married  :  cp.  29  23-25. 

CHAPTER  25 

The  Sons  of  Abraham  by  Keturah. 
Death  and  Burial  of  Abraham.  De- 
scendants     OF      ISHMAEL.       BiRTH     AND 

Youth  of  Esau  and  Jacob 

I.  It  is  not  known  at  what  period  of  his 
life  Abraham  took  Keturah  as  his  secondary 
wife  or  concubine  ;  for  it  is  clear  from  v.  6  and 
1  Ch  1 32  that  she  only  held  that  position.  Some 
of  the  names  of  Keturah's  children  have  been 
identified  in  Arabia  as  tribes.  2.   Midian] 

The  Midianites  became  a  considerable  nation, 
spreading  over  the  country  S.  and  SE.  of 
Palestine  from  Moab  to  the  Gulf  of  Akaba. 
6.  Concubines]  Hagar  and  Keturah  :  see  on 
2224.  Sent   them   aw^ay  .  .  eastward]    to- 

wards Arabia,  where  they  founded  nations. 

8.  Gave  up  the  ghost]  an  expression  taken 
from  the  Genevan  Bible.  The  Hebrew  word 
means  simply  '  to  die,'  lit.  '  come  to  an  end.' 
Was  gathered  to  his  people]  joined  his  an- 
cestors in  the  unseen  world.  The  expression 
cannot  refer  to  the  actual  burial  of  Abraham 
with  his  forefathers,  since  they  lay  at  Haran 
and  Ur.  We  may  probably  see  in  it  a  vague 
belief  in  future  existence.  Cp.  David's  words 
on  the  death  of  his  son  (2  S 1 2  23,  also  Gn  35  29). 

13.  The  descendants  of  Ishmael  settled  gene- 
rally in  N.Arabia,  and  with  the  Joktanites  (1 0  26), 
or 'pure  Arabs,'  of  Arabia  Felix,  formed  the 
great  Arab  race  scattered  over  Syria  and  the 
shores  of  the  Persian  Gulf.  Nebajoth]  the 
Nabateans  became  an  important  people  after 
the  death  of  Alexander  the  Great.  Their  chief 
town  was  Petra  in  Idum^a.  The  name  became 
synonymous  with  Arabians,  and  all  the  land  be- 
tween the  Euphrates  and  the  Gulf  of  Akaba  was 


31 


25.  16 


GENESIS 


26. 


atone  time  called  Nabatene.  Kedar]  a  people 
often  mentioned  in  OT.  :  they  dwelt  between 
Arabia    and    Babylonia.  i6.    Towns    and 

castles]  RV  '  villages  and  encampments.'  The 
Arabs  may  be  distinguished  as  '  nomad '  (wan- 
dering, pastoral)  and  '  agricultural '  (with  fixed 
habitations)  ;  the  distinction  is  already  marked 
in  this  passage.  i8.  Havilah]  near  the  Per- 

sian Gulf.  Shur]  the  desert  between  Egypt 
and  Palestine.  The  lands  to  S.  and  E.  of  Pales- 
tine generally  are  meant.  Before  Egypt, 
as  thou  goest  toward  Assyria]  rather,  '  E.  of 
Egypt  in  the  direction  of  Assyria,'  i.e.  in  N. 
Arabia.     He  died  in  the  presence  of]  see  on  1 6  ^2. 

19.  Isaac]  '  In  Genesis  Isaac  appears 
throughout  as  the  pale  copy  of  his  father.  He 
is  the  son  of  promise  and  inherits  his  position, 
and  the  possessions  and  the  blessings  won  by 
his  father.  He  follows  in  Abraham's  footsteps 
without  his  strength  of  character  and  purpose. 
In  quietness  and  patience  he  faithfully  pre- 
serves his  inheritance,  serves  his  father's  God, 
and  in  turn  like  Abraham  is  guided,  jjreserved, 
and  blessed  by  him  '  (D.).  20.  Padan-aram] 
'  the  plains  of  Syria,'  the  same  as  Mesopotamia. 
22.  The  children  struggled]  significant  of  the 
contests  to  come,  between  the  brothers,  and  the 
nations  descended  from  them,  Israel  and  Edom. 
U if  be  so,  why  am  I  thus  ?]  i.e.  perhaps,  If  I 
have  conceived,  what  is  the  significance  of 
these  struggles  ?  but  RV  gives  '  If  it  be  so, 
wherefore  do  I  live  ?'  since  I  suffer  such  pain. 
Enquire  of  the  LORD]  '  Nothing  is  more  natural 
than  that  the  Hebrew  author  intended  to  in- 
timate that  Rebekah  enquired  of  God  through 
Abraham  the  prophet,  her  father-in-law,  who 
still  survived '  (Kalisch). 

23.  Note  the  poetical  form  of  the  oracle.  See 
RV.  Shall  be  separated,  etc.]  or  '  From  thy 
womb  they  will  separate  from  one  another,'  i.  e. 
be  at  variance  from  their  birth.  The  elder 

shall  serve  the  younger]  the  descendants  of 
the  elder  son  (the  Edomites)  would  be  subject 
to  those  of  the  younger  (the  Israelites).  See 
on  27*0.  The  knowledge  of  this  prediction 
explains  in  some  measure  the  later  conduct 
of  Rebecca  and  Jacob.  25.  Esau]  meaning 

uncertain.     Some  render  '  hairy.' 

26.  Jacob]  i.e.  following  at  the  heel.  See 
Esau's  allusion  to  the  name  (27  2*^),  giving  it  a 
sinister  sense,  as  suited  to  Jacob's  plotting 
nature.  The  words  Jacob  and  Joseph,  com- 
pounded with  -el  or  -ilu  (=  god),  have  been 
found  as  names  in  Assyrian  inscriptions  earlier 
than  this  period. 

27.  Cunning]  i.e.  clever.  Plain]  RM 
'  quiet '  or  '  harmless.'  Dwelling  in  tents] 
preferring  home  pursuits.  28.  The  evil  of 
such  marked  preferences  in  families  appears 
plainly  in  the  narrative.  29.  Sod]  or 
'  seethed,'  i.e.  boiled.  30.  Red  pottage] 
lit.  '  red  stuff.'     Esau  in  his  haste  did  not  define 


its  nature.  It  was  a  mess  of  lentils  (34).  It 
is  said  that  such  pottage  is,  or  was,  distributed 
at  the  mosque  at  Hebron  in  memory  of  the 
event.  Edom]  i.e.  '  red.'  Probably  here,  as 
in  many  other  instances  in  these  ancient  narra- 
tives of  Genesis,  we  have  the  popular  derivation 
of  the  names  of  well-known  people  and  places. 
Edom  is  so  called  from  the  '  red  '  colour  of  its 
sandstone  cliffs.  Here  Esau  afterwards  settled : 
see  c.  36. 

31.  Sell  me  .  .  thy  birthright]  The  birthright 
included  the  headship  of  the  family,  a  double 
portion  of  the  inheritance  (Dt21i"),  priestly 
rights  (in  these  early  days),  and  in  the  family 
of  Abraham  heirship  to  the  covenant  privileges. 
Perhaps  all  that  was  involved  in  the  birthright 
here,  however,  was  the  double  inheritance  ;  as 
in  27  26  it  is  directly  contrasted  with  the  bless- 
ing which  involved  the  primacy  in  the  family 

(27  28.  29). 

The  character  of  Esau  has  many  attractive 
features  ;  but  he  cared  only  for  the  pleasure 
of  the  moment  and  was  without  any  lofty 
spiritual  aspirations.  His  generous,  warm- 
hearted spirit  attracts  sympathy  at  first  sight, 
when  contrasted  with  the  wiles  of  the  cold, 
calculating  Jacob.  But  judged  by  a  higher 
standard  Esau  appears  plainly  as  a  worldly, 
irreligious  man,  indifferent  to  his  parents' 
wishes,  uninterested  in  the  divine  covenant, 
and  unmindful  of  the  privileges  and  responsi- 
bilities which  were  to  distinguish  his  race  : 
cp.  26  2'*  27  "i^.  His  character  is  summed  up  in 
Hebr2i'5'i%  where  he  is  called  a  'profane,'  i.e. 
unconsecrated  or  common  person. 

The  character  of  Jacob  is  in  marked  con- 
trast to  that  of  Esau.  Craftiness  and  subtilty, 
even  meanness  and  deceit,  mark  many  of  his 
actions  ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  his  patient 
endurance,  strength  of  character,  and  warmth 
of  affection  call  forth  admiration.  Long  years 
of  suffering  and  discipline  were  needed  to 
purify  his  character  from  its  baser  elements, 
and  make  him  worthier  of  the  divine  blessing. 
And  certainly  he  was  worthier  than  his  brother, 
for  he  believed  in  and  sought  after  his  father's 
God,  held  spiritual  things  in  reverence,  and 
in  the'  chief  turning-points  of  his  life,  at  Bethel, 
Haran,  and  Penuel,  showed  a  conviction  that 
God  was  with  him  to  bless  and  guide.  He 
stood  out  at  last  as  one  who  has  conquered 
himself,  and  proved  himself  to  be  worthy  of 
the  divine  favour  and  patience,  Israel,  a  prince 
with  God.  These  considerations  help  us  to 
understand  why  Jacob  rather  than  Esau  was 
selected  as  heir  to  the  promises.  See  also 
Ro9. 

CHAPTER    26 

Isaac   at   Gerar 

Many  of  the  notes  on  chs.  20,  21  are  applic- 
able to  this  c.     It  is  thought  probable  that 


32 


26.  2 


GENESIS 


27.  40 


the  present  narrative  is  in  the  main  a  repetition 
from  another  source  of  events  ah-eady  recorded. 

2.  Go  not  down  into  Egypt]  to  get  food  as 
Abraham  did.  The  covenant  blessing  is  re- 
newed and  the  possession  of  Canaan  assured 
to  Isaac.  He  is  encouraged  to  stay  in  Canaan 
in  dependence  on  Grod.  7,  My  sister]  The 
expression  might  mean  cousins. 

12.  An  hundredfold]  Though  very  large, 
such  a  crop  is  not  unknown.  Isaac's  obedience 
in  not  going  to  Egypt  had  its  reward. 

15.  It  is  said  that  Arabs  still  fill  up  the 
wells  on  pilgi-image  roads,  if  they  do  not 
receive  the  toll  they  demand.  The  conduct  of 
Abimelech's  people  was  a  violation  of  the 
agreement  of  2125-31.  Geikie,  in  his  'Hours 
with  the  Bible,'  gives  some  interesting  informa- 
tion respecting  wells  in  Palestine  : — 

'  The  upper  porous  limestone  of  the  central 
hills,  and  indeed  of  Palestine  generally,  allows 
the  rain  to  a  large  extent  to  filter  through  it 
to  an  underlying  sheet  of  hard  limestone, 
which  slopes  towards  the  sea,  forming  a  shelf 
on  which  the  water  flows  in  a  subterranean 
stream  below  the  whole  coastplain  from  N.  to 
S.  Hence  it  is  only  necessary  to  sink  a  well 
to  reach  a  copious  supply  of  living  water.' 

20-22.  Esek]  'contention.'  Sitnah]  'En- 

mity.' Rehoboth]  'enlargement,' i.e.  room  to 
settle.  26-31.  Isaac  and  Abimelech  make 
a  covenant  to  abstain  mutually  from  aggres- 
sions.        30.   See  on  27  3. 

33.  Shebah]  RV  '  Shibah,'  i.e.  'oath,'  in 
allusion  to  the  covenant.     See  on  2131. 

34.  Here  we  have  another  proof  of  Esau's 
indifference  to  the  family  traditions  and 
covenant  obligations.  Both  Abraham  and 
Isaac  strongly  condemned  marriage  with  the 
inhabitants  of  the  land  who  were  outside  the 
covenant  of  promise  :  see  24  3  28 1. 

CHAPTER   27 

Jacob  by  Subtilty  obtains  the  Blessing 

Urged  on  by  his  mother,  Jacob  attempts  by 
unworthy  means  to  secure  the  blessing  of  the 
firstborn  with  all  the  privileges  it  involved. 
But  the  wrongdoing  of  the  actors  in  the  story 
was  soon  followed  by  the  suffering  which 
assuredly  waits  on  sin.  To  quote  Delitzsch  : 
'  (a)  Isaac  suffers  for  his  preference  for  Esau, 
which  was  not  determined  by  the  will  of  God 
but  by  his  weak  affection  :  (b)  Esau  suffers 
for  despising  the  blessing  of  the  firstborn  : 
(c)  Rebekah  suffers  for  her  connivance,  by 
separation  from  her  favourite  son  whom 
she  never  saw  again,  (d)  Jacob,  from  the 
time  when  he  confirmed  himself  in  the 
possession  of  the  sinfully  acquired  birthright 
by  sinfully  acquiring  the  blessing,  had  to 
endure  a  long  strain  of  hardship  and 
disappointments   which   made  him  feel   how 


he  had  sinned  against  his  father  and  brother. 
Yet  these  were  at  the  same  time  the  means  of 
his  education  by  which  his  ignoble  nature  was 
to  be  done  away,  and  himself  made  worthy  of 
being  one  in  the  line  of  those  who  inherited 
the  promises.'  This  c.  belongs  to  the  Primitive 
narrative. 

I.  Isaac  was  old]  He  was  about  120,  and 
both  he  and  Esau  thought  that  his  death  was 
at  hand  (vv.  2, 41).  According  to  35  27-29  he  lived 
sixty  years  longer  ;  and  Jacob  and  Esau,  their 
old  strife  put  away,  were  present  at  his  burial : 
but  it  must  be  noted  that  that  passage  is  from 
a  different  (the  Priestly)  source,  which  has 
a  different  chronology  from  the  Primitive 
document. 

4.  That  my  soul  may  bless  thee  before  I 
die]  In  purposing  to  give  the  blessing  to  Esau, 
his  firstborn  son,  Isaac  was  acting  in  opposi- 
tion to  the  expressed  decree  of  God:  see  2523. 

5-14.  Rebekah  knew  that  the  blessing  was 
to  be  Jacob's  ;  she  therefore  used  this  device 
to  prevent  an  injustice  from  being  done,  and 
to  obtain  the  fulfilment  of  God's  purpose. 
That,  however,  she  should  have  left  to  God 
to  carry  out  in  His  way.  Such  '  pious  frauds  ' 
are  the  outcome  of  a  weak  faith  in  the  wisdom 
and  method  of  the  divine  providence.  The 
present  narrative  disproves  the  worldly  maxim 
that  '  the  end  justifies  the  means.' 

II.  Hairy  man]  see  25  2^.  15.  Goodly 
raiment]  RV  '  the  goodly  raiment,'  his  better 
clothes  which  were  at  home  in  his  tent. 

28,  29.  The  blessing  as  here  recorded  refers 
first  to  the  fruitful  land  the  supposed  Esau 
would  inherit,  and  then  to  his  lordship  over 
his  brethren  and  other  tribes.  In  28  3,  which 
belongs  to  the  Priestly  source,  the  '  blessing 
of  Abraham '  is  expressed  in  another  form 
characteristic  of  that  source.  28.  The  dew 
of  heaven]  greatly  valued  in  hot  climates 
where  rain  often  does  not  fall  from  April  to 
September. 

33.  Yea,  and  he  shall  be  blessed]  Isaac 
evidently  feels  that  the  purposes  of  God  are 
not  to  be  thwarted  by  his  own  preferences,  and 
does  not  withdraw  the  blessing  from  Jacob. 

36.  Supplanted]  see  on  2526.  39.  Shall 
be  the  fatness]  rather,  '  Shall  be  away  from 
the  fatness.'  Read  thus,  the  prophecy  is  in 
agreement  with  the  general  barrenness  of  Edom 
or  Seir,  where  the  descendants  of  Esau  dwelt. 

40.  Shalt  serve  thy  brother]  Throughout 
OT.  history  we  read  of  the  subjugation  of  the 
Edomites  to  Israel,  varied  by  their  thi-owing 
off  the  yoke  in  troublous  times  :  see  2  S  8  !■* 
IKll  lChl8i3  2Ch21.  About  100  b.c.  the 
Maccabean  prince,  John  Hyrcanus,  subdued 
the  Edomites  and  compelled  them  to  receive 
circumcision,  after  which  they  formed  one 
people  with  the  Jews.  Herod,  the  Edomite, 
ruled  Judaaa  in  our  Lord's  day. 


33 


T(.  41 


GENESIS 


S9.  1 


41.   Days  of  mourning]   see  on  v.  1. 

44.  Tarry  with  him  a  few  days]  It  was 
twenty  years  before  Jacob  returned  from 
Haran  ;  and  Rebekah,  so  far  as  we  know, 
never  saw  him  again.  45.  Deprived  also  of 
you  both]  of  Jacob  by  death,  and  of  Esau 
through  punishment  as  a  murderer. 

46.  This  verse  must  be  read  in  connexion 
with  28 1  ;  27  4*5-28  ^  are  from  the  Priestly  source 
and  continue  the  narrative  of  2634,35^  without 
any  reference  to  271-45.  Eebekah  suggests  to 
Isaac  as  the  reason  for  Jacob's  departure  that 
it  was  desirable  that  Jacob,  as  the  acknow- 
ledged heir,  should  seek  a  wife  among  his 
relatives  at  Haran,  as  Isaac  had  done  before 
him  (c.  24).  Esau's  heathen  marriages  had 
evidently  caused  his  parents  much  unhappi- 
ness  :  see  26^4,35  and  notes. 

CHAPTER  28 

Jacob  departs  for  Padan-aram.    His 
Dream  at  Bethel 

1-4.  Isaac  bids  Jacob  seek  one  of  the 
daughters  of  his  uncle  Laban  in  marriage, 
and  assures  him  that  the  blessings  and  pro- 
mises bestowed  on  Abraham  should  fall  to 
him  as  heir. 

6-9.  Esau's  marriage,  though  well  meant, 
was  only  a  union  with  the  seed  of  the  Egyptian 
bondservant,  and  therefore  not  one  of  the 
pure  Hebrew  race. 

10.  After  journeying  for  some  days,  Jacob 
reaches  the  district  in  the  mountains  of 
Ephraim,  where  Abraham  had  rested,  when 
entering  Canaan,  and  built  an  altar  (128). 
The  strata  of  limestone  rock,  of  which  the 
hills  around  are  composed,  take  the  form  of 
steps  rising  above  each  other,  and  we  can 
well  believe  that  as  Jacob  lay  down  to  rest, 
their  form  lent  shape  to  the  vision  which 
followed.  In  his  dream  he  sees  a  ladder,  or, 
rather,  a  '  staircase,'  uniting  earth  and  heaven, 
and  on  it  angelic  messengers  ascending  and 
descending.  Doubtless  this  was  to  assure 
him  that,  although  he  was  in  distress  and  flee- 
ing for  his  life,  he  was  yet  the  object  of  God's 
love  and  care.  He  was  to  learn  that  all  that 
should  happen  to  him  in  the  future  was  a  part 
of  the  working  out  of  the  divine  providence. 
Our  Lord  alludes  to  this  passage  in  Jn  1  ^i. 

16.  Jacob  perceives  that,  though  he  has 
left  his  father's  home  at  Beer-sheba,  his  father's 
God  is  still  watching  over  him.  In  these  early 
days  the  idea  of  Jehovah  as  the  God  of  the 
universe,  and  not  of  the  nation  only,  was  not 
realised  :  cp.  Jg  11 2^'  -4. 

18.  The  stone]  Jacob  set  up  the  stone  as 
marking  the  spot  hallowed  by  God's  presence, 
and  consecrated  it  by  pouring  oil  upon  it.  On 
his  return  to  Palestine  (c.  35)  he  set  up  an 
altar  by  it  in  fulfilment  of  his  vow  in  this  c. 


The  belief  that  a  stone  or  pillar  was  the  abode 
of  deity  was  common  among  primitive  peoples. 
The  stone  which  Jacob  set  up  was  the  symbol 
of  the  presence  of  the  divine  spirit,  which  he 
probably  believed  to  be  in  some  way  connected 
with  it,  seeing  that  he  called  the  stone  '  God's 
house.'  Jacob  shared  the  beliefs  of  his  age, 
and  his  idea  of  God,  like  his  character,  was 
only  gradually  purified.  In  consequence  of 
the  abuse  of  these  sacred  stones  in  the  worship 
of  the  Canaanites,  their  erection  was  forbidden 
by  the  Law;  cp.  Lv26i,  where  'standing 
image  '  should  be  rendered  '  pillar  '  or  '  obelisk,' 
also  Dtl23.  There  is  a  well-known  tradition 
that  Jacob's  stone  was  brought  in  after  ages 
to  Scotland,  and  finally  placed  under  the  coro- 
nation chair  in  Westminster  Abbey.  But  the 
fact  that  '  all  the  rock  at  Bethel  is  limestone, 
whereas  the  stone  in  the  Abbey  is  common 
granite  '  (Harper),  removes  any  foundation  for 
the  legend. 

19.  Beth-el]  'the  house  of  God.'  In  the 
period  of  the  Judges,  Bethel  became  the  chief 
religious  centre  of  the  northern  tribes.  The 
ark  was  stationed  there  (Jg20i8);  it  was  fre- 
quented as  a  place  for  sacrifice,  and  for  con- 
sulting the  divine  oracle  (Jg  20^8' 26  RV). 
Under  Jeroboam  I  it  became  the  religious 
capital  of  the  Northern  Kingdom.  Here  and 
at  Dan  the  golden  calves  were  set  up  (IK  12). 
Under  Jeroboam  II  the  sanctuary  reached  the 
summit  of  its  renown,  but  the  worship  was 
corrupt,  and  was  denounced  by  Amos  and 
Hosea:  see  Am  3 1*  44  HoslQis  RV. 

19.  Luz]  an  old  Canaanite  city,  after- 
wards called  Bethel  because  of  its  proximity 
to  that   sanctuary.  20-22.   The    first  vow 

mentioned  in  Scripture.  Jacob  vows  that  in 
return  for  God's  protecting  care,  if  he  is 
spared  to  return,  he  will  regard  this  stone  as 
a  holy  spot,  and  set  apart  a  tithe  of  all  he 
gains  to  religious  purposes.  In  Am  4  4  it  is 
said  that  it  was  customary  to  pay  tithes  at 
Bethel,  a  practice  based  perhaps  on  this  oc- 
currence. 

CHAPTER   29 

Jacob  in  Mesopotamia  with  Laban 

The  divine  care  and  blessing  promised  to 
Jacob  at  Bethel  (28^5)  are  illustrated  in  the 
narrative  of  the  sojourn  of  the  patriarch  at 
Haran,  which  apparently  lasted  for  twenty 
years  (3141),  after  which  he  returned  to  the 
land  of  promise,  blessed  with  a  numerous 
family,  and  rich  in  goods.  But  equally  marked 
is  the  severe  discipline  to  which  he  was  sub- 
jected in  order  that  the  darker  features  in  his 
character  might  be  purified,  and  that  he  might 
learn  to  put  his  reliance,  not  in  unworthy 
scheming,  but  in  simple  faith  in  the  love  and 
blessing  of  the  God  of  Abraham  and  Isaac. 

I.  The  land  of  the  people  of   the  east]  a 


34 


29.  3 


GENESIS 


30.  35 


general  term  for  the  lands  eastward  of  Pales- 
tine, here  e.g.  Mesopotamia:  cp.  Job  13. 

3.  A  well  often  belonged  to  two  or  three 
families.  The  opening  was  covered  with  a 
heavy  stone  which  could  only  be  moved  by 
the  united  eiforts  of  the  shepherds  of  their 
several  flocks.  By  this  device  it  was  impos- 
sible for  one,  more  than  another,  to  obtain  an 
undue    share    of    the    precious   water.  4. 

Haran]  see  on  11  ^i.  5.  The  son  of  Nahor] 
rather,  '  grandson.'  Laban  was  the  son  of 
Bethuel  (285).  n.  Wept]  with  joy  at 
finding  himself  among  friends  again. 

15.  What  shall  thy  wages  be?]  Laban 
was  a  covetous  man  and,  as  will  be  seen,  took 
every  advantage  of  Jacob  to  retain  his  ser- 
vices. 17.  Leah  ?m.s  tender-eyed]  rather, 
'  weak-eyed,'  perhaps  from  ophthalmia,  so 
common  in  the  East.  Leah  means  '  gazelle,' 
Rachel,  'ewe.'  18.  Jacob  had  no  rich  gifts 
to  offer  for  Rachel,  such  as  Abraham  sent  for 
Rebekah  (2453).  He  therefore  offered  his 
services.  Kitto  says  that  '  personal  servitude 
to  the  father  is  still  in  some  places  in  the 
East,  including  to  this  day  Palestine,  the  price 
paid  by  young  men  who  have  no  other  means 
of  providing  the  payment  which  a  father  has 
always  been  entitled  to  expect  for  his  daughter, 
as  compensation  for  the  loss  of  her  domestic 
services.'  22.  A  feast]  the  wedding  feast. 
23-25.  Jacob  the  deceiver  is  now  the  de- 
ceived. The  bride  would  be  closely  veiled 
(see  24^5),  and,  it  being  night,  Leah  suc- 
cessfully connived  at  her^  fiither^s  deception. 
24.  The  female  slave  waS'  a  usual  part  of  the 
bride's  dowry.  •  26.  The  custom  which  La- 
ban pleaded  was  not  uncommon.  Among  fhe' 
Hindoos  it  is  a  law  not  to  give  the  j^ounger*" 
daughter  in  marriage  until  the  elder  is  married. 

27.  Fulfil  her  week]  i.e.  celelJiwte -Leah's 
bridal  festivities  for  the  usual  seven  days  :  cp. 
Jgl4i2.  28.  At  the  end  of  the  seven  days 
Jacob  received  Rachel  as  his  wife :  but  he  had 
to  serve  Laban  for  her  other  seven  years. 
Though  the  blame  in  the  matter  rests  with 
Laban  rather  than  Jacob,  who  must  have  re- 
garded Rachel  as  his  true  wife,  we  shall  see, 
as  in  the  case  of  Abraham,  the  unhappiness 
and  jealousy  which  too  often  attended  such 
double  unions.  31.  Hated]  The  word  means 
no  more  than  that  Jacob  preferred  Rachel: 
see  V.  30. 

32-35.  Reuben]  '  behold,  a  son.'  But  the 
writer  derives  the  name  from  Raah  beonyi, 
'  looked  on  my  affliction ' :  see  on  4 1.  Simeon] 
'  hearing.'      Levi]  '  joined.'      Judah]  '  praise.' 

CHAPTER   30 

Jacob's  Children.     His  Stratagem  to 
increase  his  property 

I.  Rachel  envied  her  sister]   To  be  childless 


35 


was  regarded  as  a  great  reproach :  cp.  Lk  1 25. 
Fruitfulness  meant  an  addition  of  strength 
and  prosperity   to    a   family.  3.   By    this 

symbolic  act  Bilhah's  children  would  be  legally 
regarded  as  Rachel's :  cp.  IG^note.  6.  Dan] 
'  judging.'  God  had  judged  her  case  and  decided 
in  her  favour  by  giving  her,  after  a  fashion,  a 
child.  8.  Great  wrestlings]  lit.  '  wrestlings 
of  God,'  an  emphatic  expression:  cp.  10^ 
and  1313.  Naphtali]    '  my  wrestling.'     Ra- 

chel regarded  this  child  as  a  victorj*  over  her 
more  fruitful  sister.  11.   A  troop  cometh] 

RV  '  Fortunate  ! '  Gad]  RM  '  Fortune.' 
13.  Asher]  'happy,' or  'blessed.'  14.  Man- 
drake] or  '  love  apple.'  A  dwarf  plant  with 
large  grey  leaves  and  whitish-green  blossoms. 
It  yields  in  the  spring  a  yellow  fruit  like 
a  small  tomato,  and  was  believed  to  pro- 
duce fruitfulness.  18-24.  Note  double  de- 
rivations of  names,  due  to  the  two  traditions. 
18.  Issachar]  'there  is  a  reward'  or  'hire.' 
20.  Zebulun]  assonant  with  Zabal,  '  to  dwell.' 
It  may  also  mean  'endowed.'  21.  Dinah] 
'  judgment,'  the  feminine  corresponding  to 
Dan.  Perhaps  Leah  chose  this  name  for  the 
same  reason  that  Rachel  called  her  son  Dan: 
see  on  v.  6.  Jacob  had  other  daughters  (37^5), 
but  probably  Dinah  is  mentioned  because  of 
the  episode  in  c.  34. 

22.  At  last  Rachel  receives  a  son,  though 
not  by  her  human  devices,  but  by  God's  grace 
and  favour.  24.  Joseph]    i.e.    may  God 

add  a  son.  '  Taking  away '  the  reproach  of 
childlessness  is  another  meaning. 

;••  7.  Learned  by  experience]  R V  '  divined ' : 
by  omens,  etc.  Laban  does  not  want  to  lose 
Jacob. 

31-43.  Jacob  by  a  stratagem  possesses  him- 
self of  a  large  portion  of  his  uncle's  flocks. 
The  natural  craftiness  of  the  patriarch  comes 
out  very  strongly  in  the  transaction,  but  Laban 
undoubtedly  had  already  obtained  Jacob's 
services  for  fourteen  years  by  mean  and  un- 
worthy devices,  and  had  given  him  no  oppor- 
tunity of  enriching  himself,  nor  had  he  assisted 
his   daughters  (Sli^^i'^^.  32.   As  sheep  are 

usually  white,  and  goats  either  black  or  brown, 
Jacob  proposes  that  Laban  should  keep  these, 
whilst  the  few  speckled  or  spotted  ones  should 
fall  to  him  as  his  wage.  33.  Jacob  stakes 
his  reputation  that  Laban  shall  never  find  any 
white  sheep  or  black  goats  in  his  (Jacob's) 
flocks.         35.   Ringstraked]   '  striped.' 

35-42.  It  would  appear  that  Laban,  after 
sorting  out  Jacob's  speckled  sheep  and  goats 
from  his  own  pure  ones,  gave  the  former  in 
charge  of  his  sons  to  be  kept  at  a  distance  from 
his  own,  thereby  hoping  to. prevent  there  being 
any  more  spotted  ones  born  in  his  own  flock, 
which  he  would  have  to  give  to  Jacob.  Jacob 
meanwhile  had  to  remain  and  look  after 
Laban's  flocks.     But  Jacob  had  other  plans  for 


30.  36 


GENESIS 


31.  54 


increasing  his  possessions.  By  the  device  de- 
scribed in  vv.  37,  38  (which  he  only  employed 
when  the  stronger  ewes  were  breeding,  v.  41), 
he  brought  it  about  that  Laban's  pure  ewes 
produced  speckled  lambs,  which  he  claimed  as 
his  own.  In  addition  he  arranged  to  keep 
these  speckled  kids  and  lambs  in  view  of 
Laban's  ewes  with  the  same  result  (v.  40),  thus 
gradually  acquiring  flocks  of  his  own. 

36.  Betwixt  himself  and  Jacob]  Note  that 
LXX  &,nd  Samaritan  versions  read  '  between 
them  (i.e.  Jacob's  flock)  and  Jacob.' 

37.  Poplar  .  .  hazel .  .  chesnut]  rather, '  sto- 
rax,'  '  almond,'  '  plane.' 

CHAPTER   31 

Jacob's  Return  from  Hakan 

4-13.  Jacob  attributes  his  prosperity  to 
God's  favour.  14-16.  Rachel  and  Leah 
point  out  that  their  father  had  no  claim  on 
them,  since  Jacob  had  won  them  by  his  services, 
and  Laban  had  given  them  no  share  in  the 
proflts  he  had  made  through  their  husband's 
labours.     They  agree  to  leave  their  home. 

19.  The  images]  Heb.  teraphim.  These 
were  figures  of  metal,  wood,  or  clay  of  vary- 
ing sizes,  apparently  in  human  form.  They 
probably  answered  to  the  '  Lares  and  Penates,' 
or  household  gods  of  the  Romans,  which 
were  supposed  to  ward  off  danger  from  the 
home  and  to  bring  luck.  This  would  explain 
Rachel's  reason  for  stealing  them.  Laban  speaks 
of  them  as  'my  gods'  in  v  BO.  There  is^f-y 
interesting  reference  to  them  in  lSiy^»-,". 
From  Ezk212i  RV  it  is  clear  they  were  con- 
nected with  magic  and  soothsaying.  It  has  been 
suggested  that  in  some  cases  the  teraphim  were 
mummied  human  heads,  perhaps  of  ancestors, 
and  were  consulted  in  some  way  as  an  oracle. 
Whatever  they  were,  it  is  not  probable  that 
their  possession  by  the  Jews  interfered  seri- 
ously with  belief  in  and  worship  of  God,  though 
we  find  their  use  rightly  denounced  as  super- 
stitious. The  following  passages  refer  to  the 
teraphim:  JglT^  1S1523RV  2K2324RV 
Hos3^  ZechlO^RV.  Payne  Smith  remarks 
on  '  the  tendency  of  uneducated  minds,  even 
when  their  religion  is  in  the  main  true,  to 
add  to  it  some  superstitions,  especially  in  the 
way  of  fashioning  for  themselves  some  lower 
mediator.' 

21.  The  river]   the  Euphrates.         Gilead] 
Hebrew  territory  E.  of  the  Jordan. 

24.   Either   good   or   bad]    cp.   24^0.     God 
warns  Laban  to  restrain  his  feelings. 

27.   Tabret]   i.e.    'tambourine.'  30.   My 

gods]  see  on  v.  19.  34.  The  camel's  furni- 
ture] a  sort  of  palanquin  or  basket-seat  bound 
upon  the  camel.  40.  Frost  by  night]  Hot 
as  the  days  are  in  the  East,  it  often  becomes 
very  cold  when  the  sun  goes  down.         42.  The 


fear  of  Isaac]  the  God  whom  Isaac  feared  and 
reverenced.  43-52.  Laban  and  Jacob  con- 
clude a  covenant  of  friendship.  '  The  narra- 
tive .  .  is  disconnected,  and  full  of  duplications, 
and  is  certainly  the  result  of  a  union  of  several 
sources  '  (D.).  The  main  features  are  the  erec- 
tion of  a  great  stone  as  a  memorial  pillar  by 
Jacob,  and  the  collection  of  a  heap  of  stones  on 
which  the  covenant  meal  was  held  :  cp.  26^0. 
The  cairn  of  stones  and  pillar  were  erected  as 
witnesses  to  Jacob's  promise  that  he  would 
not  ill-treat  Laban's  daughters,  and  to  an 
agreement  pledging  both  Jacob  and  Laban  to 
regard  Mt.  Gilead  as  a  boundary  which  neither 
must  cross  with  hostile  motives.  The  narra- 
tive was  of  special  interest  in  after  times  as 
the  original  settlement  of  the  border  between 
Israel  and  Syria  (represented  by  Jacob  and 
Laban). 

47.  Jegar-sahadutha  .  .  Galeed]    We     have 
here    the    popular    etymology    of    the    name 
Gilead.     Both  words  in  the  text  mean  '  heap 
of  witness,'   the   former   being  Aramaic,   the 
latter  Hebrew.     The  double  designation  is  due 
to  the  fact  that  the  place  is  regarded  as  a 
boundary  between  Syria  and  Israel.     It  may 
be   remarked    here    that    Hebrew   is  but   one 
branch  of  a  great  family  of  languages  spoken 
in  Western  Asia  between  the  Mediterranean 
and  the  Euphrates,  to  which  the  general  name 
of  Semitic  is  applied.     This  is  usually  divided 
into  (1)  the    South    Semitic,    which    includes 
Arabic,  classical  and  modern,  and  Ethiopic  ; 
and     (2)  the     North     Semitic.     The     latter 
again    comprises    three    main    branches,    viz. 
(a)  Assyrian-Babylonian  in  the  East,  the  lan- 
guage of  the  cuneiform  inscriptions  ;  (b)  Ara- 
maic, in  the  northern  parts  of  Mesopotamia 
and    SjTia  ;  it  is   to   this   dialect,   incorrectly 
styled  Chaldee,  that  the  first  name  in  the  text 
belongs,  and  in  it  certain  parts  of  Ezra  and 
Daniel  are  written.     From  IsaSG^i  we  gather 
that  it  was  used  as  the  diplomatic  language  in 
the  8th  cent.  B.C.  ;  and  it  ultimately  took  the 
place  of  Hebrew  as  the  language  of  Palestine. 
The  language  of  the  Jewish  Targums  is  a  form 
of  Aramaic,  and  so  too  is  Syriac.     The  third 
branch  of  the  North  Semitic  language  is  (c)  the 
Canaanitic,    which    com-prises    Hebrew,    and 
closely  connected  with  it,  Phoenician  or  Punic. 
From    this    table    it   appears    that    Abraham 
coming  from  the  East  would  find  in  Canaan  a 
dialect  very  closely  akin  to  that  with  which  he 
was  familiar,  and  that  he  (or  his  descendants) 
adopted  it.     In  all  probability  his  native  dialect 
was  Aramaic,  spoken  at  Haran  in  Mesopotamia. 
Or   he    may    have    spoken    the    language    of 
Assyria,  which,  as  the  Tel  el  Amarna  tablets 
show,  was  the  official  language  of  communica- 
tion between  Palestine  and  Egypt  in  the  15th 
cent.  B.C. 

49.   Mizpah]    '  outlook    place.'         54.   Did 
36 


31.  55 


GENESIS 


34.  13 


eat  bread]  in  token  of  friendship.  55.  It  is 
pleasant  to  read  of  this  happy  ending  to  years 
of  strife. 

CHAPTER  32 

The  Approach  of  Esau.     Jacob  Wres- 
tles WITH  THE  Angel 

1.  The  angels  of  God]  God  had  given  Jacob, 
by  an  angelic  vision,  a  pledge  of  His  watcliful 
love,  when  he  left  his  home  (28 1^).  Now 
that  he  was  returning  to  Canaan  after  twenty 
years,  and  with  dangers  at  hand,  God  renews 
this  assurance  by  another  heavenly  vision. 

2.  God's  host]  Heb.  Mahanaiin.  It  was  an 
important  city  in  Gilead.  3.  The  land  of 
Seir]  or  Edom,  S.  of  the  Dead  Sea,  where  Esau 
settled  (36'^).  6,  7.  Esau's  large  retinue 
alarms  Jacob,  since  their  parting  had  been  a 
hostile  one. 

9-12.  Jacob's  prayer  is  a  pattern  of  hu- 
mility, earnestness,  and  faith  in  God's  pro- 
mises. ID.  With  my  staff,  etc.]  When 
Jacob  fii-st  left  Canaan  he  was  a  lonely  way- 
farer with  no  companion  but  his  staff  :  now, 
blest  by  God,  he  returns  with  a  numerous 
family  and  large  possessions. 

22.  The  ford  Jabbok]  i.e.  'wrestler.'  Read, 
'the  ford  of  the  Jabbok,'  a  stream  which  flows 
fi'om  the  neighbourhood  of  Rabbath  Ammon 
into  the  Jordan  opposite  Shechem. 

24-32.  The  writer  of  this  passage,  it  can 
hardly  be  doubted,  was  thinking  of  a  physical 
wrestling.  Like  the  men  of  his  day,  he  had 
not  reached  the  idea  of  the  purely  spiritual 
nature  of  God,  and  could  only  conceive  of  Him 
in  a  materialistic  yf&j.  Practically,  it  is  thus 
God  is  still  thought  and  spoken  of,  as  pure 
spirit  is  a  condition  of  being  which  it  is  hardly 
possible  for  us  to  understand.  In  the  nar- 
rative there  is  portrayed  a  spiritual  experience 
thi-ough  which  Jacob  passed  at  a  critical 
moment  of  his  life,  and  in  which  he  received 
the  final  lesson  that  humbled  and  broke  down 
his  self-will,  and  convinced  him  that  he  could 
not  snatch  the  blessing  from  God's  hand,  but 
must  accept  it  as  a  gift  of  grace. 

28.  Israel]  'Perseverer  with  God.'  'As  the 
name  was  to  the  Hebrews  the  symbol  or  ex- 
pression of  the  nature,  the  change  of  name  is 
significant  of  the  moral  change  in  the  patriarch 
himself  ;  he  is  no  longer  Jacob  the  Supplanter, 
the  Crafty  one,  the  Overreacher,  but  Israel  the 
Perseverer  with  God,  who  is  worthy  also  to 
prevail'  :  cp.  Hosl2'i.  'The  incident  serves 
to  explain  further  the  name  Feuuel^  "  Face  of 
God  "  ;  "  for,"  said  Jacob,  "  I  have  seen  God 
face  to  face,  and  yet  my  life  is  preserved  "  (in 
allusion  to  the  belief  that  no  one  could  "  see 
God  and  live,"  Ex  19  21  3320  Jg  6  22  1322). 
The  narrator  deduces  also  from  this  incident 
the  custom  of  not  eating  in  animals  the  muscle 
corresponding  to  the  one  which  was  strained 

37 


in  Jacob's  thigh  ;  it  was  treated  as  sacred 
thi-ough  the  touch  of  God.'  See  HDB.  art. 
'  Jacob.'  As   a   prince   hast  thou  power] 

RV  '  Thou  hast  striven.'  29.  Wherefore  is 
it,  etc.]  i.e.  Surely  you  must  know  who  I  am. 


CHAPTER  33 

1-16.  Jacob  and  Esau  meet  peaceably. 

17-20.  Jacob  settles  in  Canaan. 

3.  Bowed  seven  times]  in  token  of  submis- 
sion to  Esau.  4.  Jacob's  prayer  (32  H)  is 
answered,  and  Esau,  whatever  his  original 
purpose,  now  shows  his  brother  only  goodwill 
and  affection.  10,  I  have  seen  thy  face,  etc.] 
i.e.  I  find  thee  as  favourable  to  me  as  God  is, 
alluding,  no  doubt,  to  the  name  Peniel  (32^0). 

II.  My  blessing]  RV  '  my  gif t '  :  the  pre- 
sent which  accompanied  expressions  of  good- 
will. So  Naaman  said  to  Elisha,  '  I  pray  thee, 
take  a  blessing  of  thy  servant'  (2K51S). 

12-16.  Jacob  was  unwilling  to  refuse  Esau, 
and  yet  thought  it  most  prudent  to  keep  apart 
from  his  hasty  brother.  He  therefore  made 
an  excuse  and  crossed  the  Jordan  into  Canaan. 

17.  Succoth]  '  booths,'  S.  of  the  Jabbok  and 
on  the  E.  side  of  Jordan.  Succoth  and  Penuel 
are  mentioned  together  in  Jg8.  18.  To 
Shalem,  a  city  of  Shechem]  RV  '  in  peace  to 
the  city  of  Shechem.'  But  there  is  a  village 
called  Salim  3  m.  E.  of  Shechem.  Here  Jacob 
settled  for  some  eight  or  ten  years.  The 
well  which  he  dug  still  exists,  though  nearly 
choked  with  stones,  some  1 J  m.  from  Nablous. 
It  was  here  that  Christ  conversed  with  the 
woman  of  Samaria  (Jn  4).  19.  Pieces  of 
money]  Heb.  Kesitah,  probably  bars  or  rings 
of  silver  of  a  certain  weight.  See  on  2316^ 
also  Job  4211.  20.  El-elohe-Israel]  i.e.  El 
(God)  is  the  God  of  Israel  (Jacob's  new  name). 

CHAPTER  34 

The  Dishonour  done  to  Dinah,  and  the 
Crafty  Revenge  of  Simeon  and  Levi 

I.  Went  out  to  see  the  daughters  of  the 
land]  According  to  Josephus  there  was  a 
festival  among  the    Canaanites  at    Shechem. 

7.  Folly]  The  term  is  frequently  applied 
in  the  moral  sense  as  equivalent  to  immorality  • 
see  Dt222i  Jg20'3  2S1312,  and  frequently  in 
Proverbs,  as  7  7f.  A  world  of  argument  lies  in 
the  scriptural  identification  of  wickedness  and 
folly.  The  moral  man  is  the  wise  man.  In 
Israel]  The  author  anticipates  the  national 
name.  12.  Dowry  and   gift]    The    former 

was  the  price  paid  to  the  relatives  for  the 
bi'ide,  the  latter  the  gift  to  the  bride. 

13-17.  Simeon  and  Levi  professed  to  have 
scruples  in  giving  their  sister  to  one  who  was 
of  an  uncircumcised  race,  but  they  had  another 
motive:    by   procuring   the    circumcision    of 


34.25 


GENESIS 


37. 


the  tribe  they  were  able  to  carry  out  their  re- 
venge when  the  Shechemites  were  suffering 
from  the  effects  of  the  rite.  25.  Simeon, 
Levi,  and  Dinah  were  all  children  of  Leah. 

29.  Little  ones]  i-ather,  'household,'  ser- 
vants, etc.  28-30.  The  murder  of  the 
Shechemites  was  a  treacherous  and  cruel  act. 
Jacob  was  deeply  incensed  at  it,  and  on  his 
deathbed  (c.  49)  denounced  and  cursed  the 
murderers,  though  at  the  time  he  was  chiefly 
concerned  for  the  consequences  of  their  con- 
duct. 30.  Make  me  to  stink]  i.e.  to  be  in 
bad  odour,  as  we  say  :  cp.  Ex  5  2^. 

CHAPTER  35 

Jacob  journeys  by  way  of  Bethel  to 
Hebron.  Death  of  Rachel  and  of 
Isaac 

1.  Jacob  is  commanded  to  go  to  Bethel  and 
fulfil  the  vow  he  had  once  made  there  (28  20, 22)_ 

2.  Strange  gods]  Perhaps  the  idols  of  some 
of  Jacob's  people  who  had  come  with  him 
from  Haran,  such  as  the  teraphim  which 
Rachel  carried  off  (3119).  Be  clean,  and 
change  your  garments]  rites  symbolising  puri- 
fication from  idolatry.  4.  Earrings]  worn 
superstitiously  as  charms,  and  often  inscribed 
with  magical  formulae.  The  oak]  It  was 
here  perhaps  that  Joshua,  hundreds  of  years 
later,  bade  the  Israelites  put  away  the  strange 
gods  which  were  among  them  (Josh  24  23-26) 

5.  They  were  divinely  protected  from  'any 
revenge  the  Shechemites  may  have  meditated. 

7.  El-beth-el]  '  the  God  of  Bethel,'  or  '  the 
God  of  the  House  of  God.'  8.  Allon-ba- 
chuth]  '  oak  of  weeping.'  Deborah  and  Eliezer 
(c.  24)  are  good  examples  of  the  honourable 
position  assigned  to  servants  in  times  of  patri- 
archal simplicity.     Deborah  means  '  bee.' 

9-13,  These  vv.  give  the  origin  of  the  names 
'Israel '  and  'Bethel'  from  the  Priestly  source. 
Note  the  absence  of  anthropomorphisms  as 
compared  with  the  account  in  32-2-32. 

14.  A  pillar]  see  on  28 1^.  A  drink  offering] 
a  libation  of  wine  in  token  of  thankfulness. 
Under  the  Law  meat  and  drink  offerings  accom- 
panied the  burnt  sacrifice. 

16.  Ephrath]  or  Bethlehem,  4  m.  S.  of  Jeru- 
salem :  cp.  487Mic52.  18.  Ben-oni]  'son 
of  my  sorrow.'  Benjamin]  perhaps  '  son  of 
my  right  hand,'  that  being  the  fortunate  side, 
and  so  a  name  of  better  omen.  Another  ren- 
dering is  '  son  of  days,'  i.e.  of  Jacob's  old  age 
21.  Tower  of  Edar]  lit.  '  tower  of  the  flock,' 
probably  between  Bethlehem  and  Hebron. 
The  name  is  used  symbolically  of  Jerusalem 
in  Mic48.  22.  By  this  crime  Reuben,  the 
eldest  son,  forfeited  the  birthright  (49  3, 4)  like 
Simeon  and  Levi  before  him  :  see  on  34  2s. 

27.  Jacob  rejoins  his  father  after  thirty 
years'  separation.         City  of  Arbah]  Hebron  : 


see   232.  28,  29.  Isaac  was  buried  in  the 

cave  at  Machpelah,  49  3^. 

CHAPTER  36 

The  Generations  of  Esau 

'  The  amount  of  detail  here  arises  from  the 
fact  that  Edom  was  always  counted  Israel's 
brother,  and  of  great  importance  in  the  history 
of  Israel.  The  Horites  ("  cave-dwellers  ")  were 
originally  in  the  mountainous  country  of  Seir 
(v.  20)  ;  the  Hebrews  under  Esau  entered  and 
amalgamated  with  them.  Esau  married  the 
Horite  Aholibamah,  and  his  son  Eliphaz,  the 
Horite  Timna.  They  then  became  rulers  of 
Seir  to  Akaba  ;  God  gave  it  them  as  Canaan 
to  Israel '  (D.).    See  Dt  25. 

I.  Esau,  who  is  Edom]  i.e.  Esau,  who  was 
called  Edom,  and  gave  to  his  land  his  name  : 
see  on  253*^.  2.  The  names  of  the  wives  of 
Esau  given  here  vary  from  those  mentioned  in 
26^4  289.  The  difficulties  have  never  been 
explained,  and  are  generally  attributed  to  two 
irreconcilable  traditions.  Zibeon  the  Hiv- 
ite]  a  clerical  error  :  read  '  Horite.'  Zibeon 
was  doubtless  a  Horite  or  dweller  in  Mt.  Hor  : 
see  V.  20.  It  was  by  the  marriage  mentioned 
here  that  Esau  acquired  his  influence  among 
the  Horites,  the  aboriginal  inhabitants  of  Seir  : 
see  on  14  6. 

8,  9.  The  fact  is  dwelt  on  that  the  Edomite 
nation  was  descended  from  Esau.  Mount 
Seir]  a  chain  of  mountains  extending  from  the 
Dead  Sea  to  the  Gulf  of  Akaba.  Mt.  Hor  is 
towards  the  centre  of  the  range.  Aaron  was 
buried  there  :  see  on  Nu2022f. 

12.  Amalek]  This  does  not  mean  that  the 
great  tribe  of  the  Amalekites  was  descended 
from  Edom,  but  that  a  branch  became  attached 
to  the  Edomites.         15.   Dukes]  RM  '  chiefs.' 

24.  The  mules]  '  the  hot  springs.'  Such 
springs  exist  near  the  Dead  Sea,  and  are 
much  prized  by  the  desert  wanderers  for  their 
medicinal  qualities. 

31.  This  V.  shows  the  early  development  of 
the  monarchy  in  Edom,  and  also  that  there 
were  kings  in  Israel  in  the  author's  lifetime. 

37.  River]  either  the  Euphrates  or  the 
Wady  el  Arish  :  see  on  15 1^. 

CHAPTER    37 

Joseph  is  Hated  by  his  Brethren  and 
Sold  into  Egypt 

With  the  exception  of  a  few  passages  chiefly 
in  chs.  46  and  49,  the  rest  of  the  book  of 
Genesis  is  taken  from  the  Primitive  source. 

The  chief  event  with  which  the  rest  of 
Genesis  is  concerned,  namely,  the  migration  of 
Israel  to  Egypt,  displays  the  working  out  of 
God's  purposes  declared  in  Gnl5.  Im  Egypt 
the  chosen  race  grew  in  peace  from  a  tribe  to 


38 


37.  2 


GENESIS 


39.6 


a  nation,  instead  of  having  to  encounter  the 
hostility  of  the  Canaanites  as  their  numbers 
increased  and  their  aspirations  became  known. 
In  Egypt,  too,  they  came  in  contact  with  a 
highly  civilised  and  law-abiding  nation,  and 
learnt  from  them  much  of  the  highest  value 
for  the  future. 

There  are  many  points  in  the  history  of 
Joseph  which  remind  us  of  Christ,  e.g.  in  his 
being  the  loved  son  of  his  father,  in  his  being 
sent  to  his  brethren  who  hated  and  rejected 
him,  in  his  humiliation  and  glory,  and  in  the 
benefits  he  conferred  on  those  among  whom 
he  came  to  dwell. 

2.  The  generations  of  Jacob]  i.e.  the  history 
of  Jacob's  descendants,  especially  of  Joseph. 
Their  evil  report]  RV  '  the  evil  report  of 
them.'  The  sins  of  Jacob's  sons  in  chs.  34, 
37,  38  afford  plain  evidence  of  their  lawless 
characters.  3.  A  coat  of  many  colours] 
RM  '  a  long  garment  with  sleeves,'  i.e.  reach- 
ing to  the  ankles  and  wrists,  and  worn  by 
persons  of  distinction.  The  ordinary  coat  had 
no  sleeves  and  reached  only  to  the  knees. 

5.  Joseph  dreamed]  The  fact  of  the  dreams 
indicates  a  contemplative  disposition  in 
Joseph  :  their  character  foreshadows  his 
future  pre-eminence  among  his  brethren. 

10.  Thy  mother]  According  to  35i'\  Rachel 
was  already  dead  :  but  critics  assign  that 
passage  to  a  different  source. 

13.  Jacob  was  living  at  Hebron,  but  he  had 
land  at  Shechem  :  see  33i8'i^.  15.  In  the 
field]  i.e.  in  the  open  country.  17.  Dothan] 
12  m.  N.  of  Shechem.  It  was  on  the  caravan 
route  between  Syria  and  Egypt.  This  explains 
the  passing  of  the  merchants. 

21  f.  The  narrative  in  this  chapter  appears 
to  be  drawn  from  two  sources  which  give 
somewhat  varying  accounts  of  the  way  in 
which  Joseph  was  rescued  and  sold  without 
any  attempt  to  harmonise  them.  In  one  it 
is  Judah  who  defends  him  and  Ishmaelites 
who  buy  him  ;  in  the  other  it  is  Reuben  and 
Midianites. 

24.  A  pit]  These  pits  or,  rather,  cisterns 
are  generally  dry  except  in  the  rainy  season. 
They  are  much  smaller  at  top  than  bottom, 
that  they  may  be  the  more  easily  closed.  Some 
are  80  to  100  ft.  deep  :  cp.  Jer386. 

25.  Spicery,  balm,  and  myrrh]  fragrant 
gums  from  various  trees,  used  in  Egypt  for 
making  incense,  and  for  embalming. 

28.  Twenty  pieces  of  silver]  '  The  price,  in 
later  times,  of  a  male  slave  from  five  to  twenty 
years  old,  the  medium  price  being  thirty  shekels 
of  silver  or  £4  '  (Edersheim).  29.   Reuben 

had  evidently  been  absent  during  this  trans- 
action. 34.  Sackcloth]  a  coarse  material 
made  of  goats'  hair,  and  worn  next  the  skin 
in  token  of  the  affliction  of  the  soul. 

35.  The   grave]   the    Heb.   '  Sheol '  means 


39 


the  place  of  departed  souls.  36.  Sold  him] 
Syrian  slaves  were  highly  valued  by  the 
Egyptians.  Potiphar]  probably  means '  the 
gift  of  Ra,'  the  sun-god  of  the  Egyptians. 

Captain  of  the  guard]  i.e.  of  the  bodyguard 
who  protected  Pharaoh's  person  and  executed 
criminals  :  but  some  render  '  chief  of  the 
butchers.' 

CHAPTER   38 

The  History  of  Judah 

The  sins  recorded  in  this  chapter  testify 
eloquently  to  the  great  need  the  world  had  of 
the  Greatest  of  the  descendants  of  Judah,  who 
came  to  teach  the  virtue  of  purity  and  the 
sanctity  of  family  life.  The  honesty  and 
truthfulness  of  the  historian  are  shown  in  his 
not  concealing  the  dark  spots  in  the  history 
of  Judah,  whose  descendants  attained  to  such 
greatness.  The  direct  purpose  of  the  narrative 
is  to  show  the  ancestry  of  David,  who  was 
descended  from  Pharez  the  son  of  Judah  by 
Tamar  :  see  Ruth  4  is  Mtis. 

I .  Adullamite]  Adullam  was  in  the  lowland 
of  Judah,  SW.  of  Jerusalem.  8.  The  law 
in  Dt25^"io,  respecting  the  duty  of  a  surviving 
brother  to  marry  his  deceased  brother's  widow 
in  order  to  continue  the  race,  will  fully  explain 
the  circumstances  here  detailed.  To  inculcate 
observance  of  this  law  was  probably  the  aim 
of  the  historian.  Had  Judah  given  Shelah  to 
Tamar,  as  he  admitted  he  should  have  done 
according  to  ancient  custom,  the  events  re- 
corded here  would  not  have  happened  :  see 
alsoMt2223f.  13.   Timnath]  on  the  Philis- 

tine border  of  Judah.  14.   An  open  place] 

RV  '  the  gate  of  Enaim,'  near  Adullam. 

15.  Harlot]  RM  Heb.  A''erf,?s^a/?, 'that  is,  a 
woman  dedicated  to  impure  heathen  worship  : 
see  Dt23i'''  Hos4i4.'  The  surrender  of  their 
chastity  as  the  greatest  sacrifice  women  could 
make  was  common  in  heathen  worship.  At 
Corinth  in  St.  Paul's  day  it  is  known  that  this 
shocking  practice  formed  par't  of  the  ritual  at 
the  temples  dedicated  to  Aphrodite. 

1 8.  Bracelets]  rather,  '  cord '  by  which  the 
seal  was  suspended  round  the  neck. 

26.  The  reason  of  Tamar's  action  may  be 
found  in  the  strong  desire  for  the  perpetuation 
of  the  family,  so  often  observed  in  the  sacred 
narrative. 

27-30.  This  incident  testifies  to  the  import- 
ance and  privileges  attached  to  the  firstborn. 

Pharez]  '  breach.'  Zarah]  perhaps  '  scar- 
let,' but  uncertain. 

CHAPTER  39 

Joseph  in  the  House  of  Potiphar 

5.  Overseer]  rather,  '  house-steward.' 

6.  Potiphar  left  everything  imder  Joseph's 
control  except  his  own  food.     There  may  be 


39.7 


GENESIS 


41.  14 


here  an  allusion  to  the  strict  caste  laws  of 
Egypt  :  cp.  4332  46  3*. 

7.  Joseph  was  yet  but  a  youth,  when  tempta- 
tions are  strongest,  and  he  was  far  removed 
from  all  the  restraining  influences  of  home. 
But  He  who  was  '  the  fear  of  Isaac'  (3142) 
was  '  the  fear  of  Joseph '  also,  and  his  resolute 
resistance  to  temptation  teaches  that  the 
prospect  of  earthly  advantage  or  pleasm-e 
should  never  for  a  moment  close  om*  ears  to 
the  voice  of  conscience. 

A  papyrus  has  been  found  called  '  The  Tale 
of  Two  Brothers,'  which  gives  in  Egyptian 
form  some  incidents  similar  to  this  narrative. 

8.  Wotteth]  RV  '  knoweth.'  9.  And  sin 
against  God]  Other  passages  (e.g.  40^41 16  51,52 
4218  50i9>20)  show  that  Joseph  'made  the 
consciousness  of  God's  presence  and  inter- 
vention in  his  affairs,  a  vital  principle  of  his 
actions,  the  law  of  his  life '  :  cp.  NehS^^. 

20.  It  is  probable  from  the  lightness  of 
Joseph's  punishment  that  Potiphar  was  not 
altogether  convinced  of  his  steward's  guilt. 

CHAPTER  40 

Joseph  interprets  the  Dreams  of 

Pharaoh's  Officers 

I.  Butler]  rather,  '  cupbearer,'  a  high  court 
official  :  cp.  Neh  1  ^  2 1.  Baker]  rather, 
'  cook.'  It  is  conjectured  that  these  officials 
were  accused  of  plotting  to  poison  Pharaoh. 

8.  No  professional  interpreter  was  avail- 
able :  see  on  41  s.  Do  not  interpretations, 
etc.]  i.e.  It  may  be  that  God  who  sent  the 
dreams  will  give  me  the  interpretation  of 
them.  9-1 1.   Grape  juice  mixed  with  water 

is  used  as  a  refreshing  drink  in  the  East. 
Among  the  inscriptions  on  the  temple  of  Edfu 
is  one  in  which  the  king  is  seen  with  a  cup  in 
his  hand,  and  underneath  are  the  words, '  They 
press  grapes  into  the  water  and  the  king 
drinks.'  16.  White  baskets]  rather, '  baskets 
of  white  bread.'  17.    Bakemeats]    i.e.  con- 

fectionery. 19.  Hang  thee  on  a  tree]  rather, 
'  impale  thee  on  a  stake  '  after  being  beheaded. 
Hanging  as  a  form  of  punishment  is  not  re- 
ferred to,  except  in  the  book  of  Esther,  the 
scene  of  which  is  laid  in  Persia.  The  birds 
shall  eat,  etc.]  The  Egyptians  held  that  after 
a  stay  of  3000  years  in  the  unseen  world,  the 
soul  re-entered  its  former  body,  and  com- 
menced a  fresh  existence  on  the  earth.  They 
therefore  took  the  greatest  pains  to  preserve 
the  bodies  of  the  dead  :  see  on  502.  Yot  a 
body  to  be  devoured  by  the  birds,  as  Joseph 
foretold,  would  be  regarded  as  a  terrible 
doom. 

CHAPTER  41 

The  Dreams  of  Pharaoh  and  the 

Advancement  of  Joseph 
I.  Pharaoh]  It  is  believed  that  a  dynasty 


of  Asiatic  (perhaps  Bedouin)  conquerors, 
known  as  the  Hyksos  or  Shepherd  kings, 
were  now  in  power  in  Egypt.  Their  rule 
lasted  for  500  years,  until  1700  or  1600  B.C., 
when  a  native  Nubian  dynasty  from  Thebes 
expelled  the  invaders.  The  court  was  at 
Zoan  on  the  eastern  frontier  of  Egypt.  The 
elevation  of  Joseph  to  an  almost  royal  posi- 
tion, and  the  welcome  extended  to  his  kinsmen, 
were  natural  at  the  hands  of  a  dynasty  who 
were  Asiatic  like  himself,  but  very  improbable 
had  a  native  dynasty  who  hated  foreigners 
been  in  power  :  see  on  Ex  1  §. 

1.  The  river]  Heb.  Yeor,  i.e.  the  Nile. 
As  is  generally  known,  the  fertility  of  Egypt 
depends  entirely  upon  the  amount  of  water 
which  overflows  the  banks  when  the  Nile  is  at 
its  highest.  Without  that  river  the  land  would 
be  a  desert,  the  rainfall  being  extremely  slight.  . 

In  recent  years  great  improvements  have 
been  made  for  maintaining  the  water  at  a 
normal  height  always.  Large  '  barrages '  or 
dams  have  been  erected  at  Assouan,  by  the 
island  of  Philoe,  for  this  purpose.  The  arti- 
ficial irrigation  of  Egypt  is  alluded  to  in 
Dt  1 1 10,  where  see  note. 

2,  3.  The  seven  vyell  favoured  kine]  coming 
up  out  of  the  Nile  signified  an  abundant  over- 
flow for  seven  years  and  consequent  plenty 
for  Egypt,  but  the  ill  favoured  ones  the  reverse. 

Meadow]  RV  '  reed  grass '  which  grows  by 
the  Nile.  5.  Seven  ears  .  .  upon  one  stalk] 
This  many-eared  wheat  is  still  gi-own  in  Egypt. 
Specimens  have  been  found  in  mummy  cases 
of  very  early  periods.  6.  The  east  vvind] 
the  parching  SE.  wind  from  the  desert  ;  see 
on  Ex  10  21. 

8.  Magicians]  RM  '  sacred  scribes.'  They 
were  the  literary  caste  of  Egypt,  writing  the 
hieroglyphics,  or  sacred  writings,  and  learned 
in  the  interpretation  of  dreams  and  astrology. 
They  attended  at  the  Court  of  the  Pharaohs, 
and  their  duty  was  '  to  guide  every  act  of  the 
king's  life,  and  to  interpret  the  will  of  the 
gods  as  shown  in  visions,  omens,  or  sign's  in 
the  heavens.  They  did  not  affect  to  speak  by 
direct  inspiration  in  giving  their  interpreta- 
tions, but  confined  themselves  to  consulting 
the  holy  books  and  to  performing  magical 
rites'  (Geikie).     See  on  Ex 711. 

14.  He  shaved  him>;elf]  so  as  to  be 
ceremonially  clean  in  Pharaoh's  presence,  a 
distinctively  Egyptian  trait.  '  The  Hebrews 
regarded  their  beard  with  peculiar  pride, 
cultivated  it  with  care,  touched  it  at  supplica- 
tions, often  swore  by  it,  and  deemed  its 
mutilation  an  extreme  ignominy  :  hence,  in 
mourning,  they  shaved  their  beards  and  hair ' 
(Kalisch).  The  Egyptians,  on  the  other  hand, 
never  allowed  the  hair  to  grow  unless  they 
were  in  mourning,  or  prisoners,  or  belonged 
to    the   poorer    classes.     To    be    shaved   was 


40 


41.  16 


GENESIS 


42.  11 


regarded  as  essential  to  ceremonial  purity,  as 
well  as  to  cleanliness:  see  on  ExS^*^.  The 
great  beards  and  head-dresses  with  which 
Egyptian  kings  are  represented  on  the  monu- 
ments are  artificial.  There  is  an  ancient 
Egyptian  wig  in  the  British  Museum,  and  the 
strap  by  which  the  beard  was  held  on  the  chin 
may  be  observed  on  the  monuments. 

1 6.  Render,  '  It  is  not  I  but  God  who  will 
answer  what  will  profit  Pharaoh.' 

25.  The  dream  of  Pharaoh  is  one]  i.e.  both 
dreams  have  the  same  significance.  The  nar- 
rative here  is  a  striking  fulfilment  of  the 
words  in  39  2,  '  The  Lord  was  with  Joseph.' 

34.  Joseph's  suggestion  was  that  a  fifth 
part  of  the  corn  crop  should  be  required  of 
the  people  for  the  next  seven  years  to  be 
stored  up  by  the  government  ;  this  would 
keep  a  quantity  in  the  country  which  would 
otherwise  have  been  sold  to  other  lands.  The 
corn  tax  was  already  an  important  part  of 
Egyptian  revenue,  and  its  increase  in  years 
of  such  abundant  plenty  would  be  no  hardship. 

38.  Pharaoh  felt  that  Joseph's  wisdom  had 
a  divine  source.  40.  Pharaoh  makes  Joseph 
his  grand  vizier  or  prime  minister,  only  reserv- 
ing to  himself  the  supreme  authority. 

42.  Ring  .  .  vestures  .  .  chain]  '  The  specu- 
lative mind  of  the  Oriental  invests  everything 
with  a  symbolical  significance  '  (Kalisch).  The 
ring  was  Pharaoh's  signet  or  seal,  showing 
that  Joseph  was  invested  with  full  power  as 
to  edicts  and  commands.  The  king  and  the 
priestly  order  only  wore  the  finest  linen 
vestures.  The  chain  round  the  neck  from 
which  the  scarabseus,  or  beetle,  the  emblem 
of  immortality,  was  suspended,  was  also  a 
mark  of  rank.  43.  They  cried]  i.e.  the 
grooms  who  ran  before  the  chariot,  as  is  done 
to  the  present  day  in  Egypt.  Bow  the  knee] 
Abrek,  the  word  used  here,  is  still  the  cry  to 
the  camel  to  kneel.  44.  The  exaltation  of 
Joseph,  who  was  a  Hebrew,  is  less  remarkable 
if  the  Pharaohs  of  this  period  were  themselves 
of  Asiatic  descent.     See  on  v.  1. 

45.  Zaphnaph-paaneah]  meaning,  perhaps, 
'  God,  the  Living  One,  has  spoken.'  It  is  a 
word  of  Egyptian  origin,  but  not  found  earlier 
than  the  9th  cent.  B.C.  Asenath]  '  One 
belonging  to  the  goddess  Neith,  the  Egyptian 
Minerva,  goddess  of  wisdom.'  Poti-pherah] 
'  One   given   by  Ra  the  sun-god.'  On]   or 

Heliopolis,  '  city  of  the  sun,'  was  7  m. 
NE.  of  Cairo.  It  was  the  centre  of  the  sun 
(Ra)  worship.  A  great  granite  obelisk  of  the 
twelfth  dynasty  is  all  that  remains  standing  of 
the  temple  of  the  sun,  but  a  similar  monolith 
known  as  '  Cleopatra's  needle  '  was  brought 
from  Alexandria  to  London  in  1878,  and 
erected  on  the  Thames  embankment.  It  had 
originally  been  one  of  the  obelisks  at  Helio- 
polis.    It  is  held  that  these  obelisks  were  the 


symbol  of  Ra,  the  fertilising  sun-god.  In 
Jer  43 13  On  is  called  Beth-shemesh,  '  house  of 
the  sun.' 

This  marriage,  no  doubt,  exalted  Joseph  in 
the  eyes  of  the  Egyptians,  but  there  is 
abundant  evidence  that  he  did  not  forsake  the 
faith  of  his  fathers  on  account  of  these 
new  ties. 

46.  Thirty  years  old]  he  was  seventeen  when 
sold  into  Egypt  (37-').  51,52.  Manasseh] 
'causing   to   forget.'  Ephraim]    'fruitful.' 

The  first  name  suggests  that  Joseph  felt  in 
his  present  prosperity  compensation  for  his 
early  trials.  54.  Seven  years  of  dearth] 
A  similar  visitation  took  place  between  the 
years  1064-1071  a.d.,  and  this  also  was  caused 
through  the  failure  of  the  Nile.  There  is  a 
record  on  the  monuments  of  a  great  famine 
in  Egypt  3000  B.C.  In  Canaan  such  a  scarcity 
would  be  due  to  insufficient  rainfall. 

56.  Over  all  the  face  of  the  earth]  an 
expression  for  the  countries  near  Egypt,  such 
as  Arabia,  Palestine,  and  parts  of  Africa. 
And  Joseph  opened  all  the  storehouses]  Dr. 
Brugsch  has  discovered  a  tomb  at  El-Kab 
with  an  inscription  which  very  possibly  refers 
to  this  famine.  Its  occupant  seems  to  have 
been  one  of  the  distributors  of  corn  during 
the  famine  years.  The  following  extract 
refers  to  it  :  '  I  collected  the  harvest,  for  I 
was  a  friend  of  the  harvest  god.  I  was  watch- 
ful at  the  time  of  sowing,  and  now  when  a 
famine  came  lasting  many  years  I  issued  corn 
to  the  city  to  each  hungry  person.' 

CHAPTER   42 

The  First  Visit  of  Joseph's  Brethren 
TO  Egypt 

I.  When  Jacob  saw]  The  caravans  which 
travelled  from  Egypt  to  Syria  would  bring 
the  news  to  Hebron.  3,   Dr.  Thomson,  in 

'  The  Land  and  the  Book,'  says  he  has  often 
met  large  parties  with  their  donkeys  going 
from  Palestine  to  Egypt  in  time  of  drought  for 
food.  Jacob's  sons  no  doubt  took  servants 
with  them  and  many  asses. 

8.  Joseph,  now  a  middle-aged  man,  was 
dressed  as  an  Egyptian,  and  spoke  in  Egyptian 
through  an  interpreter  (v.  23).  His  bretlu-en, 
on  the  other  hand,  would  not  have  changed  in 
appearance.  9.   Ye  are  spies]    Egypt  was 

always  liable  to  attack  from  Asia,  and  fortresses 
were  built  along  that  frontier  to  repel  inva- 
sion. By  suggesting  that  they  were  foreigners 
who  were  spying  out  the  nakedness  of  the  land, 
i.e.  how  far  it  was  open  to  attack  from  hos- 
tile nations,  Joseph  had  an  opportunity  of 
enquiring  about  his  family.  We  may  believe 
also  that,  though  well-intentioned  towards  his 
brethren,  he  sought  to  bring  their  sin  home  to 
them.     II,  We  ai-e  all  one  man's  sons.  .  thy 


41 


4S.  13 


GENESIS 


45.  20 


servants  are  no  spies]  This  was  a  strong  argu- 
ment. No  father  would  have  risked  the  lives 
of  all  his  children  at  once  on  such  dangerous 
work  as  that  of  spies.  13.  Is  not]  i.e.  is 
not   alive,    meaning     Joseph.  14.    Joseph 

perseveres  in  this  charge  in  order  to  have  a 
pretext  for  getting  Benjamin  to  Egypt.  He 
hoped  too,  perhaps,  that  his  father  would 
follow  when  his  favourite  son  had  left  him. 

15.  By  the  life  of  Pharaoh]  a  common 
Egyptian  oath :  cp.  '  As  I  live  saith  the  Lord,' 
also  2K24.  18.  I  fear  God]  'and  so  will  not 
punish  on  mere  suspicion  '  (D.). 

21.  Conscience  arouses  in  the  brethren  the 
fear  that  the  day  of  reckoning,  so  long  delayed, 
has  come  at  last. 

27.  The  inn]  This  would  be  no  more  than 
a  mere  shelter  or  camping  place.  Even  now, 
when  journeying  in  out-of-the-way  parts  in 
the  East,  travellers  take  their  own  food  and 
bedding  with  them.  36.  All  these  things 
are  against  me]  So  Jacob  thought ;  but  Provi- 
dence was  working  out  a  merciful  provision 
for  the  welfare  of  himself  and  his  family. 

CHAPTER   43 

The  Second  Yisit  to  Egypt 

11.  Balm]  or  '  balsam,' with  healing  proper- 
ties. Honey]  This  was  grape-honey,  a  syrup 
made  of  grapes  and  diluted  with  water  for  a 
drink.  It  is  still  exported  from  Hebron  to 
Egypt.  Syria  is  famous  for  its  pistachio  nuts 
and  almonds  which  do  not  grow  in  Egypt. 

12.  Double  money]  (1)  to  repay  that  put 
in  the  sack,  and  (2)  to  piu-chase  fresh  stores. 

18.  Again  the  guilty  conscience  which 
dreads  every  fresh  event.  30.  Bo-wels] 
regarded  as  the  seat  of  the  affections  by  the 
Hebrews  :  cp.  2  Cor  6^2. 

32.  The  distinctions  observed  here  were  due 
to  the  existence  of  various  castes  among  the 
Egyptians.  As  with  the  Hindoos,  it  was  un- 
heard of  for  a  man  of  one  caste  to  eat  from 
the  vessels  used  by  another. 

34.  He  fient  messes]  '  Mess '  is  derived  from 
Lat.  m!fii<uni,  '  sent '  :  so  a  dish  of  meat  sent.  To 
do  this  is  an  Eastern  mark  of  honour  :  2  S  11  8. 
Sometimes  the  host  personally  puts  a  particu- 
larly choice  morsel  into  the  guest's  mouth. 
Joseph's  love  for  Benjamin  is  thus  markedly 
shown. 

CHAPTER   44 
The  Final  Test  of  Joseph's  Brethren 

2.  Put  my  cup .  .  in  the  sack's  mouth  of  the 
youngest]  Joseph  evidently  did  this  as  an 
excuse  for  keeping  Benjamin  with  him.  Per- 
haps, too,  it  was  a  test  of  the  brethren  whether 
they  would  act  as  cruelly  in  deserting  their 
youngest  brother  as  they  had  dealt  with  him- 
self.    However,  they  came  nobly  out  of  the 


trial,  and  a  complete  reconciliation  took 
place. 

5.  Whereby  indeed  he  divineth]  Divination 
by  means  of  bowls  of  water  was  very  prevalent 
among  the  ancients.  They  appear  to  have 
had  a  superstitious  fancy  that  if  one  gazed 
long  into  a  cup,  he  would  see  future  events 
reflected  in  its  contents.  Bowls  have  been 
found  in  Babylon,  inscribed  on  the  inner  sur- 
face with  magical  words  and  exorcisms  against 
evil  spirits.  In  the  method  of  divination 
called  hydromancy  '  water  was  poured  into 
a  glass  or  other  vessel  and  pieces  of  gold, 
silver,  or  precious  stones  might  be  thrown  in  ; 
then  observations  were  made  of  the  results, 
of  the  figures,  etc.,  which  appeared,  with  the 
expectation  of  learning  the  future  or  the  un- 
known by  this  means  '  (D.).  At  the  storming 
of  Seringapatam,  during  the  Indian  mutiny, 
the  notorious  Tippoo  Saib  is  said  to  have  con- 
sulted the  divining  cup  just  prior  to  his  death 
in  battle. 

18-34.  Nothing  could  be  more  aff  cting 
and  generous  than  Judah's  words,  especially 
if  the  brethren  believed  that  Benjamin  had 
stolen  the  cup.  and  yet  refused  to  accuse  him, 
and  took  the  blame  on  themselves. 

CHAPTER   45 

Joseph  makes  Himself  known  to  his 
Brethren.  Pharaoh  invites  Jacob 
AND  HIS  Family  to  settle  in  Egypt 

5-7.  Joseph  declares  that  the  events  of  the 
past  all  witnessed  to  the  providential  care 
of  God.  6.  Earing]  i.e.  ploughing,  cognate 
with  Lat.  aro,  '  I  plough.'  The  word  is  now 
obsolete.  8.  A  father  to  Pharaoh]  a  title 
of  honour  and  respect  :  cp.  Isa222i. 

ID.  The  land  of  Goshen]  This  was  a  fertile 
district  of  N.  Egypt,  lying  to  the  E.  of  the 
Nile  between  Zagazig  and  Tel-el  Kebir,  40 
m.  NE.  of  Cairo.  The  railway  from  Alex- 
andria to  Suez  now  runs  through  it.  There 
have  been  discovered  in  this  neighbourhood 
the  remains  of  a  town,  called  on  its  monuments 
Gresem.  The  land  of  Goshen  was  probably 
the  same  as  the  'field  of  Zoan  '  (PsTS^^)  and 
the  'land  of  Barneses'  (47ii).  18,  19.  The 
district  of  Goshen  was  well  suited  to  the 
pastoral  habits  of  the  Hebrews.  There  is  a 
papyrus  of  the  time  of  the  Pharaoh  Merenptah, 
some  centuries  later  than  the  present  events, 
which  refers  to  permission  given  to  some  tribes 
of  nomad  Asiatics  (Shasu)  to  '  pass  the  fortress 
Etham  in  the  land  of  Succoth  near  the  town 
Pithom  to  pasture  their  cattle  in  that  territory.' 
All  these  places  were  in  the  land  of  Goshen. 

19.  Wagons]  Those  depicted  on  the  monu- 
ments had  two  wheels  and  were  drawn  by 
oxen.  20.  Regard  not  your  stuff]  Do  not 
trouble  to  bring  all  your  belongings  with  you. 


42 


45.  24 


GENESIS 


48.  6 


24.  See  that  ye  fall  not  out  by  the  way] 
Joseph  perhaps  feared  that  his  brothers  might 
reproach  one  another  for  their  treatment  of 
him,  and  so  quarrels  might  arise. 

CHAPTER   46 

The  Descent  of  Jacob  into  Egypt 
The  Genealogical  Table  of  the 
Israelites 

1-4.  On  reaching  Beersheba,  the  southern 
boundary  of  the  Promised  Land,  Jacob  offers 
sacrifices  to  God.  In  return  God  assures  him 
of  His  continued  favour  and  of  the  fulfilment 
of  the  promises  made  to  Abraham.  4.  Put 
his  hand  upon  thine  eyes]  i.e.  close  them  in 
death.  5.  Little  ones]  rather,  '  household 
servants  and  their  families.' 

6-27.  This  passage  is  from  the  Priestly 
source,  and  shows  its  characteristic  fondness  for 
genealogies.  27.  Threescore  and  ten]  This 
number  included  Jacob  and  Joseph  and  his 
two  sons.  See  on  Ex  1  ^  as  to  the  total  number 
of  those  that  went  down  to  Egypt. 

28-34.  Joseph  was  anxious  to  settle  his 
people  in  Goshen  both  because  the  land  was 
rich  in  pasture  and  because  their  calling  was 
distasteful  to  the  Egyptians. 

34.  Every  shepherd  is  an  abomination  to 
the  Egyptians]  The  reasons  for  this  dislike 
are  disputed.  '  Herdmen  are  represented  on 
the  monuments  as  uncouth  and  ill  clad.  They 
led  a  rough,  unsettled  life  in  the  marshes,  and 
seem  to  have  been  regarded  as  pariahs  by  the 
scrupulously  clean  Egyptians  '  (D.). 

CHAPTER  47 

Joseph  presents  his  Brethren  and  his 
Father  to  Pharaoh.  He  makes  ex- 
tensive Changes  in  the  Land  Tenure 
of  Egypt 

6.  Rulers  over  my  cattle]  The  superintend- 
ence of  the  royal  flocks  and  herds  would  be  a 
position  of  importance.  9.  Few  and  evil, 
etc.]  Abraham  was  175  years  and  Isaac  180 
years  old  at  their  death.  Jacob,  therefore,  re- 
garded his  years  as  comparatively  few.  The 
'  evil '  times  in  his  life  are  not  difficult  to  trace. 

II.  Land  of  Rameses]  or  Raamses.  Evi- 
dently identical  with  the  '  land  of  Goshen ' 
(vv.  4  and  6).  The  name  here  is  probably  an- 
ticipatory of  the  time  of  the  great  Rameses, 
who  made  his  court  at  Zoan  :  see  on  Exl^i. 

14-25.  From  being  owners  of  the  land  the 
people  became  tenants  of  the  crown.  They 
remained  on  the  land,  paying  one-fifth  of  the 
produce  for  state  requirements,  and  retaining 
four-fifths  for  their  own  use.  In  such  a  fertile 
land  as  Egypt  these  conditions  must  be  regarded 
as  much  more  favourable  than  in  some  Eastern 
states  in  the  present  day,  such  as  Turkey  and 


Persia,  where  the  peasants  have  to  hand  over 
from  a  half  to  three-fourths  of  the  produce  of 
the  land  to  the  government.  See  Dillmann, 
and  on  v.  25. 

16,  17.  When  Joseph  took  the  people's 
cattle  which  they  were  unable  to  support  in 
the  dried-up  Nile  valley,  he  probably  removed 
them  to  Goshen  (cp.  v.  6)  until  the  famine  was 
ended.  18.  The  second  year]  not  of  the 
famine,  but  the  year  after  they  had  given  up 
their  cattle.  21.  It  is  now  generally  held  that 
the  V.  should  be  rendered  (with  the  LXX, 
Vulgate,  and  Samaritan  texts),  '  As  for  the 
people,  he  made  bondmen  of  them  from  one 
end,'  etc.  (RM).  The  people  became  the 
tenants  of  the  crown  :  see  on  vv.  14-25. 

22.  The  priests  were  already  provided  for 
by  the  state  ;  it  was  therefore  unnecessary  for 
them  to  sell  their  land.  It  is  said  that  in  later 
times  the  king,  the  soldiers,  and  the  priests 
each  owned  one-third  of  the  land. 

23.  '  The  peculiar  system  of  Egyptian  land 
tenure,  which  is  here  attributed  to  Joseph,  is 
so  far  in  accordance  with  the  evidence  of  the 
monuments  that  whereas  in  the  Old  Empire 
the  nobility  and  governors  of  the  nomes 
(district)  possessed  large  landed  estates,  in  the 
New  Empire  (which  followed  the  expulsion  of 
the  Hyksos),  the  old  aristocracy  has  made  way 
for  royal  officials,  and  the  landed  property  has 
passed  out  of  the  hands  of  the  old  families 
into  the  possession  of  the  crown  and  the  great 
temples'  (D.). 

25.  The  people  were  satisfied  with  Joseph's 
stipulations.  They  would  be  much  better  off 
when  holding  their  land  direct  from  the  state 
under  definite  conditions,  than  when  suffering 
from  the  exactions  of  small  feudal  rulers,  who 
were  a  great  infliction  in  Egypt. 

29.   Put .  .  thy  hand,  etc.]   see  on  242. 

31.  Bowed  himself  upon  the  bed's  head] 
perhaps  better,  '  worshipped,  leaning  on  the 
top  of  his  staff,'  as  in  Heb  11  21.  The  Hebrew 
words  for  '  bed '  and  '  staff '  are  very  like  each 
other. 

CHAPTER  48 

Jacob  Blesses  Manasseh  and  Ephraim, 
the  Sons  of  Joseph 

He  adopts  them  as  his  own  sons  with  privi- 
leges equal  to  the  others,  thus  making  them 
heads  of  distinct  tribes.  By  so  doing  he  gives 
to  Joseph,  the  eldest  son  of  Rachel,  whom  he 
probably  regarded  as  his  true  wife,  the  position 
of  firstborn  with  a  double  portion  of  his  in- 
heritance. From  the  time  of  Moses  we  find 
Ephraim  and  Manasseh  giving  their  names  to 
tribes  (Nul),  which  received  territory  on  the 
conquest  of  Canaan. 

3.  Luz]  or  Bethel  :  see  on  28 1^.  6.  Any 
other  children  of  Joseph  would  be  reckoned 
as   belonging   to    the    tribes   of   Ephraim   or 


43 


48.7 


GENESIS 


49.  10 


Manasseh.  7.  By  me]  RM  '  to  my  sorrow.' 
The  mention  of  Rachel  here  may  be  only  a  fond 
reminiscence  called  forth  by  the  presence  of 
her  grandchildren.  But  the  v.  would  be 
perhaps  more  appropriately  placed  after  49  ^1, 
where  Jacob  is  speaking  of  the  burial  of  his 
ancestors  and  of  Leah. 

13,  14.  Joseph  had  so  arranged  his  sons 
that  Manasseh,  as  the  first-born,  would  receive 
his  father's  right  hand  in  the  act  of  blessing  ; 
but  Jacob,  '  guiding  his  hands  wittingly '  as 
taught  by  G-od,  transferred  that  honour  to 
the  younger  Ephraim,  thus  prophetically 
declaring  the  future  superiority  of  that  tribe  : 
see  V.  19.  Owing  to  its  preeminence  the 
northern  kingdom  of  Israel  was  often  called 
Ephraim  by  the  prophets,  e.g.  Isall  Ezk37. 

22.  Portion]  RM  '  mountain  slope '  (Heb. 
shechem).  The  reference  is  to  Shechem  in  the 
mountainous  territory  of  Ephraim.  Jacob 
gives  Shechem  to  Joseph  as  his  advantage 
over  the  others.  The  acquiring  of  Shechem  by 
Jacob  by  force  of  arms  represents  a  different 
tradition  to  that  mentioned  in  chs.  33,  34. 

CHAPTER  49 
Jacob  Blesses  his  Twelve  Sons 
It  is  generally  considered  that  in  its  present 
form,  this  c.  gives  us  indeed  the  last  utterances 
of  the  dying  patriarch  respecting  the  future  of 
his  sons,  but  with  additions  and  developments 
of  a  later  date.  As  it  stands  we  have  not  the 
broken  utterances  of  a  dying  man,  but  an 
elaborate  piece  of  work  full  of  word-plays  and 
metaphors  (see  on  vv.  8,  13,  10),  and  of  those 
parallelisms  in  the  vv.  which  are  the  chief 
feature  of  Hebrew  poetry  (cp.  vv.  11,  15,  22, 
25).  It  is  in  fact  a  poem,  in  which  the  fortunes 
of  the  tribes,  which  are  impersonated  by  their 
ancestors,  are  delineated  as  they  were  at  one 
special  period,  viz.  after  the  Conquest  of 
Canaan,  when  their  territories  had  been  finally 
settled,  and  their  political  importance  or  weak- 
ness had  become  recognised.  Judah  and, 
perhaps,  Joseph  are  alluded  to  as  ruling  tribes 
(vv.  10,  26).  No  reference  is  made  to  the 
times  of  the  exodus  or  the  captivity,  but 
only  to  the  beginnings  of  the  monarchy  ;  and 
it  was  probably  during  this  period  that  the 
original  Blessing  was  developed  in  its  present 
poetical  form.  This  conclusion  is  strengthened 
when  we  find  the  word  '  Israel '  used  of  the 
nation,  not  of  the  person,  and  also  that  facts 
happening  after  the  Conquest  of  Canaan  are 
alluded  to  as  past  events  :  cp.  vv.  14,  15.  It  is 
also  significant  that  many  definite  political  and 
geographical  details  are  given,  in  a  way  which 
is  inconsistent  with  the  general  character  of 
the  predictions  of  the  Hebrew  prophets  on 
such  matters.  With  the  Blessing  of  Jacob 
should  be  compared  that  of  Moses  in  Dt33 
and  notes  there. 


I.  Which  shall  befall  you]  what  will  be  the 
fortunes  of  the  tribes  descended  from  you. 

In  the  last  days]  RV  '  in  the  latter  days,' 
i.e.  in  the  future. 

3,  4.  The  prediction  concerning  Reuben. 
Reuben  was  Jacob's  eldest  son,  but  the  tribe 
never  attained  to  any  distinguished  position. 
It  was  situated  on  the  E.  side  of  Jordan,  and 
exposed  to  •  many  attacks  from  the  peoples 
surrounding  them.  '  Even  so  early  as  under 
the  Judges  the  tribe  showed  itself  indifferent 
to  the  national  struggles  (Jg5^^^-),  and  it  con- 
tinued to  isolate  itself  more  and  more  until  in 
the  period  of  the  early  monarchy  it  had  prac- 
tically disappeared  as  part  of  Israel '  (D.). 
See  Dt33^.  3.  Excellency]  rather,  'pre- 
eminence.' 4.  Unstable]  rather,  '  unre- 
strained,' descriptive  of  ungoverned  passion. 
Reuben's  sin  is  mentioned  in  35^2.  Excel] 
rather,  '  have  the  preeminence.' 

5-7.  The  prediction  respecting  Simeon 
and  Levi.  Simeon  and  Levi  were  both  sons 
of  Leah  ;  but  they  also  were  brethren  in 
the  cruelty  of  their  attack  on  the  Shechemites 
(3425).  The  scattered  state  of  both  these 
tribes  in  their  after  history  is  well  known. 
When  the  territories  were  assigned  in  the 
days  of  Joshua,  Simeon  only  had  some 
cities  within  the  possessions  of  Judah  :  see 
Josh  1 9  ^-^.  The  Levites  as  priests  had  forty- 
eight  towns  given  them  throughout  the  country, 
but  had  no  inheritance  of  land.  Josh  2 1^-^*^: 
cp.  also  the  picture  in  Jg  17-19  of  the  wander- 
ing Levites.  5.  Instrumentsof  cruelty,  etc.] 
better,  'their  swords  are  weapons  of  violence.' 

6.  Secret]  RV  'council,'  referring  to  the 
treachery    of  c.  34.  They  slew  a  man]  see 

3425,26.  They  digged  down  a  wall]  RV 
'  they  houghed  an  ox,'  by  cutting  the  sinew 
of  the  thigh:  perhaps  a  reference  to  the 
Shechemites'  cattle  which  they  raided  (34^8), 
maiming  in  their  destructiveness  those  which 
they  could  not  carry  off. 

8-12.  Judah  now  receives  the  chief  blessing 
which  his  elder  brothers  Reuben,  Simeon,  and 
Levi  had  forfeited.  He  is  assured  of  the 
headship  of  the  tribes  and  a  fruitful  territory. 

8.  The  name  Judah  ('  praise  ')  suggests  the 
honour  in  which  the  tribe  would  be  held. 
Thy  hand,  etc.]  The  tribe  of  Judah  took  a 
leading  part  in  the  conquest  of  Canaan  and 
was  first  to  secure  their  territory  :  cp.  on 
Nu2i.  In  the  time  of  David  they  held  the 
headship  of  Israel.  9.  The  tribe  is  com- 
pared for  its  bravery  to  a  lion.  The  figure  of 
a  lion  on  a  pole  became  the  standard  of  Judah, 
and  our  Lord  Himself  is  called  '  the  Lion  of 
the  tribe  of  Judah'  (Rev 5 5)  owing  to  His 
descent  from  David.  10.   A  lawgiver]   RV 

'  the  ruler's  staff.'  From  between  his  feet] 

This  most  probably  refers  to  the  custom  of 
planting  the  sceptre  or  staff  of  a  prince  or 


44 


49.  11 


GENESIS 


49.  33 


chieftain  in  the  ground  between  his  feet  as 
he  sat. 

This  verse  has  always  been  regarded  by 
both  Jews  and  Christians  as  a  remarkable 
prophecy  of  the  coming  of  the  Messiah.  The 
Versions  generally  read  Sheloh  instead  of 
Shiloh,  and  the  words  until  Shiloh  come  (AV) 
should  then  be,  '  till  he  come  whose  it  is ' 
(RM).  The  Jewish  Targums  paraphrase  thus: 
'  until  the  time  when  the  King  Messiah  comes 
to  whom  it  belongeth.'  On  the  rendering 
given  above,  the  whole  verse  foretells  that 
Judah  would  retain  authority  until  the  advent 
of  the  rightful  ruler,  the  Messiah,  to  whom 
all  peoples  would  gather.  And,  broadly  speak- 
ing, it  may  be  said  that  the  last  traces  of 
Jewish  legislative  power  (as  vested  in  the 
Sanhedrim)  did  not  disappear  until  the  coming 
of  Christ  and  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem, 
from  which  time  His  kingdom  was  set  up 
among  men.  Gathering  of  the  people]  RV 
'  obedience  of  the  peoples.'  Note  the  world- 
wide rule  implied.  ii,  12.  These  verses 
dwell  on  the  fertility  of  the  land  of  Judah. 
There  were  famous  vineyards  at  Hebron  and 
Engedi,  as  well  as  pasture  lands  about  Tekoa 
and  Carmel. 

13.  Zebulun  shall  dwell]  The  blessing  is 
connected  with  the  word  Zebulun,  '  dwelling.' 
The  land  of  this  tribe  was  between  ■  Asher 
and  Naphtali.  It  may  have  touched  the  coast- 
land  of  Phoenicia  represented  here  by  Sidon. 
So  in  Dt33i9  it  is  said  that  Zebiilun  should 
'  suck  of  the  abundance  of  the  sea,'  profiting 
by  maritime  traffic  :  cp.  Ezk27. 

14,  15.  Issachar  occupied  part  of  Galilee 
and  the  fertile  plain  of  Jezreel.  Between 
two  burdens]  RV  '  between  the  sheepfolds  ' : 
as  at  JgS^*^,  which  see.  'The  bright  side  of 
the  saying  is  that  Issachar  will  become  a 
robust  and  hardy  race  (a  strong  ass)  and 
receive  a  pleasant  country  inviting  to  repose. 
The  dark  side  is  that  through  his  tendency 
to  gain  and  comfort  he  will  rather  submit  to 
the  yoke  of  foreign  sway  than  risk  his  people 
and  possessions  by  warlike  efforts  (a  servant 
unto  tribute)'  (Delitzsch).  A  number  of  Cana- 
anite  towns  maintained  themselves  independent 
and  powerful  in  this  tribe. 

16.  Again  a  play  on  the  name  of  the  tribe, 
for  Dan  means  '  judge.'  Though  small  in 
territory  it  should  retain  its  tribal  independ- 
ence and  self-government  :  cp.  Dt33-2. 

17.  Dan  shall  be  a  serpent]  or,  '  May  Dan 
be,'  etc.,  a  wish  for  the  tribe's  success  in  war: 
cp.  the  conquest  of  Laish,  JglS^i".  The 
territory  of  Dan  lay  between  Ephraim  and 
Simeon.  The  Danites  were  hard  pressed  by 
the  Philistines,  and  part  of  the  tribe  emigi'ated 
to  Laish  in  the  N.  of  the  Holy  Land,  and 
called  it  Dan.  An  adder  in  the  path,  that 
biteth  the  horse  heels]   '  What  the  poet  por- 


trays is  not  as  in  the  case  of  Judah  an  open 
contest  decided  by  superior  strength,  but  the 
insidious  efforts  of  the  weaker  against  the 
stronger '  (D.). 

18.  The  connexion  of  this  verse  with  the 
preceding  is  uncertain.  Kalisch  says, '  the  poet, 
identifying  himself  with  the  oppressed  and 
embarrassed  tribe,  utters  in  its  name,  with 
mingled  reliance  and  resignation,  the  fervent 
prayer  "  In  hope  of  Thy  help,  O  Lord."  ' 

19.  The  name  Gad  is  here  connected  with 
a  Hebrew  word  meaning  a  troop  or  marauding 
band.  The  Gadites  were  settled  E.  of  Jordan, 
in  the  land  of  Gilead.  They  were  much  op- 
pressed by  the  Ammonites  whom  Jephthah 
conquered  :  see  JglO  and  11:  cp.  Dt3320, 

20.  The  tribe  of  Asher  settled  along  the 
productive  land  on  the  coast  between  Mt. 
Carmel  and  Lebanon.  Shall  be  fat]  Asher 
was  famous  for  its  produce  of  olive  oil:  see 
on  Dt3324. 

21.  A  more  probable  rendering  of  this  v., 
supported  by  LXX,  is  '  Naphtali  is  a  spreading 
terebinth  producing  beautiful  branches.'  The 
tribe  was  settled  in  a  fertile  district  between 
Lebanon  and  the  Sea  of  Galilee:  cp.  Dt3323. 

22-26.  The  blessing  of  Joseph.  The 
branches  are  Ephraim  and  Manasseh. 

23.  The  archers]  perhaps  Canaanite  and 
Arab  peoples  bordering  on  these  tribes. 

24.  From  thence,  etc.]  or,  '  By  the  name 
of  the  Shepherd,  the  Stone  of  Israel.'  The 
name  'Rock'  is  often  given  to  God  in  OT.:  cp. 
Moses'  Song,  Dt  324,13, 31,  and  Pss89  94  95. 

25.  Blessings  of  heaven]  Earthly  prosperity 
of  all  kinds,  rain  and  sunshine  from  heaven, 
springs  from  the  earth,  fruitfulness  both  of 
man  and  beast.  26.  The  blessing  of  Moses 
on  the  tribes  of  Ephraim  and  Manasseh,  Dt  33 13, 
may  be  studied  in  connexion  with  this  difficult 
V.  Render  with  RM,  '  The  blessings  of  thy 
father  have  prevailed  above  (exceed)  the 
blessings  of  the  ancient  mountains,  the  desirable 
things  of  the  everlasting  hills.'  '  The  meaning 
is  that  the  blessings  comprised  things  higher 
than  merely  the  admirable  products  of  the 
lovely  mountain  country  (Ephraim,  Gilead, 
Bashan),  i.e.  doubtless  power,  respect,  honour, 
and  political  consequence,  and.  above  all,  the 
promises.  In  bestowing  these  on  Joseph, 
Jacob  makes  him  his  father's  successor,  and 
names  him  Nazir  among  his  brethren,  one 
separated  and  consecrated,  a  prince  '  (D.). 

27.  Benjamin  was  a  very  warlike  tribe. 
Saul,  the  first  king  of  Israel,  was  a  Benjamite; 
and  so  was  that  other  Saul  who  '  fought  a 
good  fight '  under  his  great  Captain,  2  Tim  4'''. 

33.  He  .  .  was  gathered  unto  his  people]  his 
shade  joined  those  of  his  forefathers  in  the 
other  world.  The  expression  may  be  held  to 
embody  a  rudimentary  hope  of  immortality  : 
see  on  25  8. 


45 


50.  2 


GENESIS— EXODUS 


INTRO. 


CHAPTER   50 
The  BuRiAi,  or  Jacob,  and  Death  of  Joseph 

2.  For  the  importance  attached  by  the 
Egyptians  to  the  preservation  of  the  corpse 
see  on  401-1  The  process,  which  was  so 
thorough  that  mummies  of  Joseph's  time  may 
be  seen  in  our  museums  in  a  state  of  good 
preservation,  was  briefly  as  follows.  The 
brain  and  intestines  were  removed,  and  the 
stomach  cleansed  and  filled  with  spices  (em- 
balmed). The  body  was  then  steeped  in  a 
mixture  of  salt  and  soda  (called  natron),  for 
forty  or  more  days,  to  preserve  it  from  decay. 
Next,  it  was  bound  up  in  strips  of  linen 
smeared  with  a  sort  of  gum  ;  and  finally  it  was 
placed  in  a  wooden  case,  shaped  like  the  human 
body,  and  deposited  in  a  sepulchral  chamber. 

4.  When  the  days  of  his  mourning  were 
past]  It  could  not  have  been  that  cause  which 
prevented  Joseph  from  going  personally  to 
Pharaoh.  '  More  probably  it  was  not  usual 
to  take  steps  in  a  matter  which  personally 
concerned  the  minister,  without  the  mediation 
of  other  exalted  personages'  (D.). 

10.  Threshingfloor  of  Atad]   unknown. 

Beyond  Jordan]  i.e.  E.  of  Jordan,  implying 
that  the  writer  is  in  Canaan:  see  on  Dtfi. 


II.  Abel-mLzraim]  'the  meadow  of  Egypt.' 
'  The  name  may  be  historically  explained 
owing  to  the  long  period  of  Egyptian  domina- 
tion in  Palestine  in  pre-Mosaic  times,  as  we 
learn  from  the  Tel-el  Amarna  letters,  but 
the  narrator  connects  the  name  with  Ebel, 
"  mourning  "  '  (D.). 

19.  Am  I  in  the  place  of  God  ?]  i.e.  to  judge 
or  to  punish. 

20.  The  selling  of  Joseph  by  his  brethren 
had  been  a  sinful  action,  but  through  his 
coming  to  Egypt  God  had  brought  about  a 
great  blessing  to  many.  So  He  often  brings 
good  out  of  evil,  though  evil  is  not  to  be  done 
in  order  that  good  may  come.  Joseph  himself 
here  sums  up  the  great  lesson  of  his  career,  so 
far  at  least  as  his  brethren  are  concerned. 

23.  Were  brought  up  upon]  R V  '  were  born 
upon.'  Joseph  took  the  newborn  children  on 
his  lap  and  so  recognised  them  as  his  de- 
scendants: see  30^. 

25.  Cp.  Hebll22,  'By  faith  Joseph  when 
he  died  made  mention  of  the  departure  of  the 
children  of  Israel,  and  gave  commandment 
concerning  his  bones.'  Joseph's  instructions 
were  carried  out  at  the  time  of  the  exodus 
(Ex  13 19)  and  his  body  was  buried  at  Shechem  : 
see  Josh  24  32. 


EXODUS 


INTRODUCTION 


I.  Title  and  Contents.  The  second  book 
of  the  Pentateuch  is  designated  in  Hebrew, 
from  its  opening  words,  Elleh  Shemoth, 
'  These  are  the  names,'  or  simply  Shemoth, 
'  The  names.'  Exodus  is  the  Latin  form  of  the 
title  prefixed  to  the  book  by  the  Greek  trans- 
lators of  the  OT.  It  means  '  exit '  or  '  de- 
parture,' and  refers  to  the  main  event  which 
the  book  records,  viz.  the  departure  of  the 
Israelites  from  the  land  of  Egypt. 

The  book  of  Exodus  continues  the  narra- 
tive of  Genesis  and  carries  it  down  to  the 
erection  of  the  Tabernacle  at  Sinai,  in  the 
first  month  of  the  second  year  of  the  departure 
from  Egypt.  It  is  mainly  historical,  but 
contains  important  legislative  matter.  It  falls 
naturally  into  three  great  divisions:  Part  i. 
Israel  in  Egypt :  their  Oppression  and  De- 
liverance, chs.  1-15-1.  In  this  section  the 
events  leading  up  to  the  deliverance  of  the 
I.sraelites  by  the  hand  of  Moses  are  described. 
Part  2.  The  March  from  the  Red  Sea  to 
Mount  Sinai,  chs.  is'-^-iS-".     Part  3.  Israel 


at  Sinai,  chs:  19-40;  This  last  section 
really  extends  from  Ex  19  to  NulO^o^  and 
covers  in  all  a  period  of  eleven  months. 
During  this  time  the  people  were  encamped 
in  the  vicinity  of  Mt.  Sinai,  and  were  engaged 
in  receiving  that  Law,  both  of  morals  and 
ceremonies,  which  was  the  basis  of  the  cove- 
nant between  them  and  Jehovah,  and  the 
foundation  of  their  distinctive  national  and 
religious  life. 

2.  Origin  and  Composition.  The  question 
as  to  the  authorship  of  the  Pentateuch  is  dis- 
cussed in  a  separate  article.  Here  it  will 
suffice  to  say  a  few  words  as  to  the  confirmation 
given  to  the  history  and  legislation  contained 
in  Exodus  from  other  sources. 

With  regard  to  the  historical  part  of  the 
book,  while  it  cannot  be  said  that  the  residence 
of  the  Israelites  in  Egypt  and  their  departure 
from  it  are  directly  confirmed  by  the  records 
of  profane  history  and  the  monuments,  what 
we  know  from  the  latter  as  to  the  history  and 
condition  of  Egypt  in  early    times   at   least 


46 


INTRO. 


EXODUS 


INTRO. 


leaves  room  for  the  biblical  account  and  har- 
monises with  it.  (a)  The  Pharaoh  of  the 
Oppression  is  usually  supposed  to  have  been 
Rameses  II,  and  the  Pharaoh  of  the  exodus 
his  son  and  successor  Merenptah,  who  began 
to  reign  about  the  year  1300  B.C.  Reckoning 
back  430  years,  the  extent  of  the  sojourn  in 
Egypt,  we  reach  a  time  when  Egypt  was  ruled 
by  an  alien  dynasty,  called  the  '  Hyksos '  or 
Shepherd  kings.  These  were  of  Asiatic  origin, 
and  would  be  naturally  inclined  to  favour  the 
Hebrews.  There  can  be  little  doubt  that  the 
Pharaoh  to  whom  Joseph  was  Prime  Minister 
was  one  of  these  Hyksos  kings.  A  famine  is 
recorded  to  have  occurred  during  the  reign  of 
one  of  the  last  of  this  dynasty,  Apepi,  who 
may  have  been  the  Pharaoh  of  Joseph.  But 
the  Hyksos  were  expelled  by  a  native  Egyptian 
dynasty  who  would  look  with  disfavour  on 
everything  Asiatic.  This  revolution,  with  the 
consequent  change  of  treatment  afforded  to 
the  Hebrew  settlers  in  Egypt,  agrees  with 
what  is  said  at  the  beginning  of  the  book  of 
Exodus  that  '  there  arose  up  a  new  king  over 
Egypt,  which  knew  not  Joseph.'  See  1  ^  and 
note  in  the  commentary  there,  (b)  Again  we 
read  that  the  Israelites  built  for  Pharaoh  store 
cities,  Pithom  and  Raamses.  The  former  has 
been  discovered  at  Tel  el  Maskhuta,  and  is  found 
to  have  been  a  store  city  built  by  Rameses  II 
and  dedicated  to  Turn,  the  god  of  the  setting 
sun.  The  site  of  Raamses  has  not  been  dis- 
covered, but  the  city  is  mentioned  in  the  Egypt- 
ian texts  as  having  been  built  by  Rameses  II  (see 
on  1 11).  (c)  Egyptian  history  is  silent  on  the 
plagues  and  the  incidents  accompanying  the 
exodus,  but  that  is  not  surprising  when  we  take 
into  account  the  little  that  we  know  of  the 
history  of  Egypt,  and  the  improbability  that  the 
monuments  would  be  employed  to  perpetuate 
the  memory  of  such  untoward  events.  The 
biblical  account,  however,  is  full  of  local  colour. 
The  plagues  are  just  such  as  might  well  occur 
in  Egypt,  being  for  the  most  part  aggravations 
of  evils  natural  to  the  climate  of  Egypt,  and 
owing  much  of  their  force  to  the  fact  that 
they  strike  at  the  superstitions  of  the  Egyp- 
tians, (d)  The  route  of  the  exodus  and  the 
various  halting-places  are  not  fully  identified, 
but  so  far  nothing  has  been  discovered  that 
cannot  be  harmonised  with  the  biblical  account. 
The  discovery  that  the  Red  Sea  at  one  time 
extended  much  further  north  than  it  does  at 
present,  removes  much  of  the  difficulty  for- 
merly attaching  to  the  account  of  its  crossing. 
So  far,  then,  the  biblical  account  has  been 
confirmed  instead  of  contradicted  by  modern 
discovery.  It  is  not  unreasonable  to  expect 
that,  as  discovery  proceeds,  further  con- 
firmation will  be  obtained  and  obscurities 
removed.  For  the  present  we  have  every 
reason  to  believe  that  in  the  main  the  story 


of    the    origin   of    the    Israelitish   nation    is 
trustworthy. 

As  regards  the  legislation  contained  in 
Exodus,  it  is  generally  admitted  that  at  least 
the  Ten  Commandments,  the  Book  of  the 
Covenant  (chs.  20-23),  and  the  laws  in  c.  34, 
may  well  go  back  to  the  time  of  Moses.  To 
what  extent  the  laws  he  promulgated  were 
modified  and  expanded  in  later  times,  we  may 
never  be  able  precisely  to  determine;  but  the 
investigations  of  most  recent  times  seem  to 
point  to  the  possibility  of  ascribing  more, 
instead  of  less,  of  the  legislation  of  Israel  to 
Moses  than  was  formerly  allowed.  It  has 
been  usual,  e.g.  to  argue  that  the  legislation  of 
the  Pentateuch  is  too  advanced  to  have  origin- 
ated at  such  an  early  period  as  the  exodus. 
But  the  force  of  this  argument  is  considerably 
weakened  when  it  is  found  that  the  legislation 
of  Israel,  both  moral  and  ceremonial,  has 
many  points  of  contact  with  that  of  the  earlier 
civilisations  of  Babylonia  and  Egypt.  It  has 
come  to  light  in  recent  times  that  Babylo- 
nian and  Egyptian  influences  extended  over 
Canaan  and  the  Sinaitic  peninsula  before  the 
time  of  the  exodus,  and  that  Babylonia  and 
Egypt  had  much  to  do  with  each  other  at  a 
very  early  date.  Consequently,  laws  and 
practices,  which  were  supposed  to  have  first 
come  into  existence  at  a  comparatively  late 
period  in  the  history  of  Israel  may  really  have 
been  introduced  much  earlier.    See  on  Nu  1 3  ^l. 

The  question  of  the  originality  of  the 
legislation  of  Moses  has  quite  recently  come 
prominently  to  the  front  as  a  result  of  inves- 
tigations and  discoveries  made  in  connexion 
with  the  earlier  religions  of  Egypt  and 
Babylonia.  It  is  an  undeniable  fact  that  many 
of  the  laws  and  rites  of  the  Pentateuch  bear 
a  resemblance  to  what  we  find  among  these 
other  nations  of  antiquity.  The  Babylonians, 
e.g.  observed  laws  of  'clean  and  unclean'; 
they  kept  the  seventh  day  rest;  they  knew  of 
peace  offerings,  heave  offerings,  and  sacrifices 
for  sin.  The  Egyptians  practised  circumcision 
and  offered  incense;  the  description  of  the 
tabernacle  is  full  of  allusions  to  Egyptian 
customs;  the  strict  rules  for  the  purifying  of 
priests,  the  ephod  of  the  high  priest,  the 
pomegranate  decoration  of  the  hem  of  his 
robe,  his  breastplate  and  his  mitre,  had  all 
their  counterpart  among  the  Egyptians.  The 
newly  discovered  Code  of  Hammurabi  displays 
many  features  similar  to  the  legislation  of 
Moses:  see  art.  'Laws  of  Hammurabi.'  Of 
course  resemblance  does  not  prove  derivation; 
but  even  should  it  have  to  be  admitted  that 
many  elements  in  the  moral  and  ceremonial 
law  of  the  Israelites  were  taken  from  other 
civilisations,  this  need  occasion  neither  surprise 
nor  dismay.  God  is  not  the  God  of  the 
Hebrews  only ;  '  He  has  made  of  one  blood 


47 


INTRO. 


EXODUS 


INTBO. 


all  nations  of  men  to  dwell  on  all  the  face  of 
the  earth,'  and  it  is  not  strange  that  the 
Gentiles  who  have  not  the  (Mosaic)  Law, 
should  '  do  by  nature  the  things  contained  in 
the  Law '  (Ro  2  !•*).  What  is  distinctive  in  the 
Mosaic  legislation  is  the  new  spirit  which  it 
exhibits.  It  is  emphatically  ethical;  and  it 
lifts  morality  to  a  higher  plane,  in  accordance 
with  its  fundamental  conception  of  a  spiritual 
and  holy  God,  who  enters  into  a  covenant  re- 
lationship with  His  people  on  a  moral  basis. 
The  aim  of  the  Mosaic  legislation  was  'not 
so  much  to  create  a  new  system  as  to  give  a 
new  significance  to  that  which  had  already 
long  existed  among  Semitic  races,  and  to  lay 
the  foundation  of  a  higher  symbolism  leading;- 
to  a  more  spiritual  worship.'  The  glory  of 
the  Mosaic  law,  and  its  indefeasible  claim  to 
divine  inspiration,  reside  in  the  fact  that  it 
took  existing  customs  and  ceremonies  and  in- 
fused into  them  a  new  spirit,  elevating,  puri- 
fying, and  transforming  them. 

3.  Religious  Value.  It  is  well  nigh  impos- 
sible to  overestimate  the  religious  value  of  the 
book  of  Exodus.  Nowhere  else  save  in  the 
Christian  revelation  is  there  to  be  found  so 
sublime  a  conception  of  the  nature  of  God,  or 
a  loftier  and  purer  idea  of  morality  as  springing 
out  of  man's  relationship  to  Him.  In  the  OT. 
itself  Exodus  holds  a  fundamental  position. 
It  depicts  the  early  civic  and  religious  develop- 
ment of  a  people  destined  to  occupy  a  unique 
place  among  the  nations,  and  to  exert  upon  the 
world  the  very  greatest  spiritual  influence.  In 
this  book  we  see  the  beginning  of  the  fulfil- 
ment of  the  promise  made  to  Abraham,  the 
original  ancestor  of  the  Hebrew  people, '  in  thy 
seed  shall  all  the  nations  of  the  earth  be 
blessed.'  The  events  which  it  records  in  con- 
nexion with  the  birth  of  the  nation,  and  its 
deliverance  from  bondage,  stamped  themselves 
indelibly  on  the  memory  and  imagination  of 
succeeding  generations,  and  are  frequently 
employed  by  prophets  and  psalm-writers,  to 
enforce  lessons  of  duty  and  faithfulness,  trust 
and  hope,  warning  and  encouragement  :  see 
e.g.  Hos2i5  129134  Am  210  Mic  (33,4  Ps78i2*- 
81 8f.  I0523f.  106  114  136.  Much  of  the  sub- 
sequent teaching  of  the  OT.  is  but  the  inter- 
pretation and  enforcement  of  the  spiritual  and 
moral  truths  communicated  to  Israel  at  the 
time  of  the  exodus. 

The  great  underlying  idea  of  the  book  is 
that  of  revelation.  God  is  everj^^rhere  repre- 
sented as  in  the  act  of  self -manifestation.  He 
manifests  His  power  over  nature,  in  Egypt, 
at  the  Red  Sea,  and  at  Mt.  Sinai.  In  every 
event  His  hand  is  discernible.  '  He  made 
known  His  ways  unto  Moses,  His  acts  unto  the 
children  of  Israel.'  He  constantly  speaks  to 
Moses,  giving  to  His  servant  His  counsel  in 
times  of  emergency,  and  the  knowledge   of 

48 


His  nature  and  will  to  be  communicated  to 
the  people.  We  cannot  read  the  book  with- 
out being  impressed  with  the  writer's  convic- 
tion that  God,  while  exalted  far  above  the 
comprehension  of  His  creatures,  who  are  able 
to  see,  not  His  face,  but  only  His  '  back  parts ' 
(33  23),  does  not  dwell  remote  from  the  world, 
but  is  everywhere  present  and  active  in  nature 
and  in  history.  This  sense  of  the  personal 
agency  of  God  is  expressed  frequently  in  a 
very  bold  and  anthropomorphic  way,  somewhat 
startling  to  us  with  oui*  more  abstract  and 
spiritual  conception  of  the  divine  nature  and 
the  method  of  its  operations  :  see  e.g.  4^4 
1424,25  2410.11.  In  their  more  fervid  utter- 
ances, OT.  writers  in  general  do  not  hesitate 
to  transfer  human  conditions,  actions,  and 
passions  to  the  Divine  Being,  though  the  ex- 
tent to  which  they  do  so  diminishes  with  the 
course  of  time.  The  frequency  with  which 
this  form  of  thought  appears  in  Exodus  is 
an  eloquent  testimony  to  the  intensity  of 
religious  feeling  that  pervades  the  book.  To 
us,  whose  conception  of  God  tends  always  to 
be  more  and  more  abstract  and  attenuated, 
this  insistence  on  the  truth  of  the  nearness  of 
God  and  His  active  interference  in  the  world 
of  human  affairs  is  not  the  least  necessary  and 
valuable  lesson  conveyed  by  the  book  of 
Exodus. 

Another  characteristic  and  fundamental  idea 
of  the  book  is  that  Israel  is  the  chosen  people 
of  Jehovah.  It  is  nowhere  asserted  that 
Jehovah  is  the  God  of  the  Hebrews  only. 
He  rules  over  the  land  of  Egypt,  and  He  is 
the  Creator  and  Lord  of  nature.  All  the 
earth  is  His  (195).  jj^t  He  has  chosen  Israel 
to  be  '  a  peculiar  treasure  '  unto  Him  above  all 
people  (see  on  193-6),  and  He  enters  into  a 
covenant  with  them  on  the  basis  of  the  moral 
law  (243-8).  This  idea  of  the  election,  or 
selection,  of  Israel  runs  all  through  the  OT., 
and  even  passes  over  to  the  Christian  Church 
under  the  '  new  covenant '  (see  on  19  6).  It  is 
essentially  an  election,  not  to  privilege,  but  to 
duty.  Israel  is  chosen,  enlightened,  instructed, 
disciplined,  in  order  to  communicate  to  the 
world  the  knowledge  of  God  and  prepare  the 
way  for  the  perfect  revelation  of  His  gi-ace  in 
hrist.     It  is  a  noble  idea,  that  of  a  theocracy, 

'  kingdom  of  God,'  a  people  who  are  each 
•and  all  'priests'  unto  God  (19 6).  Hence 
the  duty  of  personal  holiness  and  national 
righteousness  ;  hence  the  minute  ceremonial 
system,  with  its  detailed  prescriptions  regard- 
ing the  tabernacle,  its  furniture,  the  priesthood, 
sacrifice,  etc.,  all  emphasising  the  lesson  that 
God  is  holy  and  must  be  served  and  worshipped 
by  a  holy  people. 

The  book  of  Exodus  has  been  in  all  ages  a 
source  whence  both  Jews  and  Christians  have 
drawn  lessons  of  encouragement  and  warning, 


INTRO. 


EXODUS 


1.  15 


applicable  to  the  individual  soul  no  less  than 
to  the  Church  of  God.  The  bondage  in  Egypt, 
the  deliverance,  and  the  experiences  of  Israel 
in  the  wilderness,  have  very  naturally  been 
regarded  as  types  of  man's  deliverance  from 
the  bondage  of  sin  and  error,  and  of  God's 
grace  and  providence  in  guiding,  defending, 
and  supplying  the  wants  of  His  people  all 
through  the  pilgrimage  of  life.  In  Israel  men 
have  seen  themselves,  their  need  of  redemp- 
tion, their  sin  and  weakness,  their  continual 
dependence  on  God,  and  their  proneness  to 
forget  and  mistrust  Him  to  whom  they  owe 


everything;  while  in  the  record  of  God's 
gracious  dealings  with  Israel  they  have  read 
their  own  experience  of  the  power  and  grace 
of  the  Covenant  God  whose  name  is  still 
'  The  Lord,  the  Lord,  a  God  full  of  compas- 
sion and  gracious,  slow  to  anger,  and  plenteous 
in  mercy  and  truth  ;  keeping  mercy  for  thou- 
sands, forgiving  iniquity  and  transgression  and 
sin:  and  that  will  by  no  means  clear  the 
guilty,'  and  whose  promise  to  those  who  trust 
in  Him  is  still,  'My  presence  shall  go  with 
thee,  and  I  will  give  thee  rest'  (Ex346>7E,Y 
3314). 


PAET  1 
(Chs.  1-1621)  Israel  in  Egypt  :  their  Oppression  and  Deliverance 

CHAPTER 


1 
Oppression  of  the  Israelites 

5.  Seventy  souls]  Jacob  himself  is  included 
in  the  number  :  cp.  Gn  46  ^'^'^.  Of  the  seventy, 
sixty-eight  were  males.  If  to  the  direct  de- 
scendants of  Jacob  we  add  the  wives  of  his 
sons  and  grandsons,  and  the  husbands  of  his 
daughters  and  grand-daughters,  and  all  their 
servants  with  their  families,  it  appears  that 
the  total  number  of  those  who  entered  Egypt 
was  very  considerable,  several  hundreds  if  not 
thousands.  This  fact,  as  well  as  the  acknow- 
ledged prolificness  of  the  Hebrew  nation, 
serves  to  account  for  their  rapid  increase  in 
Egypt.  At  the  time  of  the  exodus  they  must 
have  numbered  about  three  millions  :  see  on 
123V.  y.  Observe  the  number  of  words  de- 
noting increase.  The  land  is  the  land  of 
Goshen  in  the  Delta  of  the  Nile. 

8.  This  verse  marks  the  turn  of  the  tide  in 
the  fortunes  of  Israel.  Hitherto  they  have 
been  tolerated  and  honoured  ;  now  they  are 
feared  and  oppressed.  The  change  of  treat- 
ment is  here  said  to  be  connected  with  a  change 
in  the  government  of  Egypt.  As  mentioned 
in  the  Introduction,  Egj'pt  for  several  hundred 
years  was  ruled  by  an  alien  dynasty,  called 
the  Hyksos,  or  Shepherd  kings.  These  were 
Asiatics,  and  would  therefore  naturally  tolerate 
the  Hebrew  race  with  whom  they  may  have 
had  affinity.  But  the  Hyksos  were  at  length 
expelled,  and  a  native  dynasty  once  more  oc- 
cupied the  throne  of  Egypt.  It  is  usually 
supposed  that  this  new  dynasty  is  meant  by 
the  new  king  .  .  which  knew  not  Joseph.  One 
of  the  most  famous  kings  of  the  nineteenth 
dynasty  was  Rameses  II  (about  1340  B.C.). 
He  was  a  great  architect,  and  many  monuments 
remain  to  attest  his  gi-eatness,  such  as  the 
temples  at  Luxor,  Abydos,  etc.  He  is  gen- 
erally held  to  be  the  Pharaoh  of  the  Oppres- 
sion, and  his  son  and  successor  (Merenptah  or 
Mineptah)  the  Pharaoh  of  the  exodus :  see 
on    142s.      Against   this,   however,   is   to   be 


considered  the  fact  that  this  Merenptah  has  left 
monuments  in  which  he  records  that  he  has 
invaded  Palestine  and  destroyed  the  Israelites, 
who  are  represented  as  living  there  at  his 
time.  Accordingly  the  oppression  and  exodus 
of  the  Israelites  are  by  some  placed  much 
earlier  than  the  time  of  Rameses  and  Meren- 
ptah, as  early  as  the  15th  cent.  B.C. 

II.  Treasure  cities]  store  cities,  situated  on 
the  frontier,  and  serving  both  as  strongholds 
for  defence  against  invasion  and  as  military 
depots  of  provisions  and  arms.  Pithom]  i.e. 
the  'Abode  of  the  Setting  Sun,'  has  been  identi- 
fied with  Tel-el  Maskhuta,  between  Kassassin 
and  Ismailiyeh.  The  walls  of  this  ancient 
city  are  found  to  have  been  constructed  of 
bricks  made  of  Nile  mud  and  chopped  straw. 
Raamses]  or  Rameses,  has  not  yet  been  identi- 
fied, but  is  supposed  to  have  been  situated  at 
the  modern  Tel-el  Kebir.  It  was  in  existence 
at  the  time  of  Joseph,  as  appears  from  Gn  47 11, 
so  that  it  was  probably  repaired  or  enlarged 
at  a  later  date.  12.  The  more  they  multi- 
plied] The  whole  history  of  the  exodus  and 
sojourn  in  the  wilderness  is  designed  to  show 
that  nothing  can  destroy  the  people  of  Israel, 
or  thwart  the  divine  purpose  with  regard  to 
them.  14.  Service  in  the  field]  This  refers 
to  the  construction  of  irrigation  canals  and 
embankments,  as  well  as  to  the  making  of 
bricks  for  building.  With  what  rigour  the 
system  of  forced  labom*  was  employed  may  be 
judged  from  the  fact  recorded  by  Herodotus 
that  120,000  workmen  lost  their  lives  in  the 
construction  of  a  canal  connecting  the  Nile  and 
the  Red  Sea  in  the  time  of  Pharaoh  Necho. 
In  modern  times  Mohammed  Ali's  canal  from 
the  Nile  to  Alexandi-ia  cost  20,000  lives. 

15-22.  Failing  to  weaken  or  diminish  the 
Israelites  by  such  severe  labour,  the  Egj'ptian 
king  has  recourse  to  a  more  direct  method, 
that  of  infanticide.  He  orders  the  slaughter  of 
all  the  Hebrew  male  children  at  birth.  This 
also  fails,  Pharaoh's  own  daughter  becoming 
one  of  the  links  in  the  chain  of  deliverance. 


49 


1.  15 


EXODUS 


2.25 


With  Pharaoh's  edict  may  be  compared  that 
of  Herod  ordering  the  Massacre  of  the  Inno- 
cents of  Bethlehem  (Mt2i6). 

15.  The  names  of  only  two  of  the  mid- 
wives  have  been  preserved.  These  two  were 
probably  connected  with  the  royal  palace. 
16,   Stools]   RV  '  birthstooL' 

19.  There  was,  no  doubt,  some  truth  in 
what  the  midwives  said,  though  their  womanly 
instincts  led  them  to  evade  the  unnatural  com- 
mand of  the  king.  21.  Made  them  houses] 
i.e.  blessed  them  with  marriage  and  many 
descendants  :  cp.  Ruth  4  n  2  S  7  27  1  K 11 38. 

CHAPTER  2 
Birth  and  Early  Life  of  Moses 

1.  The  names  of  the  father  and  mother  of 
Moses  were  Amram  and  Jochebed  respectively 
(see  6^0).  Two  children  were  bom  to  them 
before  Moses.  The  oldest  was  a  daughter 
called  Miriam  (i.e.  Mary),  who  was  a  young 
woman  at  the  time  when  Moses  was  born  (see 
V.  8) ;  and  the  second  was  a  son,  Aaron,  who 
was  born  three  years  before  Moses  (see  7  7)  and 
presumably  before  Pharaoh's  exterminating 
edict  :  cp.Nu2659. 

2.  Hid  him  three  months]  This  defiance  of 
the  king's  edict  is  called  an  act  of  faith  in 
Heb  11  -3.  3.  Ark  of  bulrushes]  a  chest  made 
of  the  stalks  of  the  papyrus  reed  which  grew 
at  the  side  of  the  Nile  and  in  marshy  places. 
The  stalks  and  leaves  of  papyrus  were  em- 
ployed in  the  manufacture  of  various  arti- 
cles, such  as  boats  (IsalS^),  sails,  mats,  ropes, 
and  paper.  This  last,  which  gets  its  name 
from  the  papyrus,  was  made  of  thin  strips 
of  the  inner  bark  pasted  together,  and  com- 
pressed. The  slime  used  as  a  watertight  coat- 
ing for  the  ark  was  bitumen,  imported  into 
Egypt  from  Mesopotamia  and  the  vicinity  of 
the  Dead  Sea  ;  it  was  employed  as  mortar  in 
building  and  as  a  preservative  in  the  process 
of  embalming.  5.  Daughter  of  Pharaoh]  Jo- 
sephus  calls  her  Thermutis,  but  Eusebius 
calls  her  Merris.  The  Nile  was  regarded  as  a 
sacred  river,  and  bathing  in  its  waters  was  part 
of  a  religious  ceremony:  cp.  7^^.  10.  The 
mother  kept  the  child  probably  till  he  was 
weaned,  which  would  be  two  or  perhaps  three 
years.  He  was  then  adopted  by  Pharaoh's 
daughter  and  would  receive  the  education  of 
an  Egyptian  prince.  St.  Stephen  says  that 
'  Moses  was  learned  in  all  the  wisdom  of  the 
Egyptians  and  was  mighty  in  words  and  in 
deeds.'  Josephus  says  that  Moses  became 
general  of  the  Egyptian  army  and  defeated 
the  Ethiopians,  also  that  Pharaoh's  daughter, 
having  no  child  of  her  own,  intended  to  make 
him  her  father's  successor.  The  name  Moses, 
which  she  gave  him,  is  an  Egj-ptian,  not  a  He- 
brew word,  and  means   '  child  '  or  '  son.'     It 


appears  in  names  like  Rameses,  Thothmes, 
etc.  It  is  only  therefore  by  a  play  upon  words 
that  it  is  connected  with  the  Hebrew  word 
jnashah, '  to  draw  out.' 

II.  In  those  days]  According  to  Ac  7  23 
Moses  was  at  this  time  '  full  forty  years  old.' 
This  incident  shows  that  the  patriotism  of 
Moses  had  not  been  destroyed  by  his  Egyptian 
upbringing,  also  that  he  was  by  nature  pos- 
sessed of  an  impatient  and  ardent  spirit  which 
required  the  long  discipline  of  the  sojourn  in 
Midian  to  school  him  into  that  strength  and  for- 
bearance necessary  in  a  leader  of  men  :  see  on 
3 11.  At  the  same  time,  it  is  made  clear  that  his 
countrymen  were  not  yet  ready  for  emancipa- 
tion. 15.  Land  of  Midian]  The  south-eastern 
part  of  the  peninsula  of  Sinai.  There  is  reason 
to  believe,  however,  that  the  home,  or  head- 
quarters, of  the  Midianites,  who  were  probably 
a  nomadic  tribe,  lay  outside  the  peninsula 
on  the  E.  side  of  the  Gulf  of  Akaba  :  see 
&n  3725  and  on  Nu  22*.  16.  The  priest  or 
prince  of  Midian.  In  early  times,  before  the 
multiplication  of  ritual  necessitated  a  separate 
religious  order,  the  head  or  chief  of  the  clan 
performed  priestly  functions  :  see  on  19^2. 
He  is  called  Reuel  in  v.  18  and  Jethro  in 
c.  18,  while  in  Jg4ii,  and  perhaps  also  in  Nu 
1029,  he  is  called  Hobab.  On  this  apparent 
confusion  see  the  note  there.  17.  In  the  East 
wells  are  of  great  importance,  and  frequent 
disputes  arise  over  rights  of  watering :  see 
e.g.  Gn  2620-22.  21.  Moses  stayed  in  Midian 
forty  years  (cp.  7  7),  so  that  his  life  falls  into 
three  equal  portions.  The  first  forty  years  he 
spent  in  Egypt  (Ac  723),  the  second  forty  in 
Midian,  and  the  last  forty  in  the  wilderness  (cp. 
Dt  347).  It  may  be  observed,  however,  that 
in  Scripture  forty  is  frequently  used  as  a  round 
number.  Here  the  forty  years  signify  a  gene- 
ration :  so  that  Moses  simply  waited  in  Midian 
till  a  new  set  of  people  arose  in  Egypt  :  see 
e.g.  Gn74  Ex  2418  3428 Nu  1325  1433  ISI716 
IK  198.  "With  the  preparatory  sojourn  of 
Moses  in  Midian  may  be  compared  that  of 
the  Baptist  in  the  wilderness  (Lk  1 80)  and  of 
St.  Paul  in  Arabia  (Gal  1 1^).  Zipporah]  see 
on  Nul2i.  22.  Gershom]  The  name  is  de- 
rived either  from  the  Heb.  ger,  '  a  sojourner,' 
and  sham, '  there,'  or  from  the  verb  garash,  '  to 
expel.'  In  either  case  it  shows  that  the 
heart  of  Moses  was  with  his  countrymen  in 
Egj^t.  Another  son,  Eliezer,  is  mentioned  in 
184  :  cp.  lCh23i6,i7. 

23.  The  king  of  Egypt]  see  on  1 8. 

24.  His  covenant]  see  Gnl27  15 18  171-1" 
26  3. -4  2813-15.  When  it  is  said  here,  as  else- 
where, that  God  remembered  His  covenant,  it 
is  not  implied  that  He  had  previously  forgotten 
it,  but  that  the  opportunity  had  now  come  of 
fulfilling  His  merciful  purpose.  25.  Had 
respect  unto]  RV  'took  knowledge  of.' 


50 


3.1 


EXODUS 


3.  15 


CHAPTER  3 

The  Call  of  Moses  and  his  Commission 
TO  BE  THE  Deliverer  of  Israel 

1.  Horeb]  The  names  Horeb  and  Sinai  seem 
to  be  synonymous,  though  it  has  been  suggested 
that  Horeb  is  the  name  given  to  the  entire 
mountain  range,  while  Sinai  denotes  the  par- 
ticular mountain  where  the  Law  was  given. 
Assuming  that  the  Pentateuch  is  composed  of 
different  documents,  it  is  better  to  believe 
that  Horeb  is  the  name  used  by  one  set  of 
writers  and  Sinai  by  another.  Horeb  is  here 
called  the  mountain  of  God  by  anticipation. 
The  reason  of  the  appellation  follows  in  c.  19. 
At  the  same  time,  it  is  not  improbable  that 
there  was  a  sanctuary  on  Mt.  Sinai  from 
earliest  times,  connected  with  the  worship  of 
the  Babylonian  moon-god  Sin. 

2.  Angel  of  the  LORD]  i.e.  of  Jehovah  (see 
on  v.  13).  In  v.  4  it  is  Jehovah  Himself  who 
speaks;  in  2320,21,22  divine  attributes  are 
ascribed  to  the  '  angel  of  the  Lord,'  God's 
*  name '  is  in  him  (see  on  3 1^),  and  his  voice  is 
identified  with  that  of  God.  It  would  there- 
fore appear  that  the  Angel  of  Jehovah  is  not 
a  created  angel  but  Jehovah  Himself  in  the 
act  of  self -manifestation  :  see  on  '  my  pre- 
sence '  in  33 1'*.  On  the  other  hand,  there  are 
passages  like  32^4  where  the  angel  seems  to 
be  distinguished  from  Jehovah,  the  explana- 
tion being  probably  that  the  mere  manifesta- 
tion of  God  gives  rise  to  a  distinction  between 
what  He  is  in  Himself,  and  what  He  is  in  His 
special  appearance.  In  this  distinction  between 
God  in  Himself  and  God  in  self -manifestation, 
we  may  see  an  adumbration  of  the  Incarn- 
ation of  God  in  Christ.  By  many,  the  Angel 
of  the  Lord  is  identified  with  the  Second 
Person  of  the  Trinity.  It  is  to  be  observed 
that  on  this  occasion  Moses  saw  no  human 
form  :  cp.  Dt4i5.  in  a  flame  of  fire]  Fire  is 
a  frequent  emblem  of  God  in  the  Scriptures 
on  account  of  its  illuminating,  purifying,  and 
destructive  properties,  and  appears  as  the 
accompaniment  and  indication  of  His  pre- 
sence :  see  13^1  I918  24^7  Dt42-i  Ps973  Ezkl* 
Ac  2  3,  etc.  On  this  occasion  the  bush,  though 
enveloped  in  flame,  was  not  consumed.  This 
may  be  symbolical  of  the  graciousness  of  God 
who  spares  the  unworthy  and  restrains  the 
fierceness  of  His  anger  while  He  communi- 
cates with  them  :  see  on  249-ii.  g.  Every 
place  where  God  manifests  Himself  is  holy. 
To  take  off  the  shoes  is  an  ancient  as  well  as 
modern  way  of  expressing  reverence  in  the 
East.  The  Mohammedan  takes  off  his  shoes 
when  he  enters  the  mosque.  The  action  sym- 
bolises the  removal  of  the  defilement  caused 
by  sin  or  contact  with  the  world  on  entering 
the  presence  of  Him  with  whom  '  evil  cannot 
dwell.' 


51 


6.  The  patriarchs  are  mentioned  to  show  that 
it  is  no  new  or  unknown  God  who  speaks,  but 
One  who  made  a  covenant  with  the  fathers  of 
the  nation  and  who  still  remembers  it.  These 
words  are  cited  by  our  Lord  as  a  proof  that 
God's  people  continue  to  live  after  death  :  cp. 
Mkl2  2'5,27.  Moses  hid  his  face]  cp.  the  act 
of  Elijah,  1 K 19  is,  and  see  on  19  9  33  is.  Rever- 
ence is  not  only  due  to  God,  but  is  the  first  con- 
dition of  receiving  divine  truth.  God  mani- 
fests Himself  to  the  lowly.  8.  Flowing 
with  milk  and  honey]  A  proverbial  expression 
indicating  fertility  and  abundance.  On  the 
tribes  inhabiting  Canaan  see  on  Gn  10  Nu  34 1-1^. 

II.  With  the  hesitation  of  Moses  compare 
that  of  Jeremiah,  Jerl^-s.  Forty  years  be- 
fore Moses  was  more  self-confident  (cp.  Ac  7  ^5). 
In  the  long  sojourn  in  Midian  he  learned  to 
mistrust  himself,  and  was  on  that  account  all 
the  more  fitted  to  be  the  instrument  of  Him 
whose  '  strength  is  made  perfect  in  weakness.' 
Moses  here  puts  forward  four  excuses,  each  of 
which  is  in  turn  overborne.  He  pleads  (1) 
that  he  is  personally  unfit  (vv.  11,  12),  (2) 
that  the  Israelites  will  not  know  who  sent 
him  (vv.  13-22),  (3)  that  they  will  not  believe 
that  Jehovah  has  sent  him  (4 1-9),  and  (4)  that 
he  does  not  possess  the  gift  of  persuasive 
eloquence  (4io-i').  12.  I  will  be  with  thee] 
The  guarantee  of  fitness  and  success  :  cp. 
our  Lord's  promise,  Mt2820.  A  token]  The 
token  was  still  in  the  future:  cp.  IS 2^4 
2  K 1 9  29  Isa  7 1*.  Experience  corroborates  the 
ventures  of  faith.  For  the  fulfilment  of  this 
sign  see  c.  19. 

13.  What  is  his  name?]  The  name  of  God 
is  His  revealed  character  :  see  23^1  345-7. 
Here  God  reveals  Himself  by  the  name 
Jehovah.  As  already  explained  (Gn24)  the 
word  '  Jehovah  '  is  the  result  of  a  combination 
of  the  consonants  of  the  original  name  (the 
consonants  alone  are  written  in  ancient 
Hebrew)  and  the  vowels  of  its  substitute 
'Adonai.'  Most  scholars  believe  that  the 
original  form  of  the  name  was  '  Jahve  '  or 
'Yahve.'  Now  this  resembles  in  form  the 
third  person  singular  masculine  imperfect  of 
a  Hebrew  verb,  and  is  here  connected  with 
the  verb  hmca  or  haya^  '  to  be.'  God  calls 
Himself  '  Ehyeh,'  i.e.  I  am.  When  He  is 
named  by  others,  He  is  '  Jahve,'  i.e.  He  is. 
The  name  denotes  the  absolute  self -existence 
of  God.  He  alone  truly  exists  :  cp.  Dt435 
Isa  45  6  Rev  14.  Some  scholars,  however, 
prefer  to  take  the  word  as  a  future,  '  I  will 
be,'  in  which  case  the  name  expresses  rather 
the  faithfulness  of  God,  the  assurance  that  He 
will  be  with  His  people  as  their  helper  and 
deliverer.  Others,  again,  take  the  word  to  be  the 
causative  form  of  the  verb,  in  which  case  it  will 
mean,  '  He  who  causes  to  be,'  '  the  Creator '  : 
see  RM  and  on  6  3.     15.   My  memorial]  i.e.  my 


S.  16 


EXODUS 


4.21 


name,  the  designation    by  which    I   will    be 
remembered. 

1 6.  Elders  of  Israel]  The  heads  or  repre- 
sentatives of  the  tribes  and  families.  It 
appears  from  this  that  even  in  Egypt  the 
Israelites  had  some  kind  of  organisation.  In 
the  Pentateuch,  when  the  people  of  Israel  are 
addressed,  it  is  frequently  the  '  elders '  who 
are  meant.  They  are  the  usual  medium  of 
communication  between  Moses  and  the  people, 
and  act  as  the  representatives  of  the  latter  : 
see  e.g.  175  19^  Dt27i  319.28. 

1 8.  God  of  the  Hebrews]  To  the  Israelites 
God  is  '  Jehovah,  the  God  of  your  fathers '  (v. 
16),  a  designation  which  would  appeal  to  their 
hearts  as  it  reminded  them  of  God's  covenant 
with  their  forefathers  and  His  faithfulness 
to  it.  See  on  v.  6.  But  to  Pharaoh  He  is 
simply  '  the  God  of  the  Hebrews.' 

Three  days'  journey  into  the  wilderness]  i.e. 
most  probably  to  Horeb,  the  '  wilderness ' 
being  a  general  term  for  the  region  lying 
between  Egypt  and  Palestine.  There  was  no 
intention  to  deceive  Pharaoh  in  this  request. 
Had  Pharaoh  been  willing  to  grant  the  people 
entire  release  this  would  have  been  asked  at 
first.  But  God,  knowing  that  Pharaoh  was 
not  willing  to  let  them  go,  enjoined  Moses  to 
make  only  this  moderate  request,  so  as  to 
emphasise  the  obstinacy  of  the  king. 

19.  No,  not  by  a  mighty  hand]  This  means 
either  '  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  I  will  lay  My 
hand  heavily  upon  him '  ;  or  better,  with  a 
slight  change  of  reading,  as  LXX  has  it,  '  un- 
less I  lay  My  hand  heavily  upon  him.' 

22.  Shall  borrow]  RV  'shall  ask.'  The 
word  is  the  common  Hebrew  verb  meaning 
'to  ask,' as  used  e.g.  in  JgS^s  IKSH  2K2io 
Psl22'',  where  there  is  no  idea  of  asking 
under  a  promise  of  giving  back  what  is 
received.  Spoil]  The  same  word  is  ren- 
dered 'recover'  in  IS 30 22,  which  suggests 
that  if  there  was  any  '  borrowing '  it  was  on 
the  part  of  the  Egyptians,  who  had  been 
taking  the  labour  of  the  Israelites  without 
any  recompense.     For  the  fulfilment,  see  c. 

1235,36. 

CHAPTER  4 

Signs  Attesting  the  Commission  of 
Moses.     His  Return  to  Egypt 

Moses  still  hesitates,  and  now  objects  that 
the  people  will  not  believe  him  when  he  tells 
them  that  Jehovah  has  sent  him.  He  is 
granted  the  power  of  working  three  signs  by 
way  of  substantiating  his  commission. 

2.  A  rod]  probably  his  shepherd's  staff. 

3.  Fled  from  before  it]  A  graphic  trait, 
showing  that  the  change  was  real,  and  that 
Moses  was  not  prepared  for  it.  4.  By  the 
tail]  Snake  charmers  usually  take  snakes 
by  the  neck  to  prevent  them  biting.     It  is 


much  more  dangerous  to  seize  them  by  the 
tail.  When  Moses  did  so  with  impunity  his 
own  faith  would  be  strengthened  as  well  as 
that  of  the  people  :  cp.  our  Lord's  promise, 
Mkl6i8.  6.  Leprous  as  snow^]  i.e.  as  white 
as  snow.  Leprosy  was  common  in  Egypt. 
The  form  here  meant  is  that  in  which  the 
skin  becomes  glossy,  white,  and  callous.  This 
is  the  worst  form  of  leprosy  and  was  regarded 
as  incurable.  This  incident,  taken  together 
with  the  fact  that  the  white  leprosy  was  most 
common  among  the  Israelites,  may  have  given 
rise  to  the  tradition,  related  by  the  Egyptian 
priest  and  historian  Manetho,  and  quoted  by 
Josephus,  that  Moses  was  a  leper,  and  that 
the  Israelites  were  expelled  from  Egypt  be- 
cause they  were  afflicted  with  the  same  disease. 

9.  The  river]  the  Nile.  This  sign  is  similar 
to  the  first  of  the  plagues  (see  720),  with  the 
difference  that  here  only  part  of  the  water  is 
changed  on  being  poured  out  on  the  dry  land. 

10.  Moses  now  pleads  his  want  of  eloquence. 
Jewish  tradition  says  that  he  had  an  actual 
impediment  in  his  speech,  being  unable  to 
pronounce  the  labials.  His  words  here,  how- 
ever, do  not  necessarily  imply  any  positive 
defect  of  this  kind.  He  wishes  to  be  excused, 
and  urges  that  a  more  eloquent  man  than  he 
is  required  to  persuade  the  king  of  Egypt  to 
release  Israel,  and  the  Israelites  also  to  trust 
themselves  to  the  guidance  of  Jehovah.  For 
this  he  is  rebuked,  but  not  excused.  Aaron 
is  given  to  him  as  spokesman.  12.  Cp. 
Jerl6-9  Lk21i4.i5.  13,  14.  This  request  is 
equivalent  to  a  refusal  to  go.  Moses  says, 
'  send  some  one  else,  but  not  me.'  Accord- 
ingly '  the  anger  of  Jehovah  was  kindled 
against  him.'  His  punishment  takes  the  form 
of  diminished  privilege.  Aaron  henceforth 
shares  in  his  distinction.  The  Levite]  This 
means  not  merely  the  '  descendant  of  Levi,' 
but '  the  priest,'  as  the  tribe  of  Levi  was  after- 
wards consecrated  to  the  service  of  the  sanctu- 
ary.    The  title  is  here  used  by  anticipation. 

16.  Cp.  71.  Instead  of  God]  Because 
Aaron  would  receive  God's  message  at  the 
mouth  of  Moses.  17.  Signs]  RV  '  the  signs,' 
i.e.  the  appointed  signs. 

18-26.  Moses  takes  leave  of  Jethro  and 
returns  with  his  wife  and  children  to  Egypt. 

19.  Cp.  Mt2i9.  20.  His  sons]  Only  one 
has  been  previously  mentioned,  but  a  second 
had  been  born  in  Midian  :  see  2^2. 

21.  I  will  harden  his  heart]  God  proposes 
to  harden  Pharaoh's  heart,  in  order  to  have 
the  opportunity  of  displaying  His  power  in 
the  deliverance  of  His  people,  and  exhibiting 
His  character  to  the  Egyptians.  Some  take 
the  expression  as  due  to  the  Eastern  and 
fatalistic  way  of  regarding  all  that  happens 
in  the  world  as  the  result  of  the  direct  inter- 
vention of  God.     On  this  interpretation  it  is 


52 


4.  22 


EXODUS 


5.  12 


simply  synonymous  with  '  Pharaoh's  heart  was 
hardened '  (7  ^^),  and  '  Pharaoh  hardened  his 
heart '  (8 1^).  Where  we  speak  vaguely  of  the 
operation  of  moral  and  physical  laws  and  of 
secondary  causes,  the  Oriental  frankly  says 
that  '  God  did  this.'  He  says  '  kismet '  ;  '  it 
was  fated  to  be '  :  see  on  v.  24.  We  prefer 
to  say  that  the  hardening  of  Pharaoh's  heart 
was  due  to  his  own  obstinacy  in  refusing  to 
yield  to  the  warnings  he  received  ;  the  Eastern 
moralist  means  the  same  when  he  says  that 
God  hardened  his  heart.  The  inevitable  result 
is  regarded  as  the  divine  purpose.  It  happens 
in  accordance  with  laws  which  God  Himself 
has  ordained.  '  He  will  not '  leads  inevitably 
to  '  he  cannot '  :  cp.  Ro  1  ^8.  It  should  be 
observed  that  this,  however,  is  not  equivalent 
to  a  denial  of  moral  responsibility.  It  is  a 
man's  omti  fault  if  he  allow  himself  to  be 
entangled  in  this  chain  of  inevitable  con- 
sequences. He  is,  therefore,  responsible  for 
the  ultimate  hardening  of  his  heart  through 
repeated  acts  of  wilful  transgression  :  see  on 
10  3.  22.  Israel  is  my  son,  eren  my  firstborn] 
This  expresses  God's  choice  of  Israel  as  His 
peculiar  people  :  cp.  Dtl4i'2  Hosll^  JerSl^, 
and  see  on  19 5.  The  term  'firstborn'  indi- 
cates the  high  honour  conferred  upon  Israel, 
and  at  the  same  time  contains  a  hint  of  the 
ultimate  inclusion  of  the  Gentiles  also  in 
the  covenant.  23.  For  the  fulfilment  of 
this  warning  see   12  29,30_ 

24.  In  the  inn]  RV  '  lodging-place,'  not 
necessarily  a  building.  Sought  to  kill  him] 
This  probably  means  no  more  than  that  Moses 
was  struck  with  some  grievous  sickness  and 
was  in  danger  of  death.  It  is  another 
example  of  the  Eastern  way  of  attributing 
whatever  happens  to  the  direct  interposition 
of  God,  referred  to  in  the  note  on  v.  21.  It 
would  appear  from  this  mysterious  incident 
that  Moses  had  neglected  to  circumcise  his 
youngest  son,  on  account  perhaps  of  the 
mother's  objection  to  the  rite.  Circumcision 
was  not  peculiar  to  the  Israelites,  but  they 
alone  circumcised  infants.  What  Zipporah 
objected  to,  therefore,  may  not  have  been  the 
rite  itself,  but  its  performance  at  such  an  early 
age.  But  now  seeing  the  danger  her  husband 
was  in,  and  recognising  that  his  sickness  was 
the  chastisement  of  disobedience,  she  over- 
came her  reluctance  and  performed  the  cere- 
mony herself,  with  the  result  that  Moses'  life 
was  spared  (v.  26).  The  incident  is  designed 
to  show  the  importance  of  circumcision  as  the 
sign  of  the  covenant  between  God  and  His 
people  and  the  sin  and  danger  of  neglecting  it. 

25.  A  sharp  stone]  Even  in  later  times  than 
this  flint  knives  were  employed  in  circumcision, 
being  regarded  as  purer  than  knives  of  metal  : 
see  Josh 5 2,  where  'sharp  knives'  should  be 
'  knives  of  flint,'  as  in  RV.    Flint  knives  were 


53 


used  by  the  Egyptians  in  opening  bodies  for 
embalming.  They  are  said  to  be  carried  by 
the  Bedouin  of  the  Syrian  desert  at  the 
present  day.  A  bloody  husband  art  thou  to 

me]  RV  '  a  bridegroom  of  blood.'  As  the  Jews 
to  this  day  call  a  circumcised  child  a  '  bride- 
groom of  the  circumcision '  it  is  possible  that 
Zipporah's  exclamation  was  addressed  to  the 
child.  It  is  usually,  however,  understood  as 
addi'essed  to  Moses,  whom  his  wife  reproaches 
as  being  the  cause  of  bloodshed.  26.  He 
let  him  go]  i.e.  God  let  Moses  go,  removed 
his  sickness  and  allowed  him  to  recover.  It 
was  probably  at  this  time  that  Moses  sent  his 
wife  and  children  back  to  the  house  of  his 
father-in-law.  They  rejoined  him  at  Sinai 
after  the  exodus  from  Egypt  :  see  18  2, 5. 

27.  The  mount  of  God]  Horeb  or  Sinai  : 
see  on  31.  The  two  brothers  had  not  met  for 
forty  years  previous  to  this. 

CHAPTERS   5-11 
The  Contest  with  Pharaoh 

CHAPTER  5 
Increase  of  the  Oppression 

I.  Pharaoh]  probably  P.  Merenptah.  See 
on  1  s.  His  court  may  have  been  at  Zoan  or 
Tanis  during  the  events  that  ensued :  cp. 
Ps  78 12, 43.  The  Lord  God  of  Israel]  Heb. 
'  Jehovah  the  God  of  Israel '  :  see  on  3 1^'  is. 
Similarly  in  the  next  v.  Pharaoh  says,  'Who 
is  Jehovah  '? .  .  I  know  not  Jehovah.'  Jehovah 
not  being  known  and  worshipped  in  Egypt, 
Pharaoh  does  not  acknowledge  His  right  to 
command   him.  3.   See  on  S^^.         4.   Let 

the  people]  i.e.  hinder  them,  as  in  Isa43i3 
Rolls  2Th27.  6.  The  taskmasters  are 
the  Egyptian  officials,  and  the  officers  (lit. 
'  scribes ')  are  the  Hebrew  clerks  under  them 
whose  duty  it  was  to  keep  an  account  of  the 
bricks  made  :  see  v.  14.  7.   Straw  to  make 

brick]  The  bricks  were  made  of  Nile  mud  to 
which  chopped  straw  was  added  to  give  it  con- 
sistency. They  were  sometimes  stamped  with 
the  name  of  the  reigning  king.  Some  have 
been  found  bearing  the  name  of  Rameses  II, 
the  father  of  Merenptah,  and  wooden  stamps 
and  moulds  have  also  been  discovered. 

8.  The  tale]  i.e.  the  number,  as  in  IS  18 27 
1  Ch928.  To  '  tell '  in  Old  English  means  to 
count,  and  is  used  in  this  sense  in  Gnl5^ 
2Ch22  Ps22i7  4812  147  *,  etc.  The  counter 
of  votes  in  Parliament  is  still  called  the 
'  teller.' 

12.  Stubble  instead  of  straw]  RV  'stubble 
for  straw.'  The  word  rendered  '  straw  '  means 
straw  cut  into  short  pieces  and  mixed  with 
chaif.  This  required  little  labour,  if  any,  to 
make  it  fit  for  use  in  briclonaking.  What  is 
called  '  stubble  '  is  not  what  we  know  by  that 


5.  21 


EXODUS 


7.  12 


name,  but  includes  all  kinds  of  field  rubbish, 
small  twigs,  stems,  roots  of  withered  plants, 
etc.,  which  were  used  for  fuel.  To  make  this 
fit  for  brickmaking  it  had  not  only  to  be 
gathered,  but  chopped  up  and  sorted,  thus 
entailing  double  labour  on  the  part  of  the 
Israelites.  2i.  Our  savour  to  be  abhorred] 
i.e.  as  we  say  '  to  be  in  bad  odour '  :  cp. 
Gn3430.  22.  The  faith  of  Moses  was  se- 
verely tried,  seeing  that  what  he  had  done  by 
God's  commandment  had  the  effect  of  making 
matters  still  more  grievous  for  the  Israelites 
meanwhile.  But  the  opening  words  of  the 
next  c.  show  that  their  '  present  affliction  will 
work  a  far  more  exceeding  weight  of  glory.' 

CHAPTEE  6 

The  Kenewal  of  the  Promise.    Geneal- 
ogies OF  Reuben,  Simeon,  and  Levi 

I.  The  strong  hand  is  the  hand  of  Jehovah, 
not  of  Pharaoh.  So  RV  renders,  '  by  a  strong 
hand,'  i.e.  under  the  compelling  force  of 
Jehovah's  judgments  :  see  on  3^9. 

3.  The  name  of  God  Almighty]  Heb.  El 
Shaddal,  which  occurs  first  in  the  revelation 
made  to  Abraham  (GnlT^  ;  cp.  also  28 3  483). 
It  is  here  said  that  God  was  not  known  in  the 
patriarchal  times  by  the  name  Jehovah.  This 
constitutes  a  difficulty,  as  the  name  has  been 
already  used  in  passages  earlier  than  this,  e.g.  in 
Gn24  3  4  111-9,  etc.  Two  explanations  have 
been  given  :  (1)  The  use  of  the  name  Jehovah 
in  these  earlier  passages  may  be  due,  not  to  the 
speakers  themselves,  but  to  the  writer  of  those 
parts  of  the  book  of  Genesis  in  which  it  is 
found,  to  whom  it  was  familiar,  and  who  used 
it  by  anticipation.  (2)  While  the  name  Je- 
hovah may  have  been  known  from  earliest 
times,  its  full  spiritual  significance  may  not 
have  been  revealed  or  apprehended  till  the 
time  of  Moses.  Traces  of  the  antiquity  of  the 
name  Jehovah  may  be  found  in  its  employment 
by  Abraham  as  part  of  a  proper  name  :  see 
Gn  22 14.  The  name  of  Moses'  mother,  Joche- 
bed  (Ex  6  20),  also  contains  the  name  Jehovah 
as  its  first  element.         5.  See  on  2  2*. 

6.  Redeem]   deliver  from  oppression. 

7.  See  on  19  5>  6.  12.  Uncircumcised  lips] 
Circumcision  is  the  sign  of  consecration,  so  that 
'  uncircumcision '  is  used  metaphorically  of 
what  is  unclean  or  inadequate  to  the  service 
of  God:  see  on  Lv  19  23. 

14-27.  The  object  of  this  section  is  to  in- 
dicate the  genealogy  of  the  deliverers,  Moses 
and  Aaron.  The  family  of  Levi  is  therefore 
given  in  detail.  Those  of  Reuben  and  Simeon 
are  prefixed  merely  to  show  the  position  of  the 
family  of  Levi  among  the  sons  of  Jacob,  and 
are  therefore  summarily  described. 

14.   Hanoch]   the  Hebrew  form  of  Enoch. 

20.  Jochebed]   '  Jehovah  is  glory '  :  see  on 


V.  3.  Observe  that  marriage  with  a  father's 
sister  was  not  forbidden  before  the  giving  of 
the  Law  :  see  LvlS^^.  It  is  not  improbable 
that  the  genealogy  of  Amram  has  been  short- 
ened here  by  the  omission  of  certain  names. 
Joshua,  who  was  a  younger  contemporary  of 
Moses,  was  of  the  tenth  generation  from 
Joseph:  see  lCh720-27.  The  designation 
'  daughter  of  Levi '  applied  to  Jochebed  in  2 1 
may,  therefore,  be  equivalent  to  '  descendant 
of  Levi.'  But  see  Nu26S9,  where  Miriam's 
name  is  also  inserted  :  see  on  2 1.  26.  Their 
armies]  Israel  left  Egypt  as  an  organised  host  : 
see  on  316,  and  see  12 17,51  13 18. 

CHAPTER  7 

The  Rod  of  Moses  turned  into  a 
Serpent.     The  First  Plague 

I.  A  god  to  Pharaoh]  see  on  4 16.  Thy  pro- 
phet] A  prophet  is  a  spokesman.  The  pro-  ■, 
phets  of  God  are  those  who  declare  His  will. 
In  doing  this  they  may  foretell  His  judg- 
ments and  predict  the  future  ;  but  predic- 
tion is  a  secondary  feature  of  prophecy,  and 

is  not  contained  in  the  original  and  proper 
sense  of  the  word  in  which  it  is  used  here, 
where  Aaron  is  called  the  prophet  or  mouth- 
piece of  Moses.  To  prophesy  sometimes  means 
to  declare  God's  praise  in  song.  Thus  Miriam 
is  called  a  prophetess  in  15  20,  Eldad  and  Medad 
are  said  to  have  prophesied  in  Nu  1 1 25  (see  note 
there),  Deborah  was  a  prophetess  (Jg44  51), 
and  in  lCh25i"3  the  sacred  musicians  in  the 
temple  are  said  to  '  prophesy  with  harps '  :  cp. 
alsolS10ioi920f.  iCorUif.  4,5.  The  pur- 
pose of  the  miraculous  events  connected  with 
the  exodus  was  not  only  the  deliverance  of  the 
Israelites,  but  the  manifestation  of  Jehovah's 
character  to  the  Egyptians  :  see  on  421. 

7.  See  on  2  21.  9.  Thy  rod]  Moses  had 
entrusted  his  rod  to  Aaron  :  cp.  v.  15,  which  is 
spoken  to  Moses. 

II.  Magicians]  lit.  'engravers,  sacred 
scribes'  :  cp.  Gn4is  RV.  They  are  depicted 
on  the  monuments  with  a  quill  pen  on  their 
heads  and  a  book  in  their  hands.  A  belief  in 
magic  was  universal  in  Egypt  and  had  a  most 
potent  influence  in  every  department  of  thought 
and  conduct.  The  magicians  were  a  recognised 
body  of  men  whose  services  were  very  fre- 
quently employed  to  interpret  dreams,  to  avert 
misfortune,  or  to  bring  discomfiture  upon  an 
enemy  :  cp.  on  Nu225.  Here  Pharaoh  calls 
his  magicians  to  a  trial  of  strength  with  Moses 
and  Aaron,  and  they  are  able  to  imitate  some 
of  the  wonders.  In  the  end,  however,  they 
confess  themselves  beaten  (8 1^).  According  to 
Jewish  tradition  two  of  the  magicians  who 
'  withstood  Moses '  were  called  Jannes  and 
Jambres  :  see  2  Tim  3  8.  12.  They  became 
serpents]   Serpent  charming  is  still  practised 


54 


7.  13 


EXODUS 


8.  22 


in  Egj'pt  and  has  been  described  by  several 
travellers.  What  was  done  on  this  occasion 
was  probably  a  clever  piece  of  sleight  of  hand. 
The  magicians  when  they  were  called  in  might 
know  what  was  expected  of  them,  and  be 
prepared  to  imitate  what  was  done  by  Aaron. 

13.  He  hardened  Pharaoh's  heart]  This 
should  be  '  Pharaoh's  heart  was  hardened,' 
as  in  RV.  The  Heb.  is  the  same  here  as  in 
V.  22  :  see  on  421. 

14-25.  The  First  Plague  :— The  Water  of 
the  Nile  turned  into  Blood. 

The  Nile  was  regarded  as  a  god  to  whom 
worship  and  sacrifice  were  offered.  The  defile- 
ment of  its  waters,  therefore,  was  a  severe 
blow  to  the  religious  prejudices  of  the  Egypt- 
ians. It  was  also  a  great  calamity,  as  the  Nile 
was  the  source  of  all  the  fertility  of  Egypt,  and 
its  fish  were  largely  used  for  food,  some  kinds 
being  regarded  as  sacred.  15.  He  goeth  out 
unto  the  water]  either  to  bathe  or  to  pay  his 
devotions  to  the  sacred  river  :  see  on  2^. 

19.  Streams .  .  rivers]  the  various  canals 
and  branches  of  the  Nile.  20,  21.  At  the 
annual  rising  of  the  Nile  its  waters  frequently 
turn  a  dull  red  colour  owing  to  the  presence 
of  mud,  vegetable  debris,  and  minute  animal- 
cules. This  plague,  therefore,  like  the  follow- 
ing, may  have  been  an  aggravation  of  a  natural 
phenomenon.  It  is  to  be  observed,  however, 
that  whereas  the  natural  discoloration  of  the 
water  has  no  pernicious  effect  on  the  fish  of 
the  Nile,  these  all  died  under  the  plague. 

22.  The  magicians  probably  obtained  some 
water  by  digging  near  the  Nile  (see  v.  24), 
and  in  some  way  were  able  to  convince 
Pharaoh,  who  of  course  was  willing  to  be  con- 
vinced, that  they  could  imitate  the  sign  wrought 
by  Moses  and  Aaron.  Their  sign,  however, 
must  have  been  on  a  much  smaller  scale,  seeing 
that  all  the  Nile  water  was  already  trans- 
formed. 25.  The  plague  lasted  seven  days. 
Nothing  is  said  of  its  removal. 

CHAPTER  8 
The  Second,  Third,  and  Fourth  Plagues 

1-15.  The  Second  Plague: — Frogs. 

This  plague,  like  the  first,  was  not  only  in 
itself  loathsome,  but  an  offence  to  the  religious 
notions  of  the  Egyptians.  The  frog  was  a 
sacred  animal,  and  regarded  as  representing 
the  reproductive  powers  of  nature.  At  least 
one  divinity  was  represented  with  a  frog's 
head.  This  sacred  sign  became  an  object  of 
abhorrence  under  this  plague.  This  also  was 
an  aggravation  of  a  natural  phenomenon,  but 
its  supernatural  nature  was  attested  by  its 
sudden  occurrence  in  accordance  with  a  pre- 
vious intimation  (v.  2).  3.  Ovens]  These 
were  large  earthenware  jars  or  pots  about 
3   ft.    high,    which    were    heated    by    being 


56 


filled  with  burning  brushwood.  The  dough 
was  baked  by  being  laid  in  thin  layers  on  the 
hot  sides  of  the  jar.  Sometimes  the  oven 
consisted  of  a  hole  dug  in  the  ground  outside 
the  house  and  plastered  with  clay.  It  was 
heated  in  the  same  manner  as  before,  and 
after  the  fuel  was  withdrawn,  the  oven  was 
wiped  out  and  the  dough  pressed  to  the  hot 
sides.  Kneading-troughs]  wooden  bowls. 

7.  The  plague  would  not  be  difficult  to  imitate, 
seeing  the  frogs  abounded  everywhere.  But 
the  magicians  could  not  remove  the  plague. 

9.  Glory  over  me]  RV  'Have  thou  this 
glory  over  me':  an  expression  of  courtesy 
equivalent  to  '  I  am  at  your  service.'  13. 
The  frogs  died]  They  did  not  return  to  the 
Nile,  but  remained  to  pollute  the  land.  The 
removal  of  the  plague  in  a  manner  intensi- 
fied it. 

16-19.  The  Third  Plague: — Lice. 

16.  Lice]  RM 'sandflies,' or 'fleas.'  Opinion 
has  been  divided  both  in  ancient  and  modern 
times  as  to  the  nature  of  these  insects.  From 
the  fact  that  they  are  here  said  to  have  at- 
tacked the  beasts  as  well  as  man,  and  to 
have  come  out  of  the  dust,  it  has  been  in- 
ferred that  they  were  gnats  or  mosquitoes. 
Several  kinds  of  small  stinging  insects  are 
known  to  breed  in  the  sand,  and  these  pests 
are  particularly  prevalent  after  the  fall 
of  the  Nile  and  the  drying  up  of  the  pools. 
On  the  other  hand,  RV  has  good  authority  for 
retaining  the  rendering  '  lice '  in  the  text. 
Rawlinson  says  that  lice  in  N.  Africa 
constitute  a  terrible  affliction,  and  he  quotes 
Sir  S.  Baker  to  the  effect  that  '  at  certain 
seasons  it  is  as  if  the  very  dust  of  the  land 
were  turned  into  lice.'  It  will  be  observed 
that  the  third  plague  came  without  warning. 
18.  The  magicians  fail  to  imitate  this  plague, 
and  acknowledge  its  supernatural  origin. 
They  said,  '  This  is  the  finger  of  God,'  or  '  of 
a  god.'  This  does  not  amount  to  an  acknow- 
ledgment of  Jehovah.  They  may  have  been 
thinking  of  their  own  gods. 

20-32.     The  Fourth  Plague: — Flies. 

21.  Swarms  of  flies]  The  nature  of  the 
pests  is  not  indicated,  as  the  Heb.  word 
means  simply  '  swarms.'  The  LXX  calls  them 
'  dog-flies ' :  cp.  Isa  7 1^.  A  general  opinion  is 
that  they  were  beetles,  of  a  peculiarly  destruc- 
tive sort.  If  this  is  correct,  then  the  plague 
was  again  a  severe  blow  to  the  religious 
notions  of  the  Egyptians.  The  beetle  was 
sacred,  and  was  regarded  as  the  emblem  of 
the  Sun-god.  '  It  was  sculptured  on  monu- 
ments, painted  on  tombs,  engraved  on  gems, 
worn  round  the  neck  as  an  amulet,  and  hon- 
oured in  ten  thousand  images '  (Geikie).  A 
colossal  figure  of  a  scarabasus  beetle  is  in  the 
British  Museum.  22.  It  is  implied  here  that 
hitherto  the  Hebrews  had  suffered  along  with 


8.  24 


EXODUS 


9.31. 


the  Egyptians.  But  now  the  exemption  of 
the  Hebrews  from  the  plagues  would  show 
that  it  was  the  God  of  the  Hebrews  who  was 
working  on  their  behalf,  and  not  one  of  the 
gods  of  the  Egyptians  as  the  magicians  had 
suggested  (v.  19).  24.  Was  corrupted]  MG- 
'  was  destroyed.'  25.  In  the  land]  of  Egypt. 
Pharaoh  was  unwilling  to  lose  the  services  of 
the  Hebrews. 

26.  The  abomination  of  the  Eg3^tians] 
Animal  worship  was  very  prevalent  in  Egypt, 
certain  kinds  of  animals  being  regarded  as 
peculiarly  sacred  and  on  no  account  to  be 
slaughtered.  For  the  Israelites  to  sacrifice 
cattle,  sheep,  and  goats  would  be  to  outrage 
the  religious  feelings  of  the  Egyptians,  and 
might  lead  to  war  and  bloodshed.  That 
Moses  had  good  grounds  for  his  fear  on  this 
account  cannot  be  questioned.  Diodorus,  the 
historian,  tells  of  a  Eoman  ambassador  who 
was  put  to  death  for  accidentally  killing  a 
cat.  A  modern  instance  of  the  danger  of^ 
offending  religious  prejudices  may  be  seen  in 
the  Indian  Mutiny,  which  is  said  to  have  been 
occasioned  by  the  serving  out  of  greased 
cartridges  to  the  Bengal  troops.  The  end  of 
the  cartridge  was  usually  bitten  off  before 
being  inserted  in  the  musket,  and  of  this 
these  men,  who  were  Hindus  and  forbidden 
by  their  religion  to  eat  cow's  flesh,  had  a 
superstitious  abhorrence. 

27.  See  on  31^. 

29.  Deal  deceitfully]  see  w.  8,  15. 

CHAPTEE  9 

The  Fifth,  Sixth,  and  Seventh  Plagues 

1-7.  The  Fifth  Plague  : — Murrain,  i.e.  cattle 
plague. 

Visitations  of  cattle  plague  are  not  uncommon 
in  Egypt.  An  outbreak  in  1842  carried  off 
40,000  oxen.  The  miraculous  nature  of  the 
plague  recorded  here  consisted  in  its  occurring 
at  a  set  time  (v.  5),  and  in  the  exemption  of 
the  cattle  of  the  Israelites,  and  of  the  cattle 
that  were  housed.  This  plague  was,  so  far, 
the  most  destructive  in  its  effects,  entailing  a 
much  more  serious  loss  of  property  than  the 
former. 

3.  Cattle]  A  general  term  including  the 
species  mentioned  in  this  verse.  In  the  field] 
Those  that  were  housed  escaped,  to  suffer 
afterwards  from  the  plague  of  hail  :  see  vv. 
19,  25.  The  words  in  v.  6,  all  the  cattle  .  .  died, 
are  to  be  understood  with  this  limitation. 
Horses  were  a  comparatively  recent  importa- 
tion into  Egypt,  and  chiefly  used  in  military 
operations.  They  are  frequently  mentioned 
in  the  OT.  in  connexion  with  Egypt :  see  e.g. 
Gn47i7  Ex  149  Dtl7i6  note,  Isa31i. 

8-12.  The  Sixth  Plague  : — Boils. 

This  plague  affected  both  man  and  beast, 


and,  unless  we  may  suppose  that  the  narrative 
is  condensed,  was  sent  without  warning. 

8.  Furnace]  i.e.  the  brick-kiln.  The  scat- 
tering of  the  fine  ashes  upon  the  wind  was 
probably  intended  to  be  symbolic  of  the 
spread    of    the   disease.  9.   Boil   breaking 

forth  lo'dh  blains]  An  inflamed  swelling  with 
pustules.  In  Dt2827  it  is  called  the  'botch 
of  Egypt.'  Certain  skin  diseases  are  communi- 
cated to  man  from  cattle,  and  the  sixth  plague 
may  have  been  connected  in  some  way  with 
the  preceding.  11.  Could  not  stand  before 
Moses]  i.e.  could  not  withstand  Moses.  They 
were  attacked  themselves,  and  could  neither 
imitate  nor  remove  the  plague.  12.  Hardened 
the  heart  of  Pharaoh]  see  on  4^1. 

13-35.  The  Seventh  Plague  : — Hail. 

14.  All  my  plagues]  Pharaoh  must  not 
think  that  God  has  exhausted  His  means. 
There  are  others  which  will  prove  sufficient 
for  His  purpose.  15,  16.  Better  with  RV, 
'  For  now  I  had  put  forth  my  hand,  and 
smitten  thee  .  .  and  thou  hadst  been  cut  off  .  . 
but  in  very  deed  for  this  cause  have  I  made 
thee  to  stand '  (i.e.  have  preserved  thee  alive), 
'  for  to  shew  thee  my  power,  and  that  my 
name  may  be  declared  throughout  all  the 
earth.'  God  might  have  delivered  His  people 
by  summarily  destroying  Pharaoh  and  all  his 
subjects,  but  He  has  restrained  the  full  extent 
of  His  vengeance  for  His  greater  glory  :  cp. 
Ro922,23  Isa489.  18.  Very  grievous  hail] 
Hail  and  thunderstorms  are  not  unknown  in 
Egypt,  but  are  rare  and  seldom  dangerous. 

Since  the  foundation  thereof]  i.e.  since  it 
was  inhabited  :  cp.  v.  24.  20.  Some  of  the 
Egyptians,  at  all  events,  had  been  impressed 
with  the  previous  plagues,  and  had  come  to 
believe  the  predictions  of  Moses.  23.  Fire 
ran  along  upon  the  ground]  RY  '  ran  down 
unto  the  earth.'  Hailstorms  are  frequently 
accompanied  with  electrical  disturbances. 

25.  Brake  every  tree]  Broke  the  bough  so 
that,  in  the  case  of  fruit  trees,  there  could  be 
no  prospect  of  fruit.  27.  I  have  sinned 
this  time]  I  acknowledge  this  time  that  I  have 
sinned.  28.    For   it  is  enough]    RV  '  for 

there  hath  been  enough.'  31.  Flax]  Largely 
grown  for  making  linen  which  was  worn  by 
the  priests,  and  used,  among  other  purposes, 
for  swathing  mummies.  The  word  rendered 
boiled,  i.e.  podded,  is  explained  in  RM  as 
meaning  '  was  in  bloom.'  It  means,  rather, 
'  was  in  bud.'  Flax  flowers  as  a  rule  in  Febru- 
ary, and  barley  comes  into  ear  about  the  same 
time.  Wheat  is  a  month  later  than  barley, 
and  spelt  (here  incorrectly  called  rie,  which  is 
not  grown  in  Egypt)  is  sown  and  ripens  at  the 
same  time  as  wheat.  The  condition  of  the 
crops  indicated  here  fixes  the  time  of  the 
plague  at  about  the  end  of  January. 


56 


10.  1 


EXODUS 


12.  2 


CHAPTER   10 
The  Eighth  and  Ninth  Plagues 

1-20.  The  Eighth  Plague  : — Locusts. 

2.   See  on  7'*'^.  3.   This  question  shows 

that  Pharaoh  was  responsible  for  the  harden- 
ing of  his  heart  :  see  on  4^1.  4-6.  Tra- 
vellers are  unanimous  in  bearing  witness  to 
the  teri'ible  ravages  caused  by  a  visitation  of 
locusts.  They  fly  in  dense  swarms,  sometimes 
miles  in  length,  so  that  the  air  is  darkened 
with  them.  Wherever  they  alight  they  devour 
every  green  thing,  not  sparing  the  bark  of 
trees.  For  a  description  of  a  locust  plague  see 
Joell  1-^  21-11,  where  the  locusts  are  com- 
pared to  an  army  of  horsemen.  10.  Let  the 
LORD  be  so  with  you .  .  ]  This  is  spoken  in 
scorn,  and  is  equivalent  to  a  refusal  to  let 
them  go.  Evil  /«  before  you]  i.e.  your  in- 
tentions are  evil  :  cp.  PslOl^.  II.  Ye  that 
are  men]  Pharaoh  means  to  keep  the  women 
and  children  as  a  pledge  that  the  others  will 
return  :  cp.  v.  24.  13.  An  east  wind]  Lo- 
custs are  known  frequently  to  have  come  from 
the  East,  being  bred  in  Syria  and  Arabia.  In 
this  instance  they  were  removed  by  a  west 
wind  which  carried  them  into  the  Red  Sea 
(v.  19).  17.  This  death]  A  graphic  descrip- 
tion of  the  desolation  caused  by  the   plague. 

19.  Red  Sea]  The  Gk.  name,  given  perhaps 
on  account  of  the  red  coral  which  lines  its 
floors  and  sides.  The  Heb.  name  is  Yam  Suph, 
which  means  '  Sea  of  Reeds.' 

21-29.  The  Ninth  Plague  : — Darkness. 

21.  This  plague,  like  the  third  and  sixth, 
was  sent  without  warning.  It  is  not  said  how 
the  darkness  was  produced,  but  in  all  pro- 
bability it  had  a  natural  basis,  like  the  other 
plagues.  It  resembles  the  darkness  caused  by 
the  khamsin,  a  S.  or  SW.  wind,  excessively 
hot  and  charged  with  fine  dust,  which  blows 
about  the  time  of  the  vernal  equinox.  The 
darkness  is  often  local,  covering  a  belt  or 
strip  of  the  country.  The  unusually  dense 
gloom  would  excite  the  superstitious  fears  of 
the  Egyptians,  who  worshipped  the  sun-god 
Ra.  For  a  vivid  description  of  the  terrors  of 
this  plague,  see  book  of  Wisdom,  c.  17. 

24.  Cp.  the  former  concession  of  Pharaoh 
in  v.  11.  He  is  now  willing  to  let  the  people 
go,  but  wishes  to  retain  their  flocks,  in  order 
to  ensure  their  return.  26.   We  know^  not 

with  what  we  must  serve  the  Lord]  a  reason 
for  taking  all  their  flocks  with  them.  The 
feast  was  new,  and  they  did  not  know  what 
they  might  require. 

29.  The  present  interview  does  not  terminate 
with  these  words,  but  is  continued  in  the  next 
c.  Moses  leaves  the  presence  of  Pharaoh  at  c. 
11^.  The  first  three  vv.  of  c.  11  may  be  re- 
garded as  a  parenthesis. 


57 


CHAPTER   11 
The  Tenth  Plague  threatened 

2.  Borrow]  RV  'ask'  :  see  on 3 22. 

4.  Moses  is  here  speaking  to  Pharaoh.  This 
V.  is  the  continuation  of  1 0  29.  About  mid- 
night] The  particular  night  is  not  specified, 
though  it  is  implied  that  it  is  the  night  follow- 
ing the  day  on  which  this  interview  takes  place. 
On  the  other  hand,  123>  6  prescribes  a  four  days' 
preparation  for  the  Passover.    But  see  on  121. 

5.  Firstborn]  The  Heb.  word  means  the 
firstborn  male.  The  death  of  the  firstborn 
may  be  regarded  as  a  punishment  for  the 
slaughter  of  the  Hebrew  children  (see  1 1^,  22) 
and  the  oppression  of  Israel,  the  '  firstborn  of 
Jehovah  '  (see  on  4  22, 23)_ 

Behind  the  mill]  What  is  meant  is  the 
hand-mill,  which  consisted  of  two  circular 
stones  about  18  in.  in  diameter  lying  one 
above  the  other.  The  upper  stone  is  turned 
round  a  pivot,  which  rises  from  the  centre  of 
the  lower,  by  means  of  a  handle  fixed  near  its 
circumference.  The  grain  is  poured  into  a 
funnel-shaped  hole  in  the  upper  stone  sur- 
rounding the  central  pivot,  and  the  meal 
escapes  between  the  two  stones  at  the  cir- 
cumference. The  mill  rests  on  the  ground, 
and  the  maid-servant  sits  '  behind  the  mill.' 
Sometimes  two  servants  turned  the  stone,  in 
which  case  they  sat  facing  each  other,  each 
grasping  the  handle  :  cp.  Mt24'ti.  Grinding 
was  considered  menial  work,  fit  only  for  women 
and  slaves  :  cp.  Jgl62i  Isa47i>2  LamS^^. 

7.  Move  (lit.  '  whet ')  his  tongue]  a  pro- 
verbial expression  :  cp.  Josh  10  21. 

9,  10.  These  vv.  sum  up  the  purpose  and 
effect  of  the  preceding  series  of  nine  plagues. 

CHAPTER    12 

The  Institution  of  the  Passover.  The 
Tenth  Plague,  and  the  Departure 
OP  Israel 

1.  In  the  land  of  Egypt]  These  words  sug- 
gest that  what  follows  was  written  independ- 
ently of  the  foregoing  narrative,  and  an  ex- 
amination of  this  c.  shows  that  it  contains 
two  separate  accounts  of  the  institution  of 
the  Passover,  one  extending  from  vv.  1-20, 
the  other  from  vv.  21-28.  The  latter  is  the 
proper  continuation  of  c.  11. 

2.  The  beginning  of  months]  The  exodus 
is  regarded  as  an  '  epoch-making '  event  (cp. 
Jgl930  IK6I),  and  to  mark  its  importance 
the  month  in  which  it  occurs  is  to  be  reckoned 
the  first  month  of  the  ecclesiastical  year.  This 
is  the  month  Abib  (see  13-*  23is  34  is  Dtl6i), 
i.e.  the  month  of  ripening  ears,  and  corresponds 
to  the  end  of  March  and  the  beginning  of 
April.  After  the  exile  it  was  called  by  the 
Babylonian  name  of  Nisan  :    see  e.g.  Neh2i 


12.  3 


EXODUS 


12.  14 


EsthS'^.     The  sacred   feasts  were  computed     uncleanness  :  see  iCorS^  and  on  v.  14.     The 


from  this  date  :  see  Lv  234,5,15,24.  xhe  civil 
year  began  in  autumn  with  the  first  day  of 
the  seventh  month  after  Abib,  called  by  the 
Babylonians  Tishri  and  in  OT.  Ethanim  :  see 
1K82.  With  this  change  of  reckoning  may 
be  compared  the  reckoning  of  the  Christian 
Year,  which  begins  with  Advent,  and  of  the 
Christian  Week,  which  begins  with  the  Lord's 
Day. 

3.  Unto  all  the  congregation]  by  means  of 
their  representatives  :  see  on  3 1*^.  A  lamb] 
The  word  may  also  mean  a  kid,  but  practically 
a  lamb  was  always  chosen  :  cp.  v.  5. 

4.  Too  little]  According  to  Josephus  the 
lower  limit  was  fixed  at  ten  persons.  He  also 
says  that  in  his  time  (between  the  death  of 
Christ  and  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem) 
260,000  lambs  were  sacrificed  at  the  Passover 
and  partaken  of  by  2,700,000  people. 

5.  In  accordance  with  the  principle  that 
whatever  is  offered  to  God  must  be  the  best 
of  its  kind,  the  law  of  sacrifice  required  that 
the  sacrificial  animal  should  be  a  male  (the 
superior  sex)  and  without  blemish  :  see  intro. 
to  L V  2 1  and  on  L V  2  2 17-25.  go  Christ '  offered 
Himself  without  spot  to  Grod '  (Heb  9  ^*)  as  a 
'  lamb  without  blemish  and  without  spot ' 
(1  Pet  1 19). 

6.  Keep  it  up  until  the  fourteenth  day]  This 
is  to  ensure  that  no  blemish  shall  pass  un- 
detected. In  the  evening]  lit.  '  between  the 
evenings,'  i.e.  probably  between  sunset  and 
darkness.  Darkness  was  supposed  to  begin 
when  three  stars  became  visible.  Josephus 
says  that  the  time  of  sacrifice  was  from  three 
to  five  in  the  afternoon.  Observe  that  the 
Passover  lamb  was  sacrificed  and  the  blood 
sprinkled  on  the  doorposts  by  each  head  of  a 
household,  there  being  at  this  time  no  taber- 
nacle nor  order  of  sacrificing  priests.  In  later 
times  the  lamb  was  killed  in  the  temple  court 
by  the  head  of  the  household  and  the  blood 
poured  out  at  the  altar,  after  which  the  lamb 
was  carried  home  to  be  eaten:  cp.  Lvl73-6 
Dtl65-7.  7.  Upper  door  post]  EV  '  lintel.' 
The  shedding  of  the  blood  signified  the  offer- 
ing of  the  life  to  Grod.  The  sprinkling  of  the 
lintel  was  not  only  a  sign  to  the  destroying 
angel,  but  an  indication  that  atonement  had 
been  made  on  behalf  of  the  inmates  of  the 
house.  8.  Roast  with  fire]  The  flesh  of 
sacrificial  animals  which  were  eaten  by  the 
offerers  was  usually  boiled  :  cp.  1  S  2 13, 14. 
In  the  present  case  the  roasting  was  probably 
to  ensure  haste  (v.  39)  and  to  prevent  the 
dismemberment  of  the  animal  :  see  vv.  9,  46. 

And  unleavened  bread  ;  ami  with  bitter 
herbfi]  Leaven,  as  causing  fermentation  and 
corruption,  is  regarded  as  unclean,  and  its  use 
in  sacrificial  meals  is  accordingly  forbidden. 
In  NT.  it  is  used  as  a  symbol  of  sin  and  moral 


bitter  herbs,  probably  some  kind  of  wild  let- 
tuce or  endive,  were  meant  to  symbolise  the 
bitter  bondage  which  the  Israelites  had  endured 
in  Egypt  :  see   1 1*.  9.   His  head  with  his 

legs,  and  with  the  purtenance  (RV  '  inwards ') 
thereof]  The  entrails  were  taken  out,  cleansed, 
and  replaced,  and  the  lamb  was  then  roasted 
whole:  cp.  v.  46,  'neither  shall  ye  break  a 
bone  thereof.'  The  unmutilated  lamb  s3Tn- 
bolises  the  unity  of  Israel.  St.  John  sees  in 
it  also  an  emblem  of  the  unbroken  bones  of 
Christ:  see   Jnl9^^.  10.   This  prohibition 

is  meant  to  prevent  what  remains  of  the  sacri- 
fice from  being  profaned.  Burning  was  the 
regvilar  mode  of  disposing  of  the  remains 
of  every  sacrificial  animal :  see  29  ^^  Lv  4 12  7 1'''. 

II.  The  passover  is  to  be  eaten  with  every 
indication  of  haste.  With  your  loins  gird- 
ed] To  gird  up  the  loins  is  to  gather  up  the 
long  flowing  skirt  of  the  outer  robe  under  the 
girdle,  so  as  to  leave  the  limbs  free  in  working 
or  running :  see  1  K 1 8  46  Lk  1 2  3T  1 7  «.  At  the 
present  day  (as  in  the  time  of  Christ)  the 
Jews  eat  the  Passover  in  a  recumbent  posture 
to  signify  that  there  is  no  longer  need  of 
trepidation,  God  having  given  His  people  rest 
and  security.  It  is  the  LORD'S  passover] 
Heb.  2)esaGh.i  Gk.  form  ^m.sc7ia.  The  English 
rendering  '  passover '  represents  not  amiss  both 
the  sound  and  the  sense  of  the  Hebrew  name. 
The  rite  commemorated  the  '  passing  over  '  of 
Jehovah,  i.e.  His  sparing  of  His  faithful 
people.  The  word  is  used  in  this  sense  in 
Isa315.  12.     Against    all    the    gods    of 

Egypt]  The  gods  of  Egypt  would  be  power- 
less to  avert  the  judgment  of  Jehovah.  As 
in  Egypt  many  deities  were  worshipped  in 
the  form  of  animals,  the  destruction  of  the 
firstborn  of  beasts  would  be  felt  as  the  exe- 
cution of  a  judgment  upon  these  gods. 

14.  For  ever]  The  Jews  still  keep  the 
feasts  of  the  Passover  and  Unleavened  Bread. 
They  now  offer  no  sacrifice,  seeing  that  Jeru- 
salem has  passed  from  their  possession,  but 
they  look  forward  to  the  time  when  they 
will  return  to  Jerusalem  and  the  sacrifice 
be  resumed.  Each  celebration  is  closed 
with  the  pathetic  words,  expressive  of  un- 
dying faith  and  hope,  '  Next  year  in  Jeru- 
salem!' To  Christians  the  death  of  Christ 
gathers  up  and  fulfils  all  that  was  signified 
by  the  Jewish  Passover,  and  therefore  super- 
sedes it.  '  Christ  our  passover  hath  been 
(RV)  sacrificed  for  us;  therefore  let  us  keep 
the  feast '  (RM  '  keep  festival,'  i.e.  the 
festival  of  unleavened  bread  which  followed 
the  passover)  '.  .  with  the  unleavened  bread 
of  sincerity  and  truth ' :  1  Cor  6 ",  ^.  Here 
Christ  is  regarded  as  typified  in  the  paschal 
lamb,  as  He  is  also  in  the  Fourth  Gospel  (19^6), 
which  places  the  Crucifixion  at  the  time  of  the 


58 


12.  15 


EXODUS 


12.  43 


Passover,  and  regards  the  fact  as  significant; 
His  death  redeems  His  people  from  their 
spiritual  bondage-  His  blood,  sprinkled  on 
their  hearts,  delivers  them  from  the  guilt  and 
consequences  of  sin.  The  old  Passover  sacri- 
fice is  fulfilled,  once  for  all,  in  His  sacrifice  of 
Himself,  which  is  commemorated,  not  repeated, 
in  the  sacrament  of  Holy  Communion.  That 
sacrament,  accordingly,  takes  the  place  of  the 
Passover.  It  differs  from  it  in  so  far  that  it 
is  not  a  recurring  sacrifice,  but  the  continual 
remembrance  of  the  one  great  sacrifice  offered 
by  Christ,  the  true  Passover  lamb.  The  sacri- 
fice is  past,  and  Christians  now  live  in  the 
time  of  unleavened  bread,  and  must  therefore 
put  away  from  them  the  '  leaven  of  malice 
and  wickedness.' 

15.  The  seven  days  beginning  with  the 
Passover  are  to  be  kept  as  a  feast  of  un- 
leavened bread.  The  Passover  (jjesach)  and 
feast  of  Unleavened  Bread  {mazzoth)  are  really 
distinct,  but  as  they  were  always  celebrated  in 
succession  the  name  Passover  is  sometimes 
used  to  cover  both:  cp.  Lk22i.  Shall  be 
cut  off]  This  does  not  necessarily  mean  put  to 
death,  but  excommunicated  and  cast  out  of 
the  congregation  of  Israel.  A  person  so  cut 
off  becomes  like  one  of  a  heathen  nation. 
He  is  reduced  to  the  level  of  an  uncircum- 
cised  person,  being  outside  the  covenant  and 
having  no  more  part  in  the  privileges  of  the 
chosen  people :  see  on  Gn  17 1-*'  and  cp.  Mt  18  ^^ 
Eph2i2.  16.  An  holy  convocation]  The 
word  denotes  a  gathering  of  the  people  for  a 
religious  purpose:  see  Nu  10 2-10.  The  ab- 
stention from  work  enjoined  here  is  not  so 
strict  as  on  the  sabbath  and  the  Day  of 
Atonement:  cp.  Lv238  with  vv.  3,  28,  and 
with  Ex 35^.  19.  A  stranger]  a  foreigner 
who  had  entered  the  congregation  by  circum- 
cision, a  proselyte,  in  contradistinction  to 
'  one  born  in  the  land,'  i.e.  the  land  of  Canaan 
(another  indication  of  later  date),  a  native 
Israelite.  22.  Hyssop]  supposed  to  be  wild 
marjoram,  which  grows  in  Egj'pt  and  Sinai 
and  Palestine.  Its  powder,  which  has  a  pun- 
gent aromatic  flavour  like  that  of  mint,  is 
used  as  a  condiment.  It  was  supposed  to 
have  cleansing  properties,  and  a  bunch  of 
hyssop  was  frequently  used  in  ceremonial 
sprinkling,  for  which  it  was  naturally  suitable, 
several  stalks  growing  from  one  root:  cp. 
Lvl44    Ps5l7    Nul9'5.  26.  What   mean 

ye  by  this  service?]  To  this  day,  at  the 
Jewish  celebration  of  the  Passover,  the 
youngest  child  present  who  is  able  to  do  so 
is  made  to  ask  this  question,  which  is  an- 
swered by  a  recitation  of  the  circumstances 
attending  the  original  institution  of  the  feast. 
An  interesting  description  of  a  modern  Pass- 
over will  be  found  in  Zangwill's  '  Children  of 
the  Ghetto,'  c.  25. 


59 


The  Tenth  Plague: — Death  of  the  First- 
born. 

29.  At  midnight]  the  Passover  night,  follow- 
ing the  14th  day  of  Abib.,  The  Jewish  day 
is  reckoned  from  sunset  to  sunset:  see  on  ll*. 

31-42.   The  Departure  from  Egypt. 

32.  Bless  me  also]  intercede  for  me,  that 
no  further  plague  come  upon  me  for  your 
sakes.  34.   Before  it  was    leavened]   This 

shows  the  haste  with  which  they  departed: 
see  V.  39.  On  the  kneading-troughs  see  on 
83.  35.  Borrowed]  RV  '  asked,'  as  in  322 

112.  26.  Lent  unto  them  .  .  required]  RV 
'  let  them  have  what  they  asked.'  37.   Ra- 

meses]  see  on  1  n.  Succoth  has  been  iden- 
tified with  the  Egyptian  Thuku,  the  region 
whose  capital  was  Pithom:  see  on  1^.  Six 
hundred  thousand  on  foot  that  ivere  men]  i.e.  of 
twenty  years  old  and  upwards,  fit  for  war. 
This  implies  a  total  of  perhaps  three  millions. 
On  the  number  see  intro.  to  Nu  1,  and  on 
1421.  38.  A  mixed  multitude]  of  foreigners 
and  Egyptians  who  were  associated  with  the 
Israelites  through  marriage  and  as  slaves. 
We  read  of  these  again  in  Lv  24 10  Nu  1 1  *. 
Very  much  cattle]  On  the  resources  of  the 
wilderness  and  its  ability  to  support  a  mul- 
titude of  people  with  flocks  and  herds,  see 
intro.  to  Nul. 

40.  Four  hundred  and  thirty  years]  This 
agrees  with  the  prophetical  statement  in  Gn 
1513.  But  the  Samaritan  text  of  the  OT.  and 
LXX  after  the  words  '  in  Egypt '  here  add 
'  and  in  Canaan,'  thus  making  the  430  years 
run  from  the  immigration  of  Abraham  into 
Canaan,  and  reducing  the  stay  in  Egypt  after 
the  immigration  of  Jacob  to  215  years.  St. 
Paul  accepts  the  LXX  chronology  (see  Gal 
317),  and  it  is  supported  by  the  genealogy  in 
Ex  6 1*-20,  which  allows  only  four  generations 
between  Jacob  and  the  father  of  Moses.  But 
it  is  difficult  to  believe  that  the  descendants  of 
Jacob  could  have  increased  so  much  in  215 
years,  and  there  is  reason  to  think  that  the 
genealogical  table  in  c.  6  has  been  abridged  : 
see  on  620.  On  the  whole,  it  seems  more 
reasonable  to  accept  the  reading  of  the  Heb. 
text  represented  by  the  English  version,  and 
understand  the  430  years  as  running  from  the 
descent  of  Jacob  into  Egypt.  41.  The  self- 
same day]  on  the  15th  day  of  Abib  :  see  v. 
29.  42.  A  night  to  be  much  observed] 
This  rendering  rests  on  the  injunction  in  v. 
14.  The  Heb.  is  literally  '  a  night  of  watching 
unto  the  Lord,'  i.e.  a  night  of  vigil  or  watch- 
festival.  43-49-  These  directions  regarding 
the  lawful  participants  in  the  Passover  seem 
to  be  introduced  here  in  consequence  of  what 
is  said  about  the  '  mixed  multitude  '  in  v.  38. 
The  Passover  is  only  for  those  who  through 
circumcision  have  entered  into  the  covenant 
with   Jehovah.      Similarly,   in  the    Christian 


12.  46 


EXODUS 


14.2 


church  baptism,  which  corresponds  to  circum- 
cision as  an  initiatory  rite,  is  necessary  to  par- 
taking of  the  Lord's  Supper.  46.  See  on  vv. 
9,  10.  49.  One  laAv]  i.e.  of  the  necessity  of 

circumcision  to  participation  in  the  Passover. 

• 

CHAPTER   13 

The    Consecration    of  the  Firstborn. 
The  March  to  Etham 

I-16.  The  Consecration  of  the  Firstborn. 

All  Israel  was  holy  unto  the  Lord  :  see  on 
19  5'^.  But  the  firstborn  of  man  and  beast 
were  specially  consecrated  to  Him,  as  the  part 
representing  the  whole.  There  was  a  special 
fitness  in  the  consecration  of  the  firstborn,  see- 
ing they  had  been  spared  in  the  destruction 
which  overtook  the  Egyptians.  The  firstborn 
of  mankind  were  to  be  consecrated  to  the 
service  of  Jehovah  as  priests  ;  the  firstborn  of 
animals  were  to  be  offered  in  sacrifice,  if  clean 
animals  ;  if  not,  they  were  to  be  redeemed  at 
a  price.  Afterwards  the  whole  tribe  of  Levi 
was  consecrated  to  the  priestly  service  in  lieu 
of  the  firstborn  :  see  NuS-*^"^!.  The  firstfruits 
of  the  field  were  also  claimed  by  Jehovah  : 
see  e.g.  2229. 

2.  Openeth  the  womb]  "What  is  claimed  is 
the  firstborn  male.  8.   See  on  1226. 

9.  A  sign  .  .  upon  thine  hand]  a  figurative 
expression  meaning  that  they  were  never  to 
lose  sight  of  this  duty.  In  later  times  the 
Jews  understood  this  injunction  literally,  and 
to  this  day  at  times  of  prayer  they  attach  to 
their  left  arm  and  forehead  small  cases  con- 
taining pieces  of  parchment  inscribed  with  cer- 
tain passages  of  the  Law.  These  cases  are 
called  in  NT.  '  phylacteries  '  :  see  further  on 
Dt68. 

12.  Matrix]  the  womb.  13.  The  ass  is  here 
mentioned  as  a  representative  of  '  unclean ' 
domestic  animals  (see  Lv  112*-)  which  could  not 
be  offered  in  sacrifice.  For  such,  a  lamb  was 
to  be  substituted  ;  if  not,  its  neck  must  be 
broken.  This  would  ensure  its  redemption, 
as  every  one  would  prefer  parting  with  a  lamb 
to  losing  an  ass.  Human  sacrifices  are  strictly 
forbidden,  hence  firstborn  males  must  be  re- 
deemed. The  tribe  of  Levi  was  substituted 
for  them,  and  in  addition  the  sum  of  five 
shekels  was  paid  as  the  redemption  price  of 
each  firstborn  male  :  see  NuS^^  IS^^-i^.  To 
this  day  the  Jews  solemnise  the  '  redemption  of 
the  firstborn '  on  the  thirtieth  day  after  birth. 
This  was  the  rite  performed  by  Joseph  and 
Mary  on  behalf  of  the  child  Jesus  as  recorded 
in  Lk  222,23. 

17-22.   The  March  to  Etham. 

17.  The  most  direct  route  to  Canaan  from 
Raamses  in  the  Eastern  Delta  where  the  host 
had  mustered,  would  have  been  northeastwards 
along  the  Mediterranean  coast.     This  would 


have  implied  a  journey  of  not  more  than  150 
or  200  miles.  But  it  would  immediately  have 
brought  them  into  collision  with  the  Philistines, 
a  very  warlike  tribe  inhabiting  the  south- 
western part  of  Canaan,  and  would  have  been 
too  great  an  obstacle  for  the  people's  strength 
and  faith.  Accordingly  the  route  of  march 
was  deflected  southeastward  into  the  penin- 
sula of  Sinai.  The  further  object  of  leading 
the  people  to  Mt.  Sinai  to  be  instructed  in 
the  Law  is  not  expressly  stated  here,  but 
neither  is  it  excluded.  18.  Harnessed]  E.V 
'  armed  '  in  organised  array  :  see  on   6  26. 

19.  See  Gn  5025  Josh  24  32.  20.  Succoth] 

see  on   1237.  Etham]    not   identified.      It 

was  probably  one  of  the  frontier  fortifications. 
The  wilderness  is  probably  that  of  Shur  (cp. 
1522,  and  see  on  Gnl(3'').  In  NuSSS  it  is 
called  the  'wilderness  of  Etham.' 

21.  There  was  only  one  pillar,  which  in 
daylight  had  the  appearance  of  smoke  and  by 
night  glowed  with  fire  :  see  1420,24.  j^  -was 
the  symbol  of  the  divine  presence  with  the 
host  (see  on  32),  and  was  their  signal  and 
guide  on  the  march  :  see  4034-38^  and  cp. 
Nu  9 1°-23.  It  is  clearly  understood  here  to  be 
miraculous.  It  was  usual  to  carry  fire  signals 
at  the  head  of  an  army  on  the  march  in  early 
times.  Go  by  day  and  by  (RV)  night]  It  is 
suggested  that  the  Israelites  marched  during 
part  of  the  night  as  well  as  by  day  :  cp.  Nu  9  21. 

CHAPTER  14 

Crossing  the  Red  Sea 

2.  At  Etham  the  Israelites  reached  the 
Egyptian  frontier,  travelling  in  a  north- 
easterly direction.  Instead  of  crossing  the 
frontier  to  the  E.  side  of  the  Bitter  Lakes 
they  are  commanded  to  turn  southwards, 
keeping  the  Red  Sea  on  their  left.  The 
reason  for  this  change  of  route  may  have  been 
a  repulse  by  the  garrison  of  one  of  the  line  of 
fortresses  on  the  E.  border  of  Egypt.  None 
of  the  places  mentioned  here  has  been  identi- 
fied with  certainty.  There  is  even  a  doubt  as 
to  what  is  meant  by  the  sea.  Some  have 
understood  it  to  be  the  Mediterranean,  in 
which  case  the  host  must  have  turned  north- 
wards, and  the  supposed  Red  Sea  (Heb.  '  sea 
of  reeds'  ;  see  on  10 1^)  would  be  the  Ser- 
bonian  Lake,  a  large  bog  lying  on  the  shore 
of  the  Mediterranean  between  Egj'pt  and  the 
SW.  extremity  of  Canaan.  It  is  usual,  how- 
ever, to  understand  by  the  '  sea  of  reeds  '  what 
is  now  called  the  Gulf  of  Suez.  There  is 
little  doubt  that  at  the  time  of  the  exodus  the 
Gulf  of  Suez  extended  much  further  north 
than  it  does  now,  and  that  the  modern  Lake 
Timsah  and  the  Bitter  Lakes  were  connected 
with  each  other  and  the  Gulf  of  Suez  by  necks 
of  shallow  water  which  in  certain  conditions 


60 


14.  3 


EXODUS 


15.  12 


might  be  swept  almost  dry.  It  is  pretty 
certain  that  the  Israelites  crossed  at  some 
point  north  of  the  m.odern  Suez. 

3.  The  wilderness  is  the  Egyptian  wilder- 
ness, a  tract  of  desert  land  lying  between  the 
Nile  and  the  Red  Sea.  To  the  south,  in  front 
of  the  advancing  host,  rose  an  impassable 
mountain  chain,  so  that  they  found  themselves 
entangled  in  the  land.  7.  The  Egjptian 
chariots  were  low  two-wheeled  cars  open 
behind  and  drawn  by  two  horses  abreast. 
Each  chariot  contained  a  di'iver  and  a  warrior, 
sometimes  two.  The  chosen  chariots  were 
probably  those  of  the  king's  bodyguard.  The 
Hittites  are  known  to  have  brought  2,500 
chariots  into  the  field  against  Rameses  II. 

8.  With  an  hig'h  hand]  Confidently,  boldly. 

9.  Horsemen]  It  is  doubtful  whether  the 
Egyptians  at  this  time  used  cavalry.  The 
horsemen  may  be  the  charioteers. 

II.   No  graves  in  Egypt]  cp.  Nu  141-3. 

14.  Hold  your  peace]  The  victory  will  be 
entirely  the  work  of  Jehovah.  It  is  the  part 
of  His  people  to  trust  in  Him  and  cease  from 
murmuring  :  cp.  IsaSO^^  2  Ch  2015-17. 

19.  Angel  of  God]  see  on  3-,  and  cp.  13  21. 

21.  In  delivering  His  people,  as  in  bringing 
the  plagues  on  the  Egyptians,  God  may  have 
made  use  of  natural  means.  A  strong  east 
wind  blowing  all  night,  and  acting  with  the 
ebbing  tide,  may  have  laid  bare  the  shallow 
neck  of  water  joining  the  Bitter  Lakes  to  the 
Red  Sea,  allowing  the  Israelites  to  cross  in 
safety  :  see  on  v.  2.  Indeed,  an  Egyptian 
tradition  says  that  Moses  waited  for  the  ebb 
tide  in  order  to  lead  the  Israelites  across. 
The  real  difficulty  in  connexion  with  the  pas- 
sage of  the  Red  Sea  lies  not  in  the  baring  of 
the  sea  bottom,  but  in  the  fact  that  the  Israel- 
itish  host  must  have  numbered  about  three 
millions  :  see  on  123".  This  enormous  multi- 
tude, encumbered  as  it  was  with  young  and 
old  herds  of  cattle,  must  have  taken  a  long 
time  to  cross  the  soft  floor  of  the  estuary.  It 
is  not  impossible,  however,  that  the  number 
stated  was  the  total  of  those  who  escaped 
from  Egypt,  but  that  they  left  in  several 
companies,  that  led  by  Moses  being  the  main 
detachment  :  see  on  Nul. 

22.  A  wall  unto  them]  This  need  not  mean 
that  they  stood  up  like  a  wall,  but  that  the 
water  on  each  side  was  a  defence,  preventing 
a  flank  attack  by  the  enemy  :  cp.  for  this  use 
of  the  term  'wall'  IS 2516.  24.  In  the 
morning  watch]  between  2  a.m.  and  G  a.m., 
the  last  of  the  three  watches  into  which  the 
Hebrews  divided  the  night,  in  earlier  times  : 
cp.  Lam  2 19  Jg  7 1"  1  S 11  n.  The  Roman  di- 
vision was  into  four  watches:  see  MklS^s 
Mtl425.  It  is  here  implied  that  the  previous 
part  of  the  night  sufficed  for  the  passage  of 
the  Israelitish  host  :  see  on  v.  21. 


61 


25.  Took  off]  RM  'bound'  :  made  them 
stick  fast.  They  became  clogged  with  the  soft 
ooze  in  the  sea  bed.  27.  The  sea  returned] 

In  1510  this  seems  to  have  been  effected  by  a 
change  of  wind.  28.  .IwZ  all  the  host]    RV 

'  even  all  the  host.'  It  is  not  said  that  Pharaoh 
himself  perished.  The  supposed  discovery  in 
modern  times  of  the  mummy  of  Merenptah 
is  no  argument  against  his  being  the  Pharaoh 
of  the  exodus  or  against  the  truth  of  this 
narrative.  Even  though  he  did  lead  his  host 
in  person  into  the  middle  of  the  sea  and 
perished  with  the  others  his  body  might  after- 
wards have  been  recovered  and  preserved  : 
see  on  18.  31.  This    notable      deliverance 

naturally  made  a  deep  impression  upon  the 
Israelites.  It  justified  their  faith  in  Jehovah 
and  it  also  confirmed  the  right  of  Moses  to  be 
regarded  as  their  leader.  And  beUeved  the 
LORD,  and  his  servant  Moses]  But  when  they 
turned  away  from  the  scene  of  their  deliver- 
ance and  faced  the  stern  realities  of  the  desert 
march,  they  were  only  too  ready  to  give  way 
to  mistrust  and  murmuring  :  cp  1 5^4  162.3  etc. 

CHAPTER  15 

The  Song  of  Moses 

On  the  further  shore  of  the  Red  Sea  the 
Israelites  celebrate  their  deliverance  in  a 
magnificent  hymn  of  praise.  It  consists  of 
three  strophes  or  stanzas  of  increasing  length, 
viz.  vv.  2-5,  6-10,  11-18.  The  first  v.  is 
introductory  and  may  have  been  repeated  as  a 
chorus  after  each  stanza  :  see  on  v.  21.  On 
the  structure  of  Hebrew  poetry  see  Introduc- 
tion to  the  Psalms.  In  language  and  style  the 
song  bears  many  marks  of  high  antiquity. 
There  can  be  little  objection  to  attributing  the 
first  two  stanzas  at  least  to  Moses.  The  third 
presupposes  the  conquest  and  settlement  in 
Canaan  :  see  on  vv.  13-19.  The  original  song 
may  have  been  modified  and  expanded  at  a 
later  date,  with  a  view  to  being  used  as  a  festal 
song  at  the  Passover  when  the  deliverance 
from  Egypt  was  celebrated. 

1.  The  LORD]  Jehovah — so  throughout 
the  song,  in  which  the  might  of  Israel's  Ood 
is  contrasted  with  the  powerlessness  of  the 
Egyptian  idols:  see  e.g.  vv.  3,  6,  7,  11. 

2.  I  will  prepare  him  an  habitation]  RV 
'  praise  him.'  8.  Blast  of  thy  nostrils]  re- 
ferring to  the  east  wind  (142i).  The  whole 
V.  is  figurative  and  highly  poetical. 

10.  See  on  1427.  n.  The  gods]  see  on 
v.  1,  and  on  7't.5.  At  this  period  the  gods  of 
other  nations  might  be  conceived  as  real 
beings,  though  infinitely  inferior  to  Jehovah. 
Gradually,  however,  the  Hebrews  rose  to  the 
truth  of  one  God,  the  so-called  gods  of  the 
nations  being  nonentities  :  see  on  203  391,  and 
Ps9G5  1154f-  Isa  4129.  12.  The  earth]    a 


15.  13 


EXODUS 


15.  27 


general  term  including  the  sea.  13.  Thy 

holy  habitation]  The  land  of  Canaan  is 
meant,  or  perhaps  more  particularly  Mt. 
Moriah,  where  the  Temple  was  erected.  This 
is  an  indication  that  the  Song  assumed  its 
present  form  after  the  occupation  of   Canaan. 

14.  The  people]  heathen  nations  dwelling 
in  the  wilderness  and  in  Canaan.  Palestina] 
properly  the  land  of  the  Philistines.  The 
name  was  afterwards  extended  to  the  whole 
land  of  Canaan.  15.  Dukes]  leaders,  princes, 
rulers.  16.  Purchased]  Jehovah's  proprie- 
torship in  them  was  secured  by  redemption. 
Hence  His  claim  upon  their  gratitude  and 
obedience  :  cp.  e.g.  Dt  4  34-10  and  the  ground 
on  which  the  Ten  Commandments  are  based, 
Ex  202,  where  see  note  :  cp.  also  2  Cor  5^4, 15 
1  Pet  1 18. 19. 

17.  Mountain    of    thine    inheritance]     The 
highlands  of  Canaan  :  cp.  Jer  2  7.      In  the  place 


.  .  in  the  Sanctuary]  The  fixed  abode  of  the 
ark  is  meant  here,  perhaps  Shiloh  its  first  rest- 
ing-place: see  Josh  181.  19.  This  v.  is  a  later 
addition  indicating  the  occasion  on  which 
the  Song  was  composed.  Its  insertion  here 
suggests  that  the  Song  had  a  separate  exist- 
ence prior  to  its  incorporation  in  the  book 
of  Exodus.  It  is  unnecessary  where  it  now 
stands. 

20.  Miriam  the  prophetess]  the  sister  of 
Moses  :  see  on  2i.  As  Aaron  was  the  elder  of 
the  two  brothers,  she  is  here  described  as  his 
sister.  On  the  meaning  of  the  term  '  prophet ' 
see  on  7 1  Nu  1 1 25.  Timbrel]  i.e.  tambourine, 
still  used  by  Eastern  women  to  accompany  their 
singing  and  dancing.  21.  Answered  them] 

The  pronoun  is  masculine.  Miriam  and  the 
women  sang  the  refrain  to  the  stanzas  sung  by 
the  men.  With  these  triumphal  strains  the 
first  part  of  the  book  of  Exodus  closes. 


PAET   2 

(Chs.  15  22-18)  March  from  the  Eed  Sea  to  Mount  Sinai 


CHAPTER   15  (continued) 

Leaving  the  shore  of  the  Red  Sea,  the 
Israelites  enter  the  peninsula  of  Sinai,  the 
triangular  area  lying  between  the  two  northern 
arms  of  the  Red  Sea.  The  centre  of  the 
peninsula  is  a  vast  limestone  plateau  of  an 
average  elevation  of  2,000  ft.  above  the  sea 
level.  It  is  almost  waterless,  and  bare  of 
vegetation  save  in  the  '  wadies,'  or  watercourses, 
at  certain  seasons.  To  the  south  the  point  of 
the  peninsula  is  occupied  by  the  exceedingly 
rugged  mountain  district  of  Sinai.  To  the 
north  stretches  the  wilderness  of  Paran,  lying 
between  the  peninsula  and  the  southern  part 
of  Canaan,  and  having  on  its  western  side  the 
wilderness  of  Shur.  and  on  its  eastern  the 
wilderness  of  Sin.  The  peninsula  of  Sinai  was 
inhabited  from  very  early  times  by  various 
wandering  tribes.  During  their  sojourn  there, 
the  Israelites  fell  in  with  the  Amalekites  and 
the  Kenites.  The  Egyptians  are  known  to 
have  worked  copper  mines  in  certain  districts, 
and  to  have  maintained  fortresses  for  the  pro- 
tection of  the  miners.  Recent  travellers  assert 
that  the  present  barrenness  of  the  peninsula  is 
due  largely  to  neglect,  and  that  there  are  evi- 
dences of  its  having  at  one  time  supported  a 
considerable  population.  This  fact  has  an 
important  bearing  on  the  credibility  of  the 
Scripture  narrative,  according  to  which  the 
Israelites  spent  some  forty  years  in  the  penin- 
sula.    See  intro.  to  Nul. 

22.  Wilderness  of  Shur]  Between  the  coast 
of  the  Gulf  of  Suez  and  the  high  central  table- 
land is  a  strip  of  level  country.  The  northern 
half  is  part  of  the  wilderness  of  Shur.  The 
southern  part  is  called  the  wilderness  of  Sin 


in  1 6 1.  The  Israelites  march  southwards  along 
this  narrow  maritime  plain. 

23.  Marah]  lit.  '  bitterness '  :  cp.  Ruth  1 20. 
This  station  is  by  some  identified  with  Ain 
Suweirah,  30  m.  S.  of  the  present  head  of 
the  Gulf  of  Suez.  The  bitterness  of  the 
springs  in  this  district  is  attested  by  all  travel- 
lers. It  is  caused  bj'  the  abundance  of  natron 
in  the  soil.  25.  The  LORD  shewed  him 
a  tree]  There  are  certain  plants  whose  bark 
and  leaves  are  employed  to  sweeten  bitter 
water.  Lesseps  mentions  a  kind  of  thorn  found 
in  the  desert  possessing  anti-saline  properties. 
Here,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Plagues  in  Egypt, 
the  miracle  was  effected  by  means  of  a  natural 
agent.  The  miracle  consisted  in  God's  direct- 
ing Moses  at  this  particular  juncture  to  the  use 
of  the  right  means.  The  tree  would  not  have 
been  employed  had  it  not  possessed  the  property 
required.  He  made  for  them  a  statute]  The 
subject  is  most  probably  God,  not  Moses.  God 
used  this  occasion  to  teach  the  people  that  such 
troubles  as  the  present  were  intended  to  '  prove ' 
them,  i.e.  to  test  their  loyalty  to  Him,  and 
that  if  they  stood  the  test  He  would  protect 
and   provide    for  them.  26.   That  healeth 

thee]  lit.  '  thy  physician.'  The  term  is  em- 
ployed with  reference  to  the  '  healing  '  of  the 
noxious  waters  :  cp.  PslOS^  107i^>20. 

27.  Elim]  The  word  means  '  trees.'  Elim  is 
probably  the  modern  Wady  Ghurundel, '  where 
there  is  a  good  deal  of  vegetation,  especially 
stunted  palms,  acacias,  and  tamarisks,  and  a 
number  of  water-holes  in  the  sand.'  The 
minuteness  of  the  description  in  this  v.  sug- 
gests the  testimony  of  an  eye-witness.  There 
would  be  no  occasion  for  it  in  a  fictitious 
narrative. 


62 


16.  1 


EXODUS 


16.29 


CHAPTER   16 

Third  Murmuring.    Sending  of  the 

Manna 

1.  Pursuing  their  march  southward,  the 
Israelites  come  at  the  end  of  the  first  month 
after  their  departure  from  Egypt  to  the 
wilderness  of  Sin,  forming  the  SW.  border  of 
the  peninsula:  see  on  15 2^.  All  the  stations 
in  the  march  are  not  mentioned.  In  NuSS^o 
allusion  is  made  to  an  '  encampment  by  the 
Red  Sea '  between  Elim  and  the  wilderness 
of  Sin.  It  must  be  remembered  also  that, 
owing  to  the  vast  extent  of  the  host,  there 
must  have  been  a  simultaneous  encampment 
at  different  places.  From  Elim,  the  Israelites 
might  have  gone  by  a  more  direct  route  to 
Sinai,  but  this  would  have  led  them  past  the 
copper  mines  among  the  mountains,  where 
there  was  an  Egyptian  garrison. 

2.  This  was  the  third  murmuring.  The 
first  was  at  Pi-hahiroth  (14io-i2)^  the  second  at 
Marah  (15'^'*).  The  supplies  which  the  Israel- 
ites had  brought  with  them  out  of  Egypt 
being  now  exhausted,  they  expect  to  perish 
with  hunger,  and  begin  to  regret  having  left 
Egypt,  where,  with  all  their  hard  bondage, 
they  had  been  well  fed  :  see  on  Nu  11  *'  5_ 

4.  A  certain  rate  every  day]  RV  '  a  day's 
portion  every  day'  :  see  vv.  16-21.  That 
I  may  prove  them]  The  miracle  had  a  moral 
purpose.  It  was  intended  not  merely  to 
satisfy  their  hunger,  but  to  teach  them  de- 
pendence upon  Grod  and  obedience  to  Him. 
The  goodness  of  God  should  lead  to  repent- 
ance (Ro2'i).  5.  The  sixth  day]  the  day 
before  the  sabbath,  an  indication  that  the 
sabbath  was  known  previous  to  the  giving  of 
the  law  at  Sinai  :  see  on  Ex20S.  On  the 
method  of  preparing  the  manna,  see  Nu  1 1  s. 

6.  Ye  shall  know]  by  the  quails. 

9.  Before  the  LORD]  This  common  phrase 
denotes  the  place  where  Grod  specially  mani- 
fests Himself  :  see  vv.  33,  34.  Here  it  seems 
to  mean  at  the  pillar  of  fire  in  front  of  the 
host.  10.  Toward  the  wilderness]  As  they 
are  at  present  in  the  wilderness,  this  must 
mean  '  towards  the  interior  of  the  wilderness,' 
in  the  direction  of  the  march  and  the  guiding 
pillar.  The  glory  of  the  LORD]  Here  a 
special  radiance  is  meant.  God's  self-mani- 
festation is  frequently  accompanied  with  an 
appearance  of  fire  :  see  on  3-,  and  cp.  19^^ 
2417  2943  4034.  13.  Quails]  The  quail 
is  a  bird  belonging  to  the  partridge  family, 
about  7  in.  long,  and  of  a  buff  colour.  Its 
flesh  is  considered  a  great  delicacy.  Quails  are 
migratory.  In  spring  vast  flocks  pass  north- 
wards from  the  interior  of  Africa  to  Syria, 
crossing  the  peninsula  of  Sinai  in  their  flight. 
They  also  cross  the  Mediterranean  in  great 
numbers.     In  a  single  season,   160,000  have 

63 


been  netted  on  the  small  island  of  Capri. 
Quails  always  fly  with  the  wind.  After  a  sea 
flight  they  are  easily  captured,  as  they  fly  low, 
their  bodies  being  heavy  g,nd  their  wings  wet  : 
see  on  NuU^-si.  Here,  again,  God  employed 
a  natural  means  in  providing  deliverance  for 
His  people.  The  miracle  did  not  consist  in  a 
new  creation,  but  in  the  timely  arrival  and  vast 
quantity  of  the  quails. 

15.  It  is  manna]  Heb.  'what  is  it?'  so 
rightly  in  RV.  What  is  now  known  as  manna 
is  a  sweet  gum  which  exudes  from  various 
shrubs  and  from  the  tamarisk  tree,  and  is  used 
medicinally.  None  of  its  varieties  corresponds 
to  the  description  given  here.  These  are 
found  only  in  small  quantities,  in  special 
localities  and  at  certain  seasons,  from  about 
May  to  August  ;  they  are  not  suitable  for 
food,  and  cannot  be  cooked  as  manna  was 
(see  V.  23  Nu  1 1 8).  Moreover,  the  manna  of 
commerce  can  be  kept  for  an  indefinite  time 
(cp.  V.  20).  What  is  meant  here  is  clearly  a 
miraculous  substance.  Whether,  again,  the 
miracle  took  place  on  the  basis  of  a  natural 
product  cannot  with  certainty  be  made  out. 
This  is  not  improbable  in  the  light  of  the 
previous  wonders.  Our  Lord  employs  the 
manna  as  a  type  of  Himself,  as  giving  eternal 
life  to  those  who  believe  in  Him  :  see  Jn  6  31-58 
St.  Paul  calls  it  '  spiritual  meat,'  and  regards 
it  as  a  type  of  the  Lord's  Supper  wherein  the 
faithful  are  made  partakers  of  the  life  that  is 
in  Christ:  see  ICorlQSf. 

16.  An  omer  is  a  little  more  than  seven 
pints.  Ten  omers  make  an  ephah,  which  is. 
roughly,  equal  to  a  bushel  :  see  v.  36.  The 
pint  measure  is  called  a '  log '  :  see  e.g.  Lv  14 10. 

18.  Mete]  i.e.  measure:  cp.  Mt?^.  The 
total  quantity  of  manna  amounted  exactly  to 
an  omer  per  head.  This  is  evidently  regarded 
here  as  miraculous,  and  designed  to  check 
want  of  trust  and  greed  on  the  one  hand  and 
over  anxiety  on  the  other.  Those  who  gathered 
too  much  wasted  their  labour,  and  those  who 
gathered  too  little  were  at  no  disadvantage. 
St.  Paul  cites  this  fact  as  an  incentive  to 
brotherly  charity  ;  the  rich  ought  to  make  up 
the  deficiency  of  the  poor  :  see  2  Cor  8  !■*,  is, 

20.  God's  gift  is  spoiled  by  selfish  and 
miserly  hoarding.  21.  Every  morning]  cp. 
the  petition  '  Give  us  this  day  our  daily  bread.' 

22.  See  on  v.  5.  The  divine  sanction  of 
the  sabbath  is  shown  by  the  cessation  of  the 
manna  on  that  day  as  well  as  by  the  double 
quantity  sent  on  the  previous  day.  The  people 
are  to  observe  the  sabbath  by  resting  from  the 
labour  of  gathering  manna  :  see  v.  30.  Those 
who  faithlessly  and  disobediently  persist  in 
looking  for  manna  find  none.  29.   Let  no 

man  go  out  of  his  place]  Jewish  legalists  in- 
terpreted this  commandment  to  mean  strictly 
that  throughout  the  sabbath  day  a  man  must 


16.31 


EXODUS 


17.11 


maintain  the  same  posture  in  which  he  was 
found  at  its  commencement.  As  this  was 
practically  impossible  it  was  held  to  be  allow- 
able to  walk  on  the  sabbath  day  a  distance 
not  exceeding  2,000  ells,  which  was  supposed 
to  be  the  distance  from  the  centre  of  the  camp 
to  its  circumference.  31.  Coriander]  an 
annual  plant  much  cultivated  in  the  East. 
The  seeds  have  an  aromatic  flavour,  and  are 
used  as  a  seasoning  in  cookery  and  also  medi- 
cinally.        Wafers]  thin  cakes. 

32-34.  These  vv.  seem  to  be  a  later  inser- 
tion, as  they  presuppose  the  erection  of  the 
tabernacle  (vv.  33,  34).  There  would  be  no 
need  to  gather  a  pot  of  manna  for  preserva- 
tion till  the  end  of  the  wanderings  and  the 
cessation  of- the  manna. 

34.  The  Testimony]  the  Law  which  '  testi- 
fies '  to  God's  will,  inscribed  on  the  two  tables 
of  stone  and  deposited  in  the  ark  (Ex25i<5), 
which  is  accordingly  called  the  '  ark  of  the 
testimony'  (Ex 25 22  Nu45)  and  sometimes 
simply  '  the  testimony '  ;  see  Nu  17*.  The  tent 
containing  the  ark  is  called  the  '  tent  or 
tabernacle  of  the  testimony '  :  see  Nu  9 1^. 
The  pot  of  manna  is  here  said  to  have  been 
deposited  before  the  testimony  ;  but  according 
to  Heb9'*  it  was  in  the  ark.  The  pot  of 
manna  was  a  favourite  symbol  among  the 
Jews.  From  the  remains  of  the  synagogue 
at  Capernaum  it  seems  that  a  pot  of  manna 
was  carved  on  the  lintel  of  the  door  of  that 
synagogue.  This  must  have  given  point  to 
our  Lord's  discourse  on  the  '  bread  of  life ' 
there:  see  Jn62'i^         35.   See  Josh5io-i2. 

CHAPTER  17 

Rephidim.    Mttemuring  for  Water. 
Opposition  of  Amalek 

Leaving  the  maritime  plain  the  Israelites 
now  strike  inland,  and  after  halting  at  Doph- 
kah  and  Alush  (see  Nu33i2,i3)  they  come  to 
Rephidim.  This  is  usually  identified  with 
the  modern  Wady  Feiran,  lying  about  20  m. 
N.  of  Sinai.  It  is  one  of  the  oases  of  the 
peninsula,  very  fertile  and  usually  well  watered. 
On  this  occasion  the  brook  was  dry. 

I.  After  their  journeys]  RV  'by  their  jour- 
neys '  (RM  '  stages ').  2.  Tempt  the  LORD] 
challenge  His  power  and  willingness  to  pro- 
vide for  them,  put  Him  to  the  proof  by  their 
unbelief:  cp.  v.  7;  see  also  Nul422  20 1^ 
Dt6i6  Mt47.  Their  unbelief  was  the  less 
warranted  as  they  had  lately  experienced 
God's  providence  in  supplying  their  wants. 
This  is  the  fourth  murmuring  :  see  on  162. 

5,  6.  The  elders]  as  representing  the  people 
(see  on  3^^),  are  to  be  the  witnesses  of  the 
miracle.  The  people,  perhaps  on  account  of 
their  sin,  are  to  stand  at  a  distance  :  cp.  IB^^. 
Thy  rod]    see   on   42,20.      The    river   is   the 


Nile:  see  7  20.  6.  Horeb]  see  on  31.  Tra- 
dition identifies  the  rock  with  a  great  detached 
fragment  under  the  ridge  of  Ras  es-Sufsafeh. 
This,  however,  is  a  long  way  from  the  supposed 
site  of  Rephidim.  At  the  same  time  Moses 
and  the  elders  are  represented  as  going  on 
before  the  people,  so  that  the  people  obtained 
the  water  not  at  the  rock,  but  some  distance 
down  the  stream  that  flowed  from  it.  If  the 
stream  continued  to  flow  for  some  time,  as 
seems  natural  to  suppose,  perhaps  dm-ing  the 
eleven  nionths  of  the  sojourn  in  that  neigh- 
bourhood, the  people  would  drink  it  at  various 
points.  This  is  probably  the  origin  of  the 
rabbinical  legend,  alluded  to  by  St.  Paul 
(1  Cor  lO'*),  that  the  rock  followed  the  Israelites 
on  their  march.  The  apostle  spmtualises  the 
rock,  making  it  a  type  of  Christ,  from  whom 
flows  a  perennial  stream  of  grace  to  Hi^ 
people.  7.   Massah]    '  trial '  or  '  proving.' 

Meribah]  '  chiding.'  The  names  are  formed 
from  the  words  used  in  v.  2.  Meribah  is  the 
name  given  to  the  place  where  water  was  again 
provided  (see  Nu20i3)^  but  to  distinguish  it 
from  the  present  Meribah  it  is  called  Meribah- 
Kadesh  in  Dt325i.  Some  commentators  hold 
that  the  account  given  here  and  that  in  Nu20 
refer  to  the  same  occurrence.  The  resem- 
blances are  striking,  but  there  are  also  manifest 
points  of  difference. 

8.  Amalek]  The  Amalekites,  here  described 
collectively  in  the  singular  number,  were  a 
nomadic  tribe,  very  fierce  and  warlike,  roaming 
over  the  desert  country  S.  of  Canaan,  in- 
cluding the  Sinaitic  peninsula  where  the 
Israelites  first  encountered  them.  They  pro- 
bably regarded  the  Israelites  as  their  rivals 
for  supremacy.  They  gave  them  much  trouble, 
not  only  at  various  times  during  the  desert 
wanderings  (see  e.g.  Nul329  1425,43-45)^  but 
down  to  a  late  period  of  their  history  :  see 
Jg63  IS  151-8  30   lCh443. 

9.  The  first  mention  of  Joshua.  He  was  an 
Ephraimite,  the  son  of  Nun.  He  appears 
here  as-  captain  of  the  host,  and  later  as  the 
personal  attendant  of  Moses  (2413  3217  33  n). 
He  was  one  of  the  spies  sent  to  view  the  land 
of  Canaan  (Nul38  146),  and  was  afterwards 
chosen  as  the  successor  of  Moses  :  see  Nu  27 18-23 
and  on  v.  18.  His  name  was  originally  Oshea, 
'  help '  or  '  salvation.'  Moses  afterwards 
changed  his  name  to  Joshua,  '  Jehovah  is  my 
salvation.'  The  Gk.  form  of  Joshua  is 
Jesus  :  see  Mtli2.  In  Ac  7  45  Heb48  Joshua 
the  son  of  Nun  is  meant  :  see  Intro,  to  Joshua. 

ID.  According  to  Jewish  tradition,  Hur  was 
the  husband  of  Miriam  :  see  on  312. 

II.  The  holding  up  of  Moses'  hands  signi- 
fied an  appeal  to  God  in  intercession.  His 
holding  up  the  '  rod  of  God '  in  his  hand  was, 
at  the  same  time,  an  appeal  to  his  fighting  men 
to  remember  what  God  had  already  done  for 


64 


17.  14 


EXODUS 


19.4 


them.  The  rod  was  associated  with  many 
wonderful  deliverances,  notably  that  at  the 
Red  Sea,  so  that  the  sight  of  it  would  inspire 
the  warriors  with  courage  and  hope.  On  both 
grounds  one  can  understand  how  it  was  that 
the  fortune  of  the  battle  corresponded  to  the 
steadfastness  with  which  Moses  held  up  his 
hands.  The  story  illustrates  the  value  of 
prayer,  in  particular  of  intercessory  prayer, 
and,  at  the  same  time,  the  necessity  of  prayer 
being  accompanied  with  believing  effort. 
Moses  praying  on  the  hill  while  the  people 
are  fighting  in  the  valley  is  also  an  emblem 
of  Christ  interceding  in  the  heavenly  places 
for  His  people  struggling  upon  earth  :  see 
Heb4i4-i6,  14.  Write  this ..  in  a  book] 
Written  records,  contemporary  with  the  even4,s 
described  in  them,  were  no  doubt  preserved 
for  many  generations,  and  would  afford 
material  for  future  historians.  One  of  these 
early  records  was  called  the  '  Book  of  the  Wars 
of  Jehovah'  :  see  on  Nu21i4. 

15.  Built  an  altar]  for  the  double  purpose 
of  offering  sacrifices  of  thanksgiving,  and  of 
commemorating  the  victory  by  means  of  a 
monument:  cp.  GnSS^o  357  Josh 22 26, 27. 
Jehovah-nissi]  '  Jehovah  is  my  banner,' 
meaning,  '  under  His  banner,  in  His  name  and 
strength,  I  fight  and  conquer'  :  cp.  Ps205-7. 

16.  For  he  said]  RV  '  and  he  said.'  The 
words  following  are  literally,  '  because  a  hand 
upon  the  throne  (of)  Jah,'  which  may  be 
rendered,  '  because  his  (i.e.  Amalek's)  hand  is 
against  the  throne  of  Jehovah,  (therefore) 
will  the  Lord,'  etc. 

CHAPTER  18 
The  Visit  of  Jethro 
I.  On  the   name   Jethro,    see  2'^^,  and  on 


Midian,  2 1^.  2.  Sent  her  back]  see  on  4  26. 
3,  4.  See  on  2^2.  5.  The  mount  of  God] 
Horeb  or  Sinai  :  see  on  3^. 

II.  See  on  15 ^i.  The  second  half  of  the 
V.  is  obscure.  RV  reads,  '  yea,  in  the  thing 
wherein  they  (the  Egyptians)  dealt  proudly 
against   them    (the    Israelites).'  12.     The 

burnt  offering  was  wholly  consumed  upon  the 
altar,  and  signified  the  complete  devotion  of 
the  offerer  to  God  :  see  Lv  1 .  The  sacrifices 
were  peace  offerings,  and  were  consumed  by 
the  offerers  in  token  of  fellowship  with  God 
and  each  other  :  see  Lv3  and  on  Nu22'io. 
Before  God]  at  the  place  consecrated  by  the 
offering  of  the  sacrifices  :  see  on  1 6  ^  and  1 9  22. 

15.  To  enquire  of  God]  This  phrase  is 
explained  by  the  words  that  follow  at  the  end 
of  the  next  v.,  I  do  make  them  kno-w  the 
statutes  of  God,  and  his  laws:  cp.  189^. 
Already  we  see  that  the  decisions  given  by 
Moses  are  regarded  by  the  people  as  possess- 
ing divine  sanction.  19.  And  God  shall  be 
with  thee]  RV  '  and  God  be  with  thee,'  i.e. 
may  God  grant  thee  the  needed  wisdom. 

21.  Hating  covetousness]  A  judge  must  be 
above  bribery.  Bribery  was,  and  still  is,  a 
common  Oriental  vice,  and  is  frequently 
referred  to  in  Scripture:  cp.  23 §  ISS^  12 3 
Psl55  Isal23  Am5i2  Mic39-ii.  23.  If.. 
God  command  thee  .so]  Jethro  does  not  pre- 
sume to  dictate  to  Moses.  The  matter  must 
be  referred  to  God  for  sanction  :  cp.  Dt  1  ^-i^. 
To  their  place]  Each  one  to  his  tent,  satis- 
fied with  the  expeditious  settlement  of  his 
case,  instead  of  waiting  all  day,  as  hitherto  : 
see  V.  13. 

25.  According  to  Dtl^s  it  appears  that 
Moses  left  the  selection  of  the  '  able  men  '  to 
the  people.     Cp.  Ac  6  3. 


PART   3 


(Chs.  19-40)  Arrival  at  Sinai  and  Sojourn  there 

mountain  ranges  of  black  and  yellow  granite, 
and  having  at  its  end  the  prodigious  mountain 
block  of  Ras  es-Sufsafeh,'  which  Dean  Stanley 
and  others  take  to  be  the  mount  on  which  the 
Law  was  given.  Ras  es-Sufsafeh  is  some 
7,000  ft.  in  height,  and  rises  sheer  from  the 
plain  '  like  a  huge  altar.'  Some,  however, 
believe  that  the  actual  mount  of  the  Law  was 
another  peak  of  the  same  mountain  mass  S.  of 
Sufsafeh,  called  Jebel  Musa,  the  traditional 
site.  The  whole  district  has  been  described 
as  one  of  the  most  awe-inspiring  regions  on 
the  face  of  the  earth,  and  as  such  it  accorded 
well  with  the  dread  revelation  of  the  divine 
majesty  here  given  to  Israel. 

4.  I  bare  you  on  eagles'  wings]  God's  grace 
and  care  were  the  source  of  Israel's  duty  of 
obedience  and  loyalty:  see  on  15 1'^.  The 
image  here  employed  to  illustrate  the  watchful 


CHAPTER    19 
Preparation  for  the  Giving  of  the  Law 

I.  The  same  day]  the  15th  day  of  the 
month:  cp.  1 2 1^' 29 161.  Marching  slowly,  with 
long  halts  at  the  various  stations  on  the  route, 
the  host  took  two  months  to  traverse  the  150 
m.  between  Egypt  and  Sinai.  Here  they 
remained  eleven  months  (see  Nul0ii'i2)j 
during  which  time  the  nation  entered  into  a 
formal  covenant  with  Jehovah  on  the  basis  of 
the  moral  law  received  from  God  by  Moses, 
and  promulgated  by  him. 

Wilderness  of  Sinai]  This  must  not  be 
confounded  with  the  '  wilderness  of  Sin  '  (see 
on  161).  The  wilderness  of  Sinai  is  gen- 
erally identified  with  the  modern  Wady 
Er-Rahah,  a  plain  fully  2  m.  long  by  half-a- 
m.  wide,  '  enclosed  between  two  precipitous 


66 


19.  5 


EXODUS 


20.  1 


solicitude  of  G-od  is  true  and  beautiful.  When 
the  eaglets  first  attempt  to  fly,  the  parent  bird 
is  said  to  hover  round  them  and  beneath  them, 
so  as  to  support  them  on  its  expanded 
wings  when  they  are  exhausted:  see  Dt32ii. 
Brought  you  unto  myself]  i.e.  to  Sinai,  the 
'  mount  of  God,'  where  He  was  about  to  make 
a  special  revelation  of  Himself.  It  is  possible, 
however,  to  take  the  words  in  a  spiritual  sense, 
as  denoting  the  divine  nurture  and  education 
of  the  Israelites  in  the  fuller  knowledge  of 
the  true  God:  see  on  vv.  5,  6.  5.  If  ye  will 
obey]  Although  God's  grace  preceded  the 
covenant  (see  previous  v.),  the  latter  was 
made  upon  condition  of  perfect  obedience. 
But  as  the  law  only  serves  to  accentuate  man's 
feeling  of  inability  to  keep  it,  it  becomes  a 
'schoolmaster  to  lead  to  Christ,'  and  the 
redemption  that  is  by  faith  in  Him:  see 
Ho  7  22-25  Gal  3  23, 24.  A  peculiar  treasure]  a 

private  and  treasured  possession.  In  later 
times  the  Jewish  nation  presumed  upon  their 
privilege  as  a  chosen  people,  and  believed  in 
their  unconditional  possession  of  God's  favour. 
From  this  false  security  it  was  the  task  of 
the  prophets  to  rouse  them:  see  e.g.  JerT^-i*^ 
Mt 39  8 11' 12  2131.  Above  all  people]   RV 

'  from  among  all  peoples.'  All  the  earth  is  the 
Lord's,  but  Israel  belongs  to  Him  in  a  special 
degree:  cp.  33 16  Am 9 7.  6.  A  kingdom  of 
priests]  a  kingdom  of  which  every  member  is 
consecrated  to  the  service  of  God,  and  so  '  a 
holy  nation ' :  see  on  Lv  20  24.  The  designation 
expresses  also  the  high  calling  of  Israel.  They 
are  to  be  the  medium  of  communicating  the 
knowledge  of  the  divine  nature  and  will  to 
the  world.  In  general,  it  may  be  allowed 
that  the  Jewish  nation  has  fulfilled  its  destiny. 
It  has  taught  the  world  true  religion.  Through 
its  rejection  of  the  Messiah  its  sacred  function 
has  passed  over  to  the  Christian  church,  to 
which  St.  Peter  transfers  the  titles  given  to 
Israel  in  these  two  vv.  :  see  1  Pet29  Rev  1 6. 

7.  The  elders]  see  on  3 1^.  9.  In  a  thick 
cloud]  No  one,  not  even  Moses,  is  able  to  gaze 
upon  the  unveiled  majesty  of  God:  see  3^ 
33  20  Lv  1 6  2  Jg  1 3  22.  Hence  when  He  appears 
it  is  in  a  cloud,  which  becomes  the  symbol 
and  vehicle  of  the  divine  presence:  see  13 21, 
also  Null25  IK810.11  Isa64Mtl75  2664  iTh 
4 1'^  Rev  1 7.  And  believe  thee]  The  superior 
favour  shown  to  Moses  as  the  direct  recipient 
of  the  divine  revelation  would  attest  his 
authority.     See  on  Nu  127.8. 

10.  Sanctify  them]  bid  them  sanctify  them- 
selves. The  outward  preparation  consisted  in 
washing  their  persons  and  clothes,  and  in  absti- 
nence from  sexual  intercourse:  see  v.  15  and 
cp.  LvlSis-i"^.  These  outward  purifications 
sjnnbolised  the  inward  purity  required  in  those 
who  draw  near  to  God:  see  Isali^  Ps516.7 
lPet32i.  12.  Set  bounds  unto  the  people] 


This  was  intended  to  impress  the  people  with 
the  unapproachable  holiness  of  God.  They 
could  only  draw  near  to  God  in  the  person  of 
the  mediator  whom  God  Himself  had  chosen. 
The  NT.  writers  emphasise  the  superior  privi- 
lege of  Christians,  who  enjoy  access  into  the 
holiest  through  Chi'ist  '  the  mediator  of  the 
new  covenant':  see  Heb  1019-22  1218-24. 

13.  They  shall  come  up]  not  the  mass  of 
the  people,  but  their  privileged  representatives; 
see  vv.  23,  24,  and  cp.  24 1'  2.  22.  The  priests] 
The  Levitical  priesthood  was  not  yet  insti- 
tuted, but  among  the  Hebrews,  as  among  other 
nations  of  antiquity,  there  were  those,  mainly 
the  heads  of  tribes  and  families,  who  exercised 
priestly  functions.  Melchizedek  was  prince 
and  priest  in  Jerusalem  at  the  time  of 
Abraham  (Gn  1 4 1*),  and  Jethro  was  both 
prince  and  priest  of  Midian,  and  offered 
sacrifice  as  such  (Ex2i6  31  18 1.12). 

CHAPTER   20 
The  Ten  Commandments  (vv.  1-21). 

Chs.  20-23,  containing  (1)  the  Decalogue 
(Gk.  = '  Ten  Words '  or  '  Commandments ')  and 
(2)  a  code  of  laws  regulating  the  religious 
and  social  life  of  the  people,  and  called  the 
Book  of  the  Covenant  (see  24  7),  form  perhaps 
the  most  important  part  of  the  Pentateuch. 
It  is  the  nucleus  of  the  entire  Mosaic  legisla- 
tion, and  in  all  probability  existed  for  long  as 
a  separate  document. 

1-17.  The  Decalogue.  In  c.  3428  Dt4i3 
this  is  called  the  '  Ten  Words  '  or  '  Command- 
ments.' It  is  also  called  the  '  Testimony  '  in 
Ex 25 16  (see  on  1634),  and  the  '  Covenant'  in 
Ex  34  28  Dt99.  These  words  were  uttered  in 
the  hearing  of  the  awe-struck  people  (19  ^ 
2019  Dt4i2),  and  afterwards  graven  by  the 
finger  of  God  on  two  tables  of  stone  (3 1 18 
Dt4i3).  On  witnessing  the  apostasy  of  the 
people  Moses  broke  these  tables  (32 1^),  but 
they  were  afterwards  replaced  by  another 
pair  on  which  the  same  words  were  written 
(341  DtlOi'4).  When  the  ark  was  made  the 
two  tables  of  the  testimony  were  deposited  in 
it(Dtl05  Heb  9  4).  As  the  ark  itself  stood 
in  the  innermost  sanctuary  of  the  tabernacle, 
this  position  of  the  Tables  of  the  Law  bore 
emphatic  witness  to  the  great  truth  that  the 
beginning  and  end  of  all  religious  observances 
is  the  keeping  of  the  commandments  of  God: 
cp.  Mtl9i7Ro225  1  Cor 7 19. 

Two  versions  of  the  Ten  Commandments 
are  preserved  in  the  Pentateuch,  the  second, 
exhibiting  a  few  variations,  being  given  in 
Dt56-2i.  Most  scholars  agree  that  the  version 
given  in  Exodus  is  the  older  and  purer  of  the 
two,  the  variations  in  Deuteronomy  being  due 
to  the  characteristic  ideas  and  style  of  the 
writer  of  that  book.     The  main  divergences 


66 


20.  2 


EXODUS 


20.  7 


occur  in  the  fourth  and  fifth  commandments. 
There  is  a  good  deal  to  be  said  for  the  view 
that  the  commandments  as  originally  promul- 
gated were  shorter  than  either  form,  that  they 
consisted  merely  of  the  precepts  without  the 
reasons  annexed,  the  second  e.g.  reading  sim- 
ply, '  Thou  shalt  not  make  unto  thee  any 
graven  image,'  and  the  fourth,  '  Remember 
the  sabbath  day  to  keep  it  holy ' :  see  on  v.  11. 
That  the  commandments,  at  least  in  this  terser 
form,  are  really  Mosaic,  there  is  no  reasonable 
ground  to  doubt. 

The  Ten  Commandments  were  inscribed  on 
two  tables  and  divided  into  two  parts,  but 
opinions  differ  as  to  their  enumeration  and  ar- 
rangement. The  Jews  themselves  regard  v.  2, 
usually  called  the  Preface,  as  the  First  Word, 
and  maintain  the  number  ten  by  uniting 
vv.  2-6  (the  first  and  second)  and  calling 
these  the  Second  Word.  The  Roman  Catho- 
lics and  Lutherans  combine  the  first  two,  and 
split  up  the  tenth.  Our  common  enumeration 
is  that  of  Philo  and  Josephus,  who  are  fol- 
lowed by  the  Greek  and  Reformed  Churches. 
As  to  their  arrangement,  some  have  assigned 
five  commandments  to  each  table ;  while  others 
have  divided  them  in  the  proportion  of  four 
to  six.  According  to  the  latter  division  the 
first  four  are  religious,  defining  the  duties  man 
owes  to  God  ('  Thou  shalt  love  the  Lord  thy 
God');  the  last  six  are  moral,  defining  the 
duties  men  owe  to  each  other  ('  Thou  shalt 
love  thy  neighbour  as  thyself ').  On  the  other 
hand,  seeing  that  in  ancient  times  filial  duty 
was  regarded  more  as  a  religious  than  a  moral 
obligation,  there  is  something  to  be  said  for 
placing  the  fifth  commandment  on  the  first 
table:  see  on  2115. 

Christians,  while  freed  from  the  obligations 
of  the  Mosaic  law  of  ceremonies,  are  still 
bound,  bound  more  than  ever  (see  Ro6),  to 
'  the  obedience  of  the  commandments  which 
are  called  moral.'  What  our  Lord  did  with 
regard  to  the  Ten  Commandments  was  (1)  to 
sum  them  up  under  the  two  obligations  of 
love  to  God  and  love  to  our  neighbour,  which, 
again,  are  the  two  sides  of  the  one  law  of 
universal  Love  ('  love  is  the  fulfilling  of  the 
law');  (2)  to  widen  and  deepen  their  scope, 
making  them  apply  not  only  to  the  outward 
act,  but  to  the  inner  spirit  and  motive,  and  (3) 
to  change  them  from  mere  negative  commands 
to  abstain  from  certain  sins  to  positive  obliga- 
tions, which  are  never  exhausted  and  involve 
a  perpetual  advance  in  holiness  where  mere 
abstention  from  evil  acts  implies  moral  stag- 
nation:  see  Mt  22  37-40  517-48. 

2.  Redemption  is  the  ground  of  obedience 
which  springs,  not  from  fear,  but  from  gratitude 
and  love  :  see  Ro  1 2 1  2  Cor  5 1*  IJn  4 19.  This 
evangelical  truth  of  obedience  springing  from 
gi-atitude  is  the  great  theme  of  the  book  of 


Deuteronomy,  where  it  is  reiterated  over  and 
over  again  :  see  e.g.  Dt  4  32-40  and  Intro,  to 
that  book,  §  3. 

3.  Before  me]  RM  '  beside  me.'  Monotheism 
is  implied  rather  than  expressly  enunciated 
here.  It  was  only  gradually  that  Israel  rose 
to  the  truth  that  there  is  but  one  God.  Israel 
was  led  to  this  truth  along  the  way  of  prac- 
tice. By  ceasing  to  worship  other  gods  they 
would  cease  to  believe  in  their  existence.  It 
is  true  still  that  the  sure  result  of  discontinu- 
ing the  worship  of  God  is  the  denial  of  His 
existence  :  see  on  15  ^^  32 1. 

4.  If  the  first  commandment  implies  the 
truth  of  God's  unity,  the  second  implies  that 
of  His  spirituality.  Israel  is  forbidden  to 
worship  even  the  true  God  under  any  external 
form.  God  is  not  like  anything  that  human 
hands  can  make.  In  Egypt  the  Israelites  had 
been  familiar  with  the  worship  of  images. 

The  water  under  the  earth]  This  refers  to  the 
belief  of  the  time  that  the  earth  was  a  flat 
disk  (Isa  40"'-)  resting  on  an  abyss  of  waters  : 
see  Gn  1<5  7  ^  Ps  24  2.  5.  A  jealous  God]  Hu- 
man jealousy  is  usually  of  an  ignoble  kind,  the 
fruit  of  suspicion.  But  there  is  a  holy  jealousy, 
the  pain  of  wounded  love.  The  heart  of  God 
is  grieved  when  His  love  is  rewarded  with  in- 
difference and  unfaithfulness.  He  will  brook 
no  rival  in  the  affections  of  His  people  :  see 
Dt32i«.2i  Ps78  58  Isa  42  8,  and  on  c.  3415. 

Unto  the  third  and  fourth  generation]  RV 
'  upon  .  .'  It  is  a  law  of  the  divine  government 
that  the  penalty  of  one  man's  sins  is  shared  by 
those  connected  with  him:  cp.  Josh 22 20.  If 
this  seem  hard  it  must  be  remembered  that 
the  law  cuts  both  ways.  The  benefits  of  a 
man's  good  deeds  are  likewise  distributed  over 
a  large  area.  We  cannot  enjoy  the  one  result 
without  taking  the  risk  of  the  other.  The 
law  relates,  however,  only  to  the  consequences 
of  sin,  not  its  guilt.  The  latter  adheres  to  the 
sinner  personally:  cp.  Ezkl82-4. 

6.  Unto  thousands]  i.e.  unto  a  thousand 
generations,  as  in  Dt?^.  It  is  implied  here 
that  God's  mercy  in  rewarding  righteousness 
infinitely  transcends  His  anger  in  punishing 
the  sinful.  The  consequences  of  righteous- 
ness are  more  enduring  and  far-reaching  than 
those  of  iniquity. 

7.  This  prohibition  applies  strictly  to  per- 
jury or  false  swearing,  the  breaking  of  a  pro- 
mise or  contract  that  has  been  sealed  with  an 
oath  in  the  name  of  God.  He  will  not  allow 
His  name  to  be  associated  with  any  act  of  false- 
hood or  treachery.  His  name  must  not  be 
taken  in  vain,  i.e.  lightly  or  heedlessly.  This 
forbids  also  the  careless  or  profane  use  of  the 
divine  name  and  titles.  Jesus  extended  the 
scope  of  this  commandment  so  as  to  prohibit 
the  use  of  oaths  entirely.  A  man's  mere  word 
should  be  his  bond  :  see  Mt  5  33-37, 


67 


20.  8 


EXODUS 


20.  19 


8.  What  is  laid  down  here  is  not  the  insti- 
tution of  the  sabbath  rest,  but  its  strict  observ- 
ance. The  sabbath  rest  was  known  to  the 
Babylonians  before  this  time,  and  there  are 
indications  of  its  being  previously  known  to 
the  Israelites  :  see  on  16  5.  Hence,  probably, 
the  use  of  the  word  remember.  To  keep  it 
holy]  The  seventh  day  is  to  be  distinguished 
from  other  days  (the  root  meaning  of  the  word 
rendered  '  hallow '  is  to  separate  :  see  on 
Lv  20  24),  by  abstinence  from  labour.  Nothing 
is  said  here  as  to  the  religious  observance  of 
the  day.  But  after  the  institution  of  the 
Levitical  priesthood,  the  morning  and  even- 
ing sacrifices  were  doubled  on  the  sabbath  (see 
Nu289'i'^),  and  in  later  times  the  day  was 
naturally  that  on  which  a  '  holy  convocation ' 
was  held  :  see  Lv233  IsaGG^s.  After  the  exile, 
when  synagogues  were  established,  divine  ser- 
vice was  always  celebrated  on  the  sabbath. 

9.  It  is  sometimes  forgotten  that  the  fourth 
commandment  '  enforces  the  six  days'  work  as 
well  as  the  seventh  day's  rest.'  10.  Shalt 
not  do  any  work]  such  as  gathering  manna 
(see  onl  6  —),  lighting  a  fire  (35  2),  gathering  sticks 
(Nu  1532-36),  agricultural  labour  (cp.  Ex342i), 
carrying  burdens  (Neh  13 1^"^^),  buying  and  sell- 
ing (NehlO^i).  The  Jewish  legalists  deve- 
loped the  negative  side  of  this  precept  to  such 
an  extravagant  and  absurd  extent  that  the 
sabbath,  instead  of  being  a  day  of  rest,  became 
the  most  laborious  day  of  the  seven.  The 
philanthropic  motive  for  its  observance  (cp. 
23 1-  Dt5i4)  was  almost  entu-ely  lost  sight  of 
till  our  Lord  said,  '  The  sabbath  was  made  for 
man,  and  not  man  for  the  sabbath'  (Mk22"). 
Thy  manservant]  The  command  is  specially 
addressed  to  heads  of  families  and  employers  of 
labour,  and  requires  (1)  that  they  must  them- 
selves rest  from  labour,  and  (2)  allow  those 
in  their  employment  to  rest  also.  II.  In 
Dtb^'^'^^  another  reason  is  given  for  the  ob- 
servance of  the  sabbath  rest,  in  accordance  with 
the  philanthropic  spirit  which  pervades  the 
whole  of  that  book  :  cp.  2312.  Both  reasons 
are  probably  later  amplifications  of  the  original 
commandment.  Blessed  .  .  and  hallowed 
it]  consecrated  it  to  Himself  with  a  special 
blessing  upon  it.  The  unusually  frequent  men- 
tion in  OT.  of  the  duty  of  observing  the  sab- 
bath is  an  indication  of  its  importance.  It  is 
often  referred  to  as  constituting  along  with 
circumcision  the  sign  of  the  covenant  between 
God  and  Israel  :  see  on  3 1  ^^. 

12.  This  is  the  '  first  commandment  with 
promise'  (EphG'^).  The  promise  has  been 
understood  by  some  as  applying  to  the  nation 
as  a  whole.  Undoubtedly  the  nation  takes  its 
character  from  the  home,  and  well-ordered 
family  life  is  the  prime  condition  of  national 
welfare  and  stability  :  see  on  Dt  21  is.  But  the 
promise  is  also  to  the  individual.     '  Righteous- 


ness tendeth  to  life  '  (Prov  1 1 19).  A  promise 
of  long  life  and  material  prosperity  is  frequently 
attached  in  OT.  to  moral  precepts  :  see  e.g. 
2325f.  Lv26  Dt7i2f.  28  Psl  34i2f.  37.  The 
doctrine  of  present  rewards  and  punishments 
had  an  important  educative  value  at  a  time 
when  the  truth  of  a  future  life  was  not  yet 
clearly  revealed.  But  the  manifest  exceptions 
which  experience  of  human  life  afforded  to 
this  simple  view  of  the  divine  government 
proved  a  great  trial  to  faith,  as  the  book  of 
Job  in  particular  shows,  and  such  passages  as 
Ps  73  Jer  12 1. 2,  etc.  That  faith  was  able  even 
in  these  circumstances  to  triumph  over  doubt 
is  shown  e.g.  in  Hab3i''>i8  Ps  73  23-26^  jn  which 
it  may  be  said  that  the  high-water  mark  is 
reached  of  a  trust  in  God  that  is  superior  to 
and  independent  of  all  outward  circumstances. 
In  later  times,  when  the  belief  in  a  future  life 
was  more  consistently  held,  it  was  only  natural 
that  the  rewards  and  penalties  should  be  re- 
garded as  in  many  cases  postponed  to  find  their 
full  completion  in  the  next  world  :  see  on 
Dt227. 

13-16.  These  commandments  are  given  to 
safeguard  a  man's  life,  domestic  peace,  property, 
and  reputation.  For  the  way  in  which  our 
Lord  extended  the  scope  of  the  sixth  and 
seventh  commandments  so  as  to  apply  not 
merely  to  the  outward  act  but  to  the  inner 
thought  and  motive  lying  at  its  root,  see 
Mt  5  21-30. 

16.  It  is  noteworthy  that  of  the  ten  com- 
mandments, two  (the  third  and  the  ninth) 
refer  to  sins  of  speech.  For  the  penalty  pre- 
scribed in  cases  of  false  witness,  see  Dtl9i^"2i. 
The  spirit  of  the  ninth  commandment  forbids 
all  lying  and  slander. 

17.  Of  all  the  commandments,  the  tenth  is 
the  one  that  goes  deepest.  What  is  condemned 
is  not  an  action,  but  a  thought  or  desire  :  cp. 
Prov  4  23  Mt  1 5 18-20.  This  commandment  shows 
that  the  Decalogue  is  more  than  a  mere  code 
of  civil  law.  Human  laws  cannot  take  cogni- 
zance of  the  thoughts  of  the  heart. 

19.  The  Decalogue  was  given  in  the  hearing 
of  the  people.  The  following  commandments 
were  given  to  them  through  their  mediator 
Moses  :  see  vv.  21,  22,  c.21i. 

CHAPTERS  2022-2333 

The  Book  of  the  Covenant 

This  section  comprises  a  number  of  laws  de- 
signed to  regulate  the  life  bf  an  agricultural 
community  living  under  comparatively  simple 
conditions.  The  laws  are  mainly  of  a  civil 
order  with  a  small  admixture  of  rudimentary 
religious  enactment  (see  e.g.  2023-26  2310-19). 
The  principle  of  their  arrangement  is  not  clear, 
but  the  three  sections  2112-36  221-27  231-8  seem 
to  be  amplifications  of  the  sixth,  eighth,  and 


68 


20.  23 


EXODUS 


21.  7 


ninth  commandments  of  the  Decalogue  respec- 
tively. The  Book  of  the  Covenant  occupies 
an  intermediate  position  between  the  brief  and 
general  principles  enunciated  in  the  Decalogue 
and  the  minute  and  detailed  legislation  set 
forth  elsewhere  in  the  Pentateuch.  For  the 
relationship  between  the  legislation  of  Moses 
and  that  of  earlier  civilisations,  see  Intro.  §  2, 
and  art.  '  Laws  of  Hammurabi.' 

23.  RV  is  preferable,  '  Ye  shall  not  make 
other  gods  with  me  ;  gods  of  silver,  or  gods 
of  gold,  ye  shall  not  make  unto  you.'  This 
is  a  repetition  of  the  first  and  second  com- 
mandments. 24.  An  altar  of  earth]  i.e.  of 
the  simplest  form  and  material,  as  a  precau- 
tion against  idolatrous  representations  :  cp. 
V.  25  Dt275>6.  On  the  different  kinds  of 
sacrifice  see  Lvl-7,  and  on  18 1"^.  Record 
my  name]  lit.  '  cause  my  name  to  be  remem- 
bered,' by  some  special  manifestation  of  power 
or  grace.  A  plurality  of  sacrificial  places  is 
here  expressly  sanctioned,  and  the  historical 
books  of  OT.  record  numerous  instances  of 
altars  being  erected  and  sacrifice  offered  in 
many  different  places  down  to  the  reformation 
of  king  Josiah,  which  took  place  in  the  year 
621  B.C.  In  the  book  of  Deuteronomy  a 
plurality  of  sacrificial  places  is  condemned,  and 
worship  restricted  to  a  central  sanctuary  :  see 
onDtl2-i.i3f-  25.  See  on  V.  24.  26.  With 
the  same  object,  to  prevent  exposure  of  the 
person,  it  is  afterwards  prescribed  that  the 
priests  be  provided  with  linen  drawers  while 
officiating  at  the  altar  :  see  2842,43_  The  top 
of  the  altar  of  burnt  offering,  which  was  four 
and  a  half  ft.  high,  was  reached,  according  to 
tradition,  by  means  of  a  sloping  ramp  of  earth  : 
cp.  27^,  and  see  on  Lv9  22. 

CHAPTER  21 
The  Book  of  the  Covenant  (continued) 

i-ii.  Regulations  regarding  the  Treatment 
of  Hebrew  Slaves. 

Slavery  was  universal  in  ancient  times,  and 
the  Mosaic  Law  does  not  abolish  it.  Among 
the  Hebrews,  however,  slavery  was  by  no 
means  the  degrading  and  oppressive  thing  that 
it  was  among  other  nations.  Manstealing, 
upon  which  modern  systems  of  slavery  are 
based,  was  a  crime  punishable  by  death  (see 
V.  16),  and  the  Law  of  Moses  recognises  the 
right  of  a  slave  to  just  and  honourable  treat- 
ment. A  Hebrew  slave  might  occupy  a  high 
position  in  his  master's  household  and  be  re- 
garded as  a  trusty  friend,  as  the  case  of  Eliezer 
shows  (Gn  24).  He  could  not  be  bound  for  more 
than  six  years  at  a  time  ;  in  the  seventh  year 
he  obtained  his  freedom  if  he  desired  it  (see 
V.  2)  ;  he  might  hold  property  and  come  to  be 
able  to  redeem  himself  (Lv25''^)  ;  he  was  pro- 
tected from  the  violence  of  his  master  (vv.  20, 


21);  he  could  claim  compensation  for  bodily 
injury  (vv.  26,  27) ;  and  he  was  entitled  to  the 
sabbath  rest  (20  lO).  If  a  Hebrew  girl  became 
her  master's  concubine  he  could  not  sell  her 
to  a  foreigner,  but  must  let  her  be  redeemed 
(v.  8)  ;  if  his  son  married  her  he  must  treat 
her  as  a  daughter  (v.  9) ;  if  he  took  a  second 
wife  he  must  not  degrade  her,  but  use  her  as 
liberally  as  before  (v.  10).  In  general  the 
Hebrew  master  was  to  treat  his  slave  rather  as 
a  brother  or  hired  servant  than  as  a  chattel, 
and  the  principle  which  was  to  govern  his 
treatment  was  the  humane  precept '  thou  shalt 
not  rule  over  him  with  rigour  ;  but  shalt  fear 
thy  G-od'  (Lv25^3j.  These  laws,  it  is  true, 
apply  to  the  slave  who  was  an  Israelite,  but 
the  lot  of  even  the  foreign  slave  who  had  been 
captured  in  war  was  only  a  little  less  favom-- 
able.  If  it  be  asked  why  the  Mosaic  Law  did 
not  at  once  abolish  slavery  the  answer  must 
be  that  the  time  was  not  ripe  for  that.  Christ 
Himself  did  not  abolish  it ;  and  His  apostles 
tolerated  it  (see  1  Cor  7  20-24  and  the  Epistle  to 
Philemon).  Christianity  did  not  violently  over- 
throw existing  social  institutions  or  abolish 
class  distinctions.  But  it  taught  the  brother- 
hood of  all  men,  and  by  quietly  introducing  the 
leaven  of  justice,  humanity,  and  brotherly  love 
into  society,  gradually  abolished  the  worst 
social  abuses  and  made  slavery  impossible. 

2.  If  thou  buy  an  Hebrew  servant]  A 
man  might  voluntarily  sell  himself  for  debt 
(Lv2539),  or  he  might  be  judicially  sold  for 
theft  (see  22  3),  or  he  might  be  sold  by  his 
parents  (v.  7).  If  the  year  of  Jubilee  fell 
before  the  seventh  year  of  his  servitude  he 
went  free  then:  see  Lv2540, 4i_  Life-long 
compulsory  servitude  was  therefore  unknown. 
3.  If  he  were  married]  before  coming  into 
slavery.  If  he  married  after  becoming  a  slave, 
the  case  contemplated  in  the  next  verse,  he 
would  do  so  subject  to  the  consent  of  his 
master,  in  which  case  the  wife  and  children 
remained  with  the  master.  5.  Slavery  may 
be  preferable  to  freedom.  This  shows  the 
mild  nature  of  slavery  among  the  Hebrews. 
6.  Unto  the  judges]  RV  '  unto  God.'  The 
expressions  are  really  identical,  for  the  judges 
would  be  the  priests,  or  the  high  priest,  and 
the  transaction  would  take  place  at  the  sanc- 
tuary and  have  the  sanction  of  the  divine 
judgment:  see  on  228>28  RV.  Bore  his  ear] 
The  fastening  of  the  ear  to  the  doorpost  signi- 
fies his  perpetual  attachment  to  the  house  of 
his  master  :  cp.  Dt  1517.  The  ear  is  pierced  as 
being  the  organ  of  hearing  and,  therefore,  of 
obedience. 

7.  To  be  a  maidservant]  The  word  denotes 
a  slavewife,  a  consort  of  inferior  rank,  like 
Hagar  (Gn  1 6  3).  Her  position  was  permanent. 
She  did  not  go  out  at  the  end  of  six  years, 
which  would  have  been  a  degradation.     If  she 


69 


21.  10 


EXODUS 


22.  17 


were  the  wife  of  the  master  of  the  house,  she 
was  to  be  treated  as  a  wife ;  if  of  the  son,  as  a 
daughter.  If  she  were  dismissed,  it  must  be 
in  an  honourable  way  (vv.  8,  11),  and  without 
repayment  of  the  purchase  money. 

ID.  Polygamy,  like  slavery,  was  tolerated 
by  the  Law  of  Moses.  Its  cessation  in  Chris- 
tian lands  has  naturally  followed  the  nobler 
teaching  of  Christianity  regarding  woman  : 
cp.  the  remarks  on  the  cessation  of  slavery. 

12-17.  Three  Olf  ences  Punishable  by  Death , 
viz.  murder,  manstealing,  and  the  smiting  or 
cursing  of  parents. 

13.  For  the  appointment  of  cities  of  refuge 
as  an  asylum  in  tlie  case  of  accidental  homicide, 
see  on  Nu  35  ^'2^.  14.  From  mine  altar]  The 
altar  seems  to  have  been  the  place  of  refuge 
at  first  :  see  1K150  228f.  15.  Smiteth]  not 
necessarily  with  fatal  effect.  Reverence  to- 
wards parents  was  regarded  in  ancient  times  as 
more  a  religious  than  a  social  duty,  and  a  breach 
of  the  fifth  commandment,  like  blasphemy, 
was  a  capital  oifence  :  see  intro.  to  the  Deca- 
logue, and  cp.  Dt21i8f.  16.  Mansteal- 
ing is  to  be  punished  as  severely  as  murder. 
17.  Cm-sing,  like  blessing,  is  always  looked 
upon  as  efficacious.  It  is  a  solemn  appeal  to 
God,  who  will  not  permit  His  name  to  be  taken 
in  vain.  He  will  not  respond  to  the  child  who 
invokes  His  power  to  the  injury  of  a  father  or 
mother.  And  such  an  impious  appeal  is  itself 
a  serious  crime. 

18-32.  The  Law  of  Compensation  for  Injury 
to  Life  or  Limb. 

19.  Shall  .  .  be  quit]  i.e.  of  the  charge  of 
murder.  But  he  must  pay  for  the  injm-ed 
man's  loss  of  time  and  medical  treatment. 

21.  He  is  his  money]  The  master  himself 
loses  by  his  servant's  inability  to  work,  and  is 
sufficiently  punished  in  this  way.  If  the 
injury  is  of  a  permanent  nature  the  slave  is 
entitled  to  his  freedom:  see  vv.  26,  27. 

23.  Atiy  mischief]  beyond  the  loss  of  the 
child  (v.  22).  The  law  of  retaliation  ('  like 
for  like  ')  is  common  to  all  early  stages  of 
civilisation:  cp.  e.g.  art.  'Laws  of  Hammurabi.' 
It  is  a  rough  and  ready  kind  of  justice,  but  it 
involves  many  difficulties  and  is  generally 
abandoned  in  favour  of  a  system  of  fines  and 
penalties.  It  should  be  observed  that  the  law 
of  retaliation  is  not  the  same  as  private 
revenge.  The  equivalent  penalty  is  inflicted 
by  the  judge,  not  by  the  injm-ed  person:  cp. 
Lv24i'-2i  Dtl9i5-2i.  Christ  refers  to  this 
passage  in  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount  (MtS^sf-), 
forbidding  the  spirit  of  revenge,  and  enforcing 
the  duty  of  forbearance  in  imitation  of  the 
heavenly  Father.  28.  The  following  enact- 
ments are  a  good  illustration  of  the  spirit  of 
even-handed  justice  displayed  by  the  Mosaic 
Law:  cp.  6n9^.  His  flesh  shall  not  be 
eaten]    This   would   serve   to  emphasise  the 


horror  connected  with  such  an  accidental 
death.  It  was  also  in  accordance  with  the  law 
forbidding  the  eating  of  blood  as  unclean. 
An  ox  killed  by  stoning  would  not  be  bled : 
see  on  LvlT^o-i^,  and  cp.  22^1.  29.  In  this 
case  the  owner  is  morally  responsible  and  is 
liable  to  be  put  to  death.  The  death  penalty 
may,  however,  be  commuted  by  a  fine,  the 
amount  of  which  would  be  fixed  by  the  rela- 
tives of  the  person  killed,  with  probably  an 
appeal  to  the  judges.  32.  The  silver  shekel 

was  in  value  a  little  more  than  half-a-crown. 
The  ordinary  price  of  a  slave,  therefore,  was 
about  £3  10s.:  cp.  Zechlli2.i3Mt26i5.  From 
the  latter  passage  it  will  be  seen  that  our 
Lord's  life  was  reckoned  of  the  same  value  as 
that  of  a  slave. 

33-c.  22 15.  Law  of  Compensation  for  Injury 
to  Property. 

34.  The  dead  beast  shall  be  his]  It  is 
assumed  that  he  has  paid  the  full  value  of  the 
live  animal. 

CHAPTER  22 

The  Book  of  the  Covenant  (continued) 

I.  Four  sheep]  The  larger  compensation 
required  in  the  case  of  the  ox  is  probably  due 
to  the  fact  that  it  is  an  animal  used  for  labour, 
and  of  proportionately  higher  value,  therefore, 
than  a  sheep:  cp.  2S12<^.  2.  Breaking  up] 
RV  '  breaking  in.'  3.  If  the  sun  be  risen 
upon  him]  i.e.  if  the  housebreaking  be  com- 
mitted in  daylight.  The  nocturnal  burglar 
is  more  dangerous  and  cannot  be  so  easily 
detected.  In  a  case  of  daylight  robbery  it  is 
less  necessary  to  resort  to  extreme  measm-es 
for  defence.  In  English  law  a  similar  dis- 
tinction is  made  between  housebreaking  by 
night  and  by  day. 

5.  Of  the  best  of  his  own  field]  This  is  a 
case  of  wilful  damage.  In  the  next  v.  the 
damage  is  accidental,  such  as  might  result  from 
the  burning  of  weeds  or  thorns,  in  which  case 
an  exact  equivalent  only  is  required. 

7.  Deliver  unto  his  neighbour]  This  practice 
was  common  in  days  when  there  were  no  banks. 
Otherwise,  treasure  might  be  buried  in  a  field: 
cp.Mtl344.  8.  Unto  the  judges]  RV 'unto 
God.'  See  on  21<5.  u.  Oath  of  the  LORD] 
an  oath  invoking  Jehovah  as  witness.  On  the 
solemn  natiu-e  of  such  oaths,  cp.  20". 

13.  Let  him  bring  it]  i.e.  what  remains  of 
it,  in  order  to  show  the  cause  of  the  injury. 

15.  It  came  for  his  (i.e.  'its' ;  see  on  Lv255) 
hire]  RM  '  it  is  reckoned  in  its  hire.'  The 
owner  is  understood  to  have  taken  the  risk  of 
injury  into  account  in  fixing  the  price  of  hire. 

16-31.  Miscellaneous  Laws. 

16,  17.  Endow  her]  RV  rightly,  'pay  a 
dowry  for  her'  :  e.g.  to  her  father.  The  dowry 
was  not  the  portion  brought  by  the  wife  into 
the  husband's  house,  but  the  price  paid  by  the 


70 


22.  18 


EXODUS 


23.  19 


bridegroom  to  the  father  or  brothers  of  the 
bride,  by  way,  it  would  seem,  of  compensation 
to  the  bride's  family  for  the  loss  of  her 
services:  cp.  Gn34i2,  also  Gn  29  ^s.  Seeing  that 
among  the  Hebrews,  as  among  the  Arabs  at 
the  present  day,  a  woman  who  has  been  un- 
chaste has  almost  no  chance  of  marriage,  the 
seducer,  it  is  here  enacted,  must  marry  her,  or, 
if  the  father  object,  make  good  the  dowry. 
In  Dt2"229  the  dowry  is  fixed  at  fifty  shekels. 
The  seduction  of  a  betrothed  damsel  is 
punishable  with  death:  see  on  Dt2223f. 

i8.  A  witch]  B,V  '  sorceress.'  The  word  is 
the  same  as  that  in  T^i.  Sorcery,  or  the  pre- 
tended holding  communication  with  evil  spirits, 
is  a  form  of  idolatry  or  rebellion  against 
Jehovah,  and  punished  as  such:  see  v.  20,  and 
cp.  DtlSiof.  Lvl92ti.3i. 

21.  Cp.  Lvl933, 34_  The  Mosaic  Law  re- 
peatedly emphasises  the  duty  of  kindly  con- 
sideration of  the  weak  and  oppressed,  the 
afflicted  and  the  poor.  God  is  the  champion 
and  the  avenger  of  all  such  :  cp.  Psl46'''-'^. 

25.  If  thou  lend  money  to  (uiy  of  my  people 
that  is  poor  by  thee]  RV  '  to  any  of  my  people 
with  thee  that  is  poor '  :  interest  is  forbidden 
on  loans  to  a  fellow  Israelite,  but  is  expressly 
allowed  in  dealing  with  a  foreigner:  see  Dt 
23  IP.  20,  and  cp.  Lv  25  ^s.  The  loans  referred  to 
here  are  loans  without  interest.  The  Israelites 
are  commanded  to  help  the  poor  by  giving 
them  free  loans,  the  wisest  form  of  charity. 
Commercial  loans,  for  trading  purposes,  are 
not  contemplated  at  all,  and  were  in  all  proba- 
bility unknown  among  the  Israelites  in  early 
times  and  in  a  primitive  state  of  society. 

26.  While  the  taking  of  interest  is  forbidden, 
the  taking  of  a  pledge  for  repayment  of  a  loan 
is  sanctioned,  and  frequent  reference  is  made 
in  Scripture  to  the  practice:  see  e.g.  Am2S 
Job  22  6  249  Dt  24  6.  The  outer  garment  of 
the  Israelite  (the  simlah)  is  a  kind  of  cloak 
or  plaid  about  4  ft.  square,  which  may  be 
used  as  a  coverlet  by  night.  In  the  case  of  a 
poor  man  this  might  be  the  only  thing  he 
could  give  as  a  pledge,  in  which  case  he  is 
to  be  allowed  the  use  of  it  each  night:  cp. 
Dt  24 12, 13^  and  for  a  similar  humane  precept, 
V.  6  of  that  chapter. 

28.  The  gods]  RV  'God.'  RM  'judges' 
is  also  possible  :  see  on  21*5.  But  cp.  St. 
Peter's  injunction  (lPet2i'^). 

29.  The  first  of  thy  ripe  fruits]  RV 
'  the  abundance  of  thy  fruits,'  etc.  :  see  on 
131-16.  20.  On  the  eighth  day]  The  mini- 
mum age  of  a  sacrificial  animal  is  eight  days. 
The  animal  must  be  in  a  fit  condition,  which 
it  could  hardly  be  during  the  first  week  :  cp. 
Lv2227.  The  eighth  day  was  also  prescribed 
for  the  circumcision  of  children  :  see  GnlT^^. 

31.  Holy  men]  See  on  195,e,io.  The 
numerovis  regulations  with  regard  to  outward 

71 


purity,  of  which  one  example  is  given  here, 
were  intended  to  be  a  symbol  and  a  reminder 
of  that  purity  of  heai-t  which  God's  people 
must  exhibit.  Torn  of  beasts]  This  pro- 
hibition rests  on  the  general  law  that  the 
blood,  as  the  seat  of  life,  belongs  to  God  and 
must  not  be  eaten.  The  flesh  of  such  an 
animal  would  not  be  properly  drained  of 
blood  :  see  on  2 1 2S. 

CHAPTER  23 
The  Book  of  the  Covenant  (concluded) 
1-19.  Miscellaneous  Laws. 

1.  Raise]  RV  '  take  up,'  i.e.  give  ear  to. 
This  is  an  extension  of  the  ninth  command- 
ment :  cp.  the  Arabic  proverb,  '  In  wickedness 
the  listener  is  the  ally  of  the  speaker.' 

2.  To  decline  after]  RV  'to  turn  aside 
after.'  3.  Countenance]  Give  undue  favour 
to.  As  judgment  is  to  be  without  fear  (v.  2), 
so  is  it  to  be  without  favour,  whether  of  rich 
or  poor  :  cp.  v.  6. 

4,  5.  Thine  enemy's  ox]  The  Mosaic  Law 
inculcates  the  duty  of  kindness  to  animals  : 
see  e.g.  201°  Lv222T,28  Dt22«.7  254.  In 
Dt22i-4  it  is  a  friend's  beast  that  is  to  be 
relieved.  Here  it  is  the  beast  of  an  enemy  : 
cp.  Mt543,44. 

8.   Gift]   A  bribe  in  any  form  :  see  on  18  21. 

ID,  II.  On  the  law  of  the  Sabbatical  Year, 
see  on  Lv  25 1-7.  12.  On  the  reason  annexed 
to  the  fourth  commandment,  see  on  20 10, 11. 

14-17.  The  Three  Great  Annual  Feasts  are 
Passover  and  Unleavened  Bread  in  the  month 
of  Abib,  Feast  of  Weeks  or  Pentecost  fifty 
days  afterwards,  and  Feast  of  Booths  or  Taber- 
nacles, here  called  Feast  of  Ingathering,  at 
the  end  of  the  agricultural  year  :  see  on 
L V  23  4-22, 33-43.  15,  None  shall  appear  before 
me  empty]  As  these  festivals  are  all  com- 
memorative of  God's  goodness  they  are  to  be 
celebrated  with  thankfulness  and  rejoicing. 
And  in  token  of  their  gratitude  the  people  are 
to  present  gifts  and  entertain  the  poor  :  cp. 
Dt  16 1«.  17  Neh  8 10.  The  same  principle  under- 
lies the  custom  of  making  otferings  of  money 
as  a  part  of  Christian  worship.  It  is  expres- 
sive of  the  worshipper's  thankfulness  for  all 
the  divine  mercies,  temporal  and  spiritual,  of 
which  he  is  the  recipient,  and  must  never  be 
omitted.  17.  Three  times  in  the  year] 
These  annual  pilgrimages  served  to  maintain 
a  conscious  unity  of  race  and  worship. 

18.  Leavened  bread]  see  on  128.  Fat,  like 
blood,  must  not  be  eaten,  but  burnt  upon  the 
altar  :  see  on  2913. 

19.  Thou  Shalt  not  seethe,  etc.]  This  pro- 
hibition may  be  intended  to  preserve  the 
natural  instinct  of  humanity:  cp.  Dt226.7. 
But  it  more  probably  refers  to  a  superstitious 
practice  of  using  milk  prepared  in  this  way  to 


23.  20 


EXODUS 


24.  10 


sprinkle  fields,  as  a  charm  against  unfruitful- 
ness  :  see  Dtl42i,  where  the  prohibition  is 
connected  with  the  law  of  unclean  meats. 
On  account  o£  this  law,  the  Jews  to  this  day 
abstain  from  mixing  meat  and  milk  in  the 
same  dish  ;  nor  will  they  partake  of  the  one, 
except  at  a  considerable  interval  after  the 
other. 

20-33.  The  Book  of  the  Covenant  closes 
with  an  exhortation  in  which  a  promise  is 
made  of  God's  presence,  guidance,  and  help  in 
overcoming  their  enemies,  of  wide  dominion, 
and  of  material  prosperity,  on  condition  that 
they  serve  Jehovah  alone  and  make  no  cove- 
nant with  the  heathen  nations  or  their  gods. 

20.   On  the  Angel  of  Jehovah,  see  on  3  2. 

25.  See  on  20 12.  28.  Hornets]  The 
hornet  is  a  large  and  fierce  kind  of  wasp.  It 
is  doubtful  whether  the  promise  here  is  to  be 
understood  literally  or  figuratively  (cp.  also 
Dt  7  20  Josh  24  ^2).  It  seems  to  be  taken  liter- 
ally in  Wisdom  128.  g^t  it  is  more  probably 
a  figurative  way  of  describing  the  terror  which 
would  fall  upon  the  nations  on  hearing  of  the 
victorious  march  of  Jehovah's  people  :  see 
the  previous  v.  and  Dt225,  and  cp.  Dtl^* 
Psll8i2  Isa7i8.  Or  the  'hornets'  may  be 
intended  to  describe  the  Egyptians,  who  were 
frequently  at  war  with  the  inhabitants  of 
Canaan.  Rameses  III  is  known  to  have 
broken  the  power  of  the  ancient  kingdom  of 
the  Hittites,  which  would  be  about  the  time 
of  the  Israelites'  sojourn  in  the  wilderness, 
supposing  the  exodus  to  have  taken  place 
towards  the  end  of  the  nineteenth  dynasty. 

29,  30.  The  book  of  Judges  shows  that 
the  conquest  of  Canaan  was  effected  gradually. 

31.  The  sea  of  the  Philistines]  the  Mediter- 
ranean ;  the  river  is  the  Euphrates.  These 
bounds  were  reached  in  the  reign  of  Solomon  : 
see  1K421,  and  cp.  Gnlo^s  Dtll24. 

32,  33.  The  commandment  to  expel  the 
Canaanites  and  to  destroy  their  idols  and 
places  of  worship  was  only  partially  fulfilled, 
with  the  result  that  the  e\al  influence  of 
Canaanitish  idolatry  and  immorality  made 
itself  felt  over  and  over  again  in  the  history 
of  Israel  and  was  the  cause  of  its  final  over- 
throw :  see  Josh  16 10  1712,13  jg  119, 27-36 
IK  11 1-10  1422-24  2K123  176-23.  With  this 
passage  cp.  34i2-ir  Nu 33 60-56  Dt?  ;  and  see 
on  Nu  25 16-18. 

CHAPTER   24 

The  Ratification'  of  the  Covenant 
I.  And  he  said]  The  first  two  vv.  of  this 
0.  are  a  continuation  of  the  narrative  from 
2021,  which  was  interrupted  by  the  insertion 
of  the  Book  of  the  Covenant,  originally  a 
separate  document.  C.  2333  jg  continued  in 
V.  3.  Nadab,  and  Abihu]  the  two  oldest 
sons  of  Aaron  :    see  623.         Seventy  of  the 


elders]  a  selection  from  the  heads  of  the 
tribes  and  families  :    see  on  3i6.  3.   And 

Moses  came  and  told  the  people]  after  he  had 
ascended  the  mountain  and  received  the 
'  words  and  the  judgments '  contained  in  chs. 


2022-2333  :  cp.  21: 


4.  And  Moses  wrote] 


see  on  1 7  !■*.  The  altar  symbolised  the  presence 
of  Jehovah,  the  twelve  pillars  represented  the 
twelve  tribes  of  Israel.  These  pillars  were 
single  unhewn  stones  which  were  smeared 
with  the  blood  of  the  sacrificial  animal  or 
with  the  oil  of  a  vegetable  offering  :  see  on 
Gn28i8.  The  use  of  pillars  is  an  evidence 
of  the  antiquity  of  the  rite  of  sealing  the 
covenant  recorded  here,  as  they  were  after- 
wards forbidden  owing  to  their  association 
with  heathen  worship  :  see  Dtl622,  and  see 
on    3413.  5.    See    on     18 12.  6.  The 

sprinkling  of  the  altar  with  half  the  blood 
and  of  the  people  with  the  other  half  (v.  8) 
signified  that  both  parties,  Jehovah  and  Israel, 
entered  into  fellowship  and  bound  themselves 
by  the  terms  of  the  covenant,  the  people 
promising  obedience  and  Jehovah  promising 
His  help  and  blessing.  See  2320-31.  In  the 
New  Covenant  the  blood  of  Christ  takes  the 
place  of  the  blood  of  the  sacrificial  animal, 
and  by  faith  in  His  sacrifice.  Christians  enter 
into  communion  with  God  :  see  Mt2628 
Heb  911-28  1  Pet  1 2.  8.  Concerning  all  these 
words]  RM  '  upon  all  these  conditions.' 

9-1 1.  The  ratification  of  the  covenant  is 
concluded  with  a  sacrificial  meal  (v.  11),  which 
usually  followed  the  peace  offering  and  sym- 
bolised the  harmonious  relationship  existing 
between  the  offerers  and  God  :  see  Lv3.  At 
this  meal,  which  took  place  on  the  mount,  the 
representatives  of  the  people  were  vouchsafed 
a  vision  of  God  Himself,  not  as  previously 
with  terror-inspu'ing  accompaniments  of 
thunder,  lightning,  and  smoke  (20iS'i^), 
but  in  grace,  mercy,  and  peace.  The  sight 
of  God,  otherwise  fatal  in  its  effects  (see  3320 
and  on  199),  does  not  injure  them.  God  does 
not  smite  them  ;  on  the  contrary  they  are 
able  to  eat  and  drink  in  His  presence,  having 
entered  into  covenant  relationship  with  Him 
(V.  11). 

10.  They  saw^  the  God  of  Israel]  A  very 
bold  anthropomorphic  way  of  describing  the 
experience  of  these  favoured  persons,  which 
the  Gk.  (LXX)  Version,  made  many  centuries 
later,  avoids  by  translating  '  they  saw  the  place 
where  God  stood.'  At  the  same  time  it  is 
noticeable  that  the  sacred  writer  e^'inces  a 
great  reserve  in  speaking  of  this  vision  of 
God.  He  makes  no  attempt  to  describe  the 
appearance  of  God,  only  what  was  under  His 
feet.  Similarly  Isaiah,  who  says  that  he  too 
'  saw  the  Lord,'  describes  only  the  accompani- 
ments of  his  vision  (Isa  6)  :  see  3318,19,23. 
In  Dt4i2  Moses  is  represented  as  reminding 


72 


24.  12 


EXODUS 


25. 


the  people  that  they  '  saw  no  similitude '  of 
God  at  Horeb  ;  and  in  Jn  1 1^  (cp.  b^"^  6^6)  -we 
read  that '  no  man  hath  seen  God  at  any  time.' 
The  apparent  inconsistency  between  these 
passages  and  the  present  is  to  be  accounted 
for  on  the  principle  of  the  progressiveness  of 
revelation.  Divine  truth  can  only  be  com- 
municated to  men  in  the  measure  and  in  the 
manner  in  which  they  are  able  to  receive  it. 
In  early  times  men  were  like  children  in  re- 
gard to  spiritual  things,  which  therefore  could 
only  be  apprehended  by  them  under  material 
forms  of  expression.  The  essential  and  per- 
manent truth  underlying  the  present  repre- 
sentation is  that  the  majesty  and  the  will  of 
the  invisible  God  were  brought  vividly  home 
to  the  minds  of  these  men  by  means  of  the 
Moral  Law,  and  that  this  Law  was  not  a  dis- 
covery by  Moses  but  a  thing  revealed  to  him 
by  God.  Cp.  what  is  said  on  anthropo- 
morphisms in  Intro,  to  Exodus,  §  3. 

A  paved  -work  of  a  sapphire  stone]  The 
ancients  regarded  the  sky  as  a  solid  vaulted 
dome  stretched  over  the  earth  :  see  on  Gn  1 6-8. 

Body  of  heaven  in  h  is  clearness]  E, V  '  the 
very  heaven  for  clearness.' 

12.  Moses    receives   another   command    to 


come  up  into  the  mount  and  receive  the 
tables  of  the  Law  and  other  directions  con- 
nected with  the  outward  service  of  religion. 

Tables  of  stone]  From  Dt522  we  learn 
that  these  contained  the  Ten  Commandments, 
and  the  same  is  implied  in  c.  34^8^  which 
relates  to  the  second  tables,  doubtless  exact 
copies  of  the  first  which  Moses  broke.  The 
other  regulations  which  follow  in  c.  25,  etc., 
seem  to  have  been  given  orally.  The  words 
which  I  have  written  should  perhaps  follow 
tables  of  stone.  The  expression  may  be 
understood  as  indicating  the  immediate  divine 
origin  of  the  Law  (cp.  31 18).  13.  Minister] 
servant,  attendant  ;  cp.  Lk420B,Y  Ac  13  5. 

14.  Said  unto  the  elders]  not  merely  the 
seventy  spoken  of  in  v.  1,  but  all  the  repre- 
sentatives of  the  people.  They  are  to  see 
that  the  camp  is  not  removed  from  the  plain 
dru-ing  the  absence  of  Moses.  15.  Moses 
went  up]  Joshua  accompanied  him  part  of 
the  way,  and  seems  to  have  awaited  his  return 
somewhere  on  the  mountain  side  :  see  3217. 

18.  Forty  days  and  forty  nights]  The  later 
account  adds  that  during  this  time  he  neither 
ate  nor  drank  (Dt  9  ^).  On  the  number  forty 
see  on  2^1. 


(Chs.  25-31)  The  Tabernacle  and  the  Priesthood 

^^^^  -Lxjja,  £.0  alone,  and  that  only  once  a  year  on  the  great 
The  Vessels  of  the  Sanctuary  day  of  Atonement  with  special  ceremonial. 
Chapters  25-31  are  taken  up  with  prescrip-  It  has  been  questioned  whether  a  tabernacle 
tions  regarding  the  Construction  of  a  Taber-  of  this  somewhat  elaborate  design  and  costly 
nacle,  i.e.  a  tent,  to  form  the  visible  dwelling-  workmanship  could  have  been  erected  by  the 
place  of  Jehovah  in  the  midst  of  His  Israelites  in  their  present  circumstances, 
people,  the  place  where  He  would  meet  This  difficulty,  however,  has  been  exaggerated, 
them  and  receive  their  worship.  The  entire  In  Egypt  the  Israelites  were  familiar  with 
structure  consisted  of  thi-ee  parts.  There  arts  and  manufactures,  and  they  left  Egypt 
was  an  outer  Court,  100  cubits  by  50,  open  to  with  spoil  of  precious  metals  (11 2  123^.36). 
the  sky,  the  sides  of  which  were  composed  of  Another  difficulty  has  been  discerned  in  the 
curtains  supported  on  pillars.  The  entrance  fact  that  no  references  to  such  an  elaborate 
was  at  the  eastern  end;  inside,  facing  the  structure  occur  in  the  historical  books  previous 
door,  was  the  altar  of  burnt  offering,  and  to  the  time  of  Solomon.  Some  scholars  ac- 
behind  that  the  brazen  laver.  Within  this  cordingly  hold  that  many  of  the  details  de- 
court  and  towards  the  western  end  was  a  scribed  here  are  of  an  ideal  nature,  the  pre- 
covered  tabernacle,  divided  by  a  hanging  cur-  scription  of  what  ought  to  be  rather  than 
tain  into  two  chambers.  The  outer  of  these,  of  what  actually  was  carried  out,  '  the  attempt 
called  the  Holy  Place,  contained  the  Table  of  of  a  devout  and  imaginative  mind  to  give 
Shewbread,  the  Candlestick,  and  the  Altar  of  concrete  embodiment  to  some  of  the  loftiest 
Incense.  The  Inner  chamber,  the  Holy  of  and  purest  spiritual  truths  to  be  met  with  in 
Holies,  or  Most  Holy  Place,  contained  the  the  whole  range  of  scripture.'  This  difficulty. 
Ark  of  the  Covenant  which  supported  the  like  the  other,  is  of  a  negative  kind,  and  we 
Mercy  seat  and  the  two  golden  Cherubim,  should  be  careful  not  to  over-estimate  it.  In 
The  three  parts,  of  which  the  entire  structure  any  case,  the  symbolism  underlying  the  con- 
was  composed,  were  of  increasing  degrees  of  struction  of  the  tabernacle  with  its  furniture 
sanctity.  Into  the  outer  court  came  the  wor-  and  ritual  is  unmistakable.  The  costliness 
shippers  when  they  brought  their  offerings,  of  the  materials  teaches  the  lesson  that  God 
Into  the  Holy  Place  went  the  priests  to  per-  is  to  be  served  with  the  best  that  man  can 
form  their  sacred  offices;  while  into  the  Most  give.  The  harmony  and  exact  proportions  of 
Holy  Place,  which  was  the  immediate  Presence  its  parts  are  a  reflection  of  the  harmony  and 
Chamber  of    Jehovah,  went  the  high  priest  perfection  of  the  divine  nature.    The  increasing 

73 


25.  1 


EXODUS 


25.23 


degrees  of  sanctity  which  characterise  the 
Court,  the  Holy  Place,  and  the  Holy  of 
Holies,  emphasise  the  reverence  due  by  man 
to  Him  whose  dwelling  is  in  the  high  and  holy 
place,  and  who  yet  condescends  in  His  gi-ace 
to  tabernacle  with  man  and  to  accept  his  im- 
perfect worship 

1-9.  Gifts  of  materials  for  the  tabernacle. 

2.  '  God  loveth  a   cheerful  giver  '  (2  Cor  9  '^). 

3.  Brass]  rather,  '  bronze,'  an  alloy  of  copper 
and  tin:  see  on  DtS^.  4.  Blue,  etc.]  the 
yarns  of  which  the  hangings  were  to  be  woven 
by  the  women:  see  3525  391.  5.  Rams' 
skins  dyed  red]  red  leather  made  of  sheep 
skins.  Badgers'  skins]  RV  'sealskins,'  RM 
'  porpoise-skins.'  Shittim  ■wood]  RV  '  acacia 
wood.'  The  acacia  (Heb.  shlttah,  plur.  shittim)  is 
the  characteristic  tree  of  the  Sinaitic  peninsula. 
The  wood  is  very  durable  and  much  used  in 
furniture  making.        7.  On  the  ephod  see  28  ^  *. 

8.  That  I  may  dwell  among  them]  Strictly 
speaking,  God  cannot  be  said  to  dwell  in  one 
place  more  than  in  another.  But  as  men 
realise  His  presence  most  vividly  when  they 
are  consciously  engaged  in  His  worship,  the 
place  of  worship  becomes  in  a  special  sense  a 
'  meeting-place  '  with  God  (see  v.  22)  and  a 
'  house,  or  dwelling-place,  of  God ' :  cp.  Gn 
2817.  The  expression  is  anthropomorphic 
at  the  best,  and  is  felt  to  be  inadequate  as  the 
spiritual  nature  of  God  is  more  fully  realised: 
see  Jn420-24_  in  later  times  Jewish  writers 
avoided  saying  that  '  God  dwells '  in  any 
place,  even  in  heaven  itself.  They  said  that 
He  'makes  His  Shekinah  to  dwell'  there. 
The  '  Shekinah '  is  the  manifestation  of  God, 
especially  in  the  bright  cloud  (see  403^.35). 
The  word  is  connected  with  the  Heb.  word 
for  dwelling  (mishkan)  used  in  the  next  verse. 

9.  Pattern]  This  does  not  imply  any  visible 
or  material  model.  It  expresses  the  fact  that 
Moses,  during  his  long  retirement  with  God 
on  the  mount,  was  divinely  directed  as  to  the 
most  fitting  way  in  which  God  might  be  wor- 
shipped. This  inspiration  does  not  exclude 
the  exercise  of  the  natural  faculties,  but  pre- 
supposes them  as  the  basis  on  which  it  may 
operate:  see  on  31*.  Nor  does  it  exclude  the 
appropriation,  under  divine  sanction,  of  ideas 
suggested  by  certain  features  in  the  ritual  of 
other  nations  with  which  Moses  was  already 
acquainted.  See  Intro,  to  Exodus,  §  2,  near 
the  end. 

Tabernacle]  lit.  '  dwelling.'  Here  it  seems 
to  denote  the  entu-e  fabric.  The  name  is 
applied  in  particular  to  the  sacred  tent,  stand- 
ing in  the  midst  of  the  court:  see  261. 

10-22.  The  Ark  of  the  Testimony. 

10.  Ark]  i.e.  a  chest  or  coffer.  A  cubit 
is  about  18  in.  Such  sacred  arks  were  well 
known  to  the  Egyptians  and  Assyrians.  They 
contained    some    image    of    the    deity    wor- 


shipped, and  were  carried  with  great  pomp  in 
processions  at  national  festivals.  It  is  signifi- 
cant of  the  spiritual  nature  of  the  Hebrew 
religion  that  the  ark  made  by  Moses  contained 
no  image,  but  instead  a  copy  of  the  Moral  Law. 
After  the  conquest  of  Canaan  the  ark  remained 
for  a  long  time  at  Shiloh  (Josh  18 1  1 83^),  and 
was  at  last  brought  by  David  to  his  capital  at 
Jerusalem  (2S6  lChl3).  Solomon  placed  it 
in  the  temple  which  he  built  (IK8I),  after 
which  there  is  no  further  record  of  it.  It  may 
have  been  carried  off  by  Shishak  to  Egypt 
(IK  1426)  or  by  Nebuchadnezzar  to  Babylon 
(2  K  26  s-i  *").  There  seems  to  have  been  no  ark 
in  the  second  temple. 

II.  Crown]  i.e.  a '  rim '  or '  moulding '  which 
projected  above  the  top  edge  of  the  ark  to 
keep  the  '  mercy  seat '  in  its  place.  16.  Testi- 
mony] see  on  16^^.  17.  Mercy  seat]  RM 
'  covering.'  Thisisnot  to  be  regarded  as  a  mere 
lid  or  covering  of  the  ark,  but  has  an  independent 
significance.  It  is  the  golden  throne  of  God 
where  the  people's  sins  are  '  covered,'  i.e.  ex- 
piated or  forgiven  :  see  on  Lv  1  '^. 

18.  Two  cherubims]  'Cherubim'  is  the 
Heb.  plural  of  '  cherub.'  The  exact  form  of 
these  cherubim  is  doubtful.  Some  suppose 
they  were  winged  bulls  such  as  are  represented 
on  Assyrian  monuments  as  guardian  spirits  at 
the  doors  of  temples  or  houses  :  cp.  GnS^'*. 
Others  take  them  to  be  of  human  form.  They 
figure  very  often  in  Hebrew  sacred  art.  They 
were  introduced  into  the  pattern  of  the  curtain 
which  screened  off  the  Holy  of  Holies  (26^1). 
In  Jewish  thought  the  cherubim  occupy  the 
highest  rank  among  the  angels  of  heaven,  and 
are  the  bearers  or  upholders  of  the  throne  of 
Jehovah,  who  is  accordingly  said  to  sit  upon 
or  between  the  cherubim  (2  K 19 15  Ps  18 10  80 1 
99 1).  In  Ezk  10  the  cherubim  are  identified 
with  the  four  living  creatures  of  c.  1  (see 
Ezk  10  20  and  cp.  Rev  4  6 1).  The  figures  of  the 
cherubim  upon  the  mercy  seat  were  of  course 
small  ;  those  in  Solomon's  temple  were  of 
colossal  dimensions  (2  Ch  3 10-13).  19.  Of  the 
mercy  seat]  RV  '  of  one  piece  with  the  mercy- 
seat.'  20.  Tow^ard  the  mercy  seat  shall  the 
faces .  .  be]  This  is  probably  what  is  alluded 
to  in  1  Pet  1 12.  22.  I  will  meet  with  thee] 
Hence  the  tabernacle  is  called  the  '  tent  of 
meeting,'  i.e.  the  place  where  Jehovah  meets 
with  Moses  and  Israel,  not  the  place  where 
worshippers  assemble,  as  the  AV  rendering 
'  tabernacle  of  the  congregation '  seems  to 
imply:  see  29*2,43  337. 

23-30.  The  Table  of  Shewbread. 
The  ark  alone  stood  in  the  innermost 
chamber.  The  table  here  described,  on  which 
lay  twelve  loaves  (see  on  v.  30),  stood  in  the 
second  chamber,  the  Holy  Place.  On  the  Arch 
of  Titus,  still  standing  in  Rome,  there  are 
sculptured  the  Table  of  Shewbread  and  the 
74 


25.  25 


EXODUS 


26.  14 


Golden  Candlestick  which  the  Emperor  Titus 
carried  off  from  the  Temple  of  Herod  after 
the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  in  the  year  70  a.d. 
These  were  not  the  original  table  and  candle- 
stick, but  were  no  doubt  exact  copies  of  them. 

25.  Border]  The  representation  of  the  table 
on  the  Arch  of  Titus  referred  to  above  shows 
a  narrow  rail  running  round  the  table  about 
halfway  down  the  legs,  keeping  them  in  posi- 
tion. This  is  probably  what  is  meant  here  by 
the  '  border.'  27.  Over  against]  RV  '  close 
by.'  The  rings  would  be  nearly  halfway  down 
the  legs.  29.  The  dishes  were  the  plates  on 
which  the  loaves  were  brought  to  the  table  ; 
the  spoons  were  small  vessels  to  hold  the  in- 
cense which  was  laid  upon  the  bread  (Lv  24''')  ; 
the  covers  (RV  '  flagons ')  and  bowls  held  the 
wine  of  the  drink  offering  which  accompanied 
every  meal  offering.  For  to  cover  withal  read 
with  RV  '  to  pour  out  withal.'  30.  Shew- 

bread]  lit.  '  bread  of  the  presence,'  RM  '  Pres- 
ence-bread.' This  consisted  of  twelve  loaves 
of  unleavened  bread,  which  were  laid  upon  the 
table,  in  the  presence  of  God,  and  changed 
every  sabbath  day.  It  was  a  kind  of  thank- 
offering,  expressive  of  man's  constant  indebted- 
ness to  God  for  his  daily  bread  :  see  on  Lv  24  ^-^. 

31-40.  The  Golden  Candlestick. 

This  also  stood  in  the  Holy  Place.  Being 
made  of  pure  gold,  it  is  called  the  '  pure  candle- 
stick' in  31 8,  etc.  It  was  really  a  lampstand. 
From  a  central  shaft  three  curved  arms  sprang 
on  each  side,  one  above  the  other,  rising  to  the 
same  height  as  it.  On  each  of  these  seven 
supports  rested  a  lamp,  in  shape  like  a  bowl  or 
saucer.  The  shaft  and  the  arms  were  orna- 
mented with  representations  of  almond  buds 
and  blossoms,  introduced  three  times  into  each 
arm  and  four  times  into  the  shaft  (v.  34). 

3 1 .  Bowls]  (R V  '  cups ')  are  the  open  leaves 
surmounting  the  knops  or  '  calyx  '  of  the  flower. 
The  topmost  bowl  held  the  lamp.  On  the  oil, 
see  on  27 -'0,21,  and  cp.  Lv  241-4  Nu8i-4. 

Shall  be  of  the  same]  RV  '  of  one  piece  with 
it '  :  so  in  vv.  35,  3G. 

33.  Candlestick]  the  central  shaft,  which 
may  have  had  in  all  seven  knops. 

37,  The  lampstand  stood  on  the  south  side 
of  the  Holy  Place  with  its  arms  parallel  to  the 
wall.  On  these  the  lamps,  in  the  form  of  oval- 
shaped  saucers,  were  placed  crosswise  with 
their  nozzles  pointing  northwards,  so  that 
they  cast  their  light  over  against  the  lampstand, 
i.e.  on  the  space  in  front  of  it.  38.  The 
tongs  are  the  snuffers  ;  the  snuffdishes  are  for 
receiving  and  removing  the  pieces  of  charred 
wick.  39.  A  talent  of  gold  is  estimated  at 
about  £6,000  of  our  money  :  see  on  38  2"^. 

CHAPTER  26 

The  Tabernacle  Proper 
This,  which  in  the  Hebrew  is  called  '  the 


75 


dwelling '  (see  on  25  9),  consists  of  an  oblong 
tent,  30  cubits  long,  10  broad,  and  10  high, 
and  stands  within  the  '  court  of  the  tabernacle ' 
(27  9-*-).  It  is  formed  of  a  frame  of  open 
woodwork,  over  which  are  spread  four  layers  of 
coverings,  the  undermost  being  of  linen  em- 
broidered with  figures  of  cherubim,  the  second 
of  goathair  cloth,  the  third  of  ramskin,  and 
the  outermost  of  sealskin.  Internally,  there- 
fore, the  tabernacle  had  the  appearance  of 
rows  of  panels  enclosing  a  pattern  of  cherubim. 
The  tabernacle  was  divided  into  two  chambers 
by  means  of  a  veil  suspended  from  the  roof  at 
a  distance  of  10  cubits  from  the  back  wall. 
The  innermost  chamber,  or  Holy  of  Holies, 
was  therefore  in  shape  a  perfect  cube  of  10 
cubits  in  the  side.  The  roof,  of  which  nothing 
is  said,  is  best  understood  as  flat.  At  the  time 
of  the  conquest  and  settlement  in  Canaan,  we 
hear  of  a  tabernacle  being  set  up  at  Shiloh, 
where  it  seems  to  have  remained  during  the 
time  of  the  Judges  (Josh  18 1  Jg21i9  IS  13). 
In  the  time  of  David  it  seems  to  have  been  at 
Nob  (1  S21 1),  and  afterwards  at  Gibeon  (1  Ch 
21 29)^  where  it  was  at  the  beginning  of  Solo- 
mon's reign  (2  Ch  1 1^).  After  the  building  of 
Solomon's  temple  we  hear  no  more  of  it,  its 
furniture  being  then  transferred  to  the  more 
permanent  building. 

1-14.  The  Coverings. 

1-6.  The  undermost  covering.  This  is  of 
linen  ornamented  with  cherubim  of  '  cunning 
work,'  i.e.  of  tapestry  or  embroidery.  Ten 
pieces  of  material,  each  28  x  4  cubits,  are  sewn 
together  in  two  sets  of  five  (v.  3),  which  are  then 
joined  at  their  edges  by  means  of  loops  and 
golden '  taches,'  i.e.  clasps  (vv.  4-6),  to  form  one 
large  covering  40  cubits  long  and  28  wide.  Of 
this  length,  30  cubits  are  taken  up  with  the 
roof,  leaving  10  cubits  to  hang  down  the  back. 
The  front  is  left  open,  to  be  afterwards  closed 
with  a  separate  hanging  (v.  36).  Of  the  breadth, 
10  cubits  form  the  roof,  leaving  18  to  hang 
down  and  form  the  two  sides.  The  covering, 
it  will  be  observed,  does  not  reach  the  ground 
at  the  sides,  but  this  is  not  necessary,  as  there 
is  a  base  running  all  round  supporting  the 
wooden  frame  (v.  19).  7-13.  The  second 
covering.  This  is  of  goathair  and  is  spread 
over  the  first.  By  joining  eleven  pieces,  each 
30  X  4  cubits,  a  covering  is  obtained  44  cubits 
long  and  30  wide.  The  ampler  width  allows 
this  covering  to  reach  the  ground  at  the  sides. 
The  extra  length  of  4  cubits  is  partly  taken 
up  by  doubling  back  the  edge  a  distance  of 
2  cubits,  leaving  2  cubits  the  distribution  of 
which  is  not  clear  (vv.  12,  13).  14.  The 
outer  coverings.  Over  the  goathair  covering 
are  spread  two  others,  one  of  red  leather  made 
of  ramskin,  and  the  other,  the  outermost,  of  seal- 
skin :  see  on  25  ^.  The  purpose  of  these  opaque 
and  heavy  curtains  is  to  exclude  the  light. 


26.  15 


EXODUS 


27.  20 


15-30.  The  wooden  framework  supporting 
the  coverings. 

15.  The  boards,  as  they  are  here  called,  are 
not  solid,  as  then  they  would  have  been  very 
heavy,  and  the  cherubim  embroidered  upon 
the  inner  covering  would  not  have  been  visible 
at  all.  It  is  best,  with  Professor  Kennedy,  to 
take  them  to  be  open  frames  consisting  of  two 
uprights  connected  with  cross  rails.  These 
frames  are  10  cubits  in  height  and  1^  in  width, 
and  are  kept  upright  by  being  let  down  with 
tenons  and  mortises  into  sockets  (v.  19),  which 
rest  side  by  side  upon  the  ground,  and  form  a 
continuous  base  or  plinth  all  round.  Rigidity 
is  secured  by  means  of  long  bars  running 
round  the  structure  (v.  26).  18.  The  length 
of  the  side  being  30  cubits,  twenty  frames  are 
required  for    each   side.  22.  Sides]    RV 

'  hinder  part '  :  the  W.  end  is  meant.  The 
tabernacle  is  10  cubits  in  width,  measured 
from  curtain  to  curtain.  As  only  six  frames, 
amounting  to  9  cubits,  are  required  for  the 
end,  it  would  appear  that  1  cubit  was  taken 
up  with  the  thickness  of  the  side  frames  with 
their  stiffening  bars.  The  frames  were  probably 
6  in.  deep  and  the  bars  3  in. 

23,  24.  The  exact  meaning  of  these  vv.  is 
obscure,  but  they  suggest  that  the  two  corners 
of  the  back  wall  were  strengthened  by  means 
of  an  extra  frame  in  the  form  of  a  sloping 
buttress.  In  v.  24  read  with  RV,  '  they  shall 
be  double  beneath,  and  in  like  manner  they 
shall  be  entire  unto  the  top  thereof  unto  one 
(or,  the  first)  ring.'  The  foot  of  the  additional 
frame  would  be  set  back  a  little,  giving  the 
appearance  of  being  '  double  beneath,'  and  the 
frame  would  slope  in  to  the  top  of  the  up- 
right, where  it  would  be  fastened  to  it. 

25.  Eight  boards]  i.e.  six  upright  and  two 
extra  for  the  sloping  buttresses. 

26-28.  In  order  to  give  rigidity  to  the  up- 
right frames  five  bars  are  run  along  the  three 
sides  of  the  tabernacle  through  rings  attached 
to  the  frames.  The  middle  bar  runs  from  end 
to  end  ;  the  others,  it  is  implied,  do  not  (v.  28). 

27.  The  two  sides  westward]  RV  '  the 
hinder  part  westward,'  as  in  v.  22. 

31-33.  The  dividing  veil.  This  is  of  the 
same  material  as  the  inner  covering,  linen 
tapestry,  embroidered  with  chei-ubim,  and  is 
supported  upon  four  pillars  at  a  distance  of  10 
cubits  from  the  back  wall  or  20  cubits  from  the 
entrance  (see  on  v.  33).  It  screens  off  the  Most 
Holy  Place. 

33.  Under  the  taches]  under  the  joining  of 
the  covering  forming  the  roof  which  was  at  a 
distance  equal  to  five  widths  of  the  material 
counting  from  the  entrance  :  see  on  vv.  1-6. 

36.  The  hanging  curtain  forming  the  door, 
RV  '  the  screen.'  This  closes  the  tabernacle 
on  the  E.  side,  and  is  supported  by  five  pillars 
dividing  the  entrance  into  four  equal  spaces. 


CHAPTER   27 

Thr  Altar  of  Burnt  Offering.  The 
Court  of  the  Tabernacle.  The  Oil 
FOR  the  Lamps 

1-8.  The  Altar  of  Burnt  Offering. 

This  is  a  hollow  chest  of  acacia  wood  over- 
laid with  bronze,  and  stands  within  the  court, 
midway  between  the  outer  entrance  and  the 
door  of  the  tabernacle. 

1 .  The  approximate  size  of  the  altar  is  7^  ft. 
square  and  4i  ft.  high  :  see  on  20^6. 

2.  The  horns]  The  form  and  significance  of 
these  horns  are  doubtful.  They  were  very 
important,  and  seem  to  have  been  regarded  as 
the  most  sacred  part  of  the  altar  (cp.  Am  3 1"*). 
The  blood  of  sin  offerings  was  smeared  upon 
them  (Lv4is),  and  this  was  done  also  at  the 
consecration  of  the  priests  (Ex2d^'^  LvS^^^^ 
Criminals  clung  to  them  as  an  asylum  (1  K 1  ^o 
228^  Whether  sacrificial  victims  were  bound 
to  them  is  doubtful,  as  the  text  is  corrupt  in 
the  only  passage  where  this  practice  seems  to 
be  alluded  to  (Psll827).  It  has  been  sug- 
gested that  the  horns  of  the  altar  have  some 
connexion  with  the  worship  of  Jehovah  in  the 
form  of  a  bull  :  cp.  32*.  Of  the  same]  RV 
'  of  one  piece  with  it.' 

4.  A  grate]  The  position  and  purpose  of 
this  gi-ating  are  not  clear.  It  may  have  been 
a  grating  suspended  by  rings  inside  the  altar, 
allowing  the  ashes,  blood,  and  fat  of  the  victims 
to  drain  off  into  the  earth  with  which  in  all 
probability  the  hollow  altar  was  filled.  Or  it 
may  have  been  intended  to  carry  the  fii'e,  or  the 
victims  over  the  fire.  Some  take  it  to  be  a 
piece  of  ornamental  open-work  extending 
downwards  on  each  side,  from  the  ledge  to  the 
ground,  or  the  ledge  itself  :  see  on  v.  5. 

5.  Compass  of  the  altar]  RV  'ledge  round 
the  altar.'  This  seems  to  have  been  a  kind  of 
projecting  step  or  narrow  platform  running 
round  the  altar  halfway  up,  on  which  the 
officiating  priests  stood. 

9-19.  The  Court  of  the  Tabernacle. 

This  is  a  sacred  enclosure,  open  to  the  sky, 
surrounding  the  tabernacle,  formed  of  a  fence 
of  linen  curtains  5  cubits  in  height  suspended 
on  pillars  of  bronze.  In  form  it  is  an  oblong 
100  cubits  by  50.  The  Court  is  open  to  all 
worshippers.  lo.  Fillets]  Probably  rods 
connecting  the  pillars  with  each  other. 

14.  The  hangings  of  one  side]  The  entrance 
is  in  the  middle  of  the  E.  side  and  is  20 
cubits  wide,  leaving  15  cubits  at  each  side  of 
it.  19.   Pins]    Tent  pegs. 

20,  21.  The  Oil  for  the  Lamps. 

20.  Pure  olive  oil  beaten  RV]  Oil  extracted 
by  beating  olives  in  a  mortar  without  heat.  It 
is  the  purest  kind  of  oil.  To  burn  always]  As 
there  was  no  window  in  the  tabernacle  it  is 
probable,  though  nowhere  asserted,  that  the 


76 


27.  21 


EXODUS 


28.36 


lights  burned    day  and   night:    cp.    Lv 241-4 
Nu8i-i. 

21.  Tabernacle  of  the  congregation]  RV 
'tent  of  meeting.'  So  always;  see  on  2522. 
Before  the  testimony]  see  on  IG^i.  Order  it 
from  evening  to  morning]  This  may  mean 
that  the  lamps  were  trimmed  evening  and 
morning  :  see  on  the  preceding  v. 

CHAPTER   28 
The  Priestly  Garments 

1.  All  Israel  is  a  'kingdom  of  priests'  (see 
on  196),  but  for  the  special  service  of  the  sanc- 
tuary Aaron  and  his  descendants  are  selected 
and  solemnly  consecrated  :  see  Lv8,  9.  Nadab 
and  Abihu  died  (Lv  10)  and  the  priesthood  was 
continued  in  the  descendants  of  Eleazar  and 
Ithamar  :  see  iCh  241-6,  and  on  ]Sru25i2. 

2.  Holy  garments]  The  garments  are  holy 
because  they  are  specially  set  apart  and  con- 
secrated for  use  in  the  sanctuary.  3.  Whom 
I  have  filled  vvith  the  spirit  of  wisdom]  God  is 
the  source  not  only  of  all  spiritual  grace,  but 
of  every  intellectual  faculty  and  artistic  gift  : 
cp.  Isa  28  23-29  Jasli7,  and  see  on  Sl-t. 

6-12.  The  Ephod. 

This  is  a  kind  of  waistcoat,  made  of  varie- 
gated material,  supported  by  straps  passing 
over  the  shoulders  and  bound  round  the  waist 
with  a  girdle.  On  each  of  the  shoulder-straps 
is  an  onyx  stone  engraved  with  the  names  of 
six  tribes  of  Israel.  On  the  front  of  the  ephod 
and  attached  to  it  by  means  of  gold  chains  and 
rings  is  a  pouch  called  the  'breastplate'  (v.  IS'-)- 

6.  The  gold  was  in  the  form  of  threads 
worked  into  the  pattern  ;  see  on  39  3.  Cunning 
work  is  again  embroidery  as  in  261.  8.  Cu- 
rious girdle]  RV  '  cunningly  woven  band ' :  i.e. 
embroidered. 

9-12.  The  engraving  of  gems  was  an  art  well 
known  to  the  Egyptians.  The  names  were 
those  of  the  twelve  tribes.  In  v.  12  the  stones 
are  called  stones  of  memorial  unto  the  children 
of  Israel.  The  high  priest  wore  these  stones 
when  he  ministered  before  the  Lord,  as  the 
representative  of  the  people.  They  served  as 
a  kind  of  visible  supplication  of  His  gracious 
remembrance.  13.  Ouches]  The  word,  which 
is  properly  'nouche,'  means  a  rosette  or  button 
of  gold  filigree  in  which  the  stone  is  set. 

14.  The  chains  are  for  attaching  the  breast- 
plate to  the  ephod  :  see  vv.  22-25. 

15-30.  The  breastplate]  This  is  really  a 
pouch,  one  span,  or  half  a  cubit,  square,  made 
of  the  same  material  as  the  ephod,  and  orna- 
mented on  the  outside  with  twelve  jewels  set 
in  four  rows,  each  stone  being  engraved  with 
the  name  of  a  tribe.  The  pouch  is  intended  to 
hold  the  Urim  and  Thummira,  by  means  of 
which  God's  judgments  are  declared  (see  on  v. 
30),  and  is  therefore  here  called  the  breast- 
plate of  judgment. 


16.  Doubled]  so  as  to  form  a  pouch. 

17-21.  It  is  not  easy  to  identify  the  stones 
mentioned  in  this  and  the  following  vv.,  the 
meaning  of  the  Hebrew  words  being  doubtful. 
The  stones  in  the  first  row  are  probably  a  red 
jasper,  a  yellowish  green  serpentine,  and  an 
emerald.  In  the  second  row  a  red  garnet,  a 
lapis  lazuli,  and  an  onyx.  In  the  third  row 
a  yellow  agate,  a  black  and  white  agate,  and 
an  amethyst.  In  the  fourth  row  a  yellow  jas- 
per, a  beryl,  and  a  dark  green  jasper.  With 
this  list  of  stones  may  be  compared  that  in 
Ezk28i3,  and  that  in  Rev  2119.20  (the  founda- 
tions of  the  walls  of  the  heavenly  Jerusalem). 

22.  Chains  at  the  ends  of  wreathen  work] 
RV  '  chains  like  cords,  of  wreathen  work.' 

30.  The  Urim  and  the  Thummim]  The  literal 
meaning  of  these  words  is  given  in  RM,  '  the 
Lights  and  the  Perfections.'  The  Urim  and 
Thummim  are  nowhere  described,  but  there 
can  be  no  doubt  that  they  were  material  objects, 
as  they  are  said  to  be  put  in  the  breastplate, 
which  was  a  pocket  :  cp.  also  LvS^.  From 
1  S  28  6  we  learn  that  the  Urim  (and  Thum- 
mim) served  as  one  of  three  ways  by  means  of 
which  the  divine  will  might  be  ascertained  : 
cp.  Nu272i.  In  all  probability  they  were  two 
images  or  jewels,  engraved  with  distinguishing 
characters,  used  in  casting  lots.  In  this  con- 
nexion 1814^8-42  is  instructive.  V.  41  in  our 
Hebrew  text  there  is  evidently  mutilated.  The 
Gk.  and  Lat.  versions  read,  '  If  the  iniquity  be 
in  me  or  Jonathan  my  son,  give  Urim  ;  and  if 
the  iniquity  be  in  the  people,  give  Thummim.' 
On  the  casting  of  lots  see  on  Nu26s^.  and  cp. 
Lv  168  1S239-12  307,8  Ac  126. 

31.  The  robe  of  the  ephod]  This  is  a  frock 
or  cassock,  woven  entirely  of  blue,  without 
sleeves,  drawn  over  the  head,  and  worn 
under  the  ephod.  Its  chief  characteristic  is  a 
row  of  golden  bells  attached  to  the  skirt  which 
sounded  when  the  high  priest  moved,  and 
enabled  the  people  to  follow  him  with  their 
thoughts  and  prayers  when  he  went  into  the 
Holy  Place  as  their  representative  before  God. 

32.  Habergeon]  A  sleeveless  jacket. 

33.  Hem]  RV  '  skirts.'  The  pomegranate 
is  a  tree  with  a  fruit  like  an  apple,  with  a 
juicy  pulp  and  full  of  seeds  (hence  the  name, 
which  means  grained  or  seeded  apple),  exten- 
sively cultivated  and  highly  prized  in  the 
East.  The  Heb.  name  is  riinmon^  which 
enters  into  many  place-names.  The  pome- 
granates here  are  embroidered  on  the  skirt  of 
the  robe.     The  bells  are  hung  upon  it. 

35.  His  sound]  i.e.  its  sound  :  see  on  Lv 
255.  That  he  die  not]  To  enter  God's  pre- 
sence carelessly  is  profanation  and  punishable 
with  death. 

36-38.  The  mitre]  This  is  made  of  fine 
linen,  and  is  in  the  form  of  a  turban.  Fas- 
tened in  front  of  it  is  a  plate  of  pure  gold 

77 


28.  38 


EXODUS 


29.  22 


with  the  inscription  HOLINESS  TO  THE  LORD 
(RY  '  HOLY  TO  THE  LORD'). 

38.  The  iniquity  of  the  holy  things]  The 
'  holy  things '  are  the  offerings  of  the  people. 
As  no  offerings  are  ever  worthy  of  God,  their 
acceptance  by  Him  is  an  act  of  grace.  The 
high  priest,  when  he  enters  the  divine  pre- 
sence in  the  manner  prescribed  by  God  Him- 
self, '  bears  the  iniquity  of  the  holy  things,' 
which  are  accepted  in  spite  of  the  unworthi- 
ness  necessarily  attaching  to  them.  For  the 
lofty  ideal  of  the  sanctification,  not  only  of 
what  is  used  in  divine  service  in  the  narrower 
sense  of  the  term,  but  in  every  department  of 
what  is  called  secular  life,  see  Zechl420,2i_ 

39.  The  coat  is  different  from  the  robe  (see 
29  ^).  It  is  an  under-garment  or  shirt  of  fine 
linen  fastened  with  an  embroidered  girdle. 

40.  Bonnets]  RY  'headtires':  close  fitting 
caps,  probably  of  a  different  shape  from  the 
turban  of  the  high  priest.  41.  Anoint  them] 
see  on  29''.  Consecrate]  lit.  'fill  the  hand.' 
The  expression  probably  refers  to  some  sym- 
bolic action  indicating  the  giving  of  authority 
at  a  ceremony  of  installation  to  a  sacred  office  : 
op.  2924. 

CHAPTER   29 

The  Consecration  of  the  Priesthood 
Cp.  Lv  8  9.  The  form  of  consecration 
consists  of  four  things,  (1)  ablution  (v.  4),  (2) 
investiture  with  the  holy  garments  (vv.  6-9), 
(3)  anointing  with  holy  oil  (v.  7),  and  (4) 
offering  of  sacrifices  (vv.  10*). 

1.  Without  blemish]   see  on  125. 

2.  Unleavened  bread]  see  on  12^.  Tem- 
pered] RY  '  mingled.'  Oil  is  a  common  ingre- 
dient of  cakes  in  the  East:  see  e.g.  IK  17 12, 
and  cp.  Lv2S'6. 

4.  Wash  them  with  water]  A  symbolic 
action  representing  the  need  of  inward  purity 
in  those  who  approach  God.  Washing  is 
frequently  enjoined  as  an  act  of  ceremonial 
purification:  see  e.g.  30i7-2i  Lv  11 25  148  1513, 
etc.,  and  cp.  Mk73.4.  The  symbol  is  retained 
in  Christian  baptism:  cp.  1  Pet 3 21. 

6.  Holy  crown]  the  golden  plate  with  the 
sacred  inscription:  see  28^6. 

7.  Anointing  oil]  This  oil  was  specially 
prepared:  see  3023-25.  Anointing  with  oil  is 
an  act  symbolising  a  special  consecration  to 
the  service  of  God.  Jacob  anointed  the  stone 
at  Beth-el  with  oil  (Gn  28  iS;  cp.  31 13  35 14),  and 
the  tabernacle  and  its  furniture  were  also 
anointed  (see  302*5-29  Lv  8 10,11).  Priests  were 
consecrated  by  anointing  (as  here)  and  also 
kings  (see  ISlQi  1613  2K1112),  who  are  ac- 
cordingly called  the  '  Lord's  anointed '  (1  S  20  ^ 
2S114  Ps22  8938,39).  The  Hebrew  word  for 
'  anoint '  is  mashach,  whence  is  derived  the 
word  Messiah,  which  is  used  figuratively  to 
describe  one  who  is  consecrated  by  God  for  a 


special  purpose:  cp.  e.g.  Isa45i.  Li  a  unique 
sense  it  denotes  the  Messiah  or  Christ,  the 
latter  word  being  the  Greek  equivalent  of  the 
Hebrewterm:  see Isa61iLk4i8.  InNT. Chris- 
tians are  called  the  anointed  of  God,  as  having 
received  the  unction  of  the  Holy  Spirit:  see 
2  Cor  121  iJn220,27. 

10-37.   The  sacrifices  of  Consecration. 

These  signify  the  self-sm-render  to  God  of 
those  on  whose  behalf  they  are  presented, 
symbolised  by  the  laying  of  the  hands  upon 
the  head  of  the  victim  and  its  subsequent 
slaughter:  see  onLvl*.  10.  The  bullock] 
is  for  a  sin  offering  on  behalf  of  Aaron  and  his 
sons.  For  the  significance  of  this  sacrifice 
see  Lv4.  12,  Cp.  Lv47.  Upon  the  horns 
of  the  altar]   see  on  27  2. 

13.  The  internal  fat,  like  the  blood,  is 
regarded  as  the  seat  of  life,  and  must  always 
be  offered  to  God  by  burning  upon  the  altar: 
see  on  23  is  and  Lv33.  The  caul  that  is  above 
the  liver]  RY  'caul  upon  the  liver,'  is  the  fatty 
covering  of  that  organ.  14.  Shalt  thou  burn] 
see  Lv4ii.i2,  and  on  Lv42<j. 

15.  One  ram]  one  of  the  two  already  men- 
tioned (v.  1),  to  be  a  whole  burnt  offering. 
It  is  entirely  consumed  upon  the  altar :  see  on 
Lvl.  17.  Unto  his  pieces,  and  unto  his 
head]  RY  '  with  its  pieces,  and  with  its  head.' 
The  dismemberment  of  the  victim  is  to  secure 
its  rapid  consumption  upon  the  altar. 

18.  A  sweet  savour]  This  phrase  is  fre- 
quently employed  in  connexion  with  sacrifices 
to  indicate  gracious  acceptance  on  the  part  of 
God  to  whom  they  are  offered:  see  e.g.  Gn82i, 
and  cp.  Ex  5  21. 

19.  The  other  ram]  called  in  v.  22  the  ram 
of  consecration,  lit. '  of  filling  (the  hand).'  See 
on  2841.  Its  blood  is  used  to  sprinkle  Aaron 
and  his  sons  and  their  garments  ;  its  most 
sacred  parts  are  waved  in  their  hands,  and  then 
burnt  upon  the  altar  ;  after  which  the  flesh  is 
boiled  and  eaten  by  them  at  a  sacrificial  feast. 
The  ritual  here  resembles  that  of  the  peace 
offering,  for  which  see  on  Lv3. 

20.  This  action  symbolises  the  purification 
and  consecration  of  the  bodily  faculties  to  the 
service  of  God.  A  similar  ceremony  was  per- 
formed at  the  cleansing  of  a  leper :  see  Lv  1 4i4>  i'''. 

21.  The  head  of  Aaron  is  already  anointed 
(v.  7),  so  that  this  sprinkling  with  blood  and 
oil  may  refer  only  to  the  garments  of  himself 
and  his  sons.  It  is  uncertain  whether  any 
save  the  high  priest  was  anointed  upon  the 
head.  In  Lv  4  3, 5,  I6  '  the  anointed  priest '  is 
the  high  priest  (cp.  Lv21io).  On  the  other 
hand,  Ex  2841  enjoins  the  anointing  of  Aaron's 
sons,  which,  however,  may  refer  to  this  second 
anointing. 

22.  The  rump]  RY  rightly,  '  the  fat  tail.' 
The  tail  of  one  species  of  the  Syrian  sheep  is 
very  long  and  broad,  weighing  sometimes  from 


78 


29.  23 


EXODUS 


80.  6 


ten  to  fifteen  pounds,  and  requiring  to  be  sup- 
ported on  a  little  wheeled  carriage.  It  is 
considered  a  great  delicacy,  its  fat  being  used 
for  cooking  instead  of  butter. 

23.  The   meal   offering   which   usually   ac- 
companies a  peace  offering:  see  Lv2  7ii-"i. 

24.  Put  all  in  the  hands  of  Aaron]  thus 
inducting  him  and  his  sons  into  the  duties  of 
their  office.  The  '  waving '  consisted  in  moving 
the  offerings  horizontally  in  the  direction  of 
the  sanctuary,  in  token  that  they  were  first 
presented  to  Grod  and  then  returned  by  Him 
to  the  officiating  priests.  This  ceremony  was 
performed  at  the  presentation  of  a  peace 
offering  (Lv7  -S-34)^  of  the  first  fruits  of  harvest 
(Lv23ii>i2),  and  of  the  two  loaves  at  the  Feast 
of  Weeks  (Lv  2320),  and  also  in  connexion  with 
the  cleansing  of  a  leper  (Lv  14 12, 24).  gge  also 
on  NuS^i.  26.  It  shall  be  thy  part]  The 
law  of  the  •wave  offering  prescribes  that  the 
breast  should  be  assigned  to  the  officiating 
priest ;  on  this  occasion  to  Moses:  see  Lv7  ^s-si. 
After  their  consecration  the  ceremony  is  per- 
formed by  the  priests,  who  receive  the  breast 
and  right  shoulder  as  their  portion.  See  vv. 
27,28.  27.  Heave  offering]  'Heaving' and 
'  waving  '  seem  to  refer  to  the  same  ceremony 
of  presenting  the  parts  first  to  Grod. 

29.  Shall  be  his  sons'  after  him]  cp.  Nu  20  26. 
Here  '  sons '  is  a  general  term  signifying  de- 
scendants. The  priesthood  was  hereditary  in 
the  family  of  Aaron.  30.  Shall  put  them  on 
seven  days]   see  on  v.  35. 

31.  The  characteristic  feature  of  the  peace 
offering  was  the  sacrificial  meal  partaken  of 
by  the  offerers,  expressive  of  their  communion 
with  God  and  one  another :  see  on  Lv3. 
In  the  holy  place]  In  the  court  before  the 
door  of  the  tent  of  meeting  :  see  LvS^i. 

33.  Stranger]  One  not  a  priest,  a  layman  : 
cp.  3033  Lv22io  Nuisi  310  :  see  also  on  1219. 

34.  See  on  12^0.  35.  The  ceremony  is 
to  be  repeated  each  day  for  seven  days  :  cp. 
Lv833,  and  for  the  fulfilment  of  the  injunc- 
tion, LvB  9.  36.  When  thou  hast  made] 
RV  '  when  thou  makest,'  or,  rather,  '  by  thy 
making.'  The  altar  was  consecrated  by  anoint- 
ing :  see  Lv8 10,11,  and  see  on  v.  7. 

37.   Shall  be  holy]  see  on  Lv23. 

38-42.  The  Daily  Sacrifice.  Every  morning 
and  evening  a  lamb  is  to  be  offered  as  a  burnt 
offering  on  behalf  of  the  whole  community  as 
an  act  of  public  worship  :  see  on  Lvl.  It  is 
accompanied  with  a  meal  offering  and  a  drink 
offering,  which  are  sacrifices  of  thanksgiving. 
It  was  offered  regularly  from  the  time  of  its 
institution  down  to  the  destruction  of  Jeru- 
salem, except  for  a  short  period  (168-165  B.C.) 
during  the  wars  of  the  Maccabees. 

40.  Tenth  deal]  tenth  part  of  an  ephah  : 
see  on  IG^^.  A  hin  is  about  a  gallon  and  a 
half.         41.   Meatoffering]   RV  'meal  offer- 

79 


ing':  see  Lv2.  42.  Tabernacle  of  the  con- 
gregation] RV  '  tent  of  meeting '  :  see  on 
2522.  43.  Sanctified  by  my  glory]  see  4034, 
and  on  32  16 10. 

CHAPTER  30 

The    Altar    of    Incense.      The  Ransom 
Money.     The  Layer.     The  Anointing 
Oil.     The  Incense 
I -10.    The  Altar  of  Incense.     The  use  of 
incense  in  worship   was  probably  due  to  the 
worshipper's  desire  to  honour  God  by  offering 
to  Him  what  he  enjoys  himself.     '  Ointment 
and  perfume  rejoice  the  heart '  (Prov  27  ^).     It 
served  also  to  counteract  the  strong  smell  of 
burning  flesh,  and  was  therefore  usually  pre- 
sented as  an  accompaniment  of  sacrifice,  and 
offered  either  in  censers  (LvlO^  I612  Nu  1 6 1'''), 
or  on  an  altar  erected  for  the  purpose,  as  here. 
In  Scripture  incense  is  an  emblem  of  prayer, 
probably  because   its   smoke  ascends  to   the 
clouds,  where  God  is  supposed  to  dwell  :  see 
e.g.  Ps  141 2  Rev  5  8  83.     The  existence  of  this 
altar  of  incense  at  the  time  of  Moses  has  been 
disputed.     In  about  one  hundred  places  men- 
tion is  made  of  '  the  altar '  as  if  there  was 
only  one,  that  of  burnt  offering  ;  no  mention 
is  made  of  an  altar  of  incense  in  Lvl6,  where 
it  might  have  been  expected  ;  it  is  not  alluded 
to  among  the  furniture  of  Solomon's  temple  ; 
and  the  directions  given  here  for  its  construc- 
tion would  have  stood  more  naturally  in  c.  25 
or  26,  where  the  omission  is  somewhat  strange. 
It  is  accordingly  supposed  that  this  passage, 
and  others  where  an  altar  of  incense  is  spoken 
of,  are  of  later  date  :  see  on  v.  6.     Indeed, 
the  whole  of  chs.  30,  31  is  believed  by  some 
to  be  a  later  addition.     Observe  the  solemn 
conclusion  at  the  end  of  c.  29. 

2.  On  the  horns,  see  on  272.  Of  the  same] 
see  on  2531. 

3.  Pure  gold]  Hence  this  altar  is  called 
'the  golden  altar'  (3938  4026  Nu4ii  Heb94 
RM,  etc.),  to  distinguish  it  from  the  altar  of 
burnt  offering,  which  is  called  the  '  brazen 
altar'  (3939).  Crown]  i.e.  rim  or  moulding, 
as  in  2511. 

6.  Before  the  vail]  This  means  outside  the 
veil  and,  therefore,  in  the  Holy  Place,  not  in 
the  Holy  of  Holies,  where  it  would  be  in- 
accessible save  once  a  year,  when  the  High 
Priest  entered  on  the  Day  of  Atonement 
(Lvl 6)  :  see  on  40^.  In  Heb9*,  however,  it 
is  said  to  have  stood  within  the  Holy  of 
Holies.  There  seems  to  have  been  some 
doubt,  therefore,  as  to  its  position  in  the 
tabernacle,  a  fact  which  is  reflected  in  the 
construction  of  this  v.,  which  is  overloaded 
and  apparently  self-contradictory.  The  altar 
is  before  the  veil,  and  it  is  also  before  the 
mercy  seat.  The  LXX  omits  the  words 
'  before  the   mercy  seat .  .  testimony.'      This 


30.  9 


EXODUS 


31.  4 


confusion  corroborates  the  view  that  this  altar 
did  not  belong  to  the  original  furniture  of  the 
tabernacle  :  see  on  vv.  1-10. 

9.  Strange  incense]  i.e.  incense  prepared 
differently  from  that  prescribed  in  vv.  34-38  : 
see  on  LvlQi.  Meat  offering]  E,V  'meal 
offering'  :  see  on  Lv2.  10.  Make  atone- 
ment upon  it]  E.V  '  for  it.'  Owing  to  the 
imperfection  of  all  human  worship,  the  altar 
itself  needs  to  be  cleansed  with  a  special  rite  : 
see  on  28^8  29^6.  The  reference  here  is  to 
the  ceremonial  of  the  yearly  Day  of  Atone- 
ment, for  which  see  Lvl6.  Most  holy]  see 
on  Lv23. 

I1-16.  The  Ransom  Money.  It  is  here 
enacted  that,  when  a  census  is  taken,  every 
person  above  the  age  of  twenty  shall  pay  half 
a  shekel  as  his  ransom.  At  the  time  of  a 
census  the  people  would  be  impressed  with 
the  great  privilege  of  membership  in  God's 
chosen  nation,  and  at  the  same  time  with  their 
unworthiness  to  be  reckoned  in  a  '  kingdom 
of  priests'  :  see  on  19^'^.  This  need  of 
atonement  underlies  the  payment  of  a  money 
ransom,  which  is  here  called  a  '  ransom,  or 
atonement,  for  your  souls.'  It  is  to  be  dis- 
tinguished from  the  money  given  as  a  redemp- 
tion for  the  firstborn,  for  which  see  IS^^. 
For  the  use  made  of  the  ransom  money,  see 
3825-28. 

12.  When  thou  takest  the  sum]  A  census 
of  the  people  was  probably  in  contemplation 
at  this  time,  and  was  made  twice  during  the 
forty  years'  sojourn  in  the  wilderness  :  see 
Nu  1  and  26.  Whether  it  was  done  regularly 
does  not  appear.  In  time  the  half  shekel 
became  an  annual  tax  devoted  to  the  mainten- 
ance of  the  public  sacrifices  in  the  Temple  : 
see  e.g.  Mtl724.  Plague]  as  the  result  of 
disobedience.  13.  Half  a  shekel]  A  silver 
shekel  was  equal  to  fully  half-a-crown.  The 
shekel  of  the  sanctuary  seems  to  have  been 
a  standard  weight,  and  was  probably  preserved 
by  the  priests  in  the  sanctuary. 

14.  Twenty  was  the  age  when  liability  to 
military  service  began   (Nul^).  15.     All 

give  alike,  for  it  is  a  ransom  for  the  soul  or 
life,  and  all  souls  are  equal  in  the  sight  of 
God.  16.  For  the  service  of  the  tabernacle] 
see  3825-28. 

17-21.  The  Laver.  This  was  of  bronze 
(see  on  25^),  and  stood  in  the  court  of  the 
tabernacle  between  the  altar  of  burnt  offering 
and  the  door  of  the  sanctuary,  and  held  the 
water  required  for  the  ablutions  of  the  priests 
(vv.  19-21  ;  see  on  29*).  According  to  388 
it  was  made  of  the  mirrors  of  the  serving 
women  :  see  on  Nu4ii.  Solomon's  Temple 
had  ten  lavers  (1  K  7  27-43). 

22-33.   The  Holy  Anointing  Oil. 

23.  Calamus]  The  word  means  '  reed '  or 
'  cane.'     Several  species  of  aromatic  reed  are 


known  in  the  East.  24.  Cassia]  a  kind  of 
cinnamon  of  a  very  pungent  flavour.  An  hin] 
about  a  gallon  and  a  half.  25.  Apothecary] 
RV  '  perfumer.'  In  the  warm  East  ointments 
and  perfumes  are  greatly  employed  as  cos- 
metics, and  the  art  of  preparing  these  is 
carried  to  a  high  degree  of  perfection.  Among 
the  Jews  there  was  a  guild  of  perfumers  in 
later  times.  29.   Most  holy]  see  on  Lv23. 

32.  Upon  man's  flesh  shall  it  not  be  poured] 
It  must  be  reserved  for  the  priests,  and  not 
used  as  an  ordinary  unguent  :    see   v.    33. 

33.  Stranger]  one  who  is  not  a  priest,  as 
in  2933.     Cutoff]    see  on  1215. 

34-38.   The  Incense. 

34.  Stacte]  a  kind  of  gum,  probably  myrrh. 
Onycha]  part  of  the  shell  of  a  shell  fish.  It 
burns  with  a  pungent  odour.  Galbanum]  a 
gum  resin.  Frankincense]  a  fragrant  gum 
obtained  by  slitting  the  bark  of  an  Indian  tree, 
which  was  also  to  be  found  in  ancient  times 
in  Arabia:  see  e.g.  Isa606  Ezk2722.  The 
substance  called  in  modern  times  '  common 
frankincense '  is  obtained  largely  from  fir 
trees.  The  English  word  means  '  pure 
incense.'  35.  RV  '  and  thou  shalt  make  of 
it  incense,  a  perfume  after  the  art  of  the 
perfumer,  seasoned  with  salt,  pure  and  holy.' 
Salt,  as  preventing  corruption,  is  the  symbol 
of  purity  and  durability  ;  it  was  used  with  all 
sacrifices  both  animal  and  vegetable  :  see 
Lv2i3  Ezr69  Ezk43  2i  Mk9-'9.  Among  the 
Arabs  salt  is  the  emblem  of  fidelity  and  lasting 
friendship.  To  have  '  eaten  salt '  with  a 
person,  and  so  partaken  of  his  hospitality,  is 
equivalent  to  a  pledge  of  mutual  and  indisso- 
luble amity.  Hence  in  OT.  a  '  covenant  of 
salt '  is  one  that  cannot  be  broken  :  see  Lv  2 13 
Nul8i9  2Chl35,  and  cp.  Ezr4i4  (AM)  and 
Mk950. 

37.  This  particular  compound  is  not  to  be 
used  for  any  profane  purpose  :  cp.  the  similar 
direction  in  the  case  of  the  holy  anointing  oil 
(vv.  32,  33). 

CHAPTER  31 
The  Appointment  of  Bezaleel  and  Aho- 
LiAB.  The  K-eepixg  of  the  Sabbath 
2.  By  name]  indicating  a  verv  special  call  : 
cp.  3312  Isa43i  451.3,4  jnloX  Bezaleel] 
R V  '  Bezalel '  :  see  1  Ch  2  is-20.  For  the  identi- 
fication of  the  grandfather  of  Bezaleel  with 
the  Hur  of  Ex  17 10  there  is  nothing  beyond 
the  similarity  of  names.  3.   See  on  283. 

4.  To  devise  cunning  Tworks]  Divine  in- 
spiration does  not  reduce  man  to  a  mere  ma- 
chine or  passive  instrument.  It  is  compatible 
with  originality  of  invention.  This  applies  not 
only  to  the  mechanical  arts  as  here,  but  also  to 
intellectual  gifts.  It  heightens  and  purifies, 
but  does  not  supersede  the  normal  faculties. 
Observe   that  '  cunning '    is   used  here  in  its 


80 


31.  10 


EXODUS 


32.  20 


etymological  sense  of  'knowing'  or  'skilful.' 
See  Psl375. 

10.  Cloths  of  service]  RV  'finely  wrought 
garments,'  a  general  term  including  what 
follows  :  see  39 1>  ^i. 

12-17.  The  reason  why  the  injunction  to 
observe  the  sabbath  is  repeated  here  and  again 
in  35  ^"3  before  the  account  of  the  carrying  out 
of  the  preceding  instructions  is  probably  the 
close  connexion  of  the  worship  of  the  tabernacle 
with  the  observance  of  the  day  of  rest. 

1 3.  A  sign]  Like  circumcision  the  sabbath  is 
a  sign  or  sacrament  marking  the  covenant  rela- 
tion between  Jehovah  and  His  people.  Cp. 
for  circumcision  GnlT^i  E,o4ii,  and  for  the 
sabbath  Ezk'20i2  Isa 56  **'*'.  Ancient  profane 
writers  frequently  refer  to  these  two  things  as 
the  distinguishing  characteristics  of  a  Jew. 

14.  Shall  be  put  to  death .  .  shall  be  cut  off] 
The  two  expressions  are  not  always  synony- 
mous ;  see  on  12  i^. 

18.  Two  tables  of  testimony]  cp.  16^*  25^6 
Written  with  the  finger  of  God]  see  on  24  ^^ 

CHAPTER  32 
The  Idolatry  of  the  People 
1-6.  The  historical  narrative  is  here  re- 
sumed from  24 1^.  Becoming  impatient  at  the 
prolonged  absence  of  Moses  on  the  mount 
(forty  days,  24 1^),  and  despairing  of  his  return, 
the  people  prevail  upon  Aaron  to  make  a  god 
to  go  before  them.  From  the  earrings  of  the 
men  and  women  he  accordingly  makes  a  golden 
bull,  to  which  divine  honours  are  paid. 

1.  Unto  Aaron]  Aaron  and  Hur  had  been  left 
in  charge  by  Moses  ;  see  24 1-*.  Make  us  gods] 
RM  '  a  god.'  The  Hebrew  word  for  God  has  a 
plural  form.  In  making  this  demand  it  is  doubt- 
ful whether  the  people  intended  to  abandon  the 
worship  of  Jehovah  altogether,  or  wished  simply 
to  have  a  visible  representation  of  Him,  in  other 
words,  whether  their  sin  was  a  breach  of  the 
first  commandment  of  the  Decalogue  or  the 
second.  The  words  of  Aaron  in  vv.  4,  5  seem 
to  indicate  that  he  at  least  regarded  the  golden 
bull  as  an  image  of  the  true  God  ;  but  in  v.  8 
the  people  are  charged  with  deserting  Jehovah 
for  another  god.  The  one  sin  naturally  leads 
to  the  other.  The  worship  of  God  by  means  of 
images  degrades  God,  and  the  image  gradually 
usurps  His  place  in  the  mind  of  the  worshipper. 
See  on  15  n  203,4. 

2.  Earrings]  RV  'rings.'  Taken  by  itself 
the  word  may  mean  either  earrings  or  nose-rings. 
Here  the  former  are  expressly  intended,  but 
in  35  22  both  may  be  included.  Among  Eastern 
peoples  earrings  were  formerly  worn  both  by 
men  and  women  ('  your  sons  '  here  ;  cp.  Jg  8  24), 
not  only  as  ornaments  but  as  amulets  or  charms. 
In  modern  times  men  have  discontinued  the  use 
of  earrings,  and  nose-rings  are  worn  only  by  the 
Bedouin  women. 


81 


4.  After  he  had  made  it]  read  with  RV, '  and 
made  it.'  The  calf  was  really  a  bullock.  It  is 
usually  supposed  that  the  symbol  was  derived 
from  the  worship  of  the  Egyptians.  But  it 
was  a  living  bull,  not  an  image,  that  was  wor- 
shipped in  Egypt.  More  probably,  therefore, 
the  symbol  was  connected  with  the  worship 
of  the  Chaldeans  and  Assyrians,  of  which  some 
traces  may  have  survived  among  the  descend- 
ants of  Abraham.  A  common  image  with  the 
Assyrians  is  that  of  a  bull  with  wings  and  a 
human  head,  emblematic  of  strength  and 
wisdom.  See  on  the  cherubim,  2518,  also 
IK  122s. 

5.  A  feast  to  the  LORD]  i.e.  to  Jehovah. 
See  on  v.  1.  Feasting  was  a  common  ac- 
companiment of  sacrifice  ;  see  on  24  ^-n.  On 
the  nature  of  the  play  in  this  case  see  vv.  18, 
19,  25,  where  we  learn  that  it  included  sing- 
ing and  dancing.  Cp.  Ex  15  20, 21  Jg  2 119-21 
2S612-14  iK1826mg.  Isa3029. 

7-14.  God  tells  Moses  of  the  sin  of  the 
people  and  of  His  purpose  to  destroy  them. 
At  the  intercession  of  Moses  they  are  spared. 

7.  Thy  people  which  thou  broughtest  out] 
By  their  own  act  the  people  have  broken  the 
covenant  bond  uniting  them  to  Jehovah.  In 
V.  11  Moses  pleads  that  they  are  the  people 
of  Jehovah.  9.  Stiffnecked]  This  common 
metaphor  is  taken  from  a  stubborn  ox  that 
refuses  to  submit  to  the  yoke.  Cp.  ZechTH 
Hos  4 16  (R V  '  stubborn  heifer '),  Jer  1 7  23  Neh  3  & 
Ps75'^.  ID.   Cp.  the  promise  made  to  Abra- 

ham in  Gnl2  2.  The  people  having  judged 
themselves  unworthy  of  the  promise  (cp. 
Ac  1 3  46),  a  fresh  start  will  be  made  with 
Moses  who  will  be  the  founder  of  a  new 
nation.     Cp.  Nul4i2. 

II.  In  a  spirit  of  noble  generosity  Moses 
effaces  himself  and  intercedes  with  all  his  soul 
for  the  people.  See  on  v!  31.  He  does  not 
minimise  their  sin  (cp.  v.  31),  but  with  a  holy 
boldness  he  pleads  (1)  that  they  are  God's  own 
people  whom  He  has  redeemed  from  Egypt 
(v.  11,  cp.  3313),  (2)  that  their  destruction  will 
be  misunderstood  by  the  Egyptians  (v.  12),  and 
that  (3)  it  will  make  the  promises  to  Abraham 
of  no  effect  (v.  13).  12.  See  on  Dt32  27, 
and  refs.  there.  13.   Israel]    This  name  is 

employed  rather  than  Jacob  because  it  sug- 
gests the  '  prince  that  had  power  with  God 
and  prevailed  '  :  see  Gn  32  28. 

15-29.   The  suppression  of  the  idolatry. 

15,16.  See  intro.  to  c.  20  and  on  2412.  jy^ 
Joshua]  see  on  24 15.  19.  And  brake  them]  The 
people  had  already  broken  the  law  contained  in 
them  which  was  the  basis  of  the  covenant. 

20.  Burnt  itl  It  was  probably  not  solid,  but 
consisted  of  a  wooden  core  overlaid  with  gold: 
cp.  Isa40i9,20  44iL'-i9.  The  total  abolition  of 
the  idol  is  indicated  in  the  threefold  treat- 
ment of  burning  it,  reducing   it  to   powder, 


32.  22 


EXODUS 


33.  12 


and  casting  it  into  the  water:  cp.  DtO^i.  This 
last  action  was  more  than  a  means  of  dispers- 
ing the  very  atoms  of  which  it  was  composed. 
The  people  were  made  to  drink  the  water,  a 
grim  symbol  of  retribution,  with  which  may 
be  compared  the  procedure  in  connexion  with 
the  'water  that  causeth  a  curse'  in  NuS^s.s^; 
see  also  2K23'5. 

22.  Mischief]  RV  '  evil ' :  Aaron  tries  to  put 
the  whole  responsibility  on  the  people.  He 
pleads  that  they  intimidated  him.  24.  There 
came  out  this  calf]  as  if  by  accident,  a 
manifestly  poor  apology.  Observe  that  Aaron's 
two  pleas  of  compulsion  and  accident  are 
in  various  forms  most  commonly  adduced 
in  palliation  of  wrongdoing.  From  Dt  9  -^  we 
learn  that  Aaron's  abetting  of  the  people's 
sin  evoked  the  severe  displeasiu-e  of  God,  and 
that  his  life  was  only  spared  on  the  interces- 
sion of  Moses. 

25.  Were  naked]  RV  '  were  broken  loose.' 
For  the  use  of  the  word  in  the  literal  sense 
see  e.g.  on  NuS^^.  Here  it  is  most  probably 
used  in  the  metaphorical  sense  of  '  unruly ' : 
cp.  2Ch28i9.  Read  on  with  RV,  'for 
Aaron  had  let  them  loose  for  a  derision 
among  their  enemies,'  i.e.  not  with  the  in- 
tention, but  with  the  result,  that  they  be- 
came a  derision.  The  lapse  of  professedly 
religious  people  is  not  only  sinful,  but  brings 
religion  itself  into  disrepute. 

26.  Who  Is  on  the  LORD'S  side?]  The 
contrast  between  the  characters  of  Moses  and 
Aaron  is  strikingly  brought  out  all  through 
this  narrative.  Aaron  appears  as  timid  and 
compliant;  while  Moses  is  rigidly  loyal,  fear- 
less, ready  to  stand  alone  if  need  be  on  the 
Lord's  side,  impulsive  (v.  19)  and  yet  wholly 
unselfish  (v.  32).  Observe  that  it  is  the  sons 
of  Levi,  members  of  the  same  tribe  to  which 
Moses  belongs,  that  come  to  his  call. 

29.  Consecrate  yourselves]  lit.  '  fill  your 
hands';  see  on  28-ii.  For  upon  read  with 
RY  '  against.'  The  claims  of  kinship  must 
yield  to  those  of  God  and  duty:  cp.  MtlOST 
Lkl426  and  Mtl2'i6-50.  The  zeal  of  the  Le- 
vites  is  rewarded  with  a  blessing,  by  which 
doubtless  is  meant  the  priesthood:  see  on 
Dt339,  and  cp.  the  similar  reward  of  Phinehas, 
Nu25i^. 

30-35.  Intercession  of  Moses. 

30.  Make  an  atonement]  Something  more 
was  required  than  the  punishment  that  had 
been  inflicted  on  a  portion  of  the  people. 

32.  If  thou  wilt  forgive  their  sin]  This 
form  of  sentence  is  used  in  Hebrew  to  express 
an  earnest  desire  or  passionate  entreaty,  and 
is  equivalent  to  '  O  that  thou  wouldest '  .  .  or 
'O  if  thou  wouldest  but'..Cp.  e.g.  Ps957 
RV,  '  To-day,  0  that  ye  would  hear,'  and 
1  Ch4io,  '0  that  thou  wouldest  bless  me,'  lit. 
'  If  thou  wilt  bless  me.'     If  not,  blot  me  . .  out 


of  thy  book]  The  figure  is  taken  from  the 
registers  in  which  the  names  of  citizens  were 
enrolled:  see  e.g.  Isa43  Jer2230  EzklS^.  So 
God  is  represented  as  having  a  book  in  which 
are  inscribed  the  names  of  those  who  are  to 
be  preserved  alive.  When  He  blots  out  a 
name  that  person  dies.  The  Book  is  therefore 
a  Book  of  Life:  cp.  Ps6928Danl2i  Lkl020 
Phil  4  3  Rev  3  5  13  «  20^2  2219.  The  Jews  be- 
lieve that  on  New  Year's  Day  God  determines 
who  shall  live  and  who  shall  die  in  the  course 
of  the  year,  and  that  the  decision  is  made  final 
ten  days  afterwards  on  the  Day  of  Atone- 
ment. Moses's  prayer,  therefore,  is  an  ex- 
pression of  his  willingness  to  bear  the  penalty 
of  the  people's  sin.  For  a  similar  instance  of 
absolute  self-sacrifice  cp.  St.  Paul's  words  in 
Ro93.  33.  Whosoever    hath    sinned]   cp. 

Ezkl8^. 

34.  Mine  Ang'el]  see  on  3  2.  The  angel 
here  seems  to  be  distinguished  from  God  Him- 
self:  see  333.  On  the  other  hand,  the  angel 
is  virtually  identified  with  God,  for  God's 
'presence'  goes  with  them  (33 1^).  I  will 

visit  their  sin  upon  them]  Though  the  people 
were  not  at  once  destroyed  they  did  not  escape 
all  the  consequences  of  their  sin. 

CHAPTER   33 

The  Intercession  of  Moses  (continued) 

6.  By  the  mount  Horeb]  RV  '  from  mount 
Horeb  onward ' :  this  implies  that  they  ceased 
wearing  their  ornaments.  Their  humiliation 
was  lasting.  Horeb]  i.e.  Sinai:  see  on  3^. 

7.  Moses  took  the  tabernacle]  RV  '  Moses 
used  to  take  the  tent,  .  .  and  he  called  it. 
The  tent  of  meeting':  see  on  25^2.  The 
tent  here  is  most  probably  not  the  Tabernacle 
whose  construction  is  prescribed  in  chs.  25-31. 
The  words  describe  the  practice  of  Moses  be- 
fore its  erection,  the  account  of  which  follows 
in  chs.  35-40.  9.  Descended]  from  the 
top  of  the  mount.  After  the  erection  of  the 
Tabernacle  the  cloud  rested  upon  it:  see 
4034-38.  10.  Worshipped]  bowed  themselves 
to  the  ground. 

11.  Face  to  face]  A  peculiar  privilege: 
cp.  199  Nul2«-8  Dt34io.  Verse  23  shows 
that  the  expression  '  face  to  face  '  is  not  to  be 
pressed  literally,  but  to  be  understood  as  dis- 
tinct from  a  revelation  by  means  of  dreams  or 
visions  :  see  especially  Nu  12'^-s.  Joshua]  see 
on  179.  The  priests  and  Levites  were  not  yet 
formally  consecrated  to  the  service  of  the 
sanctuary. 

12-17.  The  promise  of  God  to  go  with  the 
people  is  renewed. 

12.  Thou  hast  not  let  me  know]  The  whole 
of  this  passage  from  v.  7  may  be  independent 
of  what  goes  before  (cp.  the  expression  '  used 
to  take  '  in  v.  7).  Otherwise  we  must  suppose 
that  Moses   has  not   clearly  understood   the 


82 


33.  13 


EXODUS 


34.  29 


meaning  of  the  promise  '  I  will  send  an  angel 
before  thee '  in  v.  2.  I  know  thee  by  name] 
see  on  31 2.  13.   Thy  way]   thy  purpose. 

Thy  people]  see  on  32  ^iH. 

14.  My  presence]  lit.  '  my  face.'  The  ex- 
pression is  equivalent  to  '  myself  in  person  '  : 
cp.  e.g.  2  S  1711,  where  the  words  are  literally 
'  and  that  thy  face  go  into  battle.'  The 
'  angel  of  God's  presence  '  (cp.  Isa  63  9)  is  not 
the  angel  that  stands  in  the  presence  of  Grod 
but  in  whom  the  personal  presence  of  God  is 
manifested  :  see  on  3  2.  Will  give  thee  rest] 
i.e.  a  peaceful  settlement  in  Canaan  :  cp.  Dt3  '^^ 
Josh21't4  23i.  16.  Separated]  see  on  lO^-G 
Nu239. 

18-23.  -^  divine  manifestation  asked  and 
promised. 

18.  Shew  me  thy  glory]  What  Moses  asks, 
not  out  of  curiosity  but  as  a  confirmation  of 
the  promise  in  v.  14,  is  impossible.  No  man 
can  look  upon  God's  unveiled  glory  and  live 
(v.  20  :  see  on  199  249-11).  Even  the  angels 
cannot  do  so  (Isa  6  2).  19.  My  goodness]  A 
revelation  is  vouchsafed,  but  it  is  one  accom- 
modated to  human  capacity.  It  is  not  further 
described,  but  probably  consisted  in  the  pro- 
clamation in  the  following  chapter,  vv.  6,  7. 
This  gracious  veiling  of  the  ineffable  glory  and 
the  revelation  of  God  in  mercy  are  both  ful- 
filled in  the  person  of  Christ  :  see  Jn  1 1* 
2  Cor  46.  23.  My  back  parts]  Not  the  full 
manifestation  of  the  divine  radiance,  but  its 
afterglow.  The  most  that  human  faculties 
can  comprehend  of  God  even  in  their  exalted 
moments  is  a  faint  reflection  of  His  essential 
glory  :  cp.  1  Cor  13 12. 

CHAPTER  34 

The  Eenewal  of  the  Covenant 
In  token  that  the  people  are  forgiven,  God 
renews  His  covenant  relation  with  them.  The 
conditions  are  the  same  as  before.  The  Deca- 
logue is  inscribed  on  two  fresh  tables,  and  the 
main  provisions  of  the  ceremonial  law  are 
repeated. 

I.  Which  thou  brakest]  There  is  no  re- 
proach in  these  words.  Moses  is  nowhere 
blamed  for  his  righteous  indignation.  He  was 
'  angry  and  sinned  not.'         3.   See  on  19i-'i3_ 

5.  See  on  33 19.  On  the  name  of  The  LORD 
see  on  31^. 

6.  RV  '  The  Lord,  the  Lord,  a  God  full 
of  compassion  and  gracious,  slow  to  anger,  and 
plenteous  in  mercy  and  truth ' :  this  is  perhaps 
the  highest  utterance  of  revelation,  and  is 
frequently  quoted  by  OT.  writers  :  see  e.g. 
Neh9i7  Ps86i5  103s  1458  Joel2i3  Jon42, 
also  Nu  141s.  The  divine  attributes  here  pro- 
claimed are  not  God's  dread  majesty  and 
power,  but  His  mercy  and  truth.  He  is  merci- 
ful, but  He  cannot  overlook  transgression. 
7.  That  will  by  no    means  clear   the  guilty] 


83 


i.  e.  will  not  allow  the  guilty  to  pass  unpunished. 
The  same  words  are  rendered  in  20  ^  '  will  not 
hold  him  guiltless,'  and  in  Jer  30  n  '  will  not 
leave  unpunished.'  Visiting  the  iniquity  of  the 
fathers]  see  on  20^. 

12-17.  The  warning  against  idolatry  is 
solemnly  repeated,  and  the  people  are  for- 
bidden to  make  covenant  or  intermarry  with 
their  idolatrous  neighbours  in  Canaan.  See  on 
2332,  33  and  on  Nu  251*5-18. 

13.  Images]  RV  'pillars,'  or  'obelisks' :  see 
24*.  Groves]  i.e.  'things  graven,' RY'Asherim.' 
The  Canaanitish  shrine  contained  an  altar, 
near  which  stood  a  stone  pillar  ai;id  an  Asherah 
(plur.  Asherim).  The  latter  was  a  wooden 
pole  or  stump  of  a  tree  planted  in  the  ground : 
seeJg6  2t3lK15i3  2K17i0  237,andonlK14i^ 
Immoral  rites  were  practised  at  these  shrines  in 
honour  of  the  reproductive  forces  of  nature. 

14.  Whose  name  /.s-  Jealous]  on  name,  see 
on  313,  and  on  Jealous,  on  20^. 

15.  Whoring  after  their  gods]  The  cove- 
nant bond  between  Jehovah  and  Israel  is 
frequently  compared  with  a  marriage  (see 
e.g.  JerSi-i  Hos2i9>20)^  and  idolatry,  which  is 
unfaithfulness  to  Jehovah,  is  regarded  as 
adultery,  a  view  all  the  more  natural  seeing 
that  idolatry  and  immorality  so  frequently 
went  together  (see  on  '  groves '  v.  13  and  on 
Lv  1929).  For  this  conception  of  idolatry,  see 
e.g.  Lv  177  Nu  1433  Jer3i-20  1327  Hos2  (es- 
pecially vv.  13,  16)Ezk2030,3i.  in  NT.  the 
Church  is  called  the  Bride  of  Christ.  See 
Eph523-32  Rev  19  7-9  212,9,17. 

18-26.   See  on  2312-19. 

21.  Earing]  i.e.  ploughing.  At  these  busy 
and  critical  seasons  there  would  be  a  special 
temptation   to   work  upon    the   sabbath    day. 

24.  Desire  thy  land,  when  thou  shalt  go  up] 
i.e.  take  advantage  of  your  absence  to  despoil 
your  homes.  God  will  protect  their  property 
while  they  are  worshipping  Him. 

28-35.  Moses  descends  from  the  Mount  with 
the  new  Tables. 

28.  Similar  fasts  are  recorded  of  Elijah 
( 1  K 1 9  S)  and  of  our  Lord  (Mt  4  2)  :  see  on  2  21. 
He  wrote]   The  subject  is  God  :  see  v.  1. 

29.  Wist  not]  knew  not.  Shone  while  he 
talked  with  him]  RV  '  shone  by  reason  of 
his  speaking  with  him.'  His  face  was  lit  up 
with  a  radiance  which  was  the  reflection  of  the 
divine  glory,  and  served  to  attest  the  message 
he  delivered  to  the  people.  Compare  what 
is  said  of  our  Lord  at  His  Transfiguration 
(Mtl72)  and  of  Stephen  at  his  martyrdom 
(Ac  6 15  7^6).  The  present  instance  is  a  fine 
illustration  of  the  power  of  unconscious  in- 
fluence. The  Heb.  verb  rendered  '  shone  '  in 
this  passage  is  derived  from  the  word  meaning 
'  horn,'  which  is  used  figuratively  to  denote  rays 
or  flashes  of  light  proceeding  from  a  luminous 
object  (see  e.g.  Hab  3  '^  with  mg.).    The  Vulgate 


34.  33 


EXODUS 


39.  39 


(Latin  version)  accordingly  says  of  Moses'  face 
that  it  was  cor/iuta,  which  has  led  to  the  curious 
representation  of  Moses  with  horns,  as  seen  in 
early  art. 

33.  Till  Moses  had  done  speaking  with 
them]  RV  '  when  Moses  had  done  speaking 
with  them.'  Moses  usually  wore  the  veil,  only 
putting  it  off  when  he  entered  the  presence  of 
God  or  spoke  to  the  people.  An  interesting 
reminiscence  of  this  is  said  to  be  seen  in  the 
Jewish  synagogue,  where  the  priest,  in  pro- 
nouncing the  Aaronic  benediction  (Nu  6  24-2(3)^ 
veils  his  face  with  his  tullith  (see  on  Nu  IS^""*^), 
'  lest  the  utterance  of  the  words  should  bring 
up  the  glory  that  shone  in  the  face  of  Moses 
and  strike  the  people  dead.'  St.  Paul  refers 
to  this  incident  in  2  Cor  3 '^-^s,  and  evidently 
understands  that  Moses  wore  the  veil  in  order 
to  hide  the  fadhig  of  the  glory  in  his  face  (see 
vv.  7,  13).  He  accordingly  sees  in  Moses' 
action  an  illustration  -of  the  inferiority  of  the 
Jewish  dispensation  as  compared  with  the 
Christian.  The  glory  of  the  former  was  fading, 
transitory,  and  partly  obscured  ;  that  of  the 
latter  is  permanent,  unobstructed,  ever  in- 
creasing, and  shared  by  all. 

351-3.  The  Sabbath  Law.  See  31  is,  and  on 
208-11. 

3.  Kindle  no  fire]  an  act  involving  work. 
This  law  is  observed  by  pious  Jews  at  the 
present  day.  They  have  fires  in  their  houses 
on  the  sabbath,  but  they  employ  a  gentile  to 
light  and  tend  them  :  see  on  121*5. 

CHAPTERS   354-4038 

An  Account  of  the  Construction  of  the 

Tabernacle  and  its  Furniture. 

This  section  is  an  almost  verbal  repetition 
of  chs.  25-31,  describing  the  carrying  out  of 
the  commands  in  those  chapters  by  Moses 
and  the  people. 

4-29.  Moses  invites  the  people  to  contribute 
the  materials  required,  which  they  do  with 
great  liberality  :  cp.  36^-'^.     See  on  251-^. 

22.  Tablets]  RV  '  armlets,'  or  '  necklaces  '  : 
cp.  Nu315'^.  23.  Red  skins  of  rams]  i.e. 
leather  of  rams'  skins  dyed  red,  as  in  2614. 
30-35.   See  on  31i-ii. 

CHAPTER   36 
The  "Work  Begun.     The  Liberality 

OF  THE  People 
Cp.  1  Ch296-9  Ezr268-70  Neh7™-72. 
8-38.   The  construction  of  the  Tabernacle  : 
see  c.  26. 

8.  Made  he  them]  The  subject  down  to 
3831  is  Bezaleel  :  cp.  37 1  3822. 

CHAPTER   37 
1-9.   The  Ark  and  Mercy  seat  :  see  25 10-22. 
10-16.   Table  of  Shewbread  :  see  2523-30. 
17-24.  The  Candlestick  :  see  2531-40. 


25-28.  The  Altar  of  Incense  :  see  30 1-^. 
This  is  mentioned  here  in  its  natural  position 
along  with  the  other  furniture  of  the  Holy 
Place.  29.  The  Holy  Oil,  and  the  License  : 
see  3022-38. 

CHAPTER   38 
The  Holy  Furniture 

1-7.  The  Altar  of  Burnt  Offering  :  see 
271-8. 

8.  The  Laver  :  see  3017-21.  Read  with  RY 
'  mirrors  of  the  serving  women  which  served 
at  the  door  of  the  tent  of  meeting.'  What 
service  these  women  rendered  is  not  said. 
They  are  only  mentioned  once  again,  in  1  S  2  22. 
They  may  have  helped  in  the  liturgical  part  of 
the  worship  by  their  singing  and  dancing. 
The  Heb.  word  which  indicates  their  service 
here  is  used  of  the  Levites  in  Nu  4  23  g  2*. 

9-20.  The   Court  of   the  Tabernacle  :  see 

279-19. 

21-31.   The  Sum  of  the  Precious  Metals. 

21.  Ithamar]  the  youngest  of  the  four  sons 
of  Aaron  :  see  6  23,  and  on  28 1.  24.  The  gold 
shekel  is  estimated  to  have  been  worth  about 
£2  of  our  money,  and  the  gold  talent,  which 
contained  3,000  shekels,  about  £6,000.  The 
silver  shekel  was  worth  fully  2s.  6(/.,  and  the 
silver  talent  about  £400.  26.  The  number  of 
persons  given  here  is  identical  with  the  result 
of  the  census  taken  in  the  second  month  of  the 
second  year  :  see  Nu  1 46.  This  suggests  that 
the  computations  recorded  here  were  made  not 
exactly  at  this  time  but  after  the  erection  of 
the  tabernacle.  It  is  to  be  observed  that  the 
silver  mentioned  here  is  not  that  contributed 
voluntarily  but  what  was  obtained  as  ransom 
money  (30ii-i6).  The  latter  amount  may  for 
some  reason  have  been  substituted  for  the 
former  in  this  passage. 

CHAPTER   39 

The  Making  of  the  Holy  Garments 

See  c.  28,  where  the  order  is  slightly 
different. 

I.  Cloths  of  service]  RV  'finely  wrought 
garments,'  as  in  31 1'^. 

2-7.  The  Ephod  :  see  286-12. 

8-21.   The  Breastplate  :  see  2815-30. 

22-26.   The  Robe  of  the  Ephod  :  see  2831-35. 

27-29.  The  Other  Garments  for  the  Priests  : 
see  2839-«. 

30,  31.  The  Plate  for  the  Mitre  (v.  28)  : 
see  2836-38. 

30.   Holy  crown]  see  on  29  6. 

32-43.  The  completion  of  the  work  and  its 
approval  by  Moses.  Everything  must  be  in 
accordance  with  the  pattern  shown  him  in  the 
Mount  (258,40). 

38.  The  golden  altar]  the  Altar  of  Incense  : 
see  on  30  3.  39.  The  brasen  altar]  the  Altar 
of  Burnt  Offering  :  see  272, 


84 


40.  1 


EXODUS— LEVITICUS 


INTRO. 


CHAPTER   40 
The  Tabernacle  erected 

i-i6.  Moses  is  commanded  to  uprear  the 
Tabernacle  and  consecrate  it,  together  with  its 
furniture,  and  the  priests  by  anointing  them. 

2.  On  the  first  day  of  the  first  month]  i.e. 
of  the  month  Abib  (see  on  12  2.'ii)  in  the 
second  year  after  the  exodus  from  Egypt  (v. 
17).  They  left  Egypt  on  the  fifteenth  day 
of  Abib,  and  arrived  at  Sinai  in  the  third 
month  :  see  19 1. 

4.  The  things  .  .  to  be  set .  .  upon  it]  i.e. 
the  shewbread  (see  v.  23  and  on  26  2'^). 

5.  Before  the  ark]  in  a  line  with  it  but  out- 
side the  Holy  of  Holies  :  see  v.  26,  and  see  on 
306.         9.  Anoint  the  tabernacle]  cp.  3026-29. 

12.  See  28 «  29^.'. 

17-33.   The  Uprearing  of  the  Tabernacle. 


19.  The  tent  over  the  tabernacle]  Heb.  '  the 

tent  over  the  dwelling.'     See  on  25^,  26  intro. 

20.  The  testimony]  the  two  tables  of  stone  : 
see  on  16  3^.  21.  Vail  of  the  covering]  RV 
'  veil  of  the  screen  '  :  see  on  26^-33. 

28.  Hanging  at  the  door]  RV  '  screen  of 
the  door ' :  see  26^6. 

29.  Moses  offers  the  first  daily  sacrifice 
(29  ^'J).  33.  The  court  round  about  the 
tabernacle]  see  27^-19. 

34-35.  The  Dwelling  being  prepared,  the 
cloud  descends  and  the  glory  of  the  Lord 
occupies  the  sanctuary. 

34.  A  cloud]  RV  '  the  cloud '  :  it  is  the 
same  cloud  that  has  been  so  frequently  men- 
tioned already  :  see  13 '-i,  19  ^  and  note  there, 
33  P.     The  glory  of  the  LORD]  see  16 10  2417. 

35.  Cp.  Lv  162  IKHio.ii  2 Ch 5 13, 14  72. 
36-38.   See  on  13^1,  and  cp.  Nu  9 15-23. 


LEVITICUS 


INTRODUCTION 


I.  Title  and  Contents.  The  title  Leviticus 
is  prefixed  to  this  section  of  the  Pentateuch  in 
the  Greek  Version  of  the  OT.,  but  it  is  not 
particularly  appropriate,  as  the  Levites  are 
hardly  mentioned  in  the  book.  Jewish  writers 
call  it  Vaylkra  (Heb.  '  and  He  called '),  from 
its  opening  word,  or  the  '  Law,  or  Book,  of 
Priests,'  or  the  '  Book  of  Oiferings.'  It  may 
be  described  as  a  manual  of  religious  cere- 
monies composed  for  the  guidance  of  priests 
and  worshippers.  Its  specific  character  is 
evident  at  a  glance.  It  differs  from  the  other 
books  of  the  Pentateuch  in  being  almost  en- 
tirely a  book  of  laws.  There  is  very  little 
narrative,  and  historical  indications  are  scanty. 
Reference  is  made  to  Mt.  Sinai  as  the  scene 
where  some  at  least  of  the  laws  were  promul- 
gated (251  26*6  273*)  ;  in  some  passages  it  is 
implied  that  Israel  is  still  leading  a  camp-life 
in  the  wilderness  (412  14  ^  I610)  ;  the  con- 
secration of  Aaron  and  his  sons  is  described 
in  detail  (8-10)  ;  and  two  incidents  are  nar- 
rated illustrating  the  punishment  following  a 
breach  of  the  regulations  (Nadab  and  Abihu, 
101-7,  the  blasphemer,  24io-i6).  With  these 
few  exceptions,  which  are  more  apparent  than 
real,  the  incidents  being  introduced  simply  as 
illustrations  (see  on  2416),  the  contents  of 
Leviticus  consist  entirely  of  laws,  and  these 
mainly  of  a  ceremonial  character  (see  intro. 
to  c.  17). 

The  twenty-seven  chapters  forming  the  book 


fall  into  four  well-marked  divisions  as  fol- 
lows. Part  I.  The  Law  of  Sacrifice,  chs.  1-7. 
This  again  consists  of  two  sections  :  (a)  Direc- 
tions addressed  to  the  "Worshippers  regarding 
the  five  main  types  of  sacrifice,  viz.  the  Burnt 
Offering  (c.  1),  the  Meal  Offering  (c.  2),  the 
Peace  Offering  (c.  3),  the  Sin  Offering  (4-513), 
and  the  Guilt  Offering  (51^-67),  and  (b) 
Directions  addressed  to  the  Priests  in  con- 
nexion with  these  sacrifices,  which  are  dealt 
with  in  the  same  order,  except  that  the  Peace 
Offering  comes  last.  Part  2.  The  Consecra- 
tion of  the  Priesthood,  chs.  8-10.  This  com- 
prises the  consecration  of  Aaron  and  his  sons 
(c.  8),  their  installation  into  office  (c.  9),  and 
the  death  of  Nadab  and  Abihu  (c.  10).  Part  3. 
The  Law  of  Clean  and  Unclean,  leading  up  to 
the  ritual  of  the  Day  of  Atonement,  chs.  ii-i6. 
This  division  treats  of  the  uncleanness  of 
certain  meats  (c.  11),  of  childbirth  (c.  12),  of 
leprosy  (chs.  13,  14),  of  sexual  discharges 
(c.  15),  and  the  ceremonial  of  the  Day  of 
Atonement  (c.  16).  Part  4.  The  Law  of 
Holiness,  chs.  17-26.  This  is  a  miscellaneous 
collection  of  laws,  many  of  them  of  a  moral 
and  religious  character.  It  treats  of  sacrifice 
and  eating  of  blood  (c.  17),  unlawful  marriage 
and  unchastity  (c.  18),  various  moral  and  social 
duties,  such  as  justice,  kindness,  purity,  etc. 
(chs.  19,  20),  duties  of  priests  and  matters  of 
ritual  (chs.  21,  22),  the  sacred  seasons  (c.  23), 
the  shewbread  and  law  of  blasphemy  (c.  24), 


85 


INTRO. 


LEVITICUS 


mxRO. 


the  Sabbatical  Year  and  Year  of  Jubilee 
(c.  25),  and  concludes  with  exhortations  to 
keep  the  law  (c.  26).  The  book  closes  with 
a  chapter  on  Vows  and  Tithes  with  the  man- 
ner of  their  commutation,  in  the  form  of  an 
appendix  (c.  27). 

2.  Origin  and  Composition.  The  general 
question  of  the  authorship  of  the  Pentateuch 
is  treated  in  a  separate  article,  to  which  refer- 
ence should  be  made.  It  will  suffice  to  say 
here  that,  while  much  of  the  legislation  con- 
tained in  the  book  of  Leviticus  is  of  Mosaic 
origin,  the  book  in  its  present  form  bears 
evidence  of  having  been  put  together  out  of 
separate  collections  of  laws.  It  is  observed 
e.g.  that  the  literary  style  is  not  uniform 
throughout,  chs.  17-26  occupying  in  this 
respect  a  position  quite  by  themselves  (see 
the  introductory  note  to  this  section  in  the 
commentary)  ;  that  laws  relating  to  the  same 
subject  are  not  always  placed  together  ;  that 
sometimes  the  same  laws  are  repeated  in 
different  parts  of  the  book  ;  and  that  the 
contents  appear  in  the  form  of  groups,  many 
of  which  are  provided  with  separate  headings 
and  conclusions  (see  e.g.  7^'^'^'^  1146,47  1359 
1454-57  1532,33  264«3,  and  the  introductory 
notes  to  chs.  21  and  25).  Such  features  make 
it  tolerably  certain  that  in  its  present  form 
Leviticus  is  '  a  collection  of  smaller  collections, 
or  a  collection  added  to  from  time  to  time.'  It 
need  not  be  thought  surprising  that  this  is  so. 
In  itself,  ritual  is  subject  to  the  law  of  change 
and  development,  and  many  regulations,  origin- 
ally framed  for  a  people  leading  a  nomadic 
life  in  the  wilderness,  would  require  modifica- 
tion when  that  people  dwelt  in  cities,  built 
their  temple,  and  led  a  settled  agricultural 
life.  We  may  believe,  therefore,  that  some 
details  in  these  laws  are  of  later  date  than 
others,  and  that  what  we  have  in  the  book 
of  Leviticus  is  the  final  form  of  a  process  of 
collection,  editing,  and  adaptation  carried  on 
subsequently  to  the  time  of  the  great  Law- 
giver. The  book  is,  in  fact,  a  codification  of 
laws  originating  in  the  Mosaic  legislation.  At 
what  time  it  was  cast  into  its  present  form 
we  may  never  be  able  to  determine  with 
certainty.  It  may  be  that  it  was  done  under 
the  influences  which  led  to  the  restoration  of 
the  Temple  in  the  sixth  century  B.C.,  and  that 
the  book  was  used  as  a  kind  of  liturgy  of  the 
Second  Temple.  But  we  are  not  obliged  to 
believe  that  the  laws  themselves  originated  at 
this  later  date.  Some  of  them,  as  was  said 
above,  imply  that  they  were  given  to  a  people 
leading  a  camp-life  in  the  wilderness.  At 
whatever  time  they  were  finally  collected  and 
incorporated  in  the  Pentateuch,  in  substance 
the  laws  in  Leviticus  are  derived  from  Moses. 
In  other  words,  the  contents  are  much  older 
than  the  vessel  in  which  they  are  contained. 


3.  Religious  Value.  To  the  ordinary  reader 
of  the  Bible  the  book  of  Leviticus  may  seem 
dry  and  uninteresting.  It  treats  of  matters 
which  for  Christians  have  lost  direct  interest, 
and  of  a  system  of  religious  observances  which 
they  have  never  known.  Its  laws,  being 
mainly  of  a  ceremonial  nature,  have  little  or 
no  practical  bearing  on  the  life  of  the  present 
day.  For  this  reason  readers  of  the  Bible 
may  be  inclined  to  pass  it  by.  Yet  Leviticus 
is  anything  but  an  uninteresting  book.  To 
the  student  of  comparative  religion  it  is  of 
the  greatest  possible  value.  Its  religious  rites 
and  social  customs  have  numberless  points  of 
contact  with  those  of  other  early  nations,  and 
it  is  interesting  and  instructive  to  observe  how 
primitive  customs  were  adopted  and  trans- 
formed, purged  in  many  cases  of  immorality, 
cruelty,  injustice,  and  idolatry,  transfused 
with  a  new  spirit,  and  made  to  subserve  a 
moral  and  spiritual  purpose.  The  ceremonial 
legislation  of  Leviticus  is  certainly  not  the 
final  stage  in  the  progress  of  revelation,  but 
it  marks  a  great  step  forward,  and  prepares 
the  way  for  better  things.  Its  moral  teaching, 
its  insistence  on  the  duty  of  justice  and  mercy, 
of  kindness  to  the  poor  and  strangers,  to  the 
weak  and  slaves,  and  even  to  the  lower  animals, 
of  chastity  and  truthfulness,  is  not  without  its 
application  to  the  present  day,  while  beneath 
its  forms  and  ceremonies,  its  laws  of  clean 
and  unclean,  its  ritual  purifications,  its  sacri- 
fices and  sacred  festivals,  its  tithes  and  offer- 
ings, it  is  not  difficult  to  read  similar  lessons 
of  religion  and  morals  in  type  and  figure. 
The  entire  system  is  penetrated  with  the 
thought  that  Israel  is  called  to  be  a  holy 
people  consecrated  to  the  service  of  a  holy 
God.  Its  spirit  is  expressed  in  the  words, 
'  Ye  shall  be  holy,  for  I  the  Lord  your  God 
am  holy.'  That  its  minute  and  multifarious 
regulations  served  to  impress  upon  the  hearts 
of  the  devout  in  Israel  a  sense  of  the  holiness 
and  grace  of  God,  of  the  hatefulness  of  sin, 
of  the  need  of  cleansing  and  restoration,  cannot 
be  doubted.  It  may  be  that  the  Israelites  did 
not  altogether  escape  the  danger,  incidental 
to  the  observance  of  all  ceremonial  laws,  of 
formalism,  hypocrisy,  and  contentment  with 
an  external  standard  of  religion  ;  it  may  be 
that  at  times  they  fell  far  short  of  their  ideal  ; 
still  no  people  had  ever  a  loftier  conception 
of  the  nature  of  God  and  of  their  relationship 
to  Him  and  consequent  obligation  to  lead  a 
life  of  righteousness.  A  holy  God,  dwelling 
amid  a  holy  people  in  a  holy  land — it  would 
be  unfair  to  say  that  there  were  not  many  in 
Israel  who  saw  this  truth  beneath  the  surface 
of  ceremonial,  and  were  by  its  means  prepared 
for  the  coming  of  Him  who  '  is  the  end  of 
the  law  for  righteousness  to  every  one  that 
belie veth'  (RolO*). 


86 


INTRO. 


LEVITICUS 


INTRO. 


PAET  1 


(Chs.  1-7)  The  L 

What  is  recorded  here  is  not  the  institution 
of  the  rite  of  sacrifice,  which  is  assumed  to  be 
ah'eady  in  existence  (see  1^),  but  its  reguhxtion 
in  matters  of  detail.  It  did  not  originate 
among  the  Israelites  ;  it  is  a  primitive  and 
universal  custom,  based  apparently  upon  a 
natural  instinct,  and  found  in  one  form  or 
other  in  all  parts  of  the  world.  Sacrifice  is 
an  act  of  worship,  whereby  the  offerer  either 
expresses  his  sense  of  the  harmony  and  com- 
munion existing  between  himself  and  his  god, 
or  endeavours  to  restore  these  when  by  any 
means  they  have  been  destroyed.  In  all  pro- 
bability the  former  idea  is  the  earlier,  and  the 
origin  of  sacrifice  is  to  be  found  in  the  con- 
ception that  the  god  of  a  tribe  stands  in  a 
very  close  relationship  to  it,  and  in  some 
respects  has  a  common  life  and  interests  with 
it.  In  primitive  times  the  god  was  conceived 
in  a  crude  and  material  form.  He  was  sup- 
posed to  require  food  and  drink  (see  on  3 1^). 
And,  as  eating  and  drinking  together  is  a  com- 
mon token  of  good  relationship,  it  may  well 
be  that  sacrifice  in  its  primitive  form  was  re- 
garded as  a  common  meal  partaken  of  by  the 
Deity  and  his  worshippers  in  good  fellowship. 
Part  of  the  offering  was  eaten  by  the  latter, 
and  the  portion  for  the  god  was  laid  out,  and 
left  for  him,  in  some  place  where  he  was  sup- 
posed to  dwell.  As  the  god  came  to  be  re- 
garded as  a  more  or  less  ethereal  being,  means 
were  taken  to  send  his  portion  to  him,  as  it 
were,  by  converting  the  solid  parts  into  smoke 
by  burning  and  pouring  out  the  liquids,  wine, 
blood  of  the  sacrificial  victim,  etc.,  and  letting 
them  sink  into  the  earth.  Traces  of  this 
primitive  idea  of  sacrifice,  as  a  feast  or  com- 
mon meal  partaken  of  by  the  god  and  his 
worshippers,  may  be  discovered  among  the 
Israelites  in  Bible  times  :  e.g.  in  the  sacrificial 
feast  which  followed  the  making  of  the  cove- 
nant between  Jehovah  and  His  people  in  Ex. 
24  (see  on  vv.  9-11),  and  in  the  feast  at  the 
'  high  place '  to  which  Saul  went  (1  S  9 13 1).  See 
also  the  note  on  the  Shewbread  (Lv  24  5-9)  and 
on  the  Peace  Offering  (Lv3);  and  see  for  a 
protest  against  this  materialistic  conception  of 
God  Ps  50  8-15. 

Alongside  of  this  idea,  and  perhaps  growing 
out  of  it,  is  that  which  regards  the  sacrifice  as 
a  gift  made  to  the  god  to  procure  his  favour 
or  appease  his  vengeance.  The  worshipper 
makes  his  offering  as  before,  by  burning  or  by 
libation  ;  but  hopes,  in  consideration  of  its 
value,  to  procure  protection  from  danger,  deli- 
verance from  calamity,  or  success  in  enterprise. 
This  was  probably  the  meaning  of  the  Burnt 
Offering  in  Lv  1,  and  of  such  human  sacrifices 


87 


AW  OP  Sacrifice 

as  are  referred  to  in  Lv  18  2i  (see  note  there  and 
references). 

It  is  probably  not  the  earliest  but  the  latest 
view  of  sacrifice  which  sees  in  it  a  means  of 
expiating  the  sins  of  the  offerer.  "When  God 
has  come  to  be  regarded  as  a  holy  Being  to 
whom  all  sin  is  offensive,  the  sinner  feels  him- 
self to  lie  under  His  wrath  and  curse.  He 
is  conscious  that  the  good  relationship  that 
ought  to  exist  between  himself  and  the  Deity 
has  been  interrupted  by  his  transgression,  and 
seeks  a  means  of  restoring  harmony.  He  finds 
this  in  the  offering  of  sacrifice,  which  is  said 
to  have  a  '  covering '  efficacy  :  see  on  Lv  1  ■*. 
Wherein  this  atoning  efficacy  lay  is  not  certain. 
Some  have  found  it  in  the  idea  of  substitution. 
The  offerer  feels  that  his  life  is  forfeited  by 
his  sins,  but  believes  that  he  is  graciously  per- 
mitted to  substitute  a  victim,  to  which  his 
sins  are  in  some  way  transferred,  and  which 
dies  in  his  stead  :  see  on  Lv  1  *  1 6  8. 20-22^  ^mj 
cp.  17 11.  Others  have  held  that  the  efficacy  of 
the  atoning  sacrifice  consists  in  its  being  an 
expression  of  the  offerer's  feelings  and  desires, 
his  penitence,  humility,  and  prayer  for  for- 
giveness, and  that  it  is  the  latter  that  procures 
the  remission  of  his  sins.  In  the  Levitical 
system  the  idea  of  expiation  and  atonement  is 
specially  emphasised  in  the  Sin  Offering  and 
Guilt  Offering  (see  Lv4-67  and  notes  there, 
and  cp.  what  is  said  on  the  ritual  of  the  Day 
of  Atonement,  Lvl6). 

In  considering  the  various  forms  of  sacrifice 
prescribed  in  Leviticus,  it  must  be  borne  in 
mind  that  the  book  is  a  collection  or  codifica- 
tion of  the  law  of  ritual,  and  contains  there- 
fore regulations  dating  from  different  times. 
Of  the  five  main  types  specified  (see  Intro. 
§  1,  and  the  notes  prefixed  to  chs.  1-4),  the 
first  three,  the  Burnt  Offering  (c.  1),  the 
Meal  Offering  (c.  2),  and  the  Peace  Offering 
(c.  3)  are,  generally  speaking,  sacrifices  ex- 
pressive of  harmony  between  the  worshipper 
and  God ;  they  are  sacrifices  of  joy,  of  whole- 
hearted devotion,  of  thanksgiving.  The  other 
forms  of  sacrifice,  the  Sin  and  Guilt  Offerings 
(chs.  4-6  7),  are  expressive  of  the  sense  of 
interrupted  communion  ;  they  are  sacrifices  of 
atonement  and  expiation.  In  them  the  sense  of 
sin  comes  more  into  prominence. 

The  Levitical  system  of  sacrifice  underlies 
the  worship  of  the  OT.  Like  all  systems  of 
rites  and  ceremonies  it  was  liable  to  abuse. 
From  the  writings  of  the  prophets  we  learn 
that  a  common  fault  of  Israel  was  to  place 
reliance  on  the  performance  of  the  outward 
ceremony,  and  to  neglect  the  weightier  mat- 
ters of  the  law.     It  was  not  the  least  part  of 


1. 


LEVITICUS 


2. 


the  work  of  the  prophets  to  counteract  the 
tendency  to  formalism,  perfunctoriness,  and 
externality,  and  to  remind  the  people  of  Israel 
that  '  to  obey  is  better  than  sacrifice,'  that 
God  '  desired  mercy  and  not  sacrifice,  and  the 
knowledge  of  God  more  than  burnt  offerings,' 
and  that  '  the  sacrifices  of  God  are  a  broken 
spirit.'  At  the  same  time,  the  entire  nation 
could  hardly  ever  be  blind  to  the  fact  that 
'  gifts  and  sacrifices  could  not  make  him  that 
did  the  service  perfect  as  pertaining  to  the  con- 
science.' OT.  forms  of  expiation  accordingly 
have  an  anticipatory  function,  and  find  their 
fulfilment  in  the  NT.,  wherein  we  are  taught 
that  Christ  shed  His  blood  '  for  the  remission 
of  sins,'  and  that  He  '  put  away  sin  by  the 
sacrifice  of  Himself.'  He  is  the  '  Lamb  slain 
from  the  foundation  of  the  world.'  In  His 
death  the  whole  endeavour  of  God's  saving 
love,  represented  and  illustrated  in  the  OT. 
sacrifices,  reaches  its  attainment,  and  other 
sacrifices  are  superseded.  They  are  rendered 
needless  because  the  goodwill  of  God  to  men 
is  fully  expressed  in  the  incarnation,  life,  suf- 
ferings, and  death  of  His  only  begotten  Son, 
and  because  Christ  has  offered  to  God  the 
only  real  sacrifice  for  the  sins  of  humanity,  in 
His  life  of  perfect  obedience,  crowned  by  His 
death  of  free  and  absolute  submission  to  the 
will  of  God. 

CHAPTER  1 
The  Burnt  Offering 

This  is  mentioned  fii'st  as  being  the  most 
general  form  of  sacrifice.  Its  characteristic 
feature  is  the  consumption  of  the  entire 
animal  by  fire  upon  the  altar,  for  which  reason 
it  is  also  described  as  the  '  whole  burnt  offering ' 
(187^,  cp.  Ps51i9).  The  victims  are  oxen, 
sheep,  or  goats,  for  which,  in  the  case  of  poor 
persons,  turtle  doves  or  young  pigeons  may  be 
substituted  (v.  14).  The  animal  must  be  a 
male,  i.e.  of  the  superior  sex,  and  without 
blemish  (v.  3).  The  ritual  of  the  sacrifice  is 
as  follows.  (1)  The  animal  is  presented  at 
the  door  of  the  tabernacle  by  the  offerer,  who 
solemnly  dedicates  it  by  laying  both  his  hands 
upon  its  head  (v.  4).  (2)  It  is  then  slaughtered, 
by  the  offerer  himself  it  would  appear  (v.  5). 
(3)  The  blood  is  caught  in  a  bowl  by  the 
priest  in  attendance  and  flung  round  the  altar 
(v.  5).  (4)  The  carcase  is  then  skinned  and 
divided,  the  entrails  and  legs  washed  with 
water,  and  the  whole,  with  the  exception  of 
the  skin,  which  falls  to  the  priest  (7^),  laid 
upon  the  altar  and  burned  (vv.  6-9).  In  the 
case  of  pigeons,  their  small  size  and  moderate 
quantity  of  blood  necessitate  some  differences 
of  detail  (w.  14-17). 

The  Burnt  Offering,  being  wholly  consumed 
upon  the  altar,  signified  the  complete  self- 
surrender  of  the  offerer  to  God.     It  was  the 


sacrifice  of  devotion,  and  formed  therefore  the 
main  element  of  individual  and  collective 
worship.  It  was  offered  in  daily  service, 
morning  and  evening,  on  behalf  of  the  entire 
community  (the  '  continual  burnt  offering ' : 
see  on  Ex  29  38-42). 

1.  Tabernacle   of    the   congregation]    RV 

'  tent  of  meeting ':  see  on  Ex  25  22. 

2.  Children  of  Israel]  The  instructions  in 
chs.  1-6"  are  for  the  laity.  Those  addressed 
to  the  priests  follow  in  chs.  6^-7^^.  Offering] 
R V  '  oblation  ' :  the  general  name  for  a  sacri- 
fice or  votive  offering.  The  Heb.  word  is 
Corhan^  which  means  a  thing  '  brought  near ' 
or  presented :  see  Mk  7  ^^  R V. 

3.  Male  without  blemish]  What  is  offered 
to  God  must  be  the  best  of  its  kind  :  see  on 
22  i'i'-25  and  on  Ex  12  5.  4.  Put  his  hand  upon 
the  head]  This  signifies  the  surrender  of  the 
animal  to  God,  and,  though  this  is  not  so  clear, 
the  transference  of  the  offerer's  guilt  to  it. 
In  doing  so  he  made  a  confession  of  his  sins: 
cp.  32.  Make  atonement]  lit. '  put  a  cover- 
ing over  him,'  i.e.  screen  his  unworthiness, 
protect  him  in  the  presence  of  the  holiness  of 
God.  5.  He  shall  kill]  The  subject  is  the 
offerer.  The  blood  represents  the  life,  and  is 
sprinkled  upon  the  altar  in  token  that  the 
offerer  yields  his  life  to  God,  in  expiation  of 
his  sins  and  in  consecration  to  His  service. 

II.  Northward]  On  the  E.  side  was  the 
place  for  ashes  and  refuse  (v.  16) ;  on  the  W. 
stood  the  laver  and  the  Holy  of  Holies ;  the 
ascent  to  the  altar  was  on  the  S.  side.  The 
N.  side,  accordingly,  was  the  most  convenient 
place  of  slaughter.  17.  A  sweet  savour] 
see  on  Ex  29 18. 

CHAPTER  2 
The  Meal  Offering 
The  rendering  of  AV  meat  offering  is  liable 
to  misunderstanding,  as  meat  now  suggests 
flesh  meat.  But  this  is  a  vegetable,  or  blood- 
less, sacrifice,  a  consecration  to  God  of  the 
produce  of  the  field.  Its  principal  constituent 
is  fine  flour,  which  may  be  presented  either 
raw  (vv.  1-3),  or  baked  into  cakes  in  the  oven 
(v.  4),  or  in  a  pan  (vv.  6,  6),  or  boiled  in  a  pot 
(v.  7).  The  meal  is  mixed  with  oil  and  salt, 
as  when  used  for  food,  but  no  leaven  or  honey 
must  be  used,  as  these  cause  fermentation  and 
are  symbolical  of  uncleanness  (v.  1 1).  As  an 
offering  of  firstfruits,  parched  ears  of  wheat  or 
barley  are  presented  along  with  oil  (vv.  14, 15). 
Incense  is  always  an  accompaniment  of  a  meal 
offering  (vv.  2,  15).  Part  of  the  meal  offering 
and  all  the  incense  are  burned  upon  the  altar 
(vv.  2,  9,  16).  What  remains  becomes  the 
portion  of  the  priests,  and  is  eaten  by  them  in 
the  sanctuary  (v.  3,  6^'').  A  meal  offering 
might  be  presented  independently,  but  was 
frequently   an   accompaniment  of  an  animal 


88 


2.  1 


LEVITICUS 


4.  3 


sacrifice  (Ex  29  40  NulS^-i^).  A  meal  offering 
might  be  used  as  a  substitute  for  a  sin  offering 
in  the  case  of  a  poor  person,  but  without  oil 
or  frankincense  (5ii-i3)_  A  special  form  of 
meal  offering  is  the  Shewbread:  see  24^-9 
Ex  25  30. 

1.  Frankincense]   see  on  Ex30i-io,34-38 

2.  Memorial  of  it]  the  term  applied  to  that 
part  of  a  meal  offering  burned  upon  the  altar 
(cp.  24"),  so  called  probably  as  intended  to 
bring  the  offerer  to  the  favourable  remem- 
brance of  God.  But  the  exact  meaning  is 
doubtful:  cp.  Ps203  AclO^. 

3.  A  thing  most  holy]  The  materials  of  the 
offerings  are  of  two  degrees  of  holiness.  Some, 
as  e.g.  the  peace  offerings,  are  '  holy  '  (23  20) 
and  may  be  eaten  in  any  clean  place  by  the 
priests  and  their  families  (1014  2210-13Nu1811); 
others,  as  the  sin  and  guilt  offerings  (6  ^'^>  25-28 
7i-*5)  and  the  shewbread  (24 9),  are  'most holy,' 
and  may  only  be  eaten  in  the  court  of  the 
tabernacle  by  the  priests  alone  (NulS^.iO). 
The  latter,  moreover,  communicate  '  holiness  ' 
to  whatever  comes  in  contact  with  them:  cp. 
Ex  29  37  Lv  6 18. 27-29  13.  Salt  of  the  cove- 
nant]  see  on  Ex  30  35. 

CHAPTER  3 
The  Peace  Offering 
This  form  of  sacrifice  takes  its  name  from 
a  Heb.  word  meaning  a  '  requital '  or  giving 
of  thanks,  and  is  therefore  called  by  some  the 
Thank  Offering.  It  is  an  animal  sacrifice,  the 
characteristic  feature  of  which  is  the  disposal 
of  the  carcase.  The  kidneys  and  the  internal 
fat,  and,  in  the  case  of  sheep,  the  fat  tail  also, 
are  offered  to  God  by  burning  upon  the  altar 
(vv.  3-5).  The  choice  parts,  the  breast  and 
the  right  thigh,  fall  to  the  lot  of  the  priests 
after  being  dedicated  to  God  in  a  peculiar  way 
by  waving  them  before  Him  (see  on  728-34) 
The  rest  of  the  flesh  is  eaten  by  the  offerer 
and  his  family  at  a  sacrificial  meal  (7i5.  I6). 
The  Peace  Offering  represents,  it  is  thought, 
the  earliest  form  of  sacrifice,  in  which  the 
Deity  and  the  worshippers  exhibit  their  good 
relationship  by  sharing  a  common  meal.  It  is 
therefore  the  sacrifice  expressive  of  harmony 
between  God  and  His  people.  It  is  a  feast  of 
communion  :  see  e.g.  Ex  24^-11. 

2.  Lay  his  hand]  see  on  1 4.  Whereas  at 
this  point  in  the  sacrifice  of  a  burnt  offering, 
the  offerer  made  a  confession  of  his  sins,  in 
the  case  of  the  peace  offering  he  uttered  a 
prayer  of  thanksgiving.  This  indicates  the 
difference  in  the  signification  of  the  two 
sacrifices. 

3.  The  internal  fat,  along  with  the  blood,  is 
regarded  as  the  seat  of  life  and  possessing  a 
peculiar  sanctity.  It  must,  therefore,  never 
be  eaten  by  man,  but  always  offered  to  God  by 
burning:  seeEx23i8  29 i3Lv3i6-i7  722-27  1710-I6. 


4.  Caul  above  the  liver]   see  Ex  2913. 

5.  Upon  the  burnt  sacrifice]  There  would 
always  be  some  portion  of  the  daily  burnt 
sacrifice  smouldering  upon  the  altar.  The 
peace  offering  is  to  be  laid  upon  it.  The  fire 
never  went  out  :  see  6  9. 12, 13. 

9.  The  whole  rump]  R V '  the  fat  tail  entire ' : 
see  on  Ex  29  22. 

II.  Food  of  the  offering]  a  general  epithet 
applied  to  sacrifices:  cp.  216  2225  ]Sru282,24 
Ezk  44 "  Mai  1  7  (where  the  altar  is  called  the 
'  table  of  the  Lord ').  For  a  protest  against 
this  anthropomorphic  conception  of  God  as 
requiring  food  for  His  sustenance  or  delight 
see  Ps  50  8-15. 

CHAPTER   4 

The  Sin  Offering  (41-513)  and  the  Guilt 

Offering  (514-6^) 

These  are  later  and  specialised  forms  of  the 
Burnt  Offering.  They  presuppose  a  state  of 
matters  in  which  the  good  relationship  between 
God  and  the  offerer  has  been  interrupted  by 
sin,  and  the  purpose  of  both  is  to  make  atone- 
ment for,  or  cover,  the  sin  of  the  guilty  person 
or  persons.  The  difference  between  the  two 
seems  to  be  that  while  the  sin  offering  is  pro- 
vided for  those  offences  which  could  not  be 
undone  or  repaired,  the  guilt  offering  is  pro- 
vided for  those  cases  where  reparation  and 
restitution  are  possible,  a  fine  or  penalty  being 
imposed  on  the  transgressor  in  the  latter  in- 
stance (516  64,5).  The  ritual  of  the  two  sacri- 
fices is  different.  While  the  victim  of  the 
guilt  offering  is  usually  a  ram  (515)  and  some- 
times a  he-lamb  (Nul524),  the  victim  of  the 
sin  offering  varies  according  to  the  rank  of  the 
offender.  For  the  high  priest  it  is  a  young 
bullock  (43),  for  the  congregation  the  same 
(4  14)  or  a  he-goat  (Nu  1524),  for  a  ruler  a  he- 
goat  (423),  and  for  an  ordinary  person  a  she- 
goat  (428),  a  ewe-lamb  (432),  a  pigeon  (5  7),  or 
a  meal  offering  (5ii).  The  important  feature 
of  the  sin  offering  is  the  manipulation  of  the 
blood.  Part  of  it  is  applied  to  the  horns  of 
the  altar  of  incense  and  the  rest  poured  out  at 
the  base  of  the  altar  of  burnt  offering.  But 
when  the  sin  offering  is  on  behalf  of  the  high 
priest  or  congregation,  part  of  the  blood  is 
also  carried  into  the  tent  and  sprinkled  seven 
times  before  the  veil  of  the  sanctuary  (45,  g, 
16,17).  On  the  great  Day  of  Atonement  the 
sprinkling  takes  place  within  the  veil,  on  or 
before  the  mercy  seat  (1614  :  ggg  notes  on  that 
chapter). 

2.  Through  ignorance]  RV  '  unwittingly.' 
The  word  applies  to  sins  not  only  of  ignorance 
but  also  of  weakness  and  rashness.  It  must, 
however,  be  observed  that  the  Levitical  law 
provides  no  sacrifice  for  deliberate  or  pre- 
sumptuous sins,  sins  committed  '  with  a  high 
hand'(Nul530,cp.Hebl026f.).       3.  The  priest 


89 


4.  15 


LEVITICUS 


7.35 


that  is  anointed]  i.e.  the  high  priest  :  see  on 
Ex  29  21.  According  to  the  sin  of  the  people] 
B.V  '  so  as  to  bring  guilt  on  the  people.' 

Horns]  see  on  Ex  27  2.  Altar  of  sweet 
incense]   see  on  ExSQi'^^. 

I  $.  Elders  of  the  congregation]  The  repre- 
sentatives of  the  people.  26.  The  flesh  of 
the  sin  ofl^ering  for  a  ruler  or  ordinary  person 
is  eaten  by  the  priests  (6^6),  who,  however, 
must  not  eat  their  own  sin  offering  nor  that 
of  the  congregation  which  is  to  be  entirely 
burned  (411.12,21  030).  35.  According  to] 
RV  '  upon  '  :  see  on  3  5. 

CHAPTER  5 
The  Sin  Offering  and  the  Guilt  Offer- 
ing (continued) 
1-6.  Special  cases  in  which  it  is  proper  to 
offer  a  Sin  Offering.  Such  are  the  withholding 
of  testimony  (v.  1),  touching  a  carcase  or  un- 
clean person  or  thing  (vv.  2,  3),  making  rash 
oaths  (v.  4). 

1.  Sin,  and  hear]  RV  '  sin,  in  that  he  hear- 
eth':  cp.  Prov2924Jgl7  2.  2.  See  11 27,  28, 
31-40  I57f.  If  it  he  hidden  from  him]  Vulgate 
renders,  '  if  he  forgetteth  his  uncleanness,'  i.e. 
omits  to  make  the  prescribed  ablutions. 

7-13.  Substitutes  for  the  goat  or  lamb  of 
the  Sin  Offering  in  cases  of  poverty.  The 
Mosaic  Law  is  always  considerate  of  the  poor, 
and  makes  special  provision  for  such  in  sacrifices 
of  atonement  and  purification,  so  that  a  man's 
poverty  may  be  no  excuse  for  his  remaining 
under  sin  or  disability  connected  with  cere- 
monial impurity,  or  any  bar  to  his  obtaining 
forgiveness  :  see  also  114-17  128  142lf_ 

II.  Ephah]   about  a  bushel. 

514-57.  The  Guilt  (or  Trespass)  Offering. 
Two  cases  are  mentioned  in  which  it  is 
proper  to  bring  a  guilt  offering.  The  first 
(v.  15)  is  that  of  a  person  who  occasions  loss 
to  the  sanctuary  by  either  consuming  or  keep- 
ing back  some  '  holy  thing '  (see  on  2  3).  He 
is  required  to  restore  the  value  of  the  thing 
plus  one  fifth  by  way  of  a  penalty  (v.  16),  and 
to  present  a  guilt  offering.  The  second  case 
is  that  of  a  person  who  causes  loss  to  his 
neighbour.  The  same  is  required  of  him  (6  4-7)^ 
see  Nu  5  ^-lo. 

15.  Shekel  of  the  sanctuary]  a  standard 
weight  of  silver,  equal  to  rather  more  than 
half-a-crown  in  value  :  see  ExSQi^.  16.  The 
fifth  part]  the  usual  proportion  in  cases  of 
restitution  :  see  26i3-3i. 

CHAPTER  6 

1-7.  These  vv.  should  be  reckoned  as  part 
of  c.  5.  The  Hebrew  chapter  begins  at 
6  8.  Our  chapter  and  verse  divisions  are  a 
late  invention,  dating  from  the  13th  and  14th 
centuries. 

2,  RV  '  deal  falsely  with  his  neighbour  in  a 


matter  of  deposit,  or  of  bargain  (or  pledge),  or 
of  robbery'  :  cp.  Ex 22 7 f. 

68_y3s_  Directions  addressed  to  the  Priests 
regarding  the  ritual  of  Sacrifice  :  see  on 
12. 

9-13.  The  Burnt  Offering.  The  daily  or 
continual  burnt  offering  is  meant  :  see  on  c.l. 
The  private  or  occasional  burnt  offering  is 
referred  to  in  78.  9.   It  ^s  .  .  ]    RV'The 

burnt  offering  shall  be  on  the  hearth  upon  the 
altar  all  night  unto  the  morning  '  :  the  offering 
of  devotion  to  God  must  never  cease. 

14-18.  The  Meal  Offering.  This  again  is 
the  daily  meal  offering  presented  along  with 
the  daily  burnt  offering  :  see  intro.  to  c.  2. 
17.   Most  holy]  see  on  23. 

19-23.  The  Meal  Offering  for  the  High 
Priest,  presented  daily,  morning  and  evening 
(v.  20),  by  Aaron  and  his  successors  in  office  on 
their  own  behalf  (v.  22).  20.   In  the  day 

■when  he  is  anointed]  meaning  on  and  from  that 
day,  as  appears  from  the  term  '  perpetual '  in 
V.  20  and  the  statement  in  v.  22.  23.  The 
priest  does  not  eat  of  his  own  sacrifice :  see  on 
426. 

24-30.  The  Sin  Offering.  26.  Shall  eat 
it]  i.e.  unless  it  is  the  sin  offering  for  himself  : 
see  on  v.  23.  30.  Reconcile]  make  atone- 
ment, as  in  14. 

CHAPTER  7 
Directions  to  the  Priests  (continued) 

i-io.  The  Guilt  Offering.  Vv.  8-10  refer 
to  private  offerings  and  the  priest's  share  in 
them. 

1 1 -2 1.  The  Peace  Offering.  Three  kinds 
of  peace  offerings  are  distinguished  here,  viz.  the 
thank  offering  (v.  12),  and  the  votive  and  free 
will  offerings  (v.  16).  The  former,  as  its  name 
implies,  would  be  presented  after  a  benefit  had 
been  received  ;  the  latter,  while  the  benefit 
was  still  expected,  as  an  accompaniment  of 
supplication. 

12.  The  animal  sacrifice  is  accompanied  with 
a  meal  offering  of  four  kinds  of  cakes,  one  of 
which  is  leavened.  Of  each  of  these  one  cake 
is  heaved  before  the  Lord  (see  on  Ex  29  24)  and 
appropriated  by  the  priests,  the  others  are' 
eaten  by  the  offerer  along  with  his  share  of 
the  peace  offering  :  see  intro.  to  c.  3. 

21.  Shall  be  cut  off]  excommunicated  :  see 
on  Ex  12 15. 

22-27.  Prohibition  to  eat  fat  or  blood.  The 
fat  is  the  internal  fat  :  see  on  3  3. 

28-34.  The  Priest's  share  of  the  peace 
offerings.  This  consists  of  the  choice  por- 
tions, the  breast  and  right  thigh  which  are  first 
heaved  or  waved  before  the  Lord :  see  Ex  29  24. 

35.  Portion  of  the  anointing]  RM  '  Portion.' 
Vv.  35-38  form  a  conclusion  to  the  first  part 
of  the  book  of  Leviticus,  that  dealing  with 
Sacrifices. 


90 


8. 


LEVITICUS 


10.  16 


PART  2 


(Chs.  8-10)  The 

CHAPTER   8 
The  Consecration  of  Aaron  and 

HIS  Sons 
This  chapter  relates  the  fulfilment  of  the 
injunctions  given  in  Ex29l-3'''. 

CHAPTER   9 

Installation  of  Aaron  and  his  Sons 
The  ceremonial  of  consecration  is  repeated 
daily  for  seven  days  (8^3  ;  see  Ex  29  35).  On 
the  eighth  day  Aaron  and  his  sons  formally 
assume  office.  Aaron  first  sacrifices  for  himself 
(vv.  7-14)  and  then  for  the  people  (vv.  15-21). 
The  solemn  blessing  of  the  people  follows 
(vv.  22,  23),  after  which  fire  from  the  Lord 
descends  and  consumes  the  sacrifices  upon  the 
altar  (v.  24). 

7.  Aaron  did  not  approach  the  altar  till 
called  on  by  Moses  to  do  so,  showing  that  he 
did  not  take  this  honour  to  himself,  but  that 
it  was  the  call  of  God  by  Moses:  cp.  Heb 
5  *>  5.  '  No  man  taketh  this  honour  unto  him- 
self, but  he  that  is  called  of  God,  as  was 
Aaron.' 

8.  Aaron,  having  now  been  consecrated,  dis- 
charges the  priestly  duties.  During  the  seven 
days  of  his  consecration  these  were  performed 
by  Moses  :  see  8  is.  11.  The  flesh  and  the 
hide  he  burnt]  They  were  wholly  burned 
because  the  sacrifice  was  offered  by  Aaron  on 
behalf  of  himself  :  see  on  4  2*5. 

22.  The  form  of  the  Benediction  is  given  in 
Nu  6  -^-■■2".  As  Aaron  is  here  said  to  have  come 
down,  the  benediction  seems  to  have  been  pro- 
nounced from  the  top  of  the  altar,  or  from  its 
ledge  :  see  Ex  20  26  275  RV. 

23.  Moses  takes  Aaron  into  the  tent  of 
meeting,  in  order  to  induct  him  into  the  duties 
connected  with  it,  and  to  hand  over  the  sacred 
furniture  to  his  charge.  Glory  of  the  LORD] 
cp.  Ex  40  34, 35. 

24.  This  was  not  the  first  kindling  of  the 
sacred  fire,  as  there  was  already  fire  upon  the 
altar  (v.  10,  etc.).  But  instead  of  the  sacrifices 
burning  for  a  long  time  they  were  suddenly 
consumed  before  the  eyes  of  the  people.  This 
was  accepted  by  them  as  a  token  that  God  not 
only  accepted  these  sacrifices  but  also  approved 
the  consecration  of  Aaron  and  his  sons  to  the 
priesthood  :  cp.  Jg  6  20,21  iK  1836,39  2Ch7i-3. 


CHAPTER    10 
Sin  and  Death  of  Nadab  and  Abihu 
An  illustration  of  the  necessity  of  a  punc- 
tilious observance  of  the  regulations.     We  have 
no  means  of  ascertaining  the  precise  nature  of 
the  trespass  committed  by  the  two  eldest  sons 


Consecration  of  the  Priesthood 

of  Aaron.  In  view  of  Lv  1 6 12  (cp.  Nu  1 6  ^^ 
Rev  8  5)  we  may  suppose  that  the  sin  lay  in 
the  use  of  common  fire,  instead  of  fire  taken 
from  the  altar.  But  the  phrase  strange  fire  is 
wide  enough  to  cover  any  breach  of  the  laws 
regulating  the  preparation  and  use  of  incense 
(see  Ex  30  i-io.  3i-3H).  Lv  1 6 1-  2  might  also  lead 
us  to  infer  that  Nadab  and  Abihu  presumptu- 
ously penetrated  into  the  Holy  of  Holies. 
Vv.  16-20  of  the  present  chapter  show  that 
the  trespass  was  committed  on  the  day  of  their 
entering  upon  office  (cp.  9  ^  *•).  From  the  fact 
that  the  prohibition  against  the  use  of  wine  by 
priests  on  duty  follows  immediately  upon  this 
incident  (vv.  8,  9)  it  has  been  inferred  by  later 
Jewish  writers  and  many  modern  commentators 
that  Nadab  and  Abihu  sinned  when  in  a  state 
of  intoxication.  There  is,  however,  no  real 
gi'ound  for  this  supposition,  as  vv.  8,  9  form  a 
separate  and  disconnected  fragment. 

3.  Them  that  come  nigh  me]  i.e.  the  priests 
(cp.  Ex  1 9  22  Ezk  42 13  43 1^').  The  greater  the 
privilege  the  greater  the  responsibility.  Judg- 
ment begins  at  the  house  of  God  (1  Pet4i7). 
Held  his  peace]  acknowledged  the  justice  of 
the  penalty.  4.  See  Ex  6  22.  It  would  not 
have  been  unlawful  for  the  surviving  brothers 
to  perform  this  office  (see  21 1-3),  but  probably 
to  spare  their  feelings  the  cousins  of  Aaron 
were  selected  for  the  duty.  6,  7.  Uncover 
not  your  heads]  RV  '  Let  not  the  hair  of  your 
heads  go  loose.'  Aaron  and  his  sons  are  for- 
bidden to  exhibit  the  usual  signs  of  mourning, 
dishevelled  hair  and  rent  garments,  or  to  in- 
terrupt their  priestly  functions,  as  an  object 
lesson  of  submission  to  righteous  judgment. 

8,  9.  The  priests  were  not  absolutely  for- 
bidden the  use  of  wine,  but  only  when  per- 
forming their  priestly  duties  :  see  prefatory  re- 
marks, and  cp.  Ezk  44  21.  10.  It  was  the 
duty  of  the  priests  to  instruct  the  people  in 
their  religious  duties,  and  to  set  an  example 
to  them:  cp.  Ezk 44 23. 

16-20.  Goat  of  the  sin  offering]  i.e.  the 
people's  sin  offering  (915).  Aaron's  own  sin 
offering  had  been  burned  in  accordance  with 
the  law  (98-11).  But  instead  of  eating  the 
flesh  of  the  people's  sacrifice,  as  prescribed  in 
62<3,  he  had  burned  it  also.  When  charged 
with  contravening  the  law,  Aaron  pleaded  that 
he  and  his  sons  had  felt  themselves  to  be  de- 
filed by  the  death  of  Nadab  and  Abihu,  and 
that  it  would  have  been  inconsistent  for  them 
to  eat  the  sin  offering,  an  act  which  signified 
the  acceptance  of  the  people  by  God  and  their 
full  communion  with  Him.  Moses  admitted 
the  justice  of  the  plea  in  the  exceptional 
circumstances. 


91 


11. 


LEVITICUS 


11.28 


PART  3 


(Chs.  11-16)  The  Law 

This  section  deals  with  the  subject  of 
ceremonial  uncleanness  and  the  method  of 
its  purification.  Four  main  types  of  unclean- 
ness are  referred  to,  viz.  that  of  meats  (11 1-23)^ 
of  carcases  (1124-40)^  of  leprosy  (chs.  13,  14), 
and  of  certain  bodily  functions  and  conditions 
(chs.  12,  15).  The  effect  of  ceremonial  un- 
cleanness is  that  it  disqualifies  a  person  for 
the  worship  of  God.  Its  duration  varies  ac- 
cording to  the  cause,  from  a  few  hours,  as  in 
the  case  of  touching  the  carcase  of  a  clean 
beast  (11^9),  to  eighty  days,  as  in  the  case  of 
a  woman  who  has  given  birth  to  a  girl  (12^). 
The  ritual  of  purification  consists  of  washing 
the  body,  sometimes  also  the  clothes,  and  in 
the  case  of  greater  defilement,  the  offering  of 
sacrifice. 

The  distinction  of  clean  and  unclean  did 
not  originate  at  the  time  of  Moses,  nor  is  it 
confined  to  the  Hebrews.  It  is  to  be  found  in 
all  religions,  particularly  in  their  earlier  stages. 
It  is  not  easy  to  account  for  it.  The  restric- 
tions may  be  due  to  a  natural  instinct  of 
aversion  from  disgusting  objects  and  conditions. 
Or  they  may  rest  upon  reasons  of  health;  for 
undoubtedly  many  of  them  possess  sanitary 
advantages.  Or,  as  many  believe,  a  religious 
idea  may  lie  at  the  root  of  them,  certain 
objects  being  regarded  as  the  seat  of  evil  spirits. 
Whatever  be  the  origin  of  these  regulations, 
they  were  adopted  by  Moses  and  made  to 
subserve  a  sacred  purpose.  Things  cere- 
monially unclean  were  used  as  types  of  moral 
defilement.  The  outward  purifications  served 
to  impress  upon  the  hearts  of  the  people  the 
need  of  absolute  purity  in  the  service  of 
Jehovah.  They  were  a  constant  reminder  of 
the  precept,  '  Ye  shall  be  holy ;  for  I  am  holy ' 
(see  e.g.  11 44,45).  And  if  it  be  the  fact  that  at 
least  some  of  the  '  unclean '  animals  were  wor- 
shipped by  the  Canaanitish  tribes,  then  these 
regulations  served  still  further  to  guard  the 
people  of  Jehovah  from  the  contaminating 
influences  of  their  surroundings :  see  20  25, 26_ 

CHAPTER    11 

Law  of  Clean  and  Unclean  Meats 
The  animals  whose  flesh  may  or  may  not  be 
eaten  are  treated  in  four  classes,  viz.  large 
land  animals  (vv.  3-8),  water  animals  (vv.  9-12), 
birds  (vv.  13-19),  winged  creeping  things 
(vv.  20-23). 

3.  Of  the  large  land  animals,  those  are 
clean  which  both  chew  the  cud  and  divide  the 
hoof.  Unless  they  satisfy  both  these  con- 
ditions they  are  unclean  and  cannot  be  eaten. 
The  practical  effect  of  this  is  to  exclude  all 
beasts   of   prey.     The    flesh  of  animals  that 


OF  Clean  and  Unclean 

chew  the  cud  is  undoubtedly  more  wholesome 
than  that  of  those  which  live  on  prey.  With 
this  list  of  animals  should  be  compared  that  in 
Dtl4,  where  a  list  of  clean  animals  is  given. 

4.  The  camel's  foot,  though  divided  above, 
is  united  beneath  into  a  broad  sole. 

5.  Coney]  The  word  means  a  rabbit.  But 
the  animal  meant  here  is  the  rock-badger, 
which  somewhat  resembles  a  guinea-pig,  and 
is  common  in  Palestine.  6.  The  hare  does 
not  really  chew  the  cud,  but  the  action  of  its 
jaws  resembles  that  of  ruminants. 

7.  Swine  are  uncleanly  in  their  habits  and 
food,  and  the  use  of  their  flesh  is  believed  to 
be  the  cause  of  certain  diseases  in  man.  The 
Jews  still  abstain  from  eating  it. 

8.  All  dead  bodies  defile.  But  it  should  be 
observed  that  contact  with  a  living  unclean 
animal  did  not  defile.  The  ass  e.g.  was  un- 
clean for  food,  but  was  the  common  beast  of 
burden  among  the  Israelites. 

9-12.  Water  animals.  The  condition  of 
cleanness  here  is  the  possession  of  fins  and 
scales.  It  follows  that  shellfish  and  eels  are 
forbidden  as  food. 

13-19.  Birds.  No  signs  are  given  to  dis- 
tinguish clean  from  unclean  birds.  The  latter 
are  specified,  being  mostly  birds  of  prey  and 
feeders    on    carrion.  13.    Ossifrage]     RV 

'  the  gier  eagle,'  the  largest  of  the  vulture 
tribe.  The  name  'ossifrage,'  which  means  the 
'  bone-breaker,'  is  derived  from  the  practice  of 
the  bird  in  dropping  the  bones  of  its  prey  from 
a  height  on  to  a  rock  so  as  to  break  them  and 
get  at  the  marrow.  The  ospray  is  the  '  short- 
toed  eagle,'  the  commonest  of  the  eagle  tribe 
in  Palestine. 

14-19.  Vulture]  RV  'kite.'  Kite]  RV 
'falcon.'  After  his  kind]  i.e.  including  others 
of  the  same  species.  Owl]  RV  'ostrich.' 
Cuckow]  RV  'seamew.'  Swan]  doubtful; 
RV  has  'horned  owl.'  Lapwing]  RV 
'hoopoe,'  a  bird  of  foul  habit. 

20-23.  Fowls  that  creep]  Read  with  RV, 
'  All  winged  creeping  things.'  What  are  meant 
are  insects  and  small  reptiles  that  move  hori- 
zontally, go  upon  all  four.  Four  kinds  of 
locusts  are  exempted  and  may  be  eaten.  The 
locust  resembles  a  large  grasshopper,  and  is 
still  eaten  in  the  East.  It  is  usually  prepared 
by  being  thrown  into  boiling  water,  after 
which  the  head  and  wings  are  removed  and 
the  body  dried  in  the  sun. 

24-40.  Uncleanness  contracted  by  contact 
with  dead  bodies. 

28.  Until  the  even]  till  the  close  of  the 
day.  The  Hebrews  reckon  the  day  from 
sunset  to  sunset. 


92 


11.  29 


LEVITICUS 


13.  47 


29.  Tortoise]  Jewish  authorities  regarded 
the  tortoise  as  a  clean  animal.  Whfa,t  is  meant 
here  is  probably  a  kind  of  lizard.     So  RV. 

30.  The  names  here  are  uncertain.  RV 
renders,  '  the  gecko,  and  the  land-crocodile, 
and  the  lizard,  and  the  sand-lizard,  and  the 
chameleon.' 

33.  An  earthen  vessel,  being  porous,  is  sup- 
posed to  absorb  the  uncleanness  so  that  it 
cannot    be    removed    with    washing.  35. 

Oven]  an  earthenware  jar  or  pot:  see  on 
Ex83.  36.  Pit]  RM  '  cistern.'  The  water 
in  wells  and  reservoirs,  being  frequently 
changed,  is  not  polluted.  That  which 
toucheth]  or,  'he  that  toucheth.'  37,  38. 
The  seed  in  growing  undergoes  many  changes, 
which  are  supposed  to  throw  off  the  unclean- 
ness. But  if  the  seed  is  wet  it  may  be 
penetrated  by  the  defiling  fluid.  42.  What- 
soever hath  more  feet]  rather,  'hath  many 
feet.'  Insects  like  caterpillars  and  centipedes 
are  intended. 

44.  Sanctify]  the  root  meaning  of  the 
Heb.  words  for  'sanctify,'  'hallow,'  'holy,' 
is  that  of  separation:  cp.  v.  47.  The  holiness 
spoken  of  here  is  rather  physical  than  moral; 
but  in  keeping  themselves  free  from  ceremo- 
nial defilement,  the  people  learned  to  avoid 
what  is  morally  impure,  in  accordance  with 
the  principle  implied  in  the  words,  '  first  that 
which  is  natural,  afterward  that  which  is 
spiritual.' 

The  composite  nature  of  this  c.  appears 
from  the  position  of  vv.  29,  30,  41-45,  which 
belong  to  vv.  20-23.  Vv.  46,  47  form  the 
conclusion  to  the  whole. 

CHAPTER    12 

Uncleanness  connected  with  Childbirth 
The  functions  of  reproduction  are  in  early 
stages  of  religion  regarded  with  superstitious 
di-ead.  The  enactments  in  this  c.  and  the 
related  regulations  in  c.  15  had  an  important 
place  in  teaching  the  lesson  of  purity  in 
sexual  relationships. 

3.  Cp.  Gn  17 10-14.  The  purifications  pre- 
scribed in  this  c.  are  for  the  mother  alone 
and  not  for  the  child,  who  does  not  seem  to 
have  been  regarded  as  unclean,  unless  the  rite 
of  circumcision  involved  the  idea  of  the  puri- 
fication of  the  child.  Uncircumcision  and 
uncleanness  are  frequently  identical:  see  on 
19^3.  4.   On  the  eighth  day  the  mother  is 

readmitted  to  society,  but  is  still  debarred  from 
the  services  of  the  tabernacle  till  forty  days 
after  the  birth.  5.  In  the  case  of  the  birth 
of  a  girl  the  two  periods  of  uncleanness  (see 
last  note)  are  exactly  doubled,  the  reason 
doubtless  being  the  opinion  of  the  ancients 
that  the  derangement  of  the  system  is  greater. 
8.  Cp.  Lk22'i,  which  shows  that  the  Virgin 
Mary  offered  the  poor  woman's  sacrifice. 


CHAPTER   13 

Uncleanness  connected  with  Leprosy 

It  is  tolerably  certain  that  the  leprosy  of 
the  OT.  is  not  the  leprosy  of  the  Middle  Ages, 
which  is  still  to  be  found  in  the  East.  The 
latter  is  a  terrible  and  loathsome  disease, 
called  elephaniicms,  in  consequence  of  which 
the  skin  thickens,  the  features  are  distorted, 
and  the  very  limbs  mortify  and  drop  off  from 
the  body.  The  leprosy  of  the  Bible  is  a  skin 
disease,  known  as  psoriasis,  in  which  the  skin 
and  hair  gi'ow  white,  and  which  is  accompanied 
with  scab  and  flaky  scales  which  peel  off.  It 
is  doubtful  whether  it  was  infectious  or  not. 
Some  varieties  may  have  been  so;  but  it  is  to 
be  observed  that  when  the  disease  entirely 
covered  the  body  the  person  was  pronounced 
clean  and  could  mix  in  society.  Leprosy  is 
regarded  in  the  Bible  as  a  type  of  sin  in  its 
loathsomeness  and  disfiguring  and  corrupting 
effects,  and  its  treatment  was  in  many  points 
symbolical. 

3.  Plague]  i.e.  plagued  spot.  4.  Shut  up 
him]  i.e.  place  him  in  quarantine:  separate 
the  affected  person  from  the  society  of  others 
and  the  service  of  the  tabernacle. 

9-17.  The  case  of  the  reappearance  of 
leprosy  after  it  has  been  cured.  11.  Shall 

not  shut  him  up]  there  is  no  need  for  quaran- 
tine as  the  case  is  undoubtedly  one  of  leprosy. 
13.  When  the  eruption  is  complete,  the  disease 
is  supposed  to  have  reached  its  crisis,  and  to  be 
discharging  itself  externally  in  dry  scales. 

18-23.  The  case  of  leprosy  developing  from 
a  healed  boil. 

24-28.  The  case  of  leprosy  arising  from  the 
inflammation  following  a  burn. 

29-37.  Leprosy  in  the  hair  of  the  head  or 
beard.  In  this  case  the  hair  turns  yellow  in- 
stead of  white  (v.  30). 

38.  Another  form  of  leprosy  in  the  shape 
of  white  spots.  This  is  harmless,  and  the 
affected  person  is  not  unclean. 

40-44.  Leprosy  in  the  bald  head. 

45.  These  are  the  signs  of  mourning  for 
the  dead  (cp.  10 «  21 10  Ezk24i7  Mic37), 
leprosy  being  regarded  as  a  living  death  and 
the  severest  token  of  the  divine  displeasure  : 
cp.  Nul2i2. 

47-59.  The  leprosy  of  garments.  What 
is  described  here  is  not  the  leprosy  that  attacks 
the  human  being,  but  a  mildew  or  fungus 
causing  discoloration  and  corrosion  and  bear- 
ing a  superficial  resemblance  to  leprosy  :  cp. 
the  leprosy  of  houses,  1 4  33-53.  The  regulations 
regarding  this  so-called  '  leprosy '  were  no 
doubt  valuable  for  sanitary  reasons  ;  but  they 
would  also  serve  to  '  teach  the  Hebrew  to 
hate  even  the  appearance  of  evil.'  Cp.  what 
St.  Jude  says  (v.  23)  of  the  Christian  '  hating 
even  the  garment  spotted  by  the  flesh.' 


93 


13.  48 


LEVITICUS 


16. 


48.  Warp,  or  ■woof]  This  translation  is 
doubtful.  The  words  probably  mean  as  in 
RM,  '  woven  or  knitted  stuif ,'  referring  to 
material  not  yet  made  into  garments. 

CHAPTER  14 

The  Purification  of  the  Leper.     The 

Leprosy  of  Houses 

When  a  leper  has  been  cured  of  his  plague, 
and  has  satisfied  the  priest  that  his  cure  is 
complete,  he  is  required  to  go  through  a 
ceremonial  purification  before  being  readmitted 
to  his  place  in  society.  The  ritual  of  purifi- 
cation consists  of  three  parts.  (1)  Two  living 
birds  are  brought,  with  a  rod  of  cedar  wood, 
a  piece  of  scarlet  wool,  and  a  bunch  of  hyssop, 
to  the  priest,  who  kills  one  of  the  birds  over 
water.  The  living  bird  and  the  cedar  rod,  to 
which  the  hyssop  is  tied  with  the  scarlet 
thread,  are  dipped  in  the  blood,  which  is  then 
sprinkled  upon  the  man  seven  times.  The 
living  bird  is  then  let  loose.  (2)  The  man 
then  washes  his  clothes,  shaves  ofi:  all  his 
hair,  and  bathes.  After  seven  days  he  repeats 
this  and  is  ready  for  the  last  act  of  his  purify- 
ing. (3)  On  the  eighth  day  he  presents 
himself  with  his  sacrifices  at  the  door  of  the 
tent  of  meeting.  A  guilt  offering,  a  sin 
offering,  and  a  burnt  offering  are  made,  the 
right  ear,  thumb,  and  great  toe  of  the  man 
are  touched,  first  with  blood  and  then  with  oil, 
and  he  is  once  more  ceremonially  clean. 

4.  Later  usage  required  the  birds  to  be 
sparrows.  Cedar  wood  (probably  not  the 
cedar  of  Lebanon  but  a  kind  of  juniper)  may 
have  been  chosen  on  account  of  its  antiseptic 
property,  and  hyssop  (see  on  Ex  1 2  22)  for  its 
aromatic  qualities.  In  later  times,  at  least, 
their  use  was  regarded  as  symbolical,  in  the 
one  case  of  the  pride  which  was  supposed  to 
be  the  cause  of  visitation  by  the  disease,  in 
the  other  of  the  humility  which  was  an  essen- 
tial condition  of  its  removal.  The  scarlet 
wool  may  have  betokened  the  healthy  blood 
now  coursing  in  the  veins  of  the  erewhile 
leper.  The  same  materials  were  employed  in 
the  ritual  for  purification  after  contact  with 
dead  bodies  :  see  NulQ^  and  cp.  PsSl''. 

7.  The  release  of  the  living  bird  signified 
the  removal  of  the  uncleanness,  perhaps  also 
the  restored  liberty  of  the  leper.  Cp.  the 
release  of  the  goat  on  the  Day  of  Atonement, 
1621.22.  10.  A  tenth  deal  (i.e.  part)  of  an 
ephah,  which  was  called  an  omer,  was  about 
four  pints,  the  ephah  being  rather  more  than 
a  bushel.  A  log  is  about  a  pint.  12.  Wave 
them]  see  on  Ex  29  24.  The  offering  of  these 
sacrifices  shows  that  leprosy  was  regarded  as 
a  punishment  of  sin.  14.   The  anointing  of 

these  members  signified  their  reconsecration 
to  the  service  of  Grod,  and  the  readmission 
of  the  leper  to  the  privileges  of  the  tabernacle. 


33-53-  The  leprosy  of  houses.  This, 
like  the  leprosy  of  garments  (see  IS^''^^), 
bears  only  an  external  resemblance  to  the 
leprosy  of  human  beings.  It  is  a  fungus  or 
discoloration  making  its  appearance  on  the 
walls  of  houses  :  see  on  13  ■^"'5^.  The  legis- 
lation here  is  prospective  :  cp.  the  mention  of 
'  the  camp  '  in  v.  3  with  that  of  '  the  city  '  in 
V.  40.  The  section  may  be  post-Mosaic.  It 
stands  by  itself  ;  its  natural  position  would  be 
after  1359. 

CHAPTER  15 

Uncleanness  connected  with  Sexual 
Discharges 

The  subject  of  this  c.  is  related  to  that  of 
c.  12  :  see  intro.  there.  Here  three  natural 
(vv.  16,  17,  18,  19-24)  and  two  abnormal 
(vv.  1-15,  25-30)  conditions  are  dealt  with. 
Though  not  in  themselves  sinful,  they  render 
the  person  ceremonially  unclean,  and  the  en- 
actments with  respect  to  them  would  tend  to 
purity  of  morals,  being  a  reminder  that  all 
uncleanness  is  hateful  to  God,  and  that  He  is 
to  be  glorified  in  our  bodies  as  well  as  in  our 
spirits. 

8.  This  case  is  provided  for,  as  spitting 
upon  a  person  was,  and  still  is,  a  common 
expression  of  contempt  among  Orientals. 

12.  See  on    11^3.  13.  Is  cleansed]    i.e. 

physically.     Shall  be  clean]  i.e.  ceremonially. 

CHAPTER  16 
Ritual  of  the  Day  of  Atonement 
(See  also  2326-32  Nu29Mi  Ex  30 10.) 
This  solemn  ceremonial  took  place  once  a 
year  on  the  tenth  day  of  the  seventh  month 
(Tishri  =  September).  It  was  enacted  by  the 
high  priest  alone,  but  the  whole  nation  in- 
dicated its  interest  and  participation  in  it, 
by  resting  from  all  manner  of  work,  by 
keeping  a  very  strict  fast,  and  by  assembling 
for  an  '  holy  convocation.'  The  ritual  of  the 
Day  of  Atonement  marked  the  culminating 
point  of  the  Levitical  system,  and  was  calcu- 
lated to  impress  the  minds  of  the  worshippers 
in  a  peculiar  degree.  Most  of  the  other  sacri- 
fices and  purifications  were  occasional  and  per- 
sonal, but  this  was  the  yearly  atonement  for 
the  nation  as  a  whole,  including  the  priest- 
hood itself,  and  the  yearly  purification  of  the 
sanctuary  and  its  parts  from  the  defilement  of 
the  sins  of  the  people  in  whose  midst  it  stood. 
It  gathered  up  and  included  all  the  separate 
and  individual  sacrifices  of  the  year,  and  re- 
stored to  the  nation  the  holiness  it  had  lost. 
It  was  but  natural  that  Christians  should  see, 
in  its  peculiarly  striking  and  solemn  ritual,  a 
foreshadowing  and  illustration  of  the  atone- 
ment wrought  by  Christ,  through  the  one  sacri- 
fice of  Himself,  and  His  entering  into  the  Holy 
Place,  there  to  appear  in  the  presence  of  God 


94 


16.3 


I^VITICUS 


17. 


for  His  people.  This  is  pointed  out  by  the 
writer  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  :  see 
Heb4i^  6^0  9ii--«,  which  should  be  read  in 
this  connexion. 

A  great  deal  has  been  made  of  the  fact  that 
there  is  no  mention  of  the  actual  observance 
of  the  Day  of  Atonement  till  after  the  exile, 
from  which  it  has  been  inferred  that  its  insti- 
tution is  of  post-exilic  date.  But  the  argument 
is  not  convincing.  The  connexion  with  the 
death  of  Nadab  and  Abihu  (see  v.  1),  and  the 
mention  of  Azazel  (see  v.  8  and  note),  indi- 
cate that  the  ritual  of  this  c.  rests  on  a  very 
ancient  basis.  And  not  only  are  the  pre-exilic 
books  silent  on  the  Day  of  Atonement,  but  the 
post-exilic  contain  no  reference  to  it  either, 
which  shows  the  precarious  nature  of  the 
argument  from  silence. 

The  Day  of  Atonement  is  still  the  great 
day  of  the  Jewish  sacred  year,  and  is  observed 
with  much  solemnity  as  a  day  of  humiliation 
and  repentance  :  see  on  Ex  32^^. 

3-5.  The  first  act  of  the  high  priest  is  to 
choose  the  sacrificial  victims,  to  bathe  himself, 
and  exchange  his  distinctive  vestments  for  a 
garment  of  white  linen,  the  garment  of  the 
ordinary  priest. 

6-1 1.  He  then  presents  the  sin  offering 
for  himself  and  for  his  house,  and  casts  lots 
between  the  two  goats  of  the  sin  offering  for 
the  people,  one  of  which  is  to  be  slain  and  the 
other  let  loose.  He  then  sacrifices  his  own 
sin  offering. 

8.  For  the  scapegoat]  RV 'for  Azazel.'  This 
word  does  not  occur  elsewhere  in  OT.  The 
parallel,  for  the  LORD,  suggests  that  it  should 
be  taken  as  a  proper  name,  and  left  untrans- 
lated. The  word  scapegoat  in  AV  is  not  a 
translation,  but  indicates  merely  the  use  to 
which  this  goat  is  to  be  put.  Azazel  is  under- 
stood to  be  the  name  of  one  of  those  malignant 
demons  with  which  the  superstition  of  the 
Israelites  peopled  the  wilderness  and  all  waste 
places  (see  IsalS'^i  3414,  and  cp.  Mtl2'i3  Mk 
1 13).  The  sending  of  the  sin-laden  goat  to 
him  (vv.  21,  22)  signified  the  complete  removal 
of  the  sins  of  the  people  and  the  handing  them 


over,  as  it  were,  to  the  evil  spirit  to  whom 
they  belonged  :  cp.  the  ceremony  connected 
with  the  cleansing  of  lepers  (14*5,7).  This  rite 
may  have  been  intended,  at  all  events  it  would 
serve,  to  counteract  any  disposition  to  honour 
and  worship  such  evil  spirits  (cp.  17 '7). 

12-14.  The  high  priest  next  enters  the 
Holy  of  Holies  with  incense  and  the  blood  of 
his  sin  offering,  which  he  sprinkles  once  on 
the  mercy  seat  and  seven  times  in  the  space 
before  it,  thus  making  atonement  for  himself 
and  his  house. 

15-19.  He  then  goes  out  into  the  court  and 
sacrifices  the  goat  on  which  the  lot  fell  '  for 
Jehovah,'  and  brings  its  blood  as  before  into 
the  Holy  of  Holies  to  make  atonement  for  the 
sanctuary  and  its  parts,  and  cleanse  them  from 
the  sins  which  mingle  even  with  the  best 
service  that  man  can  offer  to  God. 

20-22.  He  now  takes  the  goat  destined  '  for 
Azazel,'  and  laying  his  hands  on  its  head  con- 
fesses over  it  the  sins  of  the  people,  after 
which  a  man  standing  in  readiness  leads  the 
goat  away  into  the  wilderness  and  releases  it. 
In  the  time  of  the  Second  Temple  the  goat 
was  destroyed  by  being  precipitated  from  a 
rock  12  m.  from  Jerusalem. 

23-28.  He  finally  bathes  and  resumes  his  dis- 
tinctive vestments  and  offers  the  two  burnt 
offerings  for  himself  and  the  people,  in  token 
of  entire  reconsecration  to  the  service  of  God. 
At  the  same  time  he  burns  the  fat  of  the  two 
sin  offerings,  the  flesh  of  which  is  taken  out- 
side the  camp  and  there  consumed.  In  later 
times  the  high  priest  at  this  point  read  in  the 
hearing  of  the  people  prescribed  portions  of 
the  Law,  viz.  Lv  2326f.  ]Sru29  "-n,  concluding 
with  a  series  of  benedictions. 

29.  Afflict  your  souls]  i.e.  observe  a  fast  : 
seePs35i3Isa583,5.  This  is  the  only  fast 
enjoined  in  the  Mosaic  Law.  After  the  exile 
fasting  was  a  common  religious  usage  :  see 
e.g.  Ezr82iNeh9i  Esth43  Zech8i9  Mt9i4-i7 
Lk237i8i2  Acl32,3i423.  In  Ac279  the 
reference  is  to  the  Day  of  Atonement  which 
was  called  '  The  Fast '  par  excellence. 

34.  He]  i.e.  Aaron. 


PART  4 


(Chs.  17-26)  The 
This  section  of  Leviticus  occupies  a  posi- 
tion by  itself,  being  distinguished  from  the  rest 
of  the  book  both  by  style  and  contents.  A 
few  only  of  its  main  characteristics  may  be 
noticed  here.  (1)  Among  a  large  number  of 
phrases  almost,  if  not  entirely,  peculiar  to  this 
part  of  the  Pentateuch  is  the  constantly  recur- 
ring expression  '  I  am  Jehovah,'  or  '  I  am  Je- 
hovah your  God,'  or  '  I  your  God  am  holy.' 
This  '  divine  I,'  as  it  has  been  called,  occurs 
forty-seven  times  in  these  chapters,  and  only 


Law  of  Holiness 
six  times  elsewhere  from  Genesis  to  Joshua, 
but  is  found  again  seventy-eight  times  in 
Ezekiel.  See  Intro.  §  2.  (2)  A  second  dis- 
tinguishing feature  of  this  section  is  its  more 
rhetorical  style  and  the  comparatively  large 
number  of  hortatory  passages,  somewhat  in  the 
manner  of  Deuteronomy  :  see  e.g.  c.  26.  (3) 
A  third  characteristic  is  the  high  spiritual  tone 
of  these  chapters.  Compared  with  the  rest  of 
the  book  we  find  here  less  ritual  and  more 
religion,  morality,  and  humanity.     The  duty  of 


96 


17.  1 


LEVITICUS 


19.9 


holiness  is  repeatedly  emphasised  and  grounded 
on  the  holiness  of  God  Himself.  The  oft-recur- 
ring key  note  of  the  whole  is  '  Ye  shall  be  holy, 
for  I  the  Lord  yoiu-  God  am  holy.'  It  is  for 
this  reason  that  the  title  '  Law  of  Holiness ' 
has  been  applied  to  this  part  of  Leviticus. 
Some  other  fragments  bearing  a  similar  char- 
acter outside  these  chapters  have  been  assigned 
to  the  same  collection,  e.g.  ExSl^^f.  Lv  11 
(especially  vv.  43-45)  NulS^^-ii, 

It  has  long  been  observed  that  there  is  a  con- 
siderable resemblance  both  in  leading  ideas  and 
phraseology  between  this  '  Law  of  Holiness ' 
and  the  book  of  Ezekiel.  That  Ezekiel  knew 
and  used  this  Law  Book  seems  beyond  dispute, 
but  that  he  is  also  its  author  is  not  made  out. 

CHAPTER  17 

Rule  of  Sacrifice.     Prohibition  against 

EATING  Blood 

1-9.  The  first  part  of  this  Law  prescribes 
that  all  oxen,  sheep,  and  goats,  slaughtered  for 
food,  must  first  be  presented  to  Jehovah  at  the 
sanctuary.  This  seems  to  presuppose  a  time 
when  the  Israelites  used  but  little  flesh  food, 
and  were  not  widely  scattered,  which  must 
have  been  either  during  the  wanderings  in  the 
desert,  or  immediately  after  the  return  from 
exile,  when  there  was  only  a  small  community 
in  the  vicinity  of  Jerusalem.  This  raises  the 
question  of  the  date  of  the  composition  of  the 
Law  of  Holiness,  and  scholars  are  still  divided 
upon  it.  The  law  is  repealed  in  Dt  12 1^^  where 
it  is  implied  that  difiierent  conditions  of  life 
prevail. 

7.  The  object  of  this  enactment  was  to 
counteract  the  tendency  to  ofl'er  sacrifice  to 
those  demons  of  the  wilderness  which  were 
worshipped  in  the  form  of  he-goats,  for  so  the 
RV  renders  the  word  here  translated  devils : 
see  note  on  Azazel  in  16^.  Gone  a  whoring] 
see  on  Ex34i5. 

10-16.  Prohibition  against  eating  blood  or 
fallen  carcases.  The  law  against  eating  blood 
agrees  with  natural  instincts  and  is  here  con- 
nected with  a  religious  idea  :  see  on  3  3. 

15.  The  law  against  eating  what  dies  of 
itself  is  a  corollary  of  the  former.  The  flesh 
of  such  an  animal  cannot  be  thoroughly  drained 
of  blood  :  cp.  Ex 2231  Dtl42i.  16.  Bear  his 
iniquity]   bear  the  penalty  of  his  transgression. 

CHAPTER  18 
Law  of  Forbidden  Degrees  of  Marriage, 
AND  OF  Chastity 
3.  Some  of  the  unions  here  forbidden  as 
incestuous  were  permitted  among  the  nations 
of  antiquity.  The  early  Egyptians,  e.g.  per- 
mitted marriage  with  a  full  sister.  Abraham 
married  his  half-sister  (Gn20i2),  a  practice 
here  forbidden  (vv.  9, 1 1).  6.  Uncover  their 
nakedness]  i.e.  marry. 


8.  Father's  wife]  This  is  not  the  same  as 
'  mother  '  in  the  previous  v.  so  that  polygamy 
is  here  presupposed.  It  was  common,  perhaps 
universal,  in  the  East  at  the  time  of  Moses. 
The  Mosaic  Law  did  not  seek  all  at  once  to 
abolish  polygamy,  which  might  have  been  the 
occasion  of  great  hardship  in  the  circumstances. 
But  it  certainly  discouraged  it,  and  by  regulat- 
ing and  restraining  it  prepared  the  way  for  its 
gradual  extinction  :  cp.  the  remarks  on  slavery 
among  the  Hebrews  at  Ex  21. 

16.  This  law  was  not  absolute,  the  so-called 
levirate  man-iage,  or  marriage  with  the  widow 
of  a  deceased  brother,  being  not  only  permis- 
sible but  almost  compulsory  :  see  on  Dt  25^. 

18.  In  her  life  time]  This  implies  that  after 
the  death  of  the  first  wife  a  man  might  marry 
her  sister.  It  is  not  a  law  against  polygamy 
but  only  against  a  special  form  of  it,  viz. 
marrying  two  sisters.  The  restriction  is  pro- 
fessedly made  in  the  interests  of  domestic 
peace  and  happiness.  For  to  vex  her  RV 
reads,  'to  be  a  rival  to  her '  :  cp.  the  case  of 
Leah  and  Rachel,  the  wives  of  Jacob,  who 
were  sisters  (Gn29,  30). 

21.  Cp.  201-5.  Molech]  ('king')  the  fire- 
god  of  the  Ammonites  and  Canaanites,  and 
especially  of  the  Phoenicians,  to  whom  children 
were  sacrificed  in  burnt-oft'ering.  Pass  through 
the  Jire]  see  IK  11 5-7  2K327  231"  2Ch336 
Jer73i  3235.  The  idea  underlying  child- 
sacrifice  is  probably  that  of  propitiating  the 
deity  by  offering  the  most  valued  possession  : 
see  2K327,  and  cp.  the  case  of  Abraham  and 
Isaac  (Gn  22 12).  The  penalty  of  this  most  in- 
human form  of  worship  was  death  by  stoning  : 
see  20  2.  It  should  be  observed  that  the  exact 
meaning  of  the  expression  '  pass  through  the 
fire  '  is  uncertain.  The  rite  may  have  been  a 
kind  of  ordeal  by  which  it  was  sought  to 
ascertain  the  mind  of  the  deity  by  observing 
whether  the  child  passed  through  the  fire 
unscathed  or  not. 

CHAPTER    19 

Various  Laws,  mainly  of  a  Moral  and 

Humane  Character 

This   c.    was    very   naturally    regarded    by 

Jewish  authorities  as  an  embodiment  of  the 

Decalogue.    It  will  be  observed  that  in  general 

the  precepts  in  vv.  3-8  correspond  to  those  of 

the  first  table  of  the  Decalogue  ('  Thou  shalt 

love  the  Lord  thy  God  '),  and  those  in  vv.  9-18 

to  the    second   table  ('  Thou    shalt   love  thy 

neighbour  as  thyself ').     In  this  c.  alone  the 

characteristic  phrase  '  I  am   the    Lord  '  (i.e. 

Jehovah)  occurs  no  fewer  than  sixteen  times. 

It  is  the  divine  seal  set  to  the  enactments  of 

the  law. 

5-8.   See  715-18. 

9.  Kindly  consideration  of  the  poor  is  part 
of  that  holiness  which  God  requires  and  which 


96 


19.  13 


LEVITICUS 


21.  12 


is  the  reflection  of  His  own.  He  is  the 
champion  of  the  weak  and  oppressed  :  see  on 
Ex  22  21,  and  vv.  33,  34.  This  injunction  is 
not  applicable  to  the  time  of  the  sojourn  in 
the  desert  ;  it  presupposes  a  settled  agricultural 
life  in  the  land  of  Canaan  :  see  on  Dt24"0. 

13.  Cp.  Dt24i*.i5  Mai  3  5  JasS*.  14.  The 
sin  is  that  of  intention,  and  is  seen  by  Him 
who  'trieth  the  hearts.'  15.  Justice  must  be 
administered  impartially,  no  favour  being 
shown  to  a  poor  man  because  he  is  poor  (cp. 
Ex  23  3),  or  to  a  rich  man  because  he  is  rich. 

16.  Stand  against  the  blood  of  thy  neigh- 
bour] This  may  mean  generally  any  conduct 
imperilling  a  neighbour's  life.  But  its  con- 
nexion here  with  the  sin  of  slander  suggests 
that  what  is  specially  meant  is  the  procuring 
of  a  sentence  of  condemnation  by  means  of 
false  witness:  cp.  Ex23i>''.  17.  Upon  him] 
RV  '  because  of  him,'  on  his  account,  i.e.  by 
cherishing  ill-will  against  him  in  secret. 

18.  Thou  shalt  love  thy  neighbour  as  thy- 
self] This  is  the  '  royal  law  '  ( Jas  2  S)  and  the 
principle  underlying  the  second  table  of  the 
Decalogue  :  see  Mt  22  35-40.  The  word  neigh- 
bour was  interpreted  in  a  narrow  sense  as 
equivalent  to  a  fellow  Israelite  or  at  most  to 
a  stranger  living  in  the  midst  of  Israel.  Our 
Lord  removed  all  such  limitations  and  applied 
the  law  universally:  see  Lk  10 29-37. 

19.  Such  mixtures  are  forbidden,  as  not  only 
in  themselves  contrary  to  the  divinely  ap- 
pointed order  of  nature,  but  as  opening  the 
door  to  the  unnatural  sins  mentioned  in  18  '^2, 23 
B,ol26,27  :  see  on  Dt225.  There  may  be  an 
allusion  here  to  the  practice  of  magic,  in  which 
unnatural  mixtures  played  an  important  part. 

20.  In  the  case  of  a  betrothed  free  woman, 
both  persons  were  put  to  death  as  adulterers, 
betrothal  being  regarded  as  sacredly  as  mar- 
riage itself  :  see  on  Ex  2216. 

23.  Uncircumcised]  i.e.  unconsecrated,  un- 
clean, and  therefore  not  to  be  used  for  the 
first  three  years.  In  the  fourth  year  the  fruit  is 
to  be  dedicated  to  God,  after  which  the  owner 
is  free  to  enjoy  the  use  of  it.  Besides  im- 
pressing the  duty  of  gratitude  to  God  for  the 
fruits  of  the  earth  this  law  is  one  of  practical 
value.  For  the  mfetaphorical  use  of  the  term 
'circumcise'  see  26 4i  Ex 6 12  Dt306  Jer44 
6 10  926  Ac  7  51  Ro228,29  Phil  3  3. 

26.  Use  enchantment]  charms  or  incanta- 
tions. Observe  times]  RV  '  practise  augury,' 
perhaps  by  watching  the  clouds  or  the  flight 
of  birds  :  see  on  DtlS^o. 

27.  The  practices  in  this  and  the  following 
verses  were  commonly  employed  among  idola- 
trous nations.  The  rounding  of  the  corners 
of  the  head  and  beard  may  refer  to  the 
Arabian  custom  of  presenting  the  first  locks 
as  an  offering  to  the  deity  :  see  Jer926  2623 
49  32,  with  the  marginal  readings  in  each  case : 


cp.  the  practice  of  the  Nazirite  (Nu  6^.18). 
Oaths  by  the  hair  of  the  head  were  common 
(cp.  Mt536),  and  a  usual  Mohammedan  oath  is 
still  '  by  the  beard  of  the  prophet.' 

28.  Cutting  the  flesh  and  tattooing  the  skin 
are  closely  connected  with  cutting  the  hair  as 
an  idolatrous  rite:  cp.  Jerl6<5  4837  1  K  1828 
Zechl36. 

29.  This,  too,  was  a  degrading  accompani- 
ment of  idol  worship  among  the  Canaanites, 
and  even  among  the  Greeks.  Idolatry  and 
immorality  always  went  hand  in  hand :  see  on 
Ex  34 13, 15,  and  cp.  Isa575-9  Hos4i3  Ro  123-29. 

31.  That  have  familiar  spirits]  necromancers 
who  profess  to  hold  communication  with  the 
dead:  cp.  Ex22i8  Dt IS"  lS287f. 

33,  34.   See  on  v.  9. 

35.  Meteyard]  i.e.  measuring  rod.  36.  The 
ephah  (about  a  bushel)  and  the  hin  (about  a 
gallon  and  a  half)  are  used  here  as  representa- 
tive measures:  cp.  Ezk45^0f. 

CHAPTER   20 

Penalties  attached  to  the  Sins  specified 

ABOVE 

1-5.   See  1821  and  note. 
6.  See  1931. 
9.   See  Ex  2 117. 
19-21.   See  186-23. 
27.  See  1931. 

CHAPTER   21 

Laws   relating  to  the  Priesthood  and 

Sacrifice 

The  principle  laid  down  in  this  and  the 
following  c.  is  the  far  reaching  one,  that 
whatever  comes  near  or  is  presented  to  God 
must  be  perfect  of  its  kind:  see  on  Ex  12 5. 
Priests,  therefore,  must  be  free  from  physical 
defects  or  ceremonial  impurity,  and  sacrifices 
must  be  without  blemish. 

That  this  section  is  put  together  from 
different  sources  is  shown  by  the  interchange 
of  the  singular  and  plural  and  of  the  second 
and  third  persons  (cp.  e.g.  214,5,8)^  by  the 
introduction  of  fresh  headings  (211>16  22i>i7, 
26),  and  by  the  fact  that  in  the  body  of  the 
laws  the  '  seed  of  Aaron '  is  spoken  of,  where- 
as in  the  headings  and  conclusions  it  is  his  '  sons.' 

1-3.  As  contact  with  the  dead  defiles, 
priests  are  forbidden  to  attend  to  the  funeral 
rites  of  any  save  their  nearest  relatives.  But 
this  exception  does  not  apply  to  the  high 
priest  (see  v.  11):  see  on  10  4. 

5.  See  on  1927,28.  5.  Bread  of  their  God] 
see  on  3^^.  7.  Profane]  having  lost  her 
chastity. 

ID.  Uncover  his  head]  RV  'let  the  hair  of 
his  head  go  loose.'  The  law  is  more  strict 
with  regard  to  the  high  priest.  The  higher 
the  office  the  greater  the  responsibility. 

12.  Go  out  of  the  sanctuary]   i.e.  intermit 


97 


21.16 


LEVITICUS 


24.5 


his   sacred   duties:   cp.  10 6. 'J'.     Crown]    EM 
'  consecration.' 

16-24.  No  priest  with  any  physical  defect 
may  officiate  at  the  altar,  though  he  may 
partake  of  the  sacrificial  gifts  (v.  22)  which 
fall  to  the  lot  of  the  priests  for  their  main- 
tenance. 

18.  Flat]   RM'slit.'     22.  See  on  23. 

CHAPTEE   22 

Laws  kelating   to  the   Priesthood  and 

Sacrifice  (continued) 

1-6.  The  holy  things  may  not  be  eaten  by 
priests  otherwise  qualified,  but  ceremonially 
unclean,  nor  by  any  persons  outside  the 
priestly  family. 

10.  Stranger]  i.e.  one  not  a  priest,  nor  a 
member  of  a  priest's  family,  even  though  he 
be  an  Israelite:  see  Ex 29^3.  A  slave  pur- 
chased outright  is  considered  to  be  a  member 
of  the  family  (v.  11). 

14.  Unwittingly]  not  knowing,  perhaps, 
that  it  was  a  holy  thing:  see  on  4 2  Si'*.  With 
the  holy  thing]  this  must  mean  its  equivalent. 

17-25.  Sacrifices  also  must  be  without 
blemish.  It  was  a  frequent  complaint  that 
this  law  was  not  strictly  observed,  and  that 
God  was  dishonoured  with  offerings  that  were 
mean  and  imperfect:  cp.  e.g.  Malis>i3, i4^  and 
see  for  an  example  of  a  better  spirit  2  S  24  24. 

19.  At  your  own  will]  EV  'that  ye  may  be 
accepted.' 

27.  See  on  Ex  22  30.  28.  This  prohibition 
probably  rests  on  humanitarian  gi'ounds.  The 
Mosaic  Law  enjoins  kindness  to  animals. 

29.  See  on  v.  19. 

CHAPTEE   23 

The  Sacred  Seasons 

These  are  the  Sabbath  (v.  3),  Passover  and 
Unleavened  Bread  (w.  5-14),  Feast  of  Weeks, 
or  Pentecost  (vv.  15-22),  Feast  of  Trumpets 
(vv.  23-25),  Day  of  Atonement  (vv.  26-32), 
and  Feast  of  Booths  or  Tabernacles  (w.  33-43). 

3.  The  sabbath]  see  on  Ex208-ii. 

5-8.  Passover  and  Feast  of  Unleavened 
Bread.  Passover,  Pentecost,  and  Tabernacles 
were  the  three  great  annual  festivals  which 
followed  the  seasons  of  the  year  and  the  opera- 
tions of  agriculture.  For  the  institution  of  the 
Passover  see  Exl2i-14,  and  for  the  sacrifices 
proper  to  the  Feast  of  Unleavened  Bread  see 
Nu28i'^"2^.  These  two  parts  of  the  double 
festival  were  quite  distinct.  The  Passover 
was  celebrated  on  the  fourteenth  day  of  Nisan 
beginning  at  sunset,  and  was  followed  by  the 
Feast  of  Unleavened  Bread,  which  lasted  for 
seven  days.  Hence  the  name  of  the  feast  of 
unleavened  bread  is  sometimes  used  to  include 
both  festivals,  as  in  Lk  22  1. 

9-14.  The  beginning  of  the  grain  harvest 
■was  celebrated  during  the  Feast  of  Unleavened 


Bread,  when  a  sheaf  of  new  com  was  waved 
before  the  Lord,  as  an  acknowledgment  of 
His  bounty,  and  a  consecration  of  the  harvest 
to  Him. 

II.  Wave  the  sheaf]  see  on  Ex 29 24. 

13.  Tenth  deals  .  .  hin]  see  on  14^0  1936. 

15-21.  Feast  of  Weeks.  Fifty  days  or  seven 
weeks  after  the  last  festival,  the  Feast  of 
Weeks,  called  in  Gk.  '  Pentecost '  from  the 
word  for  '  fifty,'  began  with  the  presentation 
of  two  loaves  made  of  the  new  wheat  and 
leavened  in  the  ordinary  way,  signifying  that 
harvest  was  completed.  Hence  this  feast, 
which  lasted  only  a  single  day,  is  called  also 
the  Feast  of  Harvest  in  Ex  2316.  For  the 
sacrifices  offered  see  w.  18,  19  Nu  28  26-31. 

22.  See  on  199. 

23-25.  Feast  of  Trumpets.  This  was  cele- 
brated on  the  first  day  of  the  seventh  month 
(Tishri),  which  was  New  Year's  Day  according 
to  the  civil  reckoning  :  see  on  Ex  12  2.  For 
the  special  ritual  of  this  Feast  see  Nu  291-6. 

26-32.  Day  of  Atonement  :  see  c.  16. 

33-43.  Feast  of  Booths  or  Tabernacles. 
This  feast,  called  also  the  Feast  of  Ingathering 
(Ex  23 16),  was  observed  from  the  15th  to  the 
22nd  Tishri  (in  October),  and  marked  the  end 
of  the  agricultural  year,  when  the  combined 
produce  of  the  whole  year,  the  vintage  as  well 
as  the  gi'ain  harvest,  had  been  secured  :  cp. 
Dt  16 13.  It  was  celebrated  with  great  rejoicing 
(v.  40)  as  the  national  '  harvest  home,'  the 
people  camping  out  in  booths  constructed  of 
branches  upon  the  roofs  of  their  houses  and  in 
the  streets  during  the  seven  days,  in  commem- 
oration of  the  sojourn  in  the  wilderness,  v.  43 : 
see  on  Ex23i5,  and  cp.  Hosl29. 

CHAPTEE  24 
Oil  for  the  Lamps.     The  Shewbread. 
Laws  on  Blasphemy 

1-4.  Oil  for  the  Lamps  in  the  Tabernacle. 

On  the  construction  of  the  Lampstand  see 
Ex  25  31-40,  and  with  the  present  passage  cp. 
Ex  27  20,  21  and  notes  there. 

5-9.  The  Table  of  Shewbread  is  described 
in  Ex  25  23-30  (see  notes  there).  On  this  table, 
which  stood  in  the  Holy  Place,  twelve  new 
unleavened  loaves  were  laid  each  sabbath  day, 
and  after  lying  for  seven  days  were  removed 
and  eaten  by  the  piiests,  fresh  loaves  being 
again  substituted.  These  loaves,  the  number 
of  which  corresponded  to  that  of  the  tribes  of 
Israel,  are  called  the  '  bread  of  the  Presence,' 
as  being  laid  before  God,  or  '  bread  of  the 
pile  '  as  being  arranged  in  two  rows  (v.  6),  or 
'  the  continual  bread,'  as  lying  continually  be- 
fore God  (Nu  4  ").  The  shewbread  was  a  kind 
of  meal  offering  (see  intro.  to  c.  2),  and  the 
rite  probably  had  its  origin  in  the  crude  notion 
that  the  deity  required  food  like  his  worship- 
pers (cp.  on  3 11).   In  the  Levitical  law,  however, 


98 


24.  10 


LEVITICUS 


25.  32 


it  attained  a  higher  significance.  It  was  an 
acknowledgment  that  man  owes  his  '  daily 
bread '  to  God.  It  was  a  kind  of  perpetual 
grace  over  meat. 

10-23.  Punishment  of  a  Blasphemer.  A 
half -Israelite  blasphemes  the  name  of  Jehovah. 
As  there  is  some  uncertainty  whether  such  a 
person  is  subject  to  the  same  penalty  as  full- 
born  Israelites  the  matter  is  referred  to  God, 
and  the  decision  is  given  that  there  is  one  law 
for  the  stranger  and  for  the  home-born. 

10.  See  on  Exl23S.  n.  Blasphemed  the 
name  of  the  Lord]  RV  '  blasphemed  the  Name,' 
i.e.  blasphemed  Jehovah.  The  peculiar  ex- 
pression is  due  to  some  copyist  who  shrank, 
out  of  a  feeling  of  reverence,  from  inserting 
the  name  of  Jehovah  in  this  connexion  :  see 
on  Ex  3 13.  14.  Lay  their  hands]  devoting 
him  to  death  and  solemnly  dissociating  them- 
selves from  complicity  in  his  guilt  :  cp.  Dt  17''^. 

16.  As  Avell  the  stranger]  This  is  the  im- 
portant legal  point  which  the  above  incident 
is  inserted  to  illustrate  :  cp.  V.  22.  17-22.  Cp. 
Ex21i2f'  and  notes  there. 

CHAPTER   25 

The  Sabbatical  Year.     The  Year 

OF  Jubilee 

The  matters  treated  in  this  chapter  are 
closely  related  to  those  in  c.  23,  and  their 
separation  is  another  indication  that  we  are 
dealing  with  a  book  made  up  of  different  ele- 
ments. Observe  again  the  change  of  number 
in  vv.  14,  17  and  the  interruption  caused  by  vv. 
18-22.    Cp.  what  is  said  above  in  intro.  to  c.  21. 

1-7.  The  law  of  the  Sabbatical  Year  :  see 
also  Ex23io.ii  Dt  ISi-"  31 9-i3.  This  law  rests 
on  the  principle  that  the  land  inhabited  by  the 
Israelites  is  not  theirs  in  absolute  possession. 
It  really  belongs  to  God  ;  '  the  land  is  mine  ; 
for  ye  are  strangers  and  sojourners  with  me  ' 
(v.  23).  To  keep  the  people  in  mind  of  this, 
it  is  enacted  that  every  seventh  year  the  land 
has  to  lie  fallow.  Only  the  spontaneous  pro- 
duce of  that  year  is  to  be  enjoyed,  and  that 
not  selfishly  or  for  profit  ;  it  is  to  be  shared 
with  the  poor  and  strangers  (Ex  23 1^).  Every- 
thing is  to  be  common.  Slaves  are  to  be  set 
free  if  they  desire  their  freedom  (Ex  21 2-6),  and 
debts  are  to  be  remitted  to  Israelites  (Dt  15  ^"3). 
It  is  promised  that  the  harvest  of  the  sixth 
year  will  be  sufficiently  abundant  to  provide 
for  the  wants  of  the  people  till  they  reap  again 
(vv.  20-22).  The  Sabbatical  Year  began  with 
the  first  day  of  Tishri  :  see  on  23  ^^^  How 
far  these  enactments  were  actually  carried  out 
it  is  difficult  to  say.  There  is  no  mention  of 
their  observance  during  pre-exilic  times,  so 
that  they  may  have  been  allowed  to  become  a 
dead  letter,  a  supposition  confirmed  by  what  is 
said  in  2  Ch36'-^i.  They  were  renewed  under 
Nehemiah(Nehl03i). 


5.  This  V.  is  interesting  as  containing  the  only 
example  of  the  word  '  its '  in  AV.  Elsewhere 
the  word  '  his  '  is  used  as  the  possessive  of  the 
neuter  pronoun.  In  the  AV  of  1611  it  is 
printed  '  it '  ;  '  that  which  groweth  of  it  owne 
accorde.' 

Year  of  rest  unto  the  land]  As  customs  simi- 
lar to  this  are  found  in  other  countries,  it  is 
probable  that  it  is  a  survival  of  a  communistic 
age.  At  the  same  time,  it  was  a  benefit  to  the 
land.  Thus  we  have  another  example  here  of 
the  Lawgiver  adopting  a  primitive  custom  and 
investing  it  with  the  sanctity  of  religion.  Cp. 
what  is  said  in  intro.  to  chs.  11-15,  and  see 
also  Intro,  to  Exodus. 

8-55.  The  Year  of  Jubilee.  Thisrestsonthe 
same  principle  as  the  Sabbatical  Year :  see  above. 
In  the  fiftieth  year,  i.e.  after  a  period  of  7  x  7 
years,  the  land  is  to  lie  fallow,  and  Hebrew 
slaves  with  their  families  are  to  be  emanci- 
pated without  price,  as  in  the  Sabbatical  Year 
(vv.  39-55).  A  new  and  distinctive  feature, 
however,  makes  its  appearance.  In  the  Year 
of  Jubilee  all  property  reverts  natitrally  to  the 
original  owner,  who  through  poverty  may  have 
been  obliged  to  sell  it  at  some  time  during  the 
previous  period  (vv.  13-28).  The  freehold  of 
agricultural  land  could  never,  therefore,  be 
sold  in  perpetuity  (v.  23),  and  in  cases  of  sale 
the  purchase  price  was  regulated  according  to 
the  number  of  years  still  to  run  till  the  Year 
of  Jubilee  (vv.  14-16).  The  only  exception 
was  house  property  in  a  walled  city  (vv.  29*). 
The  case  of  the  Levitical  cities  is  specially 
dealt  with  (vv.  32-34). 

The  Year  of  Jubilee  was  thus,  as  it  were, 
the  '  new  birth '  of  the  whole  nation,  when 
property  was  redistributed,  and  the  inequali- 
ties arising  in  the  previous  period  were  re- 
moved. It  was  a  remarkable  social  law,  putting 
a  check  upon  ambition  and  covetousness,  pre- 
venting the  acquisition  of  huge  estates,  and 
adjusting  the  distribution  of  wealth  in  the 
various  classes  of  the  community.  The  inci- 
dents of  Ruth  (c.  4)  and  of  Naboth  (IK 21) 
show  that  the  law  against  the  alienation  of  land 
was  in  force  in  early  times  :  cp.  Jer326^ 
That  it  was  not  unnecessary  in  later  times 
appears  from  such  passages  as  Isa5^  Mic22. 

9.  The  Year  of  Jubilee  began  on  the  Day  of 
Atonement,  and  was  ushered  in  with  the  blow- 
ing of  trumpets  ;  hence  its  name  (lleh.johel  — 
a  ram's  horn  trumpet).  23.  For  ever]  R V  '  in 
perpetuity.'  25.  A  kinsman  could  redeem  his 
relative's  property  at  any  time  at  a  price  cal- 
culated according  to  the  years  still  to  elapse 
before  the  Jubilee.  26.  And  himself .  .  ]  RV 
'  and  he  be  waxen  rich  and  find  sufficient  to 
redeem  it.'  28.  Restore  H  to  him]  RV  '  get 
it  back  for  himself.'  32.  The  Levites  were 
granted  forty-eight  cities  to  dwell  in,  with 
suburbs  for  their  cattle  :  see  Nu35. 


99 


25.  35 


LEVITICUS 


27.  16 


35-38.   See  on  Ex  22  25. 

39-46.  See  on  Ex21i-''.  Only  foreigners 
could  be  bought  as  slaves  for  ever. 

47-54.  The  converse  case  of  a  Hebrew  sold 
to  a  foreigner. 

CHAPTER   26 
Concluding  Exhortations 

Similar  exhortations  are  found  at  the  con- 
clusion of  other  codes  of  laws,  as  in  Ex  23  20 f-, 
and  frequently  in  Deuteronomy,  e.g.  in  c.  28. 
The  leading  ideas  and  phraseology  are  the 
same  in  all.  There  is  the  same  insistence  on 
the  holy  character  of  Jehovah,  the  same  de- 
mand for  holiness  on  the  part  of  His  people, 
the  same  promises  on  condition  of  obedience, 
and  the  same  warnings  against  being  led  astray 
by  the  evil  example  of  the  idolatrous  nations 
among  whom  they  dwell. 

1 ,  2.  These  two  vv.  have  no  connexion  with 
what  follows,  except  that  they  form  the  fun- 
damental principles  of  the  Hebrew  religion,  and 
on  them  rests  the  entire  body  of  the  Levitical 
legislation  :  see  on  Ex244  34 13. 

3-13.  Promise  of  prosperity  attached  to 
obedience. 

4.  In  a  country  like  Palestine  rain  in  the 
proper  season  is  an  indispensable  condition  of 
prosperity  and  plenty.  Hence  it  is  frequently 
referred  to  in  the  OT.  as  a  special  mark  of  the 
divine  favour  :  see  on  Dt  1 1 10,  and  cp.  Ezk 
342<5  lsa55iO'iiHos63.  There  are  two  rainy 
seasons  in  Palestine.  The  former  rain  falls  in 
October-November  when  the  seed  is  sown,  and 
the  latter  rain  in  March- April  before  harvest. 

5.  There  will  be  no  scarce  season. 

10.  Because  of  the  new]  i.e.  to  make  room 
for  the  embarrassing  abundance.  12.  Cp.  2  Cor 
6 16-18.  God's  presence  among,  and  delight  in, 
His  people  are  the  cause  of  all  the  material 
blessings  spoken  of. 

14-39.  The  penalty  of  disobedience. 

This  is  described  in  the  form  of  a  climax  of 
which  the  steps  are  vv.  14-17,  18-20,  21-22, 
23-26,  27-39.  19.  The  rain  will  be  withheld, 
and  the  ground  in  consequence  become  like 
brass  for  hardness  ;  see  on  Dt  28  23,  and  for 
an  instance,  IK  171.  26.  The  staff  of  your 
bread]  B,V  '  your  staff  of  bread  '  :  i.e.  the  bread 
which  is  your  staff  or  support  :  cp.  Ezk  4^6 
51a  1413_  Owing  to  the  scarcity  one  oven  will 
be  sufficient  to  bake  the  bread  of  ten  families. 

29.  This  actually  took  place  more  than 
once  :  see  on  Dt  28^3-57. 

30.  High  places]  places  of  worship,  usually 
on  an  eminence.  The  name  is  sometimes 
applied  to  places  used  for  the  worship  of 
Jehovah,  but  in  later  times  the  '  high  places  ' 
were  condemned  as  idolatrous.  Images]  RV 
'  sun-images,'  images  of  the  sun-god  wor- 
shipped by  the  Phoenicians  and  Babylonians  : 
see  2  K  2311  2  Ch  14  5  344,7,  and  cp.  Ezk  6  4,5. 


31.  Savour  of  your  sweet  odours]  i.e.  sacri- 
fices :  see  on  Ex29i^.  34.  The  land  lying 
desolate  will  then  enjoy  the  rest  of  the  sab- 
baths and  Sabbatical  years  refused  to  it  by  a 
disobedient  people  :  see  25 1^",  and  cp.  2Ch. 
3621.  26,  37.  A  highly  imaginative  descrip- 
tion of  the  inherent  weakness  of  all  wrong- 
doing, and  of  the  cowardice  which  is  the  result 
of  an  evil  conscience  :  cp.  Dt  28  65-67  Prov28i. 

40-45.  God  desireth  not  the  death  of  the 
sinner,  and  therefore  every  threat  of  punish- 
ment for  disobedience  is  followed  by  a  promise 
of  mercy,  on  condition  of  repentance  and 
amendment  :  cp.  the  way  in  which  the  pro- 
phecies of  Amos  and  Micah  conclude. 

41.  Uncircumcised  hearts]  unclean,  not  con- 
secrated to  God:    see  on  1923. 

46.  The  conclusion  of  the  Law  of  Holiness 
(see  intro.  to  chs.  17-26).  The  following 
chapter  is  of  the  nature  of  an  appendix. 

CHAPTER   27 
Vows  AND  Tithes  and  their  Redemption 

1-29.  Law  of  vows  and  their  redemption. 

The  making  of  vows  is  a  very  ancient  and 
universal  practice  connected  with  prayer. 
In  order  to  secure  his  desire  the  suppliant 
adds  a  vow  to  his  prayer.  Yows  may  be  either 
positive  or  negative.  A  man  may  promise 
either  to  devote  something  to  God,  or  to 
abstain  from  some  comfort  or  necessary  of  life. 
Instances  of  the  latter,  vows  of  abstinence, 
are  to  be  found  in  Nu6i-2i  30  1  S142-t  Ps 
132  2-5,  and  of  the  former  in  Gn  28  20-22  jg  1 1 30, 31 
Nu  21 1-3.  The  present  chapter  deals  with  posi- 
tive vows.  The  votive  offering  may  be  a 
human  being  (vv.  2-8),  an  animal  (vv.  9-13),  a 
house  (vv.  14,  15),  or  a  piece  of  land  (vv. 
16-25). 

2-8.  Human  beings  vowed  to  Jehovah  must 
not  be  offered  to  Him  in  sacrifice.  They  must 
be  redeemed,  a  certain  sum  of  money  being 
paid  into  the   sanctuary  as   an  equivalent. 

2.  Singular  vow]  a  special  vow  devoting 
himself  or  any  of  his  family  to  God.  3.  Fifty 
shekels]  about  £6  10s  :  see  on  51^. 

9-13.  If  a  man  dedicates  an  animal  and 
wishes  to  redeem  it,  he  must  pay  its  estimated 
value  and  one-fifth  more.  9.  Whereof  men 
bring  an  offering]  i.e.  one  of  the  sacrificial 
animals,  a  bullock,  sheep,  or  goat.  10.  See 
Mai  1 14. 

II.  As  it  is  unlawful  to  sacrifice  unclean 
animals  they  must  be  redeemed  and  the  equi- 
valent value  plus  a  fifth  paid  into  the  sanc- 
tuary. 14,15.  The  redemption  of  a  dedicated 
house  follows  the  same  rule. 

16-25.  The  redemption  of  a  dedicated 
piece  of  land  is  complicated  by  the  law  of 
Jubilee  (c.  25).  Its  value  is  reckoned  accord- 
ing to  the  amount  of  seed  required  to  sow  it 
(v.   16),  and  a  reduction  made  in  proportion 


100 


27.  16 


LEVITICUS— NUMBERS 


INTRO. 


to  the  number  of  years  till  the  next  Year  of 
Jubilee  (v.  18).  The  owner  may  redeem  it  at 
this  price  plus  one  fifth.  If  he  does  not,  it 
goes  to  the  sanctuary  at  the  Year  of  Jubilee 
(vv.  20,  21).  But  if  the  dedicant  of  the  land 
lias  himself  bought  it  from  a  third  person, 
then  at  the  Jubilee  it  reverts  to  the  latter,  and 
the  dedicant  must  recompense  the  sanctuary 
^y  paying  its  redemption  value  calculated  as 
before  (vv.  22-24). 

1 6.  Homer]  ten  ephahs,  or  nearly  eleven 
bushels.  The  value  of  barley  is  here  stated 
to  be  about  £6  10s.  23.  In  that  day]  The 
estimated  value  of  a  purchased  piece  of  land 
must  be  paid  in  a  lump  sum.  The  estimated 
value  of  a  hereditary  possession,  it  would 
appear,  was  paid  in  yearly  instalments.  This 
practically  meant  that,  till  the  Jubilee,  the 
dedicant  paid  to  the  sanctuary  a  yearly  rent 
of  one  shekel  per  homer  of  seed  that  he  used. 

26-29.  Exception  to  the  Law  of  Redemp- 
tion of  Vows. 

26.  Firstlings,  which  already  belong  to  God 
(Ex  13-),  cannot  be  vowed  again  without 
mockery.  27.  Firstlings  of  unclean  animals 
must  be  redeemed  in  the  usual  manner.  In 
Ex  13 13  34-0  the  law  is  that  such  must  either 
be  redeemed  with  a  lamb  or  killed.  The  law 
seems  to  have  varied  at  different  times. 

28.  Devoted  things  are  those  consecrated 


to  Grod  by  an  extreme  form  of  vow,  the  ban 
or  curse,  requiring  their  destruction  or  in- 
alienable devotion  to  the  sanctuary  :  see 
Nul8i^Dtl3i7  Josh 6 17, 21  IS  153.9.20.  This 
form  of  vow  is  specially  laid  upon  the  spoil 
of  conquered  nations.  The  NT.  equivalent 
is  the  '  anathema '  or  excommunication  :  see 
R093  1  Cor  5  5  1622  1  Tim  120.  29.  Devoted 
of  men]  see  Ex2220j  where  the  Hebrew  is 
'  shall  be  devoted.'  There  the  '  devotion  of 
men '  is  the  solemn  judicial  penalty  of  idola- 
try. This  was  probably  the  only  ground  of 
devoting  human  beings.  The  case  of  Jeph- 
thah's  daughter  is  doubtful  :  see  Jg  1 1 30-40. 

30-33-  The  Law  of  Tithes  and  their 
Redemption.  Tithes  belong  to  Grod  as  the 
real  owner  of  the  land  :  see  on  25 1"^.  They 
are  a  kind  of  rent  paid  by  the  people  as  His 
tenants.  Being  already  Grod's,  tithes  cannot 
be  made  the  subject  of  vows.  Tithes  of 
agricultural  produce  may  be  commuted  for 
their  money  value  plus  one  fifth  (v.  31). 
The  tithe  of  cattle  cannot  be  redeemed 
(vv.  32,  33).  32.  Passeth  under  the  rod]  of 
the  owner  as  he  counts  his  cattle.  Every 
tenth  beast  as  it  comes,  whether  good  or  bad, 
is  to  be  set  apart  as  belonging  to  God  :  cp.  v. 
10.  The  tithes  were  given  to  the  Levites  for 
their  maintenance,  and  they  in  turn  tithed 
their  own  tithes:  see  Nu  18 20-32, 


NUMBERS 


INTEODUCTION 


I.  Title  and  Contents.  The  English  title 
of  this  book  is  a  translation  of  that  given  to 
it  in  the  Greek  version  of  the  Hebrew  Bible. 
It  is  called  Numbers  because  it  tells  of  two 
numberings  of  the  Israelites,  one  near  the 
beginning  and  the  other  near  the  end  of  the 
sojourn  in  the  wilderness  (chs.  1  and  26). 
The  title  is  not  particularly  applicable  seeing 
that  the  account  of  these  numberings  occupies 
only  a  small  part  of  the  book.  A  better  title 
is  that  given  to  it  by  the  Jews,  who  call  it 
'  In  the  Wilderness,'  from  the  fifth  word  of 
the  opening  verse  in  the  Hebrew  Bible. 

Numbers  contains  a  brief  summary  of  the 
experiences  of  the  Israelites  in  the  wilderness 
and  covers  a  period  of  nearly  forty  years, 
extending  from  the  encampment  at  Sinai  to 
the  arrival  at  the  border  of  Canaan.  The 
contents  fall  readily  into  three  main  divisions. 

Part  I.  The  Camp  at  Sinai  and  Prepara- 
tions for  Departure,  chs,  i-iqIo.     This  section 


includes  the  first  numbering  of  the  people,  the 
order  of  the  camp  and  the  march  (1-4)  ;  laws 
regarding  lepers,  marital  jealousy,  and  the 
vow  of  the  Nazirite  (5,  6)  ;  the  offerings  of 
the  princes  for  the  service  of  the  tabernacle 
(7)  ;  regulations  regarding  the  lighting  of  the 
golden  lamps  and  the  consecration  of  the 
Levites  (8)  ;  the  celebration  of  the  Passover 
in  the  wilderness  (9  i-i4)  ;  the  cloudy  pillar 
and  the  use  of  the  silver  trumpets  (91^-1010). 
Part  2.  The  Journeyings  from  Sinai  to  the 
Plains  of  Moab,  chs.  10II-22I.  These  chap- 
ters cover  the  main  period  of  the  wanderings 
and  give,  not  a  full  narrative  of  events,  but  a 
few  outstanding  incidents  in  these  thirty-nine 
years,  interspersed  with  various  laws.  Thus 
we  have  the  departure  from  Sinai  and  the 
murmuring  at  Taberah  and  Kibroth-hattaavah 
where  quails  are  sent  (10  H-l  1 3^)  ;  the  jealousy 
of  Miriam  and  Aaron  against  Moses  (12)  ;  the 
sending     of     the     spies     from    Kadesh,    the 


101 


INTRO. 


NUMBERS 


INTRO. 


discouragement  of  the  people  and  sentence  of 
forty  years'  wandering  in  the  wilderness  (13, 
14)  ;  laws  regarding  offerings  and  sabbath 
observance  (15)  ;  the  rebellions  of  Korah, 
Dathan,  Abiram,  and  On  (IG)  ;  the  blossoming 
of  Aaron's  rod  and  the  duties  of  priests  and 
Levites  (17,  18)  ;  the  method  of  purification 
for  those  defiled  by  the  dead  (19)  ;  the  death 
of  Miriam,  the  murmuring  at  Meribah,  and 
the  giving  of  water  from  the  rock  (20 1-^^)  ; 
opposition  of  the  Edomites  and  death  of 
Aaron  (20 1'^^^^)  ;  defeat  by  the  Canaanites, 
plague  of  fiery  serpents,  and  conquest  of  the 
Amorites  (21)  ;  arrival  at  the  plains  of  Moab 
(221). 

Part  3.  In  the  Plains  of  Moab,  chs.  22  2-36. 
This  section  relates  the  experiences  in  the 
plains  of  Moab  and  in  the  country  E.  of  the 
Jordan,  and  includes  the  story  of  Balaam 
(22-24)  ;  relapse  of  the  people  into  idolatry 
(25)  ;  the  second  numbering  (26)  ;  law  of 
inheritance,  and  designation  of  Joshua  as  the 
successor  of  Moses  (27)  ;  law  of  offerings, 
sacred  seasons  (28,  29),  and  vows  (30)  ;  fight 
against  Midian  (31)  ;  the  assignment  of  land 
on  the  E.  side  of  Jordan  to  two  and  a  half 
tribes  (32)  ;  a  list  of  stations  on  the  march 
(^331-49)  ;  directions  as  to  the  treatment  of 
the  Canaanites  and  the  division  of  the  land 
(3350_34)  J  appointment  of  Levitical  cities 
and  cities  of  refuge  (35)  ;  additional  laws 
regarding  inheritance  (36). 

2.  Origin  and  Composition.  The  book  of 
Numbers  is  manifestly  a  continuation  of  the 
story  of  the  Pentateuch,  and  exhibits  the 
same  general  literary  characteristics  as  the  rest 
of  the  books.  As  a  combination  of  law  and 
narrative,  rather  than  a  legislative  code,  it  is 
more  akin  to  Exodus  than  Leviticus,  and 
sometimes  follows  it  in  ancient  lists  of  OT. 
books.  The  circumstantiality  of  the  narrative 
in  many  points,  and  the  fact  that  many  of  the 
regulations  in  Numbers  are  only  suitable  to  a 
life  in  the  desert,  while  others  are  professedly 
prospective  in  their  application  (see  e.g.  15  ^ 
342),  are  indications  that  the  groundwork  of 
the  book  is  of  primitive  origin.  The  state- 
ment in  332  is  important  as  showing  that 
Moses  himself  made  a  record  of  the  wander- 
ings, and  that  it  was  preserved  to  later  times. 
It  is  interesting  also  to  observe  that  Numbers 
incorporates  several  poetical  pieces  of  great 
power  and  beauty  which  are  of  undoubted 
antiquity  :  see  21i*>i5,i7,is,27-30  and  the  utter- 
ances of  Balaam  in  chs.  23,  24. 

In  its  present  form,  however,  the  whole 
book  can  hardly  have  been  written  by  Moses. 
C.123  is  most  naturally  understood  as  the 
judgment  of  a  later  writer  on  the  character  of 


Moses,  who  is  not  likely  to  have  written  this 
V.  himself.  Several  times  the  phrase  '  beyond 
Jordan '  is  used  to  denote  the  E.  side,  imply- 
ing that  the  writer  was  living  in  Canaan. 
But  Moses  never  crossed  the  Jordan  ;  he  died 
on  the  E.  side  :  see  on  2113  221  Dtli.  The 
capture  of  Havoth-jair  (32  "H)  did  not  take 
place  till  long  after  the  death  of  Moses,  as 
appears  from  JglO^.^.  The  words  'while 
the  children  of  Israel  were  in  the  wilderness ' 
(15^2)  are  written  from  the  standpoint  of  a 
later  time.  These  things  do  not,  of  course, 
imply  that  the  whole  book  was  a  late  com- 
position ;  they  can  be  explained  as  additions 
and  interpolations  in  the  original  work. 

3.  Religious  Value.  What  has  been  said 
as  to  the  permanent  religious  value  of  the 
narrative  and  legislation  of  Exodus  and  Levi- 
ticus applies  to  the  corresponding  portions  of 
Numbers  and  need  not  be  repeated  here.  It 
is  enough  to  point  out  that  the  writer  of  the 
book  is  no  mere  chronicler  of  events.  He  is 
an  interpreter  of  the  history  of  his  people. 
In  every  event  he  sees  the  finger  of  God, 
ruling  and  guiding  His  chosen  people,  pro- 
viding for  their  wants,  bearing  with  their  sins 
and  infirmities,  keeping  His  covenant  with 
them,  and  preparing  them  by  means  of  a  long 
discipline  for  serving  Him  and  being  His 
witness  to  the  world.  Moses  and  Miriam, 
Caleb  and  Joshua,  Phinehas  and  Balaam,  are 
types  of  character  from  which  we  have  still 
something  to  learn.  The  description  of  the 
camp  and  the  congregation,  the  distribution 
of  the  duties  and  the  provision  for  sacred 
ceremonial,  are,  like  the  description  of  the 
Heavenly  Jerusalem  in  the  book  of  Revelation, 
valuable,  as  giving  an  ideal  picture  of  organ- 
ised religious  life.  The  Christian  reader  will 
recognise,  in  many  of  the  experiences  of  God's 
people  in  the  '  great  and  terrible  wilderness,' 
types  and  illustrations  of  spiritual  truths  which 
are  unchanging  and  eternal.  The '  guidance 
by  means  of  the  pillar  of  cloud  and  fire 
(915-23),  the  supply  of  manna  and  of  water 
(11,  20),  the  intercession  of  Aaron  when  he 
stood  between  the  living  and  the  dead  till  the 
plague  was  stayed  (IG'^^'-^O),  the  sacrifice  of  the 
red  heifer  (19),  the  brazen  serpent  (21),  the 
appointment  of  the  cities  of  refuge  (35),  the 
exchision  from  the  land  of  promise  of  those 
whose  faith  failed  them  (14)  and  of  Moses 
himself  (2012  27i2-i'i),  the  victory  of  God's 
people  over  the  evil  powers  of  the  unseen 
world  (22-24) — in  the  words  of  the  Apostle, 
'  all  these  things  happened  unto  them  for 
ensamples  :  and  they  are  written  for  our 
admonition,  upon  whom  the  ends  of  the  world 
.  are  come '  (1  Cor  10  H). 


102 


1. 


NUMBERS 


3.  47 


PAET   1 

The  Camp  at  Sinai  and  Preparations  for  Departure  (Chs.  1-10  ^o) 


CHAPTER    1 

The  First  Numbering  of  the  People 

At  Sinai  Moses  receives  the  command  to 
take  the  number  of  the  males  over  twenty 
years  of  age  in  the  eleven  secular  tribes,  the 
tribe  of  Levi  being  enumerated  separately 
(147-49  314-39).  The  result  shows  a  total  of 
603,550  (cp.  Ex  12  37  38  26  Nu  1 1 21).  The  result 
of  the  second  numbering,  made  in  the  plains 
of  Moab  thirty-eight  years  afterwards  (c.  26), 
is  601,730.  The  credibility  of  these  figures 
has  been  disputed  on  two  grounds.  First,  on 
this  reckoning,  the  entire  population,  including 
men,  women,  and  children,  must  have  been  at 
least  three  millions,  and  it  is  difficult  to  con- 
ceive how  this  large  company  could  have  been 
supported  in  the  wilderness  for  forty  years, 
not  to  mention  the  difficulty  of  marshalling 
and  conducting  them  on  their  marches.  The 
difficulty  is  a  real  one,  but  it  is  exaggerated 
by  the  traditional  view,  not  supported  by 
Scripture,  that  the  Israelites  were  continually 
marching,  and  that  they  always  moved  as  one 
company.  To  speak  of  them  '  marching 
through  the  wilderness'  is  misleading:  cp.  9^2. 
They  may  have  occupied  a  great  part  of  the 
peninsula  of  Sinai,  encamping  in  detachments 
and  moving  about  in  search  of  pasture,  though 
not  simultaneously.  The  marches  mentioned 
in  Numbers  may  have  been  those  of  the  main 
body  under  Moses:  see  intro.  to  10ii-22i.  As 
to  the  resources  of  the  wilderness,  these  must 
not  be  jiidged  by  its  present  condition.  The 
word  '  wilderness '  does  not  mean  a  barren 
tract,  but  an  uninhabited  country  which  may 
be  very  fertile.  And  traces  exist  to  show  that 
this  '  wilderness '  not  only  could  but  did 
support  at  one  time  an  extensive  population. 
Moreover,  unless  miracles  are  prejudged  to  be 
impossible,  account  must  be  taken  of  the 
miraculous  provision  made  for  the  sustenance 
of  the  Israelites  till  the  time  that  they  entered 
Canaan.  The  second  objection  is  that  the 
number  of  first-born  males  is  stated  in  S*^  to 
have  been  22,273,  again  exclusive  of  the  tribe 
of  Levi.  But  this  is  a  very  small  number  in 
proportion  to  the  total  number  of  males.  In 
answer  to  this  it  may  be  said  that  what  is 
meant  is  the  first-born  males  under  twenty 
years  of  age  at  the  time  of  the  census,  or  those 
that  had  been  born  since  the  departure  from 
Egypt.  On  the  whole,  while  there  are  un- 
doubtedly difficulties  connected  with  these 
figures  in  Nu  1  and  26,  our  knowledge  of  the 
circumstances  is  too  limited  to  enable  us 
summarily  to  reject  them  as  incredible  :  see 
on  Ex  1421. 


16.  The  renowned]  rather,  'the  called'; 
chosen  representatives.     18.  Polls]  i.e.  heads. 

47-54.  The  Levites  are  not  included  in  the 
general  census.  The  tribe  of  Levi  is  separated 
for  the  service  of  the  tabernacle,  and  being 
exempt  from  military  service  is  enumerated 
separatelj':  see  c.  3.  50.  Tabernacle  of  testi- 
mony] the  tent  containing  the  ark:  see  on  Ex 
163*.  51.  Stranger]  here  one  who  is  not  a 
Levite:  cp.  310  and  Ex  29  33.  53.  Wrath]  cp. 
1646  lCh272't. 

CHAPTER   2 

The  Disposition  of  the  Tribes  in  the 
Camp  and  on  the  March 
The  camp  is  in  the  form  of  a  hollow  square, 
each  side  of  which  is  occupied  by  three  tribes. 
On  the  E.,  the  position  of  honour  (cp.338),is 
Judah,  with  whom  are  associated  Issachar 
and  Zebulun;  on  the  S.  is  Reuben,  with 
Simeon  and  Gad;  on  the  W.  is  Ephraim, 
with  Manasseh  and  Benjamin;  on  the  N.  is 
Dan,  with  Asher  and  Naphtali.  In  this  ar- 
rangement regard  seems  to  have  been  paid  to 
family  relationship.  The  priests  and  Levites 
form  an  inner  square  surrounding  the  taber- 
nacle, which  occupies  the  centre  of  the  camp. 

CHAPTER  3 

The  Levites,  their  Duties  and  Number 
Although  Aaron  and  his  family  belong  to 
the  tribe  of  Levi  (Ex2i)  the  term  'Levites'  is 
usually  employed,  as  here,  to  denote  the  non- 
Aaronite  Levites.  The  family  of  Aaron  is  set 
apart  for  the  priesthood  (Ex  28  Lv8,9),  and 
the  Levites  are  designated  as  their  assistants, 
occupying  an  intermediate  position  between 
the  priests  and  the  congregation.  They  have 
charge  of  the  tabernacle  and  its  furniture, 
taking  it  down,  carrying  it  during  the  march, 
and  setting  it  up  again.  Their  services  in  the 
tabernacle  are  not  defined,  but  they  would 
doubtless  perform  the  humbler  duties  con- 
nected with  the  sacrifices,  etc.  In  later  times 
they  were  also  doorkeepers  and  musicians  in 
the  Temple.  See  Neh  11,  12  lCh63i>32,48 
15 16.  The  reason  why  this  particular  tribe 
was  chosen  for  these  offices,  in  addition  to  the 
fact  that  Moses  and  Aaron  themselves  belonged 
to  it,  seems  to  have  been  their  zeal  for  the 
honour  of  Jehovah  at  the  time  of  the  wor- 
ship of  the  Golden  Calf  (Ex  32  26-29).  The 
subject  of  the  Levites  is  continued  in  chs.  8 
and  16-18. 

4.  On  Nadab  and  Abihu  see  LvlO. 
10.   Stranger]   see  on  l^i.     13.  See  Ex  13  2, 
12  f.     43.  See  intro.  to  c.  1.     47,  See  on  Ex 
3013.     Cp.  Nul8i6, 


103 


4.  2 


NUMBERS 


6.  1 


CHAPTER    4 
The  Duties  op  the  Levites  on  the  March 

2.  Kohath  seems  to  have  been  the  second 
son  of  Levi  (.S^''),  but  his  family  is  mentioned 
first,  because  Moses  and  Aaron  belonged  to  it 
(3 19  ;  cp.  Ex  6  is>  20)^  and  because  it  had  charge 
of  the  most  sacred  furniture,  the  ark,  etc. 

3.  From  thirty  years  old]  In  82*  we  read 
that  the  time  of  service  was  from  the  age  of 
twenty-five.  And  in  2Ch31i7Ezr38  it  is 
from  the  age  of  twenty:  cp.  1  Ch 233-24-27. 
The  practice  seems  to  have  varied  at  different 
times. 

4-20.  The  Kohathites  carry  the  ark  and 
the  sacred  vessels  of  the  tabernacle. 

5.  The  covering  veil  is  the  curtain  which 
screened  off  the  Holy  of  Holies:  see  Ex 26^3. 

7.  The  continual  bread]  i.e.  the  shewbread: 
see  on  Lv245-f,  n.  The  golden  altar]  i.e. 
the  altar  of  incense.  In  v.  13  the  altar  is  the 
altar  of  burnt  offering  (see  on  Ex30i-iO). 

15.  Lest  they  die]  cp.  2S66,7.  18.  Cut 
not  off]  see  that  you  do  not  expose  them  to 
any  risk  of  death  by  touching  the  most  holy 
things:  cp.  Ilol4i5.  20.  They  shall  not  go 
in]  i.e.  the  Kohathites. 

21-28.  The  Gershonites  take  charge  of  the 
curtains  of  the  tabernacle  and  the  court.  As 
these  were  of  great  weight  two  ox-wagons 
were  employed  in  their  transport :  see  7 ''. 

29-33.  The  Merarites  take  charge  of  the 
framework  of  the  tabernacle  and  employ  four 
ox-wagons:  see  7^. 

34-49.  The  numbers  given  here  are  those 
of  the  Levites  on  active  service,  between  thirty 
and  fifty  years  of  age.  The  total  number  of 
the  tribe  was  given  in  3^9. 

CHAPTEE   5 

Vaeious  Ceremonial  Laws 

1-4.  On  the  seclusion  of  lepers  and  unclean 
persons,  see  Lv  1,3-15. 

5-10.  On  the  law  of  restitution,  see  Lv 
51^-6''',  to  which  the  present  passage  is  a 
supplement,  providing  that  if  the  injured 
person  dies  and  has  no  kindred  to  whom  the 
price  of  restitution  may  be  paid,  it  has  to  be 
given  to  the  priest.  Vv.  9,  10  prescribe  that 
the  heave  offerings  (see  on  Lv  7  28-34)  are  the 
perquisite  of  the  particular  priest  who  officiates 
at  the  sacrifice,  and  are  not  to  be  distributed 
among  the  priests  generally. 

1 1-3 1.   On  Marital  Jealousy. 

A  wife  suspected  of  unfaithfulness  is  re- 
quired to  undergo  a  trial  by  ordeal.  A  potion 
is  prepared  by  the  priest,  which  she  must 
drink,  after  taking  an  oath  of  purgation  (vv. 
19-24).  If  she  is  innocent  the  potion  is  harm- 
less, but  if  guilty  it  injures  her,  thereby 
bringing  her  guilt  to  light  (vv.  27,  28).     Trial 


to  reveal  the  innocence  or  guilt  of  a  suspected 
person.  During  the  middle  ages  it  was  fre- 
quently resorted  to  in  Europe  under  sanction 
of  the  church  and  the  law.  The  most  common 
forms  of  ordeal  were  those  by  fire,  by  water,  and 
by  wager  of  battle.  The  difference  between 
these  and  the  ordeal  prescribed  here  is  that 
the  latter  is  not  in  itself  injurious,  but  depends 
for  its  efficacy  on  the  direct  interposition  of 
God. 

13.  No  witness]  The  ordeal  is  prescribed 
for  cases  of  doubt.  To  other  cases  the  law  of 
Lv20io  applies.  15.  Cp.  Lv2i.  17.  Holy 
v^ater]  This  is  the  only  place  where  this  phrase 
is  found,  and  it  is  not  explained.  Water  from 
the  laver  is  probably  meant  :  see  Ex30i'''-2i, 
18.  Uncover  the  .  .  head]  rather,  as  in  RV, 
'  let  the  hair  .  .  go  loose,'  a  common  sign  of 
mourning:  see  Lv  106  1345.  Bitter  water]  so 
called  as  being  the  instrument  of  the  curse. 


CHAPTER  6 

The    Law    of   the    Nazirite.     The 
Priestly  Benediction 

1-21.  The  Law  of  the  Nazirite. 

A  Nazirite  (from  Heb.  7iazir,  '  to  separate') 
is  a  man  or  woman  '  separated,'  i.e.  consecrated 
to  Jehovah  by  means  of  a  special  vow  of 
abstinence.  The  word  has  no  connexion 
with  'Nazarene,'  which  means  an  inhabitant 
of  Nazareth.  During  the  period  of  his  vow 
the  Nazirite  comes  under  a  threefold  obliga- 
tion, (1)  to  abstain  strictly  from  wine  and  all 
products  of  the  vine,  whether  intoxicating  or 
not  (vv.  3,  4)  ;  (2)  to  let  his  hair  grow  (v.  5)  ; 
and  (3)  to  avoid  all  ceremonial  defilement 
through  contact  with  a  dead  body,  even  that 
of  a  near  relative  (v.  7).  If  he  is  accidentally 
defiled  by  the  sudden  death  of  any  one  beside 
him,  he  must  perform  rites  of  purification,  and 
reconsecrate  himself,  counting  as  null  what- 
ever part  of  the  period  of  the  original  vow 
may  have  elapsed  (vv.  9-12).  At  the  expira- 
tion of  his  vow  he  presents  certain  sacrifices 
(vv.  13-17),  shaves  his  head  and  offers  his  hair 
upon  the  altar,  and  returns  to  ordinary  life 
(vv.  18-21).  The  Nazirite's  vow  may  either 
be  for  a  limited  period,  which  is  the  case 
supposed  in  this  passage,  or  for  life.  The 
antiquity  of  the  rite  is  shown  by  what  is 
related  of  Samson  (Jgl3^),  and  of  Samuel 
(1  S  111),  -^yjio  are  usually  regarded  as  lifelong 
Nazirites.  It  is  also  referred  to  in  Am  2 12. 
The  Nazirite  was  not  a  hermit,  but  a  very 
active  devotee  of  Jehovah.  He  was  very 
jealous  for  the  Lord  God  of  Israel,  and  while 
the  vow  of  consecration  and  abstinence  may 
sometimes  have  been  undertaken  for  private 
and  personal  reasons,  as  e.g.  to  obtain  the 
fulfilment  of  a  desire,  it  was  in  many  cases 
the  expression  of  a  religious  and  patriotic 
by  ordeal  is  of  the  nature  of  an  appeal  to  God     zeal,  which  sought  to  protect  the  primitive 

104 


6.  5 


NUMBERS 


9.  23 


simplicity  of  Israel  from  the  corrupting  and 
enervating  influences  of  heathen  civilisations 
and  religions.  In  this  respect  the  Nazirites 
had  much  in  common  with  the  prophets,  with 
whom  they  are  classed  in  Am^n.i'-,  as  being 
'  raised  up '  by  Jehovah  Himself.  In  NT. 
references  to  the  Nazirite  vow  are  supposed 
to  be  found  in  Lk  1 1^  (John  the  Baptist),  in 
Acl8is(St.  Paul),  and  2124. 

5.  See  on  Lvl927. 

7.  The  consecration  of  his]  RV  '  his  separ- 
ation unto.'  9.  Die  . .  by  him]  i.e.  beside  him. 
Head  of  his  consecration]  his  unshorn  locks 
were  the  visible  sign  of  his  vow  of  consecration. 

14,  15.  The  burnt  offering  betokened  his 
entire  dedication  to  God  ;  the  sin  offering  was 
presented  for  the  sins  he  may  have  committed 
unwittingly  during  the  period  of  his  conse- 
cration ;  and  the  peace  offering  was  an  ex- 
pression of  his  thankfulness  for  having  been 
able  to  complete  his  vow.  On  the  meaning 
of  these  sacrifices,  see  Lv  1,  3,  4.  18.  This 
denotes  the  completion  of  his  vow :  cp.  Ac  18 1^. 

21.  Beside  that  that  his  hand  shall  get] 
RV  '  beside  that  which  he  is  able  to  get,' 
i.e.  in  addition  to  any  other  offerings  which 
it  may  be   in  his  power  to  make. 

22-26.  The  Priestly  Benediction.  It  is 
part  of  the  duty  of  the  priests  to  bless  the 
people  in  the  name  of  Jehovah  :  see  DtlO^ 
215.  and  see  on  Lv922,23.  The  priestly  bene- 
diction consists  of  three  double  clauses  of 
increasing  length  and  intensity,  in  each  of 
which  the  sacred  name  is  used.  Cp.  the  three- 
fold Christian  benediction  in  2  Cor  13 1"!.  Ps 
67  is  evidently  modelled  on  this  benediction  ; 
cp.  also  Ps4<3  2911  3116  803.7,19.  25.  Make 
his  face  shine]  show  favour.  26.  Lift  up 
his  countenance]  take  gracious  notice  of  him. 

27.  Put  my  name  upon]  This  may  mean 
simply  to  pronounce  Jehovah's  name  over  the 
people  in  blessing  and  thus  mark  them  as  His 
by  covenant  relation,  as  the  Christian  minister 
does  when  he  baptises  '  into  the  name  of 
Christ.'  But  in  OT.  the  '  name  of  Jehovah  ' 
is  His  revealed  character;  see  on  Ex3i3.  So 
that  to  '  put  Jehovah's  name  '  upon  a  person 
is  to  declare  to  him  the  presence  and  nature 
of  Jehovah.  The  priest  does  this  when  he 
blesses  the  people.  He  gives  them  the  assur- 
ance of  Jehovah's  presence  and  favour. 

CHAPTER  7 

The  Offerings  of  the  Princes  at  the 

Dedication  of  the  Altar 

The  twelve   princes,  each  representing  his 

tribe,  presented  gold  and  silver  vessels  for  use 

in  sacrifices,   sacrificial    animals,    and  wagons 

and  oxen  for  the  transport  of  the  tabernacle : 

see  429-49.      The  dedication  of  these  offerings 

occupied  twelve  days,    and  was  a  service  of 

thanksgiving. 


13.  Charger]  a  large  dish,  as  in  Mtl48. 
89.  To  speak  with  him]   i.e.  with  Jehovah. 

CHAPTER  8 

The  Lighting  of  the  Golden  Lamps. 

The  Consecration  of  the  Levites 

1-4.  See  on  Ex  25  31-40  2720,21. 

5-26.  This  is  the  fulfilment  of  the  injunc- 
tion in  35-13.  7.  Water  of  purifying]  RV 
'  of  expiation.'  This  ceremonial  cleansing 
symbolised  the  inward  purity  required  in  those 
who  bore  the  vessels  of  the  Lord. 

II.  Offer  the  Levites  .  ./or  an  offering  of 
the  children  of  Israel]  R V '  offer  (lit. '  wave ')  the 
Levites  .  .  for  a  wave  offering,  on  the  behalf 
of  the  children  of  Israel.'  The  Levites  were 
solemnly  set  apart  by  the  representatives  of 
the  people  laying  their  hands  upon  them,  and 
they  were  also  '  waved '  before  the  Lord  as 
being  that  portion  of  the  nation  specially  de- 
voted to  the  service  of  God.  How  the 
'  waving '  was  done  is  not  certain,  whether 
the  Levites  were  led  backwards  and  forwards 
by  Aaron  in  the  direction  of  the  Holy  of 
Holies,  or  whether  Aaron  merely  waved  his 
hands  over  them:  see  on  Ex 29 24.  16.  The 
Levites  are  accepted  as  the  substitutes  in  the 
service  of  the  tabernacle  for  the  firstborn 
among  the  children  of  Israel,  who  are  now 
redeemed  by  a  money  payment  of  five  shekels : 
see  Ex  13 13  and  cp.  1815.16.  19.  Plague]  see 
on  1 53.  When  .  .  come  nigh]  RM  '  through 
coming  nigh.'  24.  Twenty  and  five  years]  see 
on  43. 

CHAPTER  9 

Rules  about  the  Passover.     The  Cloud 
AS  Guide 

1-5.  The  Passover  of  the  second  year. 
This  Passover  took  place  before  the  events 
narrated  in  c.  1 :  cp.  9 1  with  1 1.  The  repe- 
tition of  the  injunction  to  keep  the  Passover 
was  necessary,  because  the  law  in  Exodus  did 
not  contemplate  the  possibility  of  a  Passover 
in  the  wilderness  :  see  Ex  12  25. 

6-14.  The  Supplementary  Passover.  Cer- 
tain persons  who  were  unable  to  celebrate  the 
Passover  at  the  proper  time,  because  of  a 
ceremonial  defilement  (v.  6),  are  enjoined  to 
observe  a  supplementary  Passover  on  the 
fourteenth  day  of  the  second  month  (vv.  9  ^•). 
This  was  called  '  The  Little  Passover.' 

13.  Cutoff]  see  on  Lv 7 21.  14.  Stranger] 
one  who  is  not  a  Hebrew  by  birth  but  has  been 
admitted  into  the  nation  by  circumcision,  a 
proselyte;  see  Ex  12^9, 48. 

15-23.  The  cloudy  pillar  as  a  signal  on  the 
march.  This  pass9,ge  is  parallel  to  Ex  40  34-38  ; 
see  on  Ex  13  21. 

22.  It  is  clear  from  this  v.  that  the  people 
were  not  continually  marching  during  their 
sojourn  in  the  wilderness  :  see  intro.  to  c.  1, 


105 


10.  1 


NUMBERS 


11.31 


CHAPTER  10-110 

The  Use  of  the  Silver  Trumpets 

This  section,  like  the  last,  is  connected  with 
the  breaking  up  of  the  camp,  one  of  the  uses 


of  the  silver  trumpets  being  to  give  the  signal 
for  the  departure.  2.  Of  a  whole  piece]  RV 
'  of  beaten  work.'  9.  If  ye  go  to  war]  see  e.g. 
316  2Chl3i2,i4.  10.  See  Lv  232*  2Ch6i2 
Ezr3io. 


PART   2 


JOURNEYINGS   FROM    SiNAI 

After  a  stay  at  Sinai  of  nearly  a  year  (cp. 
NulUii  with  Exl9i)  the  signal  is  given  for 
the  breaking  up  of  the  camp.  This  second 
division  of  the  book  of  Numbers  relates  the 
wanderings  in  the  wilderness,  and  covers  a 
period  extending  from  the  second  to  the  for- 
tieth year  of  the  exodus  :  see  Nu  33  ^s  Dt  1 3. 
But  as  the  events  recorded  in  1011-14-*^  took 
place  during  the  first  few  months  after  leaving 
Sinai,  and  the  death  of  Aaron  in  20  22  was  in 
the  fortieth  year,  very  little  space  is  given  to 
the  events  of  the  intervening  thirty-eight 
years  of  desert  life,  more  especially  as  chs.  15, 
18,  19  are  taken  up  with  laws.  There  are 
indeed  but  two  events  recorded  in  that  long 
period,  viz.  the  rebellion  of  Korah  and  his 
company,  with  which  is  connected  the  blossom- 
ing of  Aaron's  rod  (16,  17),  and  the  death  of 
Miriam  and  murmuring  of  the  people  at  Kadesh 
(201-13).  It  appears,  therefore,  that  while  the 
period  of  sojourn  in  the  wilderness  was  of 
supreme  importance,  by  way  of  preparing  the 
people  socially  and  religiously  for  the  occupa- 
tion of  the  land  of  promise,  it  was  uneventful. 
In  all  probability  the  Israelites  led  a  fairly 
settled  life,  some  of  them  scattered  at  a  con- 
siderable distance  from  the  headquarters  of  the 
camp,  and  moving  about  not  always  as  one 
body  but  in  separate  detachments  :  see  on  9 15-23. 
During  the  greater  part  of  this  period  Kadesh 
seems  to  have  been  their  headquarters.  See 
on  132tJ  201,  and  cp.  Dtl^e.  It  was  only  near 
the  end  of  this  period  that  a  concerted  and 
continuous  march  was  made  from  Kadesh  to 
the  plains  of  Moab  (c.  21). 

CHAPTER  1011-36 
The  Departure  from  Sinai 

12.  Paran]  see  on  Ex  15  22.  They  do  not 
actually  reach  Paran  till  1216. 

29.  In  Ex  2 1*^  Moses's  father-in-law  is  called 
Reuel  and  in  3 1  4  is  Jethro.  Here  Hobab  is 
called  the  son  of  Reuel  (or  Raguel),  and  there- 
fore apparently  the  brother-in-law  of  Moses. 
But  in  Jg4ii  (RM)  and  perhaps  here,  too,  he 
is  called  the  father-in-law  of  Moses.  There  is 
therefore  much  uncertainty  as  to  these  names 
and  relationships,  which  is  increased  by  the 
fact  that  the  word  rendered. father-in-law  is  of 
wide  application.  It  has  been  supposed  that 
the  name  Reuel  in  Ex  2 1^  has  been  inserted  by 
mistake,  and  that  Hobab,  otherwise  called 
Jethro,  was  the  son  of  Reuel  and  the  father- 


To  Moab  (Chs.  10ii-22i) 

in-law  of  Moses.  He  was  a  Midianite  and  well 
acquainted  with  the  country  through  which  the 
Israelites  were  to  pass.  The  service  he  ren- 
dered to  them  was  not  forgotten  in  after  times, 
so  that  it  may  be  inferred  that  he  yielded  to 
the  pressing  invitation  of  Moses  :  see  Jg  1 16 
ISI56. 

35.  When  the  ark  set  forward]  i.e.  when- 
ever it  set  forward.  Every  stage  of  the 
journey  was  begun  and  ended  with  this  prayer 
of  invocation.  Ps  68  recalls  this  march  of  the 
people  through  the  wilderness  with  God  at 
their  head  to  ensmre  victory. 

CHAPTER    11 

Murmuring  at  Taberah  and  at  Kibroth- 

Hattaavah 

I.  In  the  uttermost  parts  of  the  camp]  What 
is  meant  is  that  the  fire  began,  where  probably 
the  murmuring  began,  at  the  extremity  of  the 
camp,  perhaps  among  the  '  mixed  multitude  ' 
(cp.  V.  4).  3.  Taberah]  '  burning.'  4.  The 
mixt  multitude]  see  Ex  12  38^  where,  however,  a 
different  word  is  used.  Fell  a  lusting]  longed 
for  the  delicacies  of  Egypt  (v.  5).  "Wept 
again]  This  may  refer  to  the  story  in  Ex  16. 
15.  My  wretchedness]  i.e.  the  failure  of  my 
attempts  to  lead  this  people  :  cp.  the  de- 
spairing complaint  of  Elijah  in  1  K19*  and  of 
Jeremiah  in  Jer  15 10.  16.  Later  Jewish  writers 
saw  in  this  command  of  God  the  origin  of  their 
Sanhedrim,  or  Council  of  Seventy,  who  regu- 
lated the  affairs  of  the  nation  in  later  times : 
cp.  Mkl5i.     18.  Sanctify]   see  Ex  19io>i5. 

25.  They  prophesied]  This  does  not  mean 
that  they  were  able  to  predict  the  future, 
but  that  they  broke  out  into  the  praise  of 
God,  and  declared  His  will  and  goodness, 
while  in  a  state  of  spiritual  exaltation  and 
ecstasy  :  see  on  Ex  71.  26.  Were  written] 
enrolled  among  the  seventy.  The  fact  that 
Eldad  and  Medad  also  received  the  spirit  shows 
that  the  spirit  of  God  is  not  limited  to  certain 
places  or  individuals,  and  that  He  is  no  re- 
specter of  persons  :  cp.  Ac  10  34, 35, 44-48 

28.  Cp.  Mk938.39.  29.  A  good  example  of 
the  magnanimity  and  unselfishness  of  Moses  : 
see  on  27 1^. 

31.  Two  cubits  hirih  upon  the  face  of  the 
earth]  The  simplest  interpretation  of  these 
words  is  that  the  quails  were  flying  at  this 
height  (about  3  ft.)  above  the  ground,  which 
allowed  the  people    to   capture  them  easily. 


106 


11.  32 


NUMBERS 


13.  21 


Quails  usually  fly  low,  and  with  the  wind 
(see  on  ExlGi^).  32.  A  homer  is  about  ten 
bushels.  The  quails  were  spread  out  to  dry 
for  preservation.  33.  The  plague  was  pro- 
bably due  to  surfeit  :  cp.  Ps.  78  ^^-^i  106i3-i5. 

34.  Kibroth-hattaavah]  '  the  graves  of  lust- 
ing '  :  this  and  Hazeroth  were  between  Sinai 
and  Kadesh. 

CHAPTER    12 

The  Jealousy  of  Miriam  and  Aaron 
In  this  scene  Miriam  is  the  chief  actor  :  the 
punishment  falls  on  her  alone.  Aaron  seems 
to  have  been  led  away  by  her  (cp.  Ex  32  2^-25). 
The  controversy  arose  in  connexion  with 
Moses'  marriage  with  an  Ethiopian,  but  the 
sequel,  to  which  no  reference  is  made  to  this 
matter,  shows  that  the  real  reason  of  the 
strife  is  the  jealousy  of  Miriam  and  Aaron 
over  the  superior  position  of  their  younger 
brother  (vv.  2,  6-9). 

I.  The  Ethiopian  woman]  Heb.  '  the  Cushite 
woman.'  This  can  hardly  be  Zipporah,  who 
was  a  Midianite  (Ex  2  k^-  21).  Moses,  it  appears, 
had  married  again.  Marriage  with  the  Canaan- 
ites  was  forbidden  (Ex  34 1'^),  but  not  with  the 
Egyptians  (see  Dt  23  ''">  ^).  2.  Miriam  is  called  a 
prophetess  in  Ex  15^0  :  see  note  there  and  cp. 
Ex^i'i-i'''.  3.  Moses  made  no  retort  to  the 
criticism,   thus  exhibiting  true  greatness. 

6-8.  The  superior  favour  shown  here  to 
Moses  consists  (1)  in  the  direct  manner  in 
which  God  reveals  His  will  to  him,  and  (2) 
in  his  position  of  general  authority.  12.  Le- 
prosy was  a  living  death,  and  contact  with  a 
leper  involved  the  same  defilement  as  with  a 
dead  body  ;  see  LvlS^s.  14.  The  prayer  is 
heard,  but  Miriam  is  obliged  to  submit  to  the 
customary  seclusion  and  purification,  in  order 
that  the  people  may  know  of  her  sin  and 
punishment,  and  take  warning. 

CHAPTER  13 

The  Sending  of  the  Spies  and  their 

Report 
8.  Oshea]  RV  '  Hoshea,'  meaning  '  help ' 
or  'salvation.'  Joshua,  or  Jehoshua  (v.  16), 
means  'Jehovah  is  my  help'  :  see  on  Ex  17  9. 
17.  Southward]  RV  '  by  (RM  '  into ')  the 
South  '  :  lit.  '  into  the  Negeb  '  :  see  on  Gn  129. 
The  spies,  however,  really  went  northward  on 
this  occasion,  first  through  the  Negeb,  and 
then  through  the  mountainous  district  lying 
N.  of  it,  here  called  '  the  mountain,'  after- 
wards the  '  hill-country  of  Judah,'  to  the  W. 
of  the  Dead  Sea.  20.  Time  of  the  firstripe 
grapes]  i.e.  about  the  end  of  July.  21.  The 
■wilderness  of  Zin  lay  N.  or  NE.  of  the  wilder- 
ness of  Paran,  and  may  have  formed  part  of 
it.  Its  chief  town  was  Kadesh-Barnea  (v.  26). 
Rehob  and  Hamath  were  in  the  extreme  N. 
of  the  country  :  see  JglS-^  Nu348. 


The  spies  traversed  the  entire  land  from 
S.  to  N.  The  length  of  Canaan  is  about  180  m., 
and  its  average  breadth  between  the  Mediter- 
ranean Sea  and  the  River  Jordan  about  40  m. 
The  country  may  be  regarded  as  consisting  of 
three  strips  running  N.  and  S.  There  is  (1) 
the  Maritime  Plain  extending  inwards  from 
the  coast  to  a  distance  of  from  4  to  15  m.,  very 
fertile,  and  including  the  famous  Plain  of 
Sharon  and  the  Lowlands  of  the  Philistines. 

(2)  Behind  this  rises  the  '  Hill  Country,'  form- 
ing, as  it  were,  the  backbone  of  the  Holy  Land, 
and  falling  precipitously  on  the  E.  down  to 

(3)  the  valley  of  the  Jordan  and  the  Dead  Sea, 
which  divides  the  land  of  Canaan  from  the 
Highlands  of  Gilead  and  Moab  E.  of  the 
Jordan.  See  art.  '  Palestine.'  In  the  earliest 
monumental  records  which  we  have,  this  land  is 
called  the  '  land  of  the  Canaanites '  or  the  '  land 
of  the  Amorites,'  from  which  it  may  be  in- 
ferred that  these  were  the  tribes  originally 
inhabiting  it.  At  a  very  early  period  the 
Hittites,  a  powerful  kingdom  to  the  N.  of 
Canaan,  established  themselves  in  the  country 
and  have  left  monuments  of  their  influence. 
At  the  time  of  the  Israelitish  Conquest  the  land 
was  inhabited  by  a  mixture  of  tribes.  Of 
these,  the  principal  were  the  Canaanites  (i.e. 
probably  '  Lowlanders  '),  dwelling  in  the  Mari- 
time Plain  and  the  valley  of  the  Jordan,  the 
Hittites  and  the  Jebusites  in  the  S.,  in  what 
was  afterwards  called  Judaea,  the  Hivites  to 
the  N.  of  these  in  what  came  to  be  known  as 
Samaria,  and  still  further  N.  the  Perizzites. 
The  Amorites  (i.e.  probably  the  '  Highlanders ') 
were  found  in  the  N.  and  also  in  the  S.  to  the 
E.  of  the  Jordan.  The  Philistines  had  also 
obtained  a  settlement  in  the  southern  part  of 
the  Maritime  Plain  :  see  Dt223.  Till  recently 
it  was  thought  that,  prior  to  the  Conquest  by 
the  Israelites,  Canaan  was  an  unknown  and 
uncivilised  country.  We  know  now  that  long 
before  that  time,  as  early  as  3500  B.C.,  Baby- 
lonian kings  ruled  over  Canaan,  and  that  the 
Babylonian  language  and  civilisation  were 
spread  over  the  country.  After  the  Baby- 
lonian influence  came  the  Egyptian.  At  Tel- 
el  Amarna  in  Egypt  there  has  been  discovered 
agreat  number  of  tablets  datingabout  1400  B.C., 
i.e.  not  long  before  the  Conquest  of  Canaan 
by  the  Israelites.  These  tablets  prove  to  be 
mostly  letters  to  the  king  of  Egypt  from  tri- 
butary princes  in  Canaan  written  in  the  Baby- 
lonian language.  From  them  we  learn  that 
about  the  time  of  the  exodus  Canaan  was 
subject  to  Egypt,  and  that  instead  of  being  a 
country  of  semibarbarians,  it  possessed  a  highly 
developed  civilisation,  in  the  riiling  power  at 
least.  '  At  that  period  Canaan  had  already 
behind  it  a  long  civilised  past.  The  country 
was  filled  with  schools  and  libraries,  with  richly 
furnished  palaces,  and  workshops  of  artisans. 


107 


13.  23 


NUMBERS 


15.  39 


The  cities  on  the  coast  had  their  fleets,  partly 
of  merchantmen,  partly  of  warships,  and  an 
active  trade  was  carried  on  with  all  parts  of 
the  known  world.'  But  at  the  time  of  the 
exodus  Egypt  was  beginning  to  lose  its  hold 
of  the  country.  The  native  tribes  were  rest- 
less and  rebellious,  and  Canaan  was  ready  to 
be  '  the  prey  of  the  first  resolute  invader  who 
had  strength  and  courage  at  his  back.'  These 
facts,  recently  discovered,  throw  a  flood  of 
light  upon  the  Israelitish  Conquest  of  the 
country.  They  explain  how  it  was  possible 
for  the  Israelites  to  enter  and  take  possession 
of  it.  And  they  are  valuable  also  as  proving 
that  long  before  the  Captivity,  as  early  as  the 
exodus,  the  Israelites  were  in  close  contact, 
not  only  with  Egyptian,  but  with  Babylonian 
civilisation  and  religion. 

23.  The  brook  (mg  valley)  of  Eshcol]  lay 
a  little  to  the  N.  of  Hebron,  in  a  district 
still  renowned  for  its  fertility,  and  espe- 
cially for  its  vineyards.  The  cluster  of 
grapes  was  carried  by  two  men,  not  so 
much  on  account  of  its  weight  as  its  size,  in 
order  that  it  might  not  be  crushed.  26.  To 
Kadesh]  see  on  v.  21.  This  was  the  most 
important  station  of  the  journey.  The 
people  remained  here  for  the  greater  part 
of  thirty-eight  years  between  the  sending  of 
the  spies  and  the  entrance  into  Canaan:  see 
on  20 1.  According  to  Dt  1 1^-  2^  the  spies  were 
sent  out  from  Kadesh.  32.  Eateth  up  the 
inhabitants]  This  refers  to  the  warlike  cha- 
racter of  the  inhabitants,  who  devour  each 
other  in  strife.  33.  The  giants]  Heb.  the 
Nephilim.  The  word  is  found  only  here  and 
in  GnB'*.  The  report  of  the  spies  is  of  course 
exaggerated,  but  the  original  inhabitants  seem 
to  have  been  of  unusual  stature  and  strength: 
cp.  Dt2ii  1817-1-",  and  on  2133-35. 

CHAPTER  14 

Discouragement  of  the  People  and 
Sentence    of    Forty    Years'  Wandering 

9.  Breadfor  us]  cp.  1332  22*  248.  12.  Cp. 
Ex32iof-,  where  a  similar  promise  is  made  and 
where  Moses  shows  the  same  self-effacing 
spirit.  13.  Cp.  Josh79  2S120  Ps79io.  17. 
Let  the  power  of  my  LORD  be  great]  i.e.  in 
the  eyes  of  the  heathen,  when  they  see  Israel 
possessing  the  land.  18.  See  on  Ex  34 '','<'. 
22.  These  ten  times]  a  round  number  indi- 
cating full  measure :  cp.  Gn31". 

33.  Shall  wander]  E,V  '  shall  be  wanderers.' 
Better,  '  shall  be  shepherds,'  lead  an  unsettled 
life  instead  of  occupying  the  land.  The  forty 
years  are  reckoned  from  the  time  of  the  de- 
parture from  Egypt.  See  Dt2i'i.  Bear  your 
whoredoms]  suffer  the  penalty  of  your  faith- 
lessness. 34.  My  breach  of  promise]  RV 
'  my  alienation'  from  you;  RM  '  the  revoking 
of    my    promise.'     40.    The    mountain]    the 


Hill-country  by  way  of  which  the  spies  had 
gone.  The  people  presume  to  disobey  the 
command  of  v.  25.  45.  Unto  Hormah]  This 
was  about  25  m.  NE.  of  Kadesh.  They  must 
therefore  have  marched  considerably  to  the 
N.  of  Kadesh:  see  on  213. 

CHAPTER  15 

Laws  regarding  various  Offerings 

1-16.  Meal  and  Drink  Offerings.  The 
offerings  here  referred  to  are  those  presented 
along  with  other  sacrifices  (see  on  the  Meal 
Offering,  Lv2),  and  an  enactment  is  made 
regulating  the  proportion  of  meal,  oil,  and 
wine  to  be  used  along  with  a  lamb  (vv.  4,  5), 
a  ram  (vv.  6,  7),  and  a  bullock  (vv.  8-10) 
respectively.  These  laws  seem  to  have  been 
given  at  Kadesh  during  the  long  sojourn 
there. 

4.  Tenth  deal]  i.e.  the  tenth  part  of  an 
ephah,  which  is  about  a  bushel.  A  hin  is  about 
a  gallon  and  a  half:  see  Exl6i«  29*0.  14. 
Stranger]   see  on  9^^. 

17-21.     The  Offering  of  the  First  Fruits. 

20.  Your  dough]  Probably  a  coarse  kind  of 
meal:  cp.  Ezk4430. 

22-31.  Additional  Laws  regarding  Sin  Offer- 
ings (1)  for  the  congregation  (vv.  22-2G)  and 
(2)  for  the  individual  (vv.  27-31).  30.  Pre- 
sumptuously] lit.  '  with  a  high  hand, '  wil- 
fully :  see  on  Lv  4  2.  Reproacheth  the  LORD] 
bringetha  reproach  upon  the  Lord:  i.e.  causeth 
His  name  to  be  dishonoured. 

32-36.  The  Punishment  of  the  Sabbath 
Breaker. 

This  incident  is  designed  to  illustrate  \'v. 
30,  31.  It  tells  how  the  man  who  reproached 
the  Lord,  by  breaking  the  sabbath  command- 
ment, was  utterly  cut  off,  i.e.  put  to  death,  as 
the  Lord  commanded  Moses. 

38.  Fringes  in  the  borders  of  their 
garments]  RM  '  twisted  threads.'  The 
original  form  of  these  is  uncertain.  Judging 
from  later  times,  they  would  be,  not  ornamental 
festoons  running  along  the  edge  of  the  gar- 
ment, but  tassels  attached  to  each  of  its  four 
corners  by  a  thread  of  blue.  A  religious  im- 
portance was  attached  to  the  wearing  of  these 
tassels.  They  were  a  visible  reminder  to  the 
Jews  of  their  obligation  to  keep  the  com- 
mandments of  Jehovah  (v.  39).  In  all  proba- 
bility what  we  have  here  is  the  hallowing  of 
an  ancient  custom,  as  these  tassels  seem  to 
have  been  worn  by  the  early  Persians,  among 
others.  The  Jews  attached  an  ever-increasing 
importance  to  these  symbolical  ornaments  of 
dress:  cp.  Mtl436  920  23 5.  The  modern  sur- 
vival is  the  Jewish  fallifh,  or  prayer-cloth,  con- 
sisting of  a  strip  of  cloth  with  fringes  on  its 
border,  which  is  thrown  over  the  shoulders 
during  the  service  in  the  synagogue.  39.  All 
the  commandments]   The  Rabbis  enumerated 


108 


16.  1 


NUMBERS 


17. 


613  commandments  in  the  Law.  It  so  happens 
that  the  numerical  value  of  the  letters  in  the 
Hebrew  word  for  fringe  {zizith)  is  exactly 
600.  To  make  this  number  up  to  613  the 
tassel  was  made  of  eight  threads  with  five 
knots.  In  this  way  each  tassel  represented 
the  613  commandments,  and  the  wearing  of  it 
was  said  to  be  of  equal  merit  with  the  keeping 
of  the  whole  law.  This  is  a  good  example  of 
Rabbinical  interpretation  and  of  external 
scrupulosity.     Go  a  whoring]   see  on  Ex  34  ^^. 

CHAPTER  16 

The  Rebellion  of  Korah,  Dathan, 
Abiram,  and  On 

This  incident  is  similar  to  that  recorded  in 
c.  12,  and  while  it  illustrates  the  difficulties 
Moses  encountered  in  his  leadership,  owing  to 
the  jealousy  of  those  under  him,  it  served  to 
confirm  him  (v.  28)  and  Aaron  (c.  17)  in  the 
position  assigned  to  them.  It  is  now  generally 
agreed  that  this  c.  is  composed  of  two  nar- 
ratives interwoven  with  each  other.  The 
one  describes  a  rebellion  led  by  Dathan,  Abi- 
ram, and  On  against  the  civil  authority  of 
Moses  (vv.  1,  2,  12-15,  25-34);  while  the  other 
describes  a  different  sort  of  rebellion,  headed 
by  Korah  and  250  princes  of  the  congregation, 
against  the  ecclesiastical  leadership  of  Moses 
and  Aaron.  This  separation  of  the  c.  into 
two  distinct  narratives  reduces  it  to  order 
and  serves  to  explain,  not  only  the  literary 
inequalities,  but  also  the  differences  of  fact  ; 
such  as  e.g.  in  the  one  case  the  refusal  to 
obey  the  summons  of  Moses,  and  in  the  other 
the  compliance  with  it  (cp.  v.  12  with  18,  19)  ; 
the  difference  in  locality,  in  the  one  case  the 
sanctuary,  and  in  the  other  the  tents  of  Dathan 
and  Abiram  (v.  18  and  25,  26)  ;  and  the 
different  fate  of  the  two  companies,  in  the 
one  case  death  by  earthquake,  and  in  the 
other  by  fire  from  the  Lord  (vv.  31-34  and 
35). 

4.  The  action  may  denote  the  dismay  of 
Moses,  but  more  probably  his  praying  for 
guidance:  cp.  vv.  22,  45,  206.  5.  To  Korah] 
not  to  Dathan  and  Abiram,  whose  rebellion  is 
distinct  from  this  :  see  above.  11.  Against 
the  Lord]  not  merely  against  Aaron,  of  whose 
privileges  Koran  and  his  company  are  envious. 

13.  Dathan  and  Abiram  are  envious  of  the 
position  of  Moses.  They  complain  that,  in- 
stead of  bringing  them  into  a  land  flowing 
with  milk  and  honey,  as  he  had  led  them  to 
believe  he  would  do,  he  was  taking  them  away 
from  it  into  a  wilderness  (vv.  13,  14).  Except 
thou  make  thyself]  RV  '  But  thou  must  needs 
make  thyself  also.'  14.  Put  out  the  eyes  of 
these  men]  blind  them  to  the  real  state  of 
matters.  The  English  equivalent  would  be 
to  '  throw  dust  in  the  eyes.'  19.  All  the 
congregation]  This  shows  the  serious  nature 


of  Korah's  rebellion.  The  people  were  in 
sympathy  with  it.  The  claim  put  forward 
by  Korah  was  plausible,  and  flattered  the 
multitude  :  see  v.  3.  22.  The  God  of  the 
spirits  of  all  flesh  must  know  the  thoughts  and 
intents  of  the  heart  and  be  able  to  judge  the 
real  instigator  of  the  evil.  The  one  man  is 
Korah:  cp.  for  the  thought  On  18  23.  28.  Hath 
sent  me]  i.e.  Moses.  Dathan's  rebellion  is 
directed  against  Moses  as  that  of  Korah  against 
Aaron.  On  the  sending  of  Moses  see  Ex  3. 
Not .  .  of  mine  own  mind]  The  mark  of  the 
true  messenger  or  prophet  of  God  is  that  he 
does  not  speak  of  his  own  initiative :  cp.  Nu  24 1^ 
IK 22 13, 14  Jer  15-10  Mtl 019.20.  The  false 
prophet,  on  the  other  hand,  runs  where  he  is 
not  sent  and  speaks  '  out  of  his  own  heart '  : 
seeEzkl32  Jerl4i4  2325-32.  30.  Quick]  i.e. 
alive.  The  pit]  Heb.  Sheol,  usually  rendered 
'  the  grave.'  32.  Their  houses]  their  house- 
holds, as  in  12  Gn7i.  The  sons  of  Korah, 
however,  did  not  perish  :  see  26  n. 

36-39.  The  censers  used  by  Korah  and  his 
company  are  collected  and  made  into  a  cover- 
ing for  the  altar,  as  a  memorial  of  their  sin 
and  punishment,  and  a  warning  to  others 
against  profaning  holy  things  :  cp.  Jude  v.  11. 
37.  Eleazar  is  commanded  to  do  this,  not 
Aaron,  who,  as  high  priest,  must  not  defile 
himself  with  contact  with  the  dead:  see 
Lv21ii.  38.  The  altar]  the  altar  of  burnt 
offering,  which  was  overlaid  with  brass  :  see 
on  Ex  3 1-10. 

41-50.  The  people  now  turn  upon  Moses 
and  charge  him  with  being  the  occasion  of 
this  calamity.  Their  unreasonable  murmuring 
is  punished  with  a  plague,  which  is  only  stayed 
by  means  of  the  intervention  of  the  high 
priest.  46.  Incense  was  usually  offered, 
not  alone,  but  as  an  accompaniment  of  a 
sacrifice.  On  this  occasion  the  plague  had 
begun,  and  incense  was  the  readiest  sacrifice 
that  could  be  offered.  It  is  symbolical  of 
prayer  and  intercession :  see  on  Ex  30  i-i*'. 
Observe  that  the  unauthorised  offering  of  in- 
cense by  the  rebels  was  provocative  of  the 
divine  indignation,  while  in  the  hands  of  Aaron, 
the  appointed  high  priest,  it  was  accepted  as 
an  atonement,  and  procured  the  grace  of  for- 
giveness. 48.  A  striking  picture,  illustrating 
the  efficacy  of  believing  prayer  (cp.  Jas  5 15!  1*^) 
and  the  way  in  which  Christ  by  the  offering 
of  Himself  has  stayed  the  plague  of  sin  and 
death  :  cp.  Eph52. 

CHAPTER  17 
Aaron's  Authority  Confirmed 
Korah  and  his  followers  having  questioned 
the  authority  of  Aaron  and  the  claim  of  his 
family  to  the  priesthood,  the  matter  is  put 
beyond  the  possibility  of  further  doubt  by 
the  Blossoming  of  Aaron's  rod. 


109 


17.  2 


NUMBERS 


19.  IT 


2.  A  rod]  The  common  symbol  of  au- 
thority :  cp.  Ps  1 10  2.  4.  The  testimony]  i.e.  the 
ark  in  which  the  '  testimony '  is  kept  :  see  on 
Ex  16 2-*.  8-1 1.  On  the  morrow  Aaron's  rod 
is  found  to  have  put  forth  almond  buds  and 
fruit,  while  the  others  show  no  sign  of  life. 
In  this  way  the  exclusive  right  of  the  tribe 
of  Levi  and  family  of  Aaron  to  exercise  the 
priestly  functions  is  decided.  Aaron's  rod  is 
ordered  to  be  laid  up  before  the  ark  as  a 
token  to  succeeding  generations.  8.  Yielded 
almonds]  Observe  that  the  three  stages  of 
vegetable  life  are  simultaneously  visible, 
blossoms,  buds,  and  fruit.  As  the  almond 
tree  blossons  in  January  when  other  trees  are 
bare  and  before  its  own  leaves  appear,  it  is 
used  to  symbolise  the  way  in  which  God  fulfils 
His  promises  when  men  least  expect  it  :  see 
Jerlii.i2,  and  cp.  Isalli  532  Mt4i3-i6. 

10.  Before  the  testimony]  According  to 
Heb94  the  rod  was  kept  in  the  ark.  This, 
however,  is  nowhere  asserted  in  OT.  and  may 
be  a  later  tradition:  cp.  1K8^.  12,  13.  The 
people  are  awe-struck  and  impressed  with  the 
danger  of  approaching  the  sanctuary  in  any 
unauthorised  manner. 

CHAPTEK    18 

The  Duties  and  Maintenance  of 

Priests  and  Levites 

I.  The  priests  are  responsible  for  the  ini- 
quity of  the  sanctuary  and  the  priesthood, 
i.e.  for  their  profanation  at  any  time  by  un- 
authorised persons  and  by  the  sins  of  the 
priests  themselves.  On  the  Day  of  Atonement 
the  high  priest  offers  sacrifices  to  make  atone- 
ment for  himself  and  the  sanctuary  :  see  on 
Lvl6.     2.  Levi]   'joined':  see  Gn  29  3"^. 

8-19.  The  provision  for  the  maintenance  of 
the  priests.  The  priests  receive  part  of  the 
meal  offerings  (Lv  2  3),  the  sin  and  guilt  of- 
ferings, except  when  these  are  presented  by 
the  priests  on  their  own  behalf  (Lv426),  the 
heave  portion  of  the  peace  offerings  (Lv3), 
the  first  fruits  of  oil,  wine,  and  wheat 
(vv.  12,  13),  devoted  things  (v.  14  ;  see  on 
Lv27'-i-2S)^  firstlings  of  clean  animals,  the  re- 
demption price  of  the  firstborn  of  men  and 
unclean  beasts  (vv.  15-18),  and  the  tithe  of 
the  tithe  paid  to  the  Levites  (vv.  25-28). 
9.  Most  holy]  see  on  Lv23.  16.  See  3*''' 
Lv27<5.  Shekel]  see  on  Ex 38 24.  19.  Cove- 
nant of  salt]  i.e.  an  indissoluble  covenant  : 
see  on  Ex  30  35. 

20-24.  The  priests  and  Levites  have  no  in- 
heritance in  the  land  of  promise.  By  way 
of  compensation  the  tithes  are  given  to  the 
Levites,  who  in  turn  give  a  tithe  to  the  priests 
(v.  26).  20.  Those  who  are  separated  to  the 
service  of  God  are  taught  to  depend  on  Him. 
He  sends  no  one  into  warfare  at  his  own 
charges  :  see  1  Cor  9 '^"^4. 


25-32.  The  Levites  are  to  tithe  their  own 
tithe  and  present  it  to  the  priests  as  a  heave 
offering,  as  the  ordinary  Israelites  do  with  the 
produce  of  their  fields.  The  remainder  they 
are  allowed  to  enjoy  in  the  same  manner  as 
others:  cp.  Lv2730f.  31.  In  every  place] 
not  restricted,  as  in  the  case  of  the  priests, 
to  the  holy  place  :  see  on  Lv23. 

CHAPTER    19 

The  Sacrifice  of  the  Red  Heifer 

In  order  to  provide  a  special  means  of 
purification  for  those  who  are  defiled  by  con- 
tact with  a  dead  body,  a  preparation  called 
the  '  water  of  separation '  is  made  from  the 
ashes  of  a  red  heifer  and  other  ingredients. 
The  origin  of  this  rite  may  have  been  con- 
nected with  the  large  number  of  deaths  re- 
corded in  16^9.  Josephus,  however,  connects 
it  with  the  death  of  Miriam  (20 1). 

i-io.  A  red  heifer  is  slaughtered  outside 
the  camp  and  its  blood  sprinkled  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  sanctuary  seven  times  (vv.  1-4). 
The  entire  carcase  is  burnt  in  the  same  place 
along  with  cedar  wood,  hyssop,  and  scarlet 
wool,  and  the  ashes  are  collected  and  preserved 
for  use  in  purifying  (vv.  5,  6,  9).  Those  who 
take  part  in  the  ceremony  contract  defilement 
(vy.  7,8,10).  2.  Sacrificial  animals  are  usually 
males.  The  use  of  a  female  in  this  case  may 
be  intended  to  symbolise  the  imparting  of  new 
life  to  those  who  have  been  defiled  by  con- 
tact with  death.  The  same  thought  may 
underlie  the  regulation  as  to  colour,  red  be- 
ing the  colour  of  blood  which  is  the  token 
of  life  :  cp.  Lv  I711.  The  words  without  spot 
probably  mean 'without  blemish.'  4.  Directly 
before]  RV  '  Toward  the  front  of '  ;  i.e.  in  the 
direction  of  the  sanctuary.     6.   See  on  Lvl4'*. 

9.  Water  of  separation]  RV  '  water  of 
impurity,'  i.e.  water  for  the  removal  of 
(ceremonial)  impurity  :    see  on  8  '^. 

11-16.  The  persons  for  whom  this  'water 
of  impurity '  is  provided  are  those  who  have 
touched  a  dead  body  or  anything  connected 
with  it. 

II.  Owing  to  the  mystery  connected  with 
death  a  dead  body  is  regarded,  not  only 
among  the  Jews  but  among  other  nations  of 
antiquity,  as  eminently  dangerous  and  com- 
municating defilement  in  the  highest  degree. 
Moreover,  such  ceremonial  defilement  is  easily 
associated  with  the  idea  of  sin,  as  death  is  the 
wages  of  sin.  12.  With  it]  i.e.  with  the 
'  water  of  impurity.' 

17-22.  The  method  of  purification.  The 
ashes  of  the  heifer  are  mixed  with  water  from 
a  running  stream  or  spring,  and  sprinkled 
upon  the  unclean  person  or  thing.  This  is 
done  on  the  third  day  after  the  defilement 
has  been  contracted.  On  the  seventh  day 
the  unclean  person  washes  his  clothes,  bathes, 

10 


20.  1 


NUMBERS 


21.  1 


and  resumes  his  place  in  society  at  even.  The 
penalty  of  neglect  is  excommunication.  The 
various  parts  of  the  expiatory  rite  lend  them- 
selves easily  to  symbolical  interpretation.  The 
connexion  of  sin  and  death,  the  need  of  cleans- 
ing, and  the  ever-ready  means  of  purification, 
are  all  exemplified.  The  writer  of  the  Epistle 
to  the  Hebrews  draws  a  parallel  between  the 
heifer,  whose  ashes  were  sanctified  to  the  puri- 
fying of  the  flesh  from  the  defilement  arising 
from  contact  with  dead  bodies,  and  Christ 
who,  also  without  spot,  offered  Himself  with- 
out the  camp  to  Grod  to  purge  the  conscience 
of  believers  from  dead  works,  i.e.  from  works 
which  cause  death.     See  Heb9i3>i^  13  ii-^^. 

CHAPTER   20 

Death  op  Miriam.     Murmuring  at 

Meribah.     Death  of  Aaron 

I.  Miriam  dies  while  the  people  are  at 
Kadesh  (see  on  13  ^i'^^).  The  first  month  is 
the  first  month  of  the  fortieth  year.  As 
the  people  came  to  Kadesh  in  the  second  year 
(see  132ti),  they  must  have  remained  in  the 
vicinity  of  Kadesh  during  the  interval,  or 
what  is  recorded  here  is  a  second  arrival  at 
the  same  place  :  cp.  Dt2i'*. 

2-13.  Murmuring  at  Meribah.  3.  When 
our  brethren  died]  This  probably  refers  to  the 
deaths  following  the  rebellions  of  Korah  and 
of  Dathan  and  Abiram  (c.  16).  It  implies 
that  these  occurrences  were  recent.  6.  Fell 
upon  their  faces]  see  on  16*.  8.  The  rod] 
Seeing  he  took  the  rod  from  before  the  LORD 
(v.  9)  it  has  been  thought  that  Aaron's  rod  is 
meant  :  cp.  IT^o.  But  it  was  more  probably 
Moses'  staff  which  was  associated  with  former 
dangers  and  deliverances  :  see  Ex4i'i'  7'^'^ 
I416  175,9. 

12.  Ye  believed  me  not]  The  root  of  Moses' 
ain  was  unbelief.  He  doubted  the  power 
of  God,  or  His  willingness  to  bear  longer 
with  these  rebels  (v.  10),  and  instead  of 
speaking  to  the  rock,  as  he  was  commanded 
to  do,  he  struck  it  twice  :  cp.  Ps  10633.  The 
punishment  was  severe,  but  want  of  faith  on 
the  part  of  the  leaders  could  not  be  over- 
looked or  unpunished,  because  the  people  had 
seen  it,  and  might  be  led  away  by  the  evil 
example  :  see  on  1 2  !•*.  To  sanctify  me]  God 
is  always  holy  and  His  essential  holiness  can- 
not be  increased.  But  the  obedience  and 
praise  of  His  people  cause  His  holiness  and 
grace  to  be  more  widely  known  and  acknow- 
ledged. Similarly  God  is  said  to  be  '  magnified,' 
as  in  Lk  1  *'^ :  cp.  the  petition  'Hallowed  be  Thy 
name.'  13.  Meribah]  '  strife.'  In  27 1*  Dt  32  si 
it  is  called  Meribah  of  Kadesh  to  distinguish  it 
from  the  Meribah  of  Ex  17"  (see  note  there). 

14-21.  The  people  prepare  for  the  last 
stage  of  the  journey  to  Canaan.  The  direct 
route  to  the  N.  is  blocked  by  the  Canaanites 


(211).  On  the  E.  are  the  Edomites  who  are 
the  kindred  of  the  Israelites,  being  descended 
from  Esau  the  brother  of  Jacob.  Moses 
accordingly  sends  messengers  to  the  king  of 
Edom  asking  a  passage  through  his  country  to 
the  E.  side  of  Canaan,  but  the  request  is  refused. 

14.  Thy  brother]  see  above,  and  cp.  Dt23'^ 
Gn2530  368.9.  The  unnatural  hostility  of 
the  Edomites  on  another  occasion  is  the  sub- 
ject of  the  book  of  Obadiah  (see  vv.  10-12)  ; 
cp.  also  Am  111.  ig.  Sent  an  angel]  see 
Ex  3  2  1419.  17.  The  king's /^/V/A  way]  Edom 
lay  on  the  direct  route  connecting  Egypt  with 
Babylonia.  The  king's  way  here,  however, 
is  not  a  proper  name,  but  signifies  the  most 
direct  route.  They  promised  not  to  trespass 
or  injure  the  country  in  passing  through  it. 

22-29.  Death  of  Aaron.  Turning  south- 
ward so  as  to  go  round  the  country  of  the 
Edomites  by  way  of  the  N.  end  of  the  Gulf 
of  Akaba  (see  214),  the  Israelites  reach  Mt. 
Hor.  Here  Aaron  dies  and  is  buried.  Mt. 
Hor  is  identified  by  most  travellers  with  a 
precipitous  mountain  nearly  5,000  ft.  high, 
forming  the  principal  elevation  in  the  range 
of  Mt.  Seir.  The  wonderful  rock  city  of 
Petra  (or  Sela),  the  capital  of  Edom,  lay  at 
its  eastern  base.  A  small  mosque  on  the 
summit  now  marks  the  traditional  site  of 
Aaron's  burial-place.  24.  Gathered  unto  his 
people]  This  may  suggest  the  continuance  of 
life  after  death  along  with  those  who  have 
gone  before  :  see  Gnl5i5.  Ye  rebelled]  The 
same  word  is  applied  to  Moses  and  Aaron  as 
Moses  had  applied  to  the  people  at  Meribah 
(v.  10).  The  leaders,  as  well  as  the  people 
with  whom  they  were  impatient,  were  '  rebels.' 

26.  This  signifies  the  succession  of  Eleazar 
to  the  priesthood.  The  ceremony  of  putting 
on  the  sacred  robes  was  an  important  part  of 
the  consecration  of  the  high  priest.  See 
Lv87-9  Ex  29  29,  and  cp.  the  action  of  Elijah, 
IK  19 19  2 K2 13-15.  28.  Moses  also  died  on 
the  top  of  a  mountain  :  see  Dt34i.  Aaron 
died  on  the  first  day  of  the  fifth  month  in  the 
fortieth  year  of  the  exodus  at  the  age  of  1 43  : 
see  3338,39. 

29.  The  death  of  Aaron  removed  the  second 
greatest  figure  from  among  the  Israelites,  and 
their  first  high  priest.  The  writer  of  the 
Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  contrasts  the  human 
priesthood,  which  is  imperfect  by  reason  of  its 
being  constantly  interrupted  by  death,  with 
the  '  unchanging  priesthood '  of  Him  '  who 
ever  liveth  to  make  intercession'  for  His 
people  :   see  Heb7  23-28. 

CHAPTER  21 
The  Brazen  Serpent.     Conquest 
OF  Bashan 
1-3.  The  southern  Canaanites  repulse  the 
Israelites,  but  are  eventually  destroyed. 


Ill 


21.  1 


NUMBERS 


21.  28 


I.  King  Arad]  RV  'king  of  Arad.'  The 
name  of  this  place  still  survives  in  Tell  Arad^ 
some  ruins  about  16  m.  S.  of  Hebron  and 
about  50  m.  N.  of  Kadesh.  The  way  of  the 
spies]  RV  '  the  way  of  Atharim.'  The  word 
is  evidently  the  name  of  a  place.  It  has  not 
been  identified.  2.  Destroy]  lit. '  devote.'  See 
on  Lv  27  26-29,  3.  This  took  place  much  later  : 
see  Josh  121^  Jgli6,i7.  Had  they  been  vic- 
torious on  this  occasion  the  Israelites  would 
naturally  have  marched  directly  northwards 
into  Canaan  ;  but,  being  repulsed,  they  re- 
treated southwards,  having  registered  this 
vow  which  was  ultimately  fulfilled.  Hormah 
means  a  '  devoted  thing.'  It  is  from  the  same 
root  as  the  verb  in  v.  2. 

4-9.  The  Brazen  Serpent.  Retreating 
southwards  the  people  are  discouraged  and 
give  way  again  to  murmuring.  Venomous 
serpents  are  sent  among  them.  Moses  is 
commanded  to  make  a  brazen  serpent,  and 
all  who  look  to  it  in  faith  are  healed.  4.  To 
compass]  to  go  round  :  see  on  20  2^"^^.  The 
Red  Sea]  i.e.  the  arm  now  called  the  Gulf  of 
Akaba.  Because  of  the  way]  They  were  now 
marching  away  from  Canaan  instead  of  to- 
wards it.  5.  This  light  bread]  or,  '  this  vile 
food.'     The  manna  is  meant  :  cp.  11''. 

6.  Fiery  serpents]  i.e.  serpents  whose  sting 
caused  violent  inflammation.  Venomous  sand- 
snakes  are  still  found  in  this  locality. 

8.  Upon  a  pole]  RV  '  upon  a  standard.' 
This  brazen  serpent  was  long  preserved  by 
the  Israelites,  and  ultimately  became  an 
object  of  superstitious  veneration,  in  conse- 
quence of  which  Hezekiah  ordered  it  to  be 
destroyed  (2K18-4). 

9.  When  he  beheld  the  serpent  of  brass,  he 
lived]  rather,  '  when  he  looked  to  it,'  i.e.  not 
casually  but  of  purpose  and  with  faith.  The 
lifeless  image  of  the  serpent  that  had  caused 
the  pain  and  death  of  so  many  was  a  symbol 
of  the  victory  over  these  things  that  God 
gives  to  those  who  trust  in  Him.  The  Jewish 
commentators  recognise  here  an  illustration  of 
the  power  of  faith.  '  The  serpent  neither 
killed  nor  preserved  alive,  but  if  the  Israelites 
lifted  up  their  eyes  and  turned  their  hearts  to 
their  Father  in  heaven  they  were  healed ;  if 
not,  they  perished.'  Similarly  in  the  book  of 
Wisdom  (166,7)^  the  brazen  serpent  is  called 
'  a  token  of  salvation  to  put  them  in  remem- 
brance of  the  commandment  of  Thy  law,  for 
he  that  turned  toward  it  was  not  saved  because 
of  that  which  was  beheld,  but  because  of  Thee, 
the  Saviour  of  all.'  The  brazen  serpent  raised 
upon  the  pole,  for  the  healing  of  those  who 
were  ready  to  die,  is  a  striking  emblem  of  the 
Saviour  '  lifted  up '  on  the  Cross,  for  the 
salvation  of  all  who  are  wounded  by  '  that  old 
serpent  the  devil,'  and  who  look  in  faith  to 
Him  :  see  JnS^'^. 


10-15.   Journey  to  the  Arnon. 

12.  Zared]  The  Zered  flowed  into  the 
Dead  Sea  at  its  southern  extremity.  13.  The 
other  side  of  Arnon]  This  means  the  S.  side 
of  the  river  Arnon,  as  the  story  is  narrated 
from  the  standpoint  of  one  living  in  Canaan  : 
see  Intro,  and  22 1.  The  Arnon  flows  into 
the  Dead  Sea  about  the  middle  of  its  E.  side. 
It  is  the  boundary  between  the  Moabites  on 
the  S.  and  the  Amorites  on  the  N.  The 
Israelites  did  not  go  through  Moab,  as  the 
passage  was  denied  to  them,  but  went  round 
it  on  the  E.  side,  crossing  the  upper  courses 
of  the  Arnon  :  see  v.  11,  and  cp.  Jgll^'^'-i^. 

14.  As  the  Moabites  afterwards  crossed  the 
Arnon  and  took  possession  of  part  of  the  land 
of  the  Amorites,  this  ancient  fragment  of 
poetry  from  the  '  book  of  the  Wars  of  the 
Lord '  indicates  the  original  boundary  of 
Moab.  The  '  book  of  the  Wars  of  the  Lord,' 
which  is  mentioned  only  here  in  the  OT.,  was 
probably  a  collection  of  war  songs,  illustrating 
what  Jehovah  did  for  His  people  by  the  hand 
of  Moses.  The  other  poetical  fragments  in 
this  c.  (vv.  17,  18,  27-30)  are,  in  all  proba- 
bility, from  the  same  collection.  What  he  did 
in  the  Red  Sea]  RV  '  Vaheb  in  Suphah.'  The 
words  are  names  of  localities  now  unknown. 
Some  verb  is  to  be  supplied  before  them,  such 
as  '  they  subdued.' 

16-20.  Passage  through  the  land  of  the 
Amorites  from  the  Arnon  to  Pisgah  at  the  N. 
end  of  the  Red  Sea.  During  this  march  the 
people  seem  to  have  suifered  from  want  of 
water.  The  '  Song  of  the  Well '  celebrates 
the  finding  of  water  at  Beer.  '  Beer '  means 
'  well.'  20.  Jeshimon]  rather,  '  the  Jeshimon,' 
the  plain  lying  to  the  NE.  of  the  Dead  Sea. 

21-30.  Conquest  of  the  Amorites  and  Song 
of  Triumph. 

21.  Cp.  the  similar  request  and  refusal  in 
2014-21. 

24.  Was  strong]  This  seems  to  give  the 
reason  why  the  Israelites  did  not  follow  up 
their  conquest  of  the  Amorites  by  entering 
the  land  of  Ammon.  LXX,  however,  reads, 
'  the  border  .  .  was  Jaazer,'  a  town  mentioned 
in  V.  32. 

27.  In  proverbs]  This  Hebrew  word  is  some- 
times rendered  '  parable.'  It  is  applied  to  a 
by-word  or  taunt  song:  see  1K9'''  Jer249 
Isal44  Job27i  and  Nu  23'.i8  24 3, is, 20, 21, 23. 
The  opening  words  of  the  song  are  an  ironical 
challenge  to  the  former  inhabitants  to  return 
to  Heshbon,  which  has  been  captured  and 
destroyed.  '  Come  if  you  can,'  they  say,  '  and 
dispossess  us  and  repair  the  city  of  your  king.' 
The  next  two  vv.  refer  to  the  fact  stated  in 
V.  26.  The  haughty  conqueror  of  Moab  is 
now  himself  subdued.  This  song  is  quoted 
in  Jer48'i5.-t*;.  28.  Read  with  RV  '  fire  went 
out . .  it  consumed.'     The  fire  is  the  fire  of 


112 


21.  29 


NUMBERS 


22.  8 


war.  29.  Chemosh]  the  sun-god  of  the 
Moabites  to  whom  human  sacrifices  were 
sometimes  offered  :  see  2K3  27^  and  see  on 
Gn22  Jgll^Of.  The  name  occurs  frequently 
on  the  Moabite  Stone,  a  valuable  relic  dating 
from  the  9th  century  B.C.  and  discovered  at 
Dibon  (see  next  note),  on  which  Mesha,  king 
of  Moab  (see  2X3"*),  celebrates  his  victories 
over  the  Israelites,  and  attributes  them  to  the 
favovir  of  his  god  Chemosh.  Solomon  himself 
built  a  high  place  for  Chemosh  :  see  1  K 11  'i'. 
The  words  here  should  read  '  he  (i.e.  Chemosh) 
gave  his  sons  as  fugitives,'  i.e.  he  abandoned 
them  so  that  they  fled.  30.  We]  the  Israelites. 
Dibon  is  near  the  Arnon  (v.  13).  The  locality 
of  Nophah  is  unknown.  Medeba  is  a  few  miles 
S.  of  Heshbon.  The  concluding  words  of  the 
song  are  obscure,  and  may  be  rendered,  '  and 
we  laid  waste  so  that  fire  raged  unto  Medeba.' 


33-35.  Conquest  of  Bashan.  Bashan  was 
the  northernmost  part  of  the  country  E.  of  the 
Jordan,  stretching  from  the  river  Jabbok  in 
the  S.  to  Mt.  Hermon  in  the  extreme  N. 
This  extensive  district  was  celebrated  for  the 
richness  of  its  vegetation,  being  ranked  in  this 
respect  with  Lebanon,  Carmel,  and  Sharon  : 
see  Isa33'-*  Jer  1 1^  Nah  1 4.  Its  giant  oaks  and 
vast  herds  of  wild  cattle  are  frequently  referred 
to  by  the  sacred  writers  :  see  Dt32i^  Isa2i3 
Ezk  27  6  39 18  Zech  11 2.  In  early  times  it  was 
inhabited  by  a  race  of  giants,  from  whom  Og 
was  descended  (Gnl45  DtS^i  ;  see  on  IS^s). 
The  ruins  of  the  Giant  Cities  of  Bashan 
remain  to  testify  to  the  strength  of  its  former 
inhabitants.  See  additional  notes  on  Dt3. 
After  its  final  conquest  it  was  occupied  by 
the  half  tribe  of  Manasseh  :  see  Nu3233 
Dt3i3. 


PART  3 

In  the  Plains  of  Moab  (Chs.  22-36) 


CHAPTER  22 
Balaam 

The  Israelites  now  enter  upon  the  last 
stage  of  their  journey  to  Caijaan.  They  are 
within  sight  of  the  land  of  promise,  being 
encamped  at  the  northern  end  of  the  Dead 
Sea,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Jordan.  Up  to 
this  point  they  have  surmounted  every  obstacle 
and  conquered  the  tribes  on  the  east  side  of 
the  river.  But  now,  at  the  end  of  the  journey, 
a  graver  danger  faces  them.  Balak,  king  of 
Moab,  finding  that  he  cannot  prevail  against 
them  with  carnal  weapons,  has  recourse  to 
magical  arts,  hoping  in  this  way  to  destroy 
them.  He  sends  to  the  Euphrates  for  the 
famous  magician  Balaam  to  come  and  '  curse 
Israel.'  As  the  sequel  shows  it  is  all  in  vain. 
Not  even  the  powers  of  darkness  can  stop  the 
victorious  march  of  Jehovah's  people.  The 
whole  incident  is  designed  to  show  that  Israel 
by  the  grace  of  God  is  proof,  not  only  against 
the  sword  of  the  enemy,  but  also  against  the 
evil  powers  of  the  unseen  world.  There  is 
no  enchantment  against  Israel.  God  is  for 
them,  and  nothing  can  be  against  them.  They 
are  able  to  wrestle,  not  only  against  flesh  and 
blood,  but  against  spiritual  wickedness  in  high 
places. 

I.  The  district  in  which  the  Israelites  are 
encamped  is  called  the  plains  of  Moab,  as  it 
formed  part  of  the  territory  of  the  Moabites 
before  their  conquest  by  the  Amorites  (21^6). 
On  this  side  Jordan]  The  Hebrew  is  '  beyond 
Jordan.'     So  RV  :  see  on  21 13. 

4.  Elders  of  Midian]  The  home  of  the 
Midianites  is  usually  supposed  to  have  been 
within  the  Sinaitic  peninsula  towards  the  S. 
or  SE.  :  see  Ex  2^5  31.     Here  they  are  found 


to  the  E.  of  the  Jordan,  associated  with  the 
Moabites  in  their  attempt  to  bar  the  progress 
of  the  Israelites  :  cp.  Gn3635  Nu256.  Their 
conquest  is  described  in  Nu31. 

5.  RV  '  sent  .  .  to  Pethor,  which  is  by  the 
River,  to  the  land  of  the  children,'  etc.  The 
'  River '  is  the  Euphrates.  The  ancient  Chal- 
deans and  Babylonians,  like  the  modern  Arabs, 
had  a  firm  belief  in  the  existence  and  influ- 
ence of  demons.  They  also  believed  that 
certain  persons  had  the  power  of  controlling 
these  demons  by  means  of  magic  spells  and 
incantations,  and  these  magicians  or  sooth- 
sayers were  frequently  employed  to  discover 
secrets,  to  foretell  the  future,  to  bless  an 
undertaking,  or  bring  ruin  upon  an  enemy. 
Balaam's  fame  as  a  man  of  this  sort  had 
travelled  far  beyond  the  limits  of  his  own 
land,  as  is  shown  by  the  embassy  of  the  king 
of  Moab  :  see  on  Ex  7 11.  7.  Rewards  of 
divination]  the  presents  made  to  Balaam  to 
secure  his  offices.  In  2  Pet  2 1^  Balaam  is  said 
to  have  loved  '  the  wages  of  unrighteousness.' 

8-21.  Balaam,  being  warned  by  God  in  a 
dream,  refuses  to  go  ;  whereupon  Balak  sends 
a  more  pressing  invitation  with  promise  of  a 
larger  reward.  Balaam  hesitates,  but  at  length 
yields,  having  received  permission  to  go,  but 
to  speak  only  as  God  directs  him.  8.  Balaam 
has  been  blamed  for  hesitating  here.  This, 
however,  is  unjust.  On  the  occasion  of  the 
first  message  from  Balak  he  was  honestly  in 
doubt  whether  he  ought  to  go  or  not,  and  it 
is  to  his  credit  that  he  would  do  nothing  till  he 
had  learned  what  the  mind  of  God  was.  It 
was  otherwise,  however,  on  the  second  occa- 
sion (v.  19),  when  he  dallied  with  the  tempting 
offer,  in  the  hope  that  God  would  change  His 
purpose,  and  allow  him  to  go  and  do  as  Balak 


8 


113 


22.  12 


NUMBERS 


23.  10 


wished.  If  the  words  the  LORD,  i.e.  Jehovah, 
in  this  V.  were  really  used  by  Balaam,  and  are 
not  due  to  the  historian,  then  it  would  appear 
that  Balaam  knew  the  G-od  of  Israel  and 
worshipped  Him.  This  is  by  no  means  im- 
possible. Balaam  lived  in  the  land  from  which 
Abraham  went  out  (see  Gull 28-31  244-io),  and 
he  was  no  doubt  aware  of  the  history  of  Abra- 
ham's descendants,  more  especially  if  he  was 
connected  with  the  Midianites  (see  318).  it 
need  occasion  no  surprise  that  God  made  use 
of  this  semi-heathen  soothsayer  to  declare  His 
will.  It  is  but  an  illustration  of  the  truth 
that  the  Spirit  of  God  is  not  bound  :  op. 
Am  9*^.  Throughout  the  whole  incident 
Balaam  appears  as  the  somewhat  unwilling 
medium  whereby  God  chooses  to  confirm  His 
unchangeable  purpose  towards  Israel.  He 
stands  midway  between  the  true  prophet  of 
Jehovah  and  the  heathen  magician  or  sooth- 
sayer. 

12,  They  are  blessed]  see  Gn  22 17, 18  Nu  6  27. 
1 8.  This  is  said  in  good  faith.  But  Balaam 
is  moved  by  the  tempting  offer  of  Balak  ;  and, 
while  He  does  not  mean  to  disobey  God,  he  is 
not  without  hopes  of  inducing  God  to  change 
His  mind.  He  does  not  yet  know  that  Jeho- 
vah's '  kindness  shall  not  depart  nor  His 
covenant  of  peace  be  removed.'  20.  Balaam 
is  allowed  to  go,  but  only  on  condition  that 
he  will  speak  the  word  that  God  gives  him. 

22-41.  On  the  way  Balaam  receives  a  warn- 
ing not  to  go  beyond  the  word  of  the  Lord. 
22.  God's  anger  was  kindled  because  he 
went]  This  seems  to  contradict  what  is  said 
in  v.  20,  that  God  gave  him  permission  to 
go.  But  that  permission  was  conditional. 
He  might  go,  but  he  must  speak  only  what  is 
given  him  to  say.  Balaam  gladly  seizes  the 
opportunity  of  going,  for  he  is  hankering  after 
the  reward.  For  the  present  he  ignores  the 
condition.  In  his  heart  he  hopes  to  evade  it 
and  satisfy  Balak.  But  God,  who  is  the  dis- 
cerner  of  the  thoughts  and  intents  of  the 
heart,  sees  the  double-mindedness  of  Balaam, 
and  gives  him  to  know  that  there  must  be  no 
trifling.  Unless  he  really  means  to  be  obedient 
he  must  stay  at  home.  On  the  '  angel  of  the 
Lord  '  see  on  Ex  3  2. 

31.  Opened  the  eyes  of  Balaam]  Up  to  this 
point  Balaam  has  been  like  a  blind  man.  He 
has  been  determined  to  have  his  own  way.  But 
now  he  sees  it  is  useless  trying  to  deceive  God 
or  fight  against  Him.  Like  Saul  he  finds  it  is 
'  hard  to  kick  against  the  pricks  '  :  cp.  Ac  9  ^-^. 
The  refusal  of  his  erstwhile  docile  ass  to  carry 
him  further  is  the  God-employed  means  of 
bringing  the  obstinate  prophet  to  his  senses. 
How  this  was  done  it  is  vain  to  speculate. 
Some  explain  away  the  incident  of  the  vision 
and  the  ass  speaking  e.g.  as  a  dream  which 
Balaam  had  before  starting,  or  a  vivid  impres- 

1 


sion  made  upon  him  by  the  liveliness  of  his 
own  thoughts  ;  but  evidently  the  writer  of  the 
narrative  believed  in  the  reality  of  both.  In 
this  he  simply  occupies  the  standpoint  of  his 
age. 

34.  Balaam  is  now  convinced  that  it  is  use- 
less hoping  to  satisfy  Balak,  and  wishes  simply 
to  have  nothing  more  to  do  with  the  matter. 
But  this  is  not  the  will  of  God.  Balaam  must 
go  as  His  messenger  and  bless  His  people. 

40.  Offered  oxen]  most  probably  in  sacrifice. 
It  was  usual  to  offer  sacrifice  at  the  beginning 
of  any  momentous  undertaking,  oj  on  the 
arrival  of  an  important  visitor:  see  GnSl^* 
IK  19  21  IS  165. 

41.  Baal]  'owner'  or  'lord';  the  name  of 
a  deity,  usually  identical  with  the  sun,  and 
worshipped  by  a  number  of  early  Semitic 
tribes,  including  the  Phoenicians.  The  place 
of  worship  was  commonly  the  top  of  a  hill. 
There  was  a  sanctuary  of  Baal  in  this  neigh- 
bourhood on  Mt.  Peor  :  see  25  3.  The  utmost 
2xirf'\  Balak  showed  Abraham  the  whole  extent 
of  the  Israelites,  probably  to  justify  his  alarm 
at  their  presence,  and  exhibit  the  instant  neces- 
sity of  cursing  this  formidable  army. 

gHAPTEE    23 

Balaam  (continued) 
I-IO.  First  Utterance  of  Balaam. 
I.  On  the  meaning  of  these  sacrifices  see 
on  22  ■lO.  Balak  may  have  intended  these  sacri- 
fices for  Baal,  but  Balaam  at  all  events  thinks 
of  the  God  who  spoke  to  him  at  Pethor  and 
whose  angel  met  him  on  the  way  (see  v.  4). 
3.  I  -will  go]  to  inspect  the  omens,  to  see  what 
indications  are  visible  of  God's  will :  cp.  24 1 
Lvl93i.  To  an  high  place]  RV  'to  a  bare 
height':  see  on 22^1.  7.  Balaam  is  constrained 
to  bless  Israel  as  God  has  manifestly  done.  This 
is  plain  from  three  signs,  (1)  the  separation  of 
the  people  (v.  9),  (2)  their  number  (v.  10),  and 
(3)  their  righteousness  (v.  10).  Aram]  the 
ancient  name  of  Mesopotamia. 

9.  The  people  shall  dwell  alone,  etc.]  rather, 
'  Behold  a  people  that  dwelleth  alone  and  is 
not  reckoned  among  the  nations  ! '  Balaam 
singles  out  what  was,  and  is  still,  a  distinguish- 
ing characteristic  of  the  Hebrew  people,  viz. 
their  separateness  from  other  nations.  They 
were  chosen  of  God  in  Abraham  their  ancestor, 
and  throughout  the  long  course  of  their  his- 
tory have  been  distinguished  from  other 
nations,  both  by  their  religion  and  manner  of 
life.  To  this  day,  though  they  have  no 
country,  they  are  still  a  separate  nation  :  see 
Ex  1 9  5  ,t5  33 16  Lv  20  24>  26^  and  frequently  in  the 
prophets,  e.g.  Isa432i  Am  3  2. 

10.  The  righteous]  The  people  of  Israel  are 
called  '  the  righteous  '  because  God.  who  is 
Himself  righteous,  has  called  them  to  be  the 
same.     The    Heb.   word    for    '  righteous '    is 

14 


23.  13 


NUMBERS 


24.  17 


Jashar,  and  Jeshuran  is  a  poetical  name  given 
to  Israel  in  Dt32i5  335,26  Isa442.  It  is  pos- 
sible that  the  title  given  to  a  collection  of 
national  poetry,  the  book  of  Jashar  (see  Josh 
10^3  2S11S  :  see  on  211*)  contains  the  same 
idea.  Balaam's  words  mean  that  Israel's  fate 
will  be  enviable,  and  the  opposite  of  what 
Balak  desires  it  to  be.  His  own  fate  was 
miserable  :  see  31^.  The  death  of  the  right- 
eous is  only  attained  by  those  who  are  willing 

to  lead  the  life  of  the  righteous.  I2.  Cp. 
lK22i3,u 

13-26.   Balaam's  Second  Utterance. 

13.  Seeing  that  Balaam  had  been  impressed 
with  the  multitude  of  Israel  (v.  10),  Balak 
now  restricts  the  prophet's  view  of  the  host, 
in  the  hope  that  he  may  be  prevailed  upon  to 
curse  it :  see  on  22^1.  14.  Zophim]  'watchers' 
or  '  lookers-out.'  It  is  from  the  same  Heb. 
root  as  Mizpah  (see  G-n  3  !•*■').  Pisgahis  pro- 
bably the  general  name  for  the  mountain  range 
lying  to  the  NE.  of  the  Dead  Sea,  of  which 
Nebo  (Dt34i),  Peor  (v.  28),  and  Zophim  are 
peaks.  In  Dt32^9  this  mountain  range  is 
called  Abarim.  Zophim  may  be  so  called 
simply  as  being  a  point  of  outlook,  but  it  is 
possible  to  see  in  the  name  a  reference  to  the 
practice  of  watching  the  omens  from  elevated 
situations. 

18.  Balaam  declares  that  Grod's  purpose  to 
bless  Israel  cannot  be  altered  (vv.  19,  20). 
"With  them  He  is  well  pleased  (v.  21).  It  is 
He  who  is  bringing  them  out  of  Egypt,  and 
with  Him  as  Leader  and  Defender  they  are 
certain  to  be  victorious  (vv.  22-24).  19.  Balak 
is  wrong  in  thinking  to  induce  God  by  means 
of  enchantments  to  alter  His  purpose  :  cp.  1  S 
15  29  Isa  54 10  Ro  11 29  Tit  1 2  Heb  6  i3-is  Jas  1 17. 

21.  The  shout  of  a  king]  is  not  the  shout 
raised  by  a  king,  but  the  shout  raised  at  the 
presence  of  a  king.  Israel  rejoices  in  having 
God  as  their  king  :  see  ExlS^^  Dt.335  Isa 
33  22.  22.  God  brought]  rather, '  It  is  God,  and 
no  other,  that  is  bringing  them  out  of  Egypt.' 
They  are  here  under  the  divine  direction  :  cp. 
Ex  20  2  29  "le  Lv  19  3«.  Unicorn]  RV  '  the  wild 
ox,'  or  buffalo:  cp.  Dt33i'i'.  23.  The  ren- 
dering of  AV  gives  the  sense  '  it  is  useless  to 
employ  the  powers  of  enchantment  against 
this  people  ;  they  are  proof  against  all  such 
weapons.'  But  the  right  rendering  is  rather, 
'  there  is  no  enchantment  hi  Jacob,'  i.e.  this 
people  has  no  need  to  employ  magical  arts  in 
its  defence,  as  you,  Balak,  are  doing  now,  for 
they  have  God  for  their  protector.  Accord- 
ing to  this  time]  better,  '  at  this  time,'  '  now.' 

24.  A  great  lion]  Heb.  '  a  lioness.' 

25.  What  Balak  means  is,  '  If  you  will  not 
curse  them,  I  forbid  you  to  bless  them.' 

28.  Peor]  is  a  peak  of  the  mountain  range 
of  Moab.  See  on  v.  14.  On  Jeshimon  see  on 
2120. 


CHAPTER  24 
Balaam   (continued) 

1-9.   Balaam's  Third  Utterance. 

I.  To  seek  for  enchantments]  lit.  '  to  meet 
omens':  see  on  23 2.  Toward  the  wilderness] 
i.e.  towards  the  plain  where  the  Israelites 
were  encamped:  see  2120  221.  2.  The  spirit 
of  God  came  upon  him]  cp.  1S192'J.  The 
following  utterances  are  introduced  in  a  more 
solemn  manner  (see  vv.  3,  4,  15,  16),  and  are 
prophetic  of  the  future. 

3.  Hath  said]  The  English  here  is  too 
commonplace  to  represent  the  original,  which 
is  in  a  very  lofty  and  impassioned  strain. 
'Oracle  of  Balaam,  son  of  Beor  ;  oracle  of 
the  man  whose  eyes  are  opened  ;  oracle  of 
him  who  hears  the  words  of  God,  who  sees 
the  vision  of  the  Almighty,  falling  upon  his 
face  with  his  eyes  open.'  The  first  word 
rendered  '  opened '  is  of  uncertain  meaning. 
It  may  mean  'closed,'  in  which  case  it  implies 
that  Balaam's  eyes  are  closed  to  earthly  sights 
but  open  to  the  heavenly.  Or  it  may  refer  to 
his  previous  condition.  Hitherto  scales  have 
been  upon  his  eyes,  but  now  he  sees  the  vision 
of  the  Almighty.  4.  Falling  into  a  trancel 
rather,  '  falling  upon  his  face.'  There  is  no 
word  in  the  original  corresponding  to  the 
words  '  into  a  trance.'  He  falls  to  the  ground, 
overpowered  by  the  Spirit  of  God  that  comes 
upon  him:  cp.  1  S192i  Ezkl28  DanSi^.is  Ac 
9^  Rev  117. 

6.  The  images  in  this  and  the  next  v.  are  those 
of  fruitfulness  and  vigour.  The  Ugn  (i.e.  the 
wood-)  aloe  is  a  large  spreading  tree  much  prized 
for  its  aromatic  qualities  (Prov  7 17  Song  4 1*), 
and  the  cedar  is  the  king  of  trees  (1  K433  Ps 
1041''):  cp.  Psl3  Ezk313-5.  7.  He  shall  pour 
the  water]  better,  '  water  shall  flow  from  his 
(i.e.  Israel's)  buckets,  and  his  seed  (i.e.  his 
posterity)  shall  be  in  abundance  of  water.' 
Israel  will  always  flourish.  The  literal  and 
the  metaphorical  are  here  combined  :  cp. 
Gn  49  22, 25  Dt  33 13,  and  see  on  Lv  26  4.  Agag] 
the  dynastic  name  of  the  Amalekite  kings :  cp. 
1  S  1532.  The  kingdom  of  Israel  will  surpass 
that  of  Amalek.  8.  See  on  23  2.  The  subject 
of  the  second  half  of  the  v.  is  Israel,  who  is 
compared  to  a  ravening  lion,  the  king  of  beasts. 

9.   Blessed  is  he,  etc.]   cp.  Gnl23  2729. 

10-14.  Balak  in  anger  dismisses  Balaam, 
who  before  departing  predicts  the  destruction 
of  Moab  and  other  nations  by  Israel. 

15-24.  Balaam's  Fourth  Utterance:  a  pre- 
diction of  the  dominion  of  Israel  and  the 
downfall  of  Moab,  Edom,  Amalek,  and  Asshur. 

17.  I  shall  see  him,  etc.]  This  should  be  ren- 
dered '  I  see  him  '  (i.e.  the  Israel  of  the  future, 
and  specially  the  Star  who  is  to  rise  among 
them)  ' .  .  I  behold  him  .  .  A  Star  is  risen  out  of 
Jacob . . '     To   the    eye    of    Balaam,    in    his 


115 


24.  18 


NUMBERS 


25.  6 


spiritual  ecstasy,  the  future  stands  out  as  the 
present.  A  Star]  A  common  symbol  of  a 
brilliant  ruler :  cp.  Isa  14 12  9  2  Mt  24  29  Rev  22 1« 
and  the  expression  '  hosts  of  heaven.'  For 
the  sceptre  as  the  symbol  of  authority  see  Gn 
4910  Ps  11 02.  This  prediction  refers  in  the 
first  place  to  David,  who  '  smote  Moab  and 
Edom'  (2S82,i4,  cp.  PsGOSf-),  but  applies  also 
to  '  David's  greater  Son.'  From  early  times 
the  Jewish  commentators  have  interpreted 
the  prophecy  as  Messianic.  The  name  Bar- 
cochba  (i.e.  '  Son  of  a  star ')  was  assumed  by 
one  who  claimed  to  be  the  Messiah,  not  long 
after  the  time  of  our  Lord,  taking  the  title  no 
doubt  from  this  prophecy  of  Balaam.  Chris- 
tians will  see  in  the  words  of  Balaam  a 
prophecy  of  Jesus,  the  true  Messiah,  the  King 
of  kings  and  Lord  of  lords.  He  Himself, 
and  not  the  star  which  was  seen  at  His  birth 
(Mt22),  is  the  fulfilment  of  the  prediction. 
Children  of  Sheth]  RV  'the  children  of 
tumult,'  as  in  the  parallel  passage  Jer4:8'^^, 
where  another  word  from  the  same  root  is 
used.  18.  Seir]  the  name  given  to  the  land 
of  the  Edomites  :  see  Gn368.9  Dt24.  His 
enemies]  the  enemies  of  Israel,  or  rather  of 
the  Ruler  here  spoken  of.  The  fulfilment  of 
this  prophecy  is  recorded  in  2  S  8 1^.  Cp.  also 
Isa  631-*,  and  see  on  20  S' 9. 

20.  First  of  the  nations]  probably  in  rank  ; 
but  see  on  Exl?^.  The  next  clause  reads 
'  but  his  end  (shall  come)  to  destruction  '  :  cp. 
Ex  171-*' 11^,  and  for  the  fulfilment  of  the  pre- 
diction see  IS  14*8  157,8  3017  2S812  lCh443. 

21.  The  Kenites]  Unlike  the  tribes  pre- 
viously mentioned  the  Kenites  were  always 
friendly  to  the  Israelites,  and  consequently 
the  words  of  Balaam  foretelling  their  de- 
struction are  more  of  sympathy  than  of  threat- 
ening. Hobab,  the  father-in-law  of  Moses, 
was  a  Kenite,  and  his  descendants  settled 
alongside  the  tribe  of  Judah  in  the  S.  of 
Canaan  (JgliMH):  see  also  IS  15 6  3026,29 
1  Ch  2  55.  Of  their  subsequent  history  nothing 
is  known.  See  on  v.  22.  Thy  nest]  The 
Heb.  word  for  nest  is  ken^  so  that  there  is 
here  a  play  upon  the  name  of  this  tribe. 

22.  The  rendering  is  doubtful.  We  may 
translate,  '  Nevertheless  the  Kenite  shall  be 
wasted.  How  long  ?  Asshur  (i.e.  Assyria) 
shall  carry  thee  away  captive.'  Or,  '  But  the 
Kenite  shall  not  be  wasted  until  Asshur  shall 
carry  thee  (i.e.  Israel)  away  captive.' 

24.  Chittim]  the  dwellers  in  Cyprus  or  in 
the  islands  of  the  Mediterranean  generally. 
They  are  said  to  have  emigrated  from  Phoe- 
nicia. In  Gn  10  4  the  Chittim  are  said  to  be 
descended  from  Javan,  the  ancestor  of  the 
Ionian  (i.e.  the  Greek)  races.  In  Dan  1 1 30  the 
'  ships  of  Kittim '  are  those  of  the  Romans, 
so  that  Chittim  may  be  a  general  designation 
of  the  Western  races,  and  Balaam's  words  a 


prediction  of  the  overthrow  of  the  Eastern 
monarchies  (Asshur  =  the  Assyrians  or  Per- 
sians, and  Eber  =  the  Hebrews  or  Syrians)  by 
the  empires  of  the  West.  He  also]  most 
probably  the  conquering  nation,  the  Chittim. 
It  may,  however,  refer  to  Asshur  or  Eber. 

These  last  prophecies  of  Balaam,  on  Amalek, 
the  Kenites,  the  Chittim,  Asshur,  and  Eber, 
have  all  the  appearance  of  being  an  appendix, 
and  are  supposed  by  many  to  be  a  later  addi- 
tion to  the  original  prophecies  regarding  Israel. 

CHAPTER    25 
Idolatry  and  Immorality  of  the  Israel- 
ites AT  Shittim.    The  Zeal  of  Phinehas 

1-5.  The  Israelites,  who  have  just  been 
exhibited  as  proof  against  enchantments,  are 
not  able  to  resist  the  temptations  to  idolatry, 
and  its  connected  sin  of  immorality,  arising 
from  their  proximity  to  the  tribes  of  Moab 
and  Midian.  In  31 1^  their  apostasy  is  attri- 
buted to  the  counsel  of  Balaam  (see  also 
Rev  2 14),  who  is  afterwards  put  to  death  for 
it  (Nu  3 1 8  Josh  1 3  22).  But  it  is  difficult  with- 
out violence  to  reconcile  this  conduct  on  the 
part  of  Balaam  with  his  former  attitude 
towards  Israel,  and  his  utterances  regarding 
them.  Moreover,  the  last  verse  of  the  pre- 
ceding chapter  is  evidently  intended  to  mark 
his  return  to  the  Euphrates  and  his  disappear- 
ance from  the  subsequent  history  of  Israel. 
It  seems  almost  beyond  doubt  that  there  was 
from  early  times  a  double  tradition  regarding 
this  famous  soothsayer.  According  to  one, 
Balaam  is  a  Mesopotamian  soothsayer  who 
becomes  the  instrument  of  God  in  blessing 
His  people  and  foretelling  their  future  great- 
ness ;  according  to  the  other,  he  is  a  Midian- 
itish  counsellor  who  sets  himself  to  seduce  the 
people  of  Jehovah  and  suffers  the  extreme 
penalty  of  his  error.  i.  Shittim]  ('  the 
acacias ')  is  the  name  of  the  encampment  in 
the  plains  of  Moab  :   see  33  4^  and  cp.  Josh  2 1. 

3.  Baal-peor]  There  appears  to  have  been  a 
sanctuary  of  Baal  on  the  top  of  Mt.  Peor  : 
see  on  2241  2314.  4.  The  heads]  the  ring- 
leaders. Hang'  them  up]  Some  shameful  form 
of  execution,  followed  by  impalement  :  see 
on  Dt2122. 

6-18.  The  zeal  of  Phinehas  in  slaying  with 
his  own  hand  an  Israelite  and  his  Midianitish 
concubine  is  rewarded  with  the  promise  of  the 
permanence  of  the  priesthood  in  his  family  : 
cp.  Ex  32  26-29  and  notes  there. 

This  incident  while  related  to  the  foregoing 
is  distinct  from  it.  Literary  evidence  shows 
that  vv.  6-18  are  from  a  different  source  from 
vv.  1-5.  Observe  that  in  the  one  case  the 
punishment  is  slaughter  (v.  5),  and  in  the 
other  plague  (v.  9),  and  that  the  source  of 
temptation  in  the  one  case  is  Moab  and  in  the 
other    Midian  :   see    on   w.   16-18.     6.    Wei'e 


116 


25.  11 


NUMBERS 


27.  12 


weeping]  on  account  of  the  plague  (v.  8).  8. 
There  is  no  previous  mention  of  a  plague 
having  broken  out,  and  the  word  can  hardly 
apply  to  the  slaughter  in  v.  5.  We  are  here 
dealing  with  a  separate  incident,  ii.  Zealous 
for  my  sake]  lit.  '  jealous  with  my  jealousy.' 
God,  as  the  Redeemer  of  Israel,  has  a  special 
claim  upon  their  reverence  and  atfection. 
When  they  turn  to  other  gods  His  love  is 
wounded,  and  He  is  jealous  with  a  holy 
jealousy  :  see  on  Ex  20^. 

13.  An  everlasting  priesthood]  Phinehas 
succeeded  to  the  high  priesthood  after  his 
father's  death  (Jg  20  '^^),  and  the  succession 
remained  in  his  family  till  the  time  of  Eli, 
when  it  passed  for  some  reason  to  the  house 
of  Ithamar.  Solomon,  however,  restored  the 
high  priesthood  to  the  descendants  of  Phinehas 
(1  K  2  35).  This  action  of  Phinehas  in  defend- 
ing the  purity  of  the  religion  of  Israel  at  a 
critical  moment  was  rewarded,  not  only  with 
this  blessing  from  the  Lord,  but  with  the 
grateful  admiration  of  succeeding  generations. 
In  Ps  106  we  read  that  his  zeal  was  '  counted 
unto  him  for  righteousness  unto  all  generations 
for  evermore,'  words  which  St.  Paul  applies  to 
Abraham  himself  (R0422  Gal3«).  In  Ecclus 
4523-26  he  is  called  the  'third  in  glory'  after 
Moses  and  Aaron,  and  his  example  is  quoted 
in  1  Mac  2  26.  So  blessed  is  the  memory  of  the 
just. 

16-18.  Commandment  is  given  to  vex  the 
Midianites  (i.e.  count  them  as  dangerous 
adversaries)  and  to  smite  them.  For  its  fulfil- 
ment see  c.  31.  Injunctions  like  this,  which 
were  ordered  to  be  carried  out  with  extreme 
severity,  were  given  in  the  interests  of  Israel 
and  the  purity  of  religion  and  morals.  In  no 
other  way  could  that  '  separateness '  be  main- 
tained which  Balaam  recognised  as  one  of  the 
distinctions  of  the  Israelites  (see  on  23-').  For 
the  Christian  parallel  see  2Cor6i*-i8  and 
cp.  .529,30. 

The  omission  of  any  reference  to  the 
Moabites  in  this  passage  bears  out  what  is 
said  above  as  to  the  different  sources  of 
vv.  1-5  and  6-18. 

CHAPTER  26 

The  Second  Numbering  of  the  People 
The  first  took  place  thirty-eight  years  before 
(see  c.  1)  at  Mt.  Sinai.  The  people  are 
shortly  to  enter  Canaan,  and  this  second 
enumeration  is  made  in  view  of  the  prospective 
division  of  the  land  among  the  twelve  tribes  : 
see  vv.  52-56.  The  total  result  shows  a 
decrease  of  1,820.  While  Manasseh  has 
increased  by  no  less  than  20,500,  Simeon  has 
decreased  by  the  extraordinary  amount  of 
37,100.  The  latter  tribe  may  have  suffered 
most  severely  in  the  recent  plague,  seeing  that 
Zimri  was  a  Simeonite  (25  ^'^). 


117 


55.  The  casting  of  lots  is  of  the  nature  of  an 
appeal  to  God,  and  was  resorted  to  in  order  to 
detect  a  culprit  (Josh 71*  IS  1442  Jonl^,  to 
select  an  office-bearer  (IS  10  20  lCh244,5 
Ac  1 26),  or  to  make  a  division  of  property  as 
here  (cp.  Mt2735).  See  also  Lvie^  and  the 
note  on  Urim  and  Thummim,  Ex  28  ^^.  In  the 
case  before  us,  lots  were  cast  to  determine  the 
locality  of  each  tribe's  inheritance,  but  its  size 
was  regulated  by  the  number  of  the  names, 
the  relative  fertility  of  each  locality  being 
also  no  doubt  taken  into  consideration.  The 
twelve  lots,  which  would  be  tablets  of  wood 
or  stone,  each  inscribed  with  the  name  of  a 
tribe,  were  probably  put  in  an  urn  ;  and,  as 
the  name  of  each  portion  of  land  was  called 
out,  the  high  priest  or  representative  of  a  tribe 
(see  3416-29)  drew  a  lot,  and  the  tribe  whose 
name  was  drawn  inherited  that  territory.  The 
precise  boundaries  would  be  adjusted  after- 
wards, according  to  the  population  shown  by 
the  census.     64,  65.  See  14  22-32. 

CHAPTER  27 

The  Law  of  the  Inheritance  of  Daugh- 
ters. Joshua  appointed  as  the  Suc- 
cessor of  Moses 

i-ii.  According  to  26^3  (cp.  v.  2)  the  land 
was  to  be  apportioned  to  the  males.  Zelo- 
phehad,  of  the  tribe  of  Manasseh,  had  died 
leaving  no  sons  (26^3);  and  his  daughters, 
fearing  that  they  would  have  no  inheritance, 
request  that  they  and  their  sons  should  suc- 
ceed to  the  inheritance  of  their  father,  and 
thus  perpetuate  his  name.  Their  claim  is 
pronounced  to  be  just,  and  it  is  enacted  that 
daughters  should  inherit  where  there  are  no 
sons,  and,  failing  daughters,  the  nearest  rela- 
tives of  the  father.  It  was  afterwards  further 
enacted  (c.  36)  that  daughters  succeeding  to 
an  inheritance  must  marry  within  their  own 
tribe,  in  order  that  the  property  should  re- 
main in  that  tribe  and  not  be  alienated  to 
another.  3.  Died  in  his  own  sin]  These 
words  have  led  Jewish  commentators  to 
identify  Zelophehad  with  the  man  who  was 
stoned  for  sabbath  breaking  (1532-36).  But 
their  meaning  rather  is  that  Zelophehad  had 
not  forfeited  his  inheritance  by  any  specially 
heinous  act  of  transgression,  but  had  died  the 
common  death  of  all  men  (cp.  1629). 

12-23.  Moses  receives  intimation  of  his  ap- 
proaching death,  and  Joshua  is  apjjointed  leader 
in  his  place.  12.  This  command  is  repeated 
in  Dt324Sf..  and  its  fulfilment  related  in  Dt 
34.  In  the  interval  before  his  death,  Moses 
delivered  the  concluding  laws  contained  in  the 
book  of  Numbers  and  the  addresses  in  the 
book  of  Deuteronomy.  The  conquest  of  the 
Midianites  seems  also  to  have  taken  place  in 
this  interval,  if  at  least  the  order  of  the  nar- 
rative  corresponds    to   the   actual   order    of 


27.  13 


NUMBERS 


31. 


events  (see  c.  31).  Mount  Abarim]  see  on 
23^4.  13.  Gathered  unto  thy  people]  see  on 
2024.  14.  To  sanctify  me]  see  on  20 1^.  15. 
Moses  stifles  his  personal  feelings  of  disap- 
pointment and  grief,  and  thinks  only  of  the 
flock  he  is  leaving  behind.  This  noble  self- 
effacement  was  conspicuous  on  other  occasions: 
see  Ex 32 32  Null 29  1412,13.  if  the  work 
goes  on,  he  is  content  that  God  should  bury 
the  workman:  cp.  Ro9i-3  Phil  lis.  17.  To 
lead  out  (to  pasture)  and  to  bring  in  (to  the 
fold)  is  the  work  of  the  shepherd:  cp.  Jn  103,4. 
18.  The  spirit]  i.e.  the  necessary  qualifi- 
cation :  see  on  Ex  28  3  314.  Joshua  had  no 
doubt  learned  much  from  his  close  association 
with  Moses  as  his  attendant:  see  Ex 24^3  3217 
3311  Null 28.  He  had  also  some  experience 
as  leader  of  the  army  of  Israel  (Ex  17 9*-). 
Moreover,  he  had  given  evidence  of  his  faith 
and  courage  at  Kadesh,  being  the  only  one 
save  Caleb  who  was  prepared  to  go  forward 
in  reliance  on  the  divine  promises  and  help 
(Nul46f.).  Lay  thine  hand  upon  him]  in 
token  of  consecration:  cp.  Ac 6 6  133  iTim4i4 
2  Tim  1 6.  Observe  that  the  three  marks  of  a 
regularly  consecrated  minister  of  God  are 
present  here,  viz.  the  call  of  God,  the  neces- 
sary gifts,  and  a  public  and  solemn  ordination 
to  ofiice.  19.  Give  him  a  charge]  see  Dt 
.317,8,23,     21.  Urim]   see  on  Ex  28  30. 

CHAPTER  28 
Laws  regarding  Sacrifices  and  Festivals 
I,  2.  The  general  laws  regarding  the  sacri- 
fices proper  to  the  feast  days  had  already  been 
given  at  Sinai  (Lv23).  Their  repetition  with 
certain  details  here  probably  indicates  that 
these  laws  had  been  neglected.  Some  of  them, 
indeed,  were  only  intended  to  be  observed 
after  the  settlement  in  Canaan,  which  was 
now  in  the  near  future.  Moreover,  the  genera- 
tion to  whom  they  were  spoken  at  Sinai  had 
passed  away.  Hence  their  repetition  here  to 
the  younger  generation.  2.  My  bread]  or 
'  my  food  ':  see  on  Lv3ii. 

3-8.  The  daily  morning  and  evening  burnt 
offering  with  its  proper  meal  and  drink  offer- 
ing :  see  on  Ex  29  38  f. 

9,  10.  The  Sabbath  Offering  is  double  that 
of  ordinary  days. 

11-25.  The  Festival  of  the  New  Moon  is 
frequently  mentioned  alongside  that  of  the 
sabbath:  see  Am 8 5  2K423  Isa  113  562,3  Hos 
211.  It  -was  a  festival  of  great  antiquity, 
dating  from  the  time  when  the  moon  was  an 
object  of  adoration.  The  Hebrews  were  for- 
bidden to  worship  the  moon  (Dtl73),  but  the 
Festival  of  the  New  Moon  was  retained  and 
transformed  into  a  festival  in  honour  of  the 
Creator.  Additional  sacrifices  were  offered,  and 
the  silver  trumpets  were  sounded  during  the 
performance  of  the  sacrificial  rites  (NulOi*^). 


The  day  was  observed  as  a  day  of  rest,  and 
was  celebrated  with  great  joyfulness.  A 
special  importance  attached  to  the  new  moon 
of  the  seventh  month:  see  291-6. 

16-25.  On  the  Passover  Offering  see  Ex  12 
and  cp.  Lv234-8. 

26-31.  The  Day  of  the  First  Fruits  is  also 
known  as  the  Feast  of  Weeks  or  Pentecost  : 
see  on  Lv  23  9-22. 

CHAPTEE  29 

Religious  Ordinances  of  the  Seventh 

Month 

The  seventh  month  (Tishri  =  September- 
October)  was  the  first  month  of  the  civil  year 
(see  on  Lv  23  23-25)^  and  this  c.  describes  the 
three  sacred  festivals  which  fell  during  that 
month. 

1-6.  The  Feast  of  Trumpets  on  New  Year's 
Day  :  see  Lv  2323-25. 

7-1 1.  The  Day  of  Atonement,  the  tenth  day 
of  the  month  :  see  Lvl6. 

12-38.  The  Feast  of  Tabernacles,  beginning 
on  the  fifteenth  day  of  the  month  and  lasting 
eight  days.  The  sacrifices  proper  to  this  feast 
are  unusually  numerous,  a  feature  expressive 
of  its  joyous  nature,  as  the  Feast  of  Harvest 
Thanksgiving  :  see  Lv  23  33-43. 

CHAPTER   30 
The  Lav^  of  Vows 

This  c.  deals  with  the  subject  of  Vows, 
which  is  also  treated  in  Lv  27,  where  see  notes. 
A  vow  made  by  a  man  is  binding  (v.  2).  But 
a  woman  is  not  considered  to  have  an  inde- 
pendent right  to  make  a  vow.  So  long  as  she 
is  unmarried  she  is  under  the  jurisdiction  of 
her  father,  and  on  her  marriage  she  comes 
under  that  of  her  husband.  The  assent,  there- 
fore, of  her  father  or  husband  must  be  given 
or  implied  in  order  that  her  vow  may  be 
binding.  2.  Vow  a  vow  .  .  or  swear  an  oath 
to  bind  his  soul]  The  former  is  a  positive  vow 
or  vow  of  performance  ;  the  latter  is  a  nega- 
tive vow  or  vow  of  abstinence  :  see  on  Lv27. 

3-5.   Case  of  an  unmarried  woman. 

6-8.  Case  of  a  woman  who  has  entered  into 
a  vow  while  unmarried,  but  who  marries  before 
her  vow  is  fulfilled.  The  husband  has  the 
power  either  to  confirm  his  wife's  vow,  or 
disallow  it  when  he  hears  of  it.  The  words 
in  V.  6  should  read  '  if  she  be  married  to  a 
husband  while  her  vows  are  upon  her.' 

9.  Case  of  a  widow,  or  divorced  woman. 
Her  vow  is  binding. 

10-15.  Case  of  a  married  woman.  Her  vow 
to  be  binding  must  be  ratified  by  her  husband. 

CHAPTER  31 
War  against  Midian 
This  c.  contains  an  account  of  the  fulfilment 
of  the  decree  of  extermination  passed  upon 


118 


31.  6 


NUMBERS 


33. 


the  Midianites  as  being  the  occasion  of  Israel's 
apostasy  in  the  phiins  of  Moab  :  see  on  25 1^^-^^. 

6.  The  holy  instruments  and  the  trumpets] 
On  the  use  of  the  silver  trumpets  in  time  of 
war  see  on  10  9.  It  is  not  clear  whether  the 
ark  was  taken  into  battle  on  this  occasion.  It 
is  possible  to  translate  '  the  holy  instruments, 
even  the  trumpets.'  On  other  occasions, 
however,  the  ark  accompanied  the  army  as  a 
token  of  God's  presence  and  blessing.  See 
1  S 44-7  and  cp.  Nu  U^*.  In  Dt202-^  the  priests 
are  commanded  to  encourage  the  host  on  the  ~ 
edge  of  battle.  The  choice  of  Phinehas  on 
this  occasion  may  be  due  to  his  previous  zeal 
for  Jehovah  against  the  Midianites  :  see  25  7.  i^. 

8.  Kings  of  Midian]  from  Josh  13  21  we 
learn  that  these  were  princes  or  chiefs,  and 
that  they  were  tributary  to  Sihon,  king  of  the 
Amorites.  Balaam  by  remaining  among  the 
Midianites  shared  their  fate.     But  see  on  25  ^-^. 

13-18.  The  male  children  are  put  to  death 
in  order  that  the  race  of  idolaters  may  be  ex- 
tirpated. The  older  women  are  also  slain  as 
having  been  the  prime  cause  of  the  apostasy, 
and  likely  to  lead  the  people  astray  at  a  future 
time.  The  women-children,  or  young  females, 
are  spared,  and  are  taken  as  slaves  or  wives, 
being  probably  adopted  into  the  Hebrew  nation 
as  proselytes  :  cp.  Dt21io-u  For  the  reason 
of  such  wholesale  slaughter  see  33  ^^  Dt  20 1^,  is 
Josh23i3andon25i'5-i8. 

19-24.  On  this  purification  by  means  of  the 
'water  of  separation'  see  19ii-i*5. 

25-47.  The  spoil  is  divided  equally  between 
the  warriors  and  those  who  remained  in  the 
camp.  Part  of  each  portion  is  dedicated  to 
the  sanctuary.  The  warriors  dedicate  the  five- 
hundredth  part  of  their  spoil  which  is  given 
to  the  priests  (v.  29).  The  non-combatants 
dedicate  the  fiftieth  part  of  their  share,  which, 
being  a  larger  proportion,  is  given  to  the 
Levites  who  were  more  numerous  than  the 
priests  (v.  30).  29.  Heave  offering]  see  on 
Lv  7  28-34  NuSii.  32.  The  rest  of  the  prey] 
RV  '  over  and  above  the  booty '  :  see  v.  50. 

48-54.  The  officers  make  a  voluntary  offering 
as  a  thanksgiving  for  victory.  50.  Tablets] 
RV  'armlets  or  necklaces':  cp.  Ex 35 22. 
Make  an  atonement]   cp.  Ex30ii-i6. 

CHAPTER   32 
Allotment  of  Territory  to  the  Tribes 
OF  Gad  and   Reuben   and  the  Half- 
tribe  of  Manasseh 

1-5.  The  tribes  of  Reuben  and  Gad  request 
that  the  land  of  Gilead  lying  on  the  E.  side  of 
the  Jordan  be  assigned  to  them,  on  the  ground 
that  it  is  very  fertile  and  therefore  particularly 
well  adapted  to  their  large  flocks  and  herds. 
These  two  tribes  were  associated  as  neighbours 
in  the  camp  and  on  the  march  (2io-i6)^  hence 
their  desire  to  be  settled  near  each  other. 


I.  Gilead  lay  to  the  S.  and  W.  of  Bashan, 
and  shared  the  characteristic  fertility  of  that 
region  :  see  on  2 1 33-35_ 

6-15.  Moses  understands  their  request  as 
indicating  a  disinclination  on  the  part  of  these 
two  tribes  to  enter  the  promised  land.  He 
reminds  them  that  their  fathers  suffered  the 
penalty  of  a  similar  faintheartedness  at  Kadesh 
(c.  14)  and,  fearing  that  the  example  of  Reuben 
and  Gad  may  discourage  the  rest  of  the  people, 
he  refuses  their  request. 

16-33.  The  two  tribes  assure  Moses  that 
they  will  not  separate  themselves  at  present 
from  the  rest  of  the  people,  but  will  go  over 
Jordan  with  them,  and  assist  in  the  conquest 
of  Canaan.  After  that  they  will  return  and 
settle  on  the  E.  side.  Moses  is  satisfied  with 
this  assurance,  and  enjoins  Eleazar  and  Joshua 
to  see  that  the  two  tribes  fulfil  their  promise 
before  receiving  the  inheritance  they  desire. 
28.  Moses  lays  this  injunction  on  Joshua  his 
successor,  as  he  himself  will  not  live  to  pass 
over  Jordan  :  see  27 12-23_ 

33.  The  half  tribe  of  Manasseh  is  not  said 
to  have  made  any  request  similar  to  that  of 
the  Reubenites  and  Gadites  ;  but,  seeing  that 
they  had  been  specially  engaged  in  the  con- 
quest of  Gilead  (v.  30),  a  place  was  assigned 
to  them  also  in  that  district :  cp.  Dt  3 13-15. 

34-42.  These  vv.  are  inserted  here  by  way 
of  anticipation.  The  building,  or  rather  the 
repairing  of  these  cities,  for  some  of  them  at 
least  are  mentioned  as  already  existing  (2 1  ^o 
33  3),  took  place  after  the  conquest  of  Canaan  : 
cp.  V.  41  with  JglO^i*.  In  Josh22i-9  we  read 
that,  after  fulfilling  their  promise,  the  two  and 
a  half  tribes  were  dismissed  to  their  inherit- 
ance by  Joshua  with  his  blessing.  Owing  to 
their  position  on  the  eastern  frontier  of  the 
holy  land  they  were  the  fii'st  to  be  carried 
into  captivity  by  the  king  of  Assyria  (1  ChS^^), 
so  that  it  was  not  an  unmitigated  advantage  to 
them  to  obtain  this  fertile  district. 

CHAPTER  33 

The  Journeyings  of  the  Israelites  from 
Egypt  to  the  Plains  of  Moab 
The  greater  part  of  this  c.  is  occupied 
with  a  list,  drawn  up  by  Moses  himself  (v.  2), 
of  the  Encampments  of  the  Israelites  in  their 
journey  from  Egypt  to  Canaan.  In  all,  forty 
stages  are  enumerated.  Many  of  the  names  are 
otherwise  unknown,  and  in  places  the  stages  do 
not  coincide  with  those  mentioned  in  the  books 
of  Exodus,  Numbers,  and  Deuteronomy.  These 
differences  are,  no  doubt,  due  in  part  to  the  fact 
that  places  change  their  names  in  the  course  of 
time.  At  this  distance  it  is  exceedingly  difficult 
to  identify  the  route  of  march,  more  especially 
as  many  of  the  names  were  not  names  of  cities 
or  conspicuous  landmarks,  and  therefore  very 
liable  to  be  forgotten. 


119 


33.  3 


NUMBERS 


35.  6 


3-15.  Egypt  to  Sinai.  This  part  of  the 
journey  is  narrated  in  Ex  123T-192  -where  all 
the  names  occur  except  Dophkah  and  Alush 
(vv.  12,  13). 

16-18.  Sinai  to  Eithmah.  Rithmah  is  not 
mentioned  elsewhere  ;  but,  seeing  that  it  is  the 
station  after  Hazeroth,  it  is  supposed  to  be 
the  same  as  Kadesh  (cp.  12i6  1326)_  Eofhem 
in  Hebrew  means  '  juniper '  or  broom,  and 
there  is  a  Wady  Abu  Retamat,  abounding  in 
broom,  near  the  site  of  Kadesh,  so  that  the 
identification  may  be  regarded  as  in  all  pro- 
bability correct.  This  is  the  first  arrival  at 
Kadesh,  in  the  second  year  of  the  exodus  ;  the 
second  arrival  at  the  same  place  in  the  fortieth 
year  is  noted  in  v.  36  :  see  on  13 -'^  20 1. 

19-36.  Encampments  during  the  thirty-eight 
years,  and  return  to  Kadesh.  The  names  in 
vv.  19-29  are  not  mentioned  elsewhere  and 
have  not  been  identified.  With  vv.  30-33  cp. 
Dtl06,7.  Ezion-geber  (v.  36)  is  on  the  sea 
at  the  northern  extremity  of  the  Gulf  of 
Akaba(cp.  1K926  2248). 

37-49.  From  Kadesh  to  the  Plains  of  Moab. 

The  narrative  of  this  journey  is  contained  in 

Nu20,  21.     With  the  names  in  vv.  11-49  cp. 
Nu  2 110-20. 

45.  lim  is  the  same  as  Ije-abarim  (v.  44), 
the  second  part  of  this  word,  which  means  '  The 
Heaps,  or  Ruins,  of  Abarim,'  being  dropped. 

50-56.  Command  to  expel  all  the  inhabit- 
ants of  Canaan  and  to  destroy  their  idols  and 
places  of  worship,  so  that  no  inducements  to 
idolatry  may  remain  :  see  on  Ex  23^2^  and  cp. 
25 16-18  Dt7.  52.  Pictures]  RV  'figured 
stones.'  On  the  high  places  see  on  22^1 
Lv  26  30.     55.  Cp.  Josh  23  is  Jg  2  3. 

CHAPTER  34 

The  Boundaries  of  the  Land  of  Promise 

On  the  land  and  the  tribes  inhabiting  it  see 
on  1321. 

3-5-  The  southern  border :  this  started 
from  the  S.  extremity  of  the  Dead  Sea,  here 
called  the  Salt  Sea  (v.  3),  and  proceeded  in  a 
SW.  direction  to  the  ascent  of  Akrabbim,  i.e. 
'  of  scorpions  '  (v.  4),  a  row  of  cliffs  about 
8  m.  distant  ;  thence  it  passed  by  way  of 
Kadesh-Barnea  to  the  River  of  Egypt,  where 
it  reached  the  Mediterranean  Sea  (v.  5).  The 
'  River  of  Egypt '  is  not  the  Nile  but  a  brook, 
now  identified  with  the  Wady  el-Arish,  flowing 
into  the  sea  about  20  m.  S.  of  Gaza.  It  is 
frequently  mentioned  as  the  SW.  border  of 
Canaan:  see  1K8«5  2K247  2Ch78  Isa27i2. 
This  southern  boundary  was  also  the  boundary 
of  Judah  and  Simeon  :  see  JoshlSi-"*  19^. 

6.  The  western  border  was  formed  by  the 
Mediterranean  Sea,  the  Great  Sea. 

7-9.  The  northern  border :  the  places  men- 
tioned on  this  line  are  unknown.  Mt.  Hermon 
is  too  far  E.  to  be  identified  with  moimt  Hor, 


120 


which  is  probably  some  spur  of  the  Lebanon 
range. 

10-12.  The  eastern  border  was  formed  by 
the  Sea  of  Chinnereth  (afterwards  called  the 
Lake  of  Gennesaret,  Sea  of  Galilee,  or  Lake 
of  Tiberias),  the  River  Jordan,  and  the  Dead 
Sea. 

13-15.   See  c.  32. 

16-29.  A.  list  of  the  persons  entrusted  with 
the  division  of  the  land  W.  of  the  Jordan, 
one  being  chosen  from  each  of  the  tribes 
interested,  in  addition  to  Eleazar  and  Joshua. 
The  names  are  all  new  with  the  exception  of 
that  of  Caleb  (v.  19). 

CHAPTER  35. 

The  Levitical  Cities.     The  Cities  of 
Refuge 

1-8.  The  Levitical  Cities. 

The  tribe  of  Levi  received  no  part  of  the  land 
of  Canaan  as  their  inheritance  (1820-24  26^2). 
By  way  of  compensation  they  received  the 
tithes  for  their  support  (1821).  It  is  here,  fur- 
ther provided  that  48  cities  with  their  suburbs 
be  allotted  to  them  out  of  the  inheritance  of 
the  other  tribes,  for  the  maintenance  of  them- 
selves and  their  herds.  The  carrying  out  of 
this  injunction  is  recorded  in  Josh  21,  where 
it  is  also  noted  that  the  priests  (the  sons  of 
Aaron)  received  13  of  these  cities  (v.  4).  The 
people,  as  well  as  the  priests  and  Levites, 
benefited  by  this  arrangement,  for  the  latter 
being  dispersed  throughout  the  land  were  able 
to  instruct  the  people  in  the  law  and  worship 
of  God.  On  the  duty  of  the  priests  and 
Levites  to  teach  the  people  see  LvlOU  Dt 
1 7  8, 9  33 10  2  Ch  1 9  8-10.  It  would  appear  that 
the  law  of  the  Levitical  cities  was  never 
strictly  carried  into  practice. 

4,  5.  There  is  a  difficulty  in  understanding 
these  measurements.  Perhaps  the  simplest  ex- 
planation is  to  say  that  the  area  of  the  city 
itself  is  disregarded.  The  city  being  conceived 
as  a  mathematical  point,  1,000  cubits  measured 
on  either  side  give  a  square  2,000  cubits  in  the 
side.  The  Greek  version  has  2,000  cubits  in 
V.  4.  If  this  is  right  there  is  no  difficulty  at 
all.  The  city  would  be  surrounded  on  all 
sides  by  a  strip  of  land  2,000  cubits  in  width. 

6,  9-15.  The  Cities  of  Refuge.  (See  also 
Dt  19 1-3  Josh  20.)  In  primitive  times,  before 
the  machinery  of  justice  was  organised,  the 
duty  of  avenging  a  murder  devolved  upon  the 
nearest  relative  of  the  murdered  person. 
Duty  required  him  to  pursue  the  murderer  and 
slay  him  with  his  own  hand.  This  law  was 
not  repealed  by  Moses,  but  certain  restrictions 
were  placed  upon  it  in  the  interests  of  humanity 
and  justice.  Of  the  Levitical  cities,  six  were 
marked  out  as  Cities  of  Refuge  to  which  a 
man  who  had  killed  another  accidentally 
(vv.  11,  22-25)  might  flee  and  be  safe  from  the 


35.  12 


NUMBERS— DEUTE  RONOM  Y 


INTRO. 


'  avenger  of  blood.'  This  provision  did  not 
apply  to  wilful  murderers,  who  were  not  to 
escape  the  death  penalty  (vv.  lG-21).  The 
names  of  the  cities  are  given  in  Josh  20  ''>  8. 
Three  were  on  the  W.  side  of  Jordan  and 
three  on  the  E.  The  reason  why  Levitical 
cities  were  selected  for  this  purpose  was,  not 
merely  that  these  were  regarded  as  possessing 
a  sacred  character,  but  that  they  were  inhabited 
by  men  who  knew  the  law,  and  who  could  decide 
in  doubtful  cases  between  wilful  murder  and 
accidental  homicide  (v.  24  Dt  19  i^.i^).  Dt  19^ 
provides  that  the  principal  roads  leading  to 
these  cities  of  refuge  be  kept  open,  so  that  the 
innocent  fugitive  might  have  every  facility  in 
reaching  the  place  of  sanctuary  (see  note  there). 
For  the  Christian  application  of  this  law  of 
asylum  see  on  v.  25.  12.  Stand  before  the 
congregation]  As  a  wilful  murderer  might  flee 
to  one  of  these  cities  in  the  hope  of  escaping 
with  his  life,,  a  trial  must  be  held  to  ascertain 
whether  the  murder  was  wilful  or  accidental. 

16-21.  If  the  trial  shows  that  the  murder 
was  committed  wilfully,  the  murderer  is  to  be 
handed  over  for  execution  at  the  hands  of  the 
avenger  of  blood. 

22-29.  If  the  trial  shows  that  the  murder 
was  accidental  (see  Dtl9'*' 5)  the  murderer's 
life  is  spared.  But  he  must  stay  within  the 
bounds  of  the  city  till  the  death  of  the  high 
priest,  when  he  is  at  liberty  to  go.  If  he 
stray  outside  the  bounds  before  that  time  he 
does  so  at  the  peril  of  his  own  life.     25.  Unto 


the  death  of  the  high  priest]  The  amnesty 
declared  to  the  man-slayer  on  the  death  of  the 
high  priest,  which  marks  the  close  of  one 
period  and  the  beginning  of  a  new,  is  an 
appropriate  symbol  of  that  redemption  from 
the  sins  of  the  past  wrought  by  Christ,  and 
that  new  life  of  liberty  into  which  they  enter 
who  believe  in  Him  :  cp.  HebG^'^-'^o 

30-32.  Murder  is  such  a  serious  crime  that  it 
cannot  be  atoned  for  by  the  payment  of  a  money 
fine  ;  nor  can  the  man  who  has  unintention- 
ally killed  another  purchase  his  release  from 
the  city  of  refuge  before  the  death  of  the  high 
priest.  St.  Peter  reminds  Christians  that  they 
were  not  redeemed  with  silver  or  gold  but  with 
the  precious  blood  of  Christ  (lPetli8.i9). 

CHAPTER  36 

The  Law  Regarding  Heiresses 

According  to  27 1-11  it  was  decided  that,  if 
a  man  left  no  sons,  his  daughters  might  inherit 
his  property.  But  if  the  daughters  married 
into  another  tribe,  the  property  would  go  with 
them,  and  so  be  alienated  from  the  tribe  to 
which  they  formerly  belonged.  If  it  were 
sold  after  their  marriage,  it  would  revert  at 
the  year  of  Jubilee,  not  to  the  original  tribe, 
but  to  that  into  which  it  had  been  transferred 
by  marriage.  To  obviate  this  diminution  of 
the  lands  originally  assigned  to  each  tribe, 
it  is  here  enacted  that  no  heiress  shall  marry 
outside  the  tribe  of  her  father. 


DEUTERONOMY 


INTRODUCTION 


I.  Title  and  Contents.  The  title  of  this  book 
is  the  English  form  of  a  Greek  word  meaning 
'  repetition  of  the  law.'  It  is  found  in  c.  17  ^^^ 
where  it  was  used  by  the  Greek  translators  of 
the  OT.  (LXX)  to  represent  three  Hebrew 
words  more  exactly  rendered  in  the  English 
Version  '  a  copy  of  this  law  '  (see  note).  The 
Jews  call  the  book  by  the  first  two  words  in  the 
original  rendered  '  These  are  the  words.'  The 
LXX  title,  though  based  on  a  mistranslation,  is 
not  altogether  inappropriate,  seeing  that  much 
of  the  legislation  given  in  Deuteronomy  is  found 
elsewhere,  and  the  historical  portion  is  largely 
a  resume  of  what  is  narrated  in  the  previous 
books.  The  scene  of  the  book  is  in  the  Plains 
of  Moab,  and  the  time  is  the  interval  between 
the  close  of  the  Wanderings  in  the  Wilderness 
and  the  Crossing  of  the  Jordan.    It  opens  with 


121 


the  first  day  of  the  eleventh  month  of  the  for- 
tieth year  of  the  exodus  (13);  and,  as  the 
Israelites  crossed  the  Jordan  on  the  tenth  day 
of  the  fii-st  month  of  the  following  year,  after 
thirty  days'  mourning  for  Moses  in  the  Plains 
of  Moab  (see  348  Josh  4 19),  jt  follows  that  the 
period  covered  by  Deuteronomy  is  not  more 
than  forty  days. 

The  greater  part  of  the  book  is  taken  up 
with  a  series  of  discourses  spoken  to  the  people 
by  Moses  before  his  death.  In  these  discourses 
Moses  reviews  the  events  and  experiences  of 
the  past  forty  years,  and  founds  on  them  re- 
peated exhortations  to  gratitude,  obedience, 
and  loyalty  to  Jehovah.  The  divisions  of  the 
book  are  as  follows.  Part  i.  First  Discourse, 
chs.  1-443^  comprising  a  brief  survey  of  the 
history  of  Israel  from  Mt.  Sinai  to  the  Jordan 


INTRO. 


DEUTERONOMY 


INTRO. 


(chs.  1-3),  and  concluding  with  an  earnest  ap- 
peal to  the  people  to  keep  the  commandments 
of  Jehovah  and  remain  faithful  to  His  cove- 
nant (41-40).  Three  vv.  of  a  historical  nature 
(441-43)  are  then  introduced.  Part  2.  Second 
Discourse,  chs.  /['^^-28,  which  is  mainly  legis- 
lative. It  begins  with  a  repetition  of  the  Deca- 
logue and  an  exhortation  to  cleave  to  Jehovah 
and  abstain  from  idolatry  (4'i'i-l  1),  after  which 
follows  a  series  of  laws  regulating  the  religious 
and  social  life  of  the  people  (chs.  12-26).  This 
section  forms  the  nucleus  of  the  book.  C.  28 
belongs  to  this  section,  and  contains  a  sublime 
declaration  of  the  consequences  that  will  fol- 
low the  people's  obedience  to,  or  transgression 
of,  the  law.  C.  27,  which  prescribes  the  cere- 
mony of  the  ratification  of  the  law  in  Canaan, 
seems  to  interrupt  the  discourse.  Part  3.  Third 
Discourse,  chs.  29,  30,  in  which  the  covenant 
is  renewed  and  enforced  with  promises  and 
threatenings.  Part  4.  Chs.  31-34.  These 
chapters  are  of  the  nature  of  appendices,  and 
comprise  Moses'  Charge  to  Joshua,  and  Deli- 
very of  the  Law  to  the  Levitical  Priests  (31  ^"i^); 
The  Song  of  Moses,  with  accompanying  histori- 
cal notices  (31i'^-32);  The  Blessing  of  Moses, 
which,  like  the  Song,  is  in  poetical  form  (33) ; 
and,  lastly,  an  account  of  the  Death  of  Moses 
(34). 

2.  Origin  and  Composition.  The  book  of 
Deuteronomy  was  certainly  in  existence  in  the 
year  621  B.C.  The  'Book  of  the  Law,'  dis- 
covered in  the  Temple  at  Jerusalem  in  that 
year  by  Hilkiah  the  priest,  is  generally  agreed 
to  have  included,  if  it  was  not  identical  with, 
our  Deuteronomy.  See  2X22^-2°  and  notes 
there.  There  is  no  reason  to  believe  that  this 
was  not  a  genuine  discovery  of  a  lost  work, 
and  its  identification  with  at  least  the  main 
part  of  Deuteronomy  (chs.  5-26,  28)  is  in- 
ferred from  the  fact  that  the  reformations 
instituted  by  Josiah  are  such  as  the  law  of 
Deuteronomy  would  require,  e.g.  the  prohibi- 
tion of  the  worship  of  heavenly  bodies  (cp.  2  K 
234,5,11  with  Dtl73),  and  of  other  supersti- 
tious and  idolatrous  practices  (cp.  2  K  23  '■''>  ^3, 14 
with  Dtl22'3)  ;  and  the  centralisation  of  wor- 
ship at  Jerusalem  (cp.  2  K  23  §>  21-23  with  Dt 
124-28  165-7.  Cp.  also  2K237  with  Dt23i7,i8, 
2K232^  with  Dt  18 10,11,  2  K  23  8.9  with  Dt 
18  ^•8,  and  the  language  in  which  Josiah's  re- 
formation is  spoken  of  in  2X232, 3  with  the 
general  style  of  Deuteronomy,  e.g.  29i'9'2^ 
3010  3124)_  Assuming  the  practical  identity 
of  the  book  found  by  Hilkiah  with  our  Deu- 
teronomy, the  question  remains  how  old  the 
book  was  at  the  time  of  its  discovery.  Like 
the  rest  of  the  Pentateuch,  Deuteronomy  pro- 
fesses to  set  forth  the  words  and  laws  of  Moses, 
and  is  ascribed  by  tradition  to  him.  This  tra- 
dition is  not  lightly  to  be  set  aside.  It  cannot 
any  longer  be  denied  that  the  art  of  writing 


was  practised  in  the  time  of  Moses,  and  recent 
discoveries  have  shown  that  writing  was  em- 
ployed in  Palestine  even  before  his  day.  That 
Moses  himself  left  written  works  is  not  only 
in  itself  likely,  but  is  expressly  asserted  in 
several  places  :  see  e.g.  Ex  1714  244,7  3427  Nu 
332,  and  especially  Dt319'26,  where  he  is 
said  to  have  written  the  Law,  and  delivered 
it  to  the  custody  of  the  priests.  That  in  view 
of  his  approaching  death  the  great  Leader  and 
Lawgiver  of  Israel  should  have  addressed  to 
the  people  such  exhortations  and  warnings  as 
are  found  in  this  book  is  also  what  might  be 
expected.  On  the  other  hand,  many  biblical 
scholars  are  persuaded,  from  a  careful  study  of 
the  book,  that  it  could  not  have  been  written 
by  Moses,  at  least  in  its  present  form.  It 
is  marked  by  a  distinctive  literary  style,  ap- 
parent even  to  a  reader  of  the  English  Version, 
who  cannot  fail  to  be  struck  with  the  fre- 
quent recurrence  of  characteristic  phrases  and 
with  the  general  richness  of  its  rhetorical  pas- 
sages, unlike  what  is  found  elsewhere  in  the 
Pentateuch.  Deuteronomy  also  contains  indi- 
cations that  the  writer,  or  compiler,  lived 
subsequently  to  the  time  of  Moses  and  the 
conquest  of  Canaan.  See  e.g.  the  account  of 
the  death  of  Moses  in  c.  34,  and  cp.  notes  on 
212  314  334  3410-12.  The  use  of  the  phrase 
'  beyond  Jordan '  suggests  that  the  writer  lived 
in  Western  Palestine,  which  Moses  never  did 
(see  note  on  1 1).  The  '  law  of  the  Kingdom  ' 
in  c.  1714-20^  it  is  said,  could  not  have  been 
composed  before  Solomon  and  other  kings  gave 
examples  of  the  hurtful  luxury  here  described, 
and  other  parts  of  the  legislation  of  Deuter- 
onomy, notably  that  relating  to  the  centralisa- 
tion of  worship  at  Jerusalem  (see  124-28),  are 
at  variance  with  what  is  prescribed  elsewhere 
(cp.  Ex  20  24),  and  do  not  seem  to  have  been 
recognised  in  the  earlier  history  of  the  nation. 
See  also  notes  on  14^2  1519,20^  Jn  this  con- 
nexion, however,  we  must  reckon  with  the 
possibility  of  laws  being  promulgated  but  re- 
maining a  dead  letter  for  a  long  period.  It 
has  to  be  kept  in  view,  moreover,  that  the 
book  itself  professes  to  be  a  '  repetition  of 
the  law.'  In  view  of  the  conflict  of  critical 
opinion  it  seems  best  to  regard  it  as  a  reformu- 
lation of  the  laws  of  Moses,  designed  to  meet 
the  changing  needs  and  circumstances  of  a  time 
subsequent  to  its  original  publication. 

3.  Religious  Value.  Whatever  difference 
of  opinion  may  exist  as  to  the  date  of  Deuter- 
onomy, there  can  be  none  as  to  its  surpassing 
religious  value.  It  is  one  of  the  most  beauti- 
ful books  of  the  Bible,  furnishing  some  of  the 
finest  examples  of  Hebrew  sacred  eloquence, 
and  breathing  in  every  chapter  an  intensely 
devout  and  religious  spirit.  Its  aim  is  pro- 
fessedly practical  and  hortatory,  viz.  to  enforce 
upon  Israel  the  unique  claim  of  Jehovah  to 


122 


INTRO. 


DEUTERONOMY 


2.  10 


their  gratitude,  obedience,  love  and  loyalty.  In 
this  respect  the  teaching  of  Deuteronomy  re- 
sembles that  of  the  '  prophets,'  in  its  insist- 
ence, viz.  by  means  of  exhortation  and  warning, 
upon  Israel's  duty  of  maintaining  the  covenant 
relationship  between  the  people  and  Jehovah. 
The  people  are  '  holy  to  Jehovah,'  who  has 
chosen  them  to  be  a  special  people  to  Himself 
(7  6),  and  they  ought  to  cling  to  Him  alone. 
Over  and  over  again  they  are  reminded  of  the 
great  things  He  has  done  for  them,  of  His  free 
grace  in  their  election  and  redemption,  and  of 
their  unbroken  experience  of  His  providential 
care  and  kindness  towards  them.  His  grace  is 
always  adduced  as  the  prime  reason  and  motive 
why  they  should  cleave  to  Him  with  whole- 
hearted devotion  and  keep  His  commandments 
and  beware  of  the  seducing  influences  of  their 
own  prosperity  and  their  neighbours'  idolatry. 
The  argument  is  always  the  same,  the  evangel- 
ical argument,  '  We  love  Him  because  He  first 
loved  us '  ;  'I  beseech  you  by  the  mercies  of 
God.'  See  e.g.  47-9.32-40  620-25  7  Mi  29^-17, 
etc.     The  same  motive  of  gratitude  for  unde- 


served mercies  underlies  the  repeated  exhort- 
ations to  humanity  and  kindly  consideration 
of  the  poor,  the  afiiicted,  strangers,  and  even 
the  lower  animals.  See  e.g.  14  22-29  157-11 
1610-17  2317,18,22  261-11.  The  love  of  God  to 
Israel,  calling  forth  a  responsive  love  to  God 
and  to  humanity,  that  is  the  theme  of  this  most 
profoundly  religious  and  ethical  book  ;  and 
nowhere  else  is  the  blessedness  of  an  obedience 
which  is  rooted  in  love  and  gratitude  set  forth 
more  eloquently  or  persuasively. 

The  book  of  Deuteronomy  seems  to  have 
been  an  especial  favourite  of  our  Lord.  He 
resisted  the  thi-eefold  assault  of  the  Tempter 
in  the  wilderness  with  quotations  from  this 
book  (see  Mt  4  and  Dt8 3 613  1020  and  notes)  ; 
and  He  answered  the  question  as  to  the 
'  first  and  greatest  commandment '  in  the  Law 
by  referring  to  Dt  64,5.  ^he  Jews  selected 
Dt  6  *■'•*  for  daily  recitation  as  their  creed, 
finding  in  these  words  the  highest  expression 
of  the  unity  and  spirituality  of  God,  and  of 
the  whole  duty  of  man  to  his  Maker,  Preserver 
and  Redeemer. 


PART    1 

First  Discourse  (Chs.  1-4*3) 


The  long  sojourn  in  the  wilderness  is  now 
drawing  to  a  close.  The  Israelites  are  en- 
camped in  the  Plains  of  Moab  within  sight  of 
the  Promised  Land.  Moses,  feeling  that  his 
death  is  approaching,  delivers  his  final  charges 
to  the  people.  In  the  first,  he  reviews  briefly 
the  history  of  Israel  from  Mt.  Sinai  to  the 
Jordan,  dwelling  on  the  goodness  of  God,  and 
making  it  the  basis  of  an  earnest  appeal  to  the 
people  to  remember  all  that  He  has  done  for 
them,  and  to  keep  His  commandments. 

CHAPTER  1 

Introduction.     Review  of  the  Journey 
FROM  Sinai  to  Kadesh 

1-5.   Introduction. 

I.  On  this  side  Jordan]  RV '  beyond  Jordan,' 
i.e.  on  the  E.  side.  The  writer  speaks  from 
the  standpoint  of  Canaan,  as  also  in  v.  5,  3^ 
441,46,49  :  see  Intro,  to  Numbers,  §  2.  The 
plain  is  the  Arabah,  the  valley  running  N.  and 
S.  of  the  Dead  Sea.  The  Red  sea']  Heb.  Suph, 
the  name  of  some  place  on  the  Gulf  of  Akaba. 

6-46.  Review  of  the  journey  from  Sinai  to 
Kadesh  on  the  border  of  Canaan. 

6.  Horeb]  the  name  given  in  Dt  to  Mt. 
Sinai.  The  name  Sinai  occurs  in  this  book 
only  in  the  Blessing  of  Moses  (33  2).  7.  The 
plain]  see  on  v.  1.  The  hills]  RV  'hill  country,' 
the  elevated  ridge  in  the  centre  of  Palestine. 
The  vale]  the  maritime  plain.  The  south] 
the  Negeb.  See  on  Nu  1317,21.  9.  This  seems 
to  refer  to  what  is  recorded  in  Ex  1813-26. 

22.  SeeNul3.      It  would  appear  that  the 


sending  of  the  spies  was  suggested  by  the 
people,  and  that  Moses  referred  the  matter  to 
God  for  confirmation  :  cp.  Nul3i.  37.  For 
your  sakes]  Had  the  unbelief  of  Moses  gone 
unpunished,  the  people  would  have  been  hard- 
ened in  their  own  transgression.  For  their 
sakes,  therefore,  it  was  impossible  to  overlook 
it  :  see  on  Nu  20 12.  46.  Many  days]  see  on 
Nul326  201. 

CHAPTER   2 

Review  of  the  Journey  (continued) 
I.  The  Red  sea]  i.e.  the  Gulf  of  Akaba.  On 
Mt.  Seir  see  Nu  20  22-29.  4.  Through  the  coast] 
RY  'through  the  border,'  as  in  v.  18.  The 
Edomites,  however,  refused  to  give  them  a 
passage  through  their  country  :  see  Nu  20  i'*-2i. 
The  Israelites  accordingly  went  southward 
towards  Elath  and  Ezion-geber  at  the  N.  end 
of  the  Gulf  of  Akaba  (see  v.  8  and  on  Nu  20  22), 
and  so  round  Edom  to  the  country  of  the 
Moabites.  9.  The  Moabites  and  the  Ammon- 
ites (v.  19)  were  related  to  the  Israelites,  being 
descended  from  Lot,  the  nephew  of  Abraham 
(Gn  19  37, 38)  The  Edomites  were  descended 
from  Esau,  the  brother  of  Jacob.  Ar]  the 
capital  of  Moab,  lying  on  the  river  Arnon, 
which  formed  the  northern  border  of  the 
country  (Nu  2 115, 28). 

10-12.  These  vv.  form  an  antiquarian  paren- 
thesis, like  vv.  20-23.  10.  The  Emims  (RV 
'  Emim,'  i.e.  the  '  terrible  ones')  and  the  Horims 
(RV  '  Horites,'  i.e.  the  '  cave-dwellers')  are 
mentioned  in  Gnl4°'6.     The  tribes  E.  of  the 


123 


2.  12 


DEUTERONOMY 


4.41 


Jordan  seem  to  have  been  of  great  stature  : 
see  on  Nu2133-35_  12.  As  Israel  did]  These 
words  must  have  been  written  after  the 
occupation  of  Canaan. 

13.  On  the  Zered  see  Nu'ili^. 

20.  The  Zamzummims  (RV  'Zamzummim') 
are  probably  the  same  as  tlie  Zuzim  in  Grn  145. 

23.  The  Avims  (RV  '  Avvim  ')  dwelt  in  the 
SW.  of  Canaan,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Gaza, 
here  called  Azzah.  Hazerim]  RV  'in  villages.' 
Caphtorims]  the  Philistines  who  came  from 
Caphtor,  usually  identified  with  Cyprus  or 
Crete :  see  Gn  1 0 1*  Am  9  7  Jer  47 1. 

CHAPTER  3 

Review  of  the  Journey  (concluded) 

l-ii.  The  conquest  of  Og,  king  of  Bashan. 
See  Nu  21 33-35,  ^  -Jhe  ruins  of  these  cities 
remain  to  this  day:  see  on  Nu2133. 

9.  Sirion]  means  '  glittering  like  a  polished 
shield,'  and  corresponds,  therefore,  to  the  name 
Mt.  Blanc.  The  Hermon  range  is  mostly 
covered  with  a  cap  of  snow.  In  4^8  Hermon 
is  also  called  '  Sion,'  which  means  the  same  as 
Sirion,  if  indeed  it  is  not  a  clerical  error  for 
that  word.  10.  Salchah]  still  existing  under 
the  name  of  Salkhad,  a  large  town  on  the 
E.  border  of  Bashan,  lying  on  the  great  road 
from  Galilee  to  the  Persian  Gulf. 

II.  The  bedstead  of  iron  of  the  giant 
king  was  in  all  probability  his  sarcophagus 
of  black  basalt  which  the  Arabs  still  call '  iron.' 
Several  such  sarcophagi  have  been  discovered 
E.  of  the  Jordan.  Conder  believed  that  he 
discovered  Og's  '  bedstead '  in  the  form  of  a 
huge  stone  throne  at  Rabbath.  The  word 
rendered  '  bedstead '  properly  means  a  couch 
or  divan:  see  e.g.  Am 3 12  6*. 

14.  This  took  place  later  (see  JglO^.^,  and 
cp.  Intro,  to  Numbers,  §  2),  and  its  insertion  here 
indicates  the  work  of  a  later  hand,  like  the 
expression  unto  this  day:  cp.  v.  12.  See  on 
Nu324i.  17.  Chinnereth]  the  Lake  of  Gen- 
nesaret,  or  Sea  of  Galilee.  The  plain  is  again 
the  Arabah:  see  on  li.  Ashdod-pisgah]  RV 
'  the  slopes  of  Pisgah  ':  cp.  449, 

18-20.  See  on  Nu32. 
23-28.  See  on  Nu  2  7 12-23, 

CHAPTER  41-43 
Exhortations  to  Obedience 
This  c.  contains  the  practical  part  of  the 
discourse.  Having  briefly  rehearsed  the  ex- 
periences of  the  Israelites  in  the  wilderness  up 
to  the  present  point,  Moses  closes  with  an 
eloquent  appeal  not  to  forget  what  they  had 
seen  and  learned,  but  to  keep  the  command- 
ments of  the  Lord.  The  argument  is  quite 
evangelical.  Jehovah  of  His  own  free  gi-ace 
has  chosen  and  redeemed  this  people,  they 
ought,  therefore,  to  love  and  serve  Him  alone : 
cp.  Joshua's  exhortation  in  Josh  24. 


124 


3.   Because  of  Baal-peor]   see  Nu  261-9. 

10.  See  Ex  19,  20,  243-s.  At  Mt.  Sinai  the 
people  entered  into  a  national  covenant  with 
Jehovah  their  Redeemer,  promising  to  keep 
the  Law  delivered  unto  them  there. 

15.  The  foundation  of  true  religion  and 
morals  is  a  right  conception  of  the  nature  of 
God.  In  the  first  and  second  commandments 
of  the  Decalogue  Israel  had  been  taught  the 
truths  of  the  unity  and  spirituality  of  God. 
They  are  specially  exhorted  here  to  keep 
themselves  from  idolatry.  16-18.  This  pro- 
hibition probably  refers  to  the  animal  worship 
of  the  Egyptians  with  which  their  fathers  had 
been  familiar  in  their  bondage.  19.  There 
may  be  allusion  here  to  the  worship  of  the 
Persians  and  Chaldeans.  The  Israelites  fell 
into  this  form  of  idolatry:  see  e.g.  2X171*5  213. 

24.  Cp.  93  Hebl229.  On  the  nature  of  the 
divine  jealousy  see  on  Ex  20^. 

25.  Remained  long  in  the  land]  lit.  '  slum- 
bered in  the  land.'  The  word  expresses  not 
only  long  continuance  but  a  loss  of  vigour,  a 
gradual  weakening  of  first  impressions  due  to 
unbroken  peace  and  prosperity.  Those  who 
have  no  changes  are  apt  to  forget  God  (Ps  55 1^). 
Prosperity  sometimes  acts  like  a  narcotic  and 
sends  the  soul  to  sleep :  cp.  6  io-i3  8 10-20  32  is  ; 
see  also  2  Ch  121  26 1«  3225.  28.  Bodily  sub- 
jection to  their  heathen  conquerors  would  lead 
to  spiritual  bondage.  They  would  be  '  given 
over  to  a  reprobate  mind  ' :  see  Ro  1 2^-28. 

29-31.  These  vv.  indicate  the  nature  of  true 
repentance.  It  is  not  merely  sorrow  for  past 
sins  and  then-  consequences,  but  a  seeking  God 
with  all  the  heart,  and  obedience  to  His  voice. 
Such  repentance  procures  the  divine  mercy, 
for  God  does  not  forget  His  part  of  the  cove- 
nant, however  His  people  forget  theirs.  '  The 
gifts  and  calling  of  God  are  without  repent- 
ance,'i.e.  they  are  irrevocable:  see  Roll 29 
Heb6i7. 

32-38.  These  vv.  state  the  ground  of  Jeho- 
vah's choice  of  Israel.  It  is  purely  an  election 
of  grace  and  love.  Hence  Israel  ought  to 
cleave  to  Him.  No  other  nation  has  been  so 
highly  favoured  by  Jehovah.  38.  The  Israel- 
ites did  not  take  possession  of  the  land  of  their 
enemies  by  their  own  might.  Jehovah  went 
before  them  into  battle :  cp.  8 1"'  I8. 

41-43.   The  appendix  to  the  First  Discourse. 

On  the  Cities  of  Refuge  see  Nu  35  9-34  and 
notes  there,  and  cp.  alsoc.  19  Josh  201-9.  The 
cities  appointed  here  are  those  E.  of  the  Jordan. 
In  c.  19  those  in  Canaan  are  referred  to.  On 
the  phrase  on  this  side  Jordan  see  on  1 1.  Bezer 
was  the  southernmost  of  the  three.  It  is 
mentioned  on  the  Moabite  Stone  as  having 
being  rebuilt  by  Mesha:  see  on  Nu2129.  Its 
site  has  not  been  identified.  It  is  probably 
the  same  as  the  Bozrah  mentioned  in  Jer  48  24. 
Ramoth  in  Gilead  played  an  important  part  in 


4.  45 


DEUTERONOMY 


6.9 


the  wars  between  the  kings  of  Damascus  and  Golan  gave  its  name  to  the  district  E.  of  the 
Israel.  It  was  the  scene  of  the  death  of  Ahab  Sea  of  Galilee,  still  known  as  the  Jaulan. 
(IK 22)  and  the  anointing  of   Jehu   (2K9).     The  precise  locality  of  the  city  is  unknown. 


PAET  2 

Second  Discourse  (Chs.  444-28) 


This  is  the  longest  of  the  three  discourses, 
and  fills  over  twenty-five  chs.  The  opening 
vv.  (444-49)  are  in  the  form  of  an  introduction  : 
chs.  5-1 1  are  mainly  hortatory  :  the  following 
chs.  (12-28),  which  form  the  nucleus  of  the 
book  of  Deuteronomy,  are  taken  up  with  a 
special  code  of  laws. 

CHAPTER  4  (continued) 
45.  After  they  came  forth]  RV  '  when  they 
came  forth.'  It  was  really  in  the  fortieth  year 
of  the  exodus.  46.  See  on  1 1.  48.  On 
Mount  Sion,  see  on  39.  49.  Springs  of 
Pisgah]  RV  '  slopes  of  Pisgah  '  :  see  on  3 1^. 

CHAPTER  5 
The  Repetition  of  the  Decalogue 

This  c.  repeats  the  Law  of  the  Ten  Com- 
mandments given  on  Mt.  Sinai  with  the 
circumstances  of  its  delivery  :  see  Ex  20,  and 
the  notes  there. 

3.  Their  fathers  who  had  heard  the  Law 
given  at  Sinai  were  actually  dead.  But  as 
the  covenant  had  been  made  not  with  indi- 
viduals, but  with  the  nation  of  Israel,  Moses 
could  say  that  it  was  made  not  with  our  fathers, 
but  with  us.  The  expression  is  really  equiva- 
lent to  '  not  only  with  our  fathers  but  also  with 
ourselves.'  6.  This  is  the  gi'ound  on  which 
obedience  to  the  Law  is  due.  God's  free  grace 
is  the  first  fact  in  the  covenant.  On  the  Ten 
Commandments  see  on  Ex20i"i''.  14,  15.  In 
Exodus  the  obligation  to  keep  the  sabbath  is 
made  to  rest  on  the  fact  of  the  divine  creation 
of  the  world  ;  here  it  rests  on  the  divine 
redemption  of  Israel.  In  the  former  case  the 
reason  annexed  to  the  commandment  is  uni- 
versal, in  the  latter  national.  In  both  cases 
the  commandment  is  the  same,  and  it  is  possi- 
ble that  the  original  form  of  the  Decalogue  gave 
only  the  commandment  without  any  reason 
attached  to  it  :  f,ee  Ex  23 12  and  on  Ex  20 10.  n. 

23-33.   Cp.  Ex  20 18-21. 

24.  And  he  liveth]  This  is  a  special  token 
of  the  divine  favour,  because  usually  man 
cannot  bear  the  immediate  revelation  of  the 
divine  majesty  :  cp.  Ex  33  20  19  21  2019  Jg623 
13  22  Isa  6  2, 5,  and  on  Ex  24  9-11.  29.  The  proper 
attitude  of  man  towards  God  is  not  only  one 
of  reverence  but  of  obedience.  31.  Man 
needs,  r.nd  God  Himself  provides,  a  Mediator. 

CHAPTER  6 
Practical  Exhortations 
To  the  repetition  of  the  Decalogue  Moses 


125 


adds  in  the  following  chs.  a  practical  exhorta- 
tion to  obedience  founded  on  the  special 
relation  of  Jehovah  to  Israel  as  their  Redeemer 
(6-11).  C.  6  particularly  insists  upon  the 
remembrance  of  God's  statutes  and  the  train- 
ing of  the  children  in  them. 

4,  5.  Our  Lord  calls  these  words  '  the  first 
and  great  commandment.'  They  express  the 
highest  truth  and  duty  revealed  to  the  Hebrew 
nation  :  the  truth  of  God's  unity  and  unique- 
ness ;  the  duty  of  loving  and  serving  Him 
with  every  faculty  of  the  being.  Consequently 
they  became  the  Jewish  Confession  of  Faith  ; 
and  under  the  name  of  the  '  Shema '  (the  first 
word  of  V.  4  in  the  Hebrew)  are  still  recited, 
along  with  Dtlli3-2i  and  Nul537-4i,  as  the 
first  act  of  worship  in  the  Jewish  synagogue, 
and  twice  a  day  by  every  adult  male  Jew. 

5.  Love  goes  deeper  than  fear.  It  is  the 
fulfilling  of  all  law,  and  includes  obedience. 
Both  in  the  OT.  and  in  the  New  it  is  the 
effect  of  God's  greatest .  love  in  redemption. 
'  We  love  Him  because  He  first  loved  us.' 

8,  9.  Cp.  1118-20.  From  early  times  the 
Jews  understood  this  injunction  literally  ;  and 
in  the  time  of  our  Lord  a  great  importance 
was  attached  to  three  '  memorials,'  or  visible 
reminders  of  this  obligation  to  keep  the  Law 
of  Jehovah.  One  was  the  '  zizith '  or  '  fringe  ' 
which  was  worn  on  the  corners  of  the  outer 
garment  :  see  on  Nu  1537-41.  The  others  were 
the  'tephillin'  and  the  'mezuza,'  the  use  of 
which  was  founded  on  this  passage  of  Deuter- 
onomy. The  'tephillin'  were  two  small 
boxes,  about  a  cubic  in.  in  size,  containing 
each  a  piece  of  parchment,  on  which  were 
written  in  a  special  form  of  handwriting  the 
four  passages.  Ex  131-10.11-16  Dt64-9  11 13-21, 
One  was  fastened  inside  the  left  forearm  and 
the  other  on  the  forehead,  to  be  a  sign  upon 
the  hand  and  a  frontlet  between  the  eyes. 
They  were  worn  at  prayer  on  week  days,  and 
sometimes  enlarged,  as  by  the  Pharisees  of 
our  Lord's  time,  to  suggest  particular  devotion 
to  the  Law  (Mt235).  The  Hebrew  name 
'  tephillin  '  means  '  prayers  '  ;  but  they  were 
also  called  in  Gk.  'phylacteries'  or  'pro- 
tectors,' from  their  supposed  power  to  ward 
off  evil  spirits.  The  'mezuza'  was  a  small 
oblong  box  containing  the  passage  Dt  6  4-9  and 
was  affixed  to  the  right-hand  door-post  of  the 
house  and  of  each  inhabited  room,  in  accord- 
ance with  the  injunction  in  Dt69.  It  had  a 
beautiful  significance  as  a  reminder  of  the 
presence  of  God  in  the  house,  and  the  obliga- 


6.  10 


DEUTERONOMY 


10.6 


tion  of  all  the  inmates  to  keep  His  holy  law, 
but  has  also  been  degraded  into  a  mere  charm 
to  keep  off  evil  spirits  during  the  night. 

10-13.  Cp.  8 10-14  and  see  on  4  25.  13.  Swear 
by  his  name]  Jehovah,  the  God  of  truth,  is 
to  be  recognised  as  the  unseen  witness  of  all 
agreements  between  a  man  and  his  neighbour, 
and  the  avenger  of  all  falsehood  :  cp.  the 
Third  Commandment. 

16.  They  tempted  God  at  Massah  by  insist- 
ing that  He  should  prove  His  presence  among 
them  in  the  way  that  they  prescribed  :  see 
Ex  17'^.  But  man  must  beware  of  dictating 
to  God,  in  unbelief  and  presumption.  Our 
Lord  refused  to  demand  from  God  a  special 
token  of  His  presence  and  care,  and  quoted 
this  warning  against  the  tempter  :  see  Mt47. 
It  is  to  be  observed  that  our  Lord  not  only 
took  all  His  answers  from  the  Scriptures,  but 
from  the  same  portion  of  Deuteronomy,  viz. 
chs.  5-10  :  see  83  6 is  lO^o. 

20-25.  Cp.  V.  7.  The  keeping  of  the  Law 
is  required  by  the  fact  of  redemption,  and  is 
rewarded  with  the  divine  blessing.  25.  Our 
righteousness]  Obedience  increases  merit.  For 
a  particular  instance  see  on  24 13. 

CHAPTER   7 

Practical  Exhortations  (continued) 

In  this  c.  the  people  are  warned  against 
temptations  to  idolatry  and  enjoined  to  avoid 
contact  with  their  idolatrous  neighbours  :  see 
onEx2.332,33Nu25i"-is. 

I.  On  the  tribes  inhabiting  Canaan  see  on 
NulS'^i.  5.  Images]  RV  'pillars,'  or  obe- 
lisks. Groves]  RV  '  Asherim '  :  see  on 
Ex 34 13.  6.  Special  people]  RV  'peculiar 
people  '  :  see  on  Ex  19  5. 

13.  On  the  promise  of  material  prosperity 
as  the  reward  of  obedience,  see  on  Ex  20 12. 

19.  Temptations]  'provings'  or  trials,  the 
afflictions  that  test  and  reveal  character  :  see 
8  2,  and  cp.  Jas  1  ->  12.  20.  The  hornet]  see  on 
Ex  23  28.  25.  Nor  take  it  unto  thee]  Achan 
did  so  and  brought  trouble  upon  himself  and 
Israel  :  see  Josh  7.  26.  Abomination]  i.e.  an 
idol,  as  in  1622.  a  cursed  thing]  RV  'a  de- 
voted thing,'  a  thing  laid  under  the  ban  of 
extermination.  The  verb  from  the  same  root 
is  rendered  utterly  destroy  in  v.  2  :  see  on 
Lv27  28. 

CHAPTER  8 
Practical  Exhortations  (continued) 
The  people  are  reminded  of  God's  goodness 
to  them  at  the  time  of  the  exodus  and  during 
their  sojourn  in  the  wilderness.  They  are 
exhorted  to  humility  and  obedience,  and 
warned  against  worshipping  strange  gods. 

2,  3.  The  events  of  the  wanderings  were 
intended  to  teach  Israel  humility  and  depend- 
ence on  God  alone  :    see  on  7 1^.     3.  Which 


thou  knewest  not]  see  Ex  1 6 1^.     But  by  every 

word,  etc.  ]  If  necessary  God  can  sustain  human 
life  apart  from  the  usual  means.  The  Saviour 
had  this  trust  in  God  and  refused  to  create 
bread  for  himself  :  see  Mt4'i.  4.  God  who 
gives  the  life  provides  also  the  raiment  and 
the  bodily  health:  see  Mt 6 25-34.  Jewish 
commentators  understood  this  description 
literally,  but  it  is  evidently  poetical  and 
rhetorical. 

6-20.  A  warning  against  pride  and  self- 
suificiency  :  see  on  425. 

7-9.  The  gifts  of  God  in  the  rich  and 
beautiful  land  of  Canaan  are  a  motive  to 
thankfulness  and  obedience,  but  may  become 
a  temptation  to  forgetfulness  and  pride  :  see 
on  425.  9,  Iron  is  found  in  various  parts  of 
Palestine,  especially  in  the  N.  Basalt  (see  on 
3 11)  is  found  E.  of  the  Jordan.  Copper,  here 
called  brass,  is  found  in  the  Lebanon  range 
and  to  the  E.  of  the  Dead  Sea.  We  do  not 
read  of  the  Jews  working  mines  in  Canaan, 
but  the  wi'iter  of  the  book  of  Job  was  ac- 
quainted with  mining  operations,  and  gives  a 
graphic  description  of  the  process  in  c.  28, 
which  should  be  read  in  RV.  16.  At  thy 
latter  end]  i.e.  by  bringing  them  into  the  land 
of  promise  if  they  stood  the  test.  18.  Cp. 
ICh  29 12-14. 

CHAPTER   9 

Practical  Exhortations  (continued) 

The  rebellions  and  provocations  of  the 
wilderness  are  recalled,  to  show  the  people 
that  it  is  not  of  their  own  merit  that  they 
are  to  inherit  the  promises,  nor  by  their  own 
strength  that  they  are  to  dispossess  the  in- 
habitants of  Canaan,  but  by  the  grace  and 
power  of  God. 

8.  Also  in  Horeb]  Even  at  Horeb,  in  view 
of  those  awe-inspiring  tokens  of  the  divine 
majesty,  and  at  the  very  time  when  the  Law 
was  being  promulgated,  the  people  corrupted 
themselves:  see  Ex  32  and  notes.  9.  I  neither 
did  eat  bread  nor  drink  -water]  In  Ex  34  28 
this  fact  is  recorded  in  connexion  with  the 
second  writing  of  the  Law.  17.  And  brake 
them]  The  action  symbolised  the  breaking  of 
the  covenant  through  the  sin  of  the  people. 

18.  I  fell  down]  i.e.  in  intercession  :  see 
on  Nul64.  The  words  as  at  the  first  refer 
probably  to  the  intercession  on  the  mount 
spoken  of  in  Ex32ii  :  cp.  3231. 

22-24,  gi"^'iiig  other  instances  of  the  people's 
rebellion,  seem  to  be  a  parenthesis.  "V .  25  takes 
up  the  thread  of  v.  21. 

CHAPTER    10 
Practical  Exhortations  (continued) 
1-5.  The  renewal  of  the  broken  covenant  : 
see  Ex  34. 

6-9.  These  vv.  are  evidently  a  parenthesis. 


126 


10.  8 


DEUTERONOMY 


11.30 


The  death  of  Aaron  took  place  thirty-eight 
years  after  the  departure  from  Sinai,  but 
previous  to  the  delivery  of  this  discourse  :  see 
on  Nu20""-^''.  The  notice  of  Aaron's  death 
seems  to  be  inserted  here  to  show  that  the 
sin  of  Aaron  and  the  people  did  not  bring  the 
priesthood  to  a  close.  The  covenant  was  re- 
newed, and  Aaron  was  spared  for  nearly  forty 
years  to  minister  as  the  high  priest  ;  and  on 
his  death  the  priesthood  was  continued  in  his 
family.  In  Nu  33  30-33  the  same  places  are 
mentioned  as  being  visited  in  a  different 
order.  In  all  probability  the  childi-en  of 
Israel  visited  these  places  twice.  8.  At  that 
time]  Not  at  the  time  of  Aaron's  death,  but 
during  the  sojourn  at  Sinai  :  see  Ex  32^*5, 
The  Levites  here  include  the  family  of  Aaron 
who  were  specially  set  apart  to  the  priesthood  : 
see  on  Nu3. 

11.  In  spite  of  the  perversity  and  rebellion 
of  the  people  they  are  permitted  by  God's 
grace  to  continue  their  journey  and  possess 
the  land  of  promise.  This  verse  marks  the 
freeness  and  fulness  of  the  divine  forgiveness. 
God's  covenant  of  peace  is  not  removed. 

12.  Notwithstanding  all  that  the  people 
have  done  God  does  not  demand  of  them  any- 
thing more  than  their  plain  duty,  in  view  of 
their  past  experience  of  His  goodness  :  cp. 
Mic6S.  13.  The  path  of  duty  is  also  that  of 
safety  and  welfare.  14,  15.  Although  God  is 
Lord  of  heaven  and  earth.  He  has  singled  out 
this  small  nation  (7  ">  §)  for  His  special  favour. 

16.  See  on  Lv  19  23.  17,  18,  Great  as  God 
is,  He  cares  for  the  lowly  :  see  Ps  138 1^.  '  Be  ye 
therefore  merciful  even  as  your  Father  is 
merciful.'  20.  This  was  our  Lord's  third 
answer  to  the  tempter  :  see  Mt  4 10  and  on  6 1*^. 

22.  This  is  another  ground  of  gi'atitude  and 
obedience. 

CHAPTER    11 

Practical  Exhortations  (concluded) 

Some  injunctions  to  obedience,  with  the 
blessing  it  entails,  and  the  curse  that  follows 
disobedience. 

I.  Therefore]  There  should  be  no  break 
here  :  see  on  10  22.  2.  Seen  the  chastisement] 
i.e.  experienced  for  yourselves  the  discipline 
or  instruction  of  the  Lord.  The  word  refers 
not  only  to  the  punishment  of  the  Egyptians 
but  also  to  the  experiences  of  the  Israelites. 
6.  There  is  no  mention  here  of  Korah  :  see 
on  Nul6. 

10,  II.  The  fields  in  Egypt  require  to  be 
watered  artificially.  The  water  is  raised  from 
the  lakes  or  from  the  Nile  by  means  of  pumps 
worked  by  the  foot.  But  the  expression 
wateredst  //  with  thy  foot  may  refer  to  the 
practice  of  diverting  the  water  into  numberless 
little  channels  by  breaking  down  the  separat- 
ing ridges,   or  by  opening  and  shutting  the 

1 


sluices,  with  the  foot.  The  land  of  Canaan 
requires  no  such  human  devices  to  render  it 
fruitful.  It  drinketh  water  of  the  rain  of 
heaven.  It  enjoys  the  direct  blessing  of  God. 
A  common  Palestinian  salutation  during  rain 
is,  '  May  God  protect  you  while  He  is  blessing 
the  fields.'     14.   First  rain]  see  on  Lv  26  "^ . 

18-21.   See  on  6^'''. 

21.  Heaven  upon  the  earth]  RV  '  the 
heavens  above  the  earth.' 

24.  Cp.  Josh  13, 4.  The  wrilderness  is  the 
wilderness  of  Judah  in  the  S.  ;  Lebanon  is 
the  northern  boundary  ;  the  Euphrates  is  in 
the  E.  ;  and  the  uttermost  sea  (lit.  '  the  hinder 
sea ')  is  the  Mediterranean  in  the  W.  In 
describing  the  cardinal  points  the  Hebrew 
stood  with  his  face  to  the  E.  or  sunrising. 
Hence  in  the  Hebrew  language  '  in  front '  means 
the  E.,  '  behind'  means  the  W.,  as  in  this  verse, 
while  '  the  right '  is  the  S.  :  see  on  Ex233i. 

26-32.  The  Blessing  and  the  Ciu-se.  See  c. 
27  and  notes  there. 

28.  Other  gods,  which  ye  have  not  known] 
i.e.  who  have  not  revealed  themselves  in  deeds 
of  deliverance  and  kindness,  as  Jehovah  has 
done,  and  who  have  no  claim  upon  yom-  re- 
verence and  obedience.  The  argument  is 
always  the  same,  though  repeated  in  various 
forms.  Israel's  past  experience  of  God's  free 
grace  in  their  election  and  redemption  is  the 
gi'ound  of  their  love  and  fear  of  Jehovah. 

29.  Put  the  blessing,  etc.]  This  refers  either 
to  the  erection  of  the  stones  inscribed  with 
the  blessings  and  the  curses,  or  to  the  placing 
of  the  two  companies  mentioned  in  27 12,  i3^  one 
to  bless  and  the  other  to  curse.  Ebal  and 
Gerizim  are  the  most  conspicuous  of  the  hills 
of  Samaria,  being  fully  3,000  ft.  high.  Ebal 
is  on  the  N.,  Gerizim  on  the  S.;  and  they  are 
separated  by  a  very  deep  ravine  running  E.  and 
W.  The  sunnnits  command  a  view  of  the  whole 
land.  It  was  here  that  Abraham  received  the 
promise  which  was  fulfilled  400  years  later  on 
the  same  spot  :  see  Josh830-35_  The  Samari- 
tans afterwards  erected  a  temple  on  Mt. 
Gerizim,  which  became  the  rival  of  the  temple 
at  Jerusalem  :  see  Jn420,2i  The  Passover  is 
still  celebrated  yearly  on  its  summit.  30.  The 
champaign]  i.e.  the  plain,  RV  '  Arabah  '  :  see 
on  11. 

Plains  of  Moreh]  RV  '  oaks  of  Moreh ' :  see 
Gnl2'5.  The  Samaritans  claim  that  Moreh 
and  Moriah  (Gn22  2)  are  the  same,  and  that 
the  sacrifice  of  Isaac  therefore  took  place  on 
Mt.  Gerizim.  They  also  assert  that  Mt.  Geri- 
zim was  the  meeting-place  of  Abraham  and 
Melchizedek  (Gnl4).  The  Gilgal  mentioned 
here  is  not  the  Gilgal  lying  between  the  Jordan 
and  Jericho  (see  Josh  41'-'),  but  another  place 
of  the  same  name  near  Shechem,  in  the  centre 
of  the  country.  The  name  means  '  circle  of 
(sacred)  stones,'  a  '  cromlech.' 
27 


n.  1 


DEUTERONOMY 


15. 


CHAPTER    12 

The  Abolition  of  Idolatrous  Places. 
The  Centralisation  of  Worship. 
Abstinence  from  Blood 

The  larger  section  of  the  Second  Discourse 
begins  here  and  extends  to  the  end  of  c.  26. 
It  consists  of  a  code  of  laws,  and  constitutes 
the  nucleus  of  the  whole  book  :  see  on  4-i4-49. 
So  far  as  any  orderly  arrangement  can  be  dis- 
covered, chs.  12-16  are  taken  up  with  the 
more  strictly  religious  duties  ;  chs.  17-20  with 
civil  ordinances  ;  and  chs.  21-26  with  social  and 
domestic  regulations. 

1-3.  An  injunction  to  destroy  all  traces  of 
Canaanitish  idolatry  :  see  on  7  ^-^. 

4-28.  No  sacrifice  to  be  made  to  Jehovah 
unless  at  the  one  place  which  He  Himself 
prescribes.  This  law  of  the  centralisation  of 
worship  is  one  of  the  main  arguments  employed 
by  critics  in  support  of  the  theory  of  the  late 
origin  of  the  book  of  Deuteronomy.  The 
practice  of  sacrificing  at  local  shrines,  it  is 
said,  was  universal  till  the  time  of  Josiah,  and 
could  hardly  have  been  so  if  there  had  been 
an  earlier  prohibition  :  see  Intro.  §  2. 

4.  Ye  shall  not  do  so]  i.e.  worship  Jehovah 
in  the  places  where  the  Canaanites  worshipped 
their  gods.  7.  Ye  shall  eat]  The  reference  is 
to  the  sacrificial  meal  at  which  part  of  the 
offerings  were  eaten  by  the  worshippers  :  see 
on  Lv  3.  15.  This  is  a  slight  modification  of 
the  law  prescribed  inLvl72>4,  where  see  note. 

16.  On  the  prohibition  to  eat  blood  see  Lv, 
33  17 10-16.  21.  Every  abomination]  see  on 
Lvl82i. 

CHAPTER    13 

Warnings  against  Temptations  to 
Idolatry 

The  people  are  warned  against  three  pos- 
sible sources  of  temptation  to  idolatry,  viz. 
the  false  prophet  (vv.  1-5),  an  erring  member 
of  the  family  (vv.  6-11),  and  an  apostate  city 
(vv.  12-18).  In  each  case  the  tempter  or 
tempters  must  he  put  to  death  without  mercy. 

2.  A  sign  or  a  wonder  is  not  enough  to 
establish  the  credentials  of  a  prophet.  If  he 
seeks  to  turn  the  people  from  the  worship 
of  Jehovah,  he  confesses  himself  thereby  a 
tempter  to  evil,  and  must  be  put  to  death  : 
cp.  Mt2424  2Th29  Revl3i3,i4.  6.  Even 
should  the  tempter  to  apostasy  be  the  nearest 
and  dearest,  no  mercy  must  be  shown  to  him 
(v.  8)  :  cp.  the  zeal  of  the  Levites  (Ex  32  25-29) 
and  of  Phinehas  (Nu25''''^)  and  our  Lord's 
words,  Mtl037  Lkl42(5.  The  same  principle 
is  enunciated  in  Mt529>30. 

12-18.  An  instance  of  this  may  be  read  in 
Jg  19,  20.  13.  Men  of  Belial]  RV'base 
fellows  '  or  '  sons  of  w^orthlessness.'  Belial  is 
not  a  proper  name :  cp.  1 5  9  ■"«  Jg  20 1^  RM 1 S  25^5 


IK 21 13.  16.  The  street  is  the  open  square 
or  market-place  of  the  city.  The  word  ren- 
dered every  whit  is  the  same  as  that  used  to 
denote  the  '  whole  burnt  offering,'  so  that  the 
clause  may  be  translated  '  as  a  whole  burnt 
offering  to  Jehovah  thy  God.' 

17.  Cursed  thing]  RV  '  devoted  thing '  :  see 
on  7  26  Lv  27  213-29. 

CHAPTER    14 

disfigurings    for    mourning   forbidden. 

Clean  and  Unclean  Meats  specified 

1.  Practices  connected  with  idolatry  :  see 

on  Lv  19  27, 28. 

2.  The  foundation  of  the  entire  moral  and 
ceremonial  law  is  contained  in  this  and  the 
preceding  verse.  Israel  is  the  people  whom 
Jehovah  has  chosen  and  called  His  children. 
As  such  they  must  be  holy  :  see  intro.  to 
Lv  17-26. 

3-20.  On  the  law  of  clean  and  unclean 
beasts,  see  Lv  1 1  and  notes.  5.  The  pygarg 
is  probably  a  kind  of  antelope.  The  exact 
meaning  of  the  Hebrew  word  is  doubtful,  as 
it  only  occurs  in  this  passage.  As  the  chamois 
is  unknown  in  Palestine,  a  species  of  wild 
mountain  sheep  is  probably  meant. 

21.  That  dieth  of  itself]  For  the  meaning 
of  this  prohibition  see  on  Lvll^^-^^.  On  the 
prohibition  to  seethe  a  kid  in  its  mother's 
milk  see  on  Ex  2319. 

22.  The  produce  of  the  soil  is  to  be  tithed 
and  the  tithe  eaten  at  the  central  sanctuary, 
except  when  this  is  inconvenient  on  account 
of  distance  (v.  24),  in  which  case  the  tithe  is 
to  be  turned  into  money,  and  spent  on  a  sacri- 
ficial feast  to  which  the  Levites  are  to  be 
invited  (vv.  25-27).  Every  third  year  the 
whole  tithe  is  to  be  devoted  to  charity. 
According  to  the  law  in  Nul82i  the  tithe  is 
given  to  the  Levites  exclusively.  It  has  been 
supposed  that  the  tithe  in  Deuteronomy  is 
a  second  tithe,  different  from  that  in  Numbers, 
and  made  after  the  first,  or  Levite's  tithe,  has 
been  deducted  from  the  produce.  But,  as  no 
mention  is  made  of  more  tithes  than  one,  the 
different  destination  of  the  tithes  may  be  con- 
sidered as  indicating  different  stages  of  legis- 
lation. In  later  times,  however,  a  distinction 
was  made  between  the  first  and  second  tithes, 
the  first  being  devoted  to  the  Levites,  and  the 
second  consumed  by  the  offerer. 

CHAPTER   15 

The  Sabbatical  Year 
This  c.  deals  with  the  year  of  release,  or 
the  Sabbatical  Year,  and  should  be  compared 
with  Lv26.  In  addition  to  the  rest  for  the 
land  and  the  manumission  of  Hebrew  slaves 
in  the  seventh  year,  it  prescribes  a  release  of 
debts  (vv.  1-5)  ;  only,  however,  so  far  as 
Hebrew  creditors  are  concerned,  and  proper 


128 


15.4 


DEUTERONOMY 


17.  16 


loans,  not  money  due  on  account  of  purchase 
(vv.  3,  8,  9). 

4.  Save  when  there  shall  be]  B,V  '  Howbeit 
there  shall  be.'  The  law  is  intended  to  pre- 
vent poverty.  10.  '  The  Lord  loveth  a  cheer- 
ful giver.'  II.  The  ideal  state  of  matters  is 
contemplated  in  v.  4  :  here  we  have  the  actual 
fact.  There  will  always  be  poor  people,  but 
poverty  will  be  exceptional,  if  this  injunction 
is  conscientiously  carried  out  :  see  vv.  4,  5. 

12-18.  See  also  Ex212-6  Lv2539-46.  The 
subject  of  slavery  is  connected  with  that  of 
poverty,  as  it  is  implied  here  that  the  poor 
person  has  been  sold  as  a  slave  for  debt.  Every 
seventh  year  the  slave  has  to  be  released.  He 
is  not  to  be  sent  away  empty,  as  the  probable 
result  would  be  a  return  to  slavery.  He  is  to 
be  liberally  furnished,  so  as  to  be  in  a  position 
to  earn  a  livelihood  and  make  a  fresh  start  in 
life.  This  is  a  very  wise  as  well  as  humane 
prescription. 

16.  If  a  slave  elect  to  remain  in  the  master's 
service  instead  of  accepting  release,  a  formal 
compact  must  be  made  to  that  effect.  In 
Ex  21^  the  ceremony  is  performed  in  public 
before  the  magistrates  ;  here  it  seems  to  be 
private.  The  boring  of  the  ear  and  the  fasten- 
ing it  to  the  doorpost  with  the  awl  signified 
that  the  person  was  permanently  attached  to 
the  house  and  was  bound  to  obey  the  words 
of  his  master  :  cp.  on  Ex  21*^. 

19,  20.  In  Nul8i5-is  the  firstlings  of  clean 
beasts  are  the  perquisite  of  the  priests.  Here 
they  are  to  be  eaten  by  the  owner  and  his 
household  annually  at  the  central  sanctuary. 
Much  ingenuity  has  been  expended  in  the 
attempt  to  reconcile  these  two  regulations. 
The  simplest  explanation  is  that  they  belong 
to  different  stages  of  legislation. 

21.  Whatever  is  offered  to  Grod  must  be 

the  best  of  its  kind:  cp.  17 1,  and  see  on 
Lv  22 17-25. 

CHAPTEE    16 

Injunctions   eegarding   Feasts,'  Judges, 

Groves,  and  Images 

1-8.  On  the  Passover  see  Ex  12  Lv23't-8 
Nu  28 16-25^  and  the  notes  on  these  passages.  It 
will  be  observed  that  the  general  law  of  12^ 
(see  on  1 2  ■*-28)  is  here  applied  to  each  of  the 
three  great  annual  festivals  :  see  vv.  2,  11,  15. 

3.  Bread  of  affliction]  So  called  from  the 
circumstances  in  which  the  festival  was  in- 
stituted and  which  the  unleavened  bread  and 
bitter  herbs  were  meant  to  symbolise  :  see 
Ex  12  8.    8.  Solemn  assembly]  see  Lv  23  36. 

9-12.  On  the  Feast  of  Weeks  see  on  Lv 
2315-21  Nu  28  2(5-31.  10.  With  a  tribute  of  a 
freewill  offering  of  thine  hand]  better,  '  after 
the  measure  of  a  freewill  offering  of  thine 
hand,'  i.e.  according  to  thine  ability  as  God 
has   prospered   thee,    as    in  v.  17.     11.  The 


129 


joyous  nature  of  this  festival  is  emphasised 
here.  The  people  are  to  present  thank-offer- 
ings and  remember  the  poor  :  cp.  v.  16.  13. 
On  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles  see  on  Lv  23  33-43 
Nu  29 12-38.  16.  Shall  not  appear  ..  empty]  To 
'  appear  before  God '  is  to  visit  the  sanctuary 
for  worship  :  e.g.  Ps42  2,4.  On  this  injunction 
to  bring  an  offering  see  on  Ex23i5  and  cp.  Ps 
96  8. 

18.  This  is  the  beginning  of  the  sub- 
division that  deals  mainly  with  civil  matters. 
See  heading  of  c.  12.     19.   See  on  Ex  23  8. 

2 1 .  Grove  of  any  trees]  E  V  '  Asherah  of  any 
kind  of  tree':  see  on  Ex 3413.  22.  Image] 
EV  'pillar'  :  see  on  Ex 24 4  3413. 

CHAPTEE    17 
The  Punishment  op  Idolatry.     Contro- 
versies    TO     BE     settled     BY     PrieSTS 

AND    Judges.      Election    and  Duties 
or  A  King 
I.  Cp.Lv 22 17-25.    2.  Wickedness]  idolatry, 
as  in  425.     5.   Unto  thy  gates]   see  on  Gnl9i. 
7.  The  hands  of  the  witnesses]  This  regu- 
lation, by  throwing  the  responsibility  of  the 
execution   upon  the  witnesses,  would   act  as 
a   safeguard  against   false  evidence  :    see   on 
Lv24i4. 

8-13.  Difficult  cases  are  to  be  referred  to 
a  supreme  court  of  judicature,  consisting  of 
the  priests  and  the  chief  magistrate,  whose 
decision  is  final.  This  court  is  to  sit  at  the 
central  sanctuary  :  see  2Chl98-ii.  10.  Inform 
thee]  rather,  '  direct  thee.'  The  common 
Heb.  word  for  '  law '  is  derived  from  this 
verb  and  means  really  '  direction.' 

14-20.  The  Law  of  the  Kingdom.  It  is  to 
be  observed  that  the  people  are  not  commanded 
to  appoint  a  king,  as  in  the  case  of  the  judges 
(16  IS).  But  the  desire  for  a  king  is  anticipated 
and  is  not  disapproved.  The  kingdom  is  theo- 
cratic, i.e.  the  king  is  the  vice-gerent  or  repre- 
sentative of  God  and  is  chosen  by  Him.  The 
law  of  the  kingdom  is  the  law  of  God  (vv. 
18-20).  The  Church  and  the  State  are  identi- 
cal. 14.  Like  as  all  the  nations]  cp.  the  ac- 
tual words  of  the  people  in  1  S  8  20.  15.  Not .  .  a 
stranger]  i.e.  a  foreigner,  a  non-Israelite  :  be- 
cause Israel  is  the  peculiar  people  of  Jehovah. 
The  Jews  were  always  intolerant  of  foreign 
authority:  cp.  Mt22i7.  Messiah  when  He 
came  was  to  rid  them  of  the  foreign  yoke  :  see 
Ac  16. 

16.  Not  multiply  horses]  The  horse  is  here 
forbidden,  not  as  an  article  of  luxury  but  as  an 
instrument  of  warfare,  in  which  the  kings  of 
Israel  are  not  to  trust:  cp.  Ps207  33  its,  17  147 10. 
Canaan  was  not  suitable  for  cavalry,  and  the 
conquest  of  the  country  was  effected  by  infan- 
try, whose  superiority  was  due  to  the  hilly 
nature  of  the  country.  Solomon  imported 
horses  from  Egypt  (1K1026,2S)^  and  similar 


17.  17 


DEUTERONOMY 


19.  15 


reliance  upon  Egypt  was  a  frequent  snare  to 
the  Israelites  against  which  the  prophets  raised 
a  warning  voice  :  see  Isa  3 1  ^  Ezk  1 7 1^.  Horses 
were  also  dedicated  to  the  sun-god  by  the 
idolatrous  kings  of  Israel  :  see  2K23ii,  and 
onEx93.  17.  Solomon  transgressed  this  com- 
mandment with  precisely  the  result  here  fore- 
told :  1 K 11 1-^  and  cp.  Neh  13  26. 

18.  A  copy  of  this  law]  i.e.  not  merely  the 
law  of  the  kingdom  contained  in  vv.  14-20, 
but  the  entire  Deuteronomic  law  which  is  in 
the  custody  of  the  priests:  see  on  319.24-26_ 
At  the  coronation  of  Josiah  the  '  testimony  ' 
was  put  into  his  hands  (2  Ch23ii)  ;  and  to  this 
day,  when  a  Christian  monarch  is  crowned,  the 
Bible  is  delivered  to  him  with  the  words  :  '  We 
present  you  with  this  book,  the  most  valuable 
thing  that  the  world  affords.  Here  is  wisdom  ; 
this  is  the  royal  law  :  these  are  the  lively  (i.e. 
living)  oracles  of  God,'  signifying  that  the  law 
of  God  is  to  be  the  rule  of  his  kingdom.  In 
LXX  the  words  a  copy  of  this  law  are  repre- 
sented by  the  single  word  '  deuteronomion,' 
from  which  the  title  of  the  whole  book  is 
derived  :    see  Intro.  §  1. 

20.  And  his  children]  an  indication  that  a 
hereditary  dynasty  is  not  inconsistent  with 
divine  choice. 

CHAPTER    18 

The  Priestly  Dues.  Character  and  Work 

OF  THE  True  Prophet 

1-8.  The  Priestly  dues  :  see  on  Nul8. 

4.  This  is  the  only  place  where  the  priests 
are  said  to  receive  the  first  of  the  fleece :  cp. 
Nul8i2. 

9-14.  Condemnation  of  superstitious  and 
magical  practices. 

10.  Pass  through  the  fire]  The  context  here 
seems  to  imply  that  this  was  a  method  of  divin- 
ing or  obtaining  an  oracle  from  a  god:  cp.  on 
LvlS^i.  Useth  divination]  a  general  term, 
but  applied  specially  to  the  casting  of  lots : 
see  e.g.  Ezk21 21.  Observer  of  times]  RV  '  One 
that  practises  augury ' :  the  meaning  of  the  word 
is  uncertain.  An  enchanter]  one  who  observes 
omens,  watches  for  signs  in  the  sky  or  in  the 
flight  of  birds.  Witch]  RV  '  sorcerer,'  one  who 
practises  magic  by  means  of  drugs  and  spells  : 
cp.  on  Ex 22 IS.  n.  Charmer]  one  who  ties 
knots,  weaves  magic  spells  and  curses.  Con- 
suiter  with  familiar  spirits,  or  a  wizard]  lit. '  one 
who  consults  a  ghost  or  familiar  spirit,'  proba- 
bly a  ventriloquist  who  professes  to  hold 
communication  with  subterranean  spirits. 
Necromancer]  one  who  inquires  of  the  dead  : 
cp.  Lv  19  31  2027. 

15.  This  is  closely  connected  with  what 
precedes.  Israel  has  no  need  to  employ  such 
arts  of  divination  as  other  nations  use.  Jeho- 
vah Himself  will  communicate  His  will  to  them 
through  the  prophets  whom  He  raises  up  and 


instructs.  See  IsaS^^.  The  singular  number 
here,  a  Prophet,  does  not  refer  to  a  particular 
individual,  but  to  a  succession  of  prophets. 
Israel  will  never  want  a  prophet  to  communi- 
cate to  them  God's  will.  This  prophecy  found 
its  ultimate  fulfilment  in  Christ,  the  perfect 
revealer  of  God's  grace  and  truth  and  the  new 
law-giver,  and  is  applied  to  Him  by  St.  Peter 
and  St.  Stephen:  see  Ac 3 22 737. 

18.  This  V.  contains  the  definition  of  a 
prophet.  He  is  one  who  speaks  the  word  of 
God  and  interprets  to  men  the  divine  will  :  see 
on  Nu  1 1  25,  and  cp.  the  words  of  our  Lord  in 
Jnl4io.  20.  That  prophet  shall  die]  For  an 
instance  see  Jer28i5-17. 

21,  22.  At  no  time  is  it  easy  to  distinguish 
the  true  from  the  false  prophet.  Different 
prophets  in  Israel  not  unfrequently  contra- 
dicted each  other.  One  test  of  the  true  pro- 
phet, but  not  the  only  one,  is  proposed  here, 
viz.  the  fulfilment  of  prediction.  Manifestly 
this  test  could  only  be  applied  to  predictions 
of  the  immediate  future.  But  the  prophet 
sometimes  prophesied  of  things  that  were  afar 
oif  (Ezk  1 2  22-27)  so  that  his  words  could  not  be 
verified  by  those  to  whom  they  were  addressed. 
The  ultimate  criterion  of  the  true  prophet  is 
the  moral  character  of  his  utterance.  Con- 
science is  the  true  judge.  Our  Lord  re- 
proached His  generation  because  they  insisted 
on  seeing  signs  and  wonders  before  they  would 
believe. 

CHAPTER  19 
The  Cities  of  Refuge.  Punishment  of 
Deceit  and  False  Witness 
1-13.  On  the  Cities  of  Refuge  see  Nu  35  9-34 
and  notes  there.  2.  In  the  midst  of  thy  land] 
Those  on  the  E.  side  of  the  Jordan  have  already 
been  assigned  :  see  on  4*1 -13.  3.  Prepare  thee 
a  way]  It  was  the  duty  of  the  Sanhedrim, 
or  chief  council  of  the  Jews,  to  maintain  the 
roads  to  these  c.ities  in  good  repair,  and  to 
have  finger-posts  where  necessary  with  the 
words  '  Refuge,  Refuge  '  inscribed  upon  them, 
so  as  to  afford  every  facility  to  the  fugitive. 

8.  Enlarge  thy  coast]  i.e.  thy  border,  to  the 
limits  mentioned  in  1 7  11 2i.  The  condition  of 
such  enlargement  is  stated  in  the  next  v. 

9.  Three  cities  more]  i.e.  besides  the  three 
mentioned  in  vv.  2,  7,  and  those  in  4'*i-'i3. 
The  additional  three  would  be  in  the  newly 
added  territory  beyond  the  usual  limits  of  the 
kingdom.  There  is  no  evidence  to  show  that 
they  were  actually  appointed. 

14.  Cp.  27i7Job242Prov2228  23iOHos5io. 
The  landmark  was  usually  a  stone,  or  heap  of 
stones,  which  in  the  absence  of  hedges  or  walls 
defined  the  boundary  of  a  man's  field.  Its 
removal  was  equivalent  to  theft. 

15-21.  The  law  of  false  witness.  Cases  of 
suspected  false  witness  are  to  be  investigated 


130 


19.  21 


DEUTERONOMY 


21.  18 


and  punished  by  the  supreme  court  :  see  on 
178-13.     21.  See  on  Ex  21 23  and  cp.  Lv2420. 

CHAPTER  20 
Laws  of  Warfare 

I.  Horses  and  chariots]  The  army  of  ihe 
Israelites  was  chiefly  composed  of  infantry  : 
see  on  17 1*^.  2.  The  priest]  It  is  implied  that 
the  priests  accompany  the  hosts  of  Israel  into 
battle  :  see  on  NulO^.  Hence  the  Heb. 
phrase  '  to  consecrate  a  war,  or  warriors,' 
usually  rendered  to  'prepare' :  see  Joel  S^™^- 
Isal33. 

5-9.  From  Nu  1 3  it  would  appear  that  all 
able-bodied  men  from  twenty  years  of  age 
were  liable  to  military  service.  But  the  evils 
of  compulsory  service  were  obviated  by  the 
rule  laid  down  in  this  passage  exempting  cer- 
tain classes.  There  was  (1)  the  man  who  had 
built  a  new  house  or  planted  a  vineyard,  and 
had  as  yet  got  no  return  for  his  outlay.  The 
law  exempting  him  for  a  time  was  an  en- 
couragement to  those  who  by  personal  outlay 
increased  the  material  resources  of  the  country. 

(2)  A  man  who  was  betrothed  or  newly 
married  was  exempted  for  a  year  (cp.  245). 

(3)  The  fearful  and  fainthearted  were  dis- 
charged. Fear  is  infectious,  and  the  presence 
of  such  persons  in  the  host  would  be  a  source 
of  weakness  and  danger.  For  an  instance  of 
the  observance  of  this  rule  see  Jg73.  It  is 
implied  that  a  sense  of  honour  will  protect 
this  law  from  being  abused. 

10.  War  is  to  be  regarded  as  the  last  resort, 
and  only  to  be  employed  when  negotiations 
for  peace  have  been  tried  and  failed.  In  the 
event  of  victory,  only  the  fighting  men  are  to 
be  put  to  death  ;  women  and  children  are  to 
be  spared,  except  in  the  case  of  neighbouring 
idolatrous  tribes.      16.   Cp.  JiA 

19,  20.  Fruit-trees  are  not  to  be  used  for 
bulwarks  and  battering  rams.  The  words  at 
the  end  of  v.  19  should  probably  be  read  as  in 
E.V,  '  for  is  the  tree  of  the  field  man,  that  it 
should  be  besieged  of  thee  ? '  i.e.  the  tree  does 
no  harm  and  is  not  to  be  treated  as  an  enemy. 
Wanton  destruction  is  not  permissible  even 
in  war. 

All  these  rules  were  designed  to  mitigate  as 
far  as  possible  the  evils  of  war.  There  is  to 
be  no  destruction  of  human  life  and  property 
beyond  what  is  actually  necessary.  The  con- 
duct of  war  is  to  be  guided  with  reason  and 
mercy. 

CHAPTER   21 
Expiation     of     Undetected     Homicide. 
Marriage   of   Captive  Women.    Pun- 
ishment of  a  Rebellious  Son 
The  last  sub-section  of  the  Second  Discourse 
begins  here,  containing  a  variety  of  social  and 
domestic  regulations. 


1-9.  The  Expiation  of  Undetected  Homi- 
cide. The  cases  of  accidental  and  open,  wilful 
murder  have  been  already  provided  for  in 
c.  19.  This  passage  treats  the  case  of  un- 
detected homicide.  Murder  pollutes  the  land 
and  must  be  expiated.  When  the  murderer 
cannot  be  discovered  the  responsibility  of 
making  atonement  rests  with  the  city  nearest 
to  the  scene  of  the  crime.  For  the  ancient 
Babylonian  practice  in  such  circumstances  see 
art.  '  Laws  of  Hammurabi.'  4.  For  rough 
valley  read  '  valley  with  running  water,'  and 
for  strike  off  the  heifer's  neck  read  '  break  the 
heifer's  neck.'  Eared  means  '  ploughed  '  as  in 
Ex  34  21.  The  proper  satisfaction  for  the  crime 
of  murder  would  be  the  death  of  the  murderer  : 
see  1913  ;  but  as  he  cannot  be  discovered,  the 
heifer  takes  his  place.  The  unworked  heifer 
and  the  untilled  land  probably  suggested  com- 
I^lete  severance  from  human  life,  and  symbolised 
the  unnaturalness  of  the  crime  of  murder. 

6.  The  washing  of  the  hands  is  a  protesta- 
tion of  innocence.  Cp.  the  action  of  Pilate 
in  Mt27  2-i.  7.  The  elders,  in  the  name  of  all 
the  citizens,  take  an  oath  of  purgation.  The 
publicity  and  solemnity  of  the  ceremony  must 
have  had  a  powerful  effect  upon  the  public 
conscience,  and  in  some  cases  no  doubt  assisted 
in  the  discovery  of  the  murderer. 

10-14.  On  the  Marriage  of  Captive  Women. 
This  rule  does  not  apply  to  Canaanitish  women, 
whom  the  Israelites  were  forbidden  in  any 
circumstances  to  marry  :  see  7^  19i*5-is. 

12.  These  are  rites  indicative  of  purifica- 
tion :  see  Lvl48  NuG^.  The  captive  comes 
from  a  heathen  people,  and  this  ceremony 
symbolises  the  renouncing  of  her  former  life 
and  her  adoption  into  Israel.  13.  The  woman 
is  to  be  honourably  treated.  Even  if  divorced 
she  must  not  be  sold  as  a  slave  but  allowed  to 
go  back  to  her  people. 

15.  Succession  to  hereditary  property  is  a 
fruitful  cause  of  discord  in  a  family,  as  is 
also  the  favouritism  of  parents  :  cp.  the  case 
of  Isaac  and  Rebekah  (Gn  25  28).  A  polygamous 
society  is  specially  liable  to  disturbance  from 
these  causes.  Beloved  and  hated  are  relative 
terms,  meaning  simply  that  one  is  preferred 
to  the  other.  For  a  similar  use  of  the  terms 
see  Mai  12, 3. 

17.  A  double  portion]  The  usual  right  of 
the  firstborn.  An  estate  was  divided  into  a 
number  of  parts  exceeding  the  number  of 
children  by  one,  and  the  extra  share  fell  to 
the  firstborn.  18.  Children  have  rights,  as 
the  last  passage  shows,  but  they  have  also 
duties.  The  punishment  of  an  incorrigible 
son  is  very  severe.  The  State  is  regarded  as 
having  an  interest  in  the  proper  upbringing  of 
children  and  as  exercising  its  authority  when 
that  of  the  parents  is  powerless  :  see  on 
Ex  20 12  2115.17. 


131 


21.  22 


DEUTERONOMY 


23.  24 


22,  23.  And  thou  hang  him]  The  hanging 
followed  the  execution.  See  on  Nu25'^and 
cp.  Josh  10 26  2S412.  The  tree  was  a  stake 
on  which  the  dead  body  of  the  criminal  was 
impaled,  in  token  of  infamy.  The  dead  body 
must  be  taken  down  before  nightfall  because 
it  is  '  the  curse  of  God.'  The  words  rendered, 
he  that  is  hanged  is  accursed  of  God,  are  some- 
what ambiguous.  They  mean  either  he  '  is 
accursed  in  the  sight  of  God,  i.e.  cursed  by 
God,'  or  '  is  an  insult  or  reproach  to  God.' 
Jewish  commentators  take  them  in  the  latter 
sense.  The  dead  body  pollutes  the  land  and 
is  an  insult  to  God  :  it  must  therefore  be 
taken  down.  St.  Paul  quotes  the  words  in 
Gal  31^  in  the  former  sense,  viz.  that  the  fact 
of  hanging  is  an  evidence  of  the  divine  curse 
resting  upon  the  person.  The  Jews  of  the 
apostle's  time,  like  those  of  later  times,  argued 
from  the  '  offence  of  the  cross.'  Seeing  that 
Jesus  was  hanged  on  a  tree.  He  could  not  be 
the  Son  of  God  :  He  was  manifestly  the  object 
of  divine  displeasure.  St.  Paul  boldly  admitted 
the  fact,  but  reasoned  differently  from  it.  The 
curse,  he  said,  was  vicarious.  Christ  '  was 
made  a  curse  for  us,'  thereby  redeeming  us 
from  the  curse  of  the  Law. 

CHAPTER  22 
Laws    regarding    Lost    Property,     Dis- 
tinction   OF    Sex    in    Apparel,    and 
Chastity 
1-4.  Law  of   Lost   Property  :    see   Ex234 
and  note. 

5.  '  God  is  not  the  author  of  confusion,' 
and  the  natural  distinctions  He  Himself  has 
appointed  ought  to  be  respected.  Whatever 
contravenes  the  law  of  nature  contravenes  the 
law  of  God  :  cp.  the  principle  laid  down  by 
St.  Paul  in  1  Cor  1 1 3-i6.  Immodesty  leads  to 
immorality.  There  may  be  an  allusion  here 
to  the  unchaste  practices  connected  with 
certain  idolatrous  rites  in  which  the  sexes 
exchanged  dress. 

6,  7.  To  take  the  old  bird  as  well  as  the 
young  would  be  wanton  cruelty.  Kindness 
to  animals  is  part  of  the  law  of  God  :  see  on 
Ex  23 4>  5, 21  Lv2228.  It  is  to  be  observed  that 
the  same  reward  is  attached  to  this  command- 
ment as  to  some  of  what  may  be  considered 
the  '  weightier  matters  of  the  law '  :  see  e.g. 
516,33.  Rabbi  Akiba,  referring  to  this  promise 
of  long  life,  supposes  the  case  of  a  man  who 
climbs  a  tower  and  takes  the  young  from  a 
nest,  sparing  the  dam  in  accordance  with  the 
commandment  given  here.  But  on  his  way 
down  he  falls  and  breaks  his  neck.  To  the 
question,  '  Where  is  the  going  well  and  pro- 
longing of  days  in  this  case  ? '  the  Rabbi 
answers,  '  In  the  world  where  all  goes  well, 
and  in  that  world  where  all  is  abiding.'  He 
holds  that  the  truth  of  the  resurrection  of  the 


dead  is  implied  in  all  the  promises  of  reward 
attached  to  the  keeping  of  the  Law  :  cp.  on 

Ex  20 12. 

8.  The  roofs  of  Eastern  houses  were  flat, 
and  used  not  only  for  drying  grain  (Josh  2  6), 
but  as  an  open-air  parlour  when  coolness  or 
privacy  was  sought :  see  e.g.  1  S  9  25, 26  2  S 11 2 
Dan429™g.  Ac  10^.  The  injunction  here  is  a 
corollary  of  the  sixth  commandment,  and  con- 
tains a  principle  capable  of  wide  application. 

9-1 1.   Cp.  V.  5  and  see  on  LvlQ^^. 

12.  See  on  NulS^'i'-ii.  The  law  is  applied 
spiritually  by  St.  Paul  in  2  Cor  6 1^. 

13-30.  On  the  Law  of  Chastity  see  on 
Lvl8,19. 

23.  Betrothal  consisted  in  the  settlement 
and  payment  of  a  dowry  by  the  bridegroom 
to  the  father  or  brothers  of  the  bride,  and  in 
presenting  the  bride  with  certain  gifts  :  see 
on  Ex  22 16.  It  was  regarded  as  sacredly  as 
marriage  itself.  After  betrothal,  the  bride 
was  under  the  same  restrictions  as  a  wife,  and 
if  unfaithful  was  punished  as  an  adulteress. 

24.  Here  the  betrothed  damsel  is  called  a 
wife  :  cp.  Mtl20.  28.  See  on  Ex  22  is.  The 
even-handed  justice  of  the  Mosaic  Law  is 
worthy  of  note.  It  deals  with  equal  strictness 
with  both  the  sinning  persons. 

CHAPTER  23 

Laws  regarding  admittance  to  the  Con- 
gregation, Cleanliness  in  the  Camp, 
Unchastity,  Usury,  and  Yows 
I.  Shall  not  enter  into  the  congregation  of 
the  LORD]  i.e.  not  merely  as  priests  (see 
Lv  21 16-24)  but  as  ordinary  members  of  the 
nation  of  Israel,  all  of  whom  are  '  holy  unto 
the  Lord.'  The  reference  in  this  v.  is  probably 
to  the  self -mutilation  practised  by  the  devotees 
of  certain  heathen  gods,  and  alluded  to  by  St. 
Paul  in  Gal  5 12  :  cp.  14 1.  2.  A  bastard  is 
understood  by  the  Jewish  commentators  to 
mean  here,  not  one  born  out  of  wedlock 
(Jephthah  was  such,  Jg  1 1 1),  but  the  child 
of  adultery  or  incest.  Even  to  his  tenth 
generation]  i.e.  not  at  all.  Similarly  in  v.  3  : 
seeNehlSi.  11.  Evening  cometh  on]  Anew 
day  begins  with  the  evening. 

12-14.  Sanitation  and  morality  are  both  of 
the  utmost  importance  for  an  army  in  camp. 
Cleanliness  is  next  unto  godliness  :  cp.  2  Cor 
6 16-7 1.  15.  A  foreign  slave  is  probably 
meant  ;  see  v.  16.  18.  From  its  connexion 
here  the  word  dog  seems  to  denote  a  person 
who  practised  immoral  conduct  as  an  idolatrous 
rite  :  see  on  Lvl929,  and  cp.  Rev  22 1^. 

19.  Thy  brother]  i.e.  a  fellow  Israelite.  In 
V.  20  stranger  means  foreigner.  The  Jews 
have  always  been  noted  as  money  lenders  : 
see  on  Ex  22  25. 

21-23.  On  vows  see  N'u30,  and  cp.  Eccl  S'^-  ^. 
24,   25.    Jewish    commentators     limit    the 


132 


24.  1 


DEUTERONOMY 


25.  4 


application  of  this  rule  to  harvest  labourers, 
thus  making  it  analogous  to  that  prohibiting  the 
muzzling  of  the  ox  '  when  he  treadeth  out  the 
corn'  (Dt254).  But  there  seems  no  reason 
for  limiting  the  natural  interpretation  of  the 
precept,  which  like  the  law  of  the  gleaner 
(2419-22)  is  prompted  by  a  spirit  of  generosity 
towards  wayfarers  and  poor  persons.  The 
restrictions  at  the  end  of  vv.  24,  25  would 
protect  the  law  from  abuse.  The  Pharisees 
did  not  accuse  our  Lord's  disciples  of  the  sin 
of  theft  but  of  working  on  the  sabbath  day, 
rubbing  the  ears  of  corn  being  equivalent  in 
their  opinion  to  harvesting  :  see  Mt  1 2 1*. 

CHAPTER  24 
Laws  regarding  Divorce,  Pledges,  Man- 
stealing,  Leprosy,  Justice,  and  Gleaning 

1-4.  The  Law  of  Divorce.  The  right  of 
the  husband  to  divorce  his  wife  is  here  acknow- 
ledged but  is  guarded  against  abuse.  There 
must  be  some  good  reason  for  the  separa- 
tion ;  it  must  be  done  in  a  legal  and  formal 
manner  :  and  it  is  final.  If  the  woman  is 
divorced  a  second  time,  or  becomes  a  widow 
after  re-marriage,  she  is  not  free  to  marry  her 
first  husband. 

I.  Some  uncleanness]  RV  '  some  unseemly 
thing.'  The  Heb.  is  literally  '  nakedness  of 
a  thing,'  an  expression  also  used  in  23 1-^. 
The  vagueness  of  the  language  gave  rise  to 
endless  disputes  among  Jewish  teachers.  In 
the  time  of  our  Lord,  opinion  was  divided 
between  the  school  of  Shammai  who  held  that 
it  meant  unchastity,  and  the  school  of  Hillel 
who  understood  the  expression  in  a  much  wider 
sense  as  referring  to  almost  any  cause  of  dis- 
pleasure on  the  part  of  the  husband,  such  as 
an  ill-cooked  meal  or  the  sight  of  a  more 
beautiful  woman.  The  Pharisees  asked  the 
judgment  of  our  Lord  upon  the  matter  and  He 
decreed  in  favour  of  the  stricter  interpreta- 
tion. He  acknowledged  no  gi'ound  for  divorce 
except  that  of  adultery,  and  even  this  is  a 
doubtful  exception  (neither  Mark  nor  Luke 
gives  the  qualifying  words  '  except  for  fornica- 
tion '  ;  see  MklU^i).  He  characterised  the 
Mosaic  law  of  divorce  as  a  concession  to  the 
'  hardness '  of  men's  hearts,  and  went  back  to 
the  original  ordinance  of  God  in  creating  one 
man  and  one  woman  as  evidence  of  the  divine 
idea  of  the  inviolability  of  the  marriage  bond  : 
see  Mkl02-i2  Mtl93-9  53i>32  Lkl6i8.  The 
bill  of  divorcement  contained  the  sentence, 
'  And  thou  art  permitted  (to  be  married)  to 
another  man.'  4.  The  infinitude  of  the  divine 
mercy  is  beautifully  illustrated  in  JerS^,  where 
God  takes  back  those  who  have  broken  His 
covenant  and  have  repented.  His  ways  are 
higher  than  om*  ways  (see  also  Hos  1-3).  5.  See 
on  205-9. 

6.  On  the  nature  of  the  Eastern  hand-mill 


see  on  Ex  11 5  2226,27.  The  mill  is  an  indis- 
pensable domestic  utensil  ;  and,  as  neither  of 
the  stones  is  of  any  use  without  the  other,  to 
take  one  away  would  inflict  a  cruel  hardship. 
It  would  be  to  '  take  a  man's  life,'  i.e.  his 
means  of  livelihood.  7.  See  Ex  21 16.  8,  9.  See 
Lv  13,  14  Nu  12.  Miriam,  though  she  was  the 
sister  of  Moses,  had  to  comply  strictly  with  the 
laws  regulating  the  separation  and  purification 
of  lepers. 

10.  Not  go  into  his  house]  The  debtor  must 
be  allowed  to  select  himself  the  article  that  he 
will  give  as  a  pledge  for  a  loan.  Whatever  it 
be,  the  creditor  must  accept  it,  and  not  force 
his  way  into  the  house  to  see  what  is  there 
and  perhaps  carry  off  something  that  the  poor 
man  cannot  spare.  If  the  man  is  so  poor  that 
he  has  nothing  save  his  blanket  to  give  in 
pledge,  it  must  not  be  kept  overnight  (vv.  12, 
13  ;  see  on  Ex  22  26).  13.  Righteousness]  In 
the  Rabbinical  language  the  word  for  '  alms ' 
is  'righteousness.'  To  give  alms  is  the  right- 
eous act  par  excellence  :  see  Mt  6  ^  and  mg. 

15.  Another  humane  principle  of  far  reach- 
ing application.  16.  For  an  instance  of  the 
observance  of  this  rule  see  2X14*5,  and  cp. 
Ezk  18  2-4, 19, 20. 

20.  When  thou  beatest  thine  olive  tree]  In 
gathering  olives  the  fruit  is  brought  to  the 
ground  either  by  shaking  the  boughs  or  beat- 
ing them  with  a  long  palm  branch.  At  the 
present  time  the  trees  are  beaten  on  a  certain 
day  announced  by  a  crier,  after  which  the  poor 
are  allowed  to  glean  what  is  left.  A  similar 
permission  holds  good  in  the  case  of  vineyards 
and  cornfields  :  see  on  Lv  1 9  9.  Gleaning  is  a 
beautiful  and  kindly  custom  still  surviving  to 
some  extent  in  Palestine,  but  fast  disappearing 
before  the  introduction  of  modern  methods  of 
harvesting,  which  are  not  unnaturally  regarded 
with  disfavour  by  the  poorer  classes. 

CHAPTER  25 

Ordinances  regarding  the  Infliction  of 
Stripes,  the  Raising  of  Seed  to  a 
Brother,  Modesty,  and  Fair  Dealing 
3,  A)id  not  exceed]  In  order  to  keep  within 
the  limit  it  was  usual  to  inflict  thirty-nine 
stripes:  see  2 Cor  11 24.  The  milder  beating 
was  with  a  rod.  A  severer  form  of  this  punish- 
ment was  scourging,  inflicted  with  a  whip  of 
thongs  into  which  pieces  of  iron  were  inserted. 
In  the  time  of  our  Lord  beating  was  inflicted 
in  the  synagogue  upon  ecclesiastical  offenders  : 
see  on  MtlOi7  Ac26ii.  While  the  culprit 
was  being  beaten  the  words  in  Dt  28^^,59 
Ps  78  3^  were  read.  4.  In  threshing,  the  sheaves 
were  spread  out  upon  a  hard  beaten  piece  of 
ground  (the  threshing  floor),  and  over  them  a 
pair  of  oxen  dragged  a  wooden  sledge  or 
harrow  about  5  ft.  square,  upon  which  the  di'iver 
stood   to   add   weight   to   it.      In    1  Cor  9  9-14 


133 


25.  5 


DEUTERONOMY 


27.  11 


ITimoi'^'i^  St.  Paul  applies  this  precept  to 
the  duty  of  supporting  those  who  preach  the 
gospel :  see  on  Ex  23*>5. 

5-10.  Marriage  of  a  brother's  widow. 
Among  the  Jews  it  was  regarded  as  a  great 
calamity  that  the  family  line  should  become 
extinct.  If  a  man  died  childless,  his  name 
perished  and  his  property  passed  to  the  families 
of  his  brothers.  To  obviate  this  was  the  pur- 
pose of  this  law  of  the  levirate  marriage 
(Lat.  levir  =  a,  husband's  brother).  The  duty 
of  marrying  a  brother's  widow  was  not  en- 
forced, but  the  refusal  to  do  so  was  regarded 
as  disgraceful.  Failing  a  brother  the  duty 
devolved  upon  the  nearest  male  relative.  See 
on  Lvl8i6,  and  see  Ruth  2  20  39-13  4.  9.  The 
loosing  of  the  shoe  and  handing  it  over  signified 
an  act  of  transfer  or  renunciation.  In  this 
case  it  was  a  mark  of  discredit :  cp.  Ruth  2  7'  8. 
A  Bedouin  formula  of  divorce  is  '  She  was  my 
slipper  and  I  have  cast  her  off.' 

13-16.  Ancient  weights  were  pieces  of  stone 
or  metal  which  the  merchant  kept  in  a  bag. 
An  unscrupulous  merchant  might  have  two 
sets  of  weights  in  his  bag,  a  heavier  for  buying 
and  a  lighter  for  selling :  see  Mic  6  ^  Prov 
1611,  andcp.  Lv  19  35,30. 

17-19.  See  Ex  17  8-16,  and  for  the  fulfilment 
of  the  injunction  ISU^s  15,  27S>9. 

CHAPTER  26 

The  Presentation  of  Firstfruits  and  of 
Tithes 

i-ii.  Presentation  of  the  Firstfruits,  as  a 
Thank-offering  for  the  mercy  of  God  in  de- 
livering the  nation  from  Egypt  and  in  giving 
them  a  good  land  and  fruitful  seasons. 

5.  A  Syrian]  Jacob  is  meant.  His  mother 
came  from  Aram-naharaim  (Gn24i0),  and  he 
himself  spent  fourteen  years  in  that  country 
(Gn28i-5  29-31).  The  term  implies  a  sug- 
gestion of  disparagement.  For  his  going 
down  to  Egypt  see  Gn  46.  11.  Having  de- 
dicated their  fii-stfruits  the  people  were  free 
to  enjoy  what  remained. 

12-15.  On  the  tithe  of  the  first  and  second 
year  see  on  1422,27^  and  on  the  tithe  of 
the  third  year  see  on  1428,29.  The  latter 
was  the  poor's  tithe,  and  was  stored  up 
and  distributed  among  the  needy.  13.  Brought 
away  the  hallowed  things]  RV  '  put  away,' 
wholly  parted  with  them.  The  'hallowed 
things '  are  the  tithes  which  were  consecrated 
to  Jehovah  and  could  not  be  lawfully  retained 
by  the  owner. 

14.  As  the  presence  of  a  dead  body  was 
ceremonially  defiling  in  the  highest  degi-ee, 
the  offerer  here  declares  that  neither  he  nor 
his  tithe  was  defiled  in  this  way.  The  words 
given  thereof  for  the  dead  are  imderstood  by 
Jewish  commentators  to  mean  that  the  offerer 
had  not  used  any  part  of  the  tithe  to  provide 


a  cofiin  or  grave-clothes  for  a  dead  person. 
More  probably,  however,  they  refer  to  the 
practice,  common  in  Egypt  e.g.,  of  making  a 
funeral  feast.  Thomson,  in  '  The  Land  and 
the  Book,'  says  it  is  customary  after  a  funeral 
to  send  presents  of  corn  and  food  to  the 
friends  in  the  name  of  the  dead :  cp.  Jer  16"^ 
(cp.  RV)  Hos9'i.  The  Egyptians  also  placed 
food  on  the  tombs  of  the  dead,  but  it  is 
doubtful  whether  this  custom  obtained  among 
the  Jews,  although  we  read  in  the  apocryphal 
book  of  Tobit  (4 1^)  :  '  Pour  out  thy  bread  on 
the  tomb  (or,  burial)  of  the  just.'  In  any  case 
the  declaration  in  this  passage  means  that  the 
tithe  has  not  been  in  any  way  ceremonially 
defiled. 

16.  These  statutes]  i.e.  those  contained  in 
chs.  12-26,  to  which  vv.  16-19  here  form  the 
hortatory  conclusion. 

CHAPTER  27 
Ceremonies  to  be  observed  on  reaching 
Canaan 
This  chapter  has  probably  been  misplaced, 
as  it  seems  to  break  the  connexion  between 
c.  26  and  c.  28.  It  ordains  four  ceremonies 
to  be  observed  after  the  people  have  entered 
Canaan :  the  Law  to  be  written  on  stones  on 
Mt.  Ebal :  an  altar  to  be  erected  there  :  the 
covenant  ratified  on  Ebal  and  Gerizim :  and 
twelve  curses  pronounced  by  the  Levites. 

1.  Elders]  Elsewhere  the  elders  are  ad- 
dressed along  with  the  people.  Here  they  are 
associated  with  Moses  in  exhorting  the  people 
to  obedience. 

2,  3.  The  plaster  was  intended  to  make  a 
smooth  surface,  on  which  the  inscription  may 
have  been  painted  in  accordance  with  the 
Egyptian  custom.  Or  the  writing  may  have 
been  impressed  on  the  clay  when  it  was  soft 
and  the  clay  afterwards  dried  or  baked  in  the 
sun,  like  the  tablets  and  cylinders  of  Baby- 
lonia. On  the  fulfilment  of  the  injunction 
given  here  see  Josh  8  30-35  and  on  1129,30. 

5.   Cp.  Ex  2024,25  and  notes  there. 

9,  10.  The  Levites  are  addressed  here  be- 
cause it  was  their  duty  to  pronounce  the  bless- 
ings and  the  curses,  to  which  the  people 
responded  with  '  Amen.' 

1 1 -1 3.  On  Ebal  and  Gerizim  see  1129,30. 
It  need  not  be  supposed  that  six  tribes  spoke 
the  blessings  from  the  top  of  Gerizim  and  the 
other  six  the  curses  from  the  top  of  Ebal. 
According  to  the  Jewish  writers  the  priests 
and  Levites  stood  in  the  valley  between  the 
two  heights  and  spoke  both  the  blessings  and 
.the  curses  from  there  (see  v.  14),  and  all  the 
people  answered  with  a  loud  Amen.  The 
valley  between  the  hills  is  not  more  than  60 
rods  wide  at  the  eastern  end,  and  all  travellers 
in  Palestine  remark  upon  the  wonderful  dis- 
tance at  which  sounds  are  audible,  on  account 


134 


27.  12 


DEUTERONOMY 


29.6 


of  the  unusual  clearness  of  the  air.  Our  Lord 
frequently  spoke  to  large  multitudes  in  the 
open  ail". 

12.  To  bless]  The  words  of  the  blessings 
are  not  given  but  may  be  inferred  from  the 
nature  of  the  curses :  cp.  11 26-32. 

15.  Cursed  he  the  man]  There  is  no  verb  in 
the  Hebrew,  and  it  might  be  more  correct  to 
say  '  cursed  is  the  man.'  The  words  are  a 
declaration  of  fact  rather  than  an  imprecation. 
The  seeming  harshness  of  many  expressions  in 
the  Psalms  e.g.  may  be  explained  in  this  way. 
The  speaker  does  not  always  utter  his  own 
wish,  but  declares  the  inevitable  result  in 
God's  righteous  government  of  a  certain  line 
of  conduct.  In  a  secret  ^;/aee]  cp.  1.3'''.  It  is 
seldom  that  sin  is  bold  enough  to  show  its 
head,  at  least  in  its  beginning.  But  '  the  eyes 
of  the  Lord  are  in  every  place  beholding  the 
evil  and  the  good.' 

18.  To  take  advantage  of  a  neighbour's 
ignorance  or  credulity  is  sin:  cp.  LvlQ^'^. 

26.  Cp.  Gal  3  26.  As  no  mere  man  is  able 
perfectly  to  keep  the  whole  law,  St.  Paul 
argues  that  part  at  least  of  the  purpose  of  the 
Mosaic  Law  was  to  teach  men  to  despair  of 
obtaining  righteousness  '  by  the  works  of  the 
law,'  and  to  drive  them,  as  it  were,  to  seek  a 
righteousness  imputed  by  God  on  condition  of 
faith:  see  Ro3i9-3i  49-25  Gal 3 19-24. 

CHAPTER  28 
The  Blessing  and  the  Curse 

This  c.  properly  follows  26  ^9,  and  concludes 
the  second  discourse.  It  enforces  the  in- 
junctions given,  by  exhibiting  the  blessings 
associated  with  the  keeping  of  them,  and  the 
curses  entailed  upon  disobedience. 

1-14.  Tlie  Blessings  for  Obedience. 

5.  Store]  lit.  '  kneading-trough '  as  in  Ex 
123'i.  The  basket  is  that  used  for  holding 
bread:  see  Gn40i7  Lv82  Mtl420. 

7.  Seven  ways]  (at  once),  a  proverbial 
saying  expressing  a  disorderly  rout. 

12.  See  on  Lv26-i  and  on  c.  11 10. 

15-48.   The  Curse  for  Disobedience. 

22.  The  sword]  rather,  '  drought.' 

23,  24.  A  graphic  description  of  long-con- 
tinued cli'ought.  In  Palestine  the  E.  wind  is 
hot  and  dry  ;  and,  blowing  from  the  desert,  is 
often  full  of  fine  sand-dust  which  gives  the 


sky  the  appearance  of  burnished  metal.  When 
this  wind  (called  the  '  sirocco ')  is  strong,  it  pro- 
duces the  terrible  sand  storm  so  destructive  to 
life,  when  '  the  rain  of  the  land  is  powder  and 
dust':  see  on  Lv 20 19.  26.  Fray]  frighten,  or 
scare:  cp.  1817^4  282110.  27.  The  "botch  of 
Egypt]  the  boil  with  which  the  Egyptians 
were  plagued:  see  Ex 9 9.  Emerods]  hsemor- 
rhoids,  as  in  1  856.  What  is  meant  is  probably 
the  Oriental  bubonic  plague.  28.  They  will  be 
afflicted  with  mental  as  well  as  bodily  diseases. 

30-34.  These  troubles  are  the  consequences 
of  defeat  in  war  and  oppression  by  foreign 
nations.     For  a  historical  instance  see  Jg63-6. 

34.  For  the  sight  of  thine  eyes]  i.e.  on 
account  of  what  you  see.  36.  Serve  other 
gods]   see  on  428.     37.  Cp.  lK9'-9. 

38.  Cp.  Hag  16-11.  40.  Shall  cast  its  fruit] 
i.e.  unripe.     42.   See  on  Ex  104-6. 

49.  The  Chaldeans  or  Assyrians  are  meant: 
see  Jer5i5  Habl6-8. 

53-57.  This  crowning  horror  of  a  long- 
continued  siege  actually  took  place  during  the 
siege  of  Samaria  by  the  Syrians  (2  K  6  26-29)^  jn 
the  siege  of  Jerusalem  by  Nebuchadnezzar 
(Lam  4 10),  and  later  in  the  final  overthrow  of 
Jerusalem  by  Titus,  as  recorded  by  Josephus 
in  his  '  Wars  of  the  Jews.'  58.  The  name  of 
God  is  His  revealed  character:  see  on  Nu627. 
The  name  here,  Jehovah  thy  God,  expresses 
what  God  is  in  Himself,  and  what  He  is  to 
Israel.  He  is  the  eternal  and  self-existent 
God  who  has  made  Israel  His  people. 

64,  65.  These  words  were  fulfilled  at  the 
exile,  and  even  more  literally  at  the  destruction 
of  Jerusalem  during  the  Roman  supremacy. 
Since  that  time  the  Jews  have  been  repeatedly 
persecuted  and  di-iven  from  one  country  to 
another  ;  but,  wonderfully  enough,  they  have 
always  preserved  their  identity.  They  still 
present  the  strange  spectacle  of  a  nation  with- 
out a  country :  see  on  Nu  23  9.  65.  The  failing 
of  the  eyes  indicates  the  gradual  extinction  of 
hope:  cp.  v.  32.  68.  After  the  capture  of 
Jerusalem  the  Roman  general  Titus  sent  a 
great  many  captives  to  the  Egyptian  mines. 

No  man  shall  buy  you]  This  does  not  mean 
'  shall  redeem  you,'  but  '  purchase  you  as 
slaves.'  They  would  be  exposed  for  sale  as 
slaves,  and  no  man  would  consider  them  worth 
the  buying. 


PART   3 
Third  Discourse  (Chs.  29,  30) 


CHAPTER   29 

Exhortations  and  Warnings 

In  this  chapter  the  covenant  is  renewed  and 
enforced  with  a  reminder  of  God's  goodness 
and  the  consequences  of  disobedience. 

3.  Temptations]  i.e.  provings  or  trials  :  see 


on  719.  4.  The  people  have  not  laid  these 
things  to  heart.  For  the  form  of  expression 
see  on  the  '  hardening  of  Phai'aoh's  heart ' 
(Ex  4  21).  6.  Not  eaten  bread]  but  manna.  They 
have  been  entirely  dependent  on  God,  and  His 
care  in  providing  for  them  should  teach  them 
humility    and    obedience.      The  goodness  of 


135 


29.  11 


DEUTERONOMY 


32.  7 


God  should  lead  to  repentance,  ii.  Your 
little  ones]  Children  share  the  privileges  and 
responsibilities  of  the  covenant  into  which  they 
enter  by  circumcision.  15.  With  him  that  is 
not  here]  i.e.  with  succeeding  generations  : 
see  on  53.  18.  A  root  that  beareth  gall  and 
wormwood]  The  reference  is  to  any  one  who 
secretly  entices  his  neighbours  to  idolatry  : 
see  13 '''  13,  and  for  an  instance  Josh  7 1^'  ^s.  The 
words  are  used  in  Hebl2is. 

19.  Imagination]  RV  '  stubbornness.'  To 
add  drunkenness  to  thirst]  i.e.  the  commission 
of  the  sin  to  the  desire  to  commit  it.  RV, 
however,  renders  the  words  '  to  destroy  the 
moist  with  the  dry,'  which  seems  to  be  a  pro- 
verbial expression,  like  '  root  and  branch,'  in- 
dicating the  destruction  of  the  whole  nation. 
The  sinner  perishes  not  alone  in  his  iniquity, 
but  involves  others  along  with  him.  The  LXX 
seems  to  understand  the  phrase  in  this  sense, 
for  it  has  '  lest  the  sinner  destroy  the  innocent 
along  with  him.'  Achan  again  furnishes  an 
illustration.  See  Josh  22  20.  23.  Contrast  the 
description  of  the  good  land  that  Jehovah  in- 
tends His  people  to  enjoy,  DtS''''^.  24.  Cp. 
Jer5i9  228.9. 


29.  The  meaning  of  this  v.  seems  to  be,  '  we 
know  not  the  entire  nature  and  extent  of  the 
divine  judgments  ;  it  is  enough  for  us  and  for 
our  children  to  have  heard  the  commandments 
of  God  and  to  do  them.' 

CHAPTER   30 

Promises  and  Appeals 
A  promise  of  restoration,  even  after  abandon- 
ment and  rejection,  is  held  out,  on  condition  of 
repentance  ;  and  an  appeal  is  made  to  the 
people  to  choose  the  way  of  obedience  and 
life  rather  than  that  of  disobedience  and  death. 
6.  Circumcision  is  the  sign  of  the  covenant. 
To  circumcise  the  heart  is  to  consecrate  it  to 
God:  cp.  on  Lv  19 23. 

II.  Hidden]  RV  'hard,'  lit.  'wonderful.' 
God's  law  is  not  unintelligible  or  impracticable. 
It  is  a  revealed  thing  (see  29  29).  All  that  is 
essential  in  revelation  is  plain  ;  it  is  within  the 
compass  of  human  understanding  and  will.  St. 
Paul  applies  these  words  to  the  law  of  right- 
eousness by  faith  :  see  RolO'^.  15-20.  An 
earnest  appeal  to  the  people  to  choose  the  way 
of  obedience  and  life .  20.  He  is  thy  life]  To 
love  God  is  life  :  cp.  Prov835,36_ 


PART   4 


The  Last  Words  of 


CHAPTER   31 

Farewell  Exhortations  of  Moses  to  the 
People  and  Joshua.  He  Delivers 
THE  Law  to  the  Priests.  The 
Assembling  of  the  Congregation 

I.  These  words]  i.e.  the  following  words. 
2.  Go  out  and  come  in]  i.e.  perform  the  office 
of  a  leader  :  see  on  Nu 27 1''.  3.  Jehovah  is 
the  real  Leader  of  the  hosts  of  Israel  :  Joshua 
is  the  human  instrument  :  cp.  Nu  23  22. 

9.  This  law^]  i.e.  the  Deuteronomic  law, 
especially  that  contained  in  chs.  12-26  :  see 
intro.  to  c.  12.  10.  The  Feast  of  Tabernacles 
was  at  the  beginning  of  the  year  of  release  : 
see  on  Lv  2323-43,  and  cp.  Lv259.  On  the 
reading  of  the  law  at  this  season  see  e.g. 
Neh8.  14.  Cp.  Nu 27 12-23  and  notes.  16.  Go 
a  whoring]  see  on  Ex  34  is.  19,  Aw^itnessfor 
me]  When  the  threatened  punishment  had 
fallen,  the  song  would  remain  to  testify  that 
God,  who  foresaw  their  apostasy,  had  warned 
them  against  it  :  see  v.  21.  The  song  would 
also  be  a  means  of  bringing  them  to  repent- 
ance. 26.  In  the  side  of]  i.e.  beside.  The 
tables  with  the  Ten  Commandments  were  kept 
in  the  ark:    see  on  Ex  16 3*. 

CHAPTER   32 

The  Song  of  Moses 
The  theme  of  this  noble  Song  is  the  good- 
ness of  Jehovah  in  choosing  Israel  and  bringing 


Moses  (Chs.  31-34) 

them  into  a  rich  land.  When  they  provoke 
Him  with  their  forgetfulness  and  unfaithful- 
ness, He  disciplines  them.  But  He  does  not 
utterly  reject  them  ;  when  they  repent  He 
takes  part  with  them  against  their  enemies 
and  delivers  them.  It  will  be  observed  that 
the  exodus  begins  and  concludes  with  a  Song 
of  Moses  :  see  ExlSi^i^.  Ps90  is  also  attri- 
buted to  him. 

1-6.  Heaven  and  earth  are  called  to  witness 
the  perfect  righteousness  and  faithfulness 
of  Jehovah  which  Israel  has  requited  with 
ingratitude. 

2.  As  the  dew]  in  its  gentleness  and 
beneficent  results:  cp.  Isa55io.ii  Psl333 
Job 29 22, 23.  3.  Name  of  the  LORD]  i.e.  His 
character  :  see  on  28-5'^.  4.  The  Rock]  This 
frequent  name  of  Jehovah  expresses  His  abso- 
lute and  unwavering  faithfulness  :  see  e.g. 
Psl82.  Observe  the  number  of  words  in  this 
V.  all  emphasising  this  attribute  of  the  divine 
character,  and  serving  to  throw  into  stronger 
relief  the  fickleness  of  Israel.  5.  The  first 
part  of  this  v.  is  obscure,  and  various  emenda- 
tions have  been  suggested.  RV  has  '  they 
have  dealt  corruptly  with  him  (i.e.  with 
Jehovah),  they  are  not  his  children,  it  is 
their  blemish  ;  they  are  a  perverse  and  crooked 
generation,'  which  seems  to  express  the  general 
meaning  of  the  original. 

7-14.  Think  of  the  goodness  of  Jehovah 
in    choosing    Israel,    rescuing    them    in    the 


136 


32.  8 


DEUTERONOMY 


33.  2 


wilderness,  and  bringing  them  into  a  rich  land. 
8.  Jehovah  is  not  the  God  of  Israel  only,  but  of 
all  the  nations  of  the  earth.  He  has,  however, 
a  special  favour  towards  Israel  ;  and,  when  He 
divided  the  world  among  the  nations.  He  left 
room  for  the  people  whom  He  had  chosen. 

9.  The  converse  is  also  true.  Jehovah  is 
the  portion  of  His  people  :  see  e.g.  Nul8-0 
PsKiS.e  7326  1425  JerlOie.  10.  He  found 
him]  like  a  lost  child  or  wandering  sheep. 
Led  him  about]  RV  '  compassed  him  about.' 
II.  The  image  is  that  of  the  old  eagle  en- 
couraging her  timorous  young  to  fly.  So 
Jehovah  disciplined  Israel  in  the  wilderness, 
preparing  the  people  for  their  life  in  Canaan  : 
see  on  Ex  19*.  12.  There  loas  no  strange 
god  with  him]  i.e.  with  Jehovah.  He  did 
everything  for  Israel.  No  other  god,  there- 
fore, has  any  claim  upon  their  gi'atitude  and 
obedience.  14.  Rams .  .  of  Bashan]  see  on 
Nu  2 1 33-3.5  Pat  of  kidneys  of  wheat]  the  finest 
and  most  nourishing  of  wheat,  the  kidneys 
being  enclosed  in  the  best  fat  of  the  animal  : 
cp.  Nu  18 12,  where  the  Heb.  is  '  all  the  fat  of . .' 
15-18.  All  this  grace  Israel  has  requited 
with  forgetfulness  and  unfaithfulness. 

15.  Jeshurun]  (cp.  335.26  Isa442)  is  a 
poetical  name  for  Israel,  meaning  probably 
'  the  righteous  one  ' :  see  on  Nu  23 10.  Pros- 
perity made  Israel  self-willed  and  forgetful  : 
see  on  4'-25,  and  cp.  8io-is_  16.  Jealousy]  see 
on  Ex  20  5.  17.  Unto  devils,  not  to  God]  RV 
'unto  demons  which  were  no  God  '  :  cp.  v.  21. 
The  '  demons '  may  mean  the  divinities  wor- 
shipped in  Assyria  in  the  form  of  colossal 
bulls  :  cp.  Ps  10637. 

19-33.  Ill  consequence  of  this  perversity 
Jehovah  is  provoked  and  corrects  them  in  His 
anger.  20.  No  faith]  i.e.  no  faithfulness  or 
fidelity.  They  have  broken  their  covenant 
with  Jehovah.  21.  Vanities]  i.e.  false  gods  : 
see  e.g.  Isa4129  4410  Jergis  10  is  ICorS*. 
Not  a  people]  i.e.  most  probably  an  undis- 
ciplined horde  of  barbarians,  whom  God  will 
permit  to  gain  the  mastery  over  Israel.  In 
Ro  1019  this  passage  is  applied  to  the  Gentiles, 
whose  acceptance  of  the  gospel  will  have  the 
effect  of  provoking  the  jealousy  of  the  chosen 
people  and  moving  them  ultimately  to  follow 
their  example.  22.  Lowest  hell]  RV  '  pit '  : 
Heb.  Sheol.  God's  righteous  indignation 
reaches  to  the  deepest  and  remotest  part  of 
the  universe  :  cp.  Am  9  2.  27.  Behave  them- 
selves strangely]  RY  '  misdeem,'  draw  a  false 
conclusion  from  Jehovah's  treatment  of 
Israel  by  taking  credit  to  themselves  for  its 
humiliation:  see  Nu  1415-17  and  note  there, 
and  cp.  9-8  28.  They]  Israel.  29.  Their 
latter  end]  the  consequences  of  their  conduct. 
30.  Shut  them  up]  delivered  them  into  the 
hand  of  their  enemies.  31.  Their  rock]  the 
gods  of  the  heathen. 


32.  Their  vine]  The  analogy  with  their  rock 
in  V.  31  suggests  that  the  reference  is  to  the 
enemy,  but  more  probably  it  is  to  Israel 
itself,  whose  apostasy  is  thus  severely  con- 
demned. Israel  is  frequently  compared  to  a 
vine  of  God's  planting,  which  instead  of  bear- 
ing fruit  is  either  fruitless  (HoslOi)  or  bears 
wild  gi-apes  (Isa  5  2-7).  Sodom  and  Gomorrah 
are  types  of  wickedness,  and  the  vines  ascribed 
to  them  may  be  no  specific  plants,  but  figurative 
growths  or  outcomes.  33.  Dragons]  i.e. 
serpents. 

34-43.  When  Israel  is  reduced  to  extremi- 
ties Jehovah  will  be  merciful  to  them  and 
avenge  them.  34.  This]  referring  to  the 
vengeance  of  God  (v.  35),  which  for  the  present 
is  laid  up  in  store  against  the  day  when  it  will 
be  manifested.  35.  RV  '  vengeance  is  mine 
and  recompence,  at  the  time  when  their  foot 
shall  slide.'  36.  Shut  up,  or  left]  i.e.  left  at 
large,  a  proverbial  expression  meaning  every- 
body: see  IKI410  2121  2K98  1426.  37.  Cp. 
Jgl0i4  Jer228.  39.  No  god  with  me]  This 
is  almost  equivalent  to  '  no  god  beside  me.' 
Jehovah  alone  is  able  to  work  and  save  :  cp. 
Isa  43 10-13.  40,  Lift  up  my  hand]  The  usual 
attitude  of  taking  an  oath  :  see  Gnl422 
NuUSOmg.  Rev  105. 6.  I  live  for  ever] 
rather, '  As  I  live  for  ever.'  41.  Mine  enemies] 
the  heathen.  42.  From  the  beginning  .  . 
enemy]  RV  '  from  the  head  of  the  leaders  of 
the  enemy.'  43.  Read,  with  RM,  'Praise 
His  people,  ye  nations,  for  .  .  He  will  make 
expiation  for  His  land.  His  people  (or,  for  the 
land  of  His  people),'  i.e.  He  will  make  atone- 
ment for  the  blood  shed  in  the  land  by  the 
slaughter  of  those  who  shed  it.  Then  those 
who  witness  this  righteous  judgment  will 
recognise  that  Israel  is  the  people  of  Jehovah 
and  will  bless,  or  congratulate,  them. 

44.   Hoshea]  see  on  Ex  17  9. 

48-52.  See  Nu  27  i2-i'i  and  notes  there.     On 
the  death  of  Aaron  see  Nu  20  22-29. 

CHAPTER  33 

The  Blessing  of  Moses 
This  chapter  contains  the  last  words  or 
'swan-song'  of  Moses.  Immediately  before 
his  death  he  takes  farewell  of  the  people,  and 
blesses  each  of  the  tribes  in  turn,  as  Jacob  had 
done  on  his  deathbed:  see  Gn49.  The  two 
blessings  should  be  compared  ;  see  also  on  v.  4. 
2-5.  Introduction,  describing  the  majestic 
appearance  of  Jehovah  to  His  chosen  people. 
2.  Cp.  Jg5*  Hab33.  Seir]  Edom  (see  on 
Nu  20  22-29).  Mount  Paran]  the  S.  boundary 
of  Canaan.  The  appearance  of  Jehovah  is 
described  as  a  sunrise.  The  glory  of  His 
Presence  appeared  on  Mt.  Sinai,  His  beams 
smote  the  top  of  Mt.  Seir,  and  glowed  upon 
Mt.  Paran.  Read,  '  He  came  forth  from  the 
midst  of  (not,  with)  the  myriad  shining  saints 


137 


33.  3 


DEUTERONOMY 


33.  19 


that  encircle  His  throne  :  at  His  right  hand 
was  a  burning  fire  for  them.'  The  last  clause 
is  difficult  and  very  probably  corrupt.  3.  All 
his  saints]  i.e.  Israel's  saints.  They  sat  down 
at  thy  feet]  as  disciples  listening  to  the  words 
of  their  teacher.  4.  This  v.  may  be  inter- 
polated. Moses  could  hardly  have  written  it 
himself.  The  superscription  in  v.  1  seems 
also  to  indicate  that  a  later  writer  has  written 
down  the  Blessing  of  Moses.  5.  He  was 
king]  Jehovah,  not  Moses:  cp.  on  Nu232i. 
On  Jeshurun  see  32 1^. 

6.  Reuben  is  the  eldest  of  the  sons  of 
Jacob.  There  is  a  difficulty  in  the  second 
half  of  this  v.,  in  which  AY  has  inserted  a 
negative  not  in  the  original.  It  may  be  better 
to  read  with  RV  '  yet  let  his  men  be  few.'  In 
the  earlier  blessing  of  Jacob  it  is  said  that 
Reuben  will  not  endure,  or  have  preeminence, 
on  accoimt  of  his  misdeed  (Gn35^2)_  Owing 
to  their  position  on  the  E.  of  the  Jordan 
the  Reubenites  had  a  somewhat  precarious 
hold  of  their  territory.  The  Ammonites 
were  troublesome  (JglO,  11);  on  the  Moab- 
ite  Stone  (see  on  ]S'u2129)  most  of  the 
Reubenite  cities  are  said  to  be  occupied  by  the 
Moabites  ;  and  Tiglath-Pileser  carried  them 
captive  toAssyria(l  Ch56,  22,  26  2K1529.  This 
constant  danger  of  extinction  may  be  alluded 
to  here.  But  the  text  may  be  corrupt,  and 
some  words  may  have  dropped  out.  Some 
MSS  of  LXX  insert  Simeon  as  the  subject  of 
the  second  clause.  It  will  be  observed  that 
he  is  not  otherwise  mentioned  at  all,  though 
the  omission  may  be  explained  by  the  fact 
that  the  tribe  of  Simeon  was  absorbed  in  that 
of  Judah(Joshl99). 

7.  Let  his  hands  .  .  for  him]  RV  '  with  his 
hands  he  contended  for  himself  '  (or,  '  for  it,' 
i.e.  the  people).  Judah  was  the  champion  of 
the  tribes:  see  e.g.  Jgl^  2018. 

8.  On  the  Urim  and  Thummim  see  Ex  28  30. 
Jehovah  is  addressed  in  this  v.,  and  Levi  is 
meant  by  thy  holy  one.  Three  privileges  of 
the  priestly  tribe  are  referred  to  in  this  bless- 
ing, viz.  the  use  of  the  Urim  and  Thummim, 
the  teaching  of  the  Law,  and  the  presentation 
of  incense  and  sacrifice  (v.  10  :  see  on  Nu  18, 
3518,9-15).  Whom  thou  didst  prove,  etc.]  At 
Massah  and  Meribah  the  people  certainly 
proved  and  strove  with  Jehovah.  But  unless 
there  is  a  change  of  person  here,  and  again  in 
V.  10,  it  would  appear  that  the  person  addressed 
is  still  Jehovah,  who  is  represented  as  havmg 
proved  and  contended  with  Levi  there,  in  the 
persons  of  Moses  and  Aaron.  See  Nu  20 12 
and  Dt82.  9.  This  v.  refers  to  the  separation 
of  the  tribe  of  Levi  to  their  sacred  duties. 
They  have  no  lot  or  inheritance  among  their 
brethren.  There  may  be  a  particular  refer- 
ence to  the  exceptional  zeal  of  Levi  mentioned 
in    Ex  32  26-29;   cp.    for   the   thought   MtlO^^ 


Lk959-62_     II.  Them   that  rise  against  him] 
such  as  Korah:  see  Nul6. 

12.  The  beloved  of  the  LORD]  is  Benjamin, 
and  the  subject  of  the  second  and  third  clauses 
is  Jehovah,  as  in  AV.  The  v.  refers  to  the 
fact  that  Zion,  the  dwelling-place  of  Jehovah, 
was  in  the  land  of  Benjamin.  Jerusalem  was 
on  the  border  line  between  Benjamin  and 
Judah,  so  that  Jewish  writers  speak  of  the 
Temple  being  in  Beiijamin  while  its  courts 
were  in  Judah.  Hence,  Jehovah  is  here  said 
to  dwell  between  Benjamin's  shoulders,  i.e. 
mountain  slopes. 

13.  The  fertility  of  the  land  of  Joseph  is 
also  emphasised  in  the  earlier  blessing  of 
Jacob:  see  Gn 49 22-20.  The  precious  things 
of  heaven  is  the  rain,  and  the  deep  that  couch- 
eth  beneath  is  the  springs  of  water.  The 
words  for  the  dew  should  perhaps  be  read 
'  from  above.'  14.  Things  put  forth  by  the 
moon]  RV  '  things  of  the  growth  of  the 
moons,'  i.e.  probably  of  the  months,  things 
put  forth  month  by  month,  according  to  their 
season.  16.  Good  will  of  him  that  dwelt  in 
the  bush]  Jehovah  revealed  Himself  in  the 
bush  as  the  Deliverer  of  Israel  :  see  Ex  3  2. 6-8. 
The  latter  part  of  the  v.  is  identical  with  that 
of  Gn4926.  17.  Read,  'His  firstling  bullock, 
majesty  is  his,  and  his  horns  are  the  horns  of 
the  wild  ox.'  Ephraim  is  meant,  and  is  com- 
pared to  a  wild  ox  :  see  on  Nu2322. 

18.  Thy  going  out]  The  reference  is  to  the 
commercial  intercourse  between  Zebulun  and 
foreign  nations.  The  phrase  is  almost  equiva- 
lent to  '  exports.'  Zebulun  seems  to  have  had 
an  outlet  to  the  Mediterranean  Sea  ;  cp.  the 
next  V.  and  also  Gn49i3  Isa9i.  Nazareth  was 
in  the  land  of  Zebulun.  In  thy  tents]  Issachar 
was  an  inland  tribe.  It  possessed  the  Plain 
of  Jezreel,  or  Esdraelon,  a  district  of  extra- 
ordinary fertility  and  the  gi*anary  of  Palestine. 
Issachar  is  accordingly  represented  as  rejoicing 
in  its  tents,  i.e.  pursuing  a  peaceful  agricultural 
life  (Gn49",i5). 

19.  The  people]  RV  'peoples,'  their  heathen 
neighbours  who  trade  with  them,  particularly 
the  Phoenicians.  These  they  are  here  said  to 
call  unto  the  mountain  where  they  offer 
sacrifices  of  righteousness,  i.e.  sacrifices  that 
are  offered  rightly.  It  would  appear  that  in 
the  land  of  Zebulun  and  Issachar  there  were 
certain  mountain  sanctuaries  where  sacrificial 
feasts  were  held  to  which  these  tribes  were 
wont  to  invite  their  neighbours,  and  that 
these  gatherings  were  a  source  of  commercial 
advantage  to  them.  The  abundance  of  the 
seas  refers  to  the  maritime  commerce  men- 
tioned above,  and  the  treasures  hid  in  the  sand 
have  been  supposed  to  refer  to  the  manufacture 
of  glass  for  which  the  sands  at  the  mouth  of 
the  river  Belus,  which  flows  into  the  Bay  of 
Acre,  were  famous.      The   Roman   historian 


138 


33.  20 


DEUTERONOMY 


34.  6 


Pliny  says  indeed  that  it  was  here  that  glass 
was  first  invented  or  discovered  by  some 
sailors  who  lit  a  fire  upon  the  sand  and 
accidentally  produced  glass. 

20.  He  that  enlargeth  Gad]  i.e.  Jehovah 
who  has  given  him  the  wide  territory  E.  of 
the  Jordan  :  see  Nu32.  The  G-adites  are  com- 
pared to  a  lion,  as  in  1  Chi 28.  With  the 
crown]  RV  '  yea  the  crown.'  21.  The  first 
part]  Gad  chose  the  part  E.  of  the  Jordan 
which  was  first  conquered  and  also  the  first  to 
be  allotted  :  see  Nu32.  The  next  clause 
should  read,  '  for  there  was  a  ruler's  (or  com- 
mander's) portion  reserved.'  Gad  obtained  a 
portion  suitable  for  such  a  warlike  tribe.  It 
was  a  '  commander's  share,'  or  what  might  be 
called  a  '  lion's  share ' :  see  v.  20.  He  came 
with  the  heads  of  the  people,  etc.]  The  Gadites, 
true  to  their  promise,  crossed  the  Jordan  with 
the  other  tribes  and  assisted  them  in  the  con- 
quest of  the  land  :  see  on  ]Sru32i'3-23_ 

22.  RV  '  Dan  is  a  lion's  whelp  that  leapeth 
forth  from  Bashan.'  This  depicts  the  stealth 
and  violence  of  the  Danites  in  war  or  in 
marauding  expeditions  :  see  e.g.  their  capture 
of  Laish,  Jgl8.  The  forest  and  ravines  of 
Bashan  were  the  haunts  of  wild  beasts :  see  on 
Bashan,  Nu  21 33-35. 

23.  Naphtali  touched  the  Sea  of  Galilee  on 
the  E.  and  included  some  of  the  richest  land 
and  most  beautiful  scenery  in  Palestine.  The 
Plain  of  Gennesaret  was  specially  luxuriant. 
Josephus  calls  it  the  'ambition  of  nature.' 
The  west  should  be  the  '  sea,'  i.e.  the  Sea  of 
Gennesaret  or  Galilee,  not  the  Mediterranean 
in  the  W. 

24.  The  first  clause  should  probably  read, 
'  Blessed  above  sons  be  Asher.'  Northern 
Galilee  has  always  been  distinguished  for  the 
cultivation  of  the  olive.  Jewish  writers  say, 
'  In  Asher  oil  flows  like  a  river '  :  cp.  Gn4920. 
In  ancient  times  this  district  was  one  of  the 
main  sources  of  the  supply  of  olive  oil  (cp. 
2Ch2iO)^  and  even  now  great  quantities  are 
exported  to  Constantinople  and  elsewhere. 
The  expression  dip  his  foot  in  oil  refers  to 
the  ancient  custom  of  treading  the  olives  to 
obtain  the  oil.  Cp.  MicGi^.  Stone  presses, 
however,  were  also  used  for  this  purpose. 
Remains  of  them  are  still  to  be  seen  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Tyre.  25.  Thy  shoes] 
rather,  '  thy  bars '  or  bolts,  referring  to  the 
impregnable  fortresses  guarding  the  mountain 
passes  of  Galilee.  Asher,  lying  in  the  N., 
was  the  gate  of  Canaan.  Thy  strength]  A 
word  of  very  doubtful  signification,  not  found 
elsewhere.  It  means,  perhaps,  '  rest '  or 
'  security,'  and  the  clause  will  then  imply  that 
Asher's  security  will  never  be  disturbed. 

26.  On  Jeshurun,  see  v.  5.  In  thy  help] 
rather,  '  for  thy  help.'  The  clouds  are  said 
to  be  the  chariot  of  God  :  see  Ps  68  33. 34  1043 


139 


Nah  1 3.  27.  Refuge]  RV  '  dwelling-place  '  : 
cp.  Ps  90 1.  Jehovah  protects  Israel  both  above 
and  beneath. 

28.  RV  'Israel  dwelleth  in  safety,  the 
fountain  of  Jacob  alone,  in  a  land  of  corn  and 
wine  ;  yea,  his  heavens  drop  down  dew.'  Israel 
separated  from  all  other  nations  (see  on 
Nu239)  dwells  securely  in  a  rich  land.  For 
the  expression  fountain  of  Jacob,  see  PsGB^'' 
Isa48^.  29.  Thine  enemies  shall  be  found 
liars  unto  thee]  RV  '  shall  submit  themselves 
unto  thee.'  The  idea  is  that  of  conquered 
nations  cringing  before  their  victors  and 
protesting  (perhaps  feigning)  submission. 

CHAPTER  34 
The  Death  of  Moses 

In  obedience  to  the  divine  command  (32  48-52) 
Moses  ascends  to  the  top  of  Mt.  Nebo,  whence 
he  views  the  Land  of  Promise.  Thereafter 
he  dies  and  God  buries  him.  No  man  knows 
of  his  sepulchre. 

1-4.  Dan  is  used  to  indicate  the  extreme 
N.,  as  in  the  phrase  '  from  Dan  to  Beersheba,' 
though  it  was  not  till  the  time  of  the  Judges 
that  the  Danites  settled  in  that  district  :  see 
Jg  18 28, 29.  The  utmost  sea  (lit.  'hinder,  i.e. 
western,  sea':  see  on  1124)  ig  the  Mediter- 
ranean. The  south  is  the  Negeb  :  see  on 
Nu  13 17.  Zoar  lay  at  the  SE.  end  of  the  Dead 
Sea.  There  is  no  need  to  suppose  that  there 
was  anything  miraculous  in  this  vision  of  the 
whole  land.  From  the  mountains  of  Moab 
travellers  tell  us  that  they  can  see  the  entire 
valley  of  the  Jordan  with  Mt.  Hermon  at  the 
extreme  N.  Lebanon  and  Carmel  are  visible, 
and  the  Mediterranean,  50  m.  distant,  can 
be  seen  like  a  silver  streak  in  the  glittering 
sunshine.  Such  extensive  views  are  favoured 
by  the  exceptional  clearness  of  the  atmosphere 
in  Palestine  :  see  on  27ii-i3. 

5.  It  is  implied  here  that  Moses  was  alone. 
But  Josephus  says  that  he  was  accompanied 
to  the  top  of  the  hill  by  'the  senate,  and 
Eleazar,  and  Joshua.'  After  viewing  the  land 
Moses  dismissed  the  senate,  and  'as  he  was 
about  to  embrace  Eleazar  and  Joshua  was  still 
discoursing  with  them  a  cloud  stood  over  him 
on  a  sudden  and  he  disappeared  in  a  certain 
valley.'  With  this  compare  the  departure  of 
Elijah,  2K211.  Jewish  writers  take  literally 
the  words  at  the  end  of  this  v.,  according  to 
the  word  of  the  LORD,  and  say  that  God 
'  kissed  him  and  he  slept.' 

6.  He  buried  him]  i.e.  God  buried  him. 
This  probably  means  no  more  than  what  is 
expressed  in  the  second  half  of  the  v.  that  his 
sepulchre  was  never  known.  God  alone  knew 
where  His  servant  was  buried.  Fuller  quaintly 
says  that  God  not  only  buried  Moses,  but 
buried  his  sepulclu-e  also  lest  it  should  become 
a  shrine  of  idol-worship  to  future  generations. 


34.7 


DEUTERONOMY 


34.  12 


Later  Jewish  legend  says  that  Michael,  who 
was  supposed  to  be  the  angel  who  conducted 
pious  souls  to  Paradise,  came  into  conflict  with 
Satan  as  to  the  disposal  of  the  body  of  Moses. 
Whether  Satan  was  regarded  as  trying  to  pre- 
vent the  body  of  Moses  being  honoured,  or  as 
seeking  to  seduce  the  people  into  paying  too 
much  honour  to  it,  is  uncertain.  The  legend 
is  referred  to  in  the  Epistle  of  Jude,  v.  9,  and 
the  quotation  there  is  made  from  a  Jewish 
history  called  '  The  Assumption  of  Moses.' 
A  great  many  legends  about  Moses  are  cir- 
culated among  the  Mohammedans.  The  words 
unto  this  day  indicate  that  the  writer  of  this 
account  of  the  death  of  Moses  lived  long  after 
its  occurrence. 

7.  An  hundred  and  twenty  years  old]  see 
on  Ex  2  21. 

8.  The  usual  period  of  mourning  seems  to 
have  been  thirty  days  :  see  Nu2029  GnSO^, 
and  cp.  2113.  Qf  these  the  first  seven  were 
more  stringently  observed  :  see  GnSOi"^.     In 


addition  to  the  natural  manifestations  of 
grief,  mourning  in  the  East  was,  and  still  is, 
accompanied  with  a  great  deal  of  ceremony  : 
see  e.g.  Jer9i7,i8  16  6-8  Ezk24i6,ir  Mt923. 
The  mourning  for  Moses  was  doubtless  very 
genuine.  Like  many  another  gi-eat  person, 
he  was  better  appreciated  after  his  death  than 
during  his  lifetime.  In  his  life  he  was  much 
tried  by  the  murmuring,  disobedience,  and 
jealousy  of  those  for  whom  he  lived,  but  these 
same  people  made  great  lamentation  for  him 
when  he  was  dead. 

9.  '  Grod  buries  the  workman  but  carries  on 
the  work.'     See  on  Nu27is-23_ 

10-12.  EV  '  There  hath  not  arisen  a  prophet 
since  in  Israel  like  unto  Moses '  :  cp.  Nu  1 2  ^-s. 
The  words  point  to  a  time  considerably  later 
than  the  death  of  Moses  (cp.  v.  6,  '  unto  this 
day  '),  when  his  real  greatness  could  be  appre- 
ciated and  his  superiority  to  all  the  great 
prophets  and  leaders  who  succeeded  him  could 
be  rightly  estimated. 


140 


JOSHUA 


INTEODUCTION 


1.  The  Book.  In  this  book  we  have  the 
record  of  the  Conquest  of  Canaan  by  the 
people  of  Israel  and  of  then*  settlement  in 
the  land.  The  value  of  the  book  consists 
chiefly  in  (1)  its  description  of  a  critical  period 
in  the  history  of  the  Hebrews.  The  war  not 
only  gave  them  a  dwelling-place  among 
the  peoples  of  the  earth,  but  carried  a  step 
further  the  consolidation  of  the  tribes  into  a 
nationr^  The  elements  of  unity  were  already 
theirs,  the  chief  of  them  being  their  common 
acknowledgment  of  Jehovah  as  their  God. 
Their  brotherhood  in  blood  was  consecrated  and 
maintained  by  their  brotherhood  in  religion. 
The  discipline  of  the  wanderings  in  the  wil- 
derness, the  perils  encountered  in  the  success- 
ful attempts  to  obtain  a  lodgment  in  the  land, 
and  the  hardships  of  the  war  endured  by  the 
Israelites  side  by  side,  served  to  strengthen 
the  bond  of  union  and  to  develop  the  sense  of 
nationality.  As  is  always  the  case  with  strong 
men,  their  noble  qualities  were  brought  out  in 
the  presence  of  difficulties.  (2)  The  book  is 
also  valuable  for  its  revelation  of  the  Hand  of 
God  in  the  movements  of  men.  He  did  not 
give  them  the  land  He  had  promised  them 
without  causing  them  to  fight  for  it.  But  the 
gift  is  recognised  in  this  book  as  none  the  less 
His.  He  sanctions  their  advance.  He  directs 
their  movements.  He  makes  them  victorious. 
He  allows  them  to  be  defeated.  He  makes  them 
conquerors  in  the  end.  The  book  enables  us 
to  see  a  little  into  the  way  in  which  God  works 
out  His  purposes  in  human  affairs. 

2.  The  life  and  character  of  Joshua.  Son 
of  Nun,  of  the  tribe  of  Ephraim,  he  bore 
originally  the  name  of  Hoshea  (NulS^'i^^ 
Dt32*-i),  which  was  changed  by  Moses  to  the 
more  significant  form  Jehoshua  ('  Jehovah  (is) 
salvation  ').  His  intimate  relation  to  Moses — 
like  that  of  Elisha  to  Elijah — afforded  an 
unique  education  for  the  future  leader  of 
Israel,  who  had  been  divinely  designated 
(Dt  137,38)  as  successor  to  the  great  Law- 
giver, and  was  solemnly  consecrated  by  him 
to  that  office  by  the  laying-on  of  hands  (Nu 
2718-23,  cp.  Dt  3 11^-23).  The  echo  of  Moses' 
charge,  '  Be  strong  and  of  a  good  courage  ' 
(Dt3123)^  is  still  ringing  in  his  ears  as  he  takes 
up   his   work  in    the   plains    of    Jordan;  the 

•  '  grace  '  of  that  '  laying-on  of  hands,'  showing 
itself  (Dt34^)  in  a  spirit  of  wisdom  and  a 
bearing  that  won  the  unquestioning  obedience 


of  the  wayward  host  (Joshli6-i8  Nu2720),  is 
upon  him  from  first  to  last.  His  authority  is 
strengthened  (Josh  3"  4^^)  by  the  miracle  of 
Jordan,  his  courage  renewed  by  the  vision  of 
the  Heavenly  Captain  (5 13-15).  Even  his  tem- 
porary dismay  at  the  rout  before  Ai  is  token 
of  his  absolute  reliance  on  divine  aid,  and  of 
his  knowledge  of  the  fortunes  and  tendencies 
of  war  (see  on  7  *').  The  swiftness  with  which 
he  deals  his  successive  blows  upon  southern 
(c.  10)  and  northern  (c.  11)  confederacy  be- 
speaks an  alert  and  intrepid  general;  the 
impartiality  with  which  he  conducts  the  as- 
signment of  the  tribal  territories  exhibits  him 
as  an  ideal  judge  and  ruler;  and  finally  the 
tender  severity  of  his  admonition  to  Achan 
(7i9f.)  gives  us  a  glimpse  of  the  true  priestly 
heart  beating  beneath  the  warrior's  mail.  In 
his  unswerving  faith  and  obedience  to  the 
call,  in  the  incorruptible  righteousness  of  his 
administration,  in  the  gentle  severity  of  his 
rebuke,  as  well  as  in  his  life's  work,  Jesus 
(Heb48)  the  son  of  Nun  is  a  veritable  type 
of  Jesus  the  Son  of  God. 

3.  The  Conquest  of  Canaan.  The  book 
of  Joshua  opens  with  the  crossing  of  the  Jor- 
dan by  the  forces  of  Israel  and  the  estal^lish- 
ment  of  a  great  headquarters'  camp  at  Gilgal. 
By  invading  Western  Palestine  by  the  ford 
near  Jericho  instead  of  advancing  round  the 
S.  of  the  Dead  Sea,  Joshua  was  able  to 
di'ive  a  wedge  between  the  Canaanites  on  the 
N.  and  those  in  the  S.  of  the  country,  and 
thus  to  prevent  a  union  of  all  the  tribes 
against  him.  The  first  attack  was  made  upon 
Jericho.  This  was  the  key  to  Western  Pales- 
tine, for  it  was  on  the  way  to  all  the  passes  of 
importance  into  the  interior.  Jericho  taken, 
Ai,  another  town  on  the  principal  road  to  the 
W.,  soon  followed.  The  Gibeonites  by  a 
trick  secured  an  alliance  with  the  conqueror, 
who  marched  to  attack  the  kings  of  the  S. 
and  defeated  them  in  a  pitched  battle  at  Beth- 
horon,  afterwards  overrunning  their  country 
and  destroying  their  towns.  Thereafter  the 
victorious  leader  turned  his  attention  to  the 
kings  of  the  N.  and  defeated  them  in  a 
great  battle  near  the  waters  of  Merom. 
After  that,  according  to  the  chronicler,  '  the 
land  rested  from  war.' 

The  conquest  thus  outlined  was,  however, 
far  from  complete.  The  enemy  may  have 
been   routed    but   was   not   destroyed.      The 


141 


INTRO. 


JOSHUA 


1.  1 


towns  may  have  been  overthrown,  but  many 
of  them  were  probably  soon  re-fortified.  And 
the  complete  subjugation  of  the  enemy  was 
accomplished  slowly  and  with  difficulty,  not 
by  a  general  campaign,  but  by  individual 
tribes  fighting  for  themselves  and  gradually 
extending  their  borders.  We  have  illustra- 
tions of  this  in  such  accounts  as  that  of 
Caleb  driving  out  the  sons  of  Anak  from 
Hebron  (15 1-^),  and  that  of  the  children  of 
Joseph  contending  with  difficulty  against 
the  Perizzites  and  the  Rephaim  (171^-1^). 
The  country  was  difficult  for  warfare,  being 
mountainous,  and  favoured  the  defenders. 
The  Israelites  having  no  chariots  could  not 
meet  their  enemies  in  the  plains  (IT^'^),  and 
the  valleys  thus  remained  long  in  possession 
of  the  Canaanites.  And  in  many  cases  the 
advance  was  slow  and  the  success  uncertain : 
see  e.g.  IT^^.is^  and  cp.  Jgl. 

The  inhabitants  of  Canaan  at  the  time  of 
the  invasion,  generally  described  as  Canaanites, 
were  divided  into  a  number  of  petty  kingdoms, 
and  had  no  bond  of  union  save  hatred  of  the 
invaders.  Amongst  their  divisions  were  the 
Amorites,  Jebusites,  Hivites,  and  suchlike ; 
also  there  seem  to  have  been  here  and  there 
in  the  land  surviving  elements  of  an  aboriginal 
people  represented  by  the  Rephaim  and  the 
sons  of  Anak.  Their  moral  and  religious 
condition  is  indicated  by  such  passages  as  Dt 
9^  and  Lv  18.  It  was  so  vicious  and  depraved 
as  to  render  dangerous,  if  not  indeed  impossi- 
ble, any  association  with  them  on  the  part  of 
the  Israelites.  Uncompromising  opposition  to 
them  was  the  only  practical  attitude  for  a  people 
led  by  Jehovah,  and  holding  His  law.  Hence 
arose  the  moral  necessity  for  that  order  for 
their  extermination,  which  has  sometimes  been 
a  stumbling-block  to  the  religious  mind.  The 
attempt  to  carry  out  that  order  had  an  effect 
for  good  upon  the  Israelites,  in  so  far  as  it 
engaged  them  in  a  work  of  moral  and  spiritual 
sanitation  :  the  failure  to  carry  it  out  com- 
pletely left  open  to  them  a  source  of  weakness 
and  danger,  from  which  sprang  many  of  their 
subsequent  corruptions  and  defections  from 
the  pure  worship  of  Jehovah. 

The  Canaanites  were  an  agricultural  people, 


somewhat  more  advanced  than  the  Israelites 
in  the  arts  of  civilisation.  The  conquest  of 
them,  accordingly,  meant  for  Israel  a  certain 
material  progress,  and  an  entry  into  conditions 
which  constituted  in  many  ways  an  ideal  nurs- 
ery of  religion.  They  passed  from  a  nomadic 
and  pastoral  state  to  the  more  complex  stage 
of  a  settled,  agricultural  condition,  with  pos- 
sibilities of  village  and  city  life.  The  division 
of  the  conquered  ten'itory  and  the  settlement 
of  the  Israelite  tribes  upon  it  occupy  chs.  13- 
21  of  the  book  of  Joshua,  which  have  conse- 
quently been  called  the  '  Domesday  Book  of 
the  Old  Testament.' 

4.  Authorship.  The  title  of  the  book  is  no 
indication  of  authorship,  but  like  Judges  and 
Samuel  has  reference  to  the  principal  figure  in 
the  history.  The  hero  of  the  book  is  un- 
doubtedly Joshua,  with  whose  deeds  it  is 
largely  occupied.  Joshua  is  said  to  have 
written  a  record  of  the  covenant  with  God, 
which  the  people  made  shortly  before  his 
death  (24  26),  in  '  the  Book  of  the  Law  of  God ' ; 
and  some  of  the  chroniclers  of  a  later  date 
may  have  borrowed  from  his  own  words  some 
of  the  passages  which  have  come  down  to  us. 
This,  however,  is  mere  speculation.  What  is 
agreed  by  scholars  is  that  the  book  is  a  com- 
pilation, similar  to  the  Pentateuch,  of  which  it 
is  the  continuation.  Indeed,  '  The  five  books 
of  Moses'  so-called  and  the  book  of  Joshua 
form  a  whole  usually  termed  the  Hexateuch. 
In  its  present  form  the  book  belongs  to  the 
same  date  as  the  Pentateuch,  and  the  same 
older  sources — the  Primitive,  the  Priestly, 
and  the  Deuteronomic — are  its  basis.  These 
sources  contain  traditions  which  were  doubtless 
handed  down  either  orally  or  in  writing  from 
the  days  in  which  the  gi'eat  deeds  recorded 
were  done,  and  in  one  case,  at  any  rate,  they 
give  a  quotation  from  the  book  of  Jasher,  a 
collection  of  songs  of  very  early  date  (10^2,13) . 
and  we  need  haA'e  little  hesitation  in  accepting 
the  outline  of  the  history  given  in  the  book 
as  substantially  historical. 

Analysis.  "The  book  falls  natm-ally  into 
three  parts:  chs.  1-12,  The  Conquest;  chs. 
13-21,  The  Division  of  the  Laud  ;  chs.  22-24, 
Closing  Scenes. 


PART  1 
The  Conquest  (Chs.  1-12) 


CHAPTER    1 

Joshua  by  Divine   Commission   Succeeds 

Moses 

Chs.  11-5 12  record  the  preparations  for  the 
Holy  War. 

I.  Now  (better,  'and')  after  the  death  of 
Moses  .  .  it  came  to  pass]  These  words  clearly 
mark  the  book  which  follows  as  a  sequel  to 


Deuteronomy.      The  book  of  Judges  begins 
with  a  precisely  similar  phrase. 

The  Lord  spake  unto  Joshua]  This  formula 
'the  Lord  spake,'  which  so  constantly  recurs 
in  the  first  b(3oks  of  the  Bible,  corresponds  to 
the  more  direct  formula  of  the  prophets,  '  Thus 
saith  the  Lord.'  It  is  a  characteristic  feature 
of  the  OT.,  distinguishing  the  literature  of 
the  Hebrews  from  that   of  other  nations  of 


142 


1.  4 


JOSHUA 


3.  15 


antiquity,  and  marking  their  claim  to  express 
in  a  very  special  way  the  will  of  Almighty  God. 
It  is,  in  fact,  one  of  the  most  obvious  indica- 
tions of  that  which  we  call  '  inspiration.'  We 
may  not  of  course  be  able,  in  a  given  instance, 
to  define  the  exact  mode  in  which  the  divine 
will  was  communicated.  Was  it  by  the  Urim 
and  Thummim,  or  in  a  di'eam?  Or  was  it 
rather  an  inner  conviction  borne  in  upon  the 
soul,  voiceless  but  clear  and  definite,  such  as  is 
no  uncommon  experience  with  those  who  are 
in  the  habit  of  communing  with  God  ?  But  the 
importance  of  the  phrase  lies  less  in  any  hint 
of  the  manner  of  the  revelation  than  in  its  tes- 
timony to  the  fact  of  it.  However  it  came, 
the  thought  was  recognised  as  an  utterance 
of  God.  Minister]  Joshua  had  been  Moses' 
attendant  and  right-hand  man — his  'chief  of 
staff.' 

4.  Boundaries  S.  and  SE.,  '  the  wilderness ' ; 
N.,  Lebanon  ;  NE.,  the  Euphrates  ;  W.,  the 
Mediterranean  or  '  Great  Sea.'  These,  the 
providential  (Gnl5^^  Ex 23^1),  and  in  some 
sense  natural,  boundaries  of  the  territory  of 
Israel,  were  only  attained  for  a  brief  period 
dm'ing  the  reigns  of  David  and  Solomon.  All 
the  land  of  the  Hittites]   see  on  Gn  IQi^. 

8.  This  book  of  the  law]  This  obviously 
refers  to  the  'law'  described  in  DtBl^  as 
written  by  Moses  and  delivered  to  the  Levites 
and  elders.  That  it  embraces  a  considerable 
nucleus  of  the  Pentateuchal  legislation  (in- 
cluding, of  course,  the  bulk  of  Ex  20-23)  few 
critics  would  deny. 

II.  Prepare  you  victuals]  Joshua  has  the 
general's  eye  for  the  commissariat. 

12  ^  See  Nu  32  20-32  for  Moses'  injunction  to 
the  two  and  a  half  tribes,  and  their  promise 
to  obey. 

14,  15.  On  this  side  Jordan]  In  both  places 
EV  rightly  translates  '  beyond  Jordan,'  i.e. 
on  the  E.  side  of  Jordan.  A  little  point, 
but  important  as  showing  that  the  writer  (or 
editor)  of  this  passage  was  one  who  resided 
W.  of  Jordan. 

CHAPTER    2 

The  Two  Spies  at  Jericho 
Joshua  himself  had  been  one  of  twelve 
sent  by  Moses  on  a  similar  errand,  some 
thirty-eight  years  before  (Nul3).  The  in- 
cident, natural  in  itself,  acquires  a  special 
interest  as  bringing  before  us  for  the  first 
time  Rahab,  the  great-great-grandmother  of 
David,  and  so  human  ancesti'ess  of  our  Saviour 
(Mt  1 3-6,  cp.  Ruth  4 18-22).  It  affords  incident- 
ally a  signal  instance  among  Gentiles  of  belief 
in  the  power  of  the  true  God  (2  ^  *•),  which  is 
rewarded  (O'-^),  like  the  similar  attitude  of 
Ruth  the  Moabitess  (Ruth  1  ^%  with  incorpor- 
ation into  Israel  and  into  the  direct  line  of 
Israel's  Hope. 


I.  Shittim]  i.e.  '  Acacias.'  The  district  re- 
ferred to  is  the  part  of  the  Jordan  basin 
opposite  Jericho,  where  acacias  still  are 
found.  An  harlot's]  '  We  know  nothing  of 
her  after-conduct,  but  we  may  well  believe 
that  the  faith  which  an  apostle  could  praise 
(Heb  11 31  Jas  2  25)  -^vas  accompanied  by  a  true 
conversion  '  (HDB.  art.  '  Rahab  ').  See  on  v. 
10  and  625. 

6.  She  had  brought  them,  etc.]  Then,  as 
now,  the  flat  roofs  of  Eastern  houses  were 
used  for  such  purposes  as  drying  flax  stalks. 
The  flax  would  be  ripe  (cp.  Ex93i)32)  shortly 
before  wheat  harvest. 

7.  The  fords]  Clearly,  therefore,  there 
were  fords  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Jericho. 
The  account  of  the  miraculous  crossing  in 
chs.  3,  4  cannot  be  based  on  ignorance  of  that 
fact.  At  the  present  time  fords  are  said  to 
be  comparatively  rare  in  the  southern  reaches 
of  Jordan. 

9.  Your  terror  is  fallen  upon  us]  Cp. 
ExlSi**"!*^.  Compare  51  for  a  similar  panic 
produced  by  the  crossing  of  Jordan. 

ID*.  Rahab  had  followed  the  career  of 
Israel  with  fascinated  interest.  She  is  repre- 
sented as  knowing  and  using  the  covenant 
name  of  '  Jehovah '  and  as  recognising  His 
universal  sovereignty.  Her  whole  attitude 
is  in  striking  contrast  to  that  of  her  fellow- 
countrymen. 

16.  The  mountain]  the  limestone  ridges 
full  of  caves,  NW.  of  Jericho. 

24.  Do  faint]  RV  here  (and  in  2  9  and 
Ex  1515)  '  do  melt  away.' 

CHAPTER   3 

The  Passage  of  Jordan 
This  is  the  initial  miracle  of  Joshua's  leader- 
ship. Its  moral  effect  upon  the  Israelite  host 
is  suggested  in  3 '''  and  4 1^  ;  that  wrought  upon 
the  Canaanites  in  51  (which  properly  belongs 
to  this  section  of  the  book).  3.  The  ark  of  the 
covenant  of  the  LORD  your  God]  see  Ex  25 10-22 
and  371-^-'.  It  was  the  authoritative  symbol 
of  the  Divine  Presence  (cp.  Ex2320f.),  and 
as  such  led  the  van  in  the  desert  marches 
(Nu  1033-36).  The  priests  the  Levites]  cp. 
Dtl8i.  Not  that  all  the  Levites  were  origin- 
ally priests,  as  some  have  interpreted  that 
passage  :  see  e.g.  N'u35-io  for  the  relation  of 
the  Levites  in  general  to  the  '  sons  of  Aaron.' 
4.  Two  thousand  cubits]  3,000  ft.  ;  the 
ancient  Hebrew  cubit  =18  in. 

15.  Jordan  overfloweth  all  his  banks]  The 
rank  jungle,  which  tills  the  bed  (150  ft.  deep) 
that  Jordan  has  hollowed  out  at  the  bottom 
of  the  rift,  down  which  it  flows,  marks  the 
extent  of  the  April  floods.  The  space  is 
from  200  yards  to  1  m.  broad,  and  is  what 
Jeremiah  calls  (125  4919  5944)  the  'Pride'  or 
'  Swelling '  of  Jordan.     In  Ecclus  24  26  we  find 


143 


a  16 


JOSHUA 


5.  10 


a  proverbial  phrase,  '  full  as  .  .  Jordan  in  the 
time  of  harvest '  (RV). 

1 6.  We  should  probably  render  '  a  great  way 
off,  at  the  city  Adam,  which  is  beside  Zaretan.' 
The  incident  of  the  stoppage  of  Jordan's 
waters  is  not  without  parallel  in  history,  if  we 
may  trust  the  Arabic  historian  Nowairi  (see 
Sayce, '  Early  Hist  of  Hebr.,'  p.  249).  Accord- 
ing to  his  account  the  water  was  dammed  up 
by  a  landslip  from  midnight  on  Dec.  8,  1267, 
'  till  the  4th  hour  of  the  day.'  The  narrative 
is  very  artless,  and  whether  it  be  true  or 
simply  an  echo  of  the  book  of  Joshua,  enables 
us  to  conceive  how  the  miracle  of  the  crossing 
may  have  happened  ;  for  miracle  it  still  re- 
mains, even  if  wrought  out  at  the  will  of  the 
author  of  nature  by  natural  means  :  being  a 
clear  exhibition  of  personal  providential  pur- 
pose in  connexion  with  the  gi-eat  plan  of 
Israel's  mission  to  the  world.  The  position  of 
Adam  has  been  identified  with  Tel  Damieh 
(a  place  mentioned,  curiously,  in  Nowairi's 
narrative),  near  the  mouth  of  the  Jabbok. 
Zaretan  may  probably  be  the  '  Zarthan '  of 
1K746. 

CHAPTER   4 

The  Double  Memorial  of  the  Passage 
OF  Jordan 

The  main  subject  of  the  c.  is  the  memorial 
cairn  set  up  at  Gilgal,  which  is  described  in 
two  sections,  4i-8  and  420-24^  separated  by  the 
record  in  a  single  v.  (4^)  of  another  cairn  set 
up  in  the  midst  of  Jordan,  and  by  a  long 
parenthesis  (4io-i9)  describing  in  an  expanded 
form  the  crossing  already  narrated  in  314-17. 
The  repetitions  are  most  satisfactorily  explained 
on  the  hypothesis  that  the  narrator  has  in- 
corporated extracts  from  more  ancient  sources 
in  his  narrative. 

5.  Pass  over  before  the  ark]  Apparently  the 
twelve,  who  with  the  rest  of  the  host  have 
already  crossed  to  the  W.  bank,  are  bidden  to 
return  to  where  the  priests  are  still  standing 
with  the  Ark  in  the  midst  of  Jordan,  to  set  up 
a  cairn  of  twelve  stones  (4  9)  on  the  spot  in  the 
river  bed  and  to  take  up  a  stone  each  in 
addition  and  return  with  it  to  the  bank  again. 

12.  As  Moses  spake]   seeNu.32  20f. 

19.  The  tenth  day  of  the  first  month]  i.e. 
Abib  or  Nisan  (March-April).  They  would 
reach  their  camp  at  Gilgal  just  in  time  to 
select  the  Paschal  Lamb  (Ex  1 2  3)  to  be  slain 
on  the  fourteenth  day  :  see  b^^. 

24.  That  ye  might  fear]  RV  '  that  they  may 
fear.' 

CHAPTER   5 
Renewal  of  Circumcision  and  Celebra- 
tion OF  the  Passover 
The  two  incidents  recorded  in  52-12 — cip. 
cumcision   and   the    Passover — represent   the 


final  stage  in  the  preparation  of  the  people  for 
the  Holy  War.  The  Circumcision  was  a 
necessary  preliminary  (Ex  1 2  **>  48)  to  the  Pass- 
over Feast,  besides  marking  for  the  new 
generation  a  reversal  of  the  sentence  of 
'  excommunication  '  virtually  pronounced  in 
Nu  14  33, 34.  and  the  Passover — the  first  re- 
corded celebration  since  the  first  anniversary 
of  its  institution  (Nu  'J  5) — was  signalised  also 
by  the  cessation  of  the  extraordinary  '  sacra- 
ment '  of  Manna.  Thus  the  period  of  the 
Wanderings  is  definitely  brought  to  a  close. 

1.  Amorites]  represent,  roughly  speaking, 
the  inhabitants  of  the  highland  districts. 
Canaanites]  =  '  lowlanders,'  in  the  special- 
ised sense,  the  dwellers  on  the  maritime  plain. 
Until  we  were  passed  over]  RM  '  until  they 
were  passed  over.'  It  was  always  thus  read 
by  the  Jews. 

2-9.  Renewal  of  the  Rite  of  Circumcision. 
This  was  necessary,  because  all  those  who  had 
come  out  of  Egypt  already  circumcised  (except, 
of  course,  Joshua  and  Caleb)  had  died  in  the 
wilderness  ;  while  the  new  generation  of  males 
had  not  been  circumcised  by  the  way  (5'^). 
This  omission  of  the  rite  was  of  course  not 
necessitated  by  the  journeyings,  which  were 
certainly  not  continuous.  It  was  more  prob- 
ably a  deliberate  disciplinary  regulation,  as  a 
sign  of  the  broken  covenant  :  see  prefatory 
remarks. 

2.  Sharp  knives]  RV  '  knives  of  flint.'  LXX 
curiously  relates  (in  an  addition  to  24^0)  that 
these  knives  were  buried  with  Joshua  in  his 
tomb.  Flint  knives  were  used  for  religious 
purposes  by  the  Egyptians. 

9.  The  reproach  of  Egypt]  This  may  mean 
that  the  Egyptians,  laying  great  stress  on  cir- 
cimicision  themselves,  regarded  the  fact  of 
uncircumcision  as  a  reproach.  Gilgal]  mg. 
'  Rolling.'  This  etymology,  like  that  of  '  Babel ' 
in  Gn  1 1  9,  is  now  generally  recognised  as  un- 
scientific. It  is  rather  a  play  on  words  than  a 
derivation.  Yet  though  the  word  '  Gilgal ' 
probably  signified  originally  a  sacred  '  circle  ' 
of  stones — analogous  to  the  di-uidic  circle 
found  in  Britain — it  certainly  meant,  to  the 
Hebrews,  the  rolling  away  of  reproach. 

ID.  Kept  the  passover  on  the  fourteenth  day] 
of  Nisan,  as  ordained  in  Ex Vl^.  They  had 
probably  selected  the  lambs  four  days  before, 
immediately  on  their  arrival  at  the  camp  (see 
on  4 1^) ;  and  had  rested  quietly  for  three  full 
days  after  the  circumcision.  This  is  the  third 
recorded  Passover  ;  the  second  (Nu  9  5)  being 
the  first  anniversary  of  the  institution.  There 
are  only  thi-ee  subsequent  observances  of  the 
Passover  recorded  in  the  OT.,  viz.  Josiah's  (2K 
2321-23),  Hezekiah's  (2Ch30),  and  that  of  the 
returned  exiles  (Ezr6i-'f-),  and  all  of  these  are 
after  the  discovery  of  the  Book  of  the  Law  by 
Hilkiah  in  621  B.C.     But  a  notice  in  2Ch8i3 


144 


5.  11 


JOSHUA 


7. 


ascribes  to  Solomon  similar  observances,  and 
critics  admit  (cp.  HDB.  art.  '  Passover ')  that 
unrecorded  observances  may  have  gone  on  all 
along. 

11.  On  the  morrow]  The  feast  of  Mazzoth, 
or  Unleavened  Bread,  was  a  distinct  festival 
(cp.  Lv235.  "J)  of  seven  days'  dm'ation,  follow- 
ing on  the  one-day  feast  of  the  Passover.  The 
two  came  naturally,  in  the  course  of  centuries, 
to  be  regarded  as  a  single  festival,  to  which 
either  title  could  be  applied  (cp.  e.g.  Lk22  i). 

12.  The  manna  ceased]  see  prefatory  note. 
13-15.  Vision  of  the  Heavenly  Captain. 

13.  A  man]  clearly,  as  elsewhere  in  Holy 
Scripture  (cp.  e.g.  Gn  182  3224  Dan  9  21  Zechis 
Ac  1 10),  an  angelic  being,  to  be  identified  with 
the  promised  guide  of  Ex  23  20-23  (cp.  Ex  33  2). 
Of  this  angel  the  Lord  says  (Ex232i):  'My 
name  is  in  him '  ;  and  in  Isa  63  9  he  is  called 
'  the  angel  of  his  presence  '  (see  on  Ex  3  2). 

CHAPTER   6 

The  Capture  of  Jericho 
This  chapter  describes  the  first  and  perhaps 
most  decisive  action  in  the  war.  The  impres- 
sion it  produced  (627)  no  doubt  did  much  to 
decide  the  fortunes  of  subsequent  campaigns. 
The  strange  method  adopted,  by  divine  injunc- 
tion, for  the  reduction  of  the  city,  with  its 
jubilee  trumpets  and  its  elaborate  symbolic  use 
of  the  number  seven,  was  clearly  intended  to 
leave  no  doubt  that  the  enterprise  from  first 
to  last  was  in  higher  hands  than  Joshua's. 
Various  attempts  have  been  made  to  explain 
the  fall  of  Jericho  by  natural  causes.  For 
instance,  it  has  been  suggested  that  the  de- 
monstration of  the  army  in  force  round  the 
city  was  intended  to  distract  the  attention  of 
the  enemy  from  the  sapping  and  mining  opera- 
tions which  were  being  pushed  forward,  and 
which  culminated  in  its  fall  on  the  seventh 
day.  Again,  an  earthquake  has  been  suggested  ; 
but  if  such  took  place,  it  was  providentially 
timed,  and  was  capable  of  prediction  by  Joshua. 
The  narrator  regards  the  event  as  entirely  mi- 
raculous, a  direct  intervention  of  Jehovah  on 
behalf  of  His  people.  Such  also  was  the  tra- 
dition in  Israel,  and  it  is  accepted  by  the  writer 
of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  (1 1 30)  ;  '  hj  faith 
the  walls  of  Jericho  fell  down.' 

3.  Ye  shall  compass]  The  injunction  was  cal- 
culated to  produce  derision  among  the  enemy, 
and  so  would  be  a  discipline  of  humiliation 
for  the  Israelites.  It  would  also  put  the  Ca- 
naanites  off  their  guard  and  hand  them  over 
an  easy  prey  at  the  critical  moment. 

4.  Rams*  horns]  rather, '  trumpets  of  jubilee ' 
or  '  loud  trumpets.'  It  is  the  same  word  yobel 
used  in  Lv25^.  Seven  is  a  sacred  number 
among  the  Semites,  and  in  the  Bible  signifies 
'  perfection.'  The  symbolism  is  very  emphatic 
here. 


9.  Rereward]  RV  '  rearward '  =  rearguard. 
Going  on,  and  blowing]  blowing  continually. 

17.  Accursed]  Heb.  A'AereHi  =  ' devoted,' i.e. 
irredeemably  devoted  (Lv  27  28. 29)  to  the  Lord. 
LXX  has  '  anathema,'  the  word  which  St.  Paul 
uses  in  Ro93  and  elsewhere.  It  appears  to 
denote  a  form  of  consecration,  but  that  in- 
variably with  a  view  to  destruction.  In 
Lv  27  2i>  28, 29  devoted  things  are  excluded  from 
redemption.  In  v.  21  the  word  is  translated 
in  AV  '  utterly  destroyed.' 

20.  The  wall  fell  down  flat]  see  note  at 
beginning  of  chapter.  This  was  not  the  first 
of  Israel's  sieges.  They  had  already  taken 
the  cities  of  the  Amorites,  including  Heshbon, 
which  was  strongly  fortified  (Nu21). 

23.  And  left  them]  lit.  '  and  caused  them  to 
rest.' 

25.  She  dwelleth  in  Israel  even  unto  this 
day]  Unless  Rahab's  descendants  are  meant, 
this  must  be  the  touch  of  a  contemporary 
chi-onicler  (cp.  5^  and  626).  On  Rahab  and 
her  incorporation  into  Israel,  see  note  at  begin- 
ning of  c.  2.  Apparently  she  had  long  been 
prepared  (see  on  2  lO)  to  adopt  Israel's  religion, 
and  thus  the  greatest  obstacle  was  removed. 
Yet  her  case,  like  that  of  Christ's  other  foreign 
ancestress  Ruth,  remains  exceptional,  and  pre- 
figures, as  it  were,  the  world-wide  extent  of 
the  Messiah's  kinship  with  man. 

26.  This  '  inspired  curse '  of  Joshua  was 
fulfilled,  after  the  lapse  of  some  six  centuries, 
in  the  reign  of  Ahab  (IK  1634).  Hiel  the 
Bethelite  incurred  it,  being  the  first,  appar- 
ently, to  attempt  a  complete  rebuilding  and 
fortification  of  the  accursed  city,  although 
informal  settlements  seem  to  have  been  there 
from  the  first.  It  is  mentioned,  e.g.  in 
Josh  18 21,  as  one  of  ten  'cities'  of  Benja- 
min, and  again  in  the  time  of  David  (2  810^). 
Here  we  have  another  note  of  comparatively 
early  date.  If  the  writer  of  this  passage  had 
known  of  the  fulfilment,  he  would  surely  have 
recorded  it. 

CHAPTER  7 
Repulse  at  Ai,  due  to  Achan's  Sin 
The  capture  of  Jericho  is  followed  by  an 
attempt  upon  Ai,  a  place  of  strategic  im- 
portance, as  commanding  a  main  entrance  into 
the  interior  of  Canaan  westward  ;  the  upper 
entrance  into  the  valley  of  Aijalon  being  com- 
manded by  Ai  and  Bethel.  This  c.  has  an 
interest  of  its  own,  as  exhibiting  Joshua  in  a 
new  light,  as  the  spiritual  guide,  drawing  out, 
with  the  mingled  sweetness  and  severity  of  a 
father  (v.  19),  the  sinner's  detailed  confession 
(see  on  v.  20).  The  incident  of  Achan's  sin 
and  its  effects  upon  the  fortunes  of  Israel  is 
an  illustration  (a)  of  the  penalty  of  solidarity 
— the  inevitable  spread  of  the  results  of  sin 
and  pollution  from  a  single  member  to  the 


10 


145 


7.6 


JOSHUA 


9. 


whole  body  ;  (b)  of  the  conditional  nature  of 
God's  promises  of  success.  In  contrast  to  the 
many  previous  assurances,  it  is  announced  that 
the  presence  of  God  is  to  be  withdrawn  abso- 
lutely (v.  12)  unless  the  'accursed  thing'  be 
removed.  Further,  at  the  very  beginning  of 
the  Holy  War,  Israel  is  taught — and  we  through 
Israel — that  exceptional  temptations  do  not 
excuse  a  lowering  of  the  standard  of  conduct 
on  the  part  of  God's  soldiers. 

6  f.  Joshua's  extreme  despondency  is  really 
a  mark  of  his  soldiery  capacity.  He  was 
general  enough  to  know  the  immense  moral 
effect  of  even  a  slight  success  or  reverse  at 
the  beginning  of  a  war.  Moreover,  no  one 
who  had  Joshua's  sense  of  divine  mission  and 
vocation,  as  represented  e.g.  by  the  message  of 
12-9  and  the  vision  of  5^^^-,  could  fail  to  inter- 
pret the  reverse  as  implying  some  mysterious 
cause  of  divine  displeasure.  And  though 
Joshua  is  chidden  for  the  faithlessness  of  his 
despondency  (7io),  his  uneasiness  is  at  the 
same  moment  (T^^)  justified  and  explained. 

20.  There  is  a  special  interest  about  this 
confession  of  Achan's,  because  its  wording  is 
practically  identical  with  that  of  the  tradi- 
tional form  of  confession  which  seems  to  have 
been  used  by  those  who  brought  sin  and 
trespass  offerings.  A  particular  confession  is 
enjoined  in  such  passages  as  Lv5^  Nu5^>'^. 
The  form  was  as  follows  :  '  I  have  sinned,  I 
have  done  perversely,  I  have  rebelled,  and 
thus '  (here  follows  detailed  confession)  '  have 
I  done,  but  I  return  in  penitence  before  Thee, 
and  let  this  victim  be  my  expiation.' 

21.  This  verse  throws  an  interesting  light 
on  the  wealth  of  Jericho,  and  the  extent  of 
her  commerce. 

25.  And  all  Israel  stoned  him  with  stones, 
and  burned  them  with  iSre]  This  inclusion  of 
Achan's  household  in  the  punishment  is  one 
of  the  moral  problems  of  the  book.  Eders- 
heim  ('Bib.  Hist.'  art.  'Joshua,'  p.  69  note) 
interprets  the  use  of  the  singular  number  in 
7  25a  as  showing  that  Achan  was  the  only  permn 
stoned  ;  the  plural  number  following  (725^^ 
referring  to  his  cattle  and  property  only. 
Others  emphasise  the  fact  (not  brought  out 
in  the  narrative)  that  his  family  must  have 
been  privy  to  the  crime  ;  or  dwell  on  the 
'  entail '  of  divine  visitation  pronounced  in 
the  second  commandment  (Ex  20  5).  The  last 
view  agrees  best  with  the  passage  as  it  stands, 
which  suggests  in  a  very  striking  way  the 
sufferings  people  bring  upon  their  childi'en 
by  their  sins. 

CHAPTER  8 

The  Conquest  of  Ai.     The  Covenant 

Confirmed  upon  Mt.  Ebal 
1-29.   The  Taking  of  Ai.     Edersheim  ex- 
plains that  Joshua  detailed  a  corps  of  30,000 


men,  of  whom  5,000  were  placed  W.  of  Ai  in 
a  wood.  The  25,000  pitched  N.  of  Ai,  and 
subsequently  moved  forward  into  the  valley 
below  the  city.  Then  came  the  feigned  attack 
and  retreat  eastward,  the  signal  from  Joshua, 
and  the  assault  by  the  ambush  from  the  rear. 
It  should  be  noted,  however,  that  there  are 
two  accounts  of  the  ambush,  one  in  vv.  3,  9, 
in  which  30,000  are  said  to  have  been  concealed, 
and  the  other  in  vv.  10-12,  in  which  only 
5,000  are  said  to  have  been  in  hiding.  These 
discrepancies  in  figures  are  very  common. 

15.  By  the  way  of  the  wilderness]  i.e.  toward 
the  Jordan  valley.  17.  Or  Bethel]  omit,  as 
LXX. 

30-35.  The  Covenant  confirmed  upon  Mt. 
Ebal,  near  Shechem.  At  the  first  opportunity 
the  law  of  Jehovah  is  proclaimed  as  the  law 
of  the  land. 

31.  As  Moses ..  commanded]  see  Dtll29, 
and,  more  fully,  Dt27.  An  altar  of  -white 
stones]  see  Ex  20  25.  Burnt  offerings]  repre- 
senting entire  oblation  of  the  offerer  to  God  : 
wholly  consumed  on  the  altar.  Peace  offerings] 
representing  communion  with  God.  God  was 
the  Host,  and  the  offerer  and  his  friends 
feasted  with  Him  at  His  table.  32.  The  stones] 
i.e.  the  stones  when  plastered  :  see  Dt27  2-i. 
A  copy  of  the  law]  Obviously  not  the  whole 
Pentateuch,  or  even  the  legislative  matter  con- 
tained in  it  ;  but  the  Law  of  the  Blessings 
and  Cursings:  see  Dt27. 

CHAPTERS  9-12 

In  chs.  9-1 1  inclusive  we  have  the  account 
of  two  great  campaigns,  in  which  Joshua  suc- 
cessively defeats  a  confederacy  of  the  petty 
kings  of  southern  Palestine  under  the  king  of 
Jerusalem,  and  a  combination  of  the  northern 
chiefs  under  Jabin,  king  of  Hazor.  C.  12 
concludes  the  narrative  of  the  conquest,  with 
a  summary  of  the  successes  of  Moses  on  the  E. 
and  of  Joshua  on  the  W.  of  Jordan.  Critics 
have  been  much  exercised  by  the  apparent 
contrast  of  this  naiTative  of  the  invasion  with 
that  in  Jg  1 .  There  we  have — in  the  case  of 
Judah  and  Simeon  at  least — independent  tribal 
action.  Here  there  is  no  word  of  anything 
but  a  general  action  of  Israel,  under  Joshua's 
leadership,  resulting  (1123)  in  a  conquest  of 
the  '  whole  land.'  The  solution  of  the  diffi- 
culty may  perhaps  be  (a)  that  these  chapters 
give  us  the  account  of  two  grand  campaigns 
complete  and  successful  in  themselves,  but 
involving  a  prolonged  guerilla  warfare  and  a 
number  of  local  enterprises,  such  as  those 
mentioned  in  Judges.  Or  it  may  be  (b)  that 
there  is  in  these  rounded  accounts  of  the 
northern  and  southern  conquests  something  of 
historical  foreshortening  ;  for  we  must  re- 
member that  in  1 1  ^^  it  is  described  as  a  '  long  ' 
war  (see  on  11 16-23^,    Qr  possibly  a  combination 


146 


9.1 


JOSHUA 


10.  12 


of  these  two  explanations  may  give  the  true 
solution. 

CHAPTER  9 
The  League  with  the  Gibeonites 

C.  9  forms  an  introduction  to  the  narrative 
of  the  Southern  campaign  (c.  10).  The  Grib- 
eonite  cities  were  important  enough  both 
politically  and  geogi-aphically  (see  on  9 1'^  and 
10^)  for  their  defection  to  frighten  the  sur- 
rounding kinglets  into  concerted  action  against 
Israel. 

I,  2.  The  petty  kings  combine  against  Israel. 

3.  Gibeon]  2  m.  N.  of  Jerusalem.  For  its 
importance  see  on  10  2, 10.  j^.  Took  of  their 
victuals]  thus  accepting  their  specious  story, 
and  incidentally  committing  themselves,  accord- 
ing to  Eastern  rule  of  hospitality,  to  at  least 
a  temporary  friendship.  Asked  not  counsel 
by  Urim  and  Thummim]  as  e.g.  we  find  them 
asking  in  Jgl^.  17.  Now  their  cities  were] 
All  these  four  cities  have  been  identified  in 
the  territory  afterwards  occupied  by  Benjamin 
and  the  N.  border  of  Judah.  20.  Lest  w^rath 
come  upon  us]  Centui'ies  later  we  are  told 
(2  S21)  that  the  Israelites  of  David's  time  felt 
this  '  wrath '  when  Saul  had  broken  his  an- 
cestral compact  with  Gibeon.  21.  Hewers  of 
wood,  etc.]  This  is  the  description  of  the 
normal  function  of  resident  aliens  in  Dt29ii. 
From  vv.  23,  27  we  find  that  their  tasks  were 
mainly,  though  not  entirely,  concerned  with 
the  sacrificial  worship  of  the  House  of  God. 

CHAPTER  10 

The  Conquest  of  Southern  Canaan 
This  c.  narrates  the  successful  campaign 
against  the  five  confederate  chiefs  of  the  S., 
who  are  roused  by  the  fall  of  Jericho  and  Ai 
and  the  alliance  with  Gibeon,  and  combine 
under  the  leadership  of  Adonizedek  of  Jeru- 
salem to  retaliate  upon  the  Gibeonites.  Bring- 
ing succour,  as  in  duty  bound,  to  his  new  allies, 
Joshua  encounters  the  confederate  forces  in 
Beth-horon.  By  divine  aid  he  inflicts  on  them 
a  signal  defeat,  captures  and  slays  all  five 
kings,  and  follows  up  his  success  by  a  prompt 
reduction  of  six  Amorite  strongholds  in  swift 
succession.  A  concluding  paragraph  (10'*o-*3) 
describes  the  work  of  conquest  so  far,  as 
summary  and  complete. 

1.  Adonizedek]  The  name  recalls  that  of 
his  famous  predecessor  Melchizedek,  the  con- 
temporary of  Abraham  :  see  on  Gnl4i8. 

2.  Because  Gibeon  was  a  great  city]  com- 
manding the  chief  pass  to  the  western  plains 
and  but  a  few  miles  from  Jerusalem  :  see  on 
V.  10.  3,  4.  Of  the  confederate  cities  three 
were  subsequently  reduced  by  Joshua  :  see  on 
vv.  29-38. 

5.  Amorites]  a  general  name  for  the  moun- 
tain tribes. 


147 


6-14.  Battle  of  Gibeon  (or  Beth-horon)  : 
Joshua,  summoned  by  the  Gibeonites  to  their 
aid,  defeates  the  Amorites.  10.  The  pass  of 
Beth-horon  leading  to  the  valley  of  Aijalon 
is  of  great  strategic  importance,  being  the 
main  outlet  from  Gibeon  and  Jerusalem  to- 
wards the  coast.  '  Throughout  history,'  says 
G.  A.  Smith,  '  we  see  hosts  swarming  up  this 
avenue  or  swept  down  it  in  flight.'  Azekah  .  . 
Makkedah]  between  Philistia  and  the  hill- 
country  of  Judah.  II.  Great  stones  from 
heaven]  a  hailstorm,  in  which  the  hand  of 
God  is  discerned. 

12-14.  Then  spake  Joshua]  This  celebrated 
passage  (as  will  be  seen  in  RV)  consists  of  (1) 
a  prose  introduction,  v.  12=^;  (2)  a  poetical 
fragment  quoted  from  the  book  of  Jasher, 
vv.  12^,  13^ ;  and  (3)  a  prose  comment  on  that 
quotation,  13^  14. 

The  four  lines  from  the  book  of  Jasher 
run,  literally,  as  follows  : — 

Sun,  be  thou  dumb  upon  Gibeon  ; 

And  thou,  moon,  in  valley  of  Aijalon  ! 
And   the    sun   became    dumb,  and  the  moon 
stood, 

Till  the  people  were  avenged  on  their  foes. 

Taken  by  themselves  these  four  lines  might 
refer  to  an  eclipse,  or  to  a  prolongation  of  the 
darkness  of  the  hailstorm  (see  v.  11).  The 
sun  is  spoken  of  as  '  dumb '  when  not  shining, 
as  in  Dante's  '  Inferno,'  1.  60,  the  sunless  shade 
is  '  dove  il  sol  face  '  (where  the  sun  is  speech- 
less). At  first  sight  the  comment  in  vv.  13^  14 
seems  decisive  against  this  interpretation. 
But  Edersheim  regards  these  vv.  as  themselves 
(substantially)  quoted  from  the  book  of 
Jasher  ;  in  which  case  they  would  be  poetical 
and  figurative,  and  other  writers  boldly  take 
them  as  a  later  gloss,  written  at  a  time  when 
the  figurative  language  of  the  poem  was  mis- 
understood. In  favour  of  this  view  is  the 
fact  that  there  are  no  certain  references  to 
this  event  as  miraculous  in  the  other  books  of 
the  OT. ;  and  it  is  not  till  c.  180  B.C.  (Ecclus 
46  4)  that  we  find  the  first  clear  mention  of 
the  miracle  as  making  '  the  sun  go  back  '  ;  an 
interpretation  which  was  followed  by  the 
author  of  the  'Psalms  of  Solomon'  (18 1^) 
c.  50  B.C.,  and  by  Josephus,  and  has  been  the 
'  traditional '  one  till  lately.  This  interpreta- 
tion of  the  incident,  which  makes  it  involve  a 
literal  '  staying  of  the  sun,'  i.e.  in  modern 
language,  an  arresting  of  the  earth's  rotatory 
motion,  has  not  unnaturally  tried  the  faith  of 
many  who,  while  accepting  the  doctrine  of 
God's  omnipotence,  feel  that  such  a  kind  of 
interpretation  contradicts  what  God  Himself 
has  taught  them  about  the  orderly  working  of 
His  universe.  Whether  we  regard  the  divine 
answer  to  Joshua's  prayer  as  given  in  the 
form   of   a   prolongation  of   the  daylight,  in 


10.  13 


JOSHUA 


12. 


spite  of  the  hailstorm  (see  Edersheim),  or 
(perhaps  better)  as  prolongation  of  the  storm 
darkness,  we  must  not  forget  that  the  record 
is  poetry  and  not  prose,  and  the  inspired 
language  of  the  passage  ancient  and  oriental, 
not  modern,  western,  and  scientific. 

13.  The  Book  of  Jasher]  Yashar= '  Upright ' 
or  '  Pious.'  The  book  was  presumably  a 
collection  of  national  heroic  songs.  Else- 
where it  is  quoted  by  name  only  in  2  S 1  ^^ 
(David's  elegy  over  Saul  and  Jonathan). 
Possibly  we  may  ascribe  to  the  same  source 
other  poems,  like  the  Song  of  Deborah  (Jg5), 
which  has  itself  a  later  prose  commentary 
attached  to  it  (Jg  4). 

24.  Put  their  feet  upon  the  necks]  The 
monuments  of  Assyria  and  Egypt  afford 
graphic  parallels.  26.  Slew  them  and  hanged 
them]  The  hanging  was  an  additional  insult 
wreaked  on  the  corpse  :  cp.  Dt2122, 23 

29.  Libnah]  in  the  lowlands  of  Judah  :  also 
Lachish  (v.  31),  Gezer(v.  33)  and  Eglon(v.  34). 

36.  Hebron]  (ElKhaUl,  'the  friend'  of  God) 
Abraham's  city  in  the  mountain  of  Judah, 
and  one  of  the  six  Levitical  cities  of  refuge 
(20 ''').  38.  Debir]  also  called  Kirjath-Sepher, 
and  falling,  like  Hebron,  to  Caleb.  It  lay  in 
the  hill-country  of  Judah,  or  in  the  Negeb 
(1515-19^^  perhaps  on  the  border. 

40-43.  On  these  divisions  of  the  country  see 
on  c.  15.  A  summary  like  this  must  not  be 
pressed  too  literally,  but  read  in  the  light  of 
other  narratives  like  Jgl.  The  meaning  is 
that  Joshua's  work  was  thorough,  as  far  as  it 
went  ;  that  it  was  carried  out  in  a  spirit  of 
absolute  loyalty  to  the  divine  commands 
(cp.  Dt  20 16, 17)  ;  and  that  all  its  success  (v.  42) 
was  due  to  the  divine  leadership  and  assist- 
ance. 40.  The  campaign  in  southern  Pales- 
tine included  the  hills  of  Judah,  the  south,  i.e. 
the  Negeb,  the  vale  (RV  '  the  lowland '),  i.e.  the 
Shephelah,  and  the  springs  (RV  '  the  slopes  ') 
between  the  hill-country  and  the  Shephelah. 

41.  Goshen]  in  the  mountain  of  Judah 
(I551). 

CHAPTER  11 

The  Campaign  in  the  North 
Here  there  is  no  trace,  as  in  the  former 
case,  of  miraculous  interposition.  Joshua's 
generalship,  courage,  swiftness  and  loyalty  are 
the  prominent  factors  in  the  achievement. 
Yet  it  is  made  clear  here  (vv.  6-8)  as  ever, 
that  those  qualities  attained  their  object 
because  they  were  under  the  direct  guidance 
of  the  God  of  Israel. 

I.  Jabin]  king  of  Hazor.  Hazor]  may  be 
Tell  el-Hurrawiyeh,  2^  m.  S.  of  Kedesh- 
Naphtali.  Shimron]  (  =  Shimron-meron  12'-0)is 
Semunieh,W.  of  Nazareth.  Achshaph]  el  Yasif , 
the  port  of  Accho.  Hazor  is  again  a  powerful 
Canaanite  centre  in  the  time  of  Deborah  (Jg  4) 


and  its  king  bears  the  same  name,  or  title, 
Jabin  ( =  wise)  and  may  have  been  of  the  same 
dynasty.  2,  3.  RV  '  that  were  on  the  north, 
in  the  hill-country,  and  in  the  Arabah  south  of 
Chinneroth,  and  in  the  lowland,  and  in  the 
heights  of  Dor  on  the  west,  to  the  Canaanite 
on  the  east  .  .'  The  '  Arabah  S.  of  Chinne- 
roth '  means  the  plain  S.  of  the  lake  of 
Gennesaret  (Lk5i).      Dor]  near  Mt.  Carmel. 

3.  The  Canaanite  on  the  east  and  on  the 
•west]  The  name  '  Canaanite '  is  more  probably 
geogi'aphical  than  racial.  It  means  '  lowland- 
ers.'  In  the  Amarna  tablets  (14th  cent.  B.C.)  the 
Land  of  Canaan  means  the  Phoenician  coast  ; 
in  later  Egyptian  monuments  it  includes  all 
W.  Syria.  5.  Waters  of  Merom]  Probably 
Lake  Huleh,  a  marshy  lake  near  the  sources  of 
the  Jordan.  6.  Thou  shalt  hough,  etc.]  To 
'  hough  '  or  '  hock  '  =  to  hamstring  a  horse. 
This  was  done,  no  doubt,  during  the  battle,  to 
stop  the  charge.  The  chariots  were  destroyed 
afterwards. 

16-23.  General  retrospect  of  Joshua's  cam- 
paigns. This  paragraph  covers  the  preceding 
chs.  as  well  as  c.  lli"i^.  The  war,  which  has 
been  presented  to  us  in  graphic  sketches  fol- 
lowing one  another  in  swift  succession,  is  said 
to  have  been  a  'long'  one  (v.  18),  and  the 
natural  inference  from  147-10  (where  see  note) 
is  that  it  lasted  seven  years. 

16.  The  mountain  country  and  Negeb  (dry 
southern  uplands)  and  Shephelah  (low  hills 
skirting  the  mountains)  first  mentioned  are 
those  of  Judah  (see  on  lO^O),  from  which  the 
inference  has  been  di-awn  that  the  writer  was 
a  native  of  that  tribe,  because  he  does  not 
qualify  the  terms.  Then  follows  the  Arabah 
(deep  valley  of  Jordan),  and  finally  the  mount- 
ain of  Israel  and  its  Shephelah,  i.e.  the  N. 
Israelite  part  of  this  central  range  and  the  low 
hills  (valley)  between  it  and  Carmel.  The 
stretch  of  country  described  reaches  from 
Halak  in  Edomite  territory  S.  of  the  Dead 
Sea  to  Baal  Gad  at  the  foot  of  Hermon,  N.  of 
Lake  Huleh. 

22.  The  Anakims]  This  hill-tribe  had  by 
their  stature  made  an  alarming  impression  on 
the  original  spies  (Nu  1 3  2S-33 ;  cp.  Josh  1412).  j-^ 
was  from  Gath  that  Goliath  came  (IS  17*) 
and  other  giants  (2  S  21 18-22). 

CHAPTER    12 

A  Review  op  the  Victories  of  Moses 

AND  Joshua 

This  c.  concludes  the  whole  section  of  the 

book  which  deals  with  the  conquest  of  Canaan. 

The  following  chs.   narrate   the   partition   of 

the    conquered    and  some   unconquered  land. 

The  original  account  of  these  conquests  is  to 

be  found  in  Nu  2 1  21-35^  and  of  the  assignment  to 

the  2 1  tribes  in  Nu32.     A  fuller  description  of 

the  territory  is  given  in  c.  1 3 1-33,  where  see  notes. 


148 


12.  1 


JOSHUA 


13.  22 


1-6.  Moses'  conquests  E.  of  Jordan.  King- 
doms of  Sihon  and  Og.  3.  Sea  of  Chinneroth] 
the  OT.  name  for  the  Sea  of  Galilee.  Salt 
sea]   the  Dead  Sea. 

7-24.  Joshua's  conquests  W.  of  Jordan — 
thirty-one  kings.  7.  The  N.  and  S.  limits  are 
given  as  in  1 1  ^ ",  only  in  reverse  order.  On 
this  side  Jordan  on  the  west]  RV  '  beyond 
Jordan  westward.'     9.   One]   i.e.  one  king. 

21.  Taanach  .  .  Megiddo]   see  on  JgS^^. 

23.  The  nations]  RV  '  Goiim.'  24.  Tirzah] 
(probably  =  Teiasir)  NE.  of  Shechem.  It  was 
afterwards  the  capital  of  the  Northern  King- 
dom, from  the  time  of  Jeroboam  (1 K 14 1")  till 
the  6th  year  of  Omri,  who  moved  the  centre 
of  government  to  Samaria  (IK  16 23). 

CHAPTERS    13-21 
The   Settlement 

The  summaries  of  c.  12  mark  the  end  of  one 
section  of  the  book,  and  the  opening  words  of 
c.  13  as  clearly  introduce  the  beginning  of 
another. 

This  central  portion,  embracing  chs.  13-21, 
has  been  called  '  The  Domesday  Book  of  the 
Old  Testament,'  and  is  invaluable  as  aground- 
work  for  modern  scientific  explorers.  '  The 
Book  of  Joshua '  (writes  Col.  Conder)  '  is  the 
great  geographical  book  of  the  Old  Testament, 
and  the  study  of  its  geography  is  important,  as 
showing  that  it  was  written  in  Palestine  by  an 
author  who  was  familiar  with  the  whole  land. 
.  .  A  proportion  of  about  thi'ee-quarters  of 
the  towns  mentioned  in  this  book  are  more  or 
less  certainly  known,  having  either  never  been 
lost,  or  having  recently  been  recovered  by  ex- 
ploration, through  the  survival  of  the  ancient 
name  to  our  owti  time,  or  by  other  indications 
— as,  for  instance,  in  the  case  of  Lachish,  where 
other  indications  are  confirmed  by  the  discovery 
of  a  tablet  referring  to  Zimrida  (who  is  known 
to  have  been  the  ruler  of  Lachish  about  1480 
B.C.)  which  has  been  dug  up  in  the  ruins  of 
the  city.' 

It  may  be  noted  that  in  chs.  13-22  the 
Priestly  narrative  is  predominant  ;  just  as  the 
Primitive  is  in  chs.  1-12,  although  some  of  the 
most  interesting  incidents,  e.g.  Caleb's  inherit- 
ance (146-15  15i'*-i^),  are  from  the  earlier  source. 

The  section  may  be  thus  analysed  : — (a) 
131-33  Territories  of  the  Eastern  Tribes,  (b) 
14 1-19  51  Territories  of  the  Western  Tribes. 

CHAPTER  13 

Territories  of  the  Eastern  Tribes 
1-7.  These  vv.  describe  the  land  which, 
though  still  unconquered,  is  to  be  assigned 
to  the  9|  tribes.  It  includes  the  W.  and  N. 
borders  of  Palestine.  Wellhausen  ('  History 
of  Israel ')  remarks,  '  The  conquest  was  at  first 
but  an  incomplete  one.  The  plain  which 
fringed  the  coast  was  hardly  touched  :  so  also 


the  valley  of  Jezreel  with  its  girdle  of  fortified 
cities  stretching  from  Accho  to  Beth-shean. 
All  that  was  subdued  in  the  strict  sense  of 
the  word  was  the  mountainous  land,  par- 
ticularly the  southern  hill-country  of  Mt. 
Ephraim  ;  yet  even  here  the  Canaanites  re- 
tained possession  of  not  a  few  cities,  such  as 
Jebus,  Shechem,  Thebez.' 

2.  Geshuri]  Distinct  from  the  Geshurites 
of  V.  13  and  12  5.  We  should  perhaps  read 
'  the  people  of  Gezer,'  S.  of  Ephraim. 

3.  Sihor]  the  Wady  el  Arish,  or  Brook  of 
Egypt.  4.  Aphek]  in  Asher.  5.  Giblites] 
Gebal  was  at  the  foot  of  Lebanon,  on  the 
coast. 

7,  8.  The  LXX  has  a  much  more  intelligible 
reading — '  And  now  divide  this  land  for  an 
inheritance  to  the  nine  tribes  and  the  half 
tribe  of  Manasseh,  from  Jordan  to  the  great 
sea  and  toward  the  sunsetting  shalt  thou  give 
it  :  the  great  sea  shall  be  the  border  (v.  8). 
To  the  tribes  and  the  half  tribe  of  Manasseh, 
Reuben  and  Gad,  gave  Moses  on  the  other 
side  of  Jordan,  toward  the  sun-rising.  .  .' 

8-33.  The  territory  of  the  two  tribes  and  a 
half,  including  territory  previously  taken  from 
Moab  by  Sihon  (Nu2126):  cp.  Nu  32 1-3, 33-42. 
Reuben  had  from  the  Arnon  on  the  S.  to 
Heshbon  (  =  Hesban),  a  little  north  of  the 
Dead  Sea.  Gad  had  the  eastern  side  of  the 
Jordan  valley,  from  the  N.  boundarj^  of  Reuben 
to  the  Sea  of  Galilee  (Sea  of  Chinnereth)  and 
the  western  slopes  of  Mt.  Gilead  ;  Manasseh 
had  the  eastern  half  of  Mt.  Gilead,  all  the 
great  plateau  of  Bashan,  running  up  to  the 
range  of  Hermon. 

14.  He  gave  none  inheritance]  assigned  no 
district  as  a  tribal  territory,  gave  them  only 
scattered  cities  within  the  lots  of  the  other 
tribes.  The  sacrifices  of  the  LORD]  (in  v.  33, 
simply  'the  Lord')  cp.  Nu  18 20-32.  Their 
professional  absorption  in  spiritual  things 
made  it,  however,  all  the  more  necessary 
that  their  material  wants  should  be  provided 
for  (see  1  Cor  9 13, 14  for  an  enunciation  of  this 
principle  and  its  application  to  the  Christian 
ministry).  Accordingly  we  find  their  promised 
cities  duly  assigned  to  the  Levites  in  c.  21 
(cp.  Nu35). 

15-23.  Territory  of  Reuben  :  see  on  vv. 
8-33.  16,  17.  Plain]  RM 'table-land.'  The 
plateau  of  Madebah  includes  the  sites  of 
Hesban,  the  ancient  capital,  Dibon  (=  Dhiban, 
where  the  famous  9th  cent.  B.C.  monument  of 
Mesha,  known  as  the  '  Moabite  Stone,'  was 
discovered  in  1868)  and  other  towns  of 
Reuben.  Dibon  (NU3234  3345)  ^as  actually 
occupied  by  Gad. 

22.  The  reference  to  the  slaying  of  Balaam 
comes  in  strangely  here  :  but  it  occurs  also  in 
NuSl^  in  a  parallel  context.  Evidently  there 
is  here  trace  of  a  very  ancient  document. 


149 


13.  24 


JOSHUA 


15.  5 


24-28.  Territory  of  Gad  :  see  on  vr.  8-33. 

26.  Ramath-mispeh]  possibly  the  later 
Ramoth  Gilead  (Raimun),  N.  of  the  Jabbok. 
Debir]  not  the  Debir  of  lO^s  or  157.  The 
Hebrew  is  Ledebir,  which  may  be  the  Lo-debar 
of  2  S  9  4.  27.  Sea  of  Chinnereth]  i.e.  the  Sea 
of  Galilee. 

29-31.  Territory  of  the  half -tribe  of 
Manasseh.     33.  See  on  v.  14. 

CHAPTERS  14-19 
Territories  of  the  Western  Tribes 
Chs.  14-19  inclusive  describe  the  allotment 
of  territories  to  the  Western  Tribes.  There 
are  two  assignments.  The  first,  embracing 
Judah  and  Joseph,  is  described  as  taking  place 
at  Gilgal  (14*5)  under  the  auspices  of  Eleazar 
and  Joshua  and  the  '  heads  of  the  fathers '  (141). 
Judah  (15),  Ephraim  (16),  and  Manasseh  (17) 
each  occupy  a  single  c.  The  second  assign- 
ment, to  the  seven  remaining  tribes,  takes 
place  apparently  at  a  later  date  (18  3),  after 
an  elaborate  survey  (18*5.8,9)  of  the  territory 
available.  Its  scene  is  Shiloh,  and  Joshua 
alone  is  named  as  presiding.  It  is  noticeable 
(see  further  note  on  the  assignment  of  the 
territory)  that  the  details  of  the  seven 
territories  are  much  more  meagre  than  those 
of  the  others,  except  in  the  case  of  Benjamin. 
C.  14  itself  is  introductory,  partly  (141-5)  to 
the  whole  of  the  5  chs.  following  ;  partly 
(146-15)  to  the  first  assignment  (chs.  15-17), 
recording  Caleb's  request  for  Hebron  and  its 
favourable  reception.  This  latter  section 
(146-15)  is  of  special  interest  in  that  it  affords 
incidentally  one  of  the  few  definite  chrono- 
logical data  available  for  this  period  (see 
on  14 10). 

CHAPTER    14 
The  Portion  of  Caleb 

1-5.   Introductory  Section. 

I.  Eleazar  the  priest]  The  mention  of  the 
priest  in  association  with  the  leader,  to  whom 
he  is  here  given  precedence,  is  one  of  the 
characteristics  of  the  Priestly  narrative. 

4.  The  children  of  Joseph  were  two  tribes, 
etc.]  This  reckoning,  with  the  subtraction  of 
Levi,  makes  a  total  of  twelve  still.  Practically, 
however,  Simeon  became  absorbed  in  Judah, 
and  each  half -tribe  of  Manasseh  came  to  count 
as  a  complete  tribe. 

6-15.   The  inheritance  of  Caleb  :  see  1513-19. 

6.  Thou  knowest  the  thing,  etc.]  The  pro- 
mise to  Caleb  occurs  in  Nul424,  and  is  re- 
ferred to  again  in  Dtl^i^.  On  Caleb  see  on 
1513.  10.  These  forty  and  five  years]  The 
notes  of  time  given  here  and  in  14  7  are 
interesting.  Caleb  was  40  years  old  at 
Kadesh  :  45  j'ears  have  intervened  since  then, 
and  he  is  now  85.  Allowing  38  years  for  the 
penal  wanderings,  we  get  7  years  as  the  period 


covered  by  the  war  of  conquest  up  to  this 
date. 

12-15.  Hebron  assigned  to  Caleb  :  on 
Hebron  see  on  10^6,  and  on  Caleb's  possession 
of  it,  1513^-  and  note.  On  the  Anakim  see  on 
1122.  12.  RV  'it  may  be  that  the  Lord  will 
be  with  me  and  I  shall  drive  them  out':  cp. 
514  and  Jgl20.  It  is  a  brave  man's  word 
(cp.  14 11).  Caleb  welcomes  the  task  the  more 
for  its  peril,  and  the  hard  work  confronting 
him  adds  value  to  the  inheritance.  15.  The 
name  of  Hebron,  etc.]  LXX  'Now  the  name  of 
Hebron  was  formerly  the  city  of  Argob  : 
this  was  the  metropolis  of  the  Anakim '  :  and 
similarly  in  151^  21  n  for  'father  of  Anak ' 
LXX  reads  '  metropolis  of  Anak.'  This  may 
be  the  true  sense. 

CHAPTERS  15-19 
The  Assignment  of  the  Territory 
It  has  been  noticed  that  there  are  many 
incidental  features  in  this  narrative  which 
point  to  a  contemporary  document.  Thus  in 
the  lot  of  Judah  we  have  a  full  description, 
both  of  the  frontier-lines  (15i'i-),  and  also  of 
the  chief  cities  contained  within  them  (1521-62)  ; 
and  the  same  is  true  of  Benjamin  (18ii-28). 
But  these  are  the  tribes  which  seem  to  have 
conquered  their  territory  soonest  and  most 
completely.  Ephraim  and  Manasseh,  on  the 
contrary,  have  only  their  boundaries  mentioned 
without  any  list  of  cities  (16).  As  a  matter 
of  fact,  the  children  of  Joseph  seem  to  have 
had  more  difficulties  with  the  Canaanites 
(17 12- 16,  cp.  Jgl27)  than  had  Judah  and  Ben- 
jamin. Again,  Simeon  (191-9)  and  Dan  (19^0-^8) 
have  no  boundaries  mentioned,  only  cities, 
because  they  originally  settled  in  the  territory 
of  Judah  and  Benjamin.  Finally,  the  accounts 
of  the  territory  of  the  remaining  tribes,  Zebu- 
lun,  Issachar,  Asher,  Naphtali  (191^-39),  are 
defective,  as  is  natural  if  at  the  date  when 
the  document  was  originally  drawn  up,  these 
territories  were  not  yet  completely  conquered  : 
cp.  Jg  1 30-33  But  if  the  document  be  strictly 
contemporary,  it  must  be  regarded  as  closing 
with  19*6. 

CHAPTER  15 
The  Lot  of  Judah 

1-12.  The  boundaries  of  Judah's  lot.  There 
is  a  valuable  descriptive  note  on  this  section  and 
on  1520-68  in  Black's  Commentary  on  'Joshua' 
in  the  Smaller  Cambridge  Bible. 

2-4.  The  S.  Frontier.  This  coincides,  of 
course,  with  the  S.  Frontier  of  the  whole  land 
as  given  in  ]Sru343-5.  4.  xhe  river  of  Egypt] 
RV  '  brook  of  Bgypt;  not  the  Nile,  but  the 
Wady  el  Arish  :  cp.  15-*''. 

5.  The  E.  Frontier,  viz.  the  Dead  Sea. 

5-1 1.  The  N.  Frontier.  Cp.  the  account 
in   1815-20  of   the  S.  Frontier   of   Benjamin. 


150 


15.7 


JOSHUA 


17.7 


This  is  by  far  the  most  complicated  of  the 
four  frontiers,  but  its  hne  can  be  fairly  well 
traced.  It  leaves  the  Jordan  some  4  m.  N. 
of  the  Dead  Sea,  and  runs  W.,  then  SW.  past 
Jerusalem,  W.  again  near  Bethlehem,  and  NW. 
as  it  descends  to  the  maritime  plain.  7.  Debit] 
This  cannot  be  the  same  as  the  Debir  of  11  -i 
1515,49,  Perhaps  the  reading  here  should  be 
'  toward  the  wilderness.'  The  going  up  to 
(RV  '  the  ascent  of ')  Adummim]  This  was 
the  steep  pass  on  the  road  from  Jericho  to 
Jerusalem.  En-rogel]  a  spring  near  Jeru.salem 
which  supplies  the  Pool  of  Siloam.  8.  Valley 
of  the  giants]  RY  '  vale  of  Rephaim,'  SW.  of 
Jerusalem.  9.  Kirjath-jearim]  7  m.  NW.  of 
Jerusalem.  10.  Mount  Seir]  in  Judah,  dis- 
tinct from  the  Mt.  Seir  in  Edom.  Beth-shemesh 
.  .  Timnah]  in  Dan.  11.  Jabneel]  on  the  coast, 
known  later  as  Jamnia  (cp.  1  Mac  41^2  Mac  1 2  8), 
in  later  days  a  famous  seat  of  Jewish  learning. 

12.  The  W.  Frontier,  viz.  the  Mediter- 
ranean. Practically,  however,  the  Philistines 
held  the  coast  for  many  centuries. 

13-19.  The  inheritance  of  Caleb.  This 
passage  is  repeated  in  Jg  1  ^o-i^,  where,  how- 
ever, the  expulsion  of  the  Anakim  from 
Hebron,  attributed  (1121-23)  to  Joshua  and 
Israel,  and  here  (cp.  14^2)  to  Caleb,  is  ascribed 
more  vaguely  to  Judah.  For  further  instances 
of  parallels  or  quasi-parallels,  with  the  book 
of  Judges  see  on  1563  19^7  2428.  13.  Caleb] 
=  '  dog.'  He  seems  to  have  been  of  Edomite 
origin  (146).  jJq  was  by  no  means  a  solitary 
instance  of  an  alien  adopted  into  the  tribe  of 
Judah.  In  the  ancestry  of  David  himself  we 
find  the  Canaanitess  Rahab  and  the  Moabitess 
Ruth.  Father  of  Anak]  LXX  has  '  metropolis 
of  Anak'  :  see  on  14 1^.  15.  Debir]  see  on 
1038.  17.  Othniel]  (= 'Lion  of  God').  For 
his  subsequent  career  see  Jg'5^-^^. 

20-62.  The  cities  of  Judah. 

20-32.  Cities  in  the  Negeb,  or  '  south 
country':  see  on  Gnr29. 

33-47.  Cities  in  the  Shephelah,  or  '  low- 
land '  (not  as  AV  '  valley ')  :  the  fertile  undu- 
lating tract  between  the  central  ridge  and  the 
maritime  plain. 

48-60.  Cities  in  the  '  Mountain,'  i.e.  the 
rocky  backbone  of  Judah,  the  limestone 
watershed  between  the  Mediterranean  and  the 
Dead  Sea.  Mt.  Ephraim  is  its  continuation 
northwards. 

59.  LXX  inserts  here  a  list  of  11  cities 
(including  Tekoa  and  '  Ephrata  which  is  Beth- 
lehem ')  which  seems  to  have  dropped  out  of 
the  Massoretic  text. 

61,  62.  Cities  in  the  '  Wilderness,'  i.e.  the 
steep  and  barren  slopes  between  the  Mountain 
and  the  Dead  Sea  eastward. 

63.  The  Jebusites  dwell  with  the  children  of 
Judah  at  Jerusalem  unto  this  day]  The  parallel 
passage  in  Jg  1 21  has  '  Benjamin  '  for  '  Judah,' 


which  may  be  an  earlier  form.  At  fii-st  sight 
this  V.  seems  to  belong  to  a  time  anterior,  or 
at  latest  to  the  time  when  David  (2SiJ6f.) 
captured  from  the  Jebusites  the  citadel  of 
Zion.  But  that  capture  did  not  mean  expul- 
sion, as  is  clear  from  the  later  incident  of 
Ai-aunah  (2  S24i<5  ;  cp.  1  Ch21  is.  Cp.  also  the 
mention  of  Jebusites  as  late  as  ZechU  <■)  ;  and 
in  a  sense  it  may  be  true  that  Judahite  and 
Jebusite  only  began  to  live  together  in  Jeru- 
salem when  David  made  it  his  capital,  though 
Jg  1 21  may  represent  an  earlier  state  of  things. 

CHAPTER  16 
The  Lot  of  Joseph 

Chs.  16,  17  describe  the  territories  of  Eph- 
raim and  the  W.  half  of  Manasseh.  Vv.  1-4 
of  c.  16  give  the  general  frontiers  of  the  com- 
bined tribes,  the  rest  of  the  c.  (165-io)  the 
frontiers  of  Ephraim  as  distinct  from  W. 
Manasseh.  The  territory  allotted  to  the  two 
tribes  comprised  the  central  and  most  fertile 
part  of  Palestine.  The  S.  border  ran  from 
Jericho  through  Bethel  to  Beth-horon  and  the 
sea  ;  and  the  N.  border  from  Mt.  Carmel. 
along  the  S.  border  of  the  Plain  of  Esdraelon 
to  the  Jordan. 

I.  RV  '  the  lot .  .  went  out  from  the  Jordan 
at  Jericho,  at  the  waters  of  Jericho  on  the  east, 
even  the  wilderness,  going  up  from  Jericho 
through  the  hill-country  to  Bethel.'  2.  From 
Beth-el  to  Luz]   see  on  Gn28i9. 

6.  The  border  between  Ephraim  and 
Manasseh  passed  from  Jericho  westward  to 
Michmethah  near  Shechem  (17''),  and  thence 
to  the  river  Kanah  which  falls  into  the  Medi- 
terranean N.  of  Joppa.  9.  RV  'together  with 
the  cities  which  were  separated  for  the  children 
of  Ephraim  in  the  midst  of  the  inheritance  of 
the  children  of  Manasseh.'  10.  Serve  under 
tribute]    The   Canaanite  had  to  take  up  the 

forced  service  of  a  labourer:  cp.  17  18  and  Jg 
1 28, 33, 35_ 

CHAPTER    17 
The  Lot  of  Joseph  (continued) 

Inheritance  of  Western  Manasseh.  The 
Complaint  of  the  children  of  Joseph,  and 
Joshua's  Reply. 

1-6.  The  inheritance  of  Manasseh  especially 
(vv.  2f>)  of  the  Western  half -tribe,  i.  The 
father  of  Gilead]  The  expression  is  rather 
geographical  than  strictly  genealogical,  accord- 
ing to  Oriental  usage.  Cp.  the  table  of  the 
generations  of  the  sons  of  Noah  in  Gn  10. 

3f.  The  daughters  of  Zelophehad]  Their 
case  comes  up  for  judgment  before  Moses  in 
Nu27i-7  and  again  in  Nu  36 1-12.  Their  con- 
tention was  recognised  as  just  (Nu364). 

7-13.  The  frontiers  of  Western  Manasseh. 
See  on  c.  16.  8,  9.  Belonged  to  the  children 
of  Ephraim]   cp.  168.9. 


151 


17.  11 


JOSHUA 


19.  40 


11-13.  The  Canaanites  still  held  a  chain  of 
fortified  cities  in  the  N.  from  Beth-shean  on 
the  E.  to  Accho  on  the  coast.  13.  Put  the 
Canaanites  to  tribute]  RV  '  to  task- work ' :  cp. 
1 6 1*^.  The  remark  indicates  that  the  conquest 
proved  exceedingly  difficult  in  some  parts  of 
the  country,  and  that  the  Canaanites  long  held 
their  own. 

14-18.  This  passage,  which  is  from  the 
Primitive  source,  supports  the  testimony  of 
Judges  (see  on  18 1^)  that  much  of  the  final 
settlement  was  left  to  individual  tribal  effort. 
It  also  throws  light  on  the  character  of  the 
children  of  Joseph.  The  spirit  of  self -aggran- 
disement and  self-importance  here  displayed 
made  Ephraim  the  great  rival  of  Judah 
throughout  history.  It  shows  itself  still  more 
vehemently  in  the  period  of  the  Judges,  both 
in  their  'chiding'  of  their  kinsman  Gideon  the 
Manassite  ( Jg  8),  and  their  quarrel  with  Jeph- 
thah  (Jgl2).  Joseph  and  Judah  are  alike 
prominent  in  the  patriarchal  blessing  (Gn 
49  ^'22),  and  are  alike  in  their  growth  during 
the  period  of  wanderings.  Joseph  increased 
from  72,000  to  85,200,  and  Judah  from  74,600 
to  76,500;  while  the  total  for  all  Israel  was 
lower  at  the  second  census  by  nearly  2,000 
(cp.  Nul  and  NU26).  After  Othniel's  time 
until  the  rise  of  David,  Judah  sinks  into  un- 
importance; while  Ephraim,  as  the  tribe  of 
Joshua,  and  the  home  of  the  national  sanctuary 
(Gilgal,  Shechem  and  Shiloh),  takes  a  foremost 
place.  And  it  was  no  doubt  the  jealous  mem- 
ories of  past  glories  in  which  Joseph  had  been 
supplanted  by  David's  tribe,  that  made  Eph- 
raim take  so  prominent  a  part  in  the  revolt  of 
the  northern  tribes  under  Jeroboam. 

15.  If  thou  &e  a  great  people]  Joshua  shows 
tact  and  firmness  in  dealing  with  his  own 
tribesmen  as  with  all  the  rest.  There  is  a 
mixture  of  encouragement  with  salutary  rebuke 
in  his  reply,  and  also  practical  common-sense. 
'  Persevere  and  have  confidence  in  yourselves : 
ultimately  you  will  prevail  over  the  Canaanites, 
better  equipped  though  they  are  for  warfare 
in  the  plains.  Meanwhile  you  can  at  least 
make  yourselves  clearings  in  the  forest  high- 
lands formerly  occupied  by  the  pre-Canaanite 
Rephaim.'  Mount  Ephraim]  covers  all  the 
later  Samaria  (cp.  Jer31^'*5)  including  Ramah 
and  Beth-el  (Jg45)  and  Shechem  (Josh  20 'i'). 
The  name  seems  to  have  spread  from  the  hill- 
country  immediately  N.  of  Benjamin.  18.  The 
outgoings  of  Mt.  Ephraim  are  valleys,  broad, 
fertile,  and  of  easy  gradients. 

CHAPTER    18 

The  Second  Allotment.     Introduction. 

The  Territory  of  Benjamin 

i-io.  These  vv.  supply  an  introduction  to 

the  second  allotment  in  general,  and  agree  with 

the  passages  which,  in  common  with  Jg  1,  view 


the  conquest  as  gradual  and  partial.  The  seven 
tribes  still  hang  back  through  '  slackness '  (v.  3), 
while  Judah  and  Joseph  are  already  in  posses- 
sion. 

5.  Judah  shall  abide,  etc.]  In  the  final  allot- 
ment the  S.  border  of  Benjamin  coincided  with 
the  N.  border  of  Judah  as  far  as  Kirjath- 
jeartm ;  the  lowlands  and  plains  W.  of  that 
were  given  to  Dan  (19  ■*<'). 

11-20.  The  lot  of  Benjamin.  It  had,  as 
boundaries,  Ephraim  to  the  N.  and  Judah  to 
the  S. :  the  Jordan  was  the  E.  border,  and 
Beth-horon  to  Kirjath-jearim  the  W.  Jeru- 
salem (Jebus)  was  within  its  borders. 

13.  Luz,  which  is  Beth-el]   see  on  Gn28i9. 

14.  And  compassed  the  corner  of  the  sea] 
RV  '  and  turned  about  on  the  west  quarter.' 

15.  Nephtoah]  a  fountain  near  Jerusalem. 
The  S.  boundary  is  the  same  as  the  N.  boundary 
of  Judah  (155-9),  but  traced  here  from  W.  to  E. 

16.  Jebusi]  RV  'the  Jebusite,'  meaning 
Jerusalem.  The  Benjamin  border  passed  S.  of 
Jerusalem.  It  is  often  forgotten  that  this  city, 
though  bordering  upon  Judah,  was  really  in 
the  territory  of  Benjamin.  19.  Beth-hoglah] 
N.  end  of  the  Dead  Sea. 

21-28.  The  cities  of  Benjamin.  The  most 
famous  of  them  are  Jericho,  Ramah  (1  S 1  ^^), 
Mizpeh  (IS 7 5),  Jerusalem,  and  Gibeath  or 
Gibeah. 

CHAPTER   19 
The  Second  Allotment  (continued).     The 
Territories  of   Simeon,  Zebulun,  Is- 

SACHAR,   ASHER,   NaPHTALI,   DaN.       ThE 

Inheritance  of  Joshua 

1-9.  The  lot  of  Simeon.  Observe  that  no 
borders  are  named,  and  the  lot  includes  towns 
previously  taken  by  Judah  (1531-32);  see  v. 9. 
This  tribe  was  settled  in  the  Negeb,  or  '  south 
country,'  that  slopes  away  from  the  Hebron 
range  towards  the  desert,  bounded  on  the  W. 
by  the  Mediterranean  and  on  the  E.  by  the  Dead 
Sea  and  the  Valley  of  Edom. 

10-16.  The  lot  of  Zebulun  :  in  the  low  hills 
W.  of  Nazareth  and  E.  of  Accho. 

17-23.  The  lot  of  Issachar  :  comprising  the 
plain  of  Esdraelon.  22.  Tabor]  Here  Zebu- 
lun, Issachar,  and  Naphtali  had  a  common 
border. 

24-31.  The  lot  of  Asher :  the  coast  and  low 
hills,  fi-om  Carmel  to  Tyre. 

32-39.  The  lot  of  Naphtali :  the  high  moun- 
tains of  upper  Galilee,  and  plateau  E.  of  Mt. 
Tabor  to  the  W.  shores  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee, 
and  the  Jordan  Valley  N.  of  it. 

40-48.  The  lot  of  Dan :  (a)  the  original  in- 
heritance (19^0-46).  (b)  the  later  acquisition 
m  the  N.  (1947-48).  The  territory  in  the 
S.  lies  W.  of  Benjamin  along  the  two  paral- 
lel valleys  that  lead  through  the  Shephelah  to 
the  sea,  viz.  Aijalon  and  Sorek.     The  song  of 


152 


19.  47 


JOSHUA 


22 


10 


Deborah  (JgS^''')  seems  to  imply  that  the  Dan- 
ites  had  then  reached  the  coast,  but  the  mari- 
time plain  was  probably  never  fully  occupied 
by  them,  and  what  they  had  held  of  it  was 
soon  abandoned  in  favour  of  a  new  colony 

(1947,48). 

In  LXX  our  v.  48  follows  46,  where  it  is 
more  naturally  in  place,  and  both  it  and  v.  47 
(which  follows  it  in  LXX)  contain  additional 
matter  about  the  Danites'  struggle  with  the 
Amorites,  which  fits  in  well  with  Jg  1 34^  where 
we  are  told  that  'the  Amorites  forced  the 
children  of  Dan  into  the  hill-country  ;  for  they 
would  not  sufi:er  them  to  come  down  into  the 
valley.'  This  obviously  gives  the  reason  for 
the  expedition  northward. 

47.  The  taking  of  Leshem  (called  in  Judges 
'  Laish  ')  is  related  in  Jg  18  7,  27-29. 

49-51.  Concluding  section  :  Joshua's  own 
inheritance.  Joshua  and  his  comrade  Caleb 
(15 13),  the  sole  representatives  of  the  genera- 
tion of  the  exodus,  receive  each  a  special 
'inheritance'  of  his  own  choice.  50.  Accord- 
ing to  the  word  of  the  LORD]  cp.  Nu  14-^.30 
with  Josh  140-10.  Timnath-serah]  cp.  2430; 
called  Timnath-heres  in  Jg  2  ■',  probably  Kef r- 
Haris,  9  m.  S.  of  Shechem. 

CHAPTER  20 

The  Appointment  of  Cities  of  Refuge 
The  allotment  of  the  tribal  inheritance  is 
followed  by  the  appointment  of  six  cities  of 
refuge  previously  provided  and  in  part  assigned 
by  Moses,  according  to  the  terms  of  the  Sinai- 
tic  law  concerning  manslaughter  :  cp.  Ex  2113 
Nu  35  ''*.  These  are  enumerated  in  the  follow- 
ing order  : — W.  of  Jordan  :  Kedesh  (N.),  She- 
chem (central),  Hebron  (S.)  ;  E.  of  Jordan  : 
Bezer  (S.),  Ramoth-Gilead  (central),  Golan 
(N.).  Geographical  considerations  must  have 
had  the  first  place  ;  the  six  cities  are  so  placed 
as  to  give  nearly  equal  facilities  of  access 
from  all  parts  of  Palestine.  But  it  is  inter- 
esting to  observe  that  the  three  western  cities 
were  ancient  traditional  sanctuaries.  This  is 
inferred  from  the  name  of  Kedesh  (=  Holy) 
and  known  of  the  other  two.  The  same  may 
be  true  of  the  eastern  cities  also. 

This  chapter  has  a  special  interest  as  intro- 
ducing us  to  a  phase  of  Hebrew  Law  typical 
of  many  of  the  Mosaic  ordinances.  Moses  was 
inspired  not  so  much  to  produce  a  system 
entirely  novel  as  to  take  up  the  Semitic  cus- 
toms already  in  existence,  and  regulate  and 
purify  them.  So  here,  the  primitive  law  of 
blood-revenge,  which  laid  on  the  kin  of  the 
>  slain  the  duty  of  taking  vengeance  on  the 
slayer,  and  which  often  failed  to  distinguish 
between  intentional  and  unintentional  homi- 
cide, is  regulated  by  the  formulation  of  a 
clear  distinction  corresponding  to  our  '  wilful 
murder  '  and  '  manslaughter,'  and  by  the  pro- 


vision of  definite  asylums  for  the  unintentional 
manslayer. 

1-9.  The  Cities  of  Refuge. 

2.  Whereof  I  spake  .  .  by  the  hand  of 
Moses]   cp.  Ex  2 113  Nu356f-  Dt44if. 

3  Unwittingly]  manslaughter,  as  we  should 
say,  as  distinct  from  murder.  See  the  elaborate 
rules  and  distinctions  drawn  out  in  Nu  35  ^^■^^. 
Note  that  this  is  not  the  ordinary,  almost  uni- 
versal, principle  of  '  Sanctuary,'  by  which  any 
criminal  whatsoever  could  claim  the  protection 
of  some  holy  place,  as  e.g.  Joab  tried  to  do 
(IK 2 28),  when  he  fled  to  the  tabernacle  and 
caught  hold  of  the  horns  of  the  altar.  It  will 
be  observed  that  Solomon  did  not  respect  the 
Sanctuary  in  that  case. 

9.  Until  he  stood  before  the  congregation] 
The  purpose  is  to  provide  every  homicide  a 
fair  trial  :  see  Nu  35 12, 24-25.  if  he  is  found 
guilty  of  murder,  the  City  of  Refuge  is  no 
sanctuary  to  him  ;  if  only  of  manslaughter 
(cp.  20  ^5),  it  is  a  safe  asylum  to  him  till  the  death 
of  the  high  priest,  after  which  he  is  free  to 
return  home. 

CHAPTER    21 

The  Assignment  of  Forty-eight  Cities 
TO  the  Levites 

2.  The  injunction  to  Moses  was  given  in  the 
plains  of  Moab,  and  is  recorded  in  Nu352-5. 

3-8.  Number  and  localities  of  the  cities 
distributed  to  each  of  the  families  of  Levi. 

9-42.  Detailed  specification  of  the  cities  : — 
Cities  of  the  Aaronites  (Priests)  in  Judah 
and  Benjamin  (9-19)  ;.  of  the  Kohathites  in 
Ephraim,  Dan,  and  W.  Manasseh  (20-26);  of 
the  Gershonites  in  E.  Manasseh,  Issachar, 
Asher,  and  Naphtali  (27-33)  ;  of  the  Merar- 
ites  in  Zebulun,  Reuben  and  Gad  (34-42). 

43-45.  Conclusion  of  the  '  Domesday  Book  ' ; 
fulfilment  of  God's  promises  of  possession  and 
rest.  This  section  is  somewhat  difficult  to 
reconcile  with  the  situation  revealed  at  the 
beginning  of  the  book  of  Judges  ;  but  it 
must  be  remembered  that  this  passage  is  from 
the  later  Priestly  source,  while  the  previous 
section  is  from  an  earlier  document. 

CHAPTERS  22-24 
These  chapters  form  a   section    by  them- 
selves, and  give  some  closing  scenes  of  Joshua's 
life,  as  well  as  his  two  farewell  discourses  to 
the  people. 

CHAPTER  22 

Dismissal  of  the  Two  and  a  half  Tribes. 

The  Altar  set   up  at  Ed^  and   the 

Controversy  it  raised 

1-9.   The  dismissal  of  the  tribes. 

10-34.  The  controversy  at  Ed.    Here,  as  in 

Nu  25  7-9,  we  see  Phinehas  playing  a  prominent 

part,  and  the  contrast  between  the  scenes  is 


153 


22.  12 


JOSHUA 


24.  19 


instructive.  Swift,  stem,  and  relentless  when 
occasion  demanded,  he  appears  in  Numbers  as 
the  hero  who,  by  prompt  execution  of  judg- 
ment, stayed  the  plague  at  Shittim  (cp.  Ps 
106^0)  ;  here,  on  the  other  hand,  though  not 
unmindful  of  that  crisis  (22  ^'^),  he  shows  tact 
and  gentleness,  and  under  circumstances  of  the 
utmost  delicacy  and  tension,  helps  to  avert  a 
disastrous  civil  war. 

1 2.  At  Shiloh]  the  natural  place  to  assemble 
for  so  solemn  an  undertaking.  The  idea  of 
the  tribes  is  that  their  brethren  are  falling 
into  the  sin  of  apostasy  (cp.  22^6  LvlV^'^ 
Dt  12  ^•"),  and  that  therefore  it  is  incumbent  on 
them  to  enforce  the  provisions  of  DtlS^^-is. 
These  provisions,  however,  included  a  careful 
and  searching  investigation  (DtlS^'^)  before 
the  declaration  of  exterminating  war  upon  the 
offenders.  17.  The  iniquity  of  Peor]  the  occa- 
sion of  Phinehas'  former  intervention  :  see 
Nu25.  22.  The  LORD  God  of  gods]  the 
original  most  impressively  combines  Hebrew 
names  of  God  :  El  Elohim  Jehovah. 

CHAPTER   23 

The  First  Farewell  Address  of  Joshua 
This  discourse  was  probably  delivered  at 
Shiloh  or  Timnath-Serah.  Unlike  the  Second 
Discourse,  which  is  mainly  a  historical  retro- 
spect, it  dwells  chiefly  upon  the  political  future 
of  Israel,  laying  special  emphasis  on  their 
separateness,  and  the  danger  of  social  and 
religious  intercourse  with  the  remnant  of  the 
Canaanites.  C.  23  is  from  the  same  source  as 
c.  1  andDt27. 

4.  These  nations  that  remain]  Like  c.  132-7, 
to  the  substance  of  which  it  probably  refers, 
this  passage  serves  to  modify  the  unqualified 
character  of  such  summaries  of  conquest  as 
1 0  40-43  1 1 23  2 1 48-45.  j q.  One  man  of  you  shall 
chase  a  thousand]  RM  '  hath  chased,'  cp. 
Dt3230.  15.  All  evil  things]  RV  'all  the 
evil  things,'  with  definite  reference  to  Dt  28  '^^■^^. 
Cp.  also  Lv  26 14-39. 

CHAPTER    24 
Joshua's  Second  and  Final  Farewell 

This  discourse  (241-1-'^),  with  Israel's  response 
(24 1<3-24)^  and  consequent  renewal  of  the  Cove- 
nant (24  25-28),  occupies  the  bulk  of  the  chapter. 
The  book  is  then  brought  to  a  conclusion  in 
three  short  paragraphs,  recording  (a)  the  death 
and  burial  of  Joshua  (2420-3i),  (b)  the  burial  of 
Joseph's  bones  (2432),  and  (c)  the  death  of 
Eleazar  (2433). 

I- 1 5.  This  last  address  of  Joshua,  which  is 
admitted  by  critics  to  be  of  great  antiquity, 
recalls,  both  in  spirit  and  in  substance,  Samuel's 
discourse  in  IS  12.  But  whereas  the  latter 
begins  with  the  work  of  Moses  and  Aaron, 
Joshua  starts  further  back  and  traces  the  hand 
of  Providence  from  the  call  of  Abraham  out 


of  idolatrous  Mesopotamia,  thus  enforcing  a 
strict  renunciation  of  any  lingering  idolatry 
among  his  contemporaries  (cp.  24i'^>23). 
Through  patriarchal  times  he  draws  his  hearers 
on  to  the  sojourn  in  Egypt  (24  *)  ;  then  he 
refers  to  the  miraculous  exodus  (24^-7)  ;  next 
he  recounts  the  wanderings  in  the  wilderness, 
and  the  victories  E.  of  Jordan  (247-9)  .  and 
concludes  with  the  passage  of  Jordan,  and 
the  subsequent  conquests  (24ii*-).  Finally 
Joshua  offers  them  the  great  choice — loyalty 
or  disloyalty  to  the  Lord  who  has  done  so 
much  for  them  (2414>15).  His  own  choice  is 
made. 

I.  To  Shechem]  the  scene  of  the  blessings 
and  cursings  of  c.  830-35.  Jt  jg  here  hallowed 
afresh  by  a  solemn  renewal  of  the  Covenant 
(2425).  3.  The  other  side  of  the  flood]  RV 
'  from  beyond  the  River,'  i.e.  Euphi-ates. 

6,  7.  And  ye  came  unto  the  sea,  etc.]  The 
full  and  graphic  description  of  this  great 
miracle  is  remarkable  in  so  concise  a  speech. 
Does  it  not  evidence  an  eyewitness  ?  Joshua 
was  old  enough  to  lead  the  host  against  Amalek 
that  year  (ExlT^*),  and  therefore  old  enough 
to  be  impressed  by  it.  He  may  well  have 
been — as  Caleb  was — 38  years  old  at  the  time 
(see  on  1410).  n.  And  ye  went  over  Jordan] 
Here  we  pass  into  the  history  narrated  in  the 
book  of  Joshua.  12.  The  hornet]  Either  the 
Israelite  invasion  was  actually  preceded  by  a 
plague  of  hornets,  insects  whose  sting  is 
exceedingly  painful  and  may  soon  be  fatal  ; 
or  the  hornet  is  used  as  a  type  of  the  dread 
which  the  rumour  of  then*  victories  spread  in 
advance  of  them. 

14,  15.  These  very  definite  references  to 
idolatry  imply  that  previous  warnings  had 
failed  of  their  effect.  Indeed,  we  learn  from 
the  later  historical  books  that  it  was  not  until 
the  Captivity  that  Israel  completely  forsook 
the  worship  of  false  gods.  There  were  appar- 
ently temptations  to  three  distinct  forms  of 
idolatry  :  (a)  the  ancestral  worship  of  their 
Mesopotamian  forefathers,  represented  by  the 
'  teraphim '  which  Rachel  stole  from  Laban 
(Gn31 19.30,  cp.  Gn352>4)  ;  (b)  the  animal-wor- 
ship to  which  the  Israelites  had  been  accustomed 
in  Egypt  (v.  1 4),  of  which  the  '  golden  calf  '  or 
Apis-buU  of  Ex  32  is  a  type  ;  (c)  the  local 
Baalim  of  the  Canaanite  tribes,  which  proved, 
as  the  book  of  Judges  shows,  a  constant  snare 
to  Israel  in  succeeding  generations. 

16-24.  The  People's  Response. 

18.  Drave  out.  .  all  the  people]   A  general 
statement,  in  line  with  1040,43  1123  2143-45,  but 
to  be   taken   together  with    statements   of   a" 
qualifying  character  like  132-7  and  23*. 

19.  Ye  cannot  serve  the  LORD  :  for  he  is 
an  holy  God]  an  extreme  statement  meant  to 
startle  them  into  a  sense  of  the  awful  re- 
sponsibility of  intercourse  with  One  who  has 


154 


S4.  25 


JOSHUA— JUDGES 


INTRO. 


revealed  Himself  to  be  All-Holy  :  cp.  Lvl92. 
The  whole  elaborate  scheme  of  the  Levitical 
sacrifices  and  ceremonies  seems  to  have  this  as 
its  primary  object,  and  to  bring  home  to  care- 
less minds  the  inaccessibility  of  the  Deity 
except  to  clean  hearts  and  lives. 

25-28.  Renewal  of  the  Covenant. 

26.  A  great  stone]  A  pillar  such  as  Jacob 
had  set  up  (Gn28i*^)  as  a  memorial  of  his 
vision  at  Bethel,  and  again  (Gn31^)  as  a 
witness  of  his  covenant  with  Laban.  Moses 
had  set  up  twelve  such  pillars  (Ex24-i)  as  a 
memorial  of  the  original  Covenant  at  Sinai  ; 
and  now  a  similar  monument  is  erected  by 
Joshua  to  mark  the  renewal  of  that  Covenant. 
On  the  other  hand,  an  idolatrous  '  pillar '  or 
'  obelisk'  (Dt  162^  RV)was  expressly  forbidden. 
An  oak]  RV  '  the  oak,'  i.e.  of  Gn  126  RV,  etc. 


29-33.  Death  and  burial  of  Joshua.  Burial 
of  Joseph's  bones.  Death  of  Eleazar.  Re- 
peated in  substance  Jg2'5-y. 

31.  All  the  days .  .  the  elders]  The  generation 
old  enough  to  realise  and  remember  the  events 
recorded  in  this  book.  These  words  must  not 
be  pressed  too  rigidly.  They  assure  us  that 
Joshua's  inspu-ing  influence  was  felt  up  to,  and 
even  after,  his  death.  But  the  next  generation 
(Jg2i^)  fell  away.  A  grandson  of  Moses  and 
contemporary  of  Phinehas  (cp.  Jg  20  '^^)  took  a 
leading  part  in  Danite  idolatry  (JglS^'-*  RV). 
32.  Ground  which  Jacob  bought]   see  Gn33i9. 

33.  Eleazar  the  son  of  Aaron  died]  The 
traditional  Jewish  theory  being  that  Joshua 
wrote  the  book  that  bears  his  name,  it  was 
supposed  that  vv.  29-31  were  added  by  Eleazar, 
and  this  v.  by  '  Phinehas  and  the  Elders.' 


JUDGES 


INTRODUCTIO]^ 


1.  The  Times.  In  the  order  of  the  Bible, 
the  book  of  Judges  follows  that  of  Joshua. 
But  there  is  a  great  difference  between 
the  two.  Joshua  tells  us  of  a  carefully 
planned  attack  by  the  whole  people  of  Israel 
upon  the  seven  nations  who  inhabited  Canaan, 
and  its  complete  success  ;  and  the  bulk  of  the 
second  half  of  the  book  is  occupied  by  the 
distribution  of  the  territory  among  the  twelve 
tribes.  At  the  beginning  of  Judges  we  find 
the  Israelites  either  setting  out  on  the  conquest 
of  parts  of  Canaan,  or  dwelling  in  an  only 
half -conquered  country,  side  by  side  with  the 
Canaanites  ;  they  are  subject  to  a  long  series 
of  attacks  from  enemies  inside  and  outside  the 
country  ;  united  action  between  the  different 
tribes  is  at  best  rare  and  never  complete  ;  and 
the  book  closes  with  two  episodes  which  have 
nothing  to  do  with  foreign  foes,  but  in  which 
the  wildness  and  even  savagery  of  the  period 
(including  general  lawlessness,  massacre, 
treachery,  mutilation  and  human  sacrifice), 
clear  enough  in  each  of  the  earlier  narratives 
of  the  book,  is  placed  in  peculiarly  strong  relief. 

The  picture,  however,  is  an  entirely  natural 
one.  The  Israelites  had  been  living  the  life 
of  desert  nomads ;  and  when  they  invaded  the 
rich  sown  lands  of  Canaan,  to  which  other 
tribes  from  the  desert  had  already  found  their 
way,  they  preserved  something  of  the  character 
of  Bedouin  raiders.  Under  a  recognised  leader 
like  Joshua,  they  could  combine  and  gain 
victories  as  striking  as  they  were  transitory  ; 


when  Joshua  was  dead,  they  were  as  ready  to 
split  into  independent  tribal  groups,  and  to 
refuse  to  '  come  up  to  the  help  of  Jehovah.' 
Thereupon  they  either  became  slaves  where 
they  had  been  conquerors,  or  fell  beneath  the 
hands  of  fresh  invaders  in  their  turn. 

But  their  nomad  character  was  quickly  lost. 
From  shepherds  they  soon  turned  into  farmers 
like  the  Canaanites.  In  language  and  even  in 
religious  observances  there  was  little  to  separ- 
ate the  old  inhabitants  from  the  new-comers. 
But  there  was  one  difirerence.  The  Canaanites 
worshipped  local  deities  or  Baals  ;  Israel  had 
one  God,  Jehovah  (A  V  '  the  Lord,'  reallj^  a 
proper  name).  He  had  led  them  out  of  Egypt. 
A  common  and  undisputed  allegiance  to  Him 
bound  together  the  twelve  tribes  and  severed 
them  from  every  one  else.  To  forget  Him 
was  to  fall  into  the  loose  and  dangerous  ways 
of  the  Canaanites  ;  to  turn  to  Him  was  to 
unite  in  politics,  in  social  order  and  in  religion. 
(See  sections  6  and  7.) 

2.  The  Book.  The  contents  of  the  book 
fall  into  three  divisions:  1-3 ■*,  3^-16^1,  and 
17-21.  The  first  is  introductory,  striking 
the  keynote  of  the  book — ease,  forgetfulness, 
disobedience,  enslavement,  repentance,  deliver- 
ance, and  ease  once  more.  The  second  de- 
scribes in  more  or  less  detail  the  various  occur- 
rences of  these  mutations  under  the  Judges. 
The  third,  an  appendix,  contains  an  account 
of  the  early  migrations  of  the  Danites,  and  the 
feud  between  Benjamin  and  the  rest  of  the 


155 


INTRO. 


JUDGES 


INTRO. 


nation.  These  divisions  are  not  the  work  of  a 
single  hand.  Like  the  other  historical  books  of 
the  O  T . ,  Judges  is  a  compilation.  The  unknown 
author  of  the  hookas  it  now  stands  evidently- 
had  before  him  much  material  which  is  now 
lost  (cp.  JoshlQis  2S11''),  and  he  preserved 
this  or  made  selections  from  it  as  he  thought 
best.  Thus,  c.  5  is  certainly  a  triumph-song 
going  back  to  the  time  of  Deborah  herself. 
The  tone  of  the  first  division  is  almost  entirely 
moralising  or  religious.  Similar  passages  are 
inserted  in  the  second  division,  pointing  the 
moral  of  each  disaster  ;  but  in  the  body  of  the 
narratives  this  moralising  element  is  absent, 
while  to  the  story  of  Abimelech  there  is  no 
moral  at  all.  This  tendency  is  often  spoken 
of  as  '  deuteronomic,'  because  it  finds  its  fullest 
expression  in  the  book  of  Deuteronomy,  under 
whose  special  influence,  it  is  supposed.  Judges, 
like  other  historical  books,  was  put  into  its 
present  shape.  In  the  third  division  the  writer 
has  taken  over  two  ancient  stories,  without 
adding  his  own  reflections  to  them  save  in 
isolated  notes.  To  a  modern  reader  this  may 
seem  an  uncritical  attempt  to  make  history 
instructive.  But  there  can  be  no  doubt  that 
history,  rightly  understood,  is  calculated  to 
instruct  ;  and  in  the  case  of  the  Hebrews,  to 
forget  the  commands  of  the  national  God,  and 
to  drift  into  social  and  domestic  relations  with 
the  Canaanites,  was  simply  to  invite  disaster. 
Thus  the  real  meaning  of  the  older  Hebrew 
narratives  (themselves  by  no  means  devoid  of 
religious  feeling)  is  explained  for  the  reader 
by  means  of  the  religious  insight  of  the  later 
compiler. 

3.  The  Name.  The  word  '  judge  '  implies 
to  us  something  very  difEerent  from  what  it 
implied  to  a  Hebrew.  The  Hebrews,  unlike 
the  ancient  Babylonians  with  their  elaborate 
codes,  knew  nothing  of  the  complex  machinery 
of  the  law-court  ;  disputes  were  settled  by  the 
head  of  the  family,  the  elders  of  the  tribe  or 
of  the  village  or  town,  or  by  the  priests  ;  later 
on,  in  the  more  serious  cases,  by  some  person 
of  national  influence,  and  even  by  the  king. 
The  procedure  was  informal,  and  regulated  at 
most  by  custom  and  a  general  sense  of  what 
was  right.  The  sentence  could  only  be  en- 
forced when  public  opinion  was  behind  it. 
But  a  man  who  was  qualified  by  age  or  ex- 
perience, or  both,  or  by  special  nearness  to 
Jehovah,  to  settle  disputes,  could  also  do 
something  more  ;  men  would  naturally  look 
to  him  for  counsel,  guidance,  deliverance.  To 
judge  was  thus  to  lead  and  to  govern.  In  this 
sense,  after  our  period,  Samuel  was  said  to 
judge  Israel  (187^  :  see  also  1S82).  It  is  in 
this  sense  that  Deborah,  Gideon,  Jephthah,  and 
the  other  heroes  of  this  book  are  judges.  In 
each  case  their  rise  is  the  result  of  divine 
selection.     Deborah  is  a  prophetess,  and  she 


summons  Barak  to  her  side  ;  Gideon  is  called 
by  the  angel  of  Jehovah  ;  the  spirit  of  Jehovah 
comes  mightily  upon  Samson  (Jg4*^  G^^  l'd~^). 
The  result  of  this  is  some  signal  achievement 
against  the  common  foe  ;  after  which,  the 
people,  having  learnt  to  trust  the  wisdom  of 
their  '  judge  '  in  war,  willingly  follow  it  in 
peace  (JgS^^  12").  All  the  judges  mentioned 
in  this  book  appear  to  have  been  military 
leaders  ;  later,  however,  we  find  the  peaceful 
Eli  holding  this  office  for  the  nation  ;  and 
Samuel,  who  used  to  go  '  on  circuit '  to  a  certain 
number  of  towns  (1 ST^'^^,  though  he  was  con- 
stantly asked  for  advice  in  a  war,  is  never  said 
to  have  acted  as  general.  Of  the  extent  of 
the  judges'  authority  we  know  nothing  ;  after 
their  victories  have  been  gained,  the  historian 
tells  us  no  more  about  them.  But  Saul  and 
even  David  in  his  earlier  years  seem  to  have 
been  little  more  than  very  powerful  '  judges '  ; 
the  son  of  Gideon  himself  gains  the  title  of 
king  with  no  great  difficulty  (Jg9  '^).  The  main 
business  of  a  Hebrew  king,  from  David  on- 
wards, as  of  an  Indian  rajah  or  a  Mohammedan 
caliph,  was  to  lead  his  people  in  war,  settle  their 
quarrels,  and  protect  the  poor.  No  one  could 
do  this  satisfactorily  unless  he  were  a  strong 
personality  ;  in  the  rough  period  of  our  book, 
the  only  way  of  impressing  the  community 
was  by  warlike  prowess.  But  no  greater  ser- 
vice than  settling  disputes  without  fear  or 
favour  could  be  rendered  ;  and  the  noblest 
function  of  the  Messiah  Himself  was  to  judge 
the  poor  and  needy,  to  break  in  pieces  the 
oppressor,  and  bring  forth  judgment  to  the 
Gentiles  (Ps72^.i2  isall^  421.3). 

4.  The  Dates.  Where  there  is  no  fixed  era, 
chronology  is  necessarily  obscure.  The  his- 
torian of  Hebrew  antiquity  could  of  course 
give  us  no  dates;  he  could  at  most  tell  us  the 
duration  of  the  lives  of  men  or  of  periods  of 
time.  Dealing  with  times  long  past,  of  which 
exact  chronological  records  were  not  easily 
obtainable,  it  is  not  surprising  if  the  various 
wi-iters  are  not  always  exact  themselves,  and 
if  their  notices  of  time  do  not  always  agree. 
The  period  of  Judges,  we  know,  extends  from 
the  death  of  Joshua,  a  certain  number  of 
years  after  the  forty  years  which  followed 
the  exodus,  to  about  the  birth  of  Samuel,  i.e. 
perhaps  two  generations  before  the  accession 
of  David  to  the  throne  of  Judah.  The  exo- 
dus is  now  generally  placed  about  1250  B.C. 
David  came  to  the  throne  about  1000  B.C. 
But  in  1 K  G 1  the  interval  between  the  exodus 
and  the  founding  of  the  Temple  in  the  4th 
year  of  Solomon,  i.e.  44  years  after  David's 
accession,  is  said  to  be  480  j'cars.  From  the 
numbers  given  in  Judges,  the  interval  would 
appear  to  have  been  still  greater.  Othniel, 
Ehud,  Barak,  Gideon  and  Samson  are  account- 
able for  220  years   (40,  80,  40,  40,  20)  ;    the 


166 


INTRO. 


JUDGES 


INTRO. 


'  minor  judges  '  (Shamgar,  Tola,  Jair,  Ibzan, 
Elon  and  Abdon,  so  called  because  their  story 
is  not  given  in  detail)   Jephthah,  Abimelech, 
and   the    periods   of    oppression    amount    to 
190.     (See  Chronological  Table.)     If  we  add 
to  these  40  years  each  for  Moses  (Dt2^,  etc.), 
Eli  (IS 4 IS)  and  David  (IK^H),  with  more 
years  still  for  Joshua,  Samuel  and  Saul,  we 
shall  get  a  period  nearer  to  580  than  480. 
It  has  accordingly  been  pointed  out  that  the 
round  numbers  (40,  80,  20)  are  probably  not 
intended  to  be  taken  as  exact,  but  as  =  a  genera- 
tion, two   generations,  and  half  a  generation 
respectively,  although  the  other  figures  appear 
to  be  based  on  precise  records.     It  has  further 
been  suggested  that  the  years  of  oppression 
are   not   to  be  counted  in  with  the  rest,  and 
also  that  some  of  the  judges  (though  the  book 
itself  gives  no   hint    of  this,    probable    as    it 
would  seem)  were  synchronous  with  others. 
Many  ingenious  manipulations  of  the  figures 
have  been  made  to  reach   a   result  agreeing 
with  the  480  years  of  1  K  6  ;  but  this  number 
may  very  possibly  be  an  exaggeration,  and  in 
any  case  it  is  not  easy  to  see  how  such  a  period 
as  that  of  the  Judges  could  ever  have  lasted 
much  longer  than  200  years.    The  two  certain 


previous  centuries  been  the  battle-field  of 
their  armies,  and  was  to  be  so  again,  was 
left  unmolested.  The  oppressors  of  Israel, 
therefore,  were  people  little  if  at  all  stronger 
than  herself.  Entrenched  within  her  moun- 
tains, she  ought  to  have  feared  nothing  from 
Moab,  Ammon  and  Midian.  The  Canaanites, 
though  they  had  the  doubtful  advantage  of 
wealth,  and  by  their  strongholds  in  the  plain 
of  Esdraelon  could  for  a  time  prevent  Israelite 
unity,  never  regained  footing  in  the  hill- 
country;  nor  had  they  any  political  cohesion 
among  themselves. 

All  these  peoples  (except  the  Midianites) 
were  closely  allied  in  race  with  Israel  ;  the 
Philistines,  who  had  a  better  political  organis- 
ation than  any  of  their  neighbours,  and  who  did 
not  practise  circumcision,  are  often  thought 
to  have  come  from  Crete,  and  therefore  not 
to  be  Semites  at  all.  Their  hostility  was  by 
far  the  most  serious;  Israel  never  succeeded 
in  really  menacing  any  one  of  their  five 
cities;  Samson  himself  never  led  an  Israelite 
force  into  their  territory;  and  it  was  the  im- 
possibility of  making  head  against  them,  even 
under  the  guidance  of  Samuel,  that  led  the 
Hebrews    to    change    the     leadership    of    the 


facts   seem   to   be    that,   even  through  those     judge  for  the  more    settled    rule  of   a    king 


wild  years,  in  the  case  of  some  of  the  judges, 
more  or  less  exact  records  were  preserved, 
and  that  the  periods  of  peace  were  very 
much  longer  than  those  of  foreign  oppression 
and  war. 

5.  The  Oppressors.  Our  book  makes  it 
clear  that  while  the  Israelites  failed  to  conquer 
the  whole  country,  they  kept  a  firm  hold  on 
one  part,  the  central  mountain  range  W.  of 
the  Jordan.  The  desert  wanderers,  on  enter- 
ing Palestine,  were  forced  to  become  moun- 
taineers. In  the  plain  of  Esdraelon,  which 
cut  like  a  wedge  into  this  range,  as  well  as  up 
and  down  the  country  elsewhere,  were  the 
Canaanites,  with  their  walled  towns  and  for- 
midable chariots.  To  the  W.,  in  the  low 
lands  between  the  mountains  and  the  sea,  were 
the  Philistines.  E.  of  the  Jordan  valley 
(which  was  too  tropical  to  be  largely  in- 
habited), on  rolling  uplands  of  corn  and 
forest  and  heath,  were  the  lands  assigned  to 
Reuben,  Gad  (G-ilead)  and  Manasseh,  but 
really  much  more  in  the  power  of  Ammon 
and  Moab.  Further  to  the  E.,  on  the 
borders  of  the  desert,  were  wandering  but 
powerful  tribes  of  Midianites,  Amalekites, 
and  others.  Far  across  the  desert  to  the 
E.  were  the  great  powers  of  Assyria  and 
Babylon  ;  to  the  N.  were  Syria  and  the 
empire  of  the  Hittites,  while  beyond  the 
southern  desert  was  Egypt.  During  this 
period,  however,  all  these  powers  were, 
for  various  reasons,  engaged  within  their 
own  borders  ;    and    Palestine,  which    had  in 


(IS 8).  Apart  from  the  Philistines,  Israel 
had  more  to  fear  from  peace  than  war.  An 
enemy,  once  repelled,  never  throughout  this 
period  attacked  her  again  ;  and,  placed  as  she 
was  between  foes  inside  and  outside  her 
territory,  she  could  yet  lift  up  her  eyes 
unto  the  hills,  and  know  that  her  help 
came  from  thence. 

6.  The  Historical  Value  of  the  Book.  What 
then  is  to  be  made  of  these  fragmentary 
records  of  invasion,  foray,  muster  and  venge- 
ance ?  Far  more  than  appears  on  the  surface. 
When  Israel  followed  Joshua  across  the 
Jordan,  she  was  a  collection  of  tribes  ;  when 
Samuel  handed  over  his  authority  to  Saul,  she 
was  a  nation.  During  those  wild  years  were 
being  forged  the  bonds  of  a  nationality  which 
has  survived  unprecedented  shocks  till  the 
present  day.  Not  even  at  the  time  of  Saul 
was  the  nation  complete  ;  Judah  is  curiously 
isolated  from  his  brethren,  and  in  the  song  of 
Deborah  is  never  mentioned  (1^  :  cp.  Dt33~). 
Ephraim  is  regarded  as  the  leading  tribe, 
though  his  role  was  by  no  means  the  most 
glorious  (81''-).  But  these  repeated  shocks  of 
invasion  did  what  nothing  else  could  have  done. 
Consciousness  of  a  common  foe  gave  Israel  the 
consciousness  of  a  common  aim,  destiny,  and 
religion.  This  book  shows  more  clearly  than 
any  other  that  the  history  of  Israel  was  an 
evolution,  a  progress.  National  unity,  indeed, 
might  seem  no  further  advanced  under  Samson 
than  under  Barak.  But  this  is  an  error.  The 
Judges  made  a  wider  appeal  than  to  their  own 


157 


INTRO. 


JUDGES 


INTRO. 


tribes  alone  ;  the  Hebrews  were  learning  that 
they  were  brothers  ;  and  this  sense  of  brother- 
hood, however  strangely  manifesting  itself,  is 
shown  clearly  throughout  the  book. 

But  can  we  credit  all  the  marvellous  exploits, 
it  will  be  asked,  of  individual  judges  ?  When 
these  are  examined  in  detail,  they  offer  com- 
paratively little  difficulty.  True,  there  may  be 
exaggeration,  as  so  often  in  Hebrew  writers, 
in  the  numbers  ;  and  is  it  not  natural  that 
other  details  should  be  magnified  when  told 
round  the  camp-fire  or  at  the  village  gate  ? 
Our  ideas  of  accuracy,  it  must  be  remembered, 
were  unknown  in  the  10th  cent.  B.C.  In  the 
case  of  Samson,  this  tendency  to  glorify  the 
exploits  of  a  beloved  champion  was  more 
marked,  and  reminds  us  of  the  stories  told  of 
William  Tell.  On  the  other  hand,  there  is 
not  an  episode  that  is  not  full  of  most  graphic 
and  striking  touches  ;  c.  5  is  one  of  the  finest 
lyrics  inside  or  outside  the  Bible  ;  the  last 
four  chapters  contain  most  valuable  material 
for  the  religious  and  social  history  of  the 
Hebrews  ;  nor  is  there  a  book  in  the  Bible 
which  shows  us  more  clearly  the  strength  and 
the  weakness  of  the  Hebrew  nature,  its  rugged 
independence  and  its  readiness  to  assimilate,  the 
meanness  and  cowardice  that  it  was  prone  to 
show,  and  the  courage,  the  resolution,  and  the 
tragedy  of  its  chosen  heroes. 

7.  The  Religious  Value  of  the  Book.  What 
have  these  early  stories  to  do  with  our  religious 
life  ?  Is  not  their  morality  far  below  that  cf 
the  present  day  ?  Are  not  the  historical  con- 
ditions completely  different  from  our  ovni  ? 
Do  we  not  know  far  more  of  God  than  their 
boldest  spirits  could  ever  teach  us  ?  These 
three  questions  suggest  the  following  answers : 
(a)  In  the  primitive  character  of  the  morality 
of  the  book  lies  much  of  its  value.  The 
Israelites  were  not  completely  different  from 
their  neighbours.  They  could  be  rash,  cruel, 
vengeful  (like  the  men  of  the  Scottish  clans), 
and  even  licentious  ;  a  prophetess  could  exult 
in  an  act  which  to  us  spells  sheer  treachery 
(see  on  5  2'*)  ;  and  for  their  cruelties  they  could, 
like  their  neighbours,  assume  divine  sanction 
(e.g.  c.  20).  Yet  in  spite  of  this,  they  knew 
that  Jehovah  was  their  God  ;  and,  unlike  the 
other  gods.  He  had  a  definite  character ;  certain 
kinds  of  conduct  He  hated,  others  He  loved. 
And  this  knowledge  gradually  taught  them  the 
love  of  truth,  justice,  humanity,  purity,  and 
the  deep  piety  that  breathes  in  Pss23  and  84. 
In  our  book  one  can  watch  this  love  just  begin- 
ning to  grow.  If  the  nation  that  produced 
Jg20  could  also  produce,  first  Jg5,  and,  later 
on,  Isa53,  what  can  be  deemed  impossible  for 
the  Spirit  of  God  ? 

(b)  The  conditions  of  life  in  ancient  Israel 
were  very  different  from  our  own  ;  but  the 
principles  were  the  same.    Racial  animosity  and 


greed  are  as  strong  to-day  as  then.  National 
peril  always  rose  from  the  desire  to  '  get  on  '  or 
to  follow  the  line  of  least  resistance.  National 
strength  lay  in  self -forgetting  enthusiasm  for  a 
common  cause  and  devotion  to  the  commands 
of  God.  It  lies  nowhere  else  to-day.  Further, 
history  shows  that  wherever  there  is  a  faith 
like  Gideon's,  whether  in  a  Judas  Maccabseus,  a 
Wilberforce,  or  a  Mazzini,  the  results  are  just 
as  surprising,  and  just  as  beneficent. 

(c)  The  God  we  worship  is  not  merely  '  the 
God  of  Abraham,  of  Isaac,  and  of  Jacob.'  He  is 
'  the  God  and  Father  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ.' 
But  the  lesson  that  God  can  only  be  worshipped 
aright  when  the  whole  nation  recognises  its 
unity  and  the  duty  of  mutual  care  and  protec- 
tion, is  not  learnt  yet.  The  fatal  distinction 
between  God's  interest  in  the  religious  life  and 
in  the  social  well-being  of  His  people,  we 
must  learn  to  reject.  Religion,  patriotism  and 
national  health  are  unmeaning  apart  from  each 
other  ;  and  all  alike  are  impossible  unless  the 
cause  of  disaster  is  traced  to  disobedience  and 
sin.  The  victories  of  the  Hero-judges,  as  the 
Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  asserts,  are  victories 
of  faith  ;  this  faith  is  also  ours  ;  and  of 
this  faith  the  '  author  and  perf ecter '  is  Jesus 
(Hebll32  122). 

List  of  Oppressions  and  Judges 


Yrs.  of 

Yrs.  of 

Opp 

ressions 

Judges 

Oppression    under    Chushan- 

rishathaim 

8 

— 

Peace  under  Othniel 

40 

Oppression     under     Eglon 

(Moab)     .... 

18 

Peace  after  Ehud's  deliverance 

— 

80 

Oppression     under     Jabin 

(Canaan) 

20 

Peace  after  Barak's  victory    . 

40 

Oppression  under  Midianites 

and  allies 

7 

Peace  after  Gideon's  victory  . 

40 

Abimelech's  '  reign ' 

3 

Tola 

23 

Jair       ..... 

22 

Oppression  under  Ammonites 

18 

Peace  under  Jephthah   . 

6 

Ibzan     ..... 

7 

Elon 

10 

Abdon 

8 

Oppression  under  the  Philis- 

tines         .... 

40 

Activity  of  Samson 

20 

Totals 

113 

299 

Total  length  of  Oi^pressiona 
and  Deliverances  reckoned 
consecutively    .  .         .  412 


168 


1. 


JUDGES 


1.19 


PAET  1 

Introductory  (Chs.  1-3  ■*) 


Division  1,  Chs.  1-25, 
This  section  of  the  book  contains  a  brief 
recapitulation  of  the  early  conquest  of  Pales- 
tine, told  from  a  somewhat  diiferent  point  of 
view  from  that  of  Josh  7-21,  and  supplying 
much  that  is  there  not  mentioned.  From 
these  vv.  it  is  clear  that  Palestine  was  not 
conquered  in  one  great  invasion  ;  and  the 
whole  of  the  book  shows  Israel  to  be  only  in 
very  precarious  possession  of  the  land.  The 
narrative  in  Joshua  emphasises  the  influence 
over  the  whole  collection  of  tribes  wielded  by 
the  Ephraimite  hero,  Joshua  himself  ;  Jg  1-2  ^ 
narrates  the  movements  of  separate  tribes, 
leaving  some  of  them  (Issachar,  Levi  and 
Benjamin)  unmentioned.  It  would  seem  that 
after  the  main  body  of  Israelites  had  crossed 
the  Jordan,  captured  Jericho,  and  made  Gilgal 
their  headquarters,  the  larger  number  of  them, 
under  Joshua,  faced  northwards,  while  Judah 
and  Simeon  remained  in  the  south,  and,  for 
some  time,  were  almost  detached  from  the 
main  body.  The  actual  narratives  of  this 
division  of  Part  1  deal  with  (1)  the  conquest 
of  Adoni-bezek  by  Judah  and  Simeon  (1^"^)  ; 

(2)  conquests  of  Othniel  in  the  south  (1  -'-iS)  ; 

(3)  further  conquests  of  Judah  and  Simeon 
(116-21).    (4)  capture  of  Bethel   (122-26).    (5) 

limits  to  the  conquests  of  Manasseh,  Ephraim, 
Zebulun,  Asher,  Naphtali  and  Dan  (1 27-36)  . 
(6)  the  moral,  delivered  by  the  angel  at 
Bochim  (2i-5). 

CHAPTER  1 

The  Conquests  of  Judah,  Simeon,  and 
OTHER  Tribes 

1-8.   Conquests  of  Judah  and  Simeon. 

I.  After  the  death  of  Joshua]  This  joins  the 
beginning  of  Judges  to  the  end  of  Joshua  ; 
but  in  what  follows  the  author  refers  to  events 
which  must  have  preceded  the  partition  of 
Josh  13  f.,  and  the  campaigns  of  Josh  10, 11. 
Asked  the  LORD]  '  Consulted  the  oracle  of 
the  Lord':  cp.  185  20i«.  See  also  Ex2830 
Nu27  2i.  2.  The  land]  the  S.  part  of  Pales- 
tine. 3.  Simeon]  The  towns  of  Simeon 
(Josh  191-^)  are  also  attributed  to  Judah 
(Josh  1 5  26-36, 42)  Later,  Simeon  ceases  to 
exist  as  an  independent  tribe.  My  lot]  Each 
tribe  has  had  a  part  of  Canaan  allotted  to  it, 
whose  conquest  it  is  to  attempt.  Judah  is 
chosen  to  make  the  first  inroad. 

4.  Perizzites]  see  on  Gn  13'^.  Canaanites] 
in  its  special  sense  of  '  lowlanders '  :  cp. 
Grnl3'^3430.  Bezek]  lying  on  the  road  from 
Gilgal  to  South  Palestine.  5.  Adoni-bezek] 
(perhaps  the  same  as  Adoni-zedek  of  Josh  10 1) 
is  king  of  Jerusalem,  which  city  also  lies  in 


the  path  of  Judah  and  Simeon  to  Judah's 
'  lot.'  6.  Cut  off]  to  make  them  unfit  for 
warfare.  7.  Kings]  chiefs  or  sheikhs  of  a 
city  or  even  village.     They]  his  own  people. 

8.  Jerusalem]  The  city  was  not  held,  but 
remained  in  the  possession  of  the  Jebusites 
till  the  time  of  David  (2  S  5  6-9).  Not  till 
then  would  Judah  really  dominate  Southern 
Palestine  (cp.  v.  21,  and  c.  19 12). 

9-15.   Conquests  of  Othniel  in  the  south. 

9.  The  mountain  denotes  the  central  ridge, 
stretching  from  N.  of  Jerusalem  to  Hebron  ; 
the  south,  the  wild  country  S.  of  Hebron, 
called  in  Hebrew  the  Negeb,  and  the  valley 
(RY  '  lowland ')  the  maritime  plain  to  the 
W.  10.  Hebron]  see  on  Gn  13 1^.  Kirjath- 
arba]  '  city  of  four'  (quarters).  In  Josh  14^5 
1513>14,  however,  Arba  is  regarded  as  a  per- 
sonal name  ;  he  is  '  the  father  of  Anak,'  or 
'  a  great  man  among  the  Anakims '  (a  primi- 
tive gigantic  race,  of  which  Sheshai,  etc.,  are 
names  of  divisions  or  clans).  11.  Debir]  in 
the  Negeb.  Kirjath-sepher] 'Book-city.'  He] 
should  be  Caleb  (see  Josh  15 1^),  to  whom 
(Josh  14  6-15)  Moses  had  promised  this  terri- 
tory. 13.  Othniel  is  also  the  hero  of  the 
deliverance  from  Chushan-rishathaim  (S^t). 

15.  Blessing-]  a  present  (cp.  Gn33ii)  or 
solemn  token  of  paternal  affection.  Thou 
hast  given  me]  RV,  better,  '  thou  hast  set  me 
in.'  A  south  land]  RV  '  the  land  of  the 
South '  ;  for  the  most  part  a  waterless  region, 
where  springs  would  be  precious.  Upper  and 
nether  springs  are  proper  names. 

16-21.  Fm-ther  conquests  of  Judah  and 
Simeon. 

16.  The  Kenite]  Hobab  (cp.  4ii,  elsewhere 
called  Jethro  :  cp.  also  Ex  2 1^).  The  Kenites 
are  joined  (in  GnlS^^)  with  the  Kenizzites, 
Caleb's  tribe  (Kenaz,  v.  13),  a  Bedouin  people 
in  firm  league  with  Israel  :  see  4^7  and 
1  SI56.  They  do  not,  like  Judah,  attack  the 
Canaanites.  City  of  palm  trees]  Jericho, 
which,  with  Gilgal,  was  Israel's  base  of  opera- 
tions. Arad]  SE.  of  Hebron.  Among  the 
people]  A  more  probable  reading  is  '  with  the 
Amalekite,'  i.e.  not  actually  in  Judah.  17. 
Zephath]  not  known.  Hormah]  'utter  de- 
struction.' To  '  destroy  utterly '  is  to  put 
under  a  ban,  or  exterminate  :  cp.  Josh  6 1'' °^e- 
('devoted,' i.e.  to  destruction).  18,  These,  with 
Gath  and  Ashdod,  are  the  five  Philistine  cities. 
The  LXX  reads  '  did  not  take,'  which  accords 
with  subsequent  references  to  the  Philistines. 

19.  Chariots  of  iron]  Always  an  object  of 
dread  to  the  light-armed  Israelites  (cp.  4  3), 
but  useless  in  the  hill-country,  where  the 
Israelites  "V7ere  more  firmly  established. 


159 


1.21 


JUDGES 


2.18 


Could  not]  The  Lord  being  with  Judah,  they 
should  have  been  able  to  drive  them  out. 
Probably  their  faith  failed  at  sight  of  the  iron 
chariots.  The  Hebrew,  indeed,  does  not  say 
'  could  not  drive  them  out,'  but  '  there  was  no 
driving  out.'     21.   Cp.  Josh  1563. 

22-26.   Capture  of  Bethel. 

22.  House  of  Joseph]  i.e.  Epbraim  and 
Manasseh,  the  leading  division  of  the  nation. 
Later  writers  use  Ephraim  as  a  synonym  for 
the  ten  northern  tribes  (e.g.  Hosll^  Isa283). 

23.  Descry]  EV  '  spy  out.'  Beth-el]  9^  m. 
N.  of  Jerusalem.  See  Gn  28^9  356.  26.  Hit- 
tites]  see  on  GnlQi^-io.  Luz]  Evidently  a 
different  city  from  that  mentioned  in  v.  23. 

27-36.  Limits  to  the  conquests  of  Man- 
asseh, etc. 

27.  These  towns  are  all  in  the  plain  of 
Esdraelon  (see  on  c.  4),  by  their  hold  upon 
which  the  Canaanites  drove  a  wedge  between 
the  Israelites  of  Northern  and  Central  Pales- 
tine. Beth-shean  is  at  the  E.  of  the  plain, 
Taanach  and  Megiddo  (recently  excavated  and 
revealing  a  wealth  of  Canaanite  remains)  on 
the  S.,  Ibleam  on  the  SE.,  and  Dor  on  the  coast. 
Would  dwell]  i.e.  succeeded  in  dwelling.  28. 
Tribute]  RV  '  taskwork.'  So  Israel  had  been 
treated  in  Egypt.  29.  Gezer]  On  the  edge 
of  the  maritime  plain  ;  later  on,  taken  by 
Egypt  and  given  to  Solomon  (1K915).  Here 
also  extensive  remains  have  been  found, 
demonstrating  the  pagan  worship  carried  on 
by  its  inhabitants.  30.  Kitron  .  .  Nahalol] 
unknown.  31.  Accho  (Akka),  Zidon  (Saida), 
and  Achzib  (Ez-Zib,  N.  of  Akka)  are  all  on 
the  coast  :  the  other  towns  are  unknown.  33. 
Beth-shemesh('  house  of  the  sun '),  not  the  well- 
known  Beth-shemesh  in  Judah  :  cp.  Josh  19^8. 
Beth-anath  (house  of  the  goddess  Anath)  is 
perhaps  a  town  6  m.  N.  of  Kadesh-naphtali. 

34.  Dan  fails  in  securing  a  foothold  :  later, 
the  Danites  make  an  expedition  northwards 
(c.  18)  and  Ephraim  gains  an  entrance  into  the 
territory  from  which  they  are  driven  (v.  35). 
Amorites]   seeonGnlQi^.    35.   Mount  Heres] 
'  the   mountain  of  the  sun.'     Aijalon]    12  m. 
"W.  of  Jerusalem  ;  the  scene  of  Joshua's  great 
victory  (Josh  10 12).     Shaalbim]   possibly  3  m. 
to  the  N.      36.    Coast]   RV  '  border.'      The 
ascent  of  (R V)  Akrabbim  (scorpions)  is  said  in 
Josh  153  to  be  on  the   border  of  Judah  and 
Edom.     Amorites  is  probably  a  mis-reading 
for  '  Edomites.'     The  spot  lies  on  a  line  be- 
tween Hebron  and  Petra,  the  Edomite  capital. 
As  it  stands,  this  v.  has  no  connexion  with  its 
context.     36.  The  rock]    should  be,  as  RM, 
'  Sela,'  i.e.  Petra  in  Edom. 

CHAPTER  2 

PROLOatJE    TO    THE    StORY    OF    THE   JUDGES 

1-5.  The  moral  of  the  preceding  notices, 
delivered  by  an  angel  at  Bochim. 


I.  An  angel  of  the  LORD]  RY  '  the  angel.' 
Cp.  611.22  133,21^  where  it  is  plain  (from  6i4,io 
13  22)  that  the  angel  is  thought  of  as  God  Him- 
self (see  on  fii-^).  The  word  translated  '  angel,' 
however,  means  simply  '  messenger  ' :  cp.  6  ^. 

Gilgal]  the  site  of  the  first  Hebrew  camp  after 
the  crossing  of  the  Jordan  (Josh  4 1^).  Bochim] 
'  weepers  '  (v.  4),  but  LXX  here  reads  '  Bethel ' 
(1 23),  which  was  later  the  abode  of  the  ark 
(20  27).  Allon  Bacuth, '  weeping  tree,'  was  near 
Bethel  (Gn258).  Covenant]  see  Gn  15 18  1719 
Dt4i3  818  291  3116^  etc. 

Division  2,  Chs.  26-34. 
A  return  to  the  later  scenes  of  Joshua's  life, 
to  connect  it  with  the  stories  of  the  Judges. 
C.  26-10  is  very  similar  to  Josh  24  28-31.  The 
history  of  Israel  in  this  period  is  here  inter- 
preted as  a  succession  of  punishments  for  dis- 
obedience, and  deliverance  after  repentance,  a 
point  of  view  which  is  not  emphasised  in  the 
individual  stories,  but  not  inconsistent  with 
them.  Israel's  only  chance  of  existence  in 
Canaan  lay  in  its  adherence  to  the  one  bond 
of  union,  the  worship  of  Jehovah.  The  intro- 
duction divides  into  three  parts  :  26-10,  his- 
torical prologue  ;  2ii-23,  interpretation  of  the 
history  ;  3 1-6,  Israel's  actual  relations  with  the 
Canaanites. 

6-10.  Historical  Prologue. 
6.  Cp.  Josh  24  28.  Evidently  the  beginning 
and  not  the  end  of  conquest  is  here  referred 
to.  In  the  OT.  Canaan  is  never  regarded  as 
a  land  of  rest.  9.  Timnath-heres]  '  territory 
of  the  sun  '  :  probably  near  Shechem.  In  Josh 
2430  the  letters  of  'heres'  are  transposed,  to 
avoid  the  suggestion  of  idolatrous  association 
(cp.  also  Jg8i3  and  RV  there).  Gaash]  un- 
known. 

11-23.  The  religious  interpretation  of  the 
history  of  the  Judges. 

II.  Baalim]  RV  '  the  Baalim,'  i.e.  the  local 
gods  worshipped  by  the  Canaanites.  Baalim 
is  the  plural  of  Baal,  which  means  '  lord '  (cp. 
833).  Each  place  might  thus  have  its  patron 
god.  Jehovah  was  never  thought  of  by  the 
Hebrews  as  a  local  deity  in  this  sense. 

13.  Ashtaroth]  RV  'the  Ashtaroth,'  properly 
the  feminine  counterpart  of  '  the  Baalim.'  In 
Babylon,  the  goddess  Ashtoreth  appears  as 
Ishtar  (with  attributes  corresponding  in  part 
to  Aphrodite  or  Venus).  How  easily  the  wor- 
ship of  the  native  deities,  the  Baals,  the  Ash- 
toreths,  in  their  sacred  groves,  would  lead  to 
licentiousness  is  obvious  (see  on  Gn38i5). 

17.  A  whoring]  Adultery  and  fornication  are 
common  figures  for  unfaithfulness  to  Israel's 
'  lord,'  Jehovah,  cp.  Hos  1-3  Ezk  16, 20,  Mt  12  39. 
The  succeeding  stories  make  it  clear  that  it 
was  by  uniting  the  Hebrews  in  a  religious  war 
that  the  Judges  caused  the  local  cults  to  be 
put  aside.  18.  It  repented  the  LORD]  cp.  1  S 
1511  Ps90i3  Zechbi^  :  on  the  other  hand,  IS 


160 


2.  20 


JUDGES 


3.31 


1529  Jer428  Ezk24i4.  Here  the  word  really 
means  '  pity.'  20.  Covenant]  Josh23i'5  c.  2i. 
In  Joshua  the  ark  is  constantly  called  '  the  ark 
of  the  covenant '  (Josh  3  3,  etc.).  22.  Prove]  cp. 
3i'2.  Such  an  expression  shows  how  easily  a 
test  may  become  a  temptation.  23.  Neither 
delivered  he,  etc.]  a  later  addition  :  the  whole 
passage  deals  with  what  occurred  after  the 
death  of  Joshua. 

CHAPTER  3 

The  Stoey  of  the  Judges.     Othniel. 
Ehud.     Shamgar 

1-6.  Israel's  actual  relations  with  the  Cana- 
anites. 

I.  Wars  of  Canaan]  i.e.  those  waged  by 
Joshua,  after  whose  death  (22i)  the  career  of 
victory  was  made  to  cease  by  Jehovah.  2.  A 
third  reason  for  the  survival  of  the  heathen  in 
Canaan,  in  addition  to  those  given  in  2 1  ^-  and 
in  222  31.    3.  Philistines]  see  Intro.  §  5.    The 


Philistines  occupied  the  lowland  in  the  SW. 
Their  five  cities  formed  a  confederacy  :  see 
165,  etc.,  and  1  S6i6f.  At  the  death  of  Samuel 
their  power  extends  far  into  central  Palestine 
(IS 31 10).  All  the  Canaanites]  in  the  more 
restricted  sense,  the  lowlanders  of  the  SW. 
bordering  on  the  Philistines.  Hivites]  read 
'Hittites'  :  see  on  G-n  1015-19.  Baal-hermon] 
In  the  similar  passage  in  Joshua  we  read  '  Baal- 
Gad  under  Hermon '  (13  5),  a  place  on  the  "W. 
side  of  Hermon.  The  entering  in  of  Hamath] 
Hamath  was  a  powerful  city  of  the  Hittites 
on  the  Orontes  (modern  Hama).  The  '  en- 
trance '  to  it  is  the  hollow  country  between 
Lebanon  and  anti-Lebanon,  on  the  plain  at 
the  K  end  of  Lebanon:  cp.  2S89  1K865 
AmGi'*,  where  it  is  regarded  as  the  true 
northern  frontier  of  Israel. 

5.  See  on  11-^33.     To  these  six 'nations' 
of  Canaan  the  Girgashites  are  often  added. 

6.  Cp.  Ex34i6Nehl325. 


PART  2 

History  of  the  Judges  (Chs.  3^-1631) 


On  this,  the  main  section  of  the  book,  see 
Intro.  §  2  and  List  of  Oppressions  and  Judges. 
The  larger  part  of  the  book  is  concerned  with 
six  of  the  Judges,  one  of  whom  is  not  properly 
a  Judge  at  all  (Abimelech),  and  in  the  case 
of  another  (Samson)  isolated  forays  are  re- 
corded, but  no  actual  deliverance. 

7-1 1.   Chushan-rishathaim  and  Othniel. 

7.  The  groves]  RV  'the  asheroth.'  The 
word  (another  plural)  means  the  sacred  poles 
set  up  near  an  altar,  which  were  common  in 
Semitic  worship  (even  Solomon's  temple  had 
'  pillars ' :  see  on  1 K  7  21).  Here,  however,  actual 
goddesses  seem  to  be  intended,  perhaps  regarded 
as  symbolised  by  the  poles.  8.  Chushan- 
rishathaim]  The  Heb.  word  means  '  Ethio- 
pian of  double  iniquity.'  The  real  name 
must  be  hidden  behind  this  expression.  Meso- 
potamia] see  on  On  24 10. 

9.  Othniel]  cp.  1  is. 

10.  The  Spirit  of  the  LORD]  used  here  and 
elsewhere  of  the  inspiration  which  makes  a 
man  capable  of  great  and  apparently  super- 
human exploits  and  achievements  :  6  ^-^  1 1 29 
146  1514  :  cp.  alsoEx313. 

12-30.  Eglon  and  Ehud. 

12.  Moab]  the  high  plateau  on  the  E.  of 
the  Dead  Sea  :  cp.  2K324.  13,  Ammon] 
N.  of  Moab  :  the  Amalekites  (Gn36i2)  are 
called  Edomites.  They  occupied  the  desert 
between  Sinai  and  S.  Palestine.  The  Kenites 
formed  one  of  their  nomad  clans,  but  on  the 
whole  their  enmity  to  Israel  was  constant  : 
cp.  IS  15 2*-;  hence  their  readiness  to  join 
Eglon's  invasion.  City  of  palm  trees]  cp. 
1 16  :    Jericho,  which  was   thus   not   entirely 


destroyed  (Josh  6  26).     It  would  command  the 
roads  from  central  to  southern  Palestine. 

15.  Lefthanded]  lit.  '  lamed  in  his  right 
hand.'  Hence  the  success  of  his  ruse  :  but 
2016  seems  to  show  that  ambidexterity  is  all 
that  is  meant:  cp.  also  1  Chi 2 2.  Present] 
i.e.  tribute.  16.  Dagger]  RV  'sword,'  about 
14  in.  in  the  blade.  Benig  on  his  right  thigh 
(convenient  for  his  left  hand)  the  guards  would 
not  notice  it.  17.  Brought]  RV  '  offered,'  as 
in  V.  18.  19.  Quarries]  RM  'graven  images,' 
perhaps  carved  stones.  Once  beyond  these 
(cp.  V.  26),  though  only  2  m.  from  Jericho, 
Ehud  knew  that  he  was  safe. 

20.  Summer  parlour]  RM  '  upper  chamber 
of  cooling'  :  a  room  on  the  flat  roof  of  an 
Oriental  house  ;  in  this  case  enclosed  so  that 
the  interior  was  not  visible  from  outside. 

22.  No  meaning  can  be  obtained  from  the 
Heb.  words  at  the  end  of  this  v.  23.  Locked] 
i.e.  bolted  (as  in  the  East  at  present).  26.  Sei- 
rath]  unknown.  27.  Mountain]  i.e.  hill- 
country.  The  men  of  Ephraim  (Joshua's 
tribe)  are  recognised  as  the  leaders  in  Israel  : 
cp.  31.  28.  Toward  Moab]  RV  '  against  the 
Moabites,'  i.e.  to  prevent  their  returning. 

29.  For  the  expression  ten  thousand,  cp. 
14  46  73  2034.  30.  Fourscore]  two  full 
generations. 

31.  Shamgar]  the  first  of  the  'minor' 
Judges.  The  name  is  mentioned  in  5  6,  though 
not  as  a  '  saviour.'  No  Philistine  oppression 
is  mentioned  till  later.  An  ox  goad]  would 
be  an  efficient  substitute  for  a  spear — a  six- 
foot  staff  tipped  with  a  spike  :  cp.  1514*-  and 
2  S  23  21. 


11 


161 


4.  1 


JUDGES 


5.6 


CHAPTER   4 
Deborah  and  Barak 

This  deliverance  is  described  a  second  time 
in  the  early  poem  in  c.  5  (see  on  5^).  No  other 
narrative  describes  more  clearly  the  religious 
gathering  of  the  clans,  and  the  prowess  of  the 
hardy  mountaineers  when  united.  The  plain 
of  Esdraelon  (see  Intro.  §  6)  is  one  of  the 
famous  battle-fields  of  history.  It  drives  like  a 
wedge  from  the  coast  within  1 0  m.  of  the  Jordan ; 
but  it  is  dominated  by  hills  on  all  sides,  and  is 
almost  closed  by  them  at  its  western  end.  In 
c.  5  all  the  tribes  are  mentioned  either  as 
uniting  or  refusing  to  appear,  save  Judah  and 
Simeon.  Subsequently  we  hear  no  more  of  such 
united  efforts. 

1-3.   Oppression  by  Jabin. 

2.  Jabin]  In  Josh  ll^-^  Jabin  is  defeated  by 
Joshua  at  the  waters  of  Merom,  near  the  head 
of  the  Jordan  valley,  and  Hazor  is  burned.  In 
c.  5  Jabin  is  not  mentioned,  and  Sisera  is 
apparently  regarded  as  king.  Hazor]  from 
Josh  19^6,  probably  near  Kadesh-naphtali. 
Harosheth  of  the  Gentiles]  or  '  foreigners  '  is 
thus  distinguished  from  Hebrew  Harosheth. 
Site  doubtful ;  probably  not  far  from  Megiddo, 
or  at  the  W.  end  of  the  plain.  3.  Chariots] 
They  would  be  well-nigh  irresistible  on  the 
plain.  The  Israelites,  living  in  the  hills,  had 
none  until  Solomon's  time. 

4-24.  Defeat  and  Death  of  Sisera. 

4.  Judged]  not  in  the  technical  sense  used 
in  this  book,  but  of  the  deciding  of  disputes  (v. 
5).  5.  Mount  Ephraim]  see  on  327.  Deborah's 
own  tribe  would  seem  to  have  been  Issachar 
(51^).  Dwelt]  RV  'sat,'  as  judge,  to  decide 
cases.  Deborah]  'bee.'  6.  Barak]  4ightning': 
cp.  the  Carthaginian  name  Hamilcar  Barca. 
Kedesh-naphtali]  i.e.  Kadesh  (i.e.  the  shrine) 
of  Naphtali ;  now  Kades,  4  m.  from  the  upper 
end  of  the  waters  of  Merom.  Mount  Tabor] 
1,843  ft.  high:  it  commands  the  plain  of  Es- 
draelon from  the  NE.  Ten  thousand  men] 
cp.  vv.  10,  14,  329  58,  etc.  In  this  c.  only  the 
two  tribes  Naphtali  and  Zebulun  are  men- 
tioned :  in  c.  5  as  many  as  six  gather  to  Barak's 
standard.  Naphtali  and  Zebulun,  bordering 
on  the  plain,  are  the  most  concerned.  9.  Sell] 
cp.  214  38  42.     A  woman]  i.e.  Jael. 

ID.  Went  up]  to  Tabor.  The  flat  summit 
of  this  conical  hill  made  an  excellent  position 
from  which  the  Israelites  could  charge  down 
to  the  plain.  1 1 .  The  Kenites]  cp.  1 16.  Father 
in  law]  is  correct,  not  (as  RV)  '  brother  in  law.' 
The  modern  traveller  Porter  noticed  the  black 
tents  of  nomads  near  Kedesh.  Plain]  RV  '  oak ' ; 
evidently  a  prominent  tree  on  the  N.  of  the 
edge  of  the  plain  of  Esdi-aelon.  13.  Kishon] 
This  river  rises  in  the  high  ground  to  the  SE.  of 
the  plain,  and  flows  right  through  it  in  a  north- 
westerly direction.  From  Tabor  on  the  NE.  the 


Israelites  would  dash  down  and  drive  the  Ca- 
naanites  back  upon  its  banks  :  in  rainy  weather 
the  whole  plain  would  be  further  intersected 
by  the  Kishon's  tributaries.  In  1799,  after 
the  battle  of  Mt.  Tabor,  numbers  of  fugitive 
Turks  were  swept  away  by  the  torrent  and 
drowned.  15.  Fled  away]  northward  to  Ke- 
desh, while  Barak's  host  hurries  westwards. 

18.  Mantle]  RV  'rug,'  or  perhaps  'tent- 
curtain.'  19.  Bottle  of  milk]  i.e.  a  lamb-  or 
goat-skin.  C.  5^5  adds  'butter.'  5 26  seems 
(though  not  certainly)  to  imply  that  Sisera  is 
killed  as  he  stands  drinking.  21.  The  nail  or 
tent-pin  was  of  wood :  to  drive  it  into  the 
ground  when  camping  was  the  women's  work. 
On  the  morality  of  the  act  see  on  5^^.  22.  If 
Barak  came  up  immediately,  he  must  have  left 
the  main  body  of  the  pursuers  almost  as  they 
left  the  battle-field.  24.  The  Israelites  now 
proceed  to  do  on  a  small  scale  what,  after  the 
victories  of  Joshua,  they  had  refused  to  do  on 
a  large  one. 

CHAPTER   5 

Deborah's  Triumph  Song 

This  song  celebrates  the  victory  of  c.  4  ; 
but  from  the  point  of  view,  not  of  a  later 
annalist,  but  of  a  contemporary  poet — very  pos- 
sibly (though  see  v.  12)  the  prophetess  herself. 
The  lyric  outburst  is  one  of  the  finest  in  any 
language  ;  its  style  (though  many  of  the  words 
are  now  very  obscure)  is  typical  of  the  best 
Hebrew  poetry.  Its  independence  of  c.  4  may 
be  inferred  from  the  variations  it  exhibits. 
Sisera  is  represented  as  king :  the  majority  of 
the  tribes,  not  Zebulun  and  Naphtali  only,  are 
summoned  :  and  the  manner  of  Sisera's  death  is 
different.  It  says  much  for  the  fidelity  of  the 
compiler  that  he  did  not  attempt  to  '  edit ' 
these  apparent  discrepancies. 

1-5.   Introductory. 

I.  For  the  avenging  of  Israel]  RV  'for  that 
the  leaders  took  the  lead  in  Israel.'  The 
Hebrew  word  most  probably  has  to  do  with 
'  letting  loose  ' ;  perhaps,  '  with  the  streaming 
locks  of  warriors.'  3.  A  good  instance  of  the 
'  parallelism  '  of  Hebrew  poetry  ;  parallel,  and 
sometimes  almost  identical  thoughts  are  placed 
side  by  side.  Abundant  instances  can  be  found 
in  almost  every  Psalm.  For  the  kings  and 
princes,  cp.  Ps  2  2  Hab  1 10.  4.  Seir]  the  moun- 
tainous region  which  extends  from  the  E.  of 
the  Dead  Sea  to  the  head  of  the  Red  Sea.  The 
northern  half  of  it  was  inhabited  by  Edom. 
Towards  the  southern  end  of  it  is  Sinai  (v.  5). 
Jehovah  is  still  thought  of  as  dwelling  in  the 
desert,  where  He  had  first  revealed  Himself 
to  Israel,  and  where  He  delivered  them  from 
Egypt.     Cp.  Psl8'Isa64iHab3io. 

6-1 1.   The  Oppression. 

6.  Shamgar]  mentioned  (if  he  is  the  same 
man)  in  3^1 ;    here,  the  reference  can  hardly 


162 


4 


5.  7 


JUDGES 


6.1 


be  to  a  Judge  and  deliverer.  So  with  Jael  ; 
perhaps  another  individual  is  intended  ;  or 
the  correct  name  has  fallen  out  of  the  text. 

Unoccupied]  Because  of  the  insecurity  of 
the  country.  7.  The  villages]  RV  'rulers'; 
the  word  occurs  in  v.  11,  and  probably  means 
'  peasantry.'  The  gi'eat  trade  routes  were 
empty,  and  even  rural  life  stagnated.  8.  The 
first  two  clauses  are  very  obscure  ;  the  second 
should  perhaps  be  '  the  barley-bread  failed.' 

10.  Speak]  (RV  'tell')  means  properly 
'  meditate  upon  it.'  Of  the  three  classes 
addressed,  the  first  consists  of  magistrates 
or  leading  men,  the  second  (in  judgment 
should  be,  as  RV,  '  on  rich  carpets ')  of  the 
wealthy,  the  third  of  the  people.  11.  The 
words  in  italics,  supplied  by  the  translators, 
help  us  to  make  sense  of  this  v.,  though 
they  cannot  be  considered  certain.  In  con- 
trast to  V.  6  there  is  now  deep  peace  through- 
out the  whole  country-side. 

12-23.  The  gathering  of  the  tribes,  and  the 
battle. 

12.  Captivity]  either  'thy  captives'  or  'thy 
captors'  ;  cp.  Ps68is  Eph48.  13.  RV  is  more 
probable  ;  '  then  came  down  a  remnant  of  the 
nobles  and  of  the  people.'  The  two  classes 
are  joined  as  in  vv.  2  and  9.  14.  RV  '  out 
of  Ephraim  came  doirii  they  whose  root  is  in 
Amalek.'  This  seems  to  suggest  that  Amalek 
once  possessed  the  land  of  Ephraim  ;  but  see 
on  121-5.  The  largest  and  smallest  tribes  are 
mentioned  together,  as  in  Hos5S.  Machir]  a 
clan  of  Manasseh  (apparently  used  here  for 
the  whole  tribe)  which  is  generally  connected 
with  Gilead.  Pen  of  the  writer]  RV  '  marshal's 
staff '  ;  the  '  writer '  is  the  officer  who  musters 
the"  troops. 

15.  He  was  sent]  RV  '  into  the  valley  they ' 
(the  men  of  Issachar)  '  rushed  forth  at  his  feet.' 
Reuben  dwelt  in  N.  Moab,  E.  of  the  Dead  Sea ; 
in  the  later  history  the  tribe  is  never  heard  of, 
as,  from  this  v.,  is  not  surprising.  For  the 
divisions]  RV  '  by  the  watercourses '  (so  in 
v.  16).  17.  Gilead]  i.e.  'the  people  living 
in  Gilead.'  Reuben  and  Manasseh  have  been 
already  mentioned  ;  hence.  Gad.  Dan]  would 
seem  to  have  already  migrated  to  the  N. 
and  to  have  connected  itself  with  the  sea- 
faring Phoenicians  (18''').  For  Asher,  see  l^i. 
Breaches]  RV  '  creeks,'  or  harbours. 

19.  Kings]  the  petty  chiefs  of  districts  and 
towns  among  the  Canaanites.  Taanach .  . 
Megiddo]  see  on  127.  20,  21.  The  very 
forces  of  nature  were  in  alliance  against 
Canaan.  Kishon,  though  second  to  the 
Jordan  (35  m.  long  from  source  to  sea),  is 
often,  in  parts,  dry  in  the  summer.  Like 
other  mountain-fed  streams,  it  rises  rapidly 
after  a  storm  ;  here,  its  torrents  sweep  away 
the  Canaanite  chariots.  21.  Strength]  Ab- 
stract for  concrete.     22.  RV  '  Then  did  the 


horsehoofs  stamp  hy  reason  of  the  pransings.' 
This  v.,  describing  the  battle,  would  seem 
naturally  to  precede  vv.  21  f.,  describing  the 
rout. 

23.  Meroz]  an  unknown  place.  The  men- 
tion of  Jael  immediately  after  suggests  that 
the  villagers  of  Meroz  might  have  done  what 
Jael  did  with  such  success. 

24-27.   The  Death  of  Sisera. 

24.  Sisera,  according  to  the  code  of  the 
times,  on  entering  Jael's  tent,  was  entitled  to 
protection.  Could  a  prophetess,  it  has  been 
asked,  invoke  a  blessing  on  an  act  of  sheer 
treachery  ?  (cp.  4 17).  There  may  have  been 
extenuating  circumstances  of  which  we  are 
ignorant  ;  more  probably  the  v.  is  simply  an 
utterance  of  the  poet's  joy  at  an  act  without 
which  the  victory  would  have  been  imperfect, 
and  might  have  proved  fruitless  :  see  Intro. 
§  7.  Women  in  the  tent]  Bedouin  women  : 
nomads.  25,  26.  These  vv.  say  nothing  about 
Sisera's  lying  down  to  sleep,  and  they  suggest 
that  he  was  killed  in  the  act  of  drinking  (note 
'  smote  oflE '  instead  of  '  smote  through  ')  :  but 
(see  V.  27)  this  is  not  absolutely  necessary. 

25.  Butter]  Properly  sour  milk  or  curds. 
Lordly  dish]  A  bowl  fit  for  nobles.    27.   The 

repetition  is  highly  effective. 

28-30.  Ironical  representation  of  the  ex- 
pectation at  Sisera's  home. 

28.  Cried]  in  eager,  half -anxious  tones. 

30.  Have  they  not  sped  ?]  rather,  '  Do.they 
not  find  ?  ' — the  form  of  the  word  denotes  an 
unfinished  action,  which  accounts  for  the  delay. 

A  damsel  or  two]  rather,  '  A  slave-girl,  two 
slave  girls,  for  each  brave  man.'  Prey]  RV 
'  spoil.'  Needlework  on  both  sides]  means 
two  pieces  of  needlework  (for  each  man). 
RV  '  embroidery.' 

31.  Final  prayer.  The  last  clause  is  added 
by  the  editor. 

CHAPTER  6 

Gideon  and  the  Midianites 
The  story  of  Gideon,  which  runs  from  6  ^  to 
8  33,  is  more  detailed  than  that  of  Deborah  and 
Barak  ;  and,  from  the  details,  it  would  ap- 
pear that  different  traditions  have  been  used. 
Gideon,  at  the  bidding  of  an  angel,  calls  his  clan 
together,  and  after  reducing  them  to  300  men, 
and  receiving  the  encouragement  of  a  dream, 
surrounds  the  camp  of  the  Midianites  and 
throws  them  into  a  panic.  The  Ephraimites 
complete  the  defeat.  The  two  kings  of  Midian 
are  then  pursued  beyond  Jordan  and  slain. 
Gideon  is  offered  the  kingdom,  but  refuses  it, 
and  lives  to  old  age  in  honour  and  peace. 
1-6.  The  Midianites  oppress  Israel. 
I.  Midian]  These  desert  nomads  are  re- 
garded by  the  Hebrews  as  akin  to  them  (Gn 
3G35;  cp.  Ex  2 15-21).  They  are  found  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  peninsula  of  Sinai,  and 


163 


6.  3 


JUDGES 


7.  25 


also  wander  northwards  :  on  this  occasion  they 
pour  westwards  across  the  Jordan  into  the  more 
fertile  lands  of  Palestine.  Like  modern  Be- 
douins they  raid  and  harry  and  destroy,  but 
make  no  permanent  conquest.  That  the  Is- 
raelites did  not  desert  their  homes  is  plain  from 
V.  11,  etc.  3.  Amalekites]  see  on  3 13.  Children 
of  the  east]  other  tribes  living  on  the  borders 
of  the  eastern  desert.  4.  Unto  Gaza]  i.e. 
the  whole  country  from  the  Jordan  to-  the 
coast.  Gaza  was  a  Philistine  town  on  the  SW. 
of  Palestine  which  they  did  not  venture  to 
pass.     5.  Grasshoppers]  RV  '  locusts.' 

8-10.  The  Israelites  rebuked  by  a  Prophet. 

8.  A  prophet]  who  brings  a  similar  mes- 
sage to  that  of  the  angel  in  2'^-^.  The  pro- 
phet is  the  spokesman  of  Jehovah.  See  Intro, 
to  Samuel.  The  spirit  of  the  prophetic 
message  is  always  (a)  moral,  (b)  national.  10. 
Amorites]  see  on  G-n  l(3i'5. 

11-40.  The  call  of  Gideon,  and  the  tests  by 
which  it  was  proved. 

II.  Angel]  see  on  2^.  Ophrah]  in  v.  24 
'Ophrah  of  the  Abi-ezrites.'  Presumably, 
this  Ophrah  is  near  Shechem.  Abi-ezer  is  a 
division  of  Manasseh  (Josh  17  2).  Wheat  by 
the  winepress]  RV  'in'  ;  i.e.  for  concealment. 
The  usual  threshing-floor  is  in  an  exposed 
place  :  the  winepress  is  a  shallow  pit  in  the 
ground,  from  which  the  grape-juice  runs  into 
two  deeper  vats.  There  would  have  been  but 
little  wheat  to  thresh.  13.  My  Lord]  not  as 
Lord,  the  divine  name,  but  equivalent  to  '  Sir.' 
14.  The  Lord]  Here  the  angel  is  identified 
with  Jehovah:  cp.l322.  15.  Poor]  RY 
'  the  poorest.'  Joash,  however,  can  defy  the 
'city,'  V.  31.  17.  That  thou  talkest]  RY 
'that  it  is  thou  that  talkest.'  The  angel  has 
not,  however,  told  Gideon  who  he  is  ;  proba- 
bly this  clause  was  not  in  the  original  narrative 
(cp.  V.  22).  23.  The  last  clause  of  v.  21 
should  apparently  follow  rather  than  precede 
this  V.  24.  Jehovah-shalom]  '  Jehovah  is 
peace'  (v.  23) ;  cp.  Exl?!''. 

25.  The  altar  .  .  that  thy  father  hath]  Joash 
is  the  priest  and  custodian  of  the  village 
sanctuary.  The  'grove'  should  be  the  pole 
or  'asherah'  at  its  side.  Such  an  attack 
would  naturally  be  resented  by  the  villagers. 
26.  Ordered  place]  RY  'orderly  manner.' 
31.  To  avoid  giving  up  his  son  (whom  the 
men  did  not  venture  to  take  by  force),  Joash 
asks,  '  Will  you  be  so  presumptuous  as  to  plead 
for  Baal  ?  That  would  be  impiety  worthy  of 
instant  death.'  Baal  can  defend  himself.  32. 
Other  names  compounded  with  Baal  ('  lord,' 
used  as  equivalent  to  Jehovah)  exist,  viz. 
Ishbaal  and  Meribbaal.  For  'Baal,'  '  bosheth  ' 
(shame)  is  at  times  substituted  by  later  scribes 
(2  S 1 1 21).  See  also  on  1  Ch  8  33  2  S  2  «.  From 
the  form  of  the  name  it  should  rather  mean 
'  Baal  (or  Jehovah)  founds.' 


33.  Were  gathered  together]  on  the  E.  of 
Jordan,  for  another  raid  into  Palestine,  and 
'went  over'  the  river.  The  valley  of  Jezreel] 
leads  up  from  the  Jordan  to  the  plain  of  Es- 
draelon.     Jezreel  is  the  modern  Zerin. 

34.  Cp.  1325.  Came  upon]  lit.  'clothed  itself 
with  Gideon.'  In  the  strength  of  this  inspira- 
tion he  assembles  not  only  his  own  clan  and 
fellow-tribesmen,  but  the  men  of  neighbouring 
tribes,  all  of  whom  would  be  threatened  by  the 
raid. 

37.  Gideon's  tests.  Wool  retains  moisture 
for  a  specially  long  time. 

CHAPTER   7 
The  Rout  of  Midian 
1-7.  Gideon's  choice  of  his  Followers. 

I.  The  sites  here  mentioned  are  doubtful. 
Moreh]  said  to  be  near  Shechem  (Gnl26  Dt 
1130).  After  the  battle  Gideon  crosses  the 
Jordan  by  the  fords  one  would  take  if  travel- 
ling from  Shechem  eastwards.  3.  Gilead]  is 
E.  of  the  Jordan  :  some  other  locality  must 
be  meant.  For  the  return  of  the  timid,  cp. 
Dt208. 

5.  Probably  an  arbitrary  test.  It  is  as  easy 
to  find  abstract  reasons  for  choosing  those  who 
stooped  down  as  for  rejecting  them.  The  test 
in  12*5  is  very  different. 

8-25.  The  Rout  of  Midian. 

II.  The  author  frankly  admits  that,  in  spite 
of  634,  Gideon  is  afraid  to  take  the  bolder 
course. 

13.  A  cake  of  barley  bread]  apparently  a 
disk-like  cake  baked  in  the  ashes :  representing 
the  Israelite  peasants,  as  the  tent  represents 
the  Midianite  nomads. 

15.  Worshipped]   bowed  down  before  God. 

16.  Lamps]   RY  '  torches.' 

18.  The  Mv-ord]  These  words  do  not  occur 
in  the  Heb.  in  this  v.  but  are  supplied  from 
v.  20.  Jehovah  is  the  true  leader  of  the 
Israelite  host. 

19.  The  middle  watch]  i.e.  when  the  night 
was  about  a  third  through:  well  before  mid- 
night. 

22.  These  places  cannot  be  identified,  but 
were  probably  in  the  Jordan  valley,  towards 
a  point  E.  of  Shechem. 

23.  See  635.  Probably  those  who  had  left 
Gideon  before  the  surprise  now  hurry  in 
pursuit  of  the  flying  foe.  They  did  not,  how- 
ever, as  it  would  seem,  actually  join  Gideon  (8  *). 

24.  Ephraim]  the  leading  tribe  has  not  yet 
been  mentioned.  Beth-barah]  not  certainly 
identified;  probably  a  tributary  of  the  Jordan, 
the  Wady  Farah,  which  the  Ephraimites  would 
be  able  to  reach  before  the  fugitives.  The 
latter — thus  prevented  from  moving  further 
southwards — would  be  enclosed  between  the 
two  rivers,  and  helpless.      Cp.  Isa94. 

25.  Two   princes]   RY    '  the  two  princes.' 


164 


8.  1 


JUDGES 


9.  22 


Oreb]  'Eaven.'    Zeeb] 'Wolf.'    Other  side  Jor- 
dan] This  is  an  anticipation  of  the  next  c.  (v.  4). 

CHAPTER   8 
The  Pursuit  of  the  Kings.    Gideon's 

SUBSEQUENT    CAREER   AND    DeATH 

1.  Cp.  c.  12.  Ephraim  claimed  to  be  the 
leading  tribe  ;  later  the  name  was  often  used 
as  a  synonym  for  the  northern  kingdom.  The 
natural  jealousy  of  the  tribe  was  appeased  by 
Gideon's  ready  wit  ;  one  might  have  suspected 
that,  making  such  claims  as  these,  they  would 
not  have  left  Gideon  to  take  the  initiative. 

2.  Gleaning  and  vintage]  note  the  contrast 
between  these.  Abi-ezer]  Gideon  substitutes 
this  for  his  own  name.  4.  Having  di'iven  the 
Midianites  into  the  arms  of  Ephraim,  Gideon 
turns  eastwards.  V.  10  implies  that  a  very 
considerable  section  of  the  foe  had  escaped 
the  trap  and  was  still  formidable.  5.  Succoth] 
like  Penuel  (Gn  33 1"^)  must  be  E.  of  the  Jordan, 
near  the  Jabbok.  6.  The  chiefs  of  Succoth 
evidently  doubt  whether  Gideon  is  really 
victorious  as  yet. 

9.  Tower]  Where  a  city  had  no  walls,  a 
central  stronghold  was  frequent.  In  the 
middle  ages  the  church  tower  sometimes  served 
this  purpose:  cp. D'^'^. 

10.  Karkor]  unknown.  The  other  two 
places  are  probably  SE.  of  the  Jabbok.  The 
Midianites  were  making  for  the  desert  (cp. 
Nu  32  35, 42).  For  the  numbers  cp.  7 13.  Gideon's 
first  levy  is  said  to  have  numbered  32,000  (73). 

11.  The  way  of  them  that  dwelt  in  tents] 
i.e.  the  road  usually  taken  by  the  nomads. 
12.  Secure]  i.e.  free  from  anxiety,  as  in  the 
campW.  of  the  Jordan  (c.  7).  13.  Before  the 
sun  wan  iqj'\  E,V  '  from  the  ascent  of  Heres,' 
i.e.  from  the  way  up  to  Heres  (see  on  29). 
14.  Described]  RM  'wrote  down'  a  list  of 
the  chief  men.  The  elders  are  heads  of  fami- 
lies ;  the  princes  (cp.  v.  6)  are  the  military 
leaders.  16.  Taught]  if  right,  bitterly  ironi- 
cal. All  the  early  versions  read  '  threshed,' 
or  '  carded,'  as  v.  7  implies. 

18.  This  private  wrong  of  Gideon's  is  now 
mentioned  for  the  first  time.   Tabor]  see  on  4'^'. 

19.  According  to  the  law  of  blood  revenge, 
the  nearest  relative  is  bound  to  avenge  the 
victim's  death  (cp.  NuSS^^).  20.  Jether]  is 
the  same  name  as  Jethro(Ex4is  1K2  5).  To 
be  slain  by  a  boy  would  be  a  further  indignity 
for  the  two  chiefs,  who  meet  their  death 
with  barbarian  courage.  21.  Ornaments]  RV 
'  crescents  ':  cp.  v.  26. 

22-35.  Gideon's  subsequent  career  and 
death. 

22.  The  fame  of  Gideon's  exploit  makes  his 
countrymen  desire  that  he  should  become  an 
hereditary  monarch  and  not  merely  a  judge. 
See  Intro,  to  Samuel. 

26.  Shekels']   A  shekel  is  rather  less  than 


half  an  ounce.  The  whole  weight  would  thus 
be  nearly  seventy  pounds.  Collars]  RV  '  pen- 
dants.' 27.  Ephod]  see  175.  An  image  of 
some  sort  used  in  consulting  the  will  of 
Heaven.  28.  Forty  years]  cp.  531.  29.  Jerub- 
baal]  i.e.  Gideon  :  see  63-. 

33-35.  The  Israelites  lapse  into  idolatry 
after  Gideon's  death. 

33.  Baalim]  RV  '  the  Baalim  '  :  see  on  2^1. 
Baal-berith]  i.e.  Baal  of  the  Covenant.  The 
alliance  between  the  Canaanites  and  the  He- 
brews would  naturally  be  cemented  by  a  com- 
mon worship,  which  would  involve  the  latter 
in   idolatry  :  cp.  9-*«  (El-berith). 

CHAPTER   9 

The  Story  or  Abimelech 

This  c.  breaks  the  regular  order  of  the  book, 
since  Abimelech  is  not  thought  of  as  a  judge, 
and  the  Canaanites  are  not  here  regarded  as 
oppressors.  The  story,  however,  throws  a 
valuable  light  on  the  way  in  which  Israel  fell 
into  unfaithfulness,  when  free  from  the  yoke 
of  foreign  oppression. 

1-6.   The  rise  of  Abimelech. 

I.  As  being  born  out  of  regular  wedlock, 
Abimelech  would  be  brought  up  at  first  in  his 
mother's  family,  and  reckoned  as  belonging  to 
it  (v.  2),  It  seems  to  have  been  of  consider- 
able position  in  Shechem.  Shechem]  still,  as 
in  Gn  34,  chiefly  Canaanitish,  in  spite  of  being 
Joseph's  burial-place  (Josh  24  32).  Threescore 
and  ten  ^>/eces  of  silver]  between  seven  and 
eight  pounds  sterling.  4.  Vain]  worthless  : 
hired  mercenaries  of  no  character.  5.  On  one 
stone]  as  if  they  had  been  sacrificial  animals 
(lS1433f.).  6.  Millo]  apparently  a  Shechemite 
family,  or  a  town  near  Shechem  (v.  20).  The 
word  has  a  different  meaning  in  1  K  9  ^^  2  K 
1220.  King]  Abimelech  is  no  Israelite  king, 
but  simply  the  ruler  over  the  single  city  of 
Shechem  ;  nothing  implies  that  the  Hebrews 
recognised  this  royalty.  Plain]  RV  '  oak  ' :  cp. 
Gn35^Josh242<3iSlli5.  PiUar]  like  the' ash- 
erah,'  a  regular  feature  of  a  Canaanite  shrine. 

7-21.   Jotham's  parable  and  flight. 

7.  Gerizim]  Shechem  lies  between  Gerizim 
(nearly  3,000  ft.  high)  on  the  S.  and  Ebal  on 
the  N. 

8-15.  Jotham's  Fable.  Its  connexion  with 
the  moral  which  Jotham  wishes  to  point  is 
somewhat  loose,  and  perhaps  it  was  a  popular 
story  ;  but  it  sufficiently  expresses  Jotham's 
hatred  and  contempt  ;  feelings  which  find 
further  vent  in  the  sarcasm  of  the  prayer  in 
16-20.  Cp.  the  fable  of  Jehoash  in  2K14f». 
The  fruit-trees  render  the  real  service  ;  the 
bramble  desires  the  empty  honour. 

21.  Beer]  not  known.  The  name  means 
'  Well '  (cp.  Beer-sheba). 

22-33.   The  Conspiracy  of  Gaal. 

22.  Over  Israel]  at  most  over  the  Man^ssites 


165 


9.SS 


JUDGES 


11.1 


who  were  connected  with  the  Canaanites 
of  Shechem.  23.  God  sent]  cp.  lS16i^and 
IK 22 19.  For  the  general  attitude  which  re- 
gards God  as  the  source  of  good  and  evil 
alike,  cp.  Am  3*^  Job  2 10.  This  evil  spirit, 
however,  obviously  comes  as  an  inevitable 
retribution  upon  Abimelech,  in  fulfilment  (as 
the  writer  means  to  imply)  of  Jotham's  curse 
(v.  57).  25.  The  main  eastern  and  northern 
roads  both  pass  through  Shechem.  Since 
Abimelech  probably  took  toll  from  the  mer- 
chants who  used  them,  these  highway  robberies 
would  injure  his  treasury  and  his  reputation 
alike.  26.  Gaal  is  introduced  quite  abruptly  ; 
vv.  26-41  are  really  in  parenthesis  :  the  main 
narrative  is  continued  at  v.  42.  Ebed  means 
'  slave  ' ;  probably  the  name  was  Obed,  '  ser- 
vant '  (of  God).  27.  Made  merry]  EV  '  held 
festival':  see  on  21 21.  Gaal  seizes  his  oppor- 
tunity at  this  time  of  excitement.  28.  Him] 
in  each  case  Abimelech.  The  son  of  Jerubbaal] 
and  therefore  no  true  Shechemite.  For  serve, 
etc.,  it  would  make  better  sense  to  read  '  Ye  are 
servants  of  the  men  of  Hamor,'  etc.  Hamor] 
cp.  Gn33i9.  29.  And  he  said]  we  should  read 
(continuing  Gaal's  speech)  '  and  I  would  say.' 
Gaal  is  not  interviewing  Abimelech  (v.  30), 
who  is  at  Ai-umah  (v.  41).  31.  Privily]  RV 
'  craftily,'  or  as  RM  '  at  Tormah,'  which  per- 
haps stands  for  Arumah.  32.  The  field]  the 
usual  expression  for  the  open  country:  cp. 
V.  36.  33.  The  whole  atmosphere  reeks  with 
intrigue  and  cruelty :  an  eloquent  comment  on 
the  Canaanite  character. 

34-49.  The  Conspiracy  is  stamped  out. 

35.  The  entering-  of  the  gate]  the  usual 
meeting-place.  Gaal  does  not  suspect  that 
Zebul  has  discovered  his  plot,  and  is  not  on 
his  guard.  37.  Plain  of  Meonenim]  lit.  '  oak 
of  the  soothsayers.'  Cp.  Gn  12t>  Jg45.  Trees 
in  Palestine  often  served  as  landmarks  ;  a 
conspicuous  tree  is  still  regarded  as  endowed 
with  sanctity.  38.  Zebul  now  throws  off  the 
disguise.  41.  Arumah]  is  unidentified.  Gaal 
has  awakened  no  real  enthusiasm;  but  neither 
has  Abimelech.  42.  The  main  narrative  is 
continued  from  v.  25.  45.  To  '  sow  with 
salt '  (Dt2923)  is  to  make  utterly  desolate. 

46.  The  tower  of  Shechem]  This  appears 
to  be  a  place  outside  Shechem  (perhaps  like 
Millo,  V.  20),  whose  inhabitants  fear  a  fate 
similar  to  that  of  Shechem  itself.  Hold]  a 
rare  word  for  'hiding  place,'  as  in  IS  13*5; 
here,  perhaps,  meaning  some  strong  and 
spacious  chamber  in  the  temple.  The  god 
Berith]  RV  'El-berith':  see  on  8  33.  48. 
Zalmon]  probably  a  neighbouring  hill.  The 
hill  in  PsGSi'i  is  thought  to  be  E.  of  Jordan 
in  the  Hauran  range. 

50-57.  The  Death  of  Abimelech. 

50.  Thebez]  13  m.  NE.  of  Shechem.  51. 
Top]  RV    '  roof,'  which  would   probably  be 


flat,  with  a  parapet.  53.  A  piece  of  a  mill- 
stone] RV  '  an  upper  millstone,'  detachable 
from  the  lower;  such  stones  weighed  about  27 
pounds.  The  mill  is  of  course  worked  by 
hand.  All  to  brake]  RV  'brake.'  'To 
brake  '  is  really  one  word,  meaning  '  smashed  ' 
or  '  broke  in.'  54.  Armourbearer]  cp.  1 S 
140  31*.  The  king's  attendant  has  just  time 
to  give  him  a  mortal  wound.  55.  Men  of 
Israel]  see  on  v.  22.  The  Israelites  have  sup- 
ported Abimelech  against  their  common  foes. 
56.  Rendered]   RV  '  requited.' 

CHAPTER  10 

The  Ammonite  Oppression 

1-5.  The  Minor  Judges,  Tola  and  Jair. 

I.  Defend]  RV  '  save.'  Tola]  see  on 
Gn46i3  Nu2623  lCh7i.  Shamir]  unknown. 
Issachar  appears  at  this  time  to  have  had  no 
territory  of  its  own.  3.  Jair]  see  Nu32*i 
Dt3i*  1K413.  Gilead  is  the  country  E.  of 
the  Jordan  to  which  Jephthah  also  belongs, 
and  which  was  specially  open  to  attack. 

4.  Havoth-jair]  i.e.  tent-villages  of  Jair : 
cp.  1  Ch  2  22.     5.   Camon]   unknown. 

6-18.  The  Ammonite  oppression.  These 
vv.  serve  as  an  introduction  to  the  story  of 
Jephthah,  and  also,  in  part  (vv.  6, 7),  to  those  of 
Samson  and  Samuel.  They  repeat  the  lessons 
of  c.  2,  and,  like  that  passage,  remind  us 
throughout  of  the  tone  of  Deuteronomy.  The 
sequence  of  thought  is  the  same  ;  faithless- 
ness, oppression,  repentance,  deliverance. 

6.  Baalim  and  Ashtaroth]  see  on  2ii-i3. 
7.  The  children  of  Ammon]  seeGnl93s,  where 
they  are  said  to  be  akin  to  the  Hebrews. 
They  claimed  the  land  between  the  Arnon 
and  the  Jabbok,  E.  of  Jordan,  which  the 
tribes  of  Reuben  and  GadJpd  partly  possessed, 
and  which  includes  a  rarge  part  of  Gilead 
(v.  8).  The  Amorites  were  the  aboriginal 
inhabitants  of  this,  as  of  the  hill-country  W. 
of  the  Jordan.  9.  The  Ammonite  raids 
extended  to  the  central  strongholds  of  Pales- 
tine (cp.  121);  but  c.  11  makes  it  clear 
that  the  brunt  of  their  '  oppression  '  was  felt 
in  Gilead.  11.  See  v.  6.  The  two  lists 
partially  coincide.  The  Amorites]  Perhaps 
a  reference  to  Nu212if.  Ammon]  So  far  no 
deliverance  from  these  has  been  described. 
12.  We  know  nothing  of  a  Zidonian  oppres- 
sion. Amalekites]  see  3^3  and  63.33^  also 
Ex  17  8.  Maonites]  LXX  has  '  Midianites.' 
The  Maonites  lived  S.  of  the  Dead  Sea  :  cp. 
2  Ch20i  RV,  267.  17.  Mizpeh]  of  Gilead,  the 
scene  of  the  compact  between  Jacob  and  Laban 
(Gn3149).     The  name  means  'watch-tower.' 

CHAPTER  11 
Jephthah's  Victory  over  the  Ammonites. 
His  r.\sh  Vow 
i-il.  The  Choice  of  Jephthah. 


166 


11. 1 


JUDGES 


12.  11 


I.  As  the  son  of  a  harlot,  Jephthah  has  no 
legal  standing  in  the  tribe.  Gilead  begat] 
Thi-oughout  the  rest  of  the  narrative  Gilead  is 
the  name  of  a  place,  not  a  person  (cp.  12  7). 
Here  Gilead's  '  sons '  represent  the  legitimate 
tribesmen.  3.  Tob]  must  have  been  near 
Gilead,  probably  to  the  NE.  (cp.  2  810*5). 
Vain  men]  see  on  9  *.  '  Broken  men,'  such 
as  came  to  David  at  the  cave  of  Adullam 
(IS 22 2).  Went  out]  on  forays.  9.  Jephthah 
insists  on  being  more  than  a  hired  captain  : 
he  will  be  reinstated  in  the  tribe,  and  placed 
at  its  head  permanently  :  cp.  1  S 11  ^^. 

II.  Before  the  LORD]  in  the  holy  place  at 
Mizpeh,  so  that  there  would  be  no  going  back 
from  the  bargain. 

12-28.  Jephthah  and  the  Ammonite 
chieftain.  For  this  appeal  to  the  enemy's 
sense  of  right  cp.  Nu20i*f-,  an  event  to 
which  Jephthah  here  refers. 

13.  See  on  10'''.  Restore]  The  possessions 
of  Israel  are  still  in  dispute.  18.  Jephthah 
points  out  that  Israel  made  a  wide  detour  so 
as  to  leave  the  real  territory  of  Moab  free  ;  he 
does  not  refer  specifically  to  Ammon,  but  in 
the  following  vv. ,  as  here,  he  seems  to  have  Moab 
specially  in  his  mind.  The  two  peoples  were 
akin  to  one  another  :  cp.  Gnl93">38.  ip.  gee 
Nu  21 21  f.  Heshbon  is  16  m.  E.  of  the  Jordan, 
and  12  m.  S.  of  the  capital  of  Ammon.  The 
Amorite  territory  had  belonged  to  Moab 
formerly  (]Sru2126).  20.  Coast]  RV  '  border,' 
i.e.  territory.  Jahaz]  cp.  Nu2123  Dt232  ; 
a  Moabite  city.  22.  The  wilderness]  the 
Eastern  desert.  23.  Jephthah's  argument 
(see  on  v.  19)  is  that  no  land  had  been  taken 
from  Moab  or  Ammon,  only  from  the  aboriginal 
Amorites. 

24.  Chemosh]  pr^oerly,  the  god  of  Moab. 
The  Ammonite  god  was  Milcom  (IK  11 33^ 
etc.).  It  has  been  inferred  that  Jephthah,  or 
the  narrator  of  Jephthah's  words,  believed  in 
the  existence  and  power  of  Chemosh  as  in 
that  of  Jehovah  :  but  this  cannot  be  held  to 
be  certain  :  see  also  v.  27.  An  interesting 
commentary  on  this  passage  is  to  be  found  in 
an  inscription  of  Mesha,  king  of  Moab  (2  K  3  ■*  *•), 
who  ascribes  all  his  defeats  to  the  wrath  of  Che- 
mosh, and  his  conquests  over  Israel  to  Chemosh's 
goodwill.  25.  RV  rightly  puts  the  stop  at  the 
end  of  the  v.  V.  26  begins  a  fresh  question  : 
see  ]S'u22  2f.  26.  Aroer]  on  the  N.  bank  of 
the  Arnon,  like  Heshbon  and  Jahaz,  is  a 
Moabite  town.  The  Ammonite  town,  Rabbath- 
Ammon,  is  unmentioned.  Three  hundred 
years]  The  different  periods  hitherto  men- 
tioned in  the  book  amount  to  301  years. 

29-33.   Jephthah's  Victory  over  Ammon. 

29.  The  Spirit  of  the  LORD]  cp.  T^'*.  In 
V.  11  Jephthah  and  all  the  people  are  already 
at  Mizpeh.  If  these  words  stand  in  the  right 
place,  they  must    refer  to  further   journeys 


taken  by  Jephthah  to  rouse  the  whole  people, 
previous  to  attacking  the  Ammonites. 

30,  31.  Cp.  the  vows  of  Jacob  (Gn2820), 
Hannah  (ISl"),  Absalom  (2S158).  What- 
soever] RM  '  whosoever.'  Who  would  have 
been  more  likely  to  come  out  to  meet  the 
returning  captain  than  his  only  daughter  ? 
Mesha,  king  of  Moab,  sacrificed  his  eldest  son 
in  the  stress  of  a  siege  (2K327),  and  that  the 
rite  of  child-sacrifice  was  not  unknown  in 
Israel  is  shown  by  2  K 16  3  216  Jer73iEzk  1620 
2020  Mic67,  etc.  Cp.  also  Gn22.  33.  The 
plain  of  vineyards]  should  be  a  proper  name, 
Abel-cheramim  (so  RV). 

34-40.  The  fulfilment  of  Jephthah's  vow. 
The  tragic  story  is  told  with  consummate  art 
and  noble  reticence.  There  is  no  reason  to 
doubt  its  literal  truth. 

34.  Came  out  to  meet  him]  cp.  Ex  15  20 
IS  186.  35.  Thou]  The  pronoun  is  emphatic. 
Jephthah  had  had  troubles  enough  both  from 
his  kinsmen  and  his  foes.  When  his  daughter 
comes  out  to  meet  him,  the  full  significance 
of  his  self-imposed  vow  bows  him  strengthless 
to  the  ground.  36.  His  daughter  divines 
what  is  in  his  mind  :  for  she  could  hardly 
have  learned  of  his  vow  beforehand  (v.  34). 

37.  Bewail  my  virginity]  The  greatest  grief 
of  a  Hebrew  woman  consisted  in  being  child- 
less. The  writer  leaves  us  in  no  doubt  of  her 
fate.     40.    Lament]  RV  '  celebrate.' 

CHAPTER  12 

The  Ephraimites  quarrel  with  Jeph- 
thah. His  Death 
1-6.  Jephthah  and  Ephraim.  Once  more 
the  members  of  the  leading  tribe  find  them- 
selves left  out  of  the  victory,  and  complain  : 
cp.  8 1.  Jephthah  deals  with  them  differently 
from  Gideon. 

I.  Northward]  RM  '  to  Zaphon,'  a  town 
near  Succoth  :  cp.  Josh  13  27.  2.  'When  I 
called  you]  It  would  seem  that  Jephthah  had 
done  more  than  simply  rouse  Gilead  :  see  on 
1 1 29.  4.  Jephthah  now  makes  use  of  the 
headship  promised  him  in  1 1 11.  The  second 
part  of  the  v.  is  unintelligible.  As  it  stands, 
it  refers  to  some  further  taunt  of  the  Ephraim- 
ites. But  '  fugitives '  means,  in  the  original, 
'  survivors '  :  and  the  Gileadites  are  regarded 
in  the  genealogies  as  an  offshoot  of  Manasseh, 
to  whom,  indeed,  the  land  of  Gilead  was 
assigned.  5.  The  passages]  RV  '  fords.' 
Ephraim  had  invaded  Gilead,  and  the  Gileadites 
took  advantage  of  a  dialectical  peculiarity  to 
identify  every  Ephraimite  fugitive.  Some 
exaggeration  of  numbers  seems  indisputable. 

8-15.  The  Minor  Judges,  Ibzan,  Elon, 
Abdon. 

8.  Bethlehem]  Probably  in  Zebulun,  men- 
tioned in  Josh  19  is.      9,  Thirty]   cp.  10-*. 

II.  Elon]   in  NU26  26  the  name  of  a  clan  ; 


167 


12.  15 


JUDGES 


15. 


possibly  in  the  cases  of  Ibzan  and  Abdon  also 
the  hero  and  his  family  are  confused.  15. 
Pirathon]  Possibly  the  modern  Ferata,  SW. 
of  Shechem.  Amalekites]  Probably  the 
Amalekites  had  made  a  settlement  in  Mt. 
Ephraim. 

CHAPTEE    13 

The  Story  of  Samson 
Except  for  15^0  and  16^1,  Samson  has  none 
of  the  characteristics  of  a  Judge.  His  exploits 
against  the  Philistines  are  all  solitary,  and 
though  they  doubtless  afforded  relief  to  the 
Israelites,  they  left  no  permanent  result.  We 
learn  much  more  of  the  internal  organisation 
of  the  Philistines  than  of  any  of  the  other 
foes  of  Israel  ;  and  it  was  their  continued  and 
formidable  opposition  which,  under  the  will  of 
Jehovah,  really  welded  Israel  into  a  single 
nation  in  the  times  of  Samuel  and  Saul. 
Samson  could  not  accomplish  this  ;  his  hatred 
of  the  Philistines  is  undying  ;  but  its  causes 
are  private  rather  than  national ;  and  his  fate  is 
the  direct  result  of  his  unwillingness  to  break 
off  all  relations  with  them.  He  is  a  warning 
rather  than  an  example  ;  but  such  stories  as 
his  could  not  fail  to  be  popular. 

1.  The  Philistine  Oppression  :  see  on  33. 
2-25.  The  Birth  and  Parentage  of  Samson. 

2.  Zorah]  in  Josh  19 ^^^  a  Danite  city;  it  lies 
some  17  m.  W.  of  Jerusalem.  Later,  the 
Danites  migrated  northwards  (c.  18),  and 
Zorah  was  reckoned  as  belonging  to  Judah 
(Josh  1 .5  33  2  Ch  1 1 10).     Family]  properly,  clan. 

3.  Angel  of  the  LORD]   cp.  2i  (3 11. 

4.  5.  Wine  nor  strong  drink]  These  aie 
forbidden  to  the  Nazii-ites  (Nu  (')  3),  and  here 
to  the  mother  of  the  future  Nazirite  :  cp.  also 
Am  2 12.  Unclean]  regarded  as  unfit  for  food : 
we  may  compare  our  English  attitude  to  horse- 
flesh. No  razor]  In  Nu6  the  'Nazirite,'  or 
religious  devotee,  is  under  restrictions  only  for 
a  time  ;  he  takes  the  condition  on  himself 
voluntarily  ;  at  the  close  of  the  period  he  cuts 
off  his  hair  and  devotes  it  to  God  (cp.  Ac  IS^S). 
Here  the  state  begins  before  birth,  and  is  to 
last  till  death.  Samson  himself  does  not 
appear  to  abstain  from  wine  (1410).  Nothing 
is  here  said  of  the  connexion  between  Samson's 
hair  and  his  strength. 

6.  Man  of  God]  The  woman,  apparently 
like  Gideon  (see  on  G^^),  does  not  recognise 
her  visitor  as  supernatural,  though  she  feels 
him  to  be  inspired.  She  does  not  venture, 
like  her  husliand,  to  ask  the  stranger's  name. 
12.  Now  let  thy  words,  etc.]  i.e.  granted  that 
this  takes  place,  how  shall  we,  etc.  How 
shall  we]  RV  '  what  shall  be  the  manner  of 
the  child,  and  vjhat  shall  be  his  work  ? '  15. 
Cp.  6^'^*.  16.  The  last  words  give  the  reason 
for  V.  15.  i8.  Secret]  RV  'wonderful,'  i.e. 
above  your  comprehension  ;  cp.  Gn3229. 


22.  Cp.  622f.  IsaG^.  No  man  can  hope  to  see 
God  and  live.  Note  the  sound  wisdom  of  the 
woman's  answer. 

24,  25.  Samson]  i.e.  probably  'Sun's  man' : 
cp.  the  name  of  the  Bethshemesh,  '  place  of 
the  Sun,'  just  opposite  Zorah.  Move]  a  rare 
word,  meaning  to  disturb  or  stir  up  :  cp.  14  19 
1514,  also  310  634  1129.  In  Samson's  case 
the  narratives  suggest  a  peculiar  frenzy  of 
strength  and  rage.  Camp  of  Dan]  RV,  as  a 
proper  name,  '  Mahaneh-dan,'  which  was  near 
Kirjath-jearim,  in  Judah  (c.  18  ^2).  Eshtaol] 
1^  m.  E.  of  Zorah. 

CHAPTER  14 
The  Marriage  of  Samson 
1-5.    Samson    chooses   a   wife   among    the 
Philistines.     He  and  his  parents  go  down  to 
Timnath. 

2.  Timnath]  some  4  m.  SW.  of  Zorah, 
allotted  to  Dan  (Josh  19^3)  .  it  -was  retaken 
by  the  Philistines  in  the  reign  of  Ahaz 
(2Ch28i8).  Get  her  for  me  to  wife]  It  was 
customary  for  parents  to  conduct  the  negotia- 
tions and  pay  the  dowry  :  cp.  Gn34'i-i2. 

3.  Cp.  Gn243  2634  2746.  4.  it  teas  of  the 
Lord]  God  purposed  to  use  Samson  as  a 
weapon  against  the  Philistines. 

6-9.  The  slaying  of  the  Lion. 

6.  Cp.  1325;  for  the  exploit,  cp.  IS  1734 
2 S 23 20.  8.  A  swarm  of  bees,  .in  the  car- 
case] probably  it  had  dried  up  under  the  hot  sun. 

10,  II.  The  bridal  feast.  11.  When  they 
sa'w  him]  Many  Greek  MSS,  by  a  slight 
change,  read  '  since  they  feared  him,'  a  natural 
explanation  of  this  choice  of  what  was  practi- 
cally a  '  body-guard.'  Cp.  Mt  9  ^^, '  the  children 
of  the  bride-chamber.' 

12-20.  Samson's  Riddle  and  its  conse- 
quences. 

12.  Thirty]  one  for  each  of  his  new  com- 
panions.    Sheets]   RV  '  linen  garments.' 

15.  Called]  i.e.  invited  us  to  your  feast. 
To  take  that  w^e  have]   RV  '  impoverish  us.' 

16.  She  does  not  dare  to  tell  her  husband 
the  real  reason  of  her  curiosity.  17.  Lay  sore 
upon  him]   RV  '  pressed  him  sore.' 

19.  Ashkelon]  on  the  coast  of  the  Philistine 
country.  There  is,  however,  a  village  of 
the  same  name  about  an  hour  S.  of  Timnath 
(mentioned  in  '  Survey  of  Western  Palestine  ') 
to  which  perhaps  Samson  rushed  off.  To 
leave  the  bride  like  this  is  an  insult,  which 
her  father  at  once  avenges  by  giving  her  to 
the  '  best  man  '  :  cp.  152. 

CHAPTER  15 

Samson  slaughters  the  Philistines 

Samson,  being   denied  his  wife,  burns  the 

corn  of  the  Philistines.     He  is  delivered  up 

to  them  by  the  men  of  Judah,  but  bursts  his 

bonds,  and  slaughters  many  of  the  Philistines. 


168 


15.  1 


JUDGES 


16.  31 


I,  2.   Samson  is  denied  his  wife. 

I.  Wheat  harvest]  i.e.  about  May  :  cp. 
V.  4  f.  The  reason  for  the  last  clause  is 
given  in  l-ii-'-^o,  2.  The  father  still  desires 
to  be  conciliatory  to  one  who  might  prove  so 
valuable  a  son-in-law. 

3-8.   Samson's  Revenge. 

3.  More  blameless  than,  etc.]  RV  blameless 
in  regard  of  .  .  when  I  do  them  a  mischief.' 
Samson  means  that  the  Philistines  have  now 
clearly  put  themselves  in  the  wrong. 

4.  Foxes]   RM  '  jackals.'     6.   See  1415. 

7.  Though  ye  have  done]   RV  '  if  ye  do.' 

8.  Top,  etc.]  RV 'cleft  of  the  rock  of  Etam.' 
Samson  leaves  his  own  tribe  for  the  neigh- 
bouring territory  of  Judah. 

9-13.   The  action  of  the  men  of  Judah. 

9.  Lehi]  The  name  means  '  jawbone,'  per- 
haps from  some  resemblance  in  its  shape.  The 
site  is  not  definitely  known.  10,  11.  Each 
party  represents  the  other  as  the  aggressor. 
Observe  Judah's  dread  of  the  Philistines.  It 
is  not  difficult,  with  such  a  spirit,  to  under- 
stand foreign  domination.  Nor  is  one  tribe 
under  any  obligation  to  assist  a  member  of 
another. 

14-20.  Samson's  Deliverance  and  Slaughter 
of  the  Philistines. 

14.  The  Spirit]  see  on  1325.  Loosed]  RV 
'dropped.'  15.  New]  i.e.  fresh  :  not  dry  or 
brittle  :  such  might  easily  be  found  lying  on 
the  ground.  A  thousand  men]  cp.  3^1  and 
2  S  23 11.  16.  In  the  Hebrew  this  v.  reads  as 
two  jingling  lines,  with  a  pun  on  '  ass '  and 
'  heaps.'  17.  Called  that  place]  RV  '  that 
place  was  called.'  Properly,  Ramath  means 
'  height.'  The  name  was  '  Jawbone  height '  : 
by  another  pun  the  meaning  '  Jawbone-thi'ow  ' 
is  suggested.  19.  That  vxis  in  the  jaw]  RV 
'  that  is  in  Lehi,'  a  hollow  (Heb.  '  mortar  ')  in 
the  ground  close  to  the  scene  of  the  slaughter. 
The  '  caller '  (Heb.  hal-kure)  is  the  name  for 
the  partridge  :  cp.  1  S  26  20.  20.  He  judged] 
cp.  prefatory  note  to  c.  13. 

CHAPTER    16 

Samson's  Escape  from  Gaza.     Delilah's 
Treachery.     Samson's  Death 
1-3.   Samson  and  Gaza. 

1.  Gaza]  2  m.  from  the  coast,  and  the  last 
town  of  Palestine  on  the  coast  road  to  Egypt. 
Here  Samson  would  be  a  whole  day's  journey 
from  his  mountain  home,  in  his  enemies' 
territory. 

2,  3.  They  appear  not  to  have  surrounded 
the  house,  but  waited  to  kill  him  when  he  found 
the  gates  closed  in  the  morning.  He  suspects 
their  plan,  and  does  not  wait  till  morning. 
The  two  gates  would  turn  on  pins,  and  be 
made  by  locks  or  bars  into  one  piece,  which 
Samson  lifts  up  and  carries  off.  The  distance 
from  Gaza  to    Hebron  (one   of   the   highest 


points  in  the  rugged  land  of  Judah)  is  nearly 
40  m. 

4-22.  Samson's  captm-e  through  the  treachery 
of  Delilah. 

4.  A  woman]  For  the  third  time  Samson's 
reckless  daring  in  love  brings  him  into  danger. 
Sorek]  a  long  and  fertile  '  wady '  or  glen, 
running  W.  from  near  Jerusalem  to  the  plain  : 
cp.  Gn49ii.  Zorah  and  Timnah  are  both  in 
this  valley.  5.  The  lords  of  the  Philistines] 
see  on  3 3.  Wherein  his  great  strength  lieth'] 
properly  ■  by  what  means  his  strength  is  great.' 
The  '  lords '  fancy  he  must  have  some  amulet 
or  magical  device.  Afflict]  properly,  '  tor- 
ment.' Pieces]  i.e.  shekels.  The  amount  to 
be  paid  by  each  is  about  £150. 

7.  Whether  Samson  suspects  or  not,  he  plays 
upon  her  credulity.  The  supposed  secret  of 
the  '  green  withs,'  i.e.  undried  bowstrings  made 
from  the  intestines  of  animals,  has  all  the 
more  verisimilitude  because  of  the  sacred  (and 
magical)  number  seven  (cp.  v.  13).  The  Philis- 
tines are  deceived  as  readily  as  Delilah. 

II.  Occupied]  RV  '  wherewith  no  work  hath 
been  done  '  :  cp.  Lkl9i3  (AV). 

13,  14.  The  v.  is  incomplete.  LXX  helps 
us  to  fill  the  gap,  thus  :  '  if  thou  weavest  .  . 
web,  and  beatest  up  with  the  pin,  my  strength 
will  fail  ;  so  while  he  slept  Delilah  did  so,  and 
she  beat  up  the  web  with  the  pin,  and  said.' 
Delilah  wove  the  long  hair  into  an  unfinished 
piece  of  stuff  left  on  the  upright  loom  :  the 
pin  was  used  for  '  beating  up '  the  cloth  (in 
this  case,  the  hair)  tight  and  firm.  Went  away 
with  the  pin  of  the  beam]  '  pin  '  should  here  be 
omitted  :  Samson  pulls  the  posts  of  the  loom 
out  of  the  ground.  15.  Thine  heart]  thy  mind 
or  knowledge  ;  cp.  vv.  17,  18. 

18.  Delilah  sees  at  once  that  Samson  is  no 
longer  tricking  her,  and  she  makes  the  Philis- 
tines equally  confident.  The  belief  in  the 
importance  of  the  hair  (see  on  13  5)  was  wide- 
spread in  antiquity.  19.  Afflict]  how  is  not 
explained.  He  is  still  asleep.  20.  Departed] 
when  he  was  robbed  of  the  hair  which  it  was 
his  duty  to  preserve.  21.  See  2K26'^.  Grind- 
ing was  women's  work. 

23-31.   Samson's  Last  Exploit  and  Death. 

23.    Dagon]   the  chief  Philistine  god  (1  S  5). 

25-29.  He  would  make  sport  enough  by 
being  what  he  was,  blind  and  in  chains.  Pillars] 
Two  columns  on  which  rested  the  roof  of  a 
large  verandah,  perhaps  attached  to  the  temple. 
After  being  in  the  court  in  front,  in  the  sight 
of  all,  both  below  and  above,  he  is  brought  to 
rest  against  these.  28.  My  two  eyes]  RM  '  for 
one  of  my  two  eyes.'  A  stroke  of  grim  humour 
quite  in  keeping,  at  this  supreme  moment,  with 
the  character  of  Samson.  29.  On  which  it  was 
borne  up]   RV  '  leaned  on  them.' 

31.  The  Philistines  had  no  wish,  and  perhaps 
no  spirit,  to  interfere  with  Samson's  burial  in 


169 


17.  1 


JUDGES 


18.  17 


his  own  country.     Milton  has  brought  out  the     of   '  Samson  Agonistes.'     Judged]   see  intro. 
tragic  elements  of  this  wild  story  at  the  end     to  c.  13. 


PAET   3 

The  Migrations  of  the  Danites,  and  the  Fetjd  between  Benjamin  and 

THE  other  Tribes  (Chs.  17-21) 


This  concluding  section  is  really  an  ap- 
pendix. Instead  of  describing  a  further 
deliverance,  it  recounts  two  tribal  stories  in 
which  the  rough  manners  and  primitive  re- 
ligious ideas  of  the  time  are  shown  with  most 
valuable  and  vivid  detail.  Redundancies  and 
discrepancies  in  the  narratives  (see  on  17  ^ 
181'')  as  well  as  differences  in  the  language, 
suggest  that  more  than  one  account  has  been 
used  in  each  of  the  stories.  This  is  no  sign, 
however,  that  they  are  not  historical  ;  and 
they  must  probably  be  placed  earlier  rather 
than  later  in  the  general  framework  of  the 
period. 

CHAPTER   17 
The  Story  of  Micah 

This  story,  which  is  continued  in  the  follow- 
ing c,  is  undoubtedly  a  very  old  one.  In 
striking  contrast  to  many  other  naiTative 
portions  of  the  Old  Testament,  there  is  in  the 
body  of  this  narrative  no  condemnation  of  the 
image-worship  to  which  the  Danites  attached 
such  importance,  nor  of  their  mode  of  securing 
it.  We  can  but  wonder  the  more  at  the. 
heights  which  the  religion  of  Israel  was  to 
climb  from  such  beginnings  as  this.  Cp. 
Josh  19*7. 

1-6.  Micah's  idols. 

I.  Ephraim]  see  on  327.  2.  Eleven  hun- 
dred] see  on  16  5.  Taken]  as  appears  from 
the  following  clause,  stolen.  The  mother's 
curse  (though  she  is  ignorant  of  the  thief)  will 
not  allow  Micah  to  rest  till  the  money  is  re- 
stored. 3,  4.  As  the  text  stands,  Micah  re- 
stored the  money  twice  over.  This  can  hardly 
be  correct.  '  Yet '  (v.  4)  should  be  '  and,'  as 
in  RV.  Observe  that  the  images  are  to  be 
made  in  honour  of  Jehovah.  3.  Graven  image] 
specifically,  an  idol  carved  out  of  wood  or 
stone,  or,  generally,  any  kind  of  idol.  '  Molten 
image '  was  added,  not  (as  it  would  seem)  to 
denote  a  second  idol  ('  they  '  in  v.  4  should  be 
'it'  ;  see  also  IS^o.si)^  but  to  show  that  the 
idol  was  covered  over  with  the  silver. 

5.  House  of  gods]  i.e.  a  private  shrine.  In 
Heb.  the  word  for  '  god '  may  be  read  either  as 
singular  or  plural.  Ephod]  see  on  8^7.  The 
ephod  is  often  connected  with  oracular  re- 
sponses (cp.  1 S  23  6-9  :  also  Ex  28  Lv  8)  ;  the 
priest  in  charge  of  it  can  make  inquiry 
of  Jehovah.  Teraphim]  cp.  Hos34  :  also 
Gn  3 1 19  1 S 1 5  23  1 9 13  f.  The  word  is  plural  in 
form,  and  seems  to  denote  household  idols  of 
some  kind  :    cp.    18  2^.      Consecrated]    Took 


into  his  employment  for  the  performance  of 
religious  duties  :  cp.  v.  10,184  IS  71.  6.  Cp. 
181  1912125. 

7-13.  The  engagement  of  the  Levite. 
Levite]  The  word  denotes  not  his  tribe  but 
his  calling.  Sojourned]  The  regular  term  used 
in  connexion  with  a  '  resident  alien '  who  in- 
tends at  some  time  to  return  to  his  home. 

ID.  Father]  cp.  2K  212  621;  also  Gn458; 
a  title  of  respect,  which  might  be  quite  con- 
sistent with  the  priest's  being  supported  as  a 
son  (v.  11). 

13.  The  professional  knowledge  of  the 
Levite,  in  matters  of  ritual,  gives  him  (and 
his  employer)  an  advantage  over  others  who 
might  be  selected  as  priests. 

CHAPTER    18 
The    Danites    go   in    Quest   of   an    In- 
heritance.    They  rob  Micah  of  his 
Images,  capture  and  settle  in  Laish, 
AND  set  up  Idol-Worship  there 

i-io.   The  Danite  Spies. 

2.  From  their  coasts]  RV  '  from  their  whole 
number.'  For  Zorah  and  Eshtaol  see  on 
1325.  3.  They  knew]  They  recognised  him 
as  a  Levite  from  the  prayers  he  was  saying. 

Makest]  RV'doest.'  6.  Before  the  LORD] 
i.e.  under  Jehovah's  care.  7.  Laish]  In 
Josh  19^7  the  name  appears  as  Leshem.  Later 
on  it  was  called  Dan,  from  its  new  inhabitants 
(cp.  V.  29,  and  c.  20 1).  It  lay  near  Lebanon 
and  the  sources  of  the  Jordan  in  the  extreme 
N.  of  Palestine,  and  was  about  40  m.  from 
Sidon,  the  famous  commercial  city  on  the  sea- 
coast.  The  rest  of  the  v.  implies  that  the 
residents  were  a  colony  from  Zidon.  Put 
them  to  shame]  The  Hebrew  here  gives  no 
intelligible  sense.      Business]  RV  '  dealings.' 

With  any  man]  LXX  (in  some  MSS)  reads 
'  with  Syria  '  whose  capital,  Damascus,  was 
about  as  distant  as  Sidon.  10.  Secure]  as 
always  in  AV, '  free  from  care  or  apprehension.' 

11-31.   The  Danite  Expedition  to  Laish. 

II.  Six  hundred  men]  cp.  20*7  ;  a  very 
small  number  when  compared  with  those  given 
in  2015.17  or  1515  1627.  Yet  it  would  seem 
that  the  larger  part  of  the  tribe  went  north- 
wards. Appointed]  RV  '  girt.'  12.  Mahaneh- 
dan]  see  on  1325;  they  then  turn  northwards. 

16.  The  gate]  of  the  village.  17.  An 
amplification  of  v.  15  ;  further  repeated  in 
v.  18.  Here  and  in  v.  18  '  graven  image ' 
and  '  molten  image '  are  understood  as  two 
distinct    objects.      In    vv.    20,    30,    31    the 


170 


18.  19 


JUDGES 


20.  27 


'  molten  image  '  is  left  unmentioned.  19,  See 
on  1710.  21.  Carriage]  RV  'goods':  cp. 
Ac 2 1^5  (what  is  carried:  cp.  the  word 
'  luggage ").  The  armed  men  marched  last, 
expecting  pursuit.  28.  See  on  v.  7.  The 
building  of  one  city  on  the  ruins  of  another 
was  common,  as  excavations  at  Gezer  and 
Lachish  have  made  clear.  Beth-rehob]  un- 
known.    29.   Israel]  Jacob  :  see  GnSS^o. 

30.  The  possession  of  this  image  was 
evidently  an  important  thing.  Jonathan] 
This  must  refer  to  the  young  Levite,  who 
has  been  hitherto  unnamed,  unless  his  name 
has  dropped  out  of  the  text  previously.  Ma- 
nasseh]  RY  'Moses.'  This,  the  true  text, 
was  altered  in  later  times,  to  save  Moses 
from  any  connexion  with  such  a  priesthood  as 
this.  Captivity]  Probably  the  depopulation 
of  Northern  Israel  by  Tiglath-Pileser  in  734 
B.C.  31.  In  Shiloh]  NE.  of  Bethel,  where 
the  ark  was  kept  in  the '  house  of  God  '(IS  1-4). 
The  destruction  of  this  '  house '  is  mentioned 
in  Jer  7  ^^  26  ^.  Possibly  it  was  destroyed  by 
the  Philistines.  In  1 S  22  ^i  the  priesthood 
settled  formerly  at  Shiloh  appears  at  Nob. 

CHAPTER    19 

The  Wickedness  of  Gibeah 

A  Levite  and  his  concubine  meet  with  foul 
treatment  at  Gibeah,  a  town  of  Benjamin. 
The  indignation  of  the  other  tribes  is  roused 
against  the  Benjamites. 

This  c.  gives  the  cause  of  the  war  between 
the  rest  of  the  tribes  and  Benjamin,  with 
which  the  remainder  of  Judges  is  concerned. 
It  is  difficult  to  determine  the  period  to  which 
this  war  should  be  assigned.  In  c.  20  there 
is  no  recognised  leader  or  judge  in  Israel,  but 
all  the  tribes  (quite  differently  from  else- 
where) act  together  '  as  one  man  '  (20  ^-^^)  ;  and 
the  numbers  given  (202.15--25)  imply  a  very 
large  population  ;  though  an  army  approach- 
ing half  a  million  in  number  seems  unthink- 
able. On  the  other  hand,  it  is  hard  to  believe 
that  Benjamin  could  have  suffered  such  a 
disaster  as  this  within  a  generation  or  two  of 
Saul's  accession  to  the  throne.  Probably  we 
have  an  old  story,  dating  from  the  wild  days 
before  Saul  (19 1  20 -S),  part  of  which  at  least 
(20,  211-14)  was  retold  at  a  much  later  period, 
when  the  exact  details  had  been  lost  and  were 
replaced  by  the  writer's  conceptions  of  the 
past  :  see  on  20^8. 

I.  When  there  vms  no  king]  see  on  17*5. 
A  certain  Levite]  see  on  17'^.  3.  He  re- 
joiced] feeling  the  separation  to  be  a  disgrace. 

10.  Jebus]  see  I21  :  also  Josh  158  IChll*. 
The  journey  from  Bethlehem  would  not  take 
more  than  two  hours.  12.  See  on  l'-^.  Did 
they  remember  the  story  of  Sodom  (Gnl9)  ? 

13.  Gibeah .  .  Ramah]  both  N.  of  Jeru- 
salem.     14.  There  is  hardly  any  twilight  in 


Palestine.  15.  Gibeah  thus  proves  as  inhos- 
pitable as  they  feared  Jerusalem  would  be. 

16.  The  field]  i.e.  the  open  country  sur- 
rounding the  village.  18.  The  house  of 
the  Lord]  LXX  reads  '  my  house,'  which  is 
preferable. 

19.  Note  the  politeness  of  the  phrases  '  thy 
handmaid '  and  '  thy  servants.'  The  traveller 
needs  nothing  except  actual  house-room.  An 
inn  is  only  the  modern  substitute  for  the  hos- 
pitality on  which  originally  travellers  were 
compelled  to  rely.  This  hospitality  the  stranger 
from  Ephraim  (cp.  LklO^S)  insists  on  pro- 
viding fully.  22.  Sons  of  Belial]  The  Hebrew 
means  simply  '  worthless  men  '  or  '  rascals.' 
Belial  is  not  a  proper  name  :  cp.  1  S 1 1^). 

23.  The  old  man  dreads  being  compelled  to 
violate  the  laws  of  Eastern  hospitality. 

29.  Cp.  1S117. 

CHAPTER  20 
The  Slaughter  of  the  Benjamites 
The  Levite  recounts  his  wrongs  to  a  full 
assemblage  of  the  tribes,  who  decree  punish- 
ment upon  Benjamin.     Their  first  two  attacks 
are  unsuccessful,  but  the  third  results  in  the 
almost  total  extermination  of  the  Benjamites. 
i-ii.   The  Israelites  assemble  at  Gibeah. 

1.  Congregation]  This  word  is  only  used  in 
the  later  books  of  the  OT.  after  Israel  had 
ceased  at  the  exile  to  be  a  nation  :  see  intro. 
c.  19).  Dan]  see  on  IS^^,  Beer-sheba]  the 
southernmost  point  of  Palestine,  28  m.  SW. 
of  Hebron.     See  Gn.  21,  26  1  S82  Am 5 5. 

2.  Four  hundred  thousand]  contrast  b^. 

3.  Mizpeh]  not  the  place  in  Gilead  men- 
tioned in  11 11,  but  on  a  hill  about  two  hours' 
journey  NW.  from  Jerusalem. 

12-29.   The  defeats  of  the  Israelites. 

12.  The  responsibility  for  the  outrage  is 
regarded  as  resting  on  the  whole  tribe.  15.  In 
vv.  44-47  only  25,600  men  are  accounted  for. 
LXX  here  reads  25,000,  and  neglects  the  700 
men  of  v.  16.  16.  See  on  3i5.  18.  Cp.  I2. 
Bethel  (RV)  would  be  some  four  hours'  dis- 
tance to  the  N.  After  this  journey  the  whole 
army  marches  back  to  Gibeah.  23.  This  v., 
placed  in  brackets,  should  really  precede  v.  22, 
on  which  v.  24  properly  follows.  25.  In  these 
two  battles  the  Israelites  thus  lose  a  tenth 
of  their  whole  number.  26.  House  of  God] 
RV  '  Bethel.'  Burnt  offerings .  .  peace  offer- 
ings] Sacrifices  in  which  the  whole  was  con- 
sumed on  the  altar,  and  sacrifices  in  which  part 
was  eaten  by  the  worshippers  at  a  common 
meal. 

27,  28.  This  parenthesis  is  added  to  explain 
why  Bethel  was  visited,  and  not  Shiloh,  as 
might  have  been  expected  from  the  statements 
made  in  Josh  18 10  and  1  S  4  3.  If  the  note  about 
Phinehas  is  correct,  these  events  must  have 
taken  place  in  the  first  generation  after  Joshua. 


171 


20.  30 


JUDGES— RUTH 


INTRO. 


30-48.   The  destruction  of  Benjamin. 

31.  The  same  stratagem  as  that  which  had 
proved  successful  at  Ai  (Josh  8 1*').  House  of 
God]  RV  '  Bethel,'  as  in  v.  26.  33.  Baal- 
tamar]   unknown. 

35.  The  Lord]  Israel's  success  is  really 
Jehovah's.  This  v.  anticipates  the  end  of  the 
story.  In  the  whole  narrative  there  is  a  good 
deal  of  misplacement  (e.g.  vv.  37,  39)  and 
redundancy  (e.g.  vv.  31,32).  V.  36  commences 
what  is  really  a  second  account  of  the  battle, 
with  a  very  much  fuller  conclusion.  37.  Drew 
themselves  along]  '  moved  forward.'  42.  The 
■wilderness]  i.e.  to  the  more  desolate  region 
lying  to  the  E.  43.  With  ease]  RV  '  at  their 
resting  place,'  or,  as  RM,  '  at  Menuhah.'  The 
sunrising]  i.e.  the  E.  45.  Rimmon]  3  m.  E. 
of  Bethel.  Gidom  is  unknown.  48.  The  men 
of  every  city]  RV  '  the  entire  city,'  or,  as  RM, 
'  the  inhabited  city.' 

CHAPTER   21 

Wives  are  given  to  the  Benjamite 
Survivors 

1-6.   The  lamentation  for  Benjamin. 


I.  Had  sworn]  see  on  17 2.  All  the  women 
and  children  in  Benjamin  have  been  massacred: 
cp.  V.  16.  2.  House  of  God]  RV  'Bethel.'  as 
in  20 '^'5' 21.  4.  Burnt  offerings  and  peace  offer- 
ings] see  on  20'^'°.  5.  Lit.  'the  great  curse 
had  been  pronounced  upon,'  etc.  6.  Repented 
them]   see  on  2  is. 

7-25.   The  Benjamites  provided  with  wives. 

8.  Jabesh-gilead]  i.e.  Jabesh  in  Gilead;  cp. 
IS  11  3111-13.  Probably  about  10  m.  SE.  of 
Beth-shean  or  Beisan.  12.  Shiloh]  see  on 
18^1.  Hitherto,  Bethel  had  been  the  head- 
quarters. 13.  Call  peaceably]  RV  '  proclaim 
peace.'  14.  200  survivors  were  still  left 
unprovided  for.  19.  Shechem]  see  on  91. 
Lebonah]  3  m.  NW.  of  Shiloh.  Shiloh  thus 
lies  off  the  main  road,  and  soon  loses  its  early 
importance.  21.  To  dance]  see  on  9^7;  also 
2S61'*.  The  act,  like  the  whole  feast,  was 
regarded  as  religious. 

22.  No  clear  sense  can  be  obtained  from  the 
Heb.  The  general  meaning  must  be,  '  allow 
the  men  to  keep  these  girls,  since  we  did  not 
find  wives  for  them  in  Jabesh-gilead  ;  and  as 
your  daughters  were  taken  from  you  by  force, 
you  have  not  broken  your  oath.' 


RUTH 


INTRODUCTION 


The  book  of  Ruth  is  one  of  the  most  de-  hear  of  anything  to  his  advantage,  but  quick 
lightful  stories  ever  penned.  It  carries  us  to  drop  it  the  moment  he  is  told  of  a  fly  in 
without  an  effort  into  an  old-world  realm  alto- 
gether unlike  our  work-a-day  life.  Whilst  we 
read  it  the  customs  of  that  other  realm  seem 
quite  familiar  to  us.  And  how  admirably  are 
the  actors  in  the  story  depicted  !  We  are  made 
intimately  acquainted  with  Orpah  and  Ruth  ; 
with  the  girl  who  accompanies  her  mother-in- 
law  on  the  homeward  jovu-ney  as  far  as  the 
border  of  the  two  countries,  professes  her  in- 
tention to  go  the  whole  way,  only  waits  to  be 
dissuaded,  weeps,  kisses,  turns  back  ;  and  with 
the  girl  who  forsakes  fatherland,  kindred,  and 
ancestral  worship,  because  of  her  deep  love  for 
the  bereaved  and  the  dead.  The  character  of 
Naomi,  too,  is  '  instinct  with  life.'  In  the 
difficult  position  of  mother-in-law  she  knows 
how  to  win  the  tender  love  of  the  two  younger 
women,  and  the  open  secret  of  her  influence  is 
the  unselfishness  which  declines  Orpah's  offer 
and  devotes  itself  to  Ruth's  interests.  And 
Boaz  is  provided  with  an  excellent  foil  in  the 
person  of  the  anonymous  kinsman.  The  latter 
is  a  keen  and  calculating  individual,  eager  to 


the  ointment.  The  former  is  quietly  ready  to 
respond  to  any  call  of  duty,  yet  willing  to  give 
up  the  satisfaction  of  doing  it  to  one  who  may 
have  a  stronger  claim.  Modest  and  humble, 
he  is  at  the  same  time  beloved  and  respected. 
Consider,  too,  how  different  an  impression  is 
made  on  us  by  the  critical  point  in  the  book, 
the  hinge  on  which  the  whole  turns,  c.  3,  from 
that  which  would  be  made  by  a  modern  writer 
treating  such  a  theme  !  The  course  pursued 
on  that  occasion  is  so  entirely  alien  to  om* 
ideas  and  customs.  Yet  it  is  described  with 
so  skilful  a  hand,  or,  rather,  with  so  pure 
a  heart,  that  no  thought  of  evil  can  obtrude 
itself.  And  the  type  of  piety  which  it  recom- 
mends so  strongly  by  merely  describing  it  is 
singularly  engaging.  It  is  so  thoroughly  un- 
affected, human  and  real.  Contrast  the  pro- 
found feeling  and  perfect  simplicity  of  116,17 
with  the  stilted  and  unnatural  paraphrase  in 
the  Talmud.  There  the  older  woman  says, 
'  We  are  forbidden  to  go  beyond  the  limits  of 
a  sabbath  day's  journey ' :  Ruth  replies, '  Where 


172 


INTRO. 


RUTH 


1.  8 


(i.e.  as  far  as)  thou  goest  I  will  go  '  :  '  It  is  not 
allowed  amongst  us  for  two  persons  of  different 
sexes  to  be  alone  together '  :  '  Where  thou 
lodgest  I  will  lodge  '  :  '  Six  hundred  and  thir- 
teen commandments  have  been  given  us '  : 
'  Thy  people  is  my  people  '  :  '  The  worship  of 
other  gods  is  prohibited  to  us '  :  '  Thy  God  is 
my  God  '  :  '  The  courts  are  allowed  to  put  men 
to  death  in  four  ways '  :  '  Where  thou  diest  I 
will  die  '  :  and  so  forth.  The  ancient  Jewish 
commentator  saw  more  clearly  the  spirit  of  the 
book  when,  after  feeling  a  little  puzzled  at 
finding  in  this  Scripture  no  legal  or  ceremonial 
prescriptions,  he  concluded  that  it  was  com- 
posed to  teach  us  '  how  great  is  the  reward  of 
human  kindness.' 

It  is  generally  agreed  that  the  book,  though 
embodying  old  traditions,  is  of  later  date  than 
the  scenes  it  describes.  The  period  of  the 
Judges  lay  far  behind  (1 1)  :  the  customs  of 
an  earlier  time  required  explanation  (4  ^).  The 
purity  of  its  thought  and  style  lead  some 
scholars  to  favour  a  pre-exilic  date  ;  but  the 
majority  are  disposed  to  place  it  either  during 
or  after  the  exile.  From  the  stress  which  the 
author  lays  on  the  Moabitish  origin  of  Ruth, 
it  has  been  inferred  that  he  was  an  opponent 
of  the  rigorous  measures  adopted  by  Ezra  and 
Nehemiah  against  intermarriage  with  foreigners 
(Ezr9i  Nehl323).  If  he  did  live  in  the  time 
of  that  great  struggle,  and  was  in  some  measure 
influenced  by  it,  he  scarcely  allows  this  to 
appear.  Other  objects  ascribed  to  him  are,  to 
illustrate  the  life  of  David,  and  to  enforce  the 
duty  of  the  next-of-kin  marrying  a  childless 
widow  ;  but  if  either  of  these  were  in  his  mind 
at  the  start,  they  were  almost  forgotten  in  the 
interest  of  the  scenes  and  actions  with  which 
he  deals.  He  could  never  have  produced  so 
beautiful  a  work  if  he  had  been  writing  a  pam- 
phlet with  a  special  didactic  aim.  He  simply 
tells  the  story  of  a  woman's  fidelity  and  its 
reward,  to  show  us  his  ideal  of  the  '  Excellent 
Woman  '  and  to  make  us  feel  that  God  did  not 
forget  her. 

'  How  sweet  an  ended  strife  ! 
How  sweet  a  dawning  life  ! ' 

As  a  scholar  of  the  last  generation  has  said  : 
'  The  book  of  Ruth  presents  us  with  a  simple 
story  of  domestic  life — such  as  has  happened, 
and  is  happening  over  and  over  again  in  this 
world — the  familiar  story  of  a  daughter's  affec- 
tion and  a  young  wife's  happiness.  .  .  In  Ruth 
we  see  a  daughter  clinging  to  a  parent  in  her 
age,  with  all  the  unselfishness  of  true-hearted 
affection  ;  volunteering  to  share  her  lowliness 
and  her  distress  ;  finding  favour  for  her  piety 
with  the  Lord  and  also  with  men  ;  chosen  by 
Boaz  to  be  his  wife  ;  from  obscure  poverty 
taken  to  an  honourable  bed  ;  the  young  lonely 
widow  of  the  first  chapter,  changed  in  the  last 
into  a  joyful  mother  of  children.' 


It  is  interesting  to  remember  that  when  St. 
Matthew  traces  the  genealogy  of  Joseph  he  is 
careful  to  say  (1  ^)  that  Boaz  begat  Obed  of 
Ruth  ;  and  St.  Luke  has  evidently  the  same 
line  of  descent  in  view  when  he  mentions  Boaz, 
Obed,  Jesse,  David,  Nathan  among  the  an- 
cestors of  the  mother"  of  our  Lord  (33i>32). 

Ruth  occupies  the  second  place  amongst  the 
'  Megilloth  '  or  '  Rolls,'  the  five  short  writings 
kept  separate  from  the  rest,  each  on  its  own 
roll,  and  read  in  the  synagogue  on  five  great 
days  of  the  Jewish  Calendar.  It  is  used  on 
the  second  of  these  occasions,  at  the  Feast  of 
Pentecost,  the  great  Harvest  Festival.  For  such 
an  occasion  it  would  be  difficult  to  find  a  more 
appropriate  lesson  than  these  chapters,  which 
put  in  so  pleasing  a  light  the  labours  and  the 
charities  of  the  harvest  season. 

CHAPTER  1 

The  Exile  and  the  Return  of  Naomi 

1.  Beth-lehem-judah]  two  hours'  journey  S. 
of  Jerusalem,  is  to  be  distinguished  from  Beth- 
lehem in  Zebulun  (JoshlO^^).  It  was  but  a 
short  distance  from  Moab,  which,  in  the  days 
here  referred  to,  was  a  fertile,  highly  cultivated 
country.  Travellers  still  speak  of  it  as  a  land 
of  streams.  Nothing  short  of  the  compulsion 
of  famine  could  have  induced  a  Hebrew  to 
migi-ate~  into  this  foreign  country  where  he 
would  have  no  right  of  citizenship,  this  unclean 
land  where  Jehovah  could  not  be  worshipped. 

2.  The  name  Elimelech  means  '  my  God  is 
King.'  Naomi,  or,  as  it  ought  to  be  written, 
'  Noomi,'  means  '  pleasant.'  The  two  sons, 
Mahlon  ('  sickly ')  and  Chilion  ('  wasting  away '), 
evidently  owe  their  names  to  the  fate  which 
overtook  them.  It  is  not  quite  certain  how 
we  should  understand  the  names '  of  their 
wives.  Orpah  was  taken  by  some  of  the  Jewish 
commentators  as  signifying  '  the  back  of  the 
neck,'  and  explained  by  her  having  turned  her 
back  on  Naomi.  Ruth  may  be  '  friend '  or 
'  refreshment '  :  the  Talmud  takes  the  latter 
view,  '  because  David  sprang  from  her,  who 
refreshed  the  Holy  One  with  songs  and  praises.' 
Ephrathah  is  another  name  for  Bethlehem,  or 
perhaps  the  name  of  the  district  of  Bethlehem. 

4.  The  author  of  our  book  sees  nothing 
wrong  in  their  marrying  Moabite  wives.  In 
this  he  agrees  with  earlier  ideas  and  customs 
(Jgl4"-  16«-  2S1133  1K714),  not  with  such 
enactments  as  Dt'233*-,  or  such  stern  proceed- 
ings as  Ezra  and  Nehemiah  took  when  they 
compelled  the  Jews  to  abandon  their  foreign 
wives  (Ezr9,  10  NehlS^^-so)^  or  the  Targum 
here,  which  says,  '  And  they  transgressed  the 
commandment  of  the  Lord  and  married  strange 
women.' 

8,  9.  The  young  widow  would  naturally 
return  to  her  mother's  house,  for  she  would 
live  in  the  women's  part  of  the  house  or  tent 


173 


1.11 


RUTH 


2.7 


(Gn  24  28, 67  Jg4i7  Song  3  4).  The  belief  of 
that  age  was  that  men  would  receive  in  this 
life  an  exact  recompense  for  their  good  and 
evil  actions  :  see  especially  Ps  1824, 26_  These 
two  good  women  were  to  find  rest  after  the 
troubles  and  disappointments  of  their  Hebrew 
marriages. 

11-13.  If  Naomi  had  other  sons  the  obliga- 
tion of  marrying  their  deceased  brother's 
widow  would  devolve  on  one  of  them.  This 
Levirate  law  (from  Zeri;-  — '  a  brother-in-law  ') 
has  been  observed  in  many  quarters  of  the  globe, 
in  India,  Madagascar,  Brazil,  etc.  Amongst 
the  Hebrews  the  two  objects  which  it  aimed 
at  were,  to  prevent  the  extinction  of  the  dead 
man's  name,  and  to  save  the  property  belong- 
ing to  a  family  from  being  broken  up  and  dis- 
persed among  other  families.  The  firstborn 
son  of  the  new  marriage  was  considered  to  be 
the  child  and  heir  of  the  dead  (Gn;-i8  Dt25s-io). 
Naomi  asks  :  Would  ye  stay  for  them  from 
having  husbands  ?  or,  more  literally  :  '  Would 
ye  shut  yourselves  up  from  having  husbands  ?  ' 
For  the  widow,  awaiting  the  second  marriage, 
must  remain  at  home  in  seclusion  (GnSBii). 

14,  15.  Possibly  Orpah  did  not  intend  going 
beyond  the  necessary  courtesy  of  accompany- 
ing her  mother-in-law  to  the  border  of  the  two 
countries.  Then  she  would  return  to  her 
people  and '  her  god '  (RV).  Chemosh  was  the 
national  god  of  Moab  (Nu2129  IKll^,  etc.). 

16-18.  Ruth's  impassioned  declaration  re- 
minds us  of  the  Druze  sheikh,  who,  on  parting 
with  Mrs.  Burton,  exclaimed,  '  Allah  be  with 
you  and  your  house  !  I  would  we  had  never 
seen  you,  because  of  this  parting.  If  you  loved 
a  stone  I  would  put  it  in  my  bosom,  and  if  you 
hated  the  moon  I  would  not  sit  under  its 
raya.'  According  to  ancient  ideas  a  god  and 
his  people  were  inseparable  :  if  Ruth  deter- 
mined to  go  over  to  Naomi's  fatherland  and 
race  she  necessarily  accepted  their  deity  :  if 
David  was  driven  out  of  Israel  he  was  thereby 
bidden,  'Go,  serve  other  gods'  (18261^). 
Moreover,  it  was  an  even  more  cherished 
privilege  then  than  now  to  be  interred  with 
one's  relatives:  the  phrase  for  a  desirable  kind 
of  burial  was, '  to  be  gathered  to  one's  fathers.' 
In  Ezk  32 17-32  jt  is  implied  that  the  various 
nations  inhabit  separate  localities  in  the  in- 
visible world.  Ruth  cleaves  to  her  mother- 
in-law  as  Elisha  to  Elijah  (2  K  2  2-6). 

19-22.  Every  one  in  the  little  town  knew 
her.  Yet  how  much  she  had  altered.  The 
women,  of  course,  knew  her  best,  and  they 
exclaimed,  '  Is  this  Naomi  ?  '  She  repudiated 
the  old  name,  renaming  herself  Mara, 
'  Bitter,'  because  the  Almighty,  who  is  here 
called  Shaddai,  had  dealt  bitterly  with  her. 
The  same  expression  occurs  in  Job  27  2.  The 
exact  force  of  the  divine  name  Shaddai  is  un- 
certain.    Except  in  the  book  of  Job  we  always 


meet  it  in  conjunction  with  the  general  name 
God,  '  God  Shaddai.'  Ex63  regards  it  as  an 
ancient  title.  Jehovah  testified  against  Naomi 
by  treating  her  as  a  sinner,  for  suffering  was 
always  regarded  as  an  evidence  of  guilt.  When 
the  widow's  son  dies  she  cries  out  to  Elijah  : 
'  Art  thou  come  to  call  my  sin  to  remembrance, 
and  to  slay  my  son  ?  '  (1  K 17 1^).  We  have  no 
ground  for  assuming  any  particular  transgres- 
sion on  Naomi's  part  :  the  Targum  is  clearly 
wrong  in  fixing  on  the  migration  to  Moab. 
How  unlike  Naomi's  fortunes  to  those  of 
Abraham,  who  from  being  alone  became  a 
multitude  (Isa  51 2),  and  those  of  Jacob,  who 
with  nothing  but  a  staif  in  his  hand  crossed 
the  Jordan,  and  returned  in  two  bands 
(Gn32iO)  !  Barley  harvest  begins  early  in 
April. 

CHAPTER  2 

Ruth  the  Gleaner 

1.  Boaz]  ('quickness')  was  a  kinsman  of 
Elimelech's.  We  are  not  informed  of  the 
precise  degree  of  relationship.  Here  and  at 
32  he  is  designated  an  '  acquaintance.'  It  is 
by  no  means  certain  that  we  are  to  think  of 
him  as  '  a  mighty  man  of  wealth  ' ;  the  phrase 
here  employed  sometimes  points  out  a  capable, 
active  man  ( 1 K 11 28  Neh  1 1 14).  The  Targum 
is  of  course  wrong  in  explaining  it  by  '  a  man 
strong  in  the  Law  ' — an  explanation  which  re- 
minds us  of  Apollos,  '  mighty  in  the  scriptures ' 
(Acl82i). 

2,  3.  Ruth  will  not  sit  with  folded  hands. 
Like  any  other  poor  person  she  has  a  right  to 
glean  (Lv  199*-  2322  Dt24iy),  but  the  landowner 
can  make  the  exercise  of  this  right  easier  or 
more  disagreeable.  Hence  she  is  not  sure 
where  her  task  will  be  prosecuted,  and  it  seems 
a  piece  of  rare,  though  undesigned,  good 
fortune  that  she  lights  on  the  portion  of  the 
field  which  belongs  to  Boaz.  The  portions 
belonging  to  different  owners  were  not  separ- 
ated by  walls,  hedges  or  ditches,  but  by  a  stone, 
a  stoneheap,  or  a  marked  tree  (Dtl9i4). 

4-6.  These  ancient  forms  of  salutation  were 
distinguished  by  politeness,  heartiness,  and 
religious  feeling  (cp.  Gn4329  Jerl920f.  2K429 
Psl29"'^).  The  Arabic  formula  now  is  'God 
be  with  you  '  :  in  Egypt  the  first  speaker  cries 
'  Peace  be  on  you,'  and  the  reply  comes,  '  On 
you  be  peace,  and  the  mercy  of  God  and  His 
blessings, '  or  simply  '  On  you  be  peace.' 

7.  Ruth's  good  qualities  appear  at  every 
turn  :  she  was  careful  to  ask  leave  ;  she  worked 
steadily  all  through  the  long,  weary  day,  not 
resting  during  its  hottest  hours.  The  last 
words  of  this  verse  are  now  corrupt :  the 
original  statement  was  '  she  has  not  rested  at 
all,'  or  '  she  has  not  been  home  at  all '  ; 
3"  shows  that  there  was  no  building  in  the 
field  to  rest  in. 


174 


%  8 


RUTH 


3.  8 


8,  9.  His  maidens  were  the  women-servants 
who  went  over  the  ground  after  the  reapers, 
reaping  being  done  in  so  slovenly  a  manner  in 
the  East  that  much  would  be  wasted  if  this  sup- 
plementary work  were  not  performed.  The 
note  on  v.  3  indicates  how  easy  it  would  be  to 
stray  into  another's  field.  The  young  men 
are  the  harvesters  who  come  together  from  all 
parts  of  the  country,  and,  away  from  the 
restraints  of  their  own  homes,  are  apt  to  be 
free  of  speech,  and  loose  in  conduct. 

10-12.  She  throws  herself  prostrate  on  the 
ground,  as  Orientals  have  always  done  before 
their  superiors.  She  acknowledges  herself  a 
foreigner,  destitute  of  right  or  claims.  But 
Boaz  sees  only  the  heroism  implied  in  her 
having  committed  herself  to  the  uncovenanted 
kindness  of  a  strange  people.  And  he  com- 
mends the  wisdom  and  piety  which  have  brought 
her  to  take  refuge  under  the  protecting  wings 
of  Jehovah  the  God  of  Israel  (Dt32ii  Ps368 
572  914  Lkl334). 

13.  With  joyful  surprise  she  exclaims,  Let 
me  find  favour  in  thy  sight  !  or,  rather,  '  I  find 
grace  in  thy  sight ! '  There  is  something  very 
beautiful  in  the  literal  meaning  of  the  words 
rendered  ■  Thou  hast  spoken  friendly  '  :  it  is 
'Thou  hast  spoken  to  the  heart'  (Isa402 
Jer  193):  the  words  are  so  friendly  that  they 
fall  on  the  heart  like  dew.  And  this  is  all 
the  more  wonderful  to  her,  seeing  that,  as  a 
foreigner,  she  does  not  stand  on  a  level  even 
with  his  women-servants.  '  Make  me  as  one 
of  thy  hired  servants  '  (Lk  15 1^). 

14.  Vinegar  and  water  was  the  customary 
drink  of  Roman  soldiers  and  slaves.  The 
harvesters  in  Palestine  still  dip  their  bread  in 
vinegar  and  find  it  very  refreshing.  Parched 
corn  is  also  a  favourite  article  of  food  :  the 
ears  are  gathered  when  not  quite  ripe,  and  are 
roasted  on  an  iron  plate,  or  are  thrust  in  small 
bundles  into  a  fire  of  dry  grass  and  thorns  ; 
there  is  a  milky  and  yet  crusty  flavour  about 
it  which  makes  pleasant  eating.  '  She  did  eat, 
and  was  sufficed,  and  left  thereof '  (RV). 

15-18.  As  a  special  favour  she  is  to  be 
allowed  to  glean  not  only  where  the  sheaves  have 
been  removed,  but  amongst  them  as  they  stand. 
Curiously  enough  she  is  represented  at  v.  7 
as  requesting  this.  The  reapers  are  also  to 
pluck  out  ears  as  they  gather  them  up  for 
binding  and  let  them  drop  as  if  by  accident. 
No  wonder  that  when  she  had  beaten  it  out 
with  a  stick  (JgO^^  Isa282'')  she  had  about  a 
bushel  of  grain.  As  one  has  seen  poor  women 
taking  home  food  for  their  children  from  some 
feast  which  has  been  given  them,  so  the  thrifty, 
affectionate  Ruth  carries  to  Naomi  the  parched 
corn  which  had  remained  over  from  her 
unexpected  midday  meal. 

19-23.  Ruth  now  learns  for  the  first  time 
that  Boaz  is  related  to  them,  a  near  kinsman, 


one  of  those  who  have  the  right  to  buy  back 
for  them  the  land  that  has  been  parted  with. 
If  an  Israelite  was  compelled  by  poverty 
to  dispose  of  his  property,  such  a  kinsman 
could  compel  the  purchaser  to  sell  it  back 
(Lv252S'*"'*^)  ;  the  object  of  the  law  being 
to  preserve  each  family  in  possession  of  its 
land.  Naomi  felt  that  Providence  was  not 
only  showing  loving-kindness  to  her  daughter- 
in-law  and  herself,  but  also  to  her  husband 
and  sons,  by  bringing  about  the  prospect  of 
the  land  which  had  once  belonged  to  them 
again  being  called  by  their  name.  Her  deep- 
seated  piety  comes  out  too  ;  the  bitterness  of 
120  yields  immediately  to  faith,  hope,  and 
gratitude.  And  her  practical  wisdom  is  seen 
in  the  injunction  not  to  vex  this  kind- 
hearted  man  by  failing  to  make  use  of  his 
offered  kindness.  Wheat-harvest  is  two  or 
three  weeks  later  than  barley. 

CHAPTER  3 

The  Appeal  to  Boaz 
I.  Marriages  are  always  arranged   by  the 
parents  in  Eastern  lands  ;  here,  of  course,  the 
mother-in-law  must  intervene. 

2-7.  Grain  is  winnowed  in  the  evening,  to 
avoid  the  heat  of  the  day  and  take  advantage 
of  the  cool  sea-wind,  which  blows  in  Palestine 
from  4  p.m.  to  half-an-hour  before  sunset. 
As  a  rule  the  threshing  floor,  which  is  an 
open  space  of  clean,  hard,  dry  gi'ound,  is  on 
an  elevated  spot.  But  at  Beth-lehem  it  was 
necessary  to  go  '  down '  to  it,  because  the 
town  is  on  the  summit  of  the  ridge  and  higher 
than  any  of  the  surrounding  eminences.  Ruth 
is  to  wash  and  anoint  herself  and  put  on  the 
simlah^  the  long  outer  robe  of  ceremony,  for 
this  was  to  be  a  formal  and  important  visit. 
Every  precaution,  too,  was  to  be  taken  to 
ensure  Boaz  being  in  a  genial  frame  of  mind  ; 
the  day's  work  was  to  be  at  an  end,  and  he 
was  to  have  eaten  and  drunk:  cp.  Gn27'*'25, 
and  David's  assumption  that  even  Nabal 
would  be  generous  during  the  feast  of  sheep- 
shearing  (lS25^-8).  Naomi  had  entire  con- 
fidence in  the  honour  of  her  kinsman,  and 
although  the  procedure  which  she  devised  is 
alien  to  all  our  thoughts  and  customs,  it  is 
conceived  and  carried  out  without  a  spot  of 
impure  intention.  To  this  day  the  Syrian 
farmer  lies  down  under  the  shelter  of  a  heap 
of  threshed  corn  to  protect  it  from  thieves, 
or  sleeps  close  by  with  his  family  in  a  little 
hut  erected  for  the  purpose. 

8-18.  At  midnight  the  sleeper  was  startled. 
He  bent  forward  to  ascertain  what  was  there, 
and  the  swift,  curt  question.  Who  art  thou  ? 
reveals  his  alarm.  Her  request  is  :  Spread 
thy  skirt  (or,  thy  wing)  over  thine  handmaid, 
i.e.  Become  my  guardian  and  protector  by 
marrying  me  (EzklG^),  according  to  the  duty 


175 


3.  8 


RUTH 


4.  11 


of  a  near  kinsman.  The  law  in  Dt25  required 
that  a  brother  should  do  this,  if  he  and  the 
deceased  had  dwelt  together  on  the  land 
belonging  to  the  family.  The  right  or  duty 
was  subsequently  extended  to  more  distant 
relatives.  Boaz  looked  on  this  appeal  as  an 
even  greater  loving-kindness  than  Ruth  had 
shown  to  Naomi,  seeing  that  he  was  no  longer 
young,  and  younger  men  would  willingly 
have  married  her.  The  Rabbinical  commen- 
tary on  this  book  goes  curiously  astray  in 
fixing  his  age  as  80  and  hers  as  40.  All  the 
'  gate '  of  his  people  knew  that  she  was  an 
'  excellent '  woman.  They  had  discussed  her 
in  the  gate  of  the  city,  which  was  the  place  of 
concourse,  consultation  and  gossip,  like  the 
Gk.  agora  (A.cl7i"'is),  and  the  forum  of  the 
Romans.  But  ready  as  he  was  to  take  up  the 
position  of  Goel  (see  on  Job  19  ^s),  he  would  not 
encroach  on  the  stronger  claim  which  another 
man  had.  For  this  night  she  must  remain  where 
she  was,  lest  mischief  should  befall  her  at  the 
hands  of  some  of  the  roisterers  who  were 
especially  likely  to  be  abroad  at  that  season 
of  the  year  (Song  5'').  Yet  she  must  leave 
whilst  it  was  still  too  dark  for  a  man  to 
discern  his  friend  if  he  met  him  ;  no  breath 
of  scandal  must  touch  their  good  name.  Let 
it  not  be  known,  said  Boaz,  that  the  ■woman 
came  to  the  threshing  floor.  The  '  mantle  ' 
(RV)  here  mentioned  is  not  the  same  as  the 
sinilah  of  v.  3  ;  most  likely  it  was  the  veil  of 
cotton  cloth  or  coarse  muslin  which  rests  on 
the  head  and  falls  down  the  back  of  Bedouin 
and  peasant  women,  and  is  often  used  by 
them  for  carrying  such  things  as  vegetables. 
The  present  of  three-fifths  of  a  bushel  of 
barley  is  at  one  and  the  same  time  an  out- 
pouring of  his  liberality  and  a  precaution 
against  the  suspicion  which  might  have  been 
roused  if  any  one  had  met  her  ;  they  were  to 
be  led  to  think  that  she  had  been  to  fetch 
grain.  The  AV  is  correct  in  stating  that  she 
now  went  into  the  city  ;  he  came  later  (4 1). 
It  would  almost  seem  as  though  her  mother- 
in-law  could  not  at  the  first  moment  see  who 
she  was  :  Who  art  thou,  my  daughter  ?  But 
perhaps  the  question  really  meant,  '  How 
hast  thou  fared  ?  ' 

CHAPTER   4 

The  Marriage  of  Boaz  and  Ruth.    The 

Birth  of  their  Child 

1.  Boaz  went  up  from  the  threshing  floor 
to  the  open  space  by  the  city-gate,  where  the 
business  he  had  in  hand  would  have  to  be 
done,  where,  too,  he  would  catch  the  other 
kinsman  on  his  way  out  to  the  field.  The 
author  does  not  know  this  man's  name,  and 
therefore  contents  himself  with  calling  him 
'  So  and  So.' 

2.  Ten   was   considered  a  perfect  number 


(Jer627  1S255  2S181-5):  where  ten  Jews  live 
there  should  be  a  synagogue;  these  ten  elders 
are  heads  of  the  community,  sheikhs,  as  they 
would  be  called  to-day. 

3-5.  Elimelech  was  not  their  brother  in  the 
strict  sense,  but  was  a  member  of  the  same 
family  (Gn  1 3  «  1  S  20  6, 29  2  S 1 9  is).  Naomi  had 
already  sold  the  land.  Ruth's  being  under  the 
necessity  of  gleaning  shows  that  her  mother- 
in-law  was  no  landowner:  2^8  is  an  eloquent 
testimony  to  their  poverty.  The  kinsman  had 
now  the  opportunity  of  buying  it  back  for 
them,  and  it  is  plain  from  v.  5  that  this  trans- 
action would  take  the  form  of  a  purchase  from 
Naomi  :  the  presence  of  the  elders  and  the 
other  inhabitants,  'them  that  sit  here,'  would 
make  it  a  valid  bargain.  But  if  he  bought  the 
land  he  must  also  purchase  Ruth  as  his  wife. 
There  can  be  no  doubt  that  Boaz  said:  '  Thou 
must  also  buy  Ruth ' :  Ruth  has  nothing  to  do 
with  the  sale  ;  see  also  v.  10.  The  money 
which  the  bridegroom  used  to  give  to  the 
bride's  family  was  compensation  for  the  loss 
of  her  valuable  services.  And  at  the  present 
time  in  Syria  '  No  marriage  is  strictly  legal 
among  the  Mussulmans  without  a  Mahr  or 
settlement  from  the  bridegroom  to  the  bride. 
It  may  consist  of  only  a  few  silver  pence,  still 
it  must  be  made.'  Jacob's  services  to  Laban 
were  prices  paid  for  Leah  and  Rachel. 

6.  The  kinsman  draws  back.  The  Rabbinic 
commentator  thought  that  he  was  afraid  of 
dying  by  God's  judgment  for  marrying  a 
Moabite,  as  Mahlon  and  Chilion  had  perished. 
But  his  motive  seems  to  have  been  an  un- 
willingness to  encroach  on  his  own  property 
for  the  sake  of  a  son  by  Ruth,  who  would  be 
heir  of  the  newly  acquired  land  and  would  not 
be  accounted  his  child. 

7-10.  In  the  case  described  at  Dt259  the 
woman  removes  the  shoe  of  the  man  who 
declines  to  act  ;  here  the  man  himself  takes  it 
off :  there,  by  that  symbolic  act,  she  takes 
away  the  right  he  will  not  exercise  ;  here,  he 
renounces  it.  At  Ps  60  ^^  108  ^^  the  shoe  thrown 
over  the  land  is  a  sign  that  possession  is  taken : 
see  on  Am26  8*^.  Similar  customs  have 
existed  amongst  the  Hindoos,  the  ancient 
Germans,  and  the  Arabs.  When  an  Ai'ab 
divorces  his  wife,  he  says:  '  She  was  my  babuj 
(slipper)  and  I  cast  her  off.'  Boaz  declares  it 
to  be  his  purpose  to  prevent  the  name  of  the 
dead  from  being  cut  off  :  if  Ruth  should  bear 
a  son  he  would  be  the  representative  of 
Mahlon,  and  men  would  remember  the  father's 
name  whilst  they  called  the  child  Ben-Mahlon, 
Mahlon's  son. 

II,  12.  No  Hebrew  woman  could  desire  a 
better  fortune  than  to  resemble  the  two  wives 
of  Jacob  from  whom  the  entire  people  had 
sprung.  And  the  wish  of  the  Bethlehemites 
for  Boaz  was  that  he  might  win  a  name  which 


176 


4.  13 


RUTH— 1  AND  2  SAMUEL 


INTRO. 


should  be  famous  amongst  them  as  the  head 
of  a  powerful  and  illustrious  house.  Perez, 
whom  they  go  on  to  mention,  was  the  child 
borne  by  Tamar  to  Judah,  when  the  latter 
unwittingly  did  her  the  justice  (Gn  38)  which 
Boaz  was  so  willing  to  render  to  Ruth.  The 
cases  were  also  parallel  as  regards  the  respec- 
tive ages  of  the  man  and  the  woman. 

13-16.  It  was  an  honoiir  and  a  mark  of 
divine  favour  to  have  a  son,  a  discredit  and 
curse  both  to  husband  and  wife  to  be  without : 
'  He  who  has  not  left  a  son  to  be  his  heir, 
with  him  the  Holy  One — blessed  be  He — is 
angry. '  This  son  would  take  upon  him  all  the 
duties  of  near  kinsman  to  Naomi.  He  would 
be  a  '  restorer  of  life '  (RV),  reviving  the 
fainting  soul,  inspiring  fresh  hope,  joy,  courage 
(Ps  19  8  Prov  25 13  Lam  1  ^^).  His  mother  had 
been  better  to  Naomi  than  seven  (i.e.  any  number 
of)  sons.     And  now  the  grandmother  puts  the 


child  in  her  bosom,  to  indicate  that  he  belonged 
to  her  (Grn  30  ^  50  -■^),  as  a  Roman  father  took  up 
the  child  from  the  ground  and  thus  owned  him. 
17.  The  women  are  still  to  the  front.  As  a 
rule  the  father  or  mother  named  the  child. 
But  it  is  the  neighbours  who  here  call  him 
Obed,  '  Servant,'  anticipating  that  he  would 
minister  to  all  the  wants  of  the  aged  woman 
who  had  been  a  true  mother  to  Ruth.  The 
book  originally  ended  with  the  simple  inti- 
mation of  the  manner  in  which  all  good  wishes 
were  fulfilled  in  him  :  '  He  is  the  father  of 
Jesse,  the  father  of  David.'  The  verses  which 
follow  may  have  been  borrowed  from  1  Ch  2  ^-i^ ; 
in  any  case  they  were  added  later  to  bring  out 
clearly  the  place  of  Boaz  and  David  in  the 
line  of  Judah.  It  is  interesting  to  notice  that 
notwithstanding  A^'^^,  though  in  agi'eement 
with  lCh2i2,  they  do  not  regard  Obed  as 
Mahlon's  son,  but  give  him  to  Boaz. 


THE  FIKST  AND  SECOND  BOOKS  OF 

SAMUEL 


INTRODUCTION 


I .  Scope  and  Contents.  The  two  books  of 
Samuel  were  in  the  original  Hebrew  reckoned 
as  one,  and  classed,  like  Judges,  among  '  the 
earlier  prophets.'  In  LXX  they  are  divided 
and  called  the  fii'st  two  '  books  of  the  king- 
doms '  :  a  title  which  the  Vulgate  altered  to 
'  books  of  the  kings.'  Our  own  translation 
keeps  the  original  name  and  the  later  division. 
The  whole  work  embraces  the  history  of  the 
chosen  nation  from  the  end  of  the  period  of  the 
Judges  to  the  beginning  of  the  reign  of  Solo- 
mon (IKl,  2  really  belong  to  the  period 
covered  by  the  books  of  Samuel  and  in  LXX 
are  counted  as  2S25,  26).  The  two  books  fall 
into  three  broad  divisions,  viz.  1  S  1-14, 1  S  15- 
2  S  8,  and  2  S  9-24  ;  giving  the  stories  (1)  of 
Israel  under  the  Philistines  and  Samuel  ;  (2) 
of  Saul  and  the  rise  of  David  ;  and  (3)  of 
David's  reign  over  all  Israel.  The  whole 
period  is  about  a  century  (see  §  G)  ;  at  its 
close  we  find  ourselves  in  an  atmosphere  com- 
pletely different  from  that  in  which  we  start, 
though  the  change  is  made  entirely  natural  by 
the  narrative. 

The  first  of  the  three  sections  opens  with 
the  birth,  consecration  and  call  of  Samuel 
(chs.  1-3),  and  passes  to  the  death  of  Eli  and 
his  sons  (c.  4),  the  captivity  and  restoration  of 
the  ark  (chs.  5,  6),  and  the  deliverance  from 
the  Philistines   under    Samuel    (c.    7).      The 


Israelites  then  demand  a  king  ;  Samuel  pro- 
tests and  warns  (c.  8);  Saul  is  revealed  to  Samuel 
as  the  future  king,  anointed,  and  accepted 
(chs.  9,  10)  ;  a  victory  over  Ammon  strengthens 
Saul's  position  (c.  11)  ;  and  Samuel  formally 
retires  from  leadership  (c.  1 2).  The  Philistines 
are  attacked  and  defeated  (chs.  13,  14),  but 
Saul,  for  his  disobedience  after  the  conquest 
of  Amalek,  is  rejected  (c.  15). 

The  second  section  introduces  us  at  once  to 
David  ;  he  is  secretly  anointed  (16  i-^^)  and 
brought  before  Saul  (c.  1 6  ^^-'^'^).  He  is  victori- 
ous over  Goliath  (c.  17),  and  wins  first  Saul's 
favour  and  then  his  jealousy  (c.  18).  This  is 
followed  by  a  long  and  detailed  account  of 
Saul's  pursuit  of  David,  who  is  soon  reduced 
to  live  the  life  of  an  outlaw  (chs.  19-26),  and 
at  last  takes  refuge  with  the  king  of  Gath 
(c.  27).  Meanwhile,  Saul  is  compelled  to  face 
the  Philistines  on  Mt.  Gilboa  (c.  28):  David  is 
expelled  from  the  Philistine  army,  and  sacks 
Ziklag  (chs.  29,  30)  ;  and  Saul  is  defeated  and 
slain  (c.  31).  David  is  then  anointed  as  king 
of  Judah  (2 SI),  and  gradually  wears  down 
the  rivalry  of  Israel  (chs.  2-4)  ;  he  is  made 
king  of  the  whole  nation,  captures  Jerusalem, 
defeats  the  Philistines  (c.  5),  and  brings  the 
ark  to  his  new  capital  (chs.  6,  7). 

In  the  third  section  we  find  him  first  show- 
ing courtesy  to  Meribbaal  (c.  9),  and  subduing 


12 


177 


INTRO. 


1  AND  2  SAMUEL 


INTRO. 


Ammon  and  the  Syrians  (c.  10).  Then  follows 
the  Bathsheba  episode  (1 1-12  25)^  with  the  final 
conquest  of  Ammon  (1226-31).  Absalom,  re- 
venging Amnon's  crime,  is  banished,  and  re- 
called (chs.  13,  14)  ;  his  usurpation  of  the 
throne  leads  to  his  defeat  and  death,  and  to 
David's  unopposed  return  (chs.  15-19).  She- 
ba's  revolt  is  subdued  (c.  20).  The  avenging 
of  the  Gibeonites  (21  i-i-*)  and  sundry  exploits 
of  David's  heroes  (21 1'*-^^)  are  related  ;  two 
psalms  of  David  are  given  (22-23 '''),  and 
another  list  of  David's  heroes  (23  S"^^)  ;  and 
the  book  closes  with  an  account  of  the  census 
and  repentance  of  David  (c.  24).  The  revolt  of 
Adonijah,  which  clouded  the  last  days  of  David, 
is  related  in  1 K 1 ,  2. 

2.  Structure  of  the  Book.  As  stated  above, 
1  and  2  Samuel  fall  into  three  divisions  ;  but 
none  of  these  divisions  have  been  written  as 
they  stand.  Each  (like  so  many  other  books  of 
the  Old  Testament)  is  a  compilation  from 
earlier  documents.  Within  the  fh-st  two 
sections  we  meet  constantly  with  different 
accounts  of  the  same  events,  coupled  with 
differences  in  the  point  of  view.  This  will 
be  clear  from  the  following  : — 

1S1-15.  (a)  Chs.  1-4  contain  the  story 
of  Samuel's  childliood,  7  and  8  his  position 
as  recognised  head  of  all  Israel — a  point  of 
view  which  is  maintained  in  10  ^'^■27,  12,  15. 
(b)  On  the  other  hand,  9,  lOi-i^  give  a 
separate  version  of  Saul's  accession,  and  11, 
13,  14  follow  continuously  on  lO^*^  ;  the  ac- 
count of  Saul's  rejection  in  13^-14  being 
quite  distinct  from  that  of  15.  Hannah's 
song  in  2  (which  inspired  some  of  the  noblest 
thoughts  of  the  Magnificat)  contains  concep- 
tions which  are  inconsistent  with  what  we  know 
of  the  more  primitive  religion  of  this  early 
period,  and  is  probably  a  later  poem,  here 
ascribed  to  Hannah.  The  account  of  the  ark 
in  5  and  6  has  no  notes  of  time,  except  that  it 
must  follow  the  battle  of  Aphek  :  it  reminds 
us  strongly  of  the  narratives  in  Judges.  Of 
the  two  main  divisions  of  this  section,  the 
second  (b),  which  is  chiefly  occupied  with  Saul, 
must  be  the  earlier.  From  13 2*^,  etc.,  we  can 
hardly  think  that  such  a  total  defeat  of  the 
Philistines  as  is  implied  in  7  ^^  *•  took  place  at 
so  early  a  period. 

I S 1 6-2  S  8.  In  this  section  we  find  double 
narratives  of  David's  introduction  to  Saul, 
Saul's  offer  of  a  daughter  of  his  to  David, 
and  David's  sparing  of  Saul's  life.  The  in- 
consistencies thus  resulting  (of  which  the 
most  noticeable  is  that  while  David  is  brought 
to  Saul  as  a  young  warrior  in  16,  he  appears 
in  17  as  a  shepherd  lad  of  whom  Saul  is  quite 
ignorant)  may  be  avoided  if  we  place  together 
1614-23  180-29  (with  the  exception  of  vv.  14-19) 
19 11-17  21 1-10  22-23 14  25-27,  29,  30.  The  rest 
of  16-31  reads  almost  as  one  continuous  nar- 


rative. There  is  less  difficulty  about  the  first 
8  chs.  of  2  Samuel :  the  whole  section  concludes 
with  a  general  summary  of  David's  power  and 
prestige  ;  and  in  c.  2  we  have  an  undoubted 
poem  of  David  himself. 

2  S  9-24.  Chs.  9-20  form  a  very  clear  and 
picturesque  narrative,  which  is  quite  self- 
consistent,  and  must  have  been  written  near 
to  the  events  which  it  describes.  For  the 
distinctness  in  its  portraiture  of  minor  cha- 
racters as  well  as  of  David  himself,  and  for 
its  faithful  description  of  the  dark  as  well  as 
the  bright  side  of  the  court  of  Israel's  great 
and  beloved  king,  it  is  unequalled  among  all 
the  fine  narratives  of  the  Old  Testament. 
21-24  form  an  appendix  ;  211-14  would  seem 
to  refer  to  the  earlier  years  of  David's  reign  ; 
the  two  psalms  (the  first  of  which  is  almost 
identical  with  Ps  18)  are  strangely  wedged  in 
between  the  notices  of  David's  '  mighty  men ' ; 
24  should  at  any  rate  find  a  place  in  9-20,  and 
IK  1,2  should  properly  follow  2S20. 

3.  The  Rise  and  Growth  of  the  Monarchy, 
To  our  minds  the  word  '  king '  suggests  a 
definite  constitution.  Even  an  absolute  mon- 
arch must  govern  according  to  fixed  laws.  To 
the  Hebrews,  the  idea  of  such  a  constitution 
was  foreign.  The  growth  of  otu-  European 
monarchical  constitutions  has  been  conti'oUed 
by  two  factors  :  the  military  organisation  of 
the  Teutonic  nations,  and  the  Roman  Law. 
The  Hebrews  had  nothing  corresponding  to 
either  of  these.  In  the  time  of  the  Judges 
(see  Intro,  to  Judges)  we  find  the  nation  com- 
posed of  a  number  of  tribes  largely  independ- 
ent of  each  other,  though  held  together  (as 
were  the  ancient  Greek  states)  by  certain  moral 
and  religious  customs,  and  also  by  a  common 
faith  in  Jehovah,  the  national  God.  From  time 
to  time  military  leaders  of  strong  personality 
('  Judges ')  arise  ;  but  the  sphere  of  their  in- 
fluence is  limited,  and  only  in  one  case  (Gideon 
and  Abimelech)  is  there  any  attempt  to 
establish  the  principle  of  heredity. 

The  great  difference  between  the  Judges 
and  Saul  is  that,  unlike  the  former,  the  latter 
is  solemnly  chosen  by  all  Israel  at  a  gathering 
presided  over  by  the  moral  and  religious  head  of 
the  nation,  Samuel.  Saul  is  simply  a  military 
leader,  chosen  to  offer  an  otherwise  impossible 
resistance  to  the  Philistines.  It  was  thus  the 
Philistine  oppression  which  welded  the  Israel- 
ites, under  Saul's  leadership,  into  a  nation.  His 
first  '  kingly '  act  is  to  summon  the  whole 
nation  to  arms  (IS  11'^,  cp.  Jgl929)  :  when 
he  sacrifices,  it  is  as  the  head  of  the  army 
(IS  139)  :  he,  like  the  Judges,  receives  guid- 
ance and  command  from  Jehovah,  though, 
unlike  them,  indirectly  through  Samuel  :  his 
military  leadership,  absolute  from  the  side  of 
the  nation,  is  thus  strictly  limited  from  the 
side  of  Jehovah. 


178 


INTRO. 


1  AND  2  SAMUEL 


INTRO. 


What  was  the  effect  of  his  rule  on  Israel's 
internal  life  ?  We  are  merely  told  that  he  put 
away  soothsayers  and  diviners  out  of  the  land 
(1  S28^).  This  in  itself  implies  a  gi'eat  deal  ; 
it  does  not  imply,  however,  that  the  king  was 
expected  to  make  new  laws,  but  only  to  en- 
force the  old  ones  ;  at  most,  like  Asa  ( 1 K 15 1^) 
and  Hezekiah  ('2K18'*),  he  was  a  reformer. 

If  Jonathan  had  survived  the  battle  of 
Gilboa,  the  whole  course  of  Israel's  history 
might  have  been  different.  As  it  was,  Saul's 
son  was  at  once  accepted  as  king  by  the 
greater  part  of  the  nation  (2  S  2  9).  Not  until 
Ish-bosheth's  death  was  David  acknowledged 
as  king  of  all  Israel.  He  began  where  Saul 
left  off,  as  recognised  military  head  of  the 
nation.  Unlike  Saul,  he  needed  no  prophet 
to  place  him  on  the  throne  ;  but,  like  Saul,  he 
gained  and  held  his  position  by  his  personal 
popularity  (2 S3 3*5).  At  first  he  is  nothing 
more  than  the  warrior  ;  and  all  through  his 
reign  he  is  a  '  man  of  war '  (2  S 1 7  8).  But  by 
his  conquest  of  Jerusalem  and  his  removal 
thither  of  the  ark,  he  becomes  the  religious 
head  of  the  nation  also,  appointing  and  super- 
vising the  priests  (2S8i8  20^6;  cp.  1K235). 
He  is  now  in  a  position  to  form  foreign 
alliances  and  to  institute  an  elaborate  and 
thoroughly  Oriental  court  life  (2S5i^).  He 
is  also  the  fountain  of  justice  (2S125  14**-)  ; 
but  while  he  enforces  the  traditional  law,  he 
does  not  make  fresh  laws.  The  basis  of  his 
internal  authority  (like  that  of  the  Roman 
emperors)  is  military  supremacy:  when  this  is 
broken  he  must  take  refuge  in  flight  (2  S 1 5  ^^). 
He  has  his  captains  and  high  officers  (2  S  20  23-26^ 
He  numbers  and  taxes  his  people  (2  S  24  2),  but 
they  have  free  right  of  access  and  complaint 
(2S145  24  3),  and  he  acknowledges  the  moral 
authority  of  the  prophets  (2  S 12  ^5  24  n).  He 
is  throughout  the  father  and  the  shepherd 
more  than  the  monarch  of  his  people  :  he  is 
Jehovah's  representative  in  their  midst.  He 
made  the  kingship  what  it  remained  for  four 
centuries,  a  rule  limited  by  no  written  laws 
(save  perhaps  that  of  IS  10 25,  which  is  only 
'  constitutional '  in  a  restricted  sense),  but  dis- 
tinctly limited  by  the  extent  of  the  king's 
military  prowess  and  authority,  and  moral  in- 
fluence with  his  people,  by  the  laws  of  the 
nation  (cp.  1 K  21 3),  and  by  the  will  of  Jehovah 
as  expressed  by  the  prophets. 

4,  The  Beginnings  of  Prophecy.  It  is 
generally  agreed  that  the  root  from  which 
comes  the  Hebrew  word  for  '  prophet ' 
(nabi)  means  to  '  announce '  or  '  forth-tell.'  The 
Hebrew  prophets,  however,  were  '  f  orth-tellers  ' 
of  a  special  kind.  Their  messages  always  had 
to  do  with  the  nation  and  with  Jehovah,  the 
nation's  God  and  protector.  They  were  the 
heralds  at  once  of  patriotism,  national  unity, 
and  religion.     We  meet  them  very  early  in 


179 


'  bands'  or  'schools'  (ISIO^-^O)  ;  they  seem 
to  wander  up  and  down  the  country  excitedly 
proclaiming  their  message ;  and  they  have  often 
been  compared  to  Mahommedan  dervishes.  We 
are  expressly  told  that  Samuel  was  not  held  to 
be  a  prophet  in  this  technical  sense  ;  but  he 
organised  the  prophetic  bands  (IS  19^0),  and 
this  organisation  lasted  on  till  the  times  of 
Elijah  and  Elisha  (e.g.  1  K  20  35  2  K  6 1).  These 
'  bands  '  probably  gathered  round  some  teacher 
or  leader  of  influence.  We  have  no  informa- 
tion as  to  their  mode  of  life  and  means  of 
support.  Possibly,  when  thus  '  banded  '  toge- 
ther, they  bore  to  Samuel  the  same  relation  as 
Wycliffe's  preachers  bore  to  Wycliffe  himself. 
But  from  the  reign  of  David,  and  even  (accord- 
ing to  Jg68)  much  earlier,  we  meet  with  in- 
dividual prophets,  whose  function  is  to  recall 
the  nation,  or  more  often  the  king,  to  obe- 
dience to  the  will  of  Jehovah  ;  in  many  cases 
they  announce  the  punishment  which  is  to 
follow  upon  disobedience  (cp.  2  S  7  2  12  25  24  H). 
In  later  times  both  Elijah  and  Elisha  are 
credited  with  miraculous  powers  ;  but  Elisha 
is  the  only  prophet  whose  activity  seems  to 
have  been  as  much  private  as  public.  Later 
still,  in  the  middle  of  the  8th  cent.,  the  great 
series  of  the  '  writing  '  prophets  begins  with 
Amos  ;  but  in  the  last  stages  of  the  history  of 
the  prophetic  order,  as  in  the  first,  the  prophet 
is  one  who  appears  suddenly  from  retirement 
or  seclusion,  charged  with  a  special  message 
to  people  or  king,  like  an  embodied  conscience. 

Hence,  prophecy  is  not  the  opponent  of 
monarchy  ;  it  is  rather  the  divinely  appointed 
means  for  keeping  monarchy  true  to  its  task. 
In  the  reign  of  Saul,  Samuel  performed  this 
function  (cp.  1  S 153-23  ;  and  see  §  6).  His  con- 
demnation of  the  Israelite  demand  for  a  king 
is  quite  distinct  from  the  general  attitude  of 
the  prophets,  who  accepted  the  kings  as 
Jehovah's  appointed  servants  ;  but,  like  the 
later  prophets,  Samuel  claimed  that  the  pro- 
phetic word  was  to  receive  even  from  the  king 
absolute  and  unquestioning  obedience.  It  is 
easy  to  see  from  the  above  how  completely 
the  books  of  Samuel  justify  their  place  in  the 
Hebrew  canon  as  prophetic  books.  They 
describe  and  emphasise  the  ideals  of  the  pro- 
phets, and  are  full  of  the  prophetic  spirit — 
the  deep  conviction  that  Jehovah  is  Israel's 
God,  and  that  to  Jehovah's  service  Israel  is 
irrevocably  bound. 

5.  The  Ark  and  the  Priesthood.  In  the 
books  of  Samuel  the  ark  appears  as  the  seat 
or  dwelling-place  of  Jehovah  ;  where  the 
ark  is,  there  in  some  special  sense  is  Jeho- 
vah Himself  (see  also  Josh  3,  4,  6  Jg202").  It 
is  placed  in  Shiloh,  the  centre  of  worship, 
where  the  sacred  tent  ('  temple,'  1  S  1  9)  is 
set  up.  After  Israel's  defeat  by  the  Philis- 
tines it  is  (to  the  dismay  of  the  Philistines) 


INTRO. 


1  AND  2  SAMUEL 


INTRO. 


taken  to  battle,  but  captured  and  carried  off 
to  various  Philistine  cities,  in  each  of  which  it 
causes  plagues.  It  is  then  returned  to  Kir- 
jath-jearim,  where  Eleazar  is  '  sanctified  '  '  to 
keep  '  it  (1  S3-7).  After  the  conquest  of  Jera- 
salem  David  brings  the  ark  thither  ('2S6). 
In  Israel  its  presence  brings  blessing  :  to 
foreigners,  or  those  who  touch  it  profanely,  it 
causes  disaster.  Later,  it  is  brought  into 
Solomon's  temple,  after  which  it  disappears 
from  history  (JerS^*').  Probably  the  ark  was, 
in  form,  a  throne,  on  which  Jehovah  was 
regarded  as  sitting. 

Priests  (as  in  Jgl7,  18)  are  men  specially 
consecrated  to  superintend  worship  and  guard 
sacred  places  and  objects  (lS21*^;cp.2K25  is). 
Both  Eli  and  his  degenerate  sons  are  priests 
at  Shiloh  (IS 2 13-15).  The  Philistines  also 
have  priests  for  their  god  (1  S 5^  62).  The 
priest,  wearing  his  official  symbol — the  ephod 
— consults  Jehovah  on  behalf  of  the  worship- 
per (1  S  14).  The  office  is  hereditary  (1  S  143 
2S81''),  and  we  also  find  a  number  of  priests 
dwelling  together  (1S2219).  We  read  of  men 
being  consecrated  to  serve  apparently  as  priests 
(1  S  71  2  S  8 18).  After  the  ark  was  established 
at  Jerusalem,  we  find  the  priests  in  close  con- 
nexion with  the  royal  court(2S8i'i'  15351911 
20  25).  Later,  Solomon,  like  subsequent  kings, 
is  anointed  by  the  priest  (IK  139),  as  Saul  and 
David  had  been  anointed  by  Samuel  (IS  10 1 
1613)  ;  the  king  is  'the  Lord's  ami/ited,'  and 
the  same  word  (Messiah,  '  anointed  ')  is  applied 
pa?-  excellence  to  the  ideal  king  of  the  future. 

The  priests,  like  the  prophets,  thus  stand  in 
a  direct  relation  to  the  monarchy  as  soon  as  the 
monarchy  is  established.  Their  presence  is  not, 
however,  essential  to  worship.  Saul  sacrifices 
at  Gilgal  (1813^),  and  he  is  blamed,  not  for 
dispensing  with  a  priest,  but  for  not  waiting 
for  Samuel.  Samuel  sacrifices  at  Bethlehem 
(IS  16 3)  and  David  at  Jerusalem  (2S613-17). 

6.  Samuel.  The  foregoing  discussion  has 
been  necessary  in  order  to  avoid  obscurity, 
otherwise  inevitable,  in  the  portraiture  of  the 
leading  characters  and  events  m.  these  books. 
Without  it,  we  should  find  difficulty  in  defend- 
ing them  from  the  charge  of  carelessness  and 
inaccuracy  ;  with  it,  we  can  pass  behind  the 
actual  narratives  to  something  like  the  reality 
which  the  Israelites  so  lovingly  handed  on  from 
generation  to  generation. 

To  take  the  case  of  Samuel  first.  In  one 
instance  (a),  he  is  a  little-known  seer,  who, 
however,  has  the  insight  to  recognise  the  need 
of  a  king,  and  to  find  the  fitting  man  in  the 
youthful  Saul.  In  the  other  (b),  he  is  the 
acknowledged  leader  of  Israel  (a  kind  of  civil 
Judge),  whose  headquarters  are  at  Mizpah, 
and  who  bitterly  resents  Israel's  wilfulness  in 
repudiating  the  traditional  theocracy.  There 
can  be  little  doubt  that  (a)  gives  the  more 


correct  picture  ;  but  it  is  easy  to  see  how  the 
Samuel  of  (a),  who  at  a  critical  time  takes  the 
decisive  step  in  the  history  of  the  nation,  was 
elevated  in  the  memory  of  Israel  into  a  position 
higher  than  that  of  Deborah  or  Eli,  and  almost 
recalling  the  glory  of  Moses.  The  dread  of 
the  monarchy,  so  clearly  set  forth  in  (b),  but 
absent  in  (a),  reminds  us  of  the  attitude  taken 
up  towards  it  by  the  prophets  Hosea,  Jeremiah 
and  Ezekiel.  In  1 S  9  9,  the  actual  title  of 
'prophet'  is  denied  to  Samuel;  but  his  relation 
to  the  kingdom  after  the  accession  of  Saul  is 
very  similar  to  that  of  Isaiah  to  Ahaz  and 
Hezekiah,  just  as  his  position  previously  had 
been  similar  to  that  of  the  earlier  Judges.  His 
action  is  uniform,  consistent  and  highminded; 
and  there  is  every  reason  for  the  veneration 
with  which  he  came  to  be  regarded  in  after 
years  (Ps 99 6  Jerl5i). 

He  has  been  called  '  the  last  of  the  Judges 
and  the  first  of  the  Kings.'  In  reality,  he  was 
neither  a  judge  (in  the  sense  in  which  Ehud 
and  Jephthah  were  Judges)  nor  a  king.  But 
he  found  Israel  a  loosely  knit  body  of  tribes  ; 
he  left  it  a  united  people.  Recognised  as  he 
was  by  the  whole  nation,  he  made  a  national 
monarchy  possible  ;  and  at  the  foundation  of  it 
he  laid  firmly  the  conception  of  the  responsi- 
bility of  the  national  ruler  to  God. 

7.  Saul.  In  the  case  of  Saul,  as  of  Samuel, 
we  find  two  distinct  views  of  his  character. 
He  is  first  shown  as  a  brave  and  vigorous 
hero,  ably  seconded  by  his  son  ;  for  his 
'rejection,'  the  incidents  of  1813^  and  even 
159  hardly  seem  sufficient  cause.  As  the 
melancholy  of  1  S 1 6 1'*  deepens  on  him,  his 
character  becomes  less  and  less  favourable  ;  he 
is  morose,  jealous,  cunning,  violent,  though 
not  without  gleams  of  a  better  nature  (IS 
24 1'')  ;  and  in  the  tragic  isolation  of  his  last 
days  he  reminds  us  of  Macbeth.  Yet  it  is 
noteworthy  that  from  his  accession  onwards, 
his  position  is  never  seriously  challenged,  as 
was  that  of  David  himself  subsequently.  From 
his  first  years,  he  sets  himself  to  the  great 
business  of  his  reign,  the  long  struggle  with 
the  Philistines  ;  he  inflicts  upon  them  blows 
they  have  never  suffered  before,  and  though 
he  finally  falls  before  them  (or  under  the 
mental  disease  which  paralysed  his  powers), 
his  successor  is  able  to  bring  all  serious  danger 
from  them  to  an  end.  After  the  appearance 
of  David,  the  interest  of  the  book  in  Saul's 
career  apart  from  David  comes  to  an  end  ;  but 
it  is  noteworthy  that  not  even  in  Judah  did 
David,  for  all  his  chann  and  reputation, 
succeed  in  producing  any  real  disloyalty  to 
Saul.  If,  in  his  last  days,  he  had  recourse  to 
necromancy,  he  had  zealously  enforced  the  laws 
against  superstition  in  earlier  times  ;  and  our 
judgment  on  his  persistent  hostility  to  David 
must    be   modified    by   David's   own    verdict 


180 


INTRO. 


1  AND  2  SAMUEL 


INTRO. 


upon  his  '  loveliness  and  pleasantness,'  which 
throughout  his  life  kept  his   people  true  to 
his  rule.     On  the  length  of  his  reign,  see  §  9. 
8.   David.      The  strongest  argument  for  the 
truthfulness  of  the  portrait  of  David  is  that 
so  much  therein  is  repellent  not  only  to  our 
feeling,  but  to  that  of  Israel  also.     He  is  pre- 
eminently a  warrior  (a  'man  of  war,'  ISIG^^ 
1  Ch  28  3),  with  a  true  warrior's  resom*cef ulness 
and  perception  of  the  need  of  the  moment  ; 
relentless  towards  his  foes,  yet  possessed  of  a 
peculiar  personal  charm  which  endeared  him 
to  his  own  people  and  to  strangers  alike  ;  he 
can    make    himself  at    home  with  Achish  of 
Gath,  and  one  of  his  closest  followers  in  later 
years  is  Ittai,  another  Gittite  Philistine.     He 
has  notable  skill  in  music  (1  S  16  ^^  ;  cp.  Am  6^). 
It  is  probable  that  his  large  harem  was  formed 
in  part  as  the  result  of  political  considera- 
tions ;  in  weakness  and  irresolution  in  dealing 
with  his  own  family,  he  is  like  many  other- 
wise vigorous  Oriental  monarchs — as  also  in  his 
liability  to  sudden  outbursts  of  strong  feeling, 
both  evil  and  good  ('2  8112  125. 13).    He  pushed 
the  frontiers  of  Israel  to  their  furthest  extent 
— an  achievement  which  was  the  easier  since 
at    this    time    both   Egypt    and   Assyria   and 
Babylon   were    occupied    within    their    own 
borders,  and  never  approached  Palestine  ;  he 
developed  the  simple  rule  of  Saul  (cp.  1  S  22  6) 
into  the  royalty  of  a  court  and  a  capital  ;  but 
subsequent   events   showed   that    he   did    not 
destroy  the  rivalry  between  the  southern  and 
northern  halves  of  the  kingdom.     Curiously 
enough,  the  strength  of  Absalom's  rebellion 
was  in  the  king's  own  tribe  of  Judah.     He  was 
exalted  by  the  affectionate  memory  of  later 
years  into  the   Saint    and    the   Psalmist.     It 
is  no  wonder  that  in  thinking  of  the  glorious 
future  king  of  Israel,  men  should  neglect  David's 
degenerate  successors  and  form  the  picture  of 
their  ideal,  as  '  a  son  of  David,'  on  the  frank 
generous  character  and  strong  vigorous  rule 
of  the  man  whom,  in  spite  of  all   his  faults, 
they  felt  to  be  after  God's  own  mind  (1  S 13 1*). 
Not  only  was  he  '  prudent  in  speech  '  and  '  of 
a  comely  person,'  but  '  Jehovah  was  with  him  ' 
(IS  16 18). 

9.  The  Chronology  of  the  Period.  The 
biblical  writings  themselves  give  us  the 
lengths  of  various  periods  (judgeships  and 
reigns)  and  of  the  intervals  between  events 
(e.g.  1  K  6 1).  In  the  Assyrian  canon  we  are 
able  to  fix  the  exact  year  of  certain  events  ; 
working  back  from  these,  and  reckoning  the 
reigns  of  David  and  Solomon  as  each  equal  to 
40  years  (2S54  IK  11 42),*  we  arrive  at  1017 
B.C.  as  the  date  of  David's  accession  and  the 
death  of  Saul.  The  events  of  David's  reign 
cannot  well  have  been  comprised  in  any  shorter 


time.  The  Old  Testament  does  not  mention 
the  length  of  Saul's  reign  ;  the  40  years  of 
Ac  13-1  are  certainly  too  long;  Saul  can  hardly 
have  been  older  than  60  (if  so  old)  at  the 
battle  of  Gilboa,  while  almost  at  the  beginning 
of  his  reign  his  eldest  son  is  a  powerful 
warrior.  His  actual  age  at  his  accession  is 
wanting  in  the  Hebrew  text  (1  S13i),  and  the 
narrative  of  his  reign  suggests  a  very  much 
shorter  period  than  David's.  We  should 
therefore  date  his  accession  between  1040  and 
1030  B.C. 

For  the  length  of  Samuel's  judgeship  we 
have  no  information  ;  he  is  introduced  to  us 
as  ah-eady  occupying  his  position  ;  possibly  he 
obtained  it  quite  gradually  after  the  death  of 
Eli  (of  the  date  of  this  event,  also,  we  are  in 
ignorance).  From  IS?^  (RM)  it  might  be 
inferred  that  for  20  years  after  the  deposi- 
tion of  the  ark  at  Kirjath-jearim,  Israel  was 
satisfied  with  Jehovah  and  Samuel  ;  hence  we 
should  place  the  beginning  of  Samuel's  office 
in  1060-1050  B.C.;  and  as  he  would  hardly 
have  been  much  less  than  30  years  old  when 
he  became  Judge,  or  than  50  years  old  when 
he  committed  the  kingdom  to  Saul,  we  must 
place  his  birth  somewhere  about  1085  B.C. 

10.  The  Religious  Significance  of  the  Book. 
The  main  religious  lesson  of  the  book  is  similar 
to  that  of  Judges  ;  it  is  that  Israel's  safety  as 
a  nation  lies  in  union  under  the  guidance  of 
Jehovah  and  resistance  to  foreigners.  Of 
this  union,  the  kingship  is  a  symbol.  As  we 
have  seen,  there  are  two  views  of  the  origin  of 
the  kingship  in  the  elevation  of  Saul  to  the 
throne  ;  but  that  of  1  S 15  (as  a  defection  from 
loyalty  to  Jehovah)  is  certainly  not  maintained, 
or  even  referred  to,  later  on  in  the  book. 
Both  Saul  and  David  were  firm  worshippers  of 
Jehovah  ;  in  spite  of  their  moral  lapses,  we 
hear  nothing  in  their  reigns  of  that  falling 
away  into  idolatry  which  is  so  common  both 
before  and  after.  The  references  (without 
any  suggestion  of  blame)  to  the  '  teraphim ' 
(IS  19 13-16;  contrast  1523)  and  to  the  offering 
of  sacrifices  in  other  places  besides  the  central 
sanctuary,  and  by  others  than  priests,  as  well 
as  the  omission  of  all  those  ritual  details  which 
fill  the  pages  of  the  parallel  narrative  in 
Chronicles,  show  that  the  religious  ideas  of 
the  time  (as  also  of  the  time  in  which  the 
book  was  written)  are  still  somewhat  primi- 
tive (cp.  also  181614,  'the  evil  spirit  from 
Jehovah,'  and  2  S24i  contrasted  with  1  Ch21 1, 
'  the  Satan  stood  up ').  But  though  we  are 
still  in  the  childhood  of  Israel's  religion,  it  is 
a  childhood  that  is  full  of  promise  ;  for  it  rests, 
with  a  loving  confidence  which  is  unshaken, 
on  the  firm  mercy  and  judgment  (PslOli)  of 
Israel's  God. 


*  Forty,  however,  is  probably  a  round  number :  cp.  Intro,  to  Judges. 
'four'  (so  RM).    In  any  case,  it  is  too  much. 

181 


'Forty,' in  2 815 7,  is  possibly  a,  mistake  for 


INTRO. 


1  SAMUEL 


1.3 


II.  Date,  Text,  etc.  A  few  miscellaneous 
points  remain  to  be  considered.  When  was 
the  book  written  ?  This  question  must  mean, 
in  view  of  §  2,  when  did  the  two  books  reach 
their  present  form  ?  It  is  impossible  to  reply 
with  certainty  ;  the  bulk  of  the  three  large 
narratives  must  have  been  written  compara- 
tively soon  after  the  events  they  refer  to, 
though  we  can  have  no  means  of  knowing  when 
the  poetical  additions  were  actually  made. 
Apart  from  these,  there  is  very  little  to  suggest 
a  date  later  than  the  8th  cent. 

What  is  its  relation  to  Chronicles  ?  The 
reader  will  easily  see  the  similarities  and  the 
differences  in  the  two  parallel  narratives. 
That  Chronicles  was  written  at  a  far  later  date 
is  shown,  apart  from  internal  evidence,  by  its 
place  in  the  Hebrew  canon,  almost  at  the  end, 
and  not,  like  Samuel,  among  the  '  prophets  ' — 
a  fact  which  is  emphasised  in  the  name  which 
the  book  bears  in  the  Septuagint,  '  things  left 
out.'  These  omissions  are  for  the  most  part 
lists  and  genealogies  and  details  connected 
with  the  ark  or  (later  on)  the  Temple,  which 
are  either  new,  or  much  more  fully  given  in  the 
later  book  (cp.  lChll26f.  121^  with  2 S6 12-19 
1637-43  and  the  additions  in  c.  21).  On 
the  other  hand,  some  of  the  most  interesting 
and  vividly  narrated  events  in  Samuel  are 
passed  over  entirely,  especially  anything 
(except  David's  numbering  of  Israel)  which 
is  to  the  disadvantage  of  the  king  himself 
(including  the  story  of  Bathsheba  and  the 
whole  rebellion  of  Absalom).     In  the  earlier 


book,  Israel  is  as  important  as  Judah,  apart 
from  the  fact  that  David's  prominence  gives 
special  weight  to  the  southern  tribe  ;  in  the 
later  book  (written  long  after  the  disappearance 
of  the  northern  kingdom)  Israel  is  of  no  im- 
portance at  all.  It  is  certain  that  the  books  of 
Samuel  were  among  the  sources  used  by  the 
Chronicler,  and  the  smaller  additions  seem 
intended  either  to  be  didactic,  or  to  fill  up 
apparent  gaps  in  the  earlier  narrative.  See 
Intro,  to  Chronicles.  A  careful  comparison 
with  Chronicles  will  bring  out  very  clearly  the 
impartiality  and  thoroughness  of  the  books  of 
Samuel. 

Have  we  the  best  text  of  Samuel  before  us  ? 
This  question  is  suggested  by  the  fact  (pointed 
out  several  times  in  the  notes)  that  the  text  is 
often  very  corrupt,  and  also  by  the  divergences 
constantly  to  be  observed  in  the  G-reek  trans- 
lation (the  Septuagint — LXX).  This  G-reek 
translation  is  itself  found  in  three  types  of 
text  ;  where  they  agree,  we  may  conclude,  with 
Prof.  H.  P.  Smith,  that  they  represent  an 
ancient  Hebrew  text.  This  text  (now  only 
recoverable  through  the  Greek  translation) 
would  seem  to  have  been  free  from  several 
errors  contained  in  the  Hebrew  text  from 
which  our  own  translation  has  been  made.  It 
is,  however,  unsafe  to  argue  that  because  a 
reading  is  simpler,  it  is  therefore  more  correct  ; 
in  some  cases,  the  reading  of  our  text  has 
been  misunderstood  ;  but  in  others,  we  must 
certainly  make  corrections  by  the  help  of 
the  Greek  version. 


1  SAMUEL 


CHAPTEK  1 

The  Birth  of  Samuel 

Hannah,  the  childless  wife  of  Elkanah,  is 
grieved  by  her  childlessness,  and  prays  for  a 
son.  Her  prayer  is  heard,  and  in  gratitude 
she  consecrates  her  child  to  the  service  of 
Jehovah. 

1.  Ramathaim-zophim]  Ramathaim  (' double 
height ')  probably  denotes  the  district  in  which 
Ramah  ('  height ')  was  the  chief  town.  It  was  at 
Ramah  that  Samuel  was  born,  lived,  laboured, 
died,  and  was  buried.  As  Ramah  was  a 
common  name  in  a  hilly  country  like  Palestine, 
Zophim  is  here  added  to  denote  that  this 
Ramah  was  in  the  land  of  Zuph  (9^).  But 
even  so,  the  exact  position  of  Ramah  has  not 
been  determined  with  certainty.  Mount 
Ephraim]  RV  '  the  hill  country  of  Ephraim.' 
Ephrathite]   RV  '  Ephraimite.' 

2.  Two  wives]  The  reason  was  probably  the 


barrenness  of  Hannah,  which  Elkanah  would 
consider  a  disgrace.  Thomson  states  that  at 
the  present  day  in  the  East  it  is  considered 
sufficient  reason  for  a  divorce.  But  here,  as 
elsewhere  in  OT.,  we  find  evidence  of  the 
unhappiness  which  polygamy  often  produced. 
3.  Yearly]  lit.  '  from  time  to  time.'  The 
Law  commanded  every  male  to  appear  before 
God  three  times  in  the  year,  and  there  are 
strong  reasons  for  assigning  a  very  early  date 
to  the  practice.  Of  course,  the  phrase  '  from 
time  to  time '  can  mean  '  from  year  to  year,' 
when  the  context  so  defines  it  (as  in  Exl.3iO); 
but  otherwise  there  is  no  justification  for  so 
limiting  it.  LORD  of  hosts]  This  title  of  God 
occurs  here  for  the  first  time,  and  its  use  was 
probably  occasioned  by  the  warlike  character 
of  the  book.  As  used  in  the  books  of  Samuel, 
'  the  hosts  '  are  the  armies  of  Israel  (17  ■*^),  but 
afterwards  the  idea  was  extended  to  the  hosts 
of  angels  (Ps  103  20, 21).     Shiloh]  Joshua  set  up 


182 


1.  5 


1  SAMUEL 


2.  13 


the  Tabernacle  there  (JoshlS^),  as  being 
central  and  in  the  territory  of  his  own  tribe. 
For  its  position,  see  Jg  2 1 1^.  And  the  two 
sons  of  Eli,  Hophni  and  Phinehas,  the  priests 
of  the  LORD,  were  there]  rather,  '  and  there 
the  two  sons  of  Eli,  Hophni  and  Phinehas, 
were  priests  to  the  Lord.' 

5.  A  worthy  portion]  LXX  reads  '  But  unto 
Hannah  he  gave  a  single  portion.'  Elkanah 
gave  portions  to  Peninnah  and  to  each  of  her 
sons  and  daughters.  But  in  spite  of  his  love 
for  Hannah,  he  only  gave  her  a  single  portion, 
because  she  had  neither  son  nor  daughter.  The 
Heb.  text,  as  it  stands,  cannot  be  translated. 
The  portion  was  the  part  of  the  sacrifice 
consumed  by  the  offerer  and  his  family  :  see 
Lv7.  6.  Her  adversary]  i.e.  Peninnah.  The 
word  is  a  common  one  in  Arabic  to  denote  a 
rival,  or  fellow-wife.  7.  As  he  did  so]  Pro- 
bably the  true  text  is  '  So  it  happened.'  Did 
not  eat]  refused  to  take  any  part  in  the 
festival,  of  which  the  sacrificial  meal  was  a 
principal  feature  (cp.  c.  9). 

9.  Eli  the  priest]  i.e.  the  chief  priest.  How 
Eli  had  attained  this  rank  we  do  not  know,  for 
he  was  descended  from  Ithamar  the  younger 
son  of  Aaron,  and  not  from  Eleazar  the  elder 
son.  It  has  been  supposed  that  in  those 
troublous  times  the  office  was  bestowed  upon 
him  on  account  of  his  ability  and  piety.  Upon 
a  seat  by  a  post]  BY  '  upon  his  seat  by  the 
door  post,'  where  he  could  see  all  who  went  in 
or  out :  cp.  4^3.  11.  See  NuG  respecting  the 
Nazirite  vow.  16.  A  daughter  of  Belial]  lit. 
'  a  daughter  of  worthlessness,'  i.e.  a  worthless 
woman.  '  Belial '  came  to  be  used  as  a  name 
for  Satan  (2  Cor  6 15).    Grief]  B, V '  provocation. ' 

20.  Samuel]  The  name  Samuel  is  here  con- 
nected with  the  verb  saal,  '  to  ask '  ;  but  this 
seems  only  to  have  been  a  popular  etymology. 
Most  probably  Samuel  means  '  name  of  Grod '  : 
cp.  V.  28. 

21.  His  vow]  Perhaps  Elkanah  had  vowed 
an  offering  to  God  if  Hannah  had  a  son,  which 
he   now  fulfilled  :  cp.  Lv  7 1'^. 

22.  Until  the  child  be  weaned]  After  this 
the  ordinary  attendants  at  the  Tabernacle 
would  be  able  to  take  charge  of  him.  In  the 
Koran  the  usual  time  for  weaning  is  stated  to 
be  the  age  of  two  years. 

23.  His  word]  LXX  'thy  word.'  No 
mention  has  been  made  in  the  preceding 
account  of  any  promise  of  God.  24.  Three 
bullocks]  Probably  one  bullock  was  for  the 
burnt-offering,  which  accompanied  the  dedica- 
tion of  Samuel,  another  was  for  Elkanah's 
usual  sacrifice,  while  the  third  was  the  thank- 
offering  he  had  vowed  (v.  21). 

28.  Lent]  RV  'granted,'  as  in  Ex  12 36. 
And  he  worshipped  the  LORD  there]  These 
words  interrupt  the  connexion  and  are  rightly 
omitted  by  LXX. 


CHAPTER  2 

Hannah's  Song    of    Thanksgiving.    The 

Sin  of  Eli's  Sons 

I -10.   The  Song  of  Hannah. 

This  beautiful  poem  has  been  well  called 
the  '  Magnificat  of  the  Old  Testament.'  The 
song  of  the  Virgin  Mary  (Lk  1 46-55j  jg  clearly 
modelled  on  it  very  closely.  In  each  case 
there  is  the  rejoicing  over  the  exaltation  of 
the  poor  and  despised  and  the  humiliation  of 
the  rich.  But  there  is  a  world  of  difference 
between  Mary's  quiet  and  restrained  gratitude 
and  calm  confidence  in  God's  mercy,  on  the 
one  hand,  and  the  exultant  and  almost  fierce 
triumph  of  this  song.  V.  5  has  doubtless  led 
to  the  attribution  of  the  song  to  Hannah;  but 
in  its  general  tone  it  seems  more  suitable  to 
some  public  person,  and  v.  10  (unless  it  be  an 
interpolation)  suggests  a  later  date  in  Israel's 
history.  Compare  the  expressions  of  national 
triumph  in  the  songs  of  Moses  (ExlS^'^^)  and 
Deborah  (Jg5). 

1.  Mine  horn  is  exalted]  The  figure  is  that 
of  an  animal  carrying  its  head  high:  cp.  Ps 
11 2  9.  My  mouth  is  enlarged]  The  idea  is 
that  of  speaking  with  confidence  and  derision: 
cp.  Isa57'*.  Salvation]  In  the  Bible  this  word 
denotes  help  or  deliverance  of  any  kind. 

2.  Holy]  The  Holiness  of  God  in  the  OT. 
denotes  positively  the  completeness  of  the 
divine  nature  and  negatively  God's  unlikeness 
to  anything  else.  Rock]  This  is  a  frequent 
metaphor  to  express  the  strength  and  un- 
changingness  of  Jehovah.  The  name  also 
conveys  the  idea  that  the  strength  of  God  is  a 
refuge  for  His  people  (Ps912).  Rocks,  as 
capable  of  easy  defence,  were  often  used  as 
places  of  refuge. 

3.  Weighed]  i.e.  estimated.  The  idea  is 
the  same  as  inProv212.  5.  Seven]  the  num- 
ber of  completeness,  perfection.  6.  Grave] 
Heb.  Sheol,  the  place  where  departed  spirits 
were  believed  to  be  gathered  at  death.  Bringeth 
up]  restores  to  life  those  who  were  at  the 
point  of  death.  8.  Pillars]  the  gi-eat  men  of 
the  state  on  whom  it  depended  for  its  stability : 
cp.  Gal  2  9  Rev  3 12.  9.  Saints]  R V '  holy  ones ' : 
rather,  '  pious  ones,  those  who  love  God.' 
10.  His  anointed]  a  conxmon  name  for  the 
Jewish  king. 

12.  Knew]  This  verb  in  the  Bible  has  of  ten 
the  added  idea  of  appreciation,  recognition  of 
character,  affection. 

13-17.  The  sons  of  Eli  were  guilty  of  a  two- 
fold sin.  (a)  Instead  of  being  content  with  their 
allotted  portion  (Lv73if-)  they  took  all  they 
could  get  of  the  offerer's  portion,  (b)  They 
dishonoured  God  by  making  their  claims  take 
precedence  of  His.  The  blood  and  the  fat 
were  to  be  consumed  on  the  altar  immediately 
after  slaughtering  (Ex  2318),  5^^  they  claimed 


183 


2.  16 


1  SAMUEL 


3.  18 


their  share  before  this  had  been  done.  After 
the  fat  had  been  conveyed  to  Grod  the  sacri- 
ficial flesh  was  boiled,  bnt  Eli's  sons  demanded 
their  portion  raw  with  a  view  to  its  being 
roasted :  see    HDB.  art.  '  Sacrifice.' 

1 6.  If  any  man]  RV  '  if  the  man,'  i.e.  the 
offerer.      Presently]    i.e.  immediately,  at  once. 

17.  For  men  abhorred]  rather,  'for  the  men 
(i.e.  the  sons  of  Eli)  despised.' 

18.  But  Samuel]  Throughout  this  section 
Samuel  is  contrasted  with  the  profligate  sons 
of  Eli.  Linen  ephod]  the  usual  priestly  gar- 
ment (IS 22 18).  20.  For  the  loan  which  is 
lent]  rather,  '  in  return  for  the  petition  which 
was  made  for  (i.e.  for  the  benefit  of)  the  Lord,' 
i.e.  in  place  of  Samuel,  the  man-child  who,  if 
born,  was  to  be  given  to  the  Lord. 

22.  Assembled  at']  RY  '  did  service  at.'  It 
is  probable  that  these  women  were  permanently 
connected  with  the  Tabernacle:  cp.  ExSS^. 

Lay  with  the  women]  There  is  no  doubt  that 
the  surrender  of  their  chastity  was  regarded 
by  the  women  of  Canaan  and  Syria  as  the 
highest  sacrifice  they  could  make  in  honour  of 
their  gods.  The  sons  of  Eli  introduced  these 
ITT) moral  rites  into  the  worship  of  Jehovah,  and 
hence  the  severity  of  their  condemnation. 

25.  In  the  original,  point  is  given  to  Eli's 
rebuke  by  the  fact  that  the  word  here  used  for 
'  judge '  (Elohini)  also  means  '  God.'  The  judge 
was  regarded  as  the  representative  of  God: 
see  Ps82*^.  If  it  is  a  case  of  men,  God  has 
appointed  some  one  to  settle  the  matter;  but 
when  God  Himself  is  the  offended  party,  no 
higher  power  exists  to  whom  the  case  can  be 
submitted.     God  is  both  adversary  and  judge. 

Would  slay  them]  lit.  'wished  to  slay  them.' 
In  the  OT.  the  direct  intervention  of  God  is 
assumed,  and  His  ever-present  agency  realised 
as  a  determining  fact.  We  say  that  after  a 
man  has  persisted  for  long  years  in  sinful 
habits,  he  finds  it  impossible  to  alter.  The 
Bible  expresses  the  same  truth  by  stating,  first 
that  the  sinner  (e.g.  Pharaoh)  hardens  his  own 
heart,  and  then  that  God  hardens  the  sinner's 
heart.  The  punishment  of  the  wicked  is  con- 
sidered to  be  as  much  in  accordance  with  God's 
will  as  the  reward  of  the  righteous. 

27.  A  man  of  God]  a  common  name  for  a 
prophet.  With  the  books  of  Samuel  we  come 
to  a  period  when  God  guides  His  people  by 
human  agency  rather  than  by  direct  commu- 
nication. Did  I  plainly  appear?]  RV  '  Did  I 
reveal  myself  ?  '  It  is  an  impassioned  question, 
,  '  Did  I  or  did  I  not? '    Thy  father]  i.e.  Aaron. 

In  Pharaoh's  house]  LXX  reads  '  In  bond- 
age to  Pharaoh's  house.'  28.  Give .  .  all  the 
offerings]   see  Lv2,6,7. 

29.  Kick  ye  at]  The  figure  is  that  of  a 
pampered  and  intractable  animal:  cp.  Dt32i^. 
Sacrifice  and  .  .  offering]  bloody  and  unbloody 
sacrifices.     Honourest  thy  sons  above  me]  Eli 


should  have  removed  his  sons  from  a  position 
they  disgraced.  But  he  could  not  bring  him- 
self to  humiliate  them  and  lower  his  own 
position  in  the  sight  of  the  people. 

30.  When  Abiathar,  the  descendant  of  Eli, 
fled  to  David  (22^0),  Zadok,  a  descendant  of 
Eleazar,  may  have  been  made  chief  priest  by 
Saul.  He  appears  soon  after,  and  it  is  not 
known  how  or  when  the  office  was  bestowed 
on  him.  David  divided  the  dignity  between 
the  two  (2S81"),  but  Abiathar  was  deposed  by 
Solomon  (1 K  2  27)^  and  the  priesthood  remained 
with  Zadok  and  his  descendants  down  to  the 
time  of  the  exile.  Thus  the  prophet's  threat 
was  fulfilled. 

31-35.  It  is  keenly  disputed  to  what 
events  these  vv.  refer.  The  simplest  explana- 
tion is  that  V.  31  refers  to  the  massacre  of  the 
priests  at  Nob,  vv.  32,  33  to  the  deposition  and 
consequent  poverty  of  Abiathar,  and  v.  35  to 
Zadok. 

31.  Cut  off  thine  arm]  destroy  thy  power,  as 
PslQis.  32.  An  enemy  <■/(  m?/ habitation]  lit. 
'  affliction  of  habitation.'  The  context  seems 
to  show  that  the  reference  is  to  Eli's  own 
dwelling.  While  Israel  increased  in  wealth 
and  prosperity  in  the  reign  of  Solomon,  Eli's 
family  were  to  fall  into  poverty  and  obscurity. 

33.  Those  who  did  not  die  young  would  pass 
their  life  in  vexation  and  grief.  Thine  eyes  .  . 
thine  heart]  rather  as  LXX,  '  his  eyes  .  .  his 
heart.'  Shall  die  in  the  flower  of  their  age] 
LXX  reads  '  shall  die  by  the  sword  of  men.' 

35.  I  will  build  him  a  sure  house]  i.e.  I  will 
give  him  a  continuous  posterity  :  cp.  25 -'^ 
2S7i*5.  Mine  anointed]  the  king  (singular), 
really  referring  to  the  long  line  of  kings  who 
were  to  follow  David.  36.  Put  me  into] 
rather,  'attach  me  to,'  'make  me  a  hanger  on.' 

CHAPTER  3 

The  Call  of  Samuel 

I.  Precious]  RM,  'rare':  see  Isal3i2. 
There  was  no  prophet  then.  Open]  rather, 
'published,  widely  announced  '  :  cp.  2Ch315. 

3.  Ere  the  lamp  of  God  went  out]  The  lamp 
('  the  seven-branched  candlestick  ')  burned  all 
night  in  the  sanctuary,  so  that  the  time  was 
early  morning  :  cp.  Ex  27  ^i.  Samuel  seems  to 
have  been  sleeping  in  some  chamber  near  the 
ark.  Cp.  RV,  '  was  laid  down  to  sleep,  in  the 
temple  of  the  Lord,  where  the  ark  of  God 
was.'  On  the  ark  see  Intro.  §  5.  10.  Came, 
and  stood]  the  Voice  became  a  Vision. 

13.  Made  themselves  vile]  LXX  reads 
'  Because  his  sons  cursed  God.'    See  on  2  S  12 1^. 

15.  Doors]  The  Tabernacle  was  no  longer  a 
mere  tent,  but  at  this  time  had  been  replaced 
by  a  substantial  building.  This  was  a  natural 
consequence  of  its  occupying  a  fixed  position. 

18.  It  is  the  Lord]  So  Eli  was  at  heart 
loyal,  though  he  had  shown  culpable  weakness. 


184 


3.  19 


1  SAMUEL 


5.  12 


19.  Let  none  of  his  words  fall  to  the  ground] 
i.e.  accomplished  all  his  predictions.  For 
the  idea  cp.  Dt  18  21, 22.  20.  Established] 
i.e.  accredited,  approved.  Prophet]  see  In- 
tro.  §  4. 

21.  In  Shiloh  by  the  word  of  the  LORD] 
These  words  are  wanting  in  LXX,  and  the 
connexion  gains  greatly  by  their  omission. 

C.  41=^.  And  the  word  of  Samuel  came  to  all 
Israel]  This  clause  should  really  form  the 
conclusion  of  c.  3  as  it  does  in  RV.  Samuel 
proclaimed  to  all  his  countrymen  the  revela- 
tion he  had  received. 

CHAPTER  4 

Capture  of  the  Ark  by  the  Philistines. 

Death  of  Eli 

The  reason  which  led  to  41^^  being  detached 
from  its  proper  context  is  that  without  it  this 
c.  seems  to  begin  with  inexplicable  abruptness. 
The  explanation  of  this  lack  of  connexion  is 
that  the  editor  is  now  using  a  different  docu- 
ment. This  section  is  in  no  sense  a  continua- 
tion of  the  preceding.  It  does  not  proceed 
with  the  history  of  Samuel,  whose  name  does 
not  even  occur  in  it,  but  relates  the  journey- 
ings  of  the  ark.  Alike  in  style  and  in  con- 
ception it  is  totally  distinct  from  the  section 
which  precedes  and  the  section  which  follows 
it.  In  many  respects  it  resembles  the  history 
of  Samson  more  closely  than  any  other  part 
of  OT. 

I.  The  Philistines]  see  on  JgS^.  Eben- 
ezer]  '  stone  of  help.'  The  place  is  called  by 
the  name  familiar  to  the  readers  of  the  book, 
though  it  did  not  actually  receive  the  name 
till  later  (7^'^).  The  positions  of  Eben-ezer 
and  Aphek  have  not  been  determined  with 
certainty. 

3.  The  ark  of  the  covenant]  so  called 
because  it  was  a  sign  and  proof  both  of  God's 
covenant  and  of  His  presence. 

4.  RV  '  which  sitteth  upon  the  cherubim.' 
This  does  not  imply  that  there  were  figures 
of  cherubim  upon  the  ark  (IKS*^),  but  refers 
to  the  general  glory  of  Jehovah.  The  cherubs 
are  heavenly  beings  regarded  as  standing  in 
Jehovah's  presence  (cp.  the  seraphim  of  Isa  6), 
and,  in  Ezk  1 , 1 0,  as  of  composite  form.  Cp.  also 
PslS^o.  In  Solomon's  temple  two  winged 
cherubs  stood  in  the  most  holy  place  (1  KG 24). 

The  two  sons  of  Eli]  This  notice  is  in- 
tended to  remind  us  why  the  arrival  of  the 
ark  produced  no  result. 

6.  Hebrews]  This  is  the  general  name  for 
Israelites  when  foreigners  are  the  speakers 
(an39i4).  8.  The  Philistines  are  not  quite 
accurate  in  their  history,  but  the  mistake  is 
not  at  all  unnatural. 

15.  Ninety  and  eight]  This  number  is 
interesting  as  showing  how  mistakes  arise. 
In  the  original  it  was  denoted  by  two  letters. 


The  LXX,  losing  sight  of  one,  reads  90.  The 
Syriac,  confusing  9  with  7,  reads  78.  The 
Hebrew  explains  the  cause  of  the  other  two 
readings. 

19  f.  The  narrative  is  somewhat  obscure. 
Apparently  Phinehas'  wife  dies  in  giving  birth 
to  her  child  ;  before  her  death,  she  cries  out 
'  I-chabod,'  which  is  thus  given  as  the  child's 
name.     V.  22  simply  repeats  v.  2L 

21.  I-chabod]  'no  glory.'  The  glory  was 
that  of  the  presence  of  God,  the  visible  sign 
and  symbol  of  which  was  the  ark. 

22.  Departed]  lit.  '  gone  into  exile.'  The 
axk  had  gone  into  a  foreign  land. 

CHAPTER  5 

The  Ark  among  the  Philistines 

1.  Ashdod]  on  an  elevation  overlooking  the 
Philistine  plain  midway  between  Gaza  and 
Joppa,  and  3  m.  from  the  Mediterranean.  Its 
importance  consisted  in  the  fact  that  it  com- 
manded the  high  road  from  Palestine  to 
Egypt. 

2.  Dagon]  seems  to  have  been  worshipped 
in  all  the  Philistine  cities.  His  name  is  pro- 
bably merely  the  Canaanite  pronunciation  of 
the  word  for  '  corn,'  and  designates  him  as 
the  god  of  agriculture.  The  Philistines  were 
not  a  maritime  people,  like  the  Phoenicians, 
but  depended  on  agi'iculture.  Stanley  writes  : 
'  The  most  striking  and  characteristic  feature 
of  Philistia  is  its  immense  plains  of  corn- 
fields. .  .  These  rich  fields  must  have  been  the 
great  source  alike  of  the  power  and  value 
of  Philistia.'  They  brought  it]  The  Philis- 
tines considered  that  their  god,  Dagon,  had 
shown  himself  stronger  than  Jehovah,  and  so 
they  brought  him  the  symbol  of  his  conquered 
rival. 

3.  Fallen  upon  his  face]  in  an  attitude  of 
homage.  Set  him  in  his  place]  they  would 
think  it  was  an  accident.  4.  This  time  all 
possibility  of  accident  was  excluded.  The 
sftimp  of  Dagon]  AV  is  right  in  thinking  that 
some  word  must  have  fallen  out  of  the  Hebrew 
text. 

6.  In  c.  6  we  have  a  plague  of  mice  as  well 
as  of  haemorrhoids.  Some  regard  the  intro- 
duction of  this  second  plague  as  due  to  a 
scribe.  On  the  other  hand,  LXX  inserts  a 
notice  of  the  mice  also  in  5*'' 10  gi.  Well- 
hausen  thinks  that  '  mice '  are  symbolical  of 
misfortune  in  general,  and  do  not  denote 
a  second  plague.  Herodotus  attributes  the 
disaster  which  overtook  Sennacherib's  army 
and  the  deliverance  of  Jerusalem  in  701  B.C. 
(2K 192-5-3'')  to  a  host  of  mice,  which  destroyed 
the  bowstrings  of  the  Assyrian  soldiers  :  cp. 
on  65. 

12.  So  the  protest  of  the  Ekronites  was  not 
attended  to.  The  Philistines  were  unwilling 
to  part  with  their  trophy. 


185 


6.2 


1  SAMUEL 


8.  11 


CHAPTER  6 

The  Philistines  return  the  Ark  to 

Israel 

2.  The  diviners]  The  Philistines  appear  to 
have  been  notorious  for  their  attachment  to 
divination  :  see  on  Isa  2  6.  3.  The  trespass 
offering  was  always  brought  to  atone  for  some 
wrong  done  to,  or  some  right  withheld  from, 
God  or  man.  5.  Aristotle  relates  that  in 
harvest  entire  crops  were  sometimes  destroyed 
in  a  single  night  by  the  ravages  of  field-mice. 

7.  The  new  cart  and  the  kine  who  had  worn 
no  yoke  were  signs  of  respect.  9.  Under 
ordinary  circumstances  the  cows  would  not 
have  left  their  calves.  Beth-shemesh]  the 
modem  Ain-Shems,  on  the  N.  border  of 
Judah. 

18.  Even  unto  the  great  stone']  Read  with 
LXX,  '  And  the  great  stone,  whereon  they 
set  down  the  ark  of  the  Lord,  is  a  witness 
unto  this  day.' 

19.  It  is  very  probable  that  in  this  v.  LXX 
has  preserved  the  original  text  :  '  But  the 
sons  of  Jechoniah  rejoiced  not  with  the  men 
of  Beth-shemesh,  when  they  gazed  (with  glad- 
ness) at  the  ark  of  the  Lord,  and  he  smote 
among  them  70  men.'  All  editors  are  agreed 
that  the  '  fifty  thousand  '  is  a  gloss  which  has 
crept  into  the  text.  The  Hebrew  phrase  here 
used  is  not  the  correct  method  of  expressing 
60,070. 

21.  Kirjath-jearim]  see  on  JglS^^.  For 
the  further  account  of  the  ark  cp.  2  86. 

C.  7 1.  This  V.  is  the  conclusion  of  the  nar- 
rative, and  should  really  form  part  of  c.  6. 

We  should  have  expected  the  ark  to  be 
taken  back  to  Shiloh  ;  perhaps  Shiloh  had 
fallen  into  the  hands  of  the  Philistines,  who 
now  overran  Israel  (cp.  146'19).  At  any  rate, 
we  hear  no  more  of  Shiloh  as  a  national 
meeting-place  ;  for  the  time,  whatever  national 
unity  exists  centres  round  Samuel. 

CHAPTER  7 

Samuel  delivers  Israel  from  the 
Philistines 

The  narrative  in  this  c.  is  taken  from  a 
different  source  from  the  account  which 
precedes. 

2.  Twenty  years]  The  time  is  reckoned  till 
Israel's  repentance  and  not  to  the  removal  of 
the  ark  by  David  (2S62).  3,  4.  These  vv. 
appear  to  be  anticipatory  and  in  order  of  time 
to  follow  vv.  5,  6.  4.  Baalim  and  Ashtaroth] 
see  on  Jg2ii>i3.     5.   Mizpeh]  in  Benjamin. 

Pray]  Samuel  was  noted  as  a  man  of  prayer 
(cp.  Ps996). 

6.  Poured  it  out]  The  symbolism  of  the  act 
is  uncertain.  The  most  probable  explanation 
is  that  of  the  Targum,  that  it  represented  the 
pouring  out  of  their  hearts  in  repentance  be- 


186 


fore  the  Lord  :  cp.  2  S  23  le  Lam  2 19.  7.  Went 
up  against  Israel]  for  the  object  of  the  as- 
sembly at  Mizpeh  was  to  throw  off  the  Philistine 
yoke. 

9.  A  burnt  offering  wholly]  RV  '  a  whole 
burnt  offering.'  The  offering  of  the  whole 
animal  symbolised  the  self-dedication  of  the 
worshipper.     12.   Eben-ezer]  see  on  41. 

13.  All  the  days  of  Samuel]  The  words 
naturally  mean  '  all  the  time  he  acted  as  judge.' 
This  must  be  understood  as  the  optimistic 
notice  of  a  later  writer.  The  narrative  of 
c.  14  shows  that  Israel  did  not  succeed  in 
recovering  from  the  Philistine  oppression  : 
see  also  on  7^  9^''.  14.  The  coasts  thereof] 
i.e.  the  districts  round  the  towns.  Amorites] 
i.e.  the  old  Canaanite  inhabitants  of  the  hill- 
country  :  see  on  Jg  1 3*.  Israelite  and  Canaan- 
ite made  peace  in  front  of  a  common  enemy. 

15.  All  the  days  of  his  life]  The  attitude  of 
Samuel  towards  Saul  in  the  matters  of  (a)  his 
sacrifice  and  (b)  Amalek  show  that  he  retained 
some  authority  even  after  Saul  was  elected 
king. 

16.  He  instituted  what  in  modem  language 
would  be  called  '  courts  of  assize.'  Gilgal] 
probably  the  famous  site  near  Jericho. 

CHAPTERS  8-14 

See  on  9  ^.  There  are  clearly  two  accounts 
of  the  institution  of  the  kingship.  In  c.  8,  the 
wish  for  a  king  is  regarded  as  a  sign  of  dis- 
loyalty to  the  real  King,  Jehovah,  and,  as  such, 
Samuel  protests  against  it.  In  chs.  9-1 0^^, 
Jehovah  himself  chooses  Saul  to  deliver  his 
people  from  the  Philistines  :  cp.  Intro.  §  2. 

CHAPTER   8 
The  People  demand  a  King 

I.  Judges]  They  would  be  subordinate  to 
their  father.  When  the  son  of  a  Judge  was 
influential  and  popular,  he  might  easily  succeed 
to  his  father's  position  :  cp.  Abimelech  in 
Jg9if. 

5.  Like  all  the  nations]  This  was  the  sin  of 
the  people.  God  intended  that  they,  unlike 
other  nations,  should  be  a  peculiar  people, 
governed  directly  by  Himself. 

6.  Displeased  Samuel]  They  had  shown 
themseh'es  forgetful  of  their  relation  to  God 
and  ungrateful  to  Samuel  himself.  But  in 
spite  of  this,  he  simply  leaves  the  decision 
with  God.  7.  For]  Samuel  was  not  to  hesi- 
tate, for  the  matter  was  one  which  concerned 
God  rather  than  himself.  8.  Which  they 
have  done]  LXX  adds  '  to  me,'  an  addition 
which  is  required  by  the  contrast  with  '  to 
thee.' 

II.  It  does  not  follow  that  a  Jewish  king 
was  actually  like  this  description,  but  an 
Oriental  despot  was,  and  Israel  had  asked 
for  a  king  like  other  nations.     In  later  years, 


8.  13 


1  SAMUEL 


10.  25 


Hebrew  monarchy  sank  very  low,  both  in 
Judah  and  Israel  :  cp.  the  tone  both  of  Hosea 
andof  Ezekiel(459  46iS).  13.  Confectionaries] 
RM  '  perfumers '  :  cp.  Ex  30  25.  15.  Officers] 
Heb.  '  eunuchs.' 

CHAPTER   9 
Saul  and  Samuel  meet 

For  the  picture  of  Samuel  in  this  c,  as  a 
person  of  local  rather  than  national  import- 
ance, cp.  Intro.  §  6.  On  early  prophecy,  see 
Intro.  §  4. 

C.  gi-io^'^  comes  from  a  different  source 
from  c.  8  :  see  intro.  there.  The  author  of 
this  section  gives  no  hint  that  the  choice  of  a 
king  was  displeasing  to  God.  But  we  meet 
with  the  views  of  c.  8  again  when  we  come  to 
IQi^f. 

I.  Power]  RV  '  valour.'  4,  5.  The  dis- 
tricts of  Shalisha,  Shalim,  and  Zuph  have  not 
been  identified.  5.  Take  thought]  rather, 
'be  anxious.'  6.  In  this  city]  probably 
Ramah. 

9.  This  V.  is  probably  an  explanatory  note 
by  the  editor,  though  some  regard  it  as  a 
scribe's  insertion.  Seer]  Heb.  roeh^  a  com- 
paratively rare  word,  in  this  sense.  '  They 
were  called  "  seers "  for  no  other  reason 
than  because  they  were  thought  to  "  see " 
what  for  the  rest  of  men  was  hidden,  the 
secrets  either  of  the  present  or  of  the  future  '  ; 
e.g.  in  the  present  case,  the  matter  of  the 
asses.  Prophet]  The  Heb,  word  is  nahi^  and 
is  probably  connected  with  the  Assyrian  nabu^ 
'  to  call '  or  '  name.'  The  prophet  was  the 
'  spokesman '  of  Jehovah  :  see  art.  '  Hebrew 
Prophecy.' 

13.  This  refers  to  the  solemn  sacrificial 
meal  after  the  peace  offering  :  cp.  Ex  24  5.  n 
Lv7.  14.  Came  out  against  them]  rather, 
'  came  out  to  meet  them.'  20.  On  whom  is 
all  the  desire]  RV  '  for  whom  is  all  that  is 
desirable  in  Israel.  Is  it  not  for  thee  ? ' 
cp.  Hag  2  7  RM.  21.  The  least  of  all  the 
families]  This  is  Eastern  hyperbole  and  must 
not  be  taken  literally  :  cp.  JgG^^. 

24.  And  Samuel  said]  The  word  '  Samuel ' 
is  not  in  the  original.  '  And  the  cook  took 
up  .  .  and  said.'  What  follows  is  the  garrulous 
talk  of  the  cook.  Since  I  said]  the  Heb.  is 
simply  '  saying  '  (i.e.  Samuel). 

25,  26.  LXX  is  the  more  probable  :  '  And 
when  they  were  come  down  from  the  high 
place  into  the  city,  they  spread  a  couch  for 
Saul  on  the  housetop,  and  he  lay  down.  And 
it  came  to  pass  about,'  etc.  At  the  present 
day  in  the  East  multitudes  sleep  on  the  roofs 
of  houses.  26.  Samuel  called  Saul  to  the  top] 
RV  '  Samuel  called  to  Saul  on  the  housetop.' 
Saul  had  been  sleeping  on  the  roof,  and  now 
Samuel  calls  to  him  to  descend. 


CHAPTER  10 

Saul  is  anointed  King  by  Samuel 

I.  LXX  is  probably  right  in  reading  at  the 
end  of  this  v.  '  and  this  is  the  sign  that  the 
Lord  hath  anointed  thee  to  be  captain '  (RV 
'  prince  ')  '  over  his  inheritance.'  2.  Rachel's 
tomb]  was  not  far  from  Bethlehem  (Gn  35  !">  20). 

3.    Plain]  RV  '  oak.' 

5.  The  hill  of  God]  The  word  is  really 
'  Gibeah,'  which  was  Saul's  own  home.  It  is 
here  called  '  God's  Gibeah '  because  Samuel 
had  established  a  school  of  the  prophets  there. 
Cp.  the  common  term  for  a  prophet,  '  man  of 
God'  (e.g.  IK  17 18).  They  shall  prophesy] 
RV  '  they  shall  be  prophesying,'  lit.  acting  as 
prophets.  Music  was  a  recognised  means  of 
promoting  the  exaltation  of  spirit  necessary 
for  inspiration  (2K315).  6.  Be  turned  into 
another  man]  fitted  for  his  new  career  :  see 
V.  9. 

8.  This  command  appears  to  have  been 
given  during  the  Philistine  war  narrated  in 
c.  13  :  cp.  13^*.  Here  it  interrupts  the  con- 
nexion. 

9.  Another  heart]  The  heart  is  not,  with  the 
Hebrews,  opposed  to  the  head,  as  with  us.  The 
term  is  used  for  the  general  bent  both  of  mind 
and  character.  Saul  has  a  new  conception  of 
himself  and  of  his  life  given  to  him.  This 
is  quickly  followed  by  a  sudden  outburst  of 
'  prophesying,'  here  obviously  used  in  the 
sense  of  ecstatic  exaltation  of  utterance. 
Saul's  liability  to  be  carried  out  of  himself 
(like  his  namesake  of  Tarsus)  is  also  made 
clear  in  his  fits  of  melancholic  brooding  and 
sudden  passion  (cp.  IS^o,  11^  where  for  'pro- 
phesied '  RM  reads  '  raved  ').  See  also  Intro. 
§7. 

II.  Is  Saul  also  among  the  prophets?]  i.e. 
has  he  joined  a  school  of  the  prophets  ?  He 
was  not  the  sort  of  young  man  to  adopt  such 
a  life.  Another  explanation  of  the  saying  is 
given  in  19  ^■*. 

12.  Who  is  their  father  ?]  Prophecy  did  not 
descend  from  father  to  son,  so  that  there  was 
no  reason  for  surprise  in  finding  the  son  of 
Kish  among  the  prophets. 

17.  At  this  point  the  other  narrative  is 
resumed  (see  on  8 1). 

19.  Thousands]  The  word  may  very  possibly 
mean  simply  'families'  :  cp.  v.  21.  We  can 
hardly  imagine  this  to  mean  that  the  whole 
Hebrew  population  of  Palestine  was  present. 

20.  The  Hebrews  considered  that  in  elec- 
tions by  lot,  the  decision  was  made  by  God 
(Josh?  18  Provl633).  22.  Stuff]  i.e.  the  bag- 
gage :  cp.  1611. 

25.  The  manner  of  the  kingdom]   This  was 

a  legal  document  intended  to  bind  both  king 

and  people,  and  probably  to  guard  against  the 

abuses  mentioned  in  c.  8.     The  power  of  the 

87 


11.  26 


1  SAMUEL 


Hebrew  monarch  was,  in  some  respects, 
narrowly  limited.  26.  A  band  of  men]  Pro- 
bably the  original  text  was  '  the  men  of  valour,' 
in  contrast  to  'the  worthless  men'  of  v.  27. 
Note  the  simplicity  and  absence  of  ceremonial 
in  the  new  royalty  :  cp.  114  and  Intro.  §  7. 
27.  See  intro.  to  c.  11. 

CHAPTER  11 

Saul  subdues  the  Ammonites 
This  c.  is  entirely  in  the  spirit  of  the 
narratives  in  Judges  ;  from  v.  16,  it  seems  to 
be  independent  of  c.  10  ;  but  v.  12  points  back 
to  1027,  which  is  perhaps  distinct  from  vv. 
17-24  ;  even  the  ceremony  at  Gilgal  may  have 
been  a  J  renewal '  (v.  10),  in  the  renewed  popular 
enthusiasm,  of  the  ceremony  at  Mizpeh.  But 
see  on  12 12. 

I.  Nahash]  It  is  very  doubtful  if  this  is 
the  Nahash  of  2S102.  3.  Come  out]  a  usual 
term  for  'surrender.'  5.  So  Cincinnatus  was 
found  by  the  messengers  of  the  State  with 
his  oxen.  6.  Cp.  Jg634  1129  146,  etc.,  used 
of  a  sudden  access  of  fierce  patriotic  zeal. 
Both  cause  and  effect  are  slightly  different 
in  1010.  7.  Fear  of  the  LORD]  i.e.  a  dread 
inspired  by  the  Lord;  EM  'a  terror  from 
the  Lord.'     9.  i.e.  before  noon  :  cp.  v.  11. 

10.  Their  object  was  to  make  the  attack 
come  on  the  Ammonites  as  a  complete  surprise. 

13.  Saul  possessed  many  good  and  generous 
impulses  (2417  2621).  15.  They  made  Saul 
king]  see  prefatory  note. 

CHAPTEE  12 

Samuel  resigns  his  Judgeship 
This  c.    is  a  continuation    of    1017-24,   and 
the  scene  of  the  events  recorded  is  the  great 
national  assembly  at  Mizpeh.     Notice,    how- 
ever, the  reference  to  Nahash  (c.  11)  in  v.  12 


13.  16 


2. 


17.  Wheat  harvest]  This  shows  that  this 
occurred  between  the  middle  of  May  and  the 
middle  of  June.  In  Palestine  a  summer 
thunderstorm  is  very  unusual:  cp.  Prov21i. 
Prof.  G.  A.  Smith  writes  :  '  In  May  showers 
are  very  rare,  and  from  then  till  October  not 
only  IS  there  no  rain,  but  a  cloud  seldom  passes 
over  the  sky,  and  a  thunderstorm  is  a  miracle  ' 

21.  For]  The  first  '  for  '  in  this  v.  is  rightly 
omitted  by  LXX.  'And  turn  ye  not  aside 
after  vain  things  which,'  etc.  Vain  fhh/gs]  i.e. 
idols.  22.  For  his  great  name's  sake]  The 
idea  is  explained  in  Ex  32 12. 

CHAPTEE    13 

Saul's  War  against  the  Philistines 
I.  The  age  of  Saul  at  his  accession  has 
fallen  out  of  the  text  and  also  one  of  the  two 
numbers  representing  the  length  of  his  reign. 
Our  present  text  is  '  Saul  was  .  .  years  old 
when  he  began  to  reign,  and  he  reigned  . .  and 
two  years.'  We  have  no  means  of  recovering  the 
former  number.  For  the  latter  Keil,  with 
great  probability,  conjectures  22  :  see  on  2  S 
210  and  Intro.  §  9.  2.  Michmash]  still  retains 
its  ancient  name  ;  it  is  a  village  9  m.  from 
Jerusalem,  and  is  just  N.  of  a  narrow  pass 
leading  to  Geba  ;  hence  it  was  a  thoroughly 
well-chosen  strategic  position  ;  cp  144.  3.  And 
the  Philistines . .  Hebrewrs  hear]  The  text  is 
probably  corrupt.  Driver  emends  to  '  And  the 
Philistines  heard  saying  The  Hebrews  have 
revolted,'  and  puts  'And  Saul  blew  the 
trumpet  throughout  all  the  land  '  at  the  beo-in- 
ning  of  V.  4.  4.  Gilgal]  Cornill  would  r^ead 
'  Gibeah '  here.  5.  Thirty  thousand]  LXX  has 
'  3,000  '  ;  the  chariots  were  less  in  number  than 
the  horsemen  ;  cp.  2S101S  IK  1026.  6.  The 
people  did  hide  themselves]  The  prompt  action 
of  the  Phihstines  quite  quenched  the  ardour 


My  sons]  cp  8 1-5.     3.   His  anointed]  i.e.     of  the  undisciplined  peasants  with  Saul 


Saul  the  anointed  king.  This  becomes"^  the 
regular  title  of  the  king  :  cp.  24  6-10  26  ^-n,  etc. 
The  word  is  identical  with  '  Messiah  '  or  (in 
its  Gk.  form)  '  Christ.'  6.  It  is  the  LORD] 
LXX  reads  '  the  Lord  is  witness.'  Advanced] 
EV  '  appointed,'  i.e.  made  them  the  leaders  of 
Israel.     9.   Into  the  hand  of  Sisera]  see  Jg4. 

Into  the  hand  of  the  king  of  Moab]  see  Jg3. 

II.  Jerubbaal]  see  Jg6.    Bedan]  LXX  reads 


8.  Saul  at  Gilgal  would  be  anxious  lest  the 
Philistines  should  seize  Geba  and  the  heights. 
Samuel  had  ajipointed']  The  reference  is  pro- 
bably to  108. 

9.  It  is,  to  say  the  least,  doubtful  whether 
Saul  offered  the  sacrifice  with  his  own  hands, 
or  whether  he  caused  it  to  be  offered.  At  any 
rate,  his  offence  was  not  in  his  offering  sacrifice, 
but  in  his  unwillingness  to  obey  the  directions 


'Barak      Jephthah]  see  Jg  11.    Samuel]  must     of  God  and  of  God'sVesentatL,  the  prophet 
be  a  later  insertion  pi+1ipt  Ki?  +V,o  t,.^],-+^v.  ^«  u„     tj. i.  u_  ^3     -i,    t  .f    ,  ^     ,,       '   .  '^F^"t'"«i'- 


be  a  later  insertion  either  by  the  editor  or  by 
a  scribe.  12.  When  the  LORD  your  God  mix 
your  king]  cp.  87  Jg823.  This  is  not  quite 
in  accord  with  the  narrative  of  c.  11  as  it 
stands,  where  Saul  has  already  been  chosen 
king  (v.  12),  and  where  the  attack  on  Nahash 
results  from  his  own  vigorous  initiative. 

14.  EV  '  If  ye  will  fear  .  .  and  serve  him, 
and  hearken  .  .  and  be  .  .  followers  .  .  v-eli: 

15.  Against  your  fathers]   i.e.  in  the  times 
of  the  Judges. 


188 


It  must  be  admitted  that  Saul's  position  was  a 
difficult  one  ;  but  this  single  act  was  really  an 
index,  to  a  weakness   in   his   character  :   see 
however,  on  14^4.  ' 

14.  After  his  own  heart]  David's  actions 
were  by  no  means  all  of  them  the  actions 
of  an  ideal  character  ;  but  he  is  presented 
in  the  narratives  as  maintaining  on  the  whole 
an  attitude  towards  God  very  different  from 
that  of  Saul  :  cp.  161. 

16.  Abode  in  Gibeah]  Saul  with  his  reduced 


13.  17 


1  SAMUEL 


15. 


numbers  was  compelled  to  abandon  the  other 
two  positions  and  to  concentrate  his  forces  at 
Gibeah.  17.  The  spoilers]  i.e.  bands  sent  out 
to  ravage  the  country  immediately  concerned 
in  the  insurrection.  This  unwise  weakening 
of  the  Philistine  forces  gave  the  Israelites  their 
opportunity.     Ophrah]  a  town  in  Benjamin. 

Shual]  Position  unknown,  as  is  also  that 
of  Zeboim  in  the  next  v.  18.  Beth-horon]  on 
the  border  of  Benjamin  and  Ephraira,  was  on 
the  direct  road  from  Michmash  to  Philistia. 

21.  Yet  they  had,  etc.]  RM  proposes,  'When 
the  edges  of  the  mattocks  .  .  and  of  the  axes 
were  blunt.'  We  can  hardly  imagine  that  the 
text  as  it  stands  is  to  be  taken  literally  after 
the  narrative  of  13  f.  23.  To  the  passage] 
RV  '  unto  the  pass.' 

CHAPTER    14 

Jonathan's    Exploit.      The    Battle    of 

Michmash.    A  Summary  of  Saul's  Reign 

3.  Ahiah]  RV  '  Ahijah,'  probably  merely 
another  form  of  Ahimelech  (211).  Melech 
(king)  was  one  of  the  titles  of  Jah  or  Jehovah. 

4.  Between  the  passages]  RV  '  between  the 
passes.' 

9.  It  has  been  suggested  that  the  reply 
would  show  that  the  Philistines  were  brave 
men,  and  Jonathan  would  give  up  the  enter- 
prise as  impossible  ;  but  in  view  of  v.  6,  it  is 
better  to  take  the  sign  as  a  purely  arbitrary 
one  :  cp.  Jg?"*^.  14.  An  half  acre  of  land  .  . 
2iloiv'\  RV  '  half  a  furrow's  length  in  an  acre 
of  land,'  i.e.  half  the  length  of  one  of  the  sides 
of  an  acre.  15.  There  was  a  trembling  both 
in  the  (fortified)  camp  and  in  the  (open) 
country  ;  all  the  people,  both  garrison  and 
plundering  bands,  trembled.  16.  Behold,  the 
multitude  .  .  one  auo1her~\  LXX  reads,  '  Behold 
the  multitude  melted  away'  (i.e.  dispersed  in 
confusion)  '  hither  and  thither.' 

18.  LXX  reads,  '  Bring  hither  the  ephod. 
For  he  wore  the  ephod.'  It  was  the  Urim  and 
Thummim  in  the  ephod  and  not  the  ark  which 
was  used  to  discover  the  will  of  Grod  :  see 
239  307.  19.  Withdraw  thine  hand]  Saul  had 
not  patience  to  wait  :  cp.  13^. 

24.  The  purpose  of  this  '  taboo  '  on  food  was 
probably  to  secure  by  fasting  the  continued 
presence  of  Jehovah  with  the  victorious  army. 
Israel's  battles  were  Jehovah's,  and  Saul's 
motive,  according  to  the  ideas  of  his  time,  was 
religious.   The  people  acquiesce:  cp.  Jg.  21 1^ 

25.  All  they  of  the  land]  Heb.  '  all  the 
land.'  Saul's  success  had  made  all  the  country 
rise  against  the  foreigners.  27.  His  eyes 
■were  enlightened]  lit.  '  became  bright,'  a  sure 
sign  of  health  and  vigour.  He  had  been  weary 
with  the  day's  exertions,  and  now  recovers. 

31.  Aijalon]  see  on  Jgl^s.  It  was  the  natu- 
ral route  by  which  the  defeated  Philistines 
would  retreat  to  their  own  country.     32.  Eat 


them  with  the  blood]  in  direct  opposition  to 
the  command  of  God:  Gn  9*  and  Lv2026. 
This  prohibition  to  eat  with  the  blood  is  still 
carefully  observed  by  strict  Jews. 

33.  Transgressed]  RV  'dealt  treacherously,' 
i.e.  disobediently,  as  if  they  had  been  enemies 
of  Jehovah.  34.  The  stone  would  allow  the 
blood  to  run  down  from  the  carcase. 

35.  Built  an  altar]  to  commemorate  his 
victory  :  cp.  Ex  17 1^  Josh  223-t ;  or  in  reference 
to  V.  33  ;  the  word  for  '  altar  '  means,  properly, 
'  place  for  slaughtering.' 

41.  Give  a  perfect  lot']  RV  '  shew  the  right.' 

43.  And^  lo,  I  must  die]  rather,  '  Here  am 
I,  I  will  die.'  Jonathan  does  not  flinch.  This 
'  taboo,'  or  '  ban,'  which  Saul  had  placed  upon 
the  taking  of  food  (see  on  v.  24)  is  regarded 
with  as  much  reverence  as  Jephthah's  vow 
(Jgll^^)  ;  but  Jonathan's  life,  unlike  that  of 
Jephthah's  daughter,  is  important  to  the  whole 
nation,  and  Saul  finds  that  his  power  is  very 
strictly  limited  by  the  popular  will. 

45.  Rescued]  Heb.  '  ransomed.'  This  does 
not  mean  that  another  person  was  killed  in 
Jonathan's  place.  The  ransom  paid  might 
be  the  life  of  an  animal  or  a  sum  of  money 
(1313.15). 

47-51.  These  vv.  form  a  conclusion  to  the 
life  of  Saul,  after  which  the  editor  turns  to  an- 
other section  of  his  history,  '  Saul  and  David.' 

47.  The  disastrous  ending  of  the  life  of 
Saul  must  not  blind  us  to  his  many  virtues. 
The  earlier  part  of  his  reign  was  a  series  of 
successes.  To  the  end  the  nation  was  con- 
tented with  his  rule,  and  it  remained  faithful 
to  his  dynasty  even  after  his  death.  See 
Intro.  §  7.  We  know  nothing  from  other 
sources  as  to  any  expedition  against  Zobah, 
and  the  victories  over  the  Philistines  would 
appear  to  be  more  sweepingly  stated  than 
seems  warranted  by  the  last  disastrous  battle 
on  Mt.  Gilboa.  "This  brief  summary  aptly 
illustrates  the  fragmentary  and  episodic  nature 
of  the  history  of  Saul. 

48.  Gathered  an  host]   RV  '  did  valiantly.' 

49.  The  two  daughters  are  mentioned  be- 
cause of  the  important  part  they  play  in  the 
later  history.  51.  Probably  the  v.  originally 
ran,  '  and  Kish  the  father  of  Saul  and  Ner  the 
father  of  Abner  were  the  sons  of  Abiel.'  Saul 
and  Abner  were  first  cousins. 

CHAPTER  15 

Saul's  Victory  over  Amalek.     His 
Disobedience  and  Rejection 

Amalek  had  attacked  Israel  at  Rephidim 
(ExlT^f,)  and  opposed  their  entrance  into 
Canaan  (Nul4-*'5:  cp.  Dt25"*-)-  They  are  men- 
tioned as  allies  of  the  Midianites  in  Jg7i2. 
The  Amalekite  nomads  probably  occupied  a 
large  tract  of  the  wilderness  S.  of  Judah. 

This  c.   evidently  comes  from  a   different 


189 


15.  3 


1  SAMUEL 


17. 


source  from  the  preceding,  which  concludes 
the  history  of  Saul.  It  forms  the  connexion 
between  the  history  of  Saul  and  that  of  David. 
We  have  no  means  of  determining  to  what  part 
of  Saul's  reign  it  belongs. 

3.  Utterly  destroy]  lit.  'devote'  (to  Je- 
hovah). The  first  idea  of  the  word  Qierem) 
is  that  the  object  is  dedicated  to  Jehovah,  and 
so  forbidden  to  common  use:  see  Josh 6 1^. 
We  meet  with  the  same  root  in  harem  (the 
women's  apartments),  and  haram  (the  sacred 
enclosure  at  Mecca):  cp.  Lv27  2y.  4.  Telaim] 
probably  the  same  as  Telem  (Josh  1 5  2^),  a  town 
in  S.  Judah.  Men  of  Judah  are  thus  sum- 
moned to  the  expedition.  5.  A  city  of 
Amalek]  RV  '  the  city  of  Amalek,'  i.e.  the 
capital.  6.  Kenites]  see  on  Jg4i7.  They 
formed  a  nomad  tribe,  living  partly  in  and 
partly  outside  Palestine. 

7.  From  Havilah  witil  thou  comest  to  Shur] 
op.  Gn  251^.  Havilah  was  the  eastern  boundary 
of  the  district  inhabited  by  the  Amalekites,  but 
its  position  is  uncertain.  Shur  {Wall)  was 
originally  the  name  of  the  wall  built  to  protect 
the  eastern  frontier  of  Egypt,  and  was  then 
applied  to  the  neighbouring  part  of  the  desert 
(Ex  15  22).  8.  The  Amalekites  subsequently 
sack  Ziklag  (IS 30);  but  from  this  time  on- 
wards they  cease  to  be  formidable. 

II.  It  grieved  Samuel]  RV  'Samuel  was 
wroth.'  He  was  annoyed  at  the  course  events 
were  taking  :  cp.  2  S  6  ^  Jon  4 1.  It  is  character- 
istic of  the  Bible  that  it  mentions  the  failings 
of  its  heroes  and  saints.  12.  Carmel]  a  town 
in  Judah,  7  m.  S.  of  Hebron.  It  lay  directly 
in  Saul's  way  on  his  return  from  smiting  the 
Amalekites.  A  place]  RV  '  a  monument '  (to 
commemorate  his  victory)  :  cp.  2S1818. 

17.  RM  '  Though  thou  be  little  in  thine  own 
sight,  art  thou  not  head  of  the  tribes  of  Israel  ? ' 
i.e.  the  excuse,  even  if  genuine,  was  not  valid. 

22,  23.  These  words  are  in  poetic  form,  as  we 
can  see  by  the  parallelism.  See  Intro,  to  Psalms. 

22.  For  the  views  expressed  in  this  v.  cp. 
Ps  40  6f.  5 1 16, 17  laa  1  nf-  Jer  6  20  Hos  6  6  Am  6  2if- 
Mic  6  6f.  The  Israelite  was  not  left  to  imagine, 
like  the  heathen,  that  sacrifices  were  what  God 
chiefly  desired.  23.  Samuel  goes  behind  Saul's 
pretended  motive,  sacrifice,  to  his  real  dis- 
obedience. Iniquity]  RV '  idolatry.'  Idolatry] 
RV  '  teraphim  ':  see  on  19^3. 

24,  25.  Saul's  feeling  was  not  true  repent- 
ance, but  merely  a  desire  to  propitiate  Samuel 
and  secure  his  apparent  adhesion  :  see  v.  30. 

32.  Delicately]  RM  'cheerfully.'  Surely 
the  bitterness,  etc.]  Since  Saul  had  spared  his 
life,  Agag  thought  he  was  secure. 

35.  Came  no  more  to  see  Saul]  As  a 
prophet  he  had  no  longer  any  message  for 
the  rejected  king,  although  as  a  man  he 
mourned  for  the  failure  of  a  career  that  had 
once  seemed  so  promising. 


The  execution  of  Agag  seems  to  us  mere 
butchery;  but,  to  both  Samuel  and  Saul,  Agag, 
like  the  rest  of  Amalek,  had  been  put  under 
the  '  ban,'  and  hence  his  death,  even  in  cold 
blood,  was  a  religious  necessity.  According 
to  the  ideas  of  the  time,  Saul  had  had  no  right 
to  give  any  '  quarter.'  Nor  is  it  right  to  judge 
the  ancient  Hebrews  by  what  are  happily  our 
higher  standards  of  conduct. 

CHAPTER  16 
David  is  anointed  King  over  Israel 

From  c.  16  on,  the  interest  centres  in  David 
rather  than  in  Saul. 

I.  Oil]  probably  consecrated  oil  for 
anointing.  2.  If  Saul  hear  it]  Saul's  action, 
recorded  in  22is>i-\  shows  that  Samuel's  fears 
were  far  from  baseless.  Say,  I  am  come  to 
sacrifice]  Samuel  was  not  asked  to  prevaricate. 
God  relieved  him  of  his  difficulty  by  giving 
him  a  definite  command.  4.  Beth-lehem] 
originally  Ephrath  (Gn48''^),  5  m.  S.  of 
Jerusalem.  Trembled]  For  Samuel  had  been 
wont  to  move  from  one  town  to  another  to 
punish  offences  (7 1<5).  5.  Sanctify  yourselves] 
This  was  done  by  washing  themselves  and  re- 
moving all  ceremonial  defilement.  He  sanc- 
tified Jesse  and  his  sons]  This  gave  Samuel 
an  opportunity  for  private  conversation. 

6.  Said]  to  himself,  thought.  10.  Again, 
Jesse  made  seven]  RV  simply,  '  And  Jesse 
made  seven.'  The  sons  already  named  are 
included  in  the  seven.  11.  We  will  not  sit 
down]  probably  to  the  feast  which  followed  the 
sacrifice:  cp.  IS  9.  12.  Ruddy]  This  colour- 
ing is  much  admired  in  the  East  where  most 
are  dark-skinned.  Of  a  beautiful  countenance] 
lit.  '  fair  of  eyes.'  In  those  hot  countries 
bordering  on  the  desert,  multitudes  are  dis- 
figured by  ophthalmia,  as  was  Leah  (Gn29^''' 
RV).  13.  In  the  midst  of  his  brethren]  Pro- 
bably they  thought  Samuel  had  anointed  him 
as  his  follower,  or  to  become  in  time  a  prophet 
like  himself. 

13,  14.  The  Spirit  of  the  LORD  came  upon 
David .  .  departed  from  Saul]  The  special 
grace  conferred  by  anointing  passed  from  the 
rejected  Saul  to  the  new  king  :  cp.  10  6. 

15.  An  evil  spirit  from  God]   apparently  a    ' 
gloomy,  suspicious    melancholy  bordering  on 
madness.     To  the  Hebrew,  every  visitation, 
alike    of    good    and    evil,    is    directly   from 
Jehovah  :  cp.  IK 22 22  Am 3 6. 

22.  Stand  before  me]  i.e.  be  one  of  my 
servants:  cp.  IKIO^. 

CHAPTER  17 

David  slays  Goliath 

171-18^  is  evidently  taken  from  a  different 

document  from   16i'i-23.     In   16^4-23  David  is 

a   man    of   war,    and    skilful    in    speech,   and 

an    expert   harper,  and   has   already   become 


190 


17.  1 


1  SAMUEL 


17.  28 


Saul's  musician  and  armourbearer.  In  c.  17 
he  is  still  a  shepherd  lad,  who  is  personally 
unknown  to  Saul.  LXX  tries  to  get  rid  of 
the  difficulty  by  omitting  several  vv.,  but  the 
attempt  is  not  altogether  successful. 

I.  Shochoh]  identified  with  Shuweikeh,  'a 
strong  position  isolated  from  the  rest  of  the 
ridge,'  W.  of  Bethlehem.  It  was  fortified  by 
Rehoboam  (2Chll'^).  Azekah]  mentioned 
in  Josh  1 5  ^5  in  connexion  with  Shochoh. 

4.  Six  cubits  and  a  span]   about  9|  ft. 

5.  Brass]   This  is  really  copper  :  cp.  DtS^. 
Five    thousand    shekels]     It    is    uncertain 

what  was  the  weight  of  the  shekel  at  this 
time.  6.  Target]  RV  '  javelin.'  10.  I  defy] 
rather,   '  I  have  insulted.' 

12.  An  old  man]  It  is  intended  to  explain 
why  Jesse  sent  his  sons  to  the  war  but  did 
not  go  himself.  15.  Went  and  returned]  RV 
'  went  to  and  fro.' 

17.  Parched  corn]  ears  of  corn  plucked 
just  before  they  are  ripe  and  roasted  in  a 
pan  or  on  an  iron  plate.  It  is  still  a  common 
article  of  merchandise.  18.  Take  their  pledge] 
'  bring  back  from  them  some  proof  that  you 
have  fulfilled  your  mission.'  20.  Trench]  RV 
'  place  of  the  wagons.'  It  was  a  rude  rampart 
or  barricade  formed  of  wagons.  22.  His  car- 
riage] i.e.  what  he  was  carrying:  cp.  Ac21i5. 

25.  Free]  from  forced  labour  or  contri- 
butions :  cp.  8^^*.  28.  The  ■wilderness]  an- 
swered to  our  '  downs  '  or  '  common.'  It  was 
land  suitable  for  grazing  cattle,  but  not 
divided  up  into  fields. 

37.  The  Lord  be  with  thee]  RV  'shall 
be.'  It  is  an  encouragement  rather  than  a 
prayer.  38.  Armed  David  w^ith  his  armour] 
RV  '  clad  David  with  his  apparel.'  This  was 
probably  some  close-fitting  garment  worn 
under  the  armour,  or  on  occasion  without  it. 

39.  Assayed]  LXX  '  wearied  himself '  :  cp. 
Gnl9ii.  Proved]  He  was  not  accustomed  to 
wearing  heavy  armour,  and  it  soon  became 
burdensome.  43.  Staves]  i.e.  with  a  mere 
stick  (v.  40)  instead  of  weapons.  46.  In  true 
Oriental  fashion  David  replies  to  the  Philis- 
tine's brave  words  with  equally  bold  language, 
heightened  to  something  far  bolder  by  his 
confidence  in  Jehovah. 

52.  The  valley]  LXX  reads  '  Gath.'  This 
strong  fortress  of  the  Philistines,  like  that  of 
Ekron,  checked  the  pursuit  (cp.  the  end  of 
the  v.).  Gath  was  not  far  W.  of  Shochoh, 
and  therefore  it  would  seem  that  at  Shaaraim 
the  stream  of  fugitives  would  part,  some  going 
on  southwards  to  Gath,  others  northwards  to 
Ekron.  54.  Brought  it  to  Jerusalem]  But 
Jerusalem  was  still  a  non-Hebrew  city 
(2S54f.).  A  little  later  we  find  the  sword 
of  Goliath  at  Nob  (21 9),  and  hence  some 
think  that  Nob  is  intended  here.  Stanley  and 
Eobinson  place  Nob  on  the  Mount  of  Olives. 


Otliers  think  that  David  brought  the  head  of 
Goliath  to  Jerusalem  at  a  later  period  (2S5''). 
Another  reference  to  Goliath  should  be 
noted,  which  implies  the  existence  either  of 
other  traditions,  or  of  more  than  one  Philistine 
champion  of  the  name  (2  S  2119). 

CHAPTER  18 
The  Love  of  Jonathan  tor  David 
Vv.  6-30  of  this  c.  seem  to  be  connected 
with  1614-23  and  not  to  be  taken  from  the  same 
document  as  17 1-I8  5.  LXX  omits  a  large  part 
of  this  section  and  only  retains  vv.  6-8*^  12* 
13-16,  20-21*  22-26*  27-29*.  In  this  case 
the  LXX  text  gives  an  easy  and  straight- 
forward account,  and  many  suppose  that  it  is 
the  original.  But  the  character  of  the  LXX 
omissions  in  c.  17  renders  this  a  little  doubtful 

6.  Cp.  Ex  1520  Jg  1134  Ps  6811  (RY). 

7.  Played]  lit.  '  sported.'  The  word  is  used 
of  festive  sports  and  especially  of  festal 
dancing  :  cp.  1  Ch  1529.  8.  But  the  kingdom] 
The  knowledge  of  his  deposition  rankled  in 
Saul's  mind. 

10.  Prophesied]  The  words  'prophet'  and 
'  prophesy '  are  applied  in  OT.  to  the  servants 
of  the  gods  of  Canaan  as  well  as  to  the  servants 
of  Jehovah:  cp.  1K1819.  The  behaviour  of 
these  Canaanite  prophets  must  have  greatly 
resembled  the  possession  of  Saul  (IK  18 28). 
The  word  '  prophesy  '  includes  such  wild  out- 
breaks of  frenzy  as  well  as  the  calm  utterances 
of  Isaiah.  In  the  case  of  Saul  this  frenzy  was 
regarded  as  produced  by  an  evil  spirit  from 
God. 

16.  Went  out  and  came  in]  i.e.  lived  in  an 
open  public  manner  in  contrast  to  Saul's  seclu- 
sion which  was  the  natural  result  of  his  melan- 
choly. 17,  Every  battle  fought  by  Israel 
was  an  act  of  religious  worship  to  Jehovah  : 
cp.  2528.  18.  What  is  my  life]  RM  '  Who  are 
my  kinsfolk  ? '  The  word  denotes  a  division 
of  the  tribe  larger  than  a  'father's  family.' 

21.  In  the  one  of  the  twain]  RV  '  a  second 
time.'  It  is  an  example  of  regal  and  rather 
caustic  wit.  The  first  time  was  when  Merab 
was  offered  (v.  19).  23.  A  poor  man]  This 
would  suggest  that  David's  lack  of  patrimony 
had  been  made  an  excuse  for  not  giving  Merab 
to  him  :  but  see  intro.  note  to  the  c.  This  v.  is 
plainly  inconsistent  with  vv.  19-21. 

25.  Dowry]  In  ancient  times  some  payment 
was  made  to  the  father  by  the  intending  bride- 
groom (Gn34i2  Ex  22  iG),  a  relic  of  still  earlier 
days,  when  a  wife  was  either  bought  from  her 
parents  or  captured  from  foes.  But  service 
might  be  rendered  instead  of  payment  in 
money  (Gn  29  20).  26.  And  the  days  were  not 
expired]  This  appears  to  refer  to  the  time,  not 
previously  mentioned,  within  which  the  exploit 
was  to  be  performed.  28.  Michal  Saul's 
daughter]  LXX  '  all  Israel.' 


191 


19.2 


1  SAMUEL 


21.  5 


CHAPTER  19 

Saul's  Hatred  of  David.     David  escapes 
TO  Samuel 

2.  Until  the  morning-]  RV  'in  the  morning.' 
6.  It  was  difficult  for  David  to  estimate 
correctly  Saul's  feelings  towards  him,  because 
the  king's  repentance  was  real  while  it  lasted, 
and  because  much  might  be  ascribed  to  his 
madness. 

10.  That  night]  David  would  probably  flee 
at  once  :  hence  LXX  may  be  right  in  joining 
these  words  to  v.  11, '  And  it  came  to  pass  that 
night  that  Saul  sent.' 

13.  An  image]  RV  '  the  teraphim.'  '  Tera- 
phim,'  like  '  Elohim,'  is  a  plural  of  dignity  and 
denotes  a  single  image,  but  the  origin  of  the 
word  is  unknown.  Such  images,  derived  from 
Canaanite  paganism,  appear  to  have  been  in 
human  form  and  to  have  varied  in  size  ;  for, 
while  Michal's  could  pass  for  a  man,  Rachel's 
could  be  hidden  under  the  camel's  furniture 
(Gn.313-1).  Usually,  perhaps,  the  teraphim 
was  a  half-length  image,  or  a  head  only.  "Tera- 
phim were  used  for  the  purpose  of  divination 
(Ezk21 21  Zech  10  2),  and  Rachel  probably  stole 
her  father's  teraphim,  lest  he  should  discover 
which  way  she  had  fled.  Pillow  of  goats'  /;«/?•] 
A  word  from  this  root  occurs  in  2K815^  so 
that  it  appears  to  have  been  some  covering 
made  of  goats'  hair,  which  was  placed  over  the 
face  of  a  sleeping  person,  probably  to  keep  oif 
the  mosquitoes.  In  this  case  it  served  as  a 
disguise.  For  his  bolster]  RY  '  at  the  head 
thereof.'  With  a  cloth]  Heb.  '  with  the  gar- 
ment,' i.e.  the  mantle,  which  was  regarded  as 
the  most  indispensable  article  of  dress  (v.  24) 
by  day  and  was  used  as  a  covering  by  night. 
So  Saul's  messengers  would  easily  recognise  it. 

14.  Apparently  Michal  allowed  the  messen- 
gers to  get  some  view  of  the  recumbent  figure. 

15.  Bring  him  up  to  me  in  the  bed]  As  an 
Eastern  bed  is  merely  a  mattress,  this  could  be 
easily  done  :  cp.  M'k2'*.  17.  Michal  pretends 
that  David  coerced  her  into  contriving  his 
escape. 

18.  Came  to  Samuel]  David  naturally  turned 
to  him  for  advice  and  direction.  Naioth]  Evi- 
dently the  name  of  some  locality  in  Ramah, 
but  whether  a  building  or  a  district  it  is  im- 
possible to  determine.  23.  Once  more  the 
influence  of  the  Spirit  fell  on  Saul  for  his 
good.  24.  Naked]  i.e.  without  his  outer 
garment  :  cp.  Isa  20  2.  Is  Saul  also  among  the 
prophets?]  see  on  10 11.  Observe  that  the 
religious  frenzy  is  contagious  :  cp.  Intro.  §  4. 

CHAPTER   20 

The  Friendship  or  David  and  Jonathan 

4.  Thy  soul]  a  pathetic  periphrasis  for 
'  thou.' 

5.  The  new  moon]  Many  nations  of  antiquity 


appear  to  have  observed  the  day  of  the  new 
moon  as  a  religious  festival.  For  its  obser- 
vance in  Israel  cp.  2K423  Isal^^  AmS^ 
(where  it  is  coupled  with  the  sabbath)  Nu  10 10. 
Vv.  25  and  27  imply  that  David,  like  Abner, 
ate  regularly  at  Saul's  table..  6.  A  yearly 
sacrifice]  This  refers  to  the  ordinary  annual 
festival  of  the  family.  Such  family  festivals 
were  very  widespread  both  among  European 
and  Semitic  peoples.  8.  A  covenant  of  the 
Lord]  i.e.  in  which  God  had  been  invoked  as 
a  witness  and  the  breach  of  which  He  would 
punish. 

12.  About  to  morrow  any  time]  RV  '  about 
this  time  to-morrow.'  Or  the  third  day']  pro- 
bably a  gloss. 

14,  15.  That  I  die  not:  but  aho']  LXX  has 
an  attractive  reading:  '  If  I  die,  thou  shalt  not 
cut  off  thy  kindness':  cp.  2S9i. 

16.  At  the  hand  of  David's  enemies]  David's 
enemies  are  a  euphemism  for  David  himself. 
Jonathan  shrinks  from  invoking  retribution 
on  his  friend  or  suggesting  in  so  many  words 
the  possibility  of  his  breaking  the  covenant. 

19.  Thou  shalt  go  down,  quickly]  LXX 
reads  '  Thou  shalt  be  greatly  missed,'  and  the 
whole  clause  means  '  thou  shalt  be  greatly 
missed  on  the  third  day.'  The  business]  i.e. 
some  matter  well  known  to  David  and  Jona- 
than.    The  stone  Ezel]    LXX  '  this  mound.' 

25.  Jonathan  arose,  and  Abner  sat]  Jonathan 
gave  up  his  rightful  place  and  Abner  took  it. 

26.  He  /«  not  clean]  i.e.  some  ceremonial 
defilement  has  happened  to  him  which  prevents 
him  from  sliaring  in  the  festival:  cp.  Jnl828. 

30.  Mother's  nakedness]  She  would  become 
the  wife  of  the  new  king  :  cp.  2  S 12^.  41.  Out 
of  a  place  toward  the  south]  LXX  '  from 
beside  the  mound.' 

CHAPTER   21 

The  Flight  of  David 

David  first  of  all  flees  to  Nob,  where  Ahime- 
lech  supplies  him  with  food  and  gives  him  the 
sword  of  Goliath.  He  next  takes  refuge  with 
Achish  at  Gath. 

I.  Nob]  see  on  17^*.  Alone]  He  had  no 
escort  or  retinue. 

3.  Better,  '  Now,  therefore,  what  is  under 
thine  hand?  Five  loaves?  Give  them  into 
mine  hand.'  4.  Hallowed  bread]  i.e.  the  shew- 
bread.  It  was  removed  every  sabbath  and 
fresh  loaves  substituted. 

5.  Better,  'of  a  truth  women  have  been 
kept  from  us  as  is  usual,  when  I  go  on  an 
expedition.'  The  bread  ix  in  a  manner  com- 
mon] The  meaning  is  obscure.  RV  '  though 
it  was  but  a  common  journey  ;  how  much  more 
then  to-day  shall  their  vessels  be  holy?'  i.e. 
their  wallets  and  utensils  were  clean  when 
they  started  and  there  had  been  no  chance  of 
defiling  them  since,  although  their  journey  waa 


192 


21.  6 


1  SAMUEL 


25.  8 


an  ordinary  one.  Ewald  understands  '  the 
vessels '  to  refer  to  the  young  men's  bodies,  as 
in  lTh44.  They  were  ceremonially  clean,  so 
that  they  might  partake  of  holy  things. 

6.  This  incident  was  referred  to  by  our 
Lord  (Mtl23). 

10.  Fled  that  day]  He  feared  that  Doeg 
would  give  information  and  that  pursuit  would 
begin  at  once.  Gath]  This  connexion  with 
Gath  brought  David  some  of  his  most  faithful 
followers.  13.  Feigned  himself  mad]  to  allay 
suspicion.  Easterns  have  a  religious  awe  of 
madness  and  would  not  think  of  injuring  those 
so  afflicted.  Scrabbled]  i.e.  scratched,  made 
meaningless  marks.  LXX  '  beat,'  '  drummed  ' 
is  much  more  forcible.  15.  In  my  presence] 
rather,  '  to  my  annoyance.' 

CHAPTER  22 
David  in  the  Cave  of  Adullam.  Saul's 
Slaughter  op  the  Priests  at  Nob 
I.  Adullam]  probably  in  the  valley  of  Elah 
between  Philistia  and  Hebron.  2.  Four  hun- 
dred] They  soon  increased  to  six  hundred 
(23 13).  Cp.  the  description  given  of  Jephthah's 
band  in  Jgll^. 

5.  Gad]  is  here  mentioned  for  the  first 
time.  After  David's  accession  he  became  the 
king's  seer  (2S2411).  He  was  sent  to  rebuke 
David  for  his  sin  in  numbering  the  people,  and 
after  his  death  wrote  a  history  of  his  reign 
(lCh2929).  From  2Ch2'J-'5  he  appears  to 
have  been  concerned  in  arranging  the  temple 
service.     Forest  of  Hareth]   not  known. 

6.  In  Ramah]   RM  '  on  the  height.' 

14.  Goeth  at  thy  bidding]  RV  'is  taken  into 
thy  council.'  15.  Did  I  then  begin?]  RV'Have 
I  to-day  begun  ?  '  Ahimelech  had  been  accus- 
tomed to  place  his  services  at  David's  disposal. 

17.  Footmen]  Heb.  'runners';  they  ran 
before  the  king's  chariot  (8  ii)  and  sometimes 
carried  news  from  one  place  to  another.  On 
occasion  they  acted  as  executioners,  but  this 
was  not  their  special  office.  19.  Saul  probably 
wished  to  make  an  example  which  would  deter 
others  from  rendering  David  any  assistance. 

20.  Abiathar  shared  in  all  David's  wander- 
ings and  was  made  by  him  joint  priest  with 
Zadok.  But  he  shared  in  Adonijah'^  rising 
and  was  deposed  by  Solomon. 

CHAPTER   23 
David  delivers  Keilah  and  afterwards 
retires  to  the  "Wilderness  op  Ziph 
and  Maon 
6.    With  an  ephod  in  his  hand]    This  is  in- 
serted to  explain  how  it  was  that  David  was 
able  to  enquire  of  the  Lord  :  see  on  14 1^. 

9.  Secretly  practised]  R V  '  devised.'  There 
was  no  secrecy  about  Saul's  methods. 

14.  Ziph]  identified  with  Te// ^/■/',  a  rounded 
hill,  4  m.  SE.  of  Hebron.     15.   In  a  wood] 


13 


RM  '  in  Horesh.'  But  the  true  rendering  is 
doubtful.  If  a  proper  name,  it  was  more  pro- 
bably a  mountain  than  a  wood  (cp.  vv.  14,  19), 
and  the  word  may  mean  either.  17.  That 
also]  Saul  knew  that  Jonathan  was  willing  to 
rank  second. 

19.  Jeshimon]  RV  '  the  desert.'  It  is  the 
dreary  desert  of  southern  Judah  :  see  Nu2120. 

25.  Maon]  mentioned  in  Josh  15  S'^  in  con- 
nexion with  Carmel  and  Ziph.  It  is  a  lofty 
conical  hill  7  m.  S.  of  Hebron.  28.  Sela- 
hammahlekoth]   i.e.  '  the  rock  of  divisions.' 

29.  This  V.  should  be  joined  to  the  next  c. 

En-gedi]  A  well-watered  spot  on  the  E. 
edge  of  the  desert  of  Judah.  It  still  bears  the 
name  Ain  Jidi.     '  En '  means  '  well.' 

CHAPTER   24 

David  spares  Saul's  Life  at  Engedi 

We  have  a  similar  incident  narrated  in  c.  26, 
and  some  critics  hold  that  the  two  are  merely 
varying  accounts  of  the  same  event.  But  it 
is  to  be  noticed  that  almost  every  detail  that 
could  vary,  does  vary.  Nor  is  there  any  diffi- 
culty in  supposing  that  David  spared  Saul's 
life  twice. 

2.  Rocks  of  the  wild  goats]  Some  cliffs 
near  Engedi,  so  called  because  wild  goats 
congregated  there.  They  are  still  numerous 
in  this  district.  3.  Sheepcotes]  These  were 
rough,  stone  walls,  built  to  protect  the  sheep 
from  wild  beasts.  Thomson  writes  :  '  There  is 
scarcely  a  cave  in  the  land  .  .  but  has  such  a 
cote  in  front  of  it.' 

4.  It  is  probable  that  we  should  translate 
'  Behold  the  day  on  which  the  Lord  saith  to 
thee, '  i.e.  they  interpret  the  opportunity  as  a 
manifest  sign  of  God's  intention  that"  Saul 
should  be  slain.  7.  Stayed]  The  word  is  a 
very  strong  one  and  shows  that  David  had  to 
exert  all  his  authority.  10.  Rather,  '  The 
Lord  delivered  thee  to-day  into  mine  hand 
and  bade  me  kill  thee  ':  see  on  v.  4.  19.  The 
Lord  reward  thee  good]  Gleams  of  his  former 
high  character  still  show  themselves  in  Saul. 

CHAPTER  25 

Death  op  Samuel.     The  Incident  of 

Nabal.     David  and  Abigail 

1.  Paran]  That  part  of  the  desert  between 
Sinai  and  Palestine  which  bordered  on  Judah. 

2.  Possessions]  rather,  '  occupation,'  '  busi- 
ness.' Carmel]  see  on  15 12.  Great]  has 
frequently  the  meaning  of  '  rich  '  :  cp.  2  S  19  32. 

Shearing  his  sheep]  A  special  occasion  for 
festivity  and  entertainment  :  cp.  v.  36,  2  S  13^3. 

Of  the  house  of  Caleb]  This  district  of  the 
S.  of  Judah  had  been  conquered  and  settled 
by  Caleb.  It  is  called  '  the  south  of  Caleb ' 
in  30 1^.  6.  To  him  that  liveth  in  prosperity'] 
Yulgate  has  '  to  my  brethren.'  8.  A  good 
day]   This  is  the  ordinary  Heb.  plu-ase  for  a 


193 


25.  11 


1  SAMUEL 


28.  3 


festival,  ii.  My  water]  Water  is  precious 
in  these  di-y  lands  :  cp.  Jg  1 1^.  But  LXX 
reads  '  my  wine. ' 

1 6.  A  wall]  The  protection  from  Arab 
robbers  deserved  some  recognition  from  those 
who  lived  near  the  desert.  Precisely  the  same 
demand  is  made  at  present  by  Bedouin  sheikhs 
living  on  the  borders  of  civilisation.  25.  Folly] 
i.e.  wrong-headed  and  foolish  obstinacy  and 
churlishness.  The  Heb.  is  the  feminine  form 
of  'Nabal':  cp.  2  8 333.  27.  Blessing]  RV 
'  present '  :  cp.  30  -•^  ™g-  Gn  33  n.  28.  Fighteth 
the  battles  of  the  LORD]  David  had  rescued 
the  inhabitants  of  Keilah  from  the  Philistines 
(23^),  and  protected  the  dwellers  in  the  S.  of 
Judah  from  the  desert  nomads  (v.  16). 

29.   A  man]    The  reference  is  to  Saul. 

Bound]  i.e.  safely  bound  up,  so  that  not  one 
is  lost.  In  the  bundle  of  life]  rather,  '  in  the 
bundle  of  the  living,'  i.e.  in  the  number  of 
those  whose  lives  are  guarded  and  protected 
by  God.     With]  '  in  the  custody  of.' 

31.  Causeless]  Abigail  ventures  to  hint  that 
Nabal's  answer  was  not  a  sujfficient  reason  for 
the  vengeance  David  proposed  to  take. 

33.  Thy  advice]   RV  '  thy  wisdom.' 

39.  Communed  with  Abigail]  RV  '  spake 
concerning.'  It  is  the  technical  term  for  '  ask- 
ing any  one's  hand  in  marriage'  :  cp.  Song 8*^. 

44.  Saul  considered  that  David,  as  an  out- 
law, had  forfeited  his  wife.  But  David  him- 
self never  acknowledged  this,  and  claimed 
Michal  as  his  wife  as  soon  as  he  had  the 
power  (2 S3 14). 

CHAPTER  26 
David  spares  Saul's  Life  a  Second  Time 

I.  Hachilah]  near  the  wilderness  of  Ziph  : 
see  2319.  4.  Was  come  in  very  deed]  Heb. 
'  was  come  to  Nakon.'  Nakon  =  '  a  set  place  ' 
(RM),  though  it  may  have  been  the  corruption 
of  a  place-name,  such  as  Maon. 

6.  Hittite]  So  he  belonged  to  one  of  the 
original  inhabitants  of  the  country.  We 
might  expect  to  find  some  of  them  among 
David's  followers  :  cp.  22  2.  Uriah,  another 
Hittite,  played  an  important  part  in  David's 
history.  Abishai]  is  here  mentioned  for  the 
first  time.  He  saved  David's  life  in  one  of 
the  Philistine  wars  (2S211''),  was  implicated 
in  the  murder  of  Abner  (2S330),  shared  the 
command  of  the  army  (2S1010),  and  remained 
faithful  to  David  in  Absalom's  rebellion. 

8.  At  once]  RV  '  at  one  stroke.' 

19.  Let  him  accept  an  offering]  cp.Gn4'''. 
The  idea  in  this  v.  is  simply  that  if  Jehovah 
had  prompted  Saul's  action,  Saul  was  doing 
right,  and  David  would  seek  pardon  by  an 
offering.  Go,  serve  other  gods]  This  seems  to 
suggest  that  David  limited  the  rule  of  Jeho- 
vah to  the  land  of  Israel  as  the  rule  of  Che- 
mosh  was  limited   to   Moab  :  cp.  Jephthah's 


reference  to  Chemosh  in  Jg  11  ^•i.  In  the  older 
Hebrew  thought,  Jehovah  was  specially  pre- 
sent in  Palestine  (though  cp.  JgS'*).  Hence 
it  seemed  difficult  and  almost  impossible  to 
worship  the  true  God  in  a  heathen  land,  since 
when  a  Hebrew  became  naturalised  elsewhere, 
he  would  conform  to  the  religion  of  his  new 
home. 

20.  Before  the  face]  RV  '  away  from  the 
presence  of,'  i.e.  let  not  my  blood  be  shed 
without  Jehovah  requiring  it  :  cp.  Gn  4 10. 

A  flea]  LXX  '  my  soul.'  The  Heb.  reading 
is  due  to  a  recollection  of  24 1'^. 

CHAPTER  27 

David  flees  to  Gath,  and  obtains  Ziklac 

from  achish 

2.  David's  position  now  as  the  captain  of 
600  men  was  quite  different  from  what  it  was 
in  21iof.  '7,  A  full  year  and  four  months] 
The  plirase  probably  means  '  about  four 
months,'    lit.  '  days  and  four  months.' 

8  The  Geshurites]  were  the  inhabitants  of 
a  district  in  the  S.  of  Philistia  :  see  Josh  13"^. 
They  must  not  be  confused  with  the  Geshurites 
who  lived  E.  of  the  Jordan.  The  tribes  men- 
tioned here  were  constant  enemies  of  Israel 
whom  David  took  the  opportunity  to  exter- 
minate. 9.  Left]  The  tense  of  the  verb  de- 
notes David's  habitual  practice.  He  never  left 
any  one  alive  to  tell  the  tale. 

10.  Made  a  road]  RV  '  made  a  raid.'  The 
south  of  the  Jerahmeelites]  Jerahmeel  was  one 
of  the  divisions  of  the  tribe  of  Judah  (1  Ch29). 
The  barren  south  was  naturally  named  after  the 
fertile  lands  on  which  it  bordered  :  the  '  south 
of  Judah,'  '  of  Jerahmeel,'  and  so  on.  The 
deception  was  that  Achish  understood  that 
David  had  smitten  the  Hebrew  inhabitants  of 
the  lands  bordering  on  the  desert,  whereas  he 
had  smitten  the  nomad  tribes  who  dwelt  in 
the  actual  desert.  11.  To  bring  tidhigs  to 
Gath]  R V  '  to  bring  them  to  Gath '  in  order  to 
sell  them  as  slaves.'  So  vill  he  his  manner] 
RV  '  so  hath  been  his  manner  all  the  while  he 
hath  dwelt.' 

CHAPTER  2  V 
Saul  and  the  Witch  of  Endor 
Vv.  3-25  come  from  another  document  and 
interrupt  the  connexion,  as  will  be  seen  if 
the  account  is  read  without  them.  In  order 
of  time  their  proper  position  is  after  c.  30. 
In  291  the  Philistines  are  still  in  Aphek  ;  in 
2911  they  advance  to  Jezreel,  where  we  find 
them  in  28'*.  In  283-^^5  we  have  come  to  the 
eve  of  the  battle,  the  account  of  which  follows 
in  c.  31.  2.  Keeper  of  mine  head]  i.e.  captain 
of  my  body-guard. 

3.  This  V.  is  inserted  to  explain  what  follows. 
By  familiar  spirits  (Heb.  o&)some  form  of  witch- 
craft is  intended.    In  v.  7  the  woman  is  said  to 


194 


28.  4 


1  SAMUEL 


31.  13 


be  '  the  mistress  of  an  ob.'     In  Lv202'i'the  ob 
is  said  to  be  in  the  man  or  woman  :  cp.2  K  23  24. 

The  wizards']  From  Lv  20-"  it  is  quite  clear 
that  this  word  denotes  not  the  magician,  but 
the  spirit  controlled  by  the  magician.  It  is 
often  joined  to  '  ob,'  and  means,  etymologically, 
'  possessed  of  knowledge,'  (i.e.  of  the  future  or 
the  unseen)  :  cp.  our  modern  clairvoyants. 

4.  Shunem]  in  the  plain  of  Jezreel,  4  m. 
from  Mt.  Gilboa.  Gilboa]  a  mountain  range 
on  the  E.  side  of  the  valley  of  Jezreel. 

6.  Dreams]  These  are  always  regarded  in 
the  Bible  as  one  method  of  divine  revelation  : 
see  NU12  6.  Urim]  see  on  Ex  28  ^o.  The  ephod 
and  the  Urim  had  gone  down  with  Abiathar 
to  David  (23  '^).  Prophets]  We  may  compare 
with  this  1535.  The  action  of  Samuel  was 
apparently  followed  by  the  rest  of  the  pro- 
phets. 7.  En-dor]  4  m.  S.  of  Mt.  Tabor,  and 
10  m.  from  Mt.  Gilboa. 

II,  12.  This  woman  would  seem  to  have 
been  what  is  now  called  a  '  medium '  ;  she 
sees  (very  possibly  having  become  entranced) 
a  figure,  and  Saul  from  her  description  at 
once  concludes  that  it  is  Samuel.  Very  possi- 
bly Saul  saw  nothing  at  all  ;  the  words  he 
heard  may  have  come  from  the  woman.  In- 
deed, the  LXX  translator  (who  very  probably 
knew  as  much  about  such  matters  as  we  do) 
wishing  to  mark  that  the  words  really  came 
from  the  woman  in  her  trance,  spoke  of  her 
as  a  ventriloquist  :  cp.  also  AclG^*',  where  the 
girl,  liable  to  fall  into  a  state  of  secondary 
consciousness,  is  said  to  have  a  '  spirit  of 
divination.'  To  attribute  words  so  spoken 
to  a  spirit  either  internal  or  external  to  the 
medium,  was  the  only  course  possible  to  a 
Hebrew  or  Jewish  narrator. 

13.  Gods]  RV  'a  god,'  for  Saul  immedi- 
ately said,  '  What  form  is  he  of  ?  '  We  must 
remember  that  Elohim  in  Hebrew  is  more 
general  than  the  word  '  god  '  is  with  us,  and  is, 
in  fact,  used  generally  for '  supernatural  beings,' 
or  even  'spirits'  :  see  Ps82^*.  16.  Is  become 
thine  enemy]  LXX '  is  on  the  side  of  thy  neigh- 
bour.' This  is  based  on  a  probable  emendation. 
If  '  neighbour  '  is  right,  it  must  be  taken  in  the 
sense  of  '  rival '  (which  originally  meant  almost 
the  same  thing).     17.  To  him]  LXX  '  to  thee.' 

19.  Moreover.  .  the  Philistines]  LXX  omits. 
To  morrow  shaJt  thou  and  thy  sons  he  with 
me]  i.e.  in  Sheol,  the  place  of  departed  spirits. 

CHAPTER  29 

David  Disallowed  from  FiGHXiNa  with 

THE  Philistines 

I.  Jezreel]    the  plain  between  Gilboa  and 

Little    Hermon.      3.     He    fell    unto    me]    i.e. 

'  deserted  to  me.' 

4.  An  adversary]  Heb.  mia?/.  Satan,  the 
evil  spirit,  is  always  entitled  '  the  Satan,'  i.e. 
the  Adversary  (Jobl  2Zech3i). 


6.  As  the  Lord  liveth]  Achish  would  recog- 
nise that  Jehovah  was  the  national  god  of 
Israel  and  that  He  existed  as  well  as  Dagon 
(cp.  IK  17 12). 

11.  The  Philistines  went  up  to  Jezreel]  The 
Philistines  could  not  attack  Saul's  position  on 
Mt.  Gilboa  from  Shunem  (28  4),  and  accordingly 
they  went  round  Jezreel  to  attack  by  the  easier 
slopes  there. 

CHAPTER  30 

The  Amalekites  raid  Ziklag,  and  are 
PURSUED  BY  David 

2.  Slew  not  any]  They  would  be  valuable 
as  slaves.  6.  Spake  of  stoning  him]  They 
probably  thought  he  had  been  negligent  in 
leaving  Ziklag  without  a  guard.  8.  Enquired 
at  the  Lord]  by  means  of  the  Urim  in  the 
ephod  :  see  on  Ex  28^0.  13.  My  master  left 
me]  The  life  of  a  slave  was  of  little  more 
importance  than  that  of  a  horse. 

14.  The  Cherethites]  Cherethite  is  used 
with  Pelethite,  perhaps  another  name  for 
Philistine  :  see  v.  16  and  Zeph25.  It  is  very 
possibly  connected  with  Crete,  the  country 
from  which  the  Philistines  were  believed  to 
have  come  (Am  9  7).  David  had  the  capacity 
of  turning  foes  into  faithful  friends  and 
soldiers.  16.  Dancing]  RV  'feasting,'  i.e. 
enjoying  themselves  merrily.  17.  Twilight] 
This  is  probably  the  evening  twilight. 

20.  The  LXX  has  no  word  corresponding 
to  '  David '  :  '  and  they  took  all  the  sheep  and 
oxen  (i.e.  those  belonging  to  the  Amalekites) 
and  drave  them  before  the  other  cattle  (i.e. 
those  belonging  to  David's  followers)  and  said. 
This  is  David's  spoil.'  In  repentance  for 
their  former  attitude  (v.  6),  they  resolved  only 
to  keep  what  had  been  taken  from  them  by 
the  Amalekites,  and  to  surrender  the  other 
spoil  to  David. 

26.  He  sent  of  the  spoil]  In  gratitude  for 
their  goodwill  when  he  was  a  hunted  outlaw. 
David's  action  was  also  due  to  policy.  He 
wished  them  to  be  ready  to  accept  his  rule, 
when  the  time  came. 

CHAPTER  31 

Defeat  of  the  Israelites  at  Mt.  Gilboa. 
Death  of  Saul 

6.  And  all  his  men]  LXX  omits.  7.  The 
valley]  of  Jezreel.  10.  The  house  of  Ash- 
taroth]   at  Askelon  :  cp.  2  S 1 20. 

Beth-shan]  between  the  Gilboa  and  little 
Hermon  ranges.  11.  They  thus  showed  their 
gratitude  for  former  kindness  :  see  c.  11. 

12.  Burnt  them]  The  action  of  the  men  of 
Jabesh  Avas  probably  due  to  their  fear  that  the 
Philistines  would  remove  the  bodies. 

13.  Under  a  tree]  RV  '  under  the  tamarisk 
tree.'  It  was  evidently  some  well-known  tree  : 
cp.Gn35-' Jg45. 


195 


1.1 


2  SAMUEL 


2,  9 


2  SAMUEL 


CHAPTEE    1 

The  Lament  of  David  over  Saul  and 
Jonathan 

1.  There  is  no  break  between  the  two  books 
of  Samuel ;  they  really  form  one  continuous 
narrative.  This  v.  is  a  continuation  of  1  S30, 
which  describes  David's  successful  attack  upon 
Ziklag.  He  had  not  heard  of  the  events 
narrated  in  1  S31. 

2.  With  his  clothes  rent,  etc.]  In  1S412, 
which  describes  the  arrival  of  the  messenger 
at  Shiloh  with  tidings  of  the  capture  of  the 
ark,  these  were  the  same  indications  that  he 
was  the  bearer  of  evil  tidings. 

8,  9.  The  Amalekite's  account  contradicts 
IS 31*  and  is  also  improbable  in  itself.  The 
man  was  probably  lying  in  the  hope  of  curry- 
ing favour  with  David.  10.  For  the  practice 
of  wearing  signs  of  royalty,  when  going  into 
battle,  see  1  K2230_  Bracelet]  In  the  Assj'rian 
sculptures  warriors  are  often  represented  with 
such  ornaments. 

18.  The  use  of  the  bow]  RV  '  the  song  of 
the  bow,'  lit.  '  the  bow.'  The  text  of  this  v. 
is  doubtful,  but  if  the  words  are  right,  '  the 
bow '  will  be  the  title  of  the  lamentation 
following.  There  is,  however,  no  warrant  for 
this  in  Hebrew  usage.  Some  see  an  allusion 
to  V.  22,  '  the  bow  of  Jonathan.'  The  book  of 
Jasher]  RV  '  Jashar,'  mentioned  also  in  Josh 
1013.  It  was  api^arently  a  book  of  martial  or 
historical  poetry.  Jashar  is  probably  a  name 
of  Israel.  We  get  it  in  Dt32i5  under  the 
form  Jeshurun  :  the  word  properly  means 
'righteous.' 

21.  Fields  of  offerings]  fields  bearing  pro- 
duce, from  which  firstfruits  are  offered.  Not 
.  .  anointed  with  oil]  It  is  doubtful  if  this 
refers  to  Saul  or  his  shield.  Shields  were 
greased  to  preserve  the  leather  and  to  prevent 
spears  from  sticking:  cp.  Isa21'5. 

22.  In  this  figurative  language,  the  bow  is 
represented  as  drinking  the  blood  of  the  slain 
and  the  sword  as  eating  the  fat  of  the  mighty: 
cp.  Dt32'i'-^  Isa34'3.  Turned  not  back]  i.e. 
empty,  as  the  parallel  clause  shows. 

24.  Scarlet .  .  gold]  These  were  the  ordinary 
ornaments  of  a  Hebrew  woman:  cp.  Jer430. 

25.  O  Jonathan,  thou  tvast  slain  in  thine  high 
places]  RV  '  Jonathan  is  slain  upon  thy  high 
places.'     The  address  is  to  Israel. 

27.  The  weapons  of  -war]  The  parallel 
clause  shows  that  these  are  Saul  and  Jonathan 
themselves,  regarded  as  the  sword  and  bow  of 


the  nation.  It  is  remarkable  that  this  poem 
makes  no  distinction  between  Saul  and  Jona- 
than, but  praises  the  courage,  the  success,  and 
the  patriotism  of  both  alike.  The  gloomy 
picture  of  Saul  given  in  the  later  chs.  of  1  Sam 
must  not  be  allowed  to  efface  the  courage  and 
determination  of  his  struggle  with  Israel's 
foes.  On  the  other  hand,  the  genuine  grief 
expressed  in  this  lament  (which  cannot  be 
anything  else  than  authentic)  over  the  father 
as  well  as  the  son,  shows  David's  chivalry  in 
a  very  pleasing  light. 

CHAPTER  2 
David    made    King     over    Judah,     Ish- 
cosheth   over   israel.     asahel  slain 

BY   AbNER 

I.  Shall  I  go  up?]  The  defeat  and  death  of 
Saul  had  entirely  changed  David's  position. 
He  had,  for  some  time  to  come,  nothing  to 
fear  from  Abner,  who  was  occupied  elsewhere 
(vv.  8,  9).  The  Philistines  would  not  molest 
him,  as  he  was  their  vassal.  But  even  so,  he 
asks  God's  wishes,  before  he  takes  the  decisive 
step.  Hebron]  There  were  several  reasons 
which  rendered  Hebron  suitable.  It  was 
fairly  central,  was  a  celebrated  town,  and 
David  had  friends  there  (1830^1).  It  was 
14  m.  distant  from  his  birthplace,  Bethlehem. 
No  other  town  in  Judah,  while  Jerusalem  was 
still  in  Canaanite  hands,  had  the  same  claim. 

5.  This  was  probably  an  attempt  to  gain 
over  Jabesh-gilead,  the  capital  of  eastern 
Palestine,  and  to  add  the  trans-Jordanic  tribes 
to  his  little  kingdom  of  Judah.  If  so,  it  failed 
for  the  present.  But  during  his  flight  from 
Absalom,  it  was  in  eastern  Palestine  that 
David  found  refuge. 

8.  Ish-bosheth]  His  name  was  really  Esh- 
baal  (lCh833)  i.e.  'man  of  Baal.'  The  name 
Baal  means  '  lord,'  and  so  could  be  used  for 
Jehovah  (Hos2i'5^,  but  afterwards  it  was 
confused  with  the  Canaanite  Baal  and  altered 
to  Bosheth,  i.e.  'Shame':  cp.  Mephibosheth. 
Ish-bosheth  was  the  fourth  son  of  Saul,  and 
now  that  his  three  elder  brothers  were  slain 
(IS 31'').  he  became  the  heir  to  the  tlu-one  : 
see  on  5-°.  Mahanaim]  was  David's  capital 
during  his  flight  from  Absalom  (17  ■^■^). 

9.  The  Ashurites]  This  is  doubtless  a 
mistake  for  Asher.  Abner  first  gained  pos- 
session of  eastern  Palestine,  then  of  Asher  in 
the  extreme  north  of  western  Palestine,  next 
of  the  great  central  plain  of  Issachar,  then  of 
the  hill-country  of  Ephraim  and  Benjamin. 


196 


2.  10 


2  SAMUEL 


3.35 


By  this  time  his  master's  dominions  touched 
those  of  David,  and  before  long  a  collision 
occurred  (vv.  12,  13). 

10.  Forty  years  old]  This  number  is 
probably  wi'ong.  David  was  30  years  old 
when  he  began  to  I'eign  (5^),  and  Jonathan 
would  be  about  the  same  age  or  a  little 
younger.  Ish-bosheth  would  be  younger  still. 
Probably  we  should  read  20  for  40.  In  old 
Hebrew  writing,  the  numbers  would  be  much 
alike. 

10,  II.  Two  years.  .  seven  years  and  six 
months]  Either  it  was  five  years  and  six 
months  after  the  death  of  Ish-bosheth  before 
the  Israelites  would  accept  David,  or  it  took 
Abner  that  length  of  time  to  establish  his 
master's  son  as  king  (v.  9). 

13.  The  pool  of  Gibeon]  Gibeon  was  a 
large  and  important  town  (Josh  10-),  5  m.  N. 
of  Jerusalem.  The  pool  still  exists.  Robin- 
son mentions  it  as  an  open  pool  120  ft.  long 
by  100  broad.  14.  Play]  As  this  word  is 
not  used  elsewhere  of  fighting,  a  preliminary 
contest  to  the  serious  battle  must  be  intended. 

16.  Helkath-hazzurim]  i.e.  '  Field  of  sharp 
edges.'  23.  The  hinder  end  of  the  spear] 
Abner  did  not  wish  to  kill  him.  The  spear 
had  a  sharp  point  by  which  it  was  stuck  into 
the  ground.  Stood  still]  out  of  grief  at  the 
sight:  cp.  2012. 

27.  The  AV  and  E, V  represent  two  different 
explanations  :  (a)  If  Abner  had  not  spoken, 
the  pursuit  would  have  continued  till  the 
morning,  (h)  If  Abner  had  not  proposed  the 
mimic  fight,  there  would  have  been  no  battle 
at  all.  The  former  explanation  seems  prefer- 
able. 28.  Neither  fought  they  any  more] 
i.e.  on  that  day,  for  see  3^.  29.  All  that 
night]  for  fear  of  pursuit.  The  plain]  RV 
'  the  Arabah,'  i.e.  the  valley  of  the  Jordan. 

Bithron]  the  name  of  some  ravine  they 
passed  through  on  their  way.  32.  All  night] 
i.e.  all  the  night  after  the  burial. 

CHAPTER   3 
Abner  is  treacherously  Murdered 

BY   JOAB 

3.  Chileab]  We  read  nothing  more  of  him 
and  he  probably  died  as  a  child.  In  lCh3i 
he  is  called  Daniel.  Geshur]  a  kingdom  on 
the  border  of  Bashan,  where  Absalom  after- 
wards took  refuge  (133").  It  must  not  be 
confused  with  the  Geshur  of  1  827^. 

4.  Adonijah]  see  IKl. 

7.  Rizpah]  see  2is-ii.  Gone  in  unto  my 
father's  concubine]  According  to  Eastern  ideas 
this  was  equivalent  to  laying  claim  to  the 
throne:  see  12  8  1^22  1K222.  8.  Am  I  a 
dog's  head,  which  against  Judah  ?]  RV  '  Am  I 
a  dog's  head  that  belongeth  to  Judah  '? '  i.e.  a 
despised  enemy.  Do  shew  kindness  this  day] 
RV  '  This  day  '  (i.e.  at  the  very  time  you  bring 


this  trivial  charge)  '  do  I  shew  kindness  '  :  see 
on  V.  17.  This  w^oman]  LXX  '  a  woman.'  It 
was  the  question  of  a  mere  woman.  9.  Except 
.  .  even  so  I  do  to  him]  RV  '  if  . .  I  do  not 
even  so  to  him,'  i.e.  support  David  instead  of 
Ish-bosheth.  12.  On  his  behalf]  RM  'where 
he  was.'  Whose  /.s-  the  land  ?  saying]  LXX 
omits.  13.  Except  thou  first  bring  Michal] 
see  lS264-i.  16.  Bahurim]  in  Benjamin,  on 
the  road  from  Jerusalem  to  the  Jordan.  It 
was  probably  the  last  town  in  the  dominions 
of  Ish-bosheth. 

17.  Ye  sought  for  David]  It  would  thus 
seem  that  even  in  northern  Israel  there  was 
a  strong  party,  who  wished  to  make  David 
king  on  the  death  of  Saul.  It  was  probably 
the  personal  influence  of  Abner  that  decided 
the  day  in  favour  of  Ish-bosheth.  The  whole 
passage  clearly  shows  how  weak  was  the 
hereditary  principle,  and  how  completely  the 
'  king '  was  still  regarded  merely  as  a  military 
leader  and  '  judge.'  The  element  of  popular 
choice  is  more  fully  emphasised  here  than  in 
Judges  (except  for  the  Abimelech  episode). 

19.  Benjamin]  as  being  Saul's  fellow-tribes- 
men they  would  be  speciallj^  attached  to  the 
royal  house  and  need  additional  persuasion. 

21.  Make  a  league  with  thee]  as  they  did 
with  Saul  (IS  10-^)  and  as  they  tried  to  do 
with  Rehoboam  (lK12-i).  Before  making 
him  king,  they  wished  to  see  their  rights  safe- 
guarded. 22.  From  purmivg  a  troop]  RV 
'  from  a  foray.'  David  had  probably  arranged 
a  time  when  Joab  was  absent.  24.  Why  is 
it  that  thou  hast  sent  him  away  ?]  As  a  kins- 
man of  Asahel,  Joab  thought  that  David 
should  have  avenged  his  death. 

27.  For  the  blood  of  Asahel  his  brother] 
According  to  Eastern  ideas  Joab  was  bound 
to  avenge  his  brother's  murder.  Neither 
Judaism,  Christianity,  nor  Mohammedanism 
has  been  able  to  eradicate  this  feeling.  But 
the  Law  provided  a  remedy  in  the  Cities  of 
Refuge  (see  Nu 35 11  ^•).  In  the  case  before  us, 
Joab  was  probably  influenced  by  the  fear  that 
Abner  would  interfere  with  his  authority  : 
see  on  8^'''. 

29.  On  all  his  father's  house]  According  to 
Jewish  ideas  the  family  was  involved  in  the 
fate  of  the  ancestor  :  cp.  2 1  *5  2  K  5  -".  Leaneth 
on  a  staff]  rather,  '  that  holdeth  the  spindle  '  : 
cp.  Prov31i-\  It  was  despicable  work  for  a 
man.  31.  Mourn  before  Abner]  i.e.  precede 
the  bier.  This  was  all  the  punishment  David 
was  strong  enough  to  inflict.  33.  Died  Abner 
as  a  fool  dieth  ?]  i.e.  as  one  who  runs  into 
needless  danger,  or  meets  his  death  when  en- 
gaged in  a  shameful  conspiracy  :  see  on  1  S25-^. 

35.  Till  the  sun  be  down]  The  regular  time 
for  ending  a  fast,  as  it  still  is  in  Mohammedan 
countries.  The  Hebrew  day  was  reckoned 
from  sunset  to  sunset. 


197 


4.  S 


2  SAMUEL 


5.25 


CHAPTER  4 

The  Murder  of  Ish-bosheth 

2,  3.  Beeroth  was  near  Gibeon.  The  object 
of  this  note  is  to  explain  how  the  Beerothites 
came  to  be  Benjamites.  Properly  they  should 
have  been  Canaanites,  for  Beeroth  was  included 
in  the  treaty  with  Gibeon  (Josh  9 1^-  2").  But 
owing  to  the  persecution  of  Saul  (21 1)  the 
Canaanites  of  Beeroth  fled  to  Gittaim,  and 
the  town  passed  into  the  possession  of  Benja- 
min.    Gittaim]  in  Benjamin. 

4.  Mephibosheth]  His  name  is  given  in 
1  Ch83i  as  -Merib-baal' :  see  on  28.  5.  Who 
lay  on  a  bed  at  noon]  rather,  '  and  he  was 
taking  his  noon-tide  rest,'  or  siesta. 

6.  The  LXX  has  an  altogether  different 
text  for  this  v.,  '  and,  behold,  the  woman  who 
kept  the  door  of  the  house  was  winnowing 
wheat,  and  she  slumbered  and  slept  ;  and  the 
brothers,  Rechab  and  Baanah,  escaped  notice.' 
This  explains  how  it  was  they  were  able  to 
enter  unperceived.  10.  Who  thought  that  I 
would  have  given  him]  better,  '  in  order  to 
give  him.'  12.  Chronicles  omits  all  mention 
of  the  reign  of  Ish-bosheth. 

CHAPTER  5 

David    is   anointed   King,   captures 

Jerusalem,  and   smites  the  Philistines 

1.  There  was  no  longer  any  member  of  the 
house  of  Saul  who  could  take  the  lead. 

2.  Feed]  lit.  '  act  as  shepherd  to  '  (cp.  7 "). 
'  Shepherd '  became  a  technical  term  for  a 
ruler  (JerS^^).  The  figure  is  developed  in 
Ezk34. 

4.  The  capture  of  Jerusalem  marks  a  most 
important  point  in  the  history  of  Israel. 
Hitherto,  the  national  life  had  had  no  real 
centre  ;  the  residence  of  a  judge  or  a  prophet 
or  a  king  would  be  a  temporary  rallying  place, 
such  as  the  '  palm-tree  of  Deborah,'  Shiloh 
(see  on  1  S  7 1),  Mizpah,  Gibeah  (of  Saul),  Nob 
or  Hebron.  From  this  time,  the  centre  is 
fixed,  and,  at  least  for  the  southern  kingdom, 
all  the  other  cities  grew  less  and  less  important 
in  comparison  with  the  new  capital.  Its 
position,  however,  in  the  midst  of  the  rocky, 
barren  ridge  running  down  central  Palestine, 
made  it  always  more  suitable  for  a  fortress 
than  a  commercial  and  wealthy  capital,  such 
as  Solomon  tried  to  make  it. 

6.  Except  thou  take  away  the  blind  and  the 
lame]  RM  '  but  the  blind  and  the  lame  shall 
turn  thee  away.'  The  Jebusites  considered 
their  city  so  strong  that  it  needed  no  other 
defenders. 

7.  The  strong  hold  of  Zion]  called  later  on 
the  '  city '  (i.e.  citadel)  '  of  David,'  because  he 
built  and  fortified  it.  It  is  to  be  noticed  that 
the  city  of  David  does  not  mean  the  city  of 
Jerusalem  but  the  fort  on  Mt.  Zion,     David 


does  not  yet   venture  to  live  in  Jerusalem 
itself,  outside  the  fort. 

The  city  of  Jerusalem  is  built  on  high 
ground,  which  is  shaped  like  a  cloven  tongue  ; 
and  it  is  probable  that  the  '  city  of  David ' 
occupied  the  eastern  '  tip,'  behind  which  rose 
in  later  times  the  Temple.  Gradually  the  city 
spread  to  the  western  '  tip '  of  the  tongue. 
'  Millo '  appears  to  be  the  name  of  the  part  of 
the  city  which  was  not  fortified  ;  its  meaning 
is  uncertain  ;  later  on  it  also  was  included 
within  the  fortifications.  The  original  '  city 
of  David '  is  thus  a  triangle,  two  sides  of 
which  are  naturally  protected,  and  the  third, 
probably  at  this  time,  as  later,  ai'tificially. 
Below  the  height  on  which  the  fort  is  built 
is  the  Kidron  valley. 

8.  LXX  reads  '  Whosoever  smites  the 
Jebusite,  let  him  slay  with  the  sword  both  the 
lame  and  the  blind,  and  those  who  hate  David's 
soul.'  1  Chi  1*^-9  reads,  'Whosoever  smiteth 
the  Jebusites  first  shall  be  chief  and  captain,' 
and  adds,  '  And  Joab  the  son  of  Zeruiah  went 
up  first,  and  was  made  chief  '  (RV).  9.  Millo] 
see  on  v.  7  and  Jg9*5. 

II.  Hiram]  If  we  accept  the  statements  of 
Josephus,  this  Hiram  was  the  father  of 
Solomon's  friend  (IK  5 1).  Tyre]  the  leading 
city  of  Phoenicia.  They  built]  For  the  skill 
of  the  Phoenicians  in  masonry  and  building 
see  1K57. 

14-16.  The  list  of  David's  sons  is  given 
also  in  iChS^f-  14**.  The  variations  are 
interesting  and  instructive.  14.  Nathan]  one 
of  the  ancestors  of  the  Messiah  (LkS^^). 

17.  This  was  a  united  and  determined  effort 
to  crush  David  before  he  became  too  powerful. 
The  hold]  It  is  uncertain  what  place  is 
meant.  18.  The  valley  of  Rephaira]  a  valley 
SW.  of  Jerusalem,  separated  by  a  slight, 
rocky  ridge  from  the  valley  of  Hinnom. 

20.  Baal-perazim]  Perazimmeans' breaches.' 
Hence  the  play  upon  words.  '  The  Lord  has 
made  a  breach  .  .  like  the  breach  .  .  he  called 
the  name  .  .  Breaches.'  It  is  common  to  find 
the  names  of  places  compounded  with  the 
name  of  the  Baal  to  whom  they  were  con- 
sidered to  belong  :  e.g.  Baal-Peor,  Baal-Gad, 
Baal-Perazim.  Here  the  Baal  is,  of  course, 
Jehovah.  21.  Their  images]  They  had 
brought  them  into  the  battle  to  secure  victory: 
cp.  IS 4 3.  Burned  them]  RV  '  took  them 
away,'  i.e.  as  trophies. 

23.  Thou  shalt  not  go  up]  LXX  adds  '  to 
meet  them.'  24.  The  sound  of  a  going] 
RV  '  the  sound  of  marching.'  It  was  the 
heavenly  host  marching  to  join  in  the  attack 
on  the  Philistines. 

25.  Geba]  LXX  and  Chronicles  both  have 
Gibeon,  which  is  doubtless  correct.  This  battle 
is  apparently  referred  to  in  Isa28-^,  where 
also  we  have  Gibeon. 


198 


6.  1 


2  SAMUEL 


8.  1 


CHAPTER  6 

The  bringing  of  the  Ark  from  Kirjath- 
JEARIM  TO  Jerusalem 

1.  Again]  This  probably  refers  to  the 
previous    assembling   of   the  chosen    men    of 

■  Israel  to  repel  the  Philistine  invasion  (S^^"^^). 

2.  From  Baale  of  Judah]  should  probably  be 
t     '  to  Baal  of  Judah  '  (1  Ch  13  «).    The  town  was 

also  known  as  Kirjath-baal  (City  of  Baal). 

3.  Out  of  the  house  of  Abinadab]  It  had 
been  there  ever  since  its  removal  from  Beth- 
shemesh  (1  S  7 1).  In  Gibeah]  RV  '  in  the  hill.' 
Kirjath-jearim  was  situated  on  high  ground. 

5.  On  all  manner  of  instruments  made  of  fir 
wood]  Read  with  Chronicles  '  with  all  their 
might,  even  with  songs.' 

7.  He  died]  If  this  punishment  seem  severe, 
we  must  remember  that  one  great  lesson  the 
Israelites  had  to  learn  was  reverence  and  fear 
of  God.  The  whole  symbolism  of  both 
Tabernacle  and  Temple  was  intended  to 
impress  upon  them  the  holiness  of  God  and 
the  fact  that  He  could  not  be  rashly  approached 
by  sinful  man.  10.  Gittite]  The  later  tradition 
(1  Ch  151®)  makes  him  a  Levite.  If  this  is 
correct,  he  probably  came  from  Gath-rimmon, 
a  Levitical  city  (Josh  21  25). 

13.  When  they .  .  had  g'one  six  paces]  They 
offered  sacrifices  as  soon  as  it  was  seen  that 
God  permitted  the  removal  of  the  ark. 

17.  The  tabernacle]  This  translation,  though 
correct,  is  misleading.  It  was  an  ordinary 
tent.  The  Tabernacle  was  at  Gibeon.  Burnt 
offerings]  represented  the  self-dedication  of 
the  worshipper.  Peace  offerings]  were  sacri- 
fices of  thanksgiving.  19.  A  flagon  0/"  HV«e] 
RV  '  a  cake  of  raisins.' 

23.  David  thus  inflicted  on  Michal  the 
greatest  disgrace  which  could  befall  an  Eastern 
woman.  This  condemnation  seems  to  our 
minds  extreme  ;  but  such  sudden  impulses 
were  characteristic  of  David. 

CHAPTER  7 
The     Promise     of     God     to     David     in 
Requital  of  his  Desire  to  Build  the 
Temple 

This  c.  affords  an  excellent  illustration  of 
the  way  in  which  prophecy  has  often  two  quite 
distinct  applications,  one  to  the  more  imme- 
diate and  the  other  to  the  more  distant 
future.  The  primary  reference  is  to  Solomon 
(see  especially  vv.  12-14:),  but  the  prophecy 
looks  beyond  him  to  a  gi-eater  Son,  of  whom 
he  was  only  an  emblem  and  type.  We  get  a 
somewhat  similar  instance  in  Isa7i4-i'''  (see 
especially  v.  IG).  Chronologically  this  c. 
should  follow  c.  8. 

2.  Nathan]  The  prophet  is  here  mentioned 
for  the  first  time.  He  played  an  important 
part   in    David's   reign    (chs.7, 12,1K1)   and 


afterwards  wrote  a  history  of  it,  and  of  part, 
at  least,  of  the  reign  of  Solomon.  Curtains] 
i.e.  a  tent:  see  on  Gi".  3.  This  v.,  when  read 
in  connexion  with  vv.  4,  of.,  is  important  as 
showing  the  difference  between  the  prophet 
as  an  ordinary  man  and  the  prophet  as  the 
spokesman  of  God:  cp.  1  Cor 7 ^-^o,  12 

5.  Shalt  thou  build]  LXX  '  Thou  shalt  not 
build.'  '  But  his  son  shall '  (v.  13).  According 
to  1  Ch22S  the  prohibition  was  connected  with 
his  having  been  a  man  of  war.  6.  Whereas] 
RV  '  for.'  This  v.  gives  the  reason  why  David 
was  not  to  build.  In  a  tent  and  in  a  tabernacle] 
The  tent  denotes  the  outer  covering:  the  taber- 
nacle the  framework  of  boards  and  bars. 

7.  Tribes]  Chronicles  has  preserved  the 
true  reading  'judges'  (lChl7<^).  9.  Have 
made]  RV  '  will  make.'  Nathan  turns  from 
the  past  to  the  future.  11.  Also  the  LORD 
telleth  thee]  The  revelation  turns  to  David's 
posterity. 

12.  In  Ac  2  30  this  v.  is  directly  referred  to 
the  Messiah.  13.  He  shall  build  an  house] 
fulfilled  in  the  person  of  Solomon  (IK8I6-20). 
I  will  stablish  the  throne  of  his  kingdom 
for  ever]  On  this  is  based  the  statement  in 
Lkl33.  14.  I  will  be  his  father,  and  he  shall 
be  my  son]  In  Heb  1  ^  this  is  applied  to  Christ, 
who  was  God's  Son  in  a  sense  that  Solomon 
never  was.  If  he  commit  iniquity]  History 
records  many  instances  of  the  transgressions 
and  punishment  of  David's  posterity.  The  rod 
of  men]  Such  chastisement  as  fathers  inflict 
on  their  sons.  16.  Before  thee]  LXX  and 
Chronicles  '  before  me.'  For  ever]  The  pro- 
mise was  conditional  on  conduct :  but  the  king- 
dom of  Messiah,  David's  greatest  Son,  is  eternal. 

19.  Is  this  the  manner  of  man]  i-ather,  'this 
is  the  law  of  (i.e.  imposed  on)  man.'  God  has 
made  it  a  law  regulating  men's  conduct,  that 
kind  intentions  should  be  recognised  and  re- 
quited. But  it  was  a  sign  of  condescension 
that  God  should  consider  Himself  bound  to 
reward  David's  zeal  by  such  proofs  of  regard 
and  affection.  21.  For  thy  word's  sake]  i.e. 
to  perform  the  promise  made  to  David  tlu-ough 
Samuel. 

23.  To  render  this  v.  intelligible  we  must 
do  two  things:  (a)  with  LXX  omit  the  words 
'  for  you,'  (h)  with  Chronicles  change  '  for  thy 
land '  into  '  drive  out.'  Render,  therefore,  '  and 
to  do  great  things  and  terrible,  to  drive  out 
nations  and  their  gods  before  thy  people, 
which  thou  redeemedst  to  thee  from  Egypt.' 

CHAPTER   8 
David's  Victories,  and  a  List  of  his 

Officers 
This   c.  concludes  this  account  of  David's 
reign.     The   remainder  of  the  book  is  taken 
from  a  different  source. 

I.   Metheg-ammah]  RV  '  the  bridle  of  the 


199 


8.  2 


2  SAMUEL 


mother  city.'  This  is  supposed  to  mean  '  the 
authority  of  the  capital,'  namely,  Gath  (cp. 
IChlSi).  Many  take  it,  however,  as  the 
name  (perhaps  corrupted)  of  a  place  which 
David  took  from  the  Philistines.  EM  retains 
Metheg-ammah. 


10.  16 


meaning  than  that  of  '  priests.'  But  it  is  far 
from  clear  what  were  the  precise  duties  which 
they  discharged.  Zadok  and  Abiathar  were 
the  priests  for  the  nation,  while  2026  and 
1K45  show  that  these  '  priests '  stood  in  some 
special    relation    to    the    king.     Accordingly 


i^r^,°f  *.r,f:T,i°  *?  fri'i..?,^  ^™"  ™?-i"-  m  my^%e  his  a"  Jf*,^ 


'making  them  to  lie  down  on  the  ground. 
David  then  slew  two  out  of  every  three.  The 
reason  for  this  severity  is  not  known.  Gifts] 
Moab  continued  tributary  till  the  death  of 
Ahab(2K35).  3.  Hadadezer]  i.e.  '  Hadad  is 
a  help  ':  cp.  Eliezer,  Joezer,  Azariah.  Hadad 
was  the  supreme  god  of  Syria.  In  10i<^his 
name  is  given  more  correctly  as  Hadarezer. 
Zobah]  a  Syrian  kingdom,  whose  territory 
seems  to  have  lain  N.  of  Damascus  and  not  far 
from  the  Euphrates.  To  recover  his  border] 
Chronicles  reads  '  to  establish  his  dominion ' 
(lChl83).  4.  A  thousand  c7j ar/o/.s,  and  seven 
hundred  horsemen]  EV  'a  thousand  and  seven 
hundred  horsemen.' 

5.  Damascus]  is  situated  '  in  a  plain  of  vast 
size  and  extreme  fertility,  which  lies  east  of 
the  great  chain  of  Anti-Libanus,  on  the  edge 
of  the  Desert.'  It  has  always  been  one  of  the 
most  important  cities  of  Syria.  It  succeeded 
in  throwing  ofE  the  yoke  of  Israel  in  the  reign 
of  Solomon  (IK  11 24).     its  history  is  related 


priests.  In  Egypt,  the  king's  confidential 
advisers  are  said  to  have  been  chosen  from 
among  the  priests,  and  it  is  this  view  of  their 
functions  which  is  taken  in  Chronicles.  '  The 
sons  of  David  were  chief  about  the  king ' 
See  Intro.  §  5. 

CHAPTEE    9 
David  and  Mephibosheth 

Chs.  9-20  have  apparently  been  taken 
from  a  single  document,  written  not  long  after 
the  events  recorded,  and  with  special  and 
unique  knowledge  of  the  circumstances  of 
David's  court  and  its  life. 

1-6.  As  soon  as  liis  wars  were  over,  David 
remembered  his  promise  to  his  friend  Jonathan, 
and  sends  for  his  son  Mephibosheth  (or 
Merib-baal). 

7-13.  David  entertains  Mephibosheth  at  his 
table,  and  bestows  on  him  all  the  property 
that  formerly  belonged  to  Saul. 

12.   Mephibosheth  had  a  young  son]   When 


•     .11      1       n  T7--  ,    ^     .       -  -"i^-i^iiiiJuaiicLu  iictu  a  young:  son      wnen 

m  the  books  of  Kmgs      6.  Syna  of  Damascus]      Saul  died,  Mephibosheth  was  only  five  years 


The  phrase  indicates  the  small  Ai'amgean  states 
in  the  regions  of  Damascus. 

8.  Exceeding  much  brass]  i.e.  copper.  It 
is  said  that  the  Egyptians  of  the  18th  and  19th 
dynasties  got  so  much  copper  from  Syria  that 
they  gave  up  working  the  mines  on  Mt.  Sinai. 

9.  Hamath]  on  the  Orontes.  10.  Joram] 
LXX  '  Jeddoram,'  Chronicles  '  Hadoram.'  A 
Jewish  scribe  has  probably  altered  Hadoram 
to  the  more  familiar  Joram.  12,  13.  Syria.  . 
Syrians]  LXX  and  Chronicles  (IChlBi^) 
rightly  read  'Edom,'  'Edomites.' 

15-18.  These  w.  are  intended  by  the  author 
to  form  the  conclusion  of  his  history  of  David's 
reign.  Another  list  of  officers  is  given  in 
2023-26.  17.  Zadok  .  .  and  Ahimelech  .  .  were 
the  priests]  Zadok  seems  to  have  become  chief 
priest  under  Saul:  David  had  his  own  high 
priest,  Abiathar.  He  solved  the  resulting 
difficulty  by  dividing  the  office  between  them. 
But  for  the  prompt  action  of  Joab,  he  would 
probably  have  divided  the  command  of  the 
army  between  Joab  and  Abner.  Ahimelech 
the  son  of  Abiathar]  His  name  was  really 
Abiathar,  the  son  of  Ahimelech  (see  1  S  22  20 
2  S 1535).  But  both  in  OT.  and  NT.  the 
names  are  continually  confused.  18.  The 
Cherethites  and  the  Pelethites]  see  on  1  S  30 1^. 
They  formed  part  of  David's  foreign  bodyguard. 

Chief  rulers]  EV  'priests.'  There  can  be 
no  doubt  that  the  translation  of  EV  is 
correct,   for   the   word  has  never  any  other 


200 


old  (4-1),  so  that  this  brings  us  nearly  to  the 
middle  of  David's  reign. 

CHAPTEE    10 

The  War  with  Ammox  and  Syria 

2.  His  father  shewed  kindness  unto  me] 
Occasion  not  stated.  3.  The  city]  i.e.  their 
capital,  Eabbah.  The  Ammonites  probably 
were  thinking  of  the  severity  with  which  David 
had  treated  the  neighbouring  Moabites  (8  2). 

4.  Shaving  the  beard  is  the  greatest  insult 
that  can  be  offered  to  an  Oriental.  The  Arabs 
regard  it  as  we  should  regard  flogging  or 
branding. 

6.  Hired]  cp.  IKI51S-20.  Beth-rehob]  near 
Laish  or  Dan  (Jgl82S).  King  Maacah]  EV 
'the  king  of  Maacah.'  Maacah  was  a  small 
Syrian  kingdom  on  the  border  of  eastern 
Manasseh.  Ish-tob]  EV  'the  men  of  Tob.' 
See  on  Jg  1 1 3.     8.  Came  out]  from  Eabbah. 

Were  by  themselves]  This  implies  distrust 
and  disunion  between  the  allies.  9.  Joab 
took  advantage  of  the  division  of  the  enemy 
to  attack  them  in  detail.  Abishai  kept  the 
Ammonites  in  check  while  Joab  crushed  the 
Syrians,  and  then  the  two  brothers  combined 
their  forces  and  fell  on  the  Ammonites.  14.  So 
Joab  returned]  The  great  strength  of  Eabbah 
rendered  it  hopeless  to  attempt  to  carry  it  by 
assault,  and  so  Joab  rested  his  army  during  the 
winter:  see  on  111.  ig.  xhe  river]  i.e.  the 
Euphrates.     Helam]  position  unknown. 


10.  18 


2  SAMUEL 


14. 


1 8.  Forty  thousand  horsemen]  IChlQi^ 
'  forty  thousand  footmen.'  19.  All  the  kings 
that  loere  servants  to  Hadarezer]  cp.  1 K  20 1**. 

CHAPTER    11 

David  and  Bath-sheba 
This  narrative  is  of  the  greatest  value.  It 
shows  the  faithfulness  and  the  high  morality 
of  the  historian,  who  relates,  without  a  single 
attempt  at  palliation,  this  scandalous  chapter 
in  the  great  king's  history.  Further,  the 
position  of  the  prophet,  even  in  these  early 
days,  as  the  '  conscience '  of  the  individual  or 
the  nation,  is  clearly  described.  What  Nathan 
is  to  David,  Elijah  (with  equal  courage)  is  to 
Ahab.  In  other  nations,  even  in  much  later 
times,  such  an  act  if  committed  by  a  powerful 
king  would  have  gone  unnoticed  or  unblamed. 

1.  After  the  year  was  expired]  RV  '  at  the 
return  of  the  year,'  i.e.  in  the  spring.  When 
kings  go  forth  to  battle]  In  ancient  times 
hostilities  ceased  during  the  winter  and  began 
again  in  the  spring.  David  tarried  still  at 
Jerusalem]  He  was  not  required  to  be  present 
during  the  lengthy  operations  of  the  siege. 

2.  David  arose  from  off  his  bed]  He  had 
been  resting  during  the  heat  of  the  day. 

6f.  The  subterfuges  to  which  the  sinner 
is  compelled  to  stoop  are  described  in  pitiless 
detail.  8.  A  mess  of  meat  from  the  king] 
This  was  regarded  as  a  special  mark  of  dis- 
tinction. Cp.  Gn4334  1S923.  9.  It  would 
seem  that  Uriah's  suspicions  had  been  aroused. 

II.  The  ark]  This  accidental  mention  of 
the  ark  suggests  that  it  was  no  unusual 
occurrence  for  it  to  be  taken  to  the  field  of 
battle.  15.  The  only  resource  left  was 
murder. 

2 1 .  Who  smote  Abimelech  ?]   see  Jg  9  ^^. 

23.  We  w^ere  upon  them]  i.e.  we  opposed 
them. 

CHAPTER    12 

David's  Repentance   and  Pardon.     The 

Capture  of  Rabbah 

4.  To  dress  for  the  wayfaring  man]  We 
may  notice  Eastern  ideas  of  hospitality:  cp. 
Gn  183-5.  5.  Shall  surely  die]  David's  im- 
pulsive temper  breaks  out  again :  cp.  1  S  25  22. 

II.  For  the  fulfilment  of  this  threat,  see 
lg2i,22_  David's  repentance  secured  the  for- 
giveness of  God,  but  it  did  not  avert  the 
punishment  of  his  sin.  13.  Thou  shalt  not 
die]  This  was  the  punishment  David  himself 
had  pronounced  on  the  offender. 

14.  Thou  hast  given  great  occasion  to  the 
enemies  of  the  LORD  to  blaspheme]  There  is 
little  doubt  that  the  oiiginal  reading  was, 
'  Thou  hast  blasphemed  the  Lord,'  and  that 
it  was  altered  to  avoid  any  appearance  of 
irreverence. 

23.   I  shall  go  to  him]   There  is  a  sugges- 


tion here  of  belief  in  some  form  of  continued 
existence  beyond  the  grave. 

24.  Solomon]    '  Peaceful.' 

25.  Jedidiah]  '  Beloved  of  Jehovah.'  It  is 
cm'ious  that  this  name  should  have  been  laid 
aside  in  favour  of  his  other  name,  Solomon. 

27.  The  city  of  waters]  i.e.  the  lower 
town  of  Rabbah,  on  the  Jabbok.  It  received 
this  name  because  of  a  perennial  stream  which 
rises  within  it  and  which  still  flows  through 
it.  28.  Encamp  against  the  city,  and  take  it] 
Now  that  the  waters  of  the  lower  town  were 
in  the  possession  of  the  besiegers,  the  fate  of 
the  upper  town,  or  citadel,  was  only  a  question 
of  time. 

30.  Their  king's  crown]  The  reference  is 
probably  to  Milcom,  the  god  of  the  Ammon- 
ites (1  Kl  1 5).  His  name  is  merely  an  altered 
form  of  Melech,  i.e.  '  king.'  The  weight  of  the 
crown  (a  talent  of  gold)  renders  it  certain  that 
no  living  person  could  have  worn  it  for  long. 

31.  Put  them  under  saws,  etc.]  The  Heb. 
must  be  translated,  '  put  them  to  saws,'  i.e. 
set  them  to  work  at  saws,  and  harrows,  and 
axes.  For  the  forced  labour  of  captives,  cp. 
1 K  9 15, 2i_  Made  them  pass  through  the  brick- 
kiln] read,  '  made  them  work  at  the  brick- 
mould.' 

CHAPTER    13 

The  Crime  of  Amnon,  and  Absalom's 
Vengeance 

This  narrative  and  the  history  of  Absalom's 
rebellion  is  omitted  in  Chronicles. 

2.  Tamar  was  in  the  women's  apartments, 
and,  therefore,  safe.  She  was  his  half-sister 
and  Absalom's  sister:  see  32.3. 

4.  Lean  from  day  to  day]  i.e.  getting  thinner 
and  paler  every  morning.  5.  Make  thyself 
sick]  RV  '  feign  thyself  sick.'  13.  He  will 
not  withhold  me]  Tamar  said  this  as  a  last, 
desperate  expedient,  for  such  marriages  were 
unlawful  (Lvl89).  16.  Amnon  was  adding 
insult  to  injury.  18.  Garment  of  divers 
colours]  RM  '  a  long  garment  with  sleeves  '  : 
cp.  Gn373.  20.  He  is  thy  brother]  So 
Tamar  could  not  reproach  herself  for  having 
gone  to  see  him. 

23.    Ephraim]   an  unknown  town. 

37.  Talmai]  Absalom  escapes  to  his  grand- 
father (33j  to  avoid  the  revenge  of  Amnon's 
relatives. 

David  mourned]  His  sin  was  finding  him 
out,  and  he  was  tasting  the  first  bitter  fruits 
of  it  in  the  death  of  one  son  and  the  alien- 
ation of  another. 

CHAPTER  14 
Absalom's  Return  from  Geshur 
After  waiting  for  two  years,  Absalom  forces 
Joab  to  use  his  influence  to  bring  about  a 
reconcilLation  between  him  and  his  father. 


201 


14.  2 


2  SAMUEL 


16.  8 


2.  Tekoah]  6  m.  S.  of  Bethlehem.  It  was 
the  home  of  the  prophet  Amos  (Am  1 1). 

7.  We  will  destroy]  She  purposely  makes 
the  case  appear  as  bad  as  possible.  My  coal] 
The  word  means  a  glowing  piece  of  wood. 
The  surviving  son  is  compared  to  a  spark  left 
when  the  rest  of  the  fire  has  gone  out.  The 
passage  casts  an  interesting  light  on  the 
informal  and  almost  casual  administration  of 
justice.  According  to  Hebrew  custom  the 
youth  had  no  claim  to  a  reprieve ;  on  the 
other  hand,  the  extinction  of  a  family  was  an 
admitted  calamity. 

9.  The  iniquity  be  on  me]  i.e.  if  the  king  is 
breaking  the  law  of  God,  she  is  willing  to 
bear  the  punishment  :  cp.  Gn9'5.  11.  Let  the 
king,  etc.]  She  wishes  him  to  ratify  his  pro- 
mise by  an  oath.  13,  As  one  which  is  faulty] 
The  king's  merciful  disposition  towards  the 
son  of  a  stranger  condemned  his  severity  to 
his  own  son. 

14.  We  must  needs  die,  etc.]  Life  may  end 
at  any  time,  and  when  ended  cannot  be  re- 
called. Hence  the  regret  that  follows  harsh 
judgment  when  the  offender  is  dead.  Neither 
doth  God,  etc.]  RV  '  neither  doth  God  take 
away  life,  but  deviseth  means,  that  he  that  is 
banished  be  not  an  outcast  from  him.'  God 
is  so  far  from  taking  away  life  that  He  is 
anxious  that  the  outcast  should  not  be  lost, 
but  should  be  enabled  to  return.  It  is  possi- 
ble that  the  woman  was  hinting  at  the  contrast 
between  David's  treatment  of  Absalom  and 
God's  treatment  of  David  :  see  12^3. 

15.  The  people]  i.e.  her  family.  The  woman 
still  keeps  to  her  fictitious  tale.  20.  To  fetch 
about  this  form  of  speech]  RV  '  to  change  the 
face  of  the  matter '  ;  i.e.  the  present  position 
of  Absalom. 

25.  His  beauty]  Absalom  inherited  the 
personal  beauty  of  his  father  (1  S 16 12).  The 
fact  is  also  mentioned  in  the  case  of  Tamar 
(13 1)  and  of  Adonijah  (1K16).  26.  The 
king's  weight]  We  do  not  know  the  exact 
weight  of  the  king's  shekel,  but  probably  40 
shekels  were  roughly  equivalent  to  an  English 
pound.  This  notice  is  inserted  to  distinguish 
it  from  the  sacred  shekel.  27.  Three  sons] 
It  would  appeal*  from  18 1'^  that  none  of  them 
lived  to  grow  up.  29.  Joab  had  risked  a 
good  deal  in  sending  the  woman  of  Tekoah, 
and  he  did  not  choose  to  ventm"e  a  second 
attempt. 

CHAPTER  15 
The  Rebellion  of  Absalom 
His  party  is  so  strong  that  David  is  obliged 
to  flee  from  Jerusalem.  He  is  joined  by 
Ittai  the  Gittite,  and  by  Zadok  and  Abiathar 
the  priests,  and  by  Hushai  the  Archite.  The 
king,  however,  orders  Zadok,  Abiathar,  and 
Hushai  to  return  to  Jerusalem. 


I.  Fifty  men  to  run  before  him]  Such 
runners  have  always  formed  part  of  royal 
state  in  the  East  :  cp.  IKl^  iS'i'^.  2.  Rose] 
rather,  '  used  to  rise,'  and  stand  by  the  gate 
so  as  to  meet  all  who  went  in  or  out. 

7.  Forty  years]  This  is  obviously  a  mistake. 
Some  versions  read  '  four.'  8.  I  will  serve  the 
Lord]  i.e.  by  sacrifices  and  offerings  (v.  12). 
Absalom  may  have  remembered  his  father's 
device  (1  S2Ut5).  9.  Went  to  Hebron]  Absalom 
probably  hoped  that  the  ancient  capital,  Hebron, 
would  be  jealous  of  Jerusalem.  11.  Called] 
i.e.  invited  to  share  in  the  festivities.  They 
were  probably  men  of  influence  and  position. 

12.  While  he  offered  sacrifices]  This  gave 
him  an  opportunity  of  conferring  with  Ahith- 
ophel  without  exciting  remark  :  cp.  IS  16 2. 

14.  Let  us  flee]  LXX  adds  '  lest  the  people 
come  upon  us.'  David  is  taken  completely  by 
surprise,  and  mistrusts  his  subjects  and  his 
household.  17.  A  place  that  was  far  off]  RV 
takes  it  as  a  proper  name,  '  Beth-merhak.' 

18.  Gittites]  see  on  ISSQi^.  ittai  and  his 
followers  from  Gath  (Goliath's  city)  were  now 
among  David's  staunchest  followers. 

19.  With  the  king]  i.e.  with  whoever 
chances  to  be  king.  As  a  foreigner  Ittai  had 
nothing  to  do  with  the  internal  quarrels  of 
Israel.  David  generously  suggests  that  he 
should  keep  them  out  of  his  own  conflicts. 

24.  And  Abiathar  went  up]  These  words 
are  probably  out  of  place.  They  are  omitted 
in  some  MSS  of  the  LXX,  and  look  like  a 
scribe's  insertion.  26.  In  spite  of  all  his 
anxiety  and  misery,  David's  resignation  and 
piety  never  waver.  27.  Art  7iot  thou  a  seer? 
return]  LXX  '  see,  thou  shalt  return.' 

28.  The  plain  of  the  wilderness]  The 
locality  is  that  described  in  2K255  as  'the 
plains  of  Jericho.'  It  was  in  the  level  plain 
of  the  Jordan  valley  and  near  the  fords 
(17i«3). 

32.  Where  he  worshipped  God]  RV  '  where 
God  was  worshipped.'  Olivet  was  a  well- 
known  high-place  :  cp.  1 K 1 1 7, 8.  The  Archite] 
i.e.  an  inhabitant  of  Erech,  a  town  on  the 
southern  frontier  of  Ephi-aim,  between  Bethel 
and  Beth-horon. 

CHAPTER  16 

ZiBA,  Shimei,  and  Ahithophel 
David,  during  his  flight,  is  assisted  by  Ziba, 
but    is    cursed    by    Shimei.     The    cause    of 
Absalom  is  promoted  by  the  wise  counsel  of 
Ahithophel. 

I.  An  hundred  of  summer  fruits]  a  hundred 
cakes  into  which  summer  fruits  were  com- 
pressed. 2.  With  tnie  Oriental  deference  he 
does  not  venture  to  say  they  are  for  the  king's 
own  use.  8.  All  the  blood  of  the  house  of 
Saul]  The  reference  is  probably  to  the  inci- 
dent recorded  in  21  i-i4. 


202 


16.  11 


2  SAMUEL 


19.  23 


II.  The  Lord  hath  bidden  him]  David 
recognised  that  all  his  misfortunes  were  the 
consequence  of  his  sin.  The  Lord  had  pun- 
ished him  through  his  own  son,  whom  he  had 
forgiven  and  restored.  Why  not  also  through 
Shimei  ?  14  Came  weary]  RM  '  came  to  Aye- 
phim.'  23.  Enquired  at  the  oracle  of  God] 
i.e.  consulted  God  by  means  of  the  Urim  and 
Thummim. 

CHAPTER  17 
The  Fall  op  Ahithophel 

Absalom  follows  the  advice  of  Hushai  rather 
than  that  of  Ahithophel,  who  thereupon  hangs 
himself.     David  retreats  to  Mahanaim. 

3.  The  death  of  David  would  put  an  end  to 
all  resistance,  and  bring  about  peace.  7.  At 
this  time]  RV  '  this  time.'  Hushai  contrasts 
this  suggestion  of  Ahithophel  with  his  former 
advice  (1621),  which  was  good.  8.  A  man  of 
war]  Ahithophel's  advice,  though  plausible, 
was  not  sound.  David  was  too  experienced  a 
warrior  to  be  caught  unprepared. 

16.  Hushai  was  afraid  that  Absalom  might 
change  his  mind  and  be  guided  by  the  advice 
of  Ahithophel.  17.  Went  and  told]  RV  '  used 
to  go  and  tell.'  'This  v.  describes  how  com- 
munication between  Hushai  and  David  was 
regularly  carried  on. 

23.  Ahithophel  saw  clearly  that  following 
the  advice  of  Hushai  meant  the  failure  of  the 
conspiracy. 

24.  Mahanaim]  E.  of  Jordan,  near  the 
Jabbok.  25.  Israelite]  more  probably  '  Ish- 
maelite  '  (1  Ch  2 1'i').  Abigail  was  a  sister  of 
David  (lCh2i5, 16)^  and  consequently  Amasa 
was  his  nephew  :  cp.  1913. 

CHAPTER  18 

The  Defeat  and  Death  of  Absalom 

I.  Numbered]  rather,  '  mustered.'  3.  Succour 
us  out  of  the  city]  David,  holding  Mahanaim 
with  a  sufficient  force,  would  be  of  the  greatest 
assistance  to  the  fugitives,  if  his  army  were 
defeated.  5.  The  people  heard]  This  state- 
ment explains  v.  12. 

6.  The  wood  of  Ephraim]  LXX  reads  '  Maha- 
naim '  here.  8.  The  battle  was  there  scattered] 
So  Joab  was  able  to  destroy  Absalom's  forces  in 
detail.  The  wood  devoured,  etc.]  The  thick- 
ness of  the  wood,  its  swamps,  precipices,  etc., 
militated  against  the  fugitives,  and  increased  the 
slaughter  :  cp.  the  manner  of  Absalom's  death. 

9.  Met]  RV  'chanced  to  meet.'  By  misfor- 
tune, in  his  flight  Absalom  encountered  some 
of  the  pursuers.  His  head]  The  tradition  that 
Absalom  was  caught  by  his  hair  comes  from 
Josephus.  13.  Against /Me]  RV  'aloof.'  Joab 
would  have  stood  on  one  side  and  let  his 
accomplice  bear  the  brunt  of  the  king's  anger. 

16.  Joab  held  back  the  people]  Absalom  was 
dead  and  the  war  ended. 


203 


17.  A  very  great  heap  of  stones]  This  might 
be  simply  to  mark  his  burying-place.  18.  This 
V.  is  evidently  parenthetical,  and  informs  us 
that  Absalom  had  a  suitable  permanent  memo- 
rial, though  the  building  now  known  as  Absa- 
lom's tomb  in  the  vicinity  of  Jerusalem  is  of 
much  later  date.  Evidently  Absalom's  three 
sons  (142")  had  died  before  him.  Place]  RV 
'  monument.' 

21.  Cushi]RV'theCushite.'  He  was  probably 
a  slave  of  Joab,  who  could  be  trusted  to  say 
exactly  what  he  was  told.  22.  Thou  hast  no 
tidings  ready]  RV  '  thou  wilt  have  no  reward 
for  the  tidings.'  His  message  would  be  a  sad 
one.  23.  By  the  way  of  the  plain]  The  direct 
way  lay  across  the  hills,  but  Ahimaaz,  by 
choosing  the  level  road  along  the  Jordan 
valley,  reached  his  goal  first.  24.  Between 
the  two  gates]  i.e.  between  the  outer  and  the 
inner  gate  in  the  city  wall.  25.  If  he  be 
alone,  there  is  tidings]  Had  he  been  a  fugitive, 
he  would  have  been  followed  by  others. 

29.  And  me]  RV  '  even  me.'  I  knew  not 
what  it  wjas]  This  statement  was  untrue  (v. 
20).  Probably  Joab  had  commanded  him  to 
leave  the  announcement  to  the  Cushite 

CHAPTER  19 
David's  Return  to  Jerusalebi 

David's  excessive  grief  for  Absalom  is  re- 
buked by  Joab.  He  punishes  Joab  for  Absa- 
lom's death  by  making  Amasa  commander  of  the 
army.  The  details  of  his  return  to  Jerusalem 
are  given,  with  the  strife  it  caused  between 
the  men  of  Israel  and  the  men  of  Judah. 

David  has  often  been  accused  of  ingratitude 
on  account  of  his  treatment  of  Joab.  It  has 
been  urged  that  he  would  never  have  been 
secure  with  Absalom  at  liberty,  and  Joab  knew 
how  uncertain  was  his  master's  mind.  On 
the  other  hand,  it  was  a  serious  matter  to 
murder  the  heir  to  the  throne,  for  which 
deposition  was  probably  a  lenient  punishment. 

8.  Then  the  king  arose]  He  recognised  the 
truth  of  Joab's  statements.  Sat  in  the  gate] 
where  kings  were  wont  to  give  audiences  (152). 

II.  The  talk  of  the  people  of  Israel  about 
David's  return  had  come  to  the  king's  know- 
ledge, but  so  far  the  elders  of  Judah  had  not 
approached  him  on  the  subject. 

16,  17.  Shimei  tries  to  make  his  peace  with 
David  (see  16"-)  by  bringing  the  tribe  of 
Benjamin  back  to  their  allegiance.  20.  The 
house  of  Joseph]  here  stands  for  northern 
Israel.  Epkraim  was  the  most  powerful  tribe 
in  the  northern  and  central  tribes,  as  Judah  was 
in  the  south.  23.  Sware  unto  him]  At  first 
sight  it  appears  as  if  David  broke  his  oath  by 
his  last  directions  to  Solomon  (IK 2 8. 9).  But 
the  way  in  which  Solomon  acted  on  those 
instructions  suggests  that  he  understood  his 
father  to  be  merely  putting  him  on  his  guard 


19.26 


2  SAMUEL 


31.  1 


against  a  dangerous  man.  He  put  Joab  to 
death  at  once,  but  merely  placed  Shimei  where 
he  could  do  no  mischief. 

26.  I  will  saddle]  better,withLXX,' saddle.' 
The  command  was  given  to  Ziba,  but,  instead 
of  obeying  it,  he  drove  off  the  asses  to  meet 
David.  29.  I  have  said]  RV'I  say,'  i.e.  I 
declare  that  this  is  my  intention.  Thou  and 
Ziba]   see  16  4. 

41.  Here  again  we  may  notice  the  jealousy 
between  the  powerful  tribes  of  Judah  and 
Ephraim  :  see  on  v.  20.  42.  Hath  he  given 
us  any  gift  ?]  This  was  probably  a  hit  at  the 
Benjamites,  who  seem  to  have  profited  by  their 
connection  with  Saul  (1  S  22  7).  43.  That  our 
advice  should  not  first  be  had]  cp.  the  conduct 
of  the  men  of  Ephraim,  narrated  in  JgS^  12 1 
although  they  had  more  excuse  (see  on  JgS^). 

CHAPTER  20 
The  Rebellion  of  Sheba 

Sheba  takes  advantage  of  the  jealousy  of 
the  men  of  Israel  to  begin  a  rebellion,  which, 
but  for  the  prompt  action  of  Joab,  might  have 
resulted  in  a  disruption  between  Israel  and 
Judah.  During  this  expedition  Amasa  is 
murdered  by  Joab.  The  c.  concludes  with 
a  list  of  David's  officers. 

This  c.  evidently  continues  the  narrative  of 
the  concluding  vv.  of  the  preceding.  During 
the  period  of  the  Judges,  Ephraim  had  been 
the  leading  tribe  and  they  could  not  brook  to 
see  their  place  taken  by  Judah.  For  the 
present  their  attempt  failed,  and  the  rule  of 
Solomon  was  too  strong  for  them  to  renew  it. 
But  on  the  accession  of  Rehoboam  the  old 
jealousy  broke  out  again. 

This  c.  ends  the  account  which  the  editor 
took  from  the  document  he  has  been  following 
since  c.  9.  The  list  with  which  it  concludes 
is  similar  to  that  at  the  close  of  the  earlier 
document  (8I6-IS). 

I.  The  son  of  Bichri]  rather,  'a  son  of 
Bichri,'  i.e.  a  member  of  that  clan  (lCh7<5-8). 

We  have  no  part .  .  Israel]  This  was  the  very 
cry  raised  by  the  rebellious  Israelites  in  the 
time  of   Rehoboam   (1K1216).     3.   See   15 16 

1621,22. 

5.  He  tarried]   The  reason  is  unknown. 

6.  Abishai]  When  Amasa  failed  him,  David, 
determined  at  all  hazards  to  suspend  Joab, 
turned  to  Abishai.  Joab  went  with  his  brother 
in  order  to  watch  for  his  opportunity,  which 
soon  came.  8.  It  would  seem  that  Joab  had 
two  swords,  and  that  Amasa,  seeing  one  lying 
on  the  ground,  did  not  suspect  that  he  had 
another.  9.  Took  Amasa  by  the  beard  .  .  to 
kiss  him]  This  is  said  to  be  still  an  Arab 
custom. 

14.  Unto  Abel,  and  to  Beth-maachah]  read 
'  unto  Abel  of  Beth-maachah.'  All  the  Berites] 
read  '  all  the  Bichrites '  (see  on  v.  1).     Sheba 


204 


went  to  the  Bichrites  (his  kinsmen)  and  then 
proceeded  to  Abel-beth-maachah,  in  the  ex- 
treme N.  of  Palestine,  where  he  was  besieged 
by  Joab. 

15.  They  cast  up  a  bank  against  the  city] 
cp.  2  K 1 9  32.  It  enabled  the  besiegers  to  bring 
their  battering-rams  close  up  to  the  wall.  It 
stood  in  the  trench]  RV  '  it  stood  against  the 
rampart.' 

18.  The  wisdom  of  the  inhabitants  of  Abel 
was  so  generally  accepted,  that  their  decision 
settled  all  disputed  questions.  The  woman 
says  this  to  give  weight  to  her  remonstrance. 

19.  A  city  and  a  mother]  i.e.  a  mother-city, 
a  metropolis.  20.  Joab  was  utterly  unscru- 
pulous, but  never  wantonly  cruel  :  cp.  18 1^. 

23-26.  This  list  of  officers  concludes  this 
part  of  the  book.  What  follows  is  an  appendix. 
When  we  compare  it  with  the  list  given  in 
8 16-18^  Tj^Q  gnd  the  amount  of  variation  which 
we  should  expect,  if  one  list  refers  to  the 
earlier  and  the  other  to  the  later  part  of  the 
reign.  The  names  of  Joab,  Benaiah,  Jehos- 
haphat,  Zadok,  and  Abiathar  occur  in  both 
lists.  Sheva  replaces  Seraiah,  and  Ira  takes 
the  place  of  David's  sons,  while  the  office  of 
Adoram  is  new. 

24.  Adoram]  He  held  the  same  office 
through  the  long  reign  of  Solomon  till  the 
accession  of  Rehoboam  (IK  1218).  It  has, 
however,  been  supposed  that  the  Adoram 
mentioned  in  Kings  was  the  son  and  successor 
of  the  Adoram  mentioned  here. 

CHAPTERS   21-24 

These  chapters  contain  six  appendices, 
which  have  been  placed  at  the  end  of  the  book 
in  order  not  to  interrupt  the  history  of  the 
reign.  These  appendices  are  (1)  the  account 
of  a  famine  (21i-i4);  (2)  exploits  against 
the  Philistines  (2115-22),  (3)  a  psalm  of  David 
(c.  22);  (4)  David's  last  words  (231-7);  (5) 
further  exploits  against  the  Philistines  and  a 
list  of  David's  heroes  (238-29);  (6)  the  census 
of  the  people  (c.  24).  Of  these  six,  the  first 
and  sixth  are  closely  connected  (24 1  refers  to 
21 1),  while  the  account  of  exploits  against  the 
Philistines  has  been  cut  in  two  by  two  psalms. 
But  these  psalms,  though  placed  side  by  side, 
have  no  connexion  with  one  another.  C.  22 
is  identical  with  Ps  18,  and  is  best  explained 
under  that  title. 

CHAPTER  21 
The  Famine  and  some  Exploits  against 
THE  Philistines 
I.  It  is  for  Saul,  and  for  his  bloody  house] 
rather,  '  upon  Saul  and  his  house  rests  blood- 
shed.' The  Gibeonites]  The  lives  of  the 
Gibeonites  had  been  spared,  through  fear 
of  God's  anger  being  excited  by  any  breach 
of  the  covenant  made    with  them  (Josh    9, 


21.  2 


2  SAMUEL 


24.  5 


especially  v.  20).  2.  Amorites]  Strictly  speak- 
ing, the  Gibeonites  were  Hivites  (Josh  9 ''), 
but  '  Amorites  '  was  a  general  name  for  the 
Canaanites.  3.  Wherewith  shall  I  make  the 
atonement?]  i.e.  what  sum  of  money  shall  I 
pay  as  compensation  ? 

4.  RV  '  It  is  no  matter  of  silver  or  gold 
between  us  and  Saul,  or  his  house;  neither  is 
it  for  us  to  put  any  man  to  death  in  Israel.' 
They  would  not  accept  compensation  in 
money,  nor  did  they  wish  that  Israel,  apart 
from  Saul,  should  suffer.  6.  Hang  them 
up]   The  method  of  execution  is  uncertain. 

Whom  the  LORD  did  choose]  RV  'The 
chosen  of  the  Lord.'  8.  Michal]  Evidently 
a  mistake  for  '  Merab.'  It  was  Merab  who 
married  Adriel  (ISlSi^^).  Brought  up]  RV 
'bore.'  9,10.  Barley  harvest  is  in  April,  and 
the  early  rain  (until  water  dropped)  in  October. 
15-22.  The  text  in  this  section  and  also 
in  its  continuation  (23  ^"39)  is  very  corrupt. 

15,  16.  Read,  'and  his  servants  with  him, 
and  settled  in  Nob,  and  fought  against  the  Phi- 
listines, and which  was  of  the  sons  of  the 

giant.'     The  giant's  name  has  been  lost. 

19.  Jaare-oregim]  in  lCh205  '  Jair.'  Elha- 
nan  .  .  slew  the  brother  of  Goliath]  AV  repre- 
sents the  reading  of  Chronicles.  RV  repre- 
sents the  text  of  Samuel,  as  we  now  have  it, 
'  Elhanan  .  .  slew  Goliath  the  Gittite.'  If 
we  adopt  it,  we  must  suppose  that  Elhanan 
was  another  name  of  David  ;  but  see  on  1  S 1 7. 

CHAPTER  22 
David's  TnANKSGiviNa  Psalm 
This  beautiful  poem  has  also  been  preserved 
as  the  Eighteenth  Psalm.  It  probably  be- 
longs to  the  earlier  portion  of  David's  reign, 
when  his  conquests  and  God's  promise  (2  S  7) 
were  still  fresh  in  his  mind.     See  on  Psl8. 

CHAPTER  23 

David's  Last  Words.     The  Exploits 
OF  HIS  Heroes 

1-7.  This  psalm  is  not  contained  in  the 
book  of  Psalms.  It  is  called  '  the  last '  (rather, 
'  the  latter  ')  'words  of  David,'  in  contrast  with 
the  earlier  psalm,  which  forms  c.  22.  We 
have  no  other  means  of  determining  its  date. 

2.  By  me]  RM  '  in  me.'  The  idea  is  that 
God  used  the  psalmist  as  His  instrument  and 
spokesman  to  repeat  His  words  to  the  people  : 
cp.  1 K  22  28  Hos  1  2. 

4.  As  the  tender  grass  sprhiging]  render, 
'  when  the  tender  grass  springs.'  The 
eous  ruler  is  like  a  bright,  sunny 
when  there  are  no  clouds  and  the  grass  springs 
out  of  the  earth.  There  are  no  clouds  to 
darken  the  present  or  threaten  the  future,  and 
the  whole  land  is  alive  with  gladness  and  life. 

5.  This  V.  is  better  taken  as  a  question: 
'  For  is  not  my  house  so  with  God,  seeing  He 


right- 


hath  made  .  .  for  all  my  salvation  and  all  my 
desire,  shall  He  not  make  it  to  grow  ?'  David 
refers  to  the  promise  actually  made  in  the 
past  and  looks  forward  with  confidence  to  the 
future.      Everlasting  covenant]   cp.  7i5, 16 

Ordered  in  all  thuigs]  i.e.  properly  drawn 
up  and  arranged  in  every  respect.  Grow]  i.e. 
continue  and  increase:  cp.  Isa458. 

6,  7.  These  vv.  contrast  the  fate  of  the 
wicked.  Thorns  cannot  be  pulled  up  with  the 
naked  hand,  but  the  man  who  wishes  to  cut 
them  down  must  take  in  his  hand  a  long  staff 
with  an  iron  weapon  at  the  end. 

8-39.  This  list  of  heroes  originally  con- 
tained the  first  three,  then  a  second  three,  then 
the  30 :  36  names  in  all,  or  with  Joab,  37  names. 
This  is  the  number  actually  given  in  v.  39. 

8-1 1.  The  first  three,  Ishbosheth,  Eleazar, 
and  Shammah.  8.  The  Tachmonite  that  sat 
in  the  seat]  read,  '  Ishbosheth  the  Hachmon- 
ite.'  Chief  among  the  captains]  read,  '  the 
chief  of  the  tlu-ee':  cp.  v.  19.  The  same  loas 
Adino  the  Eznite]  Chronicles  rightly  reads 
'he  lifted  up  his  spear.'  11.  Into  a  troop] 
read,  '  to  Lehi.'  Lehi  was  the  scene  of  Sam- 
son's exploit  against  the  Philistines  (JglS^'-)- 
13-16.  We  now  get  a  gi-eat  exploit,  which 
promoted  three  other  heroes  to  a  place  above 
the  30.  16.  Poured  it  out  unto  the  LORD] 
as  too  precious  for  human  use. 

18-20.  Two  names  only  of  the  second  three 
have  been  preserved  :  Abishai  and  Benaiah. 

24-39-  Chronicles  reduces  this  list  to  the 
correct  number  of  30,  by  omitting  the  name 
of  Elika  (v.  26).  But  we  know  that  Asahel 
died  early  in  David's  reign,  and  another  may 
have  been  chosen  in  his  place. 


205 


CHAPTER  24 

The  Numbering  of  the  People,  and 
its  Penalty 

In  punishment  for  David's  sin  in  numbering 
the  people,  God  sends  a  pestilence,  which  slays 
70,000  men.  In  gratitude  for  the  stay  of  the 
plague,  David  erects  an  altar  in  the  threshing- 
floor  of  Araunah  the  Jebusite. 

I.  Again]  This  refers  to  the  former  occa- 
sion mentioned  in  c.  21.  He  moved]  Chron- 
icles states  that  '  Satan  .  .  provoked  David.' 
The  older  account  does  not  enter  into  the 
distinction  between  what  God  permits  and 
what  God  causes.  This  distinction  is  the  result 
of  later  reflection  and  more  subtle  theology. 

5-8.  Their  course  is  easy  to  follow,  though 
several  of  the  names  are  corrupt.  They  started 
from  the  city  of  Aroer  on  the  Arnon,  and  passed 
through  eastern  Palestine.  They  next  crossed 
to  Zidon,  and  traversed  western  Palestine  to 
Beersheba  in  the  extreme  south.  5.  On  the 
right  side  (i.e.  on  the  south)  of  the  city  that 
lieth  in  the  midst  of  the  river  (RV  '  valley  '  )  ] 
Perhaps  this  city  was  Ar  of  Moab  (Isa  15^). 


24.  6 


2  SAMUEL— 1  AND  2  KINGS 


INTRO. 


6.  Tahtim-hodshi]  Thenius  conjectures  that 
this  is  a  mistake  for  '  Kadesh,'  a  town  on 
the  Orontes  marking  the  extreme  northern 
limit  of  Israel.      Dan-jaan]   read  '  Dan.' 

10.  David's  sin  consisted  in  pride  in  his  own 
strength  and  forgetfulness  of  his  dependence  on 
God.     It  was  the  very  sin  which  ruined  Saul. 

13.  Seven  years]  LXX  and  Chronicles  read 


'  three  years.'  15.  From  the  morning  even 
to  the  time  appointed]  These  words  occasion 
some  difficulty  as  the  pestilence  was  stayed 
before  the  appointed  time.  They  are  omitted 
in  Chronicles.  22.  Instruments  of  the  oxen] 
i.e.  the  wooden  yoke:  cp.  IK  19 21.  23.  This 
V.  continues  Araunah's  speech  :  RV  '  all  this, 
O  king,  doth  Ai-aunah  give.' 


THE  FIRST  AND  SECOND  BOOKS  OF 

KINGS 


INTRODUCTION 


1.  Character  and  Contents.  The  books  of 
Kings  take  up  the  account  of  the  Jewish 
people  at  the  point  where  it  is  left  by  2 
Samuel.  The  division  into  two  books  is  not 
original,  and  seems  to  have  been  introduced 
from  the  LXX,  where  they  are  termed  the 
'  Third  and  Fourth  books  of  the  Kingdoms,' 
the  First  and  Second  being  1  and  2  Sam. 
Their  contents  embrace  the  history  of  the 
period  between  the  last  years  of  David's  reign 
(about  980  B.C.)  and  the  Fall  of  Jerusalem  in 
586,  closing  with  the  release  of  Jehoiachin 
from  prison  by  Evil-Merodach  in  501  ;  so 
that  the  space  of  time  covered  is  rather  more 
than  400  years.  Their  final  completion  must 
be  later  than  the  date  last  mentioned,  and 
their  composition  is  separated  from  many  of 
the  events  related  by  a  considerable  interval  ; 
so  that  for  the  bulk  of  the  information  which 
they  comprise  they  are  dependent  upon  earlier 
records.  In  the  Talmud,  the  authorship  is  attri- 
buted to  Jeremiah  (perhaps  on  the  strength  of 
the  general  tone  of  the  books,  or  of  the  recur- 
rence in  Jer  .39-42  and  52  of  parts  of  2  K  24, 25), 
but  the  statement  is  improbable,  so  far  at 
least  as  the  present  form  of  the  books  is  con- 
cerned. Jeremiah,  whose  prophetic  ministry 
began  as  early  as  the  13th  year  of  Josiah 
(Jer  12),  i.e.  about  627,  can  scarcely  have 
survived  till  after  561. 

2.  Sources.  In  the  course  of  the  narrative 
reference  is  made  to  three  different  sources 
as  authorities  for  the  history  of  the  times 
described,  viz.  the  Acts  of  Solomon  (IK  It'll), 
the  Chronicles  of  the  Kings  of  Israel  (1  K  14^9, 
etc.),  and  the  Chronicles  of  the  Kings  of 
Judah  (IK  14-^9,  etc.).  The  mention  of  a 
Recorder  among  the  officials  of  many  of  the 
Kings  (1K43  2K1818)  suggests  that  the 
several  writings  just  named  may  have  pre- 
served information   derived   from   the   State 


archives,  though  the  nature  of  some  of  the 
statements  for  which  they  are  cited  renders  it 
probable  that  they  were  not  themselves  official 
documents  (see  IK  16 20  2 K 15 is  2117).  In 
certain  instances  they  are  referred  to  as 
supplying  matter  which  the  books  of  Kings  do 
not  furnish  (see  1K1419  22^9)  ;  but  it  seems 
likely  that  much  that  is  included  in  Kings  is 
really  drawn  from  them.  There  is  no  explicit 
statement,  however,  to  show  in  what  way 
these  or  any  other  sources  were  utilised  in 
the  compilation  of  the  work,  though  certain 
conclusions  respecting  the  nature  of  some  of 
the  written  documents  that  lie  behind  our 
books  and  the  method  followed  in  the  com- 
position of  them  may  be  obtained  from  an 
analysis  of  their  structure,  which  consists  of 
the  following  elements  : — 

(a)  A  detailed  account  of  the  last  days  of 
David  (IK  1,2). 

(b)  Passages  relating  in  detail  the  construc- 
tion or  repair  of  the  Temple  (1 K  6-9  2  K 1 2  ^-le 
1610-16,  etc.). 

(c)  Lengthy  narratives  dealing  with  the 
prophets  Elijah  and  Elisha  (IK  17-19,  21, 
2K 12-17  2,  4-623,  etc.). 

(fZ)  Passages  relating  at  length  certain  poli- 
tical events  (IK 20  22i-3s  2K3-1-27  624-720 
1813-2020,  etc.). 

(e)  Succinct  accounts  of  many  of  the  kings, 
written  in  stereotyped  phrases,  beginning  with 
the  date  of  each  king's  accession,  the  length 
of  his  reign  and  his  character  (certain  other 
particulars  being  added  in  the  case  of  kings 
of  Judah),  and  ending  with  a  reference  to  the 
'  Book  of  the  Chronicles  '  of  the  kingdom  con- 
cerned, and  a  mention  of  the  king's  successor. 

Of  these  (a)  probably  comes  from  the  same 
source  as  the  narratives  contained  in  2  S  9-20, 
which  it  resembles  in  character  ;  (b)  may  be 
assumed  to  be  based  on  records  drawn  up  by  the 


206 


INTRO. 


1    AND    2    KINGS 


INTRO. 


priesthood  ;  whilst  (c)  must  have  originated 
in  prophetic  circles  (such  as  the  communities 
of  the  '  Sons  of  the  Prophets ').  The  pas- 
sages classified  under  (rf)  and  (e)  may  be 
derived  from  the  annals  to  which  reference  is 
made.  But  the  brevity  and  uniform  phraseology 
characteristic  of  (f),  which  are  in  marked 
contrast  to  the  picturesque  and  varied  style 
of  the  longer  sections,  make  it  probable  that 
these  are  epitomes  constructed  by  the  actual 
compiler  of  Kings  out  of  his  materials,  whereas 
the  other  portions  of  his  book  are  extracts 
made  by  him  from  the  sources  he  used.  As 
may  be  seen  by  a  comparison  of  numerous 
passages  in  Chronicles  with  the  parallels  in 
Kings,  Hebrew  historians  were  in  the  habit 
of  incorporating  in  their  own  compositions 
passages  taken  verbatim  from  other  works  ; 
and  the  differences  in  style  and  vocabulary 
between  various  sections  of  Kings,  the  abrupt- 
ness with  which  personages  not  previously 
mentioned  are  introduced  (e.g.  1K171),  and 
certain  discrepancies  in  the  narratives,  all 
indicate  that  the  course  which  the  writer  of 
Chronicles  has  pursued  towards  the  books  of 
Kings  the  writer  of  the  latter  has  followed  in 
regard  to  still  earlier  productions. 

For  the  sake  of  convenience  the  writer  of 
these  books  has  been  spoken  of  in  the  singular, 
and  the  completion  of  his  work  has  been  fixed 
as  later  than  561  B.C.,  and  therefore  some 
time  after  the  destruction  of  the  kingdom 
of  Judah.  But  in  certain  of  the  narratives 
phrases  are  used  which  imply  that  when  they 
were  written  Judah  existed  as  a  state,  and  the 
Temple  was  still  standing  (see  1 K  8  ^  1219 
193  2K822  1411  1G6  1718).  gome  of  the 
phrases  occur  in  sections  which  have  probably 
been  incorporated  from  previous  writings  (e.g. 
IK  19 3),  and  consequently  the  use  of  them 
only  shows  that  the  sources  from  which  the 
author  of  Kings  borrowed  were  composed 
before  the  exile  ;  but  there  are  others  (e.g. 
2  K  8  22)  which  are  found  in  the  short  annalistic 
passages  that  have  been  assigned  to  the  com- 
piler. Consequently  it  is  probable  that  the 
bulk  of  the  book  was  composed  before  the 
exile  ;  but  that  subsequently  additions  were 
made  to  it  by  a  writer  who  lived  after  the  Fall 
of  Jerusalem,  and  who  appended  chs.  24  and 
25.  In  the  earlier  chapters  also  there  are  a 
few  expressions  which  could  only  have  been 
written  in  Babylonia  after  the  overthrow  of 
Judah,  e.g.  1K424  (see  note)  2 K  1719.20;  so 
that  the  author  of  the  supplementary  chapters 
seems  not  only  to  have  continued  his  pre- 
decessor's work,  but  to  have  introduced  a  few 
insertions  into  the  body  of  it.  But  the  spirit 
and  style  of  the  two  writers  are  so  much  alike 
that  except  where  specific  allusions  betray  the 
date  of  the  narrator,  it  is  as  unnecessary  as  it 
is  difficult  to  distinguish  between  them. 


3.  Value.  If  the  conclusions  just  stated 
respecting  the  probable  sources  of  the  narra- 
tives be  correct,  it  will  be  apparent  that  Kings 
is  a  most  valuable  authority  for  the  history  of 
the  times  it  deals  with,  especially  in  those 
parts  which  may  reasonably  be  regarded  as 
based  upon  the  State  and  Temple  records. 
Unfortunately  the  information  respecting  this 
period  which  is  obtainable  from  other  sources, 
such  as  the  Egyptian  and  Assyrian  monuments, 
is  not  as  full  as  could  be  desired  ;  but  in 
general,  what  has  been  learnt  from  these 
quarters  harmonises  with,  or  plausibly  supple- 
ments, the  biblical  account,  even  where  it  does 
not  actually  confirm  it.  In  order,  however,  to 
estimate  fairly  the  good  faith  of  the  writer 
and  his  merits  as  an  historian,  it  is  important 
to  bear  in  mind  the  conditions  under  which  he 
wrote.  Neither  the  means  at  his  disposal,  nor 
the  methods  of  composition  that  then  prevailed, 
were  calculated  to  secure  the  accuracy  and 
precision  of  statement  which  are  now  expected 
in  historical  works. 

(a)  The  materials  employed  by  Hebrew 
writers  generally  are  not  expressly  named,  but 
there  are  allusions  in  various  passages  of  the 
OT.  to  tablets  (probably  of  wood)  and  rolls 
(of  skin  or  leather)  :  see  Isa  8 1  30  ^  Hab  2  2 
Jer362  Ezk29.  Materials  like  these  must 
have  rendered  it  difficult  for  mistakes  once 
made  to  be  corrected  ;  and  if  the  documents 
consulted  by  successive  historians  were  of  such 
a  character,  it  is  obvious  that  the  process  of 
verifying  statements  could  not  be  an  easy  one. 
Moreover,  the  nature  of  the  Hebrew  writing, 
in  which  there  were  then  no  vowel  signs,  must 
have  conduced  to  the  production  of  various 
readings ;  and  many  of  the  differences  between 
the  Heb.  original  and  the  LXX  version  have 
arisen  from  this  cause. 

(6)  The  practice  of  reproducing  the  exact 
words  of  previous  writers  has  led  to  the 
retention  of  many  discrepancies  and  inconsist- 
encies, which  may  have  admitted  of  being 
harmonised  by  the  compiler,  through  know- 
ledge which  he  possessed,  but  of  which  the 
explanation  is,  in  many  instances,  quite  irre- 
coverable by  us. 

(c)  In  the  absence  of  a  fixed  era  an  accurate 
system  of  chronology  was  almost  impossible. 
In  connexion  with  the  kings  of  Israel  and 
Judah,  the  accession  of  each  king  is  generally 
marked  by  reference  to  the  corresponding  year 
in  the  reign  of  the  contemporary  sovereign  ; 
but  whereas,  in  most  cases,  fractions  of  a  year 
are  counted  as  a  whole  year  (e.g.  Nadab  is 
said  to  have  reigned  two  years,  though  he  came 
to  the  throne  in  Asa's  second  year  and  was 
succeeded  by  Baasha  in  Asa's  th  inl,  1  K  1 5  -S-  33)^ 
in  other  cases  this  rule  is  not  observed  (e.g. 
Rehoboam  is  described  as  reigning  only  17 
years,  though  his  successor  Abijam  came  to 


207 


INTRO. 


1  AND  2  KINGS 


INTRO. 


the  throne  in  the  18th  year  of  Rehoboam's 
contemporary  Jeroboam :  1 K 1 4  21 1 5 1).  0 whig 
to  these  different  systems  of  reckoning  or 
other  causes,  many  of  the  chronological  state- 
ments in  Kings  are  inconsistent  (as  is  pointed 
out  in  detail  in  the  Commentary).  The 
discrepancies  apply  to  the  totals  as  well  as  to 
individual  figures,  for  whereas  the  sum  of  the 
reigns  between  Jeroboam  and  Jehoram  of 
Israel,  and  between  Rehoboam  and  Ahaziah 
of  Judah,  should  be  equal,  the  numbers  are 
respectively  98  and  95  ;  and  similarly,  whilst 
the  years  between  Jehu  and  the  Fall  of 
Samaria,  and  between  Athaliah  and  the  6th 
year  of  Hezekiah  (when  Samaria  was  taken), 
should  be  the  same,  they  are  respectively  143 
years  7  months  and  165  years.  Moreover, 
the  mention  of  certain  Hebrew  kings  in  the 
Assyrian  inscriptions  as  being  contemporary 
with  particular  events  which  are  precisely 
dated  shows  that  the  length  of  some  reigns  is 
over-estimated  by  the  Hebrew  historian  (e.g. 
those  of  Pekahiah,  Pekah  and  Hoshea,  which 
together  seem  to  have  amounted  to  16  instead 
of  31  years). 

But  to  regard  the  writer  of  Kings  as  a 
secular  historian  would  be  to  mistake  the 
purpose  of  his  history.  That  his  main  object 
was  not  to  chronicle  political  and  social  events 
is  plain  from  two  facts,  (a)  He  treats  with 
extreme  brevity  reigns  which  on  his  own 
showing  were,  from  a  secular  point  of  view, 
of  great  importance,  e.g.  that  of  Jeroboam  II 
(2  K 14  25)  ;  (ft)  he  expressly  refers  his  readers 
to  other  sources  for  further  information 
respecting  wars  and  other  occurrences  of 
interest  (1K141^  2239).  jjis  principal  aim 
was  to  set  forth  the  religious  lessons  which 
the  history  of  his  countrymen  afforded,  to 
trace  the  ill  consequences  that  followed  upon 
disobedience  to  the  divine  laws,  and  the 
happy  results  of  faith  in,  and  loyalty  to,  the 
Lord.  In  pursuance  of  this  aim,  he  selected 
from  the  narratives  which  his  authorities 
supplied  the  incidents  which  illustrated  the 
principles  he  sought  to  enforce.  In  particular, 
he  gave  prominence  to  the  glory  of  Solomon, 
which  confirmed  the  divine  promises  made  to 
his  father  David,  the  misconduct  of  the  s^me 
king  and  the  chastisement  that  punished  it, 
the  words  and  works  of  the  various  prophets 
who  appeared  at  intervals,  and  the  final  over- 
throw which  overtook  both  branches  of  the 
house  of  Jacob  for  their  sins.  In  the  sections 
which  he  himself  composed  he  briefly  appraised 
the  character  of  the  several  sovereigns  accord- 
ing to  their  faithfulness  or  unfaithfulness  to 
the  Law  ;  and  at  certain  crises  of  the  national 
history  he  reviewed  at  length  the  causes  of 
the  catastrophes  described. 

4.   Summary  of  the  History.     The  political 
history  contained  in  the  books  of  Kings  may 


be  conveniently  divided  into  four  periods  : — 
(a)  The  reign  of  Solomon  over  the  united 
people  ;  (i)  the  period  of  about  200  years 
from  the  revolt  of  the  Ten  Tribes  (about 
937  B.C.)  to  the  downfall  of  Jehu's  dynasty 
in  Israel  and  the  reign  of  Uzziah  in  Judah  ; 
(c)  the  century  that  elapsed  between  the  close 
of  the  last-mentioned  period  and  the  reign  of 
Josiah  ;  (d)  the  last  fifty  years  of  the  kingdom 
of  Judah,  from  about  630  B.C.  to  the  Fall  of 
Jerusalem  in  586. 

(a)  The  successful  wars  waged  by  David 
had  secured  for  Israel  control  over  many  of 
the  smaller  Palestinian  states,  such  as  Moab, 
Ammon,  and  Edom  ;  and  garrisons  had  been 
placed  even  in  Damascus.  The  position  thus 
established  was  maintained  throughout  the 
pacific  rule  of  Solomon  except  that  Damascus 
regained  its  independence  ;  but  the  interest 
of  Solomon's  reign  centres  not  so  much  in 
the  country's  external  relations,  as  in  its 
internal  development.  It  was  marked  by  (i) 
the  extension  of  foreign  commerce  through 
the  help  of  Hiram  of  Tyre,  (ii)  the  execution 
of  great  building  schemes,  intended  partly  to 
seciire  the  safety  of  the  kingdom  against 
attack,  and  partly  to  foster  religion  and  adorn 
the  capital.  The  king's  trade  was  conducted 
by  sea  with  Ophir  (probably  S.  Arabia)  and 
perhaps  Tarshish  (Tartessus  or  Tarsus)  ;  and 
by  land  with  Egypt,  the  Hittites,  and  the 
Syrians.  It  doubtless  increased  the  wealth 
and  advanced  the  culture  of  the  nation  ;  but 
the  people  nevertheless  suffered  much  in  con- 
sequence of  the  contributions  exacted  for  the 
support  of  the  royal  court,  and  the  system 
of  forced  labour  imposed  to  carry  out  the 
king's  building  projects.  The  discontent  thus 
created  was  a  principal  cause  of  the  revolt 
of  the  Ten  Tribes  against  the  authority  of 
Solomon's  son  Rehoboam. 

(6)  The  period  that  succeeded  Solomon's 
death  began  with  a  conflict  between  Israel 
and  Judah,  owing  to  a  natural  desire  on  the  part 
of  the  early  Judsean  kings  to  recover  the  lost 
provinces  of  their  house  ;  but  it  was  mainly 
occupied  by  a  protracted  war  between  Israel 
and  Syria.  Syria  entered  the  war  as  an  ally 
of  Judah,  but  the  hostility  between  the  two 
Hebrew  kingdoms  subsequently  gave  place  to 
better  relations,  and  Judah  became  Israel's 
ally  against  the  Syrians.  The  object  which 
the  latter  people  chiefly  had  in  view  in  its 
struggle  with  Israel  was  the  command  of  the 
roads,  leading  on  the  one  hand  to  the  Mediter- 
ranean coast  and  Egypt,  and  on  the  other  hand 
to  Arabia  along  the  E.  side  of  the  Jordan 
and  the  Dead  Sea.  During  this  period  the 
northern  kingdom  underwent  many  dynastic 
changes,  but  its  foreign  policy  was  not  greatly 
affected  in  consequence,  and  the  house  of 
Jehu,  no  less  than  the  house  of  Omri  which 


208 


INTRO. 


1  AND  2  KINGS 


INTRO. 


it  displaced,  suffered  from  the  attacks  of  its 
eastern  neighbours.  Another  nation  with 
which  Israel  at  intervals  had  hostilities  was 
Moab,  which,  after  being  severely  handled  by 
Omri  (as  the  Moabite  Stone  declares)  rebelled 
in  the  reign  of  Ahab  and  conquered  several 
cities  belonging  to  Reuben  and  Gad  ;  but  was 
again  subdued  by  Jeroboam  II,  who  extended 
his  rule  to  the  '  bi'ook  of  the  Arabah.'  Dur- 
ing this  period  Judah,  besides  helping  Israel 
against  Syria,  was  also  frequently  engaged  in 
maintaining  by  force  its  authority  over  Edom, 
or  else  in  recovering  it  when  lost. 

(c)  The  third  period,  which  may  be  regarded 
as  beginning  with  the  reigns  of  Shallum  and 
Menahem  in  Israel,  was  marked  by  the 
ascendency  of  Assyria.  Israel  had  previously 
come  into  contact  with  the  Assyrians  in  the 
reign  of  Ahab  (who  fought  against  Shalmaneser 
II  in  defence  of  Hamath  in  854),  and  of  Jehu 
(who  paid  tribute  to  the  same  monarch)  ;  but 
it  was  Tiglath-pileser  who  first  seriously 
interfered  with  the  Hebrew  states.  The 
advance  of  Assyria  produced  counter  move- 
ments on  the  side  of  Egypt  (which  had  left 
its  Hebrew  neighbours  undisturbed  since  the 
invasion  of  Shishak  in  the  reign  of  Rehoboam), 
and  there  consequently  arose  both  in  Israel 
and  Judah  parties  which  relied  for  help  on 
one  or  other  of  these  two  powers  against  its 
rival.  Egypt,  however,  proved  a  broken  reed, 
and  constantly  disappointed  those  who  reposed 
confidence  in  it.  The  common  danger  threaten- 
ing from  Assyria  finally  drew  Syria  and  Israel 
together,  and  they  sought  unsuccessfully  to 
force  Judah  to  join  a  coalition  against  their 
enemy.  Eventually  both  the  confederates 
succumbed  before  the  Assyrian  arms  ;  whilst 
Judah,  which  in  the  reign  of  Hezekiah,  acting 
in  conjunction  with  an  anti-Assyrian  faction 
in  Philistia,  revolted  against  Sennacherib, 
was  only  preserved  by  what  was  regarded 
as  a  signal  interposition  of  divine  providence. 
At  a  later  date  Egypt  itself  was  successfully 
invaded  by  the  Assyrian  kings  Esarhaddon  and 
Asshurbanipal. 

(d)  The  final  period  saw  the  downfall  of 
the  Assyrian  power.  This  was  accomplished 
by  the  Babylonians  and  Medes,  who  took 
Nineveh  in  607.  Egypt,  which  had  regained 
its  independence,  attempted  to  assert  claims 
to  a  share  in  the  partition  of  the  Assyrian 
possessions,  and  Nechoh,  the  Egyptian  sove- 
reign, advancing  into  Palestine,  not  only 
killed  Josiah  in  battle  but  deposed  his  suc- 
cessor. He  was,  however,  defeated  at  Car- 
chemish  by  the  Babylonians,  who  succeeded 
to  the  position  previously  occupied  by  As.syria. 
Disaffection  on  the  part  of  Judah  against 
Babylonian  authority  brought  speedy  retribu- 
tion, and  finally  Jerusalem  was  captured  and 
its  population  carried  into  captivity  in  580. 


Judah  survived  by  nearly  150  years  the 
sister  kingdom  of  Israel,  although  the  latter 
was  the  larger  and  more  powerful  of  the 
two.  From  a  secular  point  of  view  the  chief 
reason  for  the  earlier  extinction  of  Israel  is 
to  be  found  in  its  position.  The  main  roads 
leading  from  the  Euphratene  states  (Syria 
and  Assyria)  to  Phoenicia  and  Egypt  passed 
thi-ough  its  territory  and  exposed  it  to  the 
designs  of  its  ambitious  neighbours  ;  whereas 
Judah  lay  off  the  route  between  the  eastern 
and  western  empires,  and  it  was  only  because 
Jerusalem  was  too  strong  a  fortress  to  leave 
on  the  flank  of  an  army  invading  Egypt,  that 
its  conquest  became  desirable.  A  contributing 
factor  likewise  was  the  weakness  introduced 
into  the  northern  kingdom  by  dynastic  rivalries, 
whilst,  on  the  contrary,  Judah  was  undisturbed 
by  internal  commotions,  the  house  of  David 
occupying  the  throne  without  a  break  for 
more  than  400  years,  except  during  the  brief 
usurpation  of  Athaliah.  But  to  one  who,  like 
the  writer  of  Kings,  traced  in  the  fortunes  of 
men  the  judgments  of  God,  the  ultimate  cause 
must  have  appeared  to  be  the  greater  cor- 
ruption of  religion  which  prevailed  in  Israel 
as  compared  with  Judah,  and  which  brought 
upon  it  a  swifter  and  more  irreversible 
punishment. 

5 .  The  Religion  of  the  Period.  The  religious 
history  of  each  of  the  two  kingdoms  was 
characterised  by  distinct  features.  In  Israel 
there  was  no  preeminent  sanctuary  like  the 
Temple  at  Jerusalem  to  suggest  any  restriction 
upon  the  practice  of  worshipping  at  local 
shi-ines  ('  high  places ')  ;  and  this  practice  pre- 
vailed as  long  as  the  kingdom  stood.  At 
certain  of  these  shrines  Jehovah  was  wor- 
shipped under  the  emblem  of  a  calf  or  young 
bull  ;  and  the  use  of  these  symbols  was  main- 
tained by  all  those  kings  who  upheld  the 
ancestral  Hebrew  faith.  The  '  high  places,' 
however,  were  not  always  devoted  to  the 
service  of  the  Lord,  for  both  the  historian 
and  certain  contemporary  prophets  imply 
that  the  worship  of  the  Canaanite  Baalim 
was  sometimes  practised  at  them  (Hos2i3). 
And  at  two  periods  alien  forms  of  religion 
were  '  introduced  from  abroad  and  diffused 
through  the  influence  of  the  reigning  sove- 
reign. The  first  was  that  of  the  Phoenician 
Baal,  brought  into  Israel  by  the  alliance  of 
Ahab  with  Ethbaal,  king  of  Zidon,  and  strenu- 
ously opposed  by  the  prophets  Elijah  and 
Elisha.  The  second,  imported  at  a  later 
date,  was  due  to  connexion  with  Assyria,  and 
consisted  of  planet-  or  star-worship,  to  the 
prevalence  of  which  allusion  is  made  by  the 
prophet  Amos  (5^6). 

In  Judah  the  Temple  built  by  Solomon 
naturally  dwarfed  the  importance  of  all  other 
sanctuaries,  but  the  '  high  places '  were  never- 


14 


209 


INTRO. 


1  AND  2  KINGS— 1  KINGS 


1.7 


theless  long  maintained  even  under  the  rule 
of  pious  kings.  But  in  the  reign  of  Hezekiah 
an  attempt  was  made  to  suppress  them  and  to 
confine  all  national  acts  of  religion  to  the 
Temple  ;  and  a  still  more  complete  reform  in 
this  direction  was  effected  by  Josiah.  The 
greater  success  that  attended  Josiah's  efforts 
was  largely  due  to  the  discovery  of  a  copy  of 
the  book  of  Deuteronomy,  in  which  the  restric- 
tion of  worship  to  a  single  locality  is  expressly 
enjoined.  In  Judah  calf-worship  never  seems 
to  have  been  practised  ;  and  though  the  wor- 
ship of  the  Lord  was  often  corrupted,  its 
supremacy  was  never  seriously  disputed  by 
any  other  religion  during  the  first  half  of  the 
history,  except  in  the  reign  of  Athaliah,  who 
was  a  votary  of  the  Zidonian  Baal.  Subse- 
quently, however,  Assyrian  forms  of  worship 
penetrated  into  Judah  as  they  had  into  Israel. 
Ahaz  was  attracted  by  the  rites  which  he  saw 
at  Damascus  when  summoned  thither  by  Tig- 
lath-pileser,  whilst  Manasseh  is  described  as 
having  worshipped  the  '  host  of  heaven.'  After 
Assyria  had  fallen  before  Babylon,  Babylonian 
cults  began  to  be  imitated  ;  and  both  Jeremiah 
and  Ezekiel  allude  to  the  worship  paid  to  the 
'  queen  of  heaven '  (perhaps  Ishtar)  and  to 
Tammuz,  a  deity  adopted  by  the  Greeks  under 
the  name  of  Adonis  (see  Jer44i8  EzkS^^). 

6.  The  Prophets  who  appeared  at  intervals 
in  the  course  of  the  history  fall  into  3  groups  : 
— (a)  Those  who  were  contemporary  with  the 
war  against  Syria,  such  as  Elijah  and  Elisha  ; 
(b)  those  who  witnessed  the  rise  and  pre- 
dominance of  Assyria,  viz.  Amos,  Hosea, 
Isaiah  and  Micali  ;  (c)  those  who  lived  during 
the  decline  of  Assyria  and  the  early  years  of 
Babylonian  supremacy,  viz.  Nahum,  Zephaniah, 
Habakkuk,  Jeremiah,  and  Ezekiel.  At  all 
periods  the  prophets  were  statesmen  no  less 
than  moral  teachers,  religion  being  viewed  from 
a  national  rather  than  an  individual  standpoint. 


But  the  prophetic  ideals  and  methods  varied 
in  different  ages,  those  of  Elijah  and  Elisha, 
for  instance,  offering  many  features  of  con- 
trast to  those  of  later  times.  Thus  Elijah  was 
content  to  maintain  the  claims  of  Jehovah  to 
be  the  Grod  of  Israel  without  explicitly  affirm- 
ing Him  to  be  the  only  God,  and  he  seems  to 
have  tolerated  the  unspiritual  conception  of 
religion  involved  in  the  worship  of  the  golden 
calves  ;  whereas  Hosea  ridiculed  such  worship, 
and  Isaiah  expressly  described  by  a  term 
meaning  '  nonentities '  the  gods  revered  by 
foreign  nations  and  disloyal  Israelites.  And 
similarly  whilst  Elisha  sought  to  bring  about 
a  religious  reformation  by  means  of  a  political 
revolution,  and  presumably  sympathised  with 
Jehu's  action  in  exterminating  by  violence  the 
family  of  Ahab,  the  later  prophets,  in  trying 
to  direct  the  policy  of  their  countrymen  into 
right  channels,  confined  themselves  to  peace- 
ful methods,  and  Hosea  even  declared  that 
the  Lord  would  visit  upon  the  house  of  Jehu 
the  blood  shed  by  him  in  Jezreel. 

7.  Chronological  Table.  As  has  been  already 
said,  it  is  difficult  to  construct  an  accurate 
scheme  of  chronology  from  the  statements 
furnished  by  the  Hebrew  historians,  partly 
because  they  did  not  fix  events  by  any  era 
which  can  be  determined  with  precision,  partly 
because  they  used  inconsistent  methods  of 
reckoning  the  length  of  reigns,  and  partly 
in  consequence  of  miscalculations  or  textual 
corruptions.  But  the  mention  of  certain 
Hebrew  kings  in  the  Assyrian  and  other  in- 
scriptions enables  us  to  bring  the  biblical 
history  into  relation  with  that  of  the  surround- 
ing nations  ;  and  from  a  comparison  of  the 
figures  given  in  the  books  of  Kings  with  the 
dates  obtained  from  the  inscriptions,  a  table 
has  been  drawn  up  (see  HDB.  i.  pp.  401-402), 
which  may  be  taken  as  an  approximation  to 
the  truth  :  see  art.  '  Chronology  of  the  Bible.' 


1  KINGS 


CHAPTER  1 


An  Intrigue  for  the  Succession 

This  c.  relates  Adonijah's  attempt  to  obtain 
the  succession,  its  defeat  through  the  agency 
of  Nathan,  and  the  enthronement  of  Solomon. 
The  history  contained  in  it  is  omitted  in 
1  Ch,  where,  however,  mention  is  made  of 
Solomon's  having  been  crowned  not  once  only 
but  twice  (lCh2922).  Probably  the  second 
occasion  corresponds  to  what  is  related  in 
1 K 1 39  (cp.  1  Ch  29  24  with  1 K 1 53). 

I.    Now]     better,    'and,'    connecting    this 


book  with  the  history  contained  in  the  pre- 
ceding. 

5.  Adonijah]  The  fourth  son  of  David  (2 
SS'i).  Of  his  three  elder  brothers,  two, 
Amnon  and  Absalom,  were  certainly  by  this 
time  dead ;  and  the  indulgence  with  which 
Adonijah  was  treated  by  his  father  (v.  6) 
makes  it  probable  that  he  was  the  eldest  sur- 
viving son.  6.  His  mother  bare  him  after  Ab- 
salom] R V  '  he  was  born  after  Absalom ' ; 
Adonijah  and  Absalom  were  sons  of  different 
mothers  (2 S. 3 3, -t). 

7.  Joab]   David's  nephew,  and  at  this  time 


210 


1.8 


1  KINGS 


2.  9 


captain  of  the  host  or  national  militia  (2  S  8 1*^). 
His  support  of  Adonijah  was  probably  due  to 
the  latter's  being  the  eldest  surviving  son  of 
David,  and  to  his  active  character.  Abiathar] 
son  of  Ahimelech  the  priest  of  Nob,  who  had 
been  put  to  death  by  Saul  (IS 22-0).  He  was 
a  descendant  of  Aaron's  son  Ithamar. 

8.  Zadok]  a  descendant  of  Aaron's  son 
Eleazar  (1  Ch6'*"^).  It  is  not  clear  what  were 
the  relative  positions  of  Abiathar  and  Zadok 
to  one  another.  In  1  Chi 6^9  Zadok  is  stated 
to  have  ministered  at  the  sanctuary  at  Gibeon, 
but  in  2  8152'!  both  Abiathar  and  Zadok  are 
represented  as  being  at  Jerusalem.  In  the 
LXXof  IK 2-35  it  is  implied  that  Abiathar 
was  the  first,  or  principal,  priest,  and  Zadok 
presumably  the  second.  Benaiah]  son  of 
Jehoiada  (v.  36)  and  commander  of  the  body- 
guard of  Cherethites,  Pelethites  and  Gittites 
(see  further  on  v.  38).  For  his  early  exploits 
see  2  S  23  20-23_  Nathan]  For  other  notices  of 
Nathan  see  2  87-^- 121*.  The  mighty  men] 
This  was  a  body  of  distinguished  warriors, 
nominally  30  in  number,  who  were  perhaps 
officers  either  of  the  bodyguard  or  of  the  host, 
and  whose  names  are  given  in  2  S  23  2-1-39  1  Ch 
1 1 26-47, 

9.  Slew  sheep  and  oxen]  probably  a  sacri- 
ficial feast  is  meant,  whereby  Adonijah  in- 
tended to  solemnise  his  succession :  cp.  2  S 
1512.  The  stone  of  Zoheleth  .  .  En-rog-el]  En- 
rogel  is  probably  to  be  identified  with  the 
modern  BJr-eyub,  a  well  (not  a  spring)  situated 
at  the  junction  of  the  valley  of  Hinnom  and 
the  gorge  of  the  Kidron,  S.  of  Jerusalem 
(cp.  Josh  158  1816). 

13.  Didst  not  thou . .  swear?]  That  this  was 
true  is  acknowledged  by  David  in  vv.  29,  30. 

20.  The  eyes  of  all  Israel  are  upon  thee] 
Though  the  right  of  the  firstborn  to  succeed 
was  beginning  to  be  recognised,  the  sovereign 
still  possessed  the  power  of  nominating  his 
successor. 

33.  Gihon]  probably  the  modern  Virgin's 
Fountain,  in  the  ravine  of  the  Kidron,  about 
half-a-mile  from  En-rogel  (Bir-eyub). 

36.  Amen]  an  expression  of  assent  or  con- 
currence: cp.  Nu522  Jer28'5. 

38.  Cherethites]  a  bodyguard  of  foreign 
extraction,  like  the  Swiss  guards  of  the  French 
kings  or  the  Varangians  of  the  Byzantine 
sovereigns.  The  Cherethites  came  from  the 
S.  of  Philistia  (18301^),  the  name  being 
generally  supposed  to  he  connected  with 
Crete,  and  the  Pelethites  were  perhaps  likewise 
Philistines.  David  may  have  enrolled  this  force 
after  the  conclusion  of  his  Philistine  wars. 

39.  The  tabernacle]  EV  'the  Tent';  pro- 
bably the  tent  erected  by  David  to  shelter  the 
ark  (2S617).  According  to  lChl639  the 
Tabernacle  made  by  Moses  was  at  Gibeon. 
For  the  anointing  oil  see  Ex  30  22-33. 


42.  Valiant]  RV  'worthy.'  46.  Solomon 
sitteth  on  the  throne]  similarly  Jotham  ruled 
during  the  lifetime  of   his  father  (2K155). 

47.  Bowed  himself]  i.e.  in  worship:  cp.  Gn 
4731. 

50.  The  horns  of  the  altar]  The  altar  in- 
tended was  probably  one  erected  in  or  before 
the  tent  that  sheltered  the  ark :  see  on  v.  39 
and  cp.  229  315  The  horns  were  projections 
at  the  four  corners  (Ex  27  2),  to  which  the 
victim  to  be  sacrificed  may  have  been  attached 
(Psll827)j  and  which  were  sometimes  smeared 
with  its  blood  (Ex  29 12).  It  was  customary 
for  homicides  to  seek  refuge  at  the  altar  of 
the  Lord  from  the  avengers  of  blood,  but 
deliberate  murderers  might  be  dragged  from 
it  (Ex  2 11*).  A  similar  right  of  asylum  be- 
longed to  heathen  temples  in  classical  times 
and  to  Christian  churches  in  the  middle  ages. 

51.  To  day]  RM  'first  of  all.' 

CHAPTER   2 
David's  last  Will  and  Testament 
The  recital  of  David's  last  charge  to  Solo- 
mon and  his  death  is  followed  by  an  account 
of    the    execution    of   Adonijah,    Joab,    and 
Shimei. 

3,  4.  Cp.  Dtl7  2  87. 

5.  Abner  .  .  Amasa]  For  Abner  see  1  Ch936 
181450  282,3;  for  Amasa  see  2S1725  (cp. 
1  Ch2i7),  1913  20^-13.  Joab's  slaying  of  Abner 
may  be  palliated,  though  not  justified,  in  con- 
sideration of  his  kinship  with  Asahel,  whom 
Abner  had  killed  ;  but  his  assassination  of 
Amasa  was  due  merely  to  the  mortification  he 
had  sustained  when  the  latter  displaced  him  in 
the  king's  favour.  He  had  thus  been  guilty 
of  murder,  which,  if  unavenged,  would  bring 
guilt  on  the  land  :  cp.  2  8  21.  David  may  also 
have  thought  it  expedient  to  remove  Joab  in 
order  to  safeguard  Solomon's  throne,  which 
could  never  be  secure  so  long  as  so  capable 
and  unscrupulous  an  officer  was  alive.  The 
blood  of  war  .  .  girdle]  The  LXX  has  '  innocent 
blood,'  which  the  sense   requires. 

6.  The  grave]  Heb.  Sheol,  the  abode  of 
departed  spirits. 

7.  Barzillai]  For  his  kindness  to  David  see 
2S193if. 

8.  Shimei]  For  his  offence  against  David 
and  David's  oath  to  him  see  28165-13  1918-23. 

9.  Hold  him  not  guiltless]  Personal  resent- 
ment seems  to  have  entered  into  David's  feel- 
ings towards  Shimei,  but  it  is  probable  that 
his  injunctions  respecting  him  were  partly 
dictated  by  political  reasons,  for  Shimei  was  a 
Benjamite  who  had  reproached  David  with 
supplanting  Saul,  and  might  be  suspected  of 
hostility  towards  David's  successor  ;  and  who 
was  influential  enough  to  be  attended  by  a 
thousand  of  his  fellow-tribesmen  when  he  met 
the  king  after  Absalom's  defeat  (28191'^). 

211 


2.  10 


1  KINGS 


3.7 


10.  The  city  of  David]  i.e.  the  stronghold 
of  Zion  :  see  2  S  5  ^-^.  At  this  time  Jerusalem 
probably  occupied  only  the  eastern  of  the  two 
hills  upon  which  the  modern  city  stands. 

David's  reign  was  more  important  and 
critical  than  any  other  in  the  history  of  Israel, 
both  from  a  secular  and  from  a  religious  point 
of  view.  In  the  first  place,  he  consolidated 
into  a  kingdom  what  had  previously  been  an 
aggregate  of  jealous  tribes,  and  so  enabled  his 
countrymen  to  take  a  place  among  the  nations 
of  the  Eastern  world  ;  and,  in  the  second  place, 
he  strengthened  his  people's  attachment  to  the 
Lord,  alike  by  the  zeal  he  showed  for  G-od's 
honour  and  worship,  and  by  the  obedience  he 
rendered  to  the  prophets  who  counselled  or 
admonished  him  in  the  divine  name.  Con- 
sequently later  times  regarded  the  period  of  his 
rule  as  Israel's  golden  age,  and  the  memories 
of  it  coloured  the  anticipations  which  were 
entertained  respecting  the  coming  of  the  Mes- 
siah. His  character,  indeed,  was  not  free  from 
reproach  ;  for,  besides  being  guilty  of  adultery 
and  murder,  he  was  cruel  in  war  (2S8'-  12  3^)  and 
negligent  of  justice  at  home  (though  in  these 
respects  he  was  doubtless  no  worse  than  his 
contemporaries).  But  if  he  sinned  grievously, 
he  repented  sincerely  ;  and  by  his  humility 
under  reproof  (2  S 1213)^  his  resignation  in 
adversity  (2S162^'26),  and  his  faith  in  the 
divine  mercy  (282414)^  he  still  affords  an  ex- 
ample for  Christian  people. 

17.  That  he  give  me  Abishag]  Amongst 
Eastern  nations  the  wives  and  concubines  of  a 
deceased  or  dethroned  king  were  taken  by  his 
successor  (see  2S128  IG^^--^)  ;  and  so  Adoni- 
jah's  request  for  Abishag  was  regarded  as  tan- 
tamount to  a  claim  on  the  throne.  19.  Rose 
up  to  meet  her]  the  queen-dowager  occupied  a 
very  important  position  at  the  court  of  the 
kings  of  Israel  :  cp.  IKIS^^  JerlS^s. 

23.  God  do  so,  etc.]  an  expression  implying 
a  wish  that  God  would  avenge  the  failure  to 
carry  out  what  was  promised  or  threatened. 

24.  Made  me  an  house]  see  2S7ii. 

26.  Anathoth]  NNE.  of  Jerusalem.  It  was 
the  home  of  the  prophet  Jeremiah  (Jer  1 1). 

Barest  the  ark]  perhaps  referring  to  the 
transport  of  the  ark  from  the  house  of  Obed- 
edom  to  Jerusalem  (1  Chi 5),  or  to  its  removal 
from  Jerusalem  on  the  occasion  of  Absalom's 
rebellion  (2S152-t,29). 

27.  That  he  might .  .  the  LORD]  see  1 S 
9  31-36  It  is  not  meant  that  the  fulfilment  was 
designed  by  Solomon,  but  he  was  the  uncon- 
scious agent  of  divine  providence. 

28.  Horns  of  the  altar]  see  on  l^o.  The 
tabernacle]  see  on  l^s.  31.  Bury  him]  Denial 
of  burial  would  have  made  Joab's  fate  more 
ignominious  :  see  2  K  9  lO'  34  isa  1 4 1^.  ^o.  Take 
away  the  innocent  blood]  This,  if  not  avenged, 
would    have   brought    a   judgment  upon  the 


king  and  his  people  :  see  NuSS^s,  and  cp. 
2  S  21 1-1^.  32,  33.  In  these  vv.  the  futures 
are  best  rendered  as  wishes.  Captain  of  the 
host  of  Judah]  At  this  time  there  was  no 
formal  division  between  Israel  and  Judah,  but 
Amasa  had  been  specially  connected  with 
the  latter:  see  2S19ii-i3  20^.  34.  Buried  in 
his  own  house]  cp.  1825^  2K21is.  In  the 
wilderness]  i.e.  of  Judah,  to  which  tribe  Joab 
belonged.  35.  Put .  .  Abiathar]  i.e.  appointed 
him  to  be  first  priest,  instead  of  Abiathar. 

36.  Build  thee  an  house  in  Jerusalem]  i.e. 
that  he  might  be  under  surveillance.  37.  The 
brook  Kidron]  This  would  actually  limit  him 
only  on  the  E.,  the  quarter  in  which  his  for- 
mer home,  Bahurim,  was  situated  ;  but  it  was 
doubtless  meant  to  designate  the  distance  be- 
yond which  he  was  not  to  go  in  any  direction  : 
cp.  v.  42.  39.  Shimei's  visit  to  Achish  might 
be  construed  as  an  intrigue  with  a  foreign 
power.  43.  The  oath  of  the  LORD]  i.e.  the 
oath  which  the  Lord  witnessed. 

CHAPTEE   3 

Solomon's   Choice 

This  c.  relates  how  Solomon,  out  of  various 

gifts  offered   to  him  by  the  Almighty,  chose 

wisdom,  and  adds  an  illustration  of  the  use  he 

made  of  the  gift  with  which  he  was  endowed. 

1 .  Pharaoh]  probably  one  of  the  immediate 
predecessors  of  the  Shishak  (Sheshonk)  men- 
tioned in  11  "lo  is  intended.  His  own  house  .  . 
Lord]  see  chs.  7  and  6.  Both  of  these 
buildings  were  outside  the  limits  of  the  city 
of  David. 

2.  High  places]  Both  the  Canaanites  (see 
Nu3352  j)t  12  2)  jin(j  the  early  Israelites  (see 
1  S  9 12  2  S 1530, 32)  used  to  worship  on  hill-tops, 
possibly  as  being  nearer  heaven,  the  dwelling- 
place  of  the  Deity,  or  perhaps  (more  probably) 
as  being  the  best  sites  for  burning  the  victims 
that  were  offered  in  sacrifice.  In  Dt  12i'^*-  the 
worship  of  the  Lord  is  ordered  to  be  restricted 
to  a  single  sanctuary  ;  though  the  history  shows 
that  religious  practices  at  the  high  places  were 
permitted  even  by  the  best  of  kings  (see  Ib^* 
22 -ts)  until  the  reign  of  Hezekiah(see  2K18'*). 

4.  Gibeon]  in  the  tribe  of  Benjamin  (Josh 
18  25).  To  sacrifice  there]  in  2  Ch  1 3  it  is  stated 
that  the  Tabernacle  of  the  congregation  was  at 
Gibeon  ;  if  so,  it  must  have  been  removed 
thither  from  Shiloh  when  the  latter  place  was 
destroyed  (Jer  7  ^2),  or  from  Nob,  to  which-  it 
may  have  been  conveyed  from  Shiloh.  The 
ark  which  it  had  originally  contained,  was 
not  restored  to  it  when  brought  back  by  the 
Philistines  (IS 6),  but  put  by  David  in  a  tent 
at  Jerusalem. 

7.  I  am  but  a  little  child]  The  words  seem 
to  imply  that  Solomon  was  quite  youthful 
when  he  came  to  the  throne  ;  but  the  politic 
measures  by  which   he  secured  his  crown,  as 


212 


3.9 


1  KINGS 


4.  31 


described  in  c.  2,  suggest  that  he  had  attained 
to  full  manhood,  and  according  to  1  K  14^1  he 
left,  after  a  reign  of  40  years,  a  son  who  was 
41  when  his  father  died,  and  who  therefore 
must  have  been  born  before  his  father  became 
king  (but  see  note  there).  Josephus  gives 
Solomon's  age  at  the  beginning  of  his  reign  as 
14.  Go  out  or  come  in]  i.e.  pursue  the  active 
life  of  a  man  in  his  prime  :  cp.  Nu  27 1'^  1  S 18  ^^ 
Dt312. 

9.  Solomon's  prayer  exhibits  (a)  a  strong 
sense  of  responsibility  and  a  conviction  that 
high  position  involves  corresponding  duties  ; 
(J)  a  consciousness  that  truth  and  falsehood, 
right  and  wrong,  are  not  always  easy  to  dis- 
tinguish, and  that  to  discern  between  them 
there  are  needed  special  gifts  of  the  heart  and 
understanding ;  (c)  that  such  gifts  are  derived 
from  God,  who  bestows  them  in  answer  to 
prayer.  14.  I  will  lengthen  thy  days]  The 
promise  was  made  on  conditions  which  Solomon 
did  not  observe  :  see  lli-s. 

15.  The  ark  of  the  covenant]  This  had 
been  placed  by  David  in  a  tent  at  Jerusalem 
(2S6i''i").  Solomon  fitly  inaugurated  his 
reign  by  acts  of  religious  worship  at  his  capital 
as  well  as  at  Gibeon  (v.  4).  Burnt  offerings  .  . 
peace  offerings]  see  on  ExlS^^. 

26.  Her  bowels]  i.e.  her  heart.  27.  Give 
her  the  living  child]  The  pronoun  refers  not  to 
the  last  speaker  but  to  her  rival  (as  LXX 
explains).  28.  The  wisdom  of  God]  Solomon's 
wisdom  was  divine  not  only  in  its  source  but 
in  its  quality. 

CHAPTER  4 

Solomon's  Officers  and  Court 
2.  Azariah  the  son  of  Zadok]  he  was  really 
the  grandson  of  Zadok  (1  Ch  6  ^'  9).  3.  Shisha] 
also  called  Shavsha  and  Sheva.  In  David's 
reign  he  filled  the  same  office  now  discharged 
by  his  sons  (2S20"-^5).  Scribes]  i.e.  the  royal 
secretaries.  Jehoshaphat]  he  had  previously 
served  David  (2S8i«20^^).  Recorder]  pro- 
bably the  keeper  of  the  state  archives  (RM 
'  chronicler '),  though  some  suppose  that  his 
function  was  to  remind  the  king  of  state  mat- 
ters that  required  his  attention.  4.  Abiathar] 
Abiathar  was  priest  during  a  very  brief  period 
of  Solomon's  reign  :  see  2  26, 27.  5.  The  officers] 
probably  the  officers  named  in  vv.  7-19.  Prin- 
cipal officer]  RV  '  priest.'  The  term  is  used 
in  2 SB  18  of  David's  sons,  and  in  2 S 20 26  of 
Ira  a  Jainite,  who  perhaps  belonged  to  the 
tribe  of  Manasseh — both  being,  to  all  appear- 
ance, instances  of  priests  of  other  than  Levi- 
tical  descent.  The  king's  friend]  The  same 
title  is  applied  to  Hushai  in  2S153''.  6.  Over 
the  household]  i.e.  steward  or  treasurer :  cp. 
Isa22i5.  The  position  was  one  of  sufficient 
dignity  to  be  filled  sometimes  by  the  son  of 
the  sovereign  (2  K 15  s).    Adoniram]    The  name 


appears  in  a  shortened  form  as  Adoram  in  2  S 
2024  IK  12 18.  Tribute]  RV 'levy.'  This  was 
a  body  of  men  subjected  to  forced  labour  and 
employed  on  Solomon's  buildings  (9i^).  It 
corresponded  to  the  French  corvee.  8.  Mount 
Ephraim]  R  V  '  the  hill  country  of  Ephi-aim '  : 
and  so  elsewhere. 

9-12.  Of  the  localities  mentioned  in  these 
vv.  several  (Makaz,  Elon-beth-hanan,  Aruboth, 
Hepher)  are  unknown.  Shaalbim  was  in  Dan  ; 
Beth-shemesh  (modern  Ain  shems)  and  Sochoh 
were  in  Judah ;  Dor  was  on  the  coast,  near 
Carmel ;  Taanach,  Megiddo,  Jezreel,  Jokneam 
(RV  '  Jokmeam  ')  were  in  or  near  the  plain  of 
Esdraelon  ;  Beth-shean  (the  modern  Beisan), 
Zartanah,  and  Abel-meholah  were  in  the  Jordan 
valley.  13,  14.  The  places  named  in  these 
vv.  were  E.  of  Jordan.  Argob  is  the  Tracho- 
nitis  of  the  NT.,  a  volcanic  district,  now  called 
the  '  Leja,'  lying  S.  of  Damascus.  19.  He 
was  .  .  land]  The  text  is  probably  corrupt.  It 
will  be  observed  iihat  in  the  division  of  the 
land  between  the  several  officers,  the  tribal 
boundaries  were  to  some  extent  ignored,  only 
five  or  six  tribes  being  retained  as  departments. 
Possibly  this  was  done  to  weaken  tribal  senti- 
ment, which  tended  to  disunion. 

21.  The  river]  the  Euphrates.  22.  Mea- 
sures] Heb.  co)-s  (a  cor  =  a  homer,  and  con- 
tained over  80  gallons).  24.  On  this  side  the 
river]  RM  'beyond'  (i.e.  W.  of)  'the  River' 
(Euphrates),  i.e.  Palestine  and  the  neighbouring 
region  as  viewed  from  the  standpoint  of  a  resi- 
dent in  Babylon  (E.  of  the  Euphrates)  where 
the  book  of  Kings  was  probably  completed. 

Tiphsah]  Thapsacus,  on  the  upper  course  of 
the  Euphrates.     Azzah]   Gaza  in  Philistia. 

26.  Forty  thousand]  in  2  Ch9  25  '  four  thou- 
sand,' which  would  be  sufficient  for  the  1,400 
chariots  mentioned  in  1026.  The  possession 
of  a  large  force  of  cavalry  was  a  departm-e 
from  the  practice  of  David,  who,  like  Joshua, 
destroyed  the  horses  taken  from  his  enemies. 

27.  Those  officers]  i.e.  the  officers  described 
in  V.  7f.  They  lacked  nothing]  better,  '  they 
let  nothing  be  lacking.'  28.  Dromedaries] 
RV  '  swift  steeds.'  Where  the  officers  were] 
RV  (after  LXX)  '  where  the  king  was '  ;  RM 
'  where  it '  (the  barley  and  straw)  '  should  be,' 
i.e.  wherever  it  was  required 

29.  Largeness  of  heart]  i.e.  great  intellectual 
capacity  :  see  on  v.  3  9.  30.  Children  of  the  east 
country]  The  term  is  applied  in  Jer3928  to 
the  Arab  tribes  dwelling  at  Kedar,  and  pro- 
bably describes  generally  the  inhabitants  of 
the  Syrian  desert:  cp.  Gn29i  JgG^.  For 
Arab  wisdom  see  Jer  39'^.  31.  Ethan,  etc.] 
The  same  four  names  (with  the  substitution 
of  Dara  for  Darda)  occur  among  the  sons  of 
Zerah  the  son  of  Judah  in  1  Ch  2  6.  If  the 
allusion  is  to  these,  Mahol  may  be  their  father 
and  Zerah  a  remote  ancestor.     The  individuals 


213 


4.  32 


1  KINGS 


6. 


meant  must  have  been  ancient  sages  proverbial 
for  their  wisdom.  32.  Proverbs]  Some  are 
doubtless  included  in  the  extant  book  of 
Proverbs.  Songs]  The  Song  of  Songs  and 
two  of  the  canonical  psalms  (72  and  127)  bear 
Solomon's  name.  Certain  so-called  '  Psalms 
of  Solomon '  really  belong  to  the  age  of 
Pompey.  33.  He  spake  of  trees,  etc.]  This 
may  mean  both  that  he  drew  examples  from 
the  vegetable  and  animal  kingdoms  to  illustrate 
his  maxims  (as  in  Prov6''),  and  that  he  in- 
vestigated and  described  their  properties  (as 
in  Prov30i5,29-3i).  34.  All  people]  cp.  the 
visit  of  the  Queen  of  Sheba  (c.  10). 

CHAPTER  5 

Solomon's  Pkeparations  for  building 
THE  Temple 

I.  Hiram]  see  2S5ii  1  Chl4i.  It  has  been 
questioned  whether  this  Hiram,  who  was  living 
as  late  as  Solomon's  twentieth  year  (IKO^^), 
is  really  identical  with  the  Hiram  mentioned 
in  connexion  with  David  (2S5ii  lChl4i), 
because,  according  to  Josephus,  his  reign  lasted 
only  34  years.  But  it  is  possible  that  David 
did  not  undertake  the  buildings  in  which 
Hiram  assisted  him  until  comparatively  late 
in  his  life. 

3.  Could  not  build  an  house]  see  ICh^ss. 
Here  the  reason  given  why  David  could  not 
build  the  Temple  is  the  turmoil  that  filled  his 
reign.  4.  Occurrent]  i.e.  occurrence.  5.  As 
the  Lord  spake]   see  2S713. 

7.  Blessed  he  the  LORD]  Hiram,  who,  as 
king  of  Tyre,  was  a  worshipper  of  Melkarth 
and  Ashtoreth,  would  not  regard  the  Lord 
(Jehovah)  as  the  only  God,  but  would  acknow- 
ledge Him  as  the  God  of  Israel.  Jehovah's 
existence  and  power  were  similarly  recognised 
by  the  Syrian  Naaman,  who  was  himself  a 
worshipper  of  Rimmon  (2K5ii)  :  cp.  also  the 
language  of  the  Moabite  king  Balak  (Nu23i'^ 
24 11).  9.  Convey  them,  etc.]  RV 'make  them 
into  rafts  to  go  by  sea.'  The  place]  Joppa 
(2Ch2i6).  To  be  discharged]  RV  'to  be 
broken  up.'  11.  Measures]  Heb.  cor.s  (see  on 
4  22).  For  twenty  measures  of  pure  oil  L  XX 
has  '  20,000  baths  of  oil '  (a  '  bath '  being  one- 
tenth  of  a  '  cor  '  :  cp.  2  Ch  2 10.  For  the  export 
of  corn  and  other  produce  from  Judah  to 
Tyre  cp.  Ezk27i'^.  The  nearness  of  Lebanon 
must  have  prevented  the  Tyrians  from  obtain- 
ing much  corn  from  their  own  soil.  13.  Thirty 
thousand  men]  These  were  probably  taken 
from  native  Israelites  (cp.  the  prediction  in 
1S8 11-18);  whereas  the  150,000  labourers 
mentioned  in  v.  15  were  '  strangers  that  were 
in  the  land  of  Israel '  (2  Ch  2 17  :  cp.  1 K  9  20, 21). 
David  seems  to  have  imposed  forced  labour 
upon  the  latter  only  (lCh222);  and  the 
different  practice  of  his  son  caused  the  dis- 
content that  eventually  rent  the  kingdom  in 


two  (124).  14.  By  courses]  i.e.  by  turns  or 
shifts.  Adoniram]  see  4^^,  the  Adoram  of  12  is. 
17.  Great  stones]  Some  of  these  perhaps 
still  remain,  for  stones  30  ft.  long  and  7|  ft. 
high  have  been  found  (it  is  said)  '  at  the  SW. 
angle  of  the  wall  of  the  Haram  area  in  the 
modern  Jerusalem.'  18.  The  stonesquarers] 
RV  '  Gebalites  '  :  the  inhabitants  of  Gebal  or 
Byblus,  a  maritime  town  at  the  foot  of 
Lebanon. 

CHAPTER  6 

The  Construction  op  the  Temple 

In  shape  the  Temple  was  a  rectangular 
hall  60  X  20  X  30  cubits  (a  cubit  being  about 
18  inches).  On  its  E.  face  it  had  a  porch 
(forming  an  entrance)  which  extended  across 
the  whole  front  and  added  10  cubits  to  the 
length  of  the  building  (v.  3).  The  height  of 
this  is  given  in  2Ch34  as  120  cubits;  but  such 
a  measurement  is  out  of  all  proportion  to  the 
others,  and  is  probably  an  error  (one  of  the 
MSS  of  the  LXX  substitutes  20  cubits).  On 
three  sides  of  the  house  were  built  a  number 
of  chambers  (Josephus  says  30)  in  three  storeys 
(vv.  5,  10),  intended  for  the  accommodation  of 
the  priests  and  for  storing  things  required  for 
the  Temple  services:  cp.  2K112,3  Nehl34,5 
(of  the  Second  Temple).  The  beams  that  sup- 
ported the  cielings  of  these  storeys  rested  on 
ledges  in  the  outer  face  of  the  Temple  wall 
formed  by  successive  reductions  of  its  thick- 
ness (v.  6).  Above  the  topmost  row  of 
chambers  the  Temple  wall  was  pierced  with 
windows  of  narrow  lights  (RV  '  windows  of 
fixed  lattice  work,'  i.e.  which  could  not  be 
opened  like  most  lattices),  resembling  the 
clerestory  of  a  modern  cathedral.  In  the 
interior,  the  building  was  divided  by  a  partition 
(see  V.  16)  into  two  apartments,  the  larger  (to 
the  E.)  being  called  the  Holy  Place,  and  the 
smaller  (to  the  W.)  being  styled  the  Oracle 
or  Most  Holy  Place,  which  bore  to  one  another 
the  same  relation  as  the  nave  and  chancel  of 
our  own  churches. 

Solomon's  Temple  resembled  in  general 
plan  the  Tabernacle  as  described  in  Ex  25-27, 
its  length  and  breadth  being  exactly  double. 
In  idea,  it  was,  like  the  Tabernacle,  the 
dwelling-place  of  the  God  of  Israel  (see 
1  KB  13,  and  cp.  Ex26S),  wherein  He  received, 
and  held  communion  with,  His  worshippers 
(2K191"-,  cp.  Ex 33  7).  But  it  difl:ered  from 
most  other  sanctuaries  of  antiquity  in  contain- 
ing no  image  ;  so  that  though  the  conception 
of  divine  worship  had  not  yet  become 
independent  of  locality  or  material  oblations 
(see  Jn  4  21-24)^  the  conception  of  the  Deity 
Himself  was  purely  spiritual. 

In  the  Holy  of  Holies  (the  Presence  chamber 
of  the  Divine  King)  there  was  nothing  except 
the  ark  (containing  the  Decalogue),  the  cover 


214 


6.  1 


1  KINGS 


of  which  was  regarded  as  the  throne  of  the 
Lord,  who  was  thought  of  as  seated  between 
the  cherubim  that  overshadowed  it  (2K19i^). 
In  the  Holy  Place  there  were  situated  the 
Altar  of  Incense  and  the  Table  of  Shew  bread. 
In  the  court  before  the  House  stood  the  Altar 
of  Burnt  Offerings  and  the  several  vessels 
used  by  the  priests  in  their  ablutions  (7  23f.). 

1.  The  four  hundred  and  eightieth  year] 
The  sum  of  the  periods  mentioned  or  implied 
in  the  previous  books  since  the  exodus  much 
exceeds  this  figure.  The  real  length  of  the 
interval  is  uncertain,  and  the  number  of  years 
here  indicated  is  probably  not  based  on  historic 
records  but  is  a  conventional  expression  for 
twelve  generations  (a  generation  being  reckoned 
at  40  years).  Approximately  the  date  of  the 
commencement  of  the  Temple  may  be  put  at 
973  B.C.  The  month  Zif]  In  early  times  the 
Hebrew  year  ended  and  began  in  the  autumn 
(see  Ex  231'^  34^2)^  but  at  a  later  period  the 
beginning  of  the  year  was  in  the  spring,  and 
Zif,  which  corresponded  to  our  April-May, 
became  the  second  month.  It  was  subse- 
quently called  lyyar. 

2.  The  house]  The  Temple  was  built  on  the 
N.  of  the  hill  upon  which  Zion,  '  the  city  of 
David,'  stood,  there  being  an  ascent  from  the 
latter  to  the  former  (see  8^).  Its  site  had 
originally  been  occupied  by  Araunah's  thresh- 
ing-floor (2  Ch  3 1).  For  its  position  relative  to 
the  rest  of  Solomon's  buildings  see  on  7  9. 

8.  The  middle  chamber]  LXX  has  '  the 
lowest  chamber,'  which  the  sense  requires. 

The  right  side]  the  S.  9.  Covered  the 
house]  Roofed  or  cieled  it.  Whether  the  roof 
was  flat  or  gable-shaped  is  uncertain,  though, 
as  houses  were  generally  flat-topped,  this  was 
probably  no  exception. 

12.  C'o«cer///«^  this  house,  etc.]  The  erection 
of  the  Temple  was  an  external  and  material 
indication  of  Solomon's  allegiance  to  the  Lord; 
but  to  obtain  the  Almighty's  continued  favour, 
it  was  necessary  besides  to  submit  his  life  and 
conduct  to  the  control  of  God's  moral  laws. 

Which  I  spake  unto  David]  see  2S7i3. 
God  renewed  to  Solomon  the  promises  made 
to  his  father  on  condition  of  his  obedience. 

15.  Both  the  floor,  etc.]  mg.  'from  the  floor 
of  the  house  unto  the  walls,'  etc.,  i.e.  from  top 
to  bottom.  16.  He  built.  .  on  the  sides,  etc.] 
E,V  '  he  built .  .  on  the  hinder  part,'  etc.  This, 
as  appears  from  a  comparison  of  the  measure- 
ments given  in  vv.  2  and  17,  does  not  mean 
that  the  Most  Holy  Place  (or  Oracle)  was  an 
additional  structure  built  on  tjie  rear  of  the 
house,  but  that  it  was  an  apartment  formed 
within  the  house  (cp.  v.  19)  at  its  W.  end  by 
the  erection  of  a  partition  made  with  boards 
of  cedar.  As  its  length,  breadth  and  height 
were  each  20  cubits  (v.  20),  its  form  internally 
was  a  perfect  cube,  though  externally  it  was 


perhaps  of  the  same  elevation  as  the  rest  of 
the  buildings.  18.  Knops]  i.e.  knobs,  and 
so  in  724.  RM  has  'gourds,'  implying  that 
the  ornaments  intended,  which  were  carved 
in  relief,  were  globular  in  shape,  resembling 
pumpkins.  20.  The  oracle  in  the  forepart] 
better,  '  the  oracle  within.'  The  altar]  i.e.  the 
altar  of  incense  :  for  its  situation  see  v.  22. 

21.  Made  a  partition,  etc.]  RV  'drew 
chains  of  gold  across  before  the  oracle,'  i.e. 
across  the  entrance  that  led  from  the  Holy 
Place  into  the  Most  Holy.  But  2Ch3i4 
mentions  a  veil,  and  the  translation  should 
perhaps  be  '  drew  a  veil  before  the  oracle  by 
means  of  chains  of  gold.'  22.  By  the  oracle] 
The  altar  was  not  actually  within  the  oracle 
but  near  it. 

23.  Cherubims]  These  were  large  winged 
figures  of  composite  character,  perhaps  with 
four  faces,  those  of  a  man,  a  lion,  an  ox,  and 
an  eagle  (Ezk  1  lO),  or  with  the  face  of  an  ox 
only  (to  which  the  term  '  cherub '  seems  to  have 
strictly  applied:  cp.  EzklQi'i  with  liO),  They 
represented  God's  chariot  (cp.  PslS^O)^  and 
perhaps  symbolised  certain  of  the  divine 
attributes  (power,  celerity,  etc.).  The  original 
conception  (as  Ps  1 8  io-i4  suggests)  was  probably 
derived  from  a  storm-cloud:  see  on  Ex25is. 

27.  The  inner  house]  i.e.  the  Oracle  or 
Most  Holy  Place.  29.  Palm  trees]  Figures 
of  these  are  frequent  on  the  Assyi-ian  monu- 
ments. Within  and  without]  i.e.  within  and 
without  the  dividing  partition  between  the 
Holy  and  Most  Holy  Place,  so  that  both 
chambers  are  meant. 

31.  The  lintel]  According  to  some  '  the 
pilasters,'  small  pillars  projecting  from  the 
surface  of  the  side  posts.  A  fifth  part]  mg. 
'five-square,'  i.e.  the  top  of  the  door  was 
pentagonal  in  form.  The  words  '  of  the  wall ' 
are  not  in  the  original.  32.  The  two  doors] 
i.e.  two  leaves,  forming  a  single  door.  33.  A 
fourth  part]  mg.  'four-square.'  The  head  of 
the  door  was  square:  see  on  v.  31. 

34.  The  two  doors]  The  door  of  the  Holy 
Place  consisted  of  two  halves,  but  each  half 
had  two  leaves. 

36.  The  inner  court]  This  was  the  court 
before  the  house  (8*^4)^  open  to  the  air,  and 
was  surrounded  by  a  fence  of  stone  surmounted 
by  a  row,  or  paling,  of  cedar  beams.  It  was 
on  a  higher  level  than  the  '  gi-eat  court '  of 
712,  and  is  called  in  JerSG^*^  'the  upper  court.' 

38.  The  month  Bui]  Corresponding  to 
October-November.  As  this  was  the  eighth 
month  and  the  Temple  was  begun  in  the 
second,  the  time  actually  occupied  in  its  con- 
struction was,  in  strictness,  7^  years. 

CHAPTER   7 
Solomon's  Palace 
Tills   c,    besides    giving   a   description   of 


215 


7.  1 


1  KINGS 


7.38 


Solomon's  palace,  contains  an  account  of  the 
principal  utensils  belonging  to  the  Temple. 

1.  Thirteen  years]  The  Temple  was  of 
small  extent  compared  with  the  royal  palace, 
so  that  the  time  spent  on  the  latter  exceeded 
that  required  for  the  former.  The  various 
buildings  mentioned  in  vv.  2-8  seem  together 
to  have  constituted  the  house  of  v.  1. 

2.  He  built  also]  RV  '  for  he  built.'  The 
house  of  the  forest  of  Lebanon]  so  called  from 
the  quantity  of  cedar  wood  from  Lebanon  em- 
ployed in  its  construction.  It  was  a  rectangular 
hall,  100  X  50  X  30  cubits,  its  roof  being  sup- 
ported by  cedar  beams  resting  upon  three  rows 
(so  LXX  for  four  rows)  of  cedar  pillars,  num- 
bering 45  in  all  ;  and  was  used  as  an  armoury 
(Isa  22  8).  4.  Light .  .  ranks]  The  external 
walls  were  pierced  with  three  rows  of  windows, 
so  arranged  that  those  in  each  side  corresponded 
in  position  to  those  in  the  opposite  side. 

5.  Were  square,  with  the  windows]  RV 
'  were  square  in  prospect ' :  i.e.  the  doors  were 
rectangular  (not  pointed  or  arched). 

6.  A  porch  of  pillars]  There  was  another 
building  with  numerous  pillars,  having  a  portico 
(the  porch  ims  before  them),  of  which  the  thick 
beam  was  the  threshold. 

7.  A  porch  for  the  throne]  This  was  a  third 
building  which  served  as  a  court  of  justice. 
From  one  side  . .  other]  better,  '  from  floor  to 
cieling.' 

8.  Another  court]  i.e.  behind  the  porch  of 
judgment  there  was  a  court  which  enclosed  the 
king's  palace;  this  was  probably  the  same  as 
'the  middle  court'  of  2 K 20 4  (if  that  is  the 
right  reading). 

9.  According  to  .  .  stones]  RV  '  even  he^n 
stone,  according  to  measure  '  :  and  so  in  v.  11. 
Within  and  without]  i.e.  both  the  outer  and 
inner  surfaces.  The  great  court]  This  was 
perhaps  a  large  court  enclosing  all  the  preced- 
ing structures,  including  the  Temple.  It  con- 
tained (in  order  from  S.  to  N.),  1.  certain 
public  buildings,  (a)  the  house  of  the  forest  of 
Lebanon,  (i)  the  porch  of  pillars,  (c)  the  porch 
of  the  throne  ;  2.  a  second  court,  enclosing  the 
royal  residences,  the  king's  house  and  the  house 
of  Pharaoh's  daughter  ;  3.  the  '  inner  court ' 
(636),  surrounding  the  Temple.  12.  Both 
for  .  .  and  for]  RV  '  like  as  .  .  and.'  The  mean- 
ing is  that  the  great  court,  the  inner  (or  Temple) 
court,  and  the  court  of  the  house  (or  palace) 
each  had  a  fence  of  similar  construction  : 
cp.  636. 

13.  Hiram]  also  spelt '  Huram '  and  '  Hirom.' 
The  Tyrian  king  and  the  Tyrian  architect  both 
seem  to  have  borne  the  same  name.  14.  A 
widow's  son  .  .  Naphtali]  in  2  Ch  2 1^  his  mo- 
ther is  called  a  daughter  of  Dan,  the  Danite 
settlement  within  Naphtali  being  perhaps 
meant. 

15.  Two    pillars]     These    pillars,    though 


placed  at  the  porch  (v.  21),  probably  did  not 
support  its  roof  but  were  detached  from  the 
building,  and  intended  for  symbolic  purposes 
only.  "Two  similar  pillars  are  said  to  have  stood 
in  the  temple  of  Melkarth  at  Tyre,  one  of  gold 
and  the  other  of  emerald  (or  green  glass)  ;  and 
the  like  are  depicted  on  the  coins  of  Paphos. 
Originally  such  pillars,  whether  natural  obelisks 
or  artificial  columns,  were  regarded  as  the 
abode  of  the  Deity,  so  that  offerings  were  placed 
or  poured  upon  them  in  order  to  be  conveyed 
to  the  indwelling  spirit  (of  which  primitive 
notion  the  action  of  Jacob  at  Bethel  shows  a 
siu"viving  trace,  Gn  28 1^),  but  subsequently  they 
became  emblems  merely,  marking  the  spot 
where  they  stood  as  sacred:  cp.  IsalO^^.  The 
details  of  the  pillars  erected  before  the  Temple 
are  obscure  (the  text  in  places  being  defective 
or  disordered),  but  their  general  appearance  is 
easily  intelligible.  They  were  hollow  ( Jer  52  -i) 
columns  of  brass,  12  cubits  in  cu'cumference 
and  18  cubits  high,  surmounted  by  capitals 
(chapiters)  five  (in  25  ^"  three)  cubits  high, 
globular  in  shape  (v.  42)  and  decorated  with 
tracery  (v.  17).  Around  each  capital  ran  two 
rows  of  pomegranates,  and  above  each  rose  an 
ornament,  4  cubits  high,  shaped  like  the  cup 
of  a  lily.  17.  Seven .  .  seven]  probably  a 
mistake  for  '  a  network  .  .  a  network,'  there 
being  only  two  networks  in  all  (see  v.  41). 

21.  Jachin  .  .  Boaz]  i.e.  'He  (God)  will  es- 
tablish,' and  '  In  Him  (God)  is  strength.' 

23.  A  molten  sea]  i.e.  a  large  vessel  con- 
taining water.     For  its  use  see  2  Ch  4  6. 

26.  An  hand  breadth]  i.e.  3  inches.  With 
flowers  of  lilies]  RV  '  like  the  flowers  of  a  lily,' 
the  rim  curving  outwards.  Two  thousand 
baths]  A '  bath '  was  rather  more  than  8  gallons. 
To  contain  all  this,  the  sides  of  the  molten  sea 
must  have  bulged  considerably. 

27.  Bases]  movable  supports  or  carriages 
for  the  lavers  of  v.  38.  The  description  is  very 
obscure,  but  it  has  been  in  part  elucidated 
by  a  bronze  stand  of  Mycenaean  workmanship 
recently  found  in  Cyprus.  Each  base  consisted 
of  a  hollow  cube  (4x4x3  cubits),  the  sides 
of  which  had  panels  (borders)  between  raised 
edges  (ledges).  At  the  lower  corners  there 
were  legs  (the  undersetters  of  v.  30,34),  which 
rested  on  large  wheels.  Above  rose  a  pedestal 
(the  base  of  vv.  29,  31)  with  a  capital  (the 
chapiter  of  v.  32)  which  had  a  hollow 
(mouth)  to  receive  the  laver,  which  was 
further  supported  by  stays  (the  undersetters 
under  the  laver  of  V.  30).  29.  Additions  made 
of  thin  work]^V  '  wreaths  of  hanging  work,' 
i.e.  festoons;  so  also  in  vv.  30,  36.  34.  Wei-e 
of  the  very  base  itself]  i.e.  were  cast  with  it 
and  not  subsequently  attached.  36.  According 
to  the  proportion]  RV  '  according  to  the  space 
of  each ' :  i.e.  so  far  as  the  space  permitted. 

38.  Ten  lavers]  for  the  purpose  of   these 


216 


7.39 


1  KINGS 


8.  65 


see2Ch4<5.     Forty  baths]   about  320  gallons. 
39.   Eastward  .  .  south]  i.e.  at  the  SE.  corner. 

40.  Lavers]   LXX  has  '  pots '  as  in  v.  45. 

41.  The  bowls]  i.e.  the  globular  portions 
of  the  two  capitals.  46.  The  plain  of  Jordan] 
i.e.  the  Jordan  valley.  Succoth  and  Zarthan] 
Succoth  was  in  Gad  (Josh  13  ^'').  Zarthan  is 
probably  the  Zaretan  of  Josh3i«5.  48.  The 
altar  of  gold]   i.e.  the  altar  of  incense  (6^2). 

The  table  of  gold]  in  2Ch4S  mention  is 
made  of  ten  tables,  but  cp.  2Chl3ii  29i8. 
The  Tabernacle  had  only  one  table  for  the 
shewbread  (Ex  25  -3). 

49.  The  candlesticks]  better,  '  lampstands.' 
In  the  Tabernacle  there  was  only  one  (Ex  25^1). 

50.  Censers]  RY  'firepans.'  51.  Which 
David  .  .  had  dedicated]   see  2  88 11. 

CHAPTER  8 
The  Dedication  of  the  Temple.  Solomon's 
Prayer 
I.  The  chief  of  the  fathers]  i.e.  heads  of 
families.  Out  of  the  city]  The  Temple  and 
Palace  were  built  on  the  site  of  Araunah's 
threshing  floor  (2  Ch  3 1),  which  would  natur- 
ally be  outside  the  city  walls  and  on  higher 
ground :  cp.  9  2*.  2.  Ethanim]  The  later 
Tishri,  corresponding  to  Sept.-Oct.  The  feast 
referred  to  was  Tabernacles  (Lv23^'^). 

3.  The  priests]  2Ch54  has  'the  Levites,' 
certain  of  whom  (the  Kohathites)  had,  accord- 
ing to  Nu4i5,  the  special  duty  of  bearing  the 
ark.  But  the  priests  are  likewise  represented 
as  bearing  the  ark  in  Josh  3  '5'  is  4  0^  etc. 

4.  Tabernacle  of  the  congregation]  RV 
'  tent  of  meeting  '  :  i.e.  the  sanctuary  in  which 
the  Lord  used  to  commune  with  His  wor- 
shippers (Ex  33  9  Null 25).  This,  which  (ac- 
cording to  2 Chi 3)  was  at  Gibeon,  may  have 
been  preserved  for  its  sacred  associations,  for 
the  ark  had  long  been  separated  from  it. 

7.  The  staves]  the  poles,  inserted  in  rings, 
by  means  of  which  the  ark  was  carried  :  see 
Ex25i--i^.  8.  They  drew  out  the  staves] 
RV  '  the  staves  were  so  long '  :  owing  to  their 
length  they  could  be  seen  from  the  Holy 
Place,  though  not  vnthout  (i.e.  outside  it). 

Unto  this  day]  The  date  implied  is  that  of 
a  narrator  living  before  the  destruction  of  the 
Temple,  whose  language  the  compiler  (who 
lived  after  that  event,  cp.  2K25)  has  in- 
corporated without  alteration  :  cp.  9^1. 

9.  There  loas .  .  stone]  The  writer  of 
Hebrews  (9*)  mentions  also  the  golden  pot 
that  contained  manna,  and  Aaron's  rod  ;  but, 
in  strictness,  these  were  placed  before  the 
ark  (Exl63^Nul7iO). 

10.  The  cloud]  cp.  Ex4034,35  339Null25 
125.  This  was  called  by  the  later  Jews  the 
Shechinah.  11.  Could  not  stand]  for  the  awe 
which  the  near  Presence  of  the  Lord  inspired  : 
cp.  Ex36Isa65Ezkl28. 


12.  The  thick  darkness]  cp.  Lv  16  2.  Hither- 
to the  Lord  had  dwelt  not  in  an  habitation 
made  by  human  hands,  but  in  Nature's  cloud- 
pavilions  (Ps  18  n).  15.  Which  spake  ..  unto 
David]   through  the  prophet  Nathan  (2  S  7  5-7). 

22.  The  altar]  The  altar  of  burnt  offering, 
in  the  court  before  the  Temple. 

23.  And  he  said]  The  passage  that  follows 
is  full  of  a  sense  of  God's  infinitude  (v.  27), 
righteousness  (v.  32),  and  omniscience  (v.  39), 
whilst  at  the  same  time  it  manifests  faith  in 
His  constancy  and  forgivingness  (vv.  25,  29, 
30,  34,  etc.)  ;  and  though  it  contemplates 
principally  the  needs  of  Israel,  yet  it  embraces 
a  petition  for  the  stranger  that  is  not  of 
Israel  (vv.  41-43).  25.  So  that]  i.e.  provided 
that  (as  in  6 12).  27.  The  heaven  .  .  contain 
thee]  cp.  Isa66i  Jer2324.  29.  Make  toward 
this  place]  In  later  times  the  Jews,  when 
praying  in  foreign  lands,  turned  their  faces 
toward  Jerusalem  (Dan  6^0).  31.  And  the 
oath  come]   RV  '  And    he   come  and  swear.' 

37.  In  the  land  of  their  cities]  LXX  '  in 
one  of  their  cities.'  38.  The  plague  of  his  own 
heart]  i.e.  the  plague  or  chastisement  which 
each  is  conscious  of  suffering  :  cp.  2'**  Ex  91"^. 

41.  Concerning  a  stranger,  etc.]  for  the 
future  worship  of  the  Lord  by  the  Gentiles, 
cp.  Isa23  567  Zech820-22.  43.  is  called  by 
thy  name]  i.e.  belongs  to  Thee  :  cp.  2  S  12  27, 28. 

50.  Give  them  compassion  . .  captive]  The 
prayer  was  fulfilled  when  Cyrus  allowed  the 
Jews,  who  were  captives  in  Babylon,  to  return 
to  their  home  (Ezrl^).  51,  Furnace  of 
iron]   i.e.  a  furnace  hot  enough  to  melt  iron. 

53.  O  Lord  God]  better,  '  O  Lord 
Jehovah.' 

56.   Hath  given  rest]   cp.  Ex 3314. 

60.  That  all  the  people,  etc.]  Israel  had  a 
mission  to  discharge  to  the  other  nations  of  the 
world,  partly  by  exhibiting  conspicuously  in 
its  fortunes  the  moral  principles  on  which 
God  governed  mankind  (Josh  4  2*  Isa55^ 
Ps677)  and  partly  through  the  agency  of 
its  spiritual   teachers    the   prophets  (Isa42i). 

61.  Perfect  with]  i.e.  not  divided  between 
the  Lord  and  other  gods  :  see  9  ^  11 4. 

63.  Two  and  twenty  thousand,  etc.]  The 
quantity  seems  enormous,  but  numbers  in 
the  OT.,  as  in  other  ancient  writings,  cannot 
always  be  relied  on,  and  profuse  sacrifices  were 
common  in  antiquity.  64.  The  middle  of  the 
court]  On  what  is  believed  to  be  the  site  of 
the  Temple  court  there  is  a  large  slab  of 
rock,  which  would  form  a  natural  altar.  Meat 
offerings]  RV  '  meal  offerings,'  and  so  else- 
where.    65.   A  feast]  i.e.  of  Tabernacles  (v.  2). 

The  entering  in  of  Hamath]  Hamath  was 
situated  on  the  Orontes,  the  approach  to  it 
from  the  S.  being  by  the  gorge  between 
Lebanon  and  Hermon.  The  river  of  Egypt] 
the  modern  Wady  el  Arish,  a  stream  flowing 


217 


8.66 


1  KINGS 


10.  1 


from  the  Sinaitic  peninsula  into  the  Mediter- 
ranean. Seven  days  and  seven  days]  The 
seven  days'  feast  of  Tabernacles  was  preceded 
by  a  seven  days'  Dedication  festival.  66.  On 
the  eighth  day]  i.e.  at  the  close  of  the  seven 
days'  feast  of  Tabernacles.  Unto  their  tents] 
The  phrase  is  a  survival  from  the  tent-life  which 
prevailed  before  the  settlement  in  Canaan. 

CHAPTER  9 

God's  Response  to  Solomon's  Prayer. 

Solomon  and  Hiram 

I.  When .  .  finished]  The  Temple  does  not 
seem  to  have  been  dedicated  until  all  the 
king's  buildings  were  completed,  the  Temple 
and  Palace  being  prolaably  included  within  a 
single  wall  and  regarded  as  a  unity.  In  vv.  3-9 
is  contained  the  divine  response  to  the  prayer 
offered  by  Solomon  at  the  dedication  festival. 

3.  Mine  eyes  .  .  perpetually]  Though  God's 
care  extends  over  all  His  creation,  yet  those 
are  nearest  to  His  heart  who  render  to  Him 
the  sincerest  and  worthiest  service.  At  Jeru- 
salem not  only  did  the  splendour  of  the  Temple 
attest  Israel's  desire  to  pay  honour  to  the 
Lord,  but  the  worship  conducted  there  was 
the  most  spiritual  of  contemporary  forms  of 
devotion,  being  free  from  the  sensuous  and 
often  impure  elements  that  entered  into 
religious  rites  elsewhere. 

8.  At  this  house,  lohich  is  high]  The  original 
has  '  the  house  shall  be  high,'  which  may 
mean  '  shall  be  conspicuous,'  as  a  warning  to 
others.  But  the  Syriac  has  '  this  house  shall 
be  a  heap  '  (of  ruins). 

II.  Tvs^enty  cities]  As  the  payment  for  the 
supply  of  timber  consisted  of  wheat  and  oil 
(59-11),  the  cities  must  have  been  in  return  for 
the  supply  of  gold  :  see  on  2  Cb  8  2.  Galilee] 
The  region  thus  designated  is  not  defined  in 
the  OT.,  but  the  name  seems  to  have  been 
applied  to  a  part  of  Zebulun  and  Naphtali, 
where  the  non-Israelite  population  was  numer- 
ous enough  to  lead  to  its  being  called  '  the 
Galilee  (or  Circuit)  of  the  Gentiles'  (Isa9i). 
In  NT.  times  it  extended  from  the  Leontes  in 
the  N.  to  the  ridge  of  Carmel  in  the  S. 

13.  Cabul]  There  was  a  city  called  Cabul 
in  Asher  (Josh  1 9  '■^"),  and  its  name  may  have 
been  taken  to  describe  the  district  owing  to 
its  assonance  with  a  Heb.  phrase  signifying  '  as 
good  as  nothing.'  14.  Sixscore  talents]  weigh- 
ing nearly  1.3,000  lb. 

1 5.  Millo]  some  part  of  the  fortifications  of 
Jerusalem  is  meant,  perhaps  a  solid  tower,  but 
its  place  is  not  known.  The  LXX  renders  it 
by  '  citadel,'  and  its  importance  is  evidenced 
by  its  being  so  frequently  rebuilt  (1 1  '■^'' 
2Ch325).  Razor  and  Megiddo]  Hazor,  near 
Lake  Merom,  guarded  the  northern  frontier, 
whilst  Megiddo  protected  the  approach  to  the 
plain  of  Esdraelon  from  the  SW.     Gezer]  on 


the  W.  border  of  Ephraim,  the  modern  Tell 
Jezer,  18  m.  from  Jerusalem.    Gezer  and  Beth- 
horon  (v.  17)  protected  the  valley  of  Aijalon. 
16.   A  present]  RV  '  a  portion  '  (or  dowry). 

18.  Baalath]  a  little  N.  of  Beth-horon  the 
nether.  Tadmor,  afterwards  called  Palmyra, 
in  the  Syrian  desert,  NE.  of  Damascus. 
Another  reading  has  '  Tamar,'  a  place  in  the 
S.  of  Judah  (Ezk47i9),  the  same  as  Hazezor 
Tamar  or  Engedi  (Gnl47  2Ch202).  In  the 
land]  i.e.  within  the  borders  of  Israel.  This, 
as  it  stands,  is  only  appropriate  as  a  description 
of  Tamar,  but  it  is  possible  that  some  name 
(e.g.  of  '  Aram'  or  of  '  Hamath  '),  descriptive 
of  the  locality  of  Tadmor,  has  been  lost. 

19.  Desired  to  build]  i.e.  for  his  pleasure  : 
cp.  V.  1.  In  Lebanon]  where  residence  would 
be  desirable  during  the  summer  heats. 

22.  No  bondmen]  This  apparently  means 
that  no  native  Israelites  were  permanently  com- 
pelled to  render  forced  service.  But  a  consider- 
able body  of  such  was  temporarily  employed 
upon  the  construction  of  the  Temple  (.5 1^)  : 
cp.  also  1128  12  4.  23.  Five  hundred  and  fifty] 
These  were  probably  the  officers  who  directed 
the  labour  of  the  30,000  native  Israelites  : 
2  Ch8 10  has  260.  24.  Unto  her  house]  see  7  «. 
For  Millo  see  on  v.  15.  25.  Three  times  in  a 
year]  see  2Ch8i3,  and  cp.  Ex23i^-i'  3423 
DtlGi-i'. 

26.  Ezion-geber .  .  Eloth]  The  two  places 
were  at  the  N.  extremity  of  the  gulf  of 
Akaba.  28.  Ophir]  variously  identified  with 
the  Indian  coast  (near  the  mouth  of  the  Indus), 
the  E.  coast  of  Africa  (Abyssinia  or  Somali- 
land),  and  S.  Arabia.  In  favour  of  the  latter 
is  the  fact  that  in  Gn  102-'  Ophir  is  represented 
as  the  son  of  Joktan,  the  ancestor  of  several 
Arabian  tribes.  Four  hundred  and  twenty 
talents]  For  the  weight  of  a  talent  see  9 1*. 

CHAPTER    10 

Solomon  and  the  Queen  of  Siieba 
I.  Sheba]  the  Sheba  of  Gn  102s  (in  Arabia), 
not  of  GnlO'i^  (in  Africa).  Arabia  seems  fre- 
quently to  have  been  ruled  by  queens ;  more 
than  one  is  mentioned  in  the  Assyrian  inscrip- 
tions. If  Ophir  was  in  Arabia  (see  on  9  28),  it 
may  have  been  through  the  traders  at  that 
port  that  the  queen  here  alluded  to  had  heard 
of  Solomon. 

Hard  questions]  These  were  probably  of 
the  nature  of  puzzles  or  riddles,  the  same 
word  being  used  of  Samson's  riddle  (Jgl4i2). 
Legend  relates  that  one  of  the  puzzles  that 
Solomon  was  set  to  solve  was  how  to  dis- 
tinguish between  a  bunch  of  natural  and  a 
bunch  of  artificial  flowers  without  leaving  his 
seat  to  examine  them.  The  king  ordered  the 
windows  of  the  room  to  be  opened,  and  the 
bees,  coming  in,  alighted  on  the  former  and 
ignored  the  latter. 


218 


10.  5 


1  KINGS 


11.36 


5.  His  ascent,  etc.]  perhaps  better,  '  his 
burnt  offering  which  he  offered  in.' 

9.  Blessed  be  the  LORD]  cp.  the  language 
of  the  Phoenician  Hiram  (5'^). 

11.  Almug  trees]  conjectured  to  be  sandal 
wood.  2Chi)iOhas  '  algum  trees.'  12.  Pillars] 
BiM  '  a  railing,'  or  balustrade  for  the  staircase  : 
cp.  2Ch9ii.  Harps  ..  psalteries]  The  former 
probably  had  a  square  frame,  with  the  sound- 
box at  the  base  ;  the  latter  may  have  been 
triangular  in  shape,  with  the  sound-box  form- 
ing one  of  the  sides. 

1 5.  The  kings  of  Arabia]  R  V  '  kings  of  the 
mingled  people,'  i.e.  the  population  of  mixed 
descent  which  lived  on  the  confines  of  the 
kingdom.  The  same  word  is  used  of  the 
'  mixed  multitude '  that  came  up  with  Israel 
out  of  Egypt  (Ex  12  38).  16.  Targets]  large 
shields.  Shel-eh~\  a  shekel  was  224  grains. 
The  shields  were  probably  overlaid  with  the 
gold,  not  made  of  it.  17.  Pound]  Jleh.  maneh. 
This  contained  50  shekels.  The  house .  . 
Lebanon]  see  on  7  ^.  The  shields  here  described 
were  taken  away  by  Shishak  in  the  reign  of 
Rehoboam  (14-").  19.  The  top  of  the  throne] 
perhaps  a  canopy  over  the  throne,  of  which 
the  stays  were  the  arms. 

22.  A  navy  of  Tharshish]  better,  '  Thar- 
shish  ship,'  i.e.  a  stoutly-built  vessel,  such  as 
was  accustomed  to  voyage  to  Tartessus  in 
Spain,  or  perhaps  Tarsus  in  Cilicia,  but  which 
Solomon  probably  sent  to  Ophir  (see  92tJ-''8 
10^1),  since  Ezion-geber  was  his  port. 

27.  Sycomore  trees]  not  the  English  syca- 
more, but  a  kind  of  fig-tree.  In  the  vale] 
RV  '  in  the  lowland,'  i.e.  the  downs  between 
the  hills  of  Judah  and  the  coast. 

28.  Horses .  .  Egypt]  The  Jews  depended 
upon  Egypt  for  horses  not  only  at  this  time, 
but  also  in  the  reign  of  Hezekiah  (IsaSl^ 
36  9),  and  at  a  still  later  date  (Ezk  17 15).  Linen 
yarn]  This  should  probably  be  rendered 
'  droves,'  and  connected  with  the  following 
clause — '  and  in  droves  the  king's  merchants 
received  them,  each  di'ove  at  a  price.'  But 
for  '  in  droves '  the  LXX  has  '  from  Tekoa,' 
where  there  may  have  been  a  horse  fair,  whilst 
the  Latin  has  '  from  Coa '  (i.e.  Cilicia). 

29.  The  Hittites]  This  people  were  pro- 
bably of  Mongolian  race,  and  drew  their  origin 
from  Cappadocia.  They  came  in  contact  with 
Israel  chiefly  on  its  northern  border  (Jg  1  2t3). 

By  their  means]  Heb.  '  in  their  hand,'  i.e. 
with  them.  Solomon's  merchants  conducted 
the  profitable  traffic  in  horses  between  Egypt 
and  the  various  states  on  the  N.  and  NE.  of 
Palestine. 

CHAPTER  11 
Solomon's  Erkors  and  their  Conse- 
quences.    His  Death 
This  c.  fm-nishes  an  account  of  Solomon's 


marriages  with  numerous  foreign  princesses, 
and  traces  the  evil  effect  of  such  in  the  tolera- 
tion of  idolatry,  which  provoked  the  Lord's 
anger.  This  was  manifested  in  the  growth  of 
opposition  abroad  and  disaffection  at  home, 
so  that  an  otherwise  brilliant  reign  had  a 
cloudy  ending. 

3.  Seven  hundred  wives]  The  Persian  king 
Darius  Codomannus  is  said  to  have  had,  be- 
sides his  own  wife,  329  concubines.  4.  Not  per- 
fect] Solomon's  heart  was  divided  between  the 
Lord  and  other  gods.  Without  abandoning  the 
service  of  Jehovah,  he  tolerated,  and  even  took 
part  in,  the  religious  rites  practised  by  his 
wives.  His  luxury  and  sensuality  led  to  more 
serious  errors  still.  5.  Ashtoreth]  the  Phoe- 
nician name  of  the  goddess  worshipped  by  the 
Babylonians  under  the  title  of  Ishtar,  the  god- 
dess of  love.  Milcom]  identical  with  the 
Molech  of  V.  7.  7.  Build  an  high  place]  i.e. 
construct  an  altar  or  sanctuary  upon  a  height. 
Chemosh]  The  name  of  this  god  occurs  on  the 
inscription  of  Mesha,  king  of  Moab,  who  was 
contemporary  with  Ahab.  Before  Jerusalem] 
i.e.  E.  of  Jerusalem,  the  corresponding  ex- 
pression '  behind  '  being  used  to  denote  the 
W.  (Josh  8-1.9  Dt  11 2iRV).  The  hill  here 
designated  is  the  Mt.  of  Olives  :  cp.  Ezk  1 1 23. 

15.  David.  .  Edom]  see  2  881*.  Joab]  cp. 
Ps60  (title).  According  to  1  Ch  18 12  the  actual 
victory  over  the  Edomites  was  gained  by 
Abishai,  the  brother  of  Joab.  18.  Midian  .  . 
Paran]  NE.  and  N.  of  the  Sinaitic  peninsula. 

19,  Pharaoh]  either  the  Egyptian  king 
whose  daughter  Solomon  had  married,  or  his 
predecessor.  23.  Zobah]  a  small  Syrian  state 
lying  eastward  of  Mt.  Hermon.  24.  Damas- 
cus] According  to  288^  David  had  placed 
garrisons  in  Damascus,  which  Rezon  and  his 
followers  must  have  expelled. 

26.  Ephrathite]  i.e.  an  Ephraimite  (as  in 
ISP),  not  a  Bethlehemite  (as  in  Ruth  12). 

28.  Made  him  .  .  charge]  RV  '  gave  him 
charge  over  all  the  labour';  see  513,H.  As 
the  system  of  forced  labour  introduced  by 
Solomon  had  as  its  object  the  adornment  of 
his  capital,  which  was  most  closely  connected 
with  Judah  and  Benjamin,  it  would  be  the 
more  resented  by  the  other  tribes  :  cp.  12'^''^^. 
Jeroboam's  position  enabled  him  to  detect  and 
work  upon  the  discontent,  which  would  be 
strongest  in  Ephraim,  inasmuch  as  in  the  times 
of  Joshua  and  the  Judges  it  had  enjoyed  the 
preeminence  which  had  now  passed  to  Judah. 

29.  The  Shilonite]  i.e.  a  native  of  Shiloh 
(142).  30.  Rent  it ..  pieces]  The  prophets 
frequently  illustrated  the  meaning  of  their 
utterances  by  the  use  of  impressive  symbolic 
actions:  see  22"  Isa202f.  Jerl9i-i3  Ezk  12 
Zechll7,io,i4. 

32.  One  tribe]  in  122i>23  Benjamin  is  reck- 
oned with    Judah,  but  see  on    1220.     35,   a 


219 


11.38 


1  KINGS 


n.  28 


light]  cp.Ps  13217  and  contrast  Job  18  6.  The 
figure  is  drawn  from  the  fire  or  lamp  which  is 
usually  associated  with  a  permanent  habita- 
tion. 38.  If  thou  wilt  hearken]  the  same  con- 
dition as  in  94.  A  sure  house]  i.e.  a  long  and 
unbroken  line  of  descendants.  As  the  con- 
dition imposed  was  not  fulfilled,  the  promise 
was  not  carried  out,  and  Jeroboam's  house 
was  extirpated  in  the  second  generation  by 
Baasha. 

39.  Not  for  ever]  in  spite  of  the  humiliation 
suffered  by  the  house  of  David  through  Jero- 
boam's revolt,  the  Davidic  dynasty  in  Judah 
outlasted  the  kingdom  of  the  Ten  Tribes  ;  and 
though  it  finally  lost  all  temporal  power,  it 
attained  higher  preeminence  than  ever  when 
Christ  was  born  of  Mary,  a  descendant  of 
David.  40.  Sought .  .  to  kill]  This  implies  that 
Jeroboam  had  excited  the  king's  suspicions  by 
some  open  act  of  disloyalty.  Shishak]  i.e. 
Sheshonk,  the  first  king  of  the  22nd  dynasty, 
of  Libyan  descent. 

41.  The  book,  etc.]  probably  a  history  based 
on  the  official  documents  kept  by  the  '  re- 
corder.' 

The  instructiveness  of  Solomon's  history  is 
twofold.  (1)  Outward  zeal  for  the  honour  of 
the  Lord,  such  as  Solomon  showed  by  build- 
ing the  Temple,  is  no  proof  of  inward  devo- 
tion. (2)  Material  blessings  bestowed  by  God 
(like  the  wealth  and  honour  conferred  on 
Solomon)  bring  with  them  increased  tempta- 
tions, needing  divine  grace  for  their  conquest. 

CHAPTER  12 

The  Revolt  of  the  Ten  Tribes.     Reho- 

BOAM  AND  Jeroboam 

The  revolt  of  the  Ten  Tribes  against  the  rule 
of  Rehoboam  had  its  origin  partly  in  the  dis- 
content which  the  burdens  laid  on  the  people 
by  Solomon  had  created  and  which  Jeroboam 
(who  knew  of  it,  see  1 1 28)  had  perhaps  stimu- 
lated, and  partly  in  the  jealousy  subsisting 
between  the  northern  triljes  and  Judah,  which 
had  manifested  itself  previously  in  the  separate 
kingdoms  of  Ish-bosheth  and  David,  and  the 
insurrections  that  disturbed  David's  reign  over 
the  whole  people  (2S201);  whilst  the  bond 
of  union  constituted  by  a  common  religious 
faith  must  have  been  weakened  by  Solomon's 
idolatry. 

I.  Shechem]  The  principal  town  of  Ephi-aim 
(the  modern  Nabliis)  :  it  had  manifestly  been 
restored  after  its  destruction  as  related  in 
JgO'*^.  The  choice  of  this  city  as  the  place  of 
assembly  was  due  partly  to  the  importance  of 
Ephraim  as  a  tribe,  and  partly  to  its  nearness 
to  a  sanctuary  (that  on  Mt.  Ebal,  Josh 8  30). 
It  was  a  gathering  place  for  the  tribes  in 
Joshua's  days  (Josh  24 1).  For  all  Israel .  . 
king]  The  tribal  spirit  of  independence  was 
still  sufficiently  strong  to  make  it  necessary 


for  the  Judsean  Rehoboam  to  receive  separately 
the  homage  of  the  other  tribes.  2.  Dwelt  in 
Egypt]   LXX  has  '  returned  from  Egypt.' 

3.  Called  him]  This  implies  that  Jeroboam 
was  known  to  sympathise  with  the  grievances 
under  which  the  people  laboured.  4.  Made 
our  yoke  grievous]  i.e.  by  the  forced  labour 
imposed  upon  them  (S^^).  7.  If  thou  wilt  be 
a  servant]  i.e.  by  making  timely  concessions 
to  his  people.  10.  My  little  fiiiger'\  a  figura- 
tive expression,  explained  by  what  follows. 

II.  Scorpions]  a  rod  or  lash  used  in  scourg- 
ing. 15.  The  cause  .  .  LORD]  i.e.  the  turn  of 
events  was  the  means  appointed  by  God's 
providence  to  bring  about  the  punishment 
merited  by  Solomon's  sin  (1 1  ii"i3). 

16.  What  portion]  for  this  signal  of  revolt 
cp.  2S201.  Now  see.  .  house]  a  declaration 
of  independence  and  a  warning  against  further 
interference.  17.  Children  of  Israel ..  Judah] 
probably,  in  the  main,  members  of  the  tribe  of 
Simeon  :  cp.  1  K 19  3  with  Josh  15  28.  18.  Ado- 
ram]  cp.  2  S  20  ^■i.  He  is  called  Adoniram  in 
46.  Tribute]  RV  levy.'  Stoned  him]  Stones 
were  the  usual  weapons  in  outbreaks  of  popu- 
lar fury:  cp.  Ex  17*  1S306.  19.  Unto  this 
day]  This  passage  must  originally  have  been 
written  not  only  before  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem  but  of  Samaria:  cp.  88. 

20.  The  tribe  of  Judah  only]  This  accords 
with  the  words  of  Ahijah  in  1 1  ^2  ;  and  if  the 
remaining  tribes  that  fell  to  Jeroboam  are 
reckoned  as  ten  (ll^i)  and  not  eleven,  the  ex- 
planation is  to  be  found  in  the  omission  of  Levi 
(as  the  priestly  tribe)  and  in  regarding  Ephraim 
and  Manasseh  as  constituting  the  single  tribe 
of  Joseph  :  cp.  11  28.  But  in  vv.  21,  23,  Ben- 
jamin is  joined  with  Judah  as  belonging  to 
Rehoboam  ;  and  this,  in  large  measure,  was 
really  the  case,  the  frontier  between  the  two 
kingdoms  lying  within  that  tribe.  Simeon, 
too,  by  its  position  must  have  been  practically 
absorbed  by  Judah. 

22.  Shemaiah]  mentioned  again  in  2Ch 
125,7,15.  23.  The  remnant  of  the  people]  i.e. 
those  belonging  by  lineage  to  the  other  tribes : 
cp.  V.  17. 

25.  Built]  i.e.  fortified :  cp.  9 17.  Penuel] 
in  Gilead,  E.  of  Jordan  :  cp.  Jg88. 

26.  Now  shall .  .  David]  Jeroboam  feared 
that  if  his  people  still  went  to  Jerusalem  three 
times  a  year  to  keep  the  feasts,  they  would  be 
tempted  to  retm-n  to  their  allegiance  to  Reho- 
boam. He  had  not  sufficient  faith  in  God's 
power  to  bring  about  His  promises  (11^8),  and 
so  adopted  measures  to  safeguard  his  newly- 
won  throne  which  branded  his  name  for  ever 
with  infamy  (cp.  14^'^),  and  brought  calamity 
both  on  his  house  and  his  people. 

28.  Two  calves  <if  gold]  The  calves  were 
not  intended  as  substitutes  for  the  Lord 
(Jehovah)  but  as  symbols  of  Him,  as  appears 


220 


12.  29 


1  KINGS 


14.9 


from  the  king's  words  to  the  people.  It  has 
been  thought  by  some  that  such  symbols  were 
derived  from  Egypt  where  the  living  bull  Apis 
was  worshipped,  and  where  Jeroboam  had 
lived  in  exile.  But  the  calves  which  he  setup 
were  probably  imitations  of  the  calf  made  in 
the  wilderness  by  Aaron  ;  and  it  is  scarcely 
likely  that  the  Israelites,  when  escaping  from 
Egypt,  would,  to  represent  theii*  own  God, 
borrow  an  emblem  from  their  task-masters.  It 
is  more  probable  that  a  calf  or  young  bull  was 
chosen  as  a  religious  symbol  because  to  an 
agricultural  people  the  bull  was  a  natural  em- 
blem of  force  and  vigour.  But  though  Jero- 
boam, in  setting  up  the  calves,  did  not  break 
the  first  commandment  of  the  Decalogue,  he 
yet  violated  the  second,  and  from  motives  of 
state  policy  (vv.  26,27)  coiTupted  the  religious 
worship  of  his  people,  not  only  by  making  it 
sensuous  instead  of  spiritual,  but  by  employing 
symbols  which  represented .  merely  Jehovah's 
power  (whether  displayed  in  creation  or  de- 
struction) and  altogether  failed  to  suggest  His 
highest  attributes — those  of  righteousness, 
holiness,  and  love.  That  these  coarse  symbols 
long  continued  to  be  worshipped  appears  from 
Hos85,6  105.  Thy  gods]  The  plural  is  used 
because  there  was  more  than  one  image,  but 
the  same  Grod  was  represented  by  both. 

29.  Beth-el .  .  Dan]  on  the  S.  border  of 
Ephraim  and  in  the  N.  of  Naphtali  respect- 
ively, and  so  at  the  two  extremities  of  the 
kingdom  to  meet  the  convenience  of  the 
people.  Both  places  had  previously  been 
the  seats  of  religious  worship  :  see,  for  Bethel, 
Gn28i-22  351.7  Jg2026  ISIQS  ;  and  for  Dan, 
JglS^o.  Jeroboam  hoped  to  revive  their 
ancient  popularity.  30.  Before  the  one]  The 
text  is  incomplete  :  RM  '  before  each  of 
them.' 

31.  An  house  of  high  places]  LXX  'made 
houses  (i.e.  sanctuaries)  upon  high  places '  : 
see  on  3  2.  Of  the  lowest  of  the  people]  better, 
'  from  all  the  people  indiscriminately.'  In 
Dt  the  priesthood  is  restricted  to  the  Levites 
(see  on  8'*),  and  the  narrator  judges  Jeroboam's 
conduct  from  the  standpoint  of  the  Deutero- 
nomic  law. 

32.  The  feast]  i.e.  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles 
or  Ingathering,  on  the  15th  day  of  the  7th 
month.  The  new  feast  instituted  by  Jeroboam 
was  placed  a  rnonth  later,  probably  on  account 
of  the  later  date  of  the  vintage  in  N.  Palestine. 

He  placed  in  Beth-el]  Bethel  appears  to  have 
been,  at  least  in  later  times,  the  royal  sanc- 
tuary (Am  7 13).  33.  Of  his  own  heart]  For 
political  and  self-regarding  reasons  he  dis- 
turbed the  hallowed  associations  which  had 
gathered  round  the  month  previously  set  apart 
for  the  Festival  of  Ingathering.  He  offered 
upon  the  altar]  The  king  himself  officiated  as 
priest.     The  v.  is  closely  connected  with  131. 


CHAPTER    13 
The  Disobedient  Prophet 

2.  Josiah]  for  the  fulfilment  see  2  K  23 15-20. 
Some  300  years  separated  the  prediction  from 
the  event,  and  the  mention  by  name  of  the 
king  destined  to  accomplish  it  is  unlike  the 
methods  of  Hebrew  prophecy  in  general.  It 
is  possible  that  the  records  upon  which  the 
present  account  is  based  were  less  precise,  and 
that  Josiah's  name  was  introduced  by  the 
compiler  of  the  book  of  Kings,  who  lived 
after  Josiah's  time  and  was  familiar  with 
what  he  had  done.  Offer]  better,  '  slaughter.' 
They  would  not  be  offered  in  sacrifice.  3.  A 
sign]  The  fulfilment  of  the  prediction  in  v.  3 
would  be  a  warranty  for  the  fulfilment  of  the 
prediction  in  v.  2  :  cp.  1  S  2  ^-i  Isa  38  '^'  *^. 

8.  I  will  not .  .  thee]  The  prophet,  who 
had  come  from  Judah,  was  not  to  hold  any 
friendly  intercourse  with  the  offending  nation, 
or  receive  hospitality  within  its  borders. 

II.  There  dwelt.  .  Beth-el]  The  fact  that 
the  old  prophet  remained  at  Bethel  and 
acquiesced  without  protest  in  the  king's 
idolatry  indicated  that  he  was  not  loyal  to 
the  principles  of  spiritual  religion.  Being 
unfaithful  himself  he  became  the  tempter  of 
others  (v.  18). 

22.  Shall  not  come .  .  fathers]  This  was 
esteemed  a  dishonour  :  cp.  2Ch2120. 

24.  A  lion]  for  lions  in  Palestine  cp.  Jgl45 
18173^282320  1K2036  2K1725.  Theirchief 
haunt  would  be  the  jungle  in  the  Jordan  valley. 

28.  The  lion  had  not  eaten]  80  strange  an 
occurrence  was  calculated  to  attract  attention 
to  the  prophet's  fate.  31.  Lay  my  bones, 
etc.]  To  prevent  them  from  sharing  the  dis- 
honour which  the  man  of  God  had  said  would 
befall  the  graves  at  Bethel  :  see  2  K  2317,  is. 

The  moral  conveyed  by  the  fate  of  the 
prophet  from  Judah  is  that  those  who,  like 
the  old  prophet  of  Bethel,  are  false  to  their 
own  manifest  duties  (see  on  v.  11),  are  to  be 
distrusted  when  they  offer  advice  in  matters 
of  right  and  wrong. 

33.  Consecrated]   see  on  Ex  28^1  2924. 

CHAPTER    14 

The  Sins  of  Jeroboam  and  Rehoboam 

AND  their  Punishment 
2.  Shiloh]  The  modern  Seilim,  N.  of  Bethel 
and  E.  of  the  road  leading  from  Bethel  to 
Shechem  (Jg21if).  3.  Take  with  thee]  The 
gift  proffered  by  the  queen  was  a  small  one 
to  suit  her  disguise  :  contrast  2  K  5  5.  Cruse] 
a  flask  or  bottle  (and  so  in  1712).  g  Above 
all  that  were  before  thee]  Solomon's  idolatry 
was  perhaps  worse  than  Jeroboam's  in  being 
the  worship  of  false  gods,  but  it  was  at  any 
rate  not  deliberately  propagated  among  the 
people  at  large. 


221 


14.  10 


1  KINGS 


15.  18 


10.  Shut  up  and  left]  A  comprehensive 
phrase  to  describe  all  classes,  but  its  precise 
signification  is  uncertain.  It  has  been  taken 
to  mean  (o)  restrained  by,  and  free  from, 
ceremonial  impurity  (which  prevented  persons 
suffering  from  it  from  entering  the  Temple, 
cp.  Jer  36  ^)  ;  (b)  imprisoned  and  free  (cp. 
Jer33i)  ;  (c)  married  and  single  ;  (rJ)  under, 
and  over,  age.  Will .  .  remnant]  For  the  ful- 
filment of  the  prediction  see  IS^^.  13.  He 
only .  .  grave]  Abijah,  for  his  goodness,  was 
taken  away  from  the  evil  to  come  (cp.  Isa57i), 
though  it  is  possible  that  the  reward  of  his 
piety  is  meant  to  be  not  a  timely  death, 
but  an  honourable  burial.  14.  But  what  ? 
even  now]  i.e.  is  not  the  predicted  event 
happening  even  now  ? 

15.  The  river]  i.e.  the  Euphrates.  Groves] 
RV  '  Asherim '  (pi.  of  Asherah),  and  so  in  v.  23 
and  elsewhere.  These  were  poles  used  as 
religious  emblems  (cp.  Isa  17^),  and  were  pro- 
bably intended  to  imitate  trees,  which,  from 
being  endowed  with  life  and  growth,  were  in 
early  ages  thought  to  be  the  abodes  of  divine 
powers,  and  so  were  regarded  as  appropriate 
seats  of  worship  :  cp.  v.  23.  Though  perhaps 
most  commonly  associated  with  Ashtoreth,  the 
goddess  of  fertility  and  productiveness,  they 
were  not  the  exclusive  symbols  of  any  particular 
deity  ;  and  the  Israelites  were  inclined  to 
adopt  them  even  in  connexion  with  the  worship 
of  their  own  God,  as  may  be  gathered  from  the 
prohibition  against  planting  '  an  Asherah  of  any 
kind  of  tree  beside  the  altar  of  the  Lord  ' 
(Dtl62i  RY),  and  the  fact  that  though  Jehu 
restored  in  Israel  the  worship  of  the  Lord, 
yet  in  the  reign  of  his  son  Jehoahaz  '  there  re- 
mained the  Asherah  in  Samaria  '  (2  K 1 3  "^  R  V). 
17.  Tirzah]  afterwards  the  capital,  until 
Samaria  was  built  by  Omri  (see  1 5  ^^  1  g  8, 15, 23)_ 
It  was  WW.  of  Shechem,  overlooking  the 
Jordan  valley.  19.  The  rest  of  the  acts  of 
Jeroboam]  see  2 Chi 3^-20^  which  describes  a 
severe  defeat  which  he  sustained  at  the  hands 
of  Abijah  of  Judah.  The  book  of  the 
chronicles]  probably  annals  based  on  the  state 
documents  kept  by  the  official  recorder.  A 
similar  reference  occurs  in  connexion  with 
most  of  the  following  reigns.  21.  Forty  and 
one  years  old]  It  is  implied  in  12 ^  2Chl33 
that  Rehoboam  was  young  when  he  came  to  the 
throne  ;  and  one  MS  of  the  LXX  here  substi- 
tutes '  sixteen  years  old.'  His  mother's  name] 
the  name  of  the  mother  of  each  succeeding 
king  (see  15 10  22^2  2K825,  etc.)  is  expressly 
mentioned  because  of  the  position  which  the 
queen  dowager  occupied  :  see  on  219. 

23.  Images]  RV  '  pillars  '  :  for  their  signi- 
ficance see  on  7 1^.  24.  Sodomites]  Persons 
who  dedicated  themselves  to  the  impure  rites 
which  were  observed  in  honour  of  certain 
deities  in  the  neighbourhood  of  their  temples. 


25.  Shishak]  see  on  11  ■*o.  A  list  of  towns 
taken  by  Shishak  has  been  preserved  in  an 
inscription  by  the  conqueror  himself  at  Karnak 
in  Egypt.  Among  them  were  Keilah,  Socoh, 
Aijalon,  Beth-horon.  Gibeon  and  Makkedah  in 
Judah,  and  Taanach,  Shunem,  and  Mahanaim 
in  N.  Israel.  The  mention  of  Israelite  as  well 
as  Jud^an  towns  seems  to  imply  that  Shishak 
attacked  both  of  the  Hebrew  sovereigns,  unless 
the  towns  in  Israel  were  in  revolt  against  Jero- 
boam, and  the  Egyptians  were  helping  him  to 
reduce  them. 

31.  Abijam]  called  Abijah  in  LXX  and  in 
2 Chi 2 115.  The  latter  is  probably  the  correct 
form  of  the  name. 

CHAPTER   15 
The  Reigns  of  Abijam  and  Asa,  Nadab 
AND  Baasha 
2.  Abishalom]   i.e.    Absalom.     In    2Chl32 
his  mother  is  called  Micaiah,  the  daughter  of 
Uriel,  and  if  this  is  correct,  Absalom  was  pro- 
bably her  grandfather,  and  her  mother  the 
Tamar  mentioned  in  2  S 1 4  27.     4.  A  lamp]  see 
on  1 1 36.     The  divine  promise  made  to  David 
prevented  Abijam's  sins  from  being  punished 
by  the  transfer  of  the  throne  to  another  line. 

6.  There  was  w^ar .  .  life]  a  repetition  of 
1430.  9Chl32  has  'between  Abijah  and 
Jeroboam.' 

7.  The  rest  of  the  acts]  In  2  Ch  13  3  f- there 
is  described  a  great  battle  between  Judah  and 
Israel.  Before  the  engagement  Abijah  (Abijam) 
contrasted  the  worship  of  the  calves  and  the 
expulsion  of  the  Levitical  priests  by  Jeroboam 
with  the  different  practices  followed  by  the 
kings  of  Judah.  Jeroboam  laid  an  ambush 
for  the  Judasans,  but  the  latter  called  upon  the 
Lord,  who  delivered  them,  and  Israel  was  not 
only  defeated  but  lost  several  cities. 

10.  Maachah]  If  the  Maachah  of  v.  2  is 
meant,  mother  must  mean  '  gi'andmother.' 

13.  From  5e///,i7  queen]  i.e.  from  being  queen 
dowager  :  see  on  2 1'\  An  idol  in  a  grove] 
better,  '  an  abominable  image  for  Asherah.' 
The  term  Asherah  here  seems  to  mean  not  an 
emblem  but  a  goddess  :  cp.  181^  2X217.  By 
the  brook  Kidron]  better,  'in  the  torrent 
valley  of  the  Kidron,'  i.e.  the  ravine  E.  of 
Jerusalem,  between  the  city  and  the  Mount 
of  Olives  (mod.  Yv^'ady  Sitti  Maryam). 

14.  The  high  places  were  not  removed]  The 
same  condition  of  things  continued  until  the 
reign  of  Hezekiah  :  see  1 K  22  43  2  K 123  184. 

15.  Brought  in  .  .  of  the  LORD]  to  replace 
the  losses  sustained  in  the  invasion  of  Shishak 
(1426). 

17.  Ramah]  the  modem  er  Ram,  on  the  S. 
frontier  of  the  kingdom,  some  5  m.  N.  of 
Jerusalem,  which  it  menaced.  18.  Sent  them 
to  Ben-hadad]  Asa's  appeal  to  Syria  illustrates 
how  far  the  Jewish  kingdom  had  declined  since 


222 


15.  19 


1  KINGS 


17. 


Solomon's  time.  Probably  three  kings  of  this 
name  are  mentioned  in  OT.  :  see  20  ^  2K 13^^. 

19.  There  is  a  league,  etc.]  Asa,  as  the  de- 
scendant of  David,  to  whom  the  Syrians  had 
submitted  (2  S  8  '^),  urged  that  Sj'ria's  connexion 
with  the  royal  house  of  Judah  was  of  longer 
standing  than  its  connexion  with  the  house  of 
Baasha  ;  but  he  ignored  the  revolt  of  Damascus 
in  the  reign  of  Solomon.  Break  thy  league] 
As  Israel  cut  Syria  off  from  the  sea,  Benhadad 
would  be  the  more  willing  to  accept  Asa's 
overtures.  In  2Chl6'i'-io  Asa's  conduct  is 
represented  as  being  condemned  by  the  seer 
Hanani.  20.  Ijon,  Dan,  etc.]  localities  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Lake  Merom  and  the  Sea  of 
Galilee.  Cinneroth  is  the  Gennesaret  of  the 
NT.  21.  Left  off ..  Ramah]  The  invasion  in 
the  N.  prevented  further  operations  in  the  S. 

Dwelt  in  Tirzah]  LXX  has  'returned  to 
Tirzah,'  which  suits  the  context  better. 

22.  Geba  .  .  Mizpah]  fortresses  N.  of  Je- 
rusalem. 

23.  The  rest  of  all  the  acts  of  Asa]  see 
2Chl49f.  The  chief  incidents  added  by 
Chronicles  are  the  defeat  of  an  invasion  by  the 
Ethiopian  Zerah,  the  making  of  a  national 
covenant  with  the  Lord,  the  king's  punish- 
ment of  the  seer  Hanani  for  censuring  his 
alliance  with  Syria,  and  his  oppression  of  his 
people.  27.  Gibbethon]  within  the  territory 
assigned  to  Dan  (Josh  19'^'*).  The  Philistines, 
who  had  been  crushed  by  David,  now  that  the 
Hebrew  kingdoms  were  in  conflict,  once  more 
began  to  move.  29.  The  saying  of  the  LORD] 
see  14'i'-ii.  The  personal  ambition  of  Baasha 
was  the  agency  through  which  the  Lord 
punished  the  house  of  Jeroboam  for  the  sins 
of  its  founder.  The  decay  of  spiritual  religion 
in  N.  Israel  was  accompanied  by  the  weakening 
of  moral  restraints,  and  none  of  the  dynasties 
that  successively  occupied  the  thi'one  lasted 
longer  than  four  generations. 

CHAPTER    16 
The  Reigns  of  Elah,  Zimri,  and  Omri 

I.  Jehu  the  son  of  Hanani]  Hanani  is  men- 
tioned in  2  Ch  1 G '^■1'^.  Jehu's  denunciation  of 
Baasha  is  similar  to  Ahijah's  denunciation  of 
Jeroboam  (14"-ii).  9.  As  he  was ..  drunk] 
Elah's  incapacity  and  dissoluteness  doubtless 
tempted  Zimri  to  aspire  to  the  throne. 

13.   Vanities]   i.e.  idols,  and  so  in  v.  26. 

15.  Gibbethon]  see  152".  The  siege,  begun 
ill  the  reign  of  Nadab,  had  apparently  not 
succeeded,  and  had  been  resumed.  18.  Palace] 
RV  'castle.'  19.  For  his  sins,  etc.]  The 
phrase  is  a  stereotyped  one,  and  so  is  applied 
to  Zimri  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  he  only 
reigned  seven  days. 

23.  In  the  thirty  and  first  year  of  Asa]  pro- 
bably an  error  :  v.  27  gives  '  in  the  twenty- 
seventh  year  of  Asa.'     24.  The  hill  Samaria] 


This  stood  in  the  middle  of  a  wide  and  fertile 
valley  (cp.  Isa28i),  and  was  a  place  of  gi-eat 
natural  strength,  as  is  evidenced  by  the  pro- 
tracted sieges  sustained  by  the  city  that  was 
built  upon  it  (2K  6  -'-i  17  5).  Called  the  name  .  . 
Samaria]   Heb.  Shomeron. 

27.  The  rest .  .  Omri]  Omri  seems  to  have 
engaged  in  war  with  the  Syrians,  but  was 
so  unsuccessful  that  he  had  to  grant  them 
the  privilege  of  having  '  streets '  (i.e.  trading 
quarters)  in  Samaria  (20^^).  Two  additional 
facts  respecting  Onu'i's  reign  are  furnished 
by  certain  inscriptions.  («)  On  the  Moabite 
Stone  it  is  stated  by  Mesha,  the  king  of  Moab, 
that  Omri  '  afflicted '  that  country,  (h)  On 
the  Assyrian  monuments  Israel  is  regularly 
termed  '  the  land  of  Omri,'  a  designation 
which  suggests  that  it  was  in  his  reign  that 
the  Assyrians  came  first  into  contact  with 
Israel.  It  was  probably  in  view  of  Assyrian 
aggression  that  Omri  cemented  an  alliance 
with  the  king  of  Zidon  and  Tyre  (Ethbaal) 
by  a  marriage  between  his  own  son  Ahab 
and  the  Zidonian  princess  Jezebel  (v.  31). 
According  to  Menander,  Ethbaal  (Gk.  Itho- 
balos)  was  the  great-grandfather  of  Dido,  the 
founder  of  Carthage. 

31.  Served  Baal]  Baal  was  merely  a  title 
(meaning  '  lord  '  or  '  owner  ')  and  was  applic- 
able to  a  number  of  deities  (hence  the  plural 
Baalim)  who  were  described  as  the  Baals 
of  particular  localities  ('  Baal  Peor,'  '  Baal 
Hermon ').  The  introduction  into  Israel  of 
the  worship  of  the  Zidonian  Baal  was  more 
dangerous  than  that  of  other  Baals  in  propor- 
tion as  it  was  more  powerfully  supported  ; 
whilst  Ahab's  sin  was  worse  than  Jeroboam's, 
since  the  calves  worshipped  by  the  latter  were 
at  least  symbols  of  the  Lord. 

34.  Did  .  .  build]  i.e.  fortified.  Jericho,  in 
the  Jordan  valley,  a  little  N.  of  the  Dead 
Sea,  had  been  rebuilt  since  its  destruction  by 
Joshua,  for  it  is  mentioned  in  David's  time 
(2S105).  In  Abiram]  RV  'with  the  loss 
of  Abiram.'  The  word  of  the  LORD]  see 
Josh  6  26.  For  the  potency  believed  to  attach 
to  a  curse  see  Nu226  2K22*.  Possibly  the 
mention  of  Hiel's  conduct  in  fortifying  Jericho 
in  spite  of  the  malediction  of  Joshua  is 
intended  to  illustrate  the  prevalent  lack  of 
faith  in  Jehovah's  power. 

CHAPTER    17 

Elijah  and  the  Widow  of  Zarephath 
The  prophet  Elijah,  who  occupies  so  large 
a  space  in  the  succeeding  history,  is,  like  his 
successor  Elisha,  conspicuous  among  the  pro- 
phetic figures  of  the  OT.  as  a  worker  of 
miracles  ;  and  to  him  belongs  the  further  dis- 
tinction of  having  been  removed  from  earth 
without  dying.  His  prophecies  differed  from 
those  of   most   later  prophets   in   having   in 


223 


17.1 


1  KINGS 


18.  30 


view  only  certain  critical  occasions  of  con- 
temporary history,  and  in  having  no  reference 
to  the  remote  future  or  the  Messianic  age, 
though  the  moral  and  religious  principles 
which  they  affirmed  had,  of  course,  a  wide 
application. 

I.  Of  the  inhabitants  of  Gilead]  RM  '  ac- 
cording to  LXX,  of  Tishbeh  of  Gilead.'  Said 
unto  Ahab]  Nothing  is  related  about  the 
reason  for  the  drought  which  the  prophet 
predicted  ;  but  the  cause  was  doubtless  Ahab's 
idolatry  (IG  31-33  :  cp.  Lv26i9  DtlliO-,  Jose- 
phus  quotes  a  Tyrian  historian  who  states 
that  a  drought  occurred  during  the  reign  of 
Ethbaal  (the  king  of  Tyre  and  Zidon  named 
in  1631),  which  lasted  a  year.  3.  Hide  thy- 
self] The  prophets  of  the  Lord  were  in 
danger  from  the  anger  of  Jezebel :  cp.  1813. 

Brook]   strictly,  a  ravine  or  torrent- valley. 

Before  Jordan]  i.e.  E.  of  Jordan,  in  the 
Gilead  he  was  familiar  with.  4.  The  ravens] 
The  original  may  possibly  mean  '  traffickers  ' 
(or  merchants)  or  '  Arabians ' :  if  this  is  the  real 
meaning  of  the  word,  the  command  resembles 
that  given  in  v.  9. 

9.  Zarephath]  The  'Sarepta'  of  Lk  426. 
The  modern  Sarafend.  It  lay  between  Tyre 
and  Zidon,  and,  from  its  nearness  to  these  locali- 
ties, might  be  a  safe,  because  unsuspected, 
hiding-place.  12.  As  the  LORD  .  .  liveth] 
Elijah  was  probably  recognised  by  speech  or 
dress  as  an  Israelite.  May  eat  it,  and  die] 
implying  that  the  di'ought  and  consequent 
famine  extended  to  Zarephath  :  see  on  v.  1. 

16.  The  barrel,  etc.]  cp.  the  miracle  of 
Elisha  (2  K  4  •12-44). 

18.  To  call ..  to  remembrance]  The  pres- 
ence with  her  of  a  prophet  whom  the  divine 
care  watched  over  might  (she  feared)  attract 
God's  attention  to  herself  and  to  some  past  sin 
which  seemed  to  have  been  overlooked.  19.  A 
loft]  better,  '  the  upper  chamber  ' :  cp.  2  K  4 10. 

20.  Hast  thou .  .  evil]  A  like  despondency 
is  observable  in  the  prophet's  language  in  lO"*. 
Here  he  complains  that  evil  dogs  his  steps 
wherever  he  turns  and  fastens  even  on  those 
who  befriend  him.  21.  Stretched  himself]  As 
though  to  convey  the  warmth  of  life  from  his 
own  frame  to  that  of  the  dead  child:  cp. 
2K434  Ac 20 10. 

CHAPTER  18 
Jehovah  or  Baal  ? 
I.  In  the  third  year]  in  Lk425  JasS^^ 
the  duration  of  the  famine  is  given  as  3 
years  and  6  months.  3.  The  governor  of  his 
house]  The  same  office  as  that  alluded  to  in 
4<5  169.  Feared  the  LORD  greatly]  His  name 
('  Servant  of  Jehovah  ')  was  a  true  index  of 
his  character.  4.  Cut  off  the  prophets] 
Nothing  is  related  of  this  beyond  what  is  im- 
plied  in    rjio.       12.  The    Spirit ..  thee]    cp. 


2K216  :  the  prophet's  movements  being  di- 
rected toward  different  and  higher  purposes 
than  those  of  ordinary  men,  his  friends  would 
have  no  clue  to  guide  them  in  tracing  him. 

17.  A7^t  thou  he  .  .  Israel  ?  ]  RV  '  Is  it  thou, 
thou  troubler  of  Israel  ?  '  :  alluding  to  Elijah's 
prediction  in  17 1.  18.  Baalim]  RY  'the 
Baalim '  :  i.e.  the  Baals  :   see  on  1631. 

19.  Carmel]  The  only  promontory  on  the 
coast  of  Palestine,  rising  at  the  summit  to  nearly 
1,800  ft.  above  the  sea.  The  prophets  of  the 
groves]  better,  '  the  prophets  of  Asherah ' 
(the  term  here  apparently  denoting  a  deity). 
These  prophets  are  not  mentioned  in  the 
sequel. 

21.  Halt]  not  in  the  sense  of  suspending 
judgment,  but  of  pursuing  a  vacillating  and 
irregular  course,  serving  at  one  time  Baal 
and  at  another  time  the  Lord  (Jehovah).  The 
word  literally  means  '  limping.'  And  the 
people,  etc.]  They  were  reluctant  to  break 
with  either  form  of  worship.  22.  I,  even  I 
only]  The  other  prophets  of  the  Lord,  if  not 
destroyed  (see  v.  4),  were  at  any  rate  silenced. 

24.  Your  gods]  RY  '  your  god ' :  and  so  in 
V.  25.  The  Lord]  better,  '  Jehovah,'  and 
so  in  V.  39.  The  God  that . .  fire]  For  the  con- 
sumption of  sacrifices  by  fire  from  heaven, 
cp.  Lv924  lCh2126  2Ch7i. 

In  the  minds  of  the  multitude  the  question 
to  be  decided  doubtless  was  not  whether 
Jehovah  or  Baal  was  the  sole  god,  but  which 
of  them  was  the  more  powerful  god,  and,  there- 
fore, had  the  gi'eater  claim  upon  the  nation's 
devotion.  It  was  not  until  a  later  date  that  it 
was  explicitly  asserted  by  the  prophets  that 
Jehovah  was  the  only  Deity  and  that  beside 
Him  there  was  no  other  (Isa446.8  45  o,6)_ 
Elijah,  as  his  mocking  language  in  v.  27  sug- 
gests, must  have  come  near  to  holding  the  same 
belief,  though  the  fact  that  he  denounced 
Ahaziah  for  consulting  a  foreign,  not  an  ima- 
ginary, god  (2  K 1 6)  seems  to  imply  that  he 
had  not  quite  attained  to  it. 

25.  Dress  it  first]  The  contrast  between 
Jehovah's  power  and  Baal's  impotence  would 
thus  be  more  impressive.  26.  Leaped  upon] 
RY  '  leaped  about':  lit.  'limped  about':  i.e. 
they  performed  an  irregular  and  uncouth 
dance  round  the  altar.  27.  Talking]  RY 
'  musing  ' :  i.e.  lost  in  meditation.  Pursuing] 
RY  '  gone  aside.'  28.  Cut  themselves]  Gash- 
ing the  body  was  frequently  practised  by  the 
votaries  of  heathen  deities,  pi'obably  for  the 
purpose  of  making  a  '  blood  covenant '  between 
themselves  and  the  god  they  worshipped. 

Lancets]  should  be  '  lances.'  29.  Prophe- 
sied] i.e.  gave  utterance  to  fervid  and  ecstatic 
cries:  cp.  IS  10^.  The  evening  sacrifice]  the 
same  as  '  the  evening  meat  (i.e.  meal)  offering ' 
of  2  K 1615 

30.  The  altar  . .  down]   Carmel  had  been  a 


224 


18.  31 


1  KINGS 


19.  15 


'  high  place  '  dedicated  to  the  worship  of  Je- 
hovah, but  the  spread  of  Baal  worship  had 
led  to  its  neglect,  and  the  altar  on  it  had  been 
overthi'own  (191*^).  31.  Twelve  stones]  In 
spite  of  the  partition  of  the  Hebrew  tribes 
into  two  kingdoms,  a  sense  of  their  original 
unity  was  continually  present  with  the  prophets, 
and  certain  of  them  looked  forward  to  their 
reunion:  seeHoslii  JerS^^  EzkBT^^-^^. 
Israel .  .  thy  name]  see  Gn3228  3510 
32.  Measures]  Heb.  seaha^  a  seah  being  tt 
of  an  ephah,  about  2^  gallons.  33.  Fill .  .  with 
water]  A  well  still  exists  a  little  below  the 
summit  of  Carmel.  37.  Thou  art  the  LORD 
God]   better,  '  Thou  Jehovah  art  Grod.' 

39.  The  Lord  . .  God]  better,  '  Jehovah, 
He  (not  Baal)  is  the  God.' 

40.  The  brook  Kishon]  a  stream  flowing 
into  the  Mediterranean  at  the  foot  of  Carmel. 

Slew  them  there]  in  accord  with  the  spirit 
of  Dt  13  6-11  17  2-7.  The  prophet  probably  was 
not  himself  their  executioner,  but  made  the 
people  give  practical  evidence  of  the  sincerity 
of  their  conversion. 

42.  Cast  himself  down]  in  fervent  prayer  : 
cp.  Jas  5 17.  43.  Seven  times]  used  vaguely  of  a 
considerable  number  :  cp.  Ps  12  ^  1191^*. 

44.  Like  a  man's  hand]  i.e.  in  size. 

45.  There  w^as  a  great  rain]  Solomon's 
prayer  (in  835,30)  that  if  the  people  turned 
from  their  sin,  the  Lord  would  send  rain  upon 
the  land  was  now  granted.  46.  The  hand  of 
the  Lord  .  .  Elijah]  i.e.  the  prophet  acted 
under  a  divine  impulse  :  cp.  2K315.  To  the 
entrance  of  Jezreel]  between  15  and  20  m. 
from  Carmel.     Ahab  had  a  palace  there  (21 1). 

The  contest  on  Mt.  Carmel  was  of  the 
greatest  importance  for  the  future  of  religion 
in  Israel,  for  it  determined  whether  Jehovah, 
whose  character  was  moral  and  spiritual,  was 
to  command  the  exclusive  allegiance  of  the 
people,  or  was  to  share  their  devotion  with  the 
god  of  Zidon,  who,  like  other  Baals,  was  a 
nature-god,  and  whose  worship  was  associated 
with  unspiritual  ideas  and  immoral  rites.  But 
whilst  it  primarily  relates' to  a  particular  crisis 
in  the  history  of  a  single  people,  it  is  also 
typical  of  every  conflict  in  which  opposite 
principles  of  conduct  meet,  and  in  which  the 
need  of  prompt  decision  must  always  be  as 
urgent  as  in  the  days  of  Elijah. 

CHAPTER  19 
Elijah  at  Horeb 

2.  Then  Jezebel  sent,  etc.]  Her  religious 
feelings  as  a  votary  of  Baal  and  her  dignity 
as  the  queen  had  both  been  outraged  by  the 
prophet,  and  she  at  once  sought  revenge. 

3.  And  when  he  saw  that^  etc.]  In  men  of 
impetuous  disposition  displays  of  fiery  courage 
often  alternate  with  moods  of  despondency. 
Elijah's  character  resembled  that  of  St.  Peter, 


who  first   struck  a  blow   in    defence   of   his 
Master  and  then  denied  Him  (Jnl8io,i5f.). 

Beer-sheba]  within  the  territory  of  the  tribe 
of  Judah,  but  assigned  to  Simeon  (Josh  15^8 
1 9  2).  It  was  a  sanctuary  in  the  time  of  Amos, 
and  may  have  been  the  same  in  the  time  of 
Elijah. 

4.  Into  the  wilderness]  Since  the  king  of 
Judah  was  an  ally  of  Aliab,  the  prophet  did 
not  consider  himself  safe  from  Jezebel's  fury 
until  he  was  beyond  Jud^an  territory.  A 
juniper  tree]  a  kind  of  broom,  with  purplish 
white  flowers,  that  gi-ows  to  the  height  of  10  or 
1 2  ft.  Requested  .  .  might  die]  The  nervous 
tension  caused  by  the  scene  on  Carmel  was 
now  succeeded  by  reaction  and  exhaustion. 
Elijah  felt  that  he  had  been  no  more  successful 
in  checking  the  nation's  apostasy  than  the 
prophets  who  had  been  before  him. 

6.  Coals]  perhaps  stones  heated  by  a  fire  of 
wood,  kindled  with  twigs  of  broom  :  cp.  Ps 
1204. 

8.  Horeb]  i.e.  Sinai.  The  forty  days  and  forty 
nights  are  not  to  be  taken  as  a  measure  of  the 
distance  of  Horeb  from  the  prophet's  starting- 
point  (vv.  3,  4),  for  this  (about  180  m.)  could 
be  traversed  in  a  much  shorter  time,  but  are 
meant  to  associate  Elijah  with  Moses  (see 
Ex  24 18  Dt  9 11'  18).  In  solitary  communion  with 
God,  such  as  Moses  had  enjoyed,  the  prophet 
would  recover  his  fortitude.  The  mount  of 
God]  cp.  Ex3i.  Horeb  had  probably  been  a 
sanctuary  even  before  Moses'  time. 

10.  Thine  altars  .  .  thy  prophets]  cp.  1820'13. 

11.  The  Lord  passed  by]  All  the  expe- 
riences here  described  formed  part  of  a  single 
manifestation  of  the  divine  presence,  but  the 
earlier  stages  did  not  reveal  God  in  the  same 
degree  as  the  last.  Elsewhere  in  the  OT. 
wind,  fire,  and  earthquake  are  frequent  accom- 
paniments of  a  Theophany  :  see  Ex  19 18  Ps 
187-13  973-5  2S624  Job 381  EzkH. 

12.  A  still  small  voice]  cp.  Job4i*5.  The 
LXX  renders,  '  the  sound  of  a  gentle  breeze.' 
The  hurricane,  the  earthquake,  the  lightning, 
were  all  tokens  and  agencies  of  God,  but  none 
disclosed  Him  so  convincingly  as  the  peaceful 
calm  that  followed  the  tempest.  It  awakened, 
and  blended  with,  the  prophet's  conscience  ; 
and  he  thus  came  to  realise  the  true  value  of 
patience  and  forbearance  in  the  furtherance 
of  the  divine  purposes,  as  compared  with  the 
violence  which  he  himself  had  displayed  in  his 
conflict  with  idolatry  (18  ^O). 

13.  He  wrapped  his  face  in  his  mantle]  in 
awe  at  the  near  presence  of  God.  Moses 
similarly  hid  his  face  when  God  addressed  him 
out  of  the  bush  (Ex  3*^).  14.  I  have  been  very 
jealous]  The  prophet,  as  yet  unsubdued  by  the 
influences  of  the  scene,  returned  the  same  in- 
dignant answer  as  before  (v.  10). 

15.  The  wilderness  of  Damascus]   i.e.  the 


15 


225 


19.16 


1  KINGS 


20.  40 


Syrian  desert  in  which  D.  is  situated.  Anoint] 
not  used  in  a  strict  sense,  since  neither  Hazael 
nor  Elisha  is  described  as  having  been  anointed, 
whilst  Jehu  was  anointed  not  by  Elijah  but 
by  a  young  prophet  commissioned  by  Elisha 
(2  K  9).  The  lesson  which  the  direction  given 
to  Elijah  in  this  v.  conveyed  was  that  he  still 
had  work  to  do  even  though  he  might  not  see 
the  issue  of  it.  He  was  not  to  relinquish  it 
as  he  had  desired  (v.  4),  just  because  he  was 
himself  unsuccessful,  but  was  to  transmit  it  to 
others,  and  so  pave  the  way  for  success  in  the 
distant  future.     Hazael]  see  2 KS**^. 

1 6.  Jehu  the  son  of  Nimshi]  He  was  really 
son  of  Jehoshaphat  and  grandson  of  Nimshi 
(2K92).  17.  The  sword  of  Hazael]  For  the 
calamities  brought  on  Israel  by  Hazael  see 
2  K 1032.  The  sword  of  Jehu]  For  the  de- 
struction of  the  house  of  Ahab  by  Jehu  see 
2K9  and  10.  Shall  Elisha  slay]  doubtless 
tlirough  the  agency  of  others.  The  prophets 
are  frequently  described  as  effecting  what  they 
enjoin  or  announce  (Hos6^  Jerl^^). 

18.  I  have  left]  better,  '  I  will  leave.'  Elijah 
was  mistaken  in  thinking  that  he  was  the  only 
survivor  of  the  Lord's  loyal  servants.  Jeho- 
vah's cause  was  not  desperate  because  His 
prophet  had  fled  from  the  field  of  conflict. 

Kissed  him]  For  this  as  an  act  of  devotion 
seeHosl32.  In  Job  3 126,27  sun-worshippers 
are  described  as  kissing  their  hand  to  the 
object  of  their  adoration.  19.  With  twelve 
yoke]  Elijah  himself  guided  only  one  '  yoke  ' 
(or  pair),  the  remaining  eleven  being  in  charge 
of  his  servants.  His  mantle]  A  hairy  mantle 
was  the  characteristic  garb  of  ths  prophets 
(ZechlS^).  20.  What  have  I  done  to  thee?] 
whatever  sacrifice  was  involved  in  the  prophetic 
call  was  to  be  made  ungrudgingly.  Elijah,  like 
our  Lord,  would  have  no  half-hearted  service  : 
cp.  Lk  9  59-62.  21.  The  instruments  of  the 
oxen]  The  wooden  yoke  and  the  framework  of 
the  plough  served  as  fuel  :  cp.  2  S2422. 

CHAPTER  20 

War  betv^een  Israel  and  Syria 
The  Syrians  besiege  Samaria,  but  a  sally 
being  made  from  the  city  by  the  direction  of 
a  prophet,  they  are  driven  off,  and  the  next 
year  are  beaten  at  Aphek.  Ahab,  having 
spared  Benhadad  the  Syrian  king,  is  rebuked 
by  a  prophet  in  the  name  of  the  Lord. 

I.  Ben-hadad]  probably  the  son  of  the  Ben- 
hadad mentioned  in  \b'^^.  In  the  Assyrian 
inscription  he  is  termed  Dad-idri,  i.e.  Hadadezer. 
The  history  here  reverts  to  the  Syrian  attacks 
upon  Israel  made  originally  at  the  instigation 
of  Judah  (15 -•J).  Thirty  and  two  kings] 
probably  vassal  princes  :  cp.  v.  24.  14.  The 
young  men  .  .  provinces]  the  servants  (or 
esquires)  of  the  Israelite  chiefs  who  had  been 
driven  by  the  Syrian  invasion  from  the  pro- 


vinces into  the  capital.  16.  At  noon]  a  time 
when  the  beleaguering  host  would  be  resting 
during  the  heat  of  the  day.  20.  With  the 
horsemen]  E.V  '  with  horsemen '  :  i.e.  with 
some  mounted  attendants.  21.  Smote]  the 
LXX  has  '  took.'  To  aid  his  pursuit  Aliab 
took  the  horses  abandoned  by  the  Syrians. 

22.  See  what  thou  doest]  i.e.  consider  what 
thou  shouldest  do,  take  the  necessary  pre- 
cautions. At  the  return  of  the  year]  in  the 
spring,  when  military  operations  would  again 
be  possible  :  cp.  2S111. 

23.  Their  gods  .  .  the  hills]  RV  '  Their  god 
is  a  god  of  the  hills.'  A  national  god  was 
believed  to  exert  his  power  chiefly  within  his 
own  land,  and  the  Syri?ns  regarded  Jehovah's 
power  as  confined  to  the  hill-country  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Samaria  ;  whereas  in  the 
plain  (or  plateau)  E.  of  the  Jordan,  of  which 
they  doubtless  considered  themselves  masters, 
they  expected  their  own  deity  to  prevail. 

24.  Take  the  kings  away]  The  disaster 
recorded  in  v.  20  seems  to  have  been  in  part 
attributed  to  the  misconduct  of  the  vassal 
kings,  and  their  places  (or  posts)  were  now 
taken  by  Syrian  officers,  in  whose  loyalty  and 
obedience  more  confidence  could  be  placed. 

26.  Aphek]  probably  a  city  E.  of  the  Sea  of 
Galilee.  27.  Were  all  present]  RV  '  were 
victualled.'  30.  A  wall  (RV  '  the  wall ')  fell] 
either  as  a  result  of  the  Israelites'  assault,  or 
in  consequence  of  an  earthquake.  Probably 
it  was  crowded  with  defenders. 

33.  Did  diligently  observe  .  .  from  him]  RM 
'  took  it '  (i.e.  the  expression  '  he  is  my 
brother ')  'as  an  omen,  and  hasted  to  catch  it 
from  him '  :  i.e.  they  fastened  on  the  kindly 
expression  and  repeated  it  to  attract  attention 
to  it  and  make  withdrawal  difficult.  To  come 
up  .  .  chariot]  This  was  a  mark  of  honour  :  cp. 
21^10^^.  34.  The  cities..!  will  restore] 
This  promise  was  apparently  not  faithfully 
fulfilled  :  see  22  3.  Make  streets  .  .  Damascus] 
i.e.  have  certain  parts  of  Damascus  assigned 
for  the  use  of  Israelite  traders  (like  the 
'  English  quarters '  in  Shanghai  and  other 
Chinese  towns). 

35.  A  certain  man]  identified  by  Josephus 
with  Micaiah  (22  S).  The  sons  of  the  prophets] 
bodies  of  youths  organised  and  trained  by  the 
prophets  to  serve  as  their  ministers  and  envoys, 
and  perhaps  eventually  to  succeed  them  in 
their  office.  They  were  established  at  Bethel, 
Jericho,  and  Gilgal  (2  K  2  3,5  438),  and  doubt- 
less at  other  centres.  Smite  me]  The  wounds 
would  support  his  story  that  he  had  been 
present  in  the  battle  (v.  30),  and  had  received 
injury  either  from  the  enemy  or  from  the  man 
whose  prisoner  he  suffered  to  escape. 

38.  With  ashes,  etc.]  RV  '  with  his  head- 
band over  his  eyes '  :  to  conceal  his  identity  : 
so  in  v.  41.     40.  Thyself  hast  decided  it}  by 


226 


20.  42 


1  KINGS 


22.  6 


his    own    confession    he    had    neglected    his 
charge. 

42.  Because  thou  hast  let  go]  It  is  possible 
that  Ahab's  clemency  towards  Benhadad  was 
due  to  the  threatening  attitude  of  the 
Assyrians,  against  whom  it  may  have  seemed 
expedient  for  Israel  and  Syria  to  unite.  In 
any  case,  the  Assyrian  inscriptions  record  that 
Ahab  and  Benhadad  both  sent  forces  to  aid 
Hamath,  when  it  was  attacked  by  Shalmaneser 
II  in  854,  and  with  their  allies  were  defeated 
by  the  Assyrian  king  at  Karkar  (a  city  near 
the  Orontes).  The  alliance  between  the  two 
countries  thus  failed  in  its  object  ;  and  that 
the  Syrians  proved  false  to  their  engagement 
to  restore  the  captured  Israelite  cities  is  pro- 
bable from  223.  The  prophet's  censure  of 
Ahab's  conduct  thus  appears  to  have  been 
justified  by  events. 

CHAPTER  21 
Naboth's  Vineyard 

I.  After  these  things]  The  LXX  places  this 
c.  after  c.  19,  and  so  prevents  the  separation  of 
chs.  20  and  22,  which  are  closely  connected. 

Jezreel]  in  the  plain  of  Esdraelon. 

3.  The  inheritance  of  my  fathers]  cp. 
Lv2523Nu3G".s. 

8.  Unto  the  elders .  .  nobles]  The  adminis- 
tration of  justice  rested  with  the  chief  men 
of  each  locality:  cp.  Dtl9i2  212.  9.  Pro- 
claim a  fast]  perhaps  intended  as  a  public  act 
of  humiliation  for  Naboth's  alleged  crime  (cp. 
1  S  7  6),  but  in  any  case  calculated  to  draw  the 
people  together.  Set  Naboth  on  high]  per- 
haps equivalent  to  placing  him  at  the  bar  of 
justice,  but  Josephus  takes  it  to  mean  that  he 
was  given  a  position  of  honour  as  being  of 
illustrious  family.  10.  Set  two  men]  The 
testimony  of  two  witnesses  is  required  by  the 
law  in  Dtl76.  Sons  of  Belial]  EM  'sons 
of  worthlessness  '  :  cp.  Dt  1313  IS 212.  Blas- 
pheme] RV  'curse':  cp.  Ex 22 28  Lv24it5. 
Carry  him  out]  Jezebel  had  no  doubt  that 
the  evidence  of  the  perjured  witnesses  would 
be  accepted. 

15.  Take  possession]  Presumably  the  pro- 
perty of  one  who  was  executed  as  a  criminal 
passed  to  the  crown. 

18.  Behold  .  .  vineyard]  The  details  of  the 
meeting  between  the  king  and  the  prophet 
are  given  somewhat  differently  in  2K92<J. 

19.  In  the  place,  etc.]  Naboth  must  have 
been  executed  just  outside  Jezreel  (v.  13), 
but  the  fulfilment  of  the  prediction  respecting 
Ahab  took  place  at  Samaria  (2238)  ;  on  the 
other  hand,  the  dead  body  of  Ahab's  son 
Jehoram  was  actually  cast  '  into  the  poi'tion 
of  the  field  of  Naboth  '  :  see  2  K  9  25.  23.  The 
dogs  .  .  Jezebel]  For  the  fulfilment  of  the  pre- 
diction see  2K93»3,37.  The  wall]  2K9io  has 
'  the  portion '  (i.e.  the  district).     26.  Amorites] 


here    used    for   the    heathen    inhabitants   of 
Canaan  generally  :  see  on  GnlQi^  Josh  24  is. 

27.  Went  softly]  i.e.  Avent  quietly,  as  one 
who  was  humbled  and  penitent.  29.  I  will 
not  bring,  etc.]  The  judgment  incurred  by 
Solomon  had  been  postponed  (11 12)  for  his 
father's  sake.  In  Ahab's  case  the  threatened 
penalty  was  mitigated  in  consideration  of  his 
repentance. 

CHAPTER  22 

Ahab  and  Micaiah.  Ahab's  Death  at 
Ramoth-gilead.  Reign  op  Jehosha- 
phat,  king  of  judah 

1.  Three  years]  probably  calculated  from 
the  peace  described  in  203-1. 

2.  Jehoshaphat .  .  came  down]  The  earlier 
hostility  between  Judah  and  Israel  (see  15i''-24) 
had  by  this  time  given  place  not  only  to  peace 
but  to  friendship,  which  had  been  cemented 
(as  appears  from  2K8i*^)  by  a  marriage  be- 
tween Jehoshaphat's  son  Jehoram  and  Ahab's 
daughter  Athaliah.  It  is  possible  that  the 
change  in  the  relations  of  the  two  countries 
had  been  brought  about  by  success  on  the 
part  of  the  northern  kingdom,  and  that  Judah 
had  become  a  vassal  of  its  neighbour:  at  any 
rate,  both  on  this  occasion  and  on  a  later  one 
(2K3''f-),  the  king  of  Judah  is  found  aiding 
the  king  of  Israel  in  a  war  which  only  pro- 
moted the  interests  of  the  latter.  The  cessa- 
tion of  hostilities  between  the  two  kingdoms 
was  in  many  ways  a  benefit  to  both  ;  but  for 
Judah  the  connexion  with  Israel  was  attended 
by  serious  drawbacks,  for  besides  having  to 
furnish  assistance  in  war,  it  became  infected 
with  the  Baal  worship  introduced  by  Ahab. 
Jehoshaphat's  alliance  with  Ahab  is  explicitly 
condemned  in  2 Chi 9 2. 

3.  Ramoth  in  Gilead]  situated  a  little  N.  of 
the  Jabbok  (the  modern  es  Salt).  The  city 
had  perhaps  been  amongst  those  which  had 
been  taken  from  Omri  by  Benhadad  I,  king 
of  Syria,  and  which  his  son,  Benhadad  II,  had 
agi'eed  to  restore  (203-1). 

5.  Enquire  .  .  of  the  LORD]  Jehoshaphat's 
piety  led  him  to  seek  the  divine  guidance 
before  starting  on   the   proposed  expedition. 

To  day]  better,  '  first  of  all '  :  cp.  1  si 
Gn253i  (RM). 

6.  The  prophets]  These  must  have  been 
prophets  of  the  Lord  (vv.  5,  11),  so  that 
though  the  worship  of  the  Lord  (Jehovah) 
had  ceased  to  be  predominant  in  Israel,  it 
was  far  from  being  extinguished,  and  the 
prophets  had  probably  recovered  some  of 
their  influence  after  the  repentance  of  Ahab 
recorded  in  2127.  But  though  the  400  were 
doubtless  prophets  of  the  true  God,  they  were 
presumably  in  sympathy  with  the  prevalent 
calf-worship,  and  escaped  persecution  by 
tolerating  Baal  worship. 


227 


22.7 


1  KINGS— 2  KINGS 


1.2 


7.  A  prophet  of  the  LORD  besides]  i.e.  is 
there  not  another  prophet  of  the  Lord  beside 
these,  one  who  dissociated  himself  from  the 
prophets  alluded  to  in  note  on  v.  6.  8.  He 
doth  not  .  .  good]  cp.  on  20^5.  10.  In  the 
entrance  of  the  gate]  the  usual  place  for 
popular  assemblages  (cp.  2S198)  and  the 
dispensing  of  justice  (2S152).  11.  Made 
Him .  .  iron]  For  symbolic  acts  employed  by 
prophets  see  on  11  ^i.  Horns  were  natural 
emblems  for  weapons  of  offence  (Dt  23  ^  <■). 

15,  Go,  and  prosper]  Micaiah,  as  the  king 
saw,  was  not  speaking  seriously,  but  repeated 
in  mockery  the  words  of  the  400  prophets 
(v.  6),  which  had  doubtless  been  reported  to 
him  (v.  13). 

19.  I  saw  the  LORD]  For  similar  prophetic 
visions  see  Isa6  Ezkl.  The  host  of  heaven] 
i.e.  angelic  spirits  (cp.  Ps  103  20,21)  constituting 
the  covirt  of  heaven  in  attendance  upon  its 
king.  21.  There  came  forth  a  spirit]  In 
several  passages  in  the  OT.  infatuation  is 
ascribed  to  the  influence  of  an  evil  spirit  from 
the  Lord  (see  Jg 9 23  IS  1614  199),  though  the 
personal  nature  of  such  a  spirit  is  not  gener- 
ally so  clearly  implied  as  here.  The  lying 
spirit  is  regarded  as  one  of  God's  ministers, 
occasioning  harm,  indeed,  but  in  subordination 
to  the  divine  purposes  :  cp.  Job  1  ^  2  Th  2  n. 
The  doctrine  of  an  evil  spirit  antagonistic  to 
God  is  not  developed  in  the  OT. 

24.  From  me .  .  to  thee]  Zedekiah  claimed 
to  be  inspired  by  the  Lord  (v.  11),  and  there- 
fore challenged  Micaiah  to  explain  how  he, 
likewise  professing  to  speak  in  the  name  of 
the  Lord,  could  utter  a  prophecy  of  such 
different  tenor.  25.  To  hide  thyself]  when  the 
news  arrived  of  Israel's  defeat.  26.  The  king's 
son]  He  was  obviously  placed  in  a  position  of 
authority.  The  sons  of  Jehoshaphat  similarly 
had  charge  of  'fenced  cities'  (2Ch213). 

27.   Bread  of  affliction]  i.e.  prison  fare. 

29.  Jehoshaphat .  .  went  up]  Jehoshaphat 
had   consented    to    Ahab's    proposal    before 


seeking  counsel  of  the  Lord,  and  in  spite  of 
Micaiah's  warning  found  himself  committed 
to  the  expedition.  30.  I  will  disguise  myself] 
Ahab's  action  implies  that  Micaiah's  words 
had  made  some  impression  upon  him,  though 
not  sufficient  to  make  him  desist  from  his 
purpose.     Put  thou  on  thy  robes]  cp.  2  S 1 10. 

31.  Thirty  and  two  captains]  cp.  20  24.  The 
command  given  to  them  is,  of  course,  not  to 
be  understood  literally.  32.  Cried  out]  Some- 
thing in  his  cry,  which  was  perhaps  a  prayer 
to  the  Lord  (cp.  2Chl83i),  revealed  that  he 
was  not  the  king  of  Israel.  34.  At  a  venture] 
Not  without  a  definite  aim,  but  in  ignorance 
that  his  mark  was  the  king  of  Israel  (RM  '  in 
his  simplicity '). 

39.  The  ivory  house,  etc.]  For  the  use  of 
ivory  in  building  see  Am3i^  Ps45S.  Though 
Ahab  by  his  alliance  with  Zidon  had  corrupted 
the  religion  of  the  nation,  he  must  have 
augmented  its  material  prosperity. 

41.  And  Jehoshaphat,  etc.]  This  account  of 
Jehoshaphat's  reign  follows  on  1524.  45.  The 
rest  of  the  acts,  etc.]  see  2  Ch  17-20,  which 
records  (in  addition  to  what  is  here  related) 
the  institution  of  a  body  of  Levites  to  visit 
the  various  cities  of  Judah  to  teach  the  people 
the  Law,  the  establishment  of  courts  of  justice 
both  in  Jerusalem  and  in  the  fenced  cities, 
and  the  providential  deliverance  of  the  king 
and  his  army  from  a  great  host  of  Moabites, 
Ammonites,  and  Edomites. 

47.  A  deputy  ivas  king]  The  royal  house 
of  Edom.  which  had  recovered  power  in  the 
time  of  Solomon,  had  been  overthrown,  and 
a  viceroy,  appointed  by  the  king  of  Judah, 
now  ruled  the  country.  The  subjugation  of 
the  Edomites  probably  followed  upon  the 
disaster  sustained  by  them  and  their  allies  as 
described  in  2Ch20. 

48.  Ships  of  Tharshish  .  .  Ophir]  The  ships 
that  sailed  to  Ophir  (in  Arabia  or  E.  Africa, 
see  on  9  28)  were  similar  to  those  which  traded 
to  Tartessus  or  Tarsus  (in  the  Mediterranean). 


2  KINGS 


CHAPTER  1 

Elijah  calls  down  Fire  from  Heaven 

I.  Moab .  .  Ahab]  Moab  had  been  con- 
quered by  David  (2  S  8  2),  and  at  the  revolt  of 
the  Ten  Tribes  had  passed  under  the  authority 
of  the  northern  kingdom.  The  revolt  here 
alluded  to  took  place,  according  to  the  inscrip- 
tion of  Mesha,  before  the  death  of  Ahab, 
whereas  the  present  passage  implies  that  it 


happened  later,  in  the  reign  of  Ahaziah  or 
Joram  :  cp.  3  6. 

2.  A  lattice]  lit.  '  a  network,' — perhaps  a 
balustrade.  Baal-zebub]  supposed  to  mean 
'  lord  of  flies,'  in  the  sense  of  being  their  con- 
troller and  averter,  since  flies  are  one  of  the 
greatest  plagues  of  Eastern  countries  :  cp.  the 
Gk.  Zeus  Apomulos.  But  in  kindred  names 
like  Baal-Peor,  Baal-Hermon,  etc.,  the  second 
element  is  the  name  of  a  place,  which  suggests 


228 


1.3 


2  KINGS 


2.24 


that  -zebub  is  likewise  a  local  name.  Ekron] 
One  of  the  five  confederate  Philistine  cities, 
lying  nearest  to  the  frontiers  of  Israel.  3.  Is 
it  not  because,  etc.]  RV  '  Is  it  because  there  is 
no  God  in  Israel  ?  '  and  so  in  vv.  6,  16.  8.  An 
hairy  man]  better,  as  in  RM,  '  a  man  with  a 
garment  of  hair,'  a  characteristic  dress  of  the 
prophets:  cp.  ZechlS^  Mkl*^.  9.  A  captain 
of  fifty]  a  recognised  division  of  the  Israelite 
army  :  cp.  1  88^-. 

10.  Let  fire  come  down]  The  king  in 
despatching  soldiers  to  arrest  the  prophet 
dishonoured  the  Lord,  whose  servant  Elijah 
was  ;  and  the  unity  that  subsisted  between  a 
king  and  his  subjects  (as  between  a  father  and 
his  children)  was  so  strongly  felt  in  ancient 
times  that  there  was  little  sense  of  the  in- 
justice involved  in  the  death  of  so  many 
innocent  persons  for  the  sin  of  another  :  see 
on  926.  A  consciousness  of  individual  rights 
only  asserted  itself  gradually  in  Israel  (see 
jer3129,30Ezkl82-4)  ;  and  a  spirit  akin  to 
that  of  Elijah  was  manifested  even  by  the 
Apostles,  but  met  with  rebuke  from  their 
Lord  (Lk  9  55). 

17.  In  the  second  year  of  Jehoram]  The 
calculation  here  arrived  at  seems  to  follow 
upon  what  is  stated  in  1  K 1 6  ^3,  where  Onu-i 
begins  to  reign  in  Asa's  thirty-first  year  (Omri's 
12  -h  Ahab's  22  +  Ahaziah's  2  +  Jehoram's  1  = 
Asa's  last  10  -|-  Jehoshaphat's  25  -f-  Jehoram's 
2).     A  different  reckoning  is  adopted  in  3^. 

Had  no  son]  Jehoram,  who  succeeded  Aha- 
ziah,  was  his  brother. 

CHAPTER  2 

Elijah's  Translation  to  Heaven 
The  great  service  rendered  to  Israel  by  the 
prophet  whose  life  is  here  closed  was  the 
stand  which  he  made  for  the  religion  of 
Jehovah  when  its  supremacy  was  threatened 
by  the  worship  of  the  Zidonian  Baal  intro- 
duced by  Jezebel.  In  view  of  such  a  crisis, 
the  degi-adation  of  Jehovah's  worship  by  the 
association  with  it  of  the  golden  calves  set  up 
by  Jeroboam  could  for  a  while  be  ignored,  a 
superstitious  form  of  the  true  faith  being 
preferable  to  total  apostasy  ;  though  later, 
when  the  religion  of  Baal  had  been  abolished 
by  Jehu,  the  time  came  for  a  protest  against 
the  calf -worship,  such  as  that  which  was  made 
by  Hosea  (105)  and  Amos  (Si-i).  The  pre- 
eminence which  Elijah,  by  his  zeal  and  devotion 
in  this  struggle  against  Baal  worship,  won  for 
himself  among  the  prophets  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment is  evidenced  by  the  expectation  subse- 
quently entertained  that  he  would  come  again  : 
see  Mal45,6,  and  cp.  Mt  11 14  1711  Lkl  i7  Jnl  21. 
It  is  said  that  a  chair  is  still  placed  for  him  by 
the  Jews  at  the  circumcision  of  every  child, 
and  that  at  the  Paschal  feast  the  door  is  set 
open  for  him  to  enter.     At  our  Lord's  Trans- 


figuration he  is  recorded  to  have  been  present, 
together  with  Moses,  and  to  have  talked  with 
Him  (Mtl73  Mk9'i). 

1.  When  the  LORD  .  .  Elijah]  The  only 
parallel  to  this  narrative  in  the  OT.  is  the 
account  of  the  translation  of  Enoch  in  Gn524. 
The  mention  (in  2Ch21i2)  of  a  letter  from 
Elijah  in  the  reign  of  Jehoram  has  led  some  to 
think  that  the  event  related  in  this  c.  is  placed 
out  of  its  proper  order.  Gilgal]  probably 
identical  with  the  modern  Jiljilia,  a  place 
between  Bethel  and  Shechem  in  the  hill- 
country  of  Ephraim. 

2.  Tarry  here]  Elijah  may  have  wished  to 
spare  Elisha  the  awe-inspiring  vision  of  his 
departure.  The  sons  of  the  prophets]  see  on 
IK 2035.  3.  Knowest  thou,  etc.]  Knowledge 
of  Elijah's  impending  departure  seems  to  have 
prevailed  both  at  Bethel  and  Jericho.  9.  A 
double  portion]  i.e.  the  share  of  the  firstborn 
son  (Dt21 17)^  twice  as  much  as  that  of  any  of 
the  other  '  sons '  of  the  prophet.  Elisha 
wished  to  be,  in  spiritual  power,  the  chief 
among  Elijah's  disciples  and  successors.  1 1.  A 
chariot  of  fire]  cp.  2  K  6 1'^. 

12.  The  chariot  of  Israel]  The  words  are 
probably  a  figure  to  describe  the  prophet,  who 
in  virtue  of  the  supernatural  powers  that  were 
at  his  service  had  been  to  Israel  a  greater  pro- 
tection than  its  military  forces  :  cp.  the  similar 
expression  used  of  Elisha  in  1 3 1*.  Rent  them] 
a  usual  token  of  grief:  cp.  5^  6^0  Gn3729  2S 
13i9Ezr93.  13.  The  mantle]  The  symbol  of 
prophetic  authority:  see  is,  and  cp.  IK  19 19. 

16.  The  Spirit  of  the  LORD]  some  strong 
impulse  of  divine  origin  :  cp.  1 K 18 12.  17.  Till 
he  was  ashamed]  i.e.  to  persist  in  further 
refusal. 

19.  This  city]  Jericho  (v.  18).  The  water] 
not  of  the  Jordan  but  of  an  affluent  of  it,  the 
modern  Ain  es  Sultiln.  20.  Salt]  a  preserva- 
tive and  a  symbol  of  wholesomeness  and 
purity:  cp.  Mto^^.  22.  Unto  this  day]  see 
on  1K88. 

23.  Little  children]  RM' young  lads.'  Beth- 
el, one  of  the  seats  of  the  calf -worship,  was 
at  a  later  date  a  royal  chapel  (Am  7^3),  and 
perhaps  enjoyed  the  same  distinction  in  Elijah's 
day  ;  and  the  prophet,  by  his  zeal  for  the  Lord, 
may  have  there  incurred  popular  resentment, 
of  which  the  mockery  here  described  was  a 
symptom.  Thou  bald  head]  a  bald  forehead 
might  give  rise  to  the  suspicion  and  reproach 
of  leprosy  (Lv  1342-44). 

24.  Cursed  them]  see  on  IK  1634.  Elisha 
seems  to  have  shared  the  fiery  disposition  of 
his  master  Elijah  (1  lO)^  and  the  spirit  he  mani- 
fested on  this  occasion  stands  in  impressive 
contrast  with  that  enjoined  and  exemplified 
by    our   Lord   (Mt5-i4  Lk2334).     She   bears] 

for  the  presence  of  bears  in  Palestine  cp.  1 S 

1734-30. 


229 


3.  1 


^  KINGS 


4. 


CHAPTER  3 

Jehoram  and  Elisha.    Victory  over 

MOAB 

The  eighteenth  year  of  Jehoshaphat]    ac- 


for  tillage  or  pasture.  Kir-haraseth]  pro- 
bably the  Kir  of  IsalS^  and  the  Kir-heres  of 
Jer483i.3tJ.  26.  The  king  of  Edom]  probably 
in  the  hope  that  he,  as  a  discontented  vassal  of 
Judah.  would  connive  at  his  escape.     27.  For  a. 


cording  to  1 1^,  '  in  the  second  year  of  Jehoram     burnt  offering]   presumably  to  Chemosh,  the 
son  of  Jehoshaphat.' 

2.  The  image  of  Baal]  RV  'the  pillar  of 
Baal.'  No  mention  is  made  of  this  in  the 
account  of  Ahab's  reign  ;  but  it  is  stated  that 
Ahab  erected  an  altar  for  Baal  (1K16=^-)) 
beside  which  the  pillar  here  alluded  to  was 
doubtless  raised.  For  the  significance  of  such 
pillars  see  on  IKTi^.  That  Jehoram's  re- 
ligious reformation  was  not  very  complete  is 
plain  from  10 IS'^^:  cp.  c.  13. 

4.  Mesha]  sec  on  Nu2129.  This  king,  in 
his  inscription  on  the  Moabite  Stone,  refers  to 
the  affliction  which  his  country  suffered  from 
Israel,  and  to  the  war  which  put  an  end  to  it, 
though  he  places  the  latter  in  the  time  of  Ahab. 
Lambs .  .  rams]  For  a  tribute,  or  present,  of 
sheep  from  Moab  cp.  IsalG^. 

7,  Sent  to  Jehoshaphat]  see  on  IK 22 2. 
Jehoshaphat  himself  had  been  attacked  by  the 
Moabites(2Ch20i).  8.  Which  way  shall  we 
go?]  The  usual  route  from  Israel  would  be 
across  the  fords  of  the  Jordan  near  Jericho, 
Moab  being  then  invaded  from  the  north. 

Through  the  wilderness  of  Edom]  i.e.  S.  of 
the  Dead  Sea.  Edom,  though  it  had  a  king, 
was  at  this  time  under  the  control  of  Judah 
(IK 22*7),  and  additional  forces  could  be  ob- 
tained from  thence  in  the  course  of  the  march. 

9.   Fetched  a  compass]   RV  '  made  a  circuit.' 

1 1.  Poured  water  on  the  hands  of]  i.e.  acted 
as  his  attendant.  In  the  East  water  is  still 
poured  over  the  hands  after  eating,  since  the 
fingers  generally  serve  as  forks. 

14.  I  would  not  look  toward  thee]  Jehoram 
was  not  only  the  son  of  the  idolatrous  Ahab, 
but  is  described  in  v.  2  as  having  done  evil  in 
the  sight  of  the  Lord.  At  a  later  date,  how- 
ever, Elisha' s  attitude  towards  him  changed  : 

cp.  c.  6. 

15.  Bring  me  a  minstrel]  For  the  connexion 
of  music  with  prophecy  cp.  IS  10 5.  The 
hand  of  the  LORD]   cp.  Ezk33-2. 

16.  Valley]  The  Heb.  means  a  ravine  or 
water-course  which  was  then  dry — possibly  the 
Wady  el  Ahsa.  Ditches]  RV  '  trenches '  :  to 
retain  the  promised  water  for  drinking  pur- 
poses. 17.  Neither  shall  ye  see  rain]  It  is  not 
implied  that  the  water  would  be  produced  by 
any  other  means  than  rain,  but  the  rain  would 
fall  at  a  distance  :  cp.  v.  20.  20.  When  the 
meat  offering  was  offered]  i.e.  the  daily  morn- 
ing sacrifice  at  Jerusalem  :  cp.  IKlS^o. 

22.  As  red  as  blood]  Coloured  by  the  red 
soil  of  Edom  (Edom  meaning  '  red '),  or  re- 
flecting the  red  tints  of  the  morning  sky. 

25.  Filled  it]   thereby  rendering  it  useless 


Moabite  deity.  Human  sacrifices  in  ancient 
times  prevailed  amongst  most  Semitic  nations  ; 
but  the  offering  of  a  son  or  daughter  must 
generally  have  been  confined  to  occasions  when 
some  great  offence  had  to  be  atoned  for 
(cp.  MicG'7)  or  some  great  calamity  averted. 
Such  sacrifices  at  one  time  were  not  unknown 
in  Israel  (Gn  22  Jg  11 30f.)  ;  but  the  higher  re- 
ligious consciousness  of  the  Hebrews  led  them 
to  realise  much  earlier  than  other  races  how 
alien  they  were  to  the  divine  character.  There 
was  great  indignation]  RM  '  there  came  great 
wrath  upon  Israel.'  Probably  the  combined 
forces  of  the  invaders  met  with  some  signal 
disaster  which  was  attributed  to  divine  anger 
against  them,  stimulated  by  the  king's  sacri- 
fice. From  him]  i.e.  from  the  king  of  Moab. 
On  the  Moabite  Stone  Mesha  relates  his 
capture  of  various  towns  (Nebo,  Jahaz)  and 
the  fortifications  of  others  (Baal-Meon,  Kiri- 
athaim,  Bezer,  Dibon,  Medeba,  Beth-dib- 
lathaim),  which  were  all  N.  of  the  Arnon,  and 
some  of  which  are  expressly  enumerated  in  the 
Bible  among  the  cities  of  Reuben  and  Gad  ;  so 
not  only  must  the  Israelites  have  retired  from 
Moab,  but  the  Moabites  must  have  made  them- 
selves masters  of  what  had  previously  been 
Israelite  territory. 

CHAPTER  4 

Various  Miracles  of  Elisha 
The  miracles  related  of  Elisha  in  this  and 
the  following  chapters  resemble  many  of  those 
previously  recounted  of  Elijah.  Thus  both 
prophets  multiplied  the  sustenance  of  a  woman 
in  need  (2K41-7  IK  178-16);  both  restored  a 
dead  child  to  life  (2 K 48-27  IK  17 17-24)  ;  both 
came  into  conflict  with  their  king  on  the 
occasion  of  a  famine  (2 K 6 2-1-33  IK  18);  and 
both  brought  a  violent  death  upon  certain  in- 
dividuals who  offended  them  (2 K 2 23, 24  2K1). 
But  the  habits  of  Elisha  were  seemingly  more 
social,  and  his  disposition  less  stern,  than  were 
those  of  his  great  predecessor  :  he  was  a  fre- 
quenter of  cities,  was  closely  associated  with 
the  '  sons  of  the  prophets,'  and  many  of  the 
miracles  recorded  of  him  are  connected  with 
private  individuals  and  incidents  of  common 
life.  The  contrast  in  this  respect  which  Elisha 
offered  to  the  ascetic  Elijah  resembles  that 
which  subsisted  between  our  Lord  and  St.  John 
the  Baptist  :  cp.  Mt  11  is.  19. 

The  several  stories  here  told  of  Elisha  are 
somewhat  disconnected,  the  indications  of  time 
that  occur  in  them  are  vague  (see  48'ii>i8)^  and 
there  are  a  few  inconsistencies  which  are  left 


230 


4.  1 


2  KINGS 


5.  17 


unexplained   by   the    historian  :  contrast   6  23     probably  dwelt  at  a  sanctuary  (perhaps  Gilgal) 


with  621  and  527  with  S^-'^. 

I.  To  be  bondmen]  For  the  sale  of  an  in- 
solvent debtor  and  his  family  see  Lv2539, 
and  cp.  Neh55. 

8.  A  great  woman]  i.e.  wealthy  and  influ- 
ential :  cp.  1 S  25  2  2  S 19  32.  lo.  A  .  .  chamber 
.  .  on  the  wall]  probably  an  upper  chamber, 
above  the  ordinary  roof.  A  stool]  better,  a 
'  chair  '  or  '  seat '  (the  same  word  being  used  of 
a  royal  tlu-one).  Candlestick]  better,  '  lamp- 
stand'  :  cp.  Ex  25  31. 

13.  He  said  unto  him,  etc.]  in  the  East 
women  were  (and  are)  lightly  esteemed,  and 
direct  communications  were  rarely  held  with 
them  by  persons  who  had  a  character  for 
sanctity  (cp.  Jn  4  27)  :  see  v.  27  and  5  ^^.  What 
is  to  be  done  for  thee  ?]  Elisha,  who,  unlike 
Elijah,  seems  to  have  attended  the  royal  court 
(5  3),  offers  to  use  his  influence  on  her  behalf. 

I  dwell .  .  people]  i.e.  I  live  among  friends, 
and  therefore  do  not  need  special  protection 
against  oppression.  16.  According  to  the  time 
of  life]  RV  '  when  the  time  cometh  round,' 
i.e.  in  the  spring  of  the  following  year. 

19.  My  head]  He  had  perhaps  sustained  a 
sunstroke. 

23.  Neither  new  moon,  nor  sabbath]  The 
Shunammite's  husband  did  not  connect  his 
wife's  proposed  visit  to  the  prophet  with  the 
death  of  his  child,  but  with  some  religious 
duty.  The  new  moon  (i.e.  the  first  day  of 
the  month)  and  the  sabbath  were  feasts  at 
which  the  prophets  might  be  asked  to  preside, 
as  Samuel  did  at  the  feast  held  at  the  high 
place  of  Ramah  (1  S9i2,i3). 

24.  Slack  not  thy  riding]  RV  '  slacken  me 
not  the  riding '  :  the  servant  probably  ran  on 
foot  beside  his  mistress.  26.  It  is  well]  The 
purpose  of  the  answer  was  obviously  not  to 
deceive  but  to  dismiss  the  questioner. 

29.  Gird  up  thy  loins]  The  direction  was 
necessary,  for  the  garments  were  usually  worn 
loose  and  flowing.  Salute  him  not]  To  do  so 
would  waste  time. 

Lay  my  staff]  Elisha  seems  to  have  thought 
that  as  Elijah's  mantle  had  been  powerful  in 
his  own  hand  (21^),  so  his  own  staff  would 
be  equally  potent  in  the  hands  of  another. 
But  the  secret  of  miracles  must  be  looked  for 
in  personalities,  not  in  inanimate  things. 

35.  He  returned,  etc.]  The  prophet  showed 
the  importunity  which  should  mark  all  effort 
to  obtain  a  divine   blessing. 

38.  A  dearth]  Perhaps  the  famine  related  in 
8 1*5.  39.  A  wild  vine]  not  a  real  vine,  but  a 
vine-like  plant,  usually  identified  with  the 
bitter  cucumber  or  colocynth,  bearing  a  fruit 
resembling  an  orange,  which  is  very  bitter  in 
taste.  42.  Baal-shalisha]  Perhaps  the  same 
as  the  'land  of  Shalisha'  (IS 9 4)  in  the  hill- 
country  of  Eplu-aim.     The  firstfruits]  Elisha 


where  firstfruits  were  required  to  be  pre- 
sented (Ex  23 19).  In  the  husk  thereof]  RV 
'  in  his  sack.'  43.  What,  should  .  .  men  ?]  cp. 
the  like  doubt  raised  by  the  disciples  of  our 
Lord  (Jn69),  and  the  similar,  but  even  more 
impressive,  sequel. 

CHAPTER  6 

The  Healing  of  Naaman  and  the 
Punishment  of  Gehazi 

1.  The  Lord  .  .  Syria]  Possibly  the  enemies 
from  whom  the  Syrians  had  been  saved  were  the 
Assyrians.  Naaman,  in  delivering  his  country- 
men from  them,  had  been  an  unconscious  in- 
strument in  the  hands  of  Jehovah.  A  leper] 
see  on  Lvl3.  Leprosy  is  of  slow  develop- 
ment, and  as  Naaman  retained  his  military 
command,  his  malady  cannot  have  reached  a 
very  advanced  stage.  It  is  not  likely,  in  any 
case,  that  the  Syrians  observed  the  same  strict 
rules  regarding  it  as  the  Jews. 

2.  By  companies]   i.e.  by  raiding  bands. 

5.  The  king  of  Israel]  probably  Jehoram. 
Ten  talents]  A  talent  was  a  weight  of  96  lb. 
Pieces  of  gold]   probably  shekels,  and  so  in 

625,  a  shekel  being  a  weight  of  224  grains. 

Changes  of  raiment]  For  such  a  present  cp. 
Gn  45  22.     The  expression  implies  costly  robes. 

6.  That  thou  mayest  recover]  i.e.  by  using 
his  influence  with  the  prophet. 

ID.  Sent  a  messenger]  cp.  4i3.  Seven 
times]  The  figure  probably  stands  for  an 
indefinite  number  (cp.  IK  18 "13);  but  it  is 
possible  that  it  also  had  special  religious  asso- 
ciations (cp.  Gn2128  Josh  6-*).  The  prophet's 
direction  to  Naaman  to  wash  in  the  Jordan 
did  not  imply  any  miraculous  quality  in  the 
water  of  the  river,  but  was  intended  to  test 
the  sufferer's  faith. 

11.  Strike]  better,  'wave,'  for  he  would 
probably  avoid  actual  contact. 

12.  Abana  and  Pharpar]  These  two  rivers 
rise  in  Mt.  Hermon  and  lose  themselves  in 
a  marshy  lake  near  Damascus.  Though  smaller, 
they  are  much  clearer  than  the  Jordan. 

13.  My  father]  a  title  of  honour  :  cp.  2^2 
621.  ig.  He  returned]  The  distance  from  the 
Jordan  to  Samaria  was  some  30  m. 

A  blessing]  RV  'a  present'  :  cp.  Gn33ii 
Jg  1 15.  Naaman  did  well  to  seek  to  show 
his  gi'atitude  to  the  Lord  by  a  gift  to  His 
prophet,  but  Elisha's  refusal  meant  that  for 
imparting  a  divine  blessing  which  he  was 
empowered  from  on  high  to  bestow,  he  could 
receive  no  personal  gain. 

17.  Two  mules'  burden  of  earth]  It  was 
believed  that  a  national  deity  was  intimately 
connected  with  the  country  he  protected,  so 
that  Naaman,  being  desirous  of  worshipping 
the  Lord  (Jehovah)  in  Syria,  wished  to  trans- 
port thither  some  of  the  soil  of  Israel  as  being 


231 


5.  18 


2  KINGS 


7.  13 


associated   with   His    presence    and   so    most 
fitted  for  the  construction  of  an  altar  to  Him. 

1 8.  Rimmon]  identical  with  the  Assjrrian 
storm-god  Ramman. 

19.  Go  in  peace]  Elisha,  to  avoid  putting 
too  severe  a  strain  upon  the  incipient  devo- 
tion of  his  foreign  convert,  did  not  demand 
consistency,  though  his  predecessor  Elijah,  in 
the  case  of  native  Israelites,  had  protested 
against  such  divided  allegiance  (IKlS^i). 

22.  Mount  Ephraim]  RV  '  the  hill  country 
of  Ephraim.'  Bethel  and  Gilgal,  where  there 
were  bodies  of  '  sons  of  the  prophets '  (c.  2), 
were  situated  in  this  district.  23.  Be  content] 
i.e.  consent :  cp.  6  3.  24.  The  tower]  RV 
'  the  hill '  :  probably  an  elevation  near  Samaria. 
Some  take  it  to  mean  '  the  citadel.' 

26.  Is  it  a  time]  The  occasion  had  not  been 
a  suitable  one  for  acquiring  gain,  but  for 
rejoicing  over  the  manifestation  of  the  Lord's 
power  and  graciousness,  calculated  as  it  was 
to  awaken  the  wonder  and  gratitude  of  the 
foreigner,  Naaman,  which  Gehazi's  covetous- 
ness  might  now  repress. 

CHAPTER   6 
Elisha  and  the  Siege  of  Samaria 

I.  The  place  where  we  dwell]  The  mention 
of  the  Jordan  (v.  2)  suggests  that  these  sons 
of  the  prophets  dwelt  near  Jericho  :  cp.  2  5. 
Probably  Elisha  did  not  permanently  abide 
with  them,  but  visited  them  occasionally  for 
supervision  and  instruction.  6.  The  iron  did 
swim]  The  prophet's  powers  were  exerted  to 
help  one  who  was  honest  enough  to  be  the 
more  concerned  for  .his  loss  because  the  axe 
was  not  his  own. 

8.  The  king  of  Syria]  perhaps  the  Ben- 
hadad  of  v.  24  and  1K201.  13.  Dothan] 
commanding  a  pass  which  crossed  the  ridge  of 
Carmel  (the  mountain  of  v.  17). 

17.  Round  about  Elisha]  cp.  Ps347  91  *. 
God's  servants  often  experience  providential 
succour  in  times  of  danger,  though  they  can- 
not confidently  reckon  upon  protection  from 
earthly  peril.  What  alone  is  assured  to  them, 
if  they  continue  loyal,  is  spiritual  security. 

22.  Wouldest  thou  smite,  etc.]  If  the  king 
would  not  smite  captives  whom  he  had  taken 
by  his  own  valour,  much  less  could  he  expect 
to  be  allowed  to  smite  those  who  had  been 
delivered  into  his  hands  by  another.  The 
prophet  by  preserving  their  lives,  secured  that 
information  respecting  his  wonderful  powers 
was  conveyed  to  the  Syrian  king. 

24.  And  it  came  to  pass,  etc.]  This  section 
obviously  has  no  close  connexion  with  the 
preceding,  as  the  inconsistency  between  this 
V.  and  V.  23  shows,  though  Josephus  explains 
that  the  king  of  Syria,  out  of  fear  of  Elisha, 
abandoned  his  secret  designs  against  the 
Israelites  in  favour  of  more  open  war. 


25.  An  ass's  head]  The  ass  being  an  un- 
clean animal,  its  flesh  would  not  be  eaten 
except  in  times  of  great  scarcity.  Cab]  a 
little  less  than  2  quarts,  so  that  a  fourth  part 
would  be  about  a  pint.  Dove's  dung]  Though 
this  is  usually  supposed  to  be  a  kind  of  pulse, 
yet  pigeon's  dung  was  eaten  in  a  siege  that 
took  place  in  the  year  1316  A.D.,  probably 
because  of  the  seeds  it  contained.  29.  Boiled 
my  son]  The  same  kind  of  incident  occurred 
in  connexion  with  the  siege  of  Jerusalem  by 
Nebuchadnezzar,  Lam  4 10  ;  cp.  also  Lv2629 
Dt  28  52-55.  31.  The  head  of  Elisha]  Possibly 
the  prophet  had  held  out  promises  of  relief 
which  had  not  yet  been  realised.  32.  This 
son  of  a  murderer]  i.e.  this  murderer  :  cp. 
Isa  1 4.  Hold  .  .  door]  RV  '  hold  the  door  fast 
against  him.'  Is  not .  .  feet]  The  king,  after 
giving  orders  to  execute  Elisha,  had  changed 
his  purpose,  and  was  hastening  after  the 
messenger  to  countermand  his  directions. 

33.  And  he  said]  These  words  are  spoken 
by  thp  h'ntg^  which  should  be  substituted  for 
the  messenger  in  the  first  part  of  the  v.  :  cp. 
7 1''.  Wait]  i.e.  hold  out  in  the  hope  of  God's 
intervention. 

CHAPTER  7 

The  Relief  of  Samaria 

1.  A  measure]  Heb.  a  seah^  equal  to  6  cabs, 
and  rather  less  than  3  gallons.  In  the  gate 
of  Samaria]  The  open  space  at  the  gate  of  an 
Eastern  city  served  as  a  market-place. 

2.  Windows  in  heaven]  These  were  the 
outlets  from  which  the  rain  came  (Gn7ii), 
and  the  officer  asked  scornfully  whether  the 
famine  could  be  relieved  even  if  rain  fell 
immediately. 

3.  The  gate]  Lepers  would  be  required  to 
keep  outside  the  city  :  cp.  LvlS*^'**^.  5.  The 
uttermost  part]  RV  '  the  outermost  part '  :  i.e. 
the  outer  limits  of  the  camp  on  the  side 
nearest  to  them. 

6.  The  Hittites]  see  on  IK  10 29.  The 
Assyrians  used  their  name  to  describe  the 
whole  of  Palestine,  which  they  called  '  the 
land  Khatti.'  The  Eg3rptians]  Parts  of  Egypt 
were  governed  by  petty  kings  who  were  vassals 
of  the  Pharaohs.  A  combination  of  Hittite 
and  Egyptian  forces,  coming  from  the  N.  and 
S.  respectively,  would  have  entrapped  the 
Syrians  between  them.  But  mention  is  made 
in  the  Assyrian  inscuiptions  of  a  land  called 
Musre  adjoining  the  Hittite  country,  and  it  is 
possible  that  Mizraim  (the  Heb.  for  Egypt)  is 
a  mistake  for  this. 

ID.  The  porter]  Perhaps  used  collectively 
(see  V.  1 1 )  and  hence  the  plur.  pronoun  '  them. ' 

13.  They  are  as,  etc.]  i.e.  they  are  in 
danger  of  starvation  like  the  rest  of  us,  and 
so  have  no  more  to  fear,  if  they  are  captured 
by  the  enemy,  than  will  befall  them  if  they 


232 


7.  15 


2  KINGS 


9.23 


remain  in  the  city :  cp.  v.  4.  15;  Unto 
Jordan]  The  Syrians  in  their  retreat  from 
Samaria  would  naturally  make  for  the  fords 
of  the  Jordan  at  Bethshan  and  Bethbarah. 

17.  The  people  trode,  etc.]  He  was  knocked 
down  in  the  rush  of  famished  citizens  hasten- 
ing to  the  Syrian  camp,  and  trampled  to  death, 
thus  fulfilling  Elisha's  prediction  (v.  2). 

CHAPTER  8 
Elisha    and    the    Shunammite.     Elisha 

AND  Hazael.    Reigns  of  Jehoram  and 

Ahaziah  of  Judah 

I.  Then  spake  Elisha]  The  occasion  is  not 
indicated,  all  the  stories  related  of  Elisha  in 
this  and  the  three  preceding  chs.  being  dis- 
connected. A  famine]  Perhaps  the  same  as 
that  referred  to  in  4^8.  2.  The  land  of  the 
Philistines]  This  was  a  corn-growing  district, 
near  the  still  more  productive  country  of 
Egypt.  3.  To  cry  unto  the  king]  Her  pro- 
perty, being  vacant  during  her  absence,  had 
seemingly  passed  to  the  crown  :  cp.  v.  6. 

7.  To  Damascus]  It  is  possible  that  Elisha  in 
thus  visiting  the  Syrian  capital  was  carrying 
out  a  commission  of  Elijah's  (IKIO^^).  For 
Ben-hadad  see  G^-i.  8.  Hazael]  one  of  Ben- 
hadad's  servants.  10.  Say  unto  him]  Elisha 
presumably  meant  that  the  disease  from  which 
Benhadad  was  suffering  was  not  a  fatal  one, 
but  that  he  would  die  by  other  means.  Some 
suppose  that  Elisha  spoke  ironically  (like 
Micaiah  in  IK 2215).  n.  Until  he  was 
ashamed]  Hazael  became  discomposed  under 
the  prophet's  gaze,  being  conscious  of  a  guilty 
purpose.  12.  The  evil,  etc.]  described  in 
1032  133,22  Am  13, 4. 

13.  But  what,  etc.]  RV  'but  what  is  thy 
servant,  which  is  but  a  dog,'  the  expression  '  a 
dog '  being  a  term  of  contempt  (1  S 17  ■^^  241-*). 
Hazael  meant  that  he  could  scarcely  credit 
that  so  great  a  destiny  was  in  store  for  one  so 
humble  as  himself. 

16.  Jehoshaphat  behig  then  king  of  Ju- 
dah] an  accidental  repetition  of  the  words 
'  Jehoshaphat  king  of  Judah,'  that  follow. 

18.  He  did  evil .  .  LORD]  This  does  not  im- 
ply that  he  abandoned  altogether  the  worship 
of  the  Lord,  since  he  made  offerings  to  the 
Temple  (1218).  19.  A  light]  see  1K1136 
15*.  In  consequence  of  the  divine  promises 
made  to  David,  Jehoram's  sins  were  not 
punished  by  the  overthrow  of  his  dynasty  but 
by  other  means. 

20.  Edom  revolted]  in  the  reign  of  Jeho- 
shaphat Edom  had  been  subject  to  Judah  and 
ruled  by  a  viceroy  (1K22'1").  Its  success  in 
throwing  off  the  yoke  of  Judah  is  alluded  to 
in  Gn27'iO.  21.  Zair]  This  place  is  only 
mentioned  here,  and  the  Vulgate  reads  Seir, 
another  name  for  Edom.  The  people  .  .  tents] 
The  people  referred  to  is  the  people  of  Judah. 


Joram,  when  surrounded  by  the  Edomites,  cut 
his  way  through  them  and  escaped,  but  his 
army  was  defeated  and  dispersed.  The  verse 
accounts  for  the  successful  revolt  of  Edom. 

22.  Yet]  RV  '  so  ' :  see  2  Ch  21 10.  Unto  this 
day]  The  writer  whose  materials  the  author 
of  Kings  is  here  drawing  upon  must  have 
lived  before  the  destruction  of  the  Judsan 
kingdom.  Libnah]  situated  in  the  lowland. 
Its  revolt  was  perhaps  aided  by  the  Philis- 
tines: cp.  2  Ch  21 1«>  17.  23.  The  rest .  .  Joram] 
see  2Ch21,  which  relates  both  the  public  and 
personal  losses  sustained  by  the  king. 

24.  Ahaziah]   in  2  Ch  2117  called  Jehoahaz. 

26.  Two  and  twenty]  in  2Ch222  'forty- 
two.'  Daughter  of  Omri]  strictly  she  was 
'  gi-and-daughter '  of  Omri.  The  terms  '  son ' 
and '  daughter '  were  used  not  only  of  remote  de- 
scendants but  even  of  successors  who  were  not 
blood-relations  ;  e.g.  Jehu  in  the  Assyrian  in- 
scriptions is  called  '  the  son  of  Omri.'  28.  He 
went  with  Joram]  Ramoth  Gilead  at  this  time 
was  in  the  hands  of  Israel,  but  threatened  by 
Syria  (914).    29.  Ramah]  i.e.  Ramoth  Gilead. 

CHAPTER  9 
Jehu  and  his  Bloodshed 
This  c.  relates  the  anointing  of   Jehu   by 
order  of  Elisha  ;  and  the  death  of  Jehoram 
(of  Israel),  Ahaziah  (of  Judah),  and  Jezebel. 

I.  Box]  RV  'vial.'  For  the  use  of  oil  in 
anointing  sovereigns  see  ISlQi  1613.  Ra- 
moth-gilead]  The  Israelite  army  was  on  guard 
here  (v.  14).  9.  Like  the  house  of  Jeroboam  .  . 
of  Baasha]  Both  these  families  had  been  ex- 
tirpated: IK  1529  1611.  10.  In  .  .  Jezreel]  the 
scene  of  Ahab's  murder  of  Naboth  (1  K21). 

II.  This  mad  fellow']  The  wild  demeanour 
and  excited  utterances  of  the  prophets  (see 
IS  10 5^.  1920f)  particularly  exposed  them  to 
this  reproach:  cp.  Jer2926.  Ye  know  the 
man]  Probably  the  sons  of  the  prophets,  like 
the  prophets  themselves,  could  be  distinguished 
by  their  dress:  see  on  1^.  But  Jehu's  words 
possibly  imply  that  he  suspected  his  colleagues 
of  having  prompted  the  prophet's  action. 

13.  Put  it  under  him]  either  for  a  cushion 
(as  an  extemporised  throne)  or  for  a  carpet. 

On  the  top  of  the  stairs]  RM  '  on  the  bare 
steps ' ;  these  would  be  outside  the  house. 

17.  Is  it  peace  ?]  i.e  'is  all  well  ?'  (the  same 
word  as  in  v.  11  and  in  5^1).  18.  Turn  thee 
behind  me]  The  command  had  the  same  object 
as  that  in  v.  16,  viz.  to  prevent  warning  being 
given. 

22.  Whoredoms]  i.e.  the  practice  of  idol- 
atry: see  Jg2i7  Hos22f.  Witchcrafts]  i.e. 
dealings  with  wizards  and  diviners  (prohibited 
in  Ex  22 18  :  cp.  also  DtlSH  Lv2027). 

23.  Turned  his  hands]  i.e.  to  wheel  his 
chariot  about.  25.  Rode  together  after  Ahab] 
i.e.  behind  him  in  the  same  chariot,    as   his 


233 


9.  26 


2  KINGS 


10.34 


attendants.  Laid  this  burden  upon  him]  EM 
'  uttered  this  oracle  against  him.'  The  term 
'  burden '  is  similarly  used  of  a  prophetic  utter- 
ance in  IsalSi  151  171  Nahli  Habli,  etc. 

26.  The  blood  of  his  sons]  The  execution 
of  Naboth's  sons  has  not  previously  been 
mentioned  ;  but  at  this  period  a  man's  guilt 
was  held  to  attach  to  his  children  likewise 
(the  sense  of  individual  responsibility  being 
only  imperfectly  developed),  and  his  oifence 
was  generally  expiated  by  their  punishment  as 
well  as  his  own. 

27.  The  garden  house]  better,  '  Bethgan,'  a 
place  on  the  direct  road  from  Jezreel  to  the 
S.  Ibleam]  about  half-way  between  Sa- 
maria and  Jezreel.  A  diiferent  account  of 
Ahaziah's  death  is  given  in  2  Ch  22  9.  Me- 
giddo]   on  the  ridge  of  Carmel. 

29.  Eleventh]   in  8  -5  '  twelfth.' 

30.  Painted  her  face]  RV  'painted  her 
eyes  '  (eyelids),  i.e.  with  a  preparation  of  anti- 
mony, to  make  them  appear  larger  and  more 
brilliant. 

31.  Had  Zimri  peace,  etc.]  RV  '  is  it  peace, 
thou  Zimi-i,  thy  master's  murderer':  see  IK 
Ig9-i9_  Perliaps  Jezebel,  by  reminding  Jehu 
of  the  fate  of  Zimri,  wished  to  suggest  to  him 
the  wisdom  of  making  overtures  to  her. 

34.  A  king's  daughter]  She  was  daughter 
of  Ethbaal,  king  of  Zidon  (IK  16 si). 

35.  They  found  no  more,  etc.]  The  loss  of 
burial  added  further  ignominy  to  her  death  : 
see  on  1  K  2  3i.  36.  In  the  portion  of  Jezreel] 
see  IK 21  23. 

CHAPTER   10 
Jehu's  Extermination  of  Baal  "Worship 

1.  Ahab .  .  sons]  These  were  probably  his 
grandchildren  rather  than  his  children.  Unto 
the  rulers  of  Jezreel]  LXX  has  'unto  the 
rulers  of  Samaria,'  which  the  sense  requires. 

2.  A  fenced  city]  i.e.  Samaria.  Ahab's 
dynasty  had  obtained  the  throne  by  force  of 
arms  (IKlG-i'-^)^  and  Jehu  implied  that  its 
supporters  must  defend  it  by  the  same  means. 

4.  Two  kings]  Jehoram  of  Israel  and 
Ahaziah  of  Judah.  5.  Over  the  house  .  .  over 
the  city]  These  officials  are  also  alluded  to  in 
lK45-222t5  2K1818  Isa22i5.  6.  Take  ye 
the  heads]  By  slaying  the  young  princes  the 
rulers  and  elders  would  be  implicated  in 
Jehu's  treason  and  would  therefore  in  self- 
defence  have  to  support  him. 

9.  Ye  he  righteous]  Jehu  appeals  to  the 
people  to  judge  between  him  and  any  that 
might  accuse  him.  The  fact  that  the  elders  of 
the  city  had  put  Jehoram's  sons  to  death  argued 
that  the  overthrow  of  Ahab's  dynasty  was  not 
due  solely  to  Jehu's  private  ambition  but  to 
widespread  disaffection  against  a  guilty  house. 
But  Jehu  unfairly  concealed  his  own  com- 
munications with  the  elders  (vv.  1-3). 


10.  The  word  of  the  LORD]  see  1 K  21  w.  29. 
Though  Ahab  had  repented  of  his  murder  of 
Naboth,  and  the  chastisement  he  had  incurred 
was  for  a  time  postponed,  and  though  Jehoram 
seems  to  have  attempted  some  religious 
reform  (32),  yet  the  evil  influence  of  Jezebel 
had  spread  widely  (see  lO^^^"),  and  eventually 
brought  judgment  upon  the  impious  family. 

13.  The  king  .  .  the  queen]  i.e.  Joram  and 
Jezebel  (the  term  '  queen '  denoting  the  queen- 
mother).  14.  The  pit]  i.e.  the  tank  or  pool 
where  the  sheep  were  washed. 

15.  Jehonadab]  Jehonadab  was  a  Kenite 
(1  Ch  2  55),  the  tribe  of  Ai-abian  nomads  to 
which  Jethro,  Moses'  father-in-law,  belonged 
(Jgl^*^).  If  it  be]  spoken  by  Jehu  (so  the 
LXX).  Give  me  thine  hand]  i.e.  as  a  pledge  : 
cp.  Ezrl0i9Ezkl7i8. 

18.  And  Jehu,  etc.]  Jehu  proceeded  to  use 
the  same  crafty  secrecy  in  the  extirpation  of 
Baal  worship  as  he  had  displayed  in  destroying 
Ahab  and  his  house  (9i«f-  10 if-)-  22.  The 
vestry]  Part  of  the  Temple  where  the  '  changes 
of  raiment,'  usually  worn  on  festal  occasions, 
were  stored.  25.  To  the  city  of  the  house 
of  Baal]  This  seems  unintelligible,  and  the 
word  '  city '  is  probably  a  corruption  of  the 
word  '  oracle  '  (see  1 K  6  5),  the  Hebrew  being 
somewhat  similar.  26.  The  images]  RV 
'  the  pillars '  :  and  so  in  v.  27.  They  were 
probably  mere  columns,  not  figures  of  the 
human  form.  27.  Draught  house]  equivalent 
to  a  dunghill  :  cp.  EzrGH  Dan  2  5.  Unto  this 
day]   see  on  1 K  8  s. 

30.  Of  the  fourth  ^e«e?-a^«ow]  see  15 12.  The 
four  generations  were  Jehoahaz,  Joash,  Jero- 
boam II,  and  Zechariah.  Jehu's  djTiasty  sat 
longer  than  any  other  on  the  throne  of  Israel. 

31.  Jehu  took  no  heed  .  .  heart]  Jehu  was  a 
worshipper  of  the  Lord  (Jehovah),  and,  in 
his  violent  extirpation  of  the  house  of  Ahab, 
was  doubtless  actuated  by  religious  zeal  as 
well  as  by  motives  of  ambition,  whilst  his 
desire  to  suppress  the  worship  of  Baal  which 
had  been  encouraged  by  Ahab  and  Jezebel 
was  reinforced  by  indignation  at  the  tyranny 
manifested  by  the  reigning  house  in  the  matter 
of  Naboth  :  cp.  9  25. 26.  But  the  combined 
revolution  and  reformation  which  he  effected 
were  accompanied  by  massacres  which,  at  a 
later  date,  excited  the  abhorrence  of  the  prophet 
Hosea  (!■*);  and  though  the  religion  of 
Jehovah  was  restored  by  him  to  its  previous 
supremacy,  it  retained  the  idolatrous  character 
which  Jeroboam  I  had  given  it  by  represent- 
ing the  Deity  under  the  figure  of  a  young  bull. 

32.  Coasts]  i.e.  borders.  For  Hazael's 
barbarities  in  Gilead  (v.  33)  see  Am  1 3,  i. 

34.  The  rest  of  the  acts  of  Jehu]  An  Assyrian 
inscription  (now  in  the  British  Museum) 
records  that  Jehu  paid  tribute  to  Shalmaneser 
II.  That  king  in  842  B.C.  defeated  Hazael  the 


234 


11. 1 


2  KINGS 


12.  17 


king  of  Syria  ;  and  the  injuries  that  the  latter 
inflicted  upon  Israel  (vv.  32,  33)  would  natur- 
ally lead  Jehu  to  court  the  friendship  of  his 
conqueror.  Among  the  gifts  that  formed  part 
of  Jehu's  tribute  were  '  bars  of  silver,  bars  of 
gold,  a  golden  ladle,  golden  goblets,  golden 
pitchers,  bars  of  lead,  a  staff  for  the  hand  of 
the  king,  shafts  of  spears '  (Schrader,  Cot,  i, 
199). 

CHAPTEE    11 

The  Usurpation  of  Athaliah  and 
Preservation  of  Joash 

1.  Athaliah]  She  was  the  daughter  of  Ahab 
and  Jezebel  (Si^'^"),  possessed  her  mother's 
high  courage,  and,  like  her,  was  a  devoted 
worshipper  of  Baal.  Her  position  as  queen- 
mother  she  would  naturally  lose  on  the  acces- 
sion of  Ahaziah's  son,  the  deceased  monarch's 
wife  becoming  queen-mother  in  her  stead. 
She,  therefore,  took  measures  to  place  herself 
on  the  throne  by  removing  all  rivals,  and  then 
proceeded  to  make  the  worship  of  Baal  pre- 
dominant in  the  land  :  see  2  Ch  24 ''. 

2.  In  the  bedchamber]  This  was  presumably 
one  of  the  side-chambers  of  the  Temple  de- 
scribed in  1 K  6  5-10. 

4.  Jehoiada]  He  was  the  high  priest  and 
married  to  the  princess  Jehosheba  (2  Ch  22 1^). 

Rulers]  For  their  names  see  2  Ch  23 1.  Cap- 
tains] RV  '  Carites'  (and  so  in  v.  19).  These 
were  probably  foreign  mercenaries  from  Caria 
in  Asia  Minor  (they  are  mentioned  by  Herodo- 
tus as  employed  by  the  Egyptian  king  Psam- 
metichus),  who  formed  the  bodyguard  of  the 
Judsean  sovereigns. 

5.  A  third  part  of  you,  etc.]  The  precise 
arrangements  are  obscure,  but  it  is  probable 
that  on  the  sabbath  one-third  of  the  royal 
guards  were  on  duty  at  the  palace  and  two- 
thirds  at  the  Temple  ;  of  these  the  former 
body,  separated  into  three  divisions  (vv.  5,  6), 
was  posted  at  different  parts  of  the  building 
to  prevent  Athaliah's  personal  supporters 
from  leaving  it  (though  she  herself  was  allowed 
to  do  so),  whilst  the  latter,  and  larger,  body 
was  assembled  at  the  Temple  to  secure  the 
safety  of  Joash  (v.  7). 

6.  The  gate  of  Sur]  RV  omits  'of.'  In 
2  Ch  23  5  it  is  called  '  the  gate  of  the  foundation.' 
Position  unknown.  That  it  be  not  broken 
down]  better, '  and  be  a  barrier.'  8.  Rangtc] 
RV  'ranks,'  and  so  in  v.  1.5.  11.  Alo?/g  by 
the  altar]  i.e.  the  troops  were  posted  in  two 
columns  converging  towards  the  altar  of  burnt 
offering  in  the  Temple  court,  so  as  to  enclose 
a  triangular  space. 

12.  The  testimony]  i.e.  a  copy  of  the  Law  : 
cp.  Ex25iti,  and  see  DtlT^s.  But  the  literal 
rendering  is,  '  they  put  upon  him  the  crown 
and  the  testimony,'  and  the  last  word  should 
perhaps  be  '  the  bracelets '  which  kings  wore 


as  part  of  their  insignia  (2  S 1  lO).     (In  the  Heb. 
there  is  only  a  difference  of  a  single  letter.) 

14.  By  a  pillar]  perhaps  better,  '  on  the 
platform,'  from  which  the  king  used  to  address 
the  people.  15.  Without  the  ranges]  RV 
'  between  the  ranks,'  so  that  she  was  sur- 
rounded by  troops.  16.  Laid  hands  on  her] 
So  the  LXX.  RV  has, '  made  way  for  her  '  (so 
that  she  might  be  got  out  of  the  Temple  before 
she  was  slain). 

18.  The  house  of  Baal]  i.e.  of  the  Zidonian 
Baal  to  whose  worship  Athaliah,  as  the 
daughter  of  Jezebel,  adhered.  According  to 
Josephus  this  temple  was  built  by  Jehoram  and 
Athaliah. 

20.  All .  .  rejoiced]  The  brief  usurpation  of 
Athaliah  was  the  only  interruption  to  the 
orderly  succession  of  kings  of  the  house  of 
David  throughout  the  history  of  Judah,  a  fact 
which  testifies  to  the  strong  attachment  which 
the  people  felt  towards  it,  and  forms  a  striking 
fulfilment  of  the  promise  made  to  David 
(2  8715,16). 

CHAPTER  12 

Joash  repairs  the  Temple 

2.  All  his  days]  According  to  2Ch24i'i'*- 
Joash  took  to  evil  courses  after  the  death  of 
Jehoiada.  3.  The  high  places,  etc.]  The  wor- 
ship at  the  '  high  places '  was  first  abolished 
by  Hezekiah,  and  then,  after  its  renewal  by 
Manasseh,  by  Josiah. 

4.  The  money .  .  is  set  at]  RV  '  the  money 
of  the  persons  for  whom  each  man  is  rated.' 
The  money  devoted  to  the  repair  of  the 
Temple  was  that  received  for  (a)  the  supply 
of  vessels  dedicated  to  the  Temple  services  ; 
(6)  the  redemption  of  vows  (Lv  27^-8);  (c) 
free-will  offerings.  According  to  2Ch246.9 
the  chief  source  of  the  money  was  the  half- 
shekel  appointed  by  Moses  to  be  paid  by  every 
Israelite  for  the  maintenance  of  the  'Tent  of 
the  Testimony  (Ex  30 11-16).  The  accounf]  RM 
'  the  inunherutg.'' 

9.  The  altar]  i.e.  the  altar  of  burnt  offering, 
outside  the  Temple  building:  cp.  2Ch248. 
The  door  would  be  the  entrance  into  the 
Temple  court.     11.  Told]  RV  '  weighed  out.' 

13.  There  were  not  made]  2Ch24i^  has 
'  were  made,'  perhaps  having  in  view  the  sur- 
plus remaining  after  the  repairs  of  the  Temple 
were  completed.  16.  The  trespass  money, 
etc.]  RV  '  money  for  guilt  offerings  and  money 
for  sin  offerings.'  Some  suppose  that  fines  are 
meant,  but  the  money  may  have  been  applied 
to  the  purchase  of  victims  for  sacrifices  :  see 
Lv4,5. 

17.  Gath]  one  of  the  five  Philistine  cities  ; 
to  reach  it  Hazael  must  have  marched  through 
the  kingdom  of  Israel,  and  his  invasion  is 
probably  to  be  connected  with  the  attacks 
upon  Jehu  and  Jehoahaz  (10^2  133.4).     for 


235 


12.  19 


2  KINGS 


14.9 


the  movement  upon  Jerusalem  see  2  Ch24  23, 2-1^ 
where  it  is  stated  that  Jehoash  sustained  a  se- 
vere defeat  before  he  surrendered  his  treasure. 

19.  The  rest  of  the  acts  of  Joash]  see 
2  Ch  24  ^''^-27,  which  relates  that  after  Jehoiada's 
death  Joash  departed  from  the  Lord,  and 
even  killed  Zechariah,  the  son  of  Jehoiada, 
who  had  rebuked  him  for  his  idolatry. 

20.  The  house  of  Millo]  If  Millo  was  a  fort 
in  Jerusalem  (see  on  1  KS^^)  '  the  house  '  was 
perhaps  a  palace  attached  to  it.  21.  Jozachar] 
in  2 Ch 24 26  (where  'Jozachar'  is  corrupted 
into  '  Zabad ')  the  conspiracy  is  described  as 
intended  to  avenge  the  death  of  Zechariah  : 

see  on  v.  19. 

CHAPTER    13 

Reigns  of  Jehoahaz  and  Joash  of  Israel. 
The  last  Prediction  of  Elisha 
3.  All  their  days]  RV  'continually,'  i.e. 
throughout  the  reign  of  Jehoahaz.  5.  A 
saviour]  either  Jehoash  (v.  25)  or  Jeroboam  II 
(1425-27)  is  meant.  In  their  tents]  i.e.  in  their 
homes,  the  phrase  being  a  survival  from  earlier 
times  ^hcR  the  Israelites  were  a  body  of 
nomads  roaming  the  desert.  _  6.  The  grove] 
RV  '  the  Asherah  '  :  see  on  1  K  J  4  is.  If  Jehu 
had  altogether  abolished  the  wordnp  of  Baal 
(1028),  this  Asherah  must  have  been  comificted 
with  the  worship  of  the  Lord,  like  the  pillaT-s 
before  the  Temple  of  Solomon  (IKT^sf.). 

13.  Jeroboam]   usually  designated  as  Jero- 
boam II. 

14.  Joash  .  .  unto  him]  Both  Elijah  and 
Elisha,  though  strenuous  antagonists  to  the 
religion  of  Baal,  yet  seem  to  have  tolerated 
the  worship  of  the  Lord  under  the  form  of  a 
calf,  for  both  prophets  had  friendly  relations 
with  kings  who  retained  that  mode  of  worship. 
Corrupt  in  character  as  it  yfas,  it  was  neverthe- 
less directed  towards  the  true  God.  This 
passage  is  the  first  mention  of  Elisha  since  he 
sent  a  prophet  to  anoint  Jehu  (c.  9).  The 
chariot  of  Israel]  The  reference  is  to  Elisha, 
who  had  been  Israel's  greatest  safeguard,  a 
host  in  himself  :  cp.  Si^f-  6  9. 

16.  Elisha  put,  etc.]  in  order  to  indicate 
that  the  king's  destined  success  came  from 
another  source  than  his  own  strength.  17.  The 
arrow,  etc.]  The  shooting  of  the  arrow  east- 
ward was  symbolic  of  a  victory  in  that  direc- 
tion, Syria  lying  NE.  of  Israel.  Aphek]  the 
Aphek  of  1 K  20  26.  19.  The  man  of  God  was 
wroth]  because  the  king  displayed  too  little 
confidence  in  the  God  whose  minister  the 
prophet  was. 

20.  The  bands  of  the  Moabites]  If  Elisha 
was  buried  either  at  Samaria  or  at  his  home 
of  Abel-meholah,  the  Moabites  must  have 
crossed  the  Jordan.  21.  Touched]  The  coi>pse 
would  not  be  placed  in  a  coffin  but  swathed  in 
grave-clothes  ;  and  the  tomb  was  probably  an 


excavation  in  the  side  of  a  hill,  not  a  hole  in 
the  ground. 

24.  Ben-hadad]   Probably  the  third  of  the 
name  mentioned  in  the  Bible  :  see  1 KIS^^  20 1. 

25.  Three  times]  in  accordance  with  Elisha's 
prophecy  (v.  19).  The  success  of  Israel  over 
Syria  was  probably  aided  by  the  disasters 
which  that  country  sustained  from  Assyria. 
The  contemporary  Assyrian  king  was  Ram- 
man-nirari,  who  in  his  inscriptions  relates  that 
he  besieged  Damascus  and  compelled  its  ruler 
to  tender  allegiance  and  pay  tribute.  The 
Syrian  king  is  called  '  Mari,'  but  this  may  be  a 
title,  not  a  proper  name.  Ramman-nirari  also 
claims  to  have  received  tribute  from  '  the  land 
of  Omri,'  i.e.  Northern  Israel  ;  so  that  Jehoash 
may  have  purchased  the  aid  of  the  Assyrian 
king  against  Syria  by  sending  presents  to  him. 

CHAPTER  14 
Reigns  of  Amaziah  of  Judah  and 

Jeroboam  of  Israel 
I.   In  the  second  year  of  Joash  .  .    king  of 

Israel]  Joash  of  Judah  reigned  40  years,  and 
as  his  thirty-seventh  year  corresponded  to  the 
first  year  of  Joash  of  Israel  (13 1°)  the  acces- 
sion of  his  son  Amaziah  could  not  coincide 
with  the  Israelite  king's  second  year  ;  so  that 
there  is  some  slight  error  of  calculation. 

3.  Not  like  David]  He  was  not  perfectly 
faithful  to  the  Lord,  for  late  in  his  reign  he 
worshipped  the  gods  of  Edom  (2  Ch  2.5  !■*). 

6.  Tire  children  .  .  he  slew  not]  see  Dt  24 16^ 
and  cp.  E.zkl82-4.  The  contrast  between 
Amaziah's  conduct  and  the  practice  recorded 
in  2S216  2K9^'''^^  shows  that  by  this  time  a 
clearer  conception  had  been  acquired  of  the 
rights  of  individuals,  which  prevented  the 
guilt  of  the  parent  from  feeing  held  to  extend 
to  all  his  family. 

7.  Edom]  see  further  in  2  Ch  255-16.  The 
valley  of  salt]  immediately  S.  of  the  Dead 
Sea.  Selah]  the  later  Petra,  E.  of  the  Ara- 
bah.  Joktheel]  said  to  mean  '  subdued  by 
God.'  Unto  this  day]  i.e.  unto  the  time  of 
the  writer  whose  materials  are  here  used  by 
the  historian.  The  date  is  probably  early,  for 
the  Edomites  practically  recovered  their  in- 
dependence in  Abaz,'  veign  (166),  and  would 
naturally  restore  their  capital's  former  name. 

8.  Let  us  .  .  face]  i.e.  meet  face  to  face 
it.  "battle.  If  Judah  at  this  time  was  a  vassal 
of  the  northern  kingdom  (see  on  1 K  22  2), 
Amaziah's  motive  in  courting  a  quarrel  with 
his  neighbour  was  probably  a  desire  to  free 
Judah  from  this  position  of  subservience.  His 
recent  success  over  Edom  doubtless  encouraged 
him  ;  but  he  miscalculated  the  respective 
resources  of  himself  and  his  opponent. 

9.  The  thistle]  The  thistle  represents  Ama- 
ziah and  the  cedar  Jehoash,  whilst  the  lion 
symbolises  the  ruin  that  humbled  the  arrogance 


236 


14.  11 


2  KINGS 


15.  19 


of  the  former  ;  but  the  fable  does  not  quite 
suit  the  circumstances,  as  Amaziah  was  seeking, 
not  a  friendly  alliance,  but  a  quarrel.  For  the 
use  of  fables  cp.  Jg98-i^. 

II.  Bethshemesh]  In  the  Lowland  (Sheph- 
elah)  of  Judah,  15  m.  W.  of  Jerusalem. 

13.  From  the  gate .  .  gate]  The  wall  that 
was  dismantled  was  on  the  N.  side  of  the  city, 
which  was  thus  left  defenceless  to  attacks  from 
that  direction,  in  case  it  gave  further  provoca- 
tion. 19.  Lachish]  on  the  Philistine  border, 
but  within  the  territory  of  Judah  (Josh  1 5  3"). 
It  is  usually  identified  with  the  modern  Tell  el 
Hesy. 

21.  Took  Azariah]  called  in  15 1^  (see  note) 
and  elsewhere  Uzziah.  The  fact  that  though 
Anaaziah  was  dethroned  and  put  to  death,  his 
son  was  nevertheless  made  king  in  his  room 
witnesses  to  the  affection  that  continued  to  be 
felt  for  the  dynasty  of  David. 

The  Assyrian  king  Tiglath-pileser  mentions 
among  the  kings  from  whom  he  received 
tribute  a  certain  Azriyahu  of  Jaudi,  who  has 
been  thought  by  some  scholars  to  represent 
Azariah  of  Judah,  but  the  identity  of  the  two 
names  is  now  questioned. 

22.  Elath]  see  on  1K926,  and  for  its 
eventual  loss  see  2  K 1 6  *'.  Its  restoration  to 
Judah  implies  the  subjugation  of  Edom. 

23.  Jeroboam  .  .  forty  and  one  years]  This 
is  inconsistent  with  the  figures  given  in  14  2 
and  15^,  for  Jeroboam's  reign  covered  15  years 
of  Amaziah's  and  37  of  Azariah's,  making  52 
in  all. 

25.  Restored  the  coast]  i.e.  extended  the 
territory  of  Israel  to  its  original  boundaries 
when  at  the  height  of  its  prosperity:  see  on 
v.  28.  The  entering  of  Hamath]  i.e.  the  gorge 
between  Lebanon  and  Hermon.  The  sea  of 
the  plain]  RV  '  the  sea  of  the  Arabah '  :  i.e. 
the  Dead  Sea,  the  Arabah  being  the  long  de- 
pression extending  from  the  Sea  of  Galilee  to 
the  Gulf  of  Akaba.  Jeroboam's  conquests 
probably  included  Moab,  and  to  his  reign  the 
invasion  of  that  country  described  in  Isa  1 5  ^  to 
16^2  may  be  most  plausibly  assigned.  His 
success  was  facilitated  by  the  inactivity  of 
Assyria  at  the  time.  Jonah]  The  same  prophet 
who  is  the  subject  of  the  book  of  that  name. 

Gath-hepher]  in  Zebulun,  a  little  to  the  N. 
of  Nazareth. 

Jonah  was  not  the  only  prophet  who  was 
active  in  Israel  during  this  reign,  for  both 
Hosea  and  Amos  were  his  contemporaries. 
Of  these  Hosea  belonged  by  birth  to  the  north- 
ern kingdom,  but  Amos  was  anative  of  Judah. 
From  the  writings  of  Amos  it  was  plain  that 
though  the  prosperity  of  the  kingdom  had 
greatly  increased  during  the  reign  of  Jeroboam, 
its  moral  condition  was  sadly  in  need  of  reform. 
Social  oppression  (Am  2  6-s  5  ^i),  commercial 
dishonesty  (8  5' 6)^  and  judicial  corruption  (5  7) 


were  rife  in  the  land,  and  in  consequence  the 
prophet  declared  that  the  nation  would  be 
punished  by  captivity  in  a  foreign  land  (5^7 
(3779, 17)_  Amaziah  the  priest  of  Bethel  de- 
nounced him  to  Jeroboam,  and  bade  him  flee 
back  into  Judah,  counsel  which  the  prophet 
requited  by  predicting  that  Amaziah  would 
share  the  captivity  of  his  countrymen  and  his 
family  be  destroyed  by  the  sword. 

26.  Any  shut  up]   see  on  IK  1410. 

28.  Damascus  and  Hamath]  Both  these 
places  had  been  included  within  the  possessions 
of  Solomon  (IK  421),  b^t  the  former  was  lost 
to  him  by  the  success  of  Rezon  related  in 
1 K 11 23-25_  The  re-conquest  of  the  places 
here  named  could  not  have  been  long  main- 
tained, for  Amos  speaks  of  Damascus,  the  nearer 
of  the  two,  as  an  independent  state  (Am  1 3). 

CHAPTER  15 
Sundry  brief  Annals 

This  c.  relates  the  reigns  of  Azariah  and 
Jotham  of  Judah,  and  of  Zechariah,  Shallum, 
Menahem,  Pekahiah,  and  Pekah  of  Israel. 

I.  In  the  twenty  and  seventh  year]  Since 
Jeroboam  came  to  the  throne  in  the  fifteenth 
year  of  Amaziah  (14^3)^  and  Amaziah  only 
reigned  29  years  (14  2),  his  son  must  have 
succeeded  him  in  Jeroboam's  fifteenth  year. 
Azariah  in  vv.  13,  30  is  called  Uzziah. 

5.  The  Lord  smote  the  king]  For  the  reason 
see  2  Ch  26 1<5-20,  a  several  house]  RM  '  a  lazar 
house,'  in  which  he  was  secluded  in  accordance 
with  the  principle  laid  down  in  Lvl3*^.  Was 
over  the  house]  He  held  the  same  office  as  that 
alluded  to  in  1K46.  Judging  the  people]  i.e. 
acting  as  regent  for  his  father. 

6.  The  rest  of  the  acts  of  Azariah]  For 
details  see  2Ch26i-i-5.  It  was  in  the  last  year 
of  Azariah  (Uzziah)  that  the  prophet  Isaiah 
entered  upon  his  ministry  (Isa  6). 

12.  This  was  the  word  of  the  LORD]  In 
spite  of  the  ability  and  success  of  Jeroboam  II 
the  corruption  of  the  people  (which  Amos  and 
Hosea  attest)  bore  its  natural  fruit,  and  the 
nation  became  the  prey  of  faction,  resulting  in 
the  downfall  of  Jehu's  dynasty. 

13.  Uzziah]  For  the  two  names  Uzziah  and 
Azariah  applied  to  the  same  individual  see 
lCh624,36.  and  the  interchange  of  Azareel 
and  Uzziel  in  lCh25is,4mg  ^^  Tirzah]  see 
on  IK  141''.  Though  it  had  ceased  to  be  the 
capital,  it  was  doubtless  still  an  important 
place.  16.  Tiphsah]  not  the  Tiphsah  of  1  K 
424,  which  represents  Thapsacus,  a  far  distant 
town  on  the  Euphrates,  but  some  unknown 
place  in  Israel  itself.  Some  suggest  that  it  is 
a  mistake  for  Tappuah  (Josh  1 7  ^). 

19.  Pul]  usually  identified  with  the  Tiglath- 
pileser  named  in  v.  29,  who  was  the  successor, 
though  not  the  son,  of  Asshur-nirari,  his  reign 
lasting  from  745  to  728  B.C.     The  Assyrians 


237 


15.  20 


2  KINGS 


16.8 


had  come  in  contact  with  Israel  previous  to 
this  (see  on  lO^i)  ;  but  it  was  only  under 
Tiglath-pileser  that  they  began  seriously  to 
endanger  the  independence  of  the  northern 
kingdom,  and  the  invasion  here  described  is 
the  first  recorded  of  their  many  attacks  upon 
the  Hebrew  states.  Menahem  gave  Pul]  cp. 
Hos5i3.  Tiglath-pileser  himself  in  his  in- 
scriptions records  that  he  received  tribute 
from  '  Menahem  of  Samaria.' 

20.  Exacted  the  money]  The  sovereigns  of 
Judah  usually  bribed  their  foreign  allies,  or 
bought  off  foreign  invaders  by  drawing  upon 
the  treasures  stored  in  the  Temple  (IK  15 1^ 
2  K 12 18  16  s  1815);  though  Jehoiakim  followed 
the  same  course  as  Menahem,  and  taxed  his 
subjects  (233''). 

25.   Pekah]  IMenahem  and  his  son  Pekahiah 
had  depended  for  support  upon  the  protection 
of  Assyria  ;    but  Pekah  belonged  to  a  faction 
which  was  opposed  to  Assyrian  influences. 
Palace]  RV  •  castle '  :  cp.  1 K 16  is. 
27.  Twenty  years]  The  Assyrian  inscriptions 
show  that  no  more  than  four  years  separated  the 
close  of  Pekah's  reign  from  that  of  Menahem, 
so  that  the  latter  here  must  be  over-estimated. 
29.  Tiglath-pileser]   see  on  v.  19.     The  in- 
vasion here  described  was  connected  with  the 
attack  made  by  Pekah  and  his  ally  Rezin  of 
Damascus,  upon  Ahaz  of  Judah  (165  f.).    Of  the 
places  taken  by  Tiglath-pileser  Ijon  and  Abel- 
beth-Maachah  were  near  the  sources  of  the 
Jordan,    N.    of    Lake    Merom  ;    Kedesh  and 
Hazor  lay  to  the  W.  of  the  same  lake  ;  the 
site   of   Janoah   is   uncertain.     Carried   them 
captive]   This  deportation  took  place  in  734 
B.C.     It  is  recorded  by  Tiglath-pileser  himself 
in  his  own  inscriptions,  though  he  says  exag- 
geratedly that  he  deported  '  the  whole  of  the 
inhabitants.'     The  purpose  of  such  wholesale 
removals   of  the  population  of  a  conquered 
country  was  to  destroy  national  sentiment  and 
traditions,  and  so  prevent  all  attempts  to  re- 
cover independence  by  killing  the  aspiration 
for  it. 

30.  Hoshea  .  .  conspiracy]  Hoshea  pursued 
a  different  policy  to  Pekah  and  sought  Assyrian 
support  by  paying  tribute  (17  3).  In  the 
twentieth  year]  According  to  v.  33  Jotham 
reigned  only  16  years,  and  Pekah's  reign  was 
contemporary  with  part  of  that  of  Ahaz  (171). 
35.  He  built,  etc.]  Other  allusions  to  his 
buildings  occur  in  2Ch273. 

36.The  rest .  .  Jotham]  see  2  Ch 27  2-8.  The 
prosperity  which  Judah  enjoyed  during  Uz- 
ziah's  reign  continued  through  that  of  his 
successor  (if  Isa  2  may  be  taken  as  descriptive 
of  it)  ;  but  the  accumulation  of  wealth  was 
accompanied  by  religious  corruption :  see 
Isa 2 6-8.  37.  Rezin.  .  Pekah]  The  war  which 
broke  out  in  the  reign  of  Ahaz  was  threatening 
during  the  reign  of  Jotham  (see  on  16  5). 


CHAPTER  16 


Ahaz  and  Assyria 

This  c.  describes  the  reign  of  Ahaz  of  Judah, 
his  appeal  to  Assyria  when  attacked  by  Pekah 
of  Israel  and  Rezin  of  Syria,  and  the  overthrow 
of  Damascus  by  the  king  of  Assyria. 

3.  He  walked,  etc.]  see  2  Ch  28  2  where  he  is 
described  as  making  images  for  Baalim.  Made 
his  son  . .  fire]  Children  were  sometimes  actually 
sacrificed  and  burnt  (see  17^1  32"),  and  the 
same  thing  may  be  meant  here,  but  some  think 
that  the  rite  here  described  was  a  kind  of 
ceremonial  purification  by  fire,  the  child  being 
merely  passed  across,  or  over,  the  flame  in  the 
course  of  idolatrous  worship.  Ahaz  is  the 
first  Jud^an  king  who  is  said  to  have  adopted 
this  practice  ;  but  he  was  followed  in  it  by 
Manasseh  (21^),  and  frequent  protests  against 
it  occur  in  the  writings  of  successive  prophets 
(Jer73i  195Ezk202«,  etc.). 

5.  Came  up  to  Jerusalem]  Pekah's  policy 
was  to  oppose  the  Assyrians,  and  in  conjunction 
with  Rezin  he  sought  to  induce  Ahaz  to  join  a 
coalition  against  them.  Failing  to  persuade 
him,  they  took  up  arms  for  the  purpose  of 
dethroning  him,  and  replacing  him  by  '  the 
son  of  Tabeal '  (Isa  7  6),  who  was  either  a 
creature  of  the  two  confederates,  or  Pekah 
himself  ('  Tabeal '  being  a  cypher  for  Remaliah, 
the  name  of  Pekah's  father).  The  successes 
of  the  invaders  are  described  in  2Ch285-i5j  but 
though  they  inflicted  much  loss  on  Judah,  they 
failed  to  take  Jerusalem. 

6.  To  Syria  .  .  the  Syrians]  The  context 
requires  '  to  Edom  .  .  the  Edomites '  (the  latter 
correction  being  found  in  the  LXX),  since 
Elath  had  belonged  to  Edom  and  had  been 
taken  from  it  by  Azariah  (Uzziah,  lA'^^).  Ac- 
cording to  2  Ch28i'^  the  Edomites  took  part  in 
the  war. 

7.  Sent .  .  Tiglath-pileser]  This  step  was 
opposed  by  the  prophet  Isaiah,  who  counselled 
Ahaz  to  put  his  trust  in  the  Lord,  and  asserted 
that  the  combination  against  him  was  not 
really  formidable  and  would  soon  be  over- 
throwm  (i.e.  by  Assyria,  whom  they  had  pro- 
voked). As  a  sign  to  reassure  the  king  the 
prophet  predicted  the  birth  of  a  child  whom 
his  mother  would  call  Immanuel  ('  God  with 
us  ')  ;  and  declared  that  before  he  ceased  to  be 
an  infant,  both  Israel  and  Syria  would  be 
deprived  of  their  kings.  Ahaz,  however,  dis- 
regarded Isaiah's  comisel  ;  and  the  prophet 
accordingly  predicted  that  the  intervention 
of  Assyria  which  he  was  inviting  would  be 
attended  by  calamities  for  Judah  as  well  as 
for  her  enemies.     See  Isa  7. 

8.  Sent  //  for  a  present]  Tiglath-pileser,  in 
his  inscriptions,  records  that  he  received  tribute 
from  'Jehoahaz  of  Judah,'  Jehoahaz  being 
probably  the  full  name  of  Ahaz. 


238 


16.9 


2  KINGS 


17.  13 


g.  Hearkened  unto  him]  The  adhesion  of 
Judah  would  facilitate  Assyria's  operations 
against  Egypt.  Damascus]  Damascus  was 
taken  and  its  people  deported  in  732  B.C.,  the 
event  having  been  predicted  by  Amos  (1 5). 

Kir]  near  the  lower  Euphi-ates,  the  original 
home  of  the  Syrian  people  (Am  9  "). 

10.  Went  to  Damascus]  perhaps  to  do 
homage  to  the  Assyrian  king  there.  Saw  an 
altar]  probably  of  Assyrian  pattern,  since 
Ahaz  would  be  more  likely  to  introduce  into 
his  own  land  the  religion  of  the  victors  than 
of  the  vanquished,  ii.  Urijah]  perhaps  the 
Urijah  of  IsaS^.  13.  Meat  offering]  EV 
'  meal  offering  '  :  and  so  in  v.  15. 

14.  The  brasen  altar]  i.e.  the  altar  con- 
structed by  Solomon  (IK 8 64).  This  had 
hitherto  occupied  a  central  position  in  the 
court  in  front  of  the  Temple  ;  but  now,  in 
order  to  make  room  for  the  new  altar  (the 
'great  altar'  of  v.  15),  was  placed  between  the 
latter  and  the  N.  side  of  the  court. 

15.  To  enquire  by]  i.e.  to  obtain  indications 
of  the  divine  will,  possibly  by  the  inspection 
of  the  victims  that  were  offered  upon  it.  But 
some  render,  '  shall  be  left  for  further  con- 
sideration.' If  this  is  correct,  Ahaz  was  too 
busy  with  his  new  altar  to  decide  what  was  to 
become  of  the  other  that  was  consecrated  to 
the  service  of  the  Lord.  17.  The  borders] 
RV  '  the  panels  '  :  i.e.  of  the  stands  of  the  ten 
lavers  made  for  Solomon  :  see  1 K  7  27-39_ 

The  sea]  i.e.  the  molten  sea  (1K7 23-2(3). 
Ahaz  probably  removed  these  various  works 
of  art  to  conceal  them  from  the  cupidity  of 
the  Assyrians. 

18.  The  covert]  RV  'the  covered  way'  : 
not  mentioned  in  the  description  of  Solomon's 
Temple.  Turned  he  from]  RV  '  he  turned 
unto.'  What  is  meant  is  obscure.  For]  RV 
'  because  of  ' :  probably  the  alterations  described 
were  intended  to  make  the  Temple  appear 
less  attractive,  lest  the  Assyrian  king  should 
wish  to  dismantle  it  and  appropriate  its 
decorations. 

19.  The  rest  of  the  acts  of  Ahaz]  see  2  Ch 
28  24)  25.  In  Isa  7  is  an  account  of  the  inter- 
view between  Ahaz  and  the  prophet  Isaiah 
alluded  to  in  the  note  on  v.  7. 

CHAPTER  17 
The  Fall  of  Samaria 

This  c.  relates  the  reign  of  Hoshea.  He 
intrigued  with  Egypt  and  i-ebelled  against 
Assyria  ;  and  Samaria,  in  consequence,  was 
taken  and  its  people  carried  into  captivity, 
their  place  being  filled  by  a  mixed  population. 

I.  Hoshea]  Hoshea,  unlike  Pekah  (IG^), 
belonged  to  the  faction  in  Samaria  which  re- 
lied on  Assyrian  support,  and  Tiglath-pileser, 
in  his  inscriptions,  states  that  after  he  had 
slain  Pekah,  he  '  appointed  '   Hoshea  to  rule 


over  Israel,  and  received  as  tribute  10  talents 
of  gold  and  1,000  talents  of  silver. 

3.  Shalmaneser]  succeeded  Tiglath-pileser, 
his  reign  lasting  from  727  to  723  B.C. 

Gave  him  presents]  i.e.  rendered  him  tribute. 

4.  So]  This  king,  whose  name  should  perhaps 
be  written  Seve,  is  generally  identified  with  Sa- 
bako,  the  first  king  of  the  25th  dynasty,  though 
some  authorities  regard  him  as  a  petty  prince 
who  was  vassal  of  the  Pharaoh.  The  inter- 
ference of  Assyria  with  the  Israelite  kingdoms 
raised  the  fears  of  Egypt,  which  accordingly 
encouraged  any  disaffection  which  the  Israelite 
sovereigns  manifested  towards  their  Assyrian 
over-lords.  But  the  hopes  whichHoshea  enter- 
tained of  Egyptian  support  proved  as  delusive 
to  him  as  they  did  subsequently  to  Hezekiah 
and  Zedekiah  :  cp.  Isa303  31 1  Jer37  7.  Shut 
him  up,  and  bound  him]  Possibly  Hoshea  was 
either  captured,  or  surrendered  before  his 
capital  was  taken. 

6.  The  king  of  Assyria]  Not  Shalmaneser 
(v.  3),  who  ched  before  Samaria  was  captured, 
but  his  successor,  Sargon  (723-705).  The  fall 
of  Samaria  took  place  in  722  B.C.  Carried 
Israel  away]  The  numbers  deported,  as  given 
in  Sargon's  own  inscription,  amounted  to 
27,280  ;  so  that  a  considerable  population  must 
have  been  left  behind  :  cp.  2Ch349.  Of  the 
localities  where  the  captives  were  settled, 
Halah  is  not  known.  In  Habor  hi/  the  river 
of  Gozan]  should  be  '  on  Habor '  (the  Chaboras, 
mod.  Khabour),  '  the  river  of  Gozan  '  (part  of 
Mesopotamia).  The  cities  (LXX  'mountains') 
of  the  Medes]  S.  of  the  Caspian  Sea. 

8.  The  kings  of  Israel]  especially  Jeroboam, 
who  introduced  the  calf -worship,  and  Ahab, 
who  introduced  Baal  worship. 

9.  The  tower  of  the  watchmen]  i.e.  the 
watch  towers  erected  for  solitary  guardians  of 
the  vineyards  and  flocks  in  lonely  localities, 
the  phrase  from  the  tower  .  .  fenced  city  thus 
embracing  thinly  and  thickly  populated  places. 

12.  Ye  shall  not  do  this  thing]  cp.  Dtl23i. 
Some  of  the  pillars  and  Asherim  (so  read  for 
'  images  and  groves'  in  v.  10)  were  probably, 
like  the  calves,  erected  in  honour  of  the  Lord, 
and  the  LXX  after  '  things '  adds  '  unto  the 
Lord.'  If  so  they  had  an  evil  tendency, 
because  they  were  associated  with  the  cor- 
ruptions of  the  old  Canaanite  worship. 

13.  By  all  the  prophets]  Among  the  pro- 
phets who  laboured  in  Israel  were  Ahijah, 
Jehu  (son  of  Hanani),  Elijah,  Elisha,  Micaiah, 
Jonah,  Oded,  Amos,  and  Hosea  ;  whilst  those 
who  ministered  in  Judah  included  (up  to  the 
time  here  indicated)  Shemaiah,  Iddo,  Azariah, 
Hanani,  Jehu,  Zechariah  (son  of  Jehoiada), 
Micah,  and  Isaiah.  Through  such  agents  God 
exhorted  and  warned  His  people  before  send- 
ing upon  them  the  punishments  which  their 
sins  deserved. 


239 


17.  15 


2  KINGS 


18.  4 


15.  Vanity]  often  applied  to  idols  (IK  16 1^) 

16.  All  the  host  of  heaven]  i.e.  the  stars. 
There  is  no  previous  reference  in  Kings  to 
this  form  of  idolatry  in  N.  Israel,  but  an  allu- 
sion to  it  occiu-s  in  Am  5  26,  where  the  name 
'  Chiun  '  probably  denotes  the  planet  Saturn. 
Warnings  against  it  are  found  in  Dt4i9  173. 

19.  Walked  .  .  Israel]  as  when  Athaliah,  the 
daughter  of  Ahab,  introduced  Baal  worship  : 
cp.  818.27  163.  20.  All  the  seed]  The  writer 
here  anticipates  the  futru-e,  and  refers  to  the 
destruction  of  Jerusalem,  an  event  which  he 
still  has  to  relate. 

24.  Brought  men  from,  etc.]  Of  the  names 
that  follow,  Babylon  was  on  the  Euphrates  ; 
Cuthah  was  between  the  Euphrates  and  the 
Tigris  ;  Ava,  perhaps  the  Ivah  of  18^4,  is 
identified  by  some  with  the  Ahava  of  EzrS^^  ; 
Hamath  was  on  the  Orontes  ;  Sepharvaim  ('  the 
two  Sippars  ')  was  in  Babylonia.  The  con- 
quest of  some  of  these  places  is  alluded  to  in 
18  ^-i.  Sargon  in  one  of  his  inscriptions  men- 
tions the  transportation  of  some  of  the  in- 
habitants of  Babylon  to  '  the  land  Khatti,' 
which,  though  strictly  designating  the  country 
of  the  Hittites,  may  be  intended  to  denote 
Palestine  generally  ;  but  according  to  another 
inscription  the  people  settled  in  Samaria 
consisted  of  Arabian  tribes. 

25.  Lions]  These,  which  were  common  in 
the  Jordan  valley,  would  multiply  in  conse- 
quence of  the   depopulation   of  the  country. 

26.  The  manner]  i.e.  the  ordinances  of  wor- 
ship. 27.  One  of  the  priests]  The  priests  alone 
were  acquainted  with  the  proper  ritual.  Let 
them]  i.e.  the  priest  and  his  attendants. 

30.  Succoth-benoth]  perhaps  Zir-banit,  the 
wife  of  Merodach.  Nergal]  the  AssjTian  god 
of  war.  31.  Adrammelech  and  Anammelech] 
probably  the  gods  Adar  and  Ann,  with  the 
addition  of  the  word  '  melech  '  ('  king '). 

32.  Of  the  lowest  of  them]  better,  '  of  all 
classes  ' ;  op.  1  K 12  31. 

33.  They  feared  the  LORD  and  served,  etc.] 
cp.  V.  41.  The  religion  that  prevailed  was 
a  combination  of  the  worship  of  the  Lord 
(Jehovah),  as  the  God  of  the  land  of  Israel 
(v.  27),  with  that  of  the  various  deities  adored 
by  the  different  nations  from  which  the  settlers 
were  drawn.  The  worship  of  the  Lord  was 
maintained  among  them  as  late  as  the  return 
of  the  Jews  under  Zerubbabel  (see  Ezr42,  one 
reading)  ;  and  they  approached  the  latter  with 
a  request  to  be  allowed  to  share  in  the  restor- 
ation of  the  Temple.  Whom  they  carried 
away  from  thence]  RV  '  from  among  whom 
they '  (the  settlers)  '  had  been  carried  away.' 

34.  They  fear  not  the  LORD]  i.e.  the  wor- 
ship of  the  Lord  implied  in  v.  33  was  not 
such  as  God  desired. 

41.  Unto  this  day]  i.e.  as  late  as  the  time 
of  the  writer  of  the  passage,  though  whether 


the  statement  proceeds  from  the  compiler  of 
the  book,  or  from  one  of  his  authorities,  is  not 
certain. 

The  Israelite  exiles,  whose  native  land  was 
thus  occupied  by  strangers,  lost  their  nation- 
ality in  the  country  of  their  captivity,  and 
never  again  formed  a  distinct  community. 
When,  however,  the  people  of  Judah  were  de- 
ported some  150  years  later  into  Babylon  by 
Nebuchadnezzar,  individual  members  of  the 
northern  tribes  joined  themselves  to  them  in 
the  com"se  of  the  Exile,  and  accompanied  them 
back  to  Palestine  when  Cyrus  the  Persian  per- 
mitted them  to  return  to  their  homes.  In 
lCh93  'children  of  Ephraim  and  Manasseh,' 
as  well  as  of  Judah  and  Benjamin,  are  men- 
tioned as  dwelling  in  Jerusalem  after  the  Re- 
turn ;  and  Anna  the  prophetess  was  of  the 
tribe  of  Asher  (Lk236) ;  cp.  also  Tob  1 1  Judith 
615.  But  in  2  Esdr  1339-47  it  is  related  that  the 
Ten  Tribes,  after  being  carried  into  Assyria 
by  Shalmaneser,  decided  to  leave  the  heathen 
and  go  forth  '  into  a  further  country  where 
never  mankind  dwelt,  that  they  might  there 
keep  their  statutes  which  they  never  kept  in 
their  own  land  ' ;  and  from  thence  their  restor- 
ation is  predicted.  These  Lost  Tribes  have 
been  fancifully  identified  with  various  nations, 
including  our  own. 

CHAPTER  18 
Hezekiah  and  Sennacherib 
This  c.  describes  the  reign  of  Hezekiah  of 
Judah,  his  religious  reforms,  and  the  invasion 
of  Judah  by  Sennacherib,  king  of  Assyria, 
who  sent  one  of  his  officers  to  demand  the 
surrender  of  Jerusalem. 

1.  Now  it  came  to  pass,  etc.]  The  northern 
kingdom  having  been  destroyed,  the  history  is 
henceforward  confined  to  the  events  connected 
with  Judah  only. 

2.  Twenty  and  five  years  old]  Probably  an 
error,  for  if  Ahaz  was  only  36  at  his  death 
(162)  iiis  son  could  scarcely  be  25. 

4.  He  removed  the  high  places]  cp.  v.  22. 
This  was  the  first  attempt  to  put  an  end  to 
the  provincial  shrines  which  had  co-existed 
with  the  Temple  as  seats  of  worship  from  the 
time  of  Solomon  onward  :  see  1 K 1 4  23  1 5 14 
2243  2  K 123  14 M5 4.  Though  dedicated  to  the 
service  of  the  Lord,  the  rites  conducted  at 
them  were  peculiarly  liable  to  corruption,  and 
the  interests  of  true  religion  were  now  seen  to 
require  their  abolition.  But  the  religious 
reform  here  described  cannot  have  been  very 
thorough,  for  the  '  high  places '  built  by  Solo- 
mon for  his  foreign  wives  were  not  destroyed 
until  the  reign  of  Josiah  (2  K  23 13)  ;  and  Isaiah, 
in  prophecies  belonging  to  this  reign,  alludes 
to  graven  and  molten  images  as  being  still 
objects  of  adoration  (Isa  30  2-  3 1 7).  The  brasen 
serpent]  see  Nu219.     Nothing  is  recorded  of 


240 


18.5 


2  KINGS 


18.  22 


its  history  since  the  time  of  Moses .  Nehushtan  ] 
It  is  not  clear  whether  this  was  the  name  ('  the 
Brasen ')  by  which  it  was  known  when  an  ob- 
ject of  worship,  or  a  term  of  contempt  ('  a 
mere  piece  of  brass ')  applied  to  it  when  marked 
for  destruction. 

5.  None  like  him]  The  same  praise  is  given 
to  Josiah  (23  ^s). 

7.  The  Lord  was  with  him]  Though  Heze- 
kiah,  in  consequence  of  pursuing  a  mistaken 
policy,  experienced  great  calamities  in  the 
course  of  his  reign,  yet  his  fidelity  to  the  Lord 
had  its  reward  in  a  signal  overthrow  of  the 
same  Assyrian  power  that  within  Hezekiah's 
lifetime  had  destroyed  the  much  stronger 
kingdom  of  Israel. 

He  rebelled]  It  may  be  inferred  from  Isa 
1428-32  that  Hezekiah  at  the  beginning  of  his 
reign  received  from  the  Philistines  a  proposal 
urging  him  to  join  a  movement  against  Assyria, 
but  that  Isaiah,  confident  that  the  Lord  would 
protect  Zion,  sought  to  dissuade  him  from  ac- 
cepting it.  Probably  Isaiah's  counsel  prevailed, 
and  the  king  continued  for  a  time  to  be  a 
vassal  of  Assyria.  But  when  in  705  Sargon 
was  succeeded  by  Sennacherib,  several  of  the 
vassal  states  again  attempted  to  regain  their 
independence  ;  and  with  a  view  to  obtaining 
Hezekiah's  help,  envoys  were  sent  to  Judah 
(about  703)  by  Merodach  Baladan  of  Babylon 
(see  20 1"^*-)  and  by  the  Ethiopians  (Isa  18),  the 
latter  probably  on  behalf  of  the  king  of  Egypt. 
At  the  Judaean  court  the  hope  of  an  Egyptian 
alliance  exercised  a  strong  attraction  (see  Isa 
30,  31),  but  it  was  opposed  by  Isaiah,  who  con- 
tinued to  advocate  confidence  in  the  Lord,  the 
promotion  of  social  and  religious  reforms,  and 
abstention  from  foreign  entanglements.  Even- 
tually those  who  supported  the  alliance  with 
Egypt  prevailed  ;  and  in  701  Hezekiah,  in  co- 
operation with  a  section  of  the  Philistines, 
rebelled  against  Assyria. 

8.  Smote  the  Philistines]  probably  such  as 
remained  loyal  to  Assyi-ia. 

9.  Shalmaneser  .  .  came  up]  vv.  9-12  repeat 
in  brief  the  account  of  the  capture  of  Samaria 
already  given  in  17 5*.  11.  The  cities  of  the 
Medes]  Media  was  the  mountainous  district 
S.  of  the  Caspian. 

13.  In  the  fourteenth  year]  The  Assyrian 
invasion  here  described  took  place  in  701,  and 
therefore  according  to  this  v.  Hezekiah's  acces- 
sion was  in  714  ;  but  v.  10  states  that  Samaria, 
which  fell  in  722,  was  captured  in  Hezekiah's 
'  sixth '  year,  which  makes  727  the  date  of  his 
.  accession.  The  section  vv.  13,  17-37  recurs 
in  Isa  36 1-22. 

Sennacherib]  succeeded  Sargon  in  705. 
The  beginning  of  his  reign  was  much  dis- 
turbed, and  his  first  campaign  was  against  the 
Babylonian  prince,  Merodach  Baladan,  whom 
I       he  drove  from  his  capital.     This  was  followed 


by  an  invasion  of  the  Cassi,  a  people  of  Elam  ; 
and  then  in  701  he  undertook  the  expedition 
against  Judah  and  the  other  Palestinian  states, 
which  is  described  in  the  text. 

Against  all  the  fenced  cities]  Sennacherib 
in  his  inscriptions  relates  that  he  captured  forty- 
six  cities  of  Judah  and  deported  more  than 
200,000  of  the  inhabitants.  Hezekiah  himself 
was  besieged  in  his  capital  and  compelled  to 
tender  submission,  as  recorded  in  v.  14. 

14.  Lachish]  The  place  at  this  time  was  being 
besieged  by  Sennacherib  (2Ch329).  Three 
hundred  talents]  According  to  the  inscrip- 
tions the  fine  was  800  talents  of  silver  and 
30  talents  of  gold,  besides  other  treasures. 

17.  The  king-  of  Assyria  sent]  It  is  pro- 
bable that  the  surrender,  described  in  v.  14, 
was  expected  by  the  Jews  to  secure  their  city 
from  further  molestation  ;  but  Sennacherib 
was  moving  towards  Egypt,  and  doubtless 
thought  it  dangerous  to  leave  so  strong  a 
fortress  in  other  hands  than  his  own.  The 
consequent  demand  for  its  capitulation,  here 
recorded,  exposed  Sennacherib  to  the  charge 
of  breaking  his  covenant  :  see  Isa  33^. 

Tartan  .  .  Rabsaris  . .  Rab-shakeh]  the  titles 
of  military  officers,  meaning  respectively 
'  commander-in-chief,'  '  chief  of  the  princes,' 
and  '  chief  of  the  captains.'  The  conduit  of 
the  upper  pool]  This  pool  has  been  identified 
by  some  with  the  modern  Birket  Mamilla, 
situated  W.  of  the  city  ;  but  more  probably  it 
is  the  pool  of  Siloam,  near  the  S.  end  of  Mt. 
Zion,  to  which  the  conduit  here  mentioned 
carried  water  from  the  spring  of  Gihon  in 
the  Kidron  valley  (see  on  1 K 1 33). 

18.  Shebna]  Shebna,  who,  from  his  name, 
was  probably  a  foreigner,  had  previously 
occupied  the  position  now  filled  by  Eliakim 
(Isa  22 15)^  and  seems  to  have  advocated 
reliance  upon  the  support  of  Egypt,  a  policy 
which  Isaiah  had  opposed.  When  Hezekiah 
was  compelled  to  make  submission  to  the 
Assyrian  king,  Shebna  naturally  fell  into  dis- 
grace and  was  degraded  to  an  inferior  office, 
Eliakim  being  promoted  in  his  room. 

21.  This  bruised  reed]  For  a  similar  con- 
temptuous estimate  of  Egypt  cp.  Ezk  29  '^. 

Pharaoh]  This  was  probably  Shabako,  the 
successor  of  So  (17  3).  The  inability  of  Egypt 
to  help  those  who  trusted  it,  as  shown  in  the 
case  of  Hoshea  of  Israel  (see  17-*-6),  was  again 
displayed  by  the  defeat  of  an  Egj-ptian  army 
at  Eltekeh,  which  had  come  to  relieve  Ekron, 
one  of  the  Philistine  towns  besieged  by  Senna- 
cherib. It  was  this  success  which  left  the 
Assyrian  king  free  to  invade  Judah,  as 
described  in  v.  13.  22.  Whose  high  places, 
etc.]  Rabshakeh  thought  that  such  sacrilege 
was  calculated  to  provoke  the  anger  of  the 
Lord,  whereas  Hezekiah's  action  really  con- 
duced to  religious  purity  :  see  on  v.  4. 


16 


241 


18.  23 


2  KINGS 


19.29 


23.  Give  pledges]   RM  '  make  a  wager.' 

24.  Put  thy  trust .  .  horsemen]  For  reliance 
upon  Egypt  for  a  supply  of  horses  see 
Isa31i-3.  25.  Am  I  now  come  up  without 
the  Lord  ?]  He  might  have  regarded  his 
capture  of  the  Judsean  cities,  described  in 
V.  13,  as  an  indication  that  the  Lord  had 
given  them  up  into  his  hand  because  of 
Hezekiah's  action  in  removing  the  high  places. 

26.  The  Syrian  language]  i.e.  Ai-amean,  a 
language  which  served  as  the  principal  medium 
of  intercourse  between  the  various  nationalities 
in  the  East.  This  would  be  intelligible  to  the 
state  officials  both  of  Assyria  and  Judah,  but 
unfamiliar  to  the  bulk  of  the  citizens  of 
Jerusalem  ;  and  so  Eliakim,  who  desired  to 
keep  both  the  threats  and  promises  of  the 
Assyrian  officer  from  the  multitude,  wished 
the  conference  to  be  conducted  in  it. 

27.  That  they  may  eat,  etc.]  The  garrison 
had  taken  up  their  position  on  the  ramparts, 
with  all  the  extremities  of  starvation  before 
them  ;  and  Rabshakeh  now  appealed  from 
the  king  and  his  advisers  to  the  rank  and  file 
of  his  army  (in  violation  of  all  honoui'able 
usage). 

31.  Come  out]  i.e.  capitulate,  before  incur- 
ring the  further  calamities  of  a  protracted 
siege. 

34.  Hamath,  etc.]  For  most  of  the  towns 
here  named  see  on  17  24.  Arpad  has  been 
identified  with  some  ruins  NW.  of  Aleppo. 

35.  That  the  Lord  should  deliver,  etc.]  The 
Assyrian  argued  that  the  national  god  of  a 
little  state  like  Judah  would  not  be  able  to 
defend  His  people  more  efi:ectually  than  the 
deities  of  other  nations,  subdued  by  the 
Assyrians,  had  done.  He  had  to  learn  that 
the  God  of  the  Jews  was  also  the  Lord  of  all 
the  earth. 

CHAPTER   19 
The  Deliverance  of  Jerusalem 

2.  Isaiah  the  prophet]  This  is  the  first 
mention  of  Isaiah  in  this  book,  but  his  own 
writings  show  that  he  had  been  an  active 
teacher  and  statesman  not  only  during  the 
earlier  years  of  Hezekiah  himself,  but  also 
during  the  reign  of  Hezekiah's  predecessor 
Ahaz  :  see  on  16  ^  18''.  The  chapters  in  the 
prophet's  writings  which  relate  to  the  present 
occasion  are  105-12«  14^4-27  1712-u  22,  29-33, 
36,  37  (the  last  two  of  which  substantially 
repeat  ZK 18,  19). 

3.  Blasphemy]  RV  '  contumely '  :  such  as 
the  nation  was  experiencing  at  the  hands  of 
the  invader.  The  children .  .  bring  forth]  a 
figure  for  powerlessness  in  the  time  of  peril. 

4.  Remnant]  cp.  v.  30,  IsalO'^*^.  A  large 
number  of  the  Judaean  cities  had  been  captured 
(see  on  18 1^),  so  that  the  population  of  the 
capital  might  well  be  thus  described.     7.   Send 


a  blast  upon  him]  RV  '  put  a  spirit  in  him ' : 
i.e.  an  impulse  of  fear.  A  rumour]  111  tidings 
respecting  his  army,  which  was  destined  shortly 
to  perish  in  its  advance  against  Egypt. 

8.  Returned]  to  Sennacherib.  Libnah .  . 
Lachish]  in  southern  Judah. 

9.  Tirhakah]  an  Ethiopian,  who  was  at  first 
the  general  and  subsequently  the  successor 
of  the  Egyptian  king  Shabako  (18^1).  He 
was  contemporary  not  only  with  Sennacherib, 
but  with  his  two  successors,  Esarhaddon  and 
Asshurbanipal. 

12.  Gozan,  etc.]  These  places  were  all  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  the  Euphrates.  Gozan 
is  mentioned  in  17  ^  ;  Haran  in  Gn  1 1  ^^  ;  Eden 
in  Ezk2723.  13.  Hamath]  see  on  1724.  It 
had  revolted  against  Sargon  in  720  B.C.,  but 
the  insurrection  was  crushed  and  its  king 
Jahubidi  slain. 

15.  Thou  .  .  even  thou  alone]  Whereas  Sen- 
nacherib had  counted  the  God  of  Israel  among 
a  number  of  deities  all  equally  unable  to  with- 
stand him  (1832"35),  Hezekiah  here  asserts  that 
the  Lord  (Jehovah)  is  the  only  God,  and 
implies  that  whatever  the  Assyrian  had 
accomplished  had  been  done  by  His  per- 
mission. 19.  That  all ..  may  know]  If  a 
small  kingdom  like  Judah  successfully  re- 
sisted Assyria,  it  could  only  be  through  the 
supremacy  of  its  God. 

21.  The  daughter  of  Zion]  For  the  per- 
sonification of  a  city  as  a  woman  cp.  Mic4io 
Isa23  1(^.12  471*.  23.  The  lodgings,  etc.]  RV 
'  his  farthest  lodging  place,  the  forest  of  his 
fruitful  field.' 

24.  I  have  digged  .  .  waters]  Sennacherib 
implies  that  the  progress  of  his  armies  on 
foreign  soil  could  not  be  hindered  by  the 
enemy  stopping  up  the  water-springs:  he  at 
once  digs  fresh  wells.  Besieged  places]  RV 
'  Egypt.'  The  numerous  channels  of  the  Nile 
were  ordinarily  a  means  of  defence  to  Egypt 
(cp.  Nah3S),  but  Sennacherib  implies  that 
they  were  inadequate  to  stay  his  advance. 

25.  Hast  thou  .  .  done  it]  This  begins  the 
Lord's  response  to  Sennacherib's  boastings. 
The  Assyrian  king  had  in  reality  only  been 
an  agent  deputed  to  carry  out  the  divine 
purposes:  cp.  IsalOi2f.  47''  Zech  1 15. 

28.  My  hook]  cp.  Ezk38'*.  The  expression 
may  be  an  allusion  either  to  the  method 
adopted  for  controlling  wild  animals  (cp. 
Ezkl94),  or  to  a  practice  employed  by  the 
Assyrians  towards  their  captives  :  see  2  Ch 
3311  RM. 

29.  A  sign  unto  thee]  i.e.  unto  Hezekiah. 
The  occurrence  of  the  earlier  and  harsher 
part  of  the  prophet's  prediction  would  be 
a  warranty  for  the  fulfilment  of  the  later 
and  more  cheerful  portion  of  his  message, 
viz.  that  the  land  should  be  free  from  in- 
vasion and  cultivated  in  peace.     This  year . , 


242 


19.30 


2  KINGS 


20.  17 


the  third  year]  The  reckoning  is  inclusive, 
'  this  year  '  meaning  the  year  of  the  invasion, 
and  '  the  third  year '  being  the  second  year 
after  it. 

30.  The  remnant]  cp.  v.  3.  The  popula- 
tion, so  sadly  thinned  by  the  war,  would  again 
recover  its  strength  and  numbers.  31.  Out 
of  Jerusalem,  etc.]  The  country  folk  that  had 
been  driven  into  the  capital  by  the  invasion 
would  again  return  to  their  homes.  32.  Cast 
a  bank]  a  mound  of  earth  with  an  inclined 
surface,  raised  against  the  wall  of  a  besieged 
city  to  enable  the  besiegers  to  reach  the  top. 

34.  Mine  own  sake]  God's  intentions  to- 
wards His  people  could  not  be  foiled  alto- 
gether through  the  sins  of  the  latter  ;  so  that 
though  the  divine  justice  had  demanded  the 
chastisement  of  the  nation,  the  divine  faith- 
fulness required  that  it  should  be  preserved 
from  complete  destruction. 

35.  The  angel  of  the  LORD]  cp.  Ex  12  23. 
In  2S2415,  i<3  the  pestilence  that  punished 
David's  numbering  of  the  people  is  attributed 
to  an  angel  ;  and  it  is  probable  that  it  was  a 
similar  calamity  that  destroyed  Sennacherib's 
army.  It  seems  more  likely  that  the  disaster 
occurred  in  the  low-lying  ground  on  the 
Egyptian  frontiers  than  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Jerusalem  ;  and  the  Greek  historian, 
Herodotus,  who  gives  a  fanciful  account  of 
an  overthrow  sustained  by  the  Assyrians  in  a 
campaign  against  Egypt,  places  it  near  Pelu- 
sium.  But  wherever  and  however  it  happened, 
it  was  a  signal  confirmation  of  Isaiah's  faith 
in  the  Lord  and  a  striking  vindication  of  his 
prescience. 

36.  Nineveh]  its  ruins  have  been  found 
opposite  the  modern  Mosul. 

37.  His  sons  smote  him]  Sennacherib's 
death  did  not  occur  until  some  20  years  after 
the  destruction  of  his  army,  as  described  in 
V.  35  ;  but  though  he  took  part  in  several 
expeditions  subsequent  to  his  invasion  of 
Judah,  he  never  again  molested  the  Hebrew 
state.  Esarhaddon]  reigned  from  681  B.C.  to 
668. 

CHAPTER  20 
Hezekiah's  Sickness  and  Recovery 
I,  In  those  days]  The  incidents  related  in 
this  c.  probably  took  place  before  Sennacherib's 
invasion,  for  (a)  the  deliverance  from  the 
Assyrians  is  still  future  (v.  6)  ;  (Jj)  Hezekiah  is 
in  possession  of  great  treasures  (v.  13),  which 
could  scarcely  have  been  the  case  after  the 
surrender  described  in  181'^'^^  ;  (c)  Merodach 
Baladan,  king  of  Babylon,  was  driven  from 
his  throne  before  Sennacherib  attacked  Judah. 
Chronologically,  therefore,  this  c.  should  pre- 
cede 18''*-  Thou  shalt  die]  Prophetic  pre- 
dictions were  generally  conditional  and  not 
absolute  ;  a  threatened   judgment   might   be 


averted  by  repentance  and  a  promised  blessing 
forfeited  by  misconduct :  see  Jer  18  ''■10  26 1^,  19. 

3.  How  I  have  walked,  etc.]  In  the  absence 
of  any  complete  belief  in  a  future  life,  this 
world  was  held  to  be  the  only  sphere  within 
which  God's  moral  governance  of  mankind 
displayed  itself,  length  of  days  being  regarded 
as  the  reward  of  righteousness,  and  a  short 
life  being  thought  to  imply  great  guilt.  Hence 
Hezekiah,  with  the  prospect  of  an  untimely 
death  before  him,  appealed  to  God  to  bear 
witness  to  his  uprightness.  A  perfect  heart] 
i.e.  a  heart  not  divided  between  devotion  to 
the  Lord  and  devotion  to  other  gods  :  cp. 
1 K  8  61  and  contrast  1  K 1 1  ^. 

4.  The  middle  court]  RV  '  the  middle  part 
of  the  city.' 

7.  A  lump  of  figs]  A  plaster  of  figs  is  known 
from  other  sources  to  have  been  used  as  a 
remedy  for  boils,  but  since  Hezekiah  was  '  sick 
unto  death '  (v.  1),  his  cure  is  doubtless  regarded 
as  miraculous. 

8.  What  shall  he  the  sign,  etc.]  vv.  8-11 
ought  to  precede  the  statement  of  the  king's 
recovery  in  v.  7. 

9.  Shall  the  shadow,  etc.]  better,  as  in  RM, 
'  the  shadow  is  gone  forward  ten  steps,  shall  it 
go  back  ten  steps  '?  ' 

11.  The  dial  of  Ahaz]  Probably  a  platform 
surrounded  by  steps  and  surmounted  by  a 
pillar,  the  shadow  of  which  fell  upon  a  smaller 
or  larger  number  of  the  steps  according  as  the 
sun  mounted  or  declined  in  the  sky.  It  has 
been  conjectured  that  a  slight  alteration  of  the 
length  of  the  sun's  shadow  might  be  produced 
by  a  partial  eclipse  ;  if  so,  the  sign  consisted 
in  the  event  taking  place  in  agreement  with  the 
prophet's  prediction. 

12.  Berodach-baladan]  Isa  39 1  has  the  more 
correct  form  'Merodach-baladan.'  This  prince 
was  a  Chaldean  who  twice  made  himself  master 
of  Babylon  and  was  twice  expelled  from  it  by 
the  Assyrians.  In  2Ch323i  the  motive  of  his 
embassy  is  said  to  have  been  a  wish  to  enquire 
into  the  unusual  occurrence  described  in  v.  1 1  ; 
but  it  is  probable  that  he  likewise  sought  to 
obtain  Hezekiah's  aid  against  the  Assyrians. 

13.  The  house  of  his  armour]  Probably  the 
house  of  the  forest  of  Lebanon  ;  cp.  IKIO^'^ 
Isa228. 

14.  Then  came  Isaiah]  Isaiah  opposed  all 
political  entanglements  as  involving  reliance 
upon  material  resources  instead  of  confidence 
in  the  Lord.  Hezekiah  had  still  to  learn  how 
powerless  was  his  own  strength  or  that  of 
foreign  allies  to  save  him  in  the  hour  of  his 
need. 

17.  Into  Babylon]  The  prophet  probably 
regarded  Babylon  as  a  province  of  Assyria, 
not  as  an  independent  power  ;  and  it  was  to 
Babylon  that  an  Assyi'ian  king  carried  Manasseh 
the  son  of  Hezekiah  (according  to  2  Ch  33 1^). 


243 


20.  19 


2  KINGS 


22.  13 


19.  Good  is  the  word]  Hezekiah  showed  the 
same  submissiveness  as  Eli  had  manifested  on 
a  similar  occasion  (1  SS^^). 

20.  The  rest  of  the  acts]  Among  other  acts 
related  in  2  Ch  29-31  are  the  purification  of  the 
Temple  (desecrated  by  Ahaz),  the  celebration 
of  a  solemn  passover,  and  the  arrangement  of 
the  priestly  courses.  A  pool,  and  a  conduit] 
The  '  pool '  is  probably  the  pool  of  Siloam, 
which  was  fed  by  a  conduit  from  the  spring  of 
Gihon  :  cp.  2Ch3230.  The  'conduit'  was 
perhaps  at  first  a  surface  aqueduct,  which 
Hezekiah  replaced  by  a  tunnel  to  secure  the 
supply  of  water  from  being  interrupted.  Such 
a  tunnel  has  been  found,  and  an  inscription 
describing  its  construction. 

CHAPTEE  21 

The  Reigns  of  Manasseh  and  Amon 
3.  The  high  places,  etc.]  Manasseh  not  only 
restored  the  country  sanctuaries  which  had 
been  destroyed  by  Hezekiah  as  seats  of  cor- 
ruption (see  18*' '^2)^  and  renewed  the  Baal 
worship  practised  by  the  house  of  Ahab  (see 
1118,  and  cp.  IK  1631,32)^  but  also  introduced 
star  worship,  a  form  of  religion  previously  un- 
known in  tfudah.  The  host  of  heaven]  The 
worship  of  the  stars,  which  was  probably  in- 
troduced from  Assyria,  was  conducted  on  the 
flat  roofs  of  the  houses  :  see  Jerl9i3  Zephl^, 
and  cp.  23 11' 12. 

5.  In  the  two  courts]  If  the  view  expressed 
in  the  note  on  1 K  7 1-  be  correct,  the  two 
courts  may  be  the  inner  (or  upper)  court  im- 
mediately surrounding  the  Temple,  and  the 
court  enclosing  the  Palace. 

6.  Pass  through  the  fire]  see  on  16  3.  For 
his  son  2Ch33*^  has  'his  children.'  Observed 
times]  RV  '  practised  augury '  :  by  the  observa- 
tion of  the  clouds,  etc.  Familiar  spirits]  RV 
'  them  that  had  familiar  spirits  '  :  such  persons 
were  believed  to  be  animated  by,  or  to  have 
intercourse  with,  the  spirits  of  the  dead  :  cp. 
1 S  28 ''.  One  of  the  devices  employed  by  them 
was  probably  ventriloquism,  the  spirit  appear- 
ing to  speak  from  the  ground  (Isa8i9  29'*). 

7.  A  graven  image  of  the  grove]  better,  '  a 
carved  Asherah.'  This  was  placed  in  the  Temple 
itself,  whence  it  was  removed  by  Josiah  (23*^). 

9.  Manasseh  seduced  them]  The  evil 
example  of  Manasseh  and  his  court  had  a 
worse  effect  upon  the  people  at  large  than  that 
of  any  previous  Judaean  king,  so  that  at  a  much 
later  date  the  prophet  Jeremiah  declar-ed  that 
it  was  for  what  Manasseh  did  that  the  judg- 
ment announced  by  him  was  to  come  upon  the 
nation  (Jer  IS*). 

II.  The  Amorites]  The  inhabitants  of 
Canaan  had  been  destroyed  for  the  very  ini- 
quities which  Manasseh  was  now  surpassing  : 

cp.  Dtgs. 

13.  The   line   of   Samaria]   The   judgment 


denounced  against  Judah  would  be  carried  out 
with  the  same  precision  and  exactness  as  the 
judgment  that  overtook  the  northern  kingdom 
and  the  dynasty  of  Ahab.  As  a  man  wipeth 
a  dish]  i.e.  Jerusalem  would  be  finished  and 
done  with.  14.  The  remnant]  see  19  3.  Je- 
rusalem had  survived  the  calamities  that  had 
been  inflicted  on  the  rest  of  Judah  by  the 
Assyrians  (1813),  but  it  would  not  be  delivered 
from  the  enemies  that  awaited  it  in  the  future. 

17.  The  rest  of  the  acts]  see  2  Ch  3312-19, 
where  it  is  related  that  Manasseh  was  taken 
captive  by  the  king  of  Assyria  to  Babylon, 
repented  there  of  his  sins,  was  restored  to  his 
kingdom,  and  instituted  a  religious  reformation. 

19.  Jotbah]  cp.  Dtl07  Nu3333. 

CHAPTER  22 

Josiah.     The  finding  of  a  Book  of  the 

Law 

I.   Boscath]  in  Judah  :  cp.  Josh  15 39. 

4.  That  he  may  sum,  etc.]  Josiah  was 
contemplating  a  restoration  of  the  Temple 
similar  to  that  carried  out  previously  by  Joash 
(12'*^-),  and  a  collection  of  money  had  been 
made  for  the  purpose  :  see  2  Ch  34  9.  5.  The 
doers  of  the  work  .  .  to  the  doers  of  the  work] 
The  first  were  the  overseers,  the  second  were 
the  labourers.  7.  There  was  no  reckoning] 
cp.  1215. 

8.  The  book  of  the  law]  As  the  book 
found  in  the  Temple  was  brief  enough  to  be 
read  at  a  single  assembly  (23  2),  whereas  the 
reading  of  the  Law  by  Ezra  occupied  several 
days  (Neh8i8),  it  can  scarcely  have  included 
the  whole  of  the  Pentateuch  ;  and  the  religi- 
ous reforms  that  Josiah  carried  out  after  its 
discovery  and  perusal  (23'**-)  point  to  its 
being  Deuteronomy  only.  Deuteronomy  con- 
tains a  record  of  Moses'  farewell  address  to 
his  countrymen,  and  reproduces  much  of  the 
Mosaic  legislation  that  is  comprised  in 
Ex  20-23,  34.  But  it  does  not  profess  to  be 
written  by  Moses  (indeed,  in  its  present  form 
it  cannot  proceed  from  him  since  it  gives  an 
account  of  his  death,  34  s),  and  there  are  cer- 
tain features  in  it  which,  when  compared  with 
other  parts  of  the  Pentateuch  and  with  the 
history  of  the  period  between  Moses  and 
Joshua,  have  led  many  scholars  to  conclude 
that  it  was  composed  after  the  time  of  Moses 
out  of  materials  of  earlier  date.  Its  conceal- 
ment in  the  Temple  was  probably  due  to  the 
persecution  of  the  worshippers  of  the  Lord 
by  Manasseh,  for  it  condemns  in  particular 
those  idolatries  which  Manasseh  practised. 

13.  Because  our  fathers,  etc.]  Whether 
Deuteronomy  was  actually  written  by  Moses 
or  at  a  later  date,  the  bulk  of  its  teaching  had 
long  been  familiar  to  the  people,  since  it  con- 
tained the  substance  of  the  book  of  the 
covenant  (Ex  24''),  embracing  Ex  20-23. 


244 


22.  14 


2  KINGS 


23.  22 


14.  Huldah]  The  only  other  prophetesses 
mentioned  in  the  OT.  are  Miriam  (Exl5'^0)^ 
Deborah  (Jg44),  and  Noadiah  (NehGi^).  In 
the  college]  RV  '  in  the  second  quarter,'  a 
certain  division  of  the  city  which  in  Zeph  1 10 
is  associated  with  '  the  fish  gate,'  a  gate  in  the 
N.  or  NW.  wall. 

19.  A  curse]  cp.  Dt28i5.  The  condition 
of  Jerusalem  should  be  such  that  people  desir- 
ous of  cursing  theii*  enemies  could  wish  them 
no  worse  a  fate. 

20.  In  peace]  Josiah,  though  he  fell  in 
battle  (23^9^,  yet  was  spared  the  pain  of  wit- 
nessing the  calamities  sustained  by  his  country 
in  the  time  of  his  successors.  He  was  one  of 
'  the  righteous  who  were  taken  away  from  the 
evil  to  come'  (Isa57i). 

CHAPTER  23 

Religious  Reform.     Josiah's  Death 

2.  The  prophets]  Jeremiah,  Habakkuk,  and 
Zephaniah  lived  about  this  time.  Read  in 
their  ears]  cp.  the  similar  proceeding  I'elated 
in  Neh  8  *  *•  3.  By  a  pillar]  or,  '  upon  a  plat- 
form '  :  cp.  11 1^. 

4.  The  priests  of  the  second  order]  probably 
to  be  corrected  into  '  the  second  priest '  (as  in 
25^^),  i.e.  the  high  priest's  deputy.  Grove] 
see  on  217.  g.  xhe  planets]  or,  '  the  signs  of 
the  zodiac'  The  word  is  said  to  mean  '  man- 
sions,' the  stars  being  the  abodes  of  gods. 

6.  Of  the  children  of  the  people]  RV  '  of 
the  common  people':  cp.  Jer2623.  The 
graves  of  the  poorer  classes  were  probably 
made  in  the  ground,  whereas  the  tombs  of  the 
wealthy  were  constructed  in  the  rocks,  and 
were  not  so  available  for  the  purpose  here 
described — viz.  the  defilement  of  the  idolatrous 
emblems  :  cp.  v.  14.  7.  Sodomites]  The 
suppression  of  such  is  directed  in  Dt23i'^>is. 
Hangings]  lit.  '  houses,'  i.e.  tents  which  shel- 
tered the  Asherah  (or  emblem  of  Ashtoreth). 

8.  Defiled  the  high  places]  That  some  of 
these  were  dedicated  to  the  worship  of  the 
Lord  appears  from  the  following  v.,  which 
implies  that  the  priests  who  served  them  were 
priests  of  the  Lord.  The  destruction  of  these 
sanctuaries  thus  resulted  in  confining  the  public 
rites  of  worship  to  the  Temple  at  Jerusalem 
(according  to  the  law  of  Dt  125-14),  and  the 
removal  of  the  priests  who  had  previously 
ministered  at  them.  From  Geba  to  Beer- 
sheba]  the  northern  and  southern  borders  of 
the  kingdom.     Of  the  gates]  Probably  an  error 

.  for  '  of  the  satyrs '  or  '  he-goats,'  which  were 
objects  of  worship  and  called  '  devils '  in 
Lvl7  7  2 Chi  115.  The  Heb.  words  closely 
resemble  one  another. 

9.  Did  eat .  .  bread]  It  is  not  clear  whether 
they  were  maintained  by  the  offerings  of  their 
kinsfolk  in  their  several  localities  or  whether 
they  shared  the  offerings  made  to  the  priests 


at  Jerusalem,  but  were  debarred  from  minis- 
tering in  the  Temple  (as  was  the  case  with 
priests  who  were  otherwise  disqualified, 
Lv  2 1  -1-23)  :  cp.  Dt  18  6-s.  By  unleavened  bread 
is  probably  meant  the  priestly  dues  generally. 

10.  Topheth]  The  name  literally  means 
'  spittle '  or  '  spitting,'  and  so  designates  the 
locality  as  a  place  of  abhorrence.  The  valley 
.  .  Hinnom]  usually  identified  with  the  valley 
that  flanks  the  modern  city  of  Jerusalem  on 
the  W.  ;  but  if  the  ancient  city  occupied  only 
the  eastern  of  the  two  hills  upon  which  the 
present  city  stands,  the  valley  here  mentioned 
may  have  been  the  depression  between  them 
(subsequently  called  the  '  Tyropaeon ').  To- 
pheth, however,  was  in  any  case  situated  in  the 
broad  space  formed  by  the  junction  of  the  three 
valleys  immediately  S.  of  the  city.  It  was 
from  the  sacrificial  fires  lighted  there  for 
human  sacrifices,  as  well  as  from  those  that 
were  afterwards  kindled  in  the  same  place  to 
destroy  the  refuse  of  the  city  deposited  in  it 
that  the  Heb.  name  Ge  Hinnom  in  the  form 
Gehenna  came  to  be  used  to  denote  the  place 
of  punishment  for  the  unrepentant  after 
death.  Molech]  see  IKll^.  The  rite  here 
referred  to  is  prohibited  in  DtlS^^. 

11.  The  horses]  A  chariot  was  similarly 
dedicated  to  the  sun  at  Sippar  in  Babylonia  ; 
and  it  is  probable  that  it  was  connected  in  idea 
with  the  sun's  course  through  the  sky.  The 
kings  of  Judah]  presumably  Manasseh  and 
Amon  :  see  2 1 3>  5.  Of  the  house  .  .  by  the 
chamber]  better,  '  from  the  house  .  .  to  the 
chamber,'  marking  the  extent  of  the   stables. 

12.  On  the  top  of  the  upper  chamber]  These 
altars  were  probably  connected  with  the  wor- 
ship of  the  host  of  heaven  :  see  on  213. 

13.  Before  Jerusalem]  i.e.  E.  of  the  city. 
It  is  surprising  that  these,  dating  from  the 
time  of  Solomon  (see  1 K 11  ^'^),  had  not  been 
destroyed  by  Hezekiah  ;  but  see  on  18 '^. 

Mount  of  corruption]  i.e.  the  Mt.  of  Olives, 
the  later  '  mount  of  offence.'  14.  The 
bones  of  men]  i.e.  to  desecrate  them,  since 
dead  bodies  communicated  uncleanness  :  cp. 
Nul9i6.  15.  The  altar  that  M;as  at  Beth-el] 
see  IK  1232, 33  Burned  the  high  place] 
probably  the  shrine  erected  upon  it,  which 
elsewhere  is  styled  a  '  house  of  high  places.' 

16.  In  the  mount]  presumably  some  adjoin- 
ing elevation.  According  to  the  word  of  the 
Lord]  see  IK  13".  17.  Title]  RV  '  monu- 
ment' :  marking  the  place  of  burial.  18.  Sa- 
maria] here  used  of  the  country  rather  than 
the  city,  since  the  prophet  alluded  to  belonged 
to  Bethel. 

21.  The  passover]  Of  this  passover  details 
are  given  in  2Ch35i-i^.  22.  There  was  not 
holden,  etc.]  On  this  occasion  not  only  were 
the  injunctions  of  the  Law  more  strictly  fol- 
lowed than  had  been  the  case  previously,  but 


245 


23.  24 


2  KINGS 


24.  8 


exceptionally  large  numbers  took  part  in  the 
festival. 

24.  Images]  RV  '  teraphim,'  which  were 
probably  models  of  the  human  figure  repre- 
senting household  deities  and  used  in  divina- 
tion: see  Gn31i91S19i3Ezk212i. 

29.  Pharaoh-nechoh]  i.e.  Nechoh  II,  a  king 
of  the  26th  dynasty  (610-595  B.C.),  whose 
father  Psammetichus,  at  one  time  a  tributary 
of  the  Assyrians,  had  secured  independence 
for  Egypt  in  664  B.C. 

The  king  of  Assyria]  i.e.  the  king  of  Baby- 
lon. Nineveh,  the  capital  of  Assyria,  fell  in 
607  before  the  united  forces  of  the  Median 
Cyaxares  and  the  Babylonian  Nabopolassar  ; 
and  it  was  to  dispute  the  spoils  of  the  fallen 
empire  with  Nabopolassar  that  Nechoh  ad- 
vanced northward  through  Palestine.  The 
king  of  Babylon  is  here  called  by  the  name  of 
Assyria,  the  country  he  had  conquered  (cp. 
Ezr6'^'^,  where  a  Persian  king  is  likewise 
styled  '  king  of  Assyria,'  the  Persians  having 
subdued  and  dispossessed  the  Babylonians). 

Josiah  went  against  him]  Josiah's  motives 
can  only  be  conjectured,  but  it  is  probable 
that  in  the  downfall  of  Assyi'ia's  power  he 
hoped  to  extend  his  authority  over  what  had 
once  been  the  northern  kingdom,  and  feared 
that  his  designs  would  be  foiled  by  the 
Egyptian  advance.  At  Megiddo]  see  on  927. 
Josiah  took  up  his  position  here  to  dispute 
the  passage  across  Carmel.  The  Greek  his- 
torian Herodotus  probably  alludes  to  this 
battle  when  he  states  that  Nechoh  defeated 
the  Syi'ians  at  Magdolus.  When  he  had  seen 
him]  i.e.  when  he  encountered  him  in 
battle  :  cp.  14^.  For  the  sorrow  occasioned 
by  Josiah's  death  see  2  Ch3525  Ecclus492,3. 

30.  Jehoahaz]  also  called  Shallum(Jer22ii 
lCh3i-^).  He  was  the  younger  brother  of 
Jehoiakim  who  succeeded  him  (v.  36). 

33.  Riblah]  on  the  Orontes,  between  Da- 
mascus and  Hamath.  Nechoh,  after  his  suc- 
cess at  Megiddo,  had  marched  northward  to 
meet  the  Babylonians,  who  eventually  defeated 
him  at  Carchemish  (Jer462). 

34.  Made  Eliakim  .  .  king]  Jehoahaz  had 
been  chosen  by  the  people  without  the  sanction 
of  Nechoh,  who  therefore  asserted  his  author- 
ity by  deposing  him,  and  substituting  his 
brother.  In  the  room  of  Josiah]  Nechoh  did 
not  recognise  Jehoahaz.  Turned  his  name  to 
Jehoiakim]  The  bestowal  of  a  new  name  by 
Nechoh  upon  Eliakim  indicated  that  the  latter 
was  a  subject  or  vassal  prince  of  the  Egyptian 
king.  For  a  similar  change  cp.  24 1",  and  see 
Gn41-i5  Danl"  (where,  however,  the  new 
names  are  foreign,  not,  as  here,  Hebrew). 

CHAPTER  24 
Jehoiachin  and  Nebuchadnezzar 
This  c.  recounts  the  reigns  of  Jehoiakim 


and  Jehoiachin,  the  invasion  of  Judah  by 
Nebuchadnezzar,  king  of  Babylon  (who  carried 
into  captivity  Jehoiachin  and  numbers  of  the 
people),  and  the  reign  of  Zedekiah. 

1.  Nebuchadnezzar]  called  more  accurately 
in  Jer  25  ^  and  elsewhere  '  Nebuchadrezzar.' 
He  was  the  son  of  the  Nabopolassar  who 
conquered  Nineveh  (see  on  2329),  and,  as  his 
father's  general,  defeated  the  Egyptians  in 
605  at  Carchemish  on  the  Euphrates  (Jer  46  2). 
This  success  left  the  countries  lying  between 
the  two  great  powers  of  Babylon  and  Egypt 
at  the  mercy  of  the  former  (24")  ;  and  conse- 
quently when  Nebuchadnezzar  succeeded  his 
father,  Jehoiakim  (as  here  related)  submitted 
to  him.  Some  inscriptions  of  Nebuchadnezzar 
have  been  discovered  in  various  parts  of 
Palestine,  but  such  as  are  decipherable  relate 
not  to  his  campaigns  but  to  his  buildings. 

Became  his  servant  three  years]  It  is  rather 
difficult  to  harmonise  the  statements  respecting 
Jehoiakim's  reign  contained  in  this  c.  with 
2  Ch  36  5-8  and  in  Dan  1 2.  In  2  Ch  36  6  Jehoia- 
kim is  said  to  have  been  bound  in  fetters  by 
Nebuchadnezzar  in  order  to  be  carried  to 
Babylon,  and  in  Daniel  his  capture  is  described 
as  having  taken  place  in  his  third  year.  He 
was,  however,  in  his  own  capital  in  the  'fourth' 
year  of  his  reign  (Jer  36 1)  ;  so  that  if  these 
passages  are  to  be  reconciled  with  Kings  it  must 
be  assumed  that  he  was  restored  to  his  throne 
by  the  Babylonian  king,  and  that  the  events 
here  related  took  place  after  his  restoration. 

2.  The  Chaldees]  here  used  to  designate  the 
Babylonians.  Syrians  .  .  Moabites  .  .  Ammon] 
For  these  as  enemies  of  Judah  at  this  period 
see  Jer 35 11  4827  Ezk25i*. 

His  servants  the  prophets]  The  most  pro- 
minent of  the  prophets  who  denounced  judg- 
ment against  the  offending  nation  at  this  time 
was  Jeremiah  :  see  especially  Jer  25, 26, 35, 36, 
45.  Unlike  his  predecessor  Isaiah,  the  prophet 
declared  that  Jerusalem  would  be  totally 
destroyed  if  its  inhabitants  did  not  repent  ; 
and  for  this  he  was  adjudged  worthy  of  death, 
though  his  life  was  preserved  by  the  inter- 
ference of  certain  elders.  Another  prophet 
named  Urijah,  who  also  prophesied  against  the 
city,  fled  to  Egypt  to  escape  destruction,  but 
he  was  surrendered  to  Jehoiakim  by  the 
Egj'ptian  king  and  put  to  death  :  see  Jer  26. 

5.  The  rest  of  the  acts]  The  circumstances 
of  Jehoiakim's  death  are  uncertain.  The  pre- 
dictions of  Jeremiah  (22 1^- 1^  36  ^o)  suggest  that 
he  died  a  violent  death  and  that  his  corpse  was 
left  unburied,  and  Josephus  states  that  Nebu- 
chadnezzar, to  whom  Jehoiakim  had  capitulated, 
broke  his  pledges  and  slew  him.  But  v.  6  is 
rather  opposed  to  this. 

7.  The  river  of  Egypt]   see  on  IKS^s. 

8.  Jehoiachin]  also  called  Coniah  and  Je- 
coniah(Jer2224  24 1). 


246 


24.  11 


2  KINGS 


25.  21 


11.  And.  .besiege  it]  RV  'while  his  ser- 
vants were  besieging  it,'  implying  that  the  city- 
was  invested  before  Nebuchadnezzar,  who  was 
engaged  in  besieging  Tyre,  appeared  in  person 
to  conduct  the  war. 

12.  His  mother]  i.e.  the  queen-mother  :  see 
on  1  K  2 1'-*.  In  the  eighth  year]  i.e.  of  Nebu- 
chadnezzar's reign.  In  Jer522'^  mention  is 
made  of  a  capture  of  3,023  persons  in  Nebu- 
chadnezzar's seventh  year,  of  which  there  is  no 
record  in  Kings,  while  Jeremiah  makes  no 
allusion  to  the  deportation  of  prisoners  here 
related. 

14.  The  poorest  sort]  They  were  as  worth- 
less in  character  as  obscure  in  station  :  see 
Jer24i-8.  Among  the  better  class  who  were 
carried  away  on  this  occasion  was  the  prophet 
Ezekiel. 

16.  Seven  thousand  .  .  a  thousand]  If  thepe 
numbers  are  included  in  the  10,000  of  v.  14, 
it  must  be  assumed  that  the  princes  and  their 
numerous  retainers  constituted  the  remaining 
2,000. 

17.  Mattaniah]  as  Mattaniah  was  brother 
of  Jehoiakim,  he  must  have  been  uncle  of 
Jehoiachin  ;  so  that  2  Ch  36  ^^^  in  describing  him 
as  brother  of  the  latter  uses  the  term  vaguely. 
In  1  Ch  3  ^'5  he  is  called  son  of  Jeconiah,  in  the 
sense  of  successor.  Changed  his  name]  see 
on  2334. 

18.  Hamutal]  Zedekiah  was  only  half- 
brother  of  Jehoiakim  but  full  brother  of 
Jehoahaz  (see  23  ^i),  and  as  Jehoahaz  was 
imprisoned  by  the  king  of  Egypt,  Nebuchad- 
nezzar may  have  calculated  that  in  his  brother 
he  would  find  a  loyal  vassal  who  would  support 
Babylonian  rather  than  Egyptian  interests. 

19.  He  did  that  tohich  wan  evil]  cp.  Jer37  2. 
Zedekiah  seems  to  have  been  weak  but  not 
unmerciful,  and  he  was  unable  to  cope  with  the 
princes  who  were  liis  advisers  :  cp.  JerSS^.s. 
When  the  latter  put  Jeremiah  in  prison  on  a 
charge  of  deserting  to  the  enemy,  Zedekiah 
delivered  him  (Jer39^i"2i)  ;  and  on  a  second 
occasion,  when  he  was  flung  into  a  foul  dun- 
geon, he  was  once  more  rescued  with  the 
king's  consent  (JerSS'^f-). 

20.  Rebelled]  Zedekiah  was  bound  by  oath 
to  Nebuchadnezzar  (2Ch36i3  Ezkl7i3),  but 
overtures  from  Edom,  Moab,  Tyre,  and  other 
countries  drew  him  from  his  allegiance,  in 
spite  of  the  opposition  of  the  prophet 
Jeremiah  (Jer27),  and  as  hopes  were  enter- 
tained of  Egyptian  help  rebellion  was  finally 
resolved  on. 

CHAPTER  25 

The  Fall  of  Jerusalem 

This  c.  relates  the  siege  and  destruction  of 

Jerusalem,  the  capture  of  king  Zedekiah,  and 

the  deportation  of  most  of  the  Jewish  people. 

I.  In  the  tenth  day']   The  successive  stages 


in  the  overthrow  of-  the  city  are  carefully 
marked  by  the  historian  :  cp.  vv.  3,  8.  Forts] 
perhaps  movable  towers  for  throwing  troops 
upon  the  walls. 

3.  The  famine]  the  .sufferings  of  the  be- 
sieged are  described  in  Jer  2 1 ''■9  Lam 4 § f •  510*. 

4.  The  city  was  broken  up]  RV  '  a  breach 
was  made  in  the  city.'  Before  this  happened 
an  Egyptian  force  had  advanced  to  the  relief 
of  Jerusalem,  and  the  Babylonians  in  conse- 
quence retired  (JerST^-H),  but  the  relief  was 
only  temporary  (as  Jeremiah  had  predicted) 
and  the  siege  was  resumed.  The  king's 
garden]  S.  of  the  city  near  the  pool  of 
Siloam  (Neh3i5).  The  plain]  RV  'the 
Arabah '  :  i.e.  the  valley  of  the  Jordan.  The 
design  of  the  fugitives  was  to  cross  the  river 
by  the  fords  of  Jericho. 

7.  Put  out  the  eyes]  Zedekiah  was  taken  to 
Babylon,  but  he  did  not  see  it,  just  as  Ezekiel 
had  predicted  (1213).  An  Assyrian  king  is 
represented  on  one  of  his  monuments  as  blind- 
ing a  captive  with  the  point  of  his  own  spear. 

II.  The  rest  of  the  people]  i.e.  those  that 
remained  in  the  country  after  the  deportation 
related  in  24  i-i,  15.  Qf  the  multitude]  better, 
'  of  the  artificers.'  In  addition  to  this  depor- 
tation in  Nebuchadnezzar's  19th  year  Jeremiah 
(52  29)  mentions  one  that  occurred  in  his  18th 
year  and  another  in  his  23rd  year,  though  the 
first  of  these  may  be  identical  with  the  one 
here  described. 

13.  The  pillars  of  brass,  etc.]  see  IKT^^f. 
Jer  52 1  "-^3^  where  some  of  the  details  are  given 
differently.  15.  In  gold  .  .  in  silver]  better, 
'  as  so  much  gold  . .  as  so  much  silver.' 

18.  The  second  priest]  i.e.  the  high  priest's 
deputy.     For  Zephaniah  cp.  Jer  29  25,29 

Keepers  of  the  door]  i.e.  of  the  entrance  of 
the  Temple. 

19.  That .  .  presence]  i.e.  those  of  the  king's 
ministers  who  enjoyed  freedom  of  access  to 
him.  The  principal  scribe,  etc.]  RM  'the 
scribe  of  the  captain  of  the  host '  :  i.e.  the 
official  who  superintended  the  conscription. 
Nebuchadnezzar,  instead  of  consigning  the 
citizens  to  indiscriminate  massacre,  selected 
for  punishment  only  the  most  responsible 
personages. 

21.  So  Judah  was  carried  away]  The  de- 
struction of  Jerusalem  and  the  final  deportation 
of  its  chief  inhabitants  took  place  in  586  B.C. 
The  kingdom  of  Judah,  like  the  kingdom  of 
the  ten  tribes,  now  came  to  an  end,  as  Jere- 
miah (20**)  had  predicted  ;  and  its  historian 
here  brings  his  record  to  a  close,  only  pausing 
to  describe  the  arrangements  made  for  the 
government  of  the  desolated  country  and  the 
ti-eatment  received  from  Nebuchadnezzar's 
successor  by  the  captive  Jehoiachin.  The 
mention  of  the  latter  fact  is  probably  due  to 
the   writer's  desire  to  show  that  the  divine 


247 


25.  n 


2  KINGS— 1  AND  2  CHRONICLES 


INTRO. 


mercy  attended  the  house  of  David  even  in 
the  time  of  its  deepest  humiliation. 

22.  The  son  of  Ahikam]  Ahikam  had  be- 
friended Jeremiah  when  the  people  sought  to 
put  him  to  death  (Jer262'i). 

23.  And  when  all  the  captains,  etc.]  For  a 
fuller  account  of  the  events  recounted  in  vv. 
23-26  see  Jer  40  "^-43 1^,  from  which  it  appears 
that  Ishmael  was  instigated  by  Baalis  the  king 
of  Ammon,  and  murdered  Gedaliah  treacher- 
ously. Mizpah]  perhaps  Mizpah  in  Benjamin 
(IK  1522). 

25.  In  the  seventh  month]  subsequently 
observed  as  a  fast  (Zech  7  ^). 


26.  Came  to  Egypt]  In  doing  this  the 
people  acted  in  defiance  of  the  counsel  of 
Jeremiah,  whom  they  took  with  them  :  see 
Jer  42,  43. 

27.  Evil-merodach]  son  of  Nebuchadnezzar, 
succeeding  to  his  throne  in  561  B.C.  It  was 
in  the  first  year  of  his  reign  that  he  manifested 
to  Jehoiachin  the  leniency  here  recorded. 

Did  lift  up  the  head]  i.e.  showed  favour  to: 
cp.  Gn  40 13.  28.  The  kings  that  were  with 
him]   possibly  other  captive  sovereigns. 

29.  Did  eat  bread .  .  before  him]  i.e.  was  a 
guest  at  the  royal  table.  For  a  like  privilege 
see2S193  1K27. 


THE  FIRST  AND  SECOND  BOOKS  OF 
CHRONICLES 


INTRODUCTION 


1.  Character  and  Contents.  Chronicles  at 
fii-st  not  only  formed  a  single  book  but  probably 
constituted  one  continuous  work  with  Ezra 
and  Nehemiah.  The  English  name  is  a  toler- 
able equivalent  of  the  Hebrew  ;  whilst  the 
corresponding  Greek  rendering  probably  means 
'supplement'  (lit.  'things  passed  over,'  i.e. 
by  the  preceding  historical  books).  Its  author 
is  unknown  ;  but  from  the  prominence  which 
is  given  in  the  book  to  the  Levitical  order  it 
has  been  conjectured  that  he  was  himself  a 
Levite.  Its  contents  comprise,  (a)  certain 
genealogies,  (b)  the  history  of  David  and 
Solomon,  and  (c)  the  history  of  Judah  (the 
history  of  the  northern  kingdom  being  entirely 
omitted).  Its  date,  in  conjunction  with  that 
of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah,  may  be  approximately 
determined  by  the  mention  in  1  Ch  3  2^  of  the 
sixth  generation  after  Zerubbabel  (who  was 
living  in  520  B.C.),  which  implies  a  date  subse- 
quent to  340  ;  and  this  is  supported  by  the 
reference  in  Nehl2ii'22  to  Jaddua,  who  was 
high  priest  in  the  time  of  Darius  Codomannus 
(335-330)  and  of  Alexander  the  Great  (336- 
323).  It  was  thus  probably  composed  not 
much  before  300  B.C.,  and  consequently  separ- 
ated by  a  much  longer  period  than  Kings 
from  the  events  it  records. 

2.  Sources.  Among  the  sour«es  of  informa- 
tion referred  to  in  the  course  of  the  narrative  are 
(a)  genealogical  tables  (1  Ch5i'^)  ;  (h)  the  book 
of  the  kings  of  Judah  and  Israel  (2  Ch  1 6 11,  the 
same  work  being  probably  meant  by  the  slightly 
different  titles  in  277  3318);  and  (c)  the 
writings  of  certain  prophets,  Samuel,  Nathan, 


Gad,  Ahijah,  Shemaiah,  Iddo,  Jehu,  and  Isaiah 
(lCh2929  2Ch929  12i5  1322  20^4  2622  3232). 
But  certain  of  the  authorities  included  in  (c) 
are  expressly  stated  to  have  been  inserted  in 
the  historical  work  mentioned  in  (b) — see  2  Ch 
20  2^  32^2  B.V  ;  and  it  is  possible  that  the  others 
were  also  embodied  in  the  same  book,  which 
will  then  be  the  immediate  authority  to  which 
the  writer  is  principally  indebted.  It  will  be 
obvious,  however,  from  a  comparison  of  the 
parallels  between  Chronicles  and  earlier  books 
of  the  Bible,  that  large  parts  of  the  former 
are  practically  derived  from  Genesis,  Samuel, 
and  especially  Kings,  by  a  process  of  mere 
transcription  ;  so  that  at  first  sight  it  would 
seem  that  the  canonical  books  of  Kings  consti- 
tute the  work  just  alluded  to.  But  as  the 
latter  is  quoted  as  recording  the  prayer  of 
Manasseh,  which  finds  no  place  in  our  Kings 
(2  Ch  33 18),  and  as  Chronicles  also  contains 
much  matter  (2  Ch  115-12  266-10  2817.18)  which 
is  likely  to  have  come  from  an  annalistic 
writing,  but  does  not  occur  in  Kings,  it  is 
probable  that  the  book  which  is  cited  by  name 
was  different  from,  but  based  on,  our  Kings, 
and  was  the  means  through  which  the  writer 
of  Chronicles  came  to  incorporate  portions  of 
the  latter.  The  differences  between  Chroni- 
cles and  Kings  consist  of  omissions,  additions, 
and  minor  modifications.  The  former,  besides 
leaving  out  all  the  history  of  the  Ten  Tribes 
after  the .  Separation,  omits  most  of  the  sins 
and  weaknesses  of  David  and  Solomon.  Its 
principal  additions  comprise  details  of  the 
Temple  organisation  and  certain  incidents  in 


248 


INTRO. 


1  AND  2  CHRONICLES— 1  CHRONICLES 


2.  18 


the  history  of  the  kings  of  Judah.  For  some 
statements  of  Kings  it  substitutes  others,  the 
alterations  being  most  noticeable  in  connexion 
with  numbers,  those  of  Chronicles  being  gener- 
ally the  higher  (cp.  lCh215  with  2S249,  2Ch 
315  with  1K715,  2Ch45  with  1K726). 

3.  Value.  In  considering  the  historical 
value  of  Chronicles  account  need  only  be  taken 
of  those  parts  in  which  it  diflEers  from  Kings. 
In  view  of  its  greater  remoteness  from  the 
events  described,  it  cannot  be  considered  so 
good  an  authority  as  the  latter,  and  in  cases  of 
discrepancy  the  statements  of  Kings  deserve 
the  preference.  In  regaj'd  to  matters  upon 
which  it  is  the  sole  informant,  earlier  materials 
seem  to  have  been  utilised  ;  but  in  many 
cases  the  numbers  given  in  connexion  with  the 
diiferent  subjects  are  too  large  to  be  probable 
(see  lCh29,  2Chl3,  14,  17,  etc.),  and  later 
details  appear  to  have  been  read  into  the 
description  of  the  Temple  arrangements  as 
organised  by  David  (ICh  23-26).  On  the 
other  hand,  the  religious  value  of  Chronicles 
is  as  manifest  as  that  of  Kings.  In  it,  as  in 
the  latter,  those  events  of  the  national  history 
have  been  selected  for  treatment  which  most 
conspicuously  illustrated  the    divine    purpose 


and  providence.  The  writer,  even  in  a  greater 
degree  than  his  predecessor,  points  the  moral 
of  the  events  which  he  relates  (2 Chi 2 12  2520 
27*5),  both  the  judgments  and  mercies  of  God 
being  shown  to  stand  in  intimate  connexion 
with  human  conduct.  Even  if  there  are  ana- 
chronisms in  his  account  of  the  Temple  services, 
light  is  thereby  thrown  on  the  state  of  the 
organisation  of  religion  in  his  own  time,  and  the 
spiritual  instruction  conveyed  is  not  seriously 
affected.  The  interest  manifested  in  the 
details  of  the  Temple  regulations  calls  atten- 
tion to  the  care  which  the  public  worship  of 
God  ought  at  all  times  to  claim.  The  music, 
to  which  such  importance  is  attached,  has  its 
value  in  promoting  unity  of  feeling  amongst 
a  number  of  individual  worshippers,  and  in 
elevating  and  sustaining  the  religious  emotions. 
The  author  of  Chronicles,  in  dwelling  at  such 
length  upon  the  external  side  of  religion,  was 
animated  by  the  spirit  of  his  age.  But  he  is 
far  from  being  exclusively  concerned  with  the 
outward  forms  of  worship.  He  devotes  a 
great  deal  of  space  to  the  activities  and  teach- 
ing of  the  prophets  ;  and  those  who  have 
less  sympathy  than  he  with  religious  ceremonial 
can  still  derive  edification  from  his  work. 


1  CHKONICLES 


CHAPTER  1 

Genealogies 


The  writer  begins  his  history  with  a  series 
of  genealogies,  without  introduction  or  head- 
ing, which  embraces  the  descendants  of  Adam 
to  Noah,  the  descendants  of  Noah  through 
Japheth,  Ham  and  Shem,  the  descendants  of 
Abraham  through  Ishmael  and  the  sons  of 
Keturah,  the  descendants  of  Isaac  through 
Esau  and  the  rulers  of  Edom.  These  gene- 
alogies, which  occupy  the  first  nine  chapters  of 
this  book,  and  occur  frequently  tlu'oughout 
the  remaining  chapters,  relate  to  (a)  peoples, 
(b)  localities,  (c)  families.  Those  which 
refer  to  peoples  (IChl^*)  and  to  localities 
(lCh242j3,50  78)  for  the  most  part  imply 
nearness  of  position,  not  blood  relationship  ; 
it  is  only  those  which  refer  to  families  which 
are  genealogies  in  the  strict  sense.  Such 
became  extremely  important  after  the  exile 
when  descent  from  Aaron  was  rigorously 
required  as  a  condition  for  the  priesthood 
(Ezr26i.62  Neh7<53,64)^  and  when  efforts  were 
made  to  secure  the  purity  of  the  Jewish  race 
as  a  whole  against  contamination  by  prohibit- 
ing intermarriage  with  foreigners  (Ezr  9,  10 
Nehl323*.).  In  certain  places  there  are  gaps 
in  the  lines  of  descent,  some  names  having 
fallen  out  (e.g.  2*7  322  48,9,  etc.),  whilst  others 
have  undergone  textual  corruption. 


if.  The  names  that  are  enumerated  are 
taken,  with  a  few  unimportant  variations, 
from  various  chs.  of  the  book  of  Genesis  :  see 
Gn5,  10,  11,  16,  21,  25,  36. 

5.  The  sons  of  Japheth]  Where  several 
children  of  one  father  are  mentioned,  the 
descendants  of  the  son  through  whom  the 
main  line  of  descent  is  transmitted  are  re- 
served until  the  collateral  branches  have  been 
described  and  dismissed  :  cp.  vv.  29,  32,  3,5. 

38.  The  sons  of  Seir]  These  were  aboriginal 
Horite  families  (Gn3620)  who  dwelt  in  Seir 
(Edom)  before  the  descendants  of  Esau. 

51.  And  the  dukes  of  Edom  were]  better, 
'  and  there  arose  dukes  of  Edom,  to  Mat,  duke 
Timnah,'  etc.  The  writer  implies  that  after 
Hadad's  death,  kings  were  replaced  by  dukes. 

CHAPTER   2 
Genealogies  (continued) 

The  genealogies  in  this  c.  comprise  the 
descendants  of  Isaac  through  Israel  (Jacob), 
and  the  descendants  of  Judah. 

3.  The  sons  of  Judah]  Some  of  the  names 
that  follow  are  given  differently  in  the  other 
books  where  they  occur.  9.  Chelubai]  the 
Caleb  of  vv.  18,  42.  15.  David  the  seventh] 
In  IS  17 12  it  is  implied  that  Jesse  had  eight 
sons. 

18.  And  of  Jerioth]  The  passage  is  probably 
corrupt,   and   Jerioth  may  be    the   name   of 


249 


2.21 


1  CHRONICLES 


4.  31 


Azubah's  father.  2i.  The  father  of  Gilead] 
i.e.  the  occupier  and  lord  of  Gilead:  see 
Nu3240.  The  term  'father'  is  used  in  the 
same  sense  in  vv.  24,  42,  45,  50,  51,  etc. 

22.  Jair]  apparently  the  Jair  of  Jg  103.4. 

23.  And  he  took,  etc.]  EV  'and  Geshur 
and  Aram  took  the  towns  of  Jair  from  them.' 
Geshur  was  a  small  Aramean  (Syrian)  state 
on  the  border  of  the  Manassite  settlements 
E.  of  the  Jordan  (DtSi^),  and  the  passage 
implies  that  the  Geshurites  and  other  Aramean 
peoples  eventually  deprived  the  tribe  of 
Manasseh  (from  whom  Machir  was  descended) 
of  the  cities  here  mentioned. 

24.  In  Caleb-ephratah]  The  LXX  suggests 
that  the  true  reading  is  '  Caleb  went  in  unto 
Ephrath,  the  wife  of  his  father  Hezron '  (see 
V.  19), '  who  bare  him  Ashm-,'  etc.  The  union 
here  implied  was  not  in  early  times  held  to 
be  incestuous,  for  an  heir  inherited  his  father's 
wives  like  the  rest  of  his  property  :  cp. 
2S1621. 

25.  The  sons  of  Jerahmeel]  For  the  Jerah- 
meelites  in  Israelite  history  see  IS 27 10  3029. 

35.  To  Jarha  his  servant]  with  the  purpose 
of  making  him  his  heir.  For  the  inheritance 
by  a  servant  of  his  master's  property  cp. 
Eliezer  and  Abraham  :  Gnl52  EV.  49.  She 
bare  also  Shaaph]  better,  with  the  LXX, 
'  Shaaph '  (v.  47)  '  begat  the  father  of  Mad- 
mannah.' 

50.  These  were .  .  Caleb]  This  sentence 
refers  to  the  preceding  vv.  42-49,  and  should 
be  followed  by  a  full  stop.  The  son  of  Hur, 
etc.]  This  should  be  '  the  sons  of  Hur  the  first- 
born of  Ephratah  '  (v.  19)  '  were:  Shobal,'  etc. 

55.  Kenites]  for  the  Kenites  in  Israelite 
history  see  Jg  1 16  411  1  S 15^  27 10.  Rechab] 
Allusions  to  the  descendants  of  Eechab  occur 
in  2K1015  Jer352. 

CHAPTEE   3 

Genealogies  (continued) 

The  genealogies  here  include  the  sons  of 
David,  his  successors  on  the  throne  of  Judah, 
and  the  descendants  of  Jeconiah  (Jehoiachin). 

I.  The  sons  of  David]  Some  of  the  names 
that  follow  are  given  differently  in  the  cor- 
responding sections  in  2  83^-5  513-I6  ;  cp  also 
14  3-'!'.  5.  Nathan]  According  to  St.  Luke's 
genealogy  he  was  ancestor  of  our  Lord,  S^i. 

Bath-shua]  i.e.  Bathsheba.  15.  Johanan] 
This  son  of  Josiah  was  never  king  and  pre- 
sumably died  before  his  father.  Shallum] 
probably  the  Jehoahaz  of  2  K  23^0,  since  he 
was  younger  than  his  brother  and  successor, 
Jehoiakim  :  cp.  also  Jer22ii. 

16.  Jeconiah]  called  also  Jehoiachin 
(2K24^')  and  Coniah  (Jer2224).  Zedekiah 
his  son]  The  Zedekiah  of  this  verse  is  probably 
identical  with  the  Zedekiah  of  v.  15,  and  con- 
sequently was  brother  (not  son)  of  Jehoiakim 


(2  K  24 1"),  and  uncle  of  Jehoiachin  (Jeconiah) 
whom  he  succeeded. 

17.  Jeconiah;  Assir]  EV  'Jeconiah  tke 
captive.'  Salathiel]  the  Shealtiel  of  EzrS^. 
He  is  called  son  of  Jeconiah  because  he  was 
his  heir,  but  he  belonged  to  the  line  of  Nathan, 
a  younger  son  of  David.  18.  Shenazar] 
possibly  the  Sheshbazzar  of  Ezr  1 8  :  see  note 
there.  19.  Zerubbabel]  here  represented  as 
son  of  Pedaiah  and  nephew  of  Salathiel 
(Shealtiel);  but  in  Ezr 3 2  styled  'son  of 
Shealtiel '  :  see  note  there. 

21.  Pelatiah,  etc.]  It  seems  most  likely  that 
this  and  the  five  names  that  follow  all  repre- 
sent sons  of  Hananiah,  constituting  a  single 
generation,  in  which  case  the  generations 
reckoned  after  Zerubbabel  amount  to  six. 
Zerubbabel  lived  about  520  B.C.,  and  if  30 
years  be  reckoned  as  a  generation,  the  sixth 
generation  would  bring  the  last  down  to  about 
340  (the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great). 

CHAPTEE   4 

Genealogies  (continued) 

This  c.  enumerates  further  descendants  of 
Judah,  and  the  descendants  of  Simeon. 

I.  Sons]  rather, 'descendants.'  Carmi]  pro- 
bably an  accidental  substitution  (from  5^)  for 
Chelubai  or  Caleb  :  see  29>i8.  2.  Reaiah] 
the  Haroeh  of  2^2^  whence  the  posterity  of 
Shobal  is  continued. 

9.  And  his  mother  .  .  sorrow]  better, '  though 
his  mother  called  his  name  Jabez,  saying, 
Because  I  bare  him  with  sorrow '  (Heb.  ozeb). 
The  sorrow  implied  by  his  ominous  name  was 
averted  by  his  prayer. 

17,  18.  And  she  bare]  It  has  been  con- 
jectured that  the  last  clause  of  v.  18  (And 
these  ai'e  .  .  Mered  took)  should  be  inserted 
before  these  words,  Bithiah  and  Jehudijah 
(or  '  the  Jewess ')  being  the  two  wives  of 
Mered.  The  daughter  of  Pharaoh]  If 
Pharaoh  here  means  the  king  of  Egypt,  Mered 
must  have  been  a  person  of  distinction.  The 
name  Bithiah  (lit.  '  daughter  of  Jehovah ') 
suggests  that  his  Egyptian  wife  at  her  mar- 
riage adopted  the  religion  of  her  husband. 

19.  Hin  wife  Hodiah]  EV  '  the  wife  of 
Hodiah.'  22.  Who  had  the  dominion  in  Moab] 
better,  '  who  married  in  Moab '  (like  Mahlon 
and  Chilion,  Euth  1  ^■*).  And  Jashubi-lehem] 
The  Vulgate  suggests  the  reading,  '  and 
returned  to  Beth-lehem.'  23.  And  those .  . 
hedges]  EV  '  and  the  inhabitants  of  Netaim 
and  Gederah.'  Dwelt  with  the  king]  i.e.  on 
the  royal  estate  as  workmen. 

24.  The  Simeonites  are  mentioned  here 
because  they  shared  Judah's  inheritance 
(Josh  19  9). 

31.  Unto  the  reign  of  David]  The  writer 
seems  to  be  quoting  from  some  account 
belonging  to  the    time    of   David,  in   whose 


250 


4.  41 


1  CHRONICLES 


6.77 


reign  a  census  was  taken  of  the  people  (2  S  24)  : 
cp.  7-.  41.  These  written  byname]  probably 
those  enumerated  in  vv.  34-37.  The  habita- 
tions] RV  '  the  Meunim '  (who  are  the 
Maonites  of  JglQi^).  43,  The  rest  of  the 
Amalekites]  In  spite  of  Saul's  destruction  of 
thein,  as  related  in  IS  15,  a  certain  number 
survived:  see  1S27S  301  2881^.  Unto  this 
day]  The  phrase,  like  the  parallel  expressions 
in  Kings,  refers  to  the  date  of  the  source 
which  the  wi'iter  is  incorporating  in  his  own 
work. 

CHAPTER    5 
Genealogies  (continued) 
This  c.   gives  lists  of  the  descendants  of 
Reuben,  the  families  of  Gad,  and  the  families 
of  the  eastern  division  of  Manasseh. 

1.  His  birthright]  This  was  a  portion  of  the 
inheritance,  twice  as  great  as  that  given  to 
each  of  the  other  sons.  The  two  childi-en  of 
Joseph  together  received  the  share  which,  in 
right  of  birth,  should  have  been  Reuben's, 
each  being  placed  on  a  level  with  their  uncles, 
the  sons  of  Jacob  :  cp.  Gn485.  And  the 
genealogy]  Joseph,  though  receiving  Reuben's 
birthright,  is  not  given  precedence  of  him  in 
the  table  of  descent  ;  and  so  Reuben's  sons 
are  enumerated  before  Joseph's. 

2.  For  Judah  prevailed,  etc.]  This  v. 
explains  why  Judah's  descendants  were 
described  before  those  of  his  elder  brother 
Reuben  :  he  was  the  ancestor  of  the  royal 
line.  6.  Tilgath-pilneser]  i.e.  Tiglath-pileser, 
whose  invasion  is  described  in  2K162^. 

7.  Were  the  chief,  Jeiel,  etc.]  better,  '  were, 
Jeiel  the  chief,'  etc.  :  cp.  the  expression  in 
V.  12.  8.  Aroer,  etc.]  All  the  places  named 
in  this  V.  were  E.  of  the  Dead  Sea.  9.  The 
Reubenites  touched  the  Syrian  desert 
between  the  Euphrates  and  Palestine. 

ID.  Hagarites]  Arabian  tribes  who  traced 
their  descent  to  Hagar  through  Ishmael  :  cp. 
V.  19  with  131.  The  east  Ia)i,/  of  Gilead]  RV 
'  The  land  east  of  Gilead,'  i.e.  in  the  Syrian 
desert. 

16.  In  Gilead  in  Bashan]  perhaps,  better, 
'  in  Gilead,  in  Jabesh  '  (1  S 1 1 1).  Bashan  was 
given  to  Manasseh  (Josh  13^0).  Suburbs] 
better,  '  pasture  lands,'  and  so  elsewhere. 

17.  Jeroboam]  i.e.  Jeroboam  II,  whose 
reign  was  contemporaneous  with  at  least  part 
of  Jotham's  reign. 

22.  The  captivity]  i.e.  the  deportation  of 
the  eastern  tribes  by  Tiglath-pileser  :  cp. 
vv.  6,  26. 

26.  Pul .  .  and  .  .  Tilgath-pilneser]  The  two 
names  denote  the  same  person,  Pul  being  the 
proper  name  of  a  usurper  who  in  745  took 
possession  of  the  Assyrian  crown  and  assumed 
the  title  of  Tiglath-pileser  III  (after  an  earlier 
sovereign).    Halah,  etc.]  In2K1529  176  these 


are  the  places  to  which  the  Israelites  on  the 
W.  of  Jordan  were  deported  by  Sargon  in 
722.  Habor  was  the  river  Chaboras,  Halah  a 
city  and  Gozan  a  district  near  it,  whilst  Hara, 
if  not  a  corruption,  may  represent  Haran 
(Gn  1 1 31)  on  the  Euphrates.  The  river 
Gozan]   RV  '  the  river  of  Gozan.' 

CHAPTER   6 

Genealogies  (continued) 
This   c.  records  the  descendants  of   Levi, 
traces   the    line  of   the    high   priests   to   the 
captivity,  and  enumerates   the    cities  of   the 
Priests  and  Levites. 

3.  Nadab,  and  Abihu]  see  LvlOL^  1  Ch242. 
Ithamar]  The  descendants  of  Ithamar  are 

not  given  here,  but  several  occur  in  Samuel  and 
Kings  (Eli,  Hophni  and  Phinehas,  Ahimelech, 
Abiathar),  and  '  courses '  of  priests  who  traced 
their  origin  to  him  are  enumerated  in  1  Ch24. 

4.  Eleazar  begat,  etc.]  The  section  vv.  4-15 
is  a  list  of  high  priests  from  the  death  of 
Aaron  to  the  captivity,  but  is  incomplete, 
for  between  Ahitub  and  Zadok  in  v.  12  another 
name  is  inserted  in  9  n,  and  several  names 
are  omitted  which  occur  in  the  history  of  the 
monarchy,  viz.  Jehoiada  (2  K 1 1 1^),  Urijah 
(2  K  1 G 1''),  and  the  Azariahs  who  were  con- 
temporary with  Uzziah  and  Hezekiah 
(2Ch26i7  3110).  In  w.  9  and  10  there  is 
some  confusion,  for  the  chronology  makes  it 
probable  that  the  Azariah  of  v.  9  (and  not  of 
V.  10)  was  the  high  priest  in  Solomon's  reign. 

22.  Amminadab]  the  Izhar  of  v.  38  :  Nu  16 1. 

27.  Elkanah  his  son]  ought  to  be  followed 
by  '  Samuel  his  son.'  28.  Samuel]  Samuel's 
father  Elkanah  is  here  regarded  as  a  Levite, 
whereas  in  1  S  he  is  an  Ephraimite. 

Vashni]  This  is  a  corruption  of  the  word 
for  '  the  second,'  the  name  of  the  firstborn 
(Joel  V.  33)  being  lost. 

31-48.  The  genealogies  of  David's  singers. 
Such  names  as  Heman,  Asaph,  Ethan  (or 
Jeduthun)  are  familiar  to  us  from  the  Psalm 
titles.  39.  His  brother]  i.e.  kinsman,  or  per- 
haps fellow-craftsman,  both  being  singers. 

54.  Castles  .  .  coasts]  RV  '  encampments  . . 
borders.'  Their's  was  the  lot]  RV  '  theirs 
was  the  ^?-.s-not '  :  Josh  21 10.  61.  Which  vjei-e 
left]  i.e.  other  descendants  of  Kohath,  exclusive 
of  the  sons  of  Aaron.  Out  of  the  half  tribel 
The  names  of  Ephraim  (v.  66)  and  Dan  are 
accidentally  omitted  :  see  Josh  21 5. 

65.  Which  are  .  .  names]  RV  '  which  are 
mentioned  by  name '  :  vv.  57-60.  67.  The 
cities  of  refuge]  In  strictness  Shechem  alone 
of  those  mentioned  in  this  and  the  following 
vv.  was  a  city  of  refuge.  69.  And  Aijalon] 
This  and  the  following  city  belonged  to  Dan : 
Josh  2 123,24.  yy_  xhe  rcst  of  the  children  of 
Merari]  RV  '  the  rest  of  the  Levites^  the  sons 
of  Merari.' 


251 


7.1 


1  CHRONICLES 


9.35 


CHAPTER  7 


Genealogies  (continued) 

This  c.  traces  the  descendants  of  Issachar, 
Benjamin  (Dan),  Naphtali,  Manasseh,  Ephraim, 
and  Asher. 

2.  Of  Tola]  The  numbers  given  in  this  v. 
are  those  of  Tola's  descendants  by  his  younger 
sons  as  contrasted  with  his  descendants  through 
his  firstborn  Uzzi  :  vv.  3,  4. 

11.  By  the  heads  of  their  fathers]  RV 
'  according  to  the  heads  of  their  fathers' 
houses''  :  and  so  elsewhere.  They  were  divided 
into  a  number  of  patriarchal  clans.  I2.  Sons 
of  Aher]  better,  '  the  sons  of  another,'  the 
*  other '  being  Dan,  from  whom  Hushim  was 
descended  :  Gn46-3. 

14.  Whom  she  bare]  The  name  of  Asriel's 
mother  is  lost.  The  Aramitess]  i.e.  a  Syrian 
woman.  15.  The  second]  i.e.  the  second  son  of 
Manasseh,  Machir  being  the  first. 

21.  Whom  the  men  of  Gath  .  .  slew]  The 
occurrence  alluded  to  probably  took  place  after 
Israel  was  settled  in  Canaan,  the  Ephraimites 
having  descended  from  the  hill-country  to 
make  a  raid  upon  the  Philistines  in  the  mari- 
time plain.  In  v.  22  Ephraim  is  a  collective, 
not  a  personal,  name.  23.  Beriah  .  .  evil] 
Heb.  Beriah  .  .  beraah.  27.  Non  .  .  Jehoshuah] 
i.e.  Nun  and  Joshua.  28.  Gaza]  not  the 
Philistine  Gaza,  which,  though  it  is  assigned 
to  Judah  in  Josh  15  '*''^,  can  never  have  belonged 
to  Ephraim. 

40.  The  children  of  Asher]  These  close  the 
historian's  enumeration,  the  descendants  of 
Zebulun  being  entirely  omitted. 

CHAPTER  8 
Genealogies  (continued) 

This  c.  contains  a  second  account  of  the 
descendants  of  Benjamin,  and  traces  the 
ancestors  and  descendants  of  Saul. 

I.  Now  Benjamin,  etc.]  The  names  of 
Benjamin's  descendants  are  repeated  (with 
some  variants)  from  7"^",  in  order  to  lead  up 
to  the  mention  of  Saul  (v.  33),  the  predecessor 
of  David  (lO^'*),  whose  history  forms  the 
chief  subject  of  this  book. 

3.  And  Abihud]  perhaps  to  be  corrected  to 
'father  (Heb.  Abi)  of  Ehud'  :  see  v.  6  and 
Jg3i5.  6.  Removed]  RV  'carried  them 
captive '  :  and  so  in  v.  7.  The  occasion  is  not 
known.  8.  After  he  had,  etc.]  RM  '  after  he 
had  sent  away  Hushim  and  Baara  his  wives.' 

12.  Ono  and  Lod]  These  towns  elsewhere 
are  mentioned  only  in  post-exilic  times 
(Ezr  2  33_),  so  that  the  personal  or  family  names 
in  these  vv.  probably  belong  to  that  period. 
Benjamites  are  expressly  mentioned  in  9^ 
Neh  114,  as  being  among  those  who  returned 
from  the  captivity.  29.  The  father  of 
Gibeon]  the  '  Jehiel '  of  1)35. 


33.  Ner  begat  Kish]  Ner  and  Kish  were 
brothers  (9^6),  so  that  the  text  should  be 
corrected  to  '  Ner  begat  Abner  and  Kish  begat 
Saul ' :  cp.  1  S 14  57.  Esh-baal]  the  '  Ish-bosheth ' 
of  2  S  2  8.  The  title  '  Baal,'  meaning  '  lord '  or 
'  possessor,'  was  at  first  used  of  Jehovah  as 
well  as  of  other  deities  (see  Hos  2 1^)  and 
entered  into  several  Hebrew  names  ('  Eshbaal,' 
'Merib-baal,'  'Beeliada').  But  in  consequence 
of  the  evil  associations  that  gathered  round  it, 
it  afterwards  came  to  be  disused  in  connexion 
with  the  Lord,  and  in  the  personal  appella- 
tions of  which  it  formed  part  the  word  bosheth 
('  shame ')  was  often  substituted  to  indicate 
abhorrence  ('Ish-bosheth,'  '  Mephibosheth '). 

34.  Merib-baal]  i.e.  Mephibosheth  :  see  on 
V.  33.  40.  Archers]  for  the  skill  of  Ben- 
jamites with  the  bow  see  2Chl48. 

CHAPTER   9 

Genealogies  (concluded) 

This  c.  furnishes   a  record  of  the  families 

and  numbers  of  those  who  dwelt  at  Jerusalem 

after   the  captivity,  and  relates  the  ancestry 

and  posterity  of  Saul. 

1.  In  the  book,  etc.]  RV  'in  the  book  of 
the  kings  of  Israel :  and  Judah  was  carried 
away  .  .  to  Babylon.' 

2.  Now  the  first  inhabitants,  etc.]  This 
section  (vv.  2-34)  relates  to  the  reoccupation 
of  Jerusalem  after  the  return  from  the  exile, 
and  appears  to  be  a  defective  duplicate  of 
Neh  113  with  some  variations  in  the  names. 

The  Israelites]  i.e.  the  lay  population  as 
contrasted  with  the  ecclesiastical  orders. 

Nethinims]  These  were  persons  selected 
from  the  people,  in  the  ratio  of  one  for  every 
fifty,  and  given  to  the  Levites  as  their  servants 
in  the  times  of  Moses  and  David  (Nu3147 
Ezr  8  20).  From  the  mention  of  Mehunims 
among  them  (Ezr2^0)^  -^i^q  -^^ere  doubtless 
descendants  of  the  people  of  that  name  who 
were  conquered  by  Uzziah  (2Ch267),  it  has 
been  inferred  that  they  included  foreigners 
who  were  either  prisoners  of  war,  or  who 
surrendered  as  the  Gibeonites  did  :  Josh  9  27. 

5.  Shilonites]  better,  '  Shelanites,'  the  de- 
scendants of  Judah's  son  Shelah  :  Nu2620. 

II.  The  ruler  of  the  house  of  God]  applied 
in  2Ch31io.  13  to  the  high  priest,  but  in  358 
to  others  besides. 

18.  The  king's  gate]  In  pre-exilic  times 
this  communicated  between  the  Temple  and 
the  royal  palace  (2  K  1(5 1^).  The  companies] 
RV  '  the  camp '  :  the  phrase  is  transferred 
from  the  time  of  the  wanderings,  certain 
positions  in  the  Temple  corresponding  to 
similar  positions  in  the  camp  of  the  wilderness. 

33.  These  are  the  singers]  a  list  of  names 
has  fallen  out.  Free]  i.e.  were  exempt  from 
other  duties.  35.  And  in  Gibeon,  etc.]  This 
account  of  Saul's  ancestry  and  descendants  is 


252 


10.  6 


1  CHRONICLES 


13.  5 


repeated  from  8  ^^-^^  as  an  introduction  to  the 
narrative  of  his  death  given  in  c.  10. 

CHAPTER    10 
Saul's  Overthrow  and  Death 

This  c.  is  abbreviated  from  ISSl^-^^,  but 
supplements  it  by  statements  that  Saul's  head 
was  fastened  in  the  temple  of  Dagon,  and 
by  a  brief  explanation  of  the  causes  of  his 
overthrow. 

6.  All  his  house]  This  cannot  mean  '  all 
his  family,'  since  Ish-bosheth  and  others  of 
his  children  survived  him  (2  S  2  ^  2 1 S),  but 
must  refer  to  those  of  his  household  who 
attended  him  at  Gilboa.  13.  His  transgres- 
sion] The  writer  refers  to  what  is  related  in 
1  S 13 13, 14  151-9  28  7.  14.  Enquired  not  of  the 
Lord]  Saul  at  first  enquired  of  the  Lord 
(2  S  28  •^),  but  on  receiving  no  answer  had  re- 
course to  the  witch  of  Endor  instead  of  being 
importunate  in  his  supplications. 

CHAPTER    11 

David's  Coronation  at  Hebron  and 
HIS  Capture  of  Zion 

The  writer,  though  mentioning  David's 
crowning  at  Hebron,  omits  all  description  of 
his  7  years'  reign  there,  and  in  this  c.  unites 
with  some  variations  and  additions  two  sections 
of  2S,  viz.  51-10  and  238-39. 

6.  So  Joab,  etc.]  This  is  an  addition  to 
the  account  in  2S5^. 

10.  Strengthened  themselves]  better,  'ex- 
erted themselves.'  11.  The  chief  of  the 
captains]  another  reading  is  '  chief  of  the 
thirty'  :  cp.  v.  15.  Three  hundred]  2S238 
has  '  eight  hundi-ed,'  which  is  preferable  as 
representing  Jashobeam's  prowess  as  greater 
than  Abishai's:  v.  20.  12.  The  three  mighties] 
The  third,  not  here  mentioned,  was  Shammah 
(2  S  23 11),  to  whom  w.  13  (last-half)  'And  H 
refer  (where  '  they,'  '  themselves,'  '  them ' 
should  be  '  he,'  '  himself,'  '  him  '). 

18.  The  host  of  the  Philistines]  i.e.  the 
outpost  at  Bethlehem  (v.  1(3),  not  the  camp  in 
I  the  valley  of  Rephaim,  which  was  N.  of 
Bethlehem.  20.  Chief  of  the  three]  It  is 
difficult  to  make  out  the  relations  between  this 
three,  the  '  three  '  of  v.  12,  and  the  '  thirty  ' 
of  vv.  15  and  25  ;  and  there  is  probably 
some  corruption.  25.  Honourable  among]  RV 
'  more  honourable  than.'  47.  Mesobaite]  This 
should  perhaps  be  corrected  into  '  from  Zobah.' 

It  is  noteworthy  that  this  list  of  David's 
'  valiant  men  '  contains  several  non-Israelites  : 
w.  39,  41,  46. 

CHAPTER  12 

"Various  Statistics 
This  c.  is  entirely  supplementary  to  what  is 
related  in  2  S,  and  gives  particulars  respecting 
certain  companies  that  joined  David  at  various 


times,  and  the  numbers  that  came  to  crown 
David  at  Hebron. 

2.  The  right  hand  and  the  left]  For  this 
faculty  in  connexion  with  Benjamin  cp.  Jg3i* 
201^'  I''.  Saul's  brethren]  i.e.  fellow-tribesmen  : 
cp.  V.  29.  4.  Among  the  thirty]  not  included 
in  the  lists  of  2  S  23  2-1  f-  lChll26f.,  and  pre- 
sumably belonging  to  the  thirty  at  a  different 
period.  8.  Buckler]  RV  '  spear.'  14.  Was 
over]   RV  'was  equal  to':  cp.  Lv268. 

15.  The  first  month]  Nisan  (:=  March- April), 
when  the  river  was  in  flood  after  the  melting 
of  the  snow.  Put  to  flight,  etc.]  Their  en- 
deavom"s  to  join  David  were  opposed  on  both 
sides  of  the  river,  but  unsuccessfully.  17.  If 
ye  .  .  come  peaceably]  The  advances  of  a  second 
body  of  deserters  made  David  suspicious  of 
treachery.  18.  The  spirit  came  upon,  etc.] 
Amasai's  decision  to  throw  in  his  lot  with 
David  was  due,  like  every  other  wise  resolve, 
to  the  inspiration  of  the  Divine  Spirit. 

19.  They]  i.e.  David  and  his  men  :  see  on  1  S 
28 1'  2  29.  Upon  advisement]  i.e.  upon  reflec- 
tion :  cp.  21 12.  21.  The  band]  i.e.  the  Amalek- 
ites  who  attacked  and  burned  Ziklag  during 
David's  absence  with  the  Philistines  (1  S30). 

29.  Kept  the  ward,  etc.]  i.e.  maintained 
their  allegiance  to  Saul  (2S2),  a  fact  which 
accounted  for  so  small  a  number  assembling  at 
Hebron.  32.  Had  understanding,  etc.]  pos- 
sessed practical  statesmanship  :  cp.  Esth  1 13. 

All  their  brethren]  The  rank  and  file  were 
obedient  to  their  chiefs.  The  full  numbers  of 
Issachar  are  not  given. 

39.  Eating  and  drinking]  A  covenant  was 
usually  accompanied  by  a  feast  (see  Gn  31 4*'  *^), 
and  the  passage  doubtless  has  in  view  a  com- 
pact made  between  the  new  sovereign  and  his 
people  :  cp.  1 K 1 9.  40.  They  that  were  nigh] 
i.e.  relations. 
_.  The  total  numbers  of  those  who  assembled 
to  crown  David  at  Hebron,  as  enumerated  in 
vv.  23-40,  amount  to  340,822,  a  military  force 
(v.  23)  which  contrasts  remarkably  with  the 
30,000  (described  as  '  all  the  chosen  men  of 
Israel')  of  2S6i.  It  is  noteworthy,  too,  that 
128,600  come  from  the  three  northern  and 
most  distant  tribes,  Zebulun,  Naphtali,  and 
Asher  ;  120,000  fi*om  the  eastern  tribes, 
Reuben,  Gad,  and  half  Manasseh  ;  and  only 
6,800  from  Judah.  Some  corruption  of  the 
numbers  may  be  suspected. 

CHAPTER  13 

The  Removal  of  the  Ark  from 
Kirjath-jearim 
This  c.  merely  expands  2S6i-ii,  with  some 
unimportant  differences. 

3.  We  enquired  not  at  it]  perhaps,  better, 
'  we  did  not  seek  it,'  i.e.  to  convey  it  to  a  place 
of  honour  :  cp.  1513. 

5,  Shihor  of  Egypt]   usually  employed  to 


253 


13.  6 


1  CHRONICLES 


18.  1 


designate  the  Nile  (Isa233  Jer2i8),  but  here 
applied  to  the  'brook  of  Egypt'  (Josh  15 4), 
the  modern  El  Arish,  a  small  stream  on  the 
borders  of  Egypt  flowing  into  the  Mediter- 
ranean. The  entering  of  Hemath]  i.e.  the  de- 
file between  Lebanon  and  Hermon,  forming 
the  approach  to  Hamath  from  the  S. 

6.  Whose  name  is  called  o)i  it~\  better, '  who 
is  called  by  the  Name,'  this  serving  as  a  sub- 
stitute for  a  more  explicit  mention  of  the 
divine  name  which  is  disguised  in  Jehovah. 

11.  Made  a  breach]  RV  '  had  broken  forth.' 
Perez-uzza]   i.e.  the  Breach  of  Uzza. 

CHAPTER    14 
Hiram  and  David.     David's  Children 
This  c.  reproduces  2  S  5  ^^"2^  with  some  varia- 
tions in  the  names  of  David's  children,  and 
the  additional  fact  that  David  burnt  the  idols 
of  the  Philistines. 

7.  Beeliada]  This  name  contains  the  title 
'  Baal,'  which,  as  has  been  already  implied  (see 
on  8^3),  had  at  first  an  innocent  sense.  "When, 
later,  it  contracted  evil  associations,  the  names 
in  which  it  occurred  underwent  alterations, 
and  for  Beeliada  was  substituted  the  form 
'Eliada':  2S5i''. 

12.  Left  their  gods]  These  had  doubtless 
been  carried  into  battle  in  the  belief  that  they 
would  bring  success  to  the  Philistine  forces 
just  as  the  Israelites  carried  the  ark  with  them 
to  the  battle  of  Ebenezer :  1 S43.  16.  Gibeon] 
in  2S525  'Geba,'  both  places  being  close 
together. 

CHAPTER  15 

The  transport  of  the  Ark  to 
Jerusalem 

This  c.  is  parallel  to  2  S  6 12-23^  but  contains 
much  new  matter  respecting  the  Levites  who 
bare  the  ark,  and  the  singers. 

I.  Pitched  for  it  a  tent]  According  to  IG^y 
the  Mosaic  tabernacle  still  existed,  but  the 
ark,  since  its  capture  by  the  Philistines,  had 
not  rested  in  it,  and  a  new  tent  was  now  sub- 
stituted to  contain  it.  4.  The  children  of 
Aaron]  i.e.  the  priests.  13.  After  the  due 
order]  It  is  implied  that  the  conveyance  of 
the  ark  in  the  manner  described  in  chapter  13 
was  irregular. 

16.  To  be  the  singers]  Singing  had  accom- 
panied the  ark  on  the  first  occasion  (13  s),  but 
the  musical  arrangements  were  now  committed 
exclusively  to  the  Levites  who  subsequently 
had  charge  of  the  music  of  the  Temple  services  : 
235  2Ch5i2  76. 

18.  Ben]  The  word  means  '  son  of,'  and  the 
name  of  Zechariah's  father  has  probably  been 
lost.  The  word  does  not  occur  in  the  corre- 
sponding lists  in  v.  20, 16  5.  The  porters]  This 
applies  only  to  Obed-edom  and  Jeiel. 

20,  21.  Alamoth .  .  Sheminith  to  excel]   see 


Pss4G  and  12  for  meaning  of  these  musical 
terms.  22.  Was  for  song]  RM  '  the  carrying,' 
i.e.  of  the  ark.  24.  Trumpets]  made  of 
metal  and  straight  in  shape,  whereas  the 
'  cornets '  of  v.  28  were  of  rams'  horns  and 
curved  in  shape.  Jehiah]  The  Jeiel  of  v.  18. 
26.  When  God  helped]  The  fact  that  the 
ark  was  now  moved  without  disaster  indicated 
that  God's  favour  was  attending  those  who 
carried  it.  27.  The  master  of  the  song]  better, 
'  the  chief  for  carrying '  (the  ark)  :  cp.  v.  22. 
The  addition  with  the  singers  is  probably  an 
interpolation. 

CHAPTER  16 

The  Celebration  op  the  Event 

Only  the  first  three  vv.  and  the  last  v.  of 
this  c.  are  derived  from  2S6i''"20,  the  rest, 
describing  the  musical  arrangements,  being  new. 

7.  Delivered  first,  etc.]  RV  '  did  .  .  first 
ordain  to  give  thanks  unto  the  Lord,  by  the 
hand  of '  :  i.e.  the  appointment  of  Asaph  and 
his  brethren  to  have  charge  of  the  singing  dated 
from  the  day  when  the  ark  was  brought  to 
Jerusalem.  The  psalm  that  follows  consists 
of  Pss  105 1-15  961-13  1061.47,48.  The  last 
section  (v.  35)  seems  to  reflect  the  conditions 
of  the  exile. 

22.  Mine  anointed]  i.e.  my  chosen,  the 
allusion  being  to  the  patriarchs:  see  Gnl2i7 
203-7.  29.  The  beauty  of  holiness]  RM  'in 
holy  array ':  i.e.  in  sacred  vestments.  35.  And 
say  ye]  a  liturgical  direction  which  does  not 
occur  in  Ps  106^7. 

38.  With  their  brethren]  probably  the  name 
of  '  Hosah  '  has  been  lost  after  Obed-edom. 

Also]  better,  '  even  Obed-edom.'  39.  The 
high  place  .  .  Gibeon]  This  has  been  mentioned 
previously  in  IKS*,  but  the  presence  there  of 
the  Tabernacle  is  here  referred  to  for  the  first 

40.  The  altar]  This  was  the  altar  at  Gibeon  ; 
there  was  another  before  the  ark  at  Jerusalem. 

41.  Jeduthun]  perhaps  the  same  as  the 
'  Ethan '  of  1 5 1''.  Asaph  seems  to  have  attended 
upon  the  ark  at  Jerusalem  (v.  37),  whilst 
Heman  and  Jeduthun  served  at  Gibeon. 

CHAPTER    17 
David's  desire  to  build  the  Temple 

disallowed 
This  c.  is  almost  identical  with.  2  S  7 1-29. 
17.   Hast  regarded   me .  .  degree]   i.e.  hast 
treated  me  with  gi'eat  distinction. 

CHAPTER    18 
David's  Wars  and  Officers  of  State 
This  c.  is  closely  parallel  to  2S81-18,  but 
with  some  variations  in  names  and  numbers. 

I.  Gath]  probably  meant  to  explain  the 
difficult  phrase  '  Metheg-ammah '  which  occurs 
in  2  S  8 1.     Gath  was  independent  in  the  time 


254 


18.  3 


1  CHRONICLES 


22. 


of  Solomon:  1K239.  3.  Hadarezer]  2S83 
has  '  Hadadezer,'  which  is  more  correct, '  Hadad ' 
being  the  name  of  a  Syrian  god  and  '  Hadadezer ' 
being  a  formation  parallel  to  '  Eliezer.'  4.  An 
hundred  chariots]  RV  'for  an  hundi-ed  chariots.' 
8.  The  pillars]  i.e.  the  two  columns  in  front 
of  the  porch  of  the  Temple.  12.  Abishai]  In 
Ps  60  (title)  this  success  is  attributed  to  Joab, 
and  the  number  of  the  slain  is  stated  at  12,000. 

16.  Abimelech  the  son  of  Abiathar]  This 
should  be  '  Abiathar  the  son  of  Abimelech '  : 
see  on  1  S2220  2S1529  2025. 

17.  Chief  about  the  king]  2S818  AV  has 
'  Chief  rulers,'  but  the  RY  has  '  Priests.'  For 
the  latter  word  the  Chronicler  substitutes  a 
different  expression,  because  the  sons  of  David 
belonged  not  to  the  priestly  tribe  of  Levi  but 
to  Judah. 

CHAPTER  19 

David's  Wars  with  the  Ammonites  and 
THE  Syrians 

This  c.  is  parallel  to  2S101-19  with  some 
differences  in  certain  names,  and  a  few 
additions. 

7.  Thirty  and  two  thousand  chariots]  The 
reading  is  probably  corrupt  :  in  2S10*^  it  is 
'  thirty  two  thousand  footmen,'  with  a  thousand 
more  from  Maachah  (whose  forces  are  not  here 
numbered),  no  mention  being  made  of  chariots. 

18.  Seven  thousand  .  .  chariots  .  .  forty  thou- 
sand footmen]  2  810^^  has  'seven  hundred 
chariots  and  forty  thousand  horsemen.' 

CHAPTER   20 

The  Siege  of  Rabbah.     The  Slaughter 

OF  three  Philistine  Giants 

This  c.  corresponds,  with  some  unimportant 

differences,  to  several  distinct  sections  in  2  S, 

viz.  Ill  1226-31  2IIS-22. 

2.  David  took,  etc.]  This  implies  David's 
presence  at  Rabbah,  and  as  it  stands  here  is 
inconsistent  with  the  previous  verse.  In  2  S 12 
the  discrepancy  is  explained  by  a  passage  which 
Chronicles  omits,  relating  that  Joab  sum- 
moned David  to  Rabbah  and  that  the  king 
went  thither. 

5.  Elhanan  the  son  of  Jair,  etc.]  Both  this 
passage  and  the  parallel  in  2  S  21  ^^  have  under- 
gone corruption,  and  the  true  text  probably 
had  '  Elhanan  the  son  of  Jair,  a  Bethlehemite, 
slew  Goliath  the  Gittite.'  As  Goliath  is  said 
in  2S17  to  have  been  killed  by  David,  there 
seems  to  have  been  variant  accounts  of  his  death, 
unless  there  were  two  giants  of  the  same  name. 

CHAPTER   21 
David's  numbering   of   the   People  and 
his  Punishment 
This  c.  is  parallel  to  2  S  24,  but  includes  a  few 
additions  :  see  vv.  6,  26. 

I.  Satan]    In  2S241  the  Lord  is  said  to 


have  been  angry  with  Israel,  and  to  have 
moved  David  to  number  the  people  ;  for  the 
Hebrews  in  early  times  did  not  hesitate  to  de- 
scribe God  as  prompting  to  evil  as  well  as  to 
good,  men  being  punished  for  one  sin  by  being 
led  to  commit  another.  But  in  later  ages  the 
idea  that  God  tempted  men  to  wrong  was  felt 
to  conflict  with  His  absolute  holiness  ;  and  this 
created  the  belief  that  temptation  was  the 
work  of  a  spirit  of  malevolent  character,  who, 
though  subordinate  to,  and  attendant  upon, 
God,  was  yet  an  adversary  (lit.  the  '  Satan ') 
of  men,  and  sought  to  bring  about  their  ruin 
(see  on  IK 22 21, 22  Jobl^f.  ZechSi).  In  Job 
and  Zechariah  the  name  is  still  only  a  title  ; 
but  in  Chronicles  it  has  become  a  proper  name 
(being  used  without  the  article). 

5.  A  thousand  thousand,  etc.]  2  S  24  9  repre- 
sents Israel  as  800,000  and  Judah  500,000. 
According  to  2724  the  numbers  were  not  en- 
tered in  the  official  records,  and  they  have 
probably  undergone  corruption  in  the  course 
of  transmission. 

6.  But  Levi,  etc.]  This  is  not  mentioned 
in  2S.  If  the  numbering  of  the  people  was 
due  to  a  presumptuous  reliance  upon  material 
resources,  or  some  specific  command  connected 
with  the  taking  of  a  census  (e.g.  ExSO^i-i^) 
had  been  neglected,  the  non-inclusion  of  two 
tribes  by  Joab  was  perhaps  a  device  to  prevent 
the  full  completion  of  the  king's  purpose,  in 
the  hope  of  averting  the  evil  consequences 
that  were  feared. 

12.  Three  years'  famine]  This  harmonises 
better  than  the  '  seven  years  '  of  2  S  24 13  with 
the  three  months  and  thi-ee  days.  15.  Oman] 
in  2  S  24  le  'Araunah '  or  '  Ornah.'  18.  The  angel 
. .  Gad]  For  divine  communications  made  to 
prophets  through  angels  cp.  IK  1318  195,7 
Zech  1 11,  etc.  23.  Meat  offering]  RV  '  Meal 
offering '  :  and  so  elsev/here.  25.  Six  hundred 
shekels  of  gold]  in  2 S 24 24  'fifty  shekels  of 
silver.' 

26.  Answered  .  .  by  fire]  Other  instances  of 
sacrifices  consumed  by  fire  from  heaven  occur 
in  Lv924  IK  1838  2Ch7i.  This  fact  is  not 
recorded  by  the  writer  of  Samuel,  but  is  spe- 
cially mentioned  by  the  Chronicler  because  the 
acceptance  of  the  sacrifice  was  taken  by  David 
to  indicate  where  he  was  to  build  his  in- 
tended Temple,  the  preparations  for  which 
are  described  in  the  next  chapter. 

30.  He  was  afraid]  In  his  alarm  David  was 
loath  to  leave  the  spot  where  God's  favour  had 
just  been  renewed  to  him. 

CHAPTER  22 

David's  Preparations  for  the  building 
OF  the  Temple 
This  c.  is  supplementary  to  the  narrative  in 
the  earlier  books,  its  contents  coming  chrono- 
logically between  2S24  and  IKL 


265 


22.  1 


1  CHRONICLES 


25.  11 


I.  This  is  the  house]  This  v.  connects  with 
2128  (2129,30  being  parenthetical).  2.  The 
strangers]  i.e.  the  non-Israelite  population, 
who  were  employed  in  forced  labour  upon  his 
building  projects  :  2Ch2i''. 

9.  Solomon  .  .  peace]  Heb.  Shelomoh  .  .  Sha- 
lom. Peace  was  the  ideal  condition  appropriate 
for  the  building  of  God's  Temple  as  well  as 
for  the  advent  of  Him  who  was  greater  than 
the  Temple  :  Lk2i-i. 

14.  In  my  trouble]  Some  render  '  in  spite 
of  my  trouble,'  i.e.  in  spite  of  wars  and  other 
distractions.  David,  like  other  loyal  servants 
of  God,  was  content  to  pave  the  way  for  the 
accomplishment  of  a  result  which  he  himself 
would  never  witness.  An  hundred  thousand, 
etc.].  The  weight  of  gold  and  silver  is  so 
enormous,  amounting  in  intrinsic  value  to 
£1,025,000,000  sterling,  that  great  exaggera- 
tion may  be  suspected.  The  gold  that  was 
received  annually  by  Solomon  was  only  666 
talents:  IK  10". 

19.  The  holy  vessels]  e.g.  the  table  of  shew- 
bread,  the  candlesticks  (or  lampstands),  with 
their  lamps  and  snuffers,  the  cups,  basons,  and 
spoons,  etc. 

CHAPTER  23 
David  makes  Solomon  King.    Particulars 

RELATING    TO    THE    LeVITES 

This  and  the  following  three  chs.  (supple- 
menting the  earlier  history)  describe  the 
arrangements  made  by  David  for  the  organisa- 
tion of  the  Temple  service  after  Solomon  had 
been  appointed  his  successor.  The  incidents 
relating  to  this  last  event,  which  are  recorded 
in  1 K 1,  are  omitted  by  the  writer,  who  passes 
over  all  David's  domestic  troubles. 

3.  From  the  age  of  thirty  years]  This  limit 
is  given  in  Nu  4  3,  but  '  twenty-five  '  is  fixed 
in  Nu82-i,  possibly  having  in  view  different 
and  lighter  duties.  By  their  polls]  i.e.  by 
heads.  9.  Shimei]  This  was  a  fourth  son 
of  '  Laadan,'  not  the  '  Shimei '  of  vv.  7,  10, 
who  was  Laadan's  brother.  11.  Zizah]  the 
'Zina'  of  v.  10.  Jeush  .  .  Beriah]  These  to- 
gether constituted  a  third  '  course  '  belonging 
to  the  house  of  the  elder  Shimei,  RV  '  they 
became  a  fathers'  house  in  one  reckoning.' 

14.  His  sons  .  .  Levi]  i.e.  the  sons  of  Moses 
were  reckoned  as  Levites,  not  (like  the  sons 
of  Aaron)  as  priests. 

24.  From  the  age  of  twenty  years]  David, 
at  the  end  of  his  reign  (v.  27),  seems  to  have 
lowered  the  limit  of  age  (see  v.  3)  above  which 
the  Levites  entered  on  their  duties,  and  his 
regulations  were  observed  in  subsequent  times  : 
2Ch31i7  Ezr3s.  27.  By  the  last  words] 
better,  '  in  the  Last  Acts,'  i.e.  a  history  of  the 
closing  part  of  his  reign.  29.  For  all  .  .  size] 
i.e.  for  dispensing  the  various  quantities  used 
for  the  different  offerings  (as  in  Ex29*'^). 


31.  The  set  feasts]  These  were  the  festivals 
of  the  Passover,  Unleavened  Bread,  Weeks, 
and  Tabernacles  ;  for  the  number  of  victims 
appointed  for  each  occasion  see  Nu28,  29. 

CHAPTER  24 

The  Courses  of  the  Sons  of  Aaron 
I,  Divisions .  .  Aaron]  i.e.  courses  of  the 
priests,  corresponding  to  the  course  of  the 
Levites  described  in  23*'.  3.  Ahimelech]  an 
error  (through  an  accidental  omission)  for 
'  Abiathar  son  of  Ahimelech,'  and  so  in  v.  31. 

4.  Chief  men]  i.e.  heads  of  families  or  clans 
(the  '  principal  households '  of  v.  6). 

6.  Ahimelech  the  son  of  Abiathar]  to  be 
corrected  into  '  Abiathar  son  of  Ahimelech.' 

19.  These  irere  the  orderings,  etc.]  i.e.  the 
order  in  which  they  succeeded  one  another  in 
attendance  at  the  Temple  had  been  determined 
by  Aaron. 

20.  And  the  rest  of  the  sons  of  Levi,  etc.] 
The  section  vv.  20-30  gives  the  names  of 
the  representatives  of  the  '  courses '  of  Levites 
enumerated  in  236*-,  but  with  the  omission  of 
the  'courses'  of  the  Gershonites  :  vv.  7-11. 

26.  Beno]  This  is  not  a  proper  name,  but 
means  '  his  son,'  Jaaziah  being  a  third  son  of 
Merari.  29.  Kish]  another  son  of  Mahli  : 
see  2321.  31.  Over  against]  better,  'equally 
with.'' 

CHAPTER  25 
Particulars  respecting  the  Singers 

I.  Separated  to  the  service]  RV  '  separated 
for  the  service  certain  of  the  sons,'  etc.  Jedu- 
thun]  as  in  16'*i,  this  name  takes  the  place  of 
'  Ethan  '  in  other  lists  :  6*4  15 17.  Prophesy] 
see  on  v.  5.  And  the  number .  .  was]  The 
sentence  is  interrupted,  and  continued  in 
V.  7. 

3.  Six]  only  five  names  are  given,  but  the 
LXX  adds  a  sixth,  '  Shimei '  :  cp.  v.  17. 

5.  The  king's  seer]  Music  and  singing  were 
often  associated  with  prophecy  (cp.  IS  10^), 
and  conversely  the  Temple  singers  are  here 
accounted  seers  :  cp.  '  prophesy,'  v.  5.  In  the 
w^ords  of  God]  better.  '  in  matters  pertaining 
to  God'  :  cp.  26^2.  To  lift  up  the  horn]  i.e. 
the  number  of  Heman's  sons  enhanced  his 
dignity:  cp.  Ps89i'''. 

8.  They  cast  lots,  etc.]  The  wards  of  Asaph 
alternated  with  an  equal  number  of  wards  of 
Jeduthun  until  they  were  exhausted  ;  then 
the  rest  of  Jeduthun's  wards  alternated  with 
an  equal  number  of  Heman's  ;  and  finally  the 
residue  of  Heman's  followed  in  unbroken 
succession. 

II.  Izri]  Some  of  th6  names  in  vv.  9-31 
differ  slightly  from  those  that  occur  in  vv.  2-4, 
'  Izri '  being  the  '  Zeri '  of  v.  3,  '  Jesharelah'  the 
'  Asarelah  '  of  v.  2,  and  '  Azareel '  the  '  Uzziel ' 
of  V.  4. 


266 


26.  1 


1  CHRONICLES 


28.  18 


CHAPTER  26 

Particitlars  respecting  various  Temple 
Officials 

I.  The  divisions  of  the  porters]  i.e.  the 
courses  of  the  gate-keepers  or  sentries  who 
stood  on  guard  at  the  entrances  of  the  Temple. 
They  were  drawn  from  three  families,  Meshele- 
miah  (the  '  Shallum '  of  9 1^),  Obed-edom,  and 
Hosah.  Asaph]  the  '  Ebiasaph '  of  9 19.  5.  For 
God  blessed  him]  see  13 1^.  The  blessing  con- 
sisted in  the  number  of  his  children  :  cp. 
Gnl28  2460. 

13.  For  every  gate]  Though  the  Temple 
was  not  yet  built,  David  is  regarded  as  having 
settled  the  plan  of  it  :  see  28 11*.  14.  Shele- 
miah]  the  '  Meshelemiah '  of  vv.  1,  2.  15.  The 
house  of  Asuppim]  E,V  '  the  storehouse,'  and 
so  in  V.  17. 

16.  To  Shuppim  and]  the  name  Shuppim 
is  an  accidental  repetition  of  the  previous 
'  Asuppim.'  To  each  of  the  thi'ee  families  of 
porters  were  allotted  the  gates  on  one  of  the 
four  sides  of  the  house,  the  gates  on  the 
fourth  side  being  assigned  to  the  eldest  son 
of  Meshelemiah.  The  gate  Shallecheth  has 
not  been  identified.  The  causeway]  some 
road  leading  up  the  Temple  hill. 

18.  Parbar]  RM  'the  Precinct,'  possibly  a 
colonnade  or  portico.  25.  His  brethren]  i.e. 
his  cousins.  27.  Out  of  the  spoils]  So  in 
Joshua's  time,  the  spoils  of  Jericho  were  put 
into  the  treasury  of  the  Lord  :  Josh  6  24. 

30.  On  this  side  Jordan  westward]  RV 
'  beyond  Jordan  westward '  :  an  expression 
which  indicates  that  the  writer  did  not  live 
in  Palestine.  31.  Jazer  of  Gilead]  a  town  in 
the  territory  of  Gad  :  Josh  1325  2139. 

CHAPTER   27 

Particulars  respecting  various 

Military  Officers 

This  c,  as  distinguished  from  the  four 
preceding  chapters  which  describe  David's 
ecclesiastical  ofiicials,  relates  to  his  secular 
officers. 

I.  Which  came .  .  out]  i.e.  relieved  each 
other  in  turn  :  cp.  2Ch23S.  For  particulars 
concerning  several  of  the  officers  mentioned 
in  the  following  vv.  see  c.  11.  3.  Of  the 
children,  etc.]  RV  '  He  vms  of  the  childi-en  of 
Perez,  the  chief  of,'  etc.  4.  Dodai]  The  words 
'  Eleazar  son  of '  have  been  lost  :  cp.  11 12. 

5.  A  chief  priest]  R  V  '  of  Jehoiada  the  priest, 
chief.' 

16.  Over  the  tribes]  In  the  following  list 
Gad  and  Asher  are  omitted,  and  the  Aaronites 
are  distinguished  from  the  Levites.  1 8.  Elihu] 
the  'Eliab'  of  2i3  ISIG^.  23.  From  twenty 
years  old  and  under]  In  Nu  1  ^  it  is  laid  down 
that  those  required  for  military  service  should 
be  above  this  age. 


25.  Over  the  king's  treasures]  The  account 
implies  that  David  had  large  private  estates 
as  well  as  considerable  accumulations  of 
treasure.  Some  of  his  possessions  may  have 
formed  part  of  what  the  king  could  claim 
from  the  nation  in  virtue  of  his  position  (cp. 
1  S  8 1'i'  15),  or  may  have  been  given  him  freely 
by  his  subjecits.(cp.  1  S  1027),  but  the  bulk  was 
doubtless  derived  from  his  successful  wars 
(see  IS 30 20  2S86-S).  The  lands  in  the  low 
plains  (v.  28)  were  probably  in  part  taken 
from  the  Philistines.  Castles]  better,  'towers' 
to  shelter  the  herdmen  and  serve  as  look-outs. 

27.  Over  the  increase,  etc.]  better,  'over 
the  wine-cellars  which  were  in  the  vineyards.' 

28.  The  sycomore  trees]  not  the  English 
tree  that  goes  by  this  name,  but  one  that 
bears  a  fig-like  fruit.  The  low  plains]  RV 
'  Lowland  ' :  a  name  applied  to  the  downs  that 
extend  from  the  central  hills  to  the  maritime 
plain. 

32.  David's  uncle]  better, '  David's  nephew ' : 
see  207.  34.  Jehoiada  the  son  of  Benaiah] 
probably  to  be  corrected  to  '  Benaiah  the  son 
of  Jehoiada':  cp.  1817. 

Some  of  the  names  mentioned  in  this  c. 
belonged  to  periods  much  earlier  than  David's 
closing  years,  for  Asahel  (v.  7)  was  killed 
before  David  became  king  at  Jerusalem 
(2  S  2 14  f.),  and  Ahithophel  killed  himself  in  the 
course  of  Absalom's  rebellion  :  2  S 1723. 

CHAPTER  28 
David's  last  Directions 
2.  The  footstool  of  our  God]  i.e.  the  Mercy 
Seat:  2S62  Psl327.  5.  The  throne  of  the 
kingdom  of  the  LORD]  cp.  Hi-i  2923.  Israel's 
kings  were  the  Lord's  vicegerents  and  repre- 
sentatives :  He  was  their  true  ruler.  7.  If  he 
be  constant]  The  continuance  of  God's  favour 
was  conditional  upon  continued  obedience,  and 
the  wi'iter,  living  after  the  exile,  knew  how 
the  condition  had  been  violated. 

11.  The  pattern]  The  pattern  of  the  Taber- 
nacle is  similarly  stated  to  have  been  com- 
municated to  Moses  by  God  :  Ex  25  9- ^o.  xhe 
houses]  the  Holy  Place  and  the  Most  Holy 
Place  :  see  IK 6.  Treasuries  .  .  upper  cham- 
bers] probably  the  side-chambers,  described 
in  lK65f-,  of  which  there  were  three  storeys. 

Inner  parlours]  perhaps  the  lowest  of  the 
side-chambers. 

12.  By  the  spirit]  i.e.  by  revelation.  The 
chambers  round  about]  perhaps  detached  build- 
ings constructed  round  the  courts  that  enclosed 
the  Temple.  15.  Candlesticks]  better  '  lamp- 
stands,'  and  so  elsewhere.  Ten  are  mentioned 
in  IK  749,  but  only  one  in  2  Chi  3 11.  16.  The 
tables]  Ten  are  alluded  to  again  in  2Ch48, 
but  only  a  single  table  is  mentioned  in  1  K748 
2  Ch  13 11  29  IS.  18.  The  chariot  of  the  cheru- 
bims]   R V  '  the  chariot,  eve?i  the  cherubim  ' : 


17 


257 


28.  20 


1  CHRONICLES— 2  CHRONICLES 


2.3 


cp.  Psl8io  Ezkl,  10  8  ^  2o.  He  will  not  fail 
thee]  A  similar  assurance  of  God's  constant 
aid  was  given  to  Jacob  and  Joshua  :  Gn28i5 
Josh  16. 

CHAPTER   29 

David's  Offerings,  Thanksgiving, 
AND  Death 

I.  The  palace]  The  word  in  the  original  is 
more  strictly  applicable  to  the  fortress  which 
was  attached  to  the  Second  Temple  (Neh28) 
and  afterwards  called  the  tower  of  Antonia, 
but  here  and  in  v.  19  is  employed  of  Solomon's 
Temple. 

3.  Of  mine  own  proper  good]  RV  '  a  trea- 
sure of  mine  own.'  4.  Three  thousand,  etc.] 
The  weights  here  named,  as  in  many  other 
places  in  Chronicles,  are  incredibly  large, 
amounting  in  value  to  £21,320,000  of  oiu' 
money. 

7.  Drams]  The  dram  (Gk.  drachma)  was 
^  shekel  ;  and  the   value    (according   to   the 


early  Hebrew  weights)  of  all  the  gold  men- 
tioned in  this  V.  would  be  about  £30,760,000, 
and  of  the  silver  about  £4,100,000. 

10.  And  David  said]  David  in  his  prayer 
recognised  that  it  was  not  in  his,  or  any  man's, 
power  to  add  to  God's  glory.  The  building 
of  the  Temple  could  only  manifest  his  and  his 
people's  devotion  and  gratitude  for  the  good- 
ness which  had  bestowed  such  wealth  upon 
them.  15.  None  abiding]  better,  '  no  hope  of 
abiding.' 

20.  "Worshipped  the  ..  king]  cp.  Ps45ii. 
The  same  kind  of  prostrations  were  made  both 
in  divine  worship  and  in  paying  respect  to  the 
sovereign. 

22.  The  second  time]  The  '  first  time  '  is 
only  described  at  length  in  1  K 1 39,  though  the 
writer  of  Chronicles  alludes  to  it  in  23 1. 

Zadok  to  he  priest]  This  seems  to  anticipate 
the  promotion  which  Zadok  received  when 
Solomon,  after  David's  death,  deposed  Abia- 
thar  :  1 K  2  27.  30.  The  times  that  ■went  over 
him]  i.e.  the  fortunes  that  befell  him. 


2  CHKONTCLES 


CHAPTER  1 


Solomon's  Choice  of  Wisdom.    His 
Wealth  and  Commerce 

This  c,  after  the  opening  vv.,  repeats,  with 
some  modifications  and  additions,  what  is  re- 
lated in  1 K  3  5-14  and  1 0  26:29. 

5.  The  brasen  altar]  This  identification  of 
the  altar  at  Gibeon  with  the  brazen  altar  of 
the  Tabernacle  is  an  addition  made  to  1 K  3  *. 

CHAPTER  2 

Solomon's  Negotiations  with  Hiram 

This  c.  substantially  reproduces  1  K5,  with 
some  differences  in  numbers,  names,  and  ex- 
pressions. 

I.  An  house  for  his  kingdom]  The  descrip- 
tion of  this,  which  is  given  at  length  in  IK 7, 
is  omitted  by  the  Chronicler. 

5.  Is  great]  i.e.  in  magnificence,  but  not  in 
actual  dimensions — the  external  length  and 
breadth  being  only  120  x  45  ft.,  less  than  many 
parish  churches.  It  was  not  intended  to  hold 
an  assemblage  of  worshippers,  but  to  be  a 
sanctuary  for  the  Deity,  where  He  might  re- 
ceive the  offerings  of  His  servants  :  v.  6. 

10.  Beaten  wheat]  probably  a  corruption  of 
'wheat  for  food'  ;  cp.  IKS^^. 

13.  Of  Huram  my  father's]  RM  '  even 
Huram  my  father ' :  the  term  '  father  '  being  a 
title  of  honour  :  cp.  Gn458.  But  the  whole 
expression  may  be  a  proper  name,  '  Huram 


Abi ';  and  so  in  41^.  14.  A  woman  .  .  of  Dan] 
see  on  1 K  7 1"^,  where  she  is  termed  a  widow 
of  Naphtali.  16.  Joppa]  The  modern  Jaffa, 
some  35  m.  from  Jerusalem. 

17.  The  strangers]  Solomon  in  imposing 
forced  labour  upon  his  subjects  did  not,  like  his 
father,  confine  it  to  those  who  were  of  foreign 
origin,  but  extended  it  to  native  Israelites  : 
IK513.  18.  In  the  mountain]  probably  the 
hill-country  of  Judah. 

CHAPTER  3 

Particulars  relating  to  the  Temple 
This  and  the  following  c.  abbreviate  what  is 
recorded  in  1  K  6,  7. 

I.  Moriah]  Here  the  designation  of  the 
Temple  hill,  but  in  Gn22  2  of  the  'land  '  in 
which  was  situated  the  hill  where  Isaac  was  to 
be  sacrificed.  Where  the  Lord  appeared  unto] 
better  '  which  was  shown  unto,'  i.e.  by  the 
acceptance  of  the  king's  sacrifice  (1  Ch2128 
221). 

3.  These  are  the  thing s,  etc.]  RV  '  these 
are  the  foundations  which  Solomon  laid ' :  the 
V.  going  on  to  give  the  gi'ound  plan.  After 
the  first  measure]  This  implies  that  the  length 
of  the  cubit  had  changed  between  the  time  of 
Solomon  and  that  of  the  writer  of  Chronicles. 
Ezekiel  (40  5)  speaks  of  a  cubit  measuring  a 
cubit  and  a  hand-breadth,  which,  if  the  smaller 
cubit  was  equal  to  6  hand-breadths  (about 
18  in.),  must  have  been  equivalent  to  7  (about 


258 


2.4 


2  CHRONICLES 


8.16 


21  in.).  In  estimating  the  size  of  the  Temple, 
the  cubit,  for  the  sake  of  convenience,  has 
been  reckoned  at  18  in.  ;  if  the  cubit  of  21  in. 
was  the  one  really  employed,  the  dimensions 
must  be  modified  accordingly. 

4.  An  hundred  and  twenty]  One  MS  of  the 
LXX  has  '  twenty.'  The  figures  given  in  the 
text  are  suitable  only  for  a  tower,  not  a 
porch. 

5.  The  greater  house]  i.e.  the  Holy  Place. 
Cieled]  The  walls,  as  well  as  the  roof,  were 

lined  with  wood.  Chains]  i.e.  festoons  of 
chain  work,  carved  in  relief.  6.  Parvaim] 
unknown. 

10.  Of  image  work]  LXX  has  '  wrought- 
in  wood ' :  cp.  1  K  6  -3.  11.  Twenty  cubits]  This 
was  the  length  of  the  four  wings  together. 

13.  Inward]  RV  '  toward  the  house  '  :  i.e. 
the  Holy  Place.  14.  The  vail]  This  is  not  men- 
tioned in  Kings.  15.  Thirty  and  five]  In  1  K 
715  '  eighteen'  :  see  also  2  K  2517  Jer522i. 

16.  Chains,  as  in  the  oracle]  The  text  is 
probably  corrupt  ;  the  chains  must  be  '  the 
wreaths  of  chain  work '  oi  IK.T^'^,  which  were 
carved  on  the  capitals. 

CHAPTER  4 

The  Contents  of  the  Temple 
I.  An  altar]  This  was  in  the  Temple  court. 
Though  its  construction   is  not   described  in 
Kings,  it  is  mentioned  in  1K864  2K1614. 

3.  Oxen]  rather,  '  knops '  (i.e.  gourds)  :  see 
1 K  7  24.  7.  According  to  their  form]  RV  '  Ac- 
cording to  the  ordinance  concerning  them.'  In 
the  temple]  i.e.  in  the  Holy  Place. 

9.  The  great  court]  The  word  here  used 
differs  from  that  employed  for  '  the  court  of 
the  priests.'  It  was  in  the  '  great  court '  that 
the  scaffold  mentioned  in  6  ^^  was  placed  :  see 
on  IK79.  10.  The  right  side  of  the  east  end] 
i.e.  at  the  SE.  corner.  12.  Pommels]  RV 
'  bowls,'  i.e.  the  globes  of  the  capitals  ;  and  so 
in  V.  13.  14.  He  made  .  .  made  he]  probably 
an  error  for  'ten.,  ten.'  16.  Fleshhooks] 
probably  an  error  for  'basons,'  v.  11  :  cp. 
1K745. 

20.  After  the  manner]  RV  '  according  to 
the  ordinance.'  In  the  Law  (Ex  27 21)  it  was 
required  that  a  light  should  burn  always  before 
the  veil.  22.  The  entry]  probably  an  error 
for  'the  hinges,'  lK7'^o. 

CHAPTER  5 

The  removal  of  the  Ark  to  the  Temple 
This  c.  is  a  repetition  of  IKRi-^,  with  ad- 
ditional particulars  respecting  the  descent  of 
the  glory  of  the  Lord. 

4.  The  Levites  .  .  the  ark]  The  mention  of 
'  the  Levites '  in  this  connexion  is  more  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  requirements  of  the  Law 
than  the  statement  of  1 KS^  that  the  '  priests ' 
took  up  the  ark. 


9.  From  the  ark]  better  (as  in  the  LXX) 
'  from  the  Holy  Place  ' :  cp.  1 K  8  «.  Unto  this 
day]  The  Chronicler,  like  the  compiler  of 
Kings,  retains  the  expression  of  the  original 
writer,  who  lived  before  the  destruction  of  the 
Temple. 

II.  Did  not.  .  course]  On  this  occasion  all 
the  priests  (and  not  a  single  course  only)  had 
sanctified  themselves  to  officiate.  12.  At  the 
east  end]  i.e.  facing  westward,  towards  the 
Temple  building. 

CHAPTER  6 
Solomon's  Prayer 

The  first  39  w.  of  this  c.  repeat  lK8i2-50^ 
the  conclusion  of  the  prayer,  as  given  in  85i-6i, 
being  omitted  and  three  additional  vv.  being 
substituted. 

5.  Neither  chose  I  any  man]  Saul,  though 
chosen,  was  subsequently  rejected  :  1  S15"^6. 

13.  For  Solomon  had  made,  etc.]  This  is 
not  mentioned  in  IK 8. 

41.  Now  therefore  arise,  etc.]  The  same 
words  occur  in  Ps  1328. 9.  ge  clothed  with  .  . 
goodness]   i.e.  enjoy  victory  and  prosperity. 

42.  Turn  not  away,  etc.]  i.e.  do  not  reject 
his  prayer  and  make  him  turn  away  in  dis- 
appointment.    For  anointed  cp.  1S123  246. 

The  mercies  of  David]  i.e.  the  mercies  pro- 
mised and  shown  to  David  :  cp.  PsSO^^. 

CHAPTER  7 
Solomon's  Sacrifices,  and  the  Lord's 

Promises 
This  c.  reproduces  with  some  additions  por- 
tions of  1K8 62-68  and  9i-9. 

1.  The  fire  came  down]  This,  which  marked 
the  acceptance  of  Solomon's  sacrifice  (cp.  1  Ch 
2126),  is  not  mentioned  in  1  K8. 

21.  Shall  be  an  astonishment]  i.e.  a  cause 
of  astonishment. 

CHAPTER  8 
Solomon's  Buildings.    His  Trade  with 
Ophir 
This  c.  reproduces  the  substance  of  1 K  9 10-28 
but  describes  some  additional  buildings. 

2.  Had  restored]  If  the  reference  is  to  the 
cities  which  Solomon  gave  to  Hiram,  it  seems 
best  to  assume  that  they  had  been  merely 
pledged  as  security  for  money  which  Solomon 
borrowed  and  afterwards  repaid  :   1  K  9 1*. 

3.  Hamath-zobah]  Perhaps  a  Hamath  in 
Zobah  (a  country  E.  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  in 
the  region  of  the  modern  Hauran). 

4.  Tadmor]  the  later  Palmyra,  a  city  150 
m.  NE.  of  Damascus  in  the  Syrian  desert. 

8.  Them  did  Solomon,  etc.]"RV  '  of  them  did 
Solomon  raise  a  levy  <if  honcherr  ants'  13.  After 
a  certain  rate,  etc.]  RV  '  as  the  duty  of  every 
day  required  '  :  cp.  v.  14.  16.  Unto  the  day] 
LXX  has  '  from  the  day.' 


259 


a  18 


2  CHRONICLES 


13.  5 


1 8.  In  1K9 26-28  it  is  stated  that  Solomon 
'  made '  a  navy  of  ships  at  Eziongeber,  and 
that  Hiram  sent  him  skilled  mariners. 

CHAPTEE  9 
The  Visit  of  the  Queen  of  Sheba. 

Solomon's  Splendour 
This  c.  is  a  close  repetition  of  1 K  lO^-^s  and 

1141-43, 

8.  On  his  throne]  i.e.  God's  throne  :  see  on 
lCh285. 

10.  II.  These  vv.  should  follow  v.  12. 

11.  Terraces]  IK  10^2  has  'pillars'  (or 
balustrades). 

12.  That  which  she  had  brought]  IKlQi^ 
has  '  beside  that  which  Solomon  gave  her  of 
his  royal  bounty.' 

21.  The  king's  ships  went  to  Tarshish]  If 
this  is  not  a  misunderstanding  of  the  phrase 
'  ships  of  Tarshish'  (1  K 1022),  which  describes 
a  particular  kind  of  vessel,  it  must  be  assumed 
that  Solomon's  ships  sailed  from  a  Phoenician 
port,  Tarshish  (whether  Tartessus  or  Tarsus) 
being  on  the  Mediterranean. 

29.  In  the  book,  etc.]  The  three  works  here 
referred  to  may  possibly  have  been  inserted  in 
'  the  book  of  the  kings  of  Israel  and  Judah ' 
(see  1611,  etc.),  as  was  the  case  with  the  '  book 
of  Jehu  the  son  of  Hanani '  (20  s*  RV). 

CHAPTER  10 
Reign  of  Rehoboam 
This  c.   is  a  repetition  of  1K121-19   with 
slight  differences. 

2.  Returned  out  of  Egypt]  Preferable  to 
IK  12  2,  'Jeroboam  dwelt  in  Egypt.' 

4.  Thy  father  made,  etc.]  The  passages  in 
IK 513, 14  1128^  which  throw  light  upon  the 
oppressiveness  of  Solomon,  are  omitted  by 
the  Chi'onicler. 

CHAPTER  11 
Reign  of  Rehoboam  (continued) 
This  c.  repeats  the  substance  of  IK  12 21-24^ 
and  adds  much  information  relating  to  Reho- 
boam's  buildings,  the  withdrawal  of  the  Levites 
from  the  kingdom  of  Jeroboam,  and  Rehoboam's 
marriages. 

5.  Built  cities]  Of  the  towns  named  in  the 
following  vv.  Beth-lehem,  Tekoa,  Beth-zur, 
Adoraim,  Ziph,  and  Hebron,  were  in  the  hill- 
counti-y  of  Judah  ;  Etam,  Shoco,  Adullam, 
Mareshah,  Azekah,  Zorah  and  Aijalon,  were  in 
the  lowlands,  whilst  Gath  (a  Philistine  city, 
which  in  Solomon's  reign  was  independent)  and 
Lachish  were  in  the  maritime  plain.  The 
fortification  of  these  places  was  intended  to 
guard  the  Judgean  frontier  on  the  side  of 
Egypt,  with  which  country  Jeroboam  had  had 
friendly  relations  :   10  2. 

14.  Cast  them  off]  When  Jeroboam  made 
priests  from  all  the  tribes  indifferently,  the 


Levites  lost  their  privileged  position  as  the 
only  legitimate  priestly  tribe. 

15.  Devils]  lit.  'he-goats,'  the  deities  that 
were  worshipped  being  supposed  to  assume  the 
forms  of  these  animals,  like  the  Greek  Satyrs 
and  the  Roman  Faunus. 

18.  Jerimoth]  not  included  in  the  list  in 
1  Ch  3 1-^,  so  that  he  was  probably  the  son  of 
a  concubine.  And  Abihail]  RV  ^  and  of  Abi- 
hail '  :  Abihail  being  the  wife  of  Jerimoth  and 
mother  of  Mahalath.  20.  Daughter]  probably 
'granddaughter'  :  see  2S142T  and  131. 

Abijah]    The  '  Abijam '  of  1 K 15 1. 

23.  He  dealt  wisely]  By  acting  as  here  de- 
scribed he  sought  to  secure  the  tranquil  suc- 
cession of  the  son  whom  he  had  chosen  as  his 
heir  :  cp.  213.     Desired]  probably  for  his  sons. 

CHAPTER    12 
Reign  of  Rehoboam  (concluded) 

This  c.  is  parallel  to  IK  1421-31,  b^t  supplies 
additional  particulars  respecting  Shishak's 
army  and  the  prophet  Shemaiah. 

3.  The  Lubims,  the  Sukkiims]  The  Lubims 
were  probably  Libyans  ;  the  Sukkiims,  who  are 
not  mentioned  elsewhere,  are  called  in  LXX 
'  Troglodytes,'  i.e.  '  cave-dwellers.' 

6.  The  princes  of  Israel]  The  term  '  Israel ' 
is  often  applied  in  Chronicles  to  the  people  of 
Judah,  as  more  nearly  realising  the  ideal  of 
the  true  Israel  than  the  sister  kingdom  :  cp. 
2034  212,4  232  245  281f>'23. 

12.  Things  ■went  wrell]  RV  '  there  were  good 
ih.\ng%  found'  :  cp.  19^  IK  1413.  The  king's 
repentance  was  accompanied  by  a  moral  refor- 
mation on  the  part  of  the  people. 

15.  The  book  of.  .  Iddo]  The  writings  of 
Iddo  are  also  mentioned  in  929. 1322^ 

CHAPTER  13 

Reign  of  Abijah 
This  c.  expands  the  account  given  of  Abijah 
(Abijam)  in  IK  151"^  by  giving  details  of  his 
war  with  Jeroboam,  which  is  there  only  briefly 
mentioned. 

2.  Michaiah]  In  11 21  and  IK  15 2  she  is 
called  '  Maachah,'  and  was  probably  daughter 
of  Uriel  and  granddaughter  of  Absalom. 

3.  Four  hundred  thousand,  etc.]  These 
numbers  (see  also  v.  17)  are  in  keeping  with 
the  large  figures  that  appear  elsewhere  in 
Chronicles  :  see  148.9  1714-is. 

4.  Zemaraim]  Possibly  a  hill  near  the  place 
of  the  same  name  in  Benjamin  :  Josh  18  22. 

5.  A  covenant  of  salt]  cp.  Nul8i9.  The 
use  of  salt  in  connexion  with  sacrifice  (see 
Lv  2 13)  probably  arose  from  its  association  with 
a  meal  ;  and  '  there  is  salt  between  us  '  is  said 
to  be  a  phrase  still  employed  to  denote  the 
bond  which  secures,  for  any  one  who  has  par- 
taken of  an  Arab's  hospitality,  protection  and 
(in  case  of  need)  assistance. 


260 


13.7 


2  CHRONICLES 


16.7 


7.  Children  of  Belial]  i.e.  worthless  persons. 
Young]  That  Rehoboam  was  young  when 

the  Ten   Tribes   revolted   is  implied   in   10  8, 
though  in  1213  his  age  is  given  as  41. 

8.  The  kingdom  of  the  LORD]  The  high 
prerogative  that  once  belonged  to  all  Israel 
(1  Ch285  2  Ch9S)  was  now  confined  to  Judah. 

9.  After  the  manner,  etc.]  The  LXX  has 
'  out  of  the  people  of  all  the  land,'  which  agrees 
with  the  true  sense  of  1 K 12 31.  12.  Sounding 
trumpets]  cp.  NulO^  31*5.  19.  Jeshanah  .  . 
Ephrain]  The  first  is  not  known,  the  second 
is  identified  by  some  with  the  '  Ephraim ' 
mentioned  in  Jnll^*.  20.  The  mention  of 
Jeroboam's  death  here  is  chronologically  out  of 
place,  since   he  outlived  Abijah. 

22.  In  the  story]  RV  '  in  the  commentary.' 
The  original  term  ('  midrash ')  meant  the 
didactic  treatment  of  a  subject  or  narrative  ; 
and  in  the  '  midrash '  of  Iddo  the  reign  of 
Abijah  was  presumably  related  with  a  view  to 
moral  instruction  rather  than  historic  accuracy. 
Possibly  the  account  of  Abijah's  speech  in 
vv.  4-12  has  been  taken  from  it :  contrast 
IKI53. 

CHAPTER    14 
Reign  of  Asa 

This  c.  adds  to  what  is  related  of  Asa  in 
lK1.5^"2-t  an  account  of  the  invasion  of  the 
Ethiopian  Zerah. 

3.  Took  away  .  .  the  high  places]  In  15 1'' 
(=  IK  15 1-1)  the  opposite  of  this  is  stated  ;  if 
the  two  passages  are  to  be  reconciled,  it  must 
be  supposed  that  Asa  sought  to  effect  a  reform 
which  was  only  imperfectly  executed  :  cp. 
also  176  with  2033. 

7.  The  land  /.s  yet  before  us]  i.e.  free  from 
the  presence  of  an  enemy. 

9.  Zerah]  Zerah,  if  an  Ethiopian  (Heb. 
Citithite)  or  Egyptian,  is  probably  to  be  identified 
with  Osorkon  II,  an  Egyptian  king  of  the 
22nd  dynasty,  who,  on  a  monument  recently 
found,  declares  that  '  the  upper  and  lower 
Rutennu'  (i.e.  the  peoples  of  Palestine)  had 
been  thrown  under  his  feet.  But  in  v.  14  the 
cities  spoiled  by  Asa  after  the  defeat  of  the 
invaders  are  said  to  be  near  G-erar  ;  so  that 
Zerah  may  have  been  the  chief  of  an  Arabian 
tribe,  a  view  with  which  the  description  of  the 
spoil  taken  by  Asa  (v.  15)  agrees.  Mareshah] 
in  the  lowland  of  Judah  (Joshl5'i^),  where 
there  are  some  ruins  still  called  '  Mar'ash.' 
To  the  N.  there  is  a  Wady  called  '  Wady  es 
Sufieh,'  which  may  be  Zephathah. 

II.  //  is  nothing,  etc.]  RV  'there  is  none 
beside  thee  to  help,  between  the  mighty  and 
him  that  hath  no  strength '  :  i.e.  to  help  the 
weak  under  unequal  conditions.  Asa's  prayer 
'  breathes  the  true  spirit  of  faith  and  trust  in 
God.' 

13.  Gerar]    G  m.  S.  of   Gaza   and  25  m. 


from  Beersheba.  14.  The  fear  of  the  LORD, 
etc.]  They  were  so  panic-stricken  that  they 
could  offer  no  resistance  :  cp.  171°  20--'. 

15.  The  tents  of  cattle]  i.e.  the  tents  of 
nomadic  tribes  with  large  possessions  of 
flocks  and  cattle. 

CHAPTER    15 

Reign  op  Asa  (continued) 
An  account  of  how  Asa,  moved  by  the  prophet 

Azariah,  made  a  covenant  to  seek  the  Lord. 
This  c.  is  almost  entirely  supplementary  to 

what  is  recorded  of  Asa  in  1  Ki-5. 

I.  Azariah]   not  mentioned  elsewhere. 

3,  For  a  long  season]  The  writer  seems  to 
have  principally  in  view  the  times  of  the 
Judges  :  see  Jg2i2  3M76  2125.  A  teaching 
priest]  For  this  function  of  the  priesthood 
cp.  Lv  10 11  Mai  2  7. 

5.  No  peace  .  .  came  in]  i.e.  travelling  was 
unsafe  :  cp.  JgS''  6^.  The  countries]  i.e.  the 
different  divisions  of  Israel  :  see  Jgl2* 
20,  21. 

8.  The  prophecy  of  Oded]  The  words  '  Aza- 
riah son  of  '  have  dropped  out  before  Oded  : 
the  Vulgate  has  them.  The  cities  .  .  taken] 
This  seems  to  refer  to  the  conquests  of  Abijah  : 
1319. 

9.  The  strangers]  Those  members  of  the 
Ten  Tribes  who  removed  to  Judah  on  account 
of  the  calf  -  worship  :  1 1 1'^.  Simeon]  The 
territory  of  Simeon  must  have  practically  be- 
longed to  Judah  from  the  time  of  Jeroboam's 
revolt,  but  some  Simeonites  may  have  resided 
in  the  northern  kingdom. 

II.  The  spoil]  i.e.  the  spoil  taken  from  the 
Ethiopians  :   1413-15. 

19.  Five  and  thirtieth]  This  is  inconsistent 
with  the  chronology  given  in  1  K,  for  Baasha 
died  in  the  26th  year  of  Asa  (IK  16 s)  ;  but 
see  on  16  1. 

CHAPTER  16 
Reign  of  Asa  (concluded) 

This  c.  reproduces  with  some  verbal  differ- 
ences lK15i'^"2'i,  but  adds  an  account  of  a 
rebuke  received  by  Asa  from  the  seer  Hanani. 

I.  Six  and  thirtieth]  Since,  according  to 
IK  16 8,  Baasha  did  not  live  until  the  36th 
year  of  Asa.  some  have  supposed  that  the  six 
and  thirtieth  year  is  reckoned  from  the  revolt 
of  the  Ten  Tribes. 

4.  The  store  cities  of  Naphtali]  LXX 
suggests  that  the  true  reading  is  '  the  surround- 
ing parts  of  Naphtali.' 

7.  Hanani]  Nothing  is  known  of  him  beyond 
what  is  here  related,  and  the  fact  that  he  was 
the  father  of  the  prophet  Jehu  ( 1 9  2).  Because 
thou  hast  relied]  cp.  the  similar  protests  of 
Isaiah  against  reliance  upon  foreign  support 
instead  of  upon  the  LoRD(Isa30l  311).  The 
host  of .  .  Syria]   The  prophet  seems  to  imply 


261 


16.8 


2  CHRONICLES 


20.  1 


that  Asa  might  have  beaten  both  Israel  and 
Syria,  if  he  had  trusted  in  the  Lord. 

8.  Lubims]  These  were  not  amongst  the 
forces  of  Zerah  (149),  but  those  of  Shishak 
(123). 

12.  Sought  not  to  the  LORD]  Contrast  the 
conduct  of  Hezekiah  in  his  sickness  :  see 
2K202. 

14.  A  very  great  burning]  i.e.  of  the  spices 
previously  mentioned  :  cp.  Jer  34  5.  The  bodies 
of  the  dead  were  not  ordinarily  burnt  but 
buried  ;  the  burning  of  the  bodies  of  Saul 
and  Jonathan  (1  S  31 1^)  was  exceptional. 

CHAPTEE  17 
Reign  op  Jehoshaphat 
An  account  of  a  mission  of  Levites  to  teach 
the  Law,  and  of  the  king's  army. 

The  particulars  of  Jehoshaphat's  reign  here 
given  are  additional  to  those  contained  in 
IK  22  41-50. 

1.  Strengthened  himself  against  Israel] 
Jehoshaphat  came  to  the  throne  in  the  fourth 
year  of  Ahab,  and  it  is  probable  that  some  in- 
terval elapsed  before  he  made  peace  with  him, 
as  recorded  in  1  K2244. 

2.  Which  Asa  .  .  taken]   see  15  8,  and  note. 

3.  His  father  David]  LXX  omits  '  David,' 
so  that  his  father  means  Asa,  whose  early  actions 
(142)  are  here  contrasted  with  the  oppressive- 
ness and  want  of  faith  that  he  displayed  in  his 
later  years  (IG  MO).  Baalim]  RV  '  the  Baalim ' 
(and  so  elsewhere),  i.e.  the  various  false  gods 
to  each  of  whom  the  title  '  Baal '  (=  Lord),  was 
applied. 

4.  The  doings  of  Israel]  an  allusion  either 
to  the  worship  of  the  calves  (13S'9)  or  to  that 
of  the  Zidonian  Baal,  introduced  into  Israel  by 
Jezebel,  the  wife  of  Jehoshaphat's  contempo- 
rary, Ahab. 

7.  He  sent  to  his  princes]  The  princes 
were  to  organise  the  teaching  which  was  carried 
out  by  the  Levites  named  in  the  next  v. 

9.  Went  about]  This  is  the  only  record  in 
the  historical  books  of  the  diffusion  of  a  know- 
ledge of  the  Law  by  means  of  a  mission.  In 
the  reign  of  Josiah  (2  K  23  2)  and  after  the 
return  from  the  exile  (NehS^-is)  the  Law  was 
merely  read  before  assemblies  of  the  people  at 
Jerusalem. 

13.  Much  business]  i.e.  was  busily  em- 
ployed on  works  of  defence.  And  the  men 
of  war  . .  tvere']  better,  '  and  he  had  men  of  war 
. .  in  Jerusalem.' 

14-18.  It  is  generally  agreed  that  there  must 
be  some  error  in  these  enormous  numbers. 

CHAPTER  18 
Reign  op  JEH0SHAPn.4T  (continued) 
This  c.  reproduces  1  K  22 1-35  with  very  slight 
differences. 

31.  The  Lord  helped  him]  This,  which  is 


an  addition  to  the  narrative  of  Kings,  seems  to 
imply  that  the  writer  regarded  Jehoshaphat's 
cry  as  a  prayer  for  help,  which  God  answered, 
as  explained  in  the  next  v. 

CHAPTER  19 
Reign  of  Jehoshaphat  (continued) 

The  c.  narrates  how  Jehoshaphat  was  re- 
proved by  the  seer  Jehu  for  helping  Ahab,  and 
how  he  instituted  judges  in  the  cities  of  Judah. 

This  c.  is  entirely  supplementary  to  the  ac- 
count of  Jehoshaphat  as  given  in  1 K. 

2.  Jehu]  previously  only  named  in  con- 
nexion with  the  northern  kingdom  in  the  reign 
of  Baasha  (IK  16'^).  Shouldest  thou  help  the 
ungodly]  The  peace  with  Israel,  ratified  by  a 
marriage  (2  K  8 1*^),  put  an  end  to  a  war  between 
two  kindred  peoples,  yet  brought  evils  in  its 
train,  since  the  Baal  worship  which  polluted 
the  northern  kingdom  was  introduced  into 
Judah  by  Athaliah,  the  daughter  of  Ahab  and 
the  daughter-in-law  of  Jehoshaphat :  24  7. 

5.  He  set  judges]  Local  courts  of  justice 
may  have  existed  before,  but  Jehoshaphat  im- 
proved them,  and  likewise  established  a  court 
in  the  capital,  which  seems  also  to  have  heard 
appeals  :  v.  10. 

6.  The  Lord  .  .  judgment]  Judges  were  ad- 
ministrators of  the  divine  justice,  so  that  even 
the  term  '  God  '  could  be  used  to  describe  them 
in  their  official  capacity  :  see  Ex  21*5  RV. 

8.  For  the  judgment  of  the  LORD  .  .  con- 
troversies] Peihaps  the  former  means  cases 
relating  to  religious  obligations,  and  the  latter 
ordinary  civil  and  criminal  trials.  When 
they  returned]  RV  '  and  they  returned,'  the 
reference  being  to  the  king  and  his  retinue. 

ID.  Between  blood  and  blood]  e.g.  the  de- 
termination of  what  was  murder  and  what  was 
merely  manslaughter:  cp.  Ex 21.  Between 
law  and  commandment]  i.e.  the  decision, 
where  laws  seemed  to  conflict,  which  of  them 
applied  to  a  particular  case. 

II.  And,  behold,  etc.]  The  court  at  Jerusa- 
lem was  divided  into  two  sections,  one  (under 
Amariah)  dealing  with  ecclesiastical  causes, 
and  the  other  (under  Zebadiah)  dealing  with 
secular  causes. 

CHAPTER  20 
Rbign  op  Jehoshaphat  (concluded) 

An  account  of  how  a  host  of  Moabites  and 
others  invaded  Judah  ;  how  Jehoshaphat  prayed 
to  the  Lord,  and  was  directed  by  Jahaziel  not 
to  fear ;  and  how  the  enemy  was  overthrown 
by  God. 

The  early  part  of  this  c.  is  additional  to  the 
narrative  in  1 K  :  the  latter  part  reproduces 
IK  22  41-411. 

I.  O/Acr  beside  the  Ammonites]  better  (with 
LXX),  'some  of  the  Meunim'  (or  Maonites): 
cp.  26 'i'  and  JglO^^.     They  seem  to  have  been 


262 


20.  2 


2  CHRONICLES 


23.  18 


the  people  from  Mt.  Seir  mentioned  in  vv. 
10,  23. 

2.  Beyond  the  sea]  i.e.  from  the  eastern 
side  of  the  Dead  Sea.  On  this  side  Syria]  lit. 
'  from  Syria,'  but  Syria  is  probably  a  mistake 
for  'Edom.'  The  Moabites  and  Ammonites 
had  marched  round  the  S.  end  of  the  Dead  Sea, 
and  passing  through  Edom  (the  '  Mount  Seir ' 
of  V.  10)  had  been  joined  by  some  of  the  in- 
habitants. En-g-edi]  on  the  W.  shore  of  the 
Dead  Sea,  the  modern  Ain-jidy. 

5.  Before  the  new  court]  probably  '  the 
court  of  the  priests  '  of  4  ^,  which  was  distinct 
from  the  one  in  which  Solomon  prayed  :  6^^. 

10.  Wouldest  not  let,  etc.]  The  Moabites, 
Ammonites,  and  Edomites  were  all  spared  on 
the  ground  of  their  kinship  with  Israel  through 
Lot  and  Esau:  Dt2^.9.i9. 

16.  Ziz]  The  word  perhaps  survives  in  the 
name  El  Husasah  which  attaches  to  a  district 
near  Tekoa  :  v.  20. 

21.  The  beauty  of  holiness]  Perhaps  better, 
'  in  holy  apparel '  :  cp.  1  Ch  16-^. 

22.  Ambushments]  RV  '  liers  in  wait.'  Ap- 
parently the  enemy  fell  out  among  themselves. 

25.  Riches  with  the  dead  bodies]  LXX 
points  to  another  reading, '  riches  and  garments.' 

26.  Berachah]  i.e.  '  Blessing.'  The  place 
has  been  identified  with  the  Wfidy  Bereikut 
near  Tekoa. 

34.  Who  is  mentioned]  RV  '  (the  book) 
which  is  inserted  in.' 

36.  To  go  to  Tarshish]  IK 22 48  has  '  ships 
of  Tarshish  '  (i.e.  large  merchantmen)  '  to  go 
to  Ophir '  (in  Arabia,  or  E.  Africa),  for  which 
Ezion-geber  was  the  natural  port  of  departure. 

CHAPTER   21 
Reign  of  Jehoram 
This  c.  in  part  reproduces  2  KSi'-^^  but  adds 
several   particulars  respecting  the  judgments 
brought  upon  Jehoram. 

2.  Azariah  .  .  Azariah]  One  of  the  names  is 
probably  an  error,  perhaps  for  '  Ahaziah '  :  cp. 
the  mistake  in  22 1'.    3.  And  their  father]  cp.  1 1  '-3. 

10.  So  the  Edomites  revolted]  The  writer 
omits  the  final  sentence  in  2K8-1  which  ac- 
counts for  the  successful  revolt  of  the  Edomites  : 
see  note  there. 

11.  Fornication]  A  figure  for  religious  in- 
fidelity. 

12.  A  writing  .  .  from  Elijah]  If  this  mention 
of  Elijah  as  living  in  the  reign  of  Jehoram  is 
to  be  reconciled  with  2K3ii,  which  relates 
that  Elisha  (Elijah's  successor)  prophesied  in 
the  reign  of  Jehoshaphat,  it  must  be  supposed 
that  Elisha  entered  upon  his  ministry  before 
Elijah  was  translated  ;  and  that  2  K  2  is  out  of 
its  proper  chronological  order.  The  incident 
here  described  is  the  only  instance  of  Elijah 


14.  A  great  plague]  i.e.  the  great  blow  in- 
flicted by  the  invasion  described  in  v.  16. 

16.  The  Lord  stirred  up]  The  invaders, 
though  pursuing  designs  of  their  own,  were 
really  agents  of  the  divine  judgment  :  cp.  1  Ch 
b-'^  Isal05-7  3724-29.  The  Arabians  .  .  Ethio- 
pians] These  Arabians  came  from  the  W.  coast 
of  Arabia,  facing  Ethiopia  across  the  Red  Sea. 

17.  In  the  king's  house]  better,  '  belonging 
to  the  king's  house.'  It  is  not  meant  that  the 
invaders  assaulted  Jerusalem,  but  that  they 
carried  off  the  royal  property  in  the  country 
districts.     Jehoahaz]  called  in  221  'Ahaziah.' 

19.  Made  no  burning,  etc.]  i.e.  they  did  not 
use  the  same  quantity  of  spices  as  were  burnt 
at  the  funeral  rites  of  former  kings.  20.  De- 
parted .  .  desired]  i.e.  he  died  unregretted.  But 
some  (following  LXX)  render  '  he  walked 
(i.e.  lived)  in  an  undesirable  way.' 

CHAPTER  22 
Reign  of  Ahaziah 

This  c.  reproduces  with  some  differences 
2 K8 24-29  and  lli-^  (the  intervening  chs.  being 
omitted  because  they  relate  exclusively  to 
Israel). 

2.  Forty  and  two]  This  must  be  an  error, 
for  his  father  was  only  40  when  he  died  (2 1  20). 
2K82<3  has  'twenty-two.'  6.  Azariah]  An 
error  for  '  Ahaziah,'  which  LXX  has.  7.  Had 
anointed]  see  2K9i-io. 

8.  The  sons  of  the  brethren,  etc.]  i.e.  of  the 
elder  sons  of  Jehoram  who  were  killed  by  the 
Arabians  (2117).  jf  Jehoram  was  only  40  at 
his  death  (21  20),  his  grandsons  at  this  time 
(v.  2)  must  have  been  quite  young  children. 

9.  He  was  hid  in  Samaria]  2K927  states 
that  he  was  mortally  wounded  in  his  chariot 
when  escaping  from  Jehu,  and  died  at  Megiddo. 

They  had  slain  .  .  they  buried]  The  first  verb 
refers  to  the  emissaries  of  Jehu,  the  second  to 
the  servants  of  the  murdered  Ahaziah.     To 
,  keep  still]  i.e.  to  retain. 


CHAPTER  23 
Reign  of  Joash 
This   c.   repeats   2K 11 4-20^  but  brings  into 
prominence  the  ecclesiastical  officials  in  place 
of  the  soldiers  of  the  royal  guard. 

4.   This  is  the  thing,  etc.]  The  arrangements 
differ  from  those  described  in  2  K  1 1  (see  note 
there).     Here  there  are  three  divisions  which 
are  posted  (o)  at  the  doors  of  the  Temple,  (b) 
at  the  palace,  (c)  at  the  gate  of  the  foundation 
(which  in  2  K  is  called  the  '  gate  Sur  '  and  con- 
nected with  the  palace).     Here  too  only  priests 
or  Levites  are  allowed   to  enter  the  Temple, 
whilst  the  rest  take  up  their  position  outside  ; 
but  in  Kings  the  distinction  is  not  observed. 
16.    Between  him,  etc.]  RV  'between  him- 
having  concerned  himself  with  the  affairs  of     self,  and  all  the  people,  and  the  king.' 
Judah.  18.  Appointed  the  offices,  etc.]  better,  'put 

263 


24.  6 


2  CHRONICLES 


26.  18 


the  offices  .  .  into  the  hand  of.'  The  priests 
the  Levites]  LXX  has  (preferably)  '  the  priests 
and  the  Levites,'  the  priests  alone  being  author- 
ised to  olf  er  sacrifice  (according  to  Nu  18  "). 

CHAPTER   24 
Reign  op  Joash  (concluded) 

An  account  of  the  repair  of  the  Temple,  the 
idolatry  of  Joash  after  the  death  of  Jehoiada, 
the  murder  of  Jehoiada's  son,  and  the  king's 
violent  death. 

The  early  part  of  this  c.  reproduces  2  K 
112i_i2i*5,  with  unimportant  variations,  but 
vv.  15-22  are  entirely  supplementary,  and  give 
a  different  account  of  the  closing  years  of  the 
reign  of  Joash  from  that  contained  in  2  K. 

6.  According  to  .  .  Moses]  This  refers  to 
the  half-shekel  required  to  be  paid  by  every 
Israelite   as  an   atonement  for  his   soul  :  Ex 

3013-16. 

7.  The  sons  of  Athaliah]  perhaps  her  ad- 
herents, rather  than  her  children,  who  had 
been  killed  in  the  lifetime  of  their  father 
Jehoram  :  21 1'^. 

15.  An  hundred  and  thirty]  an  age  unpre- 
cedented since  Joshua  :  Josh  2429. 

16.  Among  the  kings]  Jehoiada  thus  re- 
ceived an  honour  which  was  refused  to  Joash  : 
V.  25. 

20.  The  son  of  Jehoiada]  called  in  Mt2335 
'  the  son  of  Barachias '  by  confusion  with 
Zachariah  the  prophet.  Which  stood  above  the 
people]  probably  on  a  platform. 

23.  The  host  of  Syria]  Hazael,  the  king  of 
Syria,  was  engaged  in  attacking  Gath,  and 
from  thence  made  an  incursion  into  Judah. 

Destroyed  all  the  princes]  These  were  the 
instigators  of  the  king's  impiety  :  v.  17. 

25.  The  sons  of  Jehoiada]  better,  as  in  LXX, 
'  the  son  of  Jehoiada '  (vv.  20,  21). 

27.  The  burdens,  etc.]  better,  '  the  multitude 
of  the  oracles  uttered  against  him  '  :  see  v.  19, 
and  cp.  2  K925.  The  story]  RV  'the  com- 
mentary' :  see  on  13-^^. 

CHAPTER  25 
Reign  of  Amaziah 

This  c.  is  derived  in  the  main  from  2  K 
141-20,  but  with  two  insertions,  vv.  5-10  and 
13-lG. 

5.  Made  them  captains,  etc.]  better, '  arranged 
them  according  to  their  fathers'  houses  under 
captains.'  From  twenty  years  old]  Under  this 
age  military  service  was  not  required  :  Nu  1 3 
1  Ch2723. 

7.  With  all  .  .  Ephraim]  added  to  explain 
the  sense  in  which  '  Israel  '  is  used,  since 
ordinarily  in  Chronicles  it  is  equivalent  to 
Judah:  see  on  126.  For  the  protest  against 
an  alliance  with  the  northern  kingdom  cp. 
192  2037. 

8.  But  if  thou  wilt  go]  LXX  has  '  if  thou 


thinkest  to  prevail  with  these '  (i.e.  the  forces 
from  Ephraim)  '  God  shall  make  thee  fall.' 
II.  The  children  of  Seir]  i.e.  the  Edomites. 

13.  From  Samaria]  i.e.  from  the  frontier  of 
the  kingdom  (not  from  its  capital). 

14.  He  brought  the  gods,  etc.]  Similarly 
the  Philistines  brought  away  the  ark  which 
the  Israelites  had  carried  with  them  into 
battle  at  Ebenezer  :   1  S4ii. 

17.  Come,  let  us,  etc.]  In  connexion  with 
the  preceding  narrative  Amaziah's  challenge 
might  be  explained  as  due  to  a  desire  to  have 
satisfaction  for  the  conduct  of  the  Israelite 
forces  as  described  in  v.  13, but  see  on  2X14^. 

23.  Jehoahaz]  i.e.  Ahaziah  :  2117. 

24.  With  Obed-edom]  i.e.  with  the  descend- 
ants of  Obed-edom,  who  were  porters  of  the 
Temple  :  1  Ch  26^-8. 

28.  The  city  of  Judah]  LXX  has  '  the  city 
of  David,'  as  in  2  KI420  and  2  Ch24i  161^ 
21i>20^  etc. 

CHAPTER  26 

Reign  of  Uzziah 

This  c.  adds  largely  to  the  parallel  account 

of  Uzziah's  reign   in2K15i-7,   and  furnishes 

information  respecting  his  wars,    his  military 

defences,  and  the  cause  of  his  leprosy. 

I.  Uzziah]  This  is  the  usual  form  in  Chron- 
icles except  in  1  Ch  3 12  ;  in  Kings  it  is  generally 
'  Azariah.' 

6.  Jabneh]  between  Joppa  and  Ashdod : 
afterwards  called  Jamnia. 

7.  The  Mehuniras]  see  on  201. 

9.  The  valley  gate]  probably  a  gate  leading 
into  the  valley  of  Hinnom,  at  the  S.  end  of 
the  W.  hill. 

ID.  In  the  desert,  etc.]  Uzziah's  cattle  were 
pastured  in  three  different  districts,  (a)  the 
desert  (or  wilderness)  in  the  S.  and  SE,  of 
Judah,  which  has  some  fertile  spots  ;  (h)  the 
low  country  (or  lowland),  consisting  of  the 
slopes  that  extend  from  the  Judaean  hills  to 
the  Mediterranean  ;  (c)  the  plains,  or  table- 
land, E.  of  the  Dead  Sea  and  the  Jordan, 
where  Uzziah  may  have  secured  rights  of 
pasturage  from  the  Ammonites  (v.  8).  Carmel] 
RY  '  the  fruitful  fields '  :  or  level  garden- 
land,  as  distinct  from  the  '  mountains '  or 
hilly  districts. 

14.   Habergeons]  RV  '  coats  of  mail.' 

Slings  to  ciiKt  stones]  RV  '  stones  for  sling- 
ing '  :  which  had  to  be  supplied  of  a  certain 
size  and  in  sufficient  quantity.  15.  Engines] 
These  were  machines  of  the  nature  of  cata- 
pults. 

16.  To  his  destruction]  RV  '  so  that  he 
did  corruptly.'  Into  the  temple]  The  altar  of 
incense  was  in  the  Holy  Place.  18.  To  the 
priests,  etc.]  The  restriction  to  the  sons  of 
Aaron  of  the  duty  of  offering  incense  is 
enforced  in  the  Law  by  the  history  of  Korah  : 


264 


26.  21 


2  CHRONICLES 


29.  34 


NulG^o.  21.  In  a  several  house]  i.e.  in  a 
lazar  house.  For  the  seclusion  of  leprous 
persons  from  the  community  op.  Lv  13  '*'^  Nu  5  ^. 

22.  Isaiah]  The  prophet  received  his  pro- 
phetic call  in  the  year  that  Uzziah  died  (Isa  6  ^). 

23.  In  the  field  of  the  burial,  etc.]  i.e.  in  the 
royal  burial  gi-ound,  but  not  in  the  royal 
sepulchres. 

CHAPTER  27 

The  Reign  of  Jotham 

This  c.  repeats  the  substance  of  2K1532-3S^ 

but  expands  the  account  of  Jotham's  buildings, 

and  relates  a  war  with  Ammon  about  which 

Kings  is  silent. 

2.  The  people  did  .  .  corruptly]  If  Isa  2  is 
rightly  assigned  to  this  reign,  it  furnishes 
illustrations  of  the  historian's  statement,  for 
it  represents  idolatry,  sorcery,  and  arrogance, 
as  prevalent  amongst  the  people  (Isa 2  6-8.  n*-). 

3.  Ophel]  the  southern  extremity  of  the 
Temple  hill. 

5.  Measures]  lit. '  cors':  a  'cor'  being  rather 
more  than  10  bushels,  the  whole  quantity  of 
each  kind  of  grain  was  over  100,000  bushels. 
For  such  payments  in  kind  cp.  17 ^^  2K3'*. 

CHAPTER   28 
The  Reign  of  Ahaz 

This  c.  recounts  how  the  idolatry  of  Ahaz 
was  punished  by  the  attacks  of  Syria  and 
Israel ;  how  the  captives  taken  by  the  Israel- 
ites were  restored ;  and  how  Ahaz  in  his  dis- 
tress appealed  to  Assyria. 

This  c.  corresponds  to  2K16,  but  it  omits 
many  facts  related  there,  whilst  expanding  the 
account  of  the  war  with  Israel. 

5.  The  king  of  Syria]  i.e.  Rezin,  who,  with 
Pekah  of  Israel,  wished  to  depose  Ahaz  :  see 
Isa  7. 

7.  Maaseiah,  the  king's  son]  perhaps  a  son 
of  Jotham  and  brother  of  Ahaz,  since  Ahaz 
himself  was  only  20  at  his  accession  and  36  at 
his  death  (v.  1).  Next  to  the  king]  i.e.  the 
principal  counsellor  of  state  :  cp.  EsthlO^. 

9.  Tliat  reacheth,  etc.]  i.e.  immoderate  and 
excessive  :  cp.  EzrO'^. 

16.  The  kings]  The  LXX,  more  appropri- 
ately, has  '  the  king,'  the  allusion  being  to 
Tiglath-pileser  (v.  20).  But  Chronicles  fre- 
quently uses  the  plural  where  the  singular 
would  be  more  accurate  :  see  v.  23,  also  c. 
324.31  306. 

17.  The  Edomites]  Rezin  had  previously 
captured  Elath  and  returned  it  to  the  Edomites 
(2K166),  and  this  doubtless  encouraged  them 
to  retaliate  upon  the  Judaeans,  who  had  with- 
held it  from  them  for  so  long. 

18.  The  Philistines]  These  had  suffered  at 
the  hands  of  Judah  during  the  reign  of  Uzziah 
(2G  6. '''),  and  now  took  the  opportunity  to  seek 
revenge. 


1 9.  Made  Judah  naked]  R  V  '  dealt  wantonly 
in  Judah.' 

20.  Distressed  him,  etc.]  The  intervention 
of  Assyria  not  only  imposed  the  burden  of 
tribute  upon  Judah,  but  also  awoke  the 
jealousy  of  Egypt,  with  evil  results  to  the 
small  kingdom  placed  between  the  two  em- 
pires ;  yet  for  a  time  at  least  the  Assyrians 
delivered  Judah  from  Syria  and  Israel  : 
2K169  1529. 

23.  Because  the  gods,  etc.]  i.e.  as  shown 
by  the  successes  of  Rezin  (v.  5). 

CHAPTER  29 
The  Reign  of  Hezekiah 

This  c.  describes  a  cleansing  of  the  Temple 
and  a  sacrifice  for  the  sins  of  the  people. 

This  and  the  following  chs.  30-32,  cover  the 
same  period  as  2  K 18-20,  but,  for  the  most  part, 
have  in  view  a  different  side  of  Hezekiah's 
reign,  Chronicles  relating  in  great  detail  his 
religious  reforms,  whilst  Kings  is  concerned 
mainly  with  the  political  events  of  the  time. 

3.  Opened  the  doors]  The  Temple  had  been 
closed  by  Ahaz  :  28^4.  4.  The  east  street] 
RV  'the  broad  place  on  the  east,'  perhaps  one 
of  the  courts  in  front  of  the  Temple  :  cp. 
EzrlO^RV. 

10.  A  covenant]  The  covenant  between  the 
nation  and  its  God  had  been  previously  re- 
newed in  the  time  of  Asa  (15 1^). 

15.  By  the  words  of  the  LORD]  The  king 
was  moved  by  a  divine  impulse,  perhaps 
communicated   through   a  prophet  :    cp.  30  ^'^. 

16.  The  inner  part  of  the  house]  i.e.  from  the 
courts  into  the  interior  of  the  building.  The 
Holy  Place  is  meant  (not  the  Holy  of  Holies, 
which  the  Levites  might  not  enter).  17.  The 
sixteenth  day]  In  the  first  period  of  8  days 
the  Temple  itself  was  cleansed,  in  the  second 
period  the  Temple  court  (where  the  altar  of 
burnt  offering  was  :  v.  18). 

21.  Seven  bullocks,  etc.]  It  is  possible  that 
the  bullocks,  rams,  and  lambs  constituted  the 
burnt  offerings  mentioned  in  v.  27  (the  victims 
for  which  are  not  otherwise  named),  and  that 
the  he-goats  alone  formed  the  sin  oft'ering  (as 
V.  23  suggests).  For  the  kingdom]  i.e.  for 
the  king  as  distinguished  from  the  people 
(Judah). 

25.  By  his  prophets]  i.e.  David's  arrange- 
ments, as  described  in  1  Ch  23^  25^,  were  made 
under  divine  direction. 

30.  Of  Asaph  the  seer]  Twelve  of  the 
Psalms  bear  the  name  of  Asaph. 

31.  Thank  offerings]  a  form  of  peace  offer- 
ing (Lv  7 12),  most  of  which  was  eaten  by  the 

'worshipper.  Burnt  offerings]  wholly  con- 
sumed on  the  altar.  Of  a  free  heart]  RV  '  of 
a  willing  heart.' 

34.  Were  more  upright  .  .  than  the  priests] 
Many  of  the  priests  had  perhaps  taken  part 


265 


29.  36 


2  CHRONICLES 


32.  18 


in  Ahaz's  impieties  as  Urijah  the  high  priest 
had  done  :  2  K 1616. 

36.  Prepared  the  people]  The  zeal  of  the 
people  was  so  remarkable  that  it  could  only 
be  attributed  to  divine  influence  :  cp.  30 12. 

CHAPTER  30 
Reign  of  Hezekiah  (continued) 
This  c.  relates  how  a  passover  was  kept  on 
the  second  month  for  Israel  and  Judah. 

1.  Should  come .  .  at  Jerusalem]  This  im- 
plies an  endeavour  to  centralise  the  national 
worship  by  the  abolition  of  the  local  sanctu- 
aries (as  described  in  2  K  1 8  *). 

2.  In  the  second  month]  The  Law  allowed 
individuals  to  keep  the  Passover  in  the  second 
month  instead  of  the  first,  if  they  were  pre- 
vented by  some  temporary  hindrance  (Nu 
9  ^^'  11),  and  this  permission  Hezekiah  thought 
might  be  extended  to  the  whole  community. 

3.  At  that  time]  i.e.  at  the  proper  season, 
viz.  the  14th  day  of  the  first  month.  The 
cleansing  of  the  Temple  was  not  completed 
till  the  16th  day  of  that  month  :  2917. 

5.  Done  it  of  a  long  time']  RV  '  kept  it  in 
great  numbers.'  According  to  Ex  12*5  the 
Passover  was  to  be  observed  by  '  the  whole 
assembly  of  the  congregation  of  Israel.' 

6.  The  posts]  lit.  '  the  couriers,'  who  were 
probably  some  of  the  royal  guards.  You, 
that .  .  Assyria]  Since  what  is  here  related 
took  place  (according  to  29  3)  in  Hezekiah's 
first  year,  the  reference  must  be  to  the  in- 
vasion of  Tiglath-pileser  :  2  K 15  29  1  Ch  5  26. 

13,  The  feast  of  unleavened  bread]  This, 
though  distinct  from  the  Passover,  was  not 
separated  from  it  by  any  interval,  and  the  two 
came  to  be  treated  as  one  which  could  be 
described  indifferently  by  either  name  :  vv.  2, 
13,  15.  14.  The  altars]  i.e.  those  erected  by 
Ahaz  :  2824.  15.  Were  ashamed]  The  zeal  of 
the  laity  roused  the  priests,  who  had  formerly 
been  remiss  (29^4),  to  a  sense  of  their  duty. 

17.  The  passovers]  i.e.  the  paschal  lambs, 
which  (according  to  Ex  126,  7)  ought  to  have 
been  killed  by  the  head  of  each  household. 

18.  Otherwise  than  it  was  written]  As  this 
Passover  in  the  second  month  took  the  place 
of  the  one  ordinarily  held  in  the  first  month, 
there  could  be  no  supplementary  passover  for 
such  as  were  unclean  ;  so  Hezekiah  preferred 
that  the  people  should  break  the  letter  of  the 
Law  and  eat  without  being  sanctified  than  that 
they  should  be  debarred  from  such  an  im- 
portant festival  and  so  be  unfaithful  to  the 
spirit  of  the  divine  legislation. 

20.  Healed]  i.e.  did  not  send  upon  them 
the  punishment  which  they  had  incurred  :  cp. 
Lvl53i. 

25.  The  strangers]  i.e.  proselytes  of  foreign 
descent,  who  either  had  come  out  of  the 
northern  kingdom  or  were  settled  in  Judah. 


CHAPTER  31 

Reign  of  Hezekiah  (continued) 

This  c.  gives  an  account  of  Hezekiah's  re- 
organisation of  the  Temple  service. 

2.  Appointed  the  courses]  The  succession 
(see  1  Ch  23-26)  had  been  suspended  during 
the  idolatry  of  the  previous  reigns,  and  re- 
quired to  be  rearranged.  The  tents  of  the 
Lord]  The  phrase  is  borrowed  from  the  con- 
ditions that  prevailed  in  the  wilderness. 

3.  The  king's  portion,  etc.]  The  king  set 
an  example  to  his  subjects  by  providing  for 
the  sacrifices  named,  for  which  see  Nu28,  29, 
whilst  the  people  were  required  to  support  the 
priests  (according  to  Nu  1 8). 

6.  That  dwelt  in  the  cities  of  Judah]  The 
provincial  population,  as  distinguished  from 
the  inhabitants  of  the  capital.  The  tithe  of 
holy  things]  The  words  tithe  of  have  been 
accidentally  repeated  from  the  preceding  ;  they 
are  omitted  in  v.  12.  11.  Chambers]  i.e.  some 
of  the  side  chambers  that  surrounded  the 
Temple.  14.  Toward  the  east]  RV  'at  the 
east  gate  ' :  cp.  1  Ch  26 17. 

15.  To  give  to  their  brethren]  The  general 
sense  of  vv.  15-18  is  that  the  officers  named 
in  V.  15  distributed  to  all  the  priests  who 
dwelt  in  the  priestly  cities  a  share  of  the 
people's  offerings,  those  alone  being  excluded 
from  sharing,  who,  whilst  in  their  courses  at 
Jerusalem,  were  supported  at  the  Temple 
itself  :  these,  including  priests,  Levites  and 
their  families,  are  referred  to  in  vv.  16-18. 

16.  Beside]  i.e.  excepting.  Genealogy]  i.e. 
list. 

19.  Also  of  the  sons  of  Aaron,  etc.]  The 
meaning  is  that  the  six  persons  named  in  v.  15 
furnished  support  to  the  priests  and  Levites 
who  dwelt  outside  the  cities,  as  well  as  to  those 
who  dwelt  within  them. 

CHAPTER   32 
Reign  of  Hezekiah  (concluded) 

This  c.  abbreviates  the  account  of  Sen- 
nacherib's invasion  as  related  in  2  K 1813-2021, 
but  supplements  it  by  various  particulars  re- 
specting Hezekiah's  preparation  to  meet  the 
attack. 

3.  To  stop  the  waters,  etc.]  The  chief  spring 
which  was  thus  stopped  (or  '  hidden  ')  was  the 
fountain  of  Gihon  :  see  v.  30.  4.  The  brook] 
lit.  '  torrent- valley.'  The  Gihon  spring  was  in 
the  ravine  of  the  Kidron. 

6.  The  street  of  the  gate]  RV  '  the  broad 
place  at  the  gate ' :  where  the  people  were 
wont  to  assemble. 

9.  After  this]  The  Chronicler  omits  all 
account  of  the  surrender  of  Hezekiah  related 
in  2  K 18 14-16. 

18.  They  cried]  i.e.  the  '  servants '  of  v,  16. 
In  the  Jews'  speech]   see  2  K  18^6. 


266 


32.  22 


2  CHRONICLES 


35.3 


22.  Guided  them]  LXX  has  'gave  them 
rest,'  which  suits  the  context  better. 

24.  In  those  days]  In  vv.  24-26  the  writer 
summarises  very  briefly  what  is  related  at 
length  in  2K20  Isa38. 

30.  Brought  it,  etc.]  better,  '  stopped  the 
upper  spring  of  the  waters  of  Gihon  and 
brought  them  straight  down'  (or,  'under- 
ground ')  '  westward  to  the  city  of  David.' 
Gihon  lay  to  the  E.  of  Jerusalem,  and  Heze- 
kiah  conveyed  its  waters  by  a  subterranean 
aqueduct  to  the  pool  of  Siloam  at  the  foot  of 
the  Temple  hill. 

31.  The  ambassadors]  i.e.  of  Merodach- 
baladan,  the  king  of  Babylon  :  see  2K2012*' 
Isa39. 

32.  Arid  in  the  book  of  the  kings,  etc.]  The 
conjunction  and  should  be  omitted,  the  vision 
of  Isaiah  being  incorporated  in  the  book  of 
the  kings  of  Judah  and  Israel,  like  the  '  book 
of  Jehu  the  son  of  Hanani ':   203'i. 

33.  In  the  chiefest]  EV  '  in  the  ascent ' :  i.e. 
on  the  road  that  led  up  to  the  sepulchres. 

CHAPTER   33 

The  Reign  of  Manasseh 

This  c.  repeats,  with  certain  omissions, 
2K21  ;  but  the  section  v.  11-17,  relating  the 
captivity  in  Babylon,  repentance,  and  release 
of  Manasseh,  is  supplementary  to  the  account 
in2K. 

6.  Observed  times]  R  V  '  practised  augury ' : 
perhaps,  as  the  original  suggests,  by  watching 
the  motions  of  clouds. 

8.  So  that]  RV  '  if  only '  :  God's  promises 
to  Israel  were  conditional  upon  its  obedience. 

II.  Among  the  thorns]  RM  'with  hooks'  : 
a  monument  still  exists  which  shows  the 
Assyrian  king  Esarhaddon  leading  two  captives 
by  hooks  or  rings  put  through  their  lips. 

To  Babylon]  This  city  was  for  the  most 
part  subject  to  Assyria  until  the  overthrow  of 
the  Assyrian  power  in  607  B.C.  Shortly  before 
648  the  "brother  of  Asshurbanipal  (who  is  pro- 
bably the  king  of  Assyria  alluded  to  in  this  v.) 
revolted,  and  received  support  from  some  of 
the  Palestinian  states  ;  but  the  insurrection  was 
suppressed,  and  if  Manasseh  had  been  among 
those  who  aided  the  insurgents,  he  may  well 
have  been  punished  in  consequence.  The 
Assyrian  inscriptions,  though  they  mention 
that  Manasseh  was  a  vassal  of  Assyria,  do  not 
refer  to  the  events  here  related. 

13.  Brought  him  again,  etc.]  i.e.  by  prompt- 
ing the  Assyrian  king  to  restore  him  to  his 
throne.  Such  leniency  on  the  part  of  Asshur- 
banipal finds  a  parallel  in  his  conduct  towards 
Necho,  an  Egyptian  feudatory  prince,  who  was 
taken  captive  for  intriguing  against  his  suzerain, 
but  was  subsequently  restored  to  his  country. 

14.  A  wall  without .  .  David]  RV  'an  outer 
wall  to  the  city  of  David.'     The  fish  gate] 


This  was  in  the  N.  wall  of  the  city  ;  through  it 
fish  is  supposed  to  have  entered  from  Tyre. 

16.  Commanded .  .  to  serve  the  LORD]  In 
spite  of  Manasseh's  reformation  here  related, 
Jeremiah  subsequently  declared  that  his  sins 
had  not  been  expiated,  and  that  the  nation  was 
doomed  to  destruction  in  consequence  :  Jer  15*. 

18.  His  prayer]  What  purports  to  be  Ma- 
nasseh's prayer  is  preserved  in  the  Apocrypha, 
but  is  not  considered  genuine.  19.  The  say- 
ings of  the  seers]  This  follows  the  LXX.  The 
Heb.  has  '  the  sayings  of  Hozai.'  20.  In  his 
own  house]  LXX  has  '  in  the  garden '  (or 
'  park ')  '  of  his  own  house  '  :  cp.  2  K  2 1  is. 

CHAPTER  34 
Reign  of  Josiah 

The  c.  narrates  how  Josiah  suppressed  idola- 
try and  repaired  the  Temple  ;  how  a  book  of 
the  Law,  found  in  the  Temple,  was  read  to 
the  king  and  the  people  ;  and  how  the  nation's 
covenant  with  the  Lord  was  renewed. 

This  c.  and  the  following  are,  in  general, 
parallel  to  2K22,  23i-30,  with  some  unim- 
portant variants  ;  but  the  Chronicler  gives 
more  prominence  than  the  writer  of  2  Kings 
to  the  passover  celebrated  by  Josiah. 

3.  In  the  twelfth  year]  In  2  K  the  abolition 
of  the  '  high  places  '  is  described  as  subsequent 
to  the  repair  of  the  Temple,  and  the  latter  is 
assigned  to  Josiah's  '  eighteenth '  year  :  2  K 
223  235,8. 

5.  Burnt  the  bones]  This  was  believed  to 
afflict  the  souls  of  the  dead  priests,  as  well  as 
to  desecrate  the  shrines  at  which  they  had 
ministered.  The  condition  of  the  spirit  after 
death  depended  in  a  large  measure  upon  the 
treatment  sustained  by  the  body.  6.  With 
their  mattocks]  A  slight  alteration  gives  '  in 
their  ruins '  (so  RV),  i.e.  the  desolate  sites  of 
the  cities  destroyed  by  the  Assyrians. 

9.  And  they  returned  to  Jerusalem]  Another 
reading  is '  and  of  the  inhabitants  of  Jerusalem.' 

II.  The  houses]  i.e.  the  Holy  Place  and 
the  Holy  of  Holies  :  cp.  1  Ch  28  "  29  4. 

22.  In  the  college]  RV  '  in  the  second 
quarter '  (of  the  city).  It  has  been  suggested 
that  this  may  have  occupied  the  upper  end  of 
the  Tyropoean  valley,  W.  of  the  Temple. 

CHAPTER   35 
Reign  of  Josiah  (concluded) 

This  c.  contains  an  account  of  how  Josiah 
celebrates  the  Passover,  and  how  he  provoked 
Necho  the  king  of  Egypt,  and  was  slain  at 
Megiddo. 

I.  On  the  fourteenth  (/((//]  Josiah's passover,un- 
like  Hezekiah's,  was  kept  at  the  prescribed  time. 

3.  Put  the  holy  ark,  etc.]  The  following 
words  suggest  that  during  the  repair  of  the 
Temple,  it  had  been  removed  and  committed 
to  the  care  of  the  Levites. 


267 


35.  4 


2  CHRONICLES 


36.  22 


4.  According-  to  the  writing-,  etc.]  The  re- 
ference is  to  the  arrangements  described  in 
ICh  23-26  2Ch8ii.  5.  According  to  the  di- 
visions, etc.]  The  sense  is  'let  there  be  for 
each  family  of  the  people  a  portion  of  a 
Levitical  family  to  minister.'  6.  Prepare  your 
brethren]  RV  '  prepare  for,'  etc.  The  killing 
of  the  passover  victims  by  the  Levites  for  the 
laity,  which  was  exceptional  in  Hezekiah's 
time  (301''),  had  now  become  customary. 

12.  Removed]  Perhaps  they  separated 
those  parts  (the  fat,  etc.)  of  the  victims  which 
were  to  be  burnt.  If  so,  these  sacrifices  were 
not  strictly  '  burnt  offerings,'  for  in  such,  the 
whole  of  the  victim  was  consumed  by  fire. 

15.  They  might  not  depart]  EV  'they 
needed  not  to  depart.' 

18.  There  vsras  no  passover,  etc.]  Hezekiah's 
passover  had  surpassed  all  that  had  preceded 
it  (30  26),  but  Josiah's  exceeded  even  that. 

20.  Against]  better,  '  at.'  Necho's  purpose 
was  to  share  the  spoils  of  the  falling  Assyrian 
empire.  Nineveh  was  taken  by  the  Babylo- 
nians about  607.  21.  He  sent  ambassadors, 
etc.]  Necho's  remonstrance  to  Josiah  against 
interfering  in  the  war  between  himself  and  the 
Babylonians,  the  conquerors  of  Assyria,  is  not 
recorded  in  2K. 

22.  Disguised  himself]  The  same  is  related 
of  Ahab  in  18-''-  but  LXX  has  'strengthened 
himself.'  From  the  mouth  of  God]  The  writer 
regards  Necho's  words  as  a  divinely-sent  warn- 
ing, which  Josiah  disregarded  to  his  cost. 

24.  AH  Judah .  .  mourned]  It  is  possible 
that  this  is  the  'mourning  of  Hadadrimmon 
in  the  valley  of  Megiddo,'  alluded  to  in 
Zech  1211. 

25.  Made  them]  i.e.  those  in  authority 
made  such  lamentations  an  ordinance.  In  the 
lamentations]  probably  not  the  book  that 
bears  this  name,  but  a  composition  now  lost. 

CHAPTER  36 

The  Fall  of  Jerusalem 

This  is  a  brief  record  of  the  reigns  of  Jehoa- 
haz,  Jehoiakim,  Jehoiachin,  and  Zedekiah,  and 
of  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem. 

The  first  twenty  vv.  of  this  c.  are  abbre- 
viated from  2  K  23  30-25  21,  with  some  variations 
of  statement. 

6.  Nebuchadnezzar]  He  was  the  son  of 
Nabopolassar,  the  conqueror  of  Nineveh. 

Bound  him  in  fetters]   This  is  not  recorded 


in  Kings.  Perhaps  this  was  the  '  purpose  '  of 
the  invasion  described  in  2K:242,  but  Jehoia- 
kim may  have  averted  the  threatened  con- 
sequences by  a  timely  surrender.  The  state- 
ment of  Chronicles  is  followed  in  Dan  1 1.2. 

8.  That  w^hich  was  found  in  him]  i.e.  his 
offences  :  cp.  1  K  1  -52. 

9.  Eight]  2K248  has  'eighteen,'  which,  as 
he  was  married  (2  K  2415),  is  doubtless  correct. 

10.  His  brother]  In  reality  Zedekiah  was 
brother  to  Jehoiachin's  father  Jehoiakim, 
lCh3i5. 

12.  Jeremiah  the  prophet]  For  Zedekiah's 
disregard  of  Jeremiah's  warnings  see  Jer 
34  8  f.  372  3817 f.  Contrast  the  attitude  of  Ahab 
towards  Elijah,  as  described  in  IK 21 27-29. 

13.  Made  him  swear]  Ezekiel  refers  to  this 

in  1713. 

14.  Moreover,  etc.]  In  vv.  14-16  the  writer 
briefly  explains  the  causes  which  led  to  the 
final  destruction  of  Jerusalem  and  its  in- 
habitants. For  instances  of  the  abominations 
of  the  heathen  see  2  K  21 7,  and  what  is  implied 
in  IK  1.5 12  22^6. 

15.  Rising  up  .  .  sending;]  In  the  OT.  such 
expressive  anthi-opomorphisms  are  common  ; 
thus  it  is  related  that  the  Lord  '  walked '  in 
the  garden  of  Eden  (Gn38),  '  smelled  '  Noah's 
sacrifice  (Gn82i),  'came  down'  to  see  Babel 
(Gn  1 1 5),  etc.  Yet  nowhere  is  the  infinite  dis- 
tance separating  God  from  human  limitations 
and  frailty  more  forcibly  asserted  ;  see  Nu23i'-' 
Isa559.  16.  Mocked  the  messengers]  In  the 
reign  of  Jehoiakim  the  prophet  Urijah  was  put 
to  death  (Jer  26  20-23)^  and  in  the  reign  of  Zede- 
kiah, Jeremiah  underwent  much  persecution 
(Jer  37,  38). 

18.  All  the  vessels,  etc.]  i.e.  all  that  survived 
the  spoliation  described  in  v.  10. 

20.  The  reign  .  .  Persia]  i.e.  until  the  over- 
throw of  Babylon  by  Cyrus  in  538.  21.  To 
fulfil  threescore  and  ten  years]  If  the  period  of 
70  years  is  reckoned  from  the  time  when  Jere- 
miah's prophecy  was  uttered  (Jehoiakim's  4th 
year,  605  B.C.)  till  the  return  of  the  Jews  to 
their  own  land  in  536,  the  prediction  (for  which 
see  Jer  25 11  29  lO)  was  almost  exactly  fulfilled. 
Between  the  final  destruction  of  Jerusalem  in 
586  and  the  Return  just  50  years  elapsed. 

22.  Now  in  the  first,  etc.]  vv.  22,  23  are 
identical  with  the  opening  words  of  Ezra  (1 1-3), 
and  end  in  the  middle  of  a  sentence.  (For  the 
notes  see  the  passage  in  Ezra.) 


268 


EZRA  AND  NEHEMIAH 


GENERAL  INTRODDCTION 


I.  The  period  of  the  Exile.  The  contents  of 
Ezra  and  Nehemiah  are  separated  from  the 
last  events  in  the  previous  historical  writings 
by  an  interval  of  50  years.  The  books  of 
Chi'onicles,  like  the  books  of  Kings,  virtually 
close  with  the  capture  of  Jerusalem  by  Nebu- 
chadrezzar and  the  deportation  of  a  large 
number  of  its  inhabitants  into  Babylonia. 
There  they  were  probably  gathered  into 
colonies  or  settlements  at  various  places,  such 
as  Tel-abib  (EzkSi^),  Tel-melah,  Tel-harsha 
(Ezr259),  Casiphia  (Ezr8i7),  and  others.  So 
long  as  they  remained  quiet  subjects  they 
were  not,  as  a  rule,  persecuted  or  enslaved. 
They  were  at  liberty  to  cultivate  the  land 
and  to  acquire  servants  (Jer295  'Ezt2'^^)  ; 
and,  to  judge  from  the  value  of  the  con- 
tributions made  for  religious  purposes  (Ezr 
205, 09  2ech6io,  11),  some  must  have  accumu- 
lated considerable  wealth.  On  the  other 
hand,  those  who  were  disaffected  and  insubor- 
dinate brought  upon  themselves  cruel  punish- 
ments (Jer  29  ^^)  ;  and  several  passages  in  the 
prophets  imply  that  many  of  the  exiles  were 
not  unacquainted  with  harsh  conditions  of 
service  (Isal43  47 *5). 

Jewish  religious  life  in  the  time  of  the  Exile 
was  distinguished  from  that  of  the  pre-exilic 
period  by  the  suspension  of  the  sacrificial 
system.  Not  only  was  the  Temple  at  Jerusalem 
destroyed — the  place  which  the  Lord  had 
chosen  to  put  His  name  there — but  the  captive 
Jews  were  withdrawn  from  the  actual  soil  of 
Israel  and  were  dwelling  in  an  '  unclean  land  ' 
(cp.  Am  7^''),  where  acceptable  sacrifices  could 
not  be  offered.  They  maintained,  however, 
such  religious  ordinances  as  the  sabbath  and 
circumcision  ;  and  the  cessation  of  material 
oblations  probably  intensified  rather  than  im- 
paired the  practice  of  prayer.  Reflection  upon 
the  calamities  sustained  by  their  race  must 
have  deepened  their  sense  of  national  sin  ;  and 
the  lessons  of  experience  at  last  bore  fruit  in 
the  gradual  eradication  of  their  propensity 
towards  idolatry.  The  hope  of  a  future  restor- 
ation to  their  own  country  led  to  an  increasing 
study  of  the  ceremonial  law  which  circum- 
stances prevented  them  from  carrying  out  in 
the  present  ;  and  the  loss  of  national  inde- 
pendence enhanced  the  interest  attaching  to 
the  records  of  their  past  greatness,  some  of  the 
historical  books  (including  the  books  of  Kings) 
being  completed  during  this  period. 


The  Exile  was  brought  to  a  close  when  the 
Babylonian  empire  fell  before  Cyrus,  prince  of 
Anshan  or  Elam.  Cyrus,  though  an  Elamite, 
was  connected  by  descent  with  the  Persian 
house  of  Achsemenes  ;  and  he  not  only  became 
master  of  Media  (in  549  B.C.,  through  the 
deposition  of  Astyages),  but  subsequently  of 
Persia  likewise.  In  character  he  was  courage- 
ous, magnanimous,  and  pious  ;  and  when  he 
advanced  to  attack  Babylon  (then  ruled  by 
Nabunahid,  or  Nabonidus,  a  feeble  prince), 
his  career  was  watched  with  intense  interest 
by  the  Jews,  who  regarded  him  as  their  des- 
tined deliverer.  In  538  he  took  possession  of 
Babylon,  which  surrendered  peaceably  ;  and 
when  Nabonidus,  who  had  fled,  was  captured, 
the  Jews  passed  under  the  rule  of  a  new  lord. 
The  way  in  which  their  expectations  respecting 
Cyrus  were  fulfilled  forms  the  subject  of  the 
opening  narrative  of  the  book  of  Ezra. 

2.  Political  and  Religious  Conditions  after 
the  Return.  When  the  Jewish  people  returned 
from  exile  their  political  condition  was  very 
unlike  what  it  had  been  before  the  Fall  of 
Jerusalem  and  the  deportation  of  its  inhabit- 
ants. With  those  events  the  national  exist- 
ence which  they  had  enjoyed  for  many  centuries 
came  to  an  end  ;  and  though  a  number  cf  them 
were  restored  to  their  country  by  Cyrus  they 
remained  subjects  of  the  Persian  empire. 
Jerusalem  and  the  surrounding  districts  were 
under  the  control  of  a  governor  (Pehah  or 
Tirshatha),  who,  though  he  might  be  occasion- 
ally a  Jew,  must  often  have  been  an  alien. 
And  whilst  the  Persian  rule  was  probably  in 
general  not  oppressive,  various  circumstances 
must  have  made  the  position  of  the  Jewish 
community  rather  a  hard  one.  They  were 
surrounded  by  a  hostile  population,  who  seized 
every  opportunity  of  bringing  them  into  dis- 
favour with  the  Persian  authorities.  They 
were  for  the  most  part  poor  (the  richest  men, 
according  to  Josephus,  having  remained  in 
Babylon),  and  the  land  they  cultivated,  which 
was  naturally  not  very  fertile,  had  doubtless 
suffered  from  neglect  ;  and  yet  they  not  only 
had  to  pay  tribute,  custom,  and  toll  to  the 
royal  exchequer  (Neh5^  Ezr  7-'*),  but  had  to 
contribute  to  the  support  of  the  local  governor. 
And  the  pressure  of  external  hardship  was 
aggi'avated  by  internal  friction.  The  poorer 
classes,  to  meet  the  payments  required  of  them, 
had    to    borrow    of    their    more    prosperous 


269 


INTRO. 


EZRA  AND  NEHEMIAH— EZRA 


INTRO. 


neighbours  at  a  high  rate  of  interest,  and  the 
latter  enforced  to  the  full  the  rights  which  the 
Jewish  laws  conferred  upon  the  creditor  over 
an  insolvent  debtor.  Many,  to  support  them- 
selves, had  not  only  to  part  with  their  fields, 
but  with  their  families,  who  were  sold  into 
bondage.  The  bitter  feelings  created  by  this 
situation  might  have  had  serious  results,  had 
it  not  been  for  the  prudence  and  self-sacrifice 
of  Nehemiah,  who  from  445  to  433  was  Tir- 
shatha.  By  his  exhortation  and  example  he 
succeeded  in  averting  the  social  divisions  that 
at  one  time  threatened  the  people  ;  and  though 
some  of  the  measures  he  adopted  to  safeguard 
the  religion  of  his  countrymen  did  not  conduce 
to  friendly  relations  with  their  neighbours, 
his  statesmanship  ensured  during  the  tenure 
of  his  authority  not  only  the  security  but  the 
contentment  of  the  community 

In  religion  the  Jews  enjoyed  a  degree  of 
freedom  denied  them  in  civil  affairs.  When 
they  returned  to  Jerusalem  they  were  author- 
ised by  Cyrus  to  restore  the  Temple  ;  and 
though  some  years  elapsed  before  the  Temple 
was  actually  reconstructed,  the  altar  of  the 
Lord  was  set  up  as  soon  as  they  were  once 
more  settled  in  their  own  land,  and  the  system 
of  sacrificial  worship,  which  had  been  sus- 
pended during  the  Exile,  was  re-organised. 
But  though  the  religious  life  of  the  com- 
munity again  flowed  in  its  old  channels,  its 
general  tenor  was  in  some  respects  unlike  what 
it  had  previously  been.  Three  points  of 
difference  may  be  noticed  here.  (a)  The 
proneness  to  adopt  alien  religious  rites,  or  to 
worship  the  Lord  by  means  of  material  sym- 
bols, which  was  so  common  before  the  Exile, 
disappeared  after  the  B,eturn.  The  severe 
national  judgment  which  they  had  sustained, 
and  the  experience  of  polytheism  which  they 
had  acquired  in  Babylon,  seem  to  have  con- 
firmed them  finally  in  their  allegiance  to  the 
God  of  their  fathers  and  in  the  principles  of 
spiritual  religion  ;  and  the  protests  against 
idolatry,  so  frequently  required  in  earlier 
times,  are  henceforward  seldom  heard.  (6) 
Prophecy,  which  in  pre-exilic  days  had  been 
so   conspicuous   a   feature   in  their  religious 


history,  now  declined  in  importance  ;  and 
though  several  prophets  did  arise  in  the  course 
of  this  period,  they  were  more  circumscribed 
in  the  range  of  their  thoughts  and  less 
vigorous  and  original  in  the  expression  of 
them.  Li  some  respects  the  difEusion  of  a 
knowledge  of  the  Law  among  the  people  at 
large  rendered  the  need  of  such  exceptional 
teachers  less  urgent,  their  places  as  moral  and 
religious  instructors  being,  in  a  measure,  filled 
by  the  scribes,  (c)  Ritual  was  regarded  differ- 
ently by  the  leaders  of  religious  thought  be- 
fore and  after  the  Exile,  in  consequence,  no 
doubt,  of  a  difference  in  the  needs  of  the  times. 
When  Israel  enjoyed  national  independence, 
there  was  less  need  to  emphasise  the  external 
features  distinctive  of  Jewish  worship,  the 
prophets  being  chiefly  concerned  to  insist  upon 
the  moral  conditions  demanded  by  the  Lord 
of  His  worshippers.  But  after  the  Exile,  when 
the  nation  had  lost  its  independence,  it  was 
only  by  its  ecclesiastical  organisation  and 
observances  that  its  separateness  as  a  com- 
munity could  be  maintained,  and  therefore 
increased  importance  was  attached  to  the 
ceremonial  requirements  of  the  Law. 

List  of  Kings  of  Babylon  and  Persia 

B.C. 

Babylon — Nebuchadnezzar       .  .  604 

Captures  Jerusalem  .  586 

Evil  Merodach          .  .561 

Nergal  Sharezer       .  .  560 

Labashi  Merodach    .  .  556 

Nabunahid        .         .  .  565 

Fall  of  Babylon .  .  538 

Persia  —  Cyrus,  king  of  Babylon  .  538 

Cambyses         .         .  .  529 

Pseudo-Smerdis        .  .  522 

Darius  Hystaspis  .  .521 
Xerxes     ....  485 

Artaxerxes  Longimanus  .  464 

Sogdianus         ,         .  .  424 

Darius  Nothus          .  .  423 

Artaxerxes  Mnemon  .  405 

Artaxerxes  Ochus  .  .  358 
Arses        ....  337 

Darius  Codomannus  .  335-330 


EZRA 

INTRODUCTION 


I.  Character  and  Contents.  The  book  of 
Ezra  was  combined  by  the  Jews  with  the  book 
of  Nehemiah,  the  two  being  regarded  as  con- 
stituting a  single  work,  of  which  Ezra  himself 
was  the  reputed  author.    In  the  Hebrew  Bible 


they  both  precede  Chronicles  ;  but  it  is  prob- 
able that  with  the  latter  they  form  a  consecu- 
tive history  of  which  Chronicles  is  the  first 
half.  The  close  connexion  between  these  three 
books  is  shown,  not  only  by  the  way  in  which 


270 


INTRO. 


EZRA 


1.1 


the  closing  verses  of  Chronicles  are  practically 
repeated  in  the  opening  verses  of  Ezra,  but  by 
(a)  a  common  interest  in  statistics  and  gene- 
alogies ;  (b)  a  common  sympathy  for  the  ecclesi- 
astical side  of  Jewish  life  ;  (c)  a  common  use 
of  certain  phi-ases  (e.g. '  father's  house  ')  which 
are  comparatively  rare  elsewhere.  If  the  three 
are  all  portions  of  one  single  work  the  com- 
position of  it  cannot  be  earlier  than  the  close 
of  the  4th  cent. ;  for,  as  has  been  seen,  Chroni- 
cles must  be  as  late  as  340  B.C.,  whilst  Nehemiah 
contains  a  reference  (12  H'  22)  to  the  high  priest 
Jaddua,  who  was  contemporary  with  Alexander 
the  Great  (336-323).  Consequently,  since  Ezra 
cannot  have  outlived  the  5th  cent.  B.C.,  his 
authorship  of  the  connected  books  is  out  of 
the  question  ;  and  the  writer  is  really  unknown. 
The  book  of  Ezra  relates  the  history  of  the 
Jewish  people  from  their  return  under  Zerub- 
babel  from  Babylon  to  their  own  country  in 
536  to  the  arrival  at  Jerusalem  of  a  second 
body  of  exiles  under  Ezra  in  458,  and  includes 
an  account  of  the  building  of  the  Second 
Temple.  It  thus  covers  a  period  of  rather 
more  than  78  years ;  but  of  these  the  15  years 
between  535  and  520  and  the  58  years  between 
516  and  458  are  practically  a  blank;  so  that 
it  is  less  a  continuous  record  than  a  description 
of  selected  incidents. 

2.  Sources.  The  principal  sources  employed 
in  the  compilation  of  the  book  are  (a)  the 
actual  memoirs  of  Ezra,  distinguished  by  the 
use  of  the  first  person  (7  27-9  ^^)  ;  (i)  genealogies 
and  registers  (2, 10 18-**) ;  (c)  extracts  derived 
from  documents  written  not  in  Hebrew  but  in 
Aramaic  (47-618  712-20). 

3.  Value.  The  historical  importance  of  Ezra 
is  very  great,  since  it  is  the  chief  authority  for 
the  period  of  Jewish  history  with  which  it 
deals.  Though  the  work  of  which  it  forms 
part  is  separated  by  a  considerable  interval 
from  some  of  the  events  narrated,  it  makes 
use  (as  has  been  just  shown)  of  earlier  docu- 
ments, and,  for  some  portion  of  the  time  covered 
by  it,  it  draws  upon  records  composed  by  one 
of  the  principal  actors  in  the  incidents  de- 
scribed. Nor  is  its  religious  value  inferior  to 
its  secular  interest.  As  a  record  of  the  past 
it  recounts  the  fulfilment  of  one  of  the  most 
remarkable  predictions  of  Hebrew  prophecy, 
namely,  the  restoration  to  their  own  land  of 
the  exiles  who  50  years  before  had  been 
carried  into  captivity  ;  it  relates  the  establish- 
ment at  Jerusalem  of  the  community  to  which 
the  world  owes  the  preservation,  arrangement, 
and  completion  of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures ; 
and  it  marks  the  beginning  and  development 
of  that  intense  attachment  to  the  Mosaic  Law 
which  became  so  conspicuous  a  feature  of 
Jewish  religious  life  in  after  times.  And  as 
a  means  of  conveying  practical  instruction  the 
book  is  animated  with  a  spirit  of  fervid  patriot- 


ism, of  uncompromising  adhesion  to  principle, 
and  of  loyal  devotion  to  God.  The  character 
of  Ezra  in  particular  exhibits  qualities  deserv- 
ing much  admiration — deeply -rooted  personal 
piety  conjoined  with  a  high  regard  for  ecclesi- 
astical order  and  the  external  rites  of  religion, 
and  unwavering  faith  manifesting  itself  in,  and 
through,  active  works. 

CHAPTER  1 

The  Return  of  the  Jews  from  Captivity 

The  c.  narrates  how  Cyrus,  king  of  Persia, 
permitted  the  Jews  in  Babylon  to  return  to 
Jerusalem  to  rebuild  the  Temple  there,  and 
restored  the  vessels  taken  from  it. 

I.  Now,  etc.]  The  book  of  Ezra  begins  with 
the  last  words  of  2Ch;  vv.  1,  2  and  the  first 
half  of  V.  3  occurring  in  2Ch3622,23.  The 
three  books,  Chronicles,  Ezra,  and  Nehemiah, 
were  probably  at  first  continuous,  in  this  order  ; 
but  subsequently  the  arrangement  in  the  He- 
brew Bible  was  altered  to  Ezra,  Nehemiah,  and 
Chronicles,  Ezra  being  placed  first  in  order  to 
form  a  sequel  to  the  history  contained  in 
Kings.  2  Chronicles  was  then  made  to  con- 
clude with  the  same  words  that  form  the 
beginning  of  Ezra. 

In  the  first  year  of  Cyrus]  i.e.  of  Cyrus'  rule 
over  Babylon,  538  B.C. 

The  word  of  the  LORD  .  .  Jeremiah]  see  Jer 
2910  2511-13;  cp.  also  Ezklli7  3712.  The 
period  of  the  Captivity  was  described  by  Jere- 
miah as  70  years  and  by  Ezekiel  as  40  (4  6). 
Its  actual  duration,  reckoned  from  the  Fall  of 
Jerusalem  in  586,  was  about  50  years,  but  the 
interval  between  the  destruction  of  the  Temple 
and  its  restoration  in  516  (Ezr6i5)  was  almost 
exactly  70.  The  accordance  of  the  event  with 
predictions  uttered  so  long  before  witnesses  to 
the  remarkable  faculty  of  prevision  possessed 
by  the  Hebrew  prophets,  inasmuch  as  there 
was  nothing  (so  far  as  can  be  judged)  within 
the  political  horizon  at  the  time  when  the 
predictions  were  made  to  create  such  an 
expectation. 

The  Lord  stirred  up,  etc.]  Josephus  states 
that  the  divine  will  respecting  the  Jews  was 
made  known  to  Cyrus  by  the  prophecies  of 
Isaiah  (see  Isa4428  45 1"*,  where  Cyrus  is  styled 
'  the  Lord's  servant '  and '  the  Lord's  anointed '). 
Be  this  as  it  may,  God's  purposes  were  fulfilled, 
whatever  may  have  been  the  motives  by  which 
the  Persian  king  was  consciously  actuated. 
From  the  inscriptions  it  appears  that  Nabuna- 
hid  (Nabonidus),  the  last  king  of  Babylon,  had 
caused  great  discontent  by  removing  to  his 
capital  the  gods  of  various  cities,  and  that 
Cyrus  sent  them  back  to  their  respective  sanctu- 
aries ;  and  the  restoration  of  the  sacred  vessels 
(v.  7)  of  the  Jews,  whose  God  was  not  repre- 
sented by  any  image,  was  doubtless  part  of 
the  same  policy.    The  permission  given  to  the 


271 


1.  2 


EZRA 


2.  64 


Jews  themselves  to  return  to  Jerusalem  to  re- 
construct the  Temple  there  conciliated  a  number 
of  people  who  might  otherwise  have  been  a 
source  of  danger  to  the  empire.  The  old  idea 
that  Cyrus  as  a  Zoroastrian  had  sympathy  with 
the  religion  of  the  Jews  is  disproved  by  evidence 
from  the  monuments. 

2.  The  Lord  God  .  .  hath  given  me]  Cyrus 
showed  great  regard  for  the  religious  senti- 
ments of  his  various  subjects  ;  and  just  as  in 
his  inscriptions  it  is  represented  to  the  Baby- 
lonians that  he  had  obtained  his  victories 
through  Merodach  their  chief  god,  so  here  in 
a  decree  issued  to  the  Jews  his  success  is  as- 
cribed to  the  LoED.  But  it  is  possible  that  the 
Hebrew  colouring  of  the  decree  is  due  to  a 
Hebrew  scribe,  commissioned  to  make  it  intel- 
ligible to  his  countrymen,  rather  than  to  its 
royal  author. 

4.  Whosoever  remaineth]  RV  '  whosoever ' 
(of  the  captive  people)  '  is  left '  (cp.  Neh  1  -), 
there  being  an  allusion  to  the  remnant  of  Israel. 

The  men  of  his  place]  i.e.  his  Babylonian 
neighbours  (v.  6). 

5.  Whose  spirit,  etc.]  It  was  only  a  small 
proportion  of  the  exiled  Jews  who  were  in- 
spired with  such  zeal  for  their  land  and  the 
sanctuary  of  their  God  as  to  exchange  the  com- 
fort of  Babylon  for  the  desolation  of  Jud^a. 
In  this  passage  those  who  took  advantage  of 
Cyrus'  decree  are  represented  as  belonging  to 
Judah  and  Benjamin  only,  but  there  were  also 
among  them  some  from  Ephraim  and  Manasseh : 
lCh93. 

7.  Had  brought  forth]  see  2K2413  2Ch367. 

8.  Sheshbazzar]  It  seems  probable  that  this 
was  the  Persian  or  Babylonian  name  of  Zerub- 
babel  (22).  In  favour  of  the  view  that  the 
same  person  is  designated  by  the  two  names  is 
the  fact  that  the  foundation  of  the  Temple  is 
ascribed  to  both  (51*^  S^),  whilst  the  double 
name  may  be  paralleled  by  the  instances  of 
Daniel,  Hananiah,  Mishael,  Azariah  (Dan  1  ^'  '^), 
Eliakim,  and  Mattaniah  (2  K  23  34  24 17).  But 
some  distinguish  between  the  two  (as  is  done 
in  lEsdrG^*^),  and  either  regard  Sheshbazzar 
as  identical  with  Shenazzar  the  uncle  of  Zerub- 
babel  (2Ch3iS'^^),  or  take  him  to  be  a  Persian 
commissioner  accompanying  Zerubbabel  (for 
although  he  is  here  called  the  prince  of  Judah, 
i.e.  the  representative  of  Judah's  royal  line, 
the  LXX  in  5 1*  styles  him  '  the  guardian  over 
the  treasure,'  or  '  treasury  '). 

9.  Chargers  .  .  knives]  The  words  probably 
mean  different  kinds  of  vessels. 

CHAPTER   2 

The  Names  and  Number   of   those  who 

returned 

I.  The  province]   i.e.  the  Persian  province 

of  Judaea  {b^).    Had  carried  away]  in  .^i97  B.C. 

and  686  B.C.     Every  one  unto  his  city]  i.e.  to 


the  provincial  towns.  This  process  can  only 
have  taken  place  very  gradually. 

2.  Zerubbabel]  for  his  relation  to  Shesh- 
bazzar see  on  1  §  ;  for  his  ancestry  see  on  3  2. 
The  list  of  names  that  follows  is  repeated,  with 
some  variants,  in  Neh  7  """3.  Jeshua]  the  high 
priest,  called  by  Haggai  '  Joshua.'  The  names 
in  this  V.  number  1 1 ,  but  in  the  corresponding 
passage  in  Neh  (7*^)  they  amount  to  12,  and  are 
probably  intended  to  be  Symbolic  of  the  12 
tribes  of  Israel  (cp.  6^'''),  the  number  of 
which  was  recalled  at  a  later  date  by  the  12 
he-goats  offered  as  a  sin-offering  at  the  dedi- 
cation of  the  restored  Tenaple  (6^'''),  and  by 
the  sacrifices  described  in  8  35  :  cp.  also  the  ex- 
pression 'all  Israel'  in  2'i'O.  Nehemiah]  not 
the  Nehemiah  of  Neh  1 1. 

3-9.  The  names  in  these  vy.  are  those  of 
families.  16.  Of  Ater  of  Hezekiah]  i.e.  the 
descendants  of  Ater  through  Hezekiah,  one  of 
his  sons. 

20-35.  The  names  in  these  vv.  are  those  of 
localities.  29.  Nebo]  not  the  Nebo  in  Reuben, 
E.  of  the  Jordan  (Nu3238),  but  situated  in 
Judah,  identified  by  some  with  Nob  (Isal032), 
by  others  with  the  modern  Nuba,  S.  of  Jeru- 
salem. 31.  The  other  Elam]  in  contrast  to 
the  Elam  of  v.  7. 

36-39.  Of  the  four  priestly  houses  here 
named,  one,  Pashur,  is  not  among  the  24  enu- 
merated in  1  Ch  24  '^■i^,  but  is  probably  a  branch 
of  the  house  of  Malchijah  (1  Ch249) :  see  Neh 
1112. 

40.  Seventy  and  four]  The  small  number  be- 
trays a  backwardness  on  the  part  of  the  Levites 
similar  to  that  which  they  manifested  on  a  sub- 
sequent occasion  :  see  815.  42.  The  porters] 
they  kept  the  Temple  gates  (1  Ch  9 1").  43.  The 
Nethinims]  i.e.  Temple  servants  :  see  Neh  Si'', 
and  on  1  Ch92.  55.  The  children  of  Solomon's 
servants]  probably  descendants  of  the  native 
Canaanites  employed  by  Solomon  on  his  build- 
ings: see  1 K921.  59.  Tel-melah,  etc.]  localities 
in  Babylonia. 

62.  Sought  their  register,  etc.]  i.e.  sought 
their  entry  among  those  who  were  enrolled  as 
being  Israelites  of  pure  descent.  As  polluted] 
Only  those  were  admitted  to  the  priesthood 
Avho  could  prove  their  descent  from  Aaron, 
in  accordance  with  Nu  31"^  16  40. 

63.  The  Tirshatha]  i.e.  Zerubbabel,  the  title 
meaning  '  governor,'  perhaps  one  subordinate 
to  a  '  satrap.'  Eat  of  the  most  holy  things] 
the  privilege  of  the  priesthood  only  (Nu  18  ^^^i^). 
Till  there  stood  up,  etc.]  In  early  times  the 
high  priest  used  to  enquire  of  the  Lord  by 
Urim  and  Thummim  :  see  on  Ex  28  30. 

64.  Forty  and  tv70  thousand,  etc.]  The  total 
number  here  gi^en  disagrees  with  the  sum  of 
the  items,  which  only  amounts  to  29,818  (in 
Neh7'5'^,  31,089,  the  difference  perhaps  being 
due  to  textual  errors). 


272 


2.  65 


EZRA 


4.  2 


65.  Singing  men,  etc.]  These  were  minstrels 
employed  on  secular  occasions  (cp.  Eccl2'i',8)^ 
distinct  from  the  singers  of  v.  41,  who  were 
intended  for  the  Temple. 

69.  Drams]  The  dram  (Gk.  drachma),  like 
the  pound  {ma7ieh),yf3.?,  a  weight,  equivalent  to 
the  Hebrew  half -shekel.  The  pound  contained 
100  drams.  Some  authorities  render  the  word 
translated  '  dram '  by  daric,  a  gold  coin  worth 
a  guinea.  A  pound  of  silver  was  worth 
about  £4. 

70.  Dwelt  in  their  cities]  i.e.  occupied  several 
of  the  provincial  cities.  Some  scholars  have 
held  that  only  a  few  (if  any)  Jews  returned  to 
Jerusalem  in  the  reign  of  Cyrus  (whose  decree 
in  Ezr63-5  only  directs  the  construction  of 
the  Temple,  not  the  restoration  of  any  exiles), 
and  that  the  Temple  was  not  begun  as  re- 
lated in  c.  3,  but  built  for  the  first  time  in 
the  reign  of  Darius  by  the  remnant  of  the 
people  left  in  Judfea  (Hagli2,i4  Zech86>ii). 
There  seems,  however,  no  adequate  reason  to 
question  the  substantial  truth  of  Ezr  1-3. 

CHAPTER  3 

The  refounding  of  the  Temple 

1.  The  seventh  month]  i.e.  Sept.-Oct.  of  (pro- 
bably) 537  B.C. 

2.  Jeshua]  called  in  Hagl^  'Joshua.'  His 
father  Jozadak  had  been  carried  into  exile  by 
Nebuchadnezzar  (1  Ch6i5).  Son  of  Shealtiel] 
In  1  Ch3i9  Zerubbabel  is  called  the  son  of 
Pedaiah,  the  brother  of  Shealtiel  (Salathiel). 
The  discrepancy  may  be  explained  by  the 
suppositions  (a)  that  he  was  the  real  son  of 
Pedaiah  and  the  legal  son  of  Shealtiel  (Pedaiah 
having  married  Shealtiel's  widow,  according  to 
the  law  of  Dt255f-),  (i)  that  he  was  grandson 
of  Shealtiel  and  son  of  Pedaiah,  (c)  that  he 
was  grandson  of  both.  But  LXX  of  lCh3i9 
makes  him  the  son  of  Shealtiel  (Salathiel),  in 
agreement  with  the  evidence  of  this  passage 
and  of  Hag  1 1. 

Builded  the  altar]  Possibly  an  effort  had 
for  a  time  been  made  to  continue  the  worship 
of  the  Lord  on  the  site  of  the  Temple  after 
its  destruction  (see  Jer415)  ;  but  the  altar 
erected  had  apparently  been  overthrown.  The 
Jews  now  proceeded  to  restore  it,  in  order  to 
have  the  privilege  of  public  worship  whilst 
the  Temple  was  in  course  of  reconstruc- 
tion. As  it  is .  .  Moses]  Special  sacrifices  were 
enjoined  for  the  1st  day  of  the  7th  month 
(Nu29i-0). 

3.  Fear]  i.e.  of  interruption  from  the 
enemy.  4.  The  feast  of  tabernacles]  This  be- 
o-an  on  the  ir)th  day  of  the  7th  month,  and 
lasted  7  days,  followed  by  a  solemn  assembly 
on  the  8th  day  :  Nu29i2f.  5.  Both  of]  better, 
'  and  the  offerings  of  '  :  see  Nu  28,  29. 

7.  And  meat  and  drink,  etc.]  cp.  1  KS'J-ii 
regarding    Solomon's    Temple.      To   the    sea 


of  Joppa]  RV  'to  the  sea,  unto    Joppa':  cp. 
2Ch2i6. 

8.  In  the  second  year]  probably  536  B.C.  The 
second  month  would  correspond  to  April-May. 

9.  Jeshua]  not  the  '  Jeshua '  of  v.  8  (who 
was  high  priest),  but  a  Levite  (240).  10.  The 
ordinance  of  David]  This  is  set  forth  in  1  Ch 
25 1  f.  1 6  4-6.  1 1 .  Together]  R  V '  one  to  another ' : 
i.e.  antiphonally. 

12.  Wept]  Though  the  younger  among  the 
people  were  filled  with  hope,  now  that  the 
house  of  the  Lord  was  once  more  established 
in  their  midst,  the  older,  who  could  remember 
the  earlier  Temple,  destroyed  about  50  years 
before,  wept  at  the  contrast  to  it  which  was 
presented  by  the  meanness  of  the  new  build- 
ing, and  the  inadequate  resources  available  for 
its  completion  :  cp.  Hag  2  3  Zech4io. 

Some  scholars  have  questioned  whether  the 
foundations  of  the  Temple  were  really  laid  by 
Zerubbabel  in  the  second  year  after  the  Return, 
as  related  in  vv.  8-10,  on  the  ground  that  Haggai 
and  Zechariah  seem  to  imply  that  it  was  not 
begun  until  the  2nd  year  of  Darius  Hystaspis 
(520  B.C.)  :  see  Hag 2  is  ZechS^.  But  the  lan- 
guage of  the  prophets  is  sufficiently  explained 
if  it  is  assumed  that  only  a  commencement 
was  made  in  536,  that  the  progress  of  the 
work  was  very  soon  suspended,  and  that  the 
renewal  of  it  in  520  was  practically  a  fresh 
start,  as  indeed  the  book  of  Ezra  itself  declares 
it  to  have  been  (5  2). 

CHAPTER  4 
Feud  between  the  Jews  and  Samaritans 
This  c.  describes  the  desire  of  the  Samari- 
tans to  take  part  in  the  rebuilding  of  the 
Temple,  and  their  successful  opposition  to  the 
Jews  on  their  request  being  refused. 

1.  The  adversaries]  The  term  is  here  anti- 
cipatory of  the  opposition  subsequently  dis- 
played. The  people  thus  designated  were  the 
Samaritans,  who,  in  the  main,  were  the  de- 
scendants of  the  immigrants  who,  to  replace 
the  Israelite  population  that  had  been  deported 
after  the  fall  of  Samaria,  had  been  introduced, 
first  of  all  by  Sargon,  from  Babylon,  Cuthah, 
and  other  places  (2  K 17  24),  and  also  at  a  later 
date  by  Esarhaddon  and  Asshurbanipal  (vv. 
2,  10).  But  there  must  likewise  have  been 
mingled  with  them  a  certain  number  of  native 
Israelites,  who  had  been  left  behind  in  the 
country  by  their  Assyrian  conquerors. 

2.  We  seek  your  God]  A  priest  had  been 
brought  back  from  captivity  to  teach  them  how 
to  fear  the  Lord  (2K172s,3-2,33).  We  do 
sacrifice  unto  Him]  so  one  reading  of  the  Heb., 
followed  by  the  LXX,  the  clause  expanding 
the  plea  of  common  worship.  Another  read- 
ing is  '  yet  we  do  no  sacrifice,'  the  argument 
implying  that  they  had  hitherto  had  no  oppor- 
tunity of   offering   acceptable    sacrifices,   but 


18 


273 


4.3 


EZRA 


5.1 


now  desired  to  do  so  at  Jerusalem,  the  only 
lawful  sanctuary.  Esar-haddon]  the  successor 
of  Sennacherib  (681-668  B.C.).  Assur]  i.e. 
Assyria. 

3.  As  king  Cyrus,  etc.]  The  fact  that  they 
were  not  authorised  to  extend  to  others  the 
privileges  conferred  upon  them  by  Cyrus  was 
probably  not  the  only  motive  that  actuated 
the  Jews.  They  no  doubt  felt  that  to  admit 
to  closer  association  such  a  hybrid  community 
as  the  Samaritans,  with  their  mixture  of 
Hebrew  and  heathen  rites  of  worship,  would 
neutralise  the  impulse  in  the  direction  of 
purity  of  religion  which  they  had  derived 
from  their  experiences  as  exiles.  4.  The 
people  of  the  land]  i.e.  the  Samaritans  and  the 
other  hostile  neighbours  of  the  Jews ;  the  annoy- 
ances they  caused  are  referred  to  in  Zech  8  ^o. 

5.  The  reign  of  Darius]  i.e.  Darius  Hys- 
taspis,  the  third  in  succession  to  Cyrus,  who 
was  followed  on  the  throne  by  Cambyses, 
Gomates  (who  personated  Smerdis,  and  is  con- 
sequently often  styled  Pseudo- Smerdis),  and 
Darius,  in  the  order  named.  Darius  reigned 
from  521-485,  so  that  the  rebuilding  of  the 
Temple  was  interrupted  for  fifteen  or  sixteen 
years  (536-520). 

6.  Ahasuerus]  i.e.  Xerxes  (485-464),  the 
successor  of  Darius  Hystaspis. 

7.  Artaxerxes]  i.e.  Artaxerxes  Longimanus 
(464-424),  the  successor  of  Xerxes.  Since 
both  Xerxes  and  Artaxerxes  lived  after  Darius 
Hystaspis,  to  whom  v.  24  probably  refers,  and 
to  whose  reign  the  contents  of  c.  5  belong, 
the  section,  vv.  6-23,  departs  from  the  chrono- 
logical succession  of  events  either  in  conse- 
quence of  some  accidental  misplacement,  or 
because  the  writer  has  in  view  a  comprehen- 
sive summary  of  the  several  occasions  when 
opposition  was  offered  to  the  Jews  by  their 
enemies.  The  charge  made  in  this  section 
against  the  Jews  is  not  the  building  of  the 
Temple  (the  subject  of  which  is  resumed  in 
V.  24  and  c.  5),  but  the  fortification  of  Jeru- 
salem (v.  12),  either  by  Nehemiah  (as  related 
in  the  book  of  Neh)  or  by  a  body  of  Jews  who 
came  from  Babylon  before  him,  perhaps  those 
who  accompanied  Ezra  (see  c.  7).  Some,  who 
consider  the  chronological  sequence  in  this  c. 
to  be  unbroken,  identify  the  '  Darius '  of  v.  24 
with  Darius  Nothus  (423-405)  ;  whilst  others, 
who  take  vv.  6-23  to  be  a  detailed  explana- 
tion of  the  opposition  summarised  in  v.  5, 
identify  Ahasuerus  and  Artaxerxes  with  Cam- 
byses and  Gomates,  the  two  kings  who  came 
between  Cyrus  and  Darius  Hystaspis. 

7.  In  the  Syrian  tongue,  etc.]  RV  '  written 
in  the  Syrian  (Aramean)  character^  and  set 
forth  in  the  Syrian  (Aramean)  tongue.''  Ara- 
mean was  the  chief  medium  of  communi- 
cation between  the  different  peoples  of  the 
East  :  cp.  2  K 18  26. 


8.  Rehum  .  .  Shimshai]  It  is  not  clear 
whether  vv.  7,  8  refer  to  more  than  one  letter 
sent  on  different  occasions  by  the  enemies  of 
the  Jews,  or  to  a  single  letter  written  by  the 
persons  named  in  v.  7  (who  were  presumably 
Samaritans)  and  communicated  through  the 
Persian  officials  named  in  v.  8. 

9.  Dinaites]  The  identification  of  most  of 
the  peoples  mentioned  in  this  v.  is  uncertain. 
The  Susanchites  were  the  natives  of  Shushan, 
the  capital  of  Elam.  10.  On  this  side]  E.V 
'beyond'  (and  so  in  vv.  11,  16,  53,6  §36)^  re- 
garded from  the  point  of  view  of  the  Persian 
court.  II.  At  such  a  time]  RY '  and  so  forth ' 
(and  so  in  vv.  11  and  17).  12.  Joined  the 
foundations]    B,V  '  repaired  the  foundations.' 

1 3.  So  thou  shalt  endamage]  R  V  '  in  the  end 
it  will  endamage.'  14.  We  have  .  .  palace] 
lit.  '  we  have  salted  the  salt  of  the  palace  ' :  cp. 
the  term  '  salary,'  from  salarium,  '  money  given 
to  provide  salt.' 

15.  The  book  of  the  records]  For  such  see 
6  2.  A  rebellious  city]  This,  so  far  as  it  was 
true,  applied  to  Jerusalem  only  under  Baby- 
lonian rule  (see  2K24i'20).  But  the  circum- 
stances of  the  time  rendered  the  walling  of 
the  city  suspicious,  since  Egypt,  which  lay  so 
near,  had  recently  been  in  revolt. 

24.  The  second  year  .  .  Darius]  520  B.C., 
if,  as  is  most  probable,  Darius  Hystaspis  is 
meant,  as  in  v.  5  (the  closing  words  of  which 
are  here  repeated).  But  some  suppose  Darius 
Nothus  (423-405)  to  be  intended. 

CHAPTER  5 

The    building    op   the    Temple 
recommenced 

This  c.  gives  an  accoimt  of  a  renewed  at- 
tempt to  rebuild  the  Temple,  and  recites  a 
letter  from  the  Persian  officials  in  Judasa  to 
the  Persian  court  to  enquire  whether  the  Jews 
had  leave  to  proceed  with  the  work. 

I.  Then  the  prophets]  The  hostility  of  their 
neighbours  (4*'^),  coiipled  with  disastrous 
seasons  (Hag  1 1*^>  ^^  2 1^),  had  so  discouraged 
the  people  that  they  said  '  The  time  is  not 
come  for  the  Lord's  house  to  be  built '  (Hag  1 2). 
Out  of  this  despondency  they  were  roused  by 
two  prophets,  whose  presence  amongst  them 
must  of  itself  have  convinced  them  that  the 
Spirit  of  the  Lord  was  once  more  with 
them. 

Haggai]  The  prophecies  of  Haggai  were  all 
delivered  in  the  second  year  of  Darius.  In 
them  he  upbraided  the  people  for  building 
substantial  houses  for  themselves  whilst  neg- 
lecting the  House  of  God  ;  attributed  to  such 
neglect  the  prevalent  scarcity,  which  was  God's 
judgment  upon  them  ;  and  when  the  work  was 
once  again  taken  in  hand  by  Zerubbabel,  pre- 
dicted that  the  glory  of  the  second  Temple 
would  exceed  that  of  the  first. 


274 


5.  2 


EZRA 


7.  1 


Zechariah]  The  prophecies  of  Zechariah 
(who  was  really  son  of  Berechiah  and  grandson 
of  Iddo)  were  delivered  at  intervals  between 
the  second  and  fourth  years  of  Darius.  In 
them  he  consoled  his  countrymen  for  their 
afflictions,  denounced  God's  wrath  upon  the 
nations  who  had  oppressed  Jerusalem,  en- 
couraged with  hopes  of  a  great  future  both 
Zerubbabel  and  Joshua  in  their  work  of  re- 
building the  Temple,  and  exhorted  the  people 
to  truth,  justice,  and  mercy. 

In  the  name .  .  even  unto  them]  RM  '  in  the 
name  of  the  God  of  Israel  which  was  upon 
them '  :  cp.  Jer  14'-'  (which  is  lit.  '  thy  name  is 
called  upon  us '). 

2.  Began  to  build]  It  had  really  been  begun 
sixteen  years  before  (3^'-),  but  the  work  having 
been  suspended,  it  had  to  be  recommenced. 

3.  Tatnai]  perhaps  the  satrap  of  all  the 
Persian  possessions  W.  of  the  Euphrates  (the 
'  river ').  4.  Said  we]  better,  with  the  LXX, 
'  said  they.' 

5.  They  could  not  cause  them  to  cease]  Tatnai 
could  not  venture  to  arrest  a  work  which  was 
alleged  to  have  the  sanction  of  Cyrus  (v.  13), 
though  he  cautiously  sent  to  Persia  to  have 
the  statement  verified.  Till  the  matter  came, 
etc.]  RV  '  till  the  matter  should  come  to 
Darius,  and  then  answer  should  be  returned.' 

13.  Cyrus  the  king  of  Babylon]  The  king 
of  Persia  included  Babylon  within  his  domi- 
nions :  cp.  Nehl3'5.  14.  Sheshbazzar]  i.e. 
Zerubbabel  :  see  on  1  §. 

CHAPTER   6 
Completion  and  Dedication  of  the 

Temple 
This  c.  relates  the  authorisation  of  the  con- 
struction of  the  Temple,  and  the  completion 
of  the  work. 

2.  Achmetha]   i.e.  Ecbatana  in  Media. 

3.  Threescore  cubits,  etc.]  The  dimensions 
here  given,  which  considerably  exceed  those  of 
Solomon's  Temple  (IK 6 2),  perhaps  marked 
the  limits  beyond  which  the  builders  were  not 
to  go.  4,  With  three  rows,  etc.]  cp.  1K6  36^ 
which  suggests  that  these  materials  were  used 
in  the  construction  of  the  Court,  not  of  the 
edifice,  of  the  Temple.  Out  of  the  king's 
house]   i.e.  from  the  king's  resources  :  cp.  7'-^o. 

6.  Now  therefoi'e^  etc.]  At  this  v.  the  decree 
of  Darius  begins.  7.  The  governor  of  the 
Jews]  i.e.  Zerubbabel  (Sheshbazzar),  who  was 
subordinate  to  Tatnai  (5  3).  10.  Sacrifices  of 
sweet  savours]  cp.  GnS^i  Ex'29is.  12.  To 
alter]  i.e.  the  decree.  14.  Artaxerxes]  The 
Temple  was  really  completed  in  the  reign  of 
Darius  (v.  15),  but  Artaxerxes  (464-424  B.C.) 
bestowed  treasure  upon  it  (see  c.  7). 

15.   Adar]   February-March. 
The  sixth  year]   i.e.  516  B.C.     The  Temple, 
which  was  begun  for  the  second  time  in  the 


second  year  of  Darius,  520  B.C.  (Hag  1 1*,  15)^ 
had  taken  more  than  four  years  to  finish.  No 
complete  description  of  it  is  forthcoming,  but 
some  information  respecting  it  can  be  derived 
from  allusions.  If  the  measurements  given  in 
the  decree  of  Cyrus  (6  3)  were  actually  adopted, 
it  must  have  been  larger  than  that  of  Solomon 
(1 K  6  -),  but  otherwise  it  was  much  inferior  to 
it  (312  Hag  2  3).  Like  the  earlier  structure,  it 
consisted  of  a  Holy  of  Holies  and  a  Holy 
Place,  before  each  of  which  hung  a  vail 
(1  Mac  4  51)  ;  whilst  it  had  in  front  of  it  more 
than  one  court  (1  Mac  4  38, 48).  The  Holy  of 
Holies  was  empty  (the  ark  being  lost)  ;  but 
the  Holy  Place  contained  the  golden  altar  of 
incense,  the  candlestick,  and  the  table  of  shew- 
bread,  together  with  various  vessels  (1  Mac  1 22). 
In  one  of  the  courts  was  the  altar  of  burnt- 
offering,  constructed  of  '  whole  stones '  (1  Mac 
4'*''');  and  round  the  Temple  building  there 
were  chambers,  for  the  use  of  the  priests  and 
the  storage  of  provisions  (Ezr  8  29  10  ^  NehlO^* 
135  1  Mac  4  38). 

17.  Twelve  he  goats]  The  number  (see 
Nu  7  87)  was  representative  of  the  twelve  tribes 
of  Israel,  though  only  a  few  of  them  had 
returned  from  their  exile  and  were  present  at 
the  festival.  20.  For  the  priests,  etc.]  better, 
'  for  the  priests  had  purified  themselves,  and 
the  Levites,  as  one  man,  were  all  of  them 
pure.'  Killed  the  passover  for  all]  i.e.  the 
Levites,  who  in  Hezekiah's  time  killed  the 
passover  lambs  only  for  such  as  were  not  clean, 
now  killed  them  for  all  alike,  both  priests  and 
laity. 

21.  All  such  as  had  separated,  etc.]  cp. 
1011  Neh  1 0  28.  The  allusion  is  to  the  Israelites 
left  in  the  country  when  the  flower  of  the 
population  was  removed  by  Nebuchadnezzar 
to  Babylon,  who  had  become  contaminated  by 
the  surrounding  heathen,  but  now  detached 
themselves  from  them.  22.  The  king  of 
Assyria]  i.e.  Darius,  whose  predecessors  had 
conquered  Babylon,  the  mistress  of  Assyria. 

CHAPTER  7 
The  Journey  of  Ezra  to  Jerusalem 
I.  Now  after ..  Artaxerxes]  The  interval 
of  time  here  implied  amounted  to  more  than 
fifty  years,  from  the  sixth  year  of  Darius 
(516  B.C.)  to  the  seventh  yeai*  of  Artaxerxes 
Longimanus  (468  B.C.).  Between  the  reign  of 
Darius  and  Artaxerxes  thei'e  intervened  the 
reign  of  Xerxes  (485-464  B.C.),  to  which  belong 
the  incidents  related  in  the  book  of  Esther. 
In  the  early  years  of  his  successor  Artaxerxes 
an  effort  was  made  to  surround  Jerusalem, 
with  a  wall  (see  4 12),  though  with  no  success. 
Probably  to  the  same  period  should  be  assigned 
the  ministry  of  the  prophet  Malachi.  From 
his  writings  it  may  be  gathered  that  the  religious 
and  moral  condition  of  the  Jewish  community 


275 


7.6 


EZRA 


8.  18 


at  Jerusalem  was  very  unsatisfactory.  The 
people  were  divided  into  two  sections,  the  one 
scrupulous  in  their  religious  duties,  the  other 
sceptical  and  indifferent  (Mai  3 13).  The  latter 
party  had  contracted  marriages  with  heathen 
women  (211);  oppression  and  immorality  were 
prevalent  (3  5)  ;  the  Temple  services  were 
neglected  (16-1*)  ;  and  the  maintenance  of  the 
priesthood  stinted  (38-10).  Against  the  con- 
tinuance of  these  evils  the  prophet  raised  a 
strong  protest,  denouncing  divine  judgment 
upon  the  offenders,  but  promising  that  God's 
blessing  would  attend  them  upon  their  refor- 
mation (31041-3). 

Ezra  .  .  Seraiah]  Ezra  was  a  descendant  of 
the  Seraiah  who  was  chief  priest  in  the  reign 
of  the  last  king  of  Judah  (2K2518).  His 
genealogy  as  given  in  vv.  1-5  is  abbreviated  by 
the  omission  not  only  of  all  the  generations 
separating  him  from  Seraiah,  but  also  of  many 
of  those  between  Seraiah  and  Aaron  :  cp. 
lCh63-i5. 

6.  This  Ezra]  Ezra,  as  his  history  shows,  was 
a  devout  and  zealous  ecclesiastic,  of  passionate 
temperament,  strong  religious  faith,  and  rigid 
principles,  who,  though  he  met  with  temporary 
failure,  in  the  end  permanently  influenced  the 
thoughts  and  habits  of  his  countrymen.  A 
ready  scribe]  Ezra  belonged  to  the  class  of 
literary  men,  who,  being  acquainted  with  the 
art  of  writing,  had,  in  the  time  when  the  nation 
was  independent,  furnished  its  statesmen  with 
their  secretaries  (2S817  IK 43  2K1818),  but 
now  that  its  political  life  had  ceased,  were 
students  of  the  Law,  which  they  copied,  and 
interpreted  (cp.  NehS^).  All  his  request] 
The  nature  of  this  is  implied  in  the  letter  of 
Artaxerxes  (vv.  12-26). 

9.  Began  he  to  go  up]  better  (by  a  slight 
correction),  'he  fixed  the  going  up.'  The 
actual  journey  was  not  begun  till  the  twelfth 
day  (8  3i).  The  first  month]  i.e  Nisan.  (  =  Mar.- 
April).  The  fifth  month]  i.e.  Ab  (  =  July- 
August).  The  journey,  which  lasted  some 
three  months  and  a  half,  was  probably  made 
by  way  of  the  Euphrates  to  Carchemish,  then 
across  to  Hamath,  and  so  southward  along  the 
Orontes.     The  distance  was  about  900  m. 

10.  To  teach  in  Israel]  Ezra,  though  like 
Zerubbabel  he  led  a  body  of  settlers  to  Jerusa- 
lem, is  never  styled '  Tirshatha '  (as  Zerubbabel 
is  in  263),  and  his  mission  appears  to  have  had 
purely  religious  ends  in  view.  The  Jews  who 
remained  in  Babylon,  and  who  were  surrounded 
by  a  population  wholly  heathen,  were  marked 
off  from  their  neighbours  by  a  much  deeper 
line  of  cleavage  than  were  the  Jews  of  Pales- 
tine, and  a  higher  standard  of  religious  devotion 
prevailed  amongst  them  :  consequently  when 
the  religious  laxity  of  the  people  of  Jerusalem 
became  known  at  Babylon,  Ezra  was  sent  to 
enquire  into  it  (v.  14),  to  introduce  reforms. 


and,  by  authority  of  the  Persian  king,  to  en- 
force the  observance  of  the  Law  by  means  of 
penalties  (v.  26). 

12.  King  of  kings]  The  same  title  was  used 
by  the  kings  of  Babylon  (Ezk  26^  Dan  2  3V).  Per- 
fect peace^  and  at  such  a  time]  better,  '  the 
whole  '  (of  the  usual  heading)  '  and  so  forth.' 

13.  His  priests]  RV  '  their  (i.e.  Israel's) 
priests.'  14.  His  seven  counsellors]  In  Esth 
1 1*  mention  is  made  of  seven  princes  '  who  saw 
the  king's  face  and  sat  the  first  in  his  kingdom.' 

16.  Canst  find]  i.e.  obtain  from  the  native 
Babylonians  and  Persians  :  cp.  1  *>  ^. 

22.  Talents  .  .  measures  .  .  baths]  The  '  tal- 
ent '  used  by  the  early  Hebrews  weighed  96  lb., 
the  Persian  talent  was  66  lb.  A  '  measure ' 
(Heb.  cor)  contained  83  gallons,  a  '  bath '  a 
little  more  than  8  gallons.  The  wheat,  wine, 
oil,  and  salt  were  required  for  the  sacrificial 
offerings:  see  Ex29*0Lv2i3.  23.  Why  should 
there  be  wrath,  etc.]  The  piety  of  the  Persian 
kings  led  them  to  seek  the  favour  of  the 
deities  worshipped  by  the  different  nationalities 
under  their  sway:  cp.  6 10.  26.  Banishment] 
or  exclusion  from  the  congregation:  cp.lO^. 

27.  Blessed  he  the  LORD,  etc.]  This  intro- 
duces Ezra's  thanksgiving  for  the  king's  letter. 
His  gi'atitude  to  GTod  is  conspicuous  throughout 
the  passages  in  this  book  which  proceed  directly 
from  him  (e.g.  8 18;  22, 3i),  and  is  reflected  in  the 
account  of  the  historian  (7^.9,  etc.). 

CHAPTER  8 

Particulars  of  Ezra's  Company 
I.  Them  that  went  up]  The  sum  of  the 
numbers  given  is  1,496.  Only  males  are  men- 
tioned, and  if  no  women  accompanied  them, 
the  absence  of  such  doubtless  increased  the 
tendency  that  the  people  manifested  to  inter- 
marry with  heathen  families.  2.  Hattush] 
This  should  be  connected  closely  with  the 
following  clause,  Hattush  being  grandson  of 
Shecaniah:  lCh322.  3.  Of  the  sons  of  Pha- 
rosh]  Most  of  the  families  in  this  list  also 
appear  (with  some  variations)  in  c.  2  and  Neh  7 
as  having  contributed  members  to  the  body  of 
immigrants  that  accompanied  Zerubbabel  in 
the  reign  of  Cyrus.  13.  Of  the  last  sons  of 
Adonikam]  perhaps  those  who  belonged  to 
the  youngest  branch  of  Adonikam's  house. 

15.  Ahava]  This  was  the  name  both  of  a 
town  and  of  a  river  (v.  21)  in  Babylonia,  on 
the  road  to  Palestine.  None  of  the  sons  of 
Levi]  Only  a  small  number  of  Levites  had 
previously  accompanied  Zerubbabel  (236). 

17.  Casiphia]  unidentified,  but  presumably 
near  Babylon.  ^4;/(7to  his  brethren  the  Nethi- 
nims]  The  text  is  defective,  and  should 
probably  be  corrected  to  '  and  to  his  brethren 
(i.e.  the  Levites)  and  to  the  Nethinim.'  18.  Of 
the  sons  of  Mahli]  Either  the  name  of  the 
'  man  of  understanding '  has  dropped  out  of 


276 


8.  22 


EZRA 


10.44 


the  text,  or  else  this  expression  itself  represents 
a  proper  name,  Ish-sechel  :  so  RM. 

22.  The  enemy  in  the  way]  probably  such 
marauders  as  were  accustomed  to  attack 
defenceless  travellers:  cp.  v.  31.  24.  Shere- 
biah,  Hashabiah]  These  were  Levites,  not 
priests  (Neh  122-1),  go  that  the  individuals 
selected  were  twenty-four  in  all,  twelve  priests 
and  twelve  Levites :  cp.  v.  30.  26.  Six  hun- 
dred and  fifty  talents,  etc.]  The  value  of  the 
ofEerings  mentioned  in  this  and  the  following 
V.  is  so  great  (approaching  a  million  sterling), 
that  exaggeration  or  textual  corruption  may 
be  suspected. 

30.  Took  .  .  silver]  i.e.  took  the  silver 
weighed  out  to  them  (v.  26).  33.  By  the 
hand  of]  RV  '  into  the  hand  of '  :  the  persons 
named  being  those  with  whom  the  silver 
brought  from  Babylon  was  deposited.  34.  By 
number  .  .  of  every  one]  RV  '  the  whole  by 
number  and  by  weight.'  36.  The  king's 
commissions]  i.e.  the  directions  intended  for 
the  royal  treasurers  (7-1).  Lieutenants]  lit. 
'  satraps.' 

CHAPTER  9 

Ezra's  Indignation  at  Intermarriages 

WITH  THE  Heathen 

I.  The  Canaanites,  etc.]  In  the  Law  it  was 
only  with  the  various  Canaanite  nations  that 
marriage  was  altogether  forbidden  (Ex  3412-16 
Dt?!"^).  David  was  descended  from  a  union 
between  an  Israelite  and  a  Moabitess  (Ruth  1  * 
41"),  and  Solomon  had  married  an  Egyptian 
princess  without  reproach  (1X3^).  But  the 
principle  which  excluded  alliances  with  certain 
nations  was  doubtless  felt  to  be  applicable  to 
others  also,  and  Solomon's  marriages  with 
women  of  the  Moabites  and  Ammonites  had 
certainly  been  attended  with  calamitous  results 
(IK  11 1.2). 

3.  Plucked  off  the  hair]  Baldness  artificially 
produced  was  a  sign  of  mourning  :  Isa  1 6  2 
2212  Jerie*^  AmSi'J  Job  1 20.  8.  A  nail]  a 
figure  for  security  :  cp.  Isa  22  23.  In  his  holy 
place]   i.e.  Jerusalem  :  cp.  Ps  24  ^  Isa  56  "^  57 1^. 

9.  We  loere  bondmen]  RV  '  we  are  bond- 
men '  :  i.e.  subjects  of  the  Persians  :  cp.  Neh 
9^6.     A  wall]   i.e.  protection  (RM  '  a  fence '). 

I I.  The  filthiness  of  the  people]  The  iniquity 
of  the  Canaanite  peoples,  whose  land  Israel 
had  taken  in  possession,  is  alluded  to  in  Gn  15 1*5 
Dt95  :  cp.  also  1K2126. 

13.  iS«c/;  deliverance]  RV  '  such  a  remnant.' 
15.  For  we .  .  escaped]  better,  'for  we  are 
left  but  a  remnant  that  is  escaped.'  God's 
righteousness  had  been  vindicated  by  the  almost 
complete  destruction  of  the  guilty  people  ;  but 
His  mercy  had  been  manifested  in  the  survival 
of  a  few  who  were  now  imperilling  themselves 
by  fresh  oiiences. 


CHAPTER  10 

The  Foreign  Wives  are  divorced 

3.  According  to  the  law]  see  Dt  24 1-2,  which 
required  a  bill  of  divorcement.  5.  The  chief 
priests]  RV  '  the  chiefs  of  the  priests ' :  see 
2Ch36i-t. 

6.  Johanan]  If  the  Eliashib  meant  is  the 
contemporary  of  Nehemiah  (13  ■*>'^)  and  Jo- 
hanan was  really  his  grandson  (not  his  son,  see 
Neh  1222),  ije  must  have  lived  a  long  while 
after  Ezra,  and  consequently  the  description 
of  the  chamber,  here  alluded  to,  as  the  chamber 
of  Johanan  applies  not  to  the  time  of  Ezra, 
but  to  that  of  the  compiler  of  the  book.  But 
it  is  possible  that  another  Johanan  is  intended. 

8.  Forfeited]  lit.  '  placed  under  the  ban.' 
Goods  that  were  '  banned '  were  brought  into 
the  treasury  of  the  Lord  (Josh  6 1^).  For  the 
authority  under  which  these  proceedings  were 
undertaken  see  7  26.  g_  fhe  ninth  month]  i.e. 
Chisleu  (  =  Nov. -Dec).  In  Palestine  rain  falls 
regularly  -in  December,  and  on  this  occasion 
was  perhaps  heavier  than  usual.  13.  We  are 
many,  etc.]  better,  '  we  have  gi-eatly  trans- 
gressed.' 14.  Let  now  our  rulers  .  .  stand]  i.e. 
as  a  committee  to  see  into  the  question  of 
the  divorces.  15.  Were  employed  about]  RV 
'  stood  up  against.'  The  opiDosition  was  not 
really  strong.  16,  17.  The  tenth  month  .  .  the 
first]  i.e.  Tebeth  (=  Dec-Jan.)  and  Nisan 
(=  Mar.- Apr.). 

18.  Of  the  guilty  there  were  17  priests,  10 
Levites,  singers  and  porters,  and  86  laymen, 
making  a  total  of  113.  25.  Of  Israel]  i.e.  of 
the  laity,  as  contrasted  with  the  priests  and 
Levites.  44.  Some  of  them,  etc.]  The  text  is 
obscure  and  perhaps  corrupt :  the  LXX  renders 
'  and  had  begotten  children  by  them  ' ;  whilst 
lEsdr936  has  'and  they  put  them  away  with 
their  children.' 

The  harsh  measures  here  described  were 
adopted  by  Ezra  and  his  supporters  owing  to 
the  necessity  of  preserving  the  distinctive  faith 
of  their  race  from  being  contaminated  by,  and 
finally  lost  in,  the  heathendom  that  surrounded 
it.  A  small  and  feeble  community,  deprived 
of  national  independence,  was  peculiarly  ex- 
posed to  external  influences  ;  and  Ezra  might 
well  fear  that  the  proneness  to  idolatry  from 
which  his  countrymen  had  been  purified  by 
the  exile  might  revive,  if  marriage  alliances 
were  permitted  with  the  neighbouring  peoples, 
whose  women,  in  the  words  of  Malachi  (2ii), 
were  '  the  daughters  of  a  strange  god.' 

Nothing  further  is  related  of  Ezra  himself 
after  this  attempt  to  prevent  mixed  marriages 
until  his  reappearance  in  company  with  Nehe- 
miah  in  444  (Neh  8 1)  ;  and  nothing  is  known 
for  certain  respecting  the  condition  of  affairs 
in  Judaea  between  the  last  events  here  recorded 
and  the  arrival  of  Nehemiah  at  Jerusalem,  as 


277 


10.44 


EZRA— NEHEMIAH 


1.3 


narrated  in  Neh  2.  But  one  section  of  this 
book  (4<5-23)  shows  that  in  the  reign  of  Arta- 
xerxes  an  endeavour  was  made  to  rebuild  the 
fortifications  of  the  city  by  a  body  of  Jews 
who  had  recently  arrived  there  (v.  12),  and  it 
is  natural  to  connect  this  body  with  those  who 
accompanied  Ezra.  The  offence  given  to  the 
peoples  with  whom  intermarriage  had  lately 
been  prohibited  would  render  it  desirable  to 
secure  the  safety  of  the  reforming  party  and 


it  may  well  have  been  to  them  that  the  scheme 
for  surrounding  the  place  with  a  wall  was  due. 
As  has  been  seen,  it  was  frustrated  through 
information  being  sent  respecting  it  to  the 
Persian  authorities  ;  and  if  Ezra  was  in  any 
way  thought  to  be  responsible  for  it,  it  is 
easily  intelligible  that  his  influence  was  in 
consequence  impaired,  and  he  himself  forced 
into  the  obscurity  in  which  the  history  leaves 
him. 


NEHEMIAH 


INTRODUCTION 


1.  Character  and  Contents.  The  book  of 
Nehemiah,  as  has  been  already  noted,  probably 
forms  part  of  a  single  work  embracing  Ezra, 
Nehemiah,  and  1,  2  Chronicles,  and  its  date, 
therefore,  is  that  of  the  larger  whole  (perhaps 
about  330-320  B.C.).  Its  contents  are  separ- 
ated from  those  of  Ezra  by  an  interval  of  thir- 
teen years,  so  that  the  rule  which  the  writer 
has  previously  observed  of  confining  his  history 
to  an  account  of  a  few  critical  periods  is  again 
followed  here.  The  record  comprises  Nehe- 
miah's  visit  to  Jerusalem  in  445,  his  repair  of 
the  city  walls,  and  the  measures  taken  by  him 
to  secure  obedience  to  the  Law.  The  latest 
date  in  his  life  mentioned  in  the  narrative  is 
the  thirty-second  year  of  Artaxerxes,  433  B.C. 
(514). 

2.  Sources.  The  chief  sources  referred  to, 
or  implied,  in  the  book  are  («)  the  memoirs  of 
Nehemiah  (li-T^  1227-43  134-31).  (j)  geneal- 
ogies and  registers,  partly  incorporated  in  the 
memoirs  just  described,  and  partly  reproduced 
by  the  compiler  (3,  76-73  101-27  121-26). 

3.  Value.  The  book  of  Nehemiah  carries 
the  history  of  the  Jewish  people  down  to  a 
later  date  than  any  other  of  the  avowedly  his- 
torical works  in  the  canon  of  the  OT.  Its 
interest  is  manifold,  since  it  describes  not  only 
the  rebuilding  of  the  walls  of  Jerusalem,  but 
the  reconstruction  of  the  Jewish  ecclesiastical 
organisation  ;  and  as  an  authority  for  the  events 
it  relates,  is  first-rate,  since  it  is  largely  based 
upon  contemporary  materials.  And  its  value  is 
augmented  by  its  vivid  portrayal  of  the  noble 
character  of  Nehemiah  himself.  His  career 
presents  an  exceptional  combination  of  strong 
self-reliance  with  humble  trust  in  God,  of  pene- 
trating shrewdness  with  perfect  simplicity  of 
purpose,  of  persistent  prayerfulness  with  the 
most  energetic  activity  ;  and  for  religious  faith 
and  practical  sagacity  he  stands  conspicuous 
among  the  illustrious  personages  of  the  Bible. 


CHAPTEE  1 

III  News  from  Jerusalem.     Nehemiah's 
Prayer 

I .  The  words]  better,  '  the  history.'  Some 
thirteen  or  fourteen  years  separate  the  visit  of 
Nehemiah  to  Jerusalem,  recorded  in  this  book, 
from  that  of  Ezra  which  is  related  in  Ezr7. 

Nehemiah]  Nehemiah,  as  stated  in  v.  11, 
occupied  an  important  position  at  the  Persian 
court,  seems  to  have  been  a  favourite  with  the 
king,  and  probably  possessed  considerable 
wealth  (Si'*^-).  Unlike  Ezra  (who  was  of 
priestly  family  and  a  student),  he  was  a  lay- 
man and  a  man  of  action.  His  career  shows 
that  he  was  self-reliant  (2^2)^  energetic  (chs. 
3,  4),  shrewd  (c.  6),  and  masterful  (c.  13) ;  but 
his  vigour  and  determination  were  directed  not 
to  the  promotion  of  his  own  interests,  but  to 
the  service  of  his  countrymen,  for  whom  he 
made  great  sacrifices.  His  religious  faith  was 
strong,  and  his  prayerfulness  is  repeatedly  illus- 
trated in  the  narrative  :  see  1^  2^  44>9,  etc. 

The  month  Chisleu]  i.e.  November-Decem- 
ber. In  the  twentieth  year]  i.e.  of  Artaxerxes 
Longimanus,  to  whom  reference  is  made  in 
Ezr47  71.  The  year  intended  is  probably 
reckoned  to  begin  with  the  month  of  his  acces- 
sion, not  with  the  first  calendar  month  Nisan, 
since  the  events  that  happened  in  Chisleu,  the 
ninth  month,  are  related  before  those  that 
occurred  in  Nisan,  2i.  The  date  is  445.  But 
some  scholars  regard  twentieth  in  this  c.  as  an 
error  for  'nineteenth'  (446  B.C.).  Shushan]  i.e. 
Susa,  in  Elam.  The  term  palace  is  strictly 
'  fortress,'  or  '  castle.'  2.  Which  were  left, 
etc.]   i.e.  the  Jews  dwelling  at  Jerusalem. 

3.  The  province]  Judaea  was  noAv  a  province 
of  the  Persian  empire  (EzrS^).  The  wall.  . 
broken  down]  This  is  most  naturally  explained 
by  the  supposition  that  some  recent  attempt 
had   been  made  to   fortify  Jerusalem,  which 


278 


1.4 


NEHEMIAH 


3.  22 


had  been  forcibly  stopped  ;  and  such  an  attempt 
seems  described  in  Ezri^'-^s.  But  some  autho- 
rities suppose  the  allusion  to  be  to  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  walls  by  the  Babylonians  in  686, 
some  140  years  before. 

4.  Prayed]  Nehemiah's  prayer  consists  of 
a  confession  of  sin,  an  appeal  to  God's  promises, 
and  an  entreaty  for  help  in  the  undertaking  he 
contemplated. 

CHAPTER   2 

Nehemiah's  Eesolve   to   rebuild 

Jerusalem 

This   c.    gives   an   account   of   Nehemiah's 

request   for   leave  to  rebuild  Jerusalem,  his 

arrival  there,  and  his  survey  of   the  ruined 

walls,  which  it  was  decided  to  restore. 

1.  Wine  loas  before  him]  LXX  has  '  wine 
was  before  me,'  implying  that  it  was  Nehe- 
miah's turn  to  act  as  cup-bearer  (the  king 
having  several).  This  would  explain  why 
Artaxerxes  had  not  observed  his  servant's  sad- 
ness during  the  four  months  that  had  elapsed 
since  the  arrival  of  the  news  from  Jerusalem. 

2.  Sore  afraid]  i.e.  for  the  success  of  his  in- 
tended request.  6.  I  set  him  a  time]  Nehe- 
miah's absence  seems  to  have  lasted  twelve 
years  (S^*).  7.  Convey  me  over]  RV  '  let  me 
pass  through,'  i.e.  the  Persian  provinces  be- 
tween Shushan  and  Jud^a.  8.  The  king's 
forest]  RM  '  park,'  identified  by  some  with 
certain  gardens  at  Etham,  some  6  m.  from 
Jerusalem,  in  which  (according  to  Josephus) 
Solomon  used  to  drive.  The  palace]  RV  '  the 
castle '  :  and  so  in  7  2.  This  was  situated  on 
the  N.  of  the  Temple  (the  house),  and  sub- 
sequently called  (by  Herod)  '  Antonia.' 

9.  Captains  of  the  army]  Nehemiah  as  Tir- 
shatha  or  governor  (8^  10 1)  was  invested  with 
civil  and  not,  like  Ezra,  ecclesiastical  authority 
only  ;  and  consequently  was  attended  by  a 
body-guard  :  contrast  Ezr8-^.  10.  The  Horon- 
ite]  so  named  either  from  Beth-horon  or 
Horonaim.  Nothing  is  known  of  Sanballat 
beyond  what  is  related  in  this  book.  Heard 
of  it^  Nehemiah  on  his  way  to  Jerusalem  had 
probably  passed  through  the  Samaritan  colony 
of  which  Sanballat  was  leader  (4 1-3). 

12.  At   Jerusalem]  RY  '  for  Jerusalem.' 

13.  Viewed  the  walls  of  Jerusalem]  The 
topography  of  ancient  Jerusalem  is  too  obscure 
to  admit  of  the  various  parts  of  its  walls  being 
identified  with  certainty,  but  '  the  valley  gate  ' 
from  which  Nehemiah  issued  on  his  survey 
was  at  the  SW.  corner  of  the  SW.  hill,  and 
opened  into  the  valley  of  Hinnom.  From  it 
he  pursued  his  course  first  along  the  south 
wall,  and  next  along  the  eastern  wall,  up  the 
side  of  the  '  brook  '  (v.   15),   i.e.  the  Kidron. 

14.  There  was  noplace]  IChe  ground  was  so 
rough  and  encumbered  with  fallen  masonry 
that   he  could  not   follow   the  line   of  wall 


closely.  15.  Turned  back]  presumably  along 
the  N.  wall,  so  as  to  make  the  circuit  of  the 
city. 

19.  Geshem]  called  '  Gashmu '  in  6'';  he 
was  doubtless  an  Arab  sheikh.  Will  ye  rebel  ?] 
The  same  construction  had  been  put  upon  the 
Jews'  proceedings  on  a  previous  occasion  : 
Ezr4i3.  20.  Ye  have  no  portion]  Nehemiah's 
words  had  reference  to  the  desire  which  the 
Samaritans  once  had  to  unite  with  the  Jews 
(Ezr4i-5). 

CHAPTER  3 

Particulars  respecting  the  Rebuilding 

I.  Then,  etc.]  For  the  purposes  of  repair  the 
wall  was  parcelled  out  between  a  number  of 
working  parties  consisting  of  various  important 
families,  the  inhabitants  of  certain  towns,  and 
diif erent  professional  and  trading  bodies.  The 
description  of  the  several  sections  of  the  wall 
begins  near  the  Temple  at  the  sheep-gate, 
through  which  the  flocks  used  to  be  driven  for 
sacrifice.  The  writer's  purpose  in  enumerat- 
ing all  who  undertook  to  rebuild  these  sections 
is  to  put  on  record  the  names  of  those  who 
devoted  their  labour  and  their  substance  to 
restoring  the  city  which  protected  Jehovah's 
sanctuary,  and  to  challenge  the  emulation  of 
later  generations. 

5.  Their  Lord]  better,  '  their  lord,'  i.e. 
Nehemiah.  7.  Unto  the,  etc.]  RV  '  which 
appertained  to  the,'  etc.  Part  of  Mizpah  was 
under  the  direct  control  of  the  Persian  officer 
who  governed  the  region  W.  of  the  Euphrates, 
whilst  part  was  under  Jewish  rule  (v.  15). 

8.  The  son  of  o/te  of  the  apothecaries]  better, 
'  one  of  the  perfumers.'  They  fortified]  RM 
'  they  left,'  meaning  that  the  builders  at  this 
point  left  the  fortifications  untouched  because 
they  were  in  good  repair,  or  that  they  de- 
parted in  their  reconstruction  from  the  exist- 
ing ground-plan. 

9.  Of  the  half  part]  RV  '  of  half  the  district,' 
the  ruler  of  the  other  half  being  the  Shallum 
of  V.  12.  II.  The  other  piece]  RV  'another 
portion  '  :  and  so  in  vv.  19,  20,  21,  24,  27,  30. 

14.  Part  of]  RV  'the  district  of ':  and  so  in 
vv.  15,  16,  17,  18.  15.  The  pool  of  Siloah] 
i.e.  the  pool  of  Siloam.  The  stairs]  These 
were  steps  leading  to  the  pool,  perhaps  from 
the  Temple  hill  :  cp.  12^7. 

16.  The  sepulchres  of  David]  i.e.  the  tombs 
of  David's  descendants  and  successors  :  cp.  2  Ch 
32  33.  These  were  near  the  Temple  (Ezk  43  7, 8), 
probably  NW.  of  the  city.  The  pool  that 
was  made]  perhaps  the  pool  alluded  to  in  2  K 
20'-^.  The  house  of  the  mighty]  perhaps  the 
barracks  of  the  soldiery.  17.  In  his  part]  RV 
'  for  (i.e.  representing)  his  district '  (of  Keilah). 

19.  The  armoury]  the  site  of  'the  house  of 
the  forest  of  Lebanon'  (1K1017,21  Isa228). 

22.   The    plain]    better,    'The    Plain,'    the 


279 


3.  23 


NEHEMIAH 


5.  11 


specific  name  of  part  of  the  Jordan  valley 
(GnlSiO). 

23.  After  him  .  .  After  him]  EY  '  After 
them  .  .  After  them.' 

26.  Moreover]  RV  '  now,'  the  v.  being  par- 
enthetical. Ophel]  the  southern  extremity  of 
the  Temple  hill.  The  water  gate]  leading 
to  the  spring  of  Gihon  in  the  gorge  of  the 
Kidron.  28.  The  horse  gate]  This,  like  the 
'water  gate,'  faced  eastward  (JerSl'^o^. 

31.  The  goldsmith's  son]  better,  '  a  member 
of  the  body  of  goldsmiths.'  And  of  the  mer- 
chants] better,  '  and  (after  him  repaired)  the 
merchants.'  32.  The  sheep  gate]  The  cir- 
cuit of  the  walls  ended  with  the  original 
starting-point  (v.  11). 

CHAPTER   4 

The  Machinations  of  the  Enemies  of 
THE  Jews 

I.  Sanballat]  His  irritation  at  Nehemiah's 
arrival  (2  ^^)  was  increased  by  the  work  accom- 
plished by  the  latter.  2.  Fortify  themselves] 
The  same  word  as  that  used  in  3^,  with  a  like 
uncertainty  of  meaning.  Some  render  '  will 
they  (the  Persian  authorities)  let  them  alone  ?  ' 
Will  they  sacrifice  ?]  i.e.  in  the  hope  of  obtain- 
ing supernatural  assistance.  4.  In  the  land  of 
captivity]  Nehemiah's  desire  for  the  confusion 
of  his  enemies  not  unnaturally  took  the  form 
of  a  wish  that  they  might  experience  the  fate 
which  he  and  his  countrymen  had  under- 
gone. 6.  Was  joined .  .  thereof]  The  circuit 
of  the  wall  was  completed  and  raised  to  half 
the    intended  height. 

7.  The  walls  .  .  made  up]  RV  '  the  repair- 
ing of  the  walls  .  .  went  forward.'  9.  We  made 
our  prayer .  .  a  watch]  Nehemiah  and  his  fol- 
lowers, whilst  commending  themselves  in 
prayer  to  God,  took  every  precaution  within 
their  power.      10.  Judah]  i.e.  the  Jews. 

12.  From  all  places,  etc.]  perhaps,  '  from  all 
places,  Ye  must  return  to  us,'  this  being  an 
appeal  from  the  Jews  of  the  neighbouring 
towns  to  their  fellow-citizens  who  had  gone 
to  work  at  Jerusalem,  summoning  them  to 
return  for  their  protection.  But  LXX  has 
'  From  all  places  they  come  up  against  us.' 

13.  On  the  higher  places]  RV  '  in  the  open 
(i.e.  exposed)  places  '  :  where  they  could  be 
seen  to  be  on  guard.  15.  We  returned]  This 
implies  that  the  enemy  for  a  time  abandoned 
the  design  described  in  v.  11.  16.  Haber- 
geons] RV  '  coats  of  mail.'  17.  With  those 
that  laded]  RV  '  laded  themselves '  :  i.e. 
laboured  vigorously.  Every  one  .  .  v^eapon] 
This  clause  probably  refers  to  the  second  of 
the  two  classes  named  in  the  beginning  of  the 
v.,  viz.  those  that  bare  burdens.  These  with 
one  hand  carried  materials  and  with  the  other 
held  a  missile.     The  '  builders '  (v.  18),  on  the 


contrary,  who  had  to  use  both  hands  for  their 
work,  only  wore  swords. 

21.  Half  of  them]  This  refers  back  to  the 
servants  mentioned  in  v.  16.  23.  Men  of  the 
guard]  i.e.  the  Persian  guard  attached  to 
Nehemiah  as  governor  :  cp.  2  9.  Saving  that 
,  .  washing]  RV  renders,  '  every  one  loetit  with 
his  weapon  to  the  water '  :  whilst  others  sug- 
gest, '  every  one  sent  for  water  '  ;  but  the  text 
is  too  defective  to  be  translated  with  certainty : 
the  LXX  omits  the  clause. 

CHAPTER  5 

Nehemiah's  Measures  in  alleviation 

OF  Poverty 
I.  The  people]  i.e.  the  commons  (as  con- 
trasted with  the  nobles  and  rulers,  v.  7). 
These  had  neglected  their  own  interests  to 
labour  gratuitously  on  the  fortifications,  and 
now  in  the  time  of  dearth  were  feeling  the 
pinch  of  want.  2.  Therefore  we  take  up  corn] 
better,  '  we  must  get  corn.'  The  language  is 
that  of  desperate  men,  compelled  by  necessity 
to  accept  the  harsh  conditions  imposed  by 
those  to  whom  they  had  recourse  for  the  corn 
they  required. 

4.  The  king's  tribute]  The  common  people 
were  not  exempted  from  paying  taxes  to  the 
Persian  king,  like  the  priests  and  other 
ministers  of  the  Temple  (Ezr72'i  NehO^r). 

5.  Our  flesh,  etc.]  i.e.  we  are  as  much  Jews 
as  the  creditors  to  whom  we  have  sold  our 
children.  Bondage]  The  sale  of  children  to 
defray  a  debt  was  recognised  in  the  Mosaic 
Law  :    see  Ex212-7  Dtl5i2f.  ;  cp.  also  2K4i. 

7.  Ye  exact  usury]  Usury  was  prohibited 
by  the  Law  in  connexion  with  loans  made  to 
fellow-Israelites  (Ex  22  25  Dt23i9)  ;  but  the 
Jews  doubtless  interpreted  the  prohibition 
with  the  same  latitude  as  Christians  have  done 
the  similar  command  in  the  Gospel  (LkG^^). 
The  Law  probably  had  in  view  cases  where 
money  was  borrowed  under  the  pressure  of 
misfortune,  not  as  a  help  in  commercial 
ventures  ;  and  the  like  considerateness  towards 
the  necessitous  is  incumbent  upon  Christians. 

8.  Have  redeemed . .  heathen]  probably  dur- 
ing Nehemiah's  residence  in  Persia.  9.  The 
reproach]  the  humiliation  they  had  under- 
gone in  consequence  of  their  failure  to  walk 
in  the  fear  of  God. 

ID.  Might  exact]  RV  '  do  lend  . .  on  usury.' 
Nehemiah,  to  conciliate  those  whom  he  wished 
to  persuade,  admitted  that  he  (probably  in  the 
persons  of  his  relatives  and  dependents)  had 
been  guilty  of  the  same  conduct  against  which 
he  was  protesting.  11.  Their  lands,  etc.] 
These  had  been  given  in  pledge,  and,  if  unre- 
deemed, were  retained  by  the  creditor.  The 
hundredth  jxirt']  usually  regarded  as  one  per 
cent,  a  month,  and  so  equivalent  to  twelve 
per  cent,  a  year.     The  expression  restore,  in 


280 


5.  1% 


NEHEMIAH 


8.  11 


connexion  with  the  interest,  probably  means 
'cease  to  require':  cp.  v.  12.  Corn,  wine, 
oil]  i.e.  interest  paid  in  kind.  i2.  Took  an 
oath  of  them]  i.e.  took  of  the  money-lenders 
an  oath  which  the  priests  administered  to 
them.  13.  Shook  my  lap]  For  similar  sym- 
bolic acts  cp.  IK 22 11  Jer272  28 10. 

14.  From  the  twentieth  .  .  unto  the  two  and 
thirtieth]  i.e.  from  445-433  B.C.  The  fact 
that  Artaxerxes  seems  to  have  been  unwilling 
to  part  with  his  cup-bearer  for  a  long  period, 
and  stipulated  for  a  date  by  which  he  was  to 
return  (2  "5),  makes  it  rather  surprising  that  he 
should  have  thus  been  absent  from  court  for 
twelve  years  ;  but  it  is  to  be  assumed  that  his 
leave  of  absence  was  extended  by  the  king. 

The  bread  of  the  governor]  i.e.  the  supplies 
due  to  the  Persian  governor  from  the  people. 

16.  Neither  bought  we]  better,  '  neither  got 
we '  (by  foreclosing  mortgages).  All  my 
servants]  He  did  not  retain  them  to  attend 
to  himself  or  to  his  own  interests.  The  whole 
conduct  of  Nehemiah  was  that  of  a  warm- 
hearted, generous  man. 

CHAPTER  6 

Attempts  of  Sanballat  to  hinder  the 
completion  of  the  walls 

2.  Ono]  near  Lod  (Ezr233),  now  Kefr 
'Ana,  some  25  m.  from  Jerusalem.  5.  An 
open  letter]  in  order  that  its  contents  might 
reach  and  intimidate  others.  6.  According  to 
these  words]  better,  '  and  so  forth  '  (and  so  in 
V.  7),  the  quotation  from  the  letter  in  v.  6 
ending  with  king. 

10.  Who  loas  shut  up]  perhaps  meaning 
'ceremonially  unclean':  cp.  Jer36S.  She- 
maiah  probably  hoped  that  Nehemiah  would 
conclude  that  only  for  the  most  urgent  reasons 
would  he  under  such  circumstances  make  the 
proposal  described.  Within  the  temple]  i.e. 
to  seek  Asylum  there  (as  Joab  fled  to  the  tent 
of  the  Lord,  1K2-«).  ii.  Being  a.s  I  ani] 
Only  the  priests  might  enter  the  Temple 
buildings.  15.  Elul]  The  6th  month  (August- 
September)  of  445  B.C.  18.  Arah  . .  Meshul- 
1am]   see  Ezr25  NehS^*. 

CHAPTER  7 
A  List  of  those  who  returned  from 

Babylon  with  Zerubbabel 
2.  Hanani]  after  carrying  information  to 
Nehemiah  respecting  the  condition  of  Jeru- 
salem (1  2),  he  must  have  returned  with  him  to 
Judaea.  3.  Until  the  sun  be  hot]  By  this  time 
the  mass  of  the  citizens  would  be  astir.  While 
they  stand  by]  RV  '  while  they  (i.e.  the  sentries) 
stand  on  j/uard.'  4.  The  houses  loere  not 
builded]  i.e.  the  area  of  the  city  was  not  yet 
fully  occupied  with  buildings. 

5.  Reckoned  by  genealogy]  It  was  proposed 
to  take  a  census  of  all  the  persons  of  Jewish 


descent,  with  a  view  to  transferring  part  of 
the  country  population  to  the  capital.  Par- 
ticulars derived  from  such  a  census  appear  in 
11'**.  Here,  however,  the  subject  is  for  a 
time  dropped,  and  the  register  that  follows 
relates  to  the  period  of  Zerubbabel  (v.  7). 

7-73.  The  names  here  enumerated  are  re- 
peated, with  certain  small  differences,  from  the 
list  contained  in  Ezr2.  70.  Basons]  used  in 
connexion  with  the  sacrifices.  Five  hundred 
and  thirty  priests'  garments]  For  this  should 
perhaps  be  substituted  '  five  hundred  pounds 
of  silver  and  thirty  priests'  garments,'  a  change 
which  would  make  the  quantities  named  in 
vv.  70-72  approximate  closely  to  those  given 
in  Ezr2''9.  73.  And  when  the  seventh  month 
came]  These  words  in  RV  are  connected  with 
the  subject  of  c.  8,  the  seventh  month  (Tishri) 
being  probably  the  one  immediately  following 
the  sixth  (Elul)  mentioned  in  6^^. 

CHAPTER  8 

The  Reading  of  the  Law  by  Ezra 

1.  The  street]  RV  '  the  broad  place '  :  and 
so  in  vv.  3,  16.  The  water  gate]  This  prob- 
ably led  to  the  spring  of  Gihon  (the  Virgin's 
spring). 

2.  Ezra]  It  has  been  argued  in  the  note  on 
EzrlO-i^  that  the  effort  to  fortify  Jerusalem 
described  in  Ezr4'3-23  ^as  made  whilst  Ezra 
was  present  there,  and  that  the  failure  of  it 
destroyed  for  a  time  his  influence  among  his 
countrymen.  The  interval  that  elapsed  be- 
tween the  destruction  of  the  newly-built  walls 
and  Nehemiah's  arrival  was  probably  not 
long,  and  during  it  Ezra  may  have  remained  in 
retirement  at  Jerusalem.  Some,  however, 
have  supposed  that  after  effecting  the  reforms 
described  in  Ezr9  and  10,  he  returned  at  once 
to  Babylon,  and  only  revisited  Palestine  after 
Nehemiah's  arrival  there.  The  absence  of  his 
name  amongst  those  who  helped  to  build  the 
walls  of  Jerusalem  (c.  3)  has  been  urged  in 
favour  of  this  view  ;  but  there  would  be  little 
reason  to  distinguish  his  co-operation  from 
that  of  the  other  priests  (3 1).  To  bring  .  .  of 
Moses]  The  teaching  of  the  Law  was  the 
purpose  of  Ezra's  journey  to  Jerusalem  some 
fourteen  years  before. 

2.  The  first  day  of  the  seventh  month]  This 
was  one  of  the  festivals  (cp.  v.  9)  of  the  New 
Moon,  termed  in  the  Law  the  Feast  of  Trum- 
pets, and  kept  with  special  rites  :  Lv  23^4, 25 
Nu29i-''.     7.  And  the  Levites]   omit  and. 

8.  Gave  the  sense]  i.e.  with  such  additional 
explanation  as  was  required  for  the  people  to 
understand  what  was  read. 

9.  The  Tirshatha]  i.e.  governor.  The  same 
title  was  borne  by  Zerubbabel  (Ezr203).  AH 
the  people  wept]  from  a  consciousness  of  their 
transgressions  which  the  reading  of  the  Law 
had  awakened.     11.   Hold  your  peace]  in  order 


281 


8.  14 


NEHEMIAH 


10.  38 


to  guard  against  uttering  words  ill-suited  to  a 
holy  day. 

14.  Should  dwell  in  booths]  This  command 
in  connexion  with  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles 
(kept  on  the  fifteenth  day  of  the  seventh  month) 
occurs  only  in  Lv2342.  15.  The  mount] 
better,  '  the  hill-country.'  Pine  branches] 
RV  '  branches  of  wild  olives '  (or  oleaster). 

1 6.  The  roof  of  his  house]  This  was  flat, 
and  available  for  walking  or  sleeping  :  cp. 
Dt2-28  1S925  2S112  1622.  The  gate  of 
Ephraim]  in  the  N.  wall,  facing  the  former 
kingdom  of  Ephraim. 

17.  Since  the  days  of  Jeshua]  i.e.  of  Joshua. 
The  exceptional  feature  in  this  observance  of 
the  ancient  Feast  of  Tabernacles  seems  to 
have  been  the  dwelling  in  '  booths,'  though  the 
dwelling  in  '  tents '  had  been  previously  prac- 
tised (cp.  Hosl2^).  Either  the  command  of 
Lv  23  •*2  had  been  disregarded,  or  it  was  a  modi- 
fication of  the  older  usage  which  had  only 
recently  been  incorporated  in  the  Law. 

CHAPTER   9 

The  renewal  of  the  Covenant 

4.  Stairs]  lit.  '  ascent '  :  probably  the  pulpit 

of  wood  mentioned  in  8  *.     Bani .  .  Bani]   One 

of  the  two  names  is  probably  an  error  for 

'Binnui '  :  cp.  12  8. 

6.  Thou,  etc.]  Before  this  LXX  inserts 
'  And  Ezra  said.'  The  prayer  that  follows 
first  recalls  God's  early  mercies  to  the  nation, 
the  unworthy  return  made  for  such,  the  divine 
forbearance,  the  people's  renewed  offences, 
and  their  consequent  punishment  ;  it  next 
acknowledges  the  justice  of  the  chastisement 
undergone  ;  and  it  concludes  with  a  solemn 
promise  of  future  amendment.  But  though  it 
is  a  confession  of  national  sins  and  ends  with 
a  national  covenant,  the  sequence  of  thought 
it  presents  might  well  be  followed  in  private 
devotions.  All  their  host]  i.e.  the  stars  :  cp. 
Gnl2  Isa4026.  The  host  of  heaven]  i.e.  the 
angels  :  cp.  IK 2219. 

7.  Didst  choose]  The  religious  privileges 
enjoyed  by  Israel  could  only  be  ascribed  to 
the  free  grace  of  God,  and  such  privileges 
carried  with  them  corresponding  responsibili- 
ties. The  same  is  true  of  the  advantages, 
material  or  intellectual,  possessed  by  other 
peoples.  8.  Righteous]  i.e.  faithful  to  Thy 
promises  ;  cp.  Ps40io.  16.  They  and  our 
fathers]   better,  '  they,  even  our  fathers.' 

22.  Didst  divide  .  .  corners]  RV  '  which  thou 
didst  allot  after  their  portions  '  :  i.e.  according 
to  their  several  boundaries.  26.  Slew  thy  pro- 
phets] see,  for  instance,  1  K 18  M  9 10  2  Ch  24  20-22 
Jer2ri  20-23.  29.  Withdrew  the  shoulder]  like 
a  restive  ox  that  refuses  the  yoke. 

32.  The  kings  of  Assyria]  The  kings  of 
Assyria  that  distressed  Israel  were  Shal- 
maneser  II  (to  whom  Jehu  paid  tribute),  Tig- 


lath-pileser  (2  K 1529),  Shalmeneser  III  and 
Sargon  (2  K  175,6),  Sennacherib  (2K18,  19), 
and  perhaps  Asshurbanipal  (2  Ch  33  ii).  Unto 
this  day]  The  rule  over  Israel  exercised  by 
Assyria  had  been  succeeded  by  that  of  Babylon 
and  Persia.  33.  Done  right]  RY  '  dealt 
truly'  :  i.e.  faithfully  :  cp.  v.  8. 

38.  And  because  of  all  this]  RV  '  and  yet 
for  all  this.'  We  make  a  sure  cove7iant'\  "rhe 
original  covenant  between  Israel  and  the  Lord 
made  at  Sinai  (Ex  24)  had  been  renewed  by 
Hezekiah  (2 Chi 5 12)  and  Josiah  (2 Ch 34 30-33); 
cp.  also  EzrlO^.  Seal  u»to  it']  lit.  (and  the 
names  of)  '  our  princes,  etc.,  are  on  the  sealed 
writing.' 

CHAPTER   10 

List  of  those  who  participated  in 
the  Covenant 

I.  Now  those  that  sealed  w'ere]  The  names 
that  follow  Zidkijah's  are  those  of  families 
whose  living  representatives  sealed  on  behalf 
of  their  houses.  Several  of  these  family  names 
occur  in  the  list  of  those  who  accompanied 
Zerubbabel  to  Jerusalem  (c.  12).  Zidkijah] 
The  fact  that  his  name  is  coupled  with  Nehe- 
miah's  suggests  that  he  was  a  person  of  import- 
ance, but  nothing  is  known  of  him. 

29.  To  walk  in  God's  law,  etc.]  The  enact- 
ments of  the  Law  which  they  more  particularly 
undertook  to  carry  out  were  those  directing 
(fl)  abstention  from  marriage  with  aliens,  (i) 
the  observance  of  the  sabbath  and  sabbatical 
year,  (c)  the  provision  of  supplies  for  the 
Temple  and  its  ministers.  These  enactments 
gained  in  importance  from  the  circumstances 
of  the  times,  for  there  was  a  persistent  tend- 
ency on  the  part  of  many  of  the  people  both 
to  form  alliances  with  their  heathen  neighbours 
and  to  be  indifferent  to  the  external  ordinances 
of  religion  (see  Ezr  9  Neh  13).  It  was  to  coun- 
teract these  evils  that  prominence  was  given  to 
those  regulations  which  were  calculated  to 
preserve  the  separateness  of  the  Jewish  race, 
and  to  accentuate  the  sacredness  of  their  re- 
ligious institutions.  The  stress  thus  laid  upon 
the  ceremonial  law  was  not  due  to  any  relapse 
from  the  spiritual  faith  of  the  prophets  to  the 
more  material  and  mechanical  ideas  of  primitive 
times,  but  was  intended  to  impress  upon  the 
people  a  sense  of  the  transcendent  sanctity 
of  the  God  with  whom  they  enjoyed  such 
privileged  relations. 

31.  Leave  the  seventh  year]  i.e.  forego  the 
produce  of  the  land  in  that  year.  32.  The 
third  part  of  a  shekel]  In  Ex  30  ii-i"  the  amount 
named  is  'a  half  shekel'  (cp.  Mtl7  2*),  the 
change  being  perhaps  due  to  an  alteration  in 
the  weight  of  the  shekel.  34.  The  wood 
offering]  This  is  not  specifically  prescribed  in 
the  Pentateuch.  Josephus  speaks  of  it  as  a 
festival  (the  Xylophory).     38.  The  priest]  i.e. 


282 


i 


10.  39 


NEHEMIAH 


IS.  38 


some  priest  was  to  attend  when  the  Levites 
took  then*  tithes.  39.  Forsake]  i.e.  fail  to 
provide  for. 

CHAPTER  11 

Measures  to  supplement  the  Population 
OF  Jerusalem 
I.  This  V.  resumes  the  subject  of  the  paucity 
of  population  in  Jerusalem:  see  7'^.  The  rulers 
were  already  residing  in  the  capital,  and  means 
were  now  taken  to  transport  thither  a  propor- 
tion of  the  commons  that  had  made  their  homes 
in  the  country  towns  (v.  3).  The  city  had 
received  fortifications  ;  but  these  were  useless 
unless  they  were  manned. 

3.  The  province]   i.e.  Judaea  :  EzrS^. 

4.  At  Jerusalem,  etc.]  The  list  that  follows 
apparently  enumerates  the  provincial  families 
that  removed  to  Jerusalem.  It  likewise  occurs, 
with  some  variations  in  the  names  and  figures, 
in  1  Ch  9  3  f .  9.  Second  over  the  city]  presum- 
ably second  to  Joel  :  cp.  v.  17.  But  some 
render,  '  over  the  second  quarter  of  the  city '  : 
cp.  2  K  22  !■*  Zeph  1 10.  14.  The  son  of  one  of 
the  great  men]  RV  '  the  son  of  Haggedolim.' 

16.  The  outward  business  of]  Perhaps  the 
judicial  administration  described  in  2  Ch 
198-10  lCh2629.  17.  Was  the  principal,  etc.] 
i.e.  led  the  praises  of  the  Temple  singers 
after  prayer  had  been  made.  The  second] 
i.e.  to  Mattaniah  :  cp.  v.  9. 

20.  This  V.  interrupts  the  account  of  the 
residents  at  Jerusalem :  it  should  precede 
V.  25. 

22.  The  overseer,  etc.]  RV  '  The  over- 
seer . .  the  son  of  Micha,  of  the  sons  of  Asaph, 
the  singers,  over  the  business,'  etc.  The  words 
over  the  business  are  connected  with  overseer. 
The  business  meant  is  the  conduct  of  the 
Temple  services.  23.  For  it  loas,  etc.]  RM 
'  for  there  was  a  commandment  .  .  and  a  sure 
ordinance  concerning  the  singers ' :  The  king] 
Artaxerxes :  cp.  Ezr  7  2-i.  24.  Was  at  the  king's 
hand]  Possibly  Pethahiah  was  a  royal  officer, 
subordinate  to  Nehemiah,  having  charge  of 
civil,  as  distinct  from  ecclesiastical,  matters. 

25.  The  villages,  with  their  fields]  better, 
'  the  villages  in  their  fields,'  i.e.  the  unwalled 
towns  (Lv253i).  Most  of  the  names  that 
follow  occur  in  JoshlS^^^  31.  From  Geba 
divelfl  RV  '  (hvelt  from  Geba  omoard.''  35.  The 
valley  of  craftsmen]  RM  '  Gehaharashim,' 
another  locality.  36.  And  of  the  Levites,  etc.] 
RV  '  and  of  the  Levites,  certain  courses  in 
Judah  '  (i.e.  formerly  reckoned  to  Judah) '  loere 
joined  to  Benjamin.' 

CHAPTER  12 

The  Dedication  of  the  Wall  op 
Jerusalem 
I.  The  priests]  The  names  in  vv.  1-7  like- 
wise  appear  with  some  variations    in  10^*^  ; 


see  also  Ezr  2  36-39.  8.  The  Levites]  cp.  10  ^-^^ 
Ezr 40 42.  Over  the  thanksgiving]  RM  'over 
the  choirs.' 

ID.  Jeshua]  The  high  priest  who  returned 
with  Zerubbabel.  The  succession  of  high 
priests  is  carried  down  to  Jaddua,  who  was 
contemporary  with  Alexander  the  Great,  so 
that  the  six  generations  cover  the  period  from 
536  to  about  340.  Eliashib  the  grandson  of 
Jeshua  was  contemporary  with  Nehemiah. 

12-21.  The  names  that  are  repeated  in  these 
vv.  from  vv.  1-7  present  certain  variations. 

22.  Johanan]  probably  the  same  as  the 
'Jonathan'  of  v.  11.  Darius]  Since  Jaddua 
was  contemporary  with  Alexander  the  Great, 
the  Darius  here  meant  is  probably  Darius 
Codomannus.  who  was  successively  defeated 
by  Alexander  at  the  battles  of  the  Granicus, 
Issus,  and  Arbela.  23.  The  book  of  the  chroni- 
cles] some  official  record,  not  the  '  Chronicles  ' 
of  the  OT.  24.  Jeshua  the  son  of  Kadmiel] 
to  be  corrected  to  '  Jeshua,  Binnui,  Kadmiel ' : 
see  V.  8,  10  9.  Over  against  them]  i.e.  in  the 
choir,  where  the  singing  was  antiphonal. 

25.  The  thresholds]   RV  '  the  storehouses.' 

26.  In  the  days  of  Nehemiah]  a  date  subse- 
quent to  the  days  of  Joiakim,  for  the  high 
priest  in  Nehemiah's  time  was  Eliashib,  son  of 
Joiakim. 

27.  The  dedication  of  the  wall]  It  is  reason- 
able to  suppose  that  the  dedication  of  the  wall 
followed  closely  upon  its  completion  (related 
in  6 1^),  so  that  the  events  described  in  chs.  8-10 
may  be  later  than  those  narrated  in  this  c, 
which  from  the  use  of  the  first  person  (vv.  31, 
38,  40)  seems  to  be  derived  from  Nehemiah's 
memoirs.  28.  The  plain  country]  better, '  The 
Plain '  (lit.  '  circle '),  i.e.  the  S.  end  of  the 
Jordan  valley  :  cp.  3^2.  Others  suppose  the 
word  to  be  used  here  in  a  general  sense  of  the 
circuit  of  country  round  Jerusalem.  Netoph- 
athi]  RV  '  the  Netophathites.'  29.  The  house 
of  Gilgal]   RV  '  Beth-gilgaL' 

31.  Two  great  coinpanies^  etc.]  RV  'two 
gi'eat  companies  that  gave  thanks  and  went  in 
procession.'  Went  on  the  right  hand]  The 
two  companies  probably  mustered  on  the  W. 
side  of  the  city,  facing  eastward  :  the  company 
on  the  right  under  Ezra  then  moved  southward, 
whilst  the  company  on  the  left  under  Nehemiah 
moved  northward  ;  and  the  two  eventually  re- 
united on  the  E.  of  the  city  near  the  Temple. 

35.  Zechariah]  the  overseer  of  the  right- 
hand  company,  corresponding  to  Jezrahiah 
(v.  42)  in  the  other.  His  descent  from  Asaph 
suggests  that  he  was  a  Levite,  not  a  priest,  so 
that  for  '  namely^  Zechariah  '  should  be  substi- 
tuted '  also  Zechariah.'  37.  And  at  the  fountain 
gate,  etc.]  better,  '  and  by  the  fountain  gate 
and  straight  on.' 

38.  Went  over  against  ihpm'\  The  words 
over  against  them  should  probably  be  altered, 


283 


IS.  39 


NEHEMIAH— ESTHER 


INTRO. 


by  an  easy  correction,  to  '  on  the  left  hand ' 
(op.  V.  31),  and  the  whole  should  run,  '  and  the 
other  company  .  .  which  went  on  the  left  hand, 
and  I  and  half  of  the  people  after  it  (went) 
upon  the  wall  above  the  tower  of  the  furnaces 
.  .  and  above  the  gate  of  Ephraim  and  by  the 
old  gate  and  by  the  fish  gate,'  etc.  39.  The 
prison  gate]  RV  '  the  gate  of  the  guard.' 
40.  In  the  house]  better,  '  at  the  house.' 
44.  Out  of  the  fields]  RV  '  according  to  the 
fields ' :  alluding  to  certain  arrangements  for 
storing.  Portions  of  the  law]  RV  '  portions 
appointed  by  the  law.'  45.  The  ward]  better, 
'the  charge':  cp.  2Chl8ii.  46.  In  the  days, 
etc.]  LXX  has  '  in  the  days  of  David  Asaph 
was  of  old  chief.'  47,  Every  day  his  portion] 
RV  '  as  every  day  required.'  Sanctified  tliem 
unto]  RY  '  sanctified  for ':  i.e.  Israel  set  apart 
as  holy  certain  portions  for  the  Levites,  and 
the  latter  for  the  priests. 

CHAPTER  13 
The  Reform  or  Abuses 

The  reforms  embraced  the  separation  of 
Israel  from  the  mixed  multitude  and  the 
abolition  of  certain  abuses  that  had  arisen  in 
connexion  with  the  chambers  of  the  Temple, 
the  provision  for  the  Levites,  the  observance 
of  the  sabbath,  and  mixed  marriages. 

I.  On  that  day]  the  particular  time  intended 
is  uncertain.    Was  found  written]  see  Dt  233-0. 

3.  Separated]  see  Ezr9,  10.  All  the  mixed 
multitude]  cp.  Ex  1238  Nu  11  *.  The  term  may 
be  illustrated  by  Ezr  9  2,  where  '  mingled  them- 
selves with  the  peoples  of  those  lands'  is  a 
kindred  expression. 

4.  Eliashib]  previously  mentioned  in  3  ^  12^0. 
Chamber]  RV  '  chambers.'    6.  The  two  and 

thirtieth  year]  i.e.  433  B.C.    Obtained  I  leave] 
i.e.  to  return  to  Palestine.    7.  Understood  of] 


better,  'perceived.'  10.  For]  RV  'so  that.' 
The  Levites  not  receiving  the  support  due  to 
them  had  to  work  to  maintain  themselves. 

II.   Forsaken]   i.e.  unprovided  for. 

Gathered  them]   i.e.  the  Levites. 

17.  What  evil .  .  the  sabbath]  The  protests 
made  by  the  prophets  and  others  against  the 
profanation  of  the  sabbath  (see  Ezk20i2, 20 
4424  Isa  56  4, 6  5813)  eventually  brought  the 
Jews  to  observe  it  so  strictly  that  they  even 
allowed   themselves  to    be    massacred    rather 

than  desecrate  it  by  defending  themselves 
(1  Mac  2  32-38). 

23.  Thai  had  married  wives,  etc.]  The  same 
practice  was  condemned  by  Ezra  (chs.  9,  10). 

24.  Their  children  spake  half]  better,  '  of 
their  childi'en  half  spake,'  etc.  26.  Out- 
landish]  i.e.  foreign. 

28.  Chased  him  from  me]  i.e.  expelled  him 
from  the  Jewish  community.  According  to 
Josephus  (who,  however,  places  the  incident 
at  a  much  later  date)  Joiada's  son  was  named 
Manasseh,  and  when  expelled  by  Nehemiah, 
was  induced  by  his  father-in-law  Sanballat  to 
join  him  at  Samaria  by  the  promise  of  being 
appointed  high  priest  of  a  temple  that  was  to 
be  built  on  Mt.  Gerizim.  29.  Defiled  the 
priesthood]  The  actual  high  priest  was  pro- 
hibited from  taking  as  his  wife  any  but  a 
virgin  of  his  own  people  (Lv21i4).  30.  The 
wards  of]  better,  '  charges  for.' 

At  this  point  the  OT.  record  of  Nehemiah 
closes  ;  but  in  2  Mac  2 13  it  is  added  that  he 
collected  together  '  the  books  about  the  kings 
and  prophets,  and  the  books  of  David,  and 
letters  of  kings  about  sacred  gifts ' — a  state- 
ment the  precise  meaning  of  which  it  is  un- 
necessary to  discuss  here.  In  Ecclus49  ^3  he  is 
eulogised  for  having  '  raised  up  the  walls  that 
were  fallen,  and  set  up  the  gates  and  bars.' 


ESTHER 


INTRODUCTION 


I.  Character  and  Contents.     The  book  of     are  put  forward  as  those  which  led  to  the  institu- 


Esther  is  one  of  a  group  of  writings  known  as 
the  Five  Rolls  (the  other  four  being  the  Song 
of  Songs,  Ruth,  Lamentations,  and  Ecclesi- 
astes).  Its  contents  fall  within  the  period  em- 
braced by  the  book  of  Ezra,  namely,  the  reign 
of  Xerxes  (485-464  B.C.),  when  the  Jews  were 
under  Persian  rule,  and  when,  though  a  large 
body  had  returned  to  Jerusalem  under  Zerub- 
babel,  yet  numbers  of  them  were  still  scattered 
over  the  Persian  empire.   The  events  recounted 


tion  of  the  Jewish  feast  of  'Purim,'  held  on  the 
fourteenth  and  fifteenth  days  of  Adar  ( =  Feb- 
ruary-March), and  preceded  by  a  fast  on  the 
thirteenth  (called  the  Fast  of  Esther).  The 
author  is  quite  unknown,  but  his  familiarity 
with  Persian  customs  and  Persian  words  makes 
it  probable  that  he  lived  in  Persia  itself.  He 
was  not,  however,  contemporaneous  with  the 
events  he  relates,  for  Xerxes  is  described  in 
language  which  implies  that  his  reign  was  past ; 


284 


INTRO. 


ESTHER 


1.  18 


and  his  work  is  perhaps  to  be  placed  in  the 
fourth  century  B.C.  The  book  came  to  be  held 
in  very  high  esteem  by  the  Jews  ;  it  was  called 
par  excellence  '  the  Roll ' ;  it  was  read  annually 
at  the  Feast  of  Purim  ;  and  Maimonides  is 
reported  to  have  said  that  in  the  days  of  the 
Messiah  the  only  Scriptures  left  would  be  the 
Law  and  the  Roll.  In  the  Apocrypha  there 
are  certain  additions  to  the  book,  called  the 
'  Rest  of  Esther,'  which  are  probably  later  in 
date  than  the  original  work,  and  are  certainly 
different  in  style  and  spirit. 

2.  Sources.  In  the  course  of  the  narrative 
allusion  is  made  to  Persian  state-records  (2^3 
6^  102),  as  well  as  to  documents  written  by 
Mordecai,  upon  which  some  of  the  facts  related 
may  be  based. 

3.  Value.  That  the  account  contained  in 
the  book  has  some  histoi'ical  foundation  is 
probable  for  several  reasons.  It  offers  an  ex- 
planation of  a  well-established  Jewish  festival; 
reference  is  made  in  2Macl5^'>  to  the  four- 
teenth day  of  Adar  as  being  '  the  day  of  Mor- 
decai '  ;  and  acquaintance  is  shown  throughout 
with  Persian  customs  (see  1  ^^  3 1^).  A  certain 
parallel  to  the  destruction  inflicted  by  the  Jews 
upon  their  enemies,  and  the  institution  of  a 
feast  to  commemorate  it,  is  afforded  by  the 
slaughter  of  the  Magi  by  the  Persians  and  the 
festival  by  which  it  was  celebrated.  The  extra- 
ordinary conduct  of  Xerxes  in  countenancing 
a  general  massacre  of  his  subjects  is  in  keeping 
with  his  irrational  behaviour  on  more  than  one 
occasion,  as  described  by  Herodotus.  And 
finally,  the  interval  of  time  between  the  dis- 
grace of  Vashti  in  Xerxes'  third  year  (1 3),  and 
the  elevation  of  Esther  in  his  seventh  year 
(2i'5),  agrees  with  his  absence  from  Persia  on 
his  expedition  against  the  Greeks,  the  battle 
of  Salamis  taking  place  in  480  B.C.,  after  which 
engagement  the  king  returned  to  Asia.  On 
the  other  hand,  certain  features  in  the  narra- 
tive suggest  that  the  writer  has  sought  to 
enhance  the  effectiveness  of  his  recital  by 
striking  contrasts,  embellished  descriptions,  and 
large  figures.  It  is  not  likely  that  either 
Yashti  or  Esther  was  Xerxes'  queen  ;  accord- 
ing to  Herodotus  it  was  Amestris  who  held 
that  position,  and  Vashti  and  Esther  were 
probably  nothing  more  than  favourite  concu- 
bines. The  six  months'  feast  (!■*),  the  ten 
thousand  talents  of  silver  (39),  the  gallows  (or 
stake)  60  cubits  high  (51-4),  and  the  75,000 
(LXX  15,000)  slain  (yi^),  are  probably  all  ex- 
aggerations. And  there  is  some  lack  of  plausi- 
bility in  the  statements  that  orders  were  issued 
for  the  slaughter  of  the  Jews  and  of  their 
enemies  eleven  and  nine  months  respectively 
before  the  massacres  were  to  be  carried  out 
(312,13  89). 

4.  The  moral  instructiveness  of  the  book 
centres  in  the  character  of  Esther,  who,  as  de- 


picted in  the  narrative,  appears  as  virtuous  as 
she  was  fair,  being  dutiful  to  her  foster-father, 
faithful  to  the  king,  loyal  to  her  people,  and 
pious  towards  her  God.  Her  story  breathes 
the  spirit  of  truest  patriotism,  for  she  is  repre- 
sented as  willing  to  face  death  to  save  her 
countrymen.  It  also  illustrates  the  working 
of  Divine  Providence,  for  though  the  name  of 
God  does  not  appear  in  the  book  (at  least  in 
the  original  Hebrew,  in  the  LXX  it  is  intro- 
duced freely),  the  whole  history  implies  the 
belief  that  it  was  as  an  instrument  in  His  hand 
that  Esther  wrought  her  people's  deliverance. 
And  whilst  prayer  is  likewise  not  actually 
mentioned  in  the  book,  yet  the  fast  of  Esther 
and  her  countrymen  (described  in  4^6)  pre- 
sumes the  practice,  and  the  sequel  of  the 
narrative  is  meant  to  attest  its  efficacy. 

CHAPTER    1 

The  Disobedience  and  Disgrace  of 
Queen  Vashti 

1.  Ahasuerus]  LXX  has  '  Artaxerxes,'  but 
probably  '  Xerxes,'  the  son  of  Darius  Hystaspis, 
is  meant,  who  succeeded  his  father  in  485  B.C. 

India  .  .  Ethiopia]  India  here  means  not  the 
peninsula  of  Hindostan,  but  the  region  near 
the  Indus  :  Ethiopia  is  the  modern  Nubia. 

2.  Shushan]  i.e.  Susa  in  Elam,  the  country 
lying  to  the  E.  of  the  Persian  Gulf.  The 
palace]  lit.  '  the  fortress,'  as  in  Neh  1 1.  3.  In 
the  third  year]  i.e.  483  B.C.  Thy  power]  better, 
'  the  forces  '  :  and  so  in  8 1^. 

6.  White,  green,  and  blue]  Some  take  the 
second  term  to  designate  the  '  material,'  and 
render  '  of  white  cotton  and  blue,'  white  and 
blue  (or  violet)  being  the  Persian  royal  colours 
(815).  The  beds]  RV  'the  couches,'  upon 
which  the  feasters  reclined.  7.  Royal  wine] 
LXX  has  '  wine  which  the  king  himself  used 
to  drink.'     The  state]  RV  '  the  bounty.' 

8.  According  to  the  law]  i.e.  according  to 
the  king's  express  command  on  this  occasion  ; 
for  it  is  implied  that  in  general  the  di-inking 
was  regulated  by  the  court  officials,  and  the 
guests  had  to  drink  just  as  much  or  as  little  as 
they  were  bidden,  not  as  they  pleased. 

9.  Vashti]  According  to  Herodotus,  Xerxes' 
queen  was  called  Amestris. 

13.  The  wise  men,  which  knew  the  times] 
probably  experienced  counsellors  (cp.  1  Ch 
1232)  .  but  according  to  others,  astrologers 
and  diviners:  cp.  Isa44-5  DanS^^.  For  so 
vas  the  king's  manner  toward  all]  better,  '  for 
so  was  the  king's  business  brought  before  all,' 
etc.  The  king  was  expected  to  consult '  those 
who  knew  law  and  judgment '  in  all  matters 
before  coming  to  a  decision.  14.  The  next 
unto  him]  i.e.  nearest  to  the  king  in  rank  and 
importance. 

18.  Likeicise  shall  the  ladies,  etc.]  RV  'And 
this  day  shall   the   princesses   of   Persia  and 


285 


1.  19 


ESTHER 


3.9 


Media  which  have  heard  of  the  deed  of  the 
queen  say  the  like  unto  all  the  king's  princes.' 

19.  That  it  be  not  altered]  cp.  DanG^.  Any 
command  written  in  the  king's  name  and  sealed 
with  his  ring  was  similarly  irrevocable. 

20.  For  it  is  great]  i.e.  the  decree  is  weighty 
and  important. 

22.  According  to  the  -writing  thereof]  i.e.  the 
letters  sent  to  the  several  provinces  were 
written  in  the  characters  and  language  that 
prevailed  in  each.  Many  of  the  extant  in- 
scriptions of  the  Persian  kings  are  tri-lingual. 

And  that  //  should  be  published,  etc.]  better 
(by  a  slight  correction),  '  and  that  he  should 
speak  all  that  seemed  good  to  him,'  i.e.  should 
speak  his  mind  freely,  without  regard  to  the 
feelings  of  his  women-folk. 

CHAPTEE  2 

The  Choice  of  Esther  to  be  Queen. 
MoRDECAi's  Service 

I.  He  remembered,  etc.]  LXX  has  'he 
thought  no  more  of  Vashti.  remembering 
what,'  etc.  3.  The  house  of  the  women]  This 
was  the  house  of  the  virgins,  as  contrasted 
with  the  house  of  the  concubines  (v.  14). 

Their  things  for  purification]  Various  per- 
fumed oils  and  ointments  (v.  12). 

5.  Mordecai]  The  name,  though  used  by 
Jews  (cp.  Ezr2  2  Neh7'^),  was  derived  from 
the  Babylonian  deity  Merodach  (Marduk). 

Shimei .  .  Kish]  probably  Mordecai's  grand- 
father and  great  grandfather  (v.  6  applying  to 
Kish).  Others  regard  the  genealogy  as  abbre- 
viated, and  take  Shimei  and  Kish  to  be  remoter 
ancestors,  identifying  them  with  the  Shimei 
and  Kish  of  2S165  1S91  (in  which  case  v.  6 
must  refer  to  Mordecai's  family  two  or  three 
generations  back). 

7.  Hadassah]  a  Hebrew  name  meaning 
'  Myrtle.'  Esther]  connected  by  some  with 
the  Persian  word  for  '  star '  ;  according  to 
others,  the  same  as  the  Babylonian  '  Ishtar,' 
the  Canaanite  '  Ashtoreth.'  9.  Such  things  as 
belonged  to  her]  lit.  '  her  portions '  ;  perhaps 
richer  viands  than  ordinary  :  cp.  Dan  1  ^. 

II.  And  Mordecai  walked,  etc.]  He  appar- 
ently occupied  a  position  in  the  king's  house- 
hold (cp.  .3  ^),  and  in  the  apocryphal  '  Rest  of 
Esther'  (ll^)  he  is  expressly  styled  a  servitor 
in  the  king's  court.  He  would  thus  have 
opportunities  of  communicating  with  Esther. 

12.  After  that  she  had  been,  etc.]  RV  '  after 
that  it  had  been  done  to  her  according  to  the 
law  for  the  women,  twelve  months.'  13.  What- 
soever she  desired]  i.e.  for  the  adornment  of 
her  person.  14.  Into  the  second  house  of  the 
v^omen]  so  LXX.  Some  render,  '  returned  a 
second  time  '  (i.e.  back  again)  '  into  the  house 
of  the  women,'  but  at  any  rate  into  a  different 
quarter  of  it,  where  they  were  under  the 
charge  of  Shaasghaz,  not  of  Hegai. 


15.  She  required  nothing,  etc.]  i.e.  instead  of 
selecting  her  articles  of  attire  for  herself  like 
other  maidens  (v.  13),  she  left  everything  to 
the  choice  of  Hegai.  16.  Tebeth]  i.e.  Deo^ 
ember-January.  The  seventh  year]  i.e.  479 
B.C.  Thus  four  years  elapsed  between  the 
degradation  of  Vashti  and  the  promotion  of 
Esther  (see  1 3).  In  the  interval  between  483 
and  479  Xerxes'  expedition  into  Greece  took 
place,  the  battle  of  Salamis  being  fought  in 
480  B.C.  18.  Made  a  release]  Either  from 
taxation  or  military  service.  Some  would 
render  '  granted  a  holiday.'  According  to  the 
state]  RV  '  according  to  the  bounty  of '  :  i.e. 
with  regal  generosity. 

19.  And  when  the  virgins,  etc.]  Some  con- 
nect this  with  V.  14,  and  take  '  the  virgins'  to 
mean  '  the  young  women.'  Others  render, 
'  now  when  virgins  were  gathered  together  a 
second  time '  (as  on  the  earlier  occasion  de- 
scribed in  V.  8).  Sat  in  the  king's  gate]  per- 
haps as  the  official  who  received  applicants 
that  desired  to  have  audience  with  the  king. 

23.  Hanged]  or, '  impaled,'  a  form  of  punish- 
ment frequently  inflicted  by  Persian  sovereigns. 
The  book  of  the  chronicles]  Herodotus  relates 
instances  of  Xerxes'  similarly  recording  the 
names  of  certain  men  who  distinguished  them- 
selves in  the  war  against  Greece. 

CHAPTER  3 

HaMAN's    REVENGEFUL   DESIGN    AGAINST 

THE  Jews 

1 .  The  Agagite]  It  has  been  suggested  that 
the  name  is  an  epithet  meant  to  recall  the 
Amalekite  Agag  hewn  in  pieces  by  Samuel 
(IS  1523),  and  intended  to  indicate  contempt 
and  abhorrence. 

2.  Mordecai  bowed  not,  etc.]  In  the  apo- 
cryphal 'Rest  of  Esther'  Mordecai  explains  in 
a  prayer  to  the  Almighty  that  he  refused  to 
bow  down  to  Haman,  '  that  he  might  not  pre- 
fer the  glory  of  man  above  the  glory  of  God.' 
Amongst  many  heathen  peoples  divine  honours 
were  paid  to  human  beings. 

7.  Nisan]  i.e.  March-April.  The  twelfth 
year  of  Xerxes  would  be  474  B.C.  They  cast 
Pur,  etc.]  i.e.  early  in  the  first  month  they 
cast  lots  for  every  day  of  the  year  to  find  out 
which  day  would  be  the  most  favourable  for 
the  success  of  Haman's  design.  In  the  Assy- 
rian calendars  there  are  lucky  and  unlucky 
days  ;  and  the  Persians  doubtless  entertained 
a  like  belief.  To  the  twelfth  month'\  The  Heb. 
is  probably  defective,  and  the  LXX  gives  a 
completer  sense  by  adding,  '  and  the  lot  fell 
on  the  fourteenth ' (an  error  for  the '  thirteenth,' 
V.  13)  'day  of  the  month,  which  is  Adar.'  Adar 
corresponded  to  February-March. 

9.  Ten  thousand  talents]  The  Persian  talent 
weighed  Qio  lb.     That  have  the  charge  of  the 


286 


a  10 


ESTHER 


7.8 


business]  i.e.  those  whose  business  it  is  to  re- 
ceive money  paid  into  the  king's  treasury. 

10.  Took  his  ring]  For  the  significance  of 
this  see  8  8.  1 1.  The  silver]  The  money  which 
Haman  had  pledged  himself  to  pay  into  the 
treasury  the  king  confers  upon  him  for  his 
services  in  pointing  out  a  serious  danger  to 
the  kingdom  (v.  8). 

12.  The  thirteenth  day  of  the  first  month] 
Eleven  months  were  thus  to  elapse  between 
the  issue  of  the  decree  and  its  execution. 

Lieutenants]  lit. '  satraps,'  of  whom,  according 
to  Herodotus,  there  were  twenty.  13.  Posts] 
Horsemen  (cp.  S^o)  were  posted  at  regular 
intervals  of  a  day's  journey  along  the  main 
roads  to  transmit  in  succession  the  messages 
they  received  until  they  reached  their  des- 
tination. 15.  Was  perplexed]  i.e.  at  the 
magnitude  and  arbitrary  character  of  the 
contemplated  massacre. 

CHAPTER   4 

MoRDECAi's  Appeal  to  Esther  to  save 

HER  Countrymen 

I.  When  Mordecai  perceived]  His  position 
at  the  door  of  the  palace  (2  ^i)  would  enable 
him  to  obtain  early  intelligence.  2.  Even 
before]  better,  '  as  far  as  before.'  The  LXX 
adds,  '  and  stopped.'  6.  The  street]  RV  '  the 
broad  place'  :  and  so  in  6^. n.  11.  One  law 
of  his]  RV  '  one  law  for  him '  :  i.e.  who 
approached  the  king  without  leave  given. 

14.  Then  shall  there  enlargement,  etc.]  RV 
'  Then  shall  relief,'  etc.  Mordecai's  speech, 
though  no  mention  is  made  in  it  of  God, 
nevertheless  breathes  a  spirit  of  trust  in  His 
Providence,  and  expresses  a  conviction  that 
help  will  come  from  some  unperceived  quarter. 

But  thou. .  destroyed]  Divine  judgment  would 
overtake  her  if  she  neglected  her  duty  to  her 
countrymen.  Whether .  .  as  this]  i.e.  who 
knows  whether  thou  hast  not  been  raised  to 
the  throne  by  God  for  the  express  purpose  of 
averting  the  dangers  threatening  at  the  present 
crisis  ? 

16.  Fast  ye  for  me]  Fasting  was  an  accom- 
paniment of  prayer  (cp.  EzrB^s  Nehl^),  and 
Esther's  request  was  for  united  prayer  on  her 
behalf.  If  I  perish,  I  perish]  Esther  pro- 
ceeded on  her  dangerous  venture  in  a  spirit  of 
resignation. 

CHAPTER   5 
Esther's  Petition  to  the  King 

An  account  of  how  Esther,  being  favourably 
received  by  the  king,  invited  him,  together  with 
Haman,  to  a  banquet  whereat  she  promised 
to  make  known  her  petition,  and  how  Haman 
prepared  for  the  execution  of  Mordecai. 

I.  On  the  third  day]  This  indicates  that  the 
fast  of  4 1*^  is  not  to  be  regarded  as  extending 
over  three  whole  days.      6.  The  banquet  of 


wine]  This  presumably  followed  the  dinner. 
Herodotus  states  that  the  Persians,  though 
moderate  at  their  meals,  were  much  addicted 
to  wine.  8.  I  •wrill  do .  .  hath  said]  i.e.  to 
make  known  to  him  her  request.  Esther 
hoped  that  by  preparing  a  second  banquet  for 
the  king  before  presenting  her  petition,  she 
would  render  him  more  disposed  to  grant  it. 

9.  In  the  king's  gate]  Since  his  hopes  had 
been  raised  by  Esther's  undertaking  to  suppli- 
cate the  king,  he  had  laid  aside  his  garb  of 
mourning  (4''^),  and  resumed  his  previous 
station  (221).  n,  The  multitude  of  his  chil- 
dren] A  Jew  regarded  a  large  family  as  a 
blessing  (Gn  30  2'^),  and,  according  to  Herodotus, 
a  Persian's  strongest  motive  for  pride,  next  to 
his  personal  bravery,  was  the  number  of  his 
children.  Haman  had  ten  sons(9io).  14.  A 
gallows]  lit.  '  a  tree  '  (or  '  stake  '). 

CHAPTER   6 
Mordecai  is  honoured 

An  account  of  how  the  king  being  reminded 
of  Mordecai's  services,  and  wishing  to  reward 
him,  consulted  Haman,  and  how  Haman,  think- 
ing himself  the  object  of  the  king's  interest, 
counselled  him,  and  was  directed  to  render  to 
Mordecai  the  honours  he  had  advised. 

I.  The  book .  .  chronicles]  in  which  the 
chief  occurrences  of  the  king's  reign,  including 
any  signal  services  done  by  his  subjects  (223), 
were  recorded. 

8.  The  royal  apparel .  .  u^eth  to  ^vear]  Not 
apparel  similar  to  that  which  was  worn  by  the 
king,  but  apparel  which  the  king  had  actually 
used,  just  as  the  horse  upon  which  the  person 
to  be  honoured  was  mounted  was  that  which 
the  king  had  actually  ridden  (cp.  1  K 1 23).  The 
crown  royal .  .  head]  RV  '  and  on  the  head  of 
which  '  (i.e.  of  the  horse)  '  a  crown  royal  is 
set.'  The  royal  charger  bore  on  its  head  a 
crown  or  coronet.  12.  Having  his  head 
covered]  as  a  sign  of  humiliation  and  woe  : 
cp.  2S1530  194  Jerl44.  13.  If  Mordecai.. 
fall  before  him]  LXX  adds,  'for  the  Living 
God  is  with  him.' 

CHAPTER  7 

The  Execution  of  Haman 
4.  We  are  sold]  an  allusion  to  Haman's 
tender  of  10,000  talents  (39).  Although  the 
enemy,  etc.]  The  rendering  is  uncertain  ;  RV 
'  although  the  adversary  could  not  have  com- 
pensated for  the  king's  damage  '  (which  would 
have  resulted  from  the  loss  of  so  many  of  his 
subjects)  ;  RM  '  for  our  affliction  is  not  to  be 
compared  with  the  king's  damage  '  (or  '  annoy- 
ance '  occasioned  by  Esther's  complaint). 
Perhaps,  '  although  no  enemy  is  comparable 
(to  Haman)  in  doing  damage  to  the  king.' 

8.  The  bed]  RV  'the  couch,'  on  which 
Esther   was    reclining    at   the    table.      They 


287 


7.  9 


ESTHER 


10.  3 


covered  Hainan's  face]  preparatory  to  his 
execution.  9.  One  of  the  chamberlains  .  .  the 
king]  better,  '  one  of  the  chamberlains  that 
were  before  the  king  said.'  Harbonah  is 
mentioned  in  1 10.  Who  had  spoken  good] 
i.e.  ,  by  the  disclosure  of  the  conspiracy 
described  in  221,22,  Hang  him  thereon] 
Haman  suffered  the  retribution  declared  by  the 
Psalmist  to  await  the  wicked  :  see  Ps  7 1^'  1*^. 

CHAPTER  8 
The  Jews  are  saved 

I.  Did .  .  of  Haman]  The  property  of 
Haman,  after  his  execution,  was  confiscated 
to  the  use  of  the  king,  to  be  disposed  of  as 
he  thought  fit.  2.  Took  off  his  ring,  etc.] 
The  bestowal  of  the  ring  implied  that  Mordecai 
was  appointed  to  be  a  minister  of  State, 
since  the  ring  was  used  for  giving  authority 
to  royal  decrees  (see  v.  8)  :  cp.  Gn4142. 

4.  Then  the  king  held  out]  This  seems  to 
imply  that  Esther  had  approached  the  king 
unbidden  :  see  4 11. 

7.  Behold,  I  have  given,  etc.]  The  king 
mentions  this  to  show  that  his  denial  of  her 
request  to  reverse  the  letters  of  Haman  (v.  5) 
was  due  not  to  lack  of  desire,  but  lack  of 
ability  to  meet  her  wishes.  8.  Write  ye  also] 
The  letters  written  by  Haman  and  sealed  with 
the  king's  ring  could  not  be  reversed  as  Esther 
had  requested  (v.  5),  but  she  and  Mordecai 
could  be  empowered,  as  Haman  had  previously 
been  (3ii-i2),  to  write  such  letters  as  they 
might  think  expedient  to  enable  the  Jews  to 
stand  on  their  defence.  9.  The  third  month] 
i.e.  May-June.  Rather  more  than  two  months 
had  elapsed  since  Haman's  letters  had  been 
despatched  (3i-).  10.  Riders  on  mules,  etc.] 
RY  '  riding  on  swift  steeds  that  were  used  in 
the  king's  service,  bred  of  the  stud.' 

15.  In  royal  apparel]  not  the  same  as  that 
described  in  6^,  but  a  dress  befitting  the  high 
office  to  which  he  had  been  appointed.  His 
present  magnificence  was  in  striking  contrast 
to  his  previous  distress  and  humiliation  (4i). 

A  great  crown  of  gold]  i.e.  a  circlet,  indica- 
tive of  high,  though  not  royal,  rank.  In  the 
Heb.  a  different  word  is  used  to  describe  the 
royal  crown  worn  by  the  king  and  queen 
^111  217).     17.   Became  Jews]   i.e.  proselytes. 

CHAPTER  9 
The  Jews  slay  their  Enemies.     Insti- 
tution  or  PURIM 
3.  All  the  rulers,  etc.]   The  great  massacre 
described  in  v.  16  is  thus  represented  as  being 
in  part  the  work  of  the  Persian  authorities 
with  the  forces  at  their  disposal.     10.  On  the 
spoil,  etc.]   In  this  respect  they  did  not  carry 
out  the  king's  decree .  (8 1^)  ;  their  vengeance 
was  not  sullied  by  sordid  motives. 

12.  What  have  they  done,  etc.]   An  excla- 


mation, not  a  question.  What  is  thy  petition  ? 
etc.]  The  king  was  willing  to  gratify  Esther 
further,  perhaps  to  make  amends  for  having 
been  unable  to  grant  her  earlier  request  (8  ^"^). 

13.  Be  hanged]  i.e.  let  their  dead  bodies  be 
exposed,  such  exposure  being  a  mark  of  infamy. 

16.  Had  rest]  This  anticipates  what  took 
place  on  the  '  fourteenth  '  of  Adar  (v.  17). 

Seventy  and  five  thousand]  LXX  has  '  fifteen 
thousand.'  19,  The  Jews  of  the  villages] 
better,   '  the  Jews  of  the  country  districts.' 

Sending  portions]  i.e.  to  the  poor  among 
them:  cp.  ]Sreh8io. 

20.  Mordecai  wrote  these  things]  This  refers 
not  to  the  existing  book  of  Esther,  but  to  an 
account  contained  in  the  letters  sent  to  effect 
the  purpose  indicated  in  vv.  21,  22.  This  was 
the  establishment  as  yearly  festivals  for  all 
Jews  throughout  the  empire  both  the  four- 
teenth and  fifteenth  days  of  Adar ;  and  con- 
sequently involved  a  modification  of  the  usage 
described  in  vv.  17,  18,  according  to  which 
only  a  single  day  (in  Susa  the  fifteenth,  in 
the  country  districts  the  fourteenth)  was  so 
observed. 

23.  As  they  had  begun  .  .  written  unto  them] 
i.e.  they  undertook  to  celebrate  both  the  day 
observed  at  first  (vv.  17,  18)  and  also  the  addi- 
tional day  suggested  by  Mordecai.  25.  When 
Esther  came]  The  name  '  Esther '  does  not 
occur  in  the  Heb.,  so  that  the  correct  render- 
ing may  be  '  when  it '  (i.e.  Haman's  device) 
'  came  before  the  king.'  26.  For  all]  RV  '  be- 
cause of  all.'    This  letter]  the  '  letters '  of  v.  20. 

27.  Such  as  joined  themselves  unto  them] 
i.e.  religious  proselytes :  cp.  8 1^.  29.  This 
second  letter]  '  second '  in  relation  to  the  letter 
mentioned  in  v.  20. 

31.  The  matters  of  the  fastings  and  their 
cry]  Seemingly  it  was  directed  that  there 
should  be  a  commemoration  not  only  of  the 
deliverance  granted  to  the  Jews,  but  also  of 
the  distress  that  preceded  it:  see  4 3.  No 
account  is  here  given  of  the  day  thus  appointed 
for  fasting  and  lamentation  ;  but  in  later  times 
the  thirteenth  day  of  Adar,  as  being  that  which 
Haman  had  fixed  for  the  destruction  of  the 
Jews  (3^2)^  ^as  observed  as  a  day  of  humilia- 
tion. 32.  In  the  book]  probably  a  book,  not 
now  extant,  dealing  with  the  Purim  festival ; 
but  some  authorities  think  that  '  the  liook  of 
the  chronicles  of  the  kings  of  Media  and 
Persia'  (10 2)  is  meant. 

CHAPTER  10 
The  Greatness  of  Mordecai 
I.  The  isles  of  the  sea]  or,  '  coast  lands,'  i.e. 
the  countries  bordering  on  the  Mediterranean. 
The  description  of  the  king's  dominion  serves 
to  enhance  the  glory  of  Mordecai,  who  was  his 
minister.  3.  Seeking  the  wealth]  i.e.  seeking 
to  promote  their  welfare  :  cp.  Ezr  9 12. 


288 


JOB 


INTRODUCTION 


I.  Theme  and  Contents.  The  book  of  Job, 
it  may  safely  be  said,  is  not  known  and  read 
as  it  deserves  to  be.  It  is  a  fascinating  book, 
and  one  of  the  most  valuable  in  the  OT.  It 
deals  with  a  theme  which  is  as  old  as  man 
and  as  wide  as  the  world,  viz.  the  reason  of 
human  suffering,  the  why  and  wherefore  of 
those  afflictions  that  fasten  not  merely  upon 
the  guilty,  but,  as  it  often  appears,  upon  the 
righteous  and  the  innocent.  This  imme- 
morial problem,  the  crux  of  theology  and  the 
darkest  mystery  of  human  life,  is  the  subject 
of  this  book,  where  it  is  treated  in  a  most 
brilliant  manner.  In  style  the  book  of  Job  is 
a  masterpiece  of  literature.  It  contains  some 
of  the  deepest  thought  and  the  sublimest 
poetry  that  have  come  down  from  antiquity. 

The  difficulties  that  beset  the  ordinary 
reader  are  due  not  merely  to  the  nature  of  the 
subject,  but  also  to  the  fact  that  it  is  written 
in  poetry,  which  is  always  more  difficult  than 
prose,  and  also  to  the  too  common  practice  of 
reading  only  short  extracts.  The  work,  being 
a  discussion  can-ied  on  at  considerable  length, 
must,  if  it  is  to  be  rightly  understood,  be  read 
as  a  whole.  It  must,  moreover,  be  read  in  the 
Eevised  Version,  the  meaning  and  sequence  of 
thought  being  often  much  obscured  in  the 
Authorised  Version. 

The  book  is  artistically  constructed,  and 
consists  of  three  parts — a  Prologue,  the  Poem, 
and  an  Epilogue.  The  Prologue  is  contained 
in  the  first  two  chapters,  and  the  Epilogue  in 
the  last.  These  are  written  in  prose,  and  form 
the  setting  of  the  Poem,  which  extends  from 
c.  3-42<3.  The  Prologue  introduces  the  char- 
acters, and  tells  how  they  come  together.  The 
Poem  contains  the  debate  between  Job  and 
his  three  friends,  followed  by  a  speech  from 
a  bystander  called  Elihu,  and  concludes  with 
an  address  by  the  Almighty  and  a  penitent 
confession  by  Job.  The  Epilogue  relates  the 
further  fortunes  of  Job,  his  restoration  to 
prosperity,  and  his  death. 

The  Prologue  (chs.  1,  2)  presents  to  us  an 
Eastern  chieftain  called  Job,  who  lives  in  the 
land  of  Uz,  probably  near  Edom.  He  is  a 
very  pious  man,  '  perfect  and  upright,  one 
that  fears  God  and  eschews  evil,'  and  a  very 
prosperous  man.  He  is  surrounded  with  what 
are  commonly  regarded  as  unmistakable  tokens 
of  the  divine  favour.  He  has  a  large  family, 
possesses    immense    herds    of  camels,    oxen. 


as    ' the 
He  is  as 


19 


289 


asses,   and  sheep,    and   is   described 
greatest  of  the  children  of  the  east.' 
good  as  he  is  great. 

In  these  circumstances  a  scene  is  opened  in 
heaven.  One  of  God's  angels,  called  '  The 
Satan,'  i.e.  The  Adversary,  whose  office  seems 
to  be  to  test  the  sincerity  of  men's  characters, 
suggests  that  Job's  piety  is  dependent  upon  his 
prosperity,  that  he  does  not  '  serve  God  for 
nought,'  that  his  religion  is  mere  selfishness, 
and  that  if  God  were  to  withhold  His  bless- 
ings Job  would  withhold  his  worship  and 
'  curse  God  to  His  face.'  Satan  obtains  permis- 
sion to  put  Job  to  the  proof.  From  the  height 
of  his  prosperity  and  happiness  Job  is  suddenly 
plunged  into  the  depths  of  misery.  He  loses 
all  his  property,  and  his  children  are  cut  off 
by  violent  death.  Job  is  profoundly  grieved, 
but  he  submits  reverently  to  the  will  of 
God.  So  far  he  stands  the  test.  In  a  second 
heavenly  council  Satan  asserts  that  the  test 
has  not  been  severe  enough,  and  receives  per- 
mission to  afflict  Job's  person.  He  smites 
him  with  a  severe  and  loathsome  disease, 
which  makes  him  an  outcast  and  an  object  of 
abhorrence  to  all.  Still  he  is  resigned.  His 
faith  remains  unshaken.  '  What  ?  '  he  says, 
'  shall  we  receive  good  at  the  hand  of  God, 
and  shall  we  not  receive  evil  ?  '  He  makes  no 
complaint  against  the  Almighty. 

Three  friends  now  appear  upon  the  scene  : 
Eliphaz  the  Temanite,  Bildad  the  Shuhite,  and 
Zophar  the  Naamathite,  who  having  heard  of 
his  great  calamities  come  to  condole  with  the 
ruined  and  childless  man.  They  are  appalled 
at  the  sight  of  his  misery.  Job  is  hardly  re- 
cognisable. The  words  of  consolation  fail 
upon  their  lips,  and  they  sit  down  beside  him 
for  seven  days  and  seven  nights,  uttering  never 
a  word.  Hitherto  Job  has  been  able  to  re- 
strain himself,  but  now  in  the  presence  of  his 
speechless  friends  a  change  comes  over  him. 
He  is  unmanned,  and  breaks  down.  He  opens 
his  mouth,  and,  in  a  passage  of  marvellous 
pathos  and  power,  he  curses  the  day  that  he  was 
born  and  calls  for  death  to  come  and  put  an 
end  to  his  sufferings  (c.  3). 

With  Job's  first  words  begins  the  main  por- 
tion of  the  book,  which  is  continued  for  39 
chapters,  and  is  written  in  poetry.  It  com- 
prises a  debate  between  Job  and  his  three 
friends  as  to  the  reason  of  his  sufferings.  The 
debate   is   conducted    in    an   orderly   manner. 


INTRO. 


JOB 


INTRO. 


All  three  speak  in  turn,  and  Job  answers  each 
after  he  has  spoken.  This  is  repeated  three 
times,  except  that  according  to  the  present 
arrangement  of  the  book  Zophar,  who  speaks 
last,  fails  in  the  third  round  of  the  debate 
to  come  forward.  Perhaps  this  is  due  to 
some  dislocation  :  see  the  introductory  re- 
marks to  the  third  series  of  speeches.  The 
theory  with  which  all  three  begin  is  that  suf- 
fering is  a  certain  proof  of  previous  trans- 
gression, and  accordingly  they  all  adopt  a  tone  of 
rebuke  towards  Job  on  account  of  his  supposed 
shortcomings,  and  urge  him  to  repent  of  his 
sin,  whatever  it  may  be,  saying  that  if  he  does 
so  God  will  restore  to  him  his  prosperity. 
No  doubt  sympathy  is  more  in  place  than 
argument  in  times  of  trouble,  but  the  object 
of  the  book  is  not  to  show  how  to  comfort 
sufferers,  but  how  to  account  for  the  sufferings. 
The  Argument  of  the  three  friends  is 
simple.  God,  they  say,  is  always  just.  If  a 
man  suffers  it  must  be  because  he  deserves  it. 
The  righteous  never  suffer.  Job,  they  con- 
clude, must  have  been  a  great  sinner  to  be 
aflaicted  thus.  And  they  strive  to  get  Job 
into  a  proper  frame  of  mind.  To  this  Job 
replies  that  the  moral  government  of  the  world 
is  not  such  a  simple,  uncomplicated  thing  as  his 
friends  suppose.  Their  theory  may  be  true  as 
a  general  rule,  but  there  are  exceptions.  His 
own  case  is  one.  He  protests  that  he  is  not 
conscious  of  any  such  great  sin  as  they  assume 
to  be  the  cause  of  his  present  misery.  His 
sufferings  must  have  some  other  explanation. 
They  are  meanwhile  a  mj-stery  to  him.  Nor 
is  he  the  oiily  exception  to  the  rule  of  '  Be 
good  and  you  will  be  prosperous.'  It  is  a 
matter  of  universal  experience  that  the  innocent 
suffer  as  well  as  the  guilty,  and  the  wicked  are 
frequently  allowed  to  end  their  days  in  peace. 
In  the  debate  this  difficulty  is  put  with  great 
boldness,  and  Job  is  tempted  occasionally  to 
think  and  say  hard  things  of  God.  With  ex- 
quisite pathos  he  describes  his  bodily  sufferings 
and  mental  perplexity,  and  his  last  speech 
concludes  with  a  pathetic  contrast  between  the 
former  days,  when  the  candle  of  the  Lord 
shined  upon  his  head,  when  the  Almighty  was 
with  him  and  his  children  were  about  him,  and 
he  was  honoured  and  respected  by  all,  and  his 
present  state,  when  days  of  evil  have  laid  hold 
upon  him  and  wearisome  nights  and  days  are 
appointed  unto  him,  when  he  is  poor,  and 
childless,  and  friendless,  an  abhorrence  and  a 
byword  to  young  and  old.  To  the  end  he  pro- 
tests his  innocence  and  demands  to  be  shown 
wherein  he  has  transgressed.  His  great  desire 
is  to  come  face  to  face  with  his  Maker.  If  he 
only  knew  where  he  might  find  Him,  he  is 
sure  all  would  be  explained.  Meanwhile  all  is 
dark,  a  mystery  he  cannot  fathom,  a  riddle  he 
cannot  explain,  '  I  go  forward,  but  He  is  not 


there  ;  and  backward,  but  I  cannot  perceive 
Him  ;  on  the  left  hand,  where  He  doth  work, 
but  I  cannot  behold  Him  ;  and  on  the  right 
hand,  but  I  cannot  see  Him  ;  but  He  knoweth 
the  way  that  I  take.  His  way  have  I  kept, 
and  not  declined.  Neither  have  I  gone  back 
from  the  commandment  of  his  lips.  When 
He  hath  tried  me,  I  shall  come  forth  as  gold.' 
In  a  dim  way  he  feels  that  though  he  is  des- 
tined to  die  without  learning  the  reason  of  his 
affliction,  yet  after  death  in  another  world  the 
mystery  will  be  solved.  God  will  show  Himself 
his  friend  and  vindicate  his  innocence. 

When  the  discussion  between  Job  and  his 
three  friends  is  ended,  and  their  explanation  of 
his  afflictions  put  aside  as  inadequate,  a  new 
speaker  is  suddenly  introduced.  A  young  man, 
called  Elihu,  has  been  listening  to  the  debate, 
and  he  now  comes  forward  as  a  critic  of  both 
sides.  He  is  not  satisfied  with  Job's  assertions 
of  self-righteousness,  and  he  is  disappointed 
with  the  three  friends  for  bringing  forward 
such  poor  arguments  and  allowing  themselves 
to  be  silenced  by  Job.  He  hopes  to  set  them 
all  right,  but  one  has  a  difficulty  in  discovering 
wherein  he  differs  from  the  other  three  re- 
provers of  Job.  In  great  measure  he  repeats 
their  arguments  that  God  is  just  and  deals  out 
to  every  man  exactly  what  he  deserves.  In 
two  particulars,  however,  he  seems  to  go  beyond 
them,  and  so  far  approaches  the  right  view  of 
the  question  in  the  more  explicit  statements, 
(a)  that  chastisement  may  be  the  expression 
not  of  the  divine  indignation  but  of  the  divine 
goodness,  and  (b)  that  it  may  be  designed  as 
a  warning,  a  restraint  to  keep  men  from  falling 
into  further  sin  ;  in  other  words,  that  chastise- 
ment is  discipline,  a  prevention  as  well  as  a 
cure,  having  a  reference  to  the  future  as  well 
as  to  the  past. 

This  brings  us  to  the  last  section  of  the 
Poem.  Job  had  expressed  an  earnest  desire 
to  meet  God  face  to  face.  In  answer  to  this, 
'  the  Lord  answers  Job  out  of  the  whirlwind ' 
(chs.  38-41).  The  striking  thing  about  God's 
answer  is  that  it  is  not  at  all  what  Job  expected. 
He  hoped  that  God,  when  He  appeared,  would 
give  an  explanation  of  His  servant's  sufferings. 
But  this  God  does  not  do.  He  never  alludes 
to  Job's  sufferings.  What  He  does  is  simply 
to  bid  Job  look  around  and  observe  the  wonder 
and  mystery  of  the  world  in  which  he  is  placed. 
In  a  series  of  splendid  pictures  God  causes  the 
panorama  of  nature  to  pass  before  the  eyes  of 
His  human  creature,  and  asks  him  if  he  could 
make  any  of  these  things,  or  even  understand 
how  they  were  created — the  earth,  the  sea,  the 
stars,  the  light,  the  rain,  the  snow  and  frost, 
the  lightning,  the  variety  of  marvellous  instincts 
and  powers  possessed  by  the  animals.  Could 
Job  rule  the  world  or  even  subdue  any  of  its 
wonderful  creatures  ?     If  not,  why  should  he 


290 


INTRO. 


JOB 


INTRO. 


presume  to  cavil  at  the  ways  of  the  Almighty 
or  criticise  His  government  of  the  world  ? 
From  first  to  last  the  answer  of  God  is  simply 
a  revelation  of  His  omnipotence.  It  seems, 
therefore,  to  be  irrelevant  to  the  subject.  It 
is  no  explanation  of  the  mystery  of  human 
suffering.  And  yet  Job  is  satisfied.  It  brings 
him  face  to  face  with  God.  He  feels  how 
presumptuous  he  has  been  in  questioning  the 
way  of  God  to  men,  how  ignorant  and  weak 
and  vile  he  is  in  the  presence  of  God's  omni- 
science and  omnipotence  and  perfect  holiness. 
'  Behold,  I  am  vile,'  he  says  ;  '  I  will  lay  mine 
hand  upon  my  mouth.  I  have  uttered  what  I 
understood  not.  Mine  eye  seeth  thee  ;  where- 
fore I  abhor  myself  and  repent  in  dust  and 
ashes.'  He  has  regained  the  old  trust  in  God, 
but  it  is  a  deeper  trust.  Before  his  trial  he 
had  walked  with  God  in  the  glad,  unquestioning 
confidence  of  a  child  ;  now  he  has  sounded  the 
abyss  of  misery,  but  in  the  fullest  knowledge 
of  the  world's  pain,  he  is  wholly  assured  of  the 
righteousness  of  God.  In  the  vision  of  God, 
which  has  replaced  the  old  knowledge  of  God 
at  second  hand,  even  more  than  in  the  exhi- 
bition of  God's  omnipotence,  he  enters  into 
peace.  The  answer  to  his  problems  is  not 
simply  the  manifestation  of  God's  power,  it  is 
God  Himself.  He  does  not  understand,  he  is 
content  to  be  humble  and  to  trust.  And  with 
this  attitude  of  humility  and  trust  God  is 
represented  as  well  pleased. 

In  the  Epilogue  (c.  42  "-i")  Job  is  restored 
to  double  his  former  prosperity  and  dies  '  old 
and  full  of  days.' 

It  is  not  easy  to  sum  up  the  distinctive 
teaching  of  the  book  of  Job.  As  a  matter  of 
fact,  the  problem  which  it  states  is  insoluble. 
The  book  itself  does  not  offer  a  solution. 
What  it  does  is  to  show  the  true  spirit  in  which 
the  calamities  of  life  should  be  met,  a  spirit 
of  submission  to  the  omnipotence  and  of  trust 
in  the  wisdom  of  the  Almighty.  Incidentally, 
however,  the  following  truths  emerge  in  the 
book  of  Job,  and  have  been  noted  by  various 
commentators. 

(rt)  Even  a  righteous  man  may  suffer  in  this 
world  from  severe  afflictions,  (b)  It  is  wrong, 
therefore,  to  make  a  man's  sufferings  a  reproach 
to  him,  as  'though  he  were  '  a  sinner  above  all 
other  men.'  They  may  be  permitted  by  God 
as  a  trial  of  his  righteousness,  (c)  True  re- 
ligion is  always  disinterested.  A  truly  right- 
eous man  will  serve  God  and  trust  in  Him  in 
spite  of  all  temptations  to  renounce  Him  arising 
from  his  sufferings,  (d)  It  is  presumption  to 
accuse  God  of  injustice  on  account  of  the 
sufferings  that  the  good  endure  or  the  pros- 
perity that  the  wicked  are  permitted  to  enjoy  ; 
man  is  unable  fully  to  understand  God's 
moral  government  of  the  world,  (f)  The  true 
solution  of  all  such  moral  perplexities  is  to  be 


sought  in  a  fuller  and  larger  sense  of  God's 
presence  and  power  and  wisdom. 

It  only  remains  to  consider  briefly  how  far 
we  as  Christians,  living  in  the  clearer  light  of 
Christ's  life  and  teaching,  have  advanced  in  the 
knowledge  of  the  purpose  and  meaning  of 
suffering.  Again,  this  may  be  summed  up  under 
a  few  separate  heads  : 

(a)  Christ  Himself  is  the  most  conspicuous 
instance  of  innocent  suffering.     '  Though  He 
were  a  Son  yet  learned  He   obedience  by  the 
things  which  He  suffered.'     '  He   was   made 
perfect  through  sufferings.'     His   words  and 
example  show  that  suffering  may  be  innocently 
endured   for  the    sake    of    others,  or  for  the 
sake  of  righteousness,  or  in  self-denial,  or  for 
the  glory  of  God.     (b)  Christ   has  taught  us 
that    freedom  from   outward    ills    is    not  the 
greatest  good.     The  highest  good  lies  in  the 
sphere    of   character   and  spirit.      Jesus  con- 
gratulated, not  the  rich  and  prosperous  and 
those  who  never  know   what  pain   and  sor- 
row are,  but   the  poor,  the  meek,  the  mourn- 
ing, the  persecuted.     In  spite  of  all  afiiiction  a 
man   may   be    truly   blessed.     In    this   Jesus 
reversed  the  common  judgment  of  the  world. 
As  Bacon  paradoxically  puts   it,   '  Prosperity 
is  the  blessing  of  the  Old  Testament,  adversity 
that  of  the  New.'     (c)  Christ  has  taught  us  to 
call  God  our  Father.     He  is  not,  therefore,  a 
mere  Judge  dispensing  abstract   justice  with 
indifference  to  the  result  upon  the  individual. 
God  seeks  to  train  and  discipline  His  children 
so  that  they  may  be  '  partakers  of  His  holiness.' 
For  their  own  sakes,  therefore,  it  may  be  better, 
considering  the    end,  that  in  some    cases  the 
innocent  should  '  endure  grief  '  and  the  guilty 
be    treated   with    long-suffering  and  leniency. 
Under  a  paternal  government  the  treatment  in 
each  case  will  he  accommodated  to  serve  the 
best  result.     It  will  not  always  follow  the  rule 
of  abstract  justice,     (c/)  Christ  has  revealed  a 
future   life.     This  Job  and   his  friends,   with 
the  OT.  saints  in  general,  only  dimly  perceived 
or  faintly  hoped  for.     Having  no  certainty  of 
the  future  life  they  naturally  demanded  that 
justice   should  be  meted   out  in  the  present. 
Perceiving  that  this  was  not  always  done  they 
were  beset  with  many  perplexities  and  doubts 
as  to  the  justice  of  the  divine  government  of 
the  world.     With  the   Christian  revelation  of 
a  future  life  many  of  the  embarrassments  and 
anomalies  of  the  present  disappear.     The  end 
is  not  yet.     The  time  of  the  final  settlement 
of  accounts  is  still  future.     There  need  be  no 
fear  that  justice  will  not  be  done.     Meanwhile 
the  wicked   flourish  and  the  righteous  suffer. 
But    they  may    suffer  in   patience   and  hope. 
The  afflictions  of  the  present  are  '  light '  and 
'  but  for  a  moment.'     '  They  are  not   to  be 
compared    with    the   glory    to    be     revealed.' 
'  Wherefore  let  them  that  suffer  according  to 


291 


rSTTRO. 


JOB 


1.  1 


the  will  of  God  commit  the  keeping. of  their 
souls  to  Him  in  well-doing,  as  unto  a  faithful 
creator.' 

2.  Occasion,  Authorship,  and  Date.  It  has 
always  been  a  question  whether  the  book  of 
Job  is  to  be  regarded  as  history  or  parable. 
Among  the  Jews  themselves  the  prevailing 
opinion  was  that  it  was  strictly  historical, 
though  some  of  their  Rabbis  were  inclined  to 
think  that  the  person  of  Job  was  created  by 
the  writer  of  this  book  in  order  to  set  forth 
his  teaching  on  the  problem  that  was  vexing 
human  thought.  Rabbi  Lakish,  e.g.,  said  'Job 
existed  not,  nor  was  he  created  ;  he  is  a  parable.' 
The  opinion  of  Luther  is  probably  the  correct 
one,  viz.  that  a  person  called  Job  did  really 
exist,  but  that  his  history  has  been  treated 
poetically.  The  allusion  to  Job  as  a  real 
person  in  "Ezkli^^  seems  to  show  that  there 
was  a  tradition  connected  with  his  name,  and 
that  he  was  famed  for  his  piety.  There  may 
also  have  been  a  tradition  that  he  suffered  from 
a  grievous  reversal  of  fortune.  On  this  his- 
torical foundation  a  later  writer  built  up  this 
dramatic  poem,  adopting  Job  as  his  hero  and 
freely  utilising  his  history  to  discuss  a  problem 
which  was  probably  pressing  with  special 
weight  upon  men's  minds  at  the  time.  It 
would  not  have  served  the  writer's  purpose  so 
well  to  have  created  an  altogether  fictitious 
hero.  But  many  things  indicate  that  the 
traditional  history  of  Job  has  been  freely 
adapted,  as,  e.g.,  the  elaborately  constructed 
dialogues,  the  employment  of  symbolic  numbers 
in  the  Prologue  and  Epilogue,  the  dramatic 
way  in  which  the  scene  in  the  council  chamber 
of  heaven  is  depicted  and  in  which  the  messen- 
gers bring  to  Job  the  tidings  of  his  successive 
calamities,  and,  moreover,  the  very  fact  that  the 
book  is  a  '  poem '  in  which  four  men  are  repre- 
sented as  doing  what  men  never  do  in  real 
life,  conversing  with  each  other  in  measured 
strains  of  lofty  and  impassioned  poetry. 

To  what  ■WTiter  we  owe  this  poem,  which 
Victor  Hugo  called  '  perhaps  the  greatest 
masterpiece  of  the  human  mind,'  and  which 
has  captivated  the  minds  of  men  by  no  means 
prejudiced  in  favour  of  the  literature  of  sacred 
Scripture,  we  shall  never  know  with  certainty. 
It  belongs  to  the  gi-eat  class  of  anonymous 
masterpieces  of  which  the  literatures  of  all 
languages  contain  examples.  Job  himself, 
Moses,  Solomon,  Isaiah,  Hezekiah,  Baruch, 
have  each  been  credited  with  its  composition. 
"Whoever  he  was,  he  was  a  poetic  genius,  an 
earnest  philosopher,  and  a  truly  religious  soul. 
He  probably  lived  after  the  downfall  of  the 
kingdom  of  Judah,  in  any  case  not  earlier  than 
the  time  of  Jeremiah.  At  that  period  the  per- 
plexing problems  connected  with  the  divine 
government  seem  to  have  pressed  heavily  on 
men's  minds:  cp.e.g.  Jerl2i  Sl^^EzklS.    Pro- 


fessor Davidson  thinks  that  behind  the  author's 
time  there  probably  lay  some  great  public 
calamity  which  forced  upon  men's  minds  the 
questions  of  evil  and  the  righteousness  of  God, 
and  that  such  a  calamity  could  be  nothing 
short  of  deportation  or  exile.  '  We  may  infer,' 
he  says,  '  that  it  was  the  design  of  the  author 
to  teach  Israel,  amidst  its  sorrows  and  the  per- 
plexities caused  by  them,  that  sufferings  may 
be  a  trial  of  the  righteous  which  if  reverently 
borne  will  lift  them  up  into  fuller  knowledge 
of  God  and  therefore  into  more  assured  peace 
and  felicity.'  In  view  of  the  fact  that  national 
disaster  M^ould  occupy  men's  thoughts  before 
they  felt  the  problem  of  individual  suffering, 
there  is  much  to  be  said  for  the  view,  held  by 
many  scholars,  that  the  book  of  Job,  which  is 
concerned  with  the  individual,  not  with  the 
nation,  and  represents  an  advanced  stage  in 
the  discussion  of  the  problem,  belongs  to  the 
period  after  the  Return,  perhaps  about  400  B.C. 
This  is  also  suggested  by  several  other  features 
in  the  book. 

CHAPTER  1 

The  Prologue 

Chs.  1  and  2,  which  form  the  Prologue  to 
the  book,  describe  (a)  the  prosperity  and  piety 
of  Job  ;  (b)  a  scene  in  heaven  in  which  the 
Satan  questions  the  motives  of  his  piety  ;  and 
(c)  his  subsequent  trials,  which  are  permitted 
by  God  in  order  to  test  and  confirm  His  serv- 
ant's righteousness,  and  to  show  to  angels  and 
men  that  a  man  may  serve  God  for  His  own 
sake  and  not  from  self-interest.  So  far  from 
being  dependent  on  outside  conditions  the  true 
servant  of  God  will  endure  the  severest  trials 
which  can  befall  human  nature,  and  yet  retain 
his  faith  and  uprightness.  It  should  be  ob- 
served that  whilst  the  author  reveals  to  his 
readers  the  source  and  purpose  of  Job's  trials 
these  are  unknown  to  Job  and  his  friends.  It 
is  the  mystery  of  his  suffering  which  forms  the 
problem  of  the  book. 

Chs.  1,  2  are  in  prose.  The  rest  of  the 
book,  except  32 1-^  and  42  "-i ",  is  in  poetry.  See 
on  c.  3. 

1-5.  The  prosperity  and  piety  of  Job. 

I.  The  land  of  Uz]  a  district  to  the  E.  of 
Palestine,  and  near  Arabia  and  Edom  :  cp. 
Jer25-*'  Lam  4  21.  The  word  Uz  occurs  (a)  as 
the  name  of  a  son  of  Aram  (GnlO^S);  (J)  as 
a  descendant  of  Seir  (Gn  36  ^S) ;  (c)  as  a  son 
of  Nahor  (Gn222i).  The  names  'Aram'  and 
'  Seir '  seem  to  point  to  the  lands  of  Syria  and 
Edom,  but  the  exact  position  of  Uz  cannot  be 
exactly  defined.  From  various  allusions  in 
the  book  we  must  probably  think  of  '  the  red 
sandstones  of  Edom  '  (the  '  red  '  land),  '  and  of 
the  remote  desert  city  in  the  hollow  of  the 
hills — Sela,  afterwards  Petra ;  of  the  broad 
grey  plain  of  the  Arabah  to  the  west ;  of  the 


292 


1.  2 


JOB 


1.  15 


dark  rugged  peaks  rising  high  to  the  east,  their 
summits  white  with  snow  in  winter,  and  beyond 
this  the  high  desert  plateau  with  its  great  pil- 
grim and  trading  road  to  Arabia '  (see  on  6 15-20)  j 
'  a  region  with  few  springs,  where  the  white 
broom  grows'  (see  on  30"*);  '  and  where  the 
ostrich  still  runs  and  the  wild  ass  scours  the 
plain  seeking  the  scanty  green  patches  in  spring ' 
(395-8,13-18).     (Conder.) 

Job]  Meaning  uncertain  ;  either  'persecuted' 
or  '  pious.'  Perfect]  Not  sinless ;  rather, 
'  single-hearted,'  blameless  :  cp.  Noah  (GnG^). 

2.  Seven  .  .  three]  sacred  numbers  indicat- 
ing perfection.  We  are  dealing  with  ideal 
history,  as  the  rest  of  the  numbers  and  other 
features  here  and  in  the  Epilogue  show. 

3.  Job  was  a  prince  of  the  desert.  He  pos- 
sessed herds  of  camels  yielding  milk  and  food 
and  hair  for  making  tents  ;  asses  for  riding, 
and  fetching  water  ;  cattle  and  sheep.  He 
even  possessed  fields  (31 3S).  The  description 
corresponds  in  each  i*espect  to  the  life  of  a 
free  Arab  chief  E.  of  Jordan  to-day.  The 
term  men  of  the  east  is  applied  to  the  tribes 
dwelling  on  the  borders  of  Palestine,  e.g.  Syria 
and  Arabia  (cp.  Gn29i  Jg6^). 

4.  RV  '  And  his  sons  went  and  held  a  feast 
in  the  house  of  each  one  upon  his  day.'  They 
took  it  in  turns  to  entertain  each  other  at 
their  respective  homes.  5.  When  the  days  .  . 
were  gone  about]  i.e.  when  all  seven  sons  had 
given  their  feast.  It  appears  that  it  was  Job's 
pious  custom  to  gather  together  his  children 
at  stated  intervals  that  atonement  might  be 
made  for  any  neglect  of  God  at  their  feasts. 
He  sanctified  them,  i.e.  prepared  them  by  ablu- 
tions, etc.,  for  taking  part  in  the  sacrifices  he 
afterwards  offered  (cp.  Gn352  Ex  19 10  Lv97 
1  S 1 6  5).  Here  we  have  an  instance  of  the  piety 
alluded  to  in  v.  1.  Burnt  offerings]  Observe 
that  it  was  not  the  sin  offering  of  the  Mosaic 
Law  which  Job  offered,  but  a  burnt  offering 
wholly  given  to  God,  which  was  common  to 
many  peoples  (cp.  Nu23  MicG^-^).  As  head 
of  the  family  Job  acted  as  priest :  cp.  Jethro 
(Ex  2 1*3  3 1).  Cursed]  RV  '  renounced  ' ;  '  blas- 
phemed '  or  '  blamed  '  may  be  better. 

6-12.  The  first  interview  between  God  and 
Satan.  The  scene  in  heaven  is  based  on  the 
conceptions  of  the  spirit  world  prevailing  in 
the  author's  time  (cp.  lK22i9-2^  Zech3i.2), 
and  introduced  by  him  to  explain  the  origin 
and  purpose  of  Job's  trials.  See  last  section 
of  Intro. 

6.  Now^  there  was  a  day]  better,  '  Now  it 
was  the  day,'  as  if  at  a  special  season.  The 
sons  of  God]  i.e.  the  angels:  cp.  38'''.  They 
come  before  God  to  give  account  of  their 
ministry  :  cp.  1 K  22 19. 

Satan]  rather,  '  the  Satan,'  lit.  '  the  adver- 
sary.' The  word  is  in  common  use  to-day 
among  Orientals.    The  presence  of  the  definite 


article  shows  that  it  is  not  used  in  this  book 
as  a  proper  name.  The  Satan  is  again  spoken 
of  in  lCh21i  and  in  Zech3i'2  (see  note).  In 
the  Adversary  we  have  presented  to  us  a  spirit 
whose  mission  it  is  to  try  and  test  the  lives  of 
men  and  the  motives  of  their  acts  :  cp.  2  3.  He 
sees  the  bad  side  of  life  and  therefore  opposes 
man's  standing  with  God.  Naturally  the  con- 
stant discovery  of  evil  motives  underlying 
good  actions  has  destroyed  his  faith  in  human 
nature.  He  is  not  represented  as  opposed  to 
God,  he  is  rather  His  loyal  servant,  who  will 
not  see  His  kindness  abused,  and  zealously 
fulfils  his  duties  by  leaving  no  part  of  the 
earth  unvisited.  Malignant  motives  are,  how- 
ever, already  attributed  to  him  ;  he  seems  to 
delight  in  opposing  men,  and  tortures  Job 
without  compunction  to  justify  his  own 
cynicism.  But  he  is  not  yet  regarded  as  a 
fallen  and  evil  being,  opposed  to  God.  The 
personality  and  character  of  the  Devil  had  not 
yet  been  fully  revealed. 

9-12.  In  answer  to  God's  challenge  the 
Satan  makes  the  slanderous  suggestion  that 
Job's  religion  is  based  on  selfishness.  He 
serves  God  for  reward.  The  Satan  obtains 
leave  to  put  Job  to  the  test. 

9.  The  principles  of  Job's  conduct  are 
questioned.  Perhaps  his  integrity  is  only 
skin  deep.  Will  he  continue  his  righteous 
life  if  he  is  called  on  to  suffer?  10.  An 
hedge]  i.e.  God's  protecting  care.  11.  Curse 
thee  to  thy  face]   see  on  v.  5. 

12.  God  permits  the  Adversary  to  try  Job 
in  order  to  test  his  integrity  and  manifest  his 
piety.  Observe  that  Job's  person  is  exempt 
from  attack  in  this  first  trial.  In  view  of  the 
Satan's  eagerness  to  prove  his  judgment  of 
Job  correct,  God  knows  that  this  limitation  of 
his  power  is  necessary. 

'Between  vv.  12  and  13  there  is  an  in- 
terval, an  ominous  stillness  like  that  which 
precedes  the  storm.  The  poet  has  drawn 
aside  the  curtain  to  us,  and  we  know  what  is 
impending.     Job  knows  nothing  '  (Davidson). 

13-22.  The  first  trial  of  Job's  integrity 
arising  from  the  loss  of  his  property  and 
children.  The  way  in  which  the  messengers 
are  introduced,  and  the  similarity  of  their 
message,  shows  that  we  are  not  reading  actual 
history,  but  a  drama.  The  poet  represents 
the  catastrophe  as  falling  on  the  day  when 
the  feast  was  at  the  eldest  brother's  house, 
because  on  the  morning  of  that  day  the 
sacrifices  had  been  offered  for  Job's  children 
after  the  feast  in  the  youngest  brother's  house 
on  the  day  before.  The  death  of  the  children 
cannot  therefore  be  explained  as  due  to  their 
sin,  for  this  had  just  been  atoned  for.  Each 
catastrophe  is  worse  than  the  previous  one. 

15.  Sabeans]  Arab  tribes.  Saba  is  the 
great  S.  Arabian  kingdom  of  which  inscrip- 


293 


1.  16 


JOB 


3. 


tions  going  back  to  an  early  date  are  pre- 
served. The  Bedouin  Arabs  still  make  raids 
on  tribes  at  a  distance,  and  also,  when  strong 
enough,  on  the  settled  population.  i6.  The 
fire  of  God]  i.e.  lightning.  17.  Chaldeans] 
Heb.  Kasdi/n,  from  the  neighbourhood  of  the 
Euphrates  and  the  Persian  Gulf. 

20.  Rent  his  mantle]  Tearing  the  robe  has 
always  been  an  Eastern  sign  of  mourning,  as 
was  also  shaving  the  head  or  pulling  out  the 
hair  (see  Jer7-9  Micli").  Worshipped]  lit. 
'  prostrated  himself '  :  cp.  Gn  18  2  Mt  8  2.  The 
first  act  of  worship  is  submission,  humility. 

21.  Thither]  i.e.  to  the  womb  of  mother 
earth.  This  v.  (but  somewhat  differently 
rendered,  cp.  1  Tim  6  ^)  is  used  in  the  Burial 
Service.  All  is  from  God,  and  He  has  the 
right  to  do  what  He  will  with  His  own. 

The  Lord]  It  will  be  noticed  as  a  rule  the 
Hebrew  author  only  uses  in  the  dialogues 
such  names  for  the  Deity  as  were  common  to 
other  peoples  besides  the  Hebrews,  e.g.  '  God,' 
'  the  Almighty.'  The  occurrence  of  the  Heb. 
title  'Jehovah'  here  and  in  12  ^  is  commonly 
explained  on  the  supposition  that  it  was  a  slip 
on  his  part.  It  is  keenly  disputed  whether 
the  name  may  not  have  been  much  older  than 
the  time  of  Moses,  and  known  in  Babylonia 
and  Assyi'ia.  The  evidence  must  at  present 
be  regarded  as  indecisive,  though  such  a  wide 
difEusion  is  not  antecedently  unlikely  :  see 
on  Gn  2  4  Ex  3 13. 

22.  Charged  God  foolishly]  lit.  '  and  did 
not  offer  (or,  attribute)  folly  to  God.'  Thus 
Job  successfully  withstands  the  first  test  of 
the  Adversary  and  remains  loyal  to  God. 

CHAPTER  2 

The  Prologue  (continued) 
Job's  second  trial.     He  refuses  to  renounce 
God  when  afflicted  with  an  excruciating  disease. 
Three  friends  come  to  comfort  him. 

3.  Although  thou  movedst,  etc.]  or,  '  so 
that  it  was  in  vain  thou  movedst  me  against 
him  to  destroy  him.' 

4,  5.  Skin  for  skin,  etc.]  The  precise  mean- 
ing of  the  proverb  is  uncertain,  but  the  general 
meaning  seems  to  be  that  as  long  as  a  man 
does  not  suffer  in  his  own  person  he  will  gladly 
bear  the  sacrifice  of  everything  else  ('  skin  for 
skin ').  But  it  is  a  different  matter  when  his 
life  is  endangered.  Let  Job  suffer  this  last 
and  greatest  trial,  then  his  integrity  will  fail 
him  (so  the  Adversary  insinuates)  and  he  will 
renounce  God.  His  life  the  Satan  is  not  per- 
mitted to  touch,  short  of  that  he  has  full 
liberty,  and  uses  it. 

7.  Sore  boils]  lit.  '  an  evil  inflammation.' 
The  disease  with  which  Job  was  aflflicted  is 
commonly  taken  to  be  elephantiasis,  a  terrible 
form  of  leprosy.  It  has  also  been  identified 
with  the  '  Oriental  sore,'  also  with  ecthyma, 


for  which  a  plausible   case   has    been   made 
out. 

8.  A  potsherd]  A  piece  of  earthenware  to 
remove  the  scurf  skin.  He  sat  down  among 
the  ashes]  Perhaps  those  of  his  camp  fires. 
This  was  a  sign  of  mourning.  Tradition 
places  him  on  a  dunghill,  like  the  '  Mizbeleh ' 
or  mound  of  refuse  found  outside  an  Eastern 
town  or  village  where  lepers  and  other  outcasts 
sit,  and  men  sometimes  meet  to  talk. 

9.  Job's  wife  would  have  had  him  act  as  the 
Adversary  expected  him  to  do.  '  You  may  as 
well  renounce  God's  service  since  you  benefit 
so  little  by  it,  and  meet  your  fate  at  once 
instead  of  lingering  in  intolerable  pain.' 

10.  Both  good  and  evil  are  from  God's 
hand,  and  must  be  taken  in  the  same  spirit. 
The  words  of  Job  are  in  notable  contrast  to 
those  of  his  wife.  With  his  lips]  The  reader 
must  not  be  misled  into  thinking  that  the  author 
means  to  suggest  that  Job  nursed  in  his  heart 
a  rebellion  he  would  not  utter  with  his  lips. 

11.  The  three  friends  of  Job  now  come 
upon  the  scene.  They  are  represented  as 
persons  of  importance  like  himself.  Temanite] 
connected  with  Edom  (Jer49'').  Shuhite] 
Shuah  was  a  son  of  Abraham  by  Keturah,  who 
was  sent  'to  the  East'  (Gn25'-,<J).  Naama- 
thite]  unknown.  The  friends,  like  Job,  were 
probably  descendants  of  Abraham,  but  not  of 
Israel  (Jacob).  12.  Knew  him  not]  so  dis- 
figured was  he  by  his  sickness  and  misery. 

Sprinkled  dust  upon  their  heads]  This  was 
generally  done  when  lying  prostrate  on  the 
ground  (cp.  Lam  2  lO)^  but  the  words  '  toward 
heaven '  suggest  that  they  were  standing. 
They  throw  dust  in  the  air,  which  falls  on 
their  heads.  13.  Seven  days]  the  time  of 
mourning  for  the  dead  :  cp.  1  S31 13  EzkS^^. 

CHAPTER    3 

Job  curses  his  Day 

Job  curses  the  day  of  his  birth.  He  askg 
why  he  did  not  die  at  birth  :  why  should  his 
wretched  life  be  prolonged  ? 

We  are  now  confronted  with  a  striking 
change  in  Job's  frame  of  mind  from  that 
presented  in  2 10.  Probably  a  considerable 
interval  had  elapsed  before  his  friends  arrived. 
He  complains  in  the  speeches  which  follow  of 
the  emaciated  state  into  which  he  had  fallen, 
and  that  from  being  the  honoured  of  all  he 
had  become  a  byword  to  his  neighbours  :  cp. 
13  198-22  301-15.  It  is  evident  from  this  c. 
that  he  has  been  brooding  over  the  miseries 
of  his  condition  and  the  hopelessness  of  the 
future,  and  complaint  has  taken  the  place  of 
resignation.  The  presence  of  his  friends  only 
provokes  him  to  give  vent  to  his  anguish.  In 
their  silent  amazement  he  sees  as  in  a  mirror 
the  extent  of  his  own  misery.  He  casts 
himself    confidently    on     their     sjTiipathetic 


294 


S.  1 


JOB 


4. 


comprehension,  and  freely  utters  the  dark 
thoughts  he  has  hitherto  restrained.  He 
knows  that  if  left  to  himself  he  may  lose  the 
fear  of  the  Almighty,  and  trusts  that  they  will 
deliver  him  from  this  temptation.  But  an 
obsolete  theology  froze  their  power  to  help. 

Chs.  3-42  6  are  poetical  in  form,  not  in  exact 
metre  as  if  for  song,  but  rhythmical  for  read- 
ing. The  parts  of  which  the  couplet  or  trip- 
let forming  the  verse  are  composed  show  a 
marked  parallelism,  the  thought  in  one  half  cor- 
responding to  or  completing  the  thought  in  the 
other.      C.  3  is  a  good  example. 

There  is  much  similarity  between  this  c. 
and  Jer20i**-is,  but  the  thoughts  are  those 
natural  to  the  Hebrew  mind,  and  we  need  not 
necessarily  suppose  them  to  be  borrowed  in 
either  case. 

3-10.  Job  curses  the  day  of  his  birth. 

I.  His  day]  the  day  of  his  birth.  It  was 
thought  that  the  days  of  the  year  had  an  exist- 
ence of  their  own,  so  that  any  given  day  would 
come  round  again  in  its  turn.  Hence  Job  is 
not  cursing  a  day  which  long  ago  ceased  to  be, 
but  one  which  year  by  year  comes  back  to 
blight  the  happiness  of  others  as  it  blighted 
his  :  see  on  v.  5.  3.  Observe  the  piled-up 
malediction.  The  power  and  pathos  of  the  c. 
are  remarkable.  5.  Stain  it]  RV  '  claim  it  for 
their  own.'  Blackness  of,  etc.]  E,V  '  all  that 
maketh  black  the  day '  ;  e.g.  eclipses  and  un- 
usual darknesses.  6.  Let  it  not  be  joined,  etc.] 
let  it  be  blotted  out  of  the  calendar.  The 
ancients  believed  in  lucky  and  unlucky  days. 
Let  this  day  ruin  no  more  lives,  it  has  ruined 
enough.  7.  Solitary]  RV  '  barren.'  No  joy- 
ful voice]   as  on  the  occasion  of  a  birth. 

8.  Let  them  curse  it  that  curse  the  day]  A 
reference  to  magicians  who  professed  to  be 
able  to  cast  spells  on  a  day  and  make  it  un- 
lucky, apparently  causing  eclipses,  as  the  next 
line  suggests.  Who  are  ready  to  raise  up  their 
mourning]  RV  '  Who  are  ready  to  raise  up 
leviathan '  (a  mythical  dragon).  It  was  an 
ancient  superstition  that  when  an  eclipse  hap- 
pened it  was  caused  by  a  dragon  which  swal- 
lowed the  sun  or  moon,  or  enfolded  them  in 
its  coils,  and  so  created  darkness.  A  curious 
present-day  confirmation  of  this  idea  occurs 
in  the  daily  papers  of  Nov.  11,  1901.  In  a 
telegram  from  Peking  it  was  reported  that  for 
the  first  time  in  history  a  few  foreigners  were 
invited  to  be  present  at  the  Chinese  Board  of 
Rites  to  witness  '  the  rescuing  of  the  sun,  which 
was  suffering  from  the  attacks  of  a  dragon. 
The  rescue  was  accomplished  by  means  of 
prostrations,  the  burning  of  incense,  and  Ideat- 
ing of  drums  and  gongs.'  9.  Dawning  of  the 
day]   lit.  '  eyelids  of  the  morning.' 

11-19.  Job  asks  why  he  did  not  die  at 
birth  ;  a  very  fine  passage  expressive  of  great 
bitterness  of  soul. 


295 


12.  Prevent  me]  RV  'receive  me.'  It  was 
usual  for  the  newborn  child  to  be  laid  on  its 
father's  knees  in  token  of  ownership.  If  he 
suffered  it  to  remain  he  pledged  himself  to 
bring  it  up.  14.  Desolate  places]  RM  '  soli- 
tary piles  ' :  cp.  the  pyramids  of  Egypt,  which 
were  the  royal  burying-places. 

15-19.  In  reading  these  verses,  in  spite  of 
their  great  beauty,  we  cannot  help  contrasting 
the  vague  and  cheerless  ideas  about  the  future 
state  in  these  early  days  with  the  clearer  know- 
ledge and  glorious  hope  of  the  Christian. 
Although  believing  that  the  soul  retained  its 
consciousness,  men  do  not  appear  to  have  re- 
garded death  as  but  the  beginning  of  a  higher 
form  of  existence,  in  looking  forward  to  which 
man  learns  to  bear  the  trials  of  life  with 
patience.  They  thought  of  Sheol  as  the  dim 
and  cheerless  underworld,  where  the  pale 
shades  of  the  departed  di-agged  on  a  colourless 
existence,  dark  and  monotonous.  Yet  the 
gloom  of  Sheol  is  to  Job  a  welcome  refuge, 
where  he  would  be  at  peace.  How  terrible 
must  be  the  pain  from  which  he  would  gladly 
escape  to  so  wretched  a  home. 

15.  Perhaps  an  allusion  to  the  valuables 
buried  in  ancient  tombs.  18.  Oppressor] 
rather,  '  taskmaster.' 

20-26.  Job  asks  why  his  wretched  life 
should  be  prolonged. 

22.  There  may  be  a  connexion  of  thought 
here  with  the  'hid  treasures'  of  v.  21.  The 
idea  is  perhaps  that  of  violating  an  ancient 
tomb.  The  entrance  was  usually  hidden  care- 
fully. 23.  Whose  way  is  hid]  in  perplexity 
and  doubt.  24.  Translate,  '  For  my  sighings 
are  instead  of  my  eating,  and  my  groans  are 
poured  out  like  drink  '  :  cp.  Ps423. 

25,  26.  The  verbs  should  all  be  in  the 
present  tense  in  these  vv.  Job's  grief  and 
sickness  make  him  full  of  gloomy  forebodings, 
which  are  constantly  being  realised. 

The  passionate  complaints  and  longings  for 
death  in  this  c.  testify  to  the  agitation  of  Job's 
soul.  There  are  signs  of  impatience  and  re- 
sentment at  God's  dealings,  which  shock  his 
friends  and  evidently  influence  the  tone  of 
their  language  towards  him  in  the  debate 
which  follows. 

The  First  Series  of  Speeches  (Chs.  4-14) 

CHAPTER  4 
The  First  Speech  of  Eliphaz  (Chs.  4,  5) 
Eliphaz  is  the  principal  and  probably  the 
oldest  of  the  three  friends  :  cp.  32*^'.  He  is 
also  the  most  considerate.  But  the  complain- 
ings of  Job  in  c.  3  had  evidently  deepened  in 
him  the  bad  impression  which  must  have  been 
created  by  Job's  sufferings,  and  being  ignorant 
of  the  true  cause  of  his  trials  he  draws  false 
conclusions   from    them.      Whilst    admitting 


4.  1 


JOB 


6.2 


that  Job  is  fundamentally  a  pious  man,  Eli- 
phaz  infers  that  his  sufferings  must  be  the 
punishment  of  some  sin,  and  that  therefore 
the  correction  which  God  is  sending  should  be 
received  with  humility  and  the  sin  repented 
of.  These  premises,  which  are  held  by  all 
the  friends,  are  throughout  denied  and 
combated  by  Job. 

i-ii.  Eliphaz  gently  rebukes  Job  for  yield- 
ing to  despair,  since  the  godly  do  not  perish 
under  their  affliction,  but  it  is  the  wicked  who 
reap  the  evil  they  have  sown. 

2.  Note  the  courtesy  of  Eliphaz.  He  loses 
his  temper  in  later  speeches. 

2-5.  Eliphaz  is  greatly  struck  with  the  re- 
verse in  Job's  fortunes.  He  who  had  been 
the  great  comforter  of  those  in  distress  is  now 
overcome  by  his  own  troubles.  Observe  that 
Eliphaz  quite  underrates  their  severity,  and 
ignores  the  wonderful  resignation  Job  has 
displayed.  4.  Cp.  29  ^--i"^.  5.  It  is  come]  i.e. 
calamity. 

6.  RV  '  Is  not  thy  fear  (of  God)  thy  con- 
fidence, and  thy  hope  the  integrity  of  thy 
ways '?  '  Surely  Job  may  reckon  on  the  up- 
rightness of  his  past  life  as  a  pledge  of  speedy 
deliverance  !  He  must  not  despair.  The  v. 
is  important  as  proving  that  the  friends  recog- 
nised Job's  fundamental  goodness,  into  what- 
ever sins  he  may  have  suffered  himself  to  be 
betrayed. 

7-9.  Whereas  gross  sinners  are  sure  to  be 
cut  off,  the  righteous  man,  though  he  may 
have  to  suffer  for  his  faults,  has  reason  to 
hope  that  he  will  not  perish.  10,  11.  The 
wicked,  who  are  compared  to  lions,  will  cer- 
tainly be  destroyed  :  cp.  Ps22i2. 

12-21.  By  way  of  awakening  in  Job  a 
sense  of  sin  Eliphaz  describes  a  vision  in  which 
was  revealed  to  him  the  perfect  purity  of  God, 
and  the  imperfection  in  His  sight  of  men  and 
even  of  angels.  We  have  here  one  of  the 
most  wonderful  passages  in  literature.  The 
secrecy,  the  hush,  the  sudden  panic,  the  breath 
that  passes  over  the  face,  the  hair  erect  with 
horror,  the  shadowy  figure  whose  form  he 
cannot  discern,  the  silence  broken  by  the 
voice,  all  combine  to  produce  the  impression 
of  terror,  and  terror  not  of  the  definitely 
known,  but  of  the  vague  and  mysterious,  leav- 
ing the  imagination  full  play  to  heighten  it. 

15.  A  spirit]  rather,  '  a  breath.'  17.  RM 
'  Shall  mortal  man  be  just  before '  (i.e.  in 
the  eyes  of)  '  God  ?  Shall  a  man  be  pure 
before  his  Maker?'  18.  He  put  no  trust] 
because  of  their  imperfections.  Servants] 
attendant  angels.  19.  Houses  of  clay]  perish- 
ing bodies  :  cp.  2  Cor  5 1.  If  spiritual  beings 
like  the  angels  were  imperfect,  how  much 
more  men  with  material  bodies.  Before]  RM 
'  like.'  20.  From  morning  to  evening]  i.e.  in 
a  day. 


21.  Doth  not,  etc.]  rather,  'Is  not  their 
tent-cord  (or  tent-peg)  pulled  up  in  them  ? ' 
The  falling  tent  is  a  figure  of  collapse  and 
death.  Even  without  wisdom]  i.e.  without 
having  learnt  the  great  lessons  of  life. 

CHAPTER  5 

The  First  Speech  of  Eliphaz  (concluded) 
1-5.  Eliphaz  warns  Job  that  to  show  a  re- 
sentful temper  at  God's  dispensations  is  folly, 
and  that  fools  never  prosper. 

1.  Call,  etc.]  i.e.  '  make  your  complaint 
against  God  to  the  angels'  ;  'do  you  think  they 
will  help  you  ?  '  Saints]  RV  '  holy  ones,'  i.e. 
the  angels.  2.  Wrath]  RV  '  vexation.'  Envy] 
RV  '  jealousy.'  Such  rash  conduct  brings 
destruction. 

3.  Cursed]  i.e.  rejected  as  an  accursed 
thing.  At  fii'st  Eliphaz  was  inclined  to  envy 
the  prosperity  of  the  wicked  ;  but  in  a 
moment  he  sees  there  is  no  room  for  envy. 
He  would  not  accept  their  position  at  any  price, 
so  sudden  and  sure  was  their  downfall. 

4.  Crushed  in  the  gate]  the  gate  of  the 
city,  where  justice  was  administered  :  cp.  Ps 
127^,  There  are  none  to  support  their  cause 
or  to  influence  the  judge.  5.  The  thorns]  the 
protecting  thorn  hedge. 

6,  7.  Affliction  is  not  accidental,  but  is  due 
to  man's  sinful  nature.     Although]  RV  '  for.' 

8.  I]  RV  'As  for  me,  I.'  Eliphaz,  instead  of 
murmuring,  would  leave  his  case  in  the  hands 
of  One  who  is  both  great  and  wise.  11.  To 
set]  RV  '  so  that  he  setteth,'  i.e  setteth  men 
up  by  raising  them  from  despair.  13.  He 
taketh  the  wise  in  their  own  craftiness]  quoted 
by  St.  Paul  in  1  CorS^^,  the  only  quotation 
from  Job  in  the  NT.  Is  carried  headlong] 
i.e.  furthered  to  their  hurt.  14.  The  bewil- 
dered, haunted  state  into  which  the  crooked 
devices  of  the  wicked  bring  them.  15.  From 
their  mouth]  RV  '  of  their  mouth.' 

17-27.  The  blessedness  of  affliction  if  re- 
garded as  correction. 

21.  Scourge  of  the  tongue]  of  false  accusers 
and  slanderers  :  cp.  v.  15.  23.  In  league  with 
the  stones  of  the  field]  His  land  will  be  free 
from  stones ;  a  part  of  the  general  thought 
of  being  at  peace  with  all  creation  :  cp.  Prov 
16".  For  the  idea  of  a  sympathy  between 
man  and  nature  cp.  RoS^^^  24.  Taber- 
nacle] RV  '  tent.'  Shalt  not  sin]  RV  '  shalt 
miss  nothing.' 

CHAPTER  6 
The  First  Speech  of  Job  (Chs.  6,  7) 
1-13.  Job,  smarting  under  the  remarks  of 
Eliphaz,  which  he  feels  are  not  appropriate  to 
his  case,  renews  and  justifies  his  complaints. 
He  bemoans  the  heaviness  of  God's  hand,  and 
wishes  that  He  would  slay  him  outright. 

2,  3.  Job  admits  that  he  was  rash   in  his 


296 


6.3 


JOB 


7.  12 


remarks  (in  c.  3),  but  declares  that  his  language 
was  justified  by  his  miserable  condition. 

3.  Are  swallowed  up]  RV  '  have  been 
rash.'  4.  It  is  because  he  feels  that  his 
troubles  are  due  to  God  that  he  is  almost 
beside  himself,  since  he  cannot  understand 
their  motive.  In  c.  3  he  had  not  charged 
God  with  being  the  author  of  his  sorrows. 

5-7.  Job  continues  to  assert  that  he  would 
not  complain  without  good  cause.  5.  The 
animals  cease  their  cries  when  their  wants  are 
satisfied.     6.    Unsavoury]   without  flavour. 

The  white  of  an  egg]  Some  prefer  RM 
'the  juice  of  purslain.'  7,  EV  'My  soul 
refuseth  to  touch  them;  They  are  as  loath- 
some meat  to  me.'  Vv.  6,  7  may  mean  that 
Job's  afflictions  are  as  intolerable  to  him  as 
loathsome  food. 

8-10.  Job  longs  for  the  stroke  of  death  to 
descend  and  release  him  from  his  pain. 

ID.  Yea,  I  would,  etc.]  EY  'Yea,  I  would 
exult  in  pain  that  spareth  not  :  for  I  have  not 
denied,'  etc.  Job  fears  not  death,  for  he  is 
unconscious  of  sin  towards  God.  The  passage 
is  difficult,  since  Job  does  not  expect  retribu- 
tion after  death.  The  original  text  may  not 
be  correctly  preserved. 

II.  Prolong  my  life]  RY  'be  patient.' 
Since  there  is  nothing  but  death  before  him, 
how  can  he  help  being  impatient  for  its 
arrival  ?  12.  He  is  not  made  of  stone  or 
brass  that  he  can  bear  such  troubles.  13.  E.Y 
'  Is  it  not  that  I  have  no  help  in  me,  and 
sound  wisdom  is  driven  quite  from  me  ? '  He 
is  exhausted  and  without  resoui'ce. 

14-30.  Job  complains  of  the  lack  of  sym- 
pathy and  false  conclusions  of  the  friends. 
They  have  bitterly  disappointed  the  hopes  he 
had  set  on  them. 

14.  But  he  forsaketh]  RY  'even  to  him 
that  forsaketh.'  Kind  words  from  his  friends 
might  have  helped  Job  to  retain  his  trust  in 
God,  which  he  feared  to  lose. 

15-20.  Job  likens  the  treatment  of  the 
friends  to  sudden  torrents  which  fill  the  deep 
ravines  or  wadies  of  his  land  after  storms. 
These  flow  abundantly  in  the  winter,  when 
they  are  least  needed.  In  the  parching  heats 
of  summer  they  dry  up,  and  are  sought  in 
vain  by  wandering  caravans  which  perish  from 
thirst.  So  his  friends  fail  him  when  most 
wanted. 

16.  In  the  winter  the  torrents  are  black 
and  turbid  with  melting  snow.  There  is 
plenty  of  ice  in  winter  in  the  upper  parts  of 
Edom.  18.  RY  '  The  caravans  that  travel 
by  the  way  of  them  turn  aside '  (in  search  of 
water).     They  go  up  into  the  waste,  and  perish. 

19,20.  Troops]  RY  'caravans.'  Tema .  . 
Sheba]  in  Arabia.  The  vv.  describe  the  dis- 
appointment (ashamed)  of  the  Arab  caravans. 

21.  Ye    are    nothing]     RM    'ye    are    like 


297 


thereto,'  i.e.  to  the  deceptive  brooks.  But  it 
would  be  better  to  read  '  so  have  ye  been  to 
me.'  And  are  afraid]  perhaps  of  showing 
sympathy,  since  they  thought  him  guilty  of 
sin.  22,  23.  All  that  Job  looked  for  from 
them  was  sympathy.  25,  Forcible]  perhaps 
'  irritating '  would  be  better,  a  bitter  sarcasm. 

What  doth  your  arguing  reprove  ?]  At 
what  sin  are  they  aiming  ?  26.  '  Are  you 
finding  fault  with  desperate  words  uttered  in 
distress  ?  '  27.  Render,  '  Would  you  sadden 
the  bereaved  and  wound  your  friend  ? ' 

28.  Look  upon  me]  i.e.  in  the  face.  For 
it  is  evident,  etc.]  RY  'For  surely  I  shall  not 
lie  to  your  face.'  29.  Render,  '  Reconsider 
my  case  ;  do  not  do  me  such  injustice.'  Yes, 
reconsider  it  ;  my  cause  is  a  righteous  one  ! 

Iniquity]  RY  '  injustice.'  30.  Is  there 
iniquity,  etc.]  rather,  '  Is  my  tongue  per- 
verted ?  '  Cannot  my  taste,  etc.]  '  Cannot  I 
distinguish  between  right  and  wrong  as  well 
as  you  can  ? ' 

CHAPTER   7 
Job's  Fikst  Speech  (concluded) 

I  -10.  Job  laments  the  hardship  and  misery 
of  his  destiny. 

I.  Man's  life  is  a  lot  of  hardship.  Appointed 
time]  RM  '  time  of  service.'  2,  3.  As  the 
labourer  longs  for  the  weary  day  to  end  and 
to  receive  his  wages,  so  Job  bemoans  the 
length  of  his  sufferings  and  sighs  for  death  to 
end  them.  3.  Months  of  vanity]  so  called 
because  they  were  unsatisfactory,  hopeless. 
'  Months '  imply  that  Job's  sufferings  had 
lasted  a  considerable  time.  5.  Worms]  from 
the  diseased  flesh.  Clods  of  dust]  the  crust 
of  his  sores.  These  symptoms  are  found  in 
leprosy,  though  they  are  not  peculiar  to  it. 

6.  Weaver's  shuttle]  the  implement  which 
carries  the  thread  swiftly  backwards  and 
forwards  in  weaving.  Job  has  just  been 
longing  for  death,  but  yet  he  feels  that 
length  of  days  is  desirable  in  itself  if  freed 
from  so  much  misery.  Without  hope]  of 
recovery.  7.  Good]  i.e.  happiness.  8.  Thine 
eyes,  etc.]  render,  '  Thine  (God's)  eyes  shall 
look  for  me,  but  I  shall  be  no  more.' 

9.  Grave]  better,  as  RY,  '  Sheol,'  the  place 
of  the  departed  :  see  on  315-19.  Note  how 
hopeless  is  the  outlook  here  and  elsewhere 
towards  the  future. 

11-21.  He  appeals  to  God,  complaining  of 
the  undeserved  severity  of  his  treatment.  He 
demands  why  God  concerns  Himself  to  inter- 
fei-e  with  so  insignificant  a  being  as  man. 

12.  'Am  I  so  dangerous  a  character  that  I 
need  such  persistent  persecution  ?  '  Whale] 
rather,  '  sea  monster,'  perhaps  the  personifica- 
tion of  the  sea,  the  mythical  dragon  of  the 
ancients.  The  Babylonians  told  the  myth  of 
the   dragon  Tiamat,  who  waged  war  against 


7.14 


JOB 


9. 


heaven  and  was  slain  by  the  God  Marduk. 
(See  art.  '  Genesis  and  the  Babylonian  Inscrip- 
tions.') This  myth  is  referred  to  here,  but  in 
a  form  which  represented  the  monster,  not  as 
slain,  but  imprisoned  and  kept  under  strict  ob- 
servation. The  sea  needs  to  be  held  down  lest 
it  flood  the  earth  or  smite  the  sky  (cp.  38  ^-H), 
the  dragon  must  be  watched  lest  it  bursts  its 
bonds.  Is  Job  as  formidable  as  they  that  God 
should  watch  him  as  closely  ? 

14.  Dreams]   the  bad  dreams  of  the  sick. 

15.  Strangling]  or,  suffocation.  Job  longs 
for  the  arrival  of  this  sign  of  approaching 
death.  My  life]  RY  '■these  my  bones.'  He 
was  reduced  to  a  skeleton.  Possibly  we  should 
read  '  my  pains.'  16.  RV  '  I  loathe  my  life  :  I 
would  not  live  alway.'  Vanity]  EM  '  as  a 
breath.' 

17.  Magnify]  i.e.  consider  of  such  import- 
ance. Set  thine  heart]  or  'fix  thy  thoughts.' 
The  thought  of  vv.  17  f.  is  '  Surely  man  is  too 
insignificant  for  such  constant  persecution. 
Even  his  sins  are  hardly  worth  heeding.'  Cp. 
Ps  8  ^>  =*,  of  which  these  vv.  seem  to  be  a  bitter 
parody.  19.  Till  I  swallow,  etc.]  i.e.  for  a 
moment. 

20.  RV  '  If  I  have  sinned,  what  do  I  unto 
thee,  0  thou  watcher  of  men  ?  '  :  i.e.  granting 
that  I  have  sinned  (which  Job  does  not),  how 
can  it  affect  Thee  who  art  so  great  ?  Against 
thee]  RV 'for  thee.'  21.  In  the  morning]  RV 
'  diligently.'  Job  believes  that  one  day  God 
will  turn  to  him  once  more  in  love,  but  then 
it  will  be  too  late.  The  faint  hope  expressed 
here  gradually  becomes  a  conviction  :  cp. 
13 15-18  1413-15  1619-21  1923-27. 

The  speech  of  Eliphaz,  while  considerate  in 
tone,  yet  took  Job's  guilt  for  granted.  This 
shows  the  sufferer  that  he  can  expect  no  sym- 
pathetic insight  from  the  friends,  and  the  shock 
of  the  disappointment  drives  him  not  simply 
to  scornful  attack  on  them,  but  to  bitter  accusa- 
tion of  God,  whom  he  regards  as  the  direct 
author  of  his  troubles.  He  thinks  of  Him  as 
petty  and  spiteful,  yet  he  cannot  forget  the 
blessed  communion  of  happier  days,  and  ends 
with  the  thought  that  when  His  present  anger 
is  passed.  He  will  desire  a  renewal  of  that 
fellowship. 

CHAPTER  8 

The  First  Speech  of  Bildad 
Holding  the  same  doctrine  about  sin  and 
suffering  as  Eliphaz,  Bildad  supports  the  views 
of  his  friend  by  an  appeal  to  the  teaching  of 
antiquity.  He  shows  less  sympathy  and  more 
narrowness  of  mind  than  Eliphaz. 

1-7.  Bildad  maintains  the  justice  of  God's 
actions.  Since  Job's  children  have  perished  it 
must  have  been  for  their  sins.  As  for  Job,  if 
he  would  but  repent  he  would  be  restored  to 
prosperity. 


2.  Lilce  a  strong  -wind]   violent,  headstrong. 

3.  Can  there  be  injustice  with  God  as  Job 
seems  to  think  is  possible  ?  Bildad  thinks  the 
All-powerful  must  in  the  nature  of  things  be 
righteous.  Job  does  not  deny  the  omnipotence, 
but  he  questions  the  righteousness.  4.  And 
he  have  cast,  etc.]  RV  '  he  delivered  them  into 
the  hand  of  their  transgression,'  i.e.  abandoned 
them  to  the  consequences  of  their  sins.  This 
conclusion  about  the  death  of  Job's  sons  was 
quite  unjustifiable  (cp.  LklS'i  Jn92.3),  but  is 
in  accordance  with  the  general  views  about  re- 
tribution. The  catastrophe  had  fallen  on  the 
very  day  on  which  their  father  had  offered  the 
sacrifice  :  see  on  1 13.  6.  Awake  for  thee] 
LXX  reads  '  hearken  unto  thee.' 

8-22.  Bildad  appeals  to  the  experience  of 
antiquity  to  show  that  God  uproots  the  wicked, 
though  they  seem  firmly  established,  and  does 
not  cast  away  the  upright. 

8.  To  the  search  of  their  fathers]  RV  '  to 
that  which  their  fathers  have  searched  out.' 

9.  We]   the  men  of  his  own  day. 

11-15.  As  surely  as  a  water-plant  perishes 
without  water  so  surely  will  the  sinner  perish 
when  God  turns  from  him.  11.  The  rush] 
RM  '  the  papyrus,'  a  reed  from  which  the 
Egyptians  made  paper,  light  boats,  etc. 

13.  Hope]  of  prosperity.  15.  Hold  it  fast] 
RV  '  hold  fast  thereby.' 

16-18.  The  sinner  is  compared  to  a  fast- 
growing  weed  which  flourishes  under  the 
heat  of  the  sun,  and  whose  roots  plant  them- 
selves firmly  in  the  earth  (seeth  the  place  of 
stones),  but  when  destroyed  it  passes  at  once 
into  oblivion.  A  slight  correction  of  the  Heb. 
would  give  for  17*^,  'It  lives  in  a  house  of 
stones.'  17.  Heap]  The  Heb.  also  means 
'  fountain,'  and  possibly  the  sense  may  be  that 
the  plant  lives  in  the  stone  erection  over  the 
fountain  in  the  garden.  19.  The  joy  of  his 
way]  the  short-lived  prosperity  of  the  sinner. 
Others  gro^w]   who  fill  his  place. 

21.  Till  he]  RV  'He  will  yet.'  Bildad, 
sharing  the  view  of  Eliphaz  that  while  Job 
must  have  fallen  into  some  heinous  sin  he  was 
nevertheless  a  pious  and  upright  man  at  heart, 
bases  on  this  his  prophecy  that  God  will  restore 
him.  He  must  be  chastened,  but  he  cannot  be 
cast  away. 

CHAPTER  9 
Job's  Second  Speech  (Chs.  9,  10) 

Chs.  9, 10  are,  perhaps,  in  their  religious  and 
moral  aspects  the  most  difficult  in  the  book. 

Driver  in  his  '  Introduction  to  the  Literature 
of  the  OT.'  analyses  them  as  follows  : — '  Job 
as  well  as  his  friends  believes  suffering  to  be 
a  mark  of  God's  displeasure  for  some  grave 
sin.  Job,  however,  is  conscious  that  he  has 
not  so  sinned.  Hence  the  terrible  dilemma  in 
which  he  finds  himself  and  which  forces  him 


298 


9.2 


JOB 


9.28 


to  the  conclusion  that  God,  though  He  knows 
him  to  be  innocent  (10'^),  is  determined  to 
treat  him  as  guilty,  and  that  it  is  hopeless  for 
him  to  attempt  to  clear  himself.'  Davidson 
characterises  the  leading  features  of  the  speech 
as  '  awe  before  an  Omnipotent  Power,  and 
moral  terror  and  indignation,  mixed  with  pite- 
ous despair  at  the  indiscriminate  severity  with 
which  it  crushes  men  ! ' 

The  strange  blending  of  conflicting  emotions 
is  one  of  the  most  striking  features  in  this  and 
some  other  of  Job's  speeches.  With  great 
skill  and  psychological  insight  the  poet  has 
shown  us  the  rebellion  which,  springing  from 
God's  apparent  cruelty,  gives  place  for  the 
moment  to  a  softened  mood  as  the  sufferer 
recalls  his  former  life  in  God's  favour.  Then 
this,  in  turn,  is  brushed  aside  to  make  way  for 
a  darker  accusation  than  ever ;  God  had  de- 
liberately led  him  on  to  believe  in  His  love 
that  He  might  make  all  the  bitterer  the  reve- 
lation of  His  hate.  Then  the  mood  changes 
once  more  and  he  appeals  to  the  pity  of  that 
God,  whose  pitilessness  he  has  just  asserted. 

2-13.  Job  admits  that  it  is  impossible  for 
him  to  maintain  his  righteousness  before  God. 
But  this  he  implies  is  not  due  to  his  conscious- 
ness of  guilt,  but  to  the  hopelessness  of  at- 
tempting to  defend  himself  against  God's  irre- 
sistible power  which  is  manifested  throughout 
creation. 

3.   If  he  will]  RM  '  If  one  should  desire  to.' 

Contend]  argue  his  cause.  One  of  a  thousand] 
viz.  charges  against  him,  or  questions  with 
which  he  might  be  entrapped.  5.  And  they 
know  not :  which  overturneth]  B,V  '  And  they 
know  it  not  when  he  overturneth.'  The 
catastrophe  is  so  sudden.  6.  The  v.  describes 
an  earthquake.  The  roots  of  the  mountains 
were  thought  of  as  pillars  supporting  the  earth  : 
cp.  2G11  Ps76^.  7.  It  riseth  not]  because  of 
darkness  or  eclipse.  Sealeth  up]  i.e.  in  the 
abode  where  the  stars  were  thought  to  dwell, 
and  where  they  were  brought  forth  by  night 
to  shine  in  the  sky  (Isa4026).  8.  Cp.  Isa402--2. 
The  points  of  resemblance  between  the  book 
of  Job  and  the  latter  part  of  Isaiah  are  striking 
and  frequent. 

9.  Arcturus]  RV  'the  Bear.'  The  Heb. 
names  in  this  v.  are  supposed  to  refer  to  three 
well-known  constellations,  the  Bear,  the  Plei- 
ades, and  Orion.  Chambers  of  the  south]  the 
southern  heavens.  So  the  Babylonians  divided 
the  sky  into  'lunar  mansions.'  11.  Job  is 
baffled  by  the  suddenness  and  mystery  of  God's 
actions.     There  is  no  escaping  Him. 

13.  RV  '  God  will  not  withdraw  his  anger  ; 
the  helpers  of  Rahab  do  stoop  under  him.' 
The  word  '  Rahab,'  which  means  '  pride,'  occurs 
again  in  26^2  RV,  and  is  there  evidently  ap- 
plied to  the  raging  sea.  '  This  stormy  sea, 
assaulting  heaven  with  its  waves,  was  personi- 


fied in  ancient  myth  as  a  monster  leading  his 
helpers  on  to  wage  war  with  heaven '  (David- 
son). Rahab  is  the  same  as  Tifimat  (see  on 
7 12).  The  myth  relates  that  she  brought  forth 
a  brood  of  monsters  to  help  her  in  her  battle. 
To  this  the  term  '  helpers  of  Rahab  '  alludes. 
See  also  Isa51^. 

14-21.  God,  Job  feels,  is  resolved  to  regard 
him  as  guilty.  It  is  therefore  vain  to  assert 
his  innocence,  yet  while  he  can  assert  it  he  will. 

15.   Would  I  not]  i.e.  '  would  I  not  dare  to.' 

I  would  make  supplication]  rather,  '  I  must 
ask  mercy.'  It  would  be  useless  to  attempt 
to  establish  his  innocence.  Judge]  rather, 
' adversary-at-law.'  16.  'If  God  allowed  me 
to  plead  my  cause,  I  cannot  believe  He  would 
condescend  to  attend  to  me.'  Job  feels  that 
God  is  indifferent  to  his  cry  for  justice. 

17,  18.  Breaketh  .  .  multiplieth  .  .  will  not 
suffer  .  .  fiUeth]  rather,  '  would  break  .  .  would 
multiply  .  .  would  not  suffer  .  .  would  fill.' 

19.  God  is  represented  as  speaking.  '  If  it 
be  a  question  of  strength,  it  is  I  who  am 
strong ;  if  of  judgment,  who  would  dare  ap- 
point .  me  a  day  V  '  '  The  words  imply  the 
irresponsibility  and  superiority  to  all  law  of 
the  speaker '  (Davidson).  20.  Job  speaks. 
Render,  '  Though  I  am  innocent,  a  word  may 
put  me  in  the  wrong ;  though  I  am  upright, 
He  can  pervert  me.'  It  is  therefore  useless 
to  plead.  21.  RV  '  I  am  perfect ;  I  regard  not 
myself ;  I  despise  my  life.'  Job  now  boldly 
asserts  that  he  is  innocent,  even  though  it  may 
cost  him  his  life. 

22-24.  Job  boldly  arraigns  the  morality  of 
the  divine  government  of  the  world. 

22.  This  is  one  thiNg]  RV  '  It  is  all  one.' 
Apparently  he  means,  '  It  makes  no  difference 
whether  I  live  or  die.'  God  destroys  indis- 
criminately both  innocent  and  guilty.  This 
directly  controverts  the  friends'  view  (S^O). 
There  is  no  such  thing  as  a  moral  government 
of  the  world.     23.   Scourge]   e.g.  famine,  etc. 

Trial]  RM  '  calamity.'  24.  He  covereth  the 
faces,  etc.]   so  that  they  are  blind  to  justice. 

If  not,  where,  etc.]  RV  '  If  U  be  not  he,  who 
then  is  it  ? '  To  whom  but  God  can  this  state 
of  things  be  ascribed  ? 

25-31-  Job's  life  speeds  away;  God  will 
make  him  out  to  be  guilty  however  pure  he 
may  be. 

25,  26.  Cp.  WisdS^'io^  where  two  of  the 
same  metaphors  are  similarly  used.  25.  A  post] 
RM  a  '  runner '  with  messages.  26.  Swift 
ships]  Heb.  '  ships  of  reed,'  light  boats  made 
from  the  papyrus  reed,  and  very  swift. 

28.  Since  God  is  determined  to  hold  Job 
guilty,  it  is  useless  for  him  to  try  and  estal)lish 
his  innocence.  I  am  afraid  of  all  my  sorrows] 
because  they  seem  to  be  evidences  of  God's 
anger.  Apparently  there  were  times  when 
the  pain  was  less  acute,  but  the  cheerfulness 


299 


9.29 


JOB 


11.6 


he  might  have  felt  was  checked  by  the  know- 
ledge that  it  would  come  back  again.  29,  If 
I  be  wicked]  RV  '  I  shall  be  condemned.' 

30.  And  make,  etc.  ]  RM  '  And  cleanse  my 
hands  with  lye,'  or  potash.  He  means  that  he 
is  really  righteous,  but  God  is  determined  to 
make  him  seem  wicked. 

32-35.  Job  is  conscious  that  he  cannot 
meet  God  on  his  own  level  and  plead  his  cause 
on  equal  terms,  nor  is  there  any  one  to  act 
as  mediator. 

33.  Daysman]  an  Old  English  word  mean- 
ing '  umpire,'  or  '  arbitrator  '  ;  one  who  mediates 
between  two  parties. 

33-35.  Translate  (with  Cox)  :  '  There  is  no 
arbiter  between  us  to  lay  his  hand  upon  us 
both,  who  would  remove  His  (God's)  rod  from 
me  so  that  the  dread  of  Him  should  not  over- 
awe me.  If  there  were,  I  would  speak  and 
not  fear  Him.'  Job  laments  that  there  is  no 
being,  having  power  with  God  and  man,  who 
would  interpose  and  arbitrate  between  him  and 
God,  and  make  both  parties  yield  to  his  decision. 

This  passage  is  the  first  occurrence  of  the 
idea  of  intervention  on  his  behalf,  which  takes 
more  definite  shape  in  IG^^  and  1925-27.  But 
in  those  passages  Job  advances  to  the  thought 
that,  since  he  has  no  umpire  to  vindicate  him, 
God  Himself  will  be  his  umpire,  and  vindicate 
Job  even  against  Himself.  This  longing  of 
pious  men  of  old  for  some  mediator  who  would 
bring  about  peace  between  them  and  God  has 
been  satisfied  in  the  person  of  our  Lord  Jesus 
Christ,  both  God  and  man. 

34.  His  fear]  i.e.  the  fear  He  causes,  as  in 
Ex  23  27.  35.  But  it  is  not  so  with  me]  RY 
'  For  I  am  not  so  in  myself,'  i.e.  In  my  own 
soul  I  am  not  guilty. 

CHAPTER    10 
Job's  Second  Speech  (concluded) 

1-7.  Job  seeks  the  reason  of  his  trial,  and 
protests  against  God's  treatment  as  inconsistent 
with  the  natural  relations  between  Creator 
and  created,  and  with  God's  knowledge  of  his 
innocence  and  inability  to  escape  Him. 

I.  I  will  leave,  etc.]  RV  '  I  will  give  free 
course  to  my  complaint.'  3.  The  work  of 
thine  hands]   i.e.  man,  God's  creature. 

4-6.  '  Is  God's  judgment  liable  to  mistakes 
like  that  of  frail  man '  (eyes  of  flesh),  '  or  is 
His  time  so  short  that  He  is  in  a  hurrj'  to  find 
Job  guilty  and  to  punish  him  ? '  Observe  that 
Job  cannot  altogether  give  up  his  conviction 
that  God  must  be  really  just,  although  the 
reason  of  his  suffering  causes  him  the  greatest 
perplexity.     7.  Thou]  RV  '  although  thou.' 

8-17.  Job  dwells  on  God's  past  goodness. 
Does  he  not  owe  to  Him  his  existence  and 
his  preservation  up  to  the  present  ?  Yet  He 
had  apparently  purposed  all  along  to  destroy 
him  in  the  end. 


10.  II.  The  conception  and  growth  of  the 
infant.  Curdled  me]  made  him  take  solid 
form. 

11.  Fenced  me]  RY  'knit  me  together.' 

12.  Visitation]  RM  '  care.' 

13.  And  these,  etc.]  RY  '  Yet  thou  didst 
hide  these  things,'  etc.  I  know  that  this  is 
with  thee]  rather,  '  I  know  that  these  things 
were  with  thee.'  Job  concludes  that  even  from 
his  childhood  God  had  purposed  to  afflict  him, 
making  him  happy  so  that  his  misery  might  be 
deeper  by  contrast. 

14.  15.  Whether  guilty  or  innocent  he 
would  be  condemned.  15.  i/"  I  be  righteous, 
etc.]  '  Were  I  righteous  I  must  not  lift  up 
my  head  as  an  innocent  man.'  /  am  full,  etc.] 
RY  '  being  filled  with  ignominy,  and  looking 
upon  my  affliction.'  But  a  slight  correction 
gives  the  very  much  better  sense,  '  drunken 
with  affliction.'  16.  Marvellous]  in  his  per- 
secutions ;  a  sorry  sequel  to  the  marvel  of 
creation  (chs.  38,  39).  17.  Thy  witnesses] 
Job's  afflictions,  which  seem  to  witness  to  his 
guilt.  Changes  and  war,  etc.]  RM  '  Host 
after  host  is  against  me.' 

18-22.  Job  begs  for  a  little  respite  before 
his  death  :  cp.  Ps39i3.  Observe  how  appeal 
follows  hard  on  accusation.  21,22.  Note  the 
dreary,  hopeless  conception  of  the  dim  shadow- 
land  of  death. 

It  should  be  observed  that  in  spite  of  the 
rash  and  despairing  utterances  to  which  Job  in 
his  misery  gives  vent  in  chs.  9,  10,  his  position 
is  one  of  religious  perplexity,  rather  than  of 
reasoned  doubt.  Calmer  and  more  hopeful 
views  soon  appear,  and  the  conviction  that 
God  will  restore  him  to  His  favour  and  justify 
him  comes  out  more  and  more  clearly  as  we 
read  on:  cp.  14i3  1619  1925  271-6.  'job 
never  entirely  gave  up  his  faith  in  God,  though, 
like  Jacob,  he  wrestled  with  Him.  And,  as  in 
that  case,  the  issue  shows  that  God  was  not 
displeased  with  such  an  unburdening  of  the 
soul  that  still  kept  close  to  the  strict  line  of 
truth  '  (Bradley).  '  Much  of  the  interest  of 
this  drama  of  the  soul  lies  in  the  growth  of  a 
consciousness  in  Job  that  God's  present  anger 
does  not  represent  His  inmost  self.  It  is  a 
mood  that  will  pass,  a  dark  cloud  eclipsing 
His  truest  character.  This  thought  does  not, 
however,  emerge  as  yet '  (Peake). 

CHAPTER  11 
The  First  Speech  of  Zophar 

The  speech  is  short  and  unsympathetic. 

1-6.  Zophar  rebukes  Job  for  daring  to 
assert  his   innocence. 

3.  Thy  lies]  RY  '  thy  boastings,'  viz.  Job's 
assertions  of  innocence  (v.  4).  6.  That  ihey 
are  double,  etc.]  RY  '  That  it  is  manifold  in 
effectual  working.'  God  exacteth,  etc.]  RM 
'  God  remitteth  unto  thee  of   thine  iniquity  '  ; 


300 


11.7 


JOB 


13.8 


He  does  not  bring  up  all  Job's  guilt,  which  is 
greater  than  he  is  aware  of.  So  far  from  the 
penalty  being  excessive,  Job  has  not  received 
all  that  he  deserved. 

7-12.  God  knows  Job's  sinfulness  if  he 
does  not  himself. 

7.  RM  '  Canst  thou  find  out  the  deep  things 
of  God  ?  '  8.  It]  God's  wisdom.  10.  If  he 
cut  off,  etc.]  rather,  '  Should  he  pass  by,  im- 
prison, arraign  before  an  assembly  '? '  If 
God,  with  perfect  knowledge  of  sinful  man, 
visits  him  in  various  ways,  who  shall  gainsay 
His  actions  ?  12.  Perhaps  we  may  render, 
'  Thus  vain  man  gets  understanding,  and  a 
wild  ass's  colt  is  born  a  man.'  The  descrip- 
tion of  aflQiction  brings  wisdom  to  the  foolish 
and  transforms  the  most  unpromising  natiu-es. 

13-20.  Repentance  the  way  to  restored 
prosperity. 

14.  Tabernacles]  RV  '  tents.'  15.  Without 
spot]   of  guilt.     16.  Waters]   rather,  '  floods.' 

17.  Thi/ie  age]  RV  ' //;^  life.'  Thou  shalt 
shine]  RV  '  Though  there  be  darkness,  it  shall 
be  as  the  morning.'  18.  Dig]  RV  '  search,' 
viz.  for  danger,  but  find  none.  20.  yl.s]  RV 
omits.  There  is  nothing  before  the  wicked 
but  death.  The  statement  is  general,  but 
Zophar,  unlike  the  other  friends,  hints  that 
Job  may  belong  to  the  wicked. 

CHAPTER    12 
Job's  Third  Speech  (Chs.  12-14) 

The  friends  have  said  God  is  wise  and 
mighty.  Job  replies,  '  I  know  that  as  well  as 
you.  You  infer  that  He  is  also  righteous,  but 
experience  shows  that  His  power  and  wisdom 
are  directed  to  unrighteous  ends.'  But  it  is 
with  God  rather  than  with  them  that  he  wishes 
to  argue,  and  come  what  may  he  will  utter  all 
he  feels.  He  challenges  God  to  name  his  sins, 
presses  man's  hopeless  destiny  as  a  reason  for 
God's  pity,  longs  that  God  might  shelter  him 
out  of  reach  of  His  anger,  till  it  has  passed 
away,  and  then  renew  His  communion  with 
him,  but  closes  again  on  the  note  of  man's 
hopeless  fate.  The  thought  that  God  might 
take  Job's  part  against  Himself  here  comes  to 
expression. 

1-12.  Job  sarcastically  praises  the  wisdom 
of  the  friends,  which,  however,  is  not  greater 
than  his  own,  or  indeed  than  any  one  may 
learn  from  God's  creation  and  government  of 
the  world.  It  is  easy  to  mock  one  who  is  down : 
yet  the  prosperity  of  the  wicked  is  a  fact  as 
patent  as  the  wisdom  and  power  of  God. 

2.  A  sarcastic  allusion  to  the  omniscience 
of  the  friends  :  Ye  are  the  people  ;  the  only 
wise  ones.  4.  Who  calleth]  RV  '  A  man  that 
called.'  Job  complains  that  he,  a  servant  of 
God,  has  become  the  subject  of  mockery. 

5.  RV  '  In  the  thought  of  him  that  is  at  ease 
there  is  contempt  for  misfortune  ;  it  is  ready 


for  them  whose  foot  slippeth.'  An  allusion  to 
the  way  his  friends  treat  him  now  that  he  is 
in  trouble.  How  easy  to  despise  the  man  who 
is  down  !  6.  The  wicked,  on  the  other  hand, 
seem  to  fare  better  than  the  good.  Into 
•whose  hand,  etc.]  Another  rendering  is,  'Who 
bears  (his)  god  in  his  hand'  ;  i.e.  who  regards 
his  sword  as  his  god  :  cp.  Hab  1  ii-i<5. 

7.  Even  the  animals  know  the  commonplaces 
that  constitute  the  friends'  stock  of  wisdom. 

9.  In  all  these]  among  all  these  creatures. 
The  Lord]  see  on  1  '-^i.  Hath  wrought  this] 
i.e.  orders  all  things.  11,  12.  'I  test  your 
arguments  as  the  palate  tests  its  food  ;  the 
aged  are  not  necessarily  wise.'  11.  And  the 
mouth,  etc.]  RV  '  Even  as  the  palate  tasteth 
its  meat.'  12.  RM  '  With  aged  men,  ye  say,  is 
wisdom.'     Job  is  not  stating  his  own  views. 

13-25.  With  God  are  wisdom  and  might,  no 
one  can  reverse  His  actions.  The  mightiest 
are  overthrown  by  Him,  and  He  takes  away 
the  understanding  of  the  wise. 

13.  With  him]  viz.  God.  Absolute  power 
and  wisdom  are  inherent  in  God.  not  acquired 
by  pains  and  j^ears  as  man  acquires  such  power 
and  wisdom  as  he  possesses.  14.  The  impo- 
tence of  man  in  the  hands  of  the  Almighty. 

Shutteth  up  a  man]  e.g.  in  prison.  16.  Are 
his]   exist  by  His  permission. 

17.  Perhaps  the  original  text  meant  '  He 
sends  mad  counsellors.'  18.  God  sets  kings 
free,  or  imprisons  them  according  to  His  will. 

19.  Princes]  RV  'priests.'  Perhaps,  'He 
sends  mad  priests  and  perverts  the  mighty.' 

22.  '  The  V.  means  that  God  through  His 
wisdom  sees  into  the  profoundest  and  darkest 
deeps,  and  brings  what  is  hidden  to  light ' 
(Davidson).  23.  Straiteneth  them  again']  RM 
'  leadeth  them  away  into  captivity.'  24.  Wil- 
derness] The  Heb.  is  used  of  the  primeval 
chaos  of  Gn  1 2. 

CHAPTER    13 
Job's  Third  Speech  (continued) 

I -1 2.  Job  claims  to  understand  as  much 
about  God  as  the  friends.  He  rejects  their 
opinion  as  to  the  cause  of  his  troubles,  and 
regards  it  as  an  attempt  to  curry  favour  with 
God. 

I.  The  V.  is  in  close  connexion  with  c.  12. 
Eye  refers  to  12^,8^  ear  to  1213*-  :  cp.  12  n. 

3.  Surely]  ratJier,  '  but.'  Job  seeks  an 
explanation  from  God,  not  from  man.  4.  For- 
gers] better,  '  plasterers,'  i.e.  they  plaster 
their  lies  over  God's  misgovernment  and  hide 
its  evils.  7,  8.  '  Does  God  require  His  actions 
to  be  defended  by  their  untruths  and  servile 
flattery  ?  '  The  friends  condemned  Job  un- 
justly in  order  to  uphold  God's  justice.  They 
were  special  pleaders  for  God,  because  they 
wanted  to  curry  favour  with  Him. 

8,  10.  Accept]  RV  'respect.'     The  phrase 


301 


13.9 


JOB 


14.^0 


is  used  of  a  judge  who  shows  partiality.  Con- 
siderations of  self-interest  lead  them  to  give 
God  their  verdict  and  not  Job.  9.  '  Do  they 
think  they  can  deceive  God  with  their  parti- 
ality ?     He  penetrates  their  cowardly  motives.' 

10.  Job  believes  that  God  will  not  approve 
of  those  who  lie  for  Him,  an  assertion  of  God's 
righteousness  in  remarkable  contrast  to  the 
assertions  of  His  unrighteousness.  12.  RV 
'  Your  memorable  sayings  are  proverbs  of 
ashes,  your  defences  are  defences  of  clay.' 
Job  regards  their  view  as  worthless,  and  their 
arguments  such  as  any  one  could  refute. 

13-22.  He  turns  from  man,  and  boldly 
pleads  his  cause  with  God. 

14,  15.  Render,  with  a  slight  alteration,  '  I 
will  take  my  flesh  in  my  teeth  and  I  will  put 
my  life  in  my  hand  (be  daring).  Lo,  he  will 
slay  me  :  I  have  no  hope,  but  I  will  maintain 
my  words  before  him.'  The  meaning  of  the 
phrase  '  to  take  the  flesh  in  the  teeth '  is 
uncertain.  Probably  it  signifies  just  the  same 
as  to  '  put  the  life  in  the  hand,'  which  means 
to  dare  the  uttermost  peril.  Job  is  resolved 
to  speak  out,  though  he  feels  that  God  will 
kill  him  for  doing  it. 

16.  He]  RV  'This.'  The  v.  may  mean 
that  God  would  pardon  his  boldness  but  not  a 
false  confession  of  sin  :  see  427.  18.  Ordered 
my  cause]  i.e.  prepared  his  defence. 

19.  Plead  with]  RV  'contend  with':  to 
prove  him  a  sinner.  For  now,  etc.]  RV  '  For 
now  shall  I  hold  my  peace  and  give  up  the 
ghost '  :  i.e.  if  his  innocence  were  disputed. 
Note  how  in  prospect  of  his  case  coming  into 
court  Job's  spirits  rise.  He  is  so  certain  of 
his  innocence  that  he  cannot  believe  that  it 
can  help  being  established.  The  axiom  on 
which  this  rests  is  his  conviction  of  God's 
righteousness,  once  more  a  strange  contrast  to 
his  charges  against  Him.  20,  21.  Job  begs 
that  God  will  free  him  from  the  sense  of 
terror  which  he  naturally  feels.  Thy  dread] 
i.e.  dread  of  Thee. 

23-28.  He  seeks  to  know  his  sins,  and  the 
reasons  of  God's  treatment. 

26.  Possess]  RV  '  inherit.'  Job  thinks  he 
must  be  suifering  for  his  early  follies. 

27.  Stocks]  rather,  '  clog,'  to  prevent  slaves 
escaping.  Thou  settest,  etc.]  lit.  '  Thou  dost 
make  a  mark  upon  the  roots  of  my  feet,' 
perhaps,  i.e.  make  them  sore  with  the  clog 
upon  them.  28.  And  he,  etc.]  RV  '  Though 
I  am  like  a  rotten  thing  that  consumeth '  ;  an 
allusion  to  his  miserable  state. 

CHAPTER  14 
Job's  Third  Speech  (concluded) 
1-6.  Job  pleads  for  God's  forbearance  on 
the  grounds  of   man's  shortness  of   life  and 
sinful  nature. 

I,    2.     The    well-known    Sentence   in   the 


Burial  Service.  3.  Open  thine  eyes]  i.e.  watch 
so  vigilantly  :  cp.  vv.  16,  17.  4.  Job  pleads 
the  innate  sinfulness  of  man.  5,  6.  Let  man 
spend  his  days  in  peace,  seeing  that  his  time  is 
but  short  :  cp.  c.  7. 

7-12.  A  tree  has  a  chance  of  a  second 
growth  after  it  is  cut  down.  Not  so  man. 
With  him  death  is  final.  Job  here  reaches 
the  depth  of  despair. 

13-22.  Despairing  of  any  retiuTi  to  God's 
favour  before  death.  Job  is  seized  with  a 
longing  to  remain  in  the  place  of  the  departed 
(Sheol)  until  God's  wrath  is  past,  when  he 
should  be  forgiven  and  restored  to  His  favour. 
Notice  how  Job  assumes  that  God's  hostility 
to  him  will  not  be  permanent.  He  pictures 
God  as  conscious  of  this  and  as,  in  view  of  the 
future  love  He  would  feel  for  him,  sheltering 
him  in  Sheol  from  His  present  anger.  Yet 
though  he  dwells  upon  a  possible  return  from 
Sheol  to  life  in  fellowship  with  God,  he  does 
not  dream  that  it  is  more  than  an  enchanting 
thought.  If  only  a  man  might  die  and  live 
again  !  No,  that  is  impossible.  14.  Will  I 
wait]  RV 'would  I  wait.'  Come]  RV  'should 
come.'  15.  RV  '  Thou  shouldest  call  and  I 
would  answer  thee  :  Thou  wouldest  have  a 
desire  to  the  work  of  thine  hands.' 

16,  17.  These  vv.  probably  are  not,  as  AV 
and  RV  take  them,  the  present  contrast  to  the 
glowing  picture  of  the  future  that  he  has  been 
wishing  might  be  true,  but  a  continuation  of 
that  picture.  Render,  'For  then  Thou  wouldest 
number  my  steps  ;  Thou  wouldest  not  watch 
over  my  sin  ;  my  transgression  would  be  sealed 
up  in  a  bag,  and  Thou  wouldest  cover  over  my 
iniquity.'  God  would  number  his  steps  in 
kindly  care  (cp.  '  the  very  hairs  of  your  head 
are  all  numbered').  He  would  no  longer 
treasure  up  his  sin  against  him,  but  hide  it 
away  out  of  sight.  18,  19.  And]  render, 
'  But.'  Under  God's  visitation  the  hopes  of 
men  come  to  nought,  like  undermined  moun- 
tains or  water-worn  rocks. 

20-22.  A  description  of  what  happens  after 
the  death  change  passes  over  the  face  and  the 
spirit  goes  away  to  Sheol.  The  dead  have 
lost  all  knowledge,  all  interest  in  the  things 
of  earth,  even  in  the  fortunes  of  their  own 
children  (cp.  Eccl9^''^).  In  the  grave  the 
body  passes  through  the  painful  process  of 
decomposition,  the  pain  of  which  is  also  felt 
by  its  shade  in  Sheol. 

The  Second  Series  of  Speeches 
(Chs.  15-21) 
The  rejection  by  Job  of  the  opinions  and 
advice  of  the  friends,  his  sturdy  maintenance 
of  his  innocence,  and  the  fearlessness  with 
which  in  his  anguish  he  has  arraigned  the 
divine  government  of  the  world,  have  all 
alike  deepened  their  conviction  of  his  guilt. 


302 


15. 


JOB 


16.  17 


Without  actually  charging  Job  with  definite 
sin,  for  which  indeed  they  have  no  ground, 
they  now  administer  stern  rebukes,  and  draw 
terrible  pictures  of  the  certain  misery  which 
awaits  the  godless,  and  this  evidently  with  an 
eye  to  the  suflEerer.  They  no  longer  encourage 
him  to  repentance,  or  predict  consequent 
prosperity. 

Job,  for  his  part,  laments  their  harshness, 
and  rejects  anew  their  doctrine  of  retribution 
as  contrary  to  experience,  and  as  not  applic- 
able to  his  case.  He  feels  himself  to  be 
abandoned  by  God  and  man  ;  he  cries  out  for 
pity  ;  he  reasserts  his  innocence,  and  is  still 
troubled  by  the  problem  of  evil.  Yet  in  the 
very  midst  of  his  trouble  he  makes  some 
advance  towards  the  solution  of  the  mystery. 
Already  he  has  had  dim  visions  of  a  mediator 
between  himself  and  God  (Q^'^*-),  and  of  the 
possibility  of  a  restoration  to  the  divine 
favour  (14i3-i'5).  These  were  only  momentary 
glimpses  of  a  brighter  day  amidst  the  gloom, 
but  now  they  develop  into  a  stronger  convic- 
tion that  God  must  in  the  end  restore  the 
light  of  His  countenance  to  His  servant,  and 
vindicate  his  innocence  to  the  world,  though 
it  can  only  be  after  his  death  :  see  16^9  1925-27. 
It  is,  however,  no  longer  an  umpire  between 
himself  and  God  that  he  desires.  The  convic- 
tion has  come  to  him  that  since  there  is  no 
umpire  who  can  force  his  decision  on  God, 
God  Himself  will  be  the  umpire  to  vindicate 
the  righteousness  of  Job  against  the  stigma  of 
unrighteousness  which  He  had  Himself  seemed 
to  fasten  upon  him  by  his  affliction. 

CHAPTER    15 

The  Second  Speech  of  Eliphaz 

i-i6.  Eliphaz  accuses  Job  of  impiety  and 
arrogance. 

2.  And  fill,  etc.]  utter  idle,  empty  remarks. 

7.  It  was  a  popular  idea  that  there  was  a 
primeval  man  endowed  with  perfect  wisdom, 
corresponding  to  the  figure  of  the  Divine 
Wisdom  in  Prov  8.  8.  Render,  '  Didst  thou 
hearken  in  the  council  of  God  ? '  i.e.  before 
the  creation  of  the  world.  10.  Eliphaz, 
perhaps,  refers  here  to  himself. 

II.  RV  'Are  the  consolations  of  God  too 
small  for  thee,  and  the  word  that  dealeth 
gently  with  thee  ? '  The  '  consolations  of  God ' 
are  the  comforting  views  about  God's  govern- 
ment and  purposes  which  Eliphaz  would  have 
Job  accept  :  cp.  5^27  12.  What  do  thy  eyes 
wink  at  ?]  render,  '  why  do  thy  eyes  flash  (in 
anger)?'  14.  Eliphaz  uses  Job's  own  woi-ds 
(14'')  to  convict  him  of  his  sinfulness. 

15.  He]  i.e.  God.  Saints]  RV  'holy 
ones':  the  angels,  cp.  4's.  Heavens]  i.e. 
probably,  'heavenly  beings.'  16.  Drinketh] 
thirsts  after,  is  greedy  for. 

17-35.  Eliphaz    describes,    doubtless   as   a 


warning  to  Job,  the  troubled  conscience  and 
inevitable  doom  of  the  wicked. 

18,  19.  Eliphaz  refers  to  a  time  when  his 
ancestors  had  not  mingled  with  other  people, 
who  would  corrupt  the  purity  of  their  wise 
sayings.  His  countrymen  the  Edomites,  who 
were  descended  from  Abraham,  would  have  the 
same  pride  of  race  as  their  Hebrew  cousins. 

20-23.  The  haunting  fears  of  the  wicked 
oppressor.  20.  And  the  number,  etc.]  RV 
'  even  the  number  of  years  thai  are  laid  up  for 
the  oppressor.'  22.  He  loses  hope  of  deliver- 
ance from  misfortune.  23^^.  He  imagines  he 
is  always  coming  to  poverty.  24.  Ready] 
fully  prepared.     25.   For]  RV  '  Because.' 

26.  Render,  '  It  (trouble)  leaps  at  his  throat, 
past  the  thickest  boss  of  his  sliield.'  The  boss 
is  the  central  knob  of  the  buckler.  27.  A 
picture  of  sensual  luxury  :  cp.  Ps  73  '^. 

28.  Illustrative  of  his  daring  impiety  :  he 
ventured  to  dwell  in  cities  that  lie  under  the 
curse  :  cp.  Josh  6  26.  29.  Neither  shall  he 
prolong,  etc.]  RV  '  neither  shall  their  produce 
bend  to  the  earth '  ;  a  figure  of  f  mitf  ulness. 

30.  By  the  breath,  etc.]  God's  wrath  will 
destroy  him  like  a  withering  sirocco.  31.  RV 
'  Let  him  not  trust  in  vanity,  deceiving  him- 
self.' Accomplished]  RM  '  paid  in  full.'  His 
time]  the  natural  time  of  his  death. 

32,  33.  The  speedy  end  of  the  wicked.  '  His 
branch  prematurely  withers  ;  he  puts  forth 
grapes,  and  cannot  ripen  them  ;  he  flowers,  but 
he  fails  of  fruit '  (Davidson). 

CHAPTER    16 
Job's  Fourth  Speech  (Chs.  16,  17) 

See  introductory  remai'ks  on  chs.  15-21. 

1-5.  Job  retorts  scornfully  that  he  too  could 
offer  such  empty  '  comfort '  if  he  were  in  the 
friends'  place. 

2.  The  friends  can  do  nothing  but  repeat 
their  exasperating  commonplaces.  3.  Shall 
vain  words,  etc.]  i.e.  '  will  you  never  stop  '?  ' 

5.  Job  would  have  acted  very  differently 
(43.4  29),  giving  no  mere  lip-comfort. 

6-17.  Job  enlarges  on  the  wrath  of  God 
and  the  enmity  of  man.  Neither  speech  nor 
silence  brings  him  relief. 

7-9.  These  vv.  seem  to  refer  to  the  hostility 
of  God,  V.  10  to  that  of  man.  In  vv.  7-9 
Job  varies  between  complaint  of  God  in  the 
third  person  and  direct  address  to  Him. 

7^.  Perhaps  a  reference  to  the  loss  of  his 
family  (118.10).      13.  Archers]  RM  'arrows.' 

Reins]  i.e.  kidneys.  14.  With  breach  upon 
breach]  with  one  blow  after  another,  as  a 
battering-ram  makes  breaches  in  a  wall. 

IS-  Sackcloth]  the  sign  of  mourning. 

Horn]  the  emblem  of  pride  and  strength. 

17.  Not  for  any  injustice]  RV  '  although 
there  is  no  violence.'  Cp.  the  suffering  Servant 
of  Jehovah  in  Isa  53^. 


303 


16.  18 


JOB 


18.  4 


1 8.  Conscious  of  his  innocence  and  yet  of 
his  impending  death,  which  seems  a  token  that 
he  is  condemned  as  guilty,  Job  invokes  the 
earth  not  to  conceal  his  blood,  but  to  let  it 
cry  aloud  for  justice.  The  idea  that  the  earth 
would  not  absorb  innocent  blood  occurs  also 
in  Gn4io  Ezk247,8.  No  place]  RV  '  no  rest- 
ing place.'     Let  it  be  heard  everywhere  ! 

19-21.  Rejected  by  men  who  count  him 
guilty.  Job  is  for  a  moment  cheered  with  a 
bright  vision  of  a  '  witness  in  heaven,'  one 
who  will  vouch  for  and  testify  to  his  innocence 
(v.  19).  From  vv.  20,  21  RV  it  is  supposed 
that  Job  has  an  intuition  that  the  God  who 
now  seems  to  be  his  enemy  is  after  all  the 
God  of  love,  in  communion  with  whom  his  past 
life  has  been  spent,  and  to  Him  he  turns  : 

'  But  thou  giv'st  leave,  dear  Lord,  that  we 
Take  shelter  from  Thyself  in  Thee  ; 
And  with  the  wings  of  Thine  own  Dove 
Fly  to  the  sceptre  of  soft  love.' 

(Crashaw,  quoted  by  Cheyne.) 

We  see  here  a  development  of  the  idea  of  a 
'  daysman '  or  mediator  first  mentioned  in 
9  33.  There  it  appears  as  a  longing  impossible 
to  be  realised.  In  this  c.  it  turns  into  a 
definite  hope,  and  in  1925-27  it  rises  to  a  cer- 
tainty. It  is  evident  from  1622  171-3,  is-iii  that 
Job  does  not  expect  this  vindication  before  his 
death,  which  seems  at  hand. 

19.  Also  now]  RV  '  Even  now.'  My  re- 
cord] RV  '  he  that  voucheth  for  me.'  21.  RV 
'  0  that  he  (God)  would  maintain  the  right 
of  man  with  God,  and  of  a  son  of  man  with  his 
neighbour.'  Some  render  the  second  half  of 
the  sentence,  '  as  a  mortal  man  does  for  his 
neighbour.'  22.  Connected  in  subject  with 
171.2.  Some  by  a  slight  correction  read  in 
the  first  line,  '  For  the  mom-ning-women  shall 
come.' 

CHAPTER  17 
Job's  Fourth  Speech  (concluded) 

1-9.  Job  prays  God  to  pledge  Himself  to 
vindicate  his  innocence  in  the  future,  for  his 
friends  have  failed  him,  and  he  rejects  their 
promises  of  restoration  in  the  present  life. 

I.  RV  '  My  spirit  is  consumed,  my  days  are 
extinct,  the  grave  is  ready  for  me.'  The  v.  is 
connected  with  1622.  2.  Job  rejects  the  de- 
lusive hopes  of  restoration  held  out  by  the 
friends. 

3.  RV  '  Give  now  a  pledge,  be  surety  for 
me  with  thyself  ;  who  is  there  that  will  strike 
hands  with  me  '? '  Job  begs  that  God  will 
promise  to  testify  to  his  innocence  after  he  is 
dead.  There  is  no  one  else  who  will  do  this. 
To  '  strike  hands  '  was  the  Hebrew  sign  of 
becoming  surety  for  another. 

4.  The  friends  are  too  prejudiced  against 
Job  to  speak  on  his  behalf.  Not  exalt  them] 
i.e.  not  let  their  views  triumph.     5.  RV  '  He 


that  denounceth  his  friends  for  a  prey,  even 
the  eyes  of  his  children  shall  fail.'  6.  He 
hath  made  me]  Render,  '  I  am  made.'  And 
aforetime,  etc.]  RV  '•  And  I  am  become  an 
open  abhorring.' 

8,  9.  The  upright,  astonished  at  Job's 
calamities,  will  rise  against  the  ungodly,  while 
the  righteous  holds  on  his  way  with  increasing 
strength.  This  does  not  fit  in  well  with  Job's 
attitude,  so  that  there  is  plausibility  in  the 
view  of  some  scholars  that  the  vv.  are  a 
misplaced  fragment  of  Bildad's  speech. 

10.  Job  invites  the  friends  to  renew  their 
arguments,  although  he  expects  nothing  worth 
hearing  from  them.  11,  12.  The  thoughts, 
etc.]  Render,  perhaps,  '  The  thoughts  of  my 
heart  put  night  for  day.  Darkness  is  nearer 
than  light.' 

13-16.  Job  declares  that  it  is  vain  to  look 
for  any  restoration  or  justification  (my  hope) 
in  this  life.  His  hope  will  go  to  the  grave 
with  him.  13.  RM  '  If  I  hope,  Sheol  is  mine 
house.'  16.  They]  RV  'it'  (i.e.  his  hope). 
Bars  of  the  pit]  the  gates  of  the  world  of  the 
dead:  cp.  IsaSS^o.  When,  etc.]  RV  'when  once 
there  is  rest  in  the  dust.' 

Job  moves  forward  in  this  speech  to  the 
great  thought  that  after  he  is  dead,  God  will 
clear  his  reputation  of  the  stain  placed  upon 
it  by  his  disasters,  which  seemed  to  the  world 
to  prove  his  guilt.  He  does  not  expect  the 
old  relations  between  God  and  himself  to  be 
renewed,  but  since  he  cannot  bear  the  thought 
that  he  will  be  permanently  branded  as  an 
evil-doer,  he  wins  the  conviction  that  he  will 
ultimately  be  righted.  And  since  God  alone 
can  or  will  clear  his  honour  (for  man  cannot 
and  will  not)  he  is  assured  that  God,  who  is 
now  slaying  him  by  slow  torture,  will  at  last 
vindicate  him.  God's  present  mood  is  not  an 
index  to  His  permanent  character. 

CHAPTER  18 
Bildad's  Second  Speech 

Bildad  replies  with  a  rebuke  to  Job  and  a 
reassertion  of  the  miserable  lot  of  the  wicked 
already  asserted  by  Eliphaz  ;  not  so  much, 
however,  with  covert  reference  to  Job,  to 
whose  case  the  description  is  largely  unsuit- 
able, as  in  answer  to  his  impeachment  of  God's 
moral  government. 

1-4.  Bildad  protests  against  Job's  violent 
language. 

2.  RV  '  How  long  will  ye  lay  snares  for 
words';  i.e.  hunt  for  arguments.  Mark]  RV 
'  consider  (the  matter).'     3.   Cp.  172,4,5,10. 

4^  RV  '  Thou  that  tearest  thyself  in  thine 
anger,'   a  rebuke  to  Job's  rash   utterance   in      j 
16''.     Shall  the  earth,  etc.]   Did  Job  imagine      | 
that   God's  universal    law   that   sin   must    be 
followed  by  suffering  would  be  reversed  in  his 
case,  because  of  his  expressions  of  indignation  ? 


304 


18.  5 


JOB 


19.  23 


5-21.  He  insists  on  the  misery  in  the  present 
life  and  the  dishonour  after  death,  which  are 
the  portion  of  sinners. 

5,  6.   The  sinner's  house  shall  be  desolate. 

Tabernacle]  RV'tent.'  7'\  His  crafty  plans 
shall  be  his  ruin.  9.  Gin]  i.e.  trap.  The 
word  was  originally  '  grinne.'  9*^.  RV' a  snare 
shall  lay  hold  on  him.'  11.  Drive  him  to  his 
feet]   RV  '  chase  him  at  his  heels.' 

12.  Hunger-bitten]   exhausted  by  hunger. 

13.  Strength  of  his  skin]  RV  '  members  of 
his  body.'  Firstborn  of  death]  i.e.  a  deadly 
disease.  14^  Render,  '  He  shall  be  rooted  out 
of  the  tent  he  trusted  was  his  own.'  King  of 
terrors]   death. 

15^  RV  '  There  shall  dwell  in  his  tent  that 
which  is  none  of  his,'  i.e.  his  possessions  will 
pass  into  the  hands  of  strangers.  Some  read, 
'  Lilith  shall  dwell  in  his  tent.'  Lilith  is  a 
nocturnal  demon,  that  plays  the  part  of  a 
vampire.  Brimstone  shall  be  scattered]  a  sign 
of  God's  wrath  (cp.  Gnl'J-'^  Psll«  Isa349). 

17.  No  name  in  the  street]  he  is  quite  for- 
gotten.    19.  Nephew]   RV  '  son's  son.' 

20.  Render,  '  They  of  the  west  shall  be 
astonished  at  his  day  (i.e.  fate),  and  horror 
shall  seize  those  on  the  east.'  His  name  will 
be  a  byword  thi'oughout  the  world. 

CHAPTER  19 

Job's  Fifth  Speech 

In  this  speech  Job  repeats  his  bitter  com- 
plaints of  God's  injustice,  and  man's  con- 
temptuous abandonment  of  one  formerly  so 
loved  and  honoured.  He  appeals  in  broken 
utterances  to  his  friends  to  pity  him  ;  then 
from  them  he  would  fain  appeal  to  posterity, 
wishing  that  he  might  engi-ave  in  the  rock  a 
declaration  of  his  innocence,  sure  that  those 
who  read  it  in  the  after-time  would  feel  the 
ring  of  sincerity  and  exonerate  him  of  guilt. 
But,  baffled  by  the  callous  unbelief  of  his  friends 
and  the  impossibility  of  an  appeal  to  genera- 
tions unborn,  he  is  di'iven,  as  he  had  been 
driven  before,  from  man  to  God.  Already  he 
had  uttered  the  conviction  that  God  would 
vindicate  him  to  the  world.  Now  he  reiterates 
the  conviction  and  rises  to  a  still  loftier  height 
in  the  assurance  that  he  will  be  permitted  to 
know  of  his  vindication.  He  does  not  expect 
to  be  restored  to  life,  nor  yet  to  escape  from 
Sheol,  nor  to  renew  the  old  fellowship  with 
God.  His  deepest  anxiety  is  that  his  honour 
should  be  cleared  from  stain,  and  the  thought 
that  this  will  be  accomplished,  and  that  he 
shall  be  allowed  to  see  God  reversing  the 
verdict  against  him,  fills  him  with  overwhelming 
emotion. 

1-22.  After  reproaching  the  friends  for 
unfeeling  conduct,  Job  again  rejects  their  in- 
sinuations as  to  the  reason  of  his  calamities. 
He  declares  that  God  is  treating  him  with 


unjustifiable  severity,  and  that  he  has  become 
estranged  from  all. 

3.  Ten  times]  i.e.  continually  :  cp.  GnSl'^ 
Nu  14  22.  4.  Mine  error  remaineth  with  myself] 
i.e.  '  is  my  own  affair,'  or,  perhaps,  '  injures 
myself  alone.' 

6.  Job  maintains,  rightly,  that  his  calamities 
were  not  due  to  his  sins,  but,  wrongly,  that 
they  were  the  result  of  God's  unjust  action. 
As  the  reader  knows  from  the  Prologue,  God 
permitted  these  trials  in  order  to  test  and  make 
manifest  Job's  uprightness.  Job's  ignorance  of 
this  explains  and  excuses  much  that  otherwise 
might  be  deemed  unpardonable. 

7.  Render,  '  Behold,  I  shriek  "  Violence," 
and  am  not  answered.  I  clamour,  and  there  is 
no  justice.'  8.  Job's  bewildered  state  :  his  mind 
sees  no  clear  course.  9.  Glory  .  .  crown]  prob- 
ably Job's  righteousness,  on  which  his  suffer- 
ings seemed  to  throw  doubt.  10.  Mine  hope] 
viz.  of  recovery,  or  perhaps  of  happiness. 

12.  Troops]  of  afflictions  :  cp.  '  battalions 
of  sorrows  '  ('  Hamlet,'  IV,  5).  Raise  up  their 
way]  The  figure  is  that  of  casting  up  a  mound 
by  which  to  attack  a  city.  15.  They  that 
dwell  in  mine  house]   the  servants  or  guests. 

17.  Render,  '  My  breath  is  offensive  to  my 
wife,  and  I  am  loathsome  to  the  children  of 
my  (mother's)  womb ' ;  owing  to  his  complaint. 

18.  I  arose,  etc.]  RV  '  If  I  arise,  they  speak,' 
etc.  ;  i.e.  the  children  mock  him.  19.  Inward] 
i.e.  intimate.  20*.  The  words  describe  his 
leanness.  I  am  escaped,  etc.]  Some  would 
substitute,  '  And  I  am  escaped  with  my  flesh 
in  my  teeth'  (cp.  13 1"*).  22^.  'You  cannot 
tear  me  to  pieces  enough  ! '  An  '  eater  of 
flesh  '  is  an  Eastern  expression  for  a  slanderer. 

23-27.  Job  had  frequently  expressed  a  hope 
that  his  righteousness  would  be  proclaimed,  as 
a  reply  to  the  insinuation  of  the  friends  that 
he  was  suffering  for  his  sins  (cp.  1 3  i^-n').  "We 
have  also  noted  his  longings,  more  or  less  defi- 
nitely expressed,  that  he  might  find  a  mediator 
or  vindicator  who  would  do  this  office  for  him 
(cp.  932-35  173)_  In  this  c.  these  longings, 
already  turned  into  conviction  in  IGi^'^i,  re- 
ceive an  even  higher  expression.  He  utters 
his  belief  (vv.  23-27)  that  God  Himself  will 
once  more  manifest  Himself  as  his  friend,  and 
vindicate  his  character  after  his  death,  and  that 
he  shall  be  suffered  to  see  God  proclaiming 
his  righteousness  over  his  gi-ave.  It  is  unfortu- 
nate that  the  rendering  '  Redeemer '  and  the 
traditional  reference  of  the  vindicator  to 
Christ,  together  with  the  supposition  that  Job 
expects  a  resurrection  of  the  body,  have  com- 
pletely disguised  the  true  meaning  from  most 
readers.  The  vindicator  is  God  Himself,  who 
is  now  his  persecutor,  and  Job  anticipates 
neither  deliverance  from  death  nor  a  resiuTec- 
tion  of  the  body  after  death,  nor  even  a  deliver- 
ance from  Sheol  and  renewed  fellowship  with 


20 


305 


19.  23 


JOB 


21.13 


God,  only  the  experience  of  one  thrilling 
moment,  when  his  shade  will  wake  from  its 
semi-conscious  stupor  to  see  God  standing  over 
his  grave  and  declaring  his  innocence  to  the 
universe. 

23,  24.  Job  longs  to  write  down  or,  better 
still,  to  engrave  upon  a  rock  (a  durable  material 
to  last  into  the  future)  his  protestation  of 
innocence.  Lead]  This  may  refer  to  the  pour- 
ing of  molten  lead  into  the  carved-out  letters, 
though  we  have  no  other  mention  of  such  a 
practice. 

23.  Printed  in  a  book]  RV  '  inscribed  in  a 
book ' ;  but  since  a  book  quickly  perishes,  he 
substitutes  the  wish  that  his  words  might  be 
graven  in  the  imperishable  rock. 

25-27.  Render,  '  But  as  for  me  I  know  that 
my  vindicator  is  alive  (i.e.  exists),  and  hereafter 
He  will  stand  above  the  dust  (either  of  Job 
or  of  his  grave,  as  his  vindicator).  And  after 
(the  loss  of)  my  skin,  which  has  been  destroyed 
(i.e.  after  my  death)  this  shall  be,  I  shall  have 
vision  of  God,  whom  I  shall  gaze  on  as  for  me 
(i.e.  as  my  friend),  and  mine  eyes  shall  behold 
and  not  as  a  stranger.' 

25.  Redeemer]  Heb.  Go'el^  from  gaol.,  ' to 
make  a  claim.'  The  Go' el  was  the  next  of  kin 
whose  duty  it  was  to  prevent  land  being  sold 
out  of  the  clan  (Lv2.52S),  and  to  avenge 
murder.  See  also  Ruth  3, 4  and  notes.  Driver 
points  out  that  the  word  means  here  the  oppo- 
site to  the  Christian  idea,  viz.  a  deliverer,  not 
from  sin,  but  from  affliction  and  wrong  not  due 
to  sin.    The  best  rendering  here  is  '  Vindicator.' 

26.  In  my  flesh]  rather,  '  without '  or  '  apart 
from  my  flesh,'  i.e.  after  death. 

27.  For  myself]  RM  '  on  my  side.'  Not 
another]  or,  '  not  as  another,'  i.e.  no  longer 
estranged. 

27^.  RV  '  my  reins  are  consumed  within 
me.'  He  faints  with  emotion  at  the  thought 
of  this  vindication. 

28.  Probably  with '  many  ancient  authorities ' 
(RM)  we  should  read  '  him  '  instead  of  '  me  ' 
in  the  second  line,  and  translate,  '  If  ye  say. 
How  we  will  persecute  him,  and  find  the  root 
of  the  matter  in  him,'  i.e.  probe  relentlessly 
till  they  find  the  secret  sin  which  has  led  to 
Job's  afflictions.  Job  proceeds  in  v.  29  to 
warn  them  of  the  vengeance  that  will  overtake 
them. 

CHAPTER  20 

Zophar's  Second  Speech 
Zophar  ignores  Job's  conviction  that  God 
will  one  day  establish  his  innocence,  and  pro- 
ceeds to  describe  the  short  triumph  of  the 
wicked  and  his  certain  downfall  and  punish- 
ment at  God's  hand.  Perhaps  he  wishes  Job 
to  apply  the  description  to  himself  and  take 
warning  therefrom ;  though  quite  apart  from 
that  the  speech  is  relevant  to  his  argument 


that  the  moral  order  of  the  world  is  not,  as 
Job  maintains,  unrighteous. 

3.  The  check  of  my  reproach]  RV  '  the 
reproof  which  putteth  me  to  shame.'  He 
refers  to  Job's  reproaches  in  c.  19.  10.  Seek 
to  please  the  poor]  i.e.  seek  in  distress  the 
favour  of  the  humblest.  For  his  hands  Budde 
reads  '  his  offspring. '  Restore  their  goods] 
which  he  had  extorted  from  them  in  his  pros- 
perity. II.  RV  '  His  bones  are  full  of '  (the 
vigour  of)  '  his  youth,  but  it  shall  lie  down  with 
him  in  the  dust.'  12,  13.  Like  a  sweetmeat 
which  is  retained  in  the  mouth  as  long  as 
possible,  so  the  sinner  revels  in  his  sin. 

14-16.  The  consequences  of  sin  figuratively 
described:  cp.  Prov2329-32_  His  meat]  better, 
'  this  food  of  his,'  i.e.  sin.  Asps]  a  species  of 
serpent.  17.  The  floods,  etc.]  RV  'the  flow- 
ing streams  of  honey,'  etc.  :  a  figure  of  pros- 
perity. Surely  he  shall  not  feel  quietness]  RM 
'  Because  he  knew  no  quietness  in  his  greed.' 
His  greed  was  never  satisfied.  21.  RV 'There 
was  nothing  left  that  he  devoured  not  ;  there- 
fore his  prosperity  shall  not  endui'e.' 

22^.  RV  '  The  hand  of  every  one  that  is  in 
misery  shall  come  upon  him '  ;  i.e.  all  who 
have  suffered  at  his  hands. 

23-29.   The  terrible  death  of  the  wicked. 

24.  Steel]  better,  'bronze.'  25^  RV  '  He 
draweth  it  forth,  and  it  cometh,'  etc.  26.  RV 
'  All  darkness  is  laid  up  for  his  treasures  :  a 
fire  not  blown  hy  man  shall  devour  him  ;  it 
shall  consume  that  which  is  left  in  his  tent.' 

27.  The  V.  seems  to  be  Zophar's  harsh  retort 
(a)  to  Job's  conviction  of  a  vindicator  from 
heaven  of  his  innocence  (IG^^  19^5),  and  (h)  to 
his  appeal  to  the  earth  (see  16  ^S). 

CHAPTER    21 

Job's  Sixth  Speech 

Zophar,  like  the  other  friends,  had  insisted 
on  the  certain  retribution  for  sin  which  befalls 
the  wicked  in  this  life.  Now  at  length  these 
views  draw  from  Job  a  direct  contradiction. 
It  is  his  manner  to  wait  till  the  three  friends 
have  spoken  before  he  demolishes  their  case. 

1-21.  Job  declares  that  as  a  matter  of 
common  observation  bad  men  often  go  prosper- 
ously through  life  without  any  sign  of  God's 
displeasure. 

4.  To  man]  RM  '  of  man.'  It  is  of  God 
that  Job  complains.  And  if,  etc.]  RV  '  And 
why  should  I  not  be  impatient  ? '  6.  Job 
trembles  at  the  thought  of  the  bold  arraign- 
ment of  God's  government  which  he  is  about 
to  make,  or  possibly  at  the  remembrance 
of  how  unrighteous  that  government  seems  to 
him. 

8.  Unlike  Job,  who  had  lost  all  his  children 
at  a  stroke.  12.  Timbrel]  a  small  drum  still 
used  in  Palestine.     Org'an]   RV  '  pipe.' 

13.   In  a  moment]    without   prolonged   ill- 


306 


^1.  14 


JOB 


^2.  3 


ness  or  pain,  such  as  that  from  which  he  him- 
self suffers.  14.  Therefore]  better,  '  though ' 
or  '  yet.' 

16.  Lo,  their  good,  etc.]  It  may  mean,  They 
cannot  control  their  fortunes :  it  must  be  God 
who  has  prospered  them.  Is  far]  rather,  '  be 
far.'  Job  repudiates  the  devices  of  sinners. 
Possibly  the  whole  v.  is  an  objection  uttered 
by  the  friends.  17,  18.  The  vv.  should  be 
read  as  questions,  the  words  '  How  oft '  being 
prefixed  to  each  sentence.  The  answer  implied 
is  '  very  seldom.' 

19.  RV  'Fe  say,  God  layeth  up  his  iniquity 
for  his  children.  Let  him  recompense  it  unto 
himself  that  he  may  know  it.'  The  friends 
may  argue  that  retribution  may,  at  all  events, 
fall  upon  the  wicked  man's  children.  To  which 
Job  replies  that  the  sinner  ought  to  suffer 
personally.  Possibly,  however,  we  should  read 
in  the  fij-st  line,  '  Let  him  not  lay  up  iniquity 
for  his  children.'  21.  Pleasure]  better, 
'  interest.' 

22-26.  It  is  presumptuous  for  the  friends 
to  settle  what  are  the  rules  by  which  God 
decides  the  fate  of  men,  God  who  judges  even 
the  angels.     24.  Breasts]  mg.  '  milk-pails.' 

And  his  bones,  etc.]  RY  'And  the  marrow  of 
his  bones  is  moistened '  :  he  is  strengthened 
and  refreshed. 

27-34.  Job  says  he  knows  that  the  friends' 
remarks  are  aimed  at  him.  He  is  to  take  warn- 
ing from  the  sure  doom  of  the  sinner.  But 
experience  does  not  justify  their  conclusions. 

28.  Prince]  here  probably  means  '  tyrant.' 

29,  30.  The  meaning  is :  Have  you  not 
asked  the  traveller  who  has  seen  the  world 
what  are  his  conclusions  on  the  subject  ?  Are 
you  not  familiar  with  the  examples  he  quotes  ? 
He  would  tell  you  that  the  wicked  is  spared 
in  the  day  of  destruction,  and  led  away 
(safely)  in  the  day  of  wrath.  31.  Who  boldly 
rebukes  or  punishes  the  tyrant  ?  32.  RM 
'  He  is  borne  to  the  grave  and  keepeth  watch 
over  the  tomb'  ;  i.e.  he  is  buried  with  honours. 
Perhaps  we  should  read,  '  they  keep  watch.'. 

33.  After  his  life  of  happiness  he  rests  in 
the  sweet-smelling  earth.  His  career  of  suc- 
cessful wickedness  draws  many  to  imitate  him, 
as  indeed  he  had  himself  many  to  anticipate 
him. 

34.  Job  concludes  that  the  arguments  of  the 
fi'iends  are  worthless,  since  he  has  shown  that 
the  wicked  do  not  get  their  deserts. 

So  ends  the  second  cycle  of  debate,  the 
main  theme  of  which  is  the  assertion  denied 
by  Job,  that  trouble  overtakes  the  evildoer. 
Job  does  not  deal  with  this  in  his  first  and 
second  speeches,  which  centre  about  his  own 
calamities,  and  rise  to  the  conviction  that  after 
his  death  God  will  reverse  the  verdict  upon 
him,  and  that  in  Sheol  he  shall  himself  know 
of   this  vindication.     In  his  third  speech  he 


asserts  against  the  friends  the  prosperity  of 
the  wicked. 

The  Third  Series  op  Speeches 
(Chs.  22-31) 
Having  failed  to  convince  Job  by  the  argu- 
ment derived  from  God's  greatness  and  wisdom, 
and  to  make  good  their  assertion  that  it  fared 
ill  with  the  wicked,  the  friends  have  only  one 
new  line  of  argument  left.  This  is  a  downright 
accusation  of  Job  as  a  high-handed  tyrant. 
Eliphaz  adopts  this,  though  he  softens  its 
severity  by  a  fervent  exhortation  to  Job,  and 
a  description  of  the  felicity  that  awaits  him  if 
he  will  but  make  peace  with  God.  The  rest 
of  the  debate  on  his  side  is  difficult  to  appre- 
ciate, owing  to  the  uncertainty  attaching  to 
the  distribution  of  the  speeches.  According 
to  the  present  arrangement  Bildad  utters  only 
a  few  sentences  reasserting  the  greatness  of 
God,  and  the  impossibility  that  man  should  be 
pure  in  His  sight.  Zophar  does  not  come  for- 
ward at  all.  Several  scholars  infer  from  this 
that  the  poet  means  to  suggest  that  the  friends 
have  exhausted  their  case.  But  since  in  other 
instances  Bildad  and  Zophar  substantially  re- 
peat what  Eliphaz  has  said,  the  poet  could 
very  well  have  made  them  follow  on  the  same 
lines  here.  Moreover,  the  symmetry  is  spoiled 
if  Zophar  does  not  speak.  Since  we  have  in 
27 12""^  a  description  of  the  fate  of  the  wicked 
exactly  repeating  the  sentiments  of  the  friends, 
it  is  a  probable  conjecture  that  this  is  part  of 
Zophar's  missing  speech.  In  that  case,  how- 
ever, there  is  plausibility  in  the  view  that 
Bildad's  speech  was  originally  longer  than  the 
few  verses  at  present  assigned  to  him.  Several 
attempts  at  reconstruction  have  been  made, 
the  most  recent  (that  in  the  Century  Bible) 
assigns  252,3  265-14  to  Bildad,  262-4  272-6,11,12 
to  Job,  27 13-23  (with  possibly  27  ^-lO)  to  Zophar. 
254"'5  is  regarded  as  a  gloss  based  on  15i**-i*5, 
and  it  is  supposed  that  the  greater  part  of 
Job's  reply  to  Bildad,  which  stood  between 
2711  and  2712,  has  been  struck  out  on  account 
of  its  boldness.  If  this  or  a  similar  view  is 
correct,  Bildad  repeats  the  theme  of  the  friends 
in  the  first  cycle  of  debate,  Zophar  that  in  the 
second. 

CHAPTER  22 

The  Last  Speech  of  Eliphaz 
i-il.  Eliphaz  ignoring  Job's  last  speech, 
perhaps  because  he  could  not  answer  it,  argues 
that  God's  treatment  of  man  must  be  impartial, 
since  He  has  nothing  to  gain  or  lose  at  his 
hands.  Job  can  therefore  only  be  suffering 
for  his  sins,  and  Eliphaz  suggests  those  of 
which   he   has   been   guilty. 

2'\   RV  '  Surely  he  that  is  wise  is  profitable 
to  himself '  :  i.e.  benefits  himself  only. 

3.   Pleasure]    rather,    '  advantage.'     4.    RV 


307 


22.  5 


JOB 


24.  5 


'  Is  it  for  thy  fear  of  him  that  he  reprove th 
thee,  that  he  entereth  with  thee  into  judg- 
ment ?  '  Is  it  likely  you  are  suffering  as  you 
do  for  your  goodness  ? 

5-9.  The  sins  with  which  Eliphaz  now 
definitely  charges  Job  were  the  usual  faults  of 
Eastern  rulers,  such  as  oppression  and  injustice. 
There  is  no  reason  to  suppose  that  there  was 
any  justification  for  these  accusations,  which 
indeed  Job  repudiates  in  chs.  29,  31.  6.  Cp. 
Ex  22  2t5  Dt  24  i'5-i3, 17.  8.  The  honourable  man] 
E,M  '  Heb.  he  whose  person  is  accepted.' 

11^  LXX  '  Thy  light  has  become  darkness.' 

12-20.   The    distance    of    God's  abode  and 

His  majesty  do  not  prevent  Him  from  seeing 

men's  deeds,  as  sinners  thought  in  the  days  of 

the  Flood.     Let  not  Job  follow  in  their  steps. 

14.  In  the  circuit]   EM  '  on  the  vault.' 

15.  Hast  thou  marked]  RV  'wilt  thou 
keep.'  16.  Out  of  time]  EY  'before  their 
time.' 

17.  Do  for  them]  EM  'do  to  us.'  This 
and  V.  18  are  largely  a  repetition  of  parts  of 
2114-16^  and  are  regarded  by  some  scholars  as 
an  insertion.      19.   It\   the    sinner's  downfall. 

20.  EV  '  Saying^  Surely  they  that  did  rise 
up  against  us  are  cut  off.'  The  remnant  of 
them]   EM  '  that  which  remained  to  them.' 

21-30.  Eliphaz  advises  Job  to  make  his 
peace  with  God,  assuring  him  of  restoration 
and  prosperity. 

22.  The  law]  EM  '  instruction.'  23.  Thou 
shalt  put  away]   EV  'if  thou  put  away.' 

24.  EV  '  and  lay  thou  thy  treasure  in  the 
dust,  and  the  gold  of  Ophir  among  the  stones.' 
Fling  thy  earthly  treasure  away  !  25.  Eender, 
'  Yea,  the  Almighty  shall  be  thy  treasure  and 
precious  silver  unto  thee  !  '  27.  Thou  shalt 
pay  thy  vows]  Job  should  carry  out  the  pro- 
mises made  to  God  in  times  of  distress  :  cp. 
Ps50i4. 

28.  When  he  has  repented,  all  his  desires 
will  be  granted.  29.  EM  '  When  they  are 
made  low,'  i.e.  Job's  ways.  If  he  should 
decline  in  prosperity  he  will  assert  with  con- 
fidence that  his  ways  will  soon  take  an  upward 
turn. 

30.  Eender,  '  He  (God)  shall  even  deliver 
him  that  is  not  innocent,  (through  Job's  inter- 
cession). 'Yea,  he  shall  be  delivered  through 
the  cleanness  of  thy  hands  '  (i.e.  on  account  of 
Job's  piety).  This  actually  happens  at  the 
close  of  the  book  (42  S'^). 

CHAPTEE  23 
Job's  Seventh  Speech  (Chs.  23,  24) 
Job  makes  but  slight  reference  to  the 
remarks  of  Eliphaz,  but  continues  to  brood 
over  the  mysteries  of  God's  dealings  with 
himself  (c.  23),  and  with  mankind  (c.  24). 
All  seems  to  betoken  a  God  that  hideth 
Himself.     Yet   he   is    evidently    calmer   and 


more  trustful  in  God's  justice  than  in  earlier 
speeches. 

1-7.  Job  longs  that  he  may  find  God  and 
plead  his  cause  before  Him,  confident  that  He 
will  acquit  him  of  guilt. 

2^.  EM  '  My  hand  is  heavy  upon  my  groan- 
ing,' i.e.  I  suppress  it  as  much  as  I  can. 

6.  Eender,  '  Would  He  contend  with  me 
with  great  force  ?  Nay,  He  would  hear  me  ! ' 
A  truer  conception  of  God's  character  than 
e.g.  in  c.  9.  7=^.  Lit.  '  Then  a  righteous  man 
would  be  pleading  with  him,'  i.e.  then  it  would 
appear  that  the  man  who  pleads  with  Him  is 
righteous  (Davidson). 

8,  9.  The  bright  vision  fades.  God  ever 
escapes  his  search.  8.  Forward  .  .  backward] 
better, '  east '  .  .  '  west.'  9.  Left .  .  right]  bet- 
ter, '  north  '  .  .  '  south.'  In  ancient  times  the 
cardinal  points  were  described  by  facing  the 
east.  ID''.  EM  '  For  he  knoweth  the  way 
that  is  with  me  ';  i.e.  my  innocence,  ii.  De- 
clined] EV  '  turned  aside.'  12''.  LXX  better, 
'  In  my  breast  I  have  stored  up  his  words.' 

13-17.  Job  returns  to  the  old  tormenting 
idea  that  God  must  be  resolved  to  hold  him 
guilty,  since  he  suffers  so  much  in  spite  of  his 
innocence. 

14''.  Job  is  not  the  only  victim  of  the 
inscrutable  actions  of  Providence.  16.  .Soft] 
EV  '  faint.'  17.  EM  '  For  I  am  not  dismayed 
because  of  the  darkness,  not  because  thick 
darkness  covereth  my  face.'  Job  means  that 
his  sufferings  do  not  distress  him  so  much  as 
the  fact  that  it  is  God  who  so  mysteriously 
sends  them  without  just  cause. 

CHAPTEE  24 
Job's  Seventh  Speech  (concluded) 

1-25.  Job  continues  to  express  his  per- 
plexity at  the  ways  of  Providence  in  the 
ordering  of  the  world.  The  poor  and  the  weak 
suffer  ;  violence  and  wrong  go  unpunished. 

I.  Eender,  '  Why  are  times  not  laid  up  '  (i.e. 
set  apart  for  doing  justice)  '  by  the  Almighty, 
and  why  do  not  those  who  know  Him  see  His 
days  ? '  The  last  clause  means.  Why  do  not 
the  godly  see  signs  of  divine  retribution  ? 

2-12.  Those  who  commit  open  violent 
crimes  are  left  unpunished.  2.  Remove  the 
landmarks]  cp.  Dtl9i4  2717.  Feed  thereof] 
EV  '  feed  them  '  :  as  if  they  were  their  own. 

3.  Pledge]  i.e.  security  for  debt :  cp.  22*5 
1S123. 

5-12.  This  passage  depicts  the  misery  of 
the  homeless  outcasts  from  society,  driven  into 
the  rocks  and  mountains,  unsheltered  from 
the  pitiless  storms  and  hard  put  to  it  to  save 
themselves  and  their  children  from  starvation. 
The  outcasts,  lean  with  hunger  like  the  wild 
ass  in  the  desert,  have  to  search  diligently 
for  the  poor  bits  of  food  on  which  they  keep 
body  and   soul   together.     5^.  Render,  '  The 


308 


24.  6 


JOB 


26.  7 


Arabah '  (the  plain  W.  of  Edom  near  Job's 
home)  '  gives  food  to  their  young  men.' 

6.  Merx  reads,  '  They  reap  by  night  in  the 
field.'  They  are  driven  to  theft  to  get  food. 
'  Wicked  '  should  perhaps  be  '  rich.'  7.  RV 
'  They  lie  all  night  naked  without  clothing,  and 
have  no  covering  in  the  cold.' 

9^  RV  '  There  are  that  pluck  the  fatherless 
from  the  breast.'  The  v.  appears  to  introduce 
a  new  description.  Since,  however,  vv.  10, 11 
seem  to  continue  v.  8,  this  v.  is  apparently 
out  of  place.  9^.  Perhaps  we  should  read, 
'  And  take  the  suckling  of  the  poor  in  pledge.' 

10.  RV  '  So  that  they  go  about  naked  with- 
out clothing,  And  being  an-hungered  they 
carry  the  sheaves.'  Probably  the  outcasts  are 
described  as  stealing  the  corn,  and  making  oil 
and  wine  at  the  expense  of  the  farmer. 

12.  Layeth  not  folly  to  them]  render,  '  re- 
gar  deth  not  the  wrong.' 

13-17.  Criminals  who  work  at  night.  They 
hate  (rebel  against)  the  light  of  day,  pre- 
ferring darkness  for  their  crimes. 

13.  They  are  of  those]  RV  '  These  are  of 
them.'  14.  With  the  light]  i.e.  while  it  is 
still  twilight.  But  with  a  very  slight  emenda- 
tion we  might  read,  '  when  there  is  no  light.' 

16.  Dig  through  houses]  Walls  of  Eastern 
houses  are  often  made  of  clay  or  sun-burnt 
bricks,  which  crumble  easily  :  cp.  Mt  6  -O  RM. 
The  robbers  do  not  break  in  by  the  door  since 
the  threshold  is  sacred.  17.  If  one  know, 
etc.]  RV '  For  they  know  (are  familiar  with)  the 
terrors.'  The  shadovi?  of  death]  i.e.  midnight. 
Light  they  shrink  from, but  midnight  is  their  day. 

18-21.  These  vv.  cannot  express  the  senti- 
ments of  Job,  and  we  must  either,  with  RM, 
prefix  '  Ye  say,'  to  indicate  that  Job  is  giving 
the  views  of  the  friends,  or  remove  it  from 
this  speech  either  as  an  insertion  or  as  part  of 
a  speech  by  one  of  the  friends  which  has 
been  displaced,  or  possibly  as  an  interruption 
by  one  of  them.  RV  renders  v.  18,  '  He  is 
swift  upon  the  face  of  the  waters  ;  Their 
portion  is  cursed  in  the  earth  :  He  turneth 
not  by  the  way  of  the  vineyards.'  The  mean- 
ing is  apparently  that  the  doom  of  the  wicked 
comes  rapidly  ;  there  is  a  curse  upon  his 
property  ;  he  goes  no  more  to  gaze  upon  its 
prosperity.  Vv.  19,  20  then  describe  the 
complete  destruction  of  sinners.  V.  21 
render,  '  Even  he  that  evil  entreated,'  etc. 

22-24.  Ill  these  vv.  we  have  Job's  own 
view,  viz.  that  (22)  God  continues  the  wicked 
in  power,  (23)  His  eyes  watch  over  their  wel- 
fare, and  (24)  when  they  die,  it  is  in  the 
maturity  of  old  age  like  ripe  ears  of  corn. 

24.  Tops  of  the  ears  of  corn]  Egyptian 
wall-paintings  show  that  the  ripe  corn  was  cut 
just  below  the  ears  instead  of  near  the  ground 
as  with  us.     The  straw  was  ploughed  in. 

25.  '  Who  can  dispute  my  contention  ?  ' 


309 


CHAPTER   25 
Bildad's  Last  Speech 

He  ignores  Job's  questionings  respecting 
the  justice  of  God's  rule,  but  declares  His  per- 
fection and  majesty,  and  the  imperfection  of 
all  created  things,  repeating  the  theme  of  the 
first  cycle. 

2.  With  him]  i.e.  with  God.  He  maketh 
peace,  etc.]  He  keeps  in  order  the  hosts  of 
heaven:  cp.  Isa242i  Dan  1013.  3.  Armies] 
e.g.  the  angels  and  the  elements.  4.  Justified 
with  God]  RM  '  just  before  God '  ;  a  rebuke 
to  Job's  presumption  :  cp.  417  1514.  ga_  jjy 
'  Behold,  even  the  moon  hath  no  brightness  '  ; 
i.e.  in  the  presence  of  God's  glory. 

With  this  c.  the  speeches  of  the  three 
friends,  according  to  their  present  allocation, 
come  to  an  end,  for  it  will  be  observed  that 
Zophar,  the  third  speaker,  offers  no  reply.  It 
is  probable,  however,  that,  as  already  pointed 
out,  27  '^■23  are  his  concluding  words.  If  the 
present  arrangement  is  correct,  we  may  perhaps 
infer  that  they  came  to  the  conclusion  that 
they  and  Job  regarded  the  whole  question 
from  different  and  irreconcilable  standpoints, 
and  that  further  argument  was  useless.  Or 
the  poet  may  intend  to  suggest  by  Bildad's 
brief  speech  and  Zophar's  silence  that  they 
felt  their  case  to  be  exhausted.  Indeed,  (in 
321)  Elihu  regards  the  friends  as  practically 
acknowledging  themselves  worsted  in  the 
debate. 

CHAPTER  26 

Job's  Eighth  Speech  (Chs.  26,  27) 

1-4.  Job  taunts  Bildad  with  the  worthless- 
ness  of  his  remarks  as  a  solution  of  the 
problem. 

2,  3,  4  are  spoken  ironically.  2.  Him  that 
/.s  without  power]  i.e.  Job  himself.  4.  To 
whom  hast  thou  uttered  words  ?]  i.e.  surely 
not  to  Job  who  knows  it  already. 

5-14-  The  manifestations  of  God's  power 
and  work  in  the  world  below,  in  earth  and  in 
heaven.  Some  scholars  think  these  vv.,  which 
are  quite  in  the  tone  of  25  2. 3^  should  be  inserted 
after  25  3  as  a  misplaced  portion  of  Bildad's 
last  speech,  and  that  Job's  remarks  (26 1"!)  are 
continued  at  272. 

5.  The  inhabitants]  probably  sea-monsters. 
The  Babylonians  believed  in  a  judgment  in 
Sheol  under  the  ocean.  6.  RV  '  Sheol '  (the 
place  of  the  departed)  '  is  naked  before  him, 
and  Abaddon '  (i.e.  destruction,  another  name 
for  Sheol,  cp.  RevQH)  'hath  no  covering,' 
viz.  from  God.  7.  The  empty  place]  RV 
'  empty  space.'  The  writer  seems  to  speak  here 
of  God  stretching  the  vault  of  the  northern 
heavens  with  their  bright  constellations  above 
the  atmosphere,  and  of  the  earth  hanging 
unsupported,  as  instances  of  His  power. 


26.  8 


JOB 


28.  1 


8.  The  retention  of  rain  in  the  clouds  as  in 
a  skin  or  bag  :  cp.  3837.  9.  He  holdeth  back] 
E.V  '  He  closeth  in.'  God  veils  His  throne 
from  men.  10.  Davidson  renders,  '  He  hath 
drawn  as  a  circle  a  bound  upon  the  face  of 
the  waters  (of  the  sea)  at  the  confines  of  light 
and  darkness '  :  i.e.  God  has  marked  out  the 
horizon  which  forms  to  us  the  limit  of  vision. 

II.  The  mountains  (see  on  9^)  tremble  in 
the  earthquake.  12.  Divideth]  RM  '  stilleth.' 
The  sea  is  a  power  hostile  to  God,  that  tosses 
its  waves  in  impotent  fury  towards  heaven. 

Pride]  RV  '  Rahab,'  i.e.  the  dragon  of 
chaos,  Tiamat  :  cp.  712913.  13.  Render, 
'  By  His  breath  the  heavens  are  bright  (through 
the  scattering  of  the  storm  clouds),  and  His 
hand  pierceth  the  flying  serpent,'  or  dragon, 
which  was  supposed  to  cause  darkness  or 
eclipse  by  swallowing  the  heavenly  bodies  : 
see  on  3^.  14.  Job  (or  Bildad),  after  thus 
depicting  the  marvels  of  God's  working, 
declares  that  what  he  has  said  is  but  a  faint 
whisper  of  His  power. 

CHAPTER   27 
Job's  Eighth  Speech  (concluded) 

1-6.   Job  protests  that  he  is  innocent. 

Vv.  1-6  are  an  enlargement  of  what  Job 
had  previously  said  (131(5)  of  his  determina- 
tion not  to  admit  that  he  was  being  punished 
for  his  sins,  since  he  felt  that  he  was  innocent 
of  any  great  offence.  This  much  is  plain,  but 
the  rest  of  the  c.  (vv.  7-23)  is  puzzling  ;  inas- 
much as  the  sentiments  expressed  regarding 
the  fate  of  the  wicked  seem  opposed  to  Job's 
views  in  the  rest  of  the  book  when  he  enlarges 
on  the  prosperity  of  sinners  in  this  life  :  see 
e.g.  c.  21  and  notes.  It  is  therefore  commonly 
considered  that  vv.  7-23  are  really  a  mis- 
placed speech  of  Zophar's  corresponding  with 
the  final  speeches  of  Eliphaz  and  Bildad  (chs. 
22,  25),  and  this  view  is  strongly  confirmed 
by  the  subject-matter.  Vv.  11,  12  are  Job's 
(see  intro.  to  chs.  22-31). 

1.  Parable]   i.e.  discourse  :  cp.  Nu237. 

2.  My  judgment]  RV  'my  right.'  God 
has  not  yet  vindicated  Job's  uprightness,  on 
which  his  sufferings  throw  doubt.  3^.  RV 
'  For  my  life  is  yet  whole  in  me.'  The  v.  is 
a  parenthesis,  explaining  that  Job  is  in  full 
possession  of  all  his  faculties,  when  he  makes 
this  deliberate  utterance.  Spirit  of  God]  cp. 
Gn27.  4.  He  will  not  acknowledge  guilt  of 
which  he  is  unconscious.  5.  I  should  justify 
you]  i.e.  by  admitting  their  contention  that 
he  was  suffering  for  his  sins.  6^.  RM  '  My 
heart  doth  not  reproach  me  for  any  of  my 
days.' 

7-23.  The  fate  of  the  wicked.  Here  it 
would  seem  that  Zophar  speaks. 

7.  Hypocrite]  RV  '  godless.'  8.  Though 
he  hath  gained]   RM  '  when  God  cutteth  him 


off.'  15.  Buried  in  death]  rather,  'buried 
by  death.'  '  Death  '  should  here  be  rendered, 
'pestilence':  cp.  JerlS^  IS^i.  In  such  a 
case  there  would  be  only  maimed  funeral 
rites.  18.  As  a  moth]  like  the  frail  chrysalis 
or  cocoon.  As  a  booth]  like  the  temporary 
shelter  of  the  vineyard  watchman. 

19-23.  The  passage  refers  to  the  final  fall 
of  the  wicked.  In  the  Persian  sacred  books 
we  read  that  the  dead  pious  man  is  led  by  an 
angel  created  by  his  own  good  life  to  the 
'  bridge  of  the  gatherer  '  leading  to  heaven, 
whilst  a  storm  sweeps  the  wicked  man  to  hell. 
The  same  idea  seems  to  occur  here.  The 
sinner  is  not  '  gathered,'  but  blown  away  into 
darkness. 

CHAPTER   28 

The  Mystery  of  Divine  Wisdom 
In  this  famous  chapter  Job  declares  that 
Wisdom — that  is,  the  principle  of  the  divine 
government  of  the  world — is  a  mystery  not  to 
be  solved  by  man.  Man's  wisdom  lies  in  fear- 
ing God,  and  in  departing  from  evil.  But  this 
conclusion  is  quite  at  variance  with  the  position 
taken  by  Job  in  the  chs.  before  and  after 
it.  '  It  might  no  doubt  be  supposed  that  Job 
has  reached  a  calmer  mood  ;  and  abandoning 
the  attempt  to  discover  a  speculative  solution 
of  the  difficulties  which  distress  him,  finds 
man's  wisdom  to  consist  in  the  practical  fulfil- 
ment of  life  (v.  28).  But  if  Job  has  risen  to 
this  tranquil  temper,  how  comes  it  that  he 
falls  back  into  complainings  (3020-23)  and  dis- 
satisfaction at  not  having  been  justified  by 
God  (31^5)  ?  And,  further,  if  he  has  reached 
by  the  unaided  force  of  his  own  meditations 
this  devout  and  submissive  frame  of  mind, 
how  is  the  ironical  tone  of  the  Divine  speeches 
(chs.  38f.)  to  be  accounted  for  ?  If  he  is 
already  resigned  to  the  inscrutability  of  the 
divine  ways,  how  does  it  need  to  be  again 
pointed  out  to  him  ? '  (Driver).  These  con- 
siderations have  induced  rriany  scholars  to 
regard  the  c.  as  a  later  insertion.  Some  have 
regarded  it  as  a  part  of  Zophar's  third  speech, 
but  its  quiet  beauty  and  detachment  in  temper 
forbid  this  view.  The  c.  constitutes  an  inde- 
pendent poem,  which  a  reader  may  have  in- 
serted here  to  indicate  that  the  discussion 
which  has  just  closed  deals  with  subjects  too 
lofty  for  human  understanding. 

i-ii.  Man  can  discover  precious  metals  by 
mining  processes,  but  where  can  Wisdom  be 
found  ? 

I.  Surely]  RM  'For.'  Perhaps  the  ques- 
tion in  vv.  12  and  20,  '  Where  shall  Wisdom 
be  found  ?  ',  '  Whence  then  cometh  Wisdom  ? ' 
may  be  understood  at  the  beginning  of  this 
verse.  It  has  even  been  suggested  that  it 
once  stood  at  the  beginning  and  has  been 
omitted  by  accident. 


310 


28.  1 


JOB 


29.  20 


I.  Vein]  RV  '  mine.'  Remains  of  mines 
have  been  found  in  Edom  a  little  N.  of  Petra, 
and  it  is  well  known  that  copper  and  turquoise 
mines  were  worked  by  the  Egyptians  in  the 
Sinaitic  Peninsula  at  least  as  early  as  the 
reign  of  Sa-neklit,  the  founder  of  the  third 
Egyptian  dynasty,  i.e.  according  to  Prof. 
Flinders  Petrie  about  4950  B.C.  (see  his 
'  Researches  in  Sinai ').  Where  they  fine  it'\  RV 
'  which  they  refine.'  2.  Brass]  rather,  '  cop- 
per.' 3.  Render,  '  Man  setteth  an  end  to 
darkness,  and  searcheth  out  to  the  furthest 
bound  the  stones,'  etc.,  a  reference  to  mining 
operations. 

4.  RV  '  He  (the  miner)  breaketh  open  a 
shaft  away  from  where  men  sojourn  ;  They 
(miners)  are  forgotten  of  the  foot  that  pa-'^neth 
by  (overhead)  ;  They  hang  afar  from  men,  they 
swing  to  and  fro  (i.e.  by  ropes).'  The  word 
rendered  '  shaft '  should  be  '  channel.'  Ancient 
mines  were  often  not  vertical  shafts,  but  sloping 
tunnels.  A  slight  change  would  give  '  He 
breaketh  open  a  shaft  away  from  light.' 

5.  As  it  were  fire]  RV  '  as  it  were  by  fire,' 
a  reference  to  mining  operations.  7.  A  path] 
the  miner's  tunnel.  9.  The  miner's  excava- 
tions. 10.  Rivers]  RM  '  passages.'  ii'\  RV 
'  He  bindeth  (with  clay)  the  streams  that  they 
trickle  not,'  i.e.  he  prevents  water  from 
entering  the   mine. 

12-28.  Man  can  discover  some  things  by 
his  cleverness,  but  Wisdom,  the  mystery  of 
the  universe  and  its  ordering,  is  beyond  his 
ken.  It  is  the  secret  of  God  who  ordained  its 
existence. 

13.  The  price  thereof]  LXX reads,  'the  way 
thereof.'  14.  The  depth]  the  primeval  abyss 
supposed  to  lie  under  the  earth  :  cp.  Gnl^. 
151  Cp.  Prov3i4,i5  810,11.  17.  Crystal]  RV 
'  glass  '  :  known  to  the  ancients,  but  extremely 
costly.  18.  No  mention]  because  there  is  no 
comparison.  Rubies]  RM  '  pearls.'  22.  De- 
struction] Heb.  Abaddon.,  the  realm  of  the 
dead.  The  fame  of  Wisdom,  but  not  the 
knowledge  of  it,  has  reached  these  gloomy 
regions. 

23.  See  on  12-28.  Since  God  is  the  creator 
of  the  universe,  and  knows  even  its  most  secret 
recesses.  He  must  know  where  Wisdom  is  to 
be  found.  Not  only  so,  but  the  very  work  of 
creation  and  the  adjustment  of  natural  pheno- 
mena are  indications  of  Wisdom,  and  prove 
not  merely  God's  knowledge  of  Wisdom's 
abode,  but  his  possession  of  Wisdom  itself. 

25.  RM  '  When  he  maketh  a  weight  for  the 
wind  :  yea,  he  meteth  out  the  waters  by 
measure,'  i.e.  the  regulation  by  God  of  the 
forces  of  nature.  26.  A  decree  for  the  rain] 
i.e.  for  its  regulation.  27.  '  When  God  ordered 
creation.  Wisdom  was  present  to  Him  ;  He 
declared  it,  gave  it  existence,  and  contemplated 
it  in   all   its    fulness  with   divine  approval ' 

31 


(Gibson).  28.  Man's  wisdom  is  a  distinct 
thing  from  the  Divine  Wisdom.  It  is  that 
right  conduct  which  accompanies  reverence  for 
a  holy  God. 

The  description  of  Wisdom  in  this  c. 
closely  connects  the  book  of  Job  in  this  re- 
spect with  the  other  Wisdom  literatm-e  of  the 
OT.,  viz.  Proverbs  and  Ecclesiastes.  The 
personification  is,  however,  less  distinct  in 
Job.  Wisdom  here  is  only  God's  attribute. 
Prov  8  22-31  should  be  carefully  compared  with 
this  c. 

CHAPTERS  29-31 

These  chs.  form  a  section  by  themselves,  in 
which  Job  reviews  his  life.  He  first  of  all 
draws  a  picture  of  his  past  prosperous  career, 
when  he  was  happy  and  respected  (c.  29). 
With  this  he  contrasts  his  present  condition, 
when  men  he  once  despised  now  hold  him  in 
contempt,  and  he  is  in  pain  and  sorrow  and 
disgrace  (c.  30).  Finally,  he  reasserts  his  in- 
nocence of  wickedness  in  any  form  (c.  31). 

CHAPTER   29 

Job's  past  Greatness  and  Happiness 
Job  mournfully  recalls  the  days  of  God's 
favour,  and  the  prosperity  and  honour  he  once 
enjoyed.  In  this  c.  we  have  the  picture  of  a 
gi-eat  and  worthy  chieftain  looked  up  to  and 
respected  by  all.  It  confirms  the  description 
of  Job's  importance  in  c.  1. 

3.  Candle]  RV  '  lamp '  ;  a  figure  of  God's 
favour.  4.  Days  of  my  youth]  RV  '  ripeness 
of  my  days.'  Secret]  RM 'friendship.'  Taber- 
nacle] RV  '  tent.'  6.  A  figure  of  prosperity  : 
cp.  Dt332i. 

7.  Through  the  city]  RV  'unto  the  city.' 
Job  went  with  other  elders  to  administer 
justice  at  the  city  gate.  Observe  that  Job  did 
not  live  in  the  city  ;  his  usual  abode  was  in  his 
camp.  But  he  was  influential  in  the  city,  just 
as  a  great  Arab  prince  is  sometimes  in  our  own 
times. 

8.  Hid  themselves]  because  of  the  awe  which 
Job  inspired.  11.  Gave  witness  to  me]  i.e.  to 
my  goodness,  which  it  saw.  14.  Lit.  'Justice 
clothed  itself  in  me.'  He  was  the  very  per- 
sonification of  justice.     Diadem]  RM 'turban.' 

16.  The  cause  which  I  knew  not]  RV  'the 
cause  of  him  that  I  knew  not.' 

18.  As  the  sand]  RM  'as  the  phoenix.' 
This  was  a  fabulous  bird  alluded  to  in  Egyptian, 
Hebrew,  and  Arabian  tradition.  It  was  sup- 
posed to  be  immortal,  burning  itself  in  its  nest 
every  thousand  years  and  renewing  its  life  in 
the  flames. 

19,  20.  The  verbs  should  be  read  in  the 
future  tense.      19.    By]   RV  '  to  '  :  cp.  Psl^. 

Dew]  cp.  Prov  1912  Dt  32  2.  The  dew  was 
an  emblem  of  prosperity  in  a  land  where  rain  was 
infrequent.  20'"-.  The  respect  paid  him  would 
1 


29.  21 


JOB 


31.23 


not  fail  him.  20''.  His  physical  powers  should 
endure  :  cp.  Gn  49  24,  '  His  bow  abode  in 
strength.' 

21-25.  These  w.  would  more  naturally 
follow  V.  10,  and  some  think  this  was  their 
original  position.  22.  Dropped  upon  them]  as 
refreshing  rain  :  cp.  DtS'i''^.  23.  The  latter 
rain]  the  spring  rains  as  contrasted  with  those 
of  the  autumn.  24.  If  I  laughed,  etc.]  RM  '  I 
smiled  on  them  when  they  had  no  confidence,' 
i.e.  to  encourage  them.  24''.  They  failed  to 
remove  his  cheerfulness.  25.  Job  speaks  as  if 
he  used  to  be  the  natural  guide  and  comfort  of 
his  fellow-men. 

CHAPTER   30 
Job's  Present  Misery 

Job  bitterly  contrasts  his  present  with  his 
past  condition,  as  described  in  c.  29.  It  must 
be  borne  in  mind  that  Job  was  now  outcast 
and  beggared. 

1-8.  Job  complains  that  he  is  insulted  by 
abject  outcasts,  the  class  of  broken  men  who 
are  expelled  from  respectable  tribes  and  live 
by  thieving.  They  are  common  E.  of  Jordan 
in  the  nomadic  regions. 

2^°.  RV  '  Men  in  whom  ripe  age  '  (or  vigom-) 
'  is  perished.'     3.   Solitary]   RV  '  gaunt.' 

¥\jin^,  etc.]  render,  'Fugitives  in  the  desert 
on  the  eve  of  want  and  ruin.'  4.  Render, 
'  They  pluck  salt- wort '  (a  plant  sometimes  eaten 
by  the  abjectly  poor)  '  among  the  bushes,  and 
the  roots  of  the  white  broom  to  warm  them.' 
This  broom  is  a  distinctive  shrub  of  the 
southern  desert  hills  :  cp.  lK19'i  RM. 

7.  Render,  '  They  snore  under  bushes  and 
huddle  under  thorny  shrubs.'  S^".  RV  '  They 
were  scourged  out  of  the  land.' 

9-14.  A  description  of  a  poor  old  man 
mobbed  and  worried  by  the  rabble.  Or  pos- 
sibly 11-15  refers  to  God  as  assailing  him 
with  troops  of  afflictions.  The  Heb.  is  very 
obscure. 

11.  RV  renders,  'For  he  hath  loosed  his 
cord,  and  afflicted  me,  and  they  have  cast  off 
the  bridle  before  me.'  RM  gives  another 
reading,  '  my  cord  (or  bowstring).'  Perhaps 
'  loosed  my  bowstring '  is  the  best  of  these 
alternatives  :  cp.  29  20.  Conder  suggests,  '  For 
they  spy  the  (tent)  door  and  insult  me,  and 
stretch  out  a  headstall  before  my  face.'  This 
was  an  insult  and  one  which  is  still  customary. 
The  headstall  means  that  the  man  is  regarded 
as  an  ass. 

12.  Conder  suggests,  '  The  brood  (of  boys) 
stand  upon  my  right  hand  (an  insult,  for  the 
place  of  honour  was  on  the  right  hand).  They 
trip  up  my  feet  and  jostle  me  on  the  dangerous 
paths.'  They  no  longer  make  room  for  him. 
The  last  clause  is  more  usually  regarded  as  a 
metaphor  from  a  siege  ;  so  RV  '  And  they  cast 
up  against  me  their  ways  of  destruction.' 


1 3.  They  have  no  helper]  Perhaps  we  should 
read,  '  There  is  none  to  check  them.'  15.  My 
soul]   RV  '  my  honour.' 

16-31.  Job  laments  his  misery  of  mind  and 
body,  and  the  severity  of  God. 

17.  Are  pierced]  by  acute  pain.  Sinews] 
render,  'gnawing  pains.'  18.  Changed]  lit. 
'  disfigured.'  His  complaint  causes  painful 
changes  in  his  appearance.  20.  Regardest  me 
not']  rather,  '  lookest  at  me,'  with  indifference 
to  his  sufferings*  22.  Figurative  of  the  storm 
of  God's  anger.  Dissolvest  my  substance] 
RV'dissolvest  me  in  the  tempest.'  23.  House 
appointed]  RM  '  house  of  meeting.'  Job  is 
convinced  that  his  sufferings  can  only  end 
in  death.  24.  Render,  '  Doth  not  a  sinking 
man  stretch  out  his  hand,  and  cry  out  in  his 
calamity  ? ' 

27^.  Figurative  of  his  agitated  condition. 

27^.  Prevented  me]  RV  'are  come  upon 
me.'  28^  RM  '  I  go  blackened,  but  not  by 
the  sun '  ;  the  result  perhaps  of  his  disease  : 
see  V.  30.  28*^.  RV  '  I  stand  up  in  the  assembly 
and  cry  for  help.'     29.  Dragons]  RV  '  jackals.' 

Owls]  lit.  '  daughters  of  screeching.'  These 
are  animals  associated  with  desolate  places  : 
cp.  Isal32i,22.  3o\  RV  'My  skin  is  black, 
and/aWe^A  from  me.'  31.  Organ]  RV  '  pipe.' 
Job's  happiness  is  turned  to  sorrow. 

CHAPTER  31 

Job  protests  the  Innocence  of  his 
PAST  Life 

Job's  virtues  are  those  of  a  great  Arab- 
prince,  such  as  are  admired  still  :  namely, 
blameless  family  life,  consideration  for  the 
poor  and  weak,  charity,  modesty,  and  gener- 
osity concerning  wealth,  pure  religion  (accord- 
ing to  his  creed),  the  absence  of  vindictive 
feelings,  hospitality  to  strangers,  fearless 
honesty  and  just  dealings. 

1-12.   Sensual  sins. 

I.  I  made  a  covenant  with  mine  eyes] 
Job  resolved  to  keep  a  guard  over  them  that 
they  should  not  transgress.  Why  then  should 
I  think  ?]  RV  '  How  then  should  I  look  ? ' 

2'^.  RM  'What  portion  should  I  hare  of 
God  ?  '    i.e.  How  would  God  visit  such  sin  ? 

3.  Is  not]   RV  '  Is  it  not.' 

6.  Even  balance]  i.e.  balances  of  justice. 
In  the  Egyptian  Book  of  the  Dead  the  soul 
is  represented  as  being  weighed  in  the  balance 
before  Osiris  at  the  judgment.  10.  To  grind 
at  the  mill  is  a  menial  task,  the  work  of  slaves. 

12.   The  evil  results  of  lust  :  cp.  Prov624-35. 

13-23.   Sins  of  oppression. 

14.  Riseth  up]  i.e.  to  judge.  18.  He]  the 
fatherless.  Her]  the  widow.  21.  When  I 
saw  my  help  in  the  gate]  Job  could  have 
counted  on  the  judges  supporting  his  side  of 
the  question.  Gate]  see  on  29 'i'.  22.  Bone] 
i.e.  collar-bone.     23.   The  thought    of    God's 


312 


31.26 


JOB 


S% 


displeasure  checked  him,  and  a  sense  of  His 
majesty  kept  him  from  sinning. 

26-28.  A  reference  to  the  worship  of 
the  heavenly  bodies  (cp.  2  K  21  3-5  Jer44i''f. 
Ezk  8 1*5.  27.  My  mouth  hath  kissed  my  hand] 
a  form  of  idolatrous  worship  :  cp.  IK  19 is. 

29f .  The  high  moral  tone  is  very  significant : 
cp.  Mt.541  K0I219-21.  31.  Render,  '  If  the 
men  in  my  tent  have  not  said.  Who  can  find 
one  that  hath  not  been  satisfied  with  his 
flesh  ? '  :  i.e.  Job  had  more  than  satisfied  his 
servants.  33^  Render,  '  If  I  hid  my  fault  like 
a  common  man  '  :  i.e.  as  men  usually  do. 

34.  Did  I  fear]  RV  '  Because  I  feared.' 
Job  declares  that  he  had  nothing  to  hide  in 
his  conduct  and  did  not  fear  enquiry. 

35-37.  Job  breaks  ofE  and  does  not  com- 
plete the  sentence  begun  in  v.  33.  For  his 
whole  soul  is  moved  by  the  words  he  has  just 
uttered,  and  with  the  proud  assertion  of  his 
innocence  he  challenges  God  to  answer  him, 
to  give  him  the  writing  which  contained  the 
charges  against  him.  Proudly,  even  with 
God's  stigma  upon  him,  he  would  enter  God's 
presence,  the  certainty  of  his  rectitude  chang- 
ing the  disgrace  into  distinction.  Most 
scholars  feel  that  the  addition  of  vv.  38-40 
spoils  the  effect  of  this  splendid  conclusion. 

35.  RV  '  Oh  that  I  had  one  to  hear  me  ! 
(Lo,  here  is  my  signature,  let  the  Almighty 
answer  me  !  )  And  that  I  had  the  indictment 
which  mine  adversary  hath  written  ! '  Job 
puts  his  signature  to  the  declaration  of  his 
innocence.  The  adversary  is  God.  37.  Con- 
scious of  his  integrity,  Job  would  lay  bare 
every  act  of  his  life  to  God. 

38-40.  The  grand  challenge  thrown  down  by 
Job  in  vv.  35-37  seems  to  form  such  a  suitable 
conclusion  to  his  speeches  that  most  scholars 
hold  that  vv.  38-40  stood  originally  in  an 
earlier  part  of  the  c,  e.g.  after  vv.  8  or  25. 
40.  Cockles]  RM  '  noisome  weeds. ' 
Job  for  the  last  time  has  maintained  the 
integrity  of  his  past  life,  and  expressed  his 
readiness  to  answer  all  charges  of  guilt  brought 
against  him.  The  third  and  final  series  of  his 
speeches  comes  to  an  end.  It  cannot  be  said 
that  any  explanation  of  the  ways  of  Providence 
has  been  put  forward  so  far,  but  the  popular 
theories  that  suffering  must  always  imply  pre- 
vious sin,  and  that  compensation  according  to 
conduct  is  invariably  meted  out  to  both  good 
and  bad  in  this  world,  have  been  refuted. 
Moreover,  we  see  the  noble  spectacle  of  a  good 
man  in  adversity  clinging  in  spite  of  all  his 
trials  to  his  uprightness.  Job  has  been  able 
to  find  no  foothold  in  the  thought  that  God 
would  revive  him,  or  that  the  life  beyond  the 
grave  will  restore  him  to  blessed  fellowship 
with  God.  Nor  has  he  gained  any  hope  that 
the  government  of  the  world  will  become  more 
righteous.     But  he  has  reached  the  assurance 


that  God  will  vindicate  his  innocence,  and 
that  he  shall  be  permitted  to  know  of  this 
vindication. 

CHAPTERS  32-37 
The  Speeches  ov  Elihu 
It  is  the  view  of  almost  all  scholars  that  the 
speeches  of  Elihu  are  a  later  addition.     The 
grounds  for  this  view  are  the  following.     His 
presence  comes  upon  the  reader  with  surprise, 
he  is  not  mentioned  with  the  other  friends  in 
the  Prologue,  and  we  have  had  no  intimation 
that  he  has  all  the  while  been  listening  to  the 
debate.     It  is  still  more  remarkable  that  he  is 
not  mentioned  at  the  close.     Here  God  passes 
judgment  on  Job  and  the  friends,  and  it  is 
strange  that  Elihu  is  ignored.     If  the  author 
intended  Elihu  to  represent  the  true  view,  why 
did  he  not  represent  God  as  praising  him,  if 
not,  why  is  he  not  condemned  with  the  friends  ? 
This  silence  is  the  more  surprising  in  view  of 
the  contents  of  the  speeches.     Elihu  blames 
the   friends  for   the    ineffectiveness   of    their 
attack,  yet  he  adopts  somewhat  the  same  atti- 
tude   and   repeats    their    arguments,    though 
passing,  to   some    extent,   beyond  them.     He 
elaborates    the  thought  that  suffering  is  dis- 
cipline, and  may  actually  be  an  expression  of 
the  goodness  of  God.     He  works  out  this  vein 
of  argument  more  fully  than  the  three  friends. 
Still  it  is  difficult  to  think  that,  after  the  debate 
between  Job  and  the  friends  had  been  ex- 
hausted, the  poet  should  have  introduced  a  new 
speaker  unless  he  had  something  better  to  say, 
unless,  in  fact,  he  could  sum  up  the  case  and 
decide  between  the  disputants.    Job  could  have 
met  the  arguments  of  Elihu  as  easily  as  those 
of  the  friends.     We  may  be  well  assured  that 
the  author  who  made  him  triumph  over  them 
would  never  have  let  him  be  silenced  by  the 
similar  contentions  of  Elihu.     It  is  also  note- 
worthy that  Elihu  in  his  description  of  celestial 
marvels  to  some  extent  anticipates  the  speech 
of  God  which  is  to  follow,  and  thus  robs  it  of 
some  of  its  effect.     The  style  of  the  speeches  is 
throughout   on  a  much  lower  level,  they  are 
prolix  and  hard  to  understand,  and  the  language 
is  more  coloured  by  Aramaic  influences.     It  is 
also  noteworthy  that  the  opening  words  in  Je- 
hovah's speech,  '  Who  is  this  that  darkeneth 
counsel  by  words  without  knowledge  ?  ',  which 
refer  to    Job,   do    not   well    admit   the    view 
that  another    speaker    has    made    a    lengthy 
speech  since  Job  finished  speaking.     There  are 
minor  arguments  that  need  not  be  mentioned 
here. 

A  few  scholars,  however,  still  regard  the 
speeches  as  part  of  the  original  poem.  It  is 
argued  that  the  function  of  Elihu  is  to  exhibit 
and  correct  the  spiritual  pride  of  Job,  which 
he  had  himself  failed  to  detect  and  overcome. 
Elihu  brings  home  his  fault  to  him,  and  shows 


313 


32.  2 


JOB 


33.  29 


how  the  discipline  through  which  God  has 
brought  him  was  designed  to  purify  him  of 
his  unsuspected  sin  and  raise  him  to  a  loftier 
spiritual  eminence.  In  spite  of  the  subtle 
arguments  urged  in  favour  of  this  view  it  must 
be  dismissed  as  very  unlikely.  The  main  lesson 
of  the  book  on  this  theory  nowhere  finds  clear 
expression,  while  the  debate  is  largely  irrele- 
vant. The  representation  of  the  design  of 
God  does  not  harmonise  with  that  in  the  Pro- 
logue, and  the  Divine  speeches  lose  much  of 
their  significance.  Moreover,  according  to  the 
Prologue,  which  represents  the  author's  view. 
Job  is  a  truly  blameless  man,  acknowledged 
as  such  by  God  Himself.  With  this  Elihu 
does  not  agree,  hence  it  was  not  the  original 
author  who  introduced  him  into  the  book.  Nor 
is  it  the  fact  that  Elihu  convicts  Job,  it  is  the 
vision  of  God  that  brings  him  to  contrition. 

The  reasons  for  the  insertion  of  these 
speeches  lie  on  the  surface.  The  author  wished 
to  reassert  the  doctrine  held  by  the  friends, 
but  also  to  develop  aspects  of  it  which  had  not 
received  due  weight.  He  dwells  on  the  value 
of  affliction  for  discipline,  and  lays  much  stress 
on  the  goodness  of  God.  He  also  wished  to 
rebuke  Job  for  his  unbecoming  words  about 
God.  And  he  seems  to  have  dissented  from 
the  poet,  to  whom  we  owe  the  rest  of  the 
book,  in  his  representation  of  Job's  character 
before  his  trial,  while  he  also  thought  it  an 
impropriety  to  represent  God  as  condescending 
to  debate  with  Job. 

CHAPTER  32 

The  SPEF.CHES  or  Elihu 

Elihu  explains  his  reasons  for  intervening 
in  the  debate. 

2.  Elihu]  Heb.  '  He  is  my  God.'  Buzite] 
In  Gn22'-i  Buz  is  closely  connected  with  Uz 
(RY),  which  was  Job's  country.  To  the  As- 
syrians Huz  and  Buz  ('  Haza '  and  '  Baza ') 
were  known  as  places  not  far  from  Edom. 

Ram]  uncertain.  It  occurs  again  in  Ruth 
4 19  1  Ch  2  «>  10.  He  justified  himself  rather  than 
God]  Job,  in  asserting  his  own  innocence  so 
warmly,  had  charged  God  with  injustice  in 
treating  him,  as  he  thought,  as  if  he  were 
guilty.  3.  The  friends  had  not  succeeded  in 
refuting  Job's  arguments,  and  they  only  as- 
serted that  he  was  wicked  without  proving  it. 

8.  A  spirit]  a  divine  impulse  which  moved 
him  to  speak. 

13.  RV  '  Beware  lest  ye  say.  We  have  found 
wisdom  ;  God  may  vanquish  him,  not  man.' 
The  friends  must  not  excuse  themselves  for 
their  failure  on  the  score  that  Job  was  too 
clever  for  man  to  debate  with.  Job  had  not 
yet  contended  with  Elihu,  and  the  latter  in- 
tended to  use  different  arguments.  The  author 
criticises  the  poet  for  letting  God  intervene  in 
the  debate. 


15.  Elihu  describes  the  discomfiture  of  the 
friends.  19.  Belly]  We  use  'heart'  in  the 
same  way,  of  the  emotions.  New  bottles]  i.e. 
new  wine-skins.  If  wine  was  put  into  new 
skins  before  it  had  finished  fermenting  it  might 
cause  them  to  burst :  cp.  Mt9 1'^.  21,  22.  Elihu 
will  show  no  partiality  to  either  side  in  the 
remarks  he  is  about  to  make.  22^.  RV  '  Else 
would  my  Maker  soon  take  me  away.' 

CHAPTER  33 

The  Speeches  of  Elihu  (continued) 

1-13.  Elihu  blames  Job  for  regarding  him- 
self as  sinless,  and  complaining  that  God  is 
his  enemy  and  will  not  answer  him. 

4.  Elihu  feels  that  God  is  inspiring  his  mind 
to  speak  aright.  6.  RY  '  Behold,  I  am  toward 
God  even  as  thou  art.'  Job  need  have  no  fear 
in  facing  a  man  like  himself,  such  as  he  had 
felt  about  God  :  cp.  9^2  1321.  9.  Cp.  921  RV 
10  V  1617  274-6.  But  Elihu  exaggerates  Job's 
protestation  of  innocence:  cp.  721  1326. 

10,  II.  Cp.  1324,27  1911  3021.  12b.  God  is 
too  gi-eat  to  have  His  actions  questioned  by 
mortals:  to  do  so  is  presumptuous.  13.  For] 
i.e. '  because.'  Why  does  Job  complain  because 
God  does  not  explain  His  treatment  of  him  ? 
God  does  answer  man,  as  he  proceeds  to  point 
out  in  two  ways. 

14-30.  Elihu  especially  insists  that  the  pur- 
poses of  God's  visitations  are  often  to  teach 
and  to  discipline  ;  vv.  15-18  represent  one 
method  of  God's  training,  vv.  19-24  another. 
'  In  the  first  Elihu  probably  had  Eliphaz  in 
his  eyes,  in  the  second  it  is  all  but  certain  he 
had  Job '  (Cox). 

15.  Cp.  the  vision  of  Eliphaz  in  c.  4. 

16.  Sealeth]  Impresses  on  the  mind  like  a 
seal.  18.  He  keepeth  back]  RM  '  That  he 
may  keep  back.'  22.  The  destroyers]  or, 'the 
slain.' 

23,  24.  An  angel  messenger,  interpreting 
God's  will,  comes  to  the  sufferer  and  shows 
him  what  right  conduct  is.  Thereupon  God 
declares  that  He  has  found  a  means  of  recon- 
ciliation (ransom),  perhaps  the  man's  repent- 
ance, and  pardons  him.  Some  regard  the 
angel  as  a  mediator  who  comes  between  man 
and  God  and  pleads  his  cause.  '  Jewish  prayers 
show  that  the  "  interpreter  "  of  this  verse  was 
always  identified  in  their  minds  with  the  ex- 
pected Redeemer  of  Israel '  :  thus,  '  Raise  up 
for  us  the  righteous  Interpreter,  say,  I  have 
found  a  ransom  '  (Cook). 

26.  He  will  render,  etc.]  God  restores  to  the 
penitent  his  righteousness,  i.e.  a  position  of 
acceptance  with  Him.  27.  Render,  '  He  (the 
penitent)  singe th  before  men  and  saith,  I  have 
sinned  and  . .  it  was  not  requited  to  me.' 

29,  30.  Elihu  has  now  shown  Job  the  loving 
purposes  of  God  in  chastening  man.  Job 
himself  had  only  advanced  to  the  idea  of  his 


314 


S3.  32 


JOB 


35.  16 


own  vindication  after  death.  Elihu  teaches 
the  use  of  evil  in  this  present  life.  32.  I  desire 
to  justify  thee]  I  am  ready  to  admit  you  are 
right  if  you  can  prove  it. 

CHAPTER  34 

The  Speeches  of  Elihu  (continued) 

1-9.  Elihu  appeals  to  his  hearers  to  judge 
the  matter.  He  protests  against  the  complaints 
of  Job  that  he  was  treated  unjustly  by  God, 
and  that  it  was  no  profit  to  be  righteous. 

3.  Cp.  1211.  4.  Judg-ment]  RV  '  that  which 
is  right.'     5.   My  judgment]  i.e.  my  right. 

6.  RV  '  Notwithstanding  my  right  I  am 
accounted  a  liar  :  My  wound  is  incurable,  though 
I  am  without  transgression.'  Right  =  inno- 
cence. 7,  8.  Elihu  implies  that,  in  indulging 
in  such  reckless  remarks.  Job  was  linking 
himself  with  sinners.  7^.  Cp.  1516.  9.  Cp. 
e.g.  chs.  9  and  21. 

10-37.  Elihu  meets  Job's  doubts.  The 
omnipotent  God  cannot  commit  injustice  :  the 
idea  is  inconsistent  with  the  conception  of  One 
who  creates  and  sustains  and  governs  all  man- 
kind.    Instances  are  given  of  His  judgments. 

13.  God  has  not  been  entrusted  with  His 
rule  by  a  higher  Power. 

14^  RM  '  If  he  cause  his  heart  to  return  to 
himself.'  i.e.  if  God  ceased  to  concern  Him- 
self with  the  affairs  of  man,  and  only  selfishly 
regarded  Himself.  If  He  acted  thus  He 
might  withdraw  from  man  the  breath  of  life 
He  had  given  him  (14^),  and  then  he  would 
perish  (15). 

17.  Render,  '  Doth  one  hating  right  rule  ?  ' 
The  thought  is  the  same  as  Abraham's,  '  Shall 
not  the  Judge  of  all  the  earth  do  right  ?  '  (Gn 
18^5)  :  cp.  also  RoS^.  Of  course  this  begs 
the  very  question  in  dispute.  19.  Accepteth 
not]  RV  '  respecteth  not,'  shows  no  undue 
partiality  to.  20.  The  impartiality  of  God's 
judgments.  Without  hand]  i.e.  without  human 
agency. 

23.  RV  '  For  he  needeth  not  further  to 
consider  a  man,  that  he  should  go  before  God 
in  judgment.'  God  at  the  same  time  sees  and 
judges  every  act :  there  is  no  need  to  set  apart 
a  special  time  for  trying  man.  24.  Without 
number]  RM  '  without  inquisition.'  25.  He 
knoweth]   RV  '  he  taketh  knowledge  of.' 

28.  Oppression  causes  God's  intervention. 

29.  Make  trouble]  RV  '  condemn.' 

30.  RV  '  That  the  godless  man  reign  not, 
that  there  be  none  to  ensnare  the  people.' 

31.  Render, '  For  hath  any  said  unto  God.  I 
have  borne  chastisement  though  I  offend  not  ?  ' 

32.  '  Show  me  my  sin,  and  I  will  give  it  up.' 
In  vv.  31-33  Job  is  rebuked  for  presumption 
in  criticising  God's  treatment  of  him. 

33.  RV  "■  Shall  his  recompence  be  as  thou 
wilt,  that  thou  ref  usest  it  ?  For  thou  must 
choose  and  not  I  :  Therefore  speak  what  thou 


knowest.'     Elihu  asks  Job  ironically  if  he  is 
to  lay  down  the  law  to  God. 

34.  RV  '  Men  of  understanding  will  say 
unto  me,  yea,  every  wise  man  that  heareth  me.' 
36.  Answers  for]  RV  '  answering  like.' 
Elihu  does  not  really  advance  on  the  position 
of  the  friends.  Omnipotence  cannot  go  wrong, 
the  supreme  tribunal  cannot  be  unjust.  This 
is  just  the  point  to  be  proved,  and  the  proof 
derived  from  the  fact  that  God  gives  and 
sustains  man's  life,  while  sound  as  far  as  it 
goes,  does  not  go  far  enough.  God  may  have 
His  own  ends  to  serve  in  this,  rather  than  be 
prompted  by  benevolence,  and  the  hard  facts 
of  human  misery  are  left  to  suggest  the  darker 
interpretations  of  God. 

CHAPTER   35 

The  Speeches  of  Elihu  (continued) 
1-8.  Elihu    (349)   had   charged   Job    with 
saying  that  there  was  no  advantage  in  being 
righteous.     He  now  deals  with  this  assertion. 

2.  Right]  RV  '  thy  right,'  thy  just  cause. 

3.  If  I  he  cleansed  from  my  sin]  RV  '  more 
than  if  I  had  sinned.'  4.  Thy  companions] 
those  who  held  the  same  views. 

5-8.  Elihu  points  to  the  infinite  distance 
between  God  and  man,  and  shows  that  He  can- 
not be  injured  by  the  evil  or  benefited  by  the 
good  which  we  do.  But  a  man's  conduct  is 
most  important  both  to  himself  and  to  his 
fellows. 

9-16.  Coming  to  the  problem  why  the  cry 
of  the  oppressed  seems  often  unanswered, 
Elihu  replies  it  is  because  there  is  a  lack 
of  real  prayer  and  trust  in  God.  Hence  Job 
must  not  expect  to  be  heard  so  long  as  he 
murmurs  at  the  way  God  treats  him. 

9.  They  make  the  oppressed  to  cry]  rather, 
'  men  cry  out.'  10.  Who  giveth  songs  in  the 
night]  i.e.  who  delivers  in  the  night  of  trouble, 
and  causes  men  to  sing  with  joy.  12.  Render, 
'  They  cry  because  of  the  pride  of  evil  men, 
but  none  giveth  answer  '  ;  i.e.  because  there  is 
no  humble,  trustful  appeal  to  God. 

13.  Vanity]  or,  unreality.  14.  Shalt]  rather, 
'  dost.'  Although  Job  thinks  God  is  indiiferent 
to  his  cause,  it  is  not  forgotten,  only  he  must 
wait  patiently.  15.  RV  '  But  now,  because 
he  hath  not  visited  in  his  anger,  neither  doth 
he  greatly  regard  arrogance  '  ;  i.e.  because  God 
does  not  seem  to  punish  sin  at  once.  16.  In 
vain]  i.e.  with  foolish  views. 

In  this  c.  Elihu  follows  Eliphaz  in  explaining 
that  righteousness  is  profitable  to  the  upright, 
since  God  is  too  exalted  to  have  any  interest  of 
His  own  to  serve  in  perversion  of  justice.  He 
urges  further  that  the  reason  for  God's  silence 
when  the  wretched  appeal  to  Him  is  that  their 
cry  is  prompted  by  their  selfishness.  Both 
arguments  are  quite  irrelevant  to  the  case  of 
Job. 


315 


36.  1 


JOB 


37.  24 


CHAPTER   3G 


The  Speeches  of  Elihu  (continued) 

1-15.  Elihu  maintains  the  wisdom  and 
impartial  justice  of  the  rule  of  God.  His  pur- 
pose is  to  discipline  and  improve  men,  even 
by  their  afflictions. 

3.  From  afar]  from  a  review  of  the  whole 
universe.     4.   He]   RV  '  one  '  ;  i.e.  Elihu. 

7'\  RV  '  But  with  kings  upon  the  throne 
he  setteth  them  for  ever.'  9.  Their  work] 
i.e.  their  faults.  Exceeded]  RV  '  behaved 
themselves  proudly.'  12.  Without  know- 
ledge]  without  learning  God's  lessons. 

13.  Hypocrites]  RV  'godless.'  Heap  up 
wrath]  RV  '  lay  up  anger '  ;  they  cherish 
rebellious  feelings.  They  cry  not]  in  sub- 
mission. The  way  the  godless  take  God's 
chastening  is  contrasted  with  that  of  the 
righteous,  vv.  7f.  14.  Is  among]  render, 
'■  perisheth  like.' 

15.  RM  '  He  delivereth  the  afflicted  by  their 
afflictions,  and  openeth  their  ears  by  adver- 
sity.' Such  are  the  effects  of  God's  discipline 
when  taken  in  the  right  spirit. 

16-21.  Elihu  applies  these  remarks  to  Job, 
urging  him  to  humble  himself  instead  of  re- 
maining rebellious. 

17.  Hast  fulfilled]  RV  'art  full  of.'  Job 
acts  like  the  wicked  under  affliction  :  cp.  v.  13. 

18.  Render,  'For  beware  lest  wrath  lead 
thee  away  into  mockery  :  neither  let  the 
greatness  of  the  ransom  (Job's  sufferings) 
turn  thee  aside,'  i.e.  into  rebellion. 

19.  Nothing  but  affliction  can  save  him. 

20.  The  night]   probably,  of  judgment. 
People]    rather,    '  nations.'      21.    Iniquity] 

i.e.  rebelliousness. 

22-37  ^■i.  The  wonders  of  the  heavens 
testify  to  the  majesty  and  unsearchableness 
of  God.     Let  Job  refrain  from  judging  Him. 

22.  Exalteth  by]  RV  '  doeth  loftily  in.' 
Who  teacheth  like  him]  This  is  Elihu's  gi-eat 
point,  that  afflictions  are  intended  to  teach,  to 
discipline,  and  to  purify  even  the  good. 

23.  Iniquity]   RV  '  unrighteousness.' 
26-37 13.  Elihu    illustrates   the   marvellous 

workings  of  God  by  a  vivid  description  of  a 
rising  storm. 

27.  The  formation  of  rain.  RV  '  He 
draweth  up  the  drops  of  water  which  distil 
in  rain  from  his  vapour.'  29^.  RV  '  The 
thunderings  of  his  pavilion '  ;  i.e.  of  the 
clouds.  30.  Render,  '  Behold,  He  spreadeth 
His  light  around  Him,  and  covereth  it  with 
the  deeps '  (lit.  '  roots ')  '  of  the  sea'  :  see  on  26  ^ 
and  cp.  Psl042>3.  Modern  scholars  generally 
correct  the  text  ;  some  read  with  Duhm, 
'  Behold,  He  spreadeth  His  mist  abMit  Him, 
And  He  covereth  the  tops  of  the  mountains.' 

31.  The  people]  rather,  '  the  peoples.'  The 
purpose  of  storms  may  be  either  punishment 


or  a  bountiful  provision.  32.  RV  '  He 
covereth  his  hands  with  the  lightning '  (to 
conceal  them)  :  '  and  giveth  it  a  charge  that 
it  strike  the  mark.' 

33.  The  present  text  is  difficult.  The 
vowel-points  should  probably  be  somewhat 
altered,  and  the  v.  should  run,  '  The  noise 
thereof  telleth  concerning  Him  as  one  that 
kindles  His  wrath  against  wickedness.' 

CHAPTER  37 

The  Speeches  of  Elihu  (concluded) 
2.  The  thunder  is  frequently  called  the 
voice  of  God  :  cp.  Ps29.  Sound]  RM  'mut- 
tering.' 4.  Them]  the  flashes  and  thunder- 
claps. 6«.  RV  'And  to  the  showers  of  his 
mighty  rain.'  1^.  RV  '  That  all  men  whom 
he  hath  made  may  know  it.'  The  suspension 
of  work  by  storms  shows  men  that  they  are 
subject  to  a  higher  Power. 

9.  Render,  '  The  whirlwind  comes  from  its 
chamber,  and  cold  from  the  scatterers,'  i.e. 
from  the  winds  (so  RM),  which  scatter  the 
clouds.  But  we  should  probably  read,  '  from 
its  storehouses,'  with  a  trifling  change. 

10.  Straitened]  RM  'congealed.'  11.  RV 
'  Yea,  he  ladeth  the  thick  cloud  with  moisture  : 
he  spreadeth  abroad  the  cloud  of  his  light- 
ning.' 12.  The  lightning  flashes  and  falls  in 
obedience  to  the  behest  of  God.  13.  Pro- 
bably the  first  line  should  run,  '  Whether  it 
be  for  correction  for  his  land.'  The  word 
translated  '  or '  has  been  repeated  by  mistake. 

14-24.  A  series  of  questions  to  Job, 
intended  to  produce  submission  and  belief  in 
God's  providence. 

15.  Dost  thou  know  ?]   can  you  explain  ? 

16.  The  balancing  of  the  clouds]  the  way 
in  which  they  are  poised.  17.  Render,  '  When 
thy  clothes  are  hot,  and  the  earth  still  by 
reason  of  the  south  wind.'  Vv.  17,  18  refer 
to  the  sultry  weather  and  sky  of  brass  before 
the  storm  breaks.  18.  Looking  glass]  RV 
'mirror'  (of  metal).  19-20.  Elihu  shrinks 
from  the  presumptuous  thought  of  contending 
with  the   Almighty,  such   as  Job  had  uttered. 

20''.  RV  '  Or  should  a  man  wish  that  he  were 
swallowed  up.' 

21.  RM  '  And  now  men  cannot  look  on  the 
light  when  it  is  bright  in  the  skies,  when  the 
wind  hath  passed  and  chased  them.' 

22.  Fair  weather  is  literally  '  gold.'  The 
author  probably  intended  '  brightness,'  for 
which  he  may  have  used  a  different  word. 
The  reference  may  be  to  the  Northern  Lights. 

23.  24.  Elihu  concludes  by  summing  up  the 
character  of  God  as  He  manifests  Himself  to 
man.  Though  His  dealings  may  be  beyond 
man's  comprehension,  yet  He  is  just  as  well  as 
mighty,  and  will  not  afflict  unjustly.  But  He 
expects  humility,  not  presum^^iion  from  His 
creatures.     24.   Respecteth]  RV  '  regardeth.' 


316 


38. 


JOB 


38.  21 


Wise  of  heart]  i.e.  confident  in  their  own 
wisdom,  as  Job  was  in  Elihu's  opinion. 

CHAPTERS   38-41 
The  Speeches  of  the  Almighty 

When  the  human  debate  was  over,  and  Job 
had  proudly  asserted  his  readiness  to  confront 
Grod,  conscious  of  his  innocence  (Sl^^-s*)^  there 
was  nothing  left,  if  the  contest  was  to  be 
decided,  except  a  direct  intervention  of  God. 
This  Job  had  himself  again  and  again  de- 
manded. He  had  challenged  God  to  meet 
him  and  justify  the  treatment  He  accorded  to 
him.  He  complains  bitterly  that  God  evades 
him,  and  lets  him  suffer,  though  He  knows 
that  he  is  innocent.  Now  at  last  God  speaks. 
But  not  at  all  as  Job  had  demanded.  For  he 
had  implored  God  to  remove  His  hand  from 
him,  in  other  words,  to  release  him  from  pain 
that  he  might  not  be  distracted  by  it,  and  not 
to  make  him  afraid  with  His  terror,  since 
otherwise  he  might  be  driven,  though  innocent, 
to  confess  to  guilt.  God  does  not  heal  him, 
and  He  speaks  out  of  the  storm.  Nor  does 
the  matter  of  His  utterance  conform  to  what 
Job  had  demanded,  any  more  than  the  manner 
of  it.  For  He  does  not  deal  with  the  question 
of  Job's  sin,  or  tell  him  the  reason  of  his 
affliction.  He  puts  question  after  question  to 
him,  challenging  him  to  explain  the  mysteries 
of  the  universe.  These  he  cannot  comprehend  ; 
with  what  right  then  does  he  criticise  God's 
government  of  the  world  ? 

It  is  a  surprise  to  some  that  God  should  be 
represented  by  the  poet  as  taking  this  line. 
Why  should  He  speak  with  such  irony,  and 
why  not  offer  the  man  who  had  suffered  so 
deeply  some  explanation  and  comfort  ?  Partly 
because  Job  had  brought  deserved  rebuke 
on  himself  for  his  attack  on  God's  rule  of  the 
world.  Partly  because  he  needed  to  rise  to  a 
higher  point  of  view  from  which  he  could 
see  the  complexity  of  the  problem.  More- 
ever,  God  does  not  explain  to  Job  the  cause  of 
his  suffering,  since  the  supreme  lesson  of  the 
book  is  that  he  becomes  so  sure  of  God  that 
he  knows  his  affliction  to  be  in  harmony  with 
God's  righteousness,  though  he  is  wholly 
incapable  of  reconciling  the  two  intellectually. 
But  after  he  has  reached  this  position  God 
restores  him  to  health  and  prosperity. 

The  vital  element  in  his  experience  is  not 
the  speech  of  God,  but  the  vision  of  God.  It 
is  in  a  true  relation  to  God,  which  is  possible 
only  to  him  to  whom  the  divine  vision  is 
vouchsafed,  that  Job  learns  to  trust  God 
utterly.  And  as  he  looks  back  on  the  charges 
he  has  brought  against  Him,  whom  in  this  deep, 
mystical  manner  he  has  just  come  to  know,  he 
loathes  the  words  he  has  uttered,  and  repents  in 
dust  and  ashes.  '  I  had  heard  of  thee  by  the  hear- 
ing of  the  ear,  but  now  mine  eye  seeth  thee.' 


CHAPTER  38 

The  First  Speech  op  the  Almighty 
(Chs.  38,  39) 

The  marvels  of  creation,  which  witness  to 
the  infinite  wisdom,  power,  and  watchful  care 
of  the  Creator,  are  presented  to  Job  in  such  a 
way  as  to  force  from  him  a  confession  of 
ignorance  and  weakness,  and  of  presumption 
in  venturing  to  contend  with  God. 

1-38.  The  wonders  of  earth  and  heaven. 
What  does  Job  know  of  their  nature  and 
origin  and  ordering  ? 

1.  Whirlwind]  rather,  '  storm.'  Theoph- 
anies,  or  manifestations  of  God  to  man,  are 
usually  represented  in  OT.  as  accompanied 
by  convulsions  of  nature  :  cp.  Exl9i'5-20_ 
There  is  no  necessary  reference  to  the  storm  in 
c.  37. 

2.  The  question  evidently  refers  to  Job. 
'  God  condemns  Job  for  making  dark  the 
divine  plan  of  the  world.  He  had  spoken  as 
though  it  was  all  a  tangled  riddle.  Really 
there  is  in  it  a  beautiful  luminous  order ' 
(Peake).  But  this  makes  Job  the  last  speaker, 
not  Elihu,  and  supports  the  view  that  the 
latter's  speeches  are  an  interpolation. 

3.  Job  had  expressed  too  boldly  his  desire 
to  contend  with  God  concerning  his  righteous- 
ness. But  he  has  still  to  learn  that  he  must 
trust  where  he  cannot  understand. 

4-7.   The  creation  of  the  earth. 

5.  Who  hath  laid]  RV  '  Who  determined.' 

7.  Sons  of  God]  the  angels. 
8-11.   The  sea. 

8.  When  it  brake  forth]  The  ancients 
thought  that  the  sea  issued  from  the  subter- 
ranean abyss,  with  which  it  was  connected  by 
springs  in  the  bed  of  the  ocean  :  cp.  v.  16  and 
Gn7ii.  10^  Render,  'and  prescribed  for  it 
its  boundary.' 

12-15.  The  dawn. 

12.  Since  thy  days]  RV  adds  'began.' 

13.  Deeds  of  darkness  are  checked  by  the 
coming  of  light:  cp.  Jn3^o_  i^,  jjm  'it  is 
changed  as  clay  under  the  seal,  and  all  things 
stand  forth  as  in  a  garment.'  Objects  which 
have  hitherto  been  obscure  and  shapeless  take 
form  and  colour,  as  if  wrapped  in  a  clinging 
garment,  when  daylight  comes.  15.  Darkness, 
which  is  the  light  of  the  wicked,  disappears, 
and  with  it  their  power  to  harm  is  gone. 

1 6,  17.  The  deep  and  the  under-world.  The 
deep  lies  beneath  the  bed  of  the  sea. 

16.  Search  of  the  depth]  RV  '  recesses  of 
the  deep.'  17.  Opened]  RV 'revealed.'  Death] 
Sheol,  the  place  of  the  dead. 

19-21.   The  abode  of  light  and  darkness. 

19.  Where]  rather,  '  whither.'  20.  Take  it 
to  the  bound  thereof]  i.e.  track  it.  21.  Knowest 
thou  it']  RV  ^Doubtless  thou  knowest ' :  spoken 
ironically. 


317 


38.  22 


JOB 


40.  1 


22-30.  The  secrets  of  snow  and  hail,  rain 
and  frost. 

22.  Treasures]  RV  '  treasuries  '  ;  store- 
houses. 22,  23.  Cp.  passages  such  as  Josh 
10 11  Psl8,  where  God  is  represented  as  inter- 
vening in  the  affairs  of  men  through  the  ele- 
ments of  nature.  24^  RV  '  Or  the  east  wind 
scattered  upon  the  earth.' 

25.  '  Who  has  made  a  channel  for  the  tropi- 
cal rain  to  pour  down  from  the  heavens  through 
the  skies  ? '  26,  27.  God's  providence  neg- 
lects no  part  of  His  creation.  Job  had  at  the 
most  thought  of  man,  but  mainly  of  himself. 
God  reminds  him  of  the  vast  animate  and 
inanimate  creation.  28^  '  Does  man  beget 
the  rain  ? '  30.  Render,  '  The  waters  are 
congealed  like  stone.' 

31^  Render,  '  Canst  thou  group  together 
the  Pleiades '? '    Sweet  influences]  RV '  cluster.' 

Pleiades]  see  on  9  9.  32.  Render,  '  Canst 
thou  lead  forth  the  signs  of  the  zodiac  in  the 
season  ?  '  i.e.  Can  you  influence  their  appear- 
ing ?  The  zodiacal  signs  were  known  3,000 
years  B.C.  (The  zodiac  is  that  part  of  the 
sky  which  includes  the  apparent  paths  of  the 
sun,  moon,  and  planets.  The  '  signs  '  are  the 
divisions  of  30  degrees  into  which,  for  astro- 
nomical and  other  purposes,  it  is  divided.)  Arc- 
turus  with  his  sons]  or,  '  the  Bear  over  her 
sons,'  i.e.  the  revolution  of  the  Bear  round  the 
Pole  and  Little  Bear. 

33.  The  laws  of  the  seasons  and  their  influ- 
ence on  the  earth.  36.  Inv/ard  parts]  RM 
'  dark  clouds.'  Heart]  RM  '  meteor.'  37.  In] 
RV  '  by.'  Stay]  RV  '  pour  out.'  Bottles  of 
heaven]  i.e.  rain-clouds. 

37-41.  These  vv.  are  connected  in  subject 
with  c.  39.  41.  They  wander]  RV  •and 
wander.' 

CHAPTER   39 

The  First  Speech  of  the  Almighty 
(concluded) 

Chs.  3839-41  and  39  depict  the  wonders  of 
animate  creation,  and  the  instincts  with  which 
animals  are  gifted  by  the  providence  of  God. 
In  view  of  His  works  Job  must  learn  to  trust 
Him  and  to  believe  in  His  goodness. 

1-4.  The  wild  goat  or  ibex. 

I.   Knowest  thou  ?]  i.e.  do  you  control  ? 

3.  Their  sorrows]  their  young,  whose  birth 
causes  pain.  4.  With  corn]  rather,  '  in  the 
desert.' 

5-8.  The  wild  ass,  which  is  still  found  in 
the  deserts  of  N.  Arabia  and  Syria. 

6.  Barren  laud']  RV  '  salt  land,'  districts 
coated  with  this  mineral,  which  is  much  sought 
after  by  cattle.  7.  Note  the  contrast  between 
the  life  of  the  wild  and  the  domestic  ass. 

Regardeth  he  the  crying]  RV  '  heareth  he 
the  shoutings.' 

9-12.  The  wild  ox. 


9.  Unicorn]  RV  '  wild-ox.'  The  word 
'  unicorn '  is  based  on  the  LXX  translation, 
and  is  incorrect.  The  nearest  extant  repre- 
sentative of  the  wild  ox  is  the  bison,  which 
still  lingers  in  the  forests  of  Lithuania,  the 
Caucasus  and  N.  America.  Its  bones  are 
found  in  Lebanon  bone-caves.  10-12.  The 
untameable  nature  of  the  wild  ox.  12.  Be- 
lieve] i.e.  confide  in,  trust.  Gather  it  info  thy 
barn]  RV  '  gather  the  corn  of  thy  threshing 
floor.' 

13-18.   The  ostrich. 

13.  There  is  nothing  about  peacocks  in  the 
Hebrew.  Perhaps  the  sense  is,  '  The  wing  of 
ostriches  is  goodly.  Is  it  a  stork's  wing  for 
flight  V  '  The  ostrich  cannot  fly  like  a  stork, 
which  comes  to  Palestine  in  the  spring  on  its 
way  from  Africa  to  Europe.  14.  In  the  earth] 
RV  '  on  the  earth.'  Dr.  Tristram  says  :  '  The 
ostrich  is  polygamous,  and  several  hens  deposit 
their  eggs  in  one  place,  a  hole  in  the  sand. 
The  eggs  are  then  covered  over  and  left  during 
the  heat  of  the  day  ;  but  in  the  cold  regions 
at  any  rate,  as  in  the  Sahara,  the  birds  sit 
regularly  during  the  night,  and  until  the  sun 
has  full  power.'  16.  She  is  hardened  against] 
RM  '  She  deals  hardly  with.'  If  her  nest  is 
discovered  the  ostrich  often  destroys  her 
young  :  cp.  Lam  4  3.  16''.  RV  '  Though  her 
labom- '  (of  laying  the  eggs)  '  be  in  vain,  she  is 
without  fear,'  i.e.  acts  still  without  due  caution. 

17.  '  More  stupid  than  an  ostrich  '  is  an  Arab 
proverb.  18.  Lifteth  up  herself  on  high]  RM 
'  rouseth  herself  up  to  flight.'  Scorneth  the 
horse]  by  outrunning  him.  Tristram  puts  the 
stride  of  an  ostrich  at  full  speed  at  from  22 
to  28  ft. 

19-25.   The  war-horse. 

19''.  RV  '  Hast  thou  clothed  his  neck  with 
the  quivering  mane  ?  '  (lit.  '  with  shaking '). 

20.  Afraid  as  a  grasshopper]  RV  '  to  leap 
as  a  locust.'     Nostrils]   RV  '  snorting.' 

23.  Against]  rather,  '  over.'  Shield]  RV 
'  javelin.'  The  horse  probably  is  not  being 
ridden  here,  but  driven  in  a  chariot,  on  which 
quiver,  spear,  and  shield  (or  dart)  are  hung. 
He  is  not  afraid  of  the  noise  they  make,  or, 
perhaps,  of  the  enemy.  24.  He  swalloweth] 
render,  '  he  digs '  or  '  paws.'  Neither  be- 
lieveth,  etc.]  RM  'Neither  standeth  he  still 
at.'  25^  Render,  '  at  each  trumpet  he  saith, 
Ha  !  '  25^.  The  sense  of  smell  in  horses  is 
very  acute,  and  they  are  much  discomposed  by 
the  odour  of  carrion. 

26-30.  The  hawk  and  the  eagle. 

26.  The  migratory  hawk  is  intended,  which 
leaves  Palestine  for  the  S.  in  winter. 

27.  '  Eagle '  is  masculine  throughout.  30.  Cp. 
Mt24  28. 


CHAPTER  401-5 
A  short  dialogue  between  the  Almighty  and 


318 


40.  2 


JOB 


41.34 


Job,    ending   in   the   latter's   confession  and 
submission. 

2.  Cox  renders,  '  Is  he  who  contended  with 
the  Almighty  corrected  ?  Let  him  who  dis- 
puted with  God  reply.'  4.  Vile]  RY  'of 
small  account.'  Job  confesses  that  in  view  of 
these  marvellous  works  of  God,  it  was  pre- 
sumption to  think  of  criticising  His  actions. 

CHAPTERS  40  "-4 134 
The  Second  Speech  of  the  Almighty 

Job,  we  know,  in  his  anxiety  to  prove  his 
integrity  had  been  led  into  casting  doubts 
on  the  justice  of  God's  government  of  the 
world.  He  is  here  ironically  invited  to  take 
God's  place  as  ruler  of  the  universe,  and  to 
display  a  wisdom  as  great  as  that  of  God.  If 
he  proved  himself  competent  to  do  this,  then, 
and  not  till  then,  he  may  consider  himself  in- 
dependent of  God  and  criticise  His  actions. 

8.  Disannul  my  judgment]  deny  my 
righteousness.  13.  In  secret]  RV  '  in  the 
hidden  place '  ;  Sheol,  the  abode  of  the  dead. 

15-41  34.  In  this  passage  the  mightiest  beast 
of  the  earth  and  the  one  most  dreaded  in 
the  water  are  portrayed  to  Job,  and  he 
is  asked  if  he  can  subdue  them.  Many 
scholars  regard  these  descriptions  as  a  later 
insertion. 

15-24.   The  Elephant  or  Hippopotamus. 

15.  Behemoth]  the  word  means  '  a  large 
beast.'  Most  scholars  consider  that  the  hippo- 
potamus is  meant,  but  some  regard  the  de- 
scription as  more  applicable  to  the  elephant. 
Buxtorf,  the  great  Hebraist,  renders  '  elephas.' 
He  has  a  '  nose,'  i.e.  a  trunk,  and  swings  a  tail 
'  like  a  cedar.'  Elephants  were  known  on  the 
Euphrates  about  1550  B.C.  Thothmes  III  of 
Egypt  is  represented  as  receiving  one  from 
Syria.  Which  I  made  with  thee]  i.e.  it  and 
Job  are  alike  God's  creatures.  Or  render, 
'  which  is  with  thee,'  i.e.  you  can  see  him. 

16.  Navel]  RV  'muscles.'  17.  Like  a 
cedar]  it  is  so  firm  and  strong.  I'j^.  RV 
'  The  sinews  of  his  thighs  are  knit  together.' 

19^  RM  '  He  that  made  him  hath  furnished 
him  with  his  sword '  ;  i.e.  his  tusks  or  teeth. 

20.  Mountains]  Unlike  the  hippopotamus, 
the  elephant  is  found  in  hill  forests. 

23.  RV  '  Behold,  if  a  river  overflow,  he 
trembleth  not  :  He  is  confident  though  Jordan 
swell  even  to  his  mouth.'  Jordan]  means  a 
river  as  swift  and  strong  as  Jordan.  24.  RV 
'  Shall  any  take  him  when  he  is  on  the  watch, 
or  pierce  through  hia  nose  (or,  his  trunk)  with 
a  snare  ?  ' 

CHAPTER   41 

The  Second  Speech  of  the  Almighty 

(concluded) 

The  second  great    creature,    the    Crocodile 

(with  which  the  '  leviathan  '  is  generally  iden- 


tified) is  now  described.  If  Job  cannot  con- 
trol the  crocodile,  dare  he  contend  with  Him 
who  made  it  ?  The  crocodile  is  found  in  the 
Crocodile  River  under  Carmel  as  well  as  in 
Egypt. 

I.  Hook]  RV  'fishhook.'  I^  RV'Or  press 
down  his  tongue  with  a  cord.'  This  may  be 
an  allusion  to  the  method  of  treating  a  re- 
fractory camel  or  mule  by  tying  down  its 
tongue  with  the  head-rope.  2.  Hook]  RM 
'  rope  of  rushes.'     Thorn]   RV  '  hook.' 

4.  Wilt  thou  take]  RV  '  That  thou  should- 
est  take.'  6\  RV 'Shall  the  bands  of  Jiaher- 
men  make  traffic  of  him  ? '  Merchants]  lit. 
'  Canaanites  '  or  '  lowlanders  '  on  the  trading 
route  from  Syria  to  Egypt,  who  were  great 
merchants.  "Their  name  is  sometimes  used  for 
merchants  generally:  cp.  ProvSl^^  Isa23S 
Zechl42i.  8.  Lay  thine  hand  upon  him]  i.e. 
if  you  dare.  Do  no  more]  or,  '  do  not  repeat 
it.'  9.  The  hope  of  him]  i.e.  of  overcoming 
him. 

ID,  II.  If  the  creature  is  so  great,  who  can 
withstand  the  Creator  ?  11.  Prevented  me] 
RV  '  first  given  unto  me.'  12.  His  parts] 
i.e.  the  crocodile's.  13.  RV  '  Who  can  strip 
off  his  outer  garment  ?  Who  shall  come 
within  his  double  bridle  ?  '  14.  Doors  of  his 
face]  his  mouth.  14''.  RV  '  Round  about  his 
teeth  is  terror.' 

18^^.  RV  'His  neesings  (i.e.  sneezings  or 
snortings)  flash  forth  light.'  This  and  the 
following  vv.  poetically  describe  the  snorting 
and  heated  breath  and  spray  thrown  from 
the  crocodile's  mouth.  iS''.  In  the  Egyptian 
hieroglyphs  the  dawn  is  expressed  by  croco- 
dile's eyes.  20.  Caldron]  The  crocodile's 
breath  is  likened  to  vapour  that  rises  from 
a  steaming  pot.  22^.  R  V  '  And  terror  danceth 
before  him.' 

25^.  RV  '  By  reason  of  consternation  they 
are  beside  themselves.'  But  the  v.  may  per- 
haps, with  a  slight  alteration  of  the  text,  be 
rendered  :  '  When  he  raiseth  himself  up  the 
deer  are  afraid  who  slip  (or  stray)  among  the 
broken  places  on  the  banks  of  the  river.' 
It  is  not  the  usual  term  for  '  the  mighty  '  that 
is  used  here.  Shebarim,  '  broken  places,'  in 
Josh  7^,  refers  to  the  slope  of  a  ravine. 

26.  Habergeon]  RV  '  pointed  shaft.'  An 
ordinary  bullet  will  not  pierce  a  crocodile's 
scales. 

30.  RV  '  His  underparts  are  like  sharp 
potsherds  :  He  spreadeth  a^t  it  loere  a  threshing 
wain  upon  the  mire.'  31.  He  lashes  the  water 
into  foam.  Like  a  pot  of  ointment]  perhaps  a 
reference  to  the  strong  musky  smell  of  the 
crocodile. 

34.  The  meaning  is  probably,  '  Everything 
that  is  high  feareth  him  :  He  is  king  over  all 
the  sons  of  pride,'  i.e.  the  other  great  beasts 
(288). 


319 


42. 


JOB 


42.  17 


CHAPTER  42i-« 

Job's  Final  "Withdrawal 

Job  at  last  has  learned  his  lesson.  The 
convincing  evidences  of  wisdom,  power,  and 
love  which  God  has  offered  him,  have  led  him 
to  lay  aside  his  pride  of  intellect  and  pride  of 
innocence.  He  feels  that  he  may  safely  trust, 
even  though  he  may  never  fully  understand, 
and  with  Abraham  he  may  rest  convinced  that 
the  Judge  of  all  the  earth  must  do  right. 

The  difficulties  of  Job  were  the  difficulties 
of  the  author  and  of  the  thoughtful  men  of 
his  day.  '  He  had  pondered  the  ethical  and 
religious  problem  presented  by  the  moral  order 
of  the  world.  With  a  flaming  hatred  of 
wrong  and  tender  pity  for  the  oppressed,  he 
saw  the  triumph  of  the  wicked  and  the  misery 
of  the  just.  He  was  familiar  with  the  current 
doctrines,  and  knew  how  they  ignored  the 
most  patent  facts.  A  truly  religious  man,  he 
had  found  his  heart  drawn  to  God  by  the 
irrepressible  instinct  for  fellowship  with  Him, 
driven  from  Him  by  the  apparent  immorality 
of  His  government.  He  had  known  what  it 
was  to  be  baffled  in  his  search  for  God  and  to 
feel  himself  slipping  from  the  fear  of  the 
Almighty.  An  intellectual  solution  he  had 
not  been  able  to  reach.  But  in  humble  sub- 
mission to  God's  inscrutable  wisdom,  and  in  a 
profounder  sense  of  fellowship  with  Him,  he 
had  escaped  into  the  region  of  unclouded 
trust '  (Prof.  A.  S.  Peake's  '  Job'). 

2*'.  RV  '  And  that  no  purpose  of  thine  can 
be  restrained.'  3.  Job  soliloquises.  '  Well 
might  God  say  to  him  (.382)  .  Who  is  this  that 
hideth  counsel  without  knowledge  ? '  i.e.  that 
misreads  in  his  ignorance  the  real  facts  of 
divine  providence.  The  point  is  that  Job 
now  agrees  in  God's  estimate  of  himself. 

4.  Again  he  repeats  God's  words  in  38  ^ 
and  407. 

5,  6.  Job  declares  that  he  now  understands 
God's  relations  towards  man  in  a  far  deeper 
and  truer  sense  than  he  had  hitherto.  At  once 
he  retracts  and  repents  of  all  that  he  had 
said  amiss.  The  sight  of  God,  i.e.  a  clearer 
apprehension  of  His  majesty  and  righteous- 
ness, humbles  Job  to  the  dust.  6.  Abhor 
myself]  RM  '  loathe  my  words.' 

The  Epilogue  (42  7-i7) 

7-17.  These  vv.  describe  the  happy  ending 
to  Job's  trials  and  his  restoration  to  pros- 
perity. It  is  a  sequel  in  full  accord  with  the 
religious  ideas  of  the  Hebrews.  With  no  clear 
idea  of  a  future  state,  where  compensation  will 


be  found  for  the  ills  of  this  world,  long  life  and 
earthly  happiness  were  regarded  as  the  only 
evidence  of  God's  favour  and  approval.  The 
feeling  that  the  happy  ending  spoils  the  effect 
is  modern,  but  incorrect.  For  it  would  have 
made  a  very  bad  impression  on  the  reader,  if 
God  had  been  represented  as  callously  leaving 
Job  to  suffer,  when  the  occasion  for  trial  had 
passed  away. 

7-9.  The  friends  receive  the  divine  con- 
demnation. '  The  three  friends  had  really 
inculpated  the  providence  of  God  by  their 
professed  defence  of  it.  By  disingenuously 
covering  up  and  ignoring  its  enigmas  they  had 
cast  more  discredit  on  it  than  Job,  who  honestly 
held  them  up  to  the  light.  Their  denial  of  its 
apparent  inequalities  was  more  untrue  and 
dishonouring  to  the  divine  administration  as  it 
is  in  fact  conducted  than  Job's  bold  affirmation 
of  them  '(W.H.Green's  'Argument  of  the  Book 
of  Job  unfolded  ').  At  the  same  time  there  is 
a  strange  contrast  between  the  judgment  on 
Job  expressed  here  and  that  expressed  in  the 
speech  out  of  the  storm,  which  supports  the 
view  that  the  prose  portions  were  borrowed 
by  the  writer  from  an  older  book. 

11.  A  piece  of  money]  Heh.  Kesifah,  a  very 
early  word  occurring  only  in  GnSS^^  and 
Josh  24  32.  It  was  probably  an  imcoined  piece 
of  silver  representing  the  value  of  a  lamb  as 
the  LXX  and  Vulgate  translate  it.  This,  with 
the  rings,  '  constituted,  I  suppose,  the  nuzzur, 
or  present,  such  as  Orientals  still  make  on  pay- 
ing a  visit  of  ceremony  '  (Cox). 

1 2.  Note  that  the  numbers  are  double  those 
mentioned  in  1^,  an  indication  of  the  ideal 
nature  of  this  history  of  Job  :  see  on  1  2.  The 
prophets  often  allude  to  the  double  compen- 
sation in  store  for  their  afflicted  people  :  Isa 
617  Jer  1614-18  Zech9i2. 

14.  These  names  contain  allusions  to  feminine 
charms.  Jemima  means  '  dove  ' :  cp.  Song  1 1^. 
Keziah  probably  means  'cassia  '  or  'cinnamon,' 
a  fragrant  spice  :  cp.  Ps  4,5^.  Keren-happuch 
means  '  a  horn  of  eye  paint.'  It  was  a  dye 
made  of  antimony  with  which  the  eyelashes 
were  tinged,  and  was  considered  by  Orientals 
to  enhance  the  beauty  of  the  eye  :  cp.  2  K  9  ^^^ 
Jer430  Ezk2340.  15.  Inheritance  among  their 
brethren]  this  was  an  unusual  privilege  to 
women  :  cp.  Nu27i-ii. 

17.  In  LXX  a  postscript  is  added,  '  It  is 
written  that  he  will  rise  again  with  those 
whom  the  Lord  raises  up.'  This  is  probably 
an  addition  made  by  some  reader,  who  felt  the 
inadequacy  of  any  material  compensation  or 
reward. 


320 


PSALMS 


INTRODUCTION 


1.  Name.  The  book  of  the  Psalms  is  the 
name  given  in  our  versions  to  the  fLrat_Qf_  Ihe. 

_bopks  of  the  third  division  of  the  Hebrew 
JBible  called  Kethuhhim  or  Hagiographa.  It 
is  followed  in  that  division  by  Proverbs,  Job, 
Song  of  Songs,  Ruth,  Lamentations,  Ecclesi- 
astes,  Esther,  Daniel,  Ezra,  Nehemiah,  and 
Chronicles.  The  name  of  the  book  in  Hebrew 
is  Tehillim,  i.e.  '  Praises.'  Our  name,  Psalms, 
is  a  transliteration  of  the  Greek  title  of  the 
book,  and  signifies  '  songs  accompanied  by 
stringed  instruments.'  The  title  Psalter  is 
from  the  Greek  j^salferion,  '  a  harp,'  and  is 
applied  to  the  book  of  Psalms  just  as  '  Lyre  ' 
or  '  Harp '  is  sometimes  used  for  a  collection 
of  hymns. 

2.  Hebrew  Poetry.  The  history  of  Hebrew 
poetry,  as  evidenced  in  extant  sacred  litera- 
ture, can  only  be  sketched  in  briefest  outline. 
It  is  predominantly  lyxiG_iiL_cJiaracter,  i.e.  it 
expresses,  or  refers  to,  the  poet's  own  thoughts 
or  emotions.  Epic  poetry,  i.e.  poetry  narrat- 
ing the  achievements  of  heroes,  is  not  i-epre- 
sented.  Some  of  the  poetry  is  of  a  dramatic 
nature,  as  Job,  and  especially  the  Song  of 
Songs,  but  there  is  no  drama  properly  so  called. 
Fragments  of  early  songs  of  various  kinds  have 
been  preserved,  and  are  embedded  in  the  litera- 
ture of  the  OT.  Examples  of  these  are  the 
'Song  of  the  Sword,'  uttered  by  Lamech  in 
On 4 23, 24.  the  'Song  of  the  Well,'  recorded 
in  Nu21i''^>i8;  and  the  burden  of  the  thanks- 
giving for  the  deliverance  from  Egypt  in  Ex 
15  ^'21,  the  whole  fine  composition  contained 
in  vv.  2-18  being  probably  of  later  date. 

One  of  the  very  oldest  portions  of  Hebrew 
literature  is  the  Song  of  Deborah  in  Jg5. 
Most  critics  consider  the  Song  of  Moses,  re- 
corded in  Dt32,  to  be  of  comparatively  late 
date,  and  Hannah's  Song  in  1  S  2  can  hardly 
be  of  contemporary  authorship.  Many  of  the 
poetic  strains  that  have  come  down  to  us  are 
laments  in  memory  of  the  departed,  one  of  the 
most  notable  examples  being  David's  elegy  on 
the  death  of  Saul  and  Jonathan  (2 SI),  and 
another  the  lament  for  Abner  in  2  83^3.  The 
'last  words  of  David,'  recorded  in  2S23,  are 
cheerful  in  strain,  forming  a  marked  contrast 
to  the  dirge  of  Hezekiah  in  view  of  his  ap- 
proaching death  (Isa38).  Traces  of  harvest 
and  vintage  songs,  and  songs  for  banquets,  are 
discernible  :  see  Am  6^.  Wedding  songs  are, 
perhaps,  preserved  in  the  book  of  Canticles. 


21 


321 


Interspersed  among  the  prophetic  writings  a 
few  beautiful  lyrics  are  to  be  found :  see  Isa 
12,  Jon  2,  and  Hab3.  A  sublime  and  powerful 
JIashal,  or  Taunting  Song,  is  preserved  in 
Isa  14  4-27.  It  is  notable  for  its  bold  symbolism, 
and  its  daring  and  bitter  irony,  rather  than  for 
its  beauty. 

Careful  readers  of  the  OT.  will  not  fail  to 
notice  scattered  references  to  collections  of 
poems  that  have  not  been  preserved.  One  of 
these  is  called  in  Nu21i'i  'The  book  of  the 
Wars  of  Jehovah,'  containing,  presumably, 
martial  songs  ;  and  another,  '  The  book  of 
Jashar,'  i.e.  the  Upright,  may  well  have  con- 
sisted of  verses  in  pious  memory  of  departed 
saints  and  heroes.  The  titles  of  the  Psalms, 
when  closely  examined,  render  their  own  evi- 
dence to  the  existence  of  other  collections  of 
Hebrew  lyrics  which  have  perished,  as  well  as 
to  some  that  have  been  taken  up  into  that 
larger  collection,  which  now  forms  one  of  the 
most  precious  possessions  of  the  world. 

The  book  of  Lamentations  may  stand  as  an 
illusttation  of  the  elaborate  versification  of 
later  days.  Short  as  the  book  is,  it  consists  of 
several  parts  distinguishable  from  one  another 
by  their  various  metres,  one  being  styled  the 
Khiah  or  Elegiac  metre,  and  all  displaying 
considerable  artistic  skill.  The  acrostics  which 
have  been  preserved  in  the  book  of  Psalms 
and  in  Lamentations  are  probably  the  product 
of  a  comparatively  late  period. 

It  remains  only  to  mention  the  Gnomic 
verse  (i.e.  didactic  poetry,  dealing  in  maxims), 
of  which  the  book  of  Proverbs  furnishes  such 
abundant  illustration.  Some  of  the  Psalms, 
and  parts  of  the  book  of  Job,  may  perhaps 
be  included  under  this  heading,  but  the  attempt 
accurately  to  classify  under  modern  sub- 
divisions the  many-voiced  poetry  of  the 
OT.  is  more  than  futile.  It  is  clear  that 
one  marked  type  of  poetical  composition 
is  recognisable  in  the  sententious,  regular, 
evenly-balanced  clauses,  such  as  constitute  the 
main  portion  of  Proverbs.  In  the  Hebrew, 
however,  there  is  no  monotony.  There  is 
variety  enough  in  the  rhythm  of  the  lines,  in 
the  kind  of  parallelism  adopted,  and  in  the 
various  building  up  of  lines  and  couplets  into 
stanzas,  to  remove  the  feeling  of  sameness 
which  an  English  reader  experiences  in  reading 
Proverbs  or  the  1 1 9th  Psalm.  Hebrew  poetry 
in  all  its  parts  pulsates  with  the  spontaneity, 


INTRO. 


PSALMS 


INTEO. 


the  freedom,  and  the  sparkling  variety  of  full 
and  vigorous  life. 

3.  Hebrew  Poetical  Construction.  The  dis- 
tinction between  poetry  and  prose  in  Hebrew 
does  not  depend  upon  the  presence  or  absence 
of  rhyme.  Nor  is  metre — that  is,  arrangement 
in  lines  of  a  measured  length,  consisting  of  a 
definite  number  of  syllables  or  '  feet ' — char- 
acteristic of  Hebrew  poetry,  though  some 
approach  to  this  is  occasionally  found.  Poetical 
construction  depends  upon  rhythm  of  thought 
and  balance  of  sentences.  Each  psalm  is  made 
up  of  lines,  arranged  so  as  to  produce  a  'paral- 
lelism of  members,'  so  that  in  two  or  more 
lines  words  and  matter  correspond  to  one 
another  with  a  carefully-studied  equality.  In 
the  simplest  form,  two  such  lines  match  one 
another  in  a  couplet,  e.g. — 

'  The  heavens  declare  the  glory  of  God 
And  the  finnament  sheweth  his  handy  work.' 

'Enter  into  his  gates  with  thanksgiving 
And  into  his  coui'ts  with  praise.' 

In  these  examples,  the  second  line  repeats 
the  general  sense  of  the  first  and  strengthens 
its  emphasis.  This  is  called  synonymous 
parallelism.  Sometimes  the  second  line  affirms 
the  opposite  of  the  former,  in  antithesis  or 
contrast,  e.g. — 

*  The  wicked  borroweth  and  payeth  not  again, 
But  the  rigli teens  sheweth  mercy  and  giveth.' 

'  The  Lord  knoweth  the  way  of  the  righteous, 
But  the  way  of  the  ungodly  shall  perish.' 

Sometimes  a  triplet  is  found,  as — 

'  I  call  to  remembrance  my  song  in  the  night, 
I  commune  with  my  own  heart, 
And  my  spirit  made  diligent  search.' 

Four  lines  may  be  included  in  the  scheme,  and 
then  the  first  and  third  may  be  called  parallel, 
and  the  second  and  fourth  ;  or  three  of  the 
lines  may  preserve  a  close  parallelism,  while 
one  of  them,  either  the  first  or  the  last,  stands 
independent  ;  or  two  ordinary  couplets  may 
constitute  a  verse  of  four  lines,  e.g. — 

'  In  my  distress  I  called  upon  the  Lord, 
And  cried  unto  my  God : 
He  heard  my  voice  out  of  his  temple, 

And  my  cry  before  him  came  into  his  ears.' 

Close  examination  will  show  that  these  dis- 
tichs,  tristichs,  and  tetrastichs,  as  they  are 
called — i.e.  verses  of  2,  3  and  4  lines  respect- 
ively— assume  a  great  variety  of  forms  in  the 
Psalms,  thus  avoiding  the  sameness  and  mono- 
tony characteristic  of  the  poetry  of  the  Pro- 
verbs. Order  can  be  discerned,  but,  like  the 
symmetry  in  the  life  of  nature,  it  manifests 
itself  amidst  endless  variety,  so  that  the  charm 
of  freshness  and  unexpectedness  is  never  lost. 
(For  examples,  see  the  arrangement  of  the 
verses  in  RV.) 

As  two,  three,  or  four  lines  make  a  verse, 
so  a  number  of  verses  constitute  a  stanza,  or 


strophe,  corresponding  to  a  paragraph  in  prose. 
The  end  of  such  a  stanza  is  sometimes  marked 
by  a  refrain,  such  as  '  The  Lord  of  hosts  is 
with  us,  the  God  of  Jacob  is  our  refuge  '  in 
the  46th  Psalm,  and  '  Oh  that  men  would 
praise  the  Lord  for  his  goodness  and  for  his 
wonderful  works  to  the  children  of  men,' 
which  is  found  four  times  in  the  107th  Psalm. 
But  the  stanzas  do  not  recur  with  strict 
regularity,  and  the  writers  of  these  marvellous 
sacred  lyrics  never  allow  themselves  to  be 
chained  by  any  mechanical  rules. 

There  is,  however,  one  apparent  exception 
to  this  rule.  Though  rhyme  is  not  found  in 
Hebrew  poetry,  alliteration  and  assonance — 
the  repetition  of  a  letter  or  of  similar  sound- 
endings — is  not  infrequent,  and  the  alliteration 
sometimes  takes  the  form  of  an  acrostic.  That 
is  to  say,  a  psalm  may  be  composed  so  that 
each  verse  shall  begin  with  a  letter  of  the 
Hebrew  alphabet,  arranged  in  order  from  the 
first  to  the  last^as  we  should  say,  from  A 
to  Z.  This  is  practically  the  case  in  Pss  25, 
34,  145.  Or  every  other  verse  may  thus  follow 
on  with  consecutive  letters,  as  in  Ps37  ;  or 
every  single  line  may  begin  with  a  fresh  letter, 
as  in  Pss  111,  112.  In  the  119th  Psalm,  as  is 
well  known,  there  are  twenty-two  stanzas,  each 
consisting  of  eight  verses,  and  each  verse  in 
the  stanza  begins  with  the  same  letter,  the 
letters  of  the  whole  alphabet  being  taken  in 
regular  succession.  It  is  difficult  to  imitate 
this  in  English,  and  if  it  were  done,  an  appear- 
ance of  stiffness  and  artificiality  would  be 
produced.  But,  excepting  perhaps  in  the 
elaborate  scheme  of  the  119th  Psalm,  the 
mechanical  arrangement  does  not  seriously 
fetter  the  Hebrew  poet,  and  the  English 
reader  would  hardly  guess  how  completely  the 
alphabetical  system  is  carried  out.  "This  is  very 
marked  in  the  3rd  chapter  of  Lamentations, 
a  striking  example  of  acrostic  composition. 

4.  Hebrew  Music.  Tradition  places  the  in- 
troduction of  musical  instruments  at  a  very 
early  date.  In  Grn42i  Jubal  is  described  as 
'  the  father  of  all  such  as  handle  the  harp  and 
pipe.'  Amos  (5 2^)  speaks  of  'the melody  of 
viols '  as  being  heard  in  the  services,  and 
Isaiah  (302^,32^  similarly  mentions  pipe  and 
tabret  and  harp.  The  nature  of  the  music  is 
more  a  matter  of  speculation  than  of  know- 
ledge :  it  was  probably  what  we  would  consider 
harsh  and  discordant.  The  singing  at  the 
Temple  services  seems,  from  notices  in  the 
Psalms,  to  have  been  antiphonal,  sometimes 
by  the  two  divisions  of  the  choir,  sometimes  by 
the  choir  and  the  people,  the  latter  joining  at 
intervals  in  a  refrain  (e.g.  136).  The  singing 
in  later  times,  at  any  rate,  was  accompanied,  in 
some  cases  if  not  always,  by  instrumental 
music.  Pss  4,  6,  54,  55,  67,  76  are  headed  '  On 
Neginoth  '  (RV  '  upon  stringed  instruments  '); 


322 


INTRO. 


PSALMS 


INTRO. 


and  Ps  5  has  the  direction  '  Upon  Nehiloth  ' 
(RM  '  with  the  wind  instruments ').  Two 
stringed  instruments  are  mentioned  in  the  Bible, 
the  kinnor  (harp)  and  the  nehel  (psaltery).  The 
former  seems  to  have  been  a  lyre,  an  instru- 
ment of  a  light  and  simple  nature  upon  which 
the  performer  could  play  while  walking  ;  the 
latter  was  probably  more  like  our  harp.  The 
chief  wind  instruments  are  the  halll  (flute), 
shophar  (horn),  and  hazozerah  (trumpet).  The 
flute  was  played  in  religious  processions  (1  S 
10  5  1  K 1 40  Isa  30  29).  The  horn  (made  at  first 
of  a  ram's  horn,  sometimes  later  of  metal)  was 
used  to  summon  the  people  to  worship,  or  as 
a  signal,  or  for  special  purposes,  as  e.g.  to 
proclaim  the  year  of  Jubilee.  The  trumpet 
was  a  long  instrument  of  silver,  blown  on 
ceremonial  occasions  by  the  priests  (Nu  lO^-iO). 
It  is  the  instrument  portrayed  on  the  Arch  of 
Titus  at  Rome.  There  were  also  percussion 
instruments  used,  the  chief  of  which  were  the 
toph  (a  small  hand  drum,  Grn3127  '  tabret,') 
and  cymbals  both  flat  and  conical  (PslSO^ 
Zechl420). 

5.  The  Titles  of  the  Psalms.  The  titles, 
or  short  inscriptions,  found  at  the  beginning 
of  many  psalms,  are  not  to  be  regarded  as 
forming  a  part  of  the  sacred  text,  but  they 
were  prefixed  at  a  very  early  date,  and  are  very 
instructive.  The  exact  meaning  of  each  will 
be  explained  where  it  occurs,  but  a  few  general 
remarks  may  here  be  made.  Titles  occur 
chiefly  in  the  first  three  books,  and  only  thirty- 
four  psalms  are  without  any.  These  the  Jews 
called  '  orphans.' 

Some  of  the  titles  are  musical  directions, 
some  suggest  a  historical  setting  for  the  psalm, 
and  others  indicate  the  authorship  or  the 
source  from  which  it  was  taken.  (The  names 
Alamoth  (46),  Sheminith  (6,  12),  Neginoth  (4), 
and  Nehiloth  (5),  refer  to  the  music  ;  the  first 
two  probably  indicating  pitch,  and  the  last  two 
enjoining  the  particular  instrumental  accom- 
paniments.) Several  psalms,  e.g.  9,  22,  45, 
etc.,  have  some  words  prefixed  which  seem  to 
indicate  the  tune  of  some  well-known  song  to 
which  the  psalm  was  set.  Prefixed  to  thirteen 
psalms  are  notes  suggesting  a  suitable  historical 
occasion  for  the  psalm.  All  of  them  refer  to 
the  history  of  David,  the  majority  being  placed 
in  the  period  of  his  flight  from  the  jealousy  of 
Saul.  Many  of  them,  however,  are  irrecon- 
cilable with  the  words  of  the  psalms  themselves, 
and  are  therefore  unreliable  as  sources  of  in- 
formation. At  the  same  time,  they  often 
provide  apt  historical  illustrations  of  thoughts 
and  principles  dwelt  upon  by  the  psalmists. 

Many  of  the  titles  give  hints  of  authorship 
or  source.  Seventy-three  psalms  are  headed 
'  Le  David,'  which  is  translated  '  Of  David '  in 
our  versions.  It  is  more  correct  to  translate 
the   preposition    '  Belonging   to '  ;  and   while 


many  of  the  psalms  bearing  this  title  may  be 
the  productions  of  the  shepherd  king,  all  that 
is  indicated  by  the  title  '  of  David  '  is  that  the 
psalm  to  which  it  is  prefixed  was  taken  from 
an  early  collection  called  the  Psalms  of  David 
or  the  Prayers  of  David  (7220).  Similarly 
other  psalms  are  distinguished  as  '  belonging 
to  Asaph,'  '  belonging  to  the  Sons  of  Korah,' 
'  belonging  to  the  Chief  Musician,'  these  names 
being  those  of  collections  of  sacred  pieces 
which  had  been  made  at  different  times.  The 
same  preposition  being  used  in  all  the  cases, 
it  is  evident  that  it  must  be  interpreted  in  the 
same  sense  of  David  and  Asaph  as  of  the  Chief 
Musician  and  the  Sons  of  Korah  ;  and  if  in 
the  latter  cases  it  does  not  refer  to  authorship 
in  the  strict  sense  of  the  word,  it  can  scarcely 
do  so  in  the  former.  The  view  is  now  generally 
accepted  that  the  titles  for  the  most  part  refer 
to  collections  which  had  come  to  be  known  by 
certain  familiar  names,  without  its  being  im- 
plied that  every  psalm  in  a  collection  was 
written  by  the  person  whose  name  it  bears. 
In  the  case  of  David,  it  is  easy  to  understand 
how  his  honoured  name  came  to  be  given  to 
all  the  psalms  in  a  particular  collection,  though 
he  only  wrote  some  of  them.  The  72nd  Psalm 
is  entitled  '  of  Solomon,'  yet  it  is  included 
among  those  that  are  styled  '  prayers  of  David, 
the  son  of  Jesse.'  It  was  a  rule  among  the 
Jews  that  a  psalm  without  an*  author's  name 
attached  to  it  was  to  be  ascribed  to  the  author 
of  the  one  immediately  preceding.  This  shows 
how  the  name  '  David '  came  to  be  given  to 
the  whole  Psalter,  as  in  Heb  4'''. 

6.  Date  and  Authorship.  What  then  may 
we  infer  as  to  the  date  and  authorship  of  the 
several  psalms  ?  The  belief  that  David  wrote 
all  the  psalms  to  which  his  name  is  attached 
cannot  now  be  maintained.  Modern  scholars 
difi'er  widely  in  their  estimate  of  the  number 
of  psalms  which  may  safely  be  ascribed  to 
him,  some  including  over  forty  in  the  list, 
while  others  allow  no  more  than  three,  and 
one  or  two  admit  none  at  all.  While,  however, 
it  cannot  be  demonstrated  that  David  wrote 
any  of  the  psalms,  the  probability  is  that  he 
wrote  a  number.  The  18  th  Psalm  is  given  at 
length  in  2S22  as  well  as  in  the  Psalter,  and 
in  both  cases  a  note  is  prefixed,  setting  forth 
that  the  psalm  was  written  by  David  to  cele- 
brate his  deliverance  from  his  enemies,  and 
especially  from  Saul.  If  we  might  build  upon 
this  statement  it  would  give  us  firm  ground  on 
which  to  rest  arguments  concerning  David's 
style  and  mode  of  composition.  Considerable 
weight,  too,  is  due  to  tradition,  which  is  too 
strong  and  too  persistent  to  be  lightly  set 
aside.  The  very  fact  that  so  many  psalms  were 
handed  down  to  the  compilers  of  the  Psalter 
under  David's  name,  is  a  very  strong  argument 
in  favour  of  his  authorship  of  a  considerable 


323 


INTRO. 


PSALMS 


INTRO. 


number.     It  may  be,  indeed,  that  many  psalms     that  smaller  collections  existed  in  earlier  times 
composed  by  him  were  modified  and  altered  in     and  that  these  were  gradually  brought  together 


some  respects  by  later  editors,  in  order  to  fit 
them  for  use  in  public  worship  and  apply  them 
to  the  circumstances  of  a  later  age  ;  but  tra- 
dition gives  strong  ground  for  believing  that 
the  '  sweet  singer  of  Israel '  was  the  author  of 
songs  of  praise  which  are  included  in  our  book 
of   Psalms.     Critics   of   the   moderate   school 
ascribe  to  David  Pss  3,  4,  7,  8,  15,  18,  23,  24, 
32,  as  well  as  191-6,  with  perhaps  101  and  110, 
and  some  others.     It  is  possible,  however,  that 
most  of  those  in  the  first  book  are  Davidic  in 
their   original   form.     It   is   difficult  on  any 
other  supposition  to  account  for  the  facts  that 
the  earliest  collection  was  called  by  his  name, 
and  that  so  many  psalms  were  ascribed  to  him. 
It  is  as  impossible  to  fix  the  dates  at  which 
the  various  psalms  were  composed,  as  to  settle 
the  questions  of  authorship.     Incidental  allu- 
sions to  place  or  circumstance  will  sometimes 
show  the  date  earlier  than  which  a  particular 
psalm  cannot  have  been  written.     References 
to  the  Temple  (5^  274  282  654,  etc.)  imply  the 
existence  of  that  centre  of  national  worship  ; 
and  the  mention  of  '  the  hill  of  God '  (15i  24^, 
etc.)  seems  to  indicate  that  the  worship  on 
Zion  had  been  established  for  some  time.     It 
is  evident  again  that  some  psalms  must  be 
dated  as  late  as  the  exile  (e.g.  137),  and  that 
others  (e.g.  126)  are  post-exilic.     Some  scholars 
hold  that  many  of  the  psalms  must  be  dated 
as  late  as  the  Maccabean  age.     But  while  it  is 
possible  that  some  psalms  belong  to  that  period 
(e.g.  44,  74,  79,  83),  it  is  not  likely  that  the 
number  is  very  great. 

Readers  may  be  reminded  that  the  spiritual 
benefit  of  these  inspired  lyrics  is  not  lessened 
by  their  detachment  from  a  particular  name 
and  occasion.  The  Psalms  should  be  studied 
in  the  light  of  eternal  truth,  and  the  local 
significance  should  be  lost  in  the  universal. 
Pre-eminently  among  the  books  of  the  OT. 
they  are  intended  not  for  one  age  but  for  all 
time. 

7,  The  Compilation  of  the  Psalter,  The 
book  of  Psalms,  as  we  know  it,  was  not  made 
— it  grew.  A  long  history,  partly  obscure, 
partly  traceable,  and  directed  throughout  by 
the  guidance  of  the  Divine  Spirit,  lies  behind 
the  final  collection  of  these  hundred  and  fifty 
sacred  lyrics  into  one  Psalter,  for  the  use  of 
Israel  and  the  spiritual  benefit  of  the  world. 
The  RV  follows  a  very  ancient  Jewish  tradi- 
tion in  dividing  the  whole  into  five  books — 
Pss  1-41, 42-72, 73-89, 90-106, 107-150.  This 
division  is  supposed  to  have  been  made  in 
imitation  of  the  five  books  of  the  Pentateuch. 
Each  book  closes  with  a  doxology.  But  this 
arrangement  of  the  Psalms,  though  dating 
from  the  2nd  cent.  B.C.,  does  not  represent  the 
earliest  grouping.     Closer  examination  shows 


324 


and  re -arranged  on  principles  which  we  can 
only  partially  and  with    difficulty  trace    out. 
The  note  which  closes  the  second  book  (72  20) 
shows    that  the  psalms  included  in  this  col- 
lection were  in  some  sense  '  of  David,'  and 
that    the    writer    of    the    note    knew   of    no 
other  Davidic  psalms.     We  observe  also  that 
the   same  psalm   occurs  more    than  once   in 
slightly  differing  forms:  cp.  Psl4  with    53, 
4013-17  ^ith  70,  and  108  with  57  ^-n  and  GO^-ia! 
It  will  be  seen  that  one  feature  of  difference, 
in  verses  which  are  almost  identical  otherwise] 
is  that  different  names  of  God  are  used.    The 
sacred  name  Jehovah,  the  covenant  name  of 
Israel's  God,   is  used  in  Book  1   272  times, 
while  Elohim,  a  more  general  name  for  the 
Deity,  occurs  only  15  times.     In  Book  2  the 
proportion  is  reversed  ;  in  it  Jehovah  is  found 
only  30  times,  while  Elohim  is  employed  164 
times.     This  cannot  have  happened  by  chance, 
and  the  names  Jehovistic  and  Elohistic  have 
been  given  to  indicate  the  prevalence  of  the 
two  names  respectively.     The  reason  of  this 
peculiarity  is  not  perfectly  clear.     It  is  prob- 
ably due    to    different  editions,  and  perhaps 
shows  that  the  respective  names  were  preva- 
lent at  different  periods. 

The  Psalter  seems  to  have  been  formed  very 
much  as  modern  hymn-books  are  formed.  The 
earliest  collection  would  be  the  Davidic,  of 
which  a  large  part  is  preserved  in  Book  1  ; 
later  collections  would  be  those  of  Asaph  and 
the  sons  of  Korah.  The  psalms  described  in 
their  titles  as  Mkmor  (AV  '  A  Psalm ')  may 
have  formed  a  collection  by  themselves 
selected  from  the  earlier  Psalters  with  addi- 
tions. Later  still  would  eome  the  collection 
made  by  the  Chief  Musician,  probably  for  the 
Temple  worship  after  the  exile  ;  this  again 
being  selected  from  the  earlier  collections. 
Perhaps  about  the  same  time  the  Elohistic 
collection  was  made  ;  that  it  was  formed  from 
earlier  sources  is  shown  by  the  fact  that 
Ps63  =  Psl4,  and  Ps  70  =  Ps  4013-17  ;  Jehovah, 
in  the  earlier  version,  being  changed  into 
Elohim  in  the  later.  Prof.  Briggs  thinks 
that  the  Psalter  of  the  Chief  Musician  was 
formed  in  Palestine  in  the  middle  Greek 
period  (3rd  cent.  B.C.),  and  that  the  Elohistic 
collection  (partly  preserved  in  Books  2  and  3) 
was  made  about  the  same  time  in  Babylonia. 
Other  groups  of  psalms  of  late  date  are  the 
Songs  of  Ascents  (Pss  120-134),  a  title  which 
probably  refers  either  to  the  '  going  up '  from 
Babylon  to  Jerusalem  after  the  exile,  or  to 
the  annual  pilgrimage  to  the  Temple  to  cele- 
brate the  feasts  ;  and  the  Hallelujah  Psalms, 
104-107,  111-117,  135-136,  146-150.  The 
editor  of  our  Psalter,  taking  the  principal  col- 
lections as  his  basis,  and  adding  to  them  such 


INTUO. 


PSALMS 


INTRO. 


other  psalms  as  were  suitable  for  the  Temple 
service  of  praise,  formed  them  into  a  complete 
Book  of  Praises  probably  in  the  Maccabean 
age — the  2nd  cent.  B.C. 

It  is  sometimes  argued  that  the  Psalms  ex- 
press not  personal  but  national  feelings  and 
aspirations  ;  that  the  '  I '  of  the  Psalms  re- 
presents not  the  writer  but  the  Jewish  nation. 
But  while  this  may  be  the  case  in  some  psalms 
(e.g.  44,  76),  especially  those  -wTitten  in  later 
times,  it  can  scarcely  be  so  in  the  great  ma- 
jority. These  certainly  express  the  desires 
and  hopes  of  the  faithful  community,  but  it  is 
because  they  first  expressed  the  desires  and 
hopes  of  individuals.  They  are  natural  and 
spontaneous,  especially  the  Davidic  Psalms. 
It  is  only  later  that  the  composition  becomes 
more  artificial,  as  in  the  case  of  the  acrostic 
or  alphabetical  Psalms  (e.g.  119,  145). 

Allowing,  then,  for  the  measure  of  un- 
certainty surrounding  the  date  and  authorship 
of  the  Psalms,  we  may  summarise  the  follow- 
ing conclusions  :  (1)  The  earliest  date  admis- 
sible for  the  composition  of  any  psalm  is  the 
time  of  David,  and  in  all  probability  some  now 
extant  may  be  ascribed  to  that  king.  (2)  Ad- 
ditions to  Hebrew  psalmody  were  made  during 
the  period  of  the  monarchy,  several  specimens 
of  which  are  to  be  found  in  the  Psalter  :  see 
Pss  2,  20,  21,  46,  48,  etc.  (3)  A  considerable 
part  of  the  book  of  Psalms  dates  from  the 
period  immediately  after  the  captivity,  and 
about  that  time  the  process  of  collecting  and 
arranging  the  Psalms  was  probably  begun. 
(4)  This  process  continued  till  the  early  part 
of  the  2nd  cent.  B.C.,  when  the  Canon  of  the 
OT.  was  virtually  complete. 

8.  Religious  Ideas.  The  Psalms  are  the  out- 
pouring of  the  spirit  of  devotion  to  God.  It 
is  to  God  that  the  Psalmist's  thoughts  and 
hopes  are  directed,  to  whom  he  looks  for  de- 
liverance, or  whom  he  blesses  for  personal  or 
national  mercies.  The  Psalms  are  full  of  ex- 
pressions of  trust  in  God  at  all  times,  and  they 
contain  glowing  testimonies  to  the  perfection 
of  God,  to  His  love.  His  power.  His  faithful- 
ness, His  righteousness.  They  are  specially 
valuable  to  us  as  a  mirror  and  mould  of  devo- 
tion. They  show  us  the  human  heart  laid 
before  God  in  all  its  moods  and  emotions  ;  in 
penitence,  in  desire  for  holiness,  in  doubt  and 
perplexity,  in  danger,  in  desolation,  or,  again, 
in  deliverance  and  triumph.  The  reader  will 
always  find  something  in  the  Psalms  in  sym- 
pathy with  his  own  spiritual  state.  They  are 
'  as  comprehensive  as  the  human  soul  and 
varied  as  human  life  ;  . .  they  treat  not  life 
after  the  fashion  of  an  age  or  people,  but  life 
in  its  rudiments.' 

A  problem  frequently  touched  upon  in  the 
Psalms  is  the  difficulty  of  reconciling  the 
sufferings  of  the  righteous  and  the  prosper- 


ity of  the  wicked  with  God's  moral  govern- 
ment of  the  world:  cp.  Intro,  to  Job.  This 
problem  is  handled  at  length  in  Pss  37  and  73. 
In  the  former  psalm  the  solution  reached  is 
the  somewhat  superficial  one  that  the  success 
of  the  wicked  is  but  temporary,  and  that  the 
righteous  will  soon  come  to  his  own.  In  the 
latter  the  writer  goes  deeper.  His  faith  had 
been  severely  tried  by  his  experiences,  but 
when  he  cast  his  burden  on  the  Lord,  as  he 
worshipped  in  the  sanctuary,  he  received  new 
light  in  his  darkness,  and  was  enabled  to  leave 
the  issues  of  the  future  with  God.  The  one  un- 
failing truth  which  comforted  the  Psalmists 
was  '  The  Lord  reigneth.'  Evil  may  endure 
for  a  time,  and  the  wicked  may  oppress  the 
just,  but  '  He  that  sitteth  in  the  heavens  will 
laugh '  at  them,  and  wait  His  opportunity  to 
deliver  His  servants.  There  is  nothing  more 
noticeable  in  the  Psalms  than  this  triumphant 
faith  in  God's  overruling  power — a  faith  which 
neither  personal  nor  national  misfortune  was 
able  to  destroy. 

This  is  one  aspect  of  the  Psalmists'  doctrine 
of  God:  another  aspect  of  it  is  found  in 
the  divine  relation  to  nature.  Everything  in 
nature  speaks  of  God's  power  and  glory.  '  The 
heavens  declare  the  glory  of  God  and  the  firma- 
ment sheweth  His  handiwork.'  The  Hebrew 
poets  have  no  pleasure  in  nature  for  her  own 
sake  ;  they  value  her  only  as  she  speaks  of  the 
invisible  presence  of  God.  If  they  regard  the 
earth,  they  view  it  as  the  footstool  of  the 
Lord  ;  if  they  see  the  clouds  gathering,  they 
speak  of  them  as  the  curtains  for  Jehovah's 
pavilion  ;  if  they  listen  to  the  thunder  rolling, 
they  hear  in  it  '  the  voice  of  the  Lord  upon  the 
waters  '  ;  if  they  watch  the  lightning  flashing, 
they  think  of  it  as  '  the  arrows  of  the  most 
High.'  It  is,  however,  the  transcendence 
rather  than  the  immanence  of  God  that  is  the 
thought  of  the  Psalmists'  minds:  while  He 
uses  nature  to  make  known  His  presence  and 
power,  He  is  high  above  it  (cp.  Pss  18,  19, 
29,  93). 

Another  point  that  may  be  noticed  is  the 
attitude  of  the  Psalmists  to  ritual  and  sacrifice. 
There  are  frequent  references  in  the  Psalms 
to  the  Temple  worship  and  sacrifices.  The 
Psalmists  declare  their  intention  of  offering 
burnt  offerings  and  paying  their  vows  in 
the  presence  of  all  the  people  (e.g.  6613-15 
1161'i.i'').  The  spu'itual  aspect  of  the  ritual 
is,  however,  the  most  prominent  in  the  Psalm- 
ists' thoughts.  They  know  that  offerings  are 
insufficient  of  themselves,  and  that  they  are 
only  valuable  in  so  far  as  they  typify  the 
'  living  sacrifice '  of  self,  which  every  true 
worshipper  must  offer.  Indeed,  if  that  sacri- 
fice be  offered,  the  material  offering  is  un- 
necessary (cp.  Ps406-s  50  "-1^).  In  Ps51  the 
writer  at  one  moment  declares  that  sacrifice 


325 


INTRO. 


PSALMS 


INTRO. 


and  burnt  offering  are  not  desired  by  God  ; 
'  the  sacrifices  of  God  are  a  broken  spirit ' 
(5116, 17);  and  immediately  afterwards  declares 
that  only  when  the  walls  of  Jerusalem  are  re- 
built can  sacrifice  be  acceptable  to  Jehovah 
(51 18,  19).  It  is  probable  that  the  latter  vv. 
are  a  later  liturgical  addition  ;  but,  even  so, 
the  whole  psalm  was  used  without  any  sense 
of  incongruity. 

Another  feature  of  the  Psalms  is  their 
intense  patriotism.  Patriotism  and  religion 
were  inseparably  associated  by  the  Hebrews. 
That  God  was  good  to  Israel  was  the  first 
article  of  their  creed.  The  historical  Psalms 
developed  this  idea,  and  illustrate  it  from  the 
national  history  (e.g.  Pssl04,  105,  106).  His 
blessings  were  destined  to  teach  them  His 
ways,  and  make  His  mighty  power  known  to 
them  (lOG**).  Even  His  punishment  was  for 
their  good,  to  renew  them  to  repentance  and 
bring  them  to  realise  the  greatness  of  their 
privilege  (106  43, 44^  etc.).  The  purpose  of  God  in 
choosing  Israel  was  that  they  might  extend  His 
Kingdom.  Sometimes,  indeed,  i'  the  heathen ' 
or  '  the  nations '  are  regarded  as  God's  enemies 
(21,  etc.)  ;  but  at  other  times  they  are  looked 
upon  as  the  witnesses  of  the  Psalmists'  praise 
(579),  and  even  as  God's  people  (47  9).  God's 
mercy  is  given  to  Israel  that  they  make  His  way 
known  upon  the  earth,  and  His  saving  health 
among  all  nations  (67 1- '').  But,  above  all, 
Israel  is  His  peculiar  people  (73 1);  their  ene- 
mies are  His  enemies  ;  misfortunes  to  them 
are  hindrances  to  His  cause  ;  their  success  is 
His  triumph. 

In  this  lies  the  explanation  of  two  features 
of  this  book  which  call  for  comment — the 
self-righteousness  of  the  Psalmists,  and  their 
vindictive  resentment  against  their  enemies. 
Let  us  remember  at  the  outset  the  distinction 
between  the  OT.  and  NT.  standards  in  this 
matter.  We  must  not  expect  to  find  in  the 
OT.  the  humility  arising  from  the  deep  sense 
of  sin,  or  the  meek,  forgiving  spirit,  inculcated 
by  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ.  To  judge  the 
Psalmists  by  these  standards  is  unfair,  and 
the  attempt  to  explain  away  the  plain  mean- 
ing of  their  words,  in  order  to  palliate  a 
moral  fault,  is  unsound  exegesis.  None  the 
less  it  is  possible,  within  limits,  to  defend  the 
position  taken  up  in  what  are  called  the  im- 
precatory Psalms  (e.g.  58,  68,  69, 109)  without 
doing  violence  to  sound  ethical  standards. 
The  Psalmist  claimed  to  be  '  holy  '  and  '  per- 
fect,' without  implying  all  that  we  mean  by 
those  lofty  words.  He  meant  that  he  was 
striving  to  be  upright,  a  man  of  integrity, 
mindful  of  the  claims  of  God  upon  him  ac- 
cording to  the  law,  and  to  the  best  of  his 
ability  endeavouring  to  be  faithful  to  duty. 
He  was  placed,  however,  in  the  midst  of  men 
animated  by  entirely  different  motives  ;  some 


of  them  openly  and  violently  opposed  to  the 
God  of  Israel  and  His  worship,  others  nomin- 
ally acknowledging  Him,  but  in  reality  idol- 
aters, or  disloyal  to  Jehovah.  The  contrast 
between  the  faithful  and  the  unfaithful  was 
sharp  and  strong  ;  the  former  were  always  in 
a  minority,  they  usually  suffered  cruel  persecu- 
tion, and  were  often  in  extremest  peril.  Under 
these  circumstances  it  is  easy  to  understand 
that  the  Psalmist  felt  entitled  to  identify  him- 
self with  the  cause  of  righteousness.  He 
pleads  for  his  own  personal  triumph,  and  the 
utter  overthrow  of  his  enemies,  with  a  pas- 
sionate earnestness,  which  is  only  warrantable 
in  the  light  of  the  words,  '  Do  not  I  hate 
them,  0  Lord,  that  hate  Thee  ?  and  am  not  I 
grieved  with  those  that  rise  up  against  Thee  ? 
I  hate  them  with  perfect  hatred,  I  count  them 
mine  enemies.'  Not  to  hate  the  enemies  of 
Jehovah  is  to  be  a  traitor  to  His  holy  covenant. 
The  distinction  familiar  to  us  between  hating 
the  sin  and  being  angry  with  the  sinner,  and 
the  possibility  of  loving  the  offender  with  a 
desire  to  save  him,  were  not  present  to  the 
mind  of  the  Psalmist.  Evil  and  evil-doer  were 
for  him  identical,  and  in  this  respect  he  stands 
upon  a  lower  ethical  plane  than  the  Christian. 
Further,  the  forms  of  imprecation  common  in 
the  Psalms  belong  to  an  earlier,  a  sterner,  and 
more  violent  age  than  ours.  Such  horrible 
curses  as  are  invoked  in  Ps  1096-15  are,  rightly, 
shocking  in  our  ears.  But  this  moral  infe- 
riority of  the  earlier  dispensation  once  granted, 
no  true  Christian  can  afford  in  a  Pharisaical 
spirit  to  look  down  upon  these  faithful  men 
to  whom  the  light  of  the  gospel  had  not  been 
granted.  Rather  should  we  ask  ourselves 
what  is  to  be  learned  from  denunciations  in 
which  Christians  are  forbidden  to  indulge. 
Personal  resentment  is  always  unlawful  to  the 
man  who  takes  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount  as 
his  guide  ;  but  there  is  a  stem  hatred  of  evil 
manifest  in  the  Psalms  which  is  only  too  rare 
in  later  and  more  indulgent  days.  The  Puri- 
tan strain  in  our  national  character  is  to  some 
extent  a  reflexion  of  the  spirit  of  whole-hearted 
and  indignant  righteousness  which  breathes  in 
the  denunciatory  Psalms  ;  and,  despite  the 
hardness  and  narrowness  too  often  associated 
with  it,  that  spirit  has  proved  of  the  utmost 
value  in  its  uncompromising  protest  against 
prevalent  evils  in  social  and  national  life. 

Another  fact  must  be  borne  in  mind,  if  we 
would  fully  understand  the  reasons  for  the 
strong  denunciatory  element  found  in  the 
Psalms.  To  the  Jew  no  clear  revelation  had 
been  granted  of  a  future  life  ;  his  horizon  was, 
for  the  most  part,  limited  by  the  present.  The 
true  Israelite  did,  in  a  sense,  look  to  the 
future.  He  hoped  for  a  numerous  posterity 
as  a  mark  of  God's  favour,  he  anticipated  a 
better  state  of  things  for  his  nation  and  the 


326 


INTEO. 


PSALMS 


INTRO. 


world  in  the  coming  of  the  Messiah,  and  he 
certainly  did  not  regard  death  as  virtual  anni- 
hilation. But  he  had  no  clear  hope  of  immor- 
tality, no  vision  of  a  heaven  as  a  state  of  future 
blessedness  ;  neither  the  law  nor  the  prophets 
warranted  any  such  outlook  beyond  the  grave. 
It  followed  that  the  cause  of  truth  and  right 
must  be  vindicated  here  and  now,  or  it  could 
not,  properly  speaking,  be  vindicated  at  all. 
This  at  least  was  the  attitude  for  the  most 
part  taken  up  by  the  orthodox  Jew,  and  there 
was  much  to  be  said  in  its  favour.  It  is  easy 
for  religious  men  of  to-day,  living  in  a  land  of 
freedom  and  amidst  all  the  blessings  of  peace, 
and  taught  to  expect  a  Day  of  Judgment  in  the 
future,  when  all  earth's  wrongs  shall  be  com- 
pletely redressed,  to  possess  their  souls  in 
patience,  and  wait  for  the  coming  of  the  Day 
of  God  and  the  new  earth  wherein  dwelleth 
righteousness.  But  the  problems  of  life  pressed 
much  more  grievously  upon  the  saint  of  old 
time,  crushed  by  brute  force,  oppressed  under 
a  cruel  and  relentless  Oriental  despotism,  with 
no  earthly  hope  of  redress,  and  no  clear  pros- 
pect of  a  better  life  to  come.  No  wonder  if 
such  men  prayed  with  a  certain  fierce  indigna- 
tion of  soul,  '  Up,  Lord,  and  let  not  man  have 
the  upper  hand  ;  let  the  heathen  be  judged  in 
thy  sight,  that  the  nations  may  know  themselves 
to  be  but  men.' 

But,  it  will  be  asked,  had  the  Jew  then  no 
hope  of  immortality  for  himself,  and  is  not 
the  1 6th  Psalm  a  prophecy  of  the  resurrection 
of  Christ,  as  it  is  more  than  once  declared  to 
be  in  the  NT.  ?  The  subject  thus  opened  up 
cannot  be  adequately  dealt  with  in  a  few  sen- 
tences, and  scholars  have  differed  in  their 
judgment  upon  it.  The  view  taken  by  the 
present  writer  may  be  thus  briefly  expressed. 
No  explicit  revelation  of  a  future  life  was 
given  to  the  Jew,  and  no  definite  expectation 
of  a  future  state  of  rewards  and  punishments 
entered  into  his  ordinary  view  of  life.  But 
the  truly  devout  Israelite  possessed  so  clear 
and  strong  a  sense  of  religion,  so  firm  a  hold 
by  faith  upon  the  living  God,  that  he  was  en- 
abled sometimes  to  transcend  the  conditions 
of  his  ordinary  religious  creed  and  reach  a 
state  of  joyful  personal  confidence  of  a  very 
lofty  kind.  These  moments  of  insight  and 
foresight  were,  however,  comparatively  few  ; 
the  glimpses  thus  gained  were  transient,  they 
belonged  to  the  individual  only,  and  could  not 
furnish  a  basis  for  definite  dogmatic  teaching. 
Thus  Job  believed  that  his  Redeemer  would 
at  the  last  appear  and  vindicate  his  cause  upon 
the  earth,  though  he  had  no  light  upon  the 
time  and  manner  of  such  manifestation,  and 
the  confidence  expressed  in  Job  1925-27  jg 
the  expression  of  an  exalted  mood  which 
subsequent  chapters  prove  not  to  have  been 
permanent, 


Similarly  it  will  be  found  that  some  pas- 
sages in  the  Psalms,  such  as  6^  30^  88 10-12 
are  full  of  gloomy  foreboding  concerning  the 
future  state.  They  describe  it  as  a  condition 
of  helplessness  and  f  orgetf  ulness,  which  hardly 
deserves  the  name  of  life  at  all.  There  are 
other  passages,  however,  of  which  IS^-n  17^^ 
4015  7324,25  are  examples,  in  which  the 
Psalmist's  assurance  of  the  care  and  favour 
of  God  is  such  that  he  appears  to  triumph 
not  only  over  the  dangers  and  vicissitudes 
of  the  present  life,  but  over  the  fear  of 
death  itself.  It  is  quite  true  that  these  hopes 
are  not  very  clearly  expressed,  and  that  some 
commentators  have  questioned  whether  they 
contain  an  assured  belief  in  immortality.  But 
St.  Peter's  quotation  from  the  16th  Psalm  on 
the  day  of  Pentecost  shows  that  the  words 
suggested  a  hope  of  immortality  which  was 
fully  realised  in  the  Resurrection  of  Christ. 
We  may  well  find  in  the  16th  and  73rd  Psalms 
another  illustration  of  the  argument  which 
the  Lord  Jesus  Christ  drew  from  the  phrase 
'  The  God  of  Abraham,  of  Isaac  and  of  Jacob.' 
He  is  not  the  God  of  the  dead,  but  of  the 
living  ;  and  the  Psalmists,  who  had  God  for 
their  portion  in  this  life,  entertained  a  trust 
and  confidence  in  God  which  at  intervals 
blossomed  into  incipient  hope  that  He  who 
was  not  ashamed  to  be  called  their  God 
would  preserve  them  in  life,  in  death  and  for 
ever. 

The  Messianic  hope  has  been  spoken  of, 
and  certain  Psalms — 2, 8, 16, 22, 45,  72, 110,  and 
others — have  been  specifically  styled  Messianic 
Psalms.  But  here  a  distinction  must  be  made. 
The  word  Messianic  may  be  used  either  in  the 
narrower  sense  of  prophecies  which  contain  a 
distinct  reference  to  a  personal  Deliverer  called 
the  Messiah,  or  in  a  wider  sense  of  predictions 
of  great  and  glorious  blessings  to  be  enjoyed 
by  the  nation  in  a  brighter  and  better  age 
to  come.  Often  without  any  reference  to  a 
personal  Messiah,  prophets  and  psalmists  are 
found  confidently  anticipating  a  Day  of  God, 
when  He  shall  appear  in  righteous  judgment 
and  shall  manifest  His  glory  among  men.  A 
little  group  of  Psalms,  of  which  96-98  form 
the  nucleus,  may  be  described  as  Messianic, 
because  they  anticipate  a  theophany,  a  mani- 
festation of  God  in  the  earth.  They  con- 
template a  period  when  in  some  sense  God 
shall  '  come  and  not  keep  silence,'  when  '  He 
cometh  to  judge  the  world  with  righteousness 
and  the  peoples  with  equity.'  The  mode  in 
which  this  is  to  be  carried  out  is  left  indefinite, 
but  the  hope  is  invincible  and  inextinguish- 
able. In  the  2nd  and  72nd  Psalms  a  righteous 
earthly  ruler  of  the  house  and  dynasty  of 
David  is  celebrated  ;  in  Ps  110  the  advent  of 
a  Priest-King  is  heralded,  and  the  author  of 
the  Psalm  looks  to   the  Anointed  One  who 


327 


INTRO. 


PSALMS 


rNTRO. 


is  to  rule  in  Zion,  not  as  his  son,  but  as  his 
Lord.  It  would  be  a  mistake,  however,  to 
restrict  the  conception  of  the  Messianic  hope 
to  passages  in  wliich  a  personal  Messiah  is 
foretold.  The  22nd  Psalm,  for  example,  is  in 
its  earlier  portion  clearly  descriptive  of  the 
suiferings  of  the  persecuted  but  faithful  ser- 
vant of  God,  and  its  language  is  frequently 
quoted  in  NT.  in  reference  to  Christ.  But  it 
contains  no  reference  to  the  personal  triumph 
of  the  sufferer,  whilst  the  latter  part  of  the 
Psalm  points  unquestionably  to  a  great  victory 
over  unrighteousness,  which  is  to  be  gained  after 
and  by  means  of  his  patient  fidelity.  The  promise 
is  here  repeated  which  elsewhere  is  given  in 
noble  and  more  explicit  words,  '  He  shall  see  of 
the  travail  of  his  soul  and  shall  be  satisfied.' 

The  subject  of  the  relation  of  the  Psalms 
to  Christ,  and  the  fulfilment  in  the  New  Tes- 
tament of  hints  and  prophecies  contained  in 
the  Old,  is  too  large  to  be  entered  on  here. 
It  may  suffice,  however,  to  say  that  one  simple 
key  will  open  many  otherwise  difficult  locks. 
Christ  claimed  in  Lk24^  that  many  things 
were  written  '  in  the  psalms  '  concerning  Him. 


St.  Peter,  in  Ac  2,  shows  how  this  saying  is  to 
be  understood.  Words,  which  were  true  only 
in  a  secondary  and  imperfect  sense  of  David 
as  the  writer  of  the  16th  Psalm,  received  their 
complete  and  perfect  illustration  in  the  resur- 
rection from  the  dead  of  David's  greater  Son. 
The  testimony  of  Jesus  is  the  spirit  of  pro- 
phecy. The  writers  of  the  Psalms,  like  their 
brethren  who  are  specifically  called  prophets, 
were  inspired  to  write  words  true,  indeed,  of 
themselves  and  their  contemporaries,  but  per- 
fectly fulfilled  only  in  Him  of  whom  Moses  in 
the  Law,  and  the  prophets,  did  write,  Jesus  of 
Nazareth,  Son  of  Man  and  Son  of  Grod,  the  hope 
of  the  Psalmists  and  the  Saviour  of  the  world. 
The  Prayer-Book  version  of  the  Psalms  was 
taken  in  1549  from  the  English  version  of  the 
Bible  called  the  '  great  Bible,'  which  was 
issued  in  1540,  and  set  up  to  be  read  in 
churches.  In  1661,  when  the  Prayer  Book 
was  revised,  other  portions  of  Scripture  in  the 
Prayer  Book  were  changed  for  the  AV  of  1611. 
But  the  Psalter  was  not  altered.  People  were 
accustomed  to  its  wording,  and  it  was  thought 
to  be  more  suitable  for  singing. 


BOOK  1  (Psalms  1-41) 


The  Pss.  in  this  book  are  probably  among 
the  earliest  in  the  Psalter,  and  include  most  of 
those  generally  regarded  as  Davidic.  They 
seem  to  have  existed  separately  as  an  early 
hymn-book,  which,  with  some  slight  additions 
from  the  final  editor,  was  used  as  the  nucleus 
of  the  entire  collection.  They  have  two  well- 
marked  characteristics  :  (1)  the  constant  use 
of  the  name  Jehovah  (rendered  the  Lord),  and 
the  comparative  absence  of  the  name  God 
(Heb.  Elohiin)  ;  the  former  occurring  272  times, 
the  latter  only  15  times  :  and  (2)  the  descrip- 
tion of  them  all,  with  the  exception  of  Pss  1, 
2,  10,  and  33,  as  '  of  David '  (Heb.  Le  David), 
a  fact  which  has  been  taken  to  indicate  their 
derivation  from  a  still  earlier  collection  which 
bore  David's  name.  The  first  two  Pss.  s^em 
to  have  been  prefixed  to  the  others  when  the 
present  Psalter  was  formed.  Historical  notices 
are  attached  to  some  of  them,  connecting  them 
with  the  life  of  David,  but  these  are  of  doubt- 
ful importance.  Most  of  the  Pss.  contained  in 
the  book  are  spontaneous  and  unaffected  in 
their  style,  but  a  few  of  them  are  of  artificial 
construction,  Pss  9,  10,  26,  34,  and  37  being 
acrostics. 

The  contents  are  exceedingly  varied,  and 
the  same  Ps.  sometimes  expresses  such  di- 
verse feelings  as  joy  and  sorrow,  bitter  dis- 
appointment and  lofty  aspiration.  Usually, 
however,  there  is  some  great  thought  more  or 
less  prominent,  which  enables  us  to  make  the 
following  rough  classification  of  their  sub- 
jects : — (a)  the  contrast  between  the  righteous 


and  the  wicked,  1,  5,  10,  37  ;  (b)  the  cry  of 
the  righteous  in  presence  of  trouble,  3,  4,  6,  7, 
12,  13,  22,  31,  38,  39,  40  ;  (c)  the  glory  of 
God  in  nature,  8,  19,  29  ;  (cl)  the  law,  1,  19  ; 
(e)  the  king,  2,  18,  20,  21  ;  (/)  the  future  life, 
16.  In  addition,  there  is  a  reference  to  sacri- 
fice in  Ps  37,  an  allusion  to  the  Temple  services 
in  Ps  24,  and  a  foreshadowing  of  the  Messianic 
hope  in  Pss  2,  20,  28,  and  40.  The  following 
Pss.  are  either  quoted  from  or  distinctly  referred 
to  in  NT.  :  2,  4,  5,  8,  10,  14,  16,  18,  22,  24, 
32,  34,  40,  41.  In  several  instances  the  NT. 
writer  finds  the  fulfilment  of  the  OT.  passage 
in  Christ.  Thus  Ps  2,  with  its  defence  of 
Jehovah's  righteous  King,  of  whom  He  says, 
'  Thou  art  my  Son,  this  day  have  I  begotten 
Thee,'  is  regarded  as  descriptive  of  Christ  in 
Ac  13 33  and  Hebl^  56;  and  Ps22,  with  its 
pathetic  presentment  of  the  suffering  Servant 
of  Jehovah,  is  reported  to  have  been  actually 
quoted  by  Christ  upon  the  cross  (Mt274* 
Mkl534),  and  v.  18  is  asserted  in  Jnl924  to 
have  been  literally  fulfilled  in  one  of  the 
incidents  of  His  crucifixion. 

The  moral  teaching  of  this  first  book  of 
Psalms  is  simple  and  emphatic.  It  rests  upon 
an  unswerving  belief  in  the  will  and  power  of 
God  to  uphold  the  moral  values  of  life,  and 
mete  out  punishments  and  rewards  according 
to  personal  desert.  In  whatever  circumstances 
they  may  be  placed,  the  writers  never  lose 
hold  of  their  conviction  of  the  ultimate  pros- 
perity of  the  righteous  and  destruction  of  the 
wicked.     Appearances  may  seem  to  contradict 


328 


1. 1 


PSALMS 


2.  12 


their  faith,  but  they  cling  to  it  all  the  more 
strenuously,  and  insist  that  in  the  long  run 
the  balance  will  be  redressed.  The  ideal 
character  portrayed  by  them  is  that  of  the 
good  man,  defamed,  wronged,  and  oppressed 
by  irreligious  foes,  but  holding  fast  his  faith 
in  God,  and  trusting  confidently  that,  in  His 
own  good  time,  He  will  deliver  him.  Some- 
times there  is  a  note  of  joy  and  thankfulness 
at  the  accomplishment  of  the  deliverance  ; 
and  this  leads  on  to  the  anticipation  of  a  time 
when,  throughout  the  whole  world,  the  justice 
of  God  will  be  manifested,  and  His  power  felt. 

PSALM  1 

This  Ps.  forms  an  appropriate  introduction 
to  the  whole  Psalter.  In  some  Hebrew  MSS 
it  is  not  numbered  with  the  Psalms,  but  stands 
before  them  as  a  prologue,  and  in  others  it 
is  combined  with  Ps  2.  It  is  one  of  the 
'  orphan '  psalms,  and  the  want  of  a  title 
indicates  that  it  did  not  originally  belong  to 
the  Davidic  collection,  3-41.  The  subject  of 
the  Ps.  is  the  blessedness  of  the  righteous  man 
who  studies  the  Law  of  Jehovah,  as  con- 
trasted with  the  unhappy  end  of  the  ungodly. 
It  consists  of  two  strophes,  vv.  1-3  and  vv. 
4-6,  the  former  describing  the  character  and 
destiny  of  the  righteous,  and  the  latter  the 
character  and  destiny  of  the  wicked. 

I.  Blessed]  RM  'happy.'  The  first  of  the 
Old  Testament  beatitudes.  Walkethnot]  There 
seems  a  gradual  progression  intended  in  the  three 
clauses  of  the  v. :  walk,  stand,  sit,  and  wicked, 
sinner,  scoffer.  2.  Law]  the  whole  re  vela 
tion  of  God's  will  as  made  known  in  the  sacred 
writings,  especially  the  Pentateuch. 

Doth  . .  meditate]  lit.  '  crooneth  over,'  re- 
peats again  and  again  in  a  low  tone. 

3.  And  he  shall  be]  better,  '  for  he  becomes,' 
i.e.  in  consequence  of  his  constant  study  of 
God's  law.  Like  a  tree,  etc.]  cp.  JerlT^'^, 
where  the  illustration  is  more  fully  developed, 
and  the  character  of  the  wicked  is  similarly 
illustrated  (175.6)  ;  and  Ezk47i2.  And  what- 
soever, etc.]  The  illustration  is  dropped  at 
this  stage,  and  the  words  apply  to  the  righteous 
man.  Shall  prosper]  the  simple  faith  of  the 
pious  Israelite,  which  no  adversity  was  able 

f.  wholly  to  overcome  :  cp.  Psll2  and  see  Ps37, 
where  the  problem  of  the  suffering  of  the 
righteous  perplexes  another  Psalmist. 

4.  Chaff]  A  common  OT.  type  of  the 
wicked  :  cp  35  5.  Threshing-floors  were  usu- 
ally on  high  ground,  where  the  wind  would 
easily  catch  the  chaff  when  it  was  beaten  from 
the  corn  and  drive  it  away  (Isal7i3).  Driveth 
away]  PBV  adds,  '  from  the  face  of  the 
earth,'  following  LXX  and  Vulgate.  5.  The 
judgment]  every  visitation  of  God's  provi- 
dence, or  perhaps  the  final  judgment.  Con- 
gregation] the  faithful  people  of  Israel. 


PSALM  2 

The  historical  situation  of  this  Ps.  cannot 
now  be  recovered.  It  may  refer  to  some 
threatened  rebellion  of  subject  kings  in  the 
early  days  of  Solomon,  or  to  some  similar 
movement  under  one  of  the  later  kings ;  but 
it  is  impossible  to  give  it  any  precise  date. 
This,  however,  is  of  the  less  importance,  as  the 
leading  feature  of  the  Ps.  is  its  application  to 
the  Messianic  King — the  ideal  ruler  of  Israel. 
Some  writers  deny  that  it  had  any  historical 
setting,  and  hold  that  it  refers  exclusively  to 
the  ideal  King,  the  viceroy  of  Jehovah.  As 
one  of  the  Messianic  Pss.  it  is  appropriately 
used  on  Easter  Day.  It  is  divided  into  four 
strophes  or  verses,  and  is  a  dramatic  poem, 
different  speakers  being  introduced.  The 
divisions  are,  vv.  1-3,  4-6,  7-9,  10-12.  In 
the  first  two  strophes  the  Psalmist  is  the 
speaker  ;  in  the  last  two  the  King.  (1-3)  The 
poet  views  the  nations  plotting  against 
Jehovah  and  His  representative,  the  Messianic 
King  ;  (4-6)  but  remembering  the  power  and 
majesty  of  God,  he  sees  a  speedy  end  to  their 
devices.  (7-9)  Then  the  King  is  introduced 
relating  Jehovah's  decree  and  promise  of 
sovereignty  over  all  nations,  and  (10-12) 
bidding  the  rebellious  kinglets  therefore  be 
warned  in  time  and  repent. 

I.  The  heathen]  E.V  '  the  nations,'  i.e.  the 
Gentile  or  non- Jewish  peoples.  Rage]  better, 
'plot  together.'  2.  Against  the  LORD]  In 
rebelling  against  Jehovah's  anointed  King 
they  were  rebelling  against  Jehovah  Himself. 

3.  Bands]  The  words  of  the  lyings  are  of 
coui'se  metaphorical  ;  they  were  seeking  to 
cast  off  what  was  to  them  a  foreign  yoke. 

4.  The  contrast  between  Jehovah  in  His 
majesty  and  the  puny  plotters  is  dramatically 
introduced.  5.  Then]  i.e.  when  the  plot 
ripens  into  action.  6.  Yet]  lit.  '  and.'  Upon 
my  holy  hill  of  Zion]  Zion  is  the  eastern  hill 
of  ancient  Jerusalem  on  which  the  '  city  of 
David '  with  its  stronghold  was  built  ;  it  is 
used  poetically  for  Jerusalem  the  holy  city : 
cp.  Isa64io. 

7.  The  Messianic  King  now  speaks,  quoting 
the  promise  given  to  David,  the  father  of  the 
dynasty,  through  Nathan  the  prophet  :  see 
2  S 7 ^-1''.  Thou  art  my  Son  ;  this  day,  etc.]  on 
the  day  of  his  anointing,  when  he  was  set 
apart  to  his  high  office.  But  some  refer  it  to 
the  day  of  his  birth.  In  any  case  the  king 
was  adopted  as  the  son  of  God,  reigning  in 
His  name  over  His  people  (cp.  Acl333  Heb 
15  55).  9.  A  rod  of  iron]  because  they  are 
rebels  who  can  only  be  restrained  by  repres- 
sive methods. 

10.  Be  wise]  The  obvious  lesson  from  the 
truths  stated  in  the  preceding  vv. 

12.   Kiss  the  Son]   This  is  a  difficult  pas- 


329 


3.  1 


PSALMS 


4.8 


sage.  The  translation  of  the  AY  is  only  got 
by  assuming  that  the  Psalmist  has  chosen  the 
Aramaic  word  for  '  Son '  instead  of  the 
Hebrew.  LXX  renders,  '  Lay  hold  of  in- 
struction,' which  is  in  harmony  with  the 
general  drift  of  the  passage,  and  is  supported 
by  the  Targum.  Others  translate  '  Kiss  '  (i.e. 
worship  or  serve)  '  with  sincerity.'  The  doubt 
does  not  affect  the  teaching  of  the  Ps.  as  a 
whole.  From  the  way]  RV  '  in  the  way.'  When 
his  wrath,  etc.  ]  better,  '  For  soon  His  wrath 
will  burn.'  Blessed  are  all  they,  etc.]  This 
is  either  a  pious  reflexion  of  the  Psalmist  at 
the  end  of  the  words  put  into  the  mouth  of 
the  King  ;  or,  as  Prof.  Briggs  holds,  a  litur- 
gical addition  suitable  when  the  Ps.  was  used 
in  worship. 

PSALM  3 

This  is  the  first  of  the  '  Davidic '  Psalms. 
It  is  a  morning  prayer  as  v.  6  suggests.  The 
heading  of  the  Ps.  provides  a  historical  setting 
for  it  in  the  revolt  of  Absalom,  and  it  is  the 
only  Ps.  specifically  dated  at  that  time.  There 
are  many  features  in  that  revolt  (2  S 16-18) 
which  suit  the  circumstances  to  which  the 
Psalmist  refers.  He  speaks  of  the  increasing 
number  of  his  enemies  (cp.  2S1711),  of  the 
contempt  in  which  many  held  him  (cp.  2S 
16 '^■10),  of  the  danger  in  which  he  lay  (cp.  2S 
172),  and  of  his  preservation  by  Jehovah 
(cp.  2  S 171*).  The  Ps.  contains  the  Psalmist's 
description  of  his  foes  (1,  2)  ;  his  inward 
assurance  of  God's  help  (3,  4)  ;  his  statement 
of  his  present  experience  (5,  6) ;  and  his 
prayer  for  complete  deliverance  and  national 
blessing  (7,  8). 

I.  Increased]  cp.  2S15i2,i3.  2.  Of  my 
soul]  i.e.  of  myself.  3.  A  shield]  a  natural 
metaphor  in  days  when  kings  were  warriors  : 
cp.  18^  849,11  1159^  etc.  4.  Out  of  his 
holy  hill]  i.e.  Zion,  the  seat  of  Jehovah's 
worship,  where  in  a  special  sense  He  was 
present.  The  Psalmist  was  probably  at  a 
distance  from  Jerusalem.  Selah]  This  word 
is  found  71  times  in  the  Psalter.  It  occurs 
in  40  Pss.,  as  well  as  three  times  in  Hab3, 
which  is  also  a  Ps.  Its  meaning  and  use  are 
both  uncertain.  Possibly  it  is  derived  from  a 
root,  meaning  to  '  lift  up.'  LXX  translates  it 
'  interlude,'  while  the  Jewish  tradition  rendei's 
it  'for  ever.'  (1)  Some  think  that  it  is  an 
instruction  to  the  musicians  to  '  strike  up  ' 
with  an  interlude  during  an  interval  of  the 
singing.  (2)  Prof.  Briggs  suggests  that  the 
LXX  and  Jewish  renderings  are  really  two 
aspects  of  the  same  thing  :  the  former  ('  inter- 
lude ')  denoting  the  point  where  the  benedic- 
tion might  be  sung  and  the  Ps.  concluded  for 
that  service  ;  while  the  latter  ('  for  ever  ') 
gives  the  last  word  of  the  benediction,  which 
would  indicate  the  same  thing.     (3)  Taking 


another  derivation  (from  sallem,  '  supple- 
ment '),  others  conjecture  that  the  note  may 
indicate  the  point  at  which  the  MS  has  to  be, 
or  has  been,  supplemented  from  another  MS. 
It  is  best,  perhaps,  just  to  regard  it  generally 
as  a  '  musical  interlude.' 

5.  I  laid  me  down,  etc.]  His  very  sleep, 
natural  as  it  was,  was  a  proof  of  God's  care, 
for  he  might  have  slept  the  sleep  of  death. 

Sustained]  RV  '  sustaineth,'  suggesting 
continual  oversight.  7.  Arise,  O  LORD]  The 
ancient  mai'ching-song  of  the  Hebrew  host 
began  with  these  words  (NulO^s).  8.  Salva- 
tion helongeth  unto  the  LORD]  A  triumphant 
assertion  of  what  the  adversaries  denied  in 
V.  2.  Thy  blessing  /s]  RV  '  thy  blessing  be  ' 
upon  the  people  as  upon  their  leader.  Selah] 
see  on  v.  4. 

PSALM  4 

This  is  an  evening  hymn,  and  though  no 
occasion  is  mentioned  it  may  perhaps  be  re- 
ferred, like  Ps3  (its  natural  companion),  to  the 
time  of  Absalom's  revolt,  but  to  a  somewhat 
later  stage  in  the  course  of  events,  when  the 
peril  had  largely  passed  away.  It  contains 
David's  appeal  to  God  (v.  1),  his  appeal  to 
his  enemies  (w.  2-5),  and  his  own  resolve 
(vv.  6-8). 

Title.— (RV)  '  For  the  Chief  Musician  ;  on 
stringed  instruments  (Neginoth).' 

1.  God  of  my  righteousness]  The  God  who 
is  on  the  side  of  the  Psalmist's  righteous  cause. 

Enlarged  me]   RV  '  set  me  at  large.' 

2.  Sons  of  men]  in  contrast  with  God,  who 
is  addressed  in  v.  1.  How  long  icill  ye  turn, 
etc.]  RV  '  how  long  shall  my  glory  be  turned,' 
etc.  Leasing]  RV '  falsehood.'  3.  Butknow] 
introduces  the  truth  which  the  Psalmist's 
enemies  ignored.  4.  Stand  in  awe]  LXX 
renders,  '  Be  ye  angry,'  and  is  followed  by 
St.  Paul  in  Eph426.  Be  still]  cease  your 
striving  after  vanity.     Selah]   see  on  ^^. 

5.  Sacrifices  of  righteousness]  sacrifices 
accompanied  by  right  conduct,  offered  in  a 
right  spirit,  and  so  acceptable  to  God.  Perhaps 
there  may  be  a  reference  to  the  insincere 
sacrifices  of  2S15^2_ 

6.  There  he  many]  possibly  in  allusion  to 
the  discontented  people  whom  Absalom  sought 
to  win  by  fair  promises  (2S15-*).  LORD,  lift 
thou  up]  a  striking  transition  from  the  vain 
quests  of  men  to  the  one  source  of  the  chief 
good.  The  light  of  thy  countenance]  favour, 
such  as  earthly  kings  express  by  a  smiling 
face:  see  Nu  620  Ps  803-7,19.  7.  More  than  in 
the  time]  RV  '  more  than  they  have  when,'  etc. 
'  They '  seems  to  refer  to  the  enemies  of  the 
wiiter.  He  in  his  hardships  is  happier  than 
they  in  their  plenty  :  the  peace  of  God  is 
better  than  the  mirth  of  harvest.  8.  The  note 
of  evensong.     Read,  '  In  peace  will  I  both  lay 


330 


5.  1 


PSALMS 


7.6 


me  down  and  sleep.'  The  whole  night  s  rest 
is  peaceful,  because  God,  the  only  source  of 
protection,  is  on  the  Psalmist's  side. 

PSALM  5 


This  is  a  morning  prayer  before  going  to 
the  sanctuary.     The  chief  difficulty  in  ascribing 
it  to  David  lies  in  the  reference  (v.  7)  to  '  thy 
holy  temple.'     The  word  means  a  '  palace,  and 
is  not  strictly  applicable  to  the  tent  which 
David  provided  for  the  ark  (2S6i').     But  it 
was  used  of  the  sanctuary  at  Shiloh  (1  b  1  ■*), 
and  may  have  been  poetically  transferred  to 
David's  humbler  tent  ;  or  it  may  be  figuratively 
employed    to    denote   the    heavenly    temple. 
The    Psalmist   appeals   to   God   for   heanng 
(vv.  1-3),  contrasts  the  exclusion  of  the  wicked 
from    God's    presence   with   his   own   access 
(vv  4-7)  asks  for  guidance  in  the  midst  of  his 
enemies  (vv.  8,  9),  and  prays  for  their  over- 
throw and  for  the  triumph  of  the  righteous 
(vv.  10-12).     This  is  one  of  the  Pss.  for  Ash 

Wednesday-  , 

Title.— Nehiloth]   RM  '  wind  instruments. 

1.  My  meditation]  the  thoughtful  desire  of 
the  heart  which  hardly  finds  expression  m 
words.     It  is  in  contrast  with  the  '  cry  '  of  v.  2. 

2.  My  King]  If  the  writer  is  David  he 
forgets  his  own  royalty  in  the  presence  of  the 
heavenly  King.     Willi  pray]  RV  '  do  I  pray. 

3.  In  the  morning]  emphatic  and  twice 
repeated.  Direct]  RV  '  order,'  arrange,  per- 
haps, as  a  sacrifice  (Gn  22  9  Lv  1 7, «).  But  see 
Job  23  4  3214  335  3719.  Look  up]  RY  '  keep 
watch  '  for  an  answer. 

4  Neither  shall  evil  dwell]  RM  '  the  evil  man 
shall  not  sojourn.'  5-  Foolish]  RV  '  arrogant.' 
Stand  in  thy  sight]  endure  the  holiness  of  thy 
presence.  6.  Leasing]  RV  '  lies.'  Will  abhor 
the  bloody]  RV  '  abhorreth  the  bloodthirsty. 

7.  The  two  features  of  access  to  God  are 
(1)  God's  grace,  and  (2)  the  worshipper's  rever- 
ence. Toward]  The  worshipper  in  the  Temple 
court  prostrated  himself  towards  the  sanctuary. 

8.  Straight]  RV  '  plain,'  level,  easy  to  walk 
in.  9.  The  heart  and  the  speech  of  the 
wicked  are  alike  corrupt.  See  Ro3i3,  where 
this  V.  is  quoted.  The  throat  of  the  flatterer 
is  compared  to  an  open  grave,  ever  clamouring 
for  fresh  victims— a  very  suggestive  figure. 

10.   Destroy ..  them]  RV  '  hold  them  guilty. 

Against  thee]  The  Psalmist  identifies  God's 
cause  with  his  own.  11.  Love  thy  name]  thy 
revealed  character.  A  name  comes  to  be  the 
equivalent  of  all  that  we  know  about  the 
person  who  bears  it  :  cp.  '  Hallowed  be  Thy 
name.' 

PSALM  6 
This  is  the  first  of  the  Penitential  Psalms, 
the  others  being  Pss  32,  38,  51,  102,  130,  143. 
It  is  the  prayer  of  a  sufferer  whose  experience 


is  like  that  of  Job.  He  is  prostrated  by  severe 
illness,  and  is  even  in  danger  of  death,  while 
the  mockery  of  his  enemies  makes  his  trouble 
the  harder  to  bear.  He  entreats  earnestly  that 
God  may  deliver  him  (vv.  1-7),  and  rises  to  a 
sudden  confidence  that  his  prayer  has  been 
heard  and  that  his  enemies  will  be  put  to 
shame  (vv.  8-10). 

Title. — On  Neginoth  upon  Sheminith]  RV 
'  on  stringed  instruments,  set  to  the  Sheminith 
(lower  octave).' 

1.  Rebuke .  .  chasten]  the  two  aspects  of 
affliction — the  one  being  for  punishment  and 
the  other  for  discipline  ;  the  one  proceeding 
from  displeasure  and  the  other  from  love. 

2.  Weak]  R V  '  withered  away '  :  see  Ps 
10211.  My  bones]  the  innermost  framework 
of  my  body.  Vexed]  used  here  of  physical 
pain,  and  in  the  next  v.  of  mental  anguish  : 
cp.  Ps  2  5.  3.  My  soul . .  also]  The  bodily  pain 
has  produced  distress  of  spirit.  There  is  an 
echo  of  these  words  in  Jn  1 2  '^7.  O  LORD,  how 
long  ?]  The  broken  sentence  is  more  expressive 
than  if  it  had  been  completed  :  see  Ps90i3. 

5.  The  grave]  RV  '  Sheol,'  the  shadowy 
abode  of  the  dead.  In  the  OT.  time  there 
was  no  clear  expectation  of  immortality  in 
the  sense  of  a  happy  future  life.  6.  All  the 
night]  RV  '  every  night.'  7.  Mine  eye  is  con- 
sumed] The  sunken  eye  is  a  sure  token  of 
bodily  anguish  or  mental  distress. 

10.  Read,  'All  mine  enemios  shall  be 
ashamed  . .  they  shall  turn  back,  they  shall  be 
ashamed  suddenly.' 


PSALM   7 

This  Ps.  is  an  appeal  to  God  as  the  righteous 
Judge  against  an  ungrateful  and  vindictive 
enemy.  Nothing  is  known  of  Cush  the  Ben- 
jamite,  but  the  case  of  Shimei  affords  a  paral- 
lel to  the  circumstances  here  referred  to 
(2  S 18  21).  The  absence  of  any  Scripture 
mention  of  Cush  makes  it  all  the  more  probable 
that  the  title  of  this  Ps.  is  genuine,  and  not 
invented.  The  Psalmist  asserts  his  own  inno- 
cence (vv.  1-6),  calls  on  God,  the  righteous 
Judge  of  all  the  earth,  to  exercise  His  power 
against  evil-doers  (vv.  7-13),  and  describes 
how  the  malice  of  the  wicked  works  its  own 
defeat  (vv.  14-17). 

Title. — Shiggaion]  perhaps,  'a  wandering 
(i.e.  changeful)  melody.' 

3.  If  I  have  done  this]  with  which  Cush 
charged  him.  See  further  in  v.  4.  4.  The 
second  clause  may  be  read  without  the  paren- 
thesis, 'or  despoiled  him  that  without  cause 
was  mine  adversary.'  5.  Take]  RV  '  over- 
take.' Mme  honour]  RV  'my  glory,'  an  equi- 
valent for '  soul '  and '  life '  in  the  previous  paral- 
lel clauses.  Selah]  see  on  3  •*.  6.  Awake  for  me] 
a  daring  figure,  as  if  God's  delay  had  been  due 
to  sleep.     To  the  judgment  tliat^  etc.]  RV  '  thou 


331 


7.7 


PSALMS 


hast  commanded  judgment,'  i.e.  exercised  the 
justice  of  which  Thou  art  the  source. 

7.  So  shall,  etc.]  RV  '  and  let,'  etc.  People] 
RY  '  peoples.'  So  in  v.  8.  An  assize  of  all 
the  nations  is  pictured.  For  their  sakes,  etc.] 
RV  '  over  them  return  thou  on  high,'  or  '  sit 
thou  above  them,'  i.e.  in  judgment.  8.  Shall 
judge]  RV  '  ministereth  judgment  to.'  9.  Just] 
RV  'righteous,'  the  same  epithet  which  is 
applied  to  God.  The  hearts  and  reins]  the 
whole  inner  life.  The  reins  are  the  kidneys, 
and  are  spoken  of  like  the  heart,  the  bowels, 
and  the  internal  organs  generally,  as  the  seat 
of  thought  and  feeling. 

II.  Read,  '  God  is  a  righteous  judge,  yea,  a 
God  that  hath  indignation  everyday.'  12.  Head, 
'  If  a  man  turn  not  He  (God)  will  whet,'  etc! 

13.  He  ordaineth,  etc.]  RV  'Hemakethhis 
arrows  fiery  shafts:  The  sense  is  parallel 
with  the  last  clause  of  v.  12. 

14.  There  is  a  transition  at  this  point  from 
God  to  the  wicked  man.  15.  He  made]  RV 
'he  hath  made.'  The  evil  he  planned  for 
others  comes  on  himself.  16.  another  figure 
for  the  same  thing.  Mischief  is  like  a  stone 
thrown  up,  which  falls  back  upon  the  thrower's 
head.  Pate]  Old  English  for 'head.'  17.  All 
that  has  been  said  illustrates  the  righteous- 
ness of  the  Lord,  which  is  accordingly  the 
ground  of  this  concluding  asci'iption  of  praise. 

PSALM   8 

This  Ps.  is  a  poem  of  wondering  praise, 
called  forth  by  the  thought  of  the  supremacy 
and  honour  that  God  has  given  to  man,  who 
in  himself  holds  such  an  insignificant  place  in 
the  universe.  The  glory  of  the  heavens  and 
the  variety  of  the  works  of  nature  combine  to 
emphasise  the  marvel  of  this  choice.  The  Ps. 
is  based  upon  the  story  of  creation  (Gn  1 26-28)^ 
and  sets  forth  the  ideal  dignity  of  man.  V.  6 
is  applied  in  1  Corl527  Ephl  22  to  the  exalta- 
tion of  Christ,  in  whom  alone  the  ideal  is 
realised.  In  Heb26-s  the  same  thought  is 
expressed  in  another  way,  man's  failure  to 
attain  to  full  dominion  being  contrasted  with 
the  supremacy  Christ  has  won.  The  Ps.  is 
used  on  Ascension  Day. 

Title.— Upon  Gittith]  RV  'set  to  the  Gittith' 
(perhaps  an  instrument,  or  tune,  of  Gath). 

1.  O  Lord  our  Lord]  lit.  'Jehovah,  our 
Lord.'     So  in  V.  9.     Thy  name]   see  on  Ps  5". 

Above]  RV  'upon.'  The  glory  of  God  is 
stamped  or  impressed  on  the  visible  universe. 

2.  Babes  and  sucklings]  a  figure  for  men 
in  their  weakness  and  ignorance.  The  words 
are  quoted  by  our  Lord  in  a  more  literal  sense 
(Mt21i«).  Ordained  strength]  RV  'estab- 
lished strength,'  laid  a  foundation  for  Thy 
great  work.  LXX  has  '  perfected  praise,'  and 
our  Lord  follows  this  version  in  the  quotation 
just   mentioned.       Because  of  thine  enemies. 


9.7 


332 


etc.]  God's  use  of  feeble  instruments  to  dis- 
play His  glory  puts  His  adversaries  to  silence : 
see  1  Cor  127-29. 

3.  The  work  of  thy  fingers]  The  wisdom 
and  skill  of  the  Creator  are  thus  poetically 
expressed.  The  moon  and  the  stars]  It  is  the 
glory  of  the  sky  by  night  which  is  before  the 
writer's  mind.  The  discoveries  of  astronomy 
only  make  the  conceptions  of  the  Ps.  more 
impressive.  4.  What  is  man]  The  word  ren- 
dered '  man  '  means  '  frail  man  ' — humanity  in 
all  its  weakness  and  limitation.  The  son  of 
man]  the  human  race.  The  expression  is  a 
simple  variant,  and  is  exactly  equivalent  to 
'  man  '  in  the  former  clause.  Visitest]  with 
loving  care  and  remembrance. 

5.  A  little  lower  than  the  angels]  RV  '  but 
a  little  lower  than  God.'  'A  little  less  than 
divine  '  would  represent  the  meaning.  Man, 
the  only  creature  made  in  God's  image,  stands 
nearest  to  Him  in  the  ranks  of  the  universe. 
Philosophy  and  science  are  at  one  with  Scripture 
in  placing  man  at  the  top  of  the  scale  of  cre- 
ation. 6.  All  things  under  his  feet]  A  refer- 
ence to  Gn  1 26-28 :  applied  to  Christ,  1  Cor  1 5  27 
Heb26-8. 

PSALM  9 

Pss  9  and  10  are  combined  in  LXX,  and 
there  is  certainly  a  real,  though  obscure,  re- 
lationship between  them.  The  two  together 
form  one  'acrostic,'  the  vv.  beginning  with 
the  successive  letters  of  the  Hebrew  alphabet, 
though  in  both  Pss.  there  is  a  gap  in  the  ar- 
rangement. The  subject  matter  of  the  two 
Pss.,  however,  does  not  suggest  that  we  have 
in  them  the  two  halves  of  what  was  originally 
a  single  Ps.  Ps  9  is  distinctly  national  and 
Ps  10  as  distinctly  personal,  and  though  both 
may  be  by  the  same  author,  the  problem  of 
their  connexion  must  be  left  unsolved. 

Ps  9  is  the  song  of  a  king  who  has  gained  a 
victory  over  a  foreign  enemy,  and  finds  in  this 
a  proof  of  God's  righteous  rule  over  the  whole 
earth — a  rule  which  he  prays  may  be  yet  more 
fully  displayed.  Only  in  vv.  13, 14  is  the  note 
of  personal  afiiiction  and  need  to  be  heard. 

Title.— Upon  Muth-labben]  '  Muth-labben' 
means  '  Death  to  the  son,'  and  probably  indi- 
cates some  well-known  song,  to  the  tune  of 
which  the  Ps.  was  directed  to  be  sung. 

3.  They  shall  fall]   RV  '  they  stumble.' 

4.  Judging  right]  RV 'judging  righteously.' 

5.  Heathen]  RV  'nations.'  So  in  vv.  15, 
19.  6.  RV  '  The  enemy  are  come  to  an  end, 
they  are  desolate  for  ever  :  and  the  cities  which 
thou  hast  overthrown,  their  very  memorial  is 
perished.'  The  words  are  still  part  of  the 
prayer  to  Jehovah.  Faith  in  God  demands 
complete  deliverance.  7.  Shall  endure]  RV 
'sitteth  as  king.'  The  eternal  rule  of  God 
contrasted  with  the  passing  powers  of  earth. 


9.  8 


PSALMS 


11.  7 


8.   People]   E,V  '  peoples.'     lo.  Thy  name] 


see  on  o 


r>ii 


II.  Which  dwelleth  in  Zion]  Jerusalem, 
and  especially  the  hill  of  Zion,  was  regarded 
as  the  earthly  throne  of  Grod,  after  David  had 
placed  the  ark  there  :  see  76  ^  13213.  12.  RV 
'  For  he  that  maketh  inquisition  for  blood  re- 
membereth  them.'  God  is  represented  as  the 
avenger  of  blood  (Gn  9  ^).  Humble]  RV  '  poor ' 
or  meek.  One  of  a  gi-oup  of  words  which  in 
OT.  have  at  first  an  outward  and  then  a  more 
spiritual  sense,  the  chief  sufferers  from  want 
and  oppression  being  often  God's  true  people. 

13,  14.  This  personal  cry  of  distress  seems 
to  break  the  connexion  rather  abruptly.  Pos- 
sibly we  should  read,  '  The  Lord  has  had 
mercy  .  .  he  has  considered  my  trouble.'  The 
gates  of  death]   the  extremity  of  affliction. 

The  gates  of  the  daughter  of  Zion]  '  The 
daughter  of  Zion '  is  a  figure  for  Jerusalem  : 
see  Isais  Lam225  Ps45i2  1378.  The  gates  of 
an  Eastern  city  were  its  most  public  and  busy 
spots.  The  throng  of  life  is  thus  contrasted 
with  the  solitude  and  dreariness  of  '  the  gates 
of  death  '  in  v.  13. 

16.  RV  '  The  Lord  hath  made  himself  known, 
he  ^  ith  executed  judgment.'  Higgaion]  a 
mu.  oal  term  applied  only  here.  It  occurs  in 
the  text  of  92  3,  and  probably  means  something 
like  our /o?"<e.  Selah]  see  on  3 4.  'Higgaion. 
Selah  '  together  may  mean /or/mv'/fto.  17.  Be 
turned  into  hell]  RV  ' return  to  Sheol,'  the 
■place  of  the  dead,  not  regarded  specially  as  a 
place  of  torment.  '  Return  '  seems  strictly  to 
apply  to  the  body,  which  goes  back  to  the  dust 
whence  it  was  taken  :  cp.  Gn3i9  Ps903  10429. 

18.  Needy]  Another  of  the  group  of  words 
referred  to  in  the  note  on  v.  12.  Poor]  The 
same  word  as  in  v.  12.  19.  Man]  The  word 
means  '  frail  man,'  as  in  S'^. 

PSALM  10 

This  Ps.  has  no  title.  Its  relationship  to 
Ps9  has  been  discussed  in  intro.  to  that  Ps. 
It  reflects  a  time  of  great  social  disorder,  in 
which  wickedness  and  violence  are  rampant, 
and  the  righteous  are  sorely  oppressed.  It 
falls  roughly  into  two  parts.  The  wi'ongs 
which  call  for  redress  are  described  (vv.  1-11) 
and  God's  interposition  is  invoked  (vv.  12-18). 

I.  God  seems  to  be  ignorant  of  what  is 
taking  place,  or  indifferent  to  it.  The  Psalmist, 
however,  does  not  really  believe  this,  or  he 
would  not  appeal  to  God  at  all.  2^.  RM 
'  They  (the  poor)  are  taken  in  the  devices  that 
they  (the  wicked)  have  imagined.'  3.  And 
blesseth  the  covetous,  etc.]  RV  '  And  the 
covetous  renounceth,  yea,  contemneth  the 
Lord.'  4.  Will  not  seek,  etc.]  RV  '  saitJi,  He 
(God)  will  not  require  it':  see  v.  13.  God  Ik 
not,  etc.]  RV  '  all  his  thoughts  are.  There  is 
no  God.'     5.   Always  grievous]   RV  'firm  at 


all  times.'     He   seems  to  prosper  in  all  his 
plans.     Puffeth]   in  scorn  and  contempt. 

7.  Fraud]  RV  '  oppression.'  Vanity]  RV 
'  iniquity.'  Part  of  this  v.  is  quoted  in  Ro3i'i 
as  a  description  of  human  depravity  in  general. 

8.  The  brigand  life  here  described  has  never 
been  uncommon  in  Eastern  lands,  and  the  pic- 
ture given  is  by  no  means  metaphorical :  see 
Prov  110-18.  Poor]  RV  '  helpless,' RM  'hap- 
less,' a  word  found  only  here  and  in  vv.  10,  14. 

10.  RM  '  And  being  crushed  he  (the  poor) 
boweth  down,  and  the  helpless  fall  by  his 
strong  ones '  (by  the  wicked  man's  followers). 

11.  Cp.  vv.  1,  4.  The  blindness  of  God, 
which  the  Psalmist  knows  is  only  apparent,  is 
what  the  wicked  man  really  believes  in. 

14.  Thou  hast  seen  iQ  A  direct  contradic- 
tion of  the  wicked  man's  thought  in  v.  11. 

15.  Break .  .  the  arm]   destroy  the  power. 

16.  The  faith  of  the  Psalmist  here  asserts 
itself.  The  heathen]  RV  '  the  nations.'  The 
past  extermination  of  the  Canaanites,  or  some 
repulse  of  foreign  invaders,  is  regarded  as  a 
pledge  that  God  will  remove  the  present 
troublers  of  society.  18.  The  man  of  the  earth] 
RV  '  the  man  which  is  of  the  earth.'  The  word 
is  again  '  frail  man.'  Foreign  enemies  and 
evil-doers  at  home  must  alike  be  made  to  feel 
their  impotence  against  God. 

PSALM  11 

The  Ps.  is  a  song  of  confidence  in  God,  and 
in  the  security  of  the  righteous  under  His  pro- 
tection, notwithstanding  the  timid  counsels  of 
less  trustful  friends,  and  the  evil  devices  of 
the  wicked,  who  are  doomed  to  destruction. 

3.  If  the  foundations  be  destroyed]  if  those 
in  high  places  disregard  the  first  principles  of 
righteousness.  This  is  an  argument  of  un- 
belief and  cowardice.  It  is  suggested  that 
wickedness  may  be  so  successful  as  to  make 
resistance  useless.  4.  God  is  the  great  Reality 
whom  such  pleadings  leave  out  of  account. 

His  holy  temple]   the  heavenly  sanctuary. 

Try]    test,  as  precious  metals  are  tested. 

5.  Trieth]  tries  and  approves.  They  stand 
the  test. 

6.  Snares]  Another  reading  is  '  burning 
coals,'  which  fits  the  context  better.  Fire  and 
brimstone]  as  in  the  destruction  of  Sodom  : 
Gnl92i.  An  horrible  tempest]  RV  'burning 
wind,'  like  the  simoom  of  the  desert.  Their 
cup]  a  common  Scripture  figure  for  '  their 
destiny '  ;  men's  experiences  in  life  being  like 
a  draught  which  they  have  to  drink. 

7.  RV  '  The  Lord  is  righteous  :  he  loveth 
righteousness.'  God's  dealings  with  men  reflect 
His  own  character.  His  countenance,  etc.] 
RV '  the  upright  shall  behold  His  face,'  shall  be 
a,dmitted  to  His  favour,  as  worthy  subjects  are 
admitted  to  the  presence  of  a  king  :  cp. 
Mt5S. 


333 


1^.2 


PSALMS 


]5.  4 


PSALM  12 

The  same  subject  may  be  traced  here  as  in 
Pss  9-11,  viz.  a  time  of  persecution  and  op- 
pression coupled  with  a  conviction  that  God 
lives  and  will  yet  deliver. 

Title  as  in  Ps  6. 

2.  Vanity]  empty  and  false  words.  A 
double  heart]  a  figure  for  treachery  and  deceit. 

4.  Our  lips  are  our  own]  We  have  a  right 
to  say  what  we  please,  to  gain  our  end. 

5.  Now  will  I  arise]  God's  time  for  inter- 
position always  arrives  sooner  or  later.  The 
Psalmist  pictures  the  proper  moment  as  having 
come.  From  him  thai  puffeth,  etc.]  EY  '  at 
whom  they  puff.'  6.  The  words  of  the  LORD] 
His  promises  of  help  to  the  righteous.  They 
are  reliable,  in  contrast  to  the  deceitful  words 
of  the  wicked  in  v.  2.  A  furnace  of  earth] 
B,V  '  a  furnace  on  the  earth.'  The  meaning  is 
perhaps,  '  silver  tried  in  a  furnace  (and  flowing 
out)  on  the  earth.'  7.  This  v.  is  the  conclusion 
of  the  thought  of  the  Ps.,  though  v.  8  repeats 
the  opening  complaint. 

PSALM  13 

The  prominence  which  the  Ps.  gives  to  one 
enemy  (v.  2)  among  the  writer's  numerous 
adversaries  (v.  4),  suggests  the  circumstances 
of  David's  persecution  by  Saul  (IS 21-27). 
The  Psalmist  begins  in  agitation  and  despond- 
ency, and  ends  in  tranquillity  and  faith. 

I.  PBV  '  How  long  wilt  thou  forget  me,  0 
Lord,  for  ever  '? '  A  single  question  instead  of 
the  double  one  of  AV.  'Forget  for  ever' 
means  'continue  to  forget.'  The  seemingly 
self -contradictory  form  of  the  question  reflects 
the  conflict  of  the  writer's  feelings,  '  Hope 
despairs  and  yet  despair  hopes'  (Luther). 
Note  the  four  repetitions  of  'how  long'  in 
vv.  1,  2.  2.  Take  counsel  in  my  soul]  be 
compelled  to  make  vain  plans  for  my  own 
deliverance.  3.  Lighten  mine  eyes]  give  me 
new  life  and  hope.  '  Dying  eyes  are  glazed  : 
a  sick  man's  are  heavy  and  dull.  Returning 
health  brightens  them'  :  see  IS  14 27, 29. 

PSALM  14 

This  Ps.,  like  Ps  12,  gives  a  picture  of  a 
corrupt  state  of  society  in  which  God  is  ignored, 
and  His  people  are  oppressed.  David's  author- 
ship is  not  absolutely  disproved  by  v.  7,  which 
some  have  regarded  as  a  later  addition,  and 
where,  in  any  case,  '  bring  back  the  captivity  ' 
may  only  mean  '  restore  the  fortunes.'  Though 
God  is  denied  (v.  1),  He  really  sees  (v.  2), 
speaks  (v.  3),  and  acts  (v.  4).  The  Ps.  reappears 
with  some  variations  as  Ps  53.  Vv.  1-3  are 
quoted  in  Ro  310-12. 

I.  The  fool  is  a  character  who  in  Scripture 
is  marked  by  wickedness  as  well  as  by  what 
we  call  folly.     His  defect  is  moral  as  well  as 


mental.  In  his  heart]  His  denial  is  a  practical 
one,  and  he  really  acts  upon  it,  whatever  he 
may  say  or  think  that  he  believes.  There  is 
no  God]  cp.  Psl2'i.ii.i3. 

2.  The  Lord  looked  down]  cp.  GnG^  115 
1821,  where  similar  figures  describe  God's 
perception  of  the  wickedness  of  men  in  the 
primitive  world. 

3.  Gone  aside]   from  the  true  path. 

4.  God  speaks  in  surprise  at  the  folly  of  the 
wicked.  Eat  up  my  people  a-f  they  eat  bread] 
conduct  at  once  rapacious  and  unconcerned. 

Call  not  upon  the  LORD]  Such  wickedness 
is  naturally  prayerless. 

The  Septuagint  (LXX),  Vulgate,  and  Syriac 
versions  insert  between  vv.  4  and  5  four  verses 
which  are  retained  in  the  PBV  q.v.  They  were 
probably  inserted  first  as  a  marginal  note  in 
some  codices,  being  quoted  from  Ro3io-i8 
as  an  illustration  of  this  passage,  and  so 
ultimately  found  their  way  into  the  text  of 
some  MSS. 

5.  There  were  they  in  great  fear]  a  sudden 
mention  of  God's  interference.  Some  historical 
event,  like  the  destruction  of  Pharaoh's  host, 
seems  to  be  in  the  writer's  mind.  6.  RM  '  Ye 
put  to  shame  the  counsel  (i.e.  the  righteous 
thoughts)  of  the  poor,  but  the  Lord  is  his 
refuge.'  '  The  poor '  are  the  afflicted  right- 
eous :  see  9 12. 

7.  Out  of  Zion]  Zion  is  regarded  as  God's 
dwelling-place,  from  which  He  sends  forth 
His  help  :  see  3  "*.  Bringeth  back  the  captivity] 
The  phrase  may  have  the  general  sense  of 
'  restoring  prosperity  to,'  and  need  not  refer 
to  the  Babylonian  exile  :  see  Job  42 10.  Jacob, 
like  '  Israel,'  is  a  name  for  the  nation. 

PSALM  15 

In  this  Ps.  we  have  a  fine  summary  of  the 
essentials  of  OT.  piety.  It  sets  forth  the 
character  and  conduct  required  in  the  wor- 
shipper for  acceptance  with  God.  The  occasion 
of  its  composition  may  have  been  the  bringing 
of  the  ark  to  Jerusalem  (2  8617).  Cp.  with 
the  whole  Ps.  Isa  3314.15.  This  is  another  of 
the  Pss.  for  Ascension  Day. 

1.  Abide]  RV  '  sojourn.'  The  worshipper 
is  conceived  as  the  guest  of  God.  Tabernacle] 
lit.  '  tent,'  the  kind  of  structure  prepared  by 
David  for  the  ark.  Thy  holy  hill]  Mt.  Zion, 
viewed  as  God's  dwelling-place,  and  specially 
consecrated  first  by  the  presence  of  the  ark, 
and  afterwards  by  Solomon's  Temple. 

2.  In  his  heart]  Emphasis  is  laid  on  inward 
sincerity  as  well  as  on  outward  integrity. 

3.  Backbiteth]  RV 'slandereth.'  Taketh  up 
a  reproach]  The  phrase  refers  to  receiving  and 
repeating  what  is  to  another's  discredit.  4.  He 
that  sweareth  to  his  own  hurt,  and  changeth 
not]  A  truly  upright  man  will  keep  his  word 
even  to  his  own  disadvantage. 


334 


15.  5 


PSALMS 


17.  13 


5.  Usury]  was  forbidden  by  the  Mosaic  Law 
(Lv253<3,37  Dt  23 19.-0)  as  inconsistent  with  the 
kindly  spirit  of  brotherhood  among  Israelites. 
Interest  was  allowed  to  be  taken  from  fo- 
reigners. The  absence  of  gi-eed  and  exaction 
is  what  the  Psalmist  commends.  Nor  taketh 
rewrard  against  the  innocent]  Bribery  has  always 
been  one  of  the  greatest  corruptions  of  society 
in  the  East.  It  was  sternly  forbidden  in  Israel 
(Ex 23 '.8  Dt2725),  and  the  worthy  guest  of 
Jehovah  could  not  stoop  to  such  a  thing.  Shall 
never  be  moved]  an  expressive  way  of  summing 
up  the  strength  and  stability  of  a  righteous 
life, 

PSALM  16 

The  Ps.  is  the  confident  and  joyous  prayer 
of  one  whose  highest  satisfaction  is  in  G-od 
and  in  good  men  (vv.  2,  3),  who  renounces  all 
the  ways  of  idolatry  (v.  4),  and  who  finds  in 
God  not  only  ample  wealth  and  happiness  for 
the  present  (vv.  5-7),  but  also  a  continuous 
prospect  of  the  truest  life  (vv.  8-11).  The  Ps. 
is  quoted  in  Ac  2^5  1335  as  a  prophecy  of  the 
Resurrection  of  Christ.  While  this  is  not  its 
primary  reference,  and  while  the  language 
does  not  necessarily  involve  all  that  is  read 
into  it  in  the  NT.,  it  is  true  that  the  thought 
of  the  Ps.  suggests  the  hope  of  immortality, 
and  that  the  Resurrection  of  Christ  affords 
the  most  striking  illustration  of  its  meaning. 

Title. — Michtam  of  David]  The  meaning 
is  uncertain.  '  Michtam '  may  possibly  be  '  a 
golden  Psalm,'  or  it  may  have  some  musical 
reference. 

2.  RV  '  I  have  said  unto  the  Lord  (Je- 
hovah), Thou  art  my  Lord  :  I  have  no  good 
beyond  thee.'  3.  RV  '  As  for  the  saints  that 
are  in  the  earth.  They  are  the  excellent  in 
whom  is  all  my  delight.' 

4.  That  hasten,  etc.]  RV  '  that  exchange 
the  Lord  for  another  god.''  Drink  offerings 
of  blood]  to  be  understood  perhaps  not  liter- 
ally, but  in  the  sense  of  cruel  and  impure  sacri- 
fices. Their  names]  the  names  of  the  idols 
which  are  thus  worshipped. 

5,  6.  There  are  two  figures  here,  one  con- 
tained in  the  words  portion,  lot,  lines,  heritage, 
suggested  by  the  division  of  the  land  of  Canaan 
among  the  tribes,  and  another  contained  in  the 
word  cup,  which  denotes  the  experiences  of 
the  Psalmist's  life.  In  NulS'^o  God  is  the 
only  portion  of  the  Levites,  who  received  no 
earthly  territory.  The  writer  here  claims  the 
same  goodly  heritage. 

7.  My  reins]  or  as  we  should  say,  '  my 
heart':  see  7^.  God's  inward  voice  heard  in 
hours  of  quietness,  is  one  of  the  chief  bless- 
ings of  His  people.  8.  I  have  set  the  LORD, 
etc.]  the  constant,  deliberate,  and  conscious 
exercise  of  faith.  9.  My  glory]  my  soul :  see 
Ps76   1081.      Rest  in   hope]  RV   'dwell   in 


safety.'  The  primary  reference  is  not  to  the 
dead  body  in  the  grave,  but  to  the  continuance 
of  bodily  life  on  earth. 

10.  In  hell]  RV  '  to  Sheol.'  The  meaning 
is,  '  Thou  wilt  not  suffer  me  to  die.'  Thine 
Holy  One]  RV  'thine  holy  one';  RM  'thy 
godly  (or  beloved)  one.'  The  allusion  is 
primarily  to  the  Psalmist  himself,  though  the 
passage  is  used  by  St.  Peter  (Ac  2  25-28)  to  prove 
that  the  resurrection  of  Christ  was  in  accord- 
ance with  prophecy.  Corruption]  RM  '  the 
pit,'  the  grave,  the  state  of  the  dead. 

11.  The  path  of  life]  not  specially  of  life 
after  death,  but  of  true  life  in  the  fellowship 
of  God.  In  thy  presence]  the  presence  in 
which  the  Psalmist  already  lived  (v.  8). 

At  thy  right  hand]  RV  '  in  thy  right  hand.' 
For  evermore]  The  contrast  which  the  Ps. 
draws  is  not,  perhaps,  so  much  between  life 
here  and  life  hereafter,  as  between  life  with- 
out God  and  life  with  Him.  In  its  very 
nature,  however,  the  latter  life  is  enduring, 
and  hence  the  Psalmist's  words  contain  an 
anticipation  (though  it  may  be  a  dim  and 
only  semi-conscious  one)  of  the  immortality 
which  Christ  has  brought  to  light. 

PSALM    17 

The  Psalmist  makes  his  appeal  to  the  justice 
of  God  (vv.  1,  2),  and  supports  his  prayer  by 
an  assertion  of  his  conscious  innocence  (vv. 
3-5)  and  an  account  of  the  eager  cruelty 
of  his  enemies  (vv.  9-12).  The  concluding 
thought,  that  true  satisfaction  is  found  in  God 
alone  (vv.  14,  15),  recalls  the  teaching  of  Ps 
16,  with  which  this  Ps.  presents  other  points 
of  likeness. 

I.  Feigned]  false,  insincere.  2.  My  sen- 
tence] my  judgment,  in  the  favourable  sense 
of  '  vindication.'  Let  thine  eyes,  etc.]  better, 
'  thine  eyes  look  upon  equity,'  a  confident  as- 
sertion of  God's  justice.     3.   Proved]  tested. 

In  the  night]  when  man  is  alone  with  God, 
and  conscience  shows  things  in  their  true  char- 
acter. Shalt  find,  etc.]  RM  '  findest  no  evil 
purpose  in  me.'     4.  Concerning]  RV  '  as  for.' 

By  the  word  of  thy  lips]  the  commandments 
of  God.  5.  RV  '  My  steps  have  held  fast  to 
thy  paths.  My  feet  have  not  slipped.' 

8.  The  apple  of  the  eye]  The  pupil  of  the 
eye,  a  specially  important  and  delica.te  organ, 
with  peculiarly  sensitive  arrangements  for  its 
protection:  see  Dt32io.  Under  the  shadow 
of  thy  wings]  as  a  mother-bird  shelters  her 
young.  10.  They  are  inclosed  in  their  own 
fat]  better,  '  they  have  shut  up  their  heart,'  a 
figure  for  arrogance.  11.  Us]  The  Psalmist 
mentions  his  companions  along  with  himself. 

Bowing  down]   RV  '  to  cast  us  down.' 

12.  Like  as  a  lion]  RV  '  He  is  like  a  lion,' 
the  chief  enemy  (perhaps  Saul)  being  meant. 

13.  Disappoint]  RV  '  confront.'     From  the 


335 


17.  14 


PSALMS 


19.  2 


wicked,  which  is,  etc.]  RV  '  from  the  wicked 
by  thy  sword.'  14.  From  men  tchich  are,  etc.] 
RV  '  from  mien  by  thy  hand.'  From  men  of 
the  world,  etc.]  E,M  '  from  men  whose  portion 
in  life  is  of  the  world,'  whose  ideal  is  animal 
gratification,  a  numerous  offspring,  and  wealth 
to  leave  behind  them.  Full  of  children]  RV 
'  satisfied  with  children.' 

15.  The  Psalmist's  satisfaction,  present  and 
future,  lies  in  the  fellowship  of  God.  When 
I  awake]  either  'after  each  night's  rest,'  or 
'  after  the  night  of  trouble  is  past.'  The 
thought  of  life  after  death  may  not  have  been 
clearly  in  the  writer's  mind,  but  his  conviction 
and  experience  that  true  life  is  life  in  God 
involve  the  foundation  of  the  Christian  hope. 

With  thy  likeness]  cp.  NU128  Psl39i8. 
The  Psalmist  seeks  continual  fellowship  with 
God. 

PSALM   18 

Of  all  the  Pss.  this  is  the  one  which  can  be 
ascribed  with  greatest  confidence  to  David.  It 
is  found,  with  some  variations,  in  2S22,  and 
the  title  is  largely  taken  from  2S221.  It 
consists  of  a  series  of  triumphant  thanksgiv- 
ings to  God,  with  which  the  writer  connects  a 
highly  figurative  account  of  his  deliverance 
from  danger  (vv.  4-19),  an  assertion  of  his 
own  uprightness  (vv.  20-24),  and  a  description 
of  the  victories  he  has  won  by  God's  assistance 
(vv.  29-48). 

1.  I  will  love  thee]  RY  '  I  love  thee.'  This 
V.  is  omitted  in  2  S.  It  was  perhaps  inserted 
when  the  Ps.  was  adapted  for  use  by  the 
congregation  in  the  Temple. 

2.  Notice  the  succession  of  figures  drawn 
from  the  experiences  of  a  warrior's  life  in  a 
country  where  natural  strongholds  as  well  as 
artificial  fortresses  were  common.  Strength] 
RV  'strong  rock.'  Buckler]  RV  'shield.' 
So  in  V.  30.  Horn]  a  symbol  of  irresistible 
strength.  4.  Sorrov/s]  RV  '  cords.'  So  in 
V.  5.  5.  Hell]  RV  '  Sheol,'  the  state  of  the 
dead.  Prevented]  RV  '  came  upon.'  So  in 
V.  18.  Vv.  4,  5  mean  that  David  felt  himself 
in  peril  of  death.     6.   His  temple]  in  heaven. 

7-16.  In  these  vv.  the  manifestation  of 
God's  power  to  deliver  is  poetically  described 
as  the  physical  appearance  of  God  Himself, 
accompanied  by  the  most  impressive  natural 
phenomena,  such  as  earthquake  and  thunder- 
storm. He  is  conceived  as  dwelling  in  the  heart 
of  the  thunderstorm,  surrounded  by  fires  which 
break  forth  as  lightning  through  the  cloud. 

10.  A  cherub]  Cherubim  are  most  familiar 
to  readers  of  Scripture  as  symbolic  figures 
appearing  in  the  furniture  and  decoration  of 
the  tabernacle  and  the  Temple.  They  also 
appear  in  Ezekiel's  vision  of  the  mystic  chariot 
as  the  bearers  of  God's  throne  (Ezk  1,  10). 
Here  the  cherub  seems  to  be  a  personification 


of  the  storm  cloud,  as  the  parallel  idea  in  the 
next  clause  shows. 

12.  Read,  'From  the  brightness  before  him 
there  passed  through  his  thick  cloud  hail- 
stones and  coals  of  fire.'  Coals  of  fire]  light- 
ning. 13.  His  voice]  the  thunder.  14.  His 
arrows]  another  figure  for  lightning.  15.  The 
drying  up  of  the  Red  Sea  is  woven  into  the 
imagery  of  the  storm.  16.  Many  waters]  the 
emblem  of  David's  troubles.  The  whole 
sublime  manifestation  of  God  was  on  his 
behalf.  19.  A  large  place]  the  opposite  of 
'  straits.' 

24-26.  David  finds  in  his  own  case  an  illus- 
tration of  the  truth  that  God  deals  with  all 
men  according  to  their  works,  opposing  those 
who  oppose  Him,  as  well  as  showing  His  per- 
fections to  those  who  are  like  Him. 

27.  High  looks]  RV  '  the  haughty  eyes.' 

28.  My  candle]  RV  '  my  lamp,'  the  symbol 
of  David's  prosperity  :  see  Job  18 '5.  29.  This 
V.  may  refer  to  the  pursuit  of  the  Amalekites 
(1  S30)  and  the  capture  of  Jerusalem  (2  SS^'-S). 

33.  Hinds' />e/]  agile,  swift,  and  «ure.  My 
high  places]  The  figure  of  the  hind,  climbing 
precipitous  hills,  is  continued.  34.  A  bow  of 
steel,  etc.]  RV  '  mine  arms  do  bend  a  bow  of 
brass '  (i.e.  copper  or  bronze),  a  harder  task 
than  to  bend  a  wooden  bow. 

35.  Gentleness]  RM  '  condescension.'  For 
the  thought  cp.  113^  IsafiTis  :  see  also  Ps 23. 

36.  Enlarged  my  steps]  given  me  freedom 
to  move  without  obstruction.  40.  Given  me 
the  necks  of  mine  enemies]  RV  '  made  mine 
enemies  turn  their  backs  unto  me.' 

43.  Heathen]  RV  'nations.'  So  in  v.  49. 
David  subdued  all  the  comitries  around  Pales- 
tine (2  S  8).  Shall  serve]  This  and  the  follow- 
ing future  tenses  to  the  end  of  v.  45  are  better 
rendered  as  past.  45.  Be  afraid]  RV  '  come 
trembling.'     47.   People]  RV  '  peoples.' 

PSALM  19 

This  Ps.  falls  into  two  well-marked  divisions. 
Vv.  1-6  describe  the  glory  of  God  (EI)  as  seen 
in  the  heavenly  bodies,  especially  the  sun,  and 
are  thus  parallel  to  Ps  8.  Vv.  7-14  deal  with 
the  excellence  of  the  revelation  of  God  (Jeho- 
vah) in  the  Law — the  subject  which  is  ex- 
panded in  Ps  119.  It  is  possible  that  two 
independent  Pss.  are  here  combined,  as  in 
Ps  108,  or  that  the  second  half  was  written  as 
an  addition  to  the  first  by  another  hand.  The 
first  part  may  quite  well  have  been  David's 
work.  The  second  part  may  be  divided  into 
the  praises  of  the  Law  (vv.  7-11),  and  the 
Psalmist's  prayer  for  preservation  from  sin 
(vv.  12-14).  This  is  one  of  the  Pss.  for 
Christmas  Day. 

I.  The  firmament]  the  sky,  conceived  of  as 
a  solid  canopy :  see  Gn  1  '\  2.  Days  and  nights 
in  unbroken  succession  testify  to  God's  glory. 


336 


19.3 


PSALMS 


21.  12 


3.  RV  '  There  is  no  speech  nor  language; 
Their  voice  cannot  be  heard.'  Their  witness 
is  none  the  less  impressive  for  its  silence. 

4.  The  silent  testimony  of  the  heavens  is 
world-wide.  Their  line]  the  measuring  line, 
marking  off  the  region  to  which  the  message 
of  the  skies  comes.  LXX  has  '  their  sound,' 
and  is  followed  by  St.  Paul,  who  quotes  this 
V.  in  RolQi^.  Tabernacle]  or  tent:  see 
Isa40'^2_  xhe  sun,  as  the  most  glorious  of  the 
heavenly  bodies,  is  personified  as  a  hero.  5.  As 
a  bridegroom]  The  comparison  suggests  the 
vigour  and  beauty  of  youth  as  well  as  the 
splendour  of  wedding  attire.  A  race]  RV 
'  his  course  '  from  E.  to  W.,  the  two  '  ends  ' 
of  heaven  mentioned  in  v.  6.  6.  There  is 
nothing  hid,  etc.]  another  way  of  putting  the 
universal  scope  of  the  sun's  testimony. 

7-9.  Here  we  have  a  sudden  transition  from 
nature  to  revelation.  The  word  law  (Jorah) 
means  '  teaching '  or '  instruction,'  and  describes 
not  only  the  Law  of  Moses,  but  all  the  com- 
mandments of  God.  It  is  described  as  a 
testimony- (see  Ex  25  i^,  21)  ^i-  witness  to  God's 
character  and  requirements  (v.  7),  as  statutes 
(RV  '  precepts  '),  a  commandment  (v.  8),  judg- 
ments or  moral  decisions  (v.  9).  Each  term  is 
connected  with  some  practical  benefit  which 
the  Law  confers  on  men. 

7.  Converting]  RV 'restoring.'  8.  Enlight- 
ening the  eyes]  imparting  refreshment  and 
vigour  to  the  soul  :  see  on  13  3.  9.  The  fear 
of  the  Lord]  another  expression  for  the 
Law,  which  produces  this  fear  in  the  heart. 
Clean]  opposed  to  impurity  of  life.  Enduring 
for  ever]  as  the  expression  of  God's  eternal 
righteousness.  10.  The  honeycomb]  rather, 
'  the  droppings  of  the  honeycomb,'  the  purest 
of  the  honey. 

12.  Understand]  RV  '  dig?3r]i.'  Cleanse] 
RV  '  iF,'  in  the  sense  of  .icquit.'  Un- 
consci  sins  could  be  atoned  for  (Nu  15^2-26)^ 
and  for  such  sins  forgiveness  is  asked  here. 

13.  Presumptuous  Wilis']  those  deliberately 
committed,  in  contrast  to  those  of  ignorance 
and  inadvertence.  For  such  transgressions 
the  Law  provided  no  atonement  (Nu  15^0,31)^ 
and  the  Psalmist  prays  to  be  restrained  from 
committing  them.  Innocent  from  the  great 
transgression]  RV  '  clear  from  great  trans- 
gression.'    14.   Strength]   RV  'rock.' 

PSALM  20 

This  and  the  following  Ps.  form  a  closely 
connected  pair.  The  one  is  a  pi-ayer  for  a 
king  going  out  to  battle,  and  the  other  is  a 
thanksgiving  for  his  triump'  return.  Both 
have  the  same  title.  There  nothing  against 
the  early  date  of  the  Pss.,  and  David  may  be 
their  subject,  but  it  is  hardly  natural  to  regard 
him  as  their  author.  In  Ps  20,  vv.  1-5  are 
the  prayer  of  the  people,  v.  6  is  the  confident 


utterance  of  an  individual  (perhaps  a  priest  or 
the  king  himself),  and  in  vv.  7-  '  the  people 
again  take  up  the  strain. 

I.  The  name]  is  equivalent  to  the  God  to 
whom  it  belongs.  It  expresses  all  that  is 
known  about  Him.  Defend  thee]  RV  '  set 
thee  up  on  high,'  over  all  enemies.  2.  The 
sanctuary]  God's  dwelling-place  on  Mt.  Zion 
is  here  meant,  as  the  next  clause  shows.  But 
see  V.  6.  3.  Remember  .  .  accept]  The  words 
refer  to  the  sacrifices  both  of  the  past  and  of 
the  present.  Sacrifices  were  usual  before 
going  out  to  war  :  see  1  S79.io  139>i2. 

4.  According  to  thine  own  heart]  RV  '  thy 
heart's  desire,'  i.e.  victory.  Counsel]  plan 
of  campaign:  see  2S17.  5.  Thy  salvation] 
the  deliverance  to  be  wrought  by  the  king's 
success.  Set  up  our  banners]  lift  them  up 
and  wave  them  in  triumph. 

6.  Now]  A  single  person  here  takes  up  the 
song  after  the  sacrifice  has  been  offered.  Faith 
is  assured  that  the  offering  has  been  accepted 
and  the  king's  prayers  heard.  His  anointed] 
the  king  :  see  2  2.  From  his  holy  heaven] 
God's  real  dwelling,  of  which  Zion  is  but  the 
type. 

7.  Some]  refers  to  heathen  enemies,  like 
the  Egyptians  (Ex  14  IsaSl^).  Remember] 
RV  '  make  mention  of,'  as  a  watchword. 

8.  Brought  down]   RV  '  bowed  down.' 

9.  Read  with  LXX  '  O  Lord,  save  the 
king  :  and  answer  us  when  we  call.' 

PSALM  21 

The  title  and  authorship  have  b  _  discussed 
under  Ps  20,  to  which  this  forn:  -  a  sequel. 
Its  contents  include  a  thanksgiving  to  God  for 
His  blessings  to  the  king  (vv.  1-7),  an  address 
to  the  king  promising  future  victories  over  his 
enemies  (vv.  8-12),  and  a  closing  ascription 
of  praise  to  God  (v.  13).  The  Ps.  is  used  on 
Ascension  Day. 

I,  2.  The  prayers  for  victory  in  Ps  20 
have  been  answered.  3.  Preventest  him]  lit. 
'  goest  to  meet  him.'  A  crovs^n]  the  victory 
confirming  his  rule,  like  a  second  coronation. 

4.  In  OT.  times  long  life  on  earth  was 
regarded  as  one  of  the  greatest  of  blessings  : 
see  IK311.  The  language  here  is  ideal,  but 
it  was  not  unusual  to  speak  so  of  kings 
(IK  131  Neh23).  5.  Thy  salvation]  the 
victory  bestowed  by  God,  which  reflects  divine 
attributes — '  glory,'  '  honour  and  majesty  ' — 
upon  the  king.  6.  With  thy  countenance]  RV 
'  in  thy  presence.' 

9.  Oven]  RV  '  furnace,'  as  fuel  for  a 
furnace.  10.  The  king  will  destroy  young 
and  old  among  his  enemies — the  terrible 
custom  of  ancient  conquerors.  11,  12.  Read, 
'  For  though  they  intend  .  .  though  they 
imagine  .  .  they  shall  not  prevail,  for  thou  shalt 
make  them  turn  .  .  thou  shalt  make  ready,'  etc. 


22 


337 


22.  1 


PSALMS 


23.  3 


PSALM  22 

The  Ps.  has  two  sections,  in  the  first  of 
which  (vv.  1-21)  the  writer  earnestly  seeks 
God's  help  in  a  time  of  extreme  trouble,  while 
in  the  second  (vv.  22-31)  he  breaks  into  a 
song  of  thanksgiving  and  praise.  The  trouble 
is  caused  by  strong  and  relentless  enemies 
who  scorn  his  trust  in  God,  and  persistently 
threaten  his  life.  The  thanksgiving  is  re- 
markable for  its  anticipation  of  the  world- 
wide acknowledgment  of  God  that  is  to  follow 
the  Psalmist's  deliverance.  The  last-named 
fact  has  led  some  to  the  view  that  the  Ps. 
describes  a  national  rather  than  a  personal 
experience,  while  the  use  made  of  it  in  the 
NT.  has  caused  others  to  regard  it  as  wholly 
prophetic  of  the  sufferings  of  Christ.  There 
seems  to  be  a  real  personal  element  in  the  Ps., 
but  at  the  same  time  the  writer  as  a  righteous 
sufferer  has  a  representative  character,  and 
his  words  have  a  partial  fulfilment  in  the 
experiences  of  the  faithful  remnant  in 
Israel,  and  a  complete  fulfilment  in  those  of 
Jesus  Christ,  which  are  the  supreme  type 
of  righteous  suffering  leading  to  the  establish- 
ment of  a  universal  kingdom  of  God.  The 
contents  of  the  Ps.  explain  its  use  on  Good 
Friday. 

Title.— (RV)  '  Set  to  Aijeleth  hash-Shahar  ' 
(the  hind  of  the  morning)  ;  probably  the  name 
of  some  well-known  song,  to  the  melody  of 
which  the  Ps.  was  intended  to  be  sung. 

I.  The  opening  words  (in  the  Aramaic 
form)  were  quoted  by  our  Lord  on  the  Cross 
(Mt274*5).  It  has  been  supposed  that  He 
repeated  the  whole  Ps.,  and  that  the  remainder 
was  drowned  in  the  tumult  and  jeers  of  the 
mob.  2.  And  am  not  silent]  RM  '  but  find 
no  rest.'  3.  The  praises  of  Israel]  which 
have  deservedly  surrounded  God  in  the  past, 
and  which  He  will  not  cease  to  deserve  by 
ceasing  to  deliver  His  people.  The  thought 
is  expanded  in  vv.  4,  5. 

6.  This  V.  describes  the  Psalmist's  humilia- 
tion in  terms  similar  to  those  used  of  the 
suffering  Servant  of  the  Lord  in  Isaiah  (4 1 1-* 
49^  5214  5.32,3).  7.  Shoot  out  the  lip., 
shake  the  head]  gestures  of  contempt  and 
hatred.  8.  These  very  words  were  used  by 
the  priests  in  mockery  of  our  Lord  as  He 
hung  on  the  Cross  (Mt2743).  12.  Bulls., 
strong  hulh  of  Bashan]  suggesting  the  strength 
and  aggressive  rage  of  the  Psalmist's  enemies. 
Bashan  was  the  N.  part  of  the  region  E.  of  the 
Jordan,  and  was  a  rich  pasture  land.  15.  The 
parching  effects  of  a  fever  supply  another 
metaphor  for  the  Psalmist's  trouble. 

16.  Dogs]  which  haunt  Eastern  towns  and 
villages  in  savage  and  cowardly  packs — fit 
emblems  of  the  Psalmist's  fierce  and  yet  con- 
temptible foes.     They  pierced  my  hands  and 


my  feet]  The  reference  is  still  to  the  dogs, 
who  snap  at  the  exposed  parts  of  those  whom 
they  attack.  The  singular  coincidence  be- 
tween this  V.  and  what  was  done  at  the  Cruci- 
fixion is  not  noted  in  NT.  They  pierced]  taken 
from  LXX  and  Vulgate.  Other  versions  read, 
'  they  bound.'    Heb.  has,  '  like  a  lion' :  see  RM. 

17.  I  may  tell  all  my  bones]  i.e.  count  them 
all.  They  are  visible  through  his  emaciated 
flesh.  The  words  may  be  either  a  literal  or  a 
figurative  description  of  the  writer's  miserable 
state.  18.  The  conduct  of  his  enemies  is  that 
of  robbers.  The  application  of  this  v.  in  Jn 
19-4  is  well  known.  20.  My  darling]  RM 
'  my  only  one,'  my  precious  life.  From  ,  .  the 
dog]  cp.  V.  16.  21.  Thou  hast  heard  me]  a 
sudden  conviction  of  faith  which  gives  a  new 
tone  to  the  rest  of  the  Ps.  Unicorns]  RV 
'  wild-oxen.'  In  this  and  the  preceding  v.  the 
figures  of  vv.  12,  13,  16  (bulls,  lions,  dogs) 
are  repeated.  22.  These  words  are  put  into 
the  mouth  of  Christ  in  Heb  2 12.  26.  The 
meek]  the  afiiicted  righteous,  like  the  '  poor ' 
and  the  '  humble. '  Eat  and  be  satisfied]  in  the 
meal  which  accompanies  their  sacrifice  (Lv 
7 1^'),  or  to  which  they  may  be  invited  by  the 
Psalmist  when  he  presents  his  thankoffering. 

Your  heart  shall  live]  RV  '  let  your  heart 
live,'  the  writer's  pi'ayer  for  his  sacrificial 
guests. 

27-30.  These  vv.  extend  the  circle  in  which 
God  is  to  be  praised.  It  includes  all  the  in- 
habitants and  rulers  of  the  earth,  and  all  the 
generations  to  come. 

29.  They  that  be  fat,  etc.]  RV  '  the  fat  ones 
of  the  earth,'  the  mightiest  rulers.  Eat  and 
worship]  join  in  the  sacrificial  feast.  Or  per- 
haps the  words  mean  '  shall  worship  Him 
alone.'  They  that  go  down  to  the  dust]  all 
mortal  men,  perhaps  specially  referring  to  the 
kings  of   the  earth  with  their  transient  glory. 

None  can  keep  alive,  etc.]  Read  with  LXX 
(joining  this  clause  with  the  beginning  of  v.  30) 
'  and  as  for  him  that  could  not  keep  his  soul 
alive,  his  seed  shall  serve  Him  '  (Jehovah). 
The  weakest  and  most  distressed  will  leave 
a  posterity  to  praise  God.  30.  It  shall  be 
accounted,  etc.]  RV  '  It  shall  be  told  of  the 
Lord  unto  the  7iext  generation.' 

PSALM  23 

This  is  a  Ps.  of  simple  and  unclouded  con- 
fidence in  God,  who  is  described  first  as  a 
shepherd  (vv.  1-4)  and  next  as  an  host 
(vv.  5-6).  The  beautiful  imagery  of  the  first 
part  would  be  natural  on  the  lips  of  the  king 
who  was  a  shepherd  in  his  youth.  The 
reference  to  '  the  house  of  the  Lord '  in  v.  6 
may  be  a  continuation  of  the  figure  of  the 
host,  and  need  not  indicate  a  date  after  the 
building  of  the  Temple. 

3.  Leadeth]    RV   'guideth.'    An  Eastern 


338 


23.  4 


PSALMS 


26. 


shepherd  goes  before  his  flock.  For  his 
name's  sake]  in  consistency  with  the  character 
which  He  has  ah'eady  made  kno,wn. 

4.  Shadow  of  death]  rather,  '  deep  dark- 
ness': see  JerlSi*^  AmS^.  The  rod  was  a 
short  oaken  club  for  defence  ;  the  staff  a  longer 
pole  for  use  in  climbing,  or  for  leaning  upon. 
An  Eastern  shepherd  still  carries  both. 

5.  In  the  presence  of  mine  enemies]  as  when 
David  enjoyed  the  hospitality  of  Barzillai 
(2  S 17  2' -9).  Anointest]  RV  '  hast  anointed,' 
as  a  host  anoints  an  honoured  guest  :  see  Lk 
7'*6.  Runneth  over]  God's  hospitality  is 
lavish  and  generous.  6.  Goodness  and  mercy, 
like  two  angels,  '  pursue  '  the  Psalmist,  deter- 
mined, as  it  were,  to  run  him  down.  For  ever] 
lit.  '  for  length  of  days,'  referring  to  prolonged 
earthly  life  rather  than  to  life  beyond  the  grave. 

PSALM  24 

This  Ps.  is  generally,  and  very  appropriately, 
connected  with  the  occasion  when  David  brought 
up  the  ark  from  the  house  of  Obed-edom  to 
the  tent  prepared  for  it  on  Mt.  Zion.  It  de- 
clares the  universal  sovereignty  of  Grod  the 
Creator  (vv.  1,  2),  and  describes  the  character 
of  those  who  may  approach  His  earthly 
dwelling  (vv.  3-G).  Then  there  follows  a 
twice -repeated  scene,  in  which  the  gates  of 
Jerusalem  are  summoned  to  open,  that  God,  as 
represented  by  the  ark,  may  enter  ;  while  the 
warders  ask  who  the  approaching  conqueror  is, 
and  the  people  reply  that  He  is  the  Lord  of 
hosts  (vv.  7-10). 

I.  The  fulness]  all  that  fills  it,  all  that  is  in 
it.  2.  This  V.  expresses  the  ancient  idea  of 
the  structure  of  the  universe,  with  '  waters 
under  the  earth'  (Gn7iiEx204).  4.  Cp.  Ps 
15.  5.  Righteousness]  is  a  gift  of  God  and 
a  part  of  the  salvation  He  bestows. 

6.  O  Jacob]  RV  '  O  God  of  Jacob.'  Selah] 
see  on  3^. 

7.  Lift  up  your  heads]  as  if  to  make  the 
entrance  more  roomy.  Everlasting]  RM  '  an- 
cient,' with  an  illimitable  history  behind  them. 

10.  The  Lord  of  hosts]  one  of  the  great 
OT.  titles  of  God.  The  '  hosts '  may  include 
the  armies  of  Israel,  as  well  as  the  stars  and 
angels  who  form  '  the  host  of  heaven.'  Selah] 
see  on  3*. 

PSALM   25 

This  is  the  second  of  the  '  acrostic '  or 
'  alphabetic  '  Pss.  (cp.  9,  10).  As  it  now  stands 
there  are  a  few  irregularities  in  the  arrange- 
ment, some  of  which  appear  again  in  Ps  34. 
The  closing  v.  suggests  the  circumstances  of 
the  exile,  but  it  is  probably  an  addition,  as  the 
last  letter  of  the  alphabet  is  reached  in  v.  21. 
The  rest  of  the  Ps.  contains  nothing  to  in- 
dicate its  date  or  authorship,  and  its  value  is 
independent  of  any  view  that  may  be  taken  as 


to  these.  Some  have  supposed  that  the  writer 
speaks  in  the  name  of  the  nation,  but  much  of 
the  Ps.  has  a  distinctly  personal  character.  It 
falls  into  three  parts — a  humble  prayer  for 
defence,  instruction,  and  forgiveness  (vv.  1-7); 
a  meditation  on  the  character  and  ways  of  God 
(vv.  8-14)  ;  and  a  further  prayer  for  deliver- 
ance from  trouble  (vv.  15-21). 

I.  Aspiration  reveals  and  determines  char- 
acter. The  man  who  lifts  up  his  soul  to  God 
stands  contrasted  with  him  who  lifts  up  his 
soul  to  vanity  (24'i).  2.  I  trust  in  thee] 
RV  'in  thee  have  I  trusted.'  5.  Lead  (RV 
'  guide  ')  me  in  thy  truth]  i.e.  '  in  thy  faithful- 
ness.' 

6,  7.  Note  the  threefold  use  of  remember. 
God's  remembrance  is  sought,  )iot.  for  the 
Psalmist's  sins,  but  for  His  own  changeless 
character  of  grace,  and,  in  accordance  with 
that  character,  for  the  Psalmist  himself.  It 
has  been  suggested  that  the  writer,  living  late 
in  Israel's  history,  colours  his  personal  prayer 
with  the  thought  of  the  nation's  early  sins  and 
of  God's  past  deliverances.  7.  Mercy]  RV 
'  lovingkindness,'  as  in  v.  6.     So  in  v.  10. 

8.  Sinners]  a  truly  evangelic  thought.  God's 
grace  is  not  for  those  who  have  deserved  it 
alone,  but  for  all  who  seek  it  in  penitence. 

9.  In  judgment]  in  the  principles  of  practical 
righteousness. 

ID.  Covenant ..  testimonies]  God's  law  is 
viewed  in  the  one  case  as  the  basis  of  His 
gracious  contract  with  Israel,  and  in  the  other 
as  a  witness  to  His  own  character.  11.  For  thy 
name's  sake .  .  pardon]  Forgiveness  is  asked 
because  it  is  God's  nature  to  forgive.  For  it 
is  great]  The  plea  appears  strange,  but  it  is 
the  utterance  of  deep  penitence,  combined 
with  strong  faith  in  the  forgiving  grace  which 
is  characteristic  of  God.  12.  Teach  in  the 
way  that  he  shall  choose]  God's  instruction 
moulds  the  will,  and  directs  it  to  right  deci- 
sions and  resolves.  13.  Earth]  RV  '  land.'  The 
promise  of  temporal  blessing  to  the  good  man 
and  his  posterity  is  in  harmony  with  the 
general  thought  of  the  OT.  14.  Secret]  RM 
'  counsel '  or  '  friendship  ' ;  confidential  fellow- 
ship. The  earthly  blessing  is  crowned  with  a 
spiritual  one.  15.  The  net]  the  entanglements 
and  perplexities  of  trouble  and  sin. 

21.  There  is  a  seeming  inconsistency  between 
the  plea  of  integrity  and  uprightness  and  the 
confessions  of  sin  in  vv.  7,  11.  But  what  the 
Psalmist  claims  is  not  perfection,  but  a  sincere 
love  of  goodness,  and  the  humble  dependence 
on  God  expressed  in  the  words  I  wait  on 
thee. 

PSALM  26 

This  Ps.  appears  to  belong  to  a  later  age  than 
David's,  when  the  Temple  (v.  8),  with  its  altar 
(v.  6),  and  its  public  assemblies  for  worship 


339 


26.  1 


PSALMS 


29.  3 


(v.  12),  was  a  familiar  institution.  The  writer, 
conscious  of  his  own  uprightness,  protests 
against  the  idea  of  being  classed  with  the 
wicked,  and  sharing  their  untimely  fate.  He 
appeals  at  the  outset  to  God's  judgment,  and 
at  the  close  preaches  the  assurance  that  it  will 
not  fail  him. 

I.  Therefore  I  shall  not  slide]  RV  '  without 
wavering.'  2.  Reins]  see  on  7  9.  3,  The 
Psalmist's  conscious  integrity  is  not  self- 
righteousness.  His  knowledge  of  God's  charac- 
ter has  made  him  what  he  is. 

6.  Wash  mine  hands]  a  figure  perhaps  taken 
from  the  practice  of  the  priests  (Ex30i"-2i),  or 
of  the  city  elders  (Dt216,7)  ;  cp.  Mt274. 

Compass  thine  altar]  as  the  worshippers  in 
the  Temple  gathered  to  witness  the  sacrifices. 

7.  Publish,  etc.]  RV  'make  the  voice  of 
thanksgiving  to  be  heard.'  8.  Honour]  RV 
'  glory,'  God's  manifested  Presence,  associated 
with  the  ark  and  the  mercy  seat. 

9.  Gather  not  my  soul]  '  Do  not  cut  it  off.' 
Let  me  not  share  their  fate.  The  persons 
described  in  vv.  9,  10  are  evidently  men  in 
places  of  power,  who  use  violence  and  have 
wealth  to  protect  themselves  by  corrupting 
justice.  II.  Redeem  me]  Save  me  from  being 
destroyed  with  the  wicked.  12.  An  even 
place]  a  symbol  of  comfort  and  safety. 

PSALM  27 

This  Ps.  falls  naturally  into  two  parts,  vv.  1-6 
and  vv.  7-14,  which  are  in  such  marked  contrast 
as  to  make  it  probable  that  here,  as  in  Ps  1 9,  two 
independent  poems  have  been  combined.  The 
one  breathes  a  spirit  of  fearless  and  triumphant 
confidence  in  the  face  of  hostile  armies,  while 
the  other,  though  trustful,  is  the  prayer  of 
one  in  deep  distress,  orphaned  and  beset  by 
false  accusers.  The  warlike  tone  of  vv.  1-6 
is  in  favour  of  ascribing  them  to  David,  and 
vv.  5-6  do  not  necessarily  imply  a  reference  to 
the  Temple,  which  would  be  inconsistent  with 
this  view. 

I.  Strength]  in  the  sense  of  '  stronghold  '  : 
see  U  -  To  eat  up  my  flesh]  like  wild 
beasts  of  prey.  They  stumbled  and  fell] 
Past  VI  .ries  inspire  present  confidence  :  cp. 
David's  •  words  to  Saul  (IS  1734-36).  3.  !„ 
this]   RV  'even  then.' 

4.  Dwell  in  the  house  of  the  LORD]  as 
the  guest  of  Jehovah  :  see  23 '5.  The  figure 
suggests  constant  fellowship  with  God. 

Beauty]  RM  '  pleasantness,'  the  gracious 
aspect  of  the  divine  Host.  To  enquire  in  his 
temple  (or  palace)]  to  find  out  all  that  such 
intercourse  with  God  can  teach. 

5.  The  abode  of  Jehovah,  like  the  tent  of 
a  desert  chieftain,  affords  protection  as  well  as 
hospitality.  The  figure  of  vv.  4,  5  may  have 
been  based  on  the  visible  dwelling-place  of 
Jehovah  at  Jerusalem,  and  if  so  the  words 


340 


used  need  imply  nothing  more  than  the  tem- 
porary structure  erected  by  David. 

8.  The  original  is  condensed,  but  the  words 
in  italics  express  the  thought.  This  v.  gives 
the  essence  of  all  divine  revelation  and  of  all 
human  response  to  it.  Seek  ye  my  face]  as  a 
visitor  seeks  access  to  the  presence  of  an 
Oriental  king.     The  figure  is  continued  in  v.  9. 

10.  RV  '  For  my  father  and  my  mother  have 
forsaken  me,  but,'  etc.  11.  A  plain  path]  not 
a  path  clearly  marked,  but  one  that  is  level 
and  safe.  13.  /  had  fahitecT]  is  a  phrase  sup- 
plied to  complete  the  sense  of  the  abbreviated 
original.  The  land  of  the  living]  as  opposed 
to  Sheol,  the  state  of  the  dead — an  illustration 
of  the  value  of  the  present  life  for  OT.  faith. 

PSALM  28 

This  Ps.  is  in  many  respects  similar  to  Ps  26, 
especially  in  the  writer's  prayer  that  he  may 
be  distinguished  from  the  wicked,  and  may 
escape  their  fate  ;  and  in  the  confidence  which 
he  reaches  in  the  closing  verses.  In  this  Ps., 
however,  the  peril  of  death  appears  more 
acute  (v.  1),  and  some  have  supposed  that  both 
Pss.  were  written  in  a  time  of  pestilence. 

I.  The  pit]  the  grave,  or  Sheol,  the  state 
of  the  dead.  Unless  his  prayer  is  heard  he 
looks  for  nothing  less  than  death.  2.  Thy  holy 
oracle]  RM  'the  innermost  place  of  thy 
sanctuary,'  the  Holy  of  Holies,  where  God's 
Presence  specially  dwells.  Here,  as  in  Ps26, 
the  existence  of  the  Temple  seems  to  be  in- 
dicated. 3.  Draw  me  not  away]  to  punish- 
ment and  destruction:  cp.  26'*.  4.  Deeds] 
RV  '  work.'  Endeavours]  RV  '  doings.' 

Work]  RV '  operation.'  These  changes  bring 
out  the  intended  contrast  between  this  v.  and 
the  next.  5.  Destroy]  RV  '  break  down,'  in 
direct  opposition  to  build  up. 

8.  Their  strengfth]  RM  '  a  strength  unto  his 
people.'  The  saving  strength]  RV  '  a  strong- 
hold of  salvation.'     His  anointed]   the  king. 

9.  Feed  them]  as  a  shepherd.  Lift  them 
up]  RV  '  bear  them  up,'  a  beautiful  con- 
tinuation of  the  same  figure  :  see  Isa40ii. 

PSALM   29 

This  is  a  Nature-Psalm,  calling  on  the  angels 
to  praise  God  (vv.  1,  2),  describing  the  mani- 
festation of  His  power  in  the  thunderstorm 
(vv.  3-9)  and  the  flood  (v.  10),  and  ending 
with  an  assurance  of  His  favour  to  His 
people. 

I.  Give]  in  the  sense  of  '  ascribe.'  Mighty] 
RV  '  sons  of  the  mighty.'  The  angels  are 
meant.  2.  The  beauty  of  hoHness]  RM  '  holy 
array,'  like  the  robes  of  the  priests  in  an 
earthly  sanctuary. 

3.  The  voice  of  the  LORD]  the  thunder.  The 
phrase  occurs  seven  times  in  the  Ps.  The 
waters]  not  of  the  sea,  but  of  the  storm-cloud  : 


29.  5 


PSALMS 


31.  16 


see  1811.  5.  The  cedars]  the  strongest  trees, 
yet  riven  in  the  thunderstorm. 

6.  Them]  the  mountains  which  the  thunder 
shakes,  besides  breaking  the  trees  that  grow 
on  them.  Sirion]  Hermon.  Lebanon  and  Har- 
mon are  the  highest  mountains  in  Palestine. 

Unicorn]  RV  '  wild-ox.'  7.  Divideth  (RV 
'cleaveth,'  RM  '  heweth ')  the  flames  of  fire] 
The  reference  is  to  the  sharp,  pointed  lightning 
flashes  which  accompany  the  thunder. 

8.  The  wilderness  of  Kadesh]  in  the  extreme 
S.  of  Palestine,  as  Lebanon  and  Hermon  are 
in  the  extreme  N.  9.  Maketh  the  hinds  to 
calve]  an  actual  effect  of  terrifying  thunder- 
storms ;  or  perhaps  the  meaning  is,  '  whirleth 
the  oaks.'  Discovereth]  RV  '  strippeth  bare,' 
by  the  wind,  or  the  strokes  of  lightning.  His 
temple]  or  palace,  is  not  the  great  temple  of 
Nature,  but  heaven  itself,  where  the  angels 
minister  (vv.  1,  2).  Doth  every  one  speak,  etc.] 
RV  '  everything  saith,  Glory,'  but  better, 
'  every  one,'  i.e.  of  the  angels.  From  the 
heavens  they  look  down  with  wonder  and 
delight  upon  the  storm,  in  which  they  see  the 
manifestation  of  the  divine  glory. 

10.  Sitteth  upon  the  flood]  RV  '  sat  as  Icing 
at  the  Flood,'  the  great  traditional  convulsion 
of  nature(Gn  7, 8),  which  revealed  God's  mercy 
as  well  as  His  power  and  wrath.  The  attributes 
then  disclosed  remain  unchanged,  and  this  is 
the  ground  of  the  assurance  expressed  in  v.  11, 
which  is  a  beautiful  conclusion  to  a  Ps.  of 
sublime  gi-andeur.  11.  Give  strength]  The 
power  of  this  mighty  God  is  given  to  His 
people  as  they  need  it :  see  Isa4029-3i. 

PSALM   30 

Title.— (RV)  '  A  Psalm ;  a  Song  at  the 
Dedication  of  the  House  ;  a  Psalm  of 
David.' 

There  is  no  obvious  connexion  between  the 
contents  of  this  Ps.  and  its  title.  It  is  a 
thanksgiving  for  recovery  from  an  illness 
which  had  threatened  to  be  fatal,  and  in  itself 
may  very  well  have  been  vsritten  by  David. 
But  it  is  difficult  to  find  in  his  life  an  occasion 
corresponding  to  the  title,  though  the  dedica- 
tion of  David's  own  palace,  or  of  the  site  of 
the  Temple,  has  been  suggested.  It  is  more 
likely  that  the  words,  '  A  Song  at  the  Dedica- 
tion of  the  House,'  were  inserted  into  the 
title  at  a  later  time,  when  the  Ps.  was 
adopted  for  use  at  the  dedication  of  Solomon's 
Temple,  or  of  the  second  Temple,  or  at  the 
re-dedication  of  the  latter  after  it  had  been 
polluted  by  Antiochus  Epiphanes  (the  origin 
of  the  Feast  of  Dedication  mentioned  in 
Jn  1022.  See  Intro,  to  Daniel).  The  Ps. 
opens  with  praise  for  the  writer's  restoration 
(vv.  1-5),  tells  next  of  his  troubles  and  his 
prayer  (vv.  6-10),  and  concludes  with  another 
thanksgiving  (vv.  11,  12). 


I.  Lifted  .  .  up]  RV  '  raised  up,'  from  sick- 
ness. 3.  The  grave]  RV  '  Sheol,'  which,  like  the 
pit,  means  the  state  of  the  dead.  4.  At  the 
remembrance  of  his  holiness]  RV  '  to  his  holy 
name.'  For  '  remembrance  '  or  '  memorial  '  in 
the  sense  of  '  name  '  see  9  6.  5.  In  his  favour 
h  life]  better,  '  his  favour  is  for  a  lifetime,'  in 
contrast  to  '  his  anger  .  .  a  moment.' 

Endure  for  a  night]  RV  '  tarry  for  the 
night '  as  a  passing  stranger.  7.  Ha,st  made] 
RV  '  hadst  made,'  referring  to  the  time  of 
health  and  prosperity.  My  mountain]  would 
be  a  figure  for  stability,  but  the  reading  is 
doubtful.  Possibly  it  should  be,  '  hadsfc  made 
me  to  stand  upon  strong  mountains.'  Thou  didst 
hide  thy  face]  a  sudden  change  of  experience, 
by  which  the  Psalmist  was  shaken  out  of  his 
self-confidence,  and  taught  his  entire  depend- 
ence on  God.  9.  This  v.  shows  how  little 
the  future  life  counted  for  in  ordniary  OT. 
thought.  The  pit]  see  v.  3.  The  dust]  is  the 
dead  body.    1 1.  Sackcloth]  the  garb  of  sadness. 

12.  My  glory]  my  soul. 

PSALM  31 

The  writer  of  this  Ps.  gratefully  records 
God's  past  deliverances  (vv.  1-8),  appeals  to 
God  for  help  against  the  enemies  who  assail 
him  in  the  present  (vv.  9-18),  and  ends  with 
fervent  thankfulness  and  serene  assurance  (vv. 
19-24).  The  language  suggests  a  later  age 
than  David's,  and  has  many  parallels  with  the 
book  of  Jeremiah,  the  most  evident  being  in 
the  words  'terror  on  every  side'  (v.  13,  Jer 
2010).  These  parallels  are  mostly  in  the 
central  section  (vv.  9-18),  and  possibly  this  is 
an  insertion  in  the  middle  of  an  earlier  Davidic 
Ps.  In  the  closing  vv.  there  are  several 
resemblances  to  Ps  27. 

3.  For  thy  name's  sake]   see  23  2. 3. 

4.  Strength]  RV 'stronghold.'  5.  The  first 
clause  of  this  v.  formed  one  of  the  Sayings  of 
our  Lord  on  the  Cross  (Lk  23  4«).  The  Psalm- 
ist's attitude  in  life  was  Christ's  attitude  in 
death.  God  of  truth]  i.e.  of  faithfulness,  of 
changeless  consistency  of  character.  God  is 
always  true  to  Himself.  6.  Have  hated]  RV 
'  hate.'     Lying  vanities]  idols  :  see  JerS  i^  IQS. 

7.  Considered  (RV  '  seen  ')  .  .  known]  with 
sympathy,  followed  by  succour.  8.  Large  room] 
RV  'large  place,'  the  opposite  of  'straits.' 

9.  Belly]  RV  '  body.'  10.  Iniquity]  As  it 
stands  this  clause  traces  the  Psalmist's  suffer- 
ings to  his  sin.  But  the  LXX  and  some  other 
versions  read  '  affliction,'  which  agrees  better 
with  the  context.  11.  Cp.  Jer  20  ^■'5.  12.  A 
broken  vessel]  a  thing  altogether  neglected. 

13.  This  whole  verse  is  closely  parallel  to 
Jer  20 10.  Fear  loan  on  every  side]  cp.  Jer  025 
203mg.io  465  4929  Lam  2  2-'.  15.  My  times]  all 
the  occasions  of  my  life.  16.  Make  thy  face 
to  shine]   Smile  upon  me  in  Thy  favour  :  see 


341 


31.  17 


PSALMS 


33.9 


Nu625.  17.  This  repetition  of  the  prayer  of 
V.  1  may  suggest  that  after  all  the  Ps.  is  a  unity  : 
cp.  25  2, 3  Jer  1 7  is.     The  grave]  RV  '  Sheol.' 

19.  Wrought .  .  before  the  sons  of  men]  i.e. 
openly.  20.  The  same  thought  as  in  27  5. 
Even  a  desert  tent  may  be  a  protection  if  its 
owner  is  powerful.     Secret]  RV  '  covert.' 

Pride]  RV 'plottings.'  21.  A  strong  city] 
RM  '  a  fenced  city.'  A  change  of  figure  from 
the  tent  of  v.  20.  If  literally  understood  the 
words  might  refer  to  Jeremiah's  experiences 
during  the  siege  of  Jerusalem.  22.  Haste] 
RM  '  alarm.'  Fear  is  rebuked  by  God's 
answer  to  prayer. 

PSALM  32 

The  subject  of  the  Ps.  is  the  happiness  that 
follows  the  confession  of  sin  and  the  experi- 
ence of  forgiveness.  This  is  generally  set 
forth  at  the  beginning  (vv.  1,  2).  Then  the 
Psalmist  relates  his  own  spiritual  history  of 
misery  before  confession  (vv.  3,  4),  and  of 
relief  after  it  (v.  5).  He  next  commends  the 
practice  of  prayer  (v.  6),  and  expresses  his  own 
confidence  in  God  (v.  7).  In  v.  8  God  speaks 
in  words  of  promise,  and  the  closing  vv.  are 
devoted  to  counsel  and  exhortation  (vv.  9-11). 
The  period  in  David's  life  which  best  fits  the 
references  in  the  Ps.  is  the  time  of  his  im- 
penitence after  the  murder  of  Uriah,  followed 
by  the  rebuke  of  Nathan,  and  the  king's  ac- 
knowledgment of  his  sin  (2  S 11 26-12  23).  The 
Ps.  is  one  of  those  for  Ash  "Wednesday. 

Title. — A  Fsalm  of  David,  Maschil]  The 
word  Maschil  has  been  generally  explained  as 
'  a  didactic  Psalm,'  a  Psalm  of  instruction. 
But  few  of  the  Pss.  so  designated  have  this 
special  character,  and  the  more  probable  mean- 
ing is  '  a  skilful  Psalm '  (see  47  7  RM),  one  set 
to  more  elaborate  music  than  usual. 

1,  2.  Note  the  threefold  description  of 
wrongdoing  as  transgression,  breaking  beyond 
bounds  ;  sin,  failure  to  reach  the  true  aim  of 
life  ;  and  iniquity,  moral  deformity  or  per- 
versity— also  the  threefold  nature  of  pardon 
as  '  forgiveness,'  literally  here  the  lifting  of 
the  burden  of  guilt  ;  '  covering,'  in  the  sense 
of  hiding  the  sin  from  the  eye  of  the  judge,  or 
protecting  the  sinner  from  punishment  ;  and 
'  not  imputing,'  the  cancelling  of  an  obligation 
to  pay  the  penalty. 

2,  No  guile]  This  may  refer  to  the  sincerity 
of  repentance,  or,  more  probably,  to  the 
changed  character  of  the  forgiven  heart. 

3,  4.  These  vv.  may  be  taken  as  a  descrip- 
tion either  of  actual  sickness,  which  brought 
sin  home  to  the  conscience,  or  of  spiritual 
suffering  represented  in  physical  terms.  4.  Is 
turned  into]  RV  '  was  changed  as  with.' 

5.  Have  I  not  hid]  lit.  'covered,'  as  in  v.  1. 
It  is  only  when  man  does  not  cover  his  sin 
that  God  does  cover  it.     Selah]  see  on  3*. 


6.  Shall  every  one]  RV  '  let  every  one.' 
The  Psalmist  wishes  others  to  take  his  expe- 
rience as  an  example.  In  a  time  when  thou 
mayest  be  found]  Another  possible  rendering 
is,  '  in  the  time  of  finding  out  sin  '  (RM).  In 
the  floods,  etc.]  RV  'when  the  great  waters' 
(of  trouble,  and  especially  of  God's  wrath) 
'  overflow  they  shall  not  reach  unto  him.' 

7.  Songs  of  deliverance]  possibly  songs  sung 
by  others.  God's  grace  to  one  brings  joy  to 
many.     Selah]  see  on  3^. 

8.  Guide  thee  with  mine  eye]  RV  '  counsel 
thee  with  mine  eye  upon  thee.'  God  does  not 
leave  those  whom  He  counsels  to  walk  in  their 
own  strength,  but  watches  over  their  way. 

9.  Lest  they  come  near .  .  thee]  RV  '  Else 
they  will  not  come  near  . .  thee.'  The  horse  and 
mule  are  thought  of  not  as  dangerous,  but  only 
as  obstinate  and  stupid — incapable  of  being 
brought  where  they  are  wanted  except  by 
force.  Men  ought  to  di-aw  near  to  God  in 
unconstrained  obedience. 

PSALM  33 

This  is  an  anonymous  Ps.  of  national  de- 
liverance, called  forth  by  some  historical  occa- 
sion which  it  is  now  impossible  to  fix  with 
any  certainty.  From  its  central  conception 
of  God  as  the  ruler  of  all  the  earth  and  all  the 
nations,  it  appears  to  belong  to  the  later  pro- 
phetic age.  The  metrical  structure  is  specially 
regular.  The  first  three  and  the  last  three  vv. 
form  corresponding  groups  of  6  lines  each,  and 
vv.  4-19  consist  of  six  groups  of  4  lines  each. 
The  opening  call  to  praise  (vv.  1-3)  is  followed 
by  a  description  of  God's  character  (vv.  4,  5) ; 
of  His  rule  over  all  the  inhabitants  of  the 
earth,  based  on  His  creative  power  (vv.  6-9) ; 
of  His  rule  over  the  nations,  and  of  the  special 
privilege  of  Israel  as  His  people,  whose  de- 
fence is  not  in  military  power,  but  in 
Jehovah  (vv.  10-19).  The  closing  vv.  (20-22) 
respond  to  the  summons  at  the  beginning  of 
the  Ps. 

I.  Ye  righteous  .  .  the  upright]  the  Israelites 
who  are  genuine  ser^•ants  of  God.  2.  The 
psaltery  ami  an  instrument  of  ten  strings]  RV 
'  the  psaltery  of  ten  strings.'  The  harp  and 
the  psaltery  were  both  stringed  instruments,  the 
latter  being  the  larger.  3.  A  new  song]  to  cele- 
brate a  new  deliverance.  The  phrase  occurs 
in  several  Pss.,  and  has  a  special  connexion 
with  the  deliverance  from  the  Babylonian 
exile  :    see  Isa42io. 

4.  Truth]  RV  '  faithfulness.'  5.  Righteous- 
ness] is  the  principle  of  God's  character, 
judgment]  its  practical  application  to  the 
government  of  the  world.  Goodness]  RV 
'  lovingkindness.'  7.  The  depth  (RV  '  deeps ') 
in  storehouses]  The  ancient  idea  of  a  reservoir 
of  water  beneath  the  earth  :  see  Gn7ii. 

9.  Read,  '  He  spake  and  it  was :  He  com- 


342 


33.  10 


PSALMS 


36.6 


manded  and  it  stood,'  referring  to  the  repeated 
'  it  was  so  '  of  Gn  1 . 

10.  The  heathen]  RV  'the  nations.'  The 
people]  RV  '  the  peoples.'     I2.  Cp.  Dt3329. 

15.  RV  '  he  that  fashioneth  .  .  that  con- 
sidereth.'  Their  hearts  ahke]  RY  '  the  hearts 
of  them  all.'  17.  An  horse]  The  Israelites 
had  no  cavalry,  and  the  chariots  and  horsemen 
of  their  enemies  appeared  specially  formidable 
to  them:  see  Dtl7i6  Ps207  147  10  Prov213i 
IsaSli. 

PSALM  34 

The  reliability  of  this  title  (A  Psalm  of 
David  ;  when  he  feigned  madness  (RM)  before 
Abimelech,  who  drove  him  away,  and  he  de- 
parted) is  doubtful,  both  because  the  Philis- 
tine king  in  question  is  called  Achish  and  not 
Abimelech  in  1  S  2 1  ^^,  and  because  the  con- 
tents of  the  Ps.  are  akin  to  the  proverbial 
wisdom  of  a  later  age  than  David's.  The  Ps.  is 
an  alphabetic  or  acrostic  one,  with  some  of  the 
same  irregularities  which  are  found  in  Ps25. 
Vv.  10-16  are  quoted  in  1  Pet  3 10-12. 

I.  At  all  times  .  .  continually]  the  utterance 
of  a  faith  which  can  maintain  gratitude  in 
adversity  as  well  as  in  prosperity.  2.  Humble] 
RV  '  meek,'  all  patient  and  trustful  souls. 

5.  They]  The  Psalmist's  individual  experi- 
ence is  also  a  general  one.  6.  This  poor  man] 
may  refer  to  the  Psalmist  himself,  but  if  so  it 
is  as  a  type  of  others.  7.  The  angel  of  the 
Lord]  a  Being  frequently  mentioned  in  the 
OT.  :  see  Ex  23  20  Isa639.  He  is  not  merely 
an  angelic  messenger,  but  is  in  some  sense 
identified  with  God  Himself.  He  may  be  said 
to  stand  for  God  in  His  self-revealing  char- 
acter, and  in  His  activity  among  men. 

Encampeth]  cp.  2K6  I'i^. 

10.  Young  lions]  proverbially  strong  and 
courageous,  and  able  to  provide  for  them- 
selves. II.  Come,  ye  children]  an  address  in 
the  tone  of  the  book  of  Proverbs  :  see  Prov4i. 

15.  Are  upon]  RV  '  are  toward,'  not  only  in 
watchfulness,  but  in  favour.  See  the  contrast 
in  the  next  v.  16.  The  remembrance  of  them] 
their  '  memorial '  or  '  name  '  :  see  on  9*3  394 

21.  Evil  shall  slay  the  wicked]  Sin  is  self- 
destructive,  and  works  out  its  own  punishment. 
Or  perhaps  the  words  mean  simply,  '  a  calamity 
shall  slay  the  wicked.'  Desolate]  RV  '  con- 
demned.'    So  in  V.  22. 

PSALM  35 

This  is  a  prayer  for  the  defeat  and  destruc- 
tion of  malignant  enemies,  whom  the  Psalmist 
has  formerly  befriended,  and  who  now  treat 
him  with  ungrateful  cruelty.  The  circum- 
stances are  partly  similar  to  those  of  David's 
persecution  by  Saul,  but  no  prominent  in- 
dividual is  mentioned  as  hostile,  and  David's 
attitude  to  Saul  was  more  foi'giving  than  that 


of  the  Psalmist  towards  those  of  whom  he 
complains.  The  Ps.,  like  Ps31,  has  many 
resemblances  to  the  book  of  Jeremiah,  and 
some  ascribe  it  to  that  prophet's  time.  For  a 
discussion  of  the  vindictive  tone  of  such  Pss. 
see  Intro.  There  are  three  sections — a  prayer 
for  the  confusion  of  the  winter's  enemies 
(vv.  1-10),  an  account  of  their  wickedness 
(vv.  11-18),  and  a  further  appeal  for  the 
vindication  of  the  right  (vv.  19-28). 

I.  Plead  my  cause^  RV  'strive  thou,'  as  in 
a  court  of  law  :  see  v.  23.  5,  6.  The  angel 
of  the  Lord]  see  on  34  7. 

13.  My  prayer  returned]  better, '  shall  return.' 
The  blessing,  withheld  from  the  unworthy, 
will  come  back  to  the  Psalmist  himself  :  cp. 
LklO^.  15.  Abjects]  the  most  worthless  out- 
casts :  see  Job  301.8.  And  I  knew  it  not]  RM 
'and  those  whom  I  knew  not.'  16.  With 
hypocritical  mockers,  etc.]  RV  '  like  the  pro- 
fane mockers  in  feasts ' — buffoons  and  para- 
sites, who  get  a  place  at  table  in  return  for 
entertaining  the  guests  with  scurrilous  jokes. 

17.  My  darUng]  equivalent  to  'my  soul'  : 
see  on  2220.  jg.  In  the  great  congregation] 
The  Psalmist  looks  for  a  public  vindication  of 
his  cause. 

19.  Wink  with  the  eye]  here  a  sign  of 
triumphant  malice.  That  hate  me  without  a 
cause]  quoted  by  our  Lord,  and  applied  to 
Himself  in  Jn  1525.  20.  T/i em.  that  are  quiet 
in  the  land]  the  same  as  the  'poor'  or  'meek' 
— the  humble  and  patient  righteous. 

21.  Opened  their  mouth]  in  contempt.  Hath 
seen  /<]  i.e.  the  fulfilment  of  their  wicked 
desires.  23.  My  judgment]  the  vindication 
of  my  just  cause. 

PSALM  36 

This  Ps.  consists  of  two  strongly  contrasted 
pictures,  one  of  the  wickedness  of  the  wicked 
man  (vv.  1-4),  and  one  of  the  goodness  of 
God  (vv.  5-9),  followed  by  a  prayer  that  the 
Psalmist  may  continue  to  enjoy  God's  bless- 
ing (vv.  10,  11),  and  by  a  confident  assurance 
of  the  final  overthrow  of  the  wicked  (v.  12). 
The  Ps.  seems  to  reflect  the  social  conditions 
of  a  later  age  than  David's. 

I.  The  transgression  of  the  wicked  saith] 
Sin  is  personified  as  an  oracle  to  whose  voice 
the  wicked  man  listens.  Within  my  heart]  A 
better  reading  is,  '  within  his  heart.'  There  is 
nofearof  God,  etc.]quotedinRo3i8.  2.  Until, 
etc.]  RV  '  that  his  iniquity  shall  not  be  found 
out  and  be  hated.'  3,  4.  A  description  of  the 
character  and  conduct  of  the  man  who  is 
deceived  by  sin. 

5.  There  is  an  abrupt  transition  here  to  an 
infinitely  nobler  theme.  6.  Great  mountains] 
RV  '  mountains  of  God.'  In  these  vv.  all 
that  is  infinite,  sublime,  and  unfathomable  in 
nature  is  made  emblematic  of  the  perfections 


343 


36.8 


PSALMS 


89.9 


of  Jehovah.  8.  God  is  host  as  well  as  pro- 
tector. The  figure  is  perhaps  taken  from  the 
sacrificial  meals  eaten  by  the  worshippers  in 
the  Temple  (Lv  7  ^^).  9.  A  highly  spiritual 
conception  of  the  nature  of  man's  fellowship 
with  God,  anticipating  some  of  the  loftiest 
teaching  of  the  NT.  12.  There]  The  over- 
throw of  the  wicked  is  already  a  visible  fact 
for  the  Psalmists  faith. 

PSALM  37 

This  is  an  acrostic  Ps.,  in  which  the  alpha- 
betic arrangement  is  carried  without  a  break 
through  22  stanzas  of  varying  length,  to  which 
the  vv.  of  the  English  Bible  do  not  correspond. 
The  contents  are  closely  akin  to  the  maxims 
of  the  book  of  Proverbs,  but  they  are  touched 
with  a  fervour  which  elevates  them  into  true 
poetry.  The  creed  of  the  Psalmist  is  that 
sooner  or  later,  even  in  this  life,  wickedness  is 
punished,  and  righteousness  vindicated.  This 
is  a  theory  which,  of  course,  is  too  simple  to 
cover  all  the  facts  of  experience,  but  it  is  true 
as  far  as  it  goes,  and  its  practical  doctrine  of 
'  trust  in  God  and  do  the  right '  is  sound  at  all 
times. 

3.  So  shalt  thou  dwell .  .  and  .  .  be  fed]  E.V 
'  dwell  in  the  land  and  follow  after  faithful- 
ness.' Do  not  go  to  other  lands  :  an  utterance 
of  patriotism.  8.  In  any  vyise  to  do  evil]  RV 
'  it '  (fretfulness)  '  teiideth  only  to  evil  doing.' 

9.  The  earth]  RV  '  the  land '  of  Canaan. 
So  in  vv.  11,  22.  10.  It  shall  not  Je]  RV  '  he 
shall  not  be.'  11.  See  MtS^.  13.  His  day] 
of  retribution.  14.  Conversation]  conduct, 
manner  of  life. 

18.  Knoweth  the  days]  regards  with  favour 
and  watchful  care:  cp.  1^  317.  por  ever] 
from  generation  to  generation.  For  OT. 
thought  there  was  satisfaction  in  the  blessings 
of  one's  posterity  as  well  as  in  those  of  one's 
own  life  :  see  vv.  26,  27,  29.  20.  Fat  of  lambs] 
RY  '  excellency  of  the  pastures,'  the  grass  and 
flowers  which  wither  away — a  figure  distinct 
from  that  of  the  burning  which  follows. 

23.  Ordered]  RV  '  established.'  35.  A  green 
bay  tree]   RV  '  a  green  tree  in  its  native  soil.' 

36.  He  passed  by]  RV  '  one  passed  by.' 
Perhaps  we  should  read,  '  I  passed  by.' 

37.  End]   RM  '  future '  or  '  posterity.' 
39.   Strength]  RV  '  strong  hold.' 

PSALM  38 

This  Ps.  may  be  compared  with  Ps6.  It  is 
the  prayer  of  one  who,  like  Job,  is  in  great 
bodily  suffering  (vv.  1-10),  and  is  also  deserted 
by  his  friends  (v.  11).  and  beset  by  treacherous 
enemies  (vv.  12, 19,  20).  He  is  conscious  that 
his  trouble  is  due  to  his  sin  (vv.  4,  18),  and 
appeals  trustfully  to  God  for  pardon,  healing, 
and  deliverance.  The  description  of  personal 
suffering  is  too  minute  for  a  purely  national 


Ps.  It  has  been  suggested  that  the  author,  if 
not  David,  may  have  been  Jeremiah  (see 
Jer20).  This  is  another  of  the  Pss.  for  Ash 
Wednesday. 

Title. — The  phrase  '  to  bring  to  remem- 
brance '  probably  indicates  that  the  Ps.  was 
used  in  connexion  with  the  offering  of  the 
'memorial'  of  incense  (IsaGG^mg-),  or  of  the 
shewbread  with  incense  (Lv24"),  or  of  the 
meat  offering  with  incense  (Lv22). 

1.  This  V.  repeats  6^. 

2.  Arrows]  represent  God's  judgments  as 
sent  from  afar,  vrhile  His  hand  suggests  closer 
dealing.  3.  Rest]  RV  'health.'  4.  Sin  is 
compared  first  tea  flood,  and  then  to  a  burden. 

7.  Loathsome  f//.sea.se]  RV  'bm-ning,'  in- 
flammation. 14.  No  reproofs]  no  arguments 
in  his  own  defence.  15.  His  silence  before 
men  is  explained  by  his  hope  in  God.  20.  While 
the  Psalmist  admits  his  own  sin  he  is  at  the 
same  time  a  sufferer  for  righteousness :  see  on 
2621. 

PSALM  39 

This  is  a  Ps.  of  great  pathos  and  beauty. 
The  writer's  sore  sickness,  accepted  as  the 
punishment  of  sin  (vv.  9-11),  has  impressed 
him  with  the  frailty  and  vanity  of  liuman  life. 
He  refrains  at  fii-st  from  all  complaint  lest  his 
words  should  be  sinful  and  harmful  (vv.  1 ,  2). 
When  he  does  speak  it  is  to  utter  without 
bitterness  his  conviction  of  life's  brevity  and 
nothingness  (vv.  3-6).  He  concludes  with  a 
humble  prayer  that  though  he  is  but  a  pilgrim 
on  earth  God  may  grant  him  pardon  and  re- 
covery before  he  passes  from  the  world 
(vv.  7-13). 

Title.— (RV)  '  For  the  Chief  Musician,  for 
Jeduthim,'  etc.  Jeduthun  was  one  of  the 
directors  of  sacred  music  in  David's  time  (1  Ch 
1641  25 1).  If  the  Ps.  be  of  later  origin  the 
phrase  in  the  title  may  mean  '  after  the  manner 
of  Jeduthun,'  as  in  Pss  62,  77. 

I.  While  the  wicked  is  before  me]  The 
visible  prosperity  of  the  wicked  afforded  the 
temptation  to  complain.  2.  Ere)t  from  good] 
RM  'and  had  no  comfort.'  3.  Complete 
silence  proved  impossible.  Pent-up  feeling 
found  a  safe  relief  in  prayer.  5.  Vanity]  or, 
'  a  breath '  (Heb.).  6.  In  a  vain  shew]  RM 
'  as  a  shadow,'  like  a  phantom  in  a  dream  :  the 
eager  efforts  of  life  are  contrasted  with  the 
emptiness  of  their  results. 

7.  What  wait  I  for  ?]  If  life  ends  in  vanity 
what  is  there  to  hope  for  ?  The  answer  is 
'  God,'  and  the  meaning  is  not  so  much  that 
God  will  be  the  soul's  portion  in  the  future 
life,  as  that  God's  presence  here  redeems  life 
from  its  nothingness.  8.  The  foolish]  those 
who  have  mocked  at  his  troubles.  9.  The 
characteristic  tone  of  the  whole  Ps.  is  in  these 
words.       The   writer   accepts   with    reverent 


344 


39.  11 


PSALMS 


41.  12 


resignation  all  the  facts  and  experiences  of 
life. 

II.  This  is  another  v.  summing  up  the 
philosophy  of  the  Ps.  Makest  his  beauty, 
etc.]  RM  '  consumest  like  a  moth  his  delights ' : 
see  IsaSO'''  MtGi^.  12.  Stranger  .  .  sojourner] 
The  fact  that  life  is  transient  becomes  here  a 
plea  for  favour.  13.  Spare  me]  lit.  'look 
away  from  me,'  '  avert  thy  frown.'  Recover 
strength]  lit.  '  brighten  up.'  The  day  of  life 
may  be  short,  but  the  Psalmist  seeks  for 
sunshine  while  it  lasts. 

PSALM  40 

ThisPs.  falls  into  two  well-marked  divisions, 
which  many  think  to  have  been  originally 
separate  Pss.  In  vv.  1-11  the  writer  recalls 
with  thankfulness  how  God  has  heard  his 
prayers  and  delivered  him  from  trouble 
(vv.  1-4),  declares  the  greatness  of  God's 
mercies  (v.  5),  presents  himself  as  a  living 
sacrifice  (vv.  6-8),  and  desires  the  continuance 
of  God's  blessing  on  account  of  his  fearless 
witness  for  righteousness  (vv.  9-11).  In  vv. 
12-17,  on  the  other  hand,  the  Psalmist  is  in 
distress,  both  from  sin  (v.  12)  and  from  perse- 
cution (vv.  14,  15).  He  pleads  for  the  speedy 
confusion  of  his  enemies,  and  for  the  deliver- 
ance both  of  himself  and  of  all  who  seek  God 
(vv.  13-17).  This  part  of  the  Ps.  resembles 
Ps  35.  Vv.  13-17  are  reproduced  with  some 
variations  as  Ps  70.  Vv.  6,  7  are  applied  to 
Christ  in  HeblOS-^.  The  Ps.  is  probably  a 
national  Psalm.  In  it  the  nation,  or  the  church, 
rather  than  the  individual,  is  speaking.  The 
horrible  pit  will  then  be  the  pit  of  exile,  and 
the  new  song  will  be  that  sung  for  deliverance 
from  exile  and  restitution  to  the  home-land. 
This  is  one  of  the  Pss.  for  Good  Friday. 

2.  Pit . .  clay]  The  combination  of  these 
figures  for  trouble  is  illustrated  by  the  dun- 
geon, with  mire  at  the  bottom,  into  which 
Jeremiah  was  cast  (JerSSt^).  A  rock]  a  place 
of  firmness  and  security.  3.  A  new  song]  a 
song  of  praise  for  new  mercies  :  see  on  333. 

6.  Sacrifice  and  offering,  etc.]  a  striking 
recognition  that  spiritual  service,  even  in  OT. 
times,  is  more  than  all  forms  of  worship  :  see 
IS  15 22.  Mine  ears  hast  thou  opened]  to 
understand  the  true  requirements  of  the  Law. 
The  boring  of  the  ears  in  token  of  perpetual 
servitude  (Ex  21 6  Dtl5'')  is  not  here  referred 
to.  LXX  has,  '  a  body  hast  thou  prepared  me,' 
and  is  followed  in  the  quotation  in  HeblO^. 

7.  RV  '  Lo,  I  am  come,'  the  Psalmist's 
personal  consecration  to  God's  service  :  see 
Isa  6  9.     In  the  volume  of  the  book  It  is  written 


of  me]  rather,  '  in  the  roll  of  the  book  it  is 
prescribed  to  me.'  The  words  are  a  paren- 
thesis, and  the  reference  is  probably  to  Deut- 
eronomy (see  2K22  8f-)>  witfi  its  spiritual  and 
inward  view  of  obedience.  The  writer  to  the 
Hebrews  rightly  recognises  that  Christ's 
obedience  perfectly  fulfilled  this  ideal  of  de- 
voted surrender  to  God's  will. 

9.  In  the  great  congregation]  among  the 
people  assembled  at  some  festival.  10.  Have 
not  hid,  etc.]  In  a  good  sense  God's  law  is 
hidden  in  his  heart  (v.  8,  cp.  119  H),  but 
here  he  means  that  he  has  not  concealed  his 
convictions  from  cowardice. 

PSALM  41 

The  Psalmist  has  been  brought  low  by  sick- 
ness, and  pronounces  a  blessing  on  those  who 
consider  such  sufferers  as  himself  (vv.  1-3). 
His  own  experience  has  been  of  an  opposite 
kind.  His  enemies  have  triumphantly  antici- 
pated his  end,  and  their  hypocritical  sympathy 
has  only  been  the  guise  of  malice  (vv.  5-8). 
One  friend  in  particular  has  done  his  utmost 
to  injure  him  (v.  9).  He  asks  God  to  restore 
his  health  that  he  may  requite  all  this  unkind- 
ness,  and  finally  expresses  his  confidence  in 
God's  favour  and  unchanging  support  (vv. 
10-12).  In  Jn  13  IS  the  words  of  v.  9  are 
appropriately  applied  to  Judas.  V.  13  is  not 
a  part  of  the  Ps.,  but  forms  the  concluding 
doxology  to  Book  1  of  the  Psalter. 

I.  Poor]  a  different  word  from  that  so 
often  used  for  the  afflicted  righteous.  It 
means  the  '  weak '  or  '  sick.'  2.  Blessed  upon 
the  earth]  rather,  '  counted  happy  in  the  land.' 

6.  The  visitor  who  comes  in  pretended 
sympathy  only  seeks  information  to  be  mali- 
ciously used  outside.  8.  An  evil  disease]  or, 
a  result  of  wickedness  ;  lit.  'a  thing  of  belial.' 

9.  Which  did  eat .  .  my  bread]  The  ties  of 
hospitality,  which  in  the  East  are  regarded  as 
specially  sacred,  had  been  violated  as  well  as 
those  of  friendship.  Lifted  up  Jus  heel]  a 
figure  for  unfeeling  violence  and  brutality. 

10.  That  I  may  requite  them]  a  touch  of 
vindictiveness  which  Christians  may  not 
imitate  :  see  Intro.  11.  Recovery  has  begun. 
The  eneiny  has  been  disappointed  of  his 
triumph.  This  is  already  taken  as  a  proof  of 
God's  favour.  12.  Integrity]  The  conscious- 
ness of  an  upright  purpose  is  not  inconsistent 
with  the  confession  of  sin  in  v.  4  :  see  on 
2521.  Settest  me  before  thy  face  for  ever] 
the  opposite  of  the  fate  predicted  by  his 
enemies  in  vv.  5,  8.  To  be  in  God's  presence 
is  to  enjoy  true  and  unending  life. 


345 


INTRO. 


PSALMS 


42.6 


BOOK  2  (Psalms  42-72) 

The  second  and  third  Books  of  the  Psalter     desire  of  the  true  Israelite  is  not  only  for  the 

Temple  (42'*),  but  'for  God,  for  the  living 
God.'  Burnt  offerings  are  of  small  account 
in  the  sight  of  Him  to  whom  belongs  '  the 
world  and  the  fulness  thereof  '  (50  '''-I'l).  '  The 
sacrifices  of  God  are  a  broken  spirit'  (51 1"). 

In  this  Book  the  45th  and  72nd  Pss.  are 
usually  classed  as  Messianic.  They  both 
describe  the  character  of  the  ideal  king, 
ruling  in  righteousness,  watching  over  the 
poor  and  punishing  the  oppressor,  having 
dominion  over  subject  nations  '  from  sea  to 
sea,'  and  being  blessed  by  all  nations,  because 
they  have  been  blessed  by  him.  Probably 
they  were  written  in  connexion  with  definite 
historical  events — in  the  one  case  the  marriage 
of  a  king,  in  the  other  a  king's  accession  to 
the  throne  ;  still  they  unite  themselves  with 
that  Messianic  hope  which  gradually  took 
shape  among  the  Jews,  and  came  to  fill  a 
large  place  in  their  religious  thought. 


(Pss  42-72  and  73-89)  are  but  the  two  parts 
of  a  whole,  the  largest  section  of  which 
(Pss  42-83)  is  called  the  Elohistic  Psalter, 
because  the  name  Elohim  (God)  is  used  almost 
exclusively  instead  of  the  name  Jehovah 
(the  Lord),  which  is  predominant  in  the  rest 
of  the  Psalms.  It  is  evident  from  the  contents 
of  these  two  books  that  the  Elohistic  compiler 
gathered  them  from  at  least  three  earlier  col- 
lections, for  Pss  42-49  are  Psalms  of  the 
Korahites  (43  is  part  of  42),  as  are  also 
Pss  84-89  (except  86)  ;  Pss  50  and  73-83  are 
Psalms  of  Asaph  ;  while  Pss  51-72,  86,  are 
Psalms  of  David.  Ps  72  originally  ended 
a  collection  of  Psalms  attributed  to  David  ; 
and  it  is  a  plausible  conjecture  that  Pss  42-50 
once  stood  after  Ps  72,  the  Davidic  Psalms 
being  thus  together  and  the  subscription  (72^0) 
appropriate. 

Taking  Book  2  by  itself,  we  may  notice 
that  in  the  Davidic  collection  Pss  66  and  67 
did  not  originally  belong  to  it,  while  Ps  72 
is  called  '  a  psalm  of  Solomon.'  The  great 
majority  of  these  Pss.  have  the  rendering  in 
AV  '  To  the  chief  musician '  ;  indicating  (see 
Intro.)  that  they  had  been  included  in  the 
collection  of  the  Chief  Musician  as  well  as  in 
that  of  the  Elohistic  collector,  both  of  these 
editors  working  on  previously  existing  collec- 
tions. Ps  53  is  an  Elohistic  form  of  Ps  14, 
and  Ps70  of  Ps  4013-17  ;  while  Pss57  7-n  and 
605-12  are  combined  in  Ps  108.  Several  of  the 
Davidic  Psalms  in  this  book  are  referred  by 
their  titles  to  incidents  in  David's  life  ;  these 
are  of  varying  degrees  of  probability,  and  are 
discussed  in  their  places. 

It  is  diJ0B.cult  to  classify  the  Pss.  according  to 
their  subjects  or  references,  but  a  rough  divi- 
sion may  be  attempted.  Thus,  (a)  Pss  42, 
43,  51,  54,  55,  56,  57,  59,  61,  64,  69,  70,  71 
are  prayers  for  personal  help  and  deliverance  ; 

(b)  Pss  44,  46,  47,  48,  62  are  thanksgivings,  and 
breathe  the  spirit  of  confidence  and  triumph  ; 

(c)  Ps  45  is  a  marriage  ode  ;  (cZ)  Ps  49  is  a 
didactic  piece  akin  to  the  book  of  Proverbs  ; 
(e)  Ps  65  is  a  thanksgiving  in  time  of  harvest. 
References  to  the  Temple  as  the  centre  of 
worship  are  found  in  Pss  42,  43,  48,  50,  65. 
The  following  are  quoted  in  the  NT.  :  44,  45, 
48,  50,  55,  32,  67,  68,  and  69.  The  writers 
of  the  Pss.  in  this  Book  evince  the  same  perfect 
trust  in  God  and  confidence  in  His  power 
to  relieve  them  from  their  troubles,  as  are 
exhibited  in  the  first  Book. 

Several  of  the  Pss.,  such  as  the  51st,  have 
an  unmistakable  personal  tone  ;  and  there  are 
not  wanting  indications  of  a  highly  spiritual 
view  of   religious  worship  and  ritual.     The 


PSALM  42 

This  Ps.  and  the  following  one  are  closely 
connected,  and  it  is  practically  certain  that 
they  were  originally  one.  Ps  43  has  no  separ- 
ate title,  and  its  closing  refrain  occurs  twice 
in  Ps  42  (vv.  5,  11).  Both  Pss.  belong  to  a 
time  when  the  Temple  worship  was  in  full 
activity,  and  the  writer  is  a  Levite  who  is  de- 
tained in  the  N.  of  Palestine  (v.  6),  and  beset 
by  enemies,  apparently  heathen  (42  ^  43i'2), 
who  taunt  him  about  his  God  (423,  lO)  He 
longs  to  return  and  take  his  part  in  the  Temple 
service,  and  is  confident  that  God  will  yet 
fulfil  his  desire. 

Title.— Maschil]  see  on  Ps  32.  For  (RY 
'  of ')  the  sons  of  Korah]  i.e.  from  a  collection 
compiled  by  the  Levitical  guild  bearing  that 
name. 

2.  Appear  before  God]  in  the  Temple 
at  Jerusalem.  4.  Read,  '  These  things  would 
I  remember  as  I  pour  out  my  soul  within 
me.'  AV  and  RV  suggest  that  the  Psalmist's 
memories  of  better  days  add  to  his  sorrow  ; 
but  the  meaning  is  rather  that  they  give  him 
hope.  For  I  had  gone,  etc.]  RV  '  how  I  went 
with  the  throng,  and  led  them  to  the  house  of 
God.'  Holyday]  a  sacred  festival,  the  original 
meaning  of  '  holiday.'  5.  For  the  help  of  his 
countenance]  We  should  probably  read,  '  who 
is  the  health  of  my  countenance  and  my  God,' 
as  in  V.  11,  Ps435. 

6.  Land  of  Jordan . .  Hermonites]  RV  '  land 
of  Jordan  and  the  Hermons,'  the  sources  of 
the  Jordan  in  the  NE.  of  Palestine.  The 
plural  '  Hermons '  refers  to  the  separate  peaks 
of  the  mountain.  The  hill  Mizar]  the  'little 
mountain,'  some  lower  hill  in  the  same  locality. 


346 


42.7 


PSALMS 


45.  17 


7.  At  the  noise  of  thy  waterspouts]  better, 
'  in  the  roar  of  thy  cataracts,'  the  cascades  that 
rush  down  Hermon  when  the  snow  melts  in 
spring.  Thy  waves  and  . .  billows]  a  figure  for 
trouble,  probably  in  this  case  suggested  by  the 
appearance  of  the  Jordan  in  flood.  8.  And 
my  prayer]  RV  '  even  a  prayer.'  10.  Ai<  with 
a  sword  in  my  bones]  better,  '  as  though  they 
would  crush  my  bones,'  the  whole  framework 
of  my  being. 

PSALM  43 

1.  An  ungodly  nation]  RM  '  an  unmerciful 
nation,'  a  loveless,  heathen  people.  2.  Cp. 
429.  3.  Thy  holy  hill]  the  Temple  on  Mt. 
Zion.     Thy  tabernacles]   or  dwelling-place. 

4.  O  God  my  God]  instead  of  '  O  Lord  my 
God  ' — showing  that  the  Ps.  is  '  Elohistic' 

PSALM  44 

This  is  a  prayer  for  deliverance  from  national 
trouble  which  has  not  been  deserved  by  any 
apostasy  or  idolatry.  The  strong  assertions 
of  national  faithfulness  are  akin  to  the  spirit 
of  the  Maccabean  age,  but  the  conditions  indi- 
cated in  the  Ps.  may  be  found  also  at  an  earlier 
date,  such  as  the  time  of  the  invasion  by  Sen- 
nacherib in  the  reign  of  Hezekiah.  G-od  has 
helped  His  people  in  the  days  of  old  (vv.  1-3), 
and  they  are  still  confident  in  Him  (vv.  4-8), 
yet  He  has  allowed  their  enemies  to  bring  them 
low  (vv.  9-16).  But  they  are  still  loyal  to 
Him  (vv.  17-22),  and  cry  earnestly  that  He 
would  remember  them  and  save  them  (vv. 
23-26). 

Title.— See  on  Ps  42. 

2.  Heathen]  RV  'nations.'  People]  RV 
'  peoples,'  the  inhabitants  of  Canaan.  So  in 
vv.  11, 14.  8.  Selah]  seeon34.  11,12.  Some 
are  slain,  and  others  sold  into  captivity. 

12.  For  nought,  etc.]  God  does  not  gain  by 
such  transactions.  His  name  and  cause  are 
rather  discredited.  13,  14.  See  the  speech  of 
Rabshakeh  (2  K 18  2T-35).  19.  Place  of  dragons] 
RV  '  place  of  jackals,'  a  desert,  to  which  con- 
dition the  country  had  been  reduced.  Shadow^ 
of  death]  deep  darkness  and  gloom.  23.  Why 
sleepest  thou  ?]  an  expression  of  startling  bold- 
ness, yet  the  prayer  of  v.  26  shows  that  its 
daring  springs  not  from  unbelief  but  from  faith. 

PSALM  45 

The  poem  celebrates  the  marriage  of  a  king. 
After  the  prelude  (v.  1)  come  addresses  to  the 
royal  bridegroom  (vv.  2-9)  and  bride  (vv. 
10-12),  a  description  of  the  bridal  procession 
(vv.  13-15),  and  a  final  address  to  the  king 
(vv.  16,  17).  The  marriage  of  Solomon  to  the 
Egyptian  princess,  of  Ahab  to  Jezebel,  of 
Jehoram  to  Athaliah,  as  well  as  later  alliances, 
have  all  been  suggested  as  the  occasion  in 
view.     But   while   the   Ps.   had   no   doubt  a 


historic  reference,  yet  the  language  used  of 
the  king  is  of  such  a  transcendent  character 
that  it  could  only  be  strictly  true  of  the 
Messiah,  or  ideal  King,  and  we  find  it  quoted 
with  a  Messianic  meaning  in  Heb  1  '^>  9.  The 
Ps.  is  consequently  used  on  Christmas  Day. 

Title. — RV  '  Set  to  Shoshannim.'  Shoshan- 
nim  ('  lilies ')  indicates  the  melody  to  which 
the  Ps.  is  set,  or  possibly  instruments  shaped 
like  lilies  on  which  it  was  played  ;  and  A  Song 
of  loves  describes  the  nature  of  the  poem. 

I.  Is  inditing,  etc.]  RV  '  overfloweth  with 
a  goodly  matter.'  I  speak,  etc.]  RM  '  I  speak  : 
my  work  is  for  a  king.'  3.  With  thy  glory, 
etc.]  RV  '  Thy  glory  and  thy  majesty.'  These 
are  the  weapons  with  which  the  king  girds 
himself.  4.  Because  of]  in  the  cause  of.  5.  In 
the  heart,  etc.]  RV  '  "The  peoples  fall  under 
thee  ;  they '  (the  arrows)  '  are  in  the  heart  of 
the  king's  enemies.' 

6.  Thy  throne,  O  God,  is]  RM  '  Thy  throne 
is  the  throne  of  God.'  This  gives  a  good  sense, 
and  meets  the  difficulty  that  the  human  king 
who  is  addressed  in  the  first  instance  could 
hardly  be  called  '  God.'  There  are  textual 
reasons  for  believing,  however,  that  the  original 
reading  was  simply,  '  Thy  throne  shall  be  for 
ever.'      Right  sceptre]  RV  '  sceptre  of  equity.' 

7.  Oil  of  gladness]  the  oil,  not  of  the 
coronation,  but  of  a  festive  occasion. 

8.  Myrrh  .  .  aloes  .  .  cassia]  These  perfumes 
are  not  the  substances  now  so  named.  Ivory 
palaces]  palatial  chambers  ornamented  with 
inlaid  ivory  work.  Ahab  had  such  a  palace 
(IK 22 39:  cp.  Am 3 15).  Whereby,  etc.]  RV 
'  stringed  instruments  have  made  thee  glad.' 
Their  music  greets  the  king  as  he  enters. 

9.  Did  (RV  'doth')  stand  the  queen]  the 
new  consort,  who  takes  the  place  of  honour. 

Gold  of  Ophir]  the  finest  gold.  Ophir  was 
either  in  Africa  or  in  S.  Asia.  11.  Thy  Lord] 
rather,  '  thy  lord  '  :  see  1  Pet  3  6.  Worship  .  . 
him]  rather,  '  do  him  homage.'  12.  The 
daughter  of  Tyre]  the  city  of  Tyre,  a  personi- 
fication like  '  daughter  of  Zion,'  '  daughter  of 
Babylon.'  Tyre  was  the  wealthiest  of  Israel's 
neighbours,  and  was  in  alliance  with  David 
and  Solomon.  It  would  naturally  grace  a 
royal  Israelite  marriage  with  a  gift,  even  if 
the  bride  were  not,  like  Jezebel,  herself  a 
Tyrian  princess.  The  rich  among  the  people] 
better,  '  the  richest  among  the  peoples.' 

13.  Is  all  glorious  within]  RV  'within  the 
2Mlace  is  all  glorious '  :  i.e.  in  the  inner  cham- 
ber from  which  she  comes  forth  to  meet  the 
king.  Of  wrought  gold]  RV  '  inwrought  with 
gold.'  16.  Instead  of  thy  fathers,  etc.]  A  dis- 
tinguished posterity  is  better  than  a  long 
ancestry,  which  was  lacking  in  Solomon's  case. 

Mayest  make]  RV  '  shalt  make.'  In  all  the 
earth]  a  world-wide  dominion  is  promised  for 
the  king's  children.     17.  People]  RV  'peoples.' 


347 


46.  1 


PSALMS 


49.  14 


PSALM  46 

Pss  46-48  form  a  group  which  we  may 
assign  with  little  doubt  to  the  reign  of 
Hezekiah,  when  Sennacherib's  army  was 
suddenly  destroyed  (2  K 1 9  ^^).  They  all  strike 
the  same  note  of  gratitude,  confidence,  and 
praise,  which  is  found  in  Isaiah's  references  to 
the  same  event  (Isa  29-31,  33,  37).  Ps  46  is 
divided  into  three  strophes,  and  the  refrain  of 
vv.  7,11  probably  stood  also  between  v.  3  and 
V.  4. 

Title.— RV  '  Set  to  Alamoth.'  Alamoth  is 
generally  understood  to  mean  '  soprano  '  (see 
1  Chi  5  20). 

I.  Our  refuge  and  strength]  the  original  of 
Luther's  famous  Ebi''  feate  Burg.  2,  3.  The 
language  is  figurative  of  stress  and  trouble. 

4.  A  river]  the  river  of  God's  presence  and 
favour  :  see  v.  5,  Isa  33  ^i  ;  cp.  Isa8*\  Shall 
make  glad]  RV  '  make  glad.'  5.  Right  early] 
RM  '  when  the  morning  appeareth.' 

6.  Heathen]  RV  'nations.'     So  in  v.  10. 

7.  Lord  of  hosts]  see  on  24  w.  8.  Desola- 
tions] rather,  '  astonishments '  or  '  wonders.' 

1 0.  Be  still]  Desist  from  your  vain  efEorts  : 
cp.  44. 

PSALM  47 

This  Ps.,  though  akin  to  Pss  46,  48,  is  less 
definitely  historical,  and  simply  summons  the 
earth  to  join  in  a  chorus  of  praise  to  God  as 
the  victorious  King,  not  only  of  Israel,  but  of 
all  the  nations  of  the  world. 

1.  People]   RV  '  peoples.'     So  in  w.  3,  9. 
3.   Shall  subdue  .  .  shall  choose]   RM  '  sub- 

dueth  .  .  chooseth  .  .  '     4,   The    excellency   (or 
'  pride  ')  of  Jacob]   the  fair  land  of  Israel. 

5.  Gone  up]  to  heaven,  in  triumph  after  the 
battle  :  see  68 11.  7.  With  understanding] 
RM  '  in  a  skilful  psalm  (Maschil).'  8.  Reign- 
eth  . .  sitteth]  better,  'hath  become  king . .  hath 
taken  his  seat.' 

9.  Even  the  people]  RV  '  To  he  the  people ' 
— the  Gentiles  actually  becoming  the  people  of 
the  true  God.  Possibly  the  right  reading 
is,  '  together  with  the  people  ' — the  Gentiles 
joining  with  the  Jews  in  homage  to  Jehovah. 

Shields  of  the  earth]  the  princes  :  see  89  is 
Hos4i8(RM). 

PSALM  48 

This  Ps.  celebrates  the  safety  and  glory  of 
Jerusalem,  and  the  praise  of  her  divine  King. 
The  deliverance  He  has  wrought  is  vividly 
portrayed,  and  we  can  hardly  fail  to  recognise 
that  the  overthrow  of  Sennacherib  is  in  view. 
The  Ps.  is  used  on  Whitsunday. 

2.  For  situation]  RV  '  in  elevation.'  On 
the  sides  of  the  north]  An  obscure  clause. 
'  The  sides  of  the  north  '  may  mean  the  Temple 
hill,  as  distinguished  from  the  rest  of  the  city  : 


or,  as  some  think,  there  may  be  a  comparison 


the   sacred   mountain  in  the 

on  which   Assyrian   mythology' 

see  Isa  14 13  Ezk 


348 


of  Mt.  Zion  to 

remote  north 

placed  the  home  of  the  gods 

38-5  392  (RV). 

3.  Is  known]  RV  'hath  made  himself 
known.'  4.  Kings]  The  vassal  kings  of  Sen- 
nacherib (Isa  10  8).  They  gather  and  march  in 
order  till  they  see  Jerusalem.  Then  they  are 
amazed,  and  forced  to  turn  back  in  confusion. 

7.  Ships  of  Tarshish]  a  general  phrase  for 
large  sea-going  vessels.  Tarshish  was  some- 
where in  the  western  Mediterranean,  perhaps 
in  Spain.  Sennacherib's  army  was  like  a 
wrecked  navy.  8.  As  we  have  heard,  so  have 
we  seen]  History  has  repeated  itself. 

10.  RV  '  As  is  thy  name  .  .  so  is  thy  praise.' 
God's  name  is  His  revealed  character,  which 
now  receives  due  recognition  and  response 
from  the  whole  world.  14.  Probably  the  last 
v.  originally  ran  :  '  For  such  is  Jehovah  our 
God  :  He  it  is  that  shall  guide  us  for  ever  and 
ever.' 

PSALM  49 

There  is  little  to  fix  the  date  of  this  Ps. 
The  writer  moralises,  in  the  fashion  of  the 
book  of  Proverbs,  on  the  vanity  of  wealth  and 
honour  apart  from  understanding.  The  rich 
man  cannot  deliver  his  friends  or  himself  from 
death,  and  his  prosperity  need  cause  no  dismay 
to  those  who  are  less  fortunate  in  this  world. 
The  upright,  among  whom  the  Psalmist  counts 
himself,  will  be  received  by  God,  and  thus 
made  superior  to  the  power  of  death.  Vv.  12, 
20  form,  by  their  similarity,  a  kind  of  refrain. 

I.  People]  RV  'peoples,'  explained  by  in- 
habitants of  the  world.  4.  Parable .  .  dark 
saying]  We  might  render,  'proverb  .  .  riddle  '  : 
see  78  2  Prov  1  6.  5.  When  the  iniquity  of  my 
heels,  etc.]  RV  '  When  iniquity  at  my  heels,' 
etc.  RM  gives  a  still  better  sense,  connecting 
vv.  5,  6,  '  When  the  iniquity  of  them  that 
would  supplant  me  compasseth  me  about,  even 
of  them  that  trust,'  etc.     7.  See  Ex  21  30  (RV). 

Redeem .  .  ransom]  Life  that  is  forfeit  to 
man  may  be  bought  back  with  money,  but  not 
life  that  is  claimed  by  God. 

8.  This  V.  is  a  parenthesis,  interrupting  the 
connexion  between  vv.  7,  9.  Is  precious,  and 
it  ceaseth]  R  V  '  is  costly,  and  must  be  let  alone.' 

10.  Leave  their  wealth  to  others]  losing  it 
for  themselves.  11.  LXX  and  other  versions 
imply  a  slight  change  of  reading  which  gives 
a  better  sense  :  '  Graves  are  their  houses  for 
ever,  the  dwelling-places  for  all  generations  of 
those  who  called  their  lands  after  their  own 
name.'  12.  Being  in  honour  abideth  not]  RV 
'  abideth  not  in  honour.' 

13.   Their  posterity]  RV  'after  them  men.' 

Approve,  etc.]  persist  in  the  same  foolish  view 
of  life.     14.   Like  sheep,  etc.]  RV  '  They  are 


49.  15 


PSALMS 


51.  16 


appointed  as  a  flock  for  Sheol  ;  Death  shall  be 
their  shepherd ' — a  grim  and  forcible  figure. 

In  the  morning]  when  God's  day  of  reckon- 
ing dawns.  Shall  consume,  etc.]  RV  '  shall 
be  for  Sheol  to  consume,  that  there  be  no 
habitation  for  it.' 

15.  The  grave]  RV  'Sheol.'  The  hope  ex- 
pressed is  not  necessarily  that  of  a  definite 
resurrection  after  death,  but  may  be  that  of 
deliverance  from  the  premature  ending  of  life 
in  this  world.  But  the  words  he  shall  receive 
me  show  that  what  the  Psalmist  values  most  is 
life  with  God  as  opposed  to  life  without  God, 
and  this  thought  is  the  germ  of  the  Chi'istian 
doctrine  of  immortality  :  see  on  16 10,11. 

18.  Blessed  his  soul]  congratulated  himself 
on  his  wealth  :  cp.  Lkl2i^.  19.  They  shall 
never  see  light]  shall  abide  for  e\er  in  the 
darkness  of  Sheol.  20.  And  understandeth  not] 
Those  who  perish  like  the  beasts  are  not  the 
rich  as  such,  but  the  rich  who  do  not  know  God. 

PSALM  50 

The  title  (A  Psalm  of  Asaph)  is  discussed  in 
Intro,  to  Books,  where  the  other  Pss.  of  Asaph 
are  found.  The  present  Ps.  is  one  of  solemn 
warning  to,  those  who  attempt  to  serve  God  by 
formal  sacrifices  while  their  lives  are  full  of 
wickedness.  God  will  come  to  judge  His 
people  (vv.  1-6).  He  tells  the  formalists  that 
He  does  not  need  animal  sacrifices  (vv.  7-13), 
and  asks  for  praise,  obedience,  and  prayer 
(vv.  14,  15).  He  reproves  the  hypocrites  for 
their  sins  (vv.  16-20)  and  ends  with  a  call  to 
repentance  (v.  21)  and  a  promise  of  salvation 
to  true  worshippers  (v.  22).  The  teaching  of 
the  Ps.  is  that  of  the  great  prophets  of  the  8th 
and  7th  centuries  B.C.,  and  it  is  probably  to 
be  assigned  to  that  period. 

I.  The  mighty  God,  even  the  LORD]  RV 
'God,  eve)i  God,  the  Lord.'  From  the  rising, 
etc.]  from  the  E.  to  the  W.,  not  from  morning 
to  evening.  2.  Zion,  the  perfection  of  beauty] 
see  482  Lam  2  is.  Shined]  RV  '  shined  forth,' 
from  His  earthly  dwelling-place.  4.  Heavens 
from  above]  RV  '  heavens  above.' 

5.  Saints]  the  true  Israel,  whose  worship  is 
not  hypocritical.  A  covenant .  .  by  sacrifice] 
The  covenant  between  Jehovah  and  Israel  at 
Sinai  was  ratified  in  every  act  of  sacrifice,  as 
one  to  which  the  worshipper  bound  himself 
afresh.  This  shows  that  the  Ps.  recognises  the 
true  religious  value  of  sacrifice,  and  only 
condemns  the  abuse  of  it. 

7.  Against  thee]  RV  '  unto  thee.'  8.  Will 
not  reprove]  because  such  ofi^erings  were  not 
what  God  most  regarded.  Or  thy  burnt  offer- 
ings, etc.]  RV  '  and  thy  burnt  offerings  are 
continually  before  me.'  13.  Eat .  .  drink]  The 
primitive  idea  of  sacrifice  was  that  the  god 
partook  of  the  offerings  in  a  physical  sense. 
This  view  is  rejected  here.     14.  Thanksgiving] 


349 


RV  'the  sacrifice  of  thanksgiving.'     21.  Kept 
silence]  not  in  indifference,  but  in  patience. 

2'i.  Conversation]  RM  'way,'  manner  of 
life. 

PSALM  51 

Title.— (RV)  '  For  the  Chief  Musician.  A 
Psalm  of  David :  when  Nathan  the  prophet  came 
unto  him,  after  he  had  gone  in  to  Bath-sheba.' 
It  is  impossible  not  to  feel  the  general 
appropriateness  of  this  Ps.  to  the  occasion 
mentioned  in  the  title,  and  there  is  no  historic 
OT.  figure  except  David  to  whom  we  can  point 
as  an  illustration  of  the  great  sin  and  deep 
penitence  which  are  the  theme  of  the  Ps.  The 
theory  that  the  speaker  is  the  nation  of  Israel 
hardly  accounts  for  the  highly  personal  tone 
of  the  whole  poem.  At  the  same  time,  the 
affinity  of  the  thought  and  language  with  the 
closing  chapters  of  Isaiah  (see  especially  on 
v.  11)  favom-s  the  view  that  the  writer  lived 
during  the  exile,  in  which  case  he  may  well 
have  chosen  David's  great  transgression  and 
its  results  as  the  subject  of  a  '  dramatic  lyric' 
On  any  supposition  as  to  authorship  and  date 
vv.  18,  19  are  to  be  regarded  as  a  liturgical 
addition  appended  to  the  Ps.  when  it  came  to 
be  used  in  the  Temple  services.  Part  of  v.  4 
is  quoted  (from  LXX)  in  Ro3-i. 

4.  Against  thee,  thee  only]  David  had  sinned 
against  Uriah  and  Bath-sheba  as  well  as  against 
God  :  but  as  all  obligations  to  men  have  their 
foundation  in  God's  law,  so  all  sin  against 
them  is  included  and  hidden  in  the  one  fact 
of  offence  against  God.  That  thou  mightest 
be  justified  .  .  be  clear]  that  Thy  justice  and 
holiness  might  be  clearly  shown.  5.  This  v. 
does  not  reflect  any  stain  on  the  Psalmist's 
birth,  but  traces  his  sin  to  the  inborn  evil  of 
his  nature. 

6.  Truth  in  the  inward  parts]  truth  as 
opposed  to  self-deception  or  conscious  hypo- 
crisy, in  the  inward  parts  as  opposed  to  mere 
superficial  goodness.  Thou  shalt  make  me  to 
know]  God  is  willing  to  give  what  He  desires 
men  to  have.  7.  Hyssop]  employed  in  the 
OT.  ceremonies  of  purification,  a  bunch  of  the 
herb  being  used  to  sprinkle  blood  (Lvl4<5,7) 
or  water  (Nu  1 9  is)  on  the  unclean.  Snow]  cp. 
Isalis.  8.  Bones  ?rA/c7«  thou  hast  broken]  see 
on  42 10. 

ID.  Create  in  me]   RM  '  create  for  me.' 

Renew]  better, '  make  new.'  What  is  sought 
is  something  that  has  never  been  in  the 
Psalmist's  life  before.  A  right  spirit]  RM  'a 
stedfast  spirit,'  that  will  not  yield  to  tempta- 
tion. II.  Thy  holy  spirit]  The  only  other 
mention  of  this  in  the  OT.  is  in  Isa63io,ii. 

12.  With  thy  free  spirit]  RV  '  with  a  free 
spirit,'  a  spirit  of  willing  and  unforced  obedi- 
ence. 16.  Desirest  not]  RV  '  delightest  not 
in.'     Delightest  not]   RV  '  hast  no  pleasure.' 


51.17 


PSALMS 


55.  3 


17.  Cp.  34 18. 

18.  This  and  the  next  v.  form  a  prayer  for 
the  restoration  of  Jerusalem,  written  either 
during  the  exile  or  in  the  troublous  times 
before  Nehemiah's  mission.  19.  Be  pleased 
with]  RV  '  delight  in.'  Burnt  offering  and 
whole  burnt  offering]  two  expressions  for  the 
same  sacrifice,  the  one  emphasising  its  being 
burnt,  the  other  the  completeness  with  which 
it  was  consumed.  The  conception  of  the 
essence  of  religion  here  is  evidently  very 
different  from  that  of  v v.  16,  17,  which  almost 
look  like  a  criticism  of — some  even  maintain, 
a  protest  against — animal  sacrifice.  In  any 
case  they  assert  that  the  sacrifice  of  the  broken 
heart  is  that  which  God  loves  best. 

PSALM  52 

Title.— (RV)  'For  the  Chief  Musician. 
Maschil  of  David  :  when  Doeg  the  Edomite 
came  and  told  Saul,  and  said  unto  him,  David 
is  come  to  the  house  of  Ahimelech.' 

In  some  respects  Doeg  (1  S  22  9)  might  stand 
for  the  original  of  the  wicked  man  in  this  Ps., 
but  the  absence  of  all  reference  to  the  mas- 
sacre of  the  priests  at  Nob  (IS 2217-19)  throws 
grave  doubt  upon  the  correctness  of  the  title. 
The  Ps.  appears  to  reflect  the  social  evils  de- 
nounced by  the  prophets  of  later  times  (see 
Am 5 11  8«  Mic22  32,3  73)^  and  to  be  directed 
against  some  prominent  oppressor,  whose 
character  and  fate  are  depicted  in  vv.  1-5, 
while  vv.  6-9  describe  the  contrasted  happiness 
of  the  righteous  man. 

I.  Goodness]  RV  'mercy.'  God]  is  here 
'  El,'  the  Strong  One,  whose  power  is  greater 
than  that  of  the  mightiest  man.  '  The  good- 
ness of  God '  is  the  fact  that  makes  the  boast 
of  the  strongest  evil-doer  to  be  vain.  6.  Fear  . . 
laugh]  These  two  emotions  are  not  incon- 
sistent. The  one  is  the  solemn  awe  inspired 
by  the  suddenness  of  the  tyrant's  downfall,  the 
other  the  gladness  caused  by  the  revelation  of 
God's  righteousness. 

7-9.  These  vv.  are  put  into  the  mouth  of 
the  righteous,  and  are  introduced  in  RV  by 
'saying.'  7.  Cp.  Ps49.  8.  But  I  am']  RV 
'  But  as  for  me,  I  am.'  A  green  olive  tree]  in 
contrast  with  the  wicked  who  is  rooted  up  like 
a  weed  (v.  5)  :  cp.  92 13, 14.  g_  Before  thy  saints] 
RV  '  in  the  presence  of  thy  saints,'  to  be  con- 
nected with  I  will  wait.  Possibly  we  should 
read, '  I  will  declare  that  thy  name  is  good,'  etc. 

PSALM  53 

This  is  a  second  version  of  Ps  14  with  the 
important  difference  that  God  (Elohim)  is 
everywhere  substituted  for  the  LORD  (Jeho7'ah}. 
There  are  a  few  other  variations  and  additions, 
especially  in  v.  5  (=  14-5>'').  The  changes  are 
interesting  chiefly  as  an  illustration  of  the 
process  of  editing  which  was  applied  to  many 


Pss.    and   many  portions  of  the  OT.,  and  in 

particular  of  the  consistent  preferences,  on  the 
part  of  separate  writers,  for  one  divine  name 
rather  than  another. 

Title. — Mahalath]  variously  interpreted  :  (1) 
as  a  corruption  of  Alamoth  (see  Ps  46),  (2)  as 
the  first  word  of  the  song  to  the  tune  of  which 
the  Ps.  was  set,  and  (3)  as  an  instrument  such 
as  the  flute  or  cithern.  For  Maschil  see  on 
Ps32. 

5.  God  hath  scattered  the  bones  of  him  that 
encampeth  ar/ahist  thee]  This  is  the  most  im- 
portant addition  in  the  Ps.,  and  seems  to  point 
to  some  definite  historical  occasion  for  which 
Ps  14  was  adapted  by  the  editor. 

PSALM  54 

Title.— (RV)  •  For  the  Chief  Musician  ; 
on  stringed  instruments.  Maschil  of  David: 
when  the  Ziphites  came  and  said  to  Saul,  Doth 
not  David  hide  himself  with  us  ? ' 

Whatever  be  the  value  of  the  title  there  is 
nothing  in  the  Ps.  to  make  us  reject  it,  unless 
it  be  the  allusion  in  v.  3  to  the  Ziphites  as 
'  strangers.'  For  the  historical  incident  see 
1  S  23 19  26 1.  The  Ps.  consists  of  a  prayer  for 
deliverance  from  enemies  (vv.  1-3),  and  an 
expression  of  confidence  and  praise  (vv.  4^7). 
For  Maschil  see  on  Ps  32.  The  Ps.  is  used 
on  Good  Friday. 

I.  Judge  me]  Do  justice  to  me.  By  thy 
strength]  RV  '  in  thy  might.'  God's  '  judg- 
ment '  is  a  practical  vindication  of  His  people's 
cause.  3.  Strangers]  In  86 1*  this  v.  is  re- 
peated, with  the  substitution  of  '  the  proud  ' 
for  '  strangers,'  and  possibly  we  should  read 
'  the  proud  '  here.  The  difference  depends  on 
the  interchange  of  two  very  similar  Heb. 
letters.  '  Strangers,'  if  not  applicable  to  the 
Ziphites,  may  refer  to  the  men  of  Keilah,  who 
were  perhaps  Canaanites.  Oppressors  seek] 
RV  '  violent  men  have  sought.' 

4.  The  Lord]  here  '  Adonai,'  not  '  Jehovah.' 

5.  Reward  evil]  RV  '  requite  the  evil  '  that 
they  have  done.  Thy  truth]  thy  faithfulness, 
or  righteous  self -consistency.  6.  Freely]  RV 
'  with  a  freewill  offering '  (Nu  153);  LXX  '  with 
free  will.'  O  LORD]  the  one  occurrence  of 
'  Jehovah '  in  this  Elohistic  Ps. 

PSALM  55 

The  author  of  this  Ps.  can  hardly  be  David, 
for  he  speaks  as  a  citizen  of  a  distracted  city 
rather  than  as  its  king,  and  the  friend  of  whom 
he  complains  is  his  equal  and  not  his  subject. 
There  is  really  nothing  to  fix  the  date  of  the 
Ps.,  though  some  of  the  experiences  of  Jere- 
miah may  illustrate  it.  It  falls  into  three 
portions,  which  have  been  described  as  marked 
by  despair  (vv.  1-8),  indignation  (vv.  9-15), 
and  trust  (vv.  16-23). 

3.  Cast  iniquity  upon  me]  attack  me  with 


350 


55.  6 


PSALMS 


58.4 


wicked  devices,  as  they  might  roll  down  stones 
on  an  enemy.  6.  A  dove]  the  wild  rock-dove, 
which  can  fly  fast  and  far.  8.  Hasten  my 
escape]   RV  '  haste  me  to  a  shelter.' 

9.  Divide  their  tongues]  with  a  confusion 
like  that  of  Babel.  13.  Guide  .  .  acquaintance] 
RV  '  companion  .  .  familiar  friend.'  14.  Unto 
.  .  company]  RV  '  in  the  house  of  God  with 
the  throng.'  15.  Quick  into  hell]  RM  '  alive 
into  Sheol.'  For  the  light  in  which  we  are  to 
regard  such  imprecations  see  Intro. 

18.  From  the  battle  that  was  against  me] 
RM  '  so  that  none  came  nigh  me.'  There 
were  many  with  me]  RV  •  they  were  many 
that  strove  with  me.'  19.  Because,  etc.]  RV 
(with  comma  after  old)  '  The  men  who  have 
no  changes,  and  who  fear  not  God.'  By 
'  changes '  we  may  understand  ups  and  downs 
of  fortune,  or  pauses  in  their  wickedness.  A 
slightly  diiferent  reading  would  give,  '  who 
have  no  faithfulness.'  23.  Bloody]  RV  'blood- 
thirsty.' 

PSALM  56 

Title.— (RV)  '  For  the  Chief  Musician  ;  set 
to  Jonath  elem  rehokim.  A  Psalm  of  David: 
Michtam:  when  the  Philistines  took  him  in 
Gath.' 

For  Michtam  see  on  Ps  16.  Jonath  elem 
rehokim  ('  the  dove  of  the  distant  terebinths ') 
indicates  the  song  to  the  melody  of  which 
the  Ps.  was  to  be  sung.  As  in  the  case  of 
Ps  34  the  title  hardly  describes  accurately 
the  occasion  which  it  mentions  (IS 21^0)^  and 
consequently  too  much  weight  must  not  be 
attached  to  it.  The  Psalmist,  with  many 
enemies  around  him,  casts  himself  on  God's 
mercy,  and  his  confidence  utters  itself  in  a 
twice -repeated  refrain  (vv.  4,  10). 

1.  Daily]  RV  '  all  the  day  long.'  So  in  v.  2. 

2.  Against  me,  O  thou  most  High]  RV 
'  proudly  against  me.'  4.  In  God  I  will  praise 
his  word]  By  God's  help  I  will  praise  Him 
for  the  truth  of  His  promises.  7.  Shall  they 
escape  by  iniquity  ?]  A  slight  change  of  reading 
would  give,  '  Requite  them  according  to  their 
iniquity.'  People]  RV  '  peoples.'  This  prayer 
would  become  more  intelligible  if  national 
rather  than  personal  enemies  were  in  view. 

8.  Tellest]  countest.  Pat  thou  my  tears] 
or,  '  my  tears  are  put.'  Thy  bottle]  or  'skin.' 
God  treasures  His  servants'  tears  as  if  they 
were  water  or  wine.  St.  Bernard  says,  '  the 
tears  of  penitents  are  the  wine  of  angels.' 
Thy  book]  in  which  all  things  are  recorded. 

12.  Thy  vows,  etc.]  The  vows  I  have  made 
to  Thee  bind  me  to  Thy  service.  13.  Wilt  not 
thou  deliver  f  etc.]  RV  '  hast  thou  not  deli- 
vered^'' etc. — an  affirmation  in  the  form  of  a 
question.  The  meaning  is,  '  Yea,  and  my  feet 
from  falling.' 


PSALM  57 


Title. — (RV) '  For  the  Chief  Musician ;  set  to 
Al-tashheth.  A  Psalm  of  David  :  Michtam  : 
when  he  fled  from  Saul,  in  the  cave.' 

This  and  the  two  following  Pss.  were  set  to 
the  melody  of  the  song  beginning  Al-tashheth 
('  Destroy  not '),  which  was  apparently  a  vintage 
song  (Isa65^).  The  occasion  referred  to  in  the 
title  is  either  David's  stay  in  the  cave  of  Adul- 
1am  (IS 22 1),  or  the  incident  in  the  cave  of 
Engedi  (1S243),  but  the  Ps.,  has  no  relation 
either  to  the  one  or  to  the  other.  It  is  a 
companion  to  Ps  56.  The  general  situation 
is  the  same,  but  the  refrain  in  this  case  (vv. 
5,  11)  is  even  more  triumphant.  Vv.  4,  8  (see 
notes)  mark  the  Ps.  as  an  evening  hymn.  Vv. 
7-11  form  Ps  108 1-5.  This  is  one  of  the  Pss. 
for  Easter. 

I.  Trusteth]  RV  '  taketh  refuge.'  3.  From 
the  reproach,  etc.]  RV  '  when  he  that  would 
swallow  me  up  reproacheth,'  i.e.  reproacheth 
God,  blasphemeth.    His  truth]  his  faithfulness. 

4.  And  I  lie,  etc.]  better,  '  I  will  take  my 
rest  even  among  fiery  foes  ' — an  expression  of 
the  calm  courage  of  faith. 

6.  My  soul  is  bowed  dowm]  LXX  '  They 
have  bowed  down  my  soul '  ;  but  perhaps  we 
should  read,  '  their  soul  is  bowed  down,'  which 
makes  the  v.  consist  of  two  contrasts.  7.  My 
heart  is  fixed]  is  firm  and  steadfast  in  its 
courage.  8.  My  glory]  my  soul,  as  in  7^  16  ^ 
3012.  Psaltery  and  harp]  see  on  33  2.  Will 
awake  early]  RM  '  will  awake  the  dawn,'  by 
singing  even  before  the  morning  appears. 

9.  People]  R V  '  peoples ' :  see  on  56  '^. 

PSALM   58 

This  Ps.  denounces  the  wickedness  of  unjust 
and  oppressive  judges,  and  prays,  in  a  series 
of  powerful  metaphors,  for  their  destruction,  in 
order  that  righteousness  may  be  vindicated, 
and  God  exalted  as  the  supreme  Judge.  It  is 
uncertain  whether  the  injustice  complained 
of  is  exercised  by  Israelites  or  by  foreigners, 
and  so  the  Ps.  has  been  variously  placed  before 
and  after  the  exile.  In  any  case  it  cannot  be 
regarded  as  David's.  For  its  subject  it  should 
be  compared  with  Ps  82. 

Title.— See  on  Ps  57. 

I.  O  congregation]  RV  '  in  silence.'  Both 
are  doubtful  renderings  of  a  word  which  occurs 
only  here.  The  reading  now  generally  ac- 
cepted gives  the  meaning,  '  O  ye  gods,'  or 
'  mighty  ones,'  in  the  sense  of  '  judges '  :  cp. 
821.  Sons  of  men]  Judges  are  reminded  that 
they  are  human,  in  spite  of  their  high  office  : 
see  827.  2.  Weigh]  RV  'weigh  out.'  The 
'  scales  of  justice  '  are  abused.  3.  Estranged] 
from  God  and  righteousness.  4,  5.  The  com- 
parison with  serpents  is  twofold,  first  as  to 
venom,  and  second  as  to  obstinate  refusal  to 


351 


58.  4 


PSALMS 


60.  5 


be  influenced.  4.  Adder]  RM  '  asp.'  5.  Will 
not  hearken,  etc.]  cp.  Jer  8 1".  The  ancient  art 
of  snake-charming  is  still  practised  in  the  East. 

6.  Read  with  LXX  '  God  shall  break,'  etc., 
and  in  the  following  vv.  '  They  shall  melt .  . 
shall  be.'  This  gives  solemn  prediction  in  the 
place  of  mere  imprecation.  7.  Cut  in  pieces] 
RV  '  cut  off,'  blunted.  8.  Read,  '  They  shall 
he  as  a  snail  which  melteth  and  passeth  away.' 
The  idea  is  perhaps  derived  from  the  snail's 
slimy  track,  or  from  the  commonness  of  empty 
snail  shells. 

9.  He  shall  take,  etc.]  Read,  'While  the 
flesh  is  still  raw  wrath  shall  sweep  them  away 
like  a  whirlwind.'  Flesh  is  about  to  be  cooked 
in  a  pot,  but  almost  before  the  fire  has  kindled 
a  whirlwind  scatters  the  whole  arrangement. 
The  figure  suggests  a  judgment  of  startling 
suddenness.  10.  This  v.  breathes  a  spirit  of 
ferocity  not  unnatural  in  the  warlike  days  of 
the  OT.,  but  impossible  to  be  reconciled  with 
the  spirit  of  Christ.  II.  He  is  a  God]  RV 
'  there  is  a  God.' 

PSALM  69 

Title.— (RV)  '  For  the  Chief  Musician  ;  set 
to  Al-tashheth.  A  Psalm  of  David  :  Michtam  : 
when  Saul  sent,  and  they  watched  the  house 
to  kill  him.' 

For  the  first  part  of  the  title  see  on  Ps57. 
The  second  part,  which  alludes  to  ISI911, 
scarcely  explains  the  contents  of  the  Ps.,  which 
has  foreign  enemies  in  view  throughout  (vv. 
5,  8,  13).  'My  people'  in  v.  11  has  been 
held  to  imply  that  the  writer  was  a  king, 
while  David  at  the  time  in  question  was  only 
a  subject.  It  is  probable  that  the  Ps.  should 
be  assigned  to  the  period  of  the  later  Jewish 
monarchy.  Like  many  other  Pss.,  it  presents 
the  three  features  of  danger,  prayer,  and 
confidence. 

2.  Bloody]  RV  '  bloodthirsty.'  3.  Not /or 
my  transgression]  This  might  express  the 
Psalmist's  conscious  innocence  before  God, 
but  more  probably  it  means  that  he  had  done 
nothing  to  provoke  the  hostility  of  his 
enemies.  4.  Awake]  cp.  4423.  g.  Qod  of 
Israel]  specially  invoked  because  His  people 
are  being  assailed  by  the  heathen.  Selah]  see 
on  34. 

6.  The  writer's  foes  are  compared  to  the 
savage  dogs  which  infest  Eastern  cities  and 
prowl  round  at  night  in  search  of  garbage. 
Possibly  there  is  a  hint  here  that  Jerusalem 
was  actually  besieged.     Make  a  noise]  '  snarl.' 

7.  Swords  are  in  their  lips]  Their  speech  is 
cutting  and  injurious.  Who,  say  they,  doth 
hear  ?]  They  question  whether  there  is  a  God. 

9.  Because  of  his  strength,  etc.]  RV  '  0  my 
strength,  I  will  wait,'  etc.  10.  Shall  prevent 
me]  i.e.  shall  come  to  meet  me. 

II.  Slay  them  not]  must  be  understood  in 


the  light  of  V.  13.  The  prayer  is  that  they 
may  not  be  suddenly  cut  off,  but  may  be 
allowed  to  perish  gradually  in  their  sin,  in 
order  that  Israel  may  have  a  more  memorable 
object-lesson  in  the  righteousness  of  God. 

13.  Let  them  know,  etc.]  Read,  'Let  them 
know  unto  the  ends  of  the  earth  that  God 
ruleth  in  Jacob.'  Zeal  for  God's  glory  is  the 
one  motive  of  the  Psalmist's  prayer,  however 
vindictive  some  of  his  requests  may  appear. 

14.  Almost  a  repetition  of  v.  6.  It  may 
mean  that  the  contemptible  attitude  of  the 
heathen  described  in  v.  6  is  all  that  is  to  be 
left  them.     15.  Grudge]  RV  'tarry  all  night.' 

15.  16,  Read,  'As  for  them  they  shall 
wander  .  .  But  I  will  sing.'  16.  In  the  morning] 
Though  his  enemies  prowl  all  the  night  it  will 
be  in  vain. 

PSALM  60 

Title.— (RV)  '  For  the  Chief  Musician  •,  set 
to  Shushan  Eduth :  Michtam  of  David,  to 
teach  :  when  he  strove  with  Aram-naharaim 
and  with  Aram-zobah,  and  Joab  returned,  and 
smote  of  Edom  in  the  Valley  of  Salt  twelve 
thousand.' 

Shushan-eduth  ('  the  lily  of  the  testimony ') 
denotes  that  this  Ps.  was  set  to  the  same 
melody  as  Pss  45,  69,  80.  For  '  Michtam '  see 
Ps  16.  The  historical  occasion  in  the  title  is 
described  in  2  S  8  3-8,  is,  14  1  Ch  1 8  3-8, 12, 13^  but  in 
these  passages  Abishai  is  mentioned  instead  of 
Joab,  and  the  number  of  the  slain  is  given  as 
18,000.  1  Ch8i2  is  probably  right  in  reading 
'  Edom '  instead  of  '  the  Syrians '  (Aram)  of 
2S813.  The  Ps.,  however,  is  plainly  written 
after  a  lost  battle,  not  after  a  victory.  It  has 
been  suggested  that  while  David  was  engaged 
with  the  Syrians  in  the  N.  of  Palestine,  the 
Edomites  may  have  gained  a  temporary  success 
in  the  S.  before  they  were  routed  by  David's 
generals,  and  that  the  Ps.  may  have  been 
written  under  the  shadow  of  this  reverse. 
Others  think  that  vv.  6-8,  asserting  God's 
sovereignty  over  the  whole  territory  ruled  by 
David,  are  a  Davidic  fragment  woi-ked  into  a 
later  poem  of  national  distress.  The  last  six 
verses  form  the  second  part  of  Ps  108.  Vv. 
1-4  describe  the  defeat  of  Israel.  The  prayer 
in  V.  6  leads  to  a  confident  expectation  of  exten- 
sive conquests  by  God's  assistance  (vv.  6-12). 

I.  Turn  thyself  to  us]  RV  '  restore  us,'  not 
necessarily  from  captivity.  2.  Earth]  RV 
'  land.'     The  imagery  is  that  of  an  earthquake. 

3.  Wine  of  astonishment]  RV  '  wine  of 
staggering,'  or  reeling  :  see  Isa51  i'i'>22,  where 
God's  wrath  is  similarly  compared  to  stupefy- 
ing wine.  4.  That  it  may  be  displayed,  etc.] 
Read  with  LXX  '  that  they  may  betake  them- 
selves to  flight  before  the  bow.'  Israel  has 
raised  the  standard  only  to  flee.  5.  Thy 
beloved]  better,  '  thy  beloved  ones.' 


i 


352 


60.  6 


PSALMS 


63.4 


6  f .  The  Psalmist  gives  the  grounds  of  his     kiah's  words  in  JerSS^.     The  v.  is  an  assur- 


confidence  in  God.  All  the  nations  are  His, 
and  He  deals  with  them  as  He  sees  good. 

6.  Rejoice]  exult  as  a  victor.  Mete]  mea- 
sure. Shechem  .  .  Succoth]  W.  and  E.  of  the 
Jordan  respectively.  Both  places  were  con- 
nected with  Jacob  (Gn33i7.i«).  7.  Gilead  .  . 
Manasseh]  both  E.  of  the  Jordan,  Gilead 
being  N.  of  Manasseh.  Ephraim  .  .  Judah] 
both  W.  of  the  Jordan  and  again  named  from 
N.  to  S.  They  were  the  two  most  powerful 
Hebrew  tribes,  and  became  the  heads  of  the 
separate  kingdoms  after  Solomon's  death. 
Hence  they  are  distinguished,  the  one  as  the 
helmet  (RV  '  the  defence  of  mine  head '),  the 
other  as  the  '  sceptre  '  (E,V)  of  God. 

8.  Moab . .  Edom .  .  Philistia]  Israel's  neigh- 
bours on  the  E.,  SE.,  and  W.  respectively. 
They  are  all  described  as  reduced  to  the  lowest 
subjection.  Moab  is  the  vessel  in  which  the 
conqueror's  feet  are  washed,  Edom  the  slave 
who  cleans  his  sandals  (reading  '  unto  Edom ' 
with  RM),  or  the  corner  into  which  the  san- 
dals are  thrown  when  soiled  (reading  '  upon 
Edom '  with  E,Y).  Philistia,  etc.]  Read,  as  in 
Psl089,  'Over  Philistia  will  I  shout  in  tri- 
umph.' 9.  The  strong  city]  Petra,  the  almost 
impregnable  capital  of  Edom.  It  is  the  Psalm- 
ist who  now  speaks,  asking  how  Edom  is  to  be 
conquered.  10.  RV  '  Hast  not  thou,  O  God, 
cast  us  off  ?  And  thou  goest  not  forth,  O 
God,  with  our  hosts.'  11.  From  trouble]  RV 
'  against  the  adversary.' 

PSALM   61 

This  Ps.  was  written  at  a  distance  from 
Jerusalem,  and  is  either  the  prayer  of  a  king 
for  himself,  or  the  prayer  of  a  subject  for 
himself  and  the  king.  In  the  former  case  it 
would  naturally  be  assigned  to  David,  and  to 
the  time  of  his  stay  at  Mahanaim  beyond 
Jordan,  during  Absalom's  rebellion.  In  the 
latter  it  might  belong  to  any  time  before  the 
exile.  In  present  trouble  the  memory  of  past 
mercies  inspires  confidence  for  the  future. 

2.  The  end  of  the  earth]  or  perhaps  '  of  the 
land.'  Jerusalem  is  the  centre,  absence  from 
which  is  banishment.  The  rock  that  is  higher 
than  I]  '  a  rock  too  high  for  me,'  some  inac- 
cessible place  of  security.  4.  Tabernacle] 
tent.  The  word  may  be  purely  figurative  (cp. 
Ps  23  '^),  or  it  may  refer  to  the  '  tabernacle ' 
which  David  made  for  the  ark.  Trust]  RV 
'  take  refuge  ' :  see  Ps  178. 

5.  Vows]  here  stand  for  the  prayers  which 
accompanied  them.  Thou  hast  given  me^  etc.] 
RM  '  Thou  hast  given  an  heritage  unto  those 
that  fear  thy  name.'  This  may  mean  that 
Absalom's  rebellion  has  been  crushed,  and 
that  the  land  is  in  the  possession  of  loyal 
Israelites.  6.  If  David  is  the  writer  he  speaks 
of  himself  here  in  the  third  person  :  cp.  Zede- 


23 


353 


ance  rather  than  a  prayer.  7.  Abide  .  .  for 
ever]  in  the  continuance  of  his  royal  line  :  see 
2S712,13,16_  Prepare]  or  appoint.  Mercy 
(RV  '  lovingkindness  ')  and  truth  are  personi- 
fied as  guardian  angels  :  see  PsS?^. 

PSALM   62 

This  is  a  Ps.  of  the  strongest  faith,  in  which 
the  experience  of  hostility  (vv.  3,  4)  and  the 
contemplation  of  life  (vv.  9,  10)  only  provide 
the  background  against  which  a  serene  confi- 
dence in  God  displays  itself.  Its  tone  is  not 
inconsistent  with  the  character  of  David,  who 
'  strengthened  himself  in  the  Lord  his  God ' 
(1  S30«  RV).  Vv.  1,  2  are  practically  repeated 
in  vv.  5,  6. 

Title. — Jeduthun]  see  on  Ps  39. 

I.  Truly .  .  waiteth]  RV  '  my  soul  waiteth 
only.'  The  word  rendered  '  only  '  occurs  six 
times  in  the  Ps.  3.  Ye  shall  be  slain]  RV 
'  that  ye  may  slay  him,'  or  better  still,  '  batter- 
ing him,'  a  figure  continued  in  the  next  clause. 

As  a  bowing  wall  shall  ye  be,  etc.]  RV  '  like 
a  bowing  wall  and  like,'  etc.  The  comparison 
applies  not  to  the  assailants  but  to  the  person 
assailed. 

9.  While  God  is  all,  men  are  nothing,  whether 
they  be  high  or  low.  Vanity  or  breath,  and 
lie  or  illusion  are  the  most  that  they  can  be 
called.  To  be  laid  in  the  balance]  RV  '  in 
the  balances  they  will  go  up,'  because  of  their 
lightness.  Altogether]  RV  'together,'  both 
high  and  low  combined.  11,  12.  Power  and 
mercy]  the  two  sides  of  the  full-orbed  char- 
acter of  God,  both  displayed  in  His  unerring 
judgments  of  men. 

PSALM  63 

Title. — A  Psalm  of  David,  when  he  was  in 
the  wilderness  of  Judah. 

The  writer  of  this  Ps.  is  a  king  (v.  11),  who 
is  at  a  distance  from  the  sanctuary,  and  in 
danger  from  eager  foes.  If  the  title  be  correct 
it  must  refer,  not  to  David's  earlier  experi- 
ences in  the  reign  of  Saul  (1  S225),  but  to  the 
time  when  his  flight  from  Absalom  led  him 
through  the  wilderness  of  Judah,  between 
Jerusalem  and  the  Jordan  (2  S 15  23-28).  His 
longing  for  God's  presence  (vv.  1,  2)  passes 
into  joyful  confidence  (vv.  3-8)  and  certain 
expectation  of  his  enemies'  overthrow. 

I.  O  God,  thou  art  my  God]  the  '  Elohistic ' 
equivalent  of  '  O  Lord,  thou  art  my  God.' 

Early]  RM  '  earnestly.'  2.  RV  '  So  (or 
'  thus ')  have  I  looked  upon  thee  in  the  sanctu- 
ary. To  see  thy  power  and  thy  glory.'  The 
sanctuary  may  be  the  temporary  abode  of  the 
ark  at  Jerusalem.  It  is  the  memory  of  com- 
munion with  God  there  which  inspires  the 
Psalmist's  present  longing.  4.  Thus]  better, 
'  therefore.'    Lift  up  my  hands]  in  prayer.    In 


63.  5 


PSAI.MS 


66.  15 


thy  name]  trusting  in  the  revealed  character 
of  God.  5.  Hunger  is  now  substituted  for 
thirst  to  describe  the  spiritual  longing  which 
God  satisfies. 

6.  The  nifjlit  watches]  were  three  in  number 
— the  fii'st,  the  middle,  and  the  morning  watches. 

8.  The  clinging  effort  of  the  human  soul 
and  the  upholding  gi'asp  of  God  are  the  two 
sides  of  the  relationship  of  faith.  9.  The 
lower  parts  of  the  earth]  the  under-world  of 
Sheol.  10.  Foxes]  jackals.  11.  By  him]  by 
God :  see  IsaOS^'^. 

PSALM  64 

This  is  a  Ps.  on  a  familiar  theme.  The 
Psalmist's  life  is  in  danger.  He  describes  the 
injurious  words  and  malicious  plans  of  his 
enemies,  and  foretells  how  their  overthrow 
will  be  a  warning  to  all  who  see  it,  and  a  new 
ground  for  the  righteous  to  rejoice  in  God. 
The  same  figure  (shooting  an  arrow)  is  em- 
ployed both  for  the  assaults  of  the  wicked  and 
for  their  discomfiture  by  God. 

4.  In  secret]  RV  '  in  secret  places.'  The 
perfect]  the  upright  man  :  cp.  37  37.  Fear  not] 
regard  neither  God  nor  man.  5.  Matter]  RV 
'  purpose.'  They  say,  Who  shall  see  them  ?] 
cp.  10^1.  6.  They  accomplish,  etc.]  better, '  we 
have  perfected,  .sw/  theii^  a  careful  device.' 

8.  RV  '  So  shall  they  be  made  to  stumble, 
their  own  tongue  being  against  them,'  their 
evil  words  coming  back  upon  themselves.  See 
them]   '  see  their  desire  upon  them '  :  cp.  54  7. 

Flee  away]  RV  '  wag  the  head,'  in  scorn  : 
see  22  7  Jer  48  27.  9.  Note  the  contrast  with  28  5. 

PSALM  65 

The  allusions  to  the  Temple  worship  show 
that  this  Ps.  belongs  to  a  later  age  than 
David's.  As  to  its  occasion  we  can  gather 
that  a  national  religious  festival  at  Jerusalem 
was  in  view  (vv.  1-4),  that  a  striking  national 
deliverance  had  produced  a  wide-spread  im- 
pression of  God's  power  (vv.  5-8),  and  that  a 
favourable  season  gave  promise  of  an  abun- 
dant harvest  (vv.  9-13).  The  presentation 
of  the  firstfruits  at  the  Passover  (Lv23io-i4) 
would  suit  the  fiist  and  last  conditions,  and 
the  repulse  of  the  Assyrian  invasion  in  Heze- 
kiah's  reign  would  fulfil  the  second. 

I.  Waiteth]  'is  silent,'  an  obscure  expres- 
sion. LXX  has  '  praise  beseemeth  thee.'  2.  All 
flesh]  God  is  thought  of  as  the  God,  not  only 
of  Israel,  but  of  all  the  world  :  cp.  b^.  3.  Me 
.  .  our]  The  Psalmist  speaks,  now  for  himself, 
now  in  the  name  of  the  nation.  4.  Even  of 
thy  holy  temple]  RV  '  the  holy  place  of  thy 
temple.'  5.  By  terrible  things]  by  impressive 
deliverances.  In  righteousness]  connected 
with  '  thou  wilt  answer  us  '  (RV).  7.  People] 
RV  '  peoples.'  8.  Thy  tokens]  the  manifesta- 
tions of   Thy  power.     Outgoings,  etc.]   the 


gates  of  morning  and  evening,  the  E.  and 
the  W.  Rejoice]  shout  for  joy — the  inhabit- 
ants of  E.  and  W.  are  meant. 

9.  With  the  river,  etc.]  RV  '  the  river  of 
God  is  full  of  water.'  The  rain  is  meant,  or 
its  source  in  the  sky.  Thou  preparest,  etc.] 
RV  '  thou  providest  them  corn  when  thou  hast 
so  prepared  the  earth,'  i.e.  by  the  plentiful 
early  rain  (Nov. -Feb.).  10.  Ridges]  RV  'fur- 
rows.' Settlest]  levellest.  Furrows]  RV 
'ridges.'  11.  Read,  '  Thou  crownest  the  year 
of  thy  goodness '  (RM).  The  prospect  of  a 
rich  harvest  was  only  the  last  gift  in  a  year 
of  many  blessings  and  deliverances.  Thy 
paths  drop  fatness]  God  is  pictured  as  walk- 
ing through  the  land,  and  causing  fertilising 
showers  to  fall  wherever  He  treads. 

12.  The  wilderness]  not  a  desert,  but  open 
pasture-land — a  '  steppe  '  or  '  veldt.'  The  little 
hills,  etc.]  RV  '  the  hills  are  girded  with  joy  ' 
— a  fine  poetic  personification  of  nature  which 
the  next  v.  continues. 

PSALM  66 

This  Ps.  triumphantly  celebrates  a  great 
national  deliverance.  The  whole  earth  is 
summoned  to  join  in  the  chorus  of  praise  (vv. 
1-4).  The  memories  of  the  exodus  are  re- 
called (vv.  5-7),  but  only  as  an  introduction 
to  more  recent  trials  and  triumphs  (vv.  8-12), 
and  the  Ps.  ends  with  vows  of  lavish  sacrifice 
(vv.  13-15),  and  with  enthusiastic  testimony 
to  God's  great  goodness  (vv.  16-20).  The 
failure  of  Sennacherib's  invasion,  and  the  re- 
turn from  Babylon  have  each  been  suggested 
as  the  occasion  of  the  Ps.,  and  the  former  is 
the  more  probable.  There  is  a  striking  change 
from  '  we '  and  '  us '  (vv.  1-12)  to  '  I '  and  '  me ' 
(vv.  13-20),  which  is  best  explained  by  sup- 
posing that  the  Psalmist  at  first  merges  him- 
self in  the  nation,  and  afterwards  regards  his 
people's  deliverance  in  the  light  of  a  personal 
blessing,  as  it  has  been  an  answer  to  personal 
prayer. 

3.  Art  thou  in  thy  works]  RV  '  are  thy 
works':  see  65 s.  6.  The  sea]  the  Red 
Sea.  Flood]  RV  '  river,'  the  Jordan.  There] 
both  at  the  Red  Sea  and  at  the  Jordan. 

8.  People]  RV  '  peoples.'  These  foreign 
nations  are  to  praise  '  our  God,'  Israel's  God. 

9.  Holdeth]  RM  '  putteth,'  or  better,  '  hath 
set.'  There  is  a  definite  allusion  to  a  recent 
deliverance  from  national  ruin.  Suffereth  not] 
better,  '  hath  not  suffered.' 

10-12.  The  peril  is  described  in  a  succession 
of  figures,  the  refining  furnace,  the  net,  the 
burden,  the  prostration  of  the  vanquished  under 
the  trampling  of  the  victors'  horses,  fire,  water. 

II.  Affliction]  RV  '  a  sore  burden.'  13.  Pay 
.  .  my  vov/s]   make  the  offerings  I  promised. 

15.  Incense  of  rams]  not  actual  incense, 
but  the  '  sweet  savour '  of  the  burning  flesh. 


354 


66.  16 


PSALMS 


68.  18 


i6.  For  my  soul]  for  the  deliverance  of  my 
life  :  see  V.  i).  17.  He  was  extolled,  etc.]  RM 
'  high  praise  was  under  my  tongue,'  ready  to 
break  forth  when  prayer  should  be  answered. 

18.  RM  '  If  I  had  regarded  iniquity  .  .  the 
Lord  would  not  hear.'  The  answer  of  God  was 
the  proof  that  the  prayer  had  been  offered 
from  an  upright  heart. 

PSALM  67 

This  short  and  joyful  Ps.  is  in  the  first  place 
a  harvest  thanksgiving  (v.  6),  perhaps  at  the 
Feast  of  Tabernacles.  God's  goodness  to 
Israel  reveals  Him  also  to  the  nations  (v.  2), 
and  calls  forth  their  praise  (vv.  3,  5),  their 
submission  (v.  4),  and  then-  worship  (v.  7). 
There  is  a  symmetrical  parallelism  on  either 
side  of  the  middle  verse,  v.  5  corresponding  to 
V.  3,  and  vv.  6,  7  to  vv.  1,  2. 

1.  This  V.  is  partly  taken  from  the  priestly 
benediction  (NuG^^),  but  with  the  change  of 
'  the  Lord  '  (jeJwvah)  into  '  God '  {Eloliim). 

2.  Thy  way]  of  dealing  with  men.  Saving 
health]  salvation.  3.  People]  RV  '  peoples.' 
So  in  vv.  4,  5.  4.  Righteously]  RV  '  with 
equity.'  Govern]  RM  '  lead,'  as  He  led 
Israel.  6.  RY  '  The  earth  hath  yielded  her 
increase.' 

PSALM  68 

This  is  one  of  the  grandest  of  the  Pss.,  but 
its  origin  and  date  are  involved  in  much  ob- 
scurity. It  contains  expressions  borrowed 
from  the  Blessing  of  Moses  (Dt33)  and  the 
Song  of  Deboi-ah  (Jg5),  and  presents  several 
parallels  with  the  exilic  prophecy  of  Isa  40-66. 
It  may  be  assigned  with  some  probability  to 
the  close  of  the  exile,  in  which  case  it  is  to  be 
regarded  as  a  triumphant  anticipation  of  God's 
victory  over  His  enemies  in  the  restoration  of 
His  people  from  the  Babylonian  captivity. 
After  an  inspiring  prelude  (vv.  1-6)  the 
Psalmist  recalls  some  of  God's  triumphs  in 
the  past — at  the  exodus  and  in  the  wilder- 
ness (vv.  7-10),  in  the  conquest  of  Canaan 
(vv.  11-14),  and  in  the  choice  of  Zion  as  His 
dwelling  (vv.  15-18).  God  next  appears  as 
the  present  Saviour  of  His  people  and  as  the 
Vanquisher  of  their  enemies  (vv.  19-23).  Then 
comes  a  picture  of  a  triumphal  procession  of  a 
reunited  Israel  in  honour  of  His  victory  (vv. 
24-27),  and  of  heathen  kings  bringing  tribute 
to  Jerusalem  (vv.  28-31).  A  magnificent  dox- 
ology  (vv.  32-35)  closes  the  Ps.,  which  is  an- 
other of  the  Pss.  for  Whit  Sunday. 

1.  Taken  from  the  invocation  of  Moses  at 
the  moving  of  the  ark  (NulO^S),  with  the 
change  of  Lord  {Jehovah)  into  God  (EJohini). 

2,  3.  The  wicked  .  .  the  righteous]  the  hea- 
then and  Israel  respectively.  4.  Extol .  . 
heavens]  RV  '  cast  up  a  high  way  for  him  that 
rideth  through  the  deserts  '  :  cp.  Isa  40  3.     By 


his    name  JAH]  RV  '  his  name  is  JAH,'  an 

abbreviation  of  Jehovah,  as  in  Hallelu-jah. 

5.  His  holy  habitation]  heaven  :  seeDt.  261^. 

6.  In  families]  RM  '  in  a  house.'  Those  .  . 
chains]  RV  '  the  prisoners  into  prosperity  '  : 
cp.  Isa  611  Psl467.  Dwell  in  a  dry  (RV 
'  parched ')  lancl]  like  the  rebellious  Israelites 
who  perished  in  the  wilderness. 

7,  8.  A  free  quotation  from  the  Song  of 
Deborah  (Jgb^'^).  Note  again  the  substitu- 
tion of  '  God  '  for  '  Lord.'     Selah]    see  on  3 4. 

8,  The  heavens  also  dropped]  in  the  rain 
which  accompanied  the  thunderstorms  of  Sinai : 
see  77 1''.  9.  A  plentiful  rain]  here  a  figure 
for  all  the  blessings  of  the  sojourn  in  the  wil- 
derness. Omit  whereby  with  RV.  10.  Hath 
dwelt]  RV  '  dwelt.'  Therein]  in  the  wilder- 
ness. Hast  prepared]  RV  '  didst  prepare.'  The 
poor]  or  afflicted,  the  needy  wanderers  in  the 
desert. 

II.  Gave  the  word]  secured  the  victory  by 
his  simple  command.  Great  loas  the  company, 
etc.]  RV  '  the  women  that  publish  the  tidings 
are  a  gi-eat  host.'  In  the  East  it  is  the  women 
who  celebrate  victories  with  song  and  dance  : 
see  1  S  186.7.  Vv.  12,  13  are  the  words  of  the 
women.  12.  Another  echo  of  Deborah's  Song 
(Jg530).  The  kings  are  the  kings  of  Canaan 
subdued  by  Joshua. 

13.  Among  the  pots]  RV  '  among  the  sheep- 
folds,'  another  plu-ase  from  Deborah's  Song 
( Jg  5 1*'),  where  it  rebukes  the  inactivity  of  the 
Reubenites.  RV  reads,  '  will  ye  lie  .  .  sheep- 
folds,  as  the  wings  of  a  dove,'  etc.,  in  the  same 
sense  of  reproof.  But  the  best  rendering  is  in 
RM,  '  When  ye  lie  among  the  sheepfolds '  (i.e. 
when  ye  return  to  your  homes)  '  if  is  as  the 
wings,'  etc.,  describing  the  brightness  and  peace 
of  the  prosperous  time  after  the  conquest  of 
Canaan.  Some  understand  the  silver  and  gold 
to  refer  to  the  spoils  of  the  victors.  14.  It 
was  ivhite,  etc.]  R V  '  It  was  as  when  it  snoweth 
in  Zalmon.'  Zalmon  was  a  wooded  hill  near 
Shechem  (Jgd-^^).  The  scattered  kings  of 
Canaan  were  like  the  driven  snowflakes  seen 
against  the  dark  green  background. 

15.  RV  '  A  mountain  of  God'  (i.e.  a  great 
mountain  :  see  36  ^),  '  is  the  mountain  of 
Bashan  ;  an  high  mountain  is  the  mountain 
of  Bashan.'  Hermon,  which  bounds  Bashan 
on  the  N.,  is  probably  meant.  Though  it  is  so 
lofty  God  has  chosen  Zion  in  preference  to  it 
(v.  16).  16.  RV  'Why  look  ye  askance'  (i.e. 
why  are  ye  jealous),  '  ye  high  mountains,  at 
the  mountain '  (Zion), '  which  God  hath  desired 
for  his  abode  ?  '  17.  Thousands  of  angels] 
RV  '  thousands  upon  thousands.'  God  enters 
Zion  in  a  great  procession  of  His  heavenly 
armies:  cp.  Dt332.  As  in  Sinai,  etc.]  RM 
'  Sinai  is  in  the  sanctuary.'  The  holy  associa- 
tions of  Sinai  are  transferred  to  Zion. 

18.  Having  taken  possession  of  Zion  God 


355 


68.  19 


PSALMS 


69.31 


has  returned  to  His  heavenly  throne.  Cap- 
tivity] RV  '  thy  captivity,'  thy  band  of  captives. 
See  Deborah's  Song  (Jg  5 1-).  For  men  .  ./«?• 
the  rebeUious]  RV  '  among  men  . .  amo?ig  the 
rebellious.'  God's  conquered  enemies  pay 
Him  tribute.  St.  Paul's  quotation  in  Eph48 
changes  '  received '  into  '  gave.' 

19.  Loadeth  us  with  benefits']  RV  '  beareth 
our  burden.'  20.  RV  '  God  is  unto  us  a  God 
of  deliverances  :  and  unto  Jehovah  the  Lord,' 
etc.  The  issues  from  death]  the  ways  of 
escape  from  death,  which  God  can  provide. 

21.  Wound]  RV  'smite  through.'  The 
hairy  scalp]  the  long  flowing  locks  which  were 
the  sign  of  the  warrior's  strength  and  of  his  de- 
votion to  his  cause.  See  Dt3242  RM,  and  the 
Song  of  Deborah  (Jg  5  2),  where  we  should  read 
'  For  that  flowing  locks  were  worn  in  Israel.' 

22.  Bring-  rmj  peopW]  RV  '  bring  them,'  i.e. 
Israel's  enemies,  who  will  be  gathered  for 
vengeance  from  the  most  inaccessible  hiding 
places.  Bashan  was  a  country  of  intricate  and 
rocky  retreats.  23.  RV  '  That  thou  mayest 
dip  thy  foot  in  blood,  that  the  tongue  of  thy 
dogs  may  have  its  portion  from  thine  enemies.' 
God  is  still  the  speaker,  and  Israel  is  addressed. 
For  the  tone  cp.  58 10. 

24.  In]  RV 'into.'  26.  From  the  fountain] 
RV  '  ye  that  are  of  the  fountain,'  all  the  de- 
scendants of  Jacob:  cp.  DtSS^s.  27.  With 
their  ruler]  RV  '  their  ruler,'  the  tribe  from 
which  the  first  king  was  taken  (ISO^i). 

Council]  '  company.'  Zebulon  and  Naphtali 
(see  Jg  5  IS)  represent  the  northern  kingdom, 
Benjamin  and  Judah  the  southern. 

28.  Read,  '  O  God,  command  thy  strength  : 
be  strong,  O  God,  thou  that  hast  -nTought  for 
us.'  30.  The  company  of  spearmen]  RV  '  the 
wild  beast  of  the  reeds,'  the  hippopotamus, 
the  symbol  of  Egypt.  Bulls,  with  the  calves 
of  the  people  (RV  '  peoples ')]  heathen  kings 
and  their  subjects.    Till  every  one  submit,  etc.] 


The  situation  of  the  writer  closely  resembles 
that  of  Jeremiah,  and  the  numerous  parallels 
between  the  Ps.  and  his  prophecies  give  colour 
to  the  conjecture  that  he  may  have  been  its 
author.  This  Ps.  is  more  frequently  quoted 
in  the  NT.  than  any  other,  except  Ps  22. 
Title. — Shoshannim]  see  on  Ps  45. 

I.  Are  come  in  unto  my  soul]  threaten 
my  very  life.  2.  Mire  .  .  deep  waters]  to  be 
understood  figuratively  of  danger  and  distress. 

3.  Weary  of]  RV  '  weary  with.'  4.  I  re- 
stored, etc.]  RM  'I  had  to  restore,'  etc., 
possibly  a  proverbial  phrase  for  unjust  treat- 
ment.    7.   Cp.  JerlSis.     8.  Cp.  Jerl26. 

9.  The  zeal,  etc.]  The  Psalmist  was  con- 
sumed by  his  devotion  to  God's  cause.  Thine 
house]  either  the  actual  Temple,  profaned  by 
idolatry,  or  the  Jewish  nation,  fallen  from  its 
high  ideal.  For  the  latter  sense,  see  Jerllis 
127  2311.     The  clause  is  quoted  in  Jn2i7. 

The  reproaches,  etc.]  see  Jer6io  20^.  The 
words  are  applied  to  Christ  in  Rol53. 

II.  Sackcloth]  the  sign  of  mourning.  A 
proverb]  or  byword.  12.  The  gate]  the  open 
space  beside  the  city  gate  where  worthless 
loafers  gathered. 

13.  Lt  an  acceptable  time]  lit.  'in  a  time  of 
good  pleasure,'  i.e.  at  the  time  thou  pleasest. 

The  truth  of  thy  salvation]  the  faithfulness 
of  Thy  saving  gi-ace.  15.  The  pit]  may  be, 
like  the  waters,  a  general  metaphor  for  trouble, 
but  it  is  more  likely  that  the  grave  is  meant. 

18.  Cp.  Jerl52i.  19.  Thou  hast  known] 
RV  'thou  knowest'  :  cp.  Jerl23  1515  igas. 

20.  Hath  broken  my  heart]  cp.  Jer239. 

21.  Gall]  some  bitter  and  poisonous  plant, 
perhaps  the  poppy.  Vinegar]  wine  become 
sour  and  undrinkable.  The  language  is  figur- 
ative, and  perhaps  proverbial,  for  cruel  mockery 
of  one  in  trouble.  In  spite  of  the  verbal 
coincidence  in  Mt2734,  the  treatment  of  Christ 
by  the  soldiers  had  not  this  character,  but  was 


■D-TT-ix  T  -,      X     J.  XI        •  P   '•, \        -^   ""^  ■='"^^^'=^'' ""^'-' ""i-  i^iiJs  cnaracter,  out  was 

RV    trampling  under  foot  the  pieces  of  silver.'     intended  to  allay  His  sufferings  ;  and,  except 


God  treats  the  tribute  of  the  heathen  with 
contempt.  31,  Egypt]  as  Israel's  ancient 
enemy.  Ethiopia]  as  one  of  the  remotest  of 
lands.    33,  34.  Cp.  Dt  33  26-27. 

PSALM  69 

This  whole  Ps.  should  be  compared  with 
Pss  22,  31,  35,  38,  and  40.  It  is  the  prayer 
of  one  who  is  in  deep  distress,  wrongfully  per- 
secuted by  enemies,  and  conscious  that,  though 
he  is  sinful,  his  sufferings  are  due  to  his  fidelity 
to  God  (vv.  1-12).  He  pleads  for  deliverance 
(vv.  13-20)  and  calls  upon  God  to  take  the 
severest  vengeance  on  his  adversaries  (vv.  21- 
28).  The  Ps.  closes  with  a  triumphant  strain 
of  praise  (vv.  29-36).  V.  35  points  to  a  date 
long  after  the  age  of  David — either  during 
the  exile,  or,  more  probably,  in  the  last  years 
of  the  Jewish  monarchy  (see  Jer33io  347). 


356 


as  to  the  fact  of  His  thirst  (Jnl928),  there  is 
no  direct  reference  in  the  Gospels  to  this  v. 

22.  And  that  %i:hich  .  .vreUare]  RV  'and 
when  they  are  in  peace.'  This  v.  is  quoted 
freely  along  with  v.  23  in  Roll 9.  23.  A 
prayer  that  blindness  and  paralysis  may  fall 
upon  the  Psalmist's  enemies.  25.  This  v.  is 
quoted  freely  (from  LXX)  in  Ac  1  20.  26.  Talk 
to  the  grief]  RV  '  tell  of  the  sorrow.'  LXX 
'add  to  the  sorrow.'  27.  Add  iniquity,  etc.] 
cause  their  guilt  to  be  filled  up,  rather  than  for- 
given. Into  thy  righteousness]  into  the  salva- 
tion which  God's  righteousness  secures  for  His 
people.  28.  The  book  of  the  living]  RV  '  of 
life,'  the  list  of  the  righteous  who  are  to  be 
preserved  aHve.  The  reference  is  not  to  the 
future  but  to  the  present  life. 

31.  Praise  is  the  truest  sacrifice  :  cp.  5013,14. 

Hath   horns   and   hoofs]    is  full   grown   as 


69.  33 


PSALMS 


72.  20 


well  as  ceremonially  clean  (Lv  1 1 3).  33.  His 
prisoners]  perhaps  an  allusion  to  the  victims  of 
the  first  captivity  (2K24io-ie). 

PSALM  70 

This  Ps.  is  simply  a  repetition  of  Ps40i3-i7^ 
with  a  few  variations.  '  Lord  '  (Jehovah)  is 
changed  into  'God'  (Elohhii)  except  in  v.  1^. 
On  the  other  hand,  '  Elohim '  is  changed  into 
'  Jehovah  '  in  v.  5  ^.  By  a  change  of  one  letter 
in  the  Hebrew  '  turned  back  '  is  substituted  for 
'  desolate  '  in  v.  3,  and  '  make  haste  unto  me  ' 
appears  instead  of  '  thinketh  upon  me  '  in  v.  6. 
The  five  vv.  composing  the  Ps.  constitute  a  cry 
to  God  for  help  and  deliverance. 

Title :  see  on  Ps  38. 

PSALM  71 

This  Ps.  of  prayer  (vv.  1-13)  and  praise  (vv. 
14-24)  was  apparently  written  by  an  old  man 
(vv.  9, 18)  and  in  the  time  of  the  exile.  Some 
parts  of  it  are  undoubtedly  national,  but  much 
of  it  expresses  personal  experience  and  desire 
and  faith.  It  is  largely  made  up  of  extracts 
from  other  Pss.,  yet  it  has  a  unity  and  a  beauty 
of  its  own. 

1-3.  Practically  taken  from  31^-^.  5,  6.  See 
22^'io_  y_  As  a  wonder  unto  many]  a  striking 
example  of  God's  mysterious  chastisement  of 
His  own  :  see  Isa52i4.     12.  See  22  "  40^3. 

13.  See  35*' 26  :  cp.  also  v.  24. 

15.  I  know  not  the  numbers]  cp.  40  5.  16.  Go 
in  the  strength]  RV  '  come  with  the  mighty 
acts,'  bringing  them  as  the  subject  of  the  song. 

18.  77/ /.s  generation]  E,V  '■the  next  genera- 
tion.' 20.  For  me  read  'us'  all  through  this 
v.  (RY).  The  Psalmist  predicts  a  resurrection 
of  his  nation  which  is,  as  it  were,  dead  and 
buried  in  its  exile.  21.  Thou  shalt  increase] 
RV  '  increase  thou.'  Comfort  me  on  every 
side]   RV  '  turn  again  and  comfort  me.' 

PSALM  72 

Title.— .4  Psalm  for  (RV  '  of ')  Solomon. 

The  title  in  AV  suggests  that  David  is  the 
writer,  and  Solomon  the  subject,  of  this  Ps., 
but,  as  RV  shows,  the  authorship  is  really, 
ascribed  to  Solomon.  The  Ps.,  however,  ap- 
pears rather  to  be  the  prayer  of  a  subject  for 
the  king.  Some  actual  ruler — Solomon,  Heze- 
kiah,  or  another — is  no  doubt  in  view,  but,  as 
in  Ps45,  the  royal  figure  is  so  idealised  that 
the  Ps.  becomes  truly  Messianic,  and  applicable 
only  to  the  perfect  divine  King,  though  it  is 
nowhere  expressly  quoted  in  this  sense  in  the 
NT.  The  justice  and  beneficence  of  the  king's 
reign,  the  world-wide  extent  of  his  dominion, 
the  prosperity  of  his  country,  and  the  perpetuity 


of  his  fame,  are  successively  described.  Vv. 
18,  19  are  the  closing  doxology  of  Book  2  of 
the  Psalter,  and  v.  20  is  an  instructive  editorial 
note. 

1.  Judgments  .  .  righteousness]  the  qualities 
of  a  great  and  upright  ruler  :  see  v.  2.  The 
king's  son]  a  parallel  expression  for  the  king. 

2.  Thy  poor]  the  class  who  suffered  most 
from  unjust  and  oppressive  rulers.  3.  By 
righteousness]  RV  '  in  righteousness.'  Under 
a  righteous  government  peace  will  be  the  fruit 
that  gi'ows  on  all  the  wooded  slopes  of  the 
land:  see  Isa32i'i'.  5.  They  shall  fear  thee] 
not  the  king,  but  God.  LXX  reads  instead, 
'  He  shall  endure  as  long  as  the  sun,  and  while 
the  moon  doth  shine.'  6.  Upon  the  mown 
grass]  to  start  the  new  growth.  LXX  and 
Vulg.  render,  '  upon  a  fleece  ' :  cp.  PBV  '  into 
a  fleece  of  wool.'  7.  The  metaphor  of  v.  6  is 
continued.  '  Righteousness  '  (LXX)  and  peace 
are  the  vegetation  which  springs  up  after  the 
fertilising  showers. 

8-1 1.  These  vv.  should  be  read  as  a  prayer 
rather  than  as  a  prediction.  '  May  he  have 
dominion  .  .  May  they  bow,'  etc.  8.  From  sea 
to  sea]  from  the  Red  Sea  to  the  Mediter- 
ranean. The  river]  RV  '  the  River,'  the  Eu- 
phrates in  the  E.  The  ends  of  the  earth]  the 
extreme  W.  :  see  Ex 2331  1K421.  9.  They 
that  dwell  in  the  wrilderness]  the  wandering 
desert  tribes.  Lick  the  dust]  the  attitude  of 
abject  submission.  10.  Tarshish]  probably 
Tartessus  in  Spain :  see  on  48  '^.  The  isles] 
the  coast-lands  of  the  Mediterranean.  Sheba] 
Saba  in  S.  Arabia.  Seba]  an  unknown  locality, 
elsewhere  connected  with  Ethiopia  (Isa433 
451*). 

12.  The  poor  also,  etc.]  RV  '  and  the  poor 
that  hath  no  helper.'  14.  Precious  shall  their 
blood  be]  Human  life  will  be  protected,  and 
not  held  cheap,  as  it  is  where  tyranny  flourishes. 

15.  He  shall  live]  better,  'May  he  live,  and 
may  men  give  him  .  .  may  they  pray,'  etc.  For 
him]  PBV  renders,  '  prayer  shall  be  made  ever 
unto  him  ' :  an  indefensible  translation,  which 
has  arisen  from  an  exclusive  reference  of  the 
Ps.  to  Christ. 

16,  17.  These  vv.  also  are  best  read  as  a 
prayer.  '  May  there  be  .  .  may  his  name  en- 
dure,' etc.     16.  An  handful]  RV  '  abundance.' 

In  the  earth]  better,  '  in  the  land.'  Shake 
like  Lebanon]  wave  or  rustle  like  the  cedars 
of  Lebanon.  They  of  the  city,  etc.]  better, 
'  may  men  spring  forth  out  of  the  city  like 
gi-ass  of  the  earth.'  17.  Be  blessed]  RM  'bless 
themselves':  see  Gn22is  2&^  (RM),  and  cp. 
Isa65i6. 

20.  See  Intro,  to  Book  2. 


357 


INTRO. 


PSALMS 


rs.  20 


BOOK  3  (Psalms  73-89) 


There  are  two  groups  of  Pss.  in  this  book, 
Pss  73-83  being  Psalms  of  Asaph,  and  Pss  84-88 
(except  86)  Psahns  of  the  Sons  of  Korah.  The 
likeness  of  the  title  of  Ps89  to  that  of  Ps88 
suggests  that  it  belongs  to  the  same  group. 
The  Sons  of  Asaph  and  the  Sons  of  Korah 
were  guilds  of  singers  connected  with  the 
second  Temple  (2  Ch  20 19  Ezr  2  ^i  Neh  7  *4),  and 
these  groups  of  Pss.  belong  to  collections  made 
by  them  for  the  Temple  services. 

The  Psalms  of  Asaph,  though  of  different 
dates,  are  of  a  similar  character,  having  many 
featm-es  in  common.  They  are  national  and 
historical  Pss.,  setting  forth  God's  working 
in  history,  expressing  national  wants,  and  sug- 
gesting lessons  from  the  past  for  use  in  the 
future.  These  Pss.  have  a  definite  doctrine 
of  God.  On  the  one  hand.  He  is  the  Shepherd 
of  Israel  (80 1),  and  the  people  are  the  sheep 
of  His  pasture  (74 1  77^0  7913).  This  idea  is 
frequently  suggested,  and  it  is  elaborated  at 
length  in  Ps78.  On  the  other  hand,  God  is 
the  Judge  (75"),  defending  Israel  against  ene- 
mies (763-6),  executing  His  judgments  against 
the  wicked  (76^.9),  and  also  administering 
justice  to  the  poor  and  defending  them  from 
oppressors  (822-4).  Another  feature  of  these 
Pss.  is  the  way  in  which  history  is  used  for 
instruction,  admonition,  and  encouragement. 
Ps78  is  a  lesson  of  comfort  and  courage  from 
the  past  experiences  of  the  nation  (cp.  77  n 
808-10  817,10  839,11). 

The  Psalms  of  the  Sons  of  Korah  are  largely 
devoted  to  the  exaltation  of  the  Temple  wor- 
ship. Those  who  dwell  in  its  courts  are  blessed 
(844);  a  day  spent  there  is  better  than  a 
thousand  elsewhere  (8410).  Jerusalem  is  the 
favourite  place  of  God  (87-)  ;  to  be  born  there 
is  a  high  privilege  (87  5)  ;  and  a  special  blessing 
attends  those  who  have  it  (87*5). 

The  problem  of  the  prosperity  of  the  wicked 
presses  upon  all  the  Psalmists,  and  the  author 
of  Ps  73  dwells  upon  it.  Only  religion  enables 
him  to  bear  the  burden  that  oppresses  him 
(7317)  ;  but  when  comforted  by  the  thought  of 
God's  presence  and  healed  by  communion  with 
Him,  he  is  able  to  persevere  in  faith  and  hope. 

Ps89  is  frequently  referred  to  in  NT.,  e.g. 
Ac  1322  (v.  20),  2Thlio  (v.  7),  Revis  (w.  27 
and  37) ;  while  Ps782  is  appHed  in  Mtl335  to 
Christ's  teaching  by  parables. 

The  Pss.  of  Asaph,  like  those  of  Book  2,  are 
'  Elohistic  ' :  the  Korahite  Pss.  are  '  Jehovistic,' 
like  those  of  Books  1,  4,  and  5  (see  Intro,  to 
Book  2). 

PSALM  73 

This  Ps.,  like  Pss  37  and  49,  and  the  book 
of  Job,  deals  with   the  perplexing  problem 


presented  to  thoughtful  minds  by  the  pros- 
perity of  the  wicked  and  the  sufferings  of  the 
righteous.  The  Psalmist  has  been  deeply 
exercised  by  this  question  (vv.  2-14),  and 
after  struggling  with  doubt  (vv.  15,  16)  has 
learned  in  the  sanctuary  of  God  to  understand 
the  end  of  the  wicked  (vv.  17-20),  and  to 
repent  of  his  own  unbelieving  thoughts  (vv. 
21,  22).  He  has  found  rest  in  the  conviction 
that  the  only  true  and  lasting  blessedness  lies 
in  the  fellowship  of  God — a  fellowship  which 
ensures  present  guidance  and  future  welcome 
(vv.  23,  24),  which  is  the  object  of  his  supreme 
desire  (v.  25),  and  which  is  independent  of 
all  possible  change  (v.  26).  Separation  from 
God  is  destruction  (v.  27).  Nearness  to  God 
is  happiness  (v.  28).  There  is  no  indication 
in  the  Ps.  as  to  its  date,  except  the  allusion  in 
V.  17  to  the  existence  of  the  Temple. 

Title. — See  Intro,  to  Book  3. 

I.  The  conclusion  reached  by  faith  precedes 
the  account  of  the  struggle  with  doubt.  Of  a 
clean  heart]  a  spiritual  rather  than  a  merely 
national  conception  of  Israel.  3.  Foolish] 
RV  '  arrogant.'  4.  Most  scholars  read,  '  For 
they  have  no  torments  ;  sound  and  stalwart  is 
their  body.'  6.  Compasseth .  ,  chain]  RV 
'ia-as  a  chain  about  their  neck,'  in  the  sense 
of  an  ornament  :  see  Prov  1 9.  7.  Render, 
'  Their  iniquity  cometh  forth  from  the  heart  : 
the  imaginations  of  their  mind  overflow.' 

8.  RV  '  They  scoff,  and  in  wickedness  utter 
oppression.'  9.  Against]  RV  '  in,'  a  descrip- 
tion of  pride.  10.  His  people]  the  followers 
and  imitators  of  the  wicked  man.  Return 
hither]  better,  '  turn  hither,'  after  the  wicked 
man's  example.  Wrung  out  to  (RV  'by') 
them]  rather,  'are  supped  up  by  them.' 
They  drink  in  the  wicked  man's  principles,  or 
share  in  his  prosperity  :  see  PBV. 

12-14  are  best  understood  as  the  utterance 
of  the  Psalmist's  doubts.  15.  Say]  RV  '  had 
said.'  Should  offend  or/a/w.sY]  RV  'had  dealt 
treacherously  with.'  Thy  children]  God's  true 
people,  of  whom  the  Psalmist  was  one,  and  to 
whom  he  felt  that  he  dare  not  be  disloyal.  This 
thought  is  a  practical  refutation  of  doubt, 
even  before  the  theoretical  answer  is  fomid. 

16.  To  know]  RV  '  how  I  might  know.' 

17.  Then.,  end]  RV  'and  considered  their 
latter  end.'  Difficulties  are  resolved  and  the 
soul  strengthened  against  the  temptations  of 
doubt  in  the  presence  and  communion  of  God, 
as  enjoyed  in  His  sanctuary.  20.  When  thou 
awakest]  better,  'when  Thou  stirrest  up 
Thyself.'  Their  image]  not  themselves.  The 
end  of  the  wicked  is  nothingness.  It  is  only 
a  shadow  of  them  that  survives  for  God  to 
contemplate. 


358 


73.  22 


PSALMS 


76. 


22.  Foolish]  RV  '  brutish.'  23.  Thou  hast 
holden,  etc.]  Though  the  grasp  of  faith  on 
God  may  waver,  fellowship  with  Him  depends 
most  of  all  on  His  grasp  of  His  people. 

24.  The  experience  of  God's  fellowship 
contains  in  itself  a  promise  that  it  will  con- 
tinue and  become  closer.  This  thought 
plainly  leads  to  belief  in  immortality.  26.  My 
flesh  and  my  heart]  both  the  outer  and  the 
inner  man.  Though  both  of  these  should 
perish,  something  would  yet  remain  in  eternal 
union  with  God.  27.  Whoring]  a  familiar 
OT.  figure  for  departure  from  God. 

PSALM  74 

Pss  74  and  79  seem  to  reflect  the  same 
historical  situation,  and  are  usually  ascribed 
to  the  same  author.  Both  were  written  in  a 
time  of  national  calamity,  when  the  Temple 
was  profaned  (Ps  74),  and  the  Israelites  ruth- 
lessly slaughtered  (Ps  79)  by  a  heathen  enemy. 
The  occasion  described  must  have  been  either 
the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  Nebuchad- 
rezzar's army  (586  B.C.,  2K24  2'Ch37iif-  Jer 
391-8  521-1-1),  or  the  persecution  of  the  Jews 
by  Antiochus  Epiphanes  (168-165  B.C.  :  see 
1  Mac  1-4  and  the  Intro,  to  Daniel).  V.  7 
seems  to  point  to  the  former,  vv.  8,  9  to  the 
latter  period.  After  an  opening  appeal  to 
God  (vv.  1,  2)  the  Ps.  describes  the  ravages 
of  the  enemy  in  the  Temple  (vv.  3-7),  and 
the  distressed  condition  of  Israel  (vv.  8,  9). 
A  second  appeal  (vv.  10,  11)  is  followed  by 
recollection  of  God's  past  mercies,  especially 
in  leading  His  people  from  Egypt  to  Canaan 
(vv.  12-15).  Next  comes  an  ascription  of 
praise  to  God  as  the  Ruler  of  Nature  (vv.  16, 
17),  followed  by  a  final  prayer  that  He  will 
vindicate  His  own  glory,  which  the  heathen 
have  dishonoured  (vv.  18-23). 

Title.— Maschil]  see  on  Ps  32. 

I.  Smoke]  Like  a  dark  thunder-cloud 
threatening  a  flock  :  see  188.  2.  The  rod.  . 
redeemed]  RV  '  which  thou  hast  redeemed 
to  be  the  tribe  of  thine  inheritance.'  3.  Lift 
up  thy  feet  unto]  Hasten  to  see.  4.  Their 
ensigns]  either  military  standards  or  religious 
emblems  :  see  1  Mac  1  ^V,  54, 55, 59_  g.  ^  inan  .  . 
lifted  up]  RV  '  They  seemed  as  men  that  lifted 
up.'    The  thick  trees]  RV  '  a  thicket  of  trees.' 

8.  Synagogues]  The  mention  of  these 
points  to  the  later  date  for  the  Ps.,  as  they 
only  arose  after  the  return  from  the  Baljy- 
lonian  exile.  9.  Our  signs]  either  God's 
miraculous  interpositions,  or  Jewish  religious 
customs  such  as  sacrifice,  circumcision,  and 
sabbath-observance,  all  of  which  Antiochus 
Epiphanes  forbade  under  the  heaviest 
penalties  :  see  1  Mac  1  *^>  ^s.  50.  No  more  any 
prophet,  etc.]  This  hardly  applies  to  the 
Babylpnian  capture  of  Jerusalem,  when  both 
Jeremiah  and  Ezekiel  were  alive,  and  when 


359 


the  former  had  foretold  that  the  captivity 
would  last  70  years.  For  the  absence  of 
prophets  in  the  days  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes 
see  1  Mac  4  46  927  1441. 

ri.  The  last  clause  is  condensed  in  the 
original.  RV  adds  to  the  last  clause,  '  and 
consume  them.' 

13.  The  sea]  the  Red  Sea:  Ex  14  21.  The 
dragons]  '  sea  monsters,'  a  figure  for  Egypt. 

14.  Leviathan]  probably  the  crocodile, 
another  figure  for  Egypt  :  cp.  Ezk293-5  321-5. 

The  people  inhabiting  the  wilderness]  the 
wild  beasts  of  the  desert.  15.  Cleave  the 
fountain]  i.e.  cleave  the  rock  from  which  the 
fountain  flowed  :  see  Ex  17  ^^  Nu  20  8.  Rivers] 
the  Jordan:  Josh  3 13  423.  16,  17.  The 
signs  of  God's  presence  in  nature.  18.  The 
foolish  people]  RV  'a  foolish  people,'  a 
heathen  nation  :  see  Dt322i.  20.  Of  the 
earth]  better,  'of  the  land,'  the  hiding-places 
to  which  the  Israelites  were  pursued  by  their 
enemies  :  see  1  Mac  1  ^3  2  27-3S.  23.  Increaseth] 
RV  '  ascendeth.' 

PSALM   75 

In  contrast  with  the  plaintive  strains  of 
Ps74  this  is  a  Ps.  of  thanksgiving  for  some 
national  deliverance  (v.  1).  It  celebrates  God 
as  the  Judge  of  all  the  earth,  who  interposes 
in  His  own  time  amid  the  confusions  of  men 
(vv.  2,  3).  His  enemies  are  warnsd  against 
pride  (vv.  4-8)  by  the  certainty  that  His  cup 
of  punishment  is  prepared  for  the  wicked  (v.  8). 
The  Ps.  ends  with  an  ascription  of  praise  (v.  9), 
and  a  declaration  of  God's  righteous  purpose 
(v.  10).  In  vv.  2,  3,  10,  God  Himself  is  the 
speaker.  There  is  nothing  to  indicate  the  date 
or  occasion  of  the  Ps.,  which  presents  some 
parallels  with  the  Song  of  Hannah  (1S21-10). 

Title.— (RV)  Al-tashheth]  see  on  Ps  57. 

l''.  RV  '  for  thy  name  is  near  :  Men  tell  of 
thy  wondrous  works.'  God's '  name '  means  His 
saving  presence  (IsaSO^'i').  2.  God  speaks. 
Receive  the  congregation]  RV  'find  the  set 
time  '  for  judgment.  3.  Bear  up]  RV  '  have 
set  up.'  God's  moral  order  stands  sure  even 
when  it  seems  that '  the  world  is  out  of  joint '  : 
cp.  1  S28.  Selah]  see  on  3'^.  4.  Fools]  RV 
'arrogant'  :  cp.  IS 24.  4,  5.  'Lifting  up  the 
horn  '  and  having  '  a  stiff  neck '  are  figures  for 
self-exaltation  and  obstinacy.  6.  Read,  '  For 
neither  from  .  .  cometh  judgment.'  Foreign 
invasions  of  Israel  generally  came  from  the 
N.,  and  deliverance  might  naturally  be  looked 
for  from  some  of  the  other  quarters  mentioned. 

7.  Settethup]  RV  lifteth  up' :  cp.  1  S2«'.7. 

8.  A  cup]  The  same  figure  for  God's  punish- 
ment is  found  in  IsaSli^  Jer  25  is  f.  4826  4912. 

PSALM  76 

Like  the  previous  Ps.  this  is  a  song  of 
national   deliverance,  which   may  have  been 


76.  2 


PSALMS 


78.9 


called  forth,  as  the  title  in  LXX  suggests,  by 
the  overthrow  of  Sennacherib's  army  (2K19^5 
2  Ch  32  21  Isa  37  3t3).  In  w.  1-6  God  is  described 
as  returning  to  His  dwelling-place  in  Zion  from 
the  mountains  where  He  has  overthrown  His 
adversaries.  In  vv.  7-9  another  figure  is  in- 
troduced which  represents  God  as  uttering 
sentence  from  heaven  upon  His  enemies,  while 
the  earth  is  hushed  in  silence.  V.  10  explains 
how  God  gains  glory  even  from  the  rebellious- 
ness of  men,  and  vv.  11,  12  call  the  whole 
world  to  render  Him  the  homage  which  is  due 
to  His  terrible  majesty. 

Title. — Neginoth]  see  on  Ps4. 

2.  Salem]  Jerusalem.     3.  Selah]  see  on  3*. 

4.  More  glorious  .  .  than]  RV  '  glorious  .  . 
from.'  Mountains  of  prey]  God  comes  back 
like  a  lion  from  hunting  and  slaying  His  foes. 

8.  Judgment]  RV  sentence.'  lo^  RV'the 
residue  .  .  gird  upon  thee.'  The  spent  and 
powerless  anger  of  men  is  worn  as  an  ornament 
by  God,  or  becomes  His  sword  by  which  they 
are  destroyed. 

PSALM  77 

The  Ps.  records  the  writer's  experience  of 
personal  perplexity  and  darkness,  which,  how- 
ever, has  been  caused  by  the  contemplation  of 
Israel's  national  distress.  It  may  be  dated 
appropriately  in  the  time  of  the  exile.  Vv. 
1-3  describe  the  Psalmist's  trouble,  in  which 
even  prayer  has  brought  no  comfort.  Vv.  4-9 
speak  of  his  meditations  on  the  brighter  past, 
which  lead  to  the  question  whether  God  has 
finally  rejected  His  people.  In  vv.  10-20 
he  turns  for  comfort  to  the  story  of  God's 
wonderful  works  of  old,  and  dwells  especially 
upon  His  deliverance  of  Israel  from  Egypt 
(v.  1,5),  His  sublime  manifestation  of  power  at 
the  Red  Sea  (vv.  lG-19),  and  His  guidance  of 
His  people  through  the  wilderness  (v.  20).  At 
this  point  the  Ps.  comes  to  an  abrupt  close. 

Title.- — Jeduthun]  see  on  Ps39. 

1.  Cried  .  .  gave]  RV  '  will  cry  .  .  will  give.' 

2.  My  sore  ran]  RV  '  my  hand  was  stretched 
out,'  in  the  attitude  of  prayer.  3.  Selah]  see 
on  3*.  4.  Mine  eyes  waking]  rather,  'the 
guards  of  my  eyes.'  The  eyelids  are  kept  from 
closing.  6.  My  song  in  the  night]  a  former 
time  of  happiness  and  praise  :  see  Ps428 
Job  35 10. 

10.  This  is  my  infirmity]  The  Psalmist  here 
recognises  that  his  doubts  are  due  to  his  own 
weakness  and  not  to  any  change  in  God.  i  o''.  RM 
reads,  '  That  the  right  hand  of  the  Most  High 
doth  change,'  which  may  be  taken  as  an  ex- 
clamation, mentioning  the  idea  only  to  dismiss 
it  as  impossible.  11.  Remember]  RV  '  make 
mention  of.'     12.  Talk  of]  RV  '  muse  on.' 

13.  In  the  sanctuary]  RV  '  in  holiness.' 

14.  People]  RV  '  peoples.' 

15.  The  sons  of  Jacob  and  Joseph]  Jacob  re- 


presents the  kingdom  of  Judah,  and  Joseph 
(father  of  Ephraim  and  Manasseh)  the  northern 
kingdom  of  Israel.  The  division  of  the  nation 
is  clearly  hinted  at  :  see  on  80 1' 2. 

16.  The  waters]  the  Red  Sea  :  Ex  14  21-31. 

17.  Sound]     thunder.     Arrows]    lightning. 

18.  Heaven]  RV  'whirlwind.'  19.  Is . .  are] 
RV  'was  .  .  were.'  Footsteps  .  .  not  known] 
when  the  waters  had  returned  to  their  place. 

PSALM  78 

This  long  historical  Ps.  may  be  compared 
with  Pss  105,  106,  and  with  Dt  32.  It  traces 
the  course  of  God's  relations  with  His  people 
from  the  exodus  down  to  the  time  of  David, 
and  dwells  on  the  repeated  manifestations  of 
Israel's  rebelliousness,  on  the  chastisements  by 
which  they  were  visited,  and  on  the  patient 
mercy  of  God  which  continued  to  bless  them 
in  spite  of  all  their  sins.  The  Ps.  does  not 
follow  a  strict  chronological  order,  but  records 
first  Israel's  ingratitude  for  God's  provision  of 
food  and  drink  in  the  wilderness  (vv.  12-34), 
and  afterwards  the  plagues  of  Egypt  (vv. 
43-51),  the  journey  to  Canaan  (vv.  52-55),  the 
defections  of  Israel  in  the  days  of  the  Judges 
(vv.  56-58),  the  calamities  of  the  Philistine 
wars  (vv.  56-64),  and  the  establishment  of 
David's  kingdom  (vv.  65-72).  While  the  con- 
duct of  the  whole  nation  is  in  view  throughout 
the  Ps.  the  tribe  of  Ephraim  is  singled  out  for 
special  condemnation  at  the  first  (vv.  9-11), 
and  emphasis  is  afterwards  laid  on  its  rejection 
in  favour  of  Judah,  and  on  the  rejection  of 
Shiloh  in  favour  of  Jerusalem  as  the  national 
sanctuary  (vv.  67-69).  The  date  of  the  Ps.  is 
subsequent  to  the  building  of  the  Temple  (v.  69), 
but  apparently  before  its  destruction  by  the 
Babylonians.  The  phrase  '  the  Holy  One  of 
Israel '  (v.  41)  is  characteristic  of  Isaiah's  pro- 
phecies (Isa  6 13  10 1''  2923).  and  suggests  that 
the  Ps.  was  written  in  or  after  his  time.  The 
historical  allusions  are  confined  to  the  primi- 
tive narrative  of  the  Pentateuch  (JE),  which 
was  earlier  than  the  exile.  The  references  to 
Ephraim  indicate  a  time  after  the  disruption 
of  the  kingdom  (1 K  12  2  Ch  10),  but  the  object 
of  the  Ps.  was  probably  not  to  rebuke  Ephraim, 
but  rather  to  warn  the  whole  nation  by  re- 
calling the  lessons  of  the  past. 

I.  Law]  RM  'teaching.'  2.  Parable]  in 
the  sense  of  '  didactic  poem.'  Dark  sayings] 
lit.  '  riddles.'  The  history  of  Israel  is  an 
enigma,  requiring  an  explanation  such  as  the 
Psalmist  gives.  These  two  words  occur  to- 
gether in  494  Provl^  Ezkl7  2.  The  v.  is 
quoted  in  Mt  1 3  34, 35  -with  reference  to  Christ's 
method  of  teaching  by  parables.  3,  4.  The 
vv.  are  connected.  Read,  "The  things  which 
we  have  heard  .  .  we  will  not  hide  from  their 
children'  :  cp.  Dt49  67  llio. 

9.  This   V.  does  not  refer  to  a  particular 


360 


(8.  12 


PSALMS 


80.  13 


incident,  but  is  a  general  figurative  description 
of  Ephraim's  opportunity  and  failiu'e,  antici- 
pating what  is  said  in  v.  67.  Even  before  the 
revolt  of  Jeroboam  Ephraim  had  shown  a 
tendency  to  rivalry  with  Judah  (2  S  19-11-202^). 

12.  Zoan]  Tanis,  a  city  in  the  Delta  of  the 
Nile  :  see  V.  43.     18,21.   Cp.  ExlG,  17  Null. 

26.  The  wind  that  brought  the  quails  (Nu 
1 1 31).  29.  Their  own  desire]  RV  '  that  they 
lusted  after.'  36,  37.  There  was  no  real 
change  of  heart.     His  covenant]  see  Ex  24''. 

40.  Provoke]  RV  'rebel  against.' 

41.  Limited]  RV  '  provoked.' 

43-51.  The  plagues  in  Egypt.  44.  Floods] 
RV  streams.'    45.  Divers  sorts]  RV 'swarms.' 

47.  Frost]  RM  '  great  hailstones.'  48.  Hot 
thunderbolts]  lightning  (Ex  9  "'^).  49.  By  send- 
ing evil  angels  among  theni]  RV  'a  band  of  evil 
angels,'  the  disasters  being  personified  as  mes- 
sengers of  God.     51.  Tabernacles]  RV  'tents.' 

Ham]  or  Keni^  meaning  '  black,'  because  of 
the  soil,  was  the  Egyptian  name  for  Egypt. 

54.  Sanctuary]  the  land  of  Canaan,  as  sacred 
to  God.  This  mountain]  the  mountain  land 
of  Canaan:  cp.  ExlSi''.  55.  Heathen]  RV 
'  nations.'  Divided  .  .  an  inheritance]  see  Josh 
13,  etc. 

56-64.  The  reference  is  to  the  days  of  the 
Judges.     57.  Unfaithfully]  RV  'treacherously.' 

A  deceitful  bow]  which  causes  the  archer  to 
miss  the  mark  (Hos  7  ^"j.  60.  Shiloh]  see  on 
Jgl83i  1813,24  jer 7 12-14  266. 

61.  Strength  .  .  glory]  the  ark  :  see  1 S4. 

64.  Priests]  see  lS4ii.  Made  no  lamenta- 
tion] In  the  perils  of  the  time  mourning  rites 
could  not  be  observed  :  see  Job  27 1^. 

65.  For  this  bold  figure  cp.  Isa42^3, 14_ 

66.  In  the  hinder  parts]  RV  '  backward.' 

67.  Joseph  .  .  Ephraim]  Joseph  was  the 
father  of  Ephraim.  Both  names  are  used  for 
the  northern  kingdom  as  a  whole.  Shiloh, 
where  the  ark  had  been,  was  in  the  territory 
of  Ephraim.     Now  it  was  taken  to  Zion. 

69.  High ^jaZace.s]  RV  '  heights,' the  heavens. 

Like  the  earth]  firm  as  the  earth.    71.  Great 

with  young]  RV  '  that  give  suck,'  as  in  Isa40i^. 

PSALM  79 

For  the  occasion  and  date  of  this  Ps.  see 
intro.  to  Ps  74.  It  gives  a  pathetic  picture  of 
the  calamities  that  have  fallen  upon  God's 
people  (vv.  1-4),  entreats  God  to  withdraw  His 
anger  from  them,  to  forgive  their  sins,  and  to 
avenge  them  on  the  heathen  (vv.  5-12),  that 
they  may  give  Him  perpetual  praise  (v.  13). 

I.  Jerusalem  on  heaps]  This  is  truer  of  the 
Babylonian  captivity  than  of  the  time  of 
Antiochus  Epiphanes.  6.  Quoted  from  Jer 
1025.  8.  Former  iniquities]  RV  '  the  iniquities 
of  our  forefathers,'  which  are  regarded  as  justly 
punished  by  the  present  calamities.  Prevent] 
in  the  Old  English  sense  of  'go  before,'  antici- 


361 


pate  our  need.  9.  Here  as  in  Ps74  God's 
regard  for  His  own  glory  is  the  Psalmist's 
chief  plea. 

10^.  RV  '  Let  the  revenging  of  the  blood  of 
thy  servants  which  is  shed  be  known  among 
the  heathen  in  our  sight.'  11.  The  sighing  of 
the  prisoner]  Some  of  the  people  had  been 
carried  into  captivity.  12.  The  prayer  for 
vengeance  expresses  a  moral  sentiment  less 
advanced  than  that  of  the  NT.  It  springs, 
however,  not  from  mere  personal  or  national 
vindictiveness,  but  from  a  sincere  religious 
indignation  at  the  dishonour  done  to  God's 
name. 

PSALM  80 

This  Ps.  is  an  appeal  to  God  to  save  His 
people  from  the  adversities  that  have  come 
upon  them,  and  have  made  them  the  laughing 
stock  of  their  enemies  (vv.  1-7).  Their  past 
history  is  recalled  under  the  figure  of  a  vine, 
once  flourishing,  but  now  wasted  by  wild  beasts 
and  fire  (vv.  8-16).  Special  prominence  is 
given  to  the  tribes  of  Ephraim,  Manasseh,  and 
Benjamin  (v.  2).  The  Ps.  was  probably  wi-itten 
at  least  after  the  fall  of  the  northern  kingdom 
(721  B.C.,  2  K 17  5, 6  189-11)^  if  not  during  the 
Babylonian  exile.  The  Psalmist  either  be- 
longed to  that  kingdom  or  had  a  special 
sympathy  with  it  in  its  misfortunes.  After 
the  kingdom  of  Israel  came  to  an  end  its 
rivalry  with  Judah  was  largely  forgotten,  and 
the  later  prophets  cherished  the  hope  of  a 
restoration  which  would  embrace  the  whole 
nation  (Jer3ii-15  311-20  Ezk37 15-28). 

Title. — Shoshannim-Eduth]  see  on  Pss  45 
and  60. 

I.  O  Shepherd  of  Israel]  a  representation  of 
God  characteristic  of  the  Asaphic  Pss.  (see 
Intro,  to  Book  3).  Joseph]  the  father  of  Eph- 
raim and  Manasseh.  The  name  is  applied  to 
the  kingdom  of  the  Ten  Tribes.  Dwellest 
between^  die.']  RV  'sittest  upon  the  cherubim'  : 
see  Ex  25  20-22  Ezk  1 2«5  10 1.  2.  Ephraim . .  Ben- 
jamin .  .  Manasseh]  These  three  tribes  were 
the  descendants  of  Rachel.  They  encamped 
together  in  the  wilderness,  and  followed  im- 
mediately after  the  tabernacle  when  Israel  was 
marching  (Nu  2 18-24).  The  Psalmist  prays  that 
they  may  be  restored  to  their  ancient  place  of 
favour.  3.  This  v.  recurs  as  a  refrain  in  vv. 
7,  19.  Turn  us  again]  bring  us  back  from 
captivity.  Cause  thy  face  to  shine]  from 
Nu625. 

8.  For  the  vine  as  an  emblem  of  Israel  see 
Isa5i-7  272-6  Jer 2 21  Ezk  17 1-10.  n.  The  sea] 
the  Mediterranean  on  the  W.  The  river] 
RV  '  River ' :  the  Euphrates  on  the  E.  These 
were  the  ideal  boundaries  of  Israel  (Gnl5i8 
Ex233iDtll24Ps728),  which  were  reached 
for  the  time  in  the  days  of  Solomon  (IK 4 24). 

13.    Boar  .  .  wild     beast     (RV    '  beasts  ')] 


80.  15 


PSALMS 


83.7 


Israel's  enemies,  especially,  perhaps,  the  As- 
syrians. 15.  Vineyard]  RV' stock';  another 
reading  gives  '  protect.'  16.  They  perish]  The 
figure  of  the  vine  is  dropped  here. 

17.  Let  thy  hand  be  upon]  to  protect.  The 
man  of  thy  right  hand]  the  nation  of  Israel 
personified,  with  a  special  allusion  to  the  name 
Benjamin,  which  means  '  son  of  the  right  hand ' : 
see  V.  15.  Son  of  man]  another  expression  for 
the  nation  in  its  human  weakness  :  cp.  the  use 
of  the  phrase  in  Ezekiel  (2 1,  etc.). 

18.  Quicken]  make  alive,  revive. 

PSALM  81 

After  a  summons  to  celebrate  the  Feast  of 
Tabernacles  (vv.  1-3)  this  Ps.  recalls  the  mean- 
ing of  Israel's  national  festivals  as  memorials 
of  their  deliverance  from  Egypt  (vv.  4-7). 
From  V.  6  onward  God  is  the  speaker.  In 
vv.  8-10  He  repeats  His  ancient  command  to 
Israel  to  worship  Him  alone,  and  in  vv.  11, 12 
He  tells  of  their  disobedience  and  its  con- 
sequences. The  concluding  vv.  express  His 
desire  that  Israel  may  now  prove  more  loyal 
than  of  old,  that  He  may  bless  them  with 
victory  over  their  enemies,  and  with  all  out- 
ward prosperity  (vv.  13-16).  There  is  nothing 
to  fix  the  date  of  the  Ps.,  except  that  the  allu- 
sion to  the  feast  in  vv.  1-3  shows  that  either 
the  first  or  the  second  Temple  was  in  existence 
when  it  was  written,  and.  that  vv.  14,  15  point 
to  a  time  when  Israel  was  confronted  by 
enemies.  It  was  after  the  return  from  the 
exile  that  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles  came  into 
greatest  prominence  (Ezr34   Neh8i3-i7  Zech 

1416-19). 

Title.— Gittith]  see  on  Ps  8. 

3.  In  the  time  appointed]  RV  '  at  the  full 
moon.'  The  Feast  of  Tabernacles  began  on  the 
15th  day  of  the  seventh  month  (Lv233^),  i.e. 
at  full  moon.  The  beginning  of  the  same 
month  (the  new  moon)  was  celebrated  by  the 
Feast  of  Trumpets  (Lv  23  24).  5.  He  went  out 
through]  RV  '  he  went  over '  (RM  '  against ')  : 
cp.  Ex  13,  etc.  '  He  '  refers  to  God.  Whe7'e  I 
heard  .  .  understood  not]  rather,  '  I  heard  the 
speech  of  one  that  I  knew  not,'  i.e.  of  God, 
The  Psalmist  puts  himself  in  the  place  of  the 
ancient  Israelites,  and  thus  introduces  the  words 
of  God  which  follow.  Before  the  exodus  God 
had  been  unknown  to  Israel  by  His  name  '  I 
Am,'  or  '  Jehovah'  (Ex  3'^s,u  02-8). 

6.  Pots]  RV  '  basket.'  Baskets  for  carry- 
ing bricks,  etc.,  are  often  represented  on  the 
Egyptian  monuments.  7-  Secret  place  of 
thunder]  the  pillar  of  cloud  and  fire  :  see 
Ex  1 4  24.     Meribah]  =  '  Strife ' :  see  Nu  20 13. 

Selah]  see  on  34.  9.  is  a  quotation  of  the 
first  commandment  (Ex  20  ^  Dt  5  '^).  10.  Open 
thy  mouth,  etc.]  So  Orientals  feast  their 
favoured  guests.  12.  And  they  walked]  RV 
'  that  they  might  walk.' 


13-16.  The  verbs  refer  to  the  present — 
Would  hearken  .  .  would  walk  .  .  subdue  .  .  turn 
.  .  submit .  .  endure  . .  feed  .  .  satisfy.  15.  The 
haters  of  the  Lord]  i.e.  Israel's  enemies. 

Unto  him]  probably  means  '  unto  Israel.' 

PSALM  82 

This  Ps.  is  an  impeachment  of  unjust  judges, 
who  are  officially  called  '  gods.'  It  represents 
them  as  put  upon  theii*  trial  at  God's  tribunal 
(v.  1).  God  Himself  denounces  their  wicked- 
ness (v.  2),  and  reminds  them  of  their  duties 
(vv.  3,  4).  In  V.  5  He  declares  that  they  are 
incorrigible,  and  in  vv.  6,  7  pronounces  sen- 
tence upon  them.  V.  8  is  the  Psalmist's  own 
prayer  that  God  may  manifest  His  righteous 
judgment  to  all  the  nations.  The  date  of  the 
Ps.  is  quite  uncertain.  Oriental  judges  have 
been  corrupt  in  all  ages. 

1.  Of  the  mighty]  RV  'of  God'  (El).  A 
heavenly  assembly  is  meant,  as  in  Job  1  *5  2 1 
Zech  3.  The  gods]  the  judges  of  Israel,  so 
called  as  the  official  representatives  of  God  on 
earth.     See  Christ's  explanation  in  Jn  1034,36. 

2.  Accept]  RV  '  respect.'  3.  Defend]  RV 
'judge.'  5.  They  know 'not]  The  judges  are 
deaf  to  reproof.  Out  of  course]  RV  '  moved.' 
Injustice  leads  to  the  wreck  of  society.  6.  See 
on  V.  1 .  7.  The  v.  contrasts  the  purely  human 
fate  of  the  unjust  judges  with  the  superhuman 
dignity  of  their  calling. 

PSALM  83 

This  Ps.  describes  a  confederacy  of  God's 
enemies,  the  object  of  which  is  to  attack  and 
exterminate  Israel  (vv.  2-6).  A  list  of  the 
allies  is  given  (vv.  6-8).  The  Psalmist  appeals 
to  God  to  interpose  (v.  1),  and  to  deal  with 
these  hostile  nations  as  He  dealt  with  the 
Midianites  (Jg  6-8)  and  the  Canaanites  (Jg 
4,  5)  of  old  (vv.  9-12).  Vv.  13-18  continue 
the  prayer  for  their  overthrow,  in  order  that 
they  may  seek  and  acknowledge  the  true  God. 
No  historical  occasion  is  known  on  which  all 
the  nations  mentioned  were  leagued  against 
Israel.  The  Ps.  is  connected  by  some  with  the 
invasion  in  the  reign  of  Jehoshaphat  (2  Ch  20), 
by  others  with  the  opponents  of  Nehemiah 
(Neh4'i'>S),  fiii(j  by  others  still  with  the  enemies 
of  Judas  Maccabseus  (1  Mac  5). 

3.  Thy  hidden  ones]  those  in  God's  pro- 
tection :  cp.  27^  3120.  5.  Are  confederate] 
RV  '  make  a  covenant.'  6,  7.  Edom . . 
Moab  .  .  Ammon]  The  neighbours  of  Israel  on 
the  SE.  and  E.     6.  Tabernacles]  RV  '  tents.' 

Ishmaelites]  wandering  desert  tribes. 

Hagarenes]  or  Hagrites,  a  nomadic  tribe  in 
the  region  E.  of  Gilead  (1  Ch  5  lO).  7.  Amalek] 
a  tribe  of  the  desert  S.  of  Palestine. 

Gebal]  a  district  of  Edom,  S.  of  the  Dead 
Sea.  The  Philistines]  RV  '  Philistia,'  between 
Palestine  and  the  Mediterranean  on  the  SW. 


362 


83.8 


PSALMS 


87. 


Tyre]  a  city  and  kingdom  on  the  NW.  sea 
board  of  Palestine. 

8.  Assur]  RV  '  Assyria.'  This  empire  did 
not  come  into  close  contact  with  Israel  till 
after  the  time  of  Jehoshaphat.  After  the 
fall  of  Assyria  the  name  was  used  generally 
for  the  region  of  the  East,  even  under  the 
Persian  kings  (Ezr  6  2-).  The  children  of  Lot] 
the  Moabites  and  Ammonites  (Gn  1 9  3ti-3sj 
already  mentioned,  and  apparently  the  leaders 
of  the  hostile  combination. 

9.  Sisera  .  .  Jabin  .  .  Kison]  see  Jg4,  5. 

10.  En-dor]  not  mentioned  in  Jg4,  5,  but 
it  was  in  the  locality  referred  to  in  Jg5^^:  see 
Josh  17 11.  II.  Oreb,  and.  .  Zeeb]  the  princes 
of  Midian  (Jg?-^).  Zebah,  and  .  .  Zalmunna] 
named  as  kings  of  Midian  in  JgS^^^i.  13.  A 
wheel]  RV  '  the  whirling  dust.'  15.  Perse- 
cute] RV  '  pursue.' 

PSALM   84 

This  Ps.  sets  forth  the  attractiveness  of  the 
Temple  and  its  worship  (vv.  1-4),  and  the 
happiness  of  the  pilgrims  who  gather  to  it 
from  different  parts  of  the  land  (vv.  5-7). 
After  a  prayer  for  God's  favour  (vv.  8,  9), 
it  speaks  of  the  privilege  of  the  humblest 
office  in  the  Temple  (v.  10),  and  closes  by 
describing  the  graciousness  of  God  (v.  11), 
and  the  blessedness  of  trusting  Him  (v.  12). 
The  Ps.  belongs  to  a  period  when  the  Temple 
was  standing,  and  when  its  services  were  regu- 
larly carried  on.  If  v.  9  is  a  prayer  for  the 
king,  it  must  be  the  first  Temple  that  is  in 
view.  Pss  42,  43  have  points  of  resemblance 
to  this  one,  and  may  possibly  be  by  the  same 
author. 

Title.— Gittith]  see  on  Ps  8. 

I.  How  amiable]  RM  '  how  lovely,'  and 
how  lovable.  4.  They  that  dwell  in  thy  house] 
the  priests  and  other  Temple  officials.  5.  The 
ways  of  them']  RV  '  the  high  ways  to  Z'lon' 
The  reference  is  to  Israelites  whose  hearts  are 
set  on  the  journey  to  Jerusalem.  6.  Baca]  RM 
'  balsam  trees,'  which  grow  in  dry  situations. 
This  fact  gives  the  v.  its  point.  The  pilgrim 
heart  finds  refreshment  even  on  thirsty  ground. 

A  well]  RV  '  a  place  of  springs.'  The  rain  .  . 
pools]  RV  '  the  early  rain  covereth  it  with 
blessings.'  7.  From  strength  to  strength]  The 
pilgrimage  brings  no  weariness,  but  the 
opposite  :  see  Isa403i,  and  cp.  '  The  Pilgrim's 
Progress.' 

9.  Our  shield]  This  phrase  may  either  refer 
to  God  (see  v.  11)  or  to  the  king,  in  parallel- 
ism with  '  thine  anointed  '  in  the  following 
clause  :  see  89  ^^  RV.  Look  upon  the  face] 
regard  with  favour.  Thine  anointed]  probably 
the  king.  Some  suggest  that  the  high  priest 
or  the  nation  as  a  whole  may  be  meant. 

10.  Better  than  a  thousand]  spent  elsewhere. 
A  doorkeeper]    This  was  the    special  duty 


363 


of  the  sons  of  Korah,  who  are  mentioned  in 
the  title  of  the  Ps.  (1  Ch9i9). 

PSALM   85 

This  Ps.  looks  back  upon  the  mercy  which 
God  has  shown  to  His  people  in  bringing  them 
back  from  captivity  (vv.  1-3),  entreats  Him  to 
remove  the  displeasure  that  has  again  fallen 
on  them,  and  to  deliver  them  from  present  trou- 
bles (vv.  4-7),  and  ends  with  a  hopeful  picture 
of  the  blessings  that  will  follow  the  answering 
of  the  prayer  (vv.  8-13).  It  evidently  belongs 
to  a  time  soon  after  the  return  from  the 
Babylonian  exile — either  the  days  of  dis- 
couragement before  the  building  of  the  second 
Temple  (Ezr  4  4,5, 24  Hag  1  Zech  112-21)^  or  the 
period  of  Nehemiah  (Neh  1 3).  The  Ps.  is  one 
of  those  for  Clu-istmas  Day. 

2.  Selah]  see  on  3  4.  9.  That  glory  may 
dwell]  The  reference  is  to  the  Shechinah,  the 
symbol  of  God's  presence. 

ID,  II.  Mercy ..  truth,  etc.]  These  char- 
acteristics, which  are  thus  personified,  are,  first 
of  all,  attributes  of  God,  but  they  are  also  to 
be  reflected  in  the  lives  of  His  people.  This  is 
shown  by  the  mention  of  earth  as  well  as 
heaven  in  v.  11.  12.  Material  prosperity 
will  accompany  spiritual  blessings.  13.  Set 
us  . .  steps]  RV  '  make  his  footsteps  a  way  to 
walk  in.' 

PSALM   86 

This  is  a  Ps.  of  general  supplication  for 
help  in  trouble,  and  breathes  a  devout  spirit 
of  gratitude  and  confidence  towards  God. 
Specially  remarkable  is  the  hope  of  v.  9  that 
God  will  be  universally  worshipped.  The  Ps. 
is  made  up  of  quotations  from  other  Pss.  and 
portions  of  the  OT.,  and  is  to  be  dated  after 
the  return  from  the  exile. 

I.  Hear]  RV  'answer.'  Poor  and  needy] 
see  401"  70  5.  2.  Preserve  my  soul,  etc.]  see 
2520.  Holy]  RV  '  godly ' ;  rather,  '  one  whom 
thou  favourest.'  3.  Daily]  RV  'all  the  day 
long.'  4.  See  251.  7.  See  5015.  8.  See  Ex 
1511  Dt324.  9.  See  2227-31.  n.  See  26^ 
27 11.  Unite  my  heart]  deliver  me  from  divided 
purposes  and  affections. 

13.  The  lowest  hell]  RM  '  Sheol  beneath,' 
the  state  of  the  dead :  see  5613.     j^.  See  543. 

Assemblies]  RV  '  congregation  ' :  see  22 16. 

15.  See  Ex  34  6.     16.  See  2516. 

The  son  of  thine  handmaid]  another  phrase 
for  '  thy  servant ' :  see  1161*5. 

PSALM   87 

This  Ps.  expands  the  thought  of  Ps869. 
Zion  is  the  chosen  dwelling  of  God  (vv.  1-3), 
the  spiritual  birthplace  of  the  other  nations 
(vv.  4-6),  and  the  source  of  joy  to  them  all 
(y.  7).  In  V.  4  God  is  the  speaker.  The  men- 
tion of  Babylon  as  no  longer  an  enemy  of 


87.  1 


PSALMS 


89.  38 


Israel,  but  as  receiving  spiritual  blessing  from 
Zion,  shows  that  the  Ps.  was  written  after  the 
bitter  experience  of  the  captivity  was  over. 

1.  His  foundation]  i.e.  God's.  The  holy 
mountains]  the  hills  on  which  Jerusalem  stood. 

2.  Zion]  Jerusalem.  The  dwellings  of 
Jacob]  other  cities  of  Judah.  3.  Selah]  see  on 
3  "1.    4.  Rahab]  Egypt  :  see  Isa  30  7  51 9  Ps  89 10. 

To  them  that  know  me]  RV  '  as  among  them 
that  know  me.'  This  nia?i]  EV  '  this  one,' 
this  nation.  So  in  v.  6.  5.  This  and  that 
man]  RV  '  this  one  and  that  one.'  This  and 
that  nation  shall  be  converted  to  God. 

6.  People]  RV  'peoples.'  God  is  repre- 
sented as  making  a  register  of  the  nations 
which  have  been  born  into  His  kingdom. 

7^  RV  '  They  that  sing  as  well  as  they 
that  dance  shall  my.'  The  nations  which  have 
been  born  again  will  rejoice  in  their  new  con- 
nexion with  Zion,  and  will  address  her 
accordingly.     yK  Springs]  RV  'fountains.' 

PSALM   88 

This  is  the  saddest  and  most  despairing  of 
all  the  Pss.  The  vrriter  is  apparently  the 
victim  of  some  incurable  disease  like  leprosy, 
with  which  he  has  been  afflicted  from  his  youth 
(v.  15),  and  which  cuts  him  off  from  the  society 
of  men  (vv.  8,  18).  His  life  is  already  a  living 
death  (vv.  3-6),  and  beyond  death  he  has  no 
hope  (vv.  10-12).  He  traces  his  trouble  to 
God's  displeasure  (vv.  7,  14,  16),  yet  it  is  to 
God  that  he  turns  in  pathetic  appeal  for  relief 
(vv.  1,  2,  9,  13).  Nothing  is  known  as  to  his 
identity,  or  as  to  the  date  of  the  Ps. 

Title.— Mahalath]  see  on  Ps53.  Leannoth] 
may  mean  'for  singing.'     Heman]  see  1K431. 

3.  The  grave]  RV  '  Sheol,'  the  under-world 
of  the  dead.  4  Strength]  RV 'help.'  5.  Free] 
RV  '  cast  off.'  6.  Pit . .  darkness  (RV  '  dark 
places  ') .  .  deeps]  expressions  for  Sheol. 

9.  Mourneth]  RV  'wasteth  away.'  11.  In 
destruction]  RV  '  in  Destruction.'  The  Heb. 
is  Ahaddon,  used  as  a  proper  name  for  Sheol  : 
see  Job266  2822  3112  Provl5ii  2720  Rev9ii. 

13.  Prevent]  RV  '  come  before.  17.  Daily] 
RV  '  all  the  day  long.' 

PSALM   89 

We  have  here  another  national  and  historical 
Ps.,  written  when  the  Jewish  kingdom  and  its 
king  had  fallen  very  low  before  their  enemies, 
contrasting  the  promises  made  to  David  with 
their  seeming  lack  of  fulfilment  in  the  course 
of  events,  and  appealing  to  God  to  vindicate 
His  faithfulness.  Vv.  1-4  are  introductory, 
announcing  the  Psalmist's  purpose  of  praising 
God,  and  recalling  the  covenant  made  with 
David.  The  following  vv.  celebrate  God's 
glory  among  His  heavenly  hosts  (vv.  6-7),  in 
His  victory  over  His  enemies,  especially  Egypt 
(vv.  8-10),  and  in  the  world  of  nature  (vv.  11, 


12).  Vv.  13,  14  declare  His  attributes  of 
strength,  righteousness,  mercy,  and  truth,  and 
vv.  15-18  speak  of  the  blessedness  of  His 
people  and  their  king.  His  promises  to  David 
are  repeated  at  length  (vv.  19-37),  and  the 
present  humiliation  of  king  and  people  are 
graphically  described  (vv.  38-45).  The  closing 
vv.  are  a  prayer,  in  which  the  Psalmist  pleads 
the  shortness  of  his  own  life,  and  the  re- 
proaches of  the  heathen,  as  reasons  for  a 
speedy  manifestation  of  God's  faithfulness  to 
His  word  (vv.  46-51).  V.  52  is  the  closing 
doxology  of  Book  3  of  the  Psalter.  The  Ps. 
was  probably  Avi'itten  during  the  exile,  and  it 
has  been  supposed  that  the  king  of  vv.  39-45 
is  Jehoiachin,  who  was  deposed  and  carried 
away  to  Babylon  in  his  youth,  after  a  reign  of 
three  months  (2  K  24  8-12  2Ch369-ii  Jer24i 
29  2),  and  kept  a  prisoner  there  for  thirty-seven 
years  (2  K  252V). 

Title.— Maschil]  see  on  Ps  32.  Ethan  the 
Ezrahite]  mentioned  in  IK 431  and  lCh26. 

3,  4.  God  is  here  the  speaker  :  see  on  vv. 
19-37.  Selah]  see  on  3  4.  5.  Congregation 
of  the  saints]  RV  '  assembly  of  the  holy  ones.' 
The  angels  are  meant.  6.  Sons  of  the  mighty] 
angels  :  see  29 1.  7.  Assembly  of  the  saints] 
RV  '  council  of  the  holy  ones,'  as  in  v.  5.  Had 
in  reverence  of]  RV  '  feared  above.'  8.  Or  to 
thy  faithfulness]  RV  '  and  thy  faithfulness  is.' 

10.  Rahab]  Egypt  :  see  on  87  4.  12.  Tabor 
and  Hermon]  the  most  prominent  mountains 
of  Palestine.      14.  Justice]  RV  '  righteousness.' 

Habitation]  RV  'foundation.'  15.  The  joy- 
ful sound]  perhaps  the  sound  of  trumpets  on 
the  occasion  of  Israel's  national  and  religious 
rejoicing.  17.  Our  horn]  see  75  *,  10.  18.  RV 
'  For  our  shield  belongeth  unto  the  Lord  ;  and 
our  king  to  the  Holy  One  of  Israel.'  The 
'  shield  '  is  the  same  as  the  '  king,'  who  is  under 
God's  protecting  care. 

19.  In  vision]  2S7i".  Thy  holy  one]  RV 
'  thy  saints,'  the  nation  of  Israel.  I  have  laid 
help,  etc.]  I  have  given  a  brave  man  My  aid 
to  defend  Israel. 

19-37-  sire  a  poetical  expansion  of  2S78-16. 

22.  Exact  upon  him]  RM  '  do  him  violence.' 

25.   In  .  .  in]  RV  '  on  .  .  on  '  :  see  on  SQU. 

27.  My  firstborn]  The  position  formerly 
given  to  the  nation  (Ex  4  22)  is  here  assigned 
to  its  king.  30  f.  The  promises  of  the  past  are 
recalled  in  view  of  the  sad  present.  Israel 
had  suffered  for  his  sins.  Should  he  not  be 
restored?  37.  And  as  the  faithful  witness, 
etc.]  The  meaning  is  uncertain.  The  '  faith- 
ful witness  '  may  be  the  moon,  or  we  may  road, 
'  and  the  witness  in  the  sky  (God)  is  faithful.' 

38.  Abhorred]  RV  rejected.'  Thine  anointed] 
Israel's  king.  A  particular  individual,  pro- 
bably Jehoiachin,  seems  to  be  in  view  in  this 
and  the  following  vv.,  though  they  may  also 
be  understood  of  the  nation  as  a  whole. 


364 


89;  39 


PSALMS 


90.17 


39.  Made  void]  EV  'abhorred.'  40.  The 
thought  passes  from  the  king  to  the  nation. 
For  the  figui-e  cp.  80 12.  45.  The  days  of 
his  youth]  a  plu-ase  specially  appropriate  to 
Jehoiachin.     46.  Shall]   RV  '  how  long  shall.' 

47.   Wherefore  .  .  in  vain  ?]   RV  '  For  what 


vanity  hast  thou  created  all  the  childi-en  of 
men  ! '  48.  Hand  of  the  grave]  RV  '  power  of 
SheoL'  50.  People]  RV  'peoples,'  the  enemies 
of  Israel. 

52.  The  doxology  marks  the  close  of  Book 
3  :cp.  4113  7218,19. 


BOOK  4  (Psalms  90-106) 
The   Pss.  in   this   book,  as   in  that   which     the  faith  of   those  who  had  trusted  in   God 


follows,  are  mostly  of  comparatively  late  date, 
and  suitable  for  use  in  the  worship  of  the 
sanctuary. 

The  two  books  seem  to  have  been  conjoined 
at  one  time,  and  to  have  formed  the  third 
great  division  of  the  Psalter.  In  the  17  Pss. 
of  Book  4  several  smaller  gi-oups  or  collections 
are  to  be  distinguished.  Pss  93,  95-100  are 
called  the  'theocratic'  Pss.,  because  they  cele- 
brate God  as  King,  finding  in  the  restoration 
of  Israel  from  Babylon  the  evidence  of  His 
rule  over  the  world.  These  Pss.  are  probably 
to  be  dated  soon  after  that  event,  when  it  was 
still  the  one  thought  in  men's  minds.  Pss  90, 
91,  94  and  102  probably  belong  to  the  exile, 
as  their  language  suggests  such  a  time  of 
national  humiliation  and  sorrow.  Pss  103  and 
104  go  together,  and  are  probably  by  one 
author,  who  belonged  to  the  period  of  the 
return.  Pss  105  and  106  form  a  pair  of  about 
the  same  date.  The  whole  book  is  '  Jehovistic ' 
in  its  use  of  the  divine  name. 

The  Pss.  of  the  fourth  book  may  be  classified 
thus,  the  divisions  necessarily  overlapping  one 
another  :  (a)  Penitential  Pss.,  90,  91,  94,  102  ; 
(b)  Pss.  of  Thanksgiving,  92,  93,  95-100, 
103-106  ;  (c)  National  Pss.,  94,  97,  99,  102, 
105,  106  ;  ((I)  Historical  Pss.,  105,  106  ;  (e)  a 
Gnomic  Ps.,  101. 

Most  of  the  Pss.  in  this  book  are  anonymous, 
but  Pss  101  and  103  are  ascribed  by  their  titles 
to  David.  LXX,  however,  also  gives  as 
Davidic  Pss  91,  93-99,  101,  103  and  104. 

There  are  definite  references  to  the  Temple 
worship  in  several  of  these  Pss.,  indicating 
that  the  sacred  building  was  restored  to  per- 
mit of  the  sacrifices  being  offered  and  public 
worship  performed.  The  musical  service  was 
rendered  with  instrumental  accompaniments 
(98  ^>  6)  ;  the  people  were  called  upon  to  join 
in  praise  (95  ^  96 1  981'"^)  and  kneel  in  prayer 
(95*^)  ;  offerings  were  to  be  made  in  the  courts 
of  the  Temple  (968). 

The  Messianic  hope  appears  in  this  book  in 
the  form  of  an  expectation  of  Jehovah's 
coming  in  judgment.  This  was  strengthened, 
if  not  wholly  suggested,  by  the  restoration 
from  captivity,  in  which  the  pious  Israelites 
saw  the  beginning  of  that  coming.  The  people 
were  led  to  look  for  a  still  greater  day  when 
their  enemies  would  be  finally  overthrown,  and 


would  be  completely  justified  (see  Pss  96-98). 

PSALM  90 

The  title  of  this  Ps.  (A  Prayer  of  Moses 
the  man  of  God)  ascribes  it  to  Moses,  but 
several  considerations  have  been  pointed  out 
which  suggest  a  later  date  for  its  composition. 
The  average  length  of  life  in  the  time  of 
Moses  is  supposed  to  have  been  greater  than 
that  mentioned  in  v.  10  (Dt  34  '  Josh  24  29). 
Israel's  national  life  seems  not  to  be  just 
beginning,  but  to  have  lasted  already  for  many 
generations  (v.  1).  The  recent  past  has  been 
a  time  of  calamity  rather  than  of  deliverance 
(v.  15).  The  Ps.  contains  resemblances  to 
the  book  of  Deuteronomy,  which  is  now  gener- 
ally regarded  as  much  later  than  the  time  of 
Moses,  and  these  resemblances  may  have 
suggested  the  title.  At  the  same  time,  there 
is  much  in  the  Ps.  which  is  consistent  with 
the  title,  and  some  scholars  still  maintain 
its  Mosaic  authorship.  If  not  written  by 
Moses  it  may  most  probably  be  assigned  to 
the  exile.  The  Ps.  contrasts  the  eternity  of 
God  with  the  transience  of  human  life  (vv. 
1-6),  traces  the  brevity  and  troublousness  of 
man's  existence  to  God's  displeasure  with  sin 
(vv.  7-12),  and  ends  with  a  prayer  for  God's 
forgiveness  and  favour  (vv.  13-17).  It  is 
appropriately  used  in  the  Burial  Service. 

I.   See  Dt327.     2.   Mountains]  see  Dt33i5. 

3.  Return]  to  dust  (Gen  3  ^^).  4.  A  watch 
in  the  night]  of  which  the  sleeper  is  unconsci- 
ous. There  were  three  night-watches  among 
the  Israelites  (Lam2i9  Jg7  19  1  Sll"). 

5.  They  are  a-'f  a  sleep]  or, '  they  fall  asleep ' 
in  death.     9.   Spend]   RV  '  bring  to  an  end.' 

As  a  tale  that  is  told]  RM  '  as  a  sigh,'  a 
breath. 

10.  Their  strength]  RV  '  their  pride.' 

11^.  RV  'and  thy  wrath  according  to  the 
fear  that  is  due  unto  thee  ?  '  Who  under- 
stands Thine  anger  against  sin  so  as  to  give 
Thee  fitting  and  holy  reverence  ? 

12.  Apply  .  .  wisdom]  RV  '  get  us  an  heart 
of  wisdom':  see  Dt529  3229.  13.  Repent] 
see  Dt3236. 

14.  Early]  RV  '  in  the  morning.'  15.  Ac- 
cording to]  i.e.  in  proportion  to.  17.  The 
work  of  our  hands]  The  phrase  occurs  in 
Deuteronomy  seven  times. 


365 


91.  1 


PSALMS 


95. 


PSALM  91 

This  Ps.  describes  the  safety  of  those  who 
trust  in  God,  and  may  have  a  special  reference 
to  the  nation  of  Israel  at  a  time  when  other 
nations  were  involved  in  calamity.  The 
dangers  that  threatened  Babylon  towards  the 
end  of  the  exile  have  been  suggested  as  a 
probable  occasion  for  it.  The  Psalmist  some- 
times speaks  in  the  first  person  (vv.  1,  2,  9), 
and  sometimes  addresses  his  promises  to  the 
godly  man,  or  to  the  nation,  in  the  second 
person  (vv.  3-8,  9-13).  God  Himself  is  the 
speaker  in  vv.  14-16. 

I.  Secret  place]  covert.  Shadow]  the 
shelter  which  a  mother-bu-d  gives  her  brood, 
as  in  V.  4:  see  17^.  3.  Ami .  .  pestilence]  LXX 
'  from  the  destroying  word,'  the  snare  being 
explained  as  malicious  speech:  see  38 1-. 
'  Pestilence '  comes  later,  in  v.  6.  5.  The 
terror,  etc.]  assaults  by  night,  as  compared 
with  attacks  by  day.  6.  Destruction]  plague. 
Pestilence  and  Plague  are  here  personified  :  see 
2  S  24 16,  IT  isa  37  30.  9.  Because  .  .  refuge]  EV 
'  For  thou,  O  Lord,  art  my  refuge  !  '  Even 
. .  habitation]  RV  '  Thou  hast  made  the  Most 
High  thy  habitation.'  11,  12.  These  vv.  are 
quoted  in  the  accounts  of  our  Lord's  tempta- 
tion (Mt  4  6  Lk  4 10).  1 3.  Dragon]  R Y '  serpent.' 


PSALM  92 

This    is    a    Ps.  of    praise, 

some  special  manifestation  of 

kindness.     This  general  theme 


called  forth  by 
God's  loving- 
is  set  forth  in 


vv.  1-4.  Vv.  5-11  contain  reflections  on  the 
meaning  of  God's  works,  a  meaning  which  is 
hidden  from  the  foolish  (v.  6).  The  wicked 
seem  to  flourish  only  that  they  may  be  destroyed 
(v.  7).  God  is  supreme,  and  His  enemies  must 
perish  (vv.  8,  9).  This  has  been  proved  in 
the  experience  of  the  Psalmist,  or  of  the  nation 
for  which  he  speaks  (vv.  10,  11).  Vv.  12-15 
describe  the  abiding  prosperity  and  blessedness 
of  the  righteous.  The  Ps.  contains  no  definite 
indication  of  date,  but  it  may  most  probably 
be  taken  as  a  song  of  the  return  from  exile. 

4.  Works]  doings — a  different  word  from 
'  work '  in  the  same  v.  7,  8.  refer  to  a  defi- 
nite event  which  the  Psalmist  has  in  view. 
Read,  '  did  spring  .  .  did  flourish  .  .  it  was  that 
they  might  be,'  etc.  10.  Shalt . .  exalt]  RV 
'  hast  exalted.'     Unicorn]   RV  '  wild-ox.' 

Shall  be]  RV  '  am.'  11.  Shall  see  ..  shall 
hear]  RV  '  hath  seen  .  .  have  heard.' 

13,  14.  The  righteous  are  compared  to  trees 
in  the  Temple  courts.  14.  Fat  and  flourish- 
ing] RV  '  full  of  sap  and  green.' 

PSALM  93 
This  Ps.,  along  with  Pss  95-100,  celebrates 


awakened  by  a  national  deliverance,  which  was 
probably  the  return  from  the  Babylonian 
captivity.  The  present  Ps.  is  brief,  and  speaks 
of  God's  sovereign  rule,  His  majesty  and 
strength  (v.  1),  the  eternity  and  steadfastness 
of  His  royal  throne  (v.  2),  His  supremacy 
above  the  waves  of  the  sea  (vv.  3,  4),  and 
the  holiness  of  His  Temple  (v.  5). 

I.  The  world . .  is  (or,  '  shall  be ')  stablished] 
see  753  82  5.  God's  rule  is  the  security  of  all 
moral  order  in  the  world.  3,  4.  The  floods 
and  waves  are  emblems  of  the  heathen  nations. 

4.   Noise]  RV  '  voices.' 

PSALM  94 

This  is  a  national  Ps.,  written  at  a  time 
when  Israel  was  oppressed  by  foreign  enemies. 
It  may  be  connected  either  with  the  days  of 
the  exile  or  with  some  later  period  of  national 
distress.  The  opening  vv.  appeal  to  God  to 
show  Himself  as  judge  of  the  earth  (vv.  1,  2). 
The  misdeeds  of  the  oppressors  are  next  de- 
scribed (vv.  3-7),  and  a  rebuke  is  addressed  to 
certain  Israelites  who  were  tempted  to  give 
up  their  faith  in  God  (vv.  8-11).  The  next 
vv.  speak  of  the  blessings  of  adversity  (vv. 
12,  13),  and  the  certainty  that  God  will  not 
forsake  His  people  (vv.  14,  15).  The  Psalmist 
has  found  in  God  his  only  refuge  and  comfort 
(vv.  16-19),  and  concludes  his  Ps.  with  the 
conviction  that  He  will  overthrow  the  wicked 
(vv.  20-23). 

I.  Shew  thyseiq  RV  '  Shine  forth.'  2.  A 
reward]  RV  '  their  desert.'  4.  Hoio  long, 
etc.]  RV  '  They  prate,  they  speak  arrogantly,' 
etc.     The  v.  is  a  statement,  not  a  question. 

7.  The  oppressors  not  only  injure  Israel, 
but  despise  Israel's  God. 

8.  Understand]  RV  '  consider.'  Brutish  .  . 
fools]  These  words  refer  to  Israelites  who  are 
tempted  to  adopt  the  heathen  point  of  view. 

9.  10.  These  vv.  form  an  argument  for  the 
knowledge  and  efi:ectual  government  of  God. 

ID.  Heathen]  RV  'nations.'  Shall  riot  he 
know  f]  These  words  are  supplied  to  complete 
the  sense.  The  Psalmist  breaks  off  his  argu- 
ment abruptly.  11.  This  v.  is  quoted  with 
some  modification  in  1  Cor  3  ^i, 


clause  is  quoted  in  Roll 2.  15. 
righteousness]  shall  again  be  just 
RV  '  soon 


14.  The  first 
Return  unto 
17.  Almost] 


God  as  King. 
to   this  whole 


The  thought  which  is  common 
group    seems   to    have    been 


Silence]  the  grave,  or  Sheol. 

PSALM  95 

This  Ps.  (the  '  Venite,'  'Invitatory  Psalm  ') 
consists  of  a  call  to  praise  God  as  King,  as  the 
Creator  of  the  world,  and  the  Shepherd  of  His 
people  (vv.  1-7),  followed  by  a  warning  against 
unbelief,  drawn  from  the  fate  of  the  rebellious 
Israelites  in  the  wilderness  (vv.  7-11).  There 
is  nothing  to  mark  its  date,  but  like  the  other 
Pss.  of  the  same  group  it  may  be  referred  to 
the  days  of  the  return  from  Babylon. 


306 


95.  4 


PSALMS 


100.  3 


4.  Strength  of  the  hills]  RV  '  heights  of  the 
mountains.'  7.  If  ye  will]  IIV  '  Oh  that  ye 
would.'  8.  In  the  provocation]  RV  '  at  Meri- 
bah'  (Nu20i3).     Temptation]  RV    'Massah' 

(Ex  17  7). 

7-1 1.  These  vv.  are  quoted  in  Heb3''-ii,  and 
are  the  basis  of  the  argument  that  follows. 

PSALM  96 

This  is  a  triumphant  song  of  praise  to  God 
(vv.  1-3),  contrasting  His  power  and  glory 
with  the  nothingness  of  the  heathen  idols  (vv. 
4-6),  calling  all  the  earth  to  worship  Him  (vv. 
7-9),  exulting  in  His  rule  (v.  10),  and  calling 
all  nations  to  rejoice  in  the  prospect  of  His 
coming  in  judgment  (vv.  11-13).  The  tone  of 
the  Ps.  is  closely  akin  to  that  of  Isa  40-66,  and 
was  in  all  likelihood  inspired  by  the  deliver- 
ance from  exile.  The  existence  of  the  second 
Temple  will  then  be  implied  in  vv.  6,  8.  This 
Ps.  has  been  wrought  into  the  composite  poem 
of  lChl6S-36. 

3.  Heathen]  RV  '  nations.'     So  in  v.  10. 

People]  RV  '  peoples  '     So  in  w.  7,  10,  13. 

9.  The  beauty  of  holiness]  RM  '  holy  array.' 

13.  God's  judgment  is  welcomed  and  not 
feared,  for  it  means  the  deliverance  of  His 
people  and  the  overthrow  of  their  enemies. 

PSALM  97 

This  is  another  '  theocratic '  Ps.,  declaring 
how  God  has  taken  vengeance  on  His  enemies 
in  a  way  to  which  all  nature  responded  (vv. 
2-6),  denouncing  idols  and  their-  worshippers 
(v.  7),  expressing  the  joy  of  the  cities  of  Israel 
at  His  judgments  (vv.  8,  9),  calling  His  people 
to  hate  evil  (v.  10)  and  to  share  the  gladness 
which  ought  to  be  their  portion  (vv.  11,  12). 
The  Ps.  is  a  '  mosaic '  of  phrases  from  other 
Scriptures,  and,  like  the  preceding  Pss.,  is 
probably  to  be  referred  to  the  end  of  the 
exile. 

I.  Isles]  the  coastlands  beyond  Palestine, 
an  expression  for  the  Gentile  world.  2.  What- 
ever may  be  mysterious  about  God's  rule,  it  is 
certainly  founded  on  righteousness  :   see  89 1^. 

3.  See  188.     4.  See  7716-18.      5.  See  Jg 5  5. 

8.  Zion]  Jerusalem.  Daughters  of  Judah] 
the  other  cities  of  the  land  :  see  48 11.  9.  See 
83^8.  II.  Light  is  sovyn]  A  more  probable 
reading  is,  '  light  hath  arisen.'  12.  At .  .  holi- 
ness] RV  '  to  his  holy  name,'  this  being  the 
true  meaning  of  '  remembrance '  or  '  memorial ' : 
see  3211  394. 

PSALM  98 

This  Ps.  closely  resembles  Ps  96,  especially 
in  its  beginning  and  ending,  and  is  to  be 
referred  to  the  same  occasion.  It  celebrates 
a  deliverance  which  God  has  wrought  for 
Israel  in  the  sight  of  all  the  earth  (vv.  1-3), 
summons  all  men  (vv.  4-6),  and  all   nature 


367 


(vv.  7-9)  to  praise  Him.  V.  6  proclaims  Him 
as  King,  and  v.  9  anticipates  with  gladness 
His  coming  to  judge  the  world. 

2.  Heathen]  RV  '  nations.'  5.  A  psalm] 
RV  'melody':  see  Isa 51 3.  9.  People]  RV 
'peoples' :  see  96 1^. 

PSALM  99 

This  Ps.  is  like  the  preceding  ones  in  the 
prominence  it  gives  to  God's  Kingship,  and  no 
doubt  belongs  to  the  same  period  with  them. 
God's  holiness,  too,  is  emphasised  in  the  refrain 
of  vv.  3,  5,  9.  The  Ps.  begins  with  a  call  to 
worship  God  with  the  awe  and  reverence 
which  are  due  to  Him  (vv.  1-3).  His  righteous 
rule  in  Israel  is  a  reason  for  repeating  the 
summons  (vv.  4,  5).  The  history  of  His 
dealings  with  His  people  from  the  days  of 
Moses  and  Aaron  to  the  time  of  Samuel  is 
summed  up  (vv.  6-8).  V.  9  is  almost  a  repe- 
tition of  V.  5,  and  implies  that  the  Temple  has 
been  restored. 

I.   People]  RV  'peoples.'     So  in  v.  2. 

Befu-eeii  the  cherubims]  RV  '  upon  the 
cherubim'  :  see  on  8OI.  2.  Zion]  The  Temple 
at  Jerusalem  is  God's  dwelling  and  the  seat 
of  His  rule.  3.  For  it  Is  holy]  RV  '  holy  is 
he.'  4.  The  king]  God  :  see  v.  1.  5.  His 
footstool]  The  ark  is  so  called  in  1  Ch  28  ^, 
but  if  this  Ps.  was  written  after  the  exile  the 
ark  cannot  be  directly  referred  to  here.  The 
language  may  be  a  survival  of  an  earlier  usage. 

Fo7-  he  is  holy]  RV  '  holy  is  he,'  as  in  v.  3. 

6-8.  These  vv.  may  be  taken  as  an  illustra- 
tion from  the  past  of  the  principle  on  which 
God  still  deals  with  His  people,  or  they  may 
be  translated  by  present  tenses,  as  referring  to 
the  intercessors  in  Israel  whose  prayers  God 
has  answered  in  the  deliverance  from  captivity, 
and  who  are  figuratively  called  '  A  Moses  .  . 
a  Samuel.'  8.  Both  in  the  past  and  in  the 
Psalmist's  time  God  has  shown  at  once  His 
hatred  of  sin  and  His  forgiving  love  to  His 
people.     Inventions]  RV  '  doings.' 

PSALM  100 

This  famous  Ps.  (the  'Jubilate,'  'Old 
Hundredth ')  does  not  give  God  the  title  of 
King,  but  its  contents  are  otherwise  so  similar 
to  those  of  the  previous  '  theocratic '  Pss. 
that  it  is  naturally  grouped  along  with  them 
both  as  to  subject  and  date.  It  calls  the 
world  to  worship  God  (vv.  1,  2),  describes 
Him  as  the  Creator  and  Shepherd  of  His 
people  (v.  3),  points  to  the  second  Temple  as 
the  seat  of  His  service  (v.  4),  and  closes 
with  an  ascription  of  praise  which  was  often 
repeated  in  post-exilic  worship  (v.  ,5). 

3.  Us]  refers  specially  to  Israel,  ye  being 
addressed  to  the  nations  :  see  v.  1.  And  not 
we  ourselves]  RV  '  and  we  are  his.'  The 
sheep    of    his    pasture]    see     95'',    and    the 


100.  5 


PSALMS 


104.  4 


'Asaphic'  Pss.  (73-83).  5.  Is  everlasting] 
E, V  '  endureth  for  ever  '  :  see  1  Ch  1 G  2*=  ■^^ 
2Ch73-6  2021  EzrSii  Psl06i  1071  1181-^  136, 
138  s,  etc.  The  Chronicler  evidently  trans- 
poses into  earlier  times  Pss.  which  were  written 
after  the  exile,  and  the  same  thing  appears  to 
be  the  case  with  this  formula  of  praise. 

PSALM  101 

This  Ps.  is  the  prayer  of  a  ruler,  apparently 
of  a  king.  Many  scholars  believe  that  the 
title  which  ascribes  its  authorship  to  David  is 
correct,  and  connect  it  with  David's  desire  to 
have  the  ark  brought  from  the  house  of  Obed- 
edom  to  Jerusalem  (2  S  6  ''"i^).  Others  suppose 
it  to  have  been  written  by  Hezekiah,  Josiah, 
or  one  of  the  Maccabees.  The  writer  first 
utters  his  resolves  as  to  his  personal  life  and 
conduct  (vv.  1-4),  and  then  announces  his 
purpose  of  choosing  his  servants  only  from 
among  the  upright,  and  of  discouraging  and 
exterminating  all  forms  of  wickedness (v v.  5-8). 

2.  When  wilt  thou  come  unto  me  ?]  This 
interjected  phrase  may  refer  to  David's  longing 
for  the  presence  of  God,  as  symbolised  by  the 
ark,  in  his  capital.  4.  Not  know  a  wicked 
permti]  RV  '  know  no  evil  thing.'  7.  Tarry 
in  my  sight]  RV  '  be  established  before  mine 
eyes.'     8.   Early]  RV  '  morning  by  morning.' 

PSALM  102 

This  Ps.  belongs  to  the  closing  days  of  the 
exile,  and  utters  the  hope  of  Israel's  restora- 
tion (vv.  13-22).  The  Psalmist  has  been 
supposed  by  some  to  speak  simply  in  the  name 
of  the  nation,  but  it  is  more  probable  that  he 
describes  his  personal  distress,  though  this 
was  caused  by  the  captivity  and  humiliation 
of  his  people.  In  v.  14  he  speaks  of  his 
fellow-countrymen  in  the  plural,  and  his 
shrinking  from  premature  death  (vv.  11,  23, 
24)  breathes  a  distinctly  personal  note.  He 
is  wasted  away  with  lonely  sorrow  (vv.  1-7,  9), 
mocked  by  enemies  (v.  8),  and  conscious  that 
his  affliction  is  a  token  of  God's  displeasure 
(v.  10).  But  the  eternity  and  changelessness 
of  God  are  the  gi-ound  of  his  hope  (vv.  12, 
24-28)  both  for  himself  and  for  the  whole  of 
God's  people. 

3.  Like  smoke]  RM  'in  smoke.'  An 
hearth]  RV  'a  firebrand.'  5.  Skin]  RV 
'  flesh.'  6,  7.  describe  figuratixely  the 
Psalmist's  mournful  love  of  solitude. 

6.  Desert]  RV  'waste  places.'  8.  Are 
sworn  against  me]  RV  '  do  curse  by  me,'  the 
literal  meaning  of  '  execrate.'  10.  Lifted  .  . 
up  .  .  cast  down]  RV  '  taken  . .  up  . .  cast  away.' 

II.  That  declineth]  that  vanishes  when  the 
sun  sets.  12.  Remembrance]  RV  '  memorial,' 
i.e.  name  :  see  Lam,5i9.  13.  Favour]  RV 
'  have  pity  upon.'  So  in  v.  14.  The  set  time] 
see  Isa402  61 2. 


15.  Heathen]  RV  'nations.'  16,  17.  Shall 
build  .  .  appear  .  .  regard  .  .  despise]  R  V  '  hath 
built  .  .  appeared  .  .  regarded  .  .  despised.' 

18.  The  people]  RV  'a  people.'  The 
restored  Israel  will  be  a  new  nation. 

19.  His  sanctuary]  heaven,  as  the  parallelism 
shows.  21.  To  declare]  RV  'that  men  may 
declare.'     22.    People]  RV  '  peoples.' 

25-27.  Quoted  in  Heb  1 10-12.  27,  28.  The 
changelessness  of  God  is  a  guarantee  that 
His  kingdom  will  endm-e  among  men.  This  is 
an  argument  for  national  rather  than  for  per- 
sonal immortality.  For  the  higher  Christian 
truth  see  Jnl4i9. 

PSALM  103 

In  this  Ps.  the  hope  of  the  previous  one  has 
been  fulfilled,  and  sorrow  has  given  place  to 
thanksgiving.  Its  probable  date  is  soon  after 
the  retm-n  from  exile.  The  Psalmist  utters 
his  personal  gi'atitude  and  praise  (vv.  1-5),  and 
tells  how  God  has  shown  to  Israel  in  his  own 
day  the  same  power  and  grace  which  He  showed 
in  the  days  of  Moses  (vv.  6-12).  Special 
emphasis  is  laid  on  God's  fatherly  pity  for  His 
people  in  their  frailty,  and  on  the  eternity  of 
His  mercy  as  shown  to  generation  after  genera- 
tion (vv.  13-18).  An  ascription  of  praise  to 
God  as  the  universal  King,  in  which  all  His 
angels  and  all  His  works  are  called  to  join, 
closes  the  Ps.  (vv.  19-22). 

5.  Seelsa403i.  The  eagle's  strength  seemed 
to  indicate  perpetual  youth.  6.  Righteousness 
and  judgment]  RV  '  righteous  acts  and  judg- 
ments,' i.e.  deliverances.  17.  Expresses  the 
same  assm-ance  as  10223-28_  jp.  Prepared] 
RV  '  established.'  21.  Ministers]  serA-ants, 
referring  to  the  angels. 

PSALM  104 

This  is  a  Ps.  of  Nature,  celebrating  God's 
glory  as  seen  in  His  works  both  inanimate  and 
animate.  It  is  an  expansion  of  the  closing  vv. 
of  Psl03,  and  like  that  Ps.  begins  and  ends 
with  the  phrase,  '  Bless  the  Lord,  O  my  soul  ! ' 
The  two  Pss.  are  probably  the  work  of  the 
same  author.  Psl04  follows  to  some  extent 
the  order  of  the  creation-poem  in  Gn  1 ,  and 
may  be  compared  also  with  Job  38-41.  Vv. 
5-9,  19  speak  of  the  creation  of  the  world, 
but  the  greater  part  of  the  Ps.  describes  its 
present  condition  and  arrangements,  which  need 
not  be  analysed  in  detail.  The  closing  vv. 
consist  of  an  ascription  of  praise  (vv.  31-34), 
and  a  prayer  for  the  destruction  of  the  wicked 
(v.  35). 

3.  Chambers]  lit.  '  upper  chambers ' :  see 
Am  9''.  The  waters  referred  to  are  those 
above  the  firmament  (Gnl'''  Psl48*).  which 
are  the  source  of  rain :  see  v.  13.  Wings  of 
the  wind]    see  18 10. 

4.  His  angels  spirits]  read  either, '  his  angels 


368 


104.  7 


PSALMS 


INTRO. 


winds,'  or  '  winds  his  messengers '  (EY).  The 
former  rendering  is  the  more  natui'al,  is  parallel 
to  that  of  the  next  clause,  and  is  adopted  in 
Hebl''^,  where  the  v.  is  quoted.  The  latter 
reading  seems  to  give  a  simpler  sense,  but  the 
other  is  quite  intelligible  also.  As  God  mani- 
fests His  own  glory  in  the  universe,  so  He 
manifests  the  power  of  His  angels  in  the  winds 
and  the  lightning.  7-9.  These  vv.  are  parallel 
to  Gn  1 9>  10.  God's  command  to  the  waters  is 
conceived  as  having  been  uttered  in  thunder 
(v.  7).  16.  Full  of  scq)]  RV  '  satisfied,'  as  in 
V.  13.  19.  See  Gnli*-i8.  22.  Gather  them- 
selves together]   RV  '  get  them  away.' 

25.  So  is  this  great  and  wide  sea]  RV 
'  Yonder  is  the  sea,  great  and  wide.'  Things 
creeping,  etc.]  or,  '  things  moving,'  etc. :  see 
Gnl^i.  26.  Leviathan]  see  Job  41,  where  the 
crocodile  is  referred  to.  Here  a  sea-monster 
is  meant.  31.  The  glory  .  .  shall  endure .  .  the 
Lord  shall  rejoice]  RV  '  Let  the  glory  .  .  en- 
dure . .  let  the  Lord  rejoice.'  34.  My  medita- 
tion of  him  shall  be  sweet]  RV  '  Let  my  medi- 
tation be  sweet  unto  him':  see  Id^^.  35.  The 
point  of  the  Psalmist's  prayer  is  that  evil  may 
be  banished  from  the  world,  though  he  identi- 
fies sin  with  sinners,  and  seems  to  include  their 
destruction  in  his  wish.  Praise  ye  the  LORD] 
This  sentence  should  probably  be  read  as  the 
beginning  of  the  next  Ps. 

PSALM  105 

This  Ps.  and  the  following  one  form  a  closely 
connected  pair,  and  may  be  looked  on  as  by 
the  same  author.  From  the  closing  vv.  of 
Psl06  it  appears  that  they  were  wi'itten  after 
the  first  return  from  exile  had  taken  place, 
but  while  many  Israelites  were  still  scattered 
among  the  heathen.  Both  Pss.  are  partly 
wrought  into  the  composite  poem  in  lChl6. 
Ps  105  is  a  song  of  thanksgiving,  recalling  with 
gratitude  God's  covenant  with  Abraham,  Isaac, 
and  Jacob  (vv.  8-12),  His  guidance  of  Israel 
into  Egypt,  with  special  reference  to  the  history 
of  Joseph  (vv.  13-23),  His  goodness  to  them 
there  in  the  days  of  oppression  (vv.  24,  25), 
His  deliverance  wi'ought  through  Moses  and 
Aaron  by  means  of  the  plagues  (vv.  26-38), 


His  mercies  in  the  wilderness  (vv.  39-41),  and 
finally  His  gift  of  Canaan  to  His  people  in 
fulfilment  of  His  ancient  promise  (vv.  42-45). 

I.   People]  RV  '  peoples.'    So  in  vv.  20,  44. 

14.  Kings]  Pharaoh  (Gn  121''),  and  Abime- 
lech  (Gn20i'',i8).  15.  Anointed]  a  phrase  not 
literally  applicable  to  the  patriarchs,  but  used 
by  the  Psalmist  because  they  were  the  heads 
of  the  nation,  like  the  kings  of  later  times. 

Prophets]  Abraham  is  so  called  in  Gn20'''. 

19.  His  word]  Joseph's  interpretation  of  the 
butler's  and  baker's  dreams  (Gn  40-0-22). 

28-36.  The  ninth  plague  is  placed  first,  the 
third  and  fom-th  are  transposed,  and  the  fifth 
and  sixth  are  omitted.  31.  Divers  sorts]  RV 
'  swarms.'    Coasts]  RV  '  borders.'    So  in  v.  33. 

44.  Heathen]  RV  '  nations.'  Inherited]  RV 
'  took  in  possession.'  45.  Praise  ye  the  LORD] 
see  on  10435.  Psl05,  like  Psl06,  probably 
begins  and  ends  with  '  Hallelujah.' 

PSALM  106 

As  Psl05  gives  thanks  for  God's  goodness, 
so  Psl06  confesses  Israel's  sin  and  acknow- 
ledges God's  mercy,  both  being  illustrated  in 
an  historical  retrospect  from  the  deliverance 
from  Egypt  down  to  the  return  from  captivity : 
cp.  Ps78  Ezk20. 

I.  See  on  100 -5.  7.  Provoked /;//»]  RV  'were 
rebellious.'  So  in  vv.  33,  43.  8.  For  his 
name's  sake]  see  Ezk  20 1*.  26.  Lifted  up  his 
hand]  sware.  To  overthrow]  RV  '  that  he 
would  overthrow.'  So  in  v.  27.  28.  See  Nu26^ 
Hos  9 10.    The  dead]  the  lifeless  heathen  gods. 

29.   Inventions]  RV  '  doings.'     So  in  v.  39. 

32.  Strife]  RV  'Meribah':  see  95 «. 

34.  Nations]  RV  '  peoples.'  Concerning 
whom]  RV  '  as.'  35.  Were  mingled]  RV  'min- 
gled themselves.'  Heathen]  RV  '  nations.'  So 
in  vv.  41,  47.  37.  Devils]  RV  'demons': 
see  Dt32i7.  46.  Implies  the  return  from 
captivity. 

48.  'This  doxology  concludes  Book  4  of  the 
Psalter,  but  appears  at  the  same  time  to  have 
been  an  original  part  of  Psl06.  Let  all  the 
people  say,  etc.]  A  direction  to  guide  the  people 
in  worship.  1  Ch  16  36  shows  how  it  was  carried 
out. 


BOOK  5  (Psalms  107-150) 


This  book,  which  seems  originally  to  have 
been  joined  with  Book  4,  contains  forty-four 
Pss.,  the  vast  majority  of  which  are  of  late 
date.  The  contents  of  these  Pss.  are  a  surer 
guide  to  the  period  to  which  they  belong  than 
is  the  case  in  the  other  books,  as  many  of  them 
give  either  direct  references  or  unmistakable 
hints  regarding  experiences  of  the  exile  or 
the  return.  Thus  Psl07io-i6  refers  to  the 
years  of  captivity,  as  does  also  Psl37.  Other 
Pss.,   such   as    126,  refer   to   the   joy  of  the 


return,  and  others  still,  e.g.  132,  are  prompted 
by  the  rebuilding  of  the  Temple. 

The  feature  of  this  book  which  is  most 
marked  is  its  liturgical  character.  Many 
(though  not  all)  of  the  Pss.  contained  in  it  are 
not  individualistic  but  congregational,  and  bear 
traces  of  having  been  composed  for  use  in 
public  worship.  PssllS^-is  116 12-19  ng,  135 
and  136  may  be  cited  as  good  illustrations. 
Many  smaller  groups  have  been  incorporated 
in  this  book,  and  can  be  easily  recognised.    The 


24 


369 


107.  1 


PSALMS 


110.  3 


principal  are  the  Hallel  Psalms  (113-118),  the 
Songs  of  Ascents  or  Pilgi-im  Psalms  (120-134), 
and  the  Hallelujah  group  (145-150).  Psalm 
108  is  composed  of  Pss577-ii  and  605-12,  and 
was  obviously  compiled  for  liturgical  purposes. 
Psl36  is  a  chant  with  responses  for  choir  or 
congregation  after  each  verse. 

Fifteen  of  the  Pss.  of  this  book  bear  the 
title  '  Of  David,'  indicating  that  they  were 
taken  by  the  final  editor  from  the  earliest  or 
Davidic  psalter.  One  of  these  (Ps  142)  has  a 
historical  note,  which  describes  it  as  '  a  prayer 
when  he  was  in  the  cave ' ;  but  there  is  nothing 
in  the  Ps.  to  justify  the  reference.  The  book 
is  Jehovistic  in  its  choice  of  the  divine  name, 
Jehovah  occurring  236  times  and  Elohim  only 
7  times. 

PSALM  107 

The  Psalmist  sings  the  lovingkindness  of 
the  Lord,  giving  examples  from  (a)  Israel  in 
the  wilderness  (vv.  4-9),  (b)  people  in  captivity 
(vv.  10-16),  (c)  people  in  sickness  (vv.  17-22), 

(d)  vicissitudes  of  sea-going  men  (vv.  23-32), 

(e)  and  a  rescue  from  drought  (33-42).  The 
Ps.  has  a  refrain  at  intervals  (vv.  8,  15,  21,  31). 

I.  For  his  mercy  endureth  for  ever^  evidently 
a  well-known  refrain:  cp.  Psl36.  Mercy] 
better,  'lovingkindness.'  2.  Redeemed]  per- 
haps from  exile.     3.  Lands]  i.e.  foreign  lands. 

4.  The  V.  might  refer  to  wanderings  on  the 
way  from  Egypt,  but  the  reference  to  '  a  city 
of  habitation '  (v.  7)  points  rather  to  return 
from  Babylon  to  Jerusalem.  10.  Sit]  RV 
'sat.'  Iron]  perhaps  metaphorically :  cp.  105^^. 
The  reference  is  evidently  to  captivity,  i.e. 
slavery.  1 1 .  The  words  of  God]  as  declaimed 
by  His  prophets.  14.  Bands]  i.e.  their  state 
of  subjection  :  cp.  2^. 

16.  Cp.  Isa452.  17.  A  new  illustration. 
Read,  probably,  '  Sick  men,  because  of  the  way 
of  their  transgression,'  etc.  20.  Sent]  RV 
'  sendeth.'  The  phrase  is  noteworthy  as  herald- 
ing, unconsciously  perhaps,  the  Word  ( Jn  1 1^). 

23-30.  A  striking  description  of  mariners  in 
a  storm.  27.  Are  at  their  wit's  end]  RM  '  all 
their  wisdom  is  swallowed  up.'  30.  Their 
desired  haven]  RM  'the  haven  of  their  desire.' 
The  word  rendered  '  haven '  is  an  Assyrian 
loan-word,  and  properly  means  an  '  emporium ' 
or  '  mart.'     It  is  found  here  only. 

33.  General  instances  of  Grod's  kindness  in 
various  districts.  Some  suggest  that  this  is  a 
later  addition  to  the  Ps.  It  has  great  like- 
nesses to  Job  and  Isa  40-66.  34.  Barrenness] 
better,  RV  'a  salt  desert '—perhaps  thinking 
of  Sodom:  cp.  Job39<5.     35-  Cp.  Isa 41  is. 

39.  Again]  better,  '  and  when '  ;  but  the  v. 
is  abrupt  and  the  connexion  obscure. 

40.  Quoted  from  Job  12  21. 24.  It  interrupts 
the  connexion,  and  by  some  is  omitted.  41 .  Cp. 
Job 2 111;  'He  set   the  needy  on  high  from 


(above)  affliction,  and  established  (for  him) 
families  as  a  flock.'  43.  Cp.Hosl49,  a  closing 
admonition. 

PSALM  108 

This  is  a  composite  Ps.  1-5  is  practically 
Ps577-ii,  and  6-13  is  the  same  as  605-12.  For 
notes  on  individual  vv.  the  reader  is  referred 
to  these  two  Pss.  Probably  the  two  frag- 
ments were  brought  together  in  a  separate 
collection  from  Book  2,  and  subsequent  perhaps 
to  the  formation  of  that  book.  This  Ps. 
preserves  its  Elohistic  character.  It  bears  the 
title,  '  A  Song,  a  Psalm  of  David.'  It  is  one  of 
the  Pss.  for  Ascension  Day. 


PSALM  109 

The    strongest    of    the    imprecatory 


Pss. 


(see  Intro.).  Probably  it  is  just  to  regard 
the  Psalmist  as  speaking  in  the  name  of 
the  whole  nation,  vexed  and  harried  by 
foreign  enemies,  e.g.  Antiochus  Epiphanes. 
The  theory  that  the  Psalmist  recounts  the 
curses  used  against  him  by  his  enemies  is 
untenable.  Calvin  notes  the  awful  use  of  this 
Ps.  by  certain  monks,  who  hired  themselves 
out  to  recite  it  against  private  enemies. 

6.  Satan]  RV  '  an  adversary.'  The  word 
has  both  meanings  in  Hebrew.  Satan  was  the 
accuser  who  blamed  men  before  God  :  cp.  Job 
1,  2  Zech3.  7.  Let  his  prayer  become  sin] 
truly  a  horrible  curse  :  cp.  Provl5S.  8.  Let 
another  take  his  office]  cp.  the  reference  to 
Judas  Iscariot  (Ac  1 20).  Hence  this  was  known 
to  the  early  Fathers  as  '  Psalmus  Iscarioticus.' 

10.  Let  them  seek,  etc.]  better,  '  let  them 
be  driven  out  far  from  their  desolate  homes.' 

11.  Spoil]  better,  'make  spoil  of.'  23.  I 
am  tossed  up  and  down]  better,  '  I  am  shaken 
ofi  like  a  locust.' 

PSALM  110 

A  fragment  of  an  ode  of  victory  to  a  priest- 
king — '  Worthy,'  says  Luther,'  to  be  set  in  a 
frame  of  gold  and  diamonds.'  A  truly  Mes- 
sianic Ps.,  finding  its  fulfilment  in  the  triumphs 
of  Christ  in  the  world,  and  quoted  Mt2243 
Mk  1 2  3<3  Lk  20  42  Ac  2  34  Heb  1 13  5  6  :  see  Intro. 

1.  Lit.'  Oracle  of  Jehovah  to  my  lord.'  The 
Psalmist  seems  to  hear  God  addressing  the 
king,  whom  Jehovah  invites  to  a  seat  at  His 
right  hand,  the  place  of  honour.  Our  Lord 
applies  this  v.  in  the  Messianic  sense  in  which  it 
was  evidently  understood  by  His  countrymen. 

2.  Send]  better,  '  stretch  .  .  (saying),  Rule 
thou,'  etc.  3.  Thy  people,  etc.]  better,  '  Thy 
people  offer  themselves  in  the  day  of  thy 
mustering,'  i.e.  of  the  army  for  battle.  In 
the  beauties  of  holiness]  Many  scholars,  with 
slight  change  in  Heb.,  render,  '  on  the 
mountains  of  holiness,'  i.e.  on  the  holy 
mountains.     '  From  the  womb  of  the  morning 


370 


110.  4 


PSALMS 


116. 


comes  to  thee  the  dew  of  thy  youth,'  i.e.  thy 
young  men  gather  to  thy  standard  in  the 
morning  like  the  dew  for  vigour  and  fresh- 
ness. 4-  The  king  is  to  be  priest  as  well. 
This  might  be  true  of  a  Davidic  prince  :  cp. 
2S6i'i,  or  of  Simon  Maccabseus,  cp.  IMac 
1021.  But  it  is  ultimately  most  certainly 
Messianic  :  cp.  Zech  6  ii-i3_  '  After  the  manner 
(RM)  of  Melchizedek,'  who  was  king  and  priest 
in  Salem,  i.e.  Jerusalem:  cp.  Gnl4i8_ 

5.  The  Lord]  i.e.  Jehovah.  The  v.  describes 
the  victory  of  the  king.  Shall  strike]  E.M 
'hath  stricken.'  6.  The  Hebrew  is  diffi- 
cult, but  the  meaning  is  clear.  Dead  bodies 
cover  the  field  ;  heads  of  men  are  smitten  over  a 
wide  area  (in  the  pursuit).  7.  The  victor 
king  stoops  to  di-ink  of  the  brook  by  the  way, 
and  with  i-enewed  sti-ength  (head  uplifted) 
continues  the  pursuit  of  the  flying  enemy. 

PSALM  111 

Pss  111,  112  are  closely  connected  both  in 
form  and  substance,  and  are  apparently  the 
work  of  one  author.  They  are  alphabetical 
(see  Intro.).  A  litm'gical  introduction  is 
prefixed  to  both,  viz.  '  Praise  ye  the  Lord ' : 
in  Hebrew  '  Hallelujah.'  The  theme  of  Ps 
111  is  the  refrain  of  Psl07,  'Oh  that  men 
would  praise  the  Lord  for  his  goodness,  and 
for  his  wonderful  works  to  the  children  of 
men.'     The  Ps.  is  used  on  Easter  Day. 

I.  Assembly]  RV  '  council ' ;  the  word  means, 
'  a  secret  gathering.'     5.   Meat]  i.e.  food. 

6.  That  he  may  give  them]  RV  '  in 
giving  them.'  Probably  the  writer  refers  to 
the  conquest  by  Joshua.  9.  Redemption]  i.e. 
from  Egypt.  He  .  .  commanded,  etc.]  i.e.  He 
made  a  covenant,  which  was  never  to  be 
violated.  10.  The  fear,  etc.]  a  very  frequent 
saying  among  the  sages  of  Israel  :  cp.  Prov  1  '^ 
9  w,  etc.  The  meaning  is  that  religion  is  the 
foundation  of  all  wisdom. 

PSALM  112 

See  on  Ps  111.  This  also  is  an  alphabetical 
Ps.,  every  half-verse  beginning  with  a  suc- 
cessive letter  of  the  Hebrew  alphabet.  The 
subject  is  specially  the  blessedness  of  the 
truly  religious  luan. 

5.  A  good  man]  RV  '  Well  is  it  with  the 
man  that.'  He  will  guide  his  affairs  with  discre- 
tion] RV  '  he  shall  maintain  his  cause  in 
judgment.'  i.e.  in  court  of  law.  9.  His  horn] 
symbol  of  strength  and  power. 

PSALM  113 

This  Ps.  begins  the  group  (113-118)  known 
in  the  Jewish  Church  as  the  Hallel  Psalms,  or 
Hymns  of  Praise,  from  hillel,  to  praise.  They 
are  sung  at  the  Passover  Feast — Pss  113,  llj: 
before  the  second  cup,  and  115-118  after  the 
fourth  cup  ;  formerly  recited  also  at  the  other 


two  feasts,  at  the  New  Moons,  and  on  the 
eight  days  of  the  Feast  of  Dedication  (Cheyne). 
Ps  113  has  been  called  the  Magnificat  of  the 
Old  Testament.  Note  the  liturgical  intro- 
duction and  conclusion  ('  Hallelujah  '  =  '  Praise 
ye  the  Lord  ')  for  use  in  the  Temple  service. 
6.  '  Who  stoopeth  down  to  look  in  heaven 
and  on  earth.'  9.  The  barren  woman]  a 
grievous  sorrow  to  a  Jewish  wife.  There  is 
here  an  echo  of  Hannah's  song  (1  S  2  ^-lo). 

PSALM    114 

This  has  been  called  '  one  of  the  finest  lyrics 
in  literature.'  Probably  it  is  a  post-exilic 
psalm  wherein,  under  the  figure  of  the  old 
exodus  from  Egypt,  the  Psalmist  chants  the 
retm-n  from  Babylon.  In  all  ages  of  the  Church 
it  has  been  used  to  celebrate  the  release  from 
the  bondage  of  sin.  Hence  it  is  a  hymn  for 
Easter  night. 

I.  Strange  language]  i.e.  unintelligible 
speech — foreign.      2.  Was]  RV' became.' 

3.  Saw  /;■]  i.e.  the  presence  of  God.  The 
allusion  is  to  the  dividing  of  the  Red  Sea  and 
of  Jordan,  the  opening  and  closing  events  of 
the  deliverance  from  Egypt.  4.  Skipped] 
i.e.  trembled:  cp.  Sinai,  Ex  1 9^8.  5.  What 
ailed  ?]   The    answer  is,  the  presence  of  God. 

8.  Cp.  Ex  17 15  Nu20ii. 

PSALM    115 

In  LXX  114,  115  are  one  Ps.,  while  116  is 
divided  into  two.  Apparently  Ps  115  was 
written  to  be  sung  antiphonally  :  cp.  the  re- 
sponses in  vv.  9,  10,  11 — the  first  eight  and 
the  last  three  verses  to  be  sung  by  the  con- 
gi-egation.  Probably  it  is  a  very  late  Ps.  The 
writer  proclaims  the  vanity  of  idols,  and  as- 
cribes all  help  and  blessing  to  Jehovah  alone. 

I.  Israel  is  reviled  by  idolatrous  foreigners, 
and  appeals  to  God  to  vindicate  His  honour. 

3.  God  is  the  God  of  heaven,  therefore  He 
can  save  His  people.  4.  This  the  idols  can- 
not do.  ■ 

9.  A  Levite  sings,  '  0  Israel,  trust  thou  in  the 
Lord.'  The  choir  respond,  '  He  is  their  help 
and  their  shield':  so  10,  11.  12-15.  is  sung 
by  a  different  person. 

16.  '  The  heavens  are  the  heavens  of 
Jehovah,'  etc.  :  His  peculiar  dwelling  as  op- 
posed to  the  earth,  which  is  the  habitation  of 
men.  17.  Silence]  i.e.  Sheol,  where  there  is 
no  communion  with  God. 

PSALM   116 

Pss  115-118  were  probably  the  hymns  sung 
by  our  Lord  and  His  disciples.  Some  modem 
scholars,  however,  deny  this,  on  the  ground 
that,  in  Christ's  time,  the  Hallel  was  only 
in  its  beginning,  and  consisted  simply  of  Ps 
113,  or,  at  most,  also  of  Ps  114  :  see  Mt2630 
Mkl42<>.      Psll6   is    apparently   a   song   of 


371 


116.  3 


PSALMS 


119.  46 


thanksgiving  after  severe  illness,  but  the 
Ps.  has  been  used  by  both  chui-ches  and  in- 
dividuals in  spiritual  as  well  as  temporal 
deliverances.  The  Psalmist's  experiences  pass 
through  various  stages,  viz.  suffering  (v.  3), 
prayer  (vv.  4,  5),  deliverance  (vv.  6-9),  thanks- 
giving in  public  (vv.  12-19).  At  v.  10  LXX 
begins  a  new  Ps. 

3.  Hell]  RM  '  the  grave.'  He  was  at  the 
gates  of  death.     9.  His  life  will  be  preserved. 

10,  II.  The  sense  is  most  obscure.  Two 
meanings  are  proposed  :  (a)  I  believed  even 
when  I  spoke,  saying,  I  am  greatly  afflicted, 
even  when  I  said  in  my  haste.  All  men  are 
liars  ;  (b)  I  believe  (for  I  will  speak)  that  I 
was  greatly  afflicted.  In  my  alarm  I  said,  All 
men  are  liars.  13.  The  Psalmist  intends  to 
offer  a  sacrifice,  and  already  anticipates  the 
feast  which  follows  when  he  would  solemnly 
raise  the  cup  to  Jehovah  ingratitude  for  deliver- 
ance ;  hence  he  calls  it  the  cup  of  salvation. 

15.  Precious]  i.e.  of  such  consequence  to 
God  that  He  will  require  penalties  for  it. 

PSALM    117 

The  shortest  chapter  in  the  Bible,  and 
the  middle  chapter.  It  is  a  doxology,  calling 
all  peoples  to  praise  Jehovah.  It  may  have 
been  appended  to  some  Ps. 

PSALM    118 

This  Ps.  was  evidently  written  for  the 
Temple  worship  on  the  occasion  of  some  great 
festival  (v.  24),  when  it  might  be  used  as 
a  processional  hymn.  It  has  been  variously 
referred  (a)  to  the  time  when  Zerubbabel  laid 
the  foundation  of  the  second  Temple  ;  (b)  to 
the  time  of  Nehemiah  ;  (c)  to  the  cleansing  of 
the  Temple  by  Judas  Maccabseus.  It  is  a 
noble  song.  Luther  declared  that  he  owed 
more  to  Ps  118  than  to  all  the  princes  and 
friends  who  supported  him. 

Vv.  1-18,  dealing  with  the  subject  of  God's 
mercy,  which  has  brought  them  out  of  trouble, 
are  sung  by  the  procession  antiphonally  in  half - 
verses  ;  19  is  the  request  of  the  procession 
before  the  gates,  and  20  the  Levite  reply  ; 
21-24  are  sung  antiphonally  ;  26  is  the  cry  of 
the  Levite  choir  within  ;  while  29  is  a  closing 
liturgical  chant  for  the  whole  congregation. 

3.   House  of  Aaron]  the  elite  of  the  nation. 

5.  In  distress]  lit.  '  in  a  strait  place.'  The 
Lord]  RM  'Heb.  Jah,'  a  contraction  of  Je- 
hovah. 12.  Are  quenched]  but  Bsethgen,  with 
a  slight  change  of  Hebrew,  renders, '  they  flared 
forth  like  a  fire  of  thorns,'  and  this  makes 
admirable  sense.     Omit  for. 

13-16.  The  thought  changes  to  the  scene  of 
the  encoimter.      14.   Quoted  from  Ex  15  2. 

15.  The  rig-ht  hand,  etc.]  This  and  the  fol- 
lowing V.  are  what  the  voice  says.  19.  Gates 
of  righteousness]  i.e.  the  gates  of  the  Temple 


whence  God's  righteousness  streams  forth,  or 
it  may  mean  the  gates  into  which  righteous 
men  enter  :  cp.  v.  20. 

22.  The  stone]  i.e.  Israel  primarily.  The 
builders]  the  nations  of  the  world.  There  is, 
however,  a  tradition  that  such  a  stone  really 
existed  in  the  building  of  the  second  Temple. 
The  ultimate  application  to  Jesus  Christ  is 
most  fitting  :  cp.  Mt21 42  Ac4ii,  etc.  24.  The 
day]  a  day  of  triumph. 

25.  Save  now]  Heh.  hoshceana  a/i?ia  ;  hence, 
'  Hosanna,'  which  became  a  liturgical  formula  : 
cp.  Mt  2 1 9.  26.  Cometh]  better, '  entereth '  (the 
courts  of  the  Lord).  27.  Which  hath  shewed] 
RV  'and  He  hath  given.'  Bind,  etc.]  The 
Hebrew  is  obscure.  '  Bind  the  sacrificial  victim 
with  cords  even  till  you  come  to  the  horns  of 
the  altar,'  or,  less  likely,  '  Bind  the  procession 
with  festal  garlands  and  approach  the  horns  of 
the  altar.'  There  is  nothing  about  binding  the 
sacrifice  to  the  horns,  etc. 

PSALM   119 

The  longest  Ps.  and  the  best  example  of  an 
alphabetical  Ps.  There  are  in  it  twenty-two 
stanzas  ;  each  of  the  8  vv.  of  each  stanza  com- 
mences with  the  same  Hebrew  letter.  The 
subject  is  practically  the  same  throughout, 
viz.  the  great  help  and  guidance  and  comfort 
to  be  derived  from  studying  continually  the 
Law  of  the  Lord.  Much  ingenuity  is  displayed 
in  expressing  the  same  thoughts  under  various 
forms. 

Note  in  this  connexion  the  following  variety 
of  terms — Law,  or  instruction  (torah)  ;  Testi- 
monies, or  affirmations  of  God's  will  ;  Judgments, 
or  judicial  pronouncements  as  to  the  Law  ; 
Statutes  (lit.  '  inscriptions '),  or  published 
enactments  ;  Commandments,  Precepts,  or 
injunctions. 

It  is  difficult  to  locate  the  Ps.  in  time  or 
circumstances.  Such  devoted  meditation  on 
the  Law  is  a  feature  of  later  Judaism  which 
arose  chiefly  after  the  exile.  This  is  also  true 
of  the  mechanical  arrangement  of  the  Ps.  If 
the  writer  records  his  own  experiences  they 
must  have  been  very  trying — trouble,  sorrow, 
the  hostility  of  powerful  foes,  and  even  cap- 
tivity. But  some  scholars  believe  that  the 
writer  sometimes  records  his  own  experiences, 
sometimes  the  experiences  of  the  pious  remnant 
of  Israel. 

19.  Stranger]  or, '  sojourner,' passenger,  with 
but  a  short  time  to  learn  God's  will.  21.  The 
proud]  perhaps  Jews  who  had  been  influenced 
by  foreign  culture.  25.  Quicken]  i.e.  revive. 
29.  Way  of  lying]  i.e.  faithlessness  to  God's 
law.  •  39.  My  reproach  which  I  fear]  viz.  of 
sinning  against  God.  43.  He  prays  never  to 
be  deprived  of  the  power  of  testifying  to 
God's  truthfulness.  46.  Before  kings]  i.e.  in 
exile. 


372 


119.  54 


PSALMS 


124. 


54.  '  Melodies  have  thy  statutes  been  to  me 
in  the  house  of  my  sojourning,'  i.e.  in  this 
brief  life  :  cp.  39 1^.  56.  '  This  (comfort)  I 
have  that  I  have  kept  thy  law.'  70.  Fat  as 
grease]  dull,  gross  :  cp.  Job  15"'3'27  Isa  6 10. 

83.  Bottle]  RM  '  wine  skin.'  Bottles  were 
made  of  the  untanned  hide  of  an  animal.  In 
the  smoke  they  would  be  dried  up,  shrivelled 
and  useless.  Such  Israel  seemed  to  be  in 
captivity.  84.  How  many,  etc.]  i.e.  my  days 
are  few. 

91.  They]  i.e.  the  heavens  and  the  earth. 

96.  The  most  perfect  earthly  things  are 
finite  and  limited  ;  but  Grod's  law  is  for  all 
needs  and  for  all  time.  109.  My  soul,  etc.]  i.e. 
my  life  is  ever  in  jeopardy.  118.  Their  deceit 
is  falsehood]  better,  '  their  self-deception  is  a 
lie.'      123.   Fail  for]  fail  through  longing  for, 

130,  The  entrance]  RY  '  the  opening,'  i.e. 
the  unfolding.  132.  Usest  to  do]  i.e.  art  wont 
to  do.  140.  Very  pure]  i.e.  true  metal  :  cp. 
18^0.  147.  I  prevented,  etc.]  i.e.  Before  day- 
break I  cried.  148.  '  Mine  eyes  forestall  the 
night-watches,'  i.e.  when  each  watch  comes  I 
am  already  awake.  161.  Princes]  probably  it 
was  Israel,  i.e.  the  Jewish  nation,  that  was  so 
persecuted. 

164.  Seven  times]  i.e.  very  often. 

165.  Nothing  shall  offend  them]  RV  '  they 
htivc  none  occasion  of  stumbling.'  176.  Like 
a  lost  sheep]  probably  refers  to  the  Jews  scat- 
tered in  exile.  The  last  clause  of  the  v.  pre- 
cludes the  idea  of  straying  into  sin. 

PSALMS  120-134 

These  Pss.  are  similar  in  thought,  style,  and 
language.  Each  bears  the  heading  A  Song  of 
degrees,  RV  '  A  Song  of  Ascents.'  Scholars 
now  agree  for  the  most  part  in  interpreting 
this  title  '  A  Song  of  Pilgrimages  '  (lit.  '  goings 
up '),  as  indicating  the  use  of  these  Pss.  for 
pilgrims  on  their  annual  journeys  to  keep  the 
various  feasts  at  Jerusalem.  Others  explain 
the  '  Ascent '  as  referring  to  the  return  of  the 
exiles  from  Babylon.  This  section  had  doubt- 
less been  a  separate  Psalter  with  this  title, '  Songs 
of  Pilgrimages,'  affixed.  When  these  Pss.  be- 
came a  part  of  the  greater  collection  90-150,  the 
title  was  affixed  to  each  Ps.  separately.  There 
is  also  an  indication  in  these  titles  that  the  Pss. 
are  specially  intended  for  vocal  music.  Ex- 
quisitely beautiful  they  are,  well  fitted  for 
pilgrim  songs,  either  for  the  Jew  to  Jerusalem, 
or  for  the  Christian  to  that  heavenly  Zion 
whose  builder  and  maker  is  God  :  see  Intro. 

PSALM  120 

A  cry  for  help  to  Jehovah  in  the  midst  of 
sore  distress,  evidently  by  an  exile  under  foreign 
oppression. 

4.  '  Sharp  arrows  of  a  mighty  man,  with  glow- 
ing coals  of  broom,'  i.e.  burning  charcoal  made 


of  broom.     Both  expressions  are  figures  for 
divine  judgments  :  cp.  14010. 

5.  Maseeh]  i.e.  the  Moschi,  a  tribe  dwelling 
near  the  Euxine  Sea  :  cp.  GnlO^,  also  Hero- 
dotus 3. 94.  Kedar]  tribes  of  N.  Arabia  famous 
for  their  black  tents  :  cp.  Song  1  ^.  Here  the 
two  names  are  probably  taken  as  typical  ex- 
amples of  the  wild  and  inhospitable  peoples 
among  whom  many  of  the  Jews  were  exiled. 

6.  Long]  the  emphatic  word  '  all  too  long.' 
Turbulent  tribes  fond  of  war  surround  the 
writer. 

PSALM  121     - 

The  song  of  the  traveller,  whose  guide  is 
Jehovah. 

I.  Hills]  RV  ' mountains.'  The  mountains 
suggest  strength,  and  the  Psalmist  asks  a 
question, '  Whence  shall  my  help  come  ?  '  The 
answer  is  given  in  v.  2  :  '  from  Him  who 
made  the  mountains  and  all  else.'  If  this  Ps. 
were  sung  going  up  to  Jerusalem  then  the 
'  mountains '  may  be  the  hills  around  Jerusalem, 
or  those  on  which  that  city  is  built. 

5.  Shade]  i.e.  shelter  for  defence. 

6.  A  belief  in  the  injurious  influence  of  the 
moon  is  an  almost  universal  superstition.  If 
e.g.  the  moon  shines  on  the  face  of  a  sleeper 
he  may  become  blind  :  cp.  '  moonstruck.' 

PSALM  122 

The  writer  recalls  a  journey  to  Jerusalem 
and  the  many  sacred  memories  associated  with 
that  much-loved  city. 

1.  '  I  rejoiced  with  them  that  said  unto  me.' 

2.  Shall  stand]  rather,  'were  standing,'  i.e. 
came  to  be  standing.  3.  Jerusalem  is  builded] 
RV  'Jerusalem  that  art  built.'  Compact] 
descriptive  of  the  appearance  of  the  rebuilt 
city,  with  the  breaches  restored  and  the  walls 
complete,  after  the  return  from  exile. 

4.  Go  up]  better,  '  went  up,'  in  days  gone 
by.  Unto  the  testimony]  RV  '  for  a  testimony  ' 
of  God's  relationship  to  Israel  :  cp.  81 5. 

5.  Thrones]  i.e.  tribunals.  House  of  David] 
either  the  Davidic  line  of  kings  or  the  princes 
of  the  house  of  David. 

6.  They  shall  prosper]  RM  '  let  them  pros- 
per.' 

PSALM  123 

The  Psalmist  looks  up  steadfastly  to  God, 
and  expresses  his  confidence  in  Him. 

4.  The  scorning  of  those,  etc.]  the  mocking 
of  them  that  are  at  ease — heathen  oppressors 
living  in  careless  security.  The  circumstances 
are  similar  to  those  in  Ps  120. 

PSALM   124 

This  Ps.  is  sung  at  the  Feast  of  Purim  to 
commemorate  the  deliverance  from  Haman. 
It  is  a  gladsome  lyric,  thanking  Jehovah  for 


373 


124.  1 


PSALMS 


131.2 


escape  from  heathen  destniction,  and  may 
well  have  been  composed  under  the  impulse  of 
deliverance  from  the  Babylonian  exile.  In  its 
formation  it  illustrates  a  particular  rhythmic 
effect,  viz.  the  ascending  scale  of  a  series  of 
phrases. 

1.  Now  may  Israel  say]  what  Israel  says  is 
vv.  1-5.  3.  Quick]  RV  '  alive,'  as  Assyria 
and  Babylon  did  to  many  nations,  4.  Stream] 
better,  '  torrent,'  the  winter  torrent  familiar  in 
Palestine.  Over  our  soul]  overwhelming  the 
very  life  of  the  nation. 

PSALM  125 

Jehovah  is  the  bulwark  of  Israel,  but  evil- 
doers shall  perish.  Evidently  the  nation  is 
under  foreign  rule  :  cp.  v.  3. 

2.  The  mountains]  Jerusalem  is  high,  but 
the  hills,  such  as  the  Mt.  of  Olives  and  the 
Hill  of  Evil  Counsel,  are  higher.  3.  The  rod 
of  the  wicked]  BY  '  the  sceptre  of  wickedness,' 
i.e.  heathen  dominion  shall  be  broken  off  lest 
in  despair  the  righteous  be  tempted  to  turn 
aside  to  sinful  practices.  5.  Those  who  hesitate 
between  serving  Jehovah  and  worldliness  will 
be  swept  away  with  heathen  idolaters. 

PSALM  126 

A  song  of  those  who  have  been  redeemed 
(from  exile),  and  a  hopeful  prayer  for  those 
who  have  not  yet  returned. 

I .  Turned  again  the  captivity  of  Zion]  either, 
brought  back  the  exiles  who  returned  to  Zion, 
or,  turned  again  the  fortunes  of  Zion,  i.e.  per- 
haps, set  her  free  from  foreign  yoke. 

4.  Turn  again  our  captivity]  perhaps,  '  bring 
back  the  exiles.'  As  the  streams  in  the  south] 
i.e.  like  the  hill  streams  in  the  arid  S.  land  of 
Judah  (the  Negeb),  dry  for  a  time  in  summer 
but  becoming  suddenly  swollen  torrents  in  the 
rains  of  autumn. 

5.  A  proverb — sow  in  tears,  reap  with  ring- 
ing cries.  The  reference  may  be  to  the  diffi- 
culties amid  which  the  pioneers  of  the  return 
from  exile  had  to  work  :  cp.  Ezr  and  Neh. 

6.  Weepeth]  suggestive  of  the  patient 
labour  of  the  sower.  Bearing  precious  seed] 
better,  '  bearing  a  measure  of  seed.'  The  sower 
carried  the  seed  in  a  cloth  tied  to  his  body — 
this  cloth  full  is  a  '  measure.' 

PSALM  127 

A  warning  against  over-anxiety  in  any  work. 
Let  it  be  left  in  the  wise  hands  of  Jehovah, 
who  gives  the  best  blessings  without  human 
aid.  Perhaps  the  Ps.  was  addressed  to  some 
too-zealous  workers  in  the  restoration  of 
Jerusalem.  The  title  assigns  it  to  Solomon, 
but  probably  it  was  vn'itten  long  after  his  day. 
Its  proverbial  philosophy  may  have  led  to  its 
association  with  his  name  :  cp.  Prov  1 1. 

2.  Bread  of  sorrows]  BV  '  bread  of  toil '  : 


cp.  Prov  10  22.  For  so  he  giveth  his  beloved 
sleep]  a  difficult  phi'ase.  With  a  slight  change 
in  the  Hebrew  we  may  render,  '  surely  he 
giveth  his  beloved  in  sleep.'  Others  may  toil 
and  worry  and  vex  themselves  and  make  little 
progress.  But  to  His  loved  ones  God  gives 
prosperity  even  while  they  sleep  :  cp.  Mk427. 

3.  Children]  according  to  Jewish  belief  one 
of  God's  greatest  blessings,  yet  given  without 
the  laborious  thought  and  care  of  men. 

4.  Childi'en  of  a  man's  youth  would  grow 
up  and  be  able  to  help  and  protect  him  when 
he  is  old.  5.  But]  BV  '  when.'  In  the  gate] 
Here  the  market  was  held  and  justice  ad- 
ministered. The  man  with  stalwart  sons 
need  not  fear  false  accusers  at  the  judgment- 
seat  :  cp.  Job  5^. 

PSALM  128 

The  man  who  fears  God  will  be  blessed  in 
his  family  life.  The  Ps.  has  been  called  the 
'  Home,  Sweet  Home  '  of  Judaism. 

3.  By  the  sides  of  thine  house]  BV  '  in  the 
innermost  parts  of  thine  house,'  i.e.  in  the 
women's  apartment.  Olive  plants]  a  precious 
tree  in  Palestine.  5.  '  May  the  Lord  bless 
thee  out  of  Zion,'  i.e.  from  His  dwelling-place. 

6.  The  Psalmist  closes  with  a  note  of 
patriotism  :  BV  '  Peace  be  upon  Israel.' 

PSALM  129 

A  song  of  deliverance  in  trouble  and  the 
overthrow  of  the  wicked. 

3.  Made  long  their  furrows]  Descriptive  of 
the  persecutions  Israel  had  endured. 

6.  Afore  it  groweth  up]  better,  '  before  it  is 
plucked,'  or,  '  before  it  is  unsheathed,'  i.e. 
before  it  shoots  into  blossom.     8.  Cp.  Buth24. 

PSALM  130 

The  De  Profwidis — a  song  of  redemption 
from  trouble  through  faith  in  God.  Probably 
a  very  late  Ps.  The  Ps.  is  antiphonal.  First 
voice  (vv.  1,  2),  Second  voice  (3,  4),  First  voice 
(5,  6),  Chorus  (7,  8). 

1.  Out  of  the  depths]  i.e.  from  sore  trouble. 

4.  Feared]  Bather  a  startling  statement. 
But  the  fear  of  God  means  true,  earnest 
religion  :  cp.  1 9 10  Gn  20  n.  6.  B V '  more  than 
watchmen  look  for  the  morning,'  i.e.  impati- 
ently. 7.  Plenteous  redemption]  i.e.  abundant 
means  of  effecting  salvation  for  His  people. 

8.  Redeem,  etc.]  i.e.  deliver  not  only  from 
the  consequences  of  sin,  but  from  sin  itself. 

PSALM  131 

A  song  of  child-like  resignation  of  one  com- 
mitting himself  to  God  in  time  of  trouble. 

2.  Behaved]  BV  'stilled.'  Children  were 
weaned  between  two  and  three  years  of  age. 

Even]  better,  '  within  me,'  or  '  upon  me,'  re- 
ferring to  the  child  upon  its  mother's  bosom. 


374 


132.  1 


PSALMS 


137. 


PSALM  132 

This  is  the  most  difficult  of  the  Pilgrim 
Songs.  According  to  accepted  literary  criticism 
it  must  be  a  post-exilic  Ps.  The  Temple  wor- 
ship has  been  restored.  The  days  of  David 
are  in  the  distant  past.  The  circumstances  of 
the  time  are  such  that  God's  promise  to  David 
of  a  perpetual  dynasty  is  recalled  as  a  gi'ound 
of  hope.  Accordingly  we  must  believe  that 
the  writer  either  incorporated  a  fragment  from 
an  earlier  period,  vv.  6-10,  or  represented  Israel 
speaking,  dramatically  describing  thi-ee  periods, 
(1)  vv.  6,  7,  the  time  of  David  ;  (2)  8,  9,  the 
time  of  Solomon  ;  (3)  10,  the  writer's  own  age. 
In  any  case,  the  Ps.  is  one  of  great  charm  and 
delicacy,  echoing  and  re-echoing  the  pro- 
mise that  Jehovah  hath  chosen  Zion  for  His 
habitation. 

I.  '  Lord,  remember  unto  David  all  his 
afflictions '  (cp.  1  Ch  22 1*),  i.e.  for  good — to  do 
him  good  in  consequence:  cp.  137'^.  David] 
perhaps,  here,  '  the  house  of  David,'  or  '  the 
representative  of  David.' 

3-5.  David's  vow  to  find  a  permanent  home 
for  the  ark  :  cp.  2  S  7  2.  6.  We  heard  of  it  at] 
i.e.  the  people  heard  the  ark  was  at  Ephratah, 
perhaps  the  district  round  Kirjath-jearim,  where 
the  ark  stayed  till  a  place  was  prepared  for  it  in 
Mt.  Zion  :  cp.  lChl3-5.  Fields  of  the  wood] 
'  field  of  Jaar,'  i.e.  Kirjath-jearim,  shortened 
for  the  sake  of  rhythm. 

8-10.  These  vv.  are  found  in  2  Ch  6  41,42^  and 
undoubtedly  refer  to  the  dedication  of  the 
Temple  by  Solomon.  8.  Ark  of  thy  strength] 
the  symbolical  centre  of  Jehovah's  power  in 
Israel.  The  ark  is  mentioned  only  here  in  the 
Psalter.  Unless,  as  suggested  above,  the  whole 
passage  is  quoted  from  the  very  late  book  of 
Chronicles,  it  is  difficult  to  account  for  its  pre- 
sence in  this  Ps.  9.  Thy  saints]  God's  chosen 
people.  10.  Turn  not  away  the  face]  owing 
to  the  rejection  of  his  prayer.  Thine  anointed] 
means  the  king. 

II,  12.  Cp.  1K825.  In  vv.  11-18  we  may 
trace  the  divine  answer  to  the  prayers  of  vv. 
8-10.  13.  This  is  the  keynote  of  the  Ps.  14. 
See  68i*5_  15.  A  Messianic  promise  against 
famine,  very  welcome  in  such  a  country  as 
Palestine. 

16.  Salvation]  here,  'health,'  'prosperity.' 

17.  The  horn]  which  is  generally  a  symbol 
of  strength,  is  in  Daniel  the  symbol  of  a  king. 

To  bud]  sprout:  see  Jer235  3315  ZechS^, 
where  the  '  branch  '  or  '  sprout '  denotes  the 
Messianic  King  :  see  also  Lk  1  *^^.  Ordained] 
E.M  '  prepared.'  A  lamp]  symbol  of  undying 
prosperity  in  a  house  :  cp.  IK  11 36  Prov2020. 

18.  Flourish]  i.e.  sparkle. 

PSALM  133 
An  exquisite  gem  of  song  describing  the 


375 


blessings  of  unity — suitable  for  a  pilgi-im  song, 
when  rich  and  poor,  priest  and  peasant,  might 
fraternise  with  Zion  in  sight. 

2.  Precious  ointment]  better, '  goodly  oil.'  It 
is  doubtful  whether  the  second  relative  clause 
is  parallel  to  the  first  referring  to  the  oil,  or 
whether  it  refers  to  Aaron's  beard.  The  Heb., 
like  the  AV,  can  be  interpreted  either  way.  It 
is  probably  best  to  take  it  as  referring  to  the 
oil.  So  LXX  takes  it.  The  idea  is  to  emphasise 
the  richness  and  fulness  of  life  which  friendship 
gives. 

3.  RV '  Like  the  dew  of  Hermon  that  cometh 
down  on  the  mountains  of  Zion.'  Hermon  is 
the  most  conspicuous  feature  in  Palestine, 
standing  in  the  extreme  N.  away  beyond  the 
springs  of  Jordan,  and  over  9,000  ft.  in  height. 
The  writer  evidently  thought  that  the  dew 
came  down  from  the  distant  Hermon  cool  and 
fresh,  and  settled  on  Zion.  For  there]  i.e. 
in  Zion.  Peace  and  harmony  are  life  to  the 
nation. 

PSALM  134 

A  night-greeting  addressed  to  the  priests  and 
Levites  in  the  Temple.  V.  3  is  their  reply  to 
the  greeting. 

PSALM  135 

A  Ps.  of  praise  suitable  for  public  worship, 
beginning  and  ending  with  the  liturgical  Halle- 
lujah. It  is  full  of  rich  mosaics  illustrating 
Jehovah's  greatness  and  the  vanity  of  idols. 
Pss  134,  135  were  sometimes  taken  as  one  by 
the  Jews,  Ps  135  being  an  expansion  of  134, 
with  certain  elements  from  Psll5. 

4.  Peculiar  treasure]  see  on  Ex  19  5.  7.  For 
the  rain]  i.  e.  to  produce  rain,  as  it  was  thought  : 
cp.  ZechlO^RV.  Treasuries]  storehouses, 
where,  according  to  ancient  belief,  the  winds 
were  kept.  10,  11.  Cp.  ]Sru2124.  13.  Memo- 
rial] that  by  which  Jehovah  is  remembered. 

14.  Judge]  i.e.  do  justice  on  behalf  of:  cp. 
Dt3236.  Repent  himself]  i.e.  pity,  relent  to- 
wards. 15,18.  See  1154-s.  21.  Out  of]  i.e. 
from  out  of. 

PSALM  136 

A  song  of  praise  to  God  ever  merciful.  It 
is  sometimes  known  as  the  great  Hallel,  al- 
though the  Talmud  includes  also  Pss  120-135 
under  this  title.  It  diif ers  from  all  other  Pss. 
in  the  Psalter  in  that  each  v.  closes  with  a 
refrain.     6.  Cp.242.     19-22.  Cp.  135 11.12. 

23.  Low  estate]  i.  e.  condition  of  abasement, 
perhaps  the  exile  or  subjection  to  a  foreign 
yoke. 

PSALM   137 

A  lifelike  memorial  of  the  bitter  experiences 
of  exile  concluding  with  (a)  a  strong  expression 
of  patriotism,  and  (h)  an  outburst  of  hatred 


137.  1 


PSALMS 


141.7 


against  the  enemies  of  Jerusalem.     Probably 
written  soon  after  the  exile. 

1.  Rivers  of  Babylon]  The  river  was  the  Eu- 
phrates, from  which  branched  off  a  network  of 
canals,  on  whose  banks  grew  the  willows  here 
referred  to.     These  were  a  species  of  poplar. 

2.  Harps]  the  K'nuior  was  the  most  ancient 
kind  of  harp,  properly  a  IjTe.  3.  A  song]  lit. 
'  the  words  of  a  song.'  Sing  us,  etc.]  probably 
in  mockery.  Hebrew  music  would  not  be  so 
good  as  Babylonian.  5.  Forget  her  cunnbigl 
i.e.  her  skill  in  playing  on  the  harp. 

7.  The  children  of  Edom  in  the  day]  RV 
'  against  the  children  of  Edom  the  day,'  i.  e.  the 
day  of  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  the 
Chaldeans  (2K  25^*-),  when  Edom  rejoiced  at 
its  fall :  see  Obad  vv.  10-12.  8.  Who  art  to 
be  destroyed]  i.e.  doomed  to  destruction. 

9.  Stones]  RV  '  rocks.'  We  cannot  defend 
this  terrible  curse,  but  the  cruelties  of  these 
Eastern  oppressors  were  a  provocation  which 
fortunately  we  cannot  now  realise. 

PSALM    138 

Although  the  title  ascribes  this  Ps.  to  David, 
it  is  generally  considered  to  belong  to  the  post- 
exilic  period,  of  whose  earnest  piety  it  is  one  of 
the  best  examples.  According  to  some  scholars 
the  speaker  is  Israel,  but  this  is  doubtful. 

I.  Before]  i.e.  in  front  of,  in  opposition  to 
the  (false)  gods.  2.  Thy  name]  Thy  character, 
as  hitherto  revealed.  The  present  fulfilment 
of  thy  promise  surpasses  the  renown  of  all  thy 
former  doings. 

3.  Strengthenedst  me]  RV  '  Thou  didst  en- 
courage me,'  lit.  '  madest  me  proud.' 

6.  Afar  off]  RV  '  from  afar.'  They  are  not 
hidden  from  God's  eye,  or  beyond  the  reach  of 
God's  justice.  8.  '  Jehovah  accomplisheth  (all 
things)  for  me.'  The  works  of  thine  own  hands] 
i.e.  the  Jewish  nation,  if  Israel  is  the  speaker. 

PSALM    139 

One  of  the  very  greatest  of  the  Pss.  No 
grander  tribute  has  ever  been  paid  to  the  omni- 
science and  omnipresence  of  God.  The  Ps.  is 
ascribed  to  David,  but  the  Hebrew  is  decisive 
in  favour  of  a  date  very  long  after  David,  be- 
ing marked  by  Aramaisms. 

1-6.  God's  omniscience.  7-12.  God's  omni- 
presence. 13-18.  God's  wonderful  provi- 
dence in  human  life.  19-22.  God's  hatred  of 
sin.  23,  24.  A  prayer  that  the  Psalmist  may 
be  cleansed  from  all  evil. 

3.  Compassest]  RM  '  winnowest,'i.e.  scrutin- 
isest.  5.  Beset]  surround,  influence.  6.  High] 
the  word  means  '  inaccessible  '  :  cp.  Dt  2  36. 

8.  Hell]  RV  'Sheol,'  i.e.  the  under-world. 

9.  The  wings  of  the  morning]  i.e.  follow  the 
first  rays  of  dawn  which  stretch  like  outspread 
wings  to  the  far  horizon.  Uttermost  parts  of 
the  sea]  i.e.  the  West — Mediterranean.    11.  If 


I  say]  The  text  has, '  and  I  said.'  Cover]  some, 
with  slight  change,  render  'screen  me,'  and  this 
is  evidently  the  thought  of  the  Psalmist.  Even 
the  night,  etc.]  RV  '  and  the  light  about  me 
shall  be  night ' — a  parallel  to  previous  clause. 
13.  Possessed]  rather, '  formed,'  or  '  created.' 
Reins]  the  kidneys,  seat  of  thought,  feeling, 
etc.,  according  to  Hebrew  belief.  Covered 
me]  rather,  '  woven  me  together,'  like  a  piece 
of  cloth,  with  bones,  sinews,  muscles,  etc.  :  cp. 
Job  10^1.  15.  In  the  lowest  parts  of  the  earth] 
Probably  the  writer  is  speaking  poetically  of 
the  mysterious  origin  of  a  human  personalitj" 
in  the  womb. 

16.  A  most  obscure  verse.  '  Thine  eyes  be- 
held my '  (yet)  '  unformed  substance,  and  in 
thy  book  were  they  all  written,'  (even)  '  the 
days  which  were  preordained  when  as  yet  there 
was  none  of  them.'  The  Psalmist  himself, 
all  his  days,  and  all  their  happenings,  were  in 
the  mind  of  God  before  he  was  born. 

18.  I  am  still  with  thee]  either,  'my  thoughts 
still  go  out  to  thee  and  thy  wonders,'  or,  '  I 
am  still  in  thy  thought  as  an  object  of  care 
and  love.' 

19.  Surely  thou  wilt]  RM  'O  that  thou 
wouldest.'  Bloody  men]  RV  '  bloodthirsty 
men.'  21.  The  thought  is  evidently,  '  hateful 
to  all  right-thinking  persons  must  those  be 
who  rebel  against  such  a  wonder-working 
God.' 

24.  Wicked  way]  better,  '  way  leading  to 
sorrow ' ;  the  idea  is  the  same.  Way  ever- 
lasting] i.e.  the  enduring  way — well  expressed 
in  Pro  V  122s. 

PSALM    140 

A  prayer  for  deliverance  from  enemies  (per- 
haps national),  ascribed  to  David  probably 
because  it  consists  mainly  of  quotations  from, 
and  adaptations  of,  earlier  Pss. 

2.  '  Continually  do  they  stir  up  wars ' :  cp. 
Provisos.  3.  Selah]  see  on  3*.  7.  Covered] 
better,  'screened.'  11.  Let  not,  etc.]  better, 
'  a  slander  shall  not.' 

PSALM   141 

An  evening  prayer  in  time  of  trouble.  The 
Psalmist  prays  that  he  may  be  strengthened 
to  resist  temptation,  and  so  escape  the  fate  of 
evil  men. 

2.  Be  set  forth]  lit.  '  raise  itself,'  like  the 
smoke  of  incense.  5.  Correction  from  friends 
is  desu'able.  An  excellent  oil,  v;hich  shall  not 
break  my  head]  RV  '  as  oil  upon  the  head  ;  let 
not  my  head  refuse  it.'  For  yet,  etc.]  'for  still 
my  prayer  is  against  their  wrong-doing.'  6.  An 
obscure  verse.  '  When  their  judges  are  flung 
headlong  by  the  sides  of  the  crag,  then  shall 
they  hear  my  words  that  they  are  sweet.' 

7.  Also  obscure ;  perhaps,  '  Their  bones 
will  be  scattered  at  the  mouth  of   Sheol  as 


376 


141.  8 


PSALMS 


149.9 


when  one  cleaveth  and  breaketh  up  the  earth,' 
referring  to  the  judges.     8.  But]  better,  '  for.' 
Leave  not,  etc.]  RM  '  Pour  not  out  my  soul,' 
i.e.  let  me  not  die :  cp.  Isa53^2_ 

PSALM   142 

A  prayer  of  a  hunted  soul :  ascribed  to 
David  '  in  the  cave,'  but  not  likely  to  be  by 
him. 

3.  '  When  my  spirit  is  faint  within  me '  (then 
I  remember)  '  thou  knowest  my  path.' 

7.  Prison]  metaphorical:  cp.  10710.  Com- 
pass me  about]  RM  '  crown  themselves  because 
of  me.'  The  meaning  is,  that  they  will  rejoice 
with  him  in  his  rejoicing. 

PSALM    143 

A  late  Ps.,  though  ascribed  to  David,  con- 
sisting mainly  of  appropriate  reminiscences 
from  earlier  Pss. 

2.  Shall  no  man  living,  etc.]  perhaps,  '  is  no 
man  living  righteous.'  3.  That  have  been  long 
dead]  better,  '  that  are  for  ever  dead '  :  cp. 
Lam 3 '5.    4.  Is  .  .  overwhelmed]  better,  'faints.' 

Is  desolate]  better,  '  is  bewildered.' 

6.  Selah]  see  on  3"^.  7.  Hear]  better,  'an- 
swer '  :  cp.  28^.  10.  '  Let  thy  good  spirit  lead 
me  in  an  even '  (i.e.  safe,  peaceful)  '  country ' : 
cp.  2711. 

PSALM  144 

This  Ps.  consists  mainly  of  thoughts  and 
quotations  from  earlier  Pss.,  e.g.  8  and 
18.  Yv.  12-15  are,  however,  quite  unlike  any- 
thing else  in  the  Psalter,  and  some  suppose 
them  to  be  a  quotation  from  a  lost  Ps.,  possibly 
by  David. 

2.  My  goodness]  lit.  '  my  lo-^^ngkindness,' 
but  with  the  change  of  a  single  Hebrew  letter 
we  can  render  '  my  castle,'  which  is  much  more 
suitable.  My  people]  probably  we  should 
render,  'the  peoples.'     3,  4.  Cp.  8^  39 5. 

7.  Strange  children]  i.e.  strangers.  9.  See 
332. 

12.  The  want  of  connexion  seems  to  point 
to  a  new  fragment.  Our  daughters,  etc.]  Two 
renderings  are  possible :  ( 1 )  '  om-  daughters  be 
draped  in  purple  cloth  like  the  hangings  of  a 
palace,'  or  (2)  '  our  daughters  as  corner  stones 
carved  after  the  similitude  of  a  palace,'  strong 
and  graceful.  For  'palace'  PBV  reads  'temple.' 

14.   Breaking  in]  invasion  by  an  enemy. 

Going  out]  either  into  exile,  or  to  sm*- 
render  to  an  enemy.  Complaining]  R V  '  out- 
cry': cp.  Isa24ii  Jerl42. 

PSALM  145 

This  is  an  alphabetic  Ps.,  but  the  v.  with 
the  letter  Nim^  which  should  come  after  v.  13, 
has  been  lost.  It  is  a  noble  Ps.,  celebrating 
the  praise  of  God  as  the  bountiful  Giver  of  all 
good   things,    used  in   the  Jewish  church  at 


morning  service,  and  worthy  to  be  used  in  all 
the  churches.  It  is  the  last  Ps.  ascribed  to 
David  in  the  Psalter. 

5.  RV  'of  the  glorious  majesty  of  thine 
honour  and  of  thy  wondrous  works  will  I 
meditate.'  13.  Here  LXX  adds  the  missing 
v.,  as  follows  :  '  Jehovah  is  faithful  in  all  his 
words  and  kind  in  all  his  works.' 

PSALM  146 

Here  begins  the  final  group,  Pss  146-150, 
known  as  the  '  Hallelujah  '  Pss.,  because  each 
begins  and  ends  with  that  word,  meaning, 
'  Praise  ye  the  Lord.'  They  sum  up  the  joy 
of  the  returned  exiles,  and  form  a  fitting  dox- 
ology  to  the  Psalter.  They  are,  of  course, 
specially  intended  for  use  in  the  second 
Temple.  Ps  146  praises  God  as  the  true 
Helper. 

9.  Turneth  upside  down]  lit. '  causeth  to  turn 
aside '  (into  the  trackless  desert,  where  it 
disappears). 

PSALM  147 

A  song  of  praise  in  which  the  Psalmist  re- 
counts God's  mercies  (1)  in  restoring  Jeru- 
salem, (2)  in  helping  those  cast  down,  (3)  in 
caring  for  the  animal  world,  and  (4)  in  the 
changing  seasons. 

2.  Build  up]  i.e.  rebuild,  after  the  captivity. 

7.  Sing  praise]  better,  '  make  melody.' 

ID.  Against  self-reliance.  11.  Hope  in  his 
mercy]  better,  '  wait  for  His  lovingkindness.' 

17.  Morsels]  crumbs  (of  bread).  Frost  and 
snow  at  Jerusalem  are  comparatively  rare.  A 
change  soon  follows  :  cp.  v.  18. 

19,  20.  The  writer  returns  to  God's  doings 
for  Israel.  Judgments]  better,  '  ordinances,' 
revealed  only  to  Israel. 

PSALM  148 

This  is  the  '  Gloria  in  Excelsis '  of  the 
Psalter,  wherein  all  created  things,  animate 
and  inanimate,  are  called  upon  to  praise 
Jehovah. 

I.  From  the  heavens]  i.e.  angels  and  the 
heavenly  bodies.  4.  Waters  that  be  above  the 
heavens]  So  God  divided  the  waters  :  see 
Gnlt5.7.  6.  Which  shall  not  pass]  RM' which 
none  shall  transgress.'  8.  Vapours]  smoke  or 
steam:  cp.  11983.  13.  Excellent]  RV  'ex- 
alted.' 14.  RM  'a  horn  for  his  people,  a 
praise  for  all  his  saints,'  i.e.  the  giving  victory 
to  God's  people  ('exalting  the  horn')  is  a 
subject  of  praise. 

PSALM  149 

A  song  of  praise  to  God  who  gives  the  vic- 
tory, including  vengeance  on  the  enemies  of 
Israel. 

4.  Salvation]  RM  '  victory.'  5.  Upon  their 
beds]  even  in  the  night-season.     9.  Thejudg- 


377 


150.  1 


PSALMS— PROVERBS 


INTRO. 


ment]  probably  referring  to  the  prophecies  and 
Pss.  concerning  the  destruction  of  the  heathen  : 
cp.  1830-43  8310-13  Isa45i4.  This  honour, 
etc.]  better,  '  This '  (the  overthrow  of  their 
enemies)  '  shall  be  an  honour  for  all  his  saints.' 

PSALM  150 

This  is  'the  grand  Finale  of  the  spiritual 
concert,'  and  worthily  closes  not  only  this 
little  Hallelujah  group,  but  the  whole  Psalter. 

I.  Firmament  of  his  power]  the  spreading 
roof  of  the  sky  which  His  power  has  made. 

3.  Trumpet]   i.e.  Shopher^  a  kind  of  horn. 


Psaltery]  i.e.  Nebhel,  a  species  of  harp,  or 
guitar,  or  lyre,  with  a  bulging  resonance  box 
at  one  end.  Harp]  i.e.  Kinnor,  the  most 
ancient  form  of  harp  ;  a  lyre.  4.  Timbrel] 
i.e.  Tujjh,  a  circlet  of  wood  covered  with  skin 
and  ornamented  with  brass  bells  ;  tambourine. 

Stringed  instruments]  i.e.  M'miiim^  properly, 
'  strings,'  i.e.  of  a  harp.  Organs]  EV  '  the 
pipe,'  i.e.  Ugahh,  perhaps  a  Pan's  pipe  :  cp. 
Gn42i.  5.  Cymbals]  i.e.  Tseltselim,  evidently 
of  two  kinds.  High  sounding]   cp.  ICorlSi. 

6.  The  climax  is  reached.  '  Let  every  thing 
that  hath  breath  praise  the  Lord.    Hallelujah.' 


PROVERBS 


INTRODUCTION 


The  Hebrew  word  Mashal  covers  a  much 
larger  area  than  our  '  Proverb.'  The  latter 
signifies  a  pithy,  pointed  saying,  which,  by  its 
obvious  correspondence  with  the  facts  of 
human  nature  and  experience,  wins  popular 
acceptance.  Of  such  brief,  clear  and  sensible 
utterances  there  are  abundant  examples  in  the 
book  before  us.  But  it  also  contains  other 
forms  of  composition.  There  are  passages  in 
which  the  subject  is  continued  for  several 
verses,  especially  in  the  earlier  and  some  of 
the  later  chapters ;  lengthy  descriptions,  such 
as  that  of  the  Bad  Woman  (c.  7)  and  the  Excel- 
lent Woman  (3 1  io-3i)  ;  homilies  and  addresses 
(1 20-33  8).  In  other  books  of  the  Bible  the 
3Iashal  has  a  still  wider  range  of  meaning  :  it 
is  an  allegory  (Ezkl?^)  ;  a  figurative  discourse 
(Nu237,i8);  a  byword  (Jer  24  9);  a  taunt  (Isa 
14't);  a  lament  (Mic  2*1)  ;  an  argument  (Job 
29 1).  The  idea  at  its  root  is  that  of  a  simili- 
tude or  parallelism,  a  comparison  with  some 
well-known  object,  and  it  is,  as  a  rule,  dis- 
tinguished from  the  other  parallelism  with 
which  we  are  familiar  in  the  Bible,  that  of  the 
Psalms,  in  that  it  is  spoken,  not  intended  to 
be  sung. 

The  proverbs  contained  in  the  book  which 
bears  this  name  are  not  of  the  kind  which 
spring  unbidden  to  the  lips  of  the  people,  the 

'  Bits  of  ancient  observation  by  his  fathers  garnered, 

each 
As  a  pebble  worn  and  polished  in  the  ciurent  of  his 
speech. ' 

They  show  on  their  face  that  they  were 
composed  by  thinkers,  by  the  class  of  men 
who  were  known  as  '  the  wise  '  (Job  1 5 1^  Jer 
181^).  In  some  cases  this  is  distinctly  stated 
(1^  22 1'^  2423).     They  arrange  themselves  in 


five  main  divisions.  The  Introduction  c.  1-9  ; 
101-2216;  2217-24;  25-29;  the  Appendix, 
31,  31.  To  the  Introduction  (1 1)  and  to  two 
of  the  collections  (10 1  25 1)  the  name  of  Solo- 
mon is  prefixed.  We  are  not,  however,  to 
understand  that  he  was  the  author  of  all  the 
sayings  under  these  headings.  He  was  tra- 
ditionally regarded  as  the  representative  of  all 
wisdom,  and  at  1 K  4  32  we  read  that  he  '  spoke 
three  thousand  proverbs.'  The  majority  of 
the  maxims  and  discourses  preserved  in  our 
book  belong  to  times  and  circumstances  alto- 
gether unlike  his,  but  we  have  no  means  of 
distinguishing  with  certainty  any  that  may 
have  originated  with  him.  The  collection 
probably  contains  many  pre-exilic  proverbs 
besides  those  of  Solomon  ;  but  it  also  con- 
tains others  of  a  later  date  and  cannot  have 
been  cast  into  its  present  form  till  some  time 
after  the  exile. 

Proverbs  occupies  an  important  place  in  what 
is  known  as  the  Wisdom  Literature  of  the 
Jews.  This  consists  of  the  Canonical  Books, 
Job,  Proverbs  and  Ecclesiastes,  the  apo- 
cryphal Ecclesiasticus  and  the  Wisdom  of 
Solomon.  Job  handles  the  serious  problem 
of  the  relation  between  the  sufferings  of  the 
righteous  and  the  justice  and  goodness  of  God. 
Ecclesiastes  discusses  the  value  of  life  from  a 
pessimistic  standpoint.  The  Wisdom  of  Solo- 
mon seeks  to  demonstrate,  both  to  the  Gentiles 
and  to  those  Jews  who  were  tempted  to  apos- 
tasy, that  there  is  no  true  wisdom  apart  from 
the  faith  in  the  One  God.  Proverbs  and  Eccle- 
siasticus are  guides  for  daily  life,  not  con- 
cerning themselves  with  intellectual  difficulties 
or  the  controversy  between  monotheism  and 
idolatry,    but   devoted   to   the  promotion   of 


378 


INTRO. 


PROVERBS 


1. 


uprightness  and  purity.  It  was  said  of  Socrates 
that  he  brought  philosophy  down  from  heaven 
to  earth.  He  turned  men  from  speculations 
on  the  origin  of  the  universe  to  their  duties 
as  individuals  and  members  of  the  common- 
wealth. A  somewhat  similar  remark  might 
be  made  about  this  branch  of  the  Wisdom 
Literature.  Its  chief  concern  is  with  the  sane 
and  prudent  ordering  of  daily  life.  It  looks 
on  wisdom  as  the  art  of  living  well.  It  en- 
forces virtue  as  the  way  by  which  the  goal  of 
happiness  may  be  reached.  It  guards  against 
stumblingblocks,  pitfalls,  and  bypaths.  It 
makes  great  use  of  prudential  considerations. 
Yet  it  is  religious  at  heart.  The  fear  of 
the  Lord  is  its  beginning.  God's  law,  re- 
vealed in  Scripture  and  experience,  or  imparted 
by  meditative  and  observant  men,  is  never  for- 
gotten. His  government  is  over  all  human 
afEairs ;  His  rewards  and  punishments  take 
effect  in  this  present  life,  and  are  sincerely 
believed  in.  But  wisdom  is  not  regarded  as 
confined  to  these  strictly  practical  matters. 
Agur  (30  3)  uses  the  word  almost  in  the  sense 
of  philosophy.  And  the  wisdom  which  dis- 
plays its  excellence  by  guiding  aright  a  young 
man's  course  is  seen  to  be  essentially  one 
with  that  attribute  of  God  which  directed  the 
creation  of  the  world  (c.  8). 

The  ideal  of  life  here  enjoined  is  by  no 
means  an  unworthy  one.  Honesty,  industry, 
chastity,  considerateness  for  all,  helpfulness 
towards  the  distressed  ;  humanity,  reverence, 
and  trust  towards  God  are  urged  unweariedly. 
There  is  no  base  or  unworthy  maxim,  no 
sanction  of  the  spirit  of  revenge,  like  the 
Italian,  '  Wait  time  and  place  for  thy  revenge, 
for  it  is  never  well  done  in  a  hurry  ' :  no  re- 
commendation of  fawning  obsequiousness,  like 
the  Eastern,  '  If  the  monkey  reigns,  dance 
before  him.'  In  some  respects  it  is  even 
healthier  in  tone  than  its  companion  books. 
Compare,  for  instance,  its  view  of  woman 
(141  1822  1914  3110-31)  with  EcclT^s  Ecclus 
25l6-26_  On  the  other  hand,  there  are  defects. 
Two  weaknesses  are  especially  to  be  noticed. 
First,  the  absence  of  all  belief  in  a  real  life 
beyond   the  grave.     This  is  a   serious  draw- 


back. When  men  came  to  realise  that  rewards 
and  punishments  are  not  distributed  on  earth 
in  accordance  with  conduct,  the  foundation 
was  destroyed  on  which  the  proverb-writers 
built  their  recommendations  of  virtue.  The 
Wisdom  of  Solomon,  which  owes  much  to  its 
contact  with  Greek  thought,  marks  a  great 
advance  in  this  particular  (2'-^  3,  4^0  510  G^'-*)  ; 
and  in  the  teaching  of  Christ  the  prospect  of 
a  future  dispensation  of  judgment  occupied  an 
important  place.  Secondly,  there  is  no  warm 
and  inspiring  hope  of  the  reclamation  of  the 
foolish  and  sinful.  If  a  man  is  on  the  wrong 
side  of  the  line  it  is  taken  for  granted  that  he 
will  remain  there,  contrary  to  the  charity  and 
hopefulness  of  Him  who  '  came  not  to  call  the 
righteous,  but  sinners  to  repentance.' 

As  to  the  notes  which  follow,  it  should  be 
remembered  that  our  limits  of  space  preclude 
anything  beyond  a  short  explanation,  illus- 
tration, or  paraphrase  of  the  more  difficult 
ambiguous  and  interesting  paragraphs.  The 
reader  is  strongly  recommended  to  have  the 
Revised  Version  always  before  him.  In  con- 
cise sayings,  where  everything  depends  on  the 
exact  point  being  touched,  the  rendering  of  a 
single  word  makes  all  the  difference.  The 
RV  or  its  margin  often  hit  the  mark  which 
the  AV  has  missed.  For  example,  the  latter 
uses  the  word  '  wisdom '  to  represent  several 
words  of  the  original.  It  is  always  worth 
noting  where  the  II V  substitutes  '  wise  dealing,' 
'  prudence,'  '  subtilty.'  Again,  the  RV  has 
sometimes  availed  itself  of  the  help  furnished 
by  the  LXX.  This  is  of  great  importance. 
Passing  from  mouth  to  mouth,  not  deemed 
equally  sacred  with  the  utterances  of  the 
Law  or  even  of  the  Prophets,  these  adages 
frequently  failed  to  keep  their  original  form. 
And  the  form  presented  by  the  Greek  Version 
sometimes  recommends  itself  as  the  correct 
one. 

One  other  recommendation  may  be  per- 
mitted. Ecclesiasticus  is  well  worth  reading 
along  with  Proverbs.  Its  tone  is  very  similar, 
but  it  was  written  somewhat  later  (about  200 
B.C.)  ;  it  is  an  invaluable  aid  to  the  understand- 
ing of  the  Jewish  mind. 


PART    1  (Chs.  1-9) 


CHAPTER    1 


The  c.  falls  into  three  principal  divisions. 

1-6.  Title  and  Introduction  explaining  the 
object  of  the  whole  book,  which  is  to  instruct 
the  inexperienced  and  add  to  the  educated 
man's  knowledge.  It  is  assumed  that  good 
conduct  is  an  art  which  can  be  taught.  But 
the  learner  must  be  in  sympathy  with  the 
subject  ;  a  right  judgment  concerning  moral 


truth  is  attainable  only  by  those  who  hunger 
and  thirst  after  righteousness.  The  method 
of  instruction  is  by  proverbs,  figures,  parables 
and  vivid  pictures,  and  is  therefore  substantially 
the  same  as  that  which  our  Lord  adopted. 

7-19.  A  Warning  against  Companionship 
with  Robbers.  We  are  at  first  astounded  at 
finding  such  a  warning  necessary.  Only  in 
days  of  weak  government,  such  as  the  5th  and 
4th   cent.  B.C.,  when   the   rulers   were   mere 


379 


1.  4 


PROVERBS 


3.3 


representatives  of  a  distant  foreign  monarch, 
was  such  a  state  of  affairs  possible. 

20-33.  Wisdom's  Call  and  Threats.  Wisdom 
is  represented  as  a  preacher,  who  goes  out 
into  the  streets,  the  broad  places  near  the  city 
gates,  the  long  gateways  thi-ough  which  men 
enter  or  leave  the  town,  the  '  dusky  lane  and 
wrangling  mart,'  there  to  lift  up  her  voice. 
As  the  prophets  (Isa202  Jero^  Micl^)  went 
amongst  their  fellows,  as  Socrates  was  daily 
found  in  the  marketplace  conversing  with  all 
who  would,  as  Jesus  Himself  ever  taught  in 
synagogues  and  in  the  Temple,  where  all  the 
Jews  come  together  (Jn  18  20),  so  Wisdom  is  not 
fastidious  or  exclusive ;  none  can  complain 
that  they  have  been  denied  the  opportunity  of 
hearing.  But  the  hour  is  now  past.  The 
simpletons,  the  unbelieving  scoffers  and  the 
crassly  stupid  are  threatened  with  swift  and 
sudden  punishment.  For  the  Wisdom  which 
here  speaks  is  not  of  quite  the  same  spirit  as 
that  of  NT.,  which  is  peaceful,  gentle,  easy  to 
be  entreated,  full  of  mercy  (Jas3i7)  ;  there  is 
more  of  Elijah  than  of  Christ  in  it. 

4.  Read,  '  to  give  prudence  to  the  simple.' 
The  simple,  open  to  each  new  impression, 
believes  anything.  The  prudent,  or  subtle, 
has  learnt  caution  from  experience.  6.  Inter- 
pretation] RY  'figure'  (Hab26).  Dark  say- 
ings] RV  'riddles'  (Jgl4i8  Nul28  Ezkl72 
Hab26). 

7.  A  motto  for  the  whole  book.  True 
morality  is  based  on  a  right  relation  to  God. 
Fear  is  the  keynote  of  OT.  piety  ;  not  slavish 
terror,  but  reverence  and  humility. 

8.  The  teacher  addresses  the  learner  as  '  My 
son '  :  parents  will  also  give  moral  instruction. 

9.  Read,  '  a  chaplet  of  grace.'  At  banquets 
the  heads  of  the  guests  were  crowned  with 
garlands.     Chains]  cp.  Gn4142  DanS^Q. 

12.  Grave]  '  Sheol'  (RV)  and  the  pit  are 
the  cheerless  under-world,  away  from  God  and 
all  real  life,  which  the  dead  were  supposed  to 
inhabit  (218  231*). 

17.  Warning  is  useless  :  they  do  not  see 
that  they  are  rushing  to  destruction. 

23.  Turn  and  listen  whilst  I  declare  my 
purpose. 

3 1 .  Mediaeval  theologians  taught  that  molten 
gold  would  be  poured  down  the  throats  of  the 
avaricious  in  hell  and  that  other  vices  also 
would  be  punished  in  kind.  '  That  they  might 
learn  that  by  what  things  a  man  sinneth,  by 
these  he  is  punished  '  (Wisd  1 1 1^). 

32.  When  simpletons  turn  away  from  in- 
struction they  shall  suffer  for  it.  '  He  who 
will  not  be  ruled  by  the  rudder  must  be  ruled 
by  the  rocks.'  Prosperity]  RM  '  carelessness,' 
false  security.  '  Serious  things  to-morrow,' 
the  Greek  tyrant  said,  thrusting  under  the 
pillow  of  his  couch  the  letter  which  would 
have  saved  him  from  assassination. 


CHAPTER  2 

The  Search  for  Wisdom 

1-4.  The  condition  which  must  be  fulfilled. 
Spinoza  said,  '  The  effort  to  understand  is  the 
fii-st  and  sole  basis  of  virtue.' 

I.  Hide]  i.e.  as  a  treasure.  2.  The  heart 
in  OT.  is  the  seat  of  the  intellect.  4.  Wealth 
was  hoarded  in  the  shape  of  gold  and  jewels. 
In  times  of  peril  this  was  buried  (Gn4323 
Job  3  21  Jer  4 1  §  Mt  1 3  ^-i).  Hence  the  suspicion 
with  which  Orientals  have  often  regarded 
modern  explorers. 

5-8.  The  result.  It  brings  us  into  relation 
with  Him  who  is  the  only  source  of  wisdom 
and  safety. 

7.  Sound  wisdom]  read,  '  deliverances.' 

8.  His  saints]  read,  '  His  pious  '  or  '  loving 
ones '  ;  those  who  love  and  are  beloved  by 
Him  (Ps  121  304  3123). 

9-19.  A  further  result.  It  saves  from  the 
seductions  of  bad  men  and  women. 

10.  When]  RV  '  for.'  It  becomes  part  of 
his  very  mind. 

16-18.  The  stress  laid  in  these  chs.  on 
sensual  vice  proves  that  the  evil  was  a  flagrant 
one.  The  population  was  drawn  to  the  great 
towns  where  such  temptations  are  common. 
The  strange  woman  (22 1*)  was  not  a  foreigner 
but  an  adulteress  or  harlot,  to  whom  the  man 
was  not  related.  In  later  ages  Jewish  pride 
entitled  such  a  person  '  an  Aramaean,'  as  though 
no  Jewess  would  stoop  so  low. 

17.  The  '  friend  of  her  youth '  (RV)  is  her 
husband  (Jer  3  2-5).  The  covenant  of  her  God] 
Though  there  was  perhaps  no  religious  cere- 
mony, the  marriage  relation  was  a  religious 
one  (Ex  20 14  Mai  2 14). 

18.  Read, 

'  For  her  house  leads  down  unto  Death, 
And  her  paths  unto  the  Shades.' 
She  and  her  guests  are  on  their  way  to  that 
under-world  which  is  tenanted  by  the  Shades, 
the  disembodied,  shadow-like,  hopeless  dead 
(9 18).  The  ancient  idea  of  a  future  existence, 
not  worthy  of  the  name  of  existence,  prevails 
all  through  this  book. 

CHAPTER  3 

The  Blessings  of  Obedience  and  of 
Chastisement 

The  first  and  third  divisions,  1-10,  21-35, 
are  exhortations  to  good  conduct  and  promises 
of  consequent  blessing.  The  second,  11-20, 
declares  the  profitableness  of  divine  chastening 
and  the  value  of  wisdom. 

I.  Law]  or  '  direction.'  The  teacher  speaks 
as  one  having  authority.  3.  Mercy]  RM 
'  kindness.'  He  is  to  retain  kindness  and  faith- 
fulness, as  he  would  the  signet-ring  which 
hangs  from  his  neck  by  a  cord  (Gn  3818  gong  8  % 
or  as  the  phylacteries  on  arm  and  forehead : 


380 


S.  5 


PROVERBS 


6.  25 


cp.  Exl39  Dt68  1118.  5,  We  are  easily  mis- 
led by  passion  and  sin.  '  Thanks  to  our 
wisdom,  we  should,  once  for  all,  refrain  from 
being  clever.' 

8.  For  navel  read  'flesh,'  as  at  422.  This 
change  only  requires  the  addition  of  a  single 
letter,  and  it  gives  us  the  pair, '  flesh  and  bones,' 
which  in  biblical  language  make  up  the  body 
(Gn29i4  2S51,  etc.).  The  drying  up  of  the 
bones  is  a  figure  of  extreme  distress  (17  22 
Ps323,4):  hence  the  word  'moistening'  (EM) 
here.  9.  To  honour  is  to  pay  the  dues  (Isa 
4323  Danll3S  1  Tim  5  7).  10.  Presses]  i.e. 
'  vats.' 

11,  12.  Bp.  Andrewes  prayed  :  '  From  Thine 
anger,  and  yet  more  from  Thy  ceasing  to  be 
angry,  good  Lord,  deliver  us.'  15.  Rubies] 
here,  and  at  20^5  31 1*^,  more  probably,  'red 
coral.'  The  finest  red  coral  has  always  been 
very  costly.  18.  A  tree  of  life]  a  figure  de- 
rived from  Gn  3  :  see  also  Ezk47i2  Provll30 
1312  15*.  19.  It  is  an  additional  reason  for 
esteeming  her,  that  creation  could  not  have 
been  accomplished  without  her.  20.  The 
depths,  etc.]  i.e.  the  subterranean  storehouses 
from  which  fountains  and  rivers  were  supposed 
to  be  derived. 

24.  Not  affrighted  by  horrible  dreams  (Job 
T^*).     29.   Securely]   i.e.  without  suspicion. 

32.  Secret]  '  counsel '  or  '  friendship '  (RM) : 
they  belong  to  His  'Privy  Council'  (Gnl8i7 
Job  1 9 19  29  4  Ps  25  i-i  55  ^*  Am  3  7).  35.  Joseph, 
Daniel,  Ezra,  Mordecai  are  examples. 

CHAPTER  4 
Ancestral  Wisdom.  The  Two  Paths 
In  vv.  1-9  the  teacher  lays  stress  on  the 
fact  that  his  instruction  is  a  repetition  of  his 
father's.  No  teaching  was  thought  valuable 
save  that  which  was  handed  down  from  one 
generation  to  another.  The  best  pupil  was 
the  one  who  was  '  a  cemented  cistern  which 
loses  not  a  drop.'  Yv.  10-19  might  be  called 
the  doctrine  of  the  two  paths,  the  two  ways 
of  life.  20-27  enjoin  strict  attention  to  in- 
struction and  to  conduct. 

7,  Lit.  '  The  beginning  of  wisdom  is,  get 
wisdom '  (RM).  When  we  feel  our  deficiency 
we  shall  make  a  start.  Socrates  was  the  wisest 
of  the  Greeks  because  he  felt  that  he  was  not 
wise.  And  with  all,  etc.]  Read,  '  Yea,  with 
all  thou  hast  gotten'  (RV) :  cp.  Mt  1345.46. 

8.  Exalt]  i.e.  prize  highly. 

12.  His  life  is  like  a  broad  road  in  which 
are  no  obstacles  to  trip  up  the  unwary. 

16,  17.  There  were  many  rapacious  officials 
whose  appetite  for  oppression  grew  with  what 
it  fed  on.  18.  The  prosperity  of  the  righteous 
is  '  as  the  light  of  the  dawn '  (RM),  ever 
waxing. 

23.  Watch  over  the  inner  life  of  thought 
and  feeling ;  on  it  prosperity  depends  (1816'^ 


Mtl5i9).  25.  Keep  your  eye  fixed  on  the 
goal :  let  nothing  turn  you  aside  into  the  devious 
paths  of  wickedness.  26.  Make  your  way  even 
and  level :  walk  in  the  smooth,  strait  path  of 


righteousness. 


CHAPTER   5 


Unholy  Passion.     Hallowed  Lov£ 

A  dissuasive  from  immorality  addressed 
exclusively  to  men.  The  two  leading  thoughts 
are  (1)  the  disastrous  consequences  of  adul- 
tery ;  loss  of  honour,  property,  life,  oppor- 
tunity of  repentance,  and  (2)  the  sufficiency 
and  desirableness  of  conjugal  love. 

6.  Read,  '  Lest  she  should  ponder  the  path 
of  life,  her  ways  are  unstable,  and  she  knoweth 
not.'  So  far  is  she  from  entering  on  the  level 
path  which  leads  to  life,  her  ways  are  unstable 
and  she  is  reckless  about  it. 

9-1 1.  All  the  fruits  of  a  man's  labour  are 
preyed  on  by  the  false-hearted  woman  and  her 
confederates : 

'  Gaming,  Women  and  Wine, 
While  they  laugh,  they  make  a  man  pine.' 

14.  He  has  only  just  escaped  being  brought 
before  the  assembly  of  the  people,  who  would 
have  sentenced  him  to  death  (Lv20io  Dt22  22). 

15-17.  A  man's  pleasures  should  be  sought 
at  home.  Read,  with  RV,  '  Should  thy  springs 
be  dispersed  abroad,  and  rivers  of  waters  in 
the  streets  ?  '  18.  It  is  blessed  when  enjoyed 
legitimately.  19.  The  opening  words  are  an 
exclamation :  '  Lovely  hind  !  Charming  wild 
goat  ! '  22,  He  has  had  the  instruction,  but 
took  no  heed  of  it.     Now  it  is  too  late. 

CHAPTER  6 
DissuAsiVES  from  Hurtful  things 

Vv.  1-19  are  inserted  here  from  some  other 
collection,  and  contain  warnings  against  surety- 
ships (1-5),  sloth  (6-11),  falseness  (12-15), 
evils  which  the  Lord  hates  (16-19).  At  v. 
20  the  thread  of  c.  5  is  resumed. 

I.  The  surety  appears  to  have  taken  the 
creditor's  hand  in  the  presence  of  witnesses  :  cp. 
2  K 10 1-5.  3.  Read,  '  Seeing  thou  art  come  into 
the  hand  of  thy  neighbour,  go,  bestir  thyself, 
and  beset  thy  neighbour.  Make  haste  to  get 
out  of  his  power  '(Mt525).  7.  Ants  really 
have  an  elaborately  organised  society  :  in  some 
species  there  is  a  king  and  queen  ;  others 
keep  slaves.  11.  One  that  travelleth]  RV  'a 
robber.'  The  roads  were  insecure,  as  English 
ones  were  in  the  times  when  '  highwayman  ' 
meant  'robber.'  13.  Cp.  the  Arab's  prayer: 
'  O  God,  pardon  us  the  culpable  winking 
of  the  eyes.'  Here  the  winking,  etc.,  are 
signals  to  confederates.  16.  A  proud  look] 
lit.  '  haughty  eyes '  (RV)  :  see  our  word 
'supercilious,'  from  fupercilium  =  the  ejehrow. 

25.  The  beauty  of  an  Eastern  woman's  eyes 


381 


6,26 


PROVERBS 


9.1 


is  enhanced  by  being  painted  round  with  kohl 
in  the  shape  of  an  almond.  26.  A  harlot 
brings  him  down  to  a  loaf  of  bread,  to  extreme 
poverty  ;  an  adulteress  will  involve  him  in 
utter  ruin.  30.  The  OT.  never  treats  theft 
leniently.  Read,  'Do  not  men  despise,'  etc. 
Yes  !  and  much  more  an  adulterer.  31.  In 
divers  cases  twofold,  fourfold,  fivefold  restitu- 
tion was  prescribed  (Ex 22,  etc.):  sevenfold 
means  very  great  (Gn4i5). 

CHAPTER  7 
The  Bad  Woman 

A  picture  drawn  from  life  of  the  enticing 
of  a  young  man  by  a  wicked  woman. 

2.  The  apple]  lit.  '  the  little  man '  of  the 
eye,  so  called  because  an  image  is  reflected 
from  the  pupil  of  the  eye.  It  is  a  figure  for 
the  most  precious  and  delicate  things  (Dt32io 
Ps  I7S).  3.  The  Jews  wear  a  long  leather  band 
twisted  round  the  arm  and  fingers  during 
prayer.  Passages  of  Scriptui'e  written  on 
parchment  and  enclosed  in  a  small  leather  box 
are  at  the  same  time  worn  on  the  forehead. 

4.  My  sister]  the  title  by  which  bride  and 
wife  are  addressed  (Song  4  9). 

6.  The  window  is  the  opening;  the  casement 
is  the  lattice-work  filling  it,  looking  through 
which  one  may  see  and  remain  unseen. 

9.  Twilight  ends  suddenly,  and  is  followed 
by  dense  darkness.  1 1 .  Stubborn]  or  '  wilful ' ; 
an  epithet  applied  to  an  unruly  beast  which 
has  shaken  off  the  yoke  (Hos4i6).  14.  Lv 
7 16-18  shows  that  such  sacrifices  were  followed 
by  a  feast :  the  blood  and  the  fat  of  the  in- 
testines were  offered  to  God  ;  the  rest  of  the 
animal  was  consumed  by  the  offerer,  his  family 
and  guests.  The  woman  is  therefore  inviting 
to  a  sumptuous  feast. 

19,  20.  The  husband  is  a  merchant,  who  is 
absent  on  a  long  journey,  as  is  evident  from 
his  having  taken  with  him  his  purse.  He  will 
not  be  home  till  the  '  full  moon '  (R^O- 

26.  Read,  'Yea,  many  are  those  she  has 
slain.'  27.  The  chambers  of  death  are  the 
many  diverse  receptacles  supposed  to  be  in  the 
under-world  :  cp.  Jnl42. 

CHAPTER  8 

Wisdom's  Cry 
Wisdom  now  reappears  as  a  preacher,  hold- 
ing forth  in  all  the  places  where  men  most  do 
congregate.  After  expounding  in  varied  ways 
the  excellence  of  the  gifts  which  she  can  bestow, 
she  asserts  that  she  was  the  first  of  all  God's 
creatures,  who  stood  at  His  side  when  He 
formed  our  world,  and  took  part  in  His  work 
as  a  master  workman,  whose  delight  has  always 
been  in  the  lives  and  affairs  of  men.  In 
vv.  1-21  we  find  only  the  ordinary  kind  of 
personification,  in  which  a  quality  is  spoken  of 
as  though  it  were  a  living  individual.     In  vv. 


22-31,  however,  it  is  almost  as  though  Wisdom 
were  an  actual  person,  distinct  from  God.  No 
one  can  wonder  that  in  the  4th  cent,  of  our 
era  theologians  of  diverse  schools  made  con- 
siderable use  of  this  c.  in  the  controversies 
respecting  the  Second  Person  in  the  Holy 
Trinity.  But  there  is  no  convincing  force  in 
the  arguments  •which  either  side  derived  from 
this  source.  The  object  of  the  writer  was  to 
recommend  that  wisdom  which  is  his  constant 
theme,  which  manifests  itself  in  the  right 
conduct  of  life,  by  showing  that  it  is  exhibited 
and  exemplified  in  the  wonders  of  Nature  and 
the  Creation  of  the  world.  There  is  also  a 
trace  here  of  the  idea  which  at  a  later  time 
asserted  itself  very  strongly,  that  a  medium 
was  required  to  bridge  over  the  distance 
betwixt  the  Spiritual  Creator  and  the  material 
universe.  Job  28,  38  Ecclus  1 1-21  24  Wisd7  §- 
8  21  should  be  read  along  with  this  c. 

2.  The  high  places  are  the  walls  and  towers, 
vantage-points  for  a  speaker.  5.  Wisdom] 
rather,  'prudence'  or  'sagacity.'  12.  Read, 
'  I,  Wisdom,  have  made  prudence  my  dwelling,' 
i.e.  I  am  complete  master  of  it. 

14-16.  There  is  no  genuine  statesmanship 
apart  from  wisdom. 

22-31.  This  account  of  creation  reminds  us 
of  Gn  1  Job  38.  God  makes  a  vault,  the  firma- 
ment, which  rests  on  the  surrounding  waters 
(v.  27).  He  settles  the  mountains  (v.  25)  on 
foundations  which  are  at  the  level  of  the  floor 
of  the  sea -(Ps  104  8  Jon  2  6).  He  firmly  en- 
closes the  fountains  of  the  deep,  so  that  they 
cannot  break  through  (v.  28).  22.  Read,  'The 
Lord  formed  me  as  the  beginning  of  his 
creation':  cp.  Coll^^  Rev3i4.  23.  Or]  i.e. 
ere,  before.  30.  As  one  brought  up  icith  hini] 
as  a  nursling  or  foster-child  ;  RV  '  as  a 
master  workman.'  I  w^as  daily  hia  delight] 
lit.  '  I  was  delight  daily  day  '  ;  my  whole  ex- 
istence was  delight  :  cp.  Psl20'^,  '  I  am  peace,' 
all  peace,  nothing  else.  34.  A  king  or  great 
man  would  every  morning  find  a  crowd  of 
clients  waiting  to  pay  their  court  and  receive 
his  bounties.  Happy  the  client  at  Wisdom's 
door.  36.  He  who  misses  wisdom  wrongs 
himself. 

CHAPTER   9 

The  Rivals 

Folly  and  Wisdom  invite  guests  to  their 
respective  houses.  The  consequences  of 
accepting  either  of  the  two  invitations  are 
described.  We  are  reminded  of  the  Greek 
parable,  '  The  choice  of  Hercules,'  which 
related  how  the  hero,  at  the  beginning  of  his 
career,  was  accosted  by  two  fair  women, 
Virtue  and  Yice,  who  would  have  him  tread, 
one  the  rough,  the  other  the  flowery  way. 

1-6.  Wisdom's  invitation. 

I.  The  word  Wisdom  is  in  the  plural,  to 


382 


9.2 


PROVERBS 


12.  11 


indicate  her  variety  and  perfection.  She  has 
a  house,  and  therefore  is  always  ready  to 
entertain.  The  seven  pillars — a  complete 
number — are  in  the  courtyard,  supporting  a 
gallery.  2.  The  wine  was  mixed  with  spices 
(Isa5'-2).  3.  Messengers  are  sent  when  the 
meal  is  ready  (Lkl4i").  4.  Simple]  i.e.  inex- 
perienced, easily  led,  capable  of  being  turned 
either  way.  Hence  Folly  (v.  16)  has  equal 
hopes  of  influencing  them.  5.  Bread]  The 
name  for  food  in  general  (v.  2).  6.  Read, 
'  Forsake  folly.' 

7-12  are  out  of  their  proper  context. 

7.  He  will  insult  and  revile  you.     10.  The 


holy]  RV  '  the  Holy  One.'      12.   Cp.  EzklS^ 

Gal  65. 

'  From  David's  lips  this  word  did  roll, 
'Tis  true  and  living  yet : 
No  man  can  save  liis  brother's  soul, 
Nor  pay  his  brother's  debt. ' 

13-18.  Folly  is  personified  as  a  woman, 
the  traits  of  whose  character  are  drawn  from 
the  description  already  given  of  the  lewd 
woman  ;  and  unchastity  is  looked  on  as  the 
supreme  exhibition  of  folly.  13.  She  is 
'loud'  and  ignorant.  We  speak  of  a  'loud,' 
meaning  a  vulgar  woman.  17.  The  forbidden 
is  attractive. 


PART   2   (Chs.  101-2216) 


Here  we  reach  the  first  collection  of  what 
were  supposed  to  be  Solomon's  proverbs. 
Most  of  them  consist  of  two  lines  parallel 
to  each  other.  The  parallelism  is  one  of 
contrast,  or  agreement,  or  explanation,  or  of 
different  persons  and  objects.  It  is  impossible 
to  trace  any  principle  underlying  the  order  in 
which  the  proverbs  stand.  Several  of  them 
are  more  or  less  exactly  repeated  in  chs. 
25-29. 

CHAPTER    10 

The  main  subject,  not  treated  continuously, 
but  recurred  to  again  and  again,  is  the  blessing 
which  attends  goodness  and  diligence,  the 
penalty  which  follows  sin  and  sloth. 

2.  Treasures  of  wickedness]  acquired  by 
wrong-doing  (AmSi*^).  In  many  synagogues 
this  V.  is  inscribed  over  the  alms-box.  To 
the  later  Jews  '  righteousness '  meant  alms- 
giving (Dan  4  27  Tob4io  129  Mt6i).  4.  To 
deal  loith  a  slack  hand  is  to  be  lacking  in 
energy.     5.   '  Make  hay  while  the  sun  shines.' 

7.   '  Only  the  ashes  of  the  just 

Smell  sweet  and  blossom  from  the  dust.' 

10.  Winketh  with  the  eye]  i.e.  to  stir  up  by 
malicious  hints.  In  the  LXX  the  second  half 
of  the  V.  runs  :  '  but  he  that  openly  rebuketh 
maketh  peace.'  12.  Love  hides  them  from 
sight. 

14.  Near  destruction]  destruction  nigh  at 
hand. 

16.  The  wealth  earned  by  a  good  man  will 
be  rightly  employed  and  therefore  will  bring 
him  lasting  gain,  but  revenue  spent  in  self- 
indulgence  and  sin  brings  nothing  but  loss 
in  the  end.  19.  Simeon,  son  of  Gramaliel, 
said  :  '  All  my  days  I  have  grown  up  among 
the  wise,  and  I  have  found  nought  of  better 
service  than  silence.  .  .  Whoso  is  profuse  of 
words  causes  sin.' 

21.  Feed]  instruct.  24.  The  fear  of  the 
wicked]  that  which  he  fears. 

25.  The  storm  carries  him  completely 
away  (Ps  1  *). 


CHAPTER   11 


383 


I.  False  weights  were  exceedingly  common 
(1611  2010  Am  8  5).  6.  Transgressors]  RY 
'they  that  deal  treacherously.'  10.  The  shout- 
ing expresses  exultation.  12.  Disparaging 
remarks  concerning  neighbours  are  foolish. 

14.   For  counsel  read  '  statesmanship.' 

16.  A  woman  of  gracious  disposition  and 
manners  obtains  honour.  18.  Worketh  a  de- 
ceitful work]  RV  'earneth  deceitful  wages,' 
fairy  gold,  apples  of  Sodom. 

21.  Hands  were  struck  in  confirmation  of  a 
bargain.  Hence  the  meaning  here  and  at  16^ 
is,  '  My  hand  upon  it  ! '  '  Assuredly  ! '  22.  A 
gold  ring  was  and  still  is  worn  by  Oriental 
women,  depending  from  the  right  nostril  to 
the  mouth.  24.  Wise  and  liberal  expenditure 
is  contrasted  with  ill-advised  niggardly  econ- 
omy. 26.  Buying  up  corn  to  sell  at  famine 
prices  was  the  evil  in  those  days  which  corre- 
sponded to  monopolies,  trusts,  and  combines  of 
later  times.  '  It  is  a  wicked  thing  to  make  a 
dearth  one's  garner.'  29.  He  throws  his 
household  into  confusion  by  bad  management, 
arbitrariness,  etc. 

CHAPTER    12 

4.  A  crown,  etc.]  Possibly  there  may  be  a 
reference  to  the  crown  worn  on  their  wedding- 
day  by  bride  and  bridegi-oom  (Song  .311  8  9). 
In  Damascus  the  bridal  crown  consists  of  a 
silver  hoop  covered  with  a  network  of  strings 
of  corals.  On  this  net  are  fastened  strings  of 
gold  coins. 

5.  Two  kinds  of  plans.  6,  Their  very  words 
are  an  ambush,  meant  to  cause  destruction. 

9.  Even  a  poor  man  in  those  days  could 
afford  to  have  a  slave  (cp.  Ex  21 32)^  and  such  a 
man,  although  others  might  look  down  on  him, 
would  be  happier  than  a  person  who  maintained 
much  state  and  show  but  was  starving  all  the 
while. 

II.  Followaregular  business  :  to  be  occupied 
with  '  vain  things  '  (RM),  speculations,  and  the 


12.  12 


PROVERBS 


15.  24 


like,  brings  disaster.  I2.  Read,  '  Wickedness 
is  the  net  of  evil  men.'  Their  own  badness 
entraps  them.  1 6.  A  fool  blurts  out  his  annoy- 
ance :  a  wise  man  is  in  no  hm'ry  to  publish  the 
insult  he  has  received.  i8.  Thoughtless  talk 
inflicts  grievous  wounds  :  if  a  wise  man  is 
present  he  heals  them. 

20.  The  counsellors  of  peace]  Those  who 
promote  prosperity.  2i.  Mischief]  i.e.  calam- 
ity (1720  2814).  23.  'Still  waters  run  deep.' 
'  Empty  vessels  make  the  most  sound.' 

24.  Under  tribute]  forced  to  do  taskwork 
(IK  9  21).  26.  More  excellent  than]  UV'is  a 
guide  to.'  Seduceth  them]  RV  '  causeth  them 
to  err.'  27.  He  is  too  lazy  to  look  after  his 
own  food  (1924). 

CHAPTER  13 

2.  Read,  '  the  desire  of  the  treacherous  is 
for  violence '  (RM).  3.  The  times  were  out 
of  joint  :  those  alone  were  safe  who  said 
nothing.  4.  Soul]  as  in  v.  2  and  many  other 
passages,  means  '  appetite.'  Made  fat]  abund- 
antly gratified.  5.  Read,  '  but  a  wicked  man 
behaves  shamefully  and  abominably.' 

7.  One  '  f  eigneth  himself  rich  '  (RM),  to  gain 
consideration  ;  another  'f  eigneth  himself  poor,' 
to  avoid  giving  and  paying.  8.  Providence 
equalises  matters  :  wealth  may  buy  one  off 
from  peril,  but  poverty  saves  us  from  fear  of 
being  robbed.  Not  rebuke]  RV  '  no  threaten- 
ing.' 9.  The  extinction  of  the  lamp  is  a  sign 
of  disaster  :  cp.  2020  3118  Job  18  6  Jer25io. 

10.  '  By  pride  cometh  only  contention ' 
(RV)  :  willingness  to  be  advised  saves  from 
this  and  many  evils. 

11.  The  proverb  originally  ran:  'Wealth 
gotten  in  haste,  etc.,  but  wealth  gotten  by 
degrees,'  etc.    '  Come  lightly,  go  lightly.' 

14.  Such  vv.  as  this  indicate  the  existence 
of  a  definite  class  of  wise  men,  whose  teachings 
were  highly  esteemed.  15.  Read,  'A  man  of 
tact  obtaineth  favour,  but  the  way  of  the 
treacherous  is  their  destruction.' 

21.  Evil]  i.e.  misfortune.  Good]  i.e.  pros- 
perity. 23.  Tillage]  RM  '  tilled  land.'  For 
want  of  judgment]  RV  '  by  reason  of  injustice.' 
The  idea  is  that  God  blesses  the  labour  of 
the  righteous  poor,  but  the  unjust,  though 
they  may  be  rich,  will  not  flourish. 

24.  Egyptian  proverb  :  '  The  ears  of  the 
young  are  placed  on  the  back,  and  he  hears 
when  it  is  flogged.' 

CHAPTER  14 

I.  The  prosperity  of  the  family  depends  on 
the  wife  (31io-3i).  3.  Of  pride]  RM  'for  his 
pride.'  4.  Where  there  are  no  oxen  men  have 
not  to  labour  at  keeping  the  crib  clean,  but  at 
the  same  time  there  is  no  profit.  The  men 
who  unload  coal  in  Calais  harbour  used  to  sing : 
'  The  coal  is  black,  but  the  money's  white.' 


8.  The  wise  man's  concern  is  how  shall  he 
act  ;  the  foolish  man's  how  shall  he  deceive 
others.  9.  Lit.  '  the  guilt-offering  mocketh  at 
fools.'  This  seems  to  mean  that  fools  trust 
in  its  expiatory  virtue,  but  that  on  their  behalf 
it  has  no  efficacy.  10.  Every  one  knows  where 
his  own  shoe  pinches  ( 1  K  8  38).  1 1 .  Tabernacle] 
or 'tent,' used  for 'house  '  (IK  12 1<^).  12.  He 
mistakenly  thinks  that  the  path  of  self-indulg- 
ence leads  to  lasting  prosperity. 

13.  Men  do  not  alwaj'S  wear  their  heart 
on  their  sleeve.  Black  Care  sits  behind  the 
horseman. 

14.  We  get  our  deserts.  The  backslider  in 
heart  is  he  who  forsakes  God.  15.  'Quick 
believers  need  broad  shoulders.'  16.  Rageth] 
RV  '  behaveth  himself  insolently  '  ;  will  not 
be  told,  knows  better  than  any  one  else. 

17.  Anger  is  temporary  madness.  19.  Not 
always:  see  Lk  16  20.  22.  They  wander  from 
the  way  of  safety  and  peace.  24.  Riches 
rightly  used  are  a  crown  :  but  a  rich  fool  has 
no  crown,  has  nought  but  folly. 

28.  Let  the  king  follow  a  policy  which  shall 
increase,  not  diminish,  the  number  of  his 
subjects.  29.  Exalteth  folly]  i.e.  exhibits 
great  folly.  30.  A  '  tranquil '  heart  (RM)  is 
contrasted  with  a  jealous  one.  32.  If  we  trans- 
pose two  letters  we  get  the  following  rendering  : 
'  The  wicked  is  thrust  down  through  his  evil- 
doing,  but  the  righteous  hath  a  refuge  through 
his  integrity.'  In  any  case,  it  is  hardly  in 
keeping  with  the  rest  of  Proverbs  to  find  here 
a  reference  to  the  life  beyond  the  grave. 

CHAPTER    15 

I.  Grievous]  i.e.  annoying.  'If  one  pour 
in  hot  water  let  the  other  pour  in  cold.' 

3.  Beholding]  RV  '  keeping  watch  upon,'  as 
watching  over  a  city  (Isa52S),  or  the  prophets 
over  the  people  (Ezk  3 1").  4.  Read,  '  a  sooth- 
ing tongue  . .  a  wound  in  the  spirit.'  7.  Doeth 
not  so]  RM  '  is  not  steadfast.'  8.  A  costly 
offering  from  the  one  is  unacceptable  :  the 
mere  prayer  of  the  other  is  accepted  (Mk  1 2  42). 

II.  Hell  and  destruction]  RV  '  Sheol  and 
Abaddon.'  The  latter  means  '  place  of  destruc- 
tion '  :  cp.  2720  Job26c  2822  3112  Ps88ii. 
At  Rev  911  Abaddon  is  the  Angel  of  Destruc- 
tion. Subsequently  it  became  the  name  for 
the  lowest  part  of  Gehenna.  15.  '  Cheerful,' 
not  merry  :  it  is  not  the  word  rendered  '  merry ' 
inv.  13.  16.  Religion  delivers  from  harassing 
care.  17.  A  stalled  ox]  is  one  kept  up  and 
fattened  for  slaughter.  19.  The  one  sees 
imaginary  hindrances  :  the  other's  course  is  a 
well-made  level  road. 

21.  RV  '  maketh  straight  his  going';  i.e. 
acts  straightforwardly.  23.  Well-considered  and 
opportune  speech  brings  joy.  24.  Lit.  '  The 
way  of  life  upward  is  to  the  wise  man  '  :  he 
escapes  the  premature  death  of  the   wicked. 


384 


15.26 


PROVERBS 


18.  10 


26.  E.V  '  pleasant  words  are  pure '  (in  God's 
eyes).  27.  Bribery  is  one  of  the  gi-eatest  curses 
of  the  East  (ExlS-^i  Ezk22i2  Eccl?^). 

30.  The  light  of  the  eyes]  i.  e.  good  fortune. 

31.  He  who  does  not  wish  to  learn  will  be 
neither  welcome  nor  happy  among  the  wise. 

CHAPTER    16 

1-9.  God's  control  of  human  life. 

I.  Read,  '  the  preparations  of  the  heart  be- 
long to  man,  but  the  answer  of  the  tongue  is 
from  the  Lord.'  Man  prepares  his  plans,  but 
the  decisive,  final  word  is  suggested  by  God. 
'  There's  a  divinity  that  shapes  our  ends,  rough- 
hew  them  as  we  will.'     2.  Cp.  1  Cor 4 4. 

4.  Read,  '  The  Lord  hath  made  everything 
for  its  own  end.'  God  is  the  absolute  Sove- 
reign (Am  3  6).  The  wicked  are  created  for 
punishment  (Ex9i6  Ezk38i6  3921  Ro9i7). 
The  truth  here  pointed  to  would  be  expressed 
in  milder  terms  to-day  :  we  should  say  that 
nothing  escapes  the  control  and  the  judgment 
of  God.  5.  Though  hand,  etc.]  read,  '  he  will 
assuredly  not  go  unpunished'  (11 2^).  6.  Sin 
is  expiated  by  kindness  and  faithfulness  to- 
wards others  (Isa  279  402  Dan  42T  Hos  66). 

9.  '  Man  proposes,  God  disposes.' 

10-15.  The  vv.  relate  chiefly  to  a  king's 
powers  and  functions. 

10.  His  sentence  has  the  force  of  a  divine 
oracle,  ii.  Probably  the  word,  the  'Lord,' 
is  mistakenly  inserted  :  the  human  king  is 
meant.  The  merchant  carried  his  (stone) 
weights  about  in  a  bag.  Explorers  have  found 
in  Palestine  ancient  weights  of  haematite,  lime- 
stone, etc.  15.  The  light  of ..  countenance] 
i.e.  his  friendly  regard.  The  latter  rain]  is 
the  spring  rain,  required  to  ripen  the  crops. 

16-19.  The  advantages  of  a  right  spu'it. 

17.  The  road  they  travel  does  not  lead  to 
misfortune. 

20-25.  deal  with  wisdom  and  its  results. 

20.  He  that  handleth,  etc.]  read,  '  he  that 
giveth  heed  to  the  w<  )r.  1 '  (of  God  or  of  the 
teacher).  21.  The  sweetness,  etc.]  Attractive 
speech  disposes  the  listener  to  learn. 

22.  Instruction]  RV  'correction' :  their  folly 
is  their  punishment. 

26.  Hunger  prompts  labour.  It  has  been 
wittily  said  that  every  boy  should  pray  that  he 
may  be  born  poor.  30.  Read,  '  he  that  shutteth 
his  eyes  (as  if  pondering  deeply)  does  it  to 
devise  froward  things  :  he  that  (scornfully) 
compresses  his  lips  has  brought  evil  to  pass.' 
Slanderers  and  backbiters  are  meant.  31.  RV 
'It  shall  be  found,'  etc.  The  NT.  does  not 
teach  that  the  righteous  are  always  rewarded 
with  long  life. 

32.  '  Yet  he  who  reigns  within  himself,  and  rules 

Passions,  desires  and  fears,  is  more  a  king  ; 
And  who  attains  not,  ill  aspires  to  rule 
Cities  of  men  or  headstrong  multitudes. ' 


25 


385 


33.  The  lot  was  put  in  the  folds  of  the  gar- 
ment and  then  shaken  out  (Jg  1 3  Isa  34 1'',  etc.). 

CHAPTER    17 

I.  Lit.  'the  sacrifices  of  strife.'  There 
would  be  no  pleasure  in  the  festal  meal  which 
followed  a  sacrifice  (7 1*)  if  it  was  accompanied 
with  a  quarrel.  '  A  little  with  quiet  is  the 
only  diet.'  2.  The  Israelite  slave  was  a  member 
of  the  family  (Gn  2412  Dt  51*,  etc.),  might  be- 
come the  heir  (Gn  152,3)  or  marry  the  daughter 
(ICh  2  3-4,35).  4.  Naughty]  injurious.  7.  The 
proverb  writers  show  no  hope  of  redeeming 
the  lost.  Their  verdict  is,  '  He  that  is  filthy 
let  him  be  filthy  still.' 

8.  He  who  gives  a  bribe  regards  it  as  a 
precious  stone,  a  stone  which  brings  favour  ; 
whithersoever  he  turns  he  prospers.  Philip 
of  Macedon  boasted  that  he  had  taken  more 
towns  with  silver  than  with  iron.  10.  A  hun- 
dred strokes  would  be  more  than  double  the 
number  allowed  by  the  law  (Dt  25 3).  11.  The 
meaning  is  doubtful.  Either,  '  An  evil  man 
seeketh  only  rebellion,'  or,  '  Rebellion  seeketh 
only  mischief.'  The  rebellion  may  be  against 
God  or  the  king  ;  if  the  former,  cp.  Ps  78-*9  for 
the  cruel  messenger. 

14.  Before  it  be  meddled  with]  RV  '  Before 
there  be  quarrelling.'  The  bm-sting  of  a  dam 
begins  with  a  small  crack.  '  Little  strokes  fell 
great  oaks.'  16.  Money  cannot  buy  it  if  the 
mind  is  indisposed  to  it.  19.  To  '  exalt  the 
gate  '  may  mean  to  set  oneself  above  the  neigh- 
bom-s,  and  so  become  a  target  for  their  envy. 
But  the  original  probably  ran  :  '  He  that 
speaketh  proud  words.'  24.  The  fool  lacks 
the  power  of  concentration.  27,  28.  '  I  have 
found  nought  of  better  service  than  silence.' 
'  Silence  is  a  fence  to  wisdom.' 

CHAPTER  18 

I.  Lit.  '  One  who  separates  himself  seeks 
desire,  quarrels  with  all  wisdom.'  This  would 
mean  that  a  solitary  recluse  follows  his  own 
wishes  and  opposes  everything  reasonable.  But 
LXX  suggests,  '  The  alienated  friend  seeks  an 
occasion  of  quarrel,  seeks  by  all  means  to  stir 
up  strife.'  2.  He  likes  to  talk  about  his  own 
notions.  4.  The  second  half  of  the  v.  shows 
that  it  is  a  nv'se  man  who  is  in  view  ;  his  words 
are  '  as  deep  waters,'  i.e.  are  inexhaustible  ; 
he  is  ever  ready  to  give  helpful  answers. 

8.  Wounds]  RV  dainty  morsels.'  Malicious 
gossip  finds  ready  acceptance  (JerlSi"). 

10.  The  name  of  Jehovah  is  Jehovah  Him- 
self as  revealed  to  men,  His  manifested  charac- 
ter (Ps  75 1).  Orientals  have  always  ascribed 
mysterious  powers  to  the  divine  titles.  Moham- 
medans repeat  them  one  by  one  as  they  count 
the  ninety-nine  beads.  One  of  the  ancient 
Persian  books  declares  that  the  recital  of  God's 
names  is  the  best  defence  against  all  danger. 


18.  14 


PROVERBS 


21.28 


14.  Bear]  EM  'raise  up.'  16.  A  superior 
cannot  be  approached  in  the  East  without  a 
present.  17.  'Hear  the  other  side.'  20.  A 
man's  happiness  depends  on  the  way  in  which 
he  governs  and  uses  his  tongue  (Mtl236  1511). 

22.  A  good  wife  (EcclT^s).  24.  RV  'He 
that  maketh  many  friends  doeth  it  to  his  own 
destruction  ;  but ' 

*The  friend  thou  hast,  and  his  adoption  tried, 
Grapple  him  to  thy  soul  with  hooks  of  steel. 
But  do  not  dull  thy  pahn  with  entertainment 
Of  each  new-hatched,  unfledged  comrade. ' 

CHAPTER  19 

I .  Fool]  read,  '  rich '  (28  «  ).  2.  Read, '  Also, 
desire  without  knowledge,'  etc.  Desires  must 
be  controlled  by  knowledge.  The  hasty  in 
action  will  miss  his  mark.  '  While  the  discreet 
advise,  the  fool  doth  his  business.'  3.  Per- 
verteth]  RV  '  subverteth.'  It  is  his  own  fault, 
yet  he  blames  God  for  it.  6.  Great  nobles  and 
great  donors  are  always  sought  after. 

10.  Delight]  RV  '  delicate  living.'  He  can- 
not appreciate  refinement.  Slaves  have  often 
risen  to  great  power  in  the  East  :  the  danger 
is  that  they  may  become  like  the  Felix  of  Ac  23, 
who  was  said  to  exercise  royal  power  with  a 
slave's  disposition.  13.  The  Arabic  proverb 
is,  '  Three  things  render  a  house  iminhabitable 
— tah  (rain  leaking  through),  iiah  (a  wife's 
nagging),  and  hak  (bugs).' 

17.  'So  much  hast  thou  of  thy  hoard 

As  thou  gavest  to  thy  Lord ; 
Only  this  will  bring  thee  in 
Usance  rich  and  free  from  sin : 
Send  thy  silver  on  before, 
Lending  to  His  sick  and  poor. 
Every  dirhem  dropped  in  alms 
Touches  Allah's  open  pahns, 
Ere  it  falls  into  the  hands 
Of  thy  brother.' 

18.  RV  ' .  .  seeing  there  is  hope.  And  set 
not  thy  heart  on  his  destruction.'  Not  to 
discipline  is  to  destroy.  19.  Attempt  to  soothe 
him,  and  he  will  rage  the  more.  22.  '  Words 
are  as  breath,  and  will  is  all.'  Only  the  inten- 
tion counts  (236-8  Mk  12*2  2  Cor  8 12).  24.  RV 
'  The  sluggard  bm-ieth  his  hand  in  the  dish,' 
etc.  :  the  allusion  is  to  the  large  dish  in  the 
centre  into  which  all  dip  (Mkl420).  28.  De- 
voureth]  i.e.  gulps  down  greedily. 

CHAPTER  20 

I.  Raging]  RV  '  a  brawler.'  Is  deceived] 
RM  '  reeleth.'  It  makes  a  man  sneer,  quarrel 
and  reel  about.  2.  Fear]  the  '  terror '  which 
he  causes.  Soul]  RV  '  life.'  4.  Read, '  In  the 
autumn  .  .  therefore  when  he  seeketh,'  etc.  : 
the  first  season  begins  about  October,  the  second 
about  April.  5.  A  clever  cross-questioner 
elicits  one's  plans.  8.  Scattereth  away]  RM 
'winnoweth'(lK328). 


9.     '  What  mortal  when  he  saw, 

Life's  voyage  done,  his  heavenly  Friend, 
Could  ever  yet  dare  tell  Him  fearlessly  : 
"  I  have  kept  uninfring'd  my  nature's  law  ; 
The  inly-^vl■itten  chart  Thou  gavest  me, 
To  guide  me,  I  have  steer 'd  by  to  the  end  "  ? ' 

13.  Open  thine  eyes]  i.e.  Wake  up  ! 

15.  Read,  '  There  is  gold  and  abundance  of 
corals  and  precious  vessels — wise  lips  are  all 
these.' 

16.  '  Strangers,'  not  a  strange  woman.  He 
does  not  deserve  to  escape  the  consequences  of 
his  folly.  19.  A  '  chatterbox,' not  a 'flatterer,' 
is  meant. 

25.  RV  '  It  is  a  snare  to  a  man  rashly  to  say, 
It  is  holy,'  etc.  Reflect  before  vowing  (Eccl  5  ^  ^• 
Mtl58).  There  is  a  Greek  story  of  one  who 
found  a  gold  mine,  and  thereupon  vowed  a  gold 
ram  to  Juno  :  soon  he  substituted  a  silver  one  ; 
then  a  small  brass  one  ;  eventually  she  got 
nothing.     '  The  river  past  and  God  forgotten.' 

26.  The  wheel  of  the  threshing-cart,  crush- 
ing in  its  weight  (Am  1 3 ).  27.  Conscience  is 
a  searchlight,  piercing  the  depths  of  the  heart 
(1  Cor  2 11).  28.  It  is  the  king's  goodness  and 
reliableness  that  are  meant.  30.  The  blueness, 
etc.]  RV  '  Stripes  that  wound  cleanse,'  etc. 

(Psll967)- 

CHAPTER   21 

I.  The  'watercourses'  (RV)  are  the  arti- 
ficial irrigation  channels  of  Egypt  and  Babylon 
(Isa58ii).  4.  There  is  no  connexion  between 
the  two  halves  of  the  v.  RM  '  The  tillage  of 
the  wicked  is  sin,'  i.e.  the  result  of  his  labour 
is  sin.  5.  One  who  is  in  a  hurry  to  be  rich 
hastens  to  want.  6.  By  a  very  slight  altera- 
tion of  the  Hebrew  text  we  get  the  greatly 
improved  rendering  of  RM,  '  Is  a  vapom- 
driven  to  and  fro ;  they  are  snares  of  death.' 

9.  A  small  room  is  often  built  on  the  flat  roof 
of  an  Oriental  house  (1 K 1 7 19  2  K  4 10  Pg  102  7). 
'  A  needle's  eye  is  wide  enough  for  two  friends  ; 
the  whole  world  is  too  narrow  for  two  foes.' 

12.  Read,  '  The  righteous  considereth  the 
house  of  the  wicked ;  he  overturneth  the 
wicked  to  ruin.'  Perhaps  the  righteous  means 
God. 

14.  Bribes  are  carried  ready  for  use  in  a 
fold  of  the  robe.  16.  He  will  come  prema- 
turely to  his  final  resting-place  amongst  '  the 
Shades'  (2i8). 

17.  The  oil  is  that  used  at  banquets  for 
anomting(279Dtl426Neh8i2Am66).  18.  Cp. 
118. 

22.  Strength  of  the  confidence  thereof]  the 
stronghold  in  which  it  trusted.  25.  He  desires 
ease  and  self-indulgence.  27.  Read,  '  When 
he  bringeth  it  to  atone  for  wickedness '  (RM) : 
cp.  Lv  19  20-22.  28.  The  man  who  actually 
heard  what  he  swears  to,  will  speak  constantly 
or  '  for  ever ' ;   his  testimony  will  never  be 


386 


21.  29 


PROVERBS 


24.  28 


shaken.  29.  A  wicked  man  boldly  maintains 
whatever  suits  him  ;  a  wise  man  '  considereth 
his  way'  (RM). 

CHAPTER   22116 

1.  To  be  regarded  with  favour  is  better  than 
silver  and  gold.  This  v.  is  inscribed  in  large 
letters  on  the  walls  of  Manchester  Exchange. 
Rabbi  Simeon  used  to  say :  '  There  are  only 
three  crowns  ;  the  crown  of  the  Law,  the  crown 


of  priesthood,  and  the  crown  of  kingdom  ;  but 
the  crown  of  a  good  name  excels  them  all.' 

2.  '  A  man's  a  man  for  a'  that.'  6.  'As  the 
twig  is  bent  so  the  tree  's  inclined.'  In  the  way 
he  should  go]  i.e.  according  to  the  position  and 
work  to  which  he  is  destined.  8.  The  rod, 
etc.]  i.e.  the  power  of  his  tyranny  shall 
vanish. 

12.  Read,  '  The  eyes  of  the  LoKD  are  in  him 
that  keepeth  knowledge.' 


PART  3  (Chs.  2217-24  34) 


CHAPTER  2217-29 

These  proverbs  are  very  unlike  the  pre- 
ceding in  tone  and  style.  The  author's  own 
personality  is  brought  distinctly  into  view 
(2217-21  2315)  ;  he  had  a  high  opinion  of  the 
value  of  his  maxims  ;  he  arranges  them  in 
strophes,  not  in  couplets. 

18.  Fitted]  RV  '  established  together,'  i.e. 
ready  (IPetSi^).  20.  For  excellent  things 
RM  suggests  '  heretofore.'  Perhaps  we  should 
read  'triply':  cp.  Hos8i2  RV.  21.  RM 
'  Them  that  send  thee,'  i.e.  his  parents.  Per- 
haps it  ought  to  be,  '  them  that  ask  thee ' 
(1  Pet  3 15). 

27.  If  the  debtor  has  failed  to  meet  his  obli- 
gation and  the  unlucky  surety  has  no  money, 
the  creditors  will  seize  the  poor  man's  scanty 
belongings,  even  to  his  bed.  28.  Landmarks 
were  of  extreme  importance  when  there  were 
no  fences  :  see  on  Ruth  2  22.  29.  Stand  before] 
i.e.  serve  (IS  16 21  IKIQS). 

CHAPTER   23 

I.  RV  'him  that  is  before  thee.'  Do  not 
excite  his  contempt.  2.  Restrain  your  appe- 
tite.    3.  He  invites  you  for  his  own  purposes. 

4.  Cease,  etc.]  i.e.  desist  from  the  attempt 
to  be  rich. 

6-8.  Estimate  the  niggard  according  to  his 
thoughts,  rather  than  his  words.  Your  pleasant 
conversation  is  wasted  labour. 

10,  II.  Read,  'The  landmark  of  the  widow.' 
God  Himself  is  the  Goel^  the  redeemer,  the 
next  of  kin,  who  protects  widows  and  orphans 
(Ex  22  21-23  Lv  25  25  Nu  30 12  Ruth  4  3, 4  Jer  50  34). 

16.  Reins]  lit.  'kidneys.'  Heart  and  kid- 
neys were  considered  to  be  the  seat  of  mental 
and  spiritual  life  (Job  19 27  Psl67  Jer  10 20 
2012).  18.  End]  lit.  '  latter  end,'  crowning  the 
life.  21.  The  drowsiness  follows  nights  of 
intemperance. 

^     27.  Li  Galilee  there  are  scores  of  ancient 
cisterns,  bottle-shaped,  into  which  one  may  fall 


and  find  it  impossible  to  climb  out.  28.  The 
miserable  duplicities  and  '  treacheries '  (RV) 
of  an  unholy  passion. 

29.  '  Complaining ' — not  babbling — arises 
amongst  boon  companions.  Redness  of  eyes] 
is  due  to  dissipation.  30.  Seek]  RV  '  seek  out,' 
try  it  thoroughly.     Mixed  wine]    see  on  92. 

31.  Giveth  his  colour]  i.e.  sparkles.  Moveth 
itself  aright]  RV  '  goeth  down  smoothly.' 

34.  The  midst  of  the  sea]  i.e.  on  the  high 
seas  (30 1^  Ezk  27  25).  With  a  slight  change  in 
the  text  we  get,  '  in  a  great  storm,'  instead  of, 
upon  the  top  of  a  mast.  35.  The  sot  is  repre- 
sented as  saying  that  the  blows  which  were 
showered  on  him  when  drunk  have  neither  in- 
jured nor  pained  him,  and  as  longing  to  be 
fully  awake  from  his  drunken  sleep  in  order  to 
return  again  to  his  carousing. 

CHAPTER  24 

5.  Read,  '  A  wise  man  is  better  than  a 
warrior,  and  a  man  of  knowledge  than  a  man 
of  strength.'  7.  When  put  on  his  trial '  in  the 
gate '  of  the  city,  where  public  business  was 
usually  transacted,  he  has  nothing  to  say  (Mt 
22 12).  10.  Adversity  is  sent  to  bring  out  your 
strength  :  if  you  are  slack  and  irresolute  in 
the  day  of  trial  you  are  proved*  to  be  a  weak- 
ling. II,  12.  Do  not  seek  to  evade  your  re- 
sponsibilities (Gn49  Jas4i7).  13,  14.  Wisdom 
is  as  sweet  as  honey. 

16-18.  Seven]  an  indefinite,  but  considerable 
number.     The  wrath  will  now  fall  on  you. 

20.  Candle]  RV '  lamp '  (31  is).  21,  22.  Take 
no  part  in  conspiracies  and  revolutions. 

23-34.  is  a  short  collection  of  sayings,  with 
the  heading,  '  These  also  are  sayings  of  the 
wise.' 

26.  Every  man,  etc.]  'He  kisseth  the  lips ' :  i.e. 
behaves  as  a  true  friend.  27.  Before  '  build- 
ing the  house '  (i.e.  getting  married),  make 
proper  provision.  28.  This  is  in  opposition 
to  the  ancient  law  of  retaliation  (Ex  2 123-25 
Lv  24 17-21  Dtl92i). 


387 


25.1 


PROVERBS 


27.  26 


PART  4  (Chs.  25-29) 


CHAPTEE  25 
Courts.     Quarrels 


1-7.  relate  to  kings  and  courts. 

1.  By  the  men  of  Hezekiah  the  author  of 
this  V.  doubtless  means  literary  men  at  the 
king's  court.  These,  he  says,  transcribed  the 
following  proverbs  from  some  other  collec- 
tion or  collections.  It  will  be  noticed  that 
many  of  them  have  appeared  earlier  in  the 
book. 

2.  The  works  of  God  in  history  and  nature 
are  beyond  us  (Dt2929  Jobll'  158  Isa45i5 
Ro  1 1 33).  A  king  should  be  conversant  with 
all  that  is  going  on  (IK 3 16  Job 29 n). 

4,  5.  Finer]  a  contraction  of  'refiner,'  as 
'fining  pot'  (173)  is  of  'refining  pot.'  But  we 
learn  from  LXX  that  the  original  reading 
was,  '  And  it  cometh  forth  perfectly  pure.' 

6-8.  Forth]  RV  'forward':  cp.  LkU". 
The  last  words  of  v.  7  belong  to  v.  8,  '  What 
thine  eyes  have  seen,  go  not  forth  hastily  to 
dispute  about.  For  what  wilt  thou  do  in  the 
end,  when,'  etc.  9,  10.  To  disclose  the  dis- 
creditable secret  even  of  an  adversary  brings 
one  an  evil  name.  11.  The  words  appear  to 
mean,  '  A  word  spoken  in  season  is  golden 
fruit  in  silver  carvings.' 

13.  Snow  is  used  in  the  East  to  cool  a 
beverage,  as  we  use  ice.  14.  Of  a  false  gift] 
RV  '  of  hi^  gifts  falsely.'  '  Much  cry  and  little 
wool.'  18.  A  maul  is  a  mace,  club,  or  ham- 
mer. 20.  The  first  clause  should  probably  be 
omitted,  and  the  v.  should  begin  thus  : 
'  Vinegar  on  a  wound,'  etc.  The  Heb.  words 
for  nitre  and  '  wound '  are  almost  identical. 
To  sing  songs  for  one  who  is  of  a  heavy 
heart  is  almost  as  cruel  as  to  pour  vinegar  on 
a  wound. 

22.  Heap  coals  of  fire,  etc.]  i.e.  make  him 
burn  with  shame:  cp.  Rol220f.  23.  Driveth 
away]  RV 'bringeth  forth.'  26.  The  fountain 
is  troubled  by  the  feet  of  animals  (Ezk  32- 34  is). 

27.  LXX  reads,  '  It  is  not  good,'  etc.  : 
'  Therefore  be  sparing  in  words  of  commenda- 
tion.' Too  much  flattery  is  like  too  much 
honey.  28.  '  Man  who  man  would  be  must 
rule  the  empire  of  himself.' 

CHAPTER  26 

Fools.  Sluggards.  Talkers 
I -12.  The  vv.  refer  chiefly  to  fools. 
I.  The  Palestinian  seasons  were  more  regu- 
lar than  ours  (IS  121'').  2.  This  is  a  contra- 
diction of  the  idea  that  the  deity  invoked  in  a 
curse  was  bound  to  inflict  it  (Gn2733  Jgl7  2). 
The  undeserved  curse  is  compared  to  the  aim- 
less movements  of  a  bird.  4,  5.  Answer  or 
not,    according     to     circumstances     (Mtl230 


Mk939).  6.  'He  that  sends  a  fool  means  to 
follow  him.' 

7.  A  fool  is  no  more  qualified  to  use  a  pro- 
verb than  a  lame  man  his  legs.  8.  This  may 
be  read,  '  As  he  that  bindeth,'  etc.  It  should 
not  be  '  bound  '  there.  Or,  '  As  a  bag  of  gems,' 
etc.  (RV).    That  is  not  the  place  for  them. 

10.  The  proverb  seems  to  be  directed 
against  employing  fools  and  strangers,  but  it 
is  impossible  to  be  sure  how  the  Hebrew  words 
at  the  beginning  of  the  v.  originally  ran. 

17.  RM  '  A  passing  dog,'  w^hich  does  not 
know  you. 

18-28.   The  evil  effects  of  much  speaking. 

18,  19.   Sport  to  them  is  death  to  others. 

21.  For  coal  read  '  bellows.'  23.  A  pot- 
sherd covered  with  the  lead  oxide  which  re- 
mains after  silver  has  been  refined  looks  valu- 
able, but  is  worthless;  so  are'' fervent  lips  and 
a  wicked  heart '  (RV)  :  cp.  Lk2247. 

CHAPTER  27 

Sundry  Observations.     Agriculture 

4,  Envy]  a  husband's  jealousy  is  meant 
(Song 8").  5,  6.  Men  'hide'  (RV)  love  when 
they  refrain  from  telling  a  friend  his  faults. 
An  enemy  will  be  '  profuse  '  (RV)  in  deceitful 
kisses  :  Judas  kissed  Jesus  much  (Mt26'*9 
RM).  7.  The  Spartan  king  told  the  tyrant 
Dionysius  that  the  broth  was  nothing  without 
the  seasoning  of  fatigue  and  hunger.  8.  'East, 
"West,  hame  's  best.'  9.  Sweetness  of  disposi- 
tion is  desu-able  when  it  arises,  not  from  mere 
emotion,  but  from  a  settled  purpose  of  the 
soul.  14.  Early  and  loud  demonstrativeness 
is  not  stable.  '  Evening  words  are  not  like  to 
morning.' 

16.  The  RV  makes  this  difficult  v.  mean 
that  he  is  attempting  the  impossible.  17.  The 
solitary  grows  dull.  '  The  best  mirror  is  an 
old  friend.'  The  Greek  proverb  is,  '  One  man, 
no  man.'     19.  Judge  another  by  yourself. 

21.  Estimate  him  by  the  reputation  he  wins. 
The  Russian  proverb  is,  '  A  man's  reception  is 
according  to  his  coat  ;  his  dismissal  according 
to  his  sense.'  22.  '  Heaven  and  earth  fight 
in  vain  against  a  dunce.'  '  Fools  grow  with- 
out watering.' 

23-27.  A  homily  in  praise  of  careful  at- 
tention to  the  flocks  and  herds.  The  writer 
is  not  disposed  to  depreciate  agriculture,  as 
some  of  the  later  Jewish  proverb-makers  were. 
One  of  these  says,  'Lay  out  your  money  in 
trade,  and  you  will  have  flesh  and  wine  daily  ; 
lay  it  out  in  land,  and  you  will  have  but  a  bare 
subsistence.'  24.  Riches  and  honour  (the 
crown)  are  fleeting  :  attention  to  field  and 
flock  are  profitable.  26.  Sell  your  stock,  and 
with  the  proceeds  buy  clothing  and  land. 


388 


28.  2 


PROVERBS 


30.  33 


CHAPTER  28 

Observations  eelating  chiefly  to 
Social  Life 

2.  Cp.  the  many  changes  of  rulers  during 
the  unsatisfactory  period  described  in  2K15. 

3.  The  addition  of  a  single  Hebrew  letter 
gives  '  wicked '  instead  of  poor.  4.  See  the 
account  of  Phinehas  (Nu25).  But  the  law 
here  means  religious  and  moral  teaching  in 
general.     5.   Cp.  lJn2-0. 

8.  Unjust  gain]  RY  '  increase.'  The  OT. 
denounced  usury  and  interest  because  it  was 
assumed  that  the  borrower  was  a  person  in 
distress  (Ex2225  Dt2.3i9  PslS^).  That  is 
quite  a  different  matter  from  the  lending  on 
interest,  without  which  modern  trade  could  not 
be  carried  on. 

10.  The  evil  way  is  the  one  which  ends  in 
calamity.  14.  He  fears  to  do  wrong.  18.  For 
at  once,  read,  'into  a  pit.'  21.  RM  'For  a 
piece  of  bread  a  man  will  transgress.'  '  I  was 
taken  by  a  morsel,  says  the  fish.'  22.  Evil 
eye]  avaricious. 

27.  Hideth  his  eyes]  He  '  passes  by  on  the 
other  side'  (Lk  1031.32). 


CHAPTER  29 
Kings  and  Fathers 
3.  Cp.  the  prodigal  son  (Lkl5).  6.  His 
transgression  is  the  snare  which  catches  and 
ruins  him.  9.  If  a  wise  man  has  a  lawsuit 
with  a  fool  the  latter  will  exhibit  the  most 
diverse  moods,  but  one  thing  he  will  not  do, 
and  that  is  to  listen  quietly.  10.  RM  '  But  the 
upright  care  for  his  soul.'  12.  They  argue 
that  truth  does  not  pay.  13.  To  the  poor  and 
'  the  oppressor  '  (RV),  to  all  classes  alike,  God 
gives  the  light  of  life  (Ps  133  38  lO).  17.  '  Bet- 
ter the  child  weep  than  the  father.' 

1 8.  The  vision  of  the  prophet  (Isa  1 1)  and 
the  instruction  of  the  law  deterred  the  people 
from  '  casting  off  restraint '  (RV).  Morality 
requires  the  safeguard  of  religion. 

19.  Ecclus  33 -^"-9  recommends  blows. 

21.  LXX  has,  '  He  who  has  been  luxurious 
from  a  child  will  become  a  servant,  and  in  the 
end  will  be  wretched.'  24.  This  does  not 
mean  a  man  who  goes  shares  in  the  booty,  but 
one  who  knows  the  thief,  hears  the  adjuration 
to  testify  (LvS^),  and  fails  to  respond. 

27.   '  Birds  of  a  feather  flock  together.' 


PART  5  (Chs.  30,  31) 


CHAPTER   30 
The  Words  of  Ague 

The  simplest  way  of  treating  the  title  is  to 
read  as  follows  :  '  The  words  of  Agur,  son  of 
Yakeh,  of  Massa.'  Then  we  may  proceed, 
with  RM,  '  The  man  saith,  I  have  wearied 
myself,  0  God  ;  I  have  wearied  myself,  0  God, 
and  am  consumed  ;  for  I  am  too  stupid  to  be  a 
man.'  Nothing  is  known  of  Agur  or  Yakeh, 
and  we  can  only  say  of  these  proverbs  tha,t 
they  are  unlike  any  that  have  preceded,  and 
are  evidently  of  later  date.  The  grouping  of 
objects  in  twos,  threes,  and  fours  reminds  us 
of  Job 5 19  Ps62ii  Ami,  2,  and  of  later  Jewish 
books,  such  as  '  The  Ethics  of  the  Fathers  ' 
and  the  Talmudic  treatise  '  Horajoth.' 

1-4.  He  lays  no  claim  to  the  wisdom  of 
which  some  boast :  he  does  not  profess  to 
understand  the  '  Holy  One '  (R V),  or  to  be 
Master  of  Nature  (Job  38).  The  garment  is 
the  clouds.  5,  6.  Men  should  attend  to  the 
word  of  revelation,  which  is  pure  as  refined 
gold  ;  they  add  to  its  teachings  at  their  peril. 

7-9.   Two  desirable  things. 

8.  Each  household  slave  had  an  allotted 
portion  of  food  (3 1 1^)  :  God  is  here  the  head 
of  the  family,  weighing  out  to  me  '  the  bread 
of  my  portion  '  (RM).  9.  When  in  great  dis- 
tress men  often  blaspheme  (Isa  8  21  Rev  16  9). 
But  the  meaning  may  be  that  he  dishonours 
the  name  of  his  God  by  stealing  (Ezk3620). 

11-14.  Four  classes  of  detestable  people. 


15,  16.  Read,  '  The  leech  hath  two  daugh- 
ters— Give,  Give.'  There  is  an  Indian  proverb : 
'  Fire  is  not  satiated  with  wood,  nor  the  ocean 
with  streams,  nor  death  with  all  the  living, 
nor  woman  with  man.'  17.  The  unburied 
corpse  will  be  devoured  by  ravens  of  the  wadi 
and  by  vultures  (RM)  :  eagles  do  not  eat 
corpses. 

18,  19.  Four  mysterious  things  :  cp.  Wisd 
510,11. 

19.  Maid]  lit.  '  young  woman.'  20.  This 
woman  is  an  animal,  in  whom  conscience  has 
never  been  developed. 

21-23.  Four  intolerable  things. 

23.  The  odious  woman  is  the  one  who  has 
long  been  rejected,  but  she  secures  a  husband 
at  last.  A  handmaid,  etc.]  Either  she  inherits 
from,  or  she  supplants,  her  mistress  :  if  the 
latter  is  meant,  cp.  Sarah's  jealousy  of  Hagar. 

24-28.  Four  animals,  small  but  wise. 

26.  The  creature  improperly  called  coney 
here  and  at  Lv  1 1 5  Dt  14  7  Ps  104  is  is  the  Syrian 
'  hyrax,'  an  animal  about  the  size  of  a  rabbit, 
which  feeds  on  grass,  and  lives  in  companies 
in  the  clefts  of  the  rocks.  27.  By  bands]  cp. 
Joel  2. 

28.  The  '  lizard'  (RV)  is  so  small  that  'you 
can  grasp  it  with  your  hands  '  (RM). 

29-31.  Four  creatures  of  stately  gait. 

31.  Instead  of  greyhound  LXX  has  the 
'  cock.'  The  fourth  creature  can  hardly  be 
the  king :  the  passage  is  corrupt.  33.  Retain 
the    same    word    throughout :    pressing   milk, 


389 


31.  1 


PROVERBS— ECCLESIASTES 


INTEO. 


pressing  the  nose,  pressing  strife.  The  '  curd ' 
(not  butter),  which  is  a  favourite  and  refreshing 
drink  in  the  East,  is  made  by  shaking  the  milk 
about  in  a  vessel  of  skin. 

CHAPTER   31 

The  Mother  of  Lemuel.  The  excellent 
Woman 

1-9.  An  exhortation  addressed  to  king 
Lemuel  by  his  mother,  urging  him  to  avoid 
women  and  wine.  The  latter  leads  to  slack- 
ness and  unfairness  in  the  administration  of 
justice. 

I.  Read  the  title  thus:  'The  words  of 
Lemuel,  king  of  Massa,  which  his  mother 
taught  him.'  It  is  possible  that  the  Massa  of 
Gn25i-*  is  meant.  2.  The  repeated  What? 
appears  to  point  to  an  inclination  towards 
these  excesses.     Son  of  my  vows]   see  1  S 1  n. 

3.  Read,  'Give  not  thy  love  to  those  who 
destroy  kings.'  4.  '  More  ai-e  drowned  in  the 
wine-cup  than  in  the  ocean.' 

6.  Of  heavy  hearts]  read,  '  the  bitter  in 
soul.'  The  Talmud  treats  this  verse  as  the 
foundation  of  the  pious  custom  of  the  Jeru- 
salem ladies,  who  provided  medicated  wine  to 
dull  the  pain  of  those  condemned  to  death 
(Mkl5-^3). 

10-31.  A  complete  alphabetical  poem,  each 
of  its  22  vv.  beginning  with  a  letter  of  the 
Hebrew  alphabet.  It  describes  the  perfect 
housewife,  the  virtuous,  or,  as  the  word  rather 
means,  the  '  excellent,'  the  '  capable  '  woman. 
Industrious  herself,  she  sees  to  it  that  her 
servants  are  the  same.  She  sells  the  products 
of  their  spinning  and  weaving,  and  buys  lands 
with  the  money.  She  watches  over  the  con- 
duct of  the  entire  household.  She  is  kind  to 
the  poor  and  gentle  to  all.  Husband  and 
children  pay  her  honour  as  the  prime  source 
of  all  their  welfare.  She  is  self-respecting 
and  dignified.  Religion  lies  at  the  root  of  her 
character. 


The  ideal  is  a  worthy  one,  well  adapted  to 
life  in  one  of  the  towns  of  antiquity,  where 
the  men  were  engaged  in  public  business 
(v.  23)  and  the  women  were  supposed  to  attend 
to  all  domestic  and  business  affairs.  No  doubt 
we  should  need  some  additional  features  for 
the  portrait  of  the  highest  type  of  womanhood. 
This  lady  is  not  in  the  fullest  sense  the  help- 
meet for  man.  She  is  too  much  the  toiler  on 
his  behalf,  too  little  the  partner  of  his  thoughts 
and  plans.  Tennyson's  '  Princess '  strikes  a 
note  which  we  cannot  afford  to  miss : 

'  Let  her  make  herself  her  own 
To  give  or  keep,  to  live  and  leani  and  be 
All  that  not  harms  distinctive  womanhood. 

•  ••••••• 

Till  at  the  last  she  set  herself  to  man, 

Like  perfect  music  unto  noljle  wards  ; 

And  so  these  twain,  upon  the  skirts  of  Time, 

Sit  side  by  side,  full-summed  in  all  their  powers, 

Dispensing  harvest,  sowing  the  To-be, 

Self-reverent  each  and  reverencing  each, 

Distinct  in  individualities, 

But  hke  each  other  ev'ii  as  those  who  love.' 

II.  Spoil  here  means  gain.  13.  Read, 
'  worketh  at  that  which  her  hands  delight  in.' 

15.  The  portion  is  either  the  proper  quantity 
of  food  or  the  allotted  quantity  of  material  for 
work.  21.  Scarlet  dye  being  costly,  the  gar- 
ments would  be  of  good  material,  thick  and 
warm.  22.  Read,  'She  maketh  for  herself 
coverings'  (7^'^).  There  is  no  justification  for 
the  addition,  'of  tapestry.'  25.  '  She  laugheth 
at  the  time  to  come '  (RV),  because  she  is 
prepared  for  anything. 

26.  On  an  Egyptian  tombstone  is  the 
inscription  :  '  Peace  was  in  the  words  which 
came  fi-om  his  mouth,  and  the  book  of  the 
wise  Thoth'  (the  divine  scribe  of  the  gods) 
'was  on  his  tongue.'  A  later  Jerusalem  proverb 
was :  '  Gentleness  is  the  salt  which  preserves 
wealth  from  corruption.'  30.  Favour]  i.e. 
charm  and  attractiveness. 


ECCLESIASTES 


INTRODUCTION 


I.  Title.  The  title  '  Ecclesiastes  '  has  been 
adopted  by  the  English  Yersion  through  the 
Latin  Vulgate  from  the  Septuagint  (the  earliest 
translation  of  the  OT.  into  Greek  from  the 
original  Hebrew),  which  gives  it  as  the  render- 
ing of  the  Hebrew  title  Koheleth.  It  is,  how- 
ever, uncertain  whether  that  word  (derived 
from  a  root  meaning  '  to  collect ')  denotes  (o) 


a  member  of  a  collective  body,  i.e.  an  assembly 
(Gk.  Ecclesia,  whence  the  title  '  Ecclesiastes  '), 
implying  that  the  writer  was  one  of  a  body  of 
persons  who  thought  and  discoursed  on  the 
subjects  engaging  attention  in  the  book,  or  (b) 
one  who  collects  or  convenes  an  assembly,  '  the 
great  orator '  which  RM  substitutes  for  '  the 
Preacher '  in  1 1. 


390 


INTRO. 


ECCLESIASTES 


INTRO. 


2.  Authorship  and  Date.  Was  Solomon  the 
author  of  this  book,  as  l^,  if  taken  literally, 
implies  ?  We  may  safely  reply,  No,  for  (a) 
the  original  Hebrew  throughout  the  book  shows 
traces  of  verbal  forms,  idioms,  and  style  later 
than  Solomon's  time  ;  (b)  the  writer  says,  '  I  .  . 
(not  'am,'  but)  was  king '  (l^^)  ;  (c)  he  refers 
apparently  to  a  series  of  kings  preceding  him 
(1^^)  ;  (d)  he  tells  us  that  he  was  king  '  in 
Jerusalem,'  thus  pointing  to  a  date  later  than 
the  Disruption  on  Solomon's  death,  when  there 
began  to  be  kings  outside  Jerusalem  ;  (e)  Solo- 
mon would  not  have  drawn  with  his  own  hand 
a  picture  of  moral  evils  (cp.  4i  58  89  lOe.T.ie), 
for  which  he  would  be  held  himself  in  large 
measure  responsible  ;  (/)  there  is  no  reference 
to  features  characterising  Israelitish  history  in 
Solomon's  day.  Besides  all  these  reasons  for 
placing  the  book  later  than  Solomon's  time,  it 
bears  distinct  traces  of  the  Greek  culture  estab- 
lished throughout  the  civilised  world  after  the 
break  up  of  the  Empire  of  Alexander  the 
Great  (died  323  B.C.)-  Such  traces,  e.g.  appear 
in  (rt)  the  writer's  advice  to  enjoy  the  present 
life  (2  24  322  5 18  97)  ;  (ft)  his  comments  on 
human  weakness  and  disorder  (5  s  7  "■  8  9'  i^  9 1<5 
10i*jf-),  on  the  vanity  and  brevity  of  life  (e.g. 
1 2-17)^  and  on  the  common  destiny  of  human  and 
brute  creation  (318^-)  ;  ('■)  his  references  to 
man's  inventive  capacity  (7  29),  and  (d)  his 
remarks  on  the  phenomena  of  nature  (l^.S). 

Thus  the  book  is  decidedly  later  than  the 
days  of  Solomon.  On  the  other  hand,  an 
acquaintance  with  its  language  seems  to  be 
shown  in  the  apocryphal  book  called  '  Ecclesi- 
asticus,'  written  circ.  180  B.C.  We  may,  there- 
fore, with  confidence  place  Ecclesiastes  earlier, 
though  probably  not  much  earlier,  than  that 
date. 

But  if  belief  in  the  traditional  authorship  is 
on  these  grounds  to  be  put  aside,  we  need 
have  no  scruple  in  at  once  rejecting  the  notion 
that  the  writer,  whoever  he  may  have  been, 
had  the  smallest  intention  of  fraud  or  deceit 
in  thus  assuming  Solomon's  character  for  lite- 
rary purposes.  Such  personation  is  nothing 
more  than  has  been  practised  alike  in  ancient 
and  modern  times  with  perfectly  straightfor- 
ward motives.  Plato's  dialogues  or  the  speeches 
in  Thucydides  (to  take  two  of  the  best  known 
cases  in  classical  literature)  are  examples  of 
language  put  into  the  mouths  of  gi-eat  men, 
not  as  having  been  literally  spoken  by  them, 
but  as  expressing  the  sentiments  which  in  the 
writer's  opinion  under  given  circumstances 
might  fairly  be  attributed  to  them. 

We  may  notice  that  the  claim  to  personate 
the  gi-eat  king,  such  as  it  is,  is  more  conspicuous 
in  the  earlier  than  in  the  later  part  of  the  book. 
The  thought  of  Solomon  gradually  fades  from 
the  writer's  mind,  and  he  proceeds  to  give  us 
undisguisedly  his  own   attitude    towards   life 


and  its  problems  in  words  that  do  not  even 
mean  to  suggest  the  Solomon  of  Israelitish 
history. 

3.  Design  of  the  Book.  The  main  purpose 
of  the  author  is  evidently  to  offer  men 
counsel,  the  result  of  his  own  experience,  as 
to  the  principles  on  which  they  shall  order 
their  lives.  The  Divine  Creator,  he  is  sure, 
carries  on  the  world  in  accordance  with  a  plan, 
but  that  plan  is  hidden  from  us.  What  rule, 
then,  shall  we  follow  ?  Man,  God's  creature, 
by  nature  aims  at  happiness.  How  shall  happi- 
ness be  attained  ?  A  glance  around  us  shows 
that  it  does  not  go  simply  by  merit  ;  for  in- 
stances are  patent  where  virtue  suffers  and 
vice  is  prosperous.  What  path,  therefore, 
shall  we  follow  to  gain  our  quest  ?  Shall  it 
be  wisdom,  or  unrestrained  pleasure,  or  devo- 
tion to  business,  or  the  pursuit  of  wealth  ? 
None  of  these  will  avail.  Our  rule  must  be 
to  alternate  wholesome  labour  with  reasonable 
relaxation,  assured  that,  although  the  ways  of 
God's  judgments  are  obscure,  all  well-doing 
shall  in  the  end  be  shown  forth  as  approving 
itself  to  the  Divine  Judge. 

Many  a  devout  reader,  turning  over  the  pages 
of  this  book,  has  been  conscious  of  a  sort  of 
uneasy  wonder  that  it  should  form  part  of  the 
Bible  ;  so  different  is  its  general  tone  from 
that  of  the  sacred  volume  as  a  whole.     For — 

(a)  Throughout  the  whole  book  the  gaze  is 
turned  inwards.  Existence  is  represented  as 
a  puzzle  beyond  our  powers  to  solve.  In 
other  OT.  books  the  writer  feels  that  he  is 
showing  us  God's  hand  in  His  dealing  with  in- 
dividuals or  with  nations.  But  here  God  is  a 
God  who  '  hides  Himself,'  and  we  must  grope 
on  in  the  dark  in  our  endeavour  to  become 
acquainted  even  with  '  parts  of  His  ways.' 

(b)  Elsewhere,  specially  in  the  prophetical 
and  devotional  books,  God  is  not  only  a  King 
and  moral  Governor,  a  Creator  and  a  Judge, 
but  He  is  tender,  willing  to  forgive  the  peni- 
tent, ready  to  succour  and  sustain.  But  to 
the  writer  of  this  book  God  is  only  the  Judge, 
austere,  needing  care  in  approach,  omnipotent, 
and  righteous.  The  element  of  love  in  His 
character  is  hidden.  That  He  is,  in  the  full 
sense  of  the  word,  the  Divine  Father,  is  seen 
dimly  or  not  at  all.  The  book  thus  shows  the 
low-water  mark  of  the  religious  thoughts  of 
God-fearing  Jews  in  pre-Christian  times. 

(c)  Human  existence  is  looked  at  mainly 
on  its  darker  side.  It  is  at  once  monotonous 
and  vain.  There  is  nothing  new  anj^where. 
Its  good  things,  even  if  attained,  are  fleeting. 
Close  upon  the  enjoyment  of  them  the  '  days 
of  darkness '  follow,  and  they  '  shall  be  many.' 
The  book  thus  emphasises  in  a  way  not  found 
in  the  rest  of  the  OT.  the  lack  of  a  clear  vision 
of  a  future  life  which  had  not  yet  been  brought 
to  light  by  Christ. 


391 


INTRO. 


ECCLESIASTES 


INTRO. 


But  these  very  peculiarities,  which  have 
caused  perplexity  to  devout  readers,  form, 
when  rightly  viewed,  a  signal  part  of  the 
credentials  of  the  book  as  a  constituent  part 
of  the  'Divine  Library,'  which,  through  its 
various  elements,  historical,  prophetical,  devo- 
tional, ethical,  was  destined  in  God's  provi- 
dence to  appeal  to  the  needs  of  successive 
periods  of  man's  existence.  To  the  question 
characteristic  of  much  of  the  thought  of  the 
present  day,  '  Is  life  worth  living  ?  '  the  book 
gives  the  best  answer  which  a  Jew,  at  once 
influenced  by  heathen  philosophy,  and  placed 
amidst  political  and  social  miseries,  could  give. 
There  is  a  wide-spread  habit  of  mind,  called 
by  the  convenient  name  of  pessimism,  which 
takes  a  gloomy  view  of  human  existence, 
either  because  of  the  miseries  of  the  world 
in  general,  or  because  of  the  deficiencies  to 
be  found  in  man's  nature.  Now  it  is  in  Ec- 
clesiastes,  and  Ecclesiastes  alone,  that  this 
tendency  is  dealt  with  upon  anything  resem- 
bling the  lines  in  which  it  expresses  itself 
in  the  working  of  men's  minds  in  our  own 
generation. 

It  is,  then,  in  a  very  real  sense  a  present 
day  question,  which  is  here  treated.  If 
thoughtful  people  are  now  saddened  by  the 
sorrows  and  sufferings  of  the  world,  and  by 
the  evil  that  goes  unpunished,  so  too  was  '  the 
Preacher.'  But  the  point  for  us  to  notice  here  is 
that,  unlike  many  now,  he  retained  his  reliance 
on  Grod's  justice,  although  devoid  of  our  main- 
stay, viz.  the  Christian  faith  which  was  then 
unborn.  The  forms  of  philosophical  culture 
familiar  to  him  were  not  unlike  some  of  our 
own,  while  one  special  form  of  argument 
which  we  can  use  was  unavailable  in  his  day. 
The  steady  growth  of  sympathy  with  every 
kind  of  suifering  and  need,  the  widening  sense 
of  human  brotherhood — this  practical  result  of 
the  fuller  realisation  of  the  meaning  of  Christ's 
teaching  and  life  constitutes  for  us  a  special 
form  of  argument  on  the  side  of  the  Christian 
faith.  He  had  no  such  help  to  retain  his  hold 
upon  the  God  of  his  fathers.  Nevertheless, 
we  mark  that  his  faith,  however  imperilled  at 
times,  did  not  fail  him.  How  much  less, 
then,  should  ours  fail  to  whom  God  has  been 
revealed  as  a  God  of  love  through  Christ  In- 
carnate, and  the  Sacrifice  for  sin. 

4.  Analysis  of  Contents.  Although  the 
general  aim  of  the  book  is  clear,  the  con- 
nexion of  thought  is  not  always  easy  to 
follow.  There  are  many  breaks,  repetitions, 
and  deviations  into  side-issues.  The  following 
is  an  outline  of  the  contents. 

Introduction.  Man's  life  is  saddenea  by 
its  brevity,  and  by  the  purposeless  and  mono- 
tonous repetition  which  meets  him  on  all  sides 
(1 1-11).  Various  methods  may  be  tried  in  order 
to  obtain  relief,  viz.  the  pursuit  of  wisdom 


(1 12-18)^  of  enjoyments  and  of  art  (2i-ii).     Of 
these  wisdom  is  the  noblest,  and  yet  all  of 
them  are  but  vanity  (212-23).     "phe  best  course 
is  to   alternate   toil   with  frugal   enjoyment  ; 
though  even  this  also  is   vanity  (224-26).     ^t 
least,  however,  we  can  see  that  God  is  a  God 
of  order  (S^-^)  ;  yet  man's  insight  into  God's 
plan  is  extremely  limited.     The  best  course, 
therefore,  is  to  combine  the  enjoyment  of  God's 
gifts  with  uprightness  of  life  (3  9-15).     True, 
man  and  beast   alike   return  to  the  ground  ; 
nevertheless,  if  not  here,  then  hereafter  wrongs 
shall  be  righted  (3i*'-22).     The  ills  inseparable 
from   both  poverty  and   success  cut  men  ofE 
from  the  helpful  companionships  of  life  (4 1-12). 
Wisdom  prevails  over  the  highest  rank  ;  but 
even  so  there  is  nought  that  is  lasting  (4i3-H5). 
In    religious    life    ignorance    and    hypocrisy 
prevail   (51"'^),    in  political  and  social  matters 
cruelty  and    avarice    (5^).     Greed  of  gain  is 
unsatisfying  and  in  the  end  futile  (.5  ^-i").     Let 
a  man,  avoiding  these,  make   tranquil  enjoy- 
ment his  aim   (5iS"20).     Length  of  life  only 
increases  man's   liabilities  to    suffering  ;  yea, 
though  he  be  possessed  of  all  possible  advan- 
tages (61-6).     The  only  wise  course  is  to  use 
what  we  have,  avoid  all  vain  grasping  at  that 
which  is  beyond    our   reach,  and    accept  the 
limitations  which  the  very  name  man  suggests 
(6  7-12).     Advice  for  the  conduct  of  life  (7  i-i*). 
Avoid  extremes  whether  of  asceticism  or  ex- 
cess (7 15-18).     Wisdom  is  rare,  yet  needed  by 
all.     Righteousness,     seldom     found     among 
men,  is  absolutely   unknown    among    women 
(^719-29).     Wisdom  is   needed  by    none    more 
than  those  who  have  to  do  with  kings'  courts 
(81"^).     Many  as  are  the    disorders   and   dis- 
appointments of  life,  it  must  still  be  that  God 
will  in  the  end  show   Himself  a  just  Ruler. 
Make,  therefore,  a  cheerful  use  of  the  good 
things    of    life,    while    convinced    that    His 
ways  are    '  past    finding   out '   (8  6-i7).    Death 
is  universal,  and  what  lies   beyond   is  in  the 
darkest  shadow  (9 1"*^)  ;    nevertheless,  combine 
innocent  enjoyment  with  diligent  work  (9  'i'-i^). 
The  wise,  the  strong,  and  the  rich  are  all  the 
puppets  of    chance.     One   foolish    slip    may 
bring  about  much  havoc  (QH-lOi).     There  is 
practical  wisdom  in  patient  and  quiet  regard 
to  duty  (102-").        The    incautious    reformer 
brings  untoward    results  to  himself    (10  ^'H). 
The  fool's  talk,  unlike  that  of  the  wise  man, 
is   wordy  and   wearisome,    and    also   abortive 
(1012-15).     j^    boy-ruler    is  a  disaster  to  the 
kingdom;  but  the  prudent  will  submit  in  silence 
(10 16-20)      Fulfil  plain  duties,  even  if  success 
be  dubious.     While  the  powers  of  youth  re- 
main, let  life,  though  fleeting,  be  as  bright  as 
may  be  (lli-io).     The  service  of  God  will  not 
bear  postponement  to  the  winter  of  life  (12  !■'''). 
The  outcome  of  the  whole  book  is  summed  up 

(128-14). 


392 


1.1 


ECCLESIASTES 


2.  1 


CHAPTEE  1 

All  is  Vanity 
i-ii.  The  writer  describes  himself.  He 
declares  that  all  things  are  transitory  and 
without  result,  whether  they  be  the  works  or 
the  life  of  man,  or  the  natural  forces  of  heat, 
air,  and  water.  Language  cannot  do  justice  to 
nature's  wearisome  sameness.  The  oblivion 
which  overtakes  all. 

1.  Preacher]   see  Intro.  §§  1,  2. 

2.  Vanity  of  vanities]  lit. '  breath  of  breaths ' ; 
the  form  of  expression  being  a  Hebrew  way  of 
indicating  the  superlative  degree.  Of  all  fleet- 
ing things  existence  is  the  most  fleeting.  The 
same  figure  is  used  in  Pss62  9  144'*  of  the 
brevity  of  man's  life.  The  word  vanity,  occur- 
ring thirty-eight  times,  strikes  the  keynote  of 
the  book.  All  things  living  and  otherwise  bear 
the  stamp  of  the  transitory. 

3.  What  profit]  Man  toils  ;  but  even  grant- 
ing that  he  gains  some  tangible  result,  he  can- 
not retain.  4.  The  earth  abideth]  Man  is  so 
far  from  being  lord  of  the  earth,  that  it  sur- 
vives ever  fresh  generations  of  its  inhabitants, 
and  so  by  contrast  brings  out  more  clearly  the 
brevity  of  their  existence.  5.  Hasteth  to  his 
place]  The  sun,  on  the  supposition  of  his  ap- 
parent motion  across  the  heavens  from  E.  to 
W.  by  day,  returns  eastward  beneath  the  earth 
by  night. 

6.  The  wind,  etc.]  We  may  render  more 
closely  thus  :  '  Going  toward  the  south,  and  cir- 
cling toward  the  north  ;  circling,  circling  goeth 
the  wind,  and  on  its  circlings  returneth  the  wind.' 
The  sameness  involved  in  the  constant  renewal 
of  its  changes  of  direction  is  brought  out  by 
the  wording.  The  ^circling,  circling,'  the 
changing,  at  once  endless  and  monotonous, 
marks  here  too  an  emptiness  of  aim.  7.  Unto 
the  place]  The  writer  supposes  that  the  salt 
water  percolates  by  underground  fissures,  get- 
ting rid  of  its  salt  on  the  way,  and  so  through 
hidden  channels  returns  to  the  sources  whence 
it  had  set  out. 

8.  All  things  are  full  of  labour]  RM  'all 
words  are  '  too  '  feeble  '  to  set  forth  the  case, 
so  vast  is  the  subject.  9.  The  thing]  History 
has  been  repeating  itself  from  all  time,  and 
will  do  so  evermore. 

10,  II.  Is  there]  He  calls  on  any  one  who 
may  doubt  his  word  to  point  to  something 
which  is  really  new.  The  only  reason  that 
events  strike  us  as  new  is  because  that  which 
has  been  is  swept  into  oblivion.  Previous 
generations  have  no  existence  for  us,  and  we 
in  like  manner  shall  have  no  existence  for 
those  who  come  after  us. 

12-18.  The  writer,  availing  himself  of  his 
status,  recounts  how  he  had  tested  the  various 


fective.     Great  as  were  his  acquirements,  the 
result  is  nil,  nay,  worse  than  nothing. 

12.  Was  king]  see  Intro.  §  2. 

13.  My  heart]  We  should  say  my  'mind,' 
but  the  heart  was  considered  by  the  Jews  to 
be  the  seat  of  the  intellectual  powers  as  well 
as  of  the  emotions.  All  things]  the  different 
ways  that  men  work,  and  their  hopes  and  fears 
in  so  doing  ;  their  circumstances,  pains,  plea- 
sures, feelings,  aims.  Perhaps,  he  says  to  him- 
self, men  of  various  trades,  modes  of  life, 
surroundings,  will  enlighten  me,  or  help  me  to 
bear  my  burden.  This  sore  travail,  etc.]  Men 
who  are  endowed  with  any  activity  of  mind 
cannot  but  be  interested  in  all  human  endeavour  ; 
and  their  researches  and  enquiries,  unsatisfying 
though  they  be,  are  a  part  of  God's  order. 

14.  Vexation  of  spirit]  EV  '  striving  after 
wind':  cp.  Hosl2i.  The  satisfaction  that 
might  have  been  expected  from  these  studies 
is  not  to  be  attained.  Air  itself  is  not  more 
elusive  to  the  grasp.  15.  Crooked]  for  the 
phrase  here  cp.  Isa40'i.  The  world  is  dis- 
ordered, and  there  is  no  cm-e  discoverable. 

Numbered]  The  required  numbers  are  lack- 
ing, which  were  needed  to  make  up  the  sum 
of  human  action,  and  no  amount  of  skill  in 
arithmetic  can  supply  the  deficiency. 

16.  Great  estate]  EV  '  Lo,  I  have  gotten 
me  great  wisdom  above  all,'  etc.  (omitting  '  am 
come  to  great  estate  and ').  He  has  had  ex- 
ceptional advantages  in  gaining  wisdom,  and 
has  made  the  most  of  his  opportunities.  Yet 
even  so  he  has  failed.  What  hope,  then,  can 
there  be  that  others  will  solve  the  problem 
that  remains  dark  to  him  ?  Ml  they']  see  Intro. 
§2.  Wisdom  and  knowledge]  knowledge,  the 
possession  of  facts  ;  wisdom,  skill  in  employing 
them.  17.  And  folly]  He  tries  whether  the 
study  of  folly  may  perchance  give  him  some 
grasp  of  its  opposite,  viz.  wisdom.  But  this  too 
only  serves  to  confirm  him  in  his  general  con- 
clusion.    Vexation  of  spirit]   see  on  v.  14. 

18.  Much  grief]  Sir  Isaac  Newton  spoke  of 
himself  as  a  child  picking  up  a  few  pebbles  on 
the  shore  of  the  wide  sea  of  knowledge.  So 
the  more  the  veil  is  lifted,  the  wider  is  seen  to 
be  the  extent  of  that  which  is  still  unknown. 
Bodily  and  mental  exhaustion,  sleepless  and 
futile  endeavour — this  is  the  picture  which 
concludes  the  writer's  sketch  of  his  quest  after 
the  highest  good  in  the  shape  of  wisdom. 

CHAPTEE   2 

Epicureanism  and  Wisdom  alike 

profitless 

1-3.   The  writer  makes  enjoyment  his  quest, 

while    aware   that   it   is   folly,  and   avoiding 

excess   in  a  philosophic  spirit. 

I.   I   will  prove  thee  vdth  mirth]  Wisdom, 


status,  recounts  11"  w  n^  iici>j  uv^^^^v^  —  .„..„„„        ,,  ^     .      '  •     1  xi.- 

aspects  of  life  in  their  aims  and  results,  but  all     whether  sought  m  nature  or  m  human  thmgs, 
to  no  profit      Everything  is  perverse  or  de-     having  proved  unsatisfying,  he  now  makes  a 

393 


2.  2 


ECCLESIASTES 


3.1 


cast  in  another  direction.  Increase  of  know- 
ledge is  increase  of  sorrow  ;  but  what,  if  he 
were  to  try  the  fascination  of  enjoyment  ? 

2.  It  is  mad]  He  knows  all  the  time  that  no 
solid  comfort  will  be  the  issue.  Mirth  is  a 
brief  madness:  cp.  7*5.  3.  To  give  myself  unto] 
RV  'to  cheer  my  flesh  with.'  Yet  acquainting 
mine  heart]  RV  '  mine  heart  yet  guiding  me.' 
Whatever  indulgences  he  may  yield  to,  he  is 
careful  not  to  drift,  and  so  vitiate  his  experi- 
ment. Through  all  he  retains  a  prudent  self- 
control. 

4-6.  He  tries  another  method,  viz.  culture 
and  art. 

4.  I  made  me  great  works]  The  occupation 
of  mind  and  exercise  of  taste  may  help  him 
in  his  quest.  Houses]  Personating  Solomon, 
he  thinks  of  the  palaces  built  by  that  monarch 
(IK 71-12):  cp.  the  cities  mentioned  in  2Ch 
8^-6.  5,  Orchards]  pleasure  ground  ;  RV 
'  parks.'  6.  Pools]  essential  in  a  land  where 
water  is  scarce,  as  well  as  pleasing  in  effect. 
The  wood  that  bringetli  forth  trees]  R V  '  the 
forest  where  trees  were  reared.' 

7-1 1.  He  acquires  slaves,  herds,  and  flocks, 
and  precious  metals,  musicians,  and  inmates 
of  the  harem.  Without  being  the  slave  of 
these  delights  he  yet  indulges  in  every  desire 
■)t  his  heart,  but,  as  before,  all  is  vanity. 

7.  Got]  RV  '  bought.'  8.  Silver  and  gold] 
'■p.  1K928  102,14,15,27.  Peculiar  treasure] 
The  specialities  and  rarities  of  each  country 
found  their  way  to  him.  Of  kings  and  of  the 
provinces]  cp.  1 K 10 1^,  where  Solomon  receives 
precious  things  as  tribute  from  the  kings  of 
Ai'abia  and  the  governors  of  the  countr3^ 
Musical  instruments,  and  that  of  all  sorts]  RV 
'  concubines  very  many  '  (but  RM  agrees  with 
AV).  The  meaning  of  the  Heb.  is  obscm'e. 
Probably,  however,  the  reference  is  to  the 
grosser  sort  of  sensual  enjoyments:  cp.  IK 
111-3. 

9.  I  was  great,  and  increased]  now  in  splen- 
dour and  luxury,  as  before  in  knowledge.  In 
closing  the  account  of  this  experiment  he  ex- 
presses himself  as  he  did  at  the  end  of  his 
endeavour  to  find  satisfaction  in  wisdom  (li*^). 

10.  My  portion  of  all  my  labour]  At  least 
he  had  the  zest  of  joys  obtained  through  toil 
or  ingenuity,  ii.  Vexation  of  spirit]  cp.  1 1*. 
None  of  these  could  satisfy  the  cravings  of 
his  spirit. 

12-17.  Wisdom  is  to  folly  as  light  to  dark- 
ness ;  yet  the  same  end  awaits  both.  Life, 
therefore,  is  nothing  but  a  weariness.  The 
cycle  of  experiments  being  completed,  there 
is  nothing  to  do  but  to  hark  back  to  the  first 
of  them,  and  to  consider  knowledge  and  its 
opposites. 

12.  What  ca7i  the  man  do]  None  can  hope 
to  attain  or  approach  to  the  favourable  condi- 
tions under  which  Solomon  carried  on  his  quest 


of  the  highest  good.  After  the  king?  even 
that  which  hath  been  already  done]  RM  '  after 
the  king,  even  him  whom  they  made  king  long 
ago  ? '  the  writer  now  letting  go  his  persona- 
tion of  Solomon,  and  looking  back  at  him  as 
an  historical  personage. 

13.  Wisdom  excelleth  folly]  for,  at  any  rate, 
in  seeking  it  there  is  no  fear  of  self-reproach. 

14.  Are  in  his  head]  Unlike  the  fool,  the 
wise  man  can  see  what  and  where  to  choose. 

15.  Why  was  I  then  more  wise?]  rather, 
'  what  was  the  use  of  troubling  myself  to  sur- 
pass others  ?  '  16.  Tfiere  is  no  remembrance] 
not  meaning  that  no  memories  of  famous  men 
had  survived  them,  but  that  such  cases  were 
too  rare  to  be  of  any  solace  against  the  prac- 
tical ills  of  life.     17.  Vexation  of  spirit]  see 

114. 

18-23.  Besides,  no  one  knows  what  his  heir 
may  do. 

20.  Went  about]  RV  '  turned  about,'  i.e. 
looked  back  sadly  at  the  absence  of  the  per- 
manent element  in  the  labours  of  my  life 
past.  21.  Equity]  RV  '  skilfulness.'  Hath  not 
laboured]  The  heir  acquires  good  things  with- 
out earning  them.  This  too  shows  the  dismal 
tangle  of  human  affairs.  22.  Vexation]  RV 
'striving'  (but  RM  as  AV). 

24-26.  Whatever  enjoyment  there  is  in  life 
is  from  God,  and  He  thereby  favours  the 
righteous,  not  the  sinner. 

24.  Eat  and  drink]  enjoy  in  moderation  the 
good  things  of  life  :  cp.  Jet 22^^. 

25.  Hasten]  RV  '  have  enjoyment.'  More 
than  I  ?]  RM  '  apart  from  Him  ?  '  i.e.  it  is  only 
through  God's  ordinance  that  simple  bodily 
pleasures  can  change  to  joy  the  sadness  which 
is  the  natural  outcome  of  the  pursuit  of  know- 
ledge. This  acknowledgment  shows  that  the 
■RTiter,  after  all,  clings  to  the  faith  of  his 
fathers.  The  rendering  of  AV  (based  on  a 
slightly  different  rendering  of  the  Heb.)  would 
mean,  '  Who  is  in  a  better  position  than  I  to 
testify  that  all  good  comes  from  God  ? ' 

26.  That  he  may  give]  The  sinner's  posses- 
sions pass  to  the  just  man,  to  be  used  aright  : 
cp.  Job27i6>i7  Provl322.  Vexation  of  spirit] 
see  on  1 1*.  The  sinner's  toil  and  expectations 
are  alike  great ;  his  joys  nil. 

CHAPTER   3 

The  practical  Ideal.     Acceptance  of 
the  universal  scheme 

1-15.  God  is  a  God  of  order. 

The  problem  which  the  wi'iter  has  set  him- 
self is  not  yet  solved.  He  has  found  that 
wisdom,  culture,  pleasiu-e,  are  all  good,  though, 
even  if  we  combine  them,  there  is  still  some- 
thing lacking,  and  they  will  not  explain  the 
mystery  of  existence.  In  continuing  to  seek 
for  a  rule  of  life  that  shall  lead  him  to  the 
highest  good,  he  reminds  himself  that  God  is 


394 


3.2 


ECCLESIASTES 


4.  13 


a  Grod  of  order,  and  wisdom  lies  in  adapting 
ourselves  to  that  order.  It  is  at  a  time 
appointed  by  the  Creator  that  the  individual 
life  begins  and  ends,  and  the  same  is  true  for 
all  the  events  intermediate  between  birth  and 
death  which  make  up  the  sum  of  human  exist- 
ence. All  our  undertakings  are  thus  subject 
to  His  unchangeable  decrees. 

2.  To  plant . .  to  pluck  up]  i.e.  to  begin  and 
end  a  career.  3.  To  kill]  perhaps,  to  make 
war  or  peace.  To  break  down]  e.g.  to  make 
a  way  for  what  shall  better  meet  the  needs, 
secular  or  spiritual,  of  a  new  generation. 

5.  To  cast  away  stones]  Probably  the  whole 
V.  means  peace  and  war,  the  former  expressed 
by  leisure  to  clear  away  stones  from  a  vine- 
yard (cp.  Isa52),  and  to  indulge  in  family  joys, 
the  latter  by  the  action  of  a  hostile  force 
spreading  stones  over  fertile  lands  (cp.  2  K  3 1^), 
and  by  the  claims  of  military  service.  6.  To 
get .  .  to  lose]  to  add  to,  and  to  forego  gains. 

7.  To  rend  .  .  to  sew]  to  act  in  a  way  that 
involves  the  sundering  of  friendship  .  .  to  knit 
hearts  together  again. 

9-14.  Man's  work,  ignorant  though  he  be, 
is  fulfilling  God's  design.  Let  him  aim  at 
pleasm-e  and  uprightness,  while  the  whole 
scheme  of  things  from  first  to  last  is  in  the 
hands  of  God. 

9.  What  profit]  how  can  he  be  sure  that  he 
has  found  the  right  season  ? 

11.  The  world]  rather,  as  RM,  'eternity.' 
Though  man's  powers  are  bounded,  he  is 
capable  of  recognising  the  grand  and  immea- 
surable scope  of  God's  ordering  of  all  things. 
His  mind  reflects  the  universe.  This  is  better 
than,  taking  AV,  to  explain  it  as  referring  to 
man's  natural  love  of  living  in  the  world.  So 
that]  RV  '  yet .  .  so  that.' 

12.  No  good  .  .  a  mail]  RV  '  nothing  better 
for  them  than.'  14.  That  men  should  fear] 
God's  unchanging  ordinances  are  for  the  pur- 
pose of  calling  forth  man's  reverence.  We 
must  trust  Him  with  our  future.  15.  Requir- 
eth]  RV  '  seeketh  again,'  bringeth  back  in  an 
unchanging  sequence  :  cp.  1  ^. 

16-22.  Men  wrest  judgment ;  but  God  shall 
right  all  wrongs,  though  how,  is  beyond  our 
ken. 

16,  17.  The  judges  of  his  time  troubled  the 
writer.  Yet  in  God's  purposes,  either  here  or 
in  the  future,  unrighteous  decisions  shall  be 
reversed. 

18.  Manifest]  RV  'prove,'  i.e.  sift  or  test 
whether  they  will  be  upright,  in  spite  of  the 
knowledge  that  death  comes  to  them  no  less 
than  to  the  beasts.     Beasts]  RV  '  but  as  beasts.' 

19.  That  which  befalleth  .  .  them]  RM  'The 
sons  of  men  are  a  chance,  and  the  beasts  are  a 
chance.'  They  are  the  sport  of  hazard  alike 
in  birth  and  in  death.  20.  All  are  of .  .  again] 
'Nature  the  womb  and  tomb  of  all'  (Lucretius). 


21.  That  goeth]  RV  '  whether  it  goeth  up- 
ward .  .  downward,'  thus  neither  denying  nor 
affirming  that  there  is  an  intrinsic  difference  in 
the  soul  of  man.  Christ  had  not  yet  come  to 
bring  'life  and  immortality  to  light.'  Yet  con- 
trast the  brighter  hope  of  12  7.  22.  There  is 
nothing  better]  If  man  is  no  better  off  than  a 
beast,  let  him  at  least  learn,  like  them,  to  enjoy 
the  present.  Bring  him]  RV  'bring him  bach,' 
to  see  the  results  of  his  work. 

CHAPTER  4 

Vicissitudes  of  Life.   '  Oh,  the  pity  of  it  ! ' 

1-3.  The  mass  of  human  suffering  and  the 
absence  of  pity  are  such  that  better  off  are  the 
dead  and  still  more  the  unborn. 

It  is  not  only  through  God's  ordinance,  but 
by  reason  of  man's  perversity,  that  he  is 
disturbed  and  perplexed  by  the  social  disturb- 
ances around  him.  The  world  is  full  of 
trouble.  The  weak  are  oppressed  by  the 
strong. 

4-6.  Success  involves  envy.  Better  be  secure 
and  at  peace.  4.  Right]  RV  'skilful,'  RM 
'  successful.'  For  this  .  .  neighbour]  RM  '  it 
Cometh  of  a  man's  rivalry  with  his  neighbour.' 
Effort  is  stimulated  by  competition,  but  then 
what  man  has  gained  by  toil  is  marred  by  the 
hostility  of  the  less  fortunate.  Vexation  of 
spirit]  see  on  1 14.  5.  Even  the  fool  who 
idly  runs  through  his  substance  is  for  the  time 
better  off,  for  he  is  at  peace. 

7-12.  Two  more  ills  of  life  are  covetousness 
and  loneliness. 

8.  There  is  one  aloyie']  The  avaricious  has 
none  to  share  his  wealth  or  to  succeed  him  ; 
yet  his  toil  is  insatiable. 

9-12.  The  advantages  of  companionship  are 
shown  by  four  illustrations,  three  of  which  are 
such  as  have  special  fitness  in  the  mouth  of  an 
Oriental  writer.  Two  companions  in  travel 
find  their  partnership  of  value,  whether  (a) 
they  are  walking  upon  a  rough  and  steep  path, 
or  {b)  sleeping  at  the  end  of  the  day  in  a 
narrow  chamber  with  unglazed  windows,  or 
(c)  in  a  sudden  encounter  with  thieves,  who 
have  availed  themselves  of  the  darkness  of  the 
night  to  dig  through  the  earthen  walls  in 
search  of  valuables.  Lastly,  (c/)  a  threefold 
cord  is  strong  to  resist.  12.  RV  '  And  if  a 
man  prevail  against  him  that  is  alone.' 

13-16.  A  man  may  rise  fi-om  the  lowest  to 
the  highest  station  by  wisdom  ;  yet  even  so 
there  is  no  permanence. 

13.  Child]  RV  'youth.'  14.  He  cometh] 
i.e.  the  poor  and  wise  youth.  Whereas 
also  .  .  poor]  RV  '  yea,  even  in  his  kingdom 
he  (the  child)  was  born  poor.'  Thus  in  RV 
the  subject  of  the  whole  v.  is  the  youth,  where- 
as in  AV  two  persons  are  spoken  of,  viz.  the 
prisoner  who  rises  through  wisdom  to  be  a 
king,  and  the  king  who  becomes  a  beggar. 


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6.  10 


These  vv.  have  been  taken  to  refer  to  actual 
events,  perhaps  in ^ the  writer's  own  day  ;  but 
no  satisfactory  reference  for  them  has  been 
found.  Thus  they  had  best  be  understood  as 
a  general  statement. 

15.  With  the  second,  etc.]  RV  'that  they 
were  with  the  youth,  the  second,  that  stood,' 
etc.  16.  There  ii\  RV  'there  was.'  Even  of 
.  .  them]  RV  '  even  of  all  them  over  whom  he 
was.'  The  sketch  is  continued  ;  there  is  an 
endless  stream  of  those  who  crowd  to  pay 
court.  They  also]  RV  '  yet  they,'  etc. 
Oblivion  will  soon  wipe  out  all. 

CHAPTER  5 

Disheartening  Outlook  on  Life 

1-8.  Disorders  in  the  religious,  in  the 
political  world.  In  the  earlier  part  of  this 
c.  the  writer  turns  from  secular  to  religious 
matters.  He  points  out  the  irreverence  which 
belongs  to  worship  offered  without  due  thought. 

I.  Keep  thy  foot]  cp.  Ps  11 9 101  Provlis. 
Either  be  silent,  or  use  thoughtfully  framed 
words  of  prayer,  as  contrasted  with  hasty 
offerings  combined  with  ungodliness  of  life. 

And  be  more  ready  to  hear]  RV  '  for  to  draw 
nigh  to  hear  is  better.'  3.  A  dream  cometh] 
excessive  distractions  by  day  bring  disordered 
visions  at  night.  Even  so  excess  in  words 
shows  folly  in  him  who  utters  them.  Is  hnown 
by]  RV  '  with  a.' 

4.  Defer  not  to  pay  it]  A  vow  is  not  essential, 
but  once  made  it  is  binding  :  cp.  Dt  2.3  21-23. 
Vows  had  an  important  place  in  the  religion 
of  Israel,  as  we  see  from  Gn2820  NuG^*- 
Jgll30  isiii  Mk7ii  AclSis  2123  2321.  Cp. 
also  the  rule  of  the  Pharisees  (MtS^^),  which, 
however,  does  not  add  the  caution  to  think 
before  speaking. 

6.  Suffer  not,  etc.]  i.e.  suffer  not  your  hasty 
vow  to  lead  you  into  wrongdoing.  The  angel] 
either  the  angel  who,  according  to  Rabbinic 
belief,  presided  over  the  sacrifice  (this  is, 
however,  somewhat  out  of  harmony  with  the 
tone  of  the  book),  or  the  priest,  to  whom  the 
person  who  makes  the  vow  addressed  himself. 
RM  has  '  messenger  of  God  '  (see  Mai  2  7). 

An  error]  He  has  brought  an  offering  of 
inferior  value,  or  gives  a  frivolous  excuse  for 
the  non-fulfilment  of  the  vow.  And  destroy] 
Punishment  will  ensue.  He  here  recognises 
that  the  world  is  no  mere  machine  :  there  is  a 
righteous  Judge. 

8.  Violent  perverting]  The  cruelties  of  a 
satrap,  or  pasha,  were  part  of  a  system  extend- 
ing through  every  grade.  Each  watches 
(regardeth)  with  jealousy  those  below  him, 
and  seeks  his  opportunity  for  plunder.  He 
that  is  higher  than  the  highest  regardeth]  For 
highest  RV  has  '  high.'  The  supreme  ruler 
is  no  exception.  T/iere  be  higher  than  they] 
those   who   in   an   Eastern   coiu-t    practically 


bear  rule  over  the  nominal  governors.  The 
whole  v.,  however,  is  obscure  with  perhaps 
an  intentional  ambiguity,  and  it  is  possible  to 
explain  it  as  meaning  that  there  is  a  chance 
of  getting  justice  by  appeal  from  a  lower  to  a 
higher  tribunal,  yea,  even  to  the  king  himself. 
9-17.  The  evil  of  avarice. 

9.  RM  '  But  the  profit  of  a  land  every  way 
is  a  king  that  maketh  himself  servant  to  the 
field '  ;  because  a  ruler  whose  taste  lies  in 
that  wholesome  direction  is  unlikely  to  be 
given  to  amassing  wealth  :  cp.  2  Ch  26 1^. 

10,  II.  Avarice  is  attended  by  two  evils  : 
(a)  it  is  never  content  ;  and  (6)  responsibility, 
trouble,  and  expenditure  increase  in  the  same 
proportion.  14.  There  is  nothing  in  his  hand] 
Thi-ough  a  reverse  of  fortune  the  wealth, 
which  should  have  descended  to  the  son,  has 
disappeared.  The  case  is  thus  the  converse 
misfortune  to  that  of  4^.  There  the  riches 
were  to  be  had,  but  the  heir  was  lacking. 

18-20.  Riches  are  not  inconsistent  with 
happiness. 

20.  For  he  shall  not  much  remember]  He 
will  not  be  overtroubled  by  the  knowledge 
that  these  pleasm-es  are  fleeting,  and  that  life 
itself  is  uncertain. 

CHAPTER   6 
Life  an  Enigma 
1-6.  Riches  will  not  secure  happiness. 

1.  Common  among]  RV  '  heavy  upon.' 

2.  A  stranger]  because  he  has  no  child  to 
whom  to  leave  it.  The  Easterns  have  a  dread 
of  being  without  a  child,  to  keep  the  parents' 
name  in  remembrance:  cp.  6nl52.  3.  And 
his  soul]  RV  '  But  his  soul.'  Misfortunes 
may  render  him  miserable,  though  he  has 
abundance  of  children  and  of  years  of  life. 
Examples  are  Rehoboam  (2  Ch  11 21)  and  Ahab 
(2  K 10 1).  That  he  have  no  burial]  The  greatest 
importance  was  assigned  to  this  tribute  of 
respect:  cp.  Jer22i9.  4.  He]  RV  'it,'  i.e. 
the  untimely  birth  :  so  in  v.  5.  6.  Yet  hath 
he  seen]  RV  '  and  yet  enjoy.'  To  one  place  ?] 
The  grave  embraces  all  alike. 

7-12.  The  conditions  of  man's  life  are 
essentially  uncertain.  Man's  aim  is  in  the 
main  directed  to  the  satisfaction  of  his  bodily 
desires.  Yet  at  best  this  cannot  be  perfectly 
attained.  The  wise,  no  less  than  the  fool, 
the  poor  equally  with  the  rich,  finds  imperfect 
satisfaction  in  life. 

8.  That  knoweth  to  walk  before  the  living  ?] 
In  other  words,  that  has  the  skill  so  to  conduct 
himself  as  to  earn  respect  in  the  eyes  of  his 
fellows.  9.  Better  is]  To  enjoy  what  we 
have  is  better  than  yearning  after  things 
which  elude  our  grasp.  Vexation  of  spirit] 
see  on  1 17. 

10.  That  which  hath  been]  RM  '  Whatso- 
ever he   be.'     Is   named   already]    RV    '  the 


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6.  11 


ECCLESIASTES 


7.  26 


name  thereof  was  given  long  ago.'  Man]  RM 
'  Heb.  Adam.'  Thus  the  sense  of  the  v.  is, 
'  From  the  beginning  man's  nature  has  corre- 
sponded to  his  bodily  frame.  He  is  known  as 
man  (Adam),  because  he  was  made  out  of  the 
earth  (Heb.  Adamah),  and  he  must  accept  his 
position  :  cp.  Isa459  RoO^o. 

11.  Things]  RM  'words,'  perhaps  the 
profitless  discussions  common  in  the  philoso- 
phical schools  (e.g.  on  fate  and  free-will). 

12.  Man  can  neither  judge  what  is  really 
for  his  happiness  in  life  nor  foresee  the  future 
fate  of  that  in  which  he  may  be  interested. 

CHAPTER  7 
Practical  Aphorisms 
1-6.  Things  useful  to  remember  in  life. 
The  writer  has  just  warned  us  that  we  cannot 
rely  on  either  the  present  or  the  future.  We 
can,  however,  guide  ourselves  in  the  conduct 
of  life  by  bearing  in  mind  useful  truths. 
These  he  now  proceeds  to  give. 

1.  Precious  ointment]  This  was  a  much-prized 
luxury  in  the  East  (cp.  Ps458  AmG^  Mt267 
Lk?^'')^  but  to  be  held  in  esteem  is  still 
better.  There  is  a  play  on  words  in  the  Heb. 
(Shem^  '  a  name,'  and  Shemen,  '  ointment '), 
which  can  scarcely  be  reproduced  in  English. 
Plumptre  suggests,  '  A  good  name  is  better 
than  good  nard.'  The  day  of  death]  Even 
in  this  respect,  however,  a  man's  life  cannot 
be  judged  happy  till  its  end  is  reached. 

2.  The  living  will  lay  it  to  his  heart] 
Oriental  mourning  is  elaborate  and  prolonged. 
Hence  there  is  abundant  opportunity  for 
those  who  take  life  in  earnest  to  obtain  a 
hearing  for  their  counsels. 

6.  As  the  crackling  of  thorns]  Frivolity  is 
like  the  fire  which  the  wayfarer  lights  from  the 
thorns  that  he  has  gathered,  and  which  goes  out 
as  suddenly  as  it  has  sprung  up,  leaving  only 
dead  ashes  :  cp.  PsSS^. 

7-14,  Ill-treatment  may  well  provoke  anger, 
yet  pause  and  exercise  control.  Accept  the 
present  with  submission.  Wisdom  and  money 
are  both  valuable,  but  wisdom  is  the  better  of 
the  two.     All  things  are  in  the  hands  of  Grod. 

7.  Oppression]  RV  *  extortion '  :  sufferings 
inflicted  on  the  weak  by  the  strong.  Mad] 
RV  '  foolish.'  The  heart]  R V  '  the  understand- 
ing.' To  be  condemned  by  one  whose  decision 
is  determined  by  a  bribe  causes  a  man  to  lose 
all  power  of  calm  judgment.  8.  Better  /.s  the 
end]  The  connexion  seems  to  be  this  :  the 
danger  of  being  warped  in  our  view  by  outward 
circumstances  is  such  a  real  one  that  we  cannot 
pronounce  an  unqualified  judgment  upon  any- 
thing till  the  end  is  reached.  10.  Thou  dost 
not  enquire  wisely]  We  have  not  the  materials 
for  a  just  comparison. 

II,  12.  Some  men  through  the  attainment  of 
wisdom  or  wealth  have  reached  a  vantage  ground 


in  the  battle  of  life.  Of  the  two  wisdom  is  to 
be  preferred,  as  possessed  of  a  quickening  power 
which  money  cannot  bestow. 

11.  Them  that  see  the  sun]  i.e.  the  living. 

12.  A  defence]  lit.  a  shadow  :  cp.  IsaSO^.s 
322. 

13.  Who  can  make  that  straight,  etc.]  If 
trouble  be  God's  will  for  us,  we  cannot  change 
it.  14.  Consider]  Ask  yourself  what  you  may 
learn  from  it.  Over  against]  RV  '  side  by  side 
with.'  Both  run  through  the  course  of  human 
life.  To  the  end,  etc.]  So  that  we  cannot  fore- 
cast the  part  which  the  one  and  the  other  will 
play  in  the  future. 

15.   The  anomalies  of  life. 

15.  A  just  man  that  perisheth,  etc.]  It  was 
perplexing  enough  that  there  should  be  but  one 
end  to  the  righteous  and  the  wicked  (3 1^  ).  It  is 
more  so  when  we  see  the  just  man  cut  off  by  an 
untimely  death  and  the  evil-doer  enjoying  a 
green  old  age. 

16-18.  Extremes,  whether  of  asceticism  or 
of  excess,  are  bad. 

1 7.  Over  much  wicked]  The  expression  seems 
strange,  as  though  moderate  wickedness  were 
allowable.  But  the  sense  is  probably  as 
follows  :  the  author  had  just  said,  '  Be  not 
righteous  over  much,'  perhaps  alluding  to  the 
over-scrupulousness  of  the  Jews  in  observing 
ceremonies,  etc.  :  cp.  Mt23.  He  may  now  be 
meeting  the  thought  of  those  who  would  reply, 
'  There  is  no  fear  that  we  shall  exceed  in  that 
direction,'  and  he  warns  them  that  there  is  an 
opposite  kind  of  excess  to  which  they  are  more 
prone.  Excess  in  either  direction,  and  folly, 
tend  to  disturb  and  shorten  life. 

18.  From  this]  RV  '  from  that.'  Whatever 
the  nature  of  the  experience  to  which  God  sub- 
jects you,  take  cognisance  of  the  evil  as  well  as 
of  the  good.  That  in  using  such  language  he  is 
not  condoning  sin  is  clear  from  the  last  part  of 
the  V.  If  only  he  fear  God,  he  shall  come 
forth  unscathed. 

19-22.  Be  wise  enough  not  to  be  over  sensi- 
tive to  criticism,  since  you  also  indulge  in  it. 

19.  Wisdom  strengtheneth]  There  is  a  power 
greater  than  brute  force. 

23-28.  Wisdom  eludes  the  grasp.  Sweeping 
condemnation  of  the  female  sex. 

24.  That  which  is  far  off]  RV  '  That  which 
is  is  far  off.'  '  That  which  is,'  viz.  God's  world- 
plan,  all  the  phenomena  of  the  world  and  of 
human  life,  can  only  be  realised  by  us  in  frag- 
mentary form.  25.  Madness]  As  in  2 12^-w^icked- 
ness  and  madness  are  closely  connected. 

26-28.  The  writer  gives  us  the  general  result 
of  his  experience  of  human  character.  Among 
men  he  has  found  but  one  true  friend.  The 
other  sex  he  condemns  without  exception.  We 
cannot  tell  why,  ignorant  as  we  are  of  the  cir- 
cumstances of  his  life.  We  must,  however, 
remember  that  the  position  of  women  in  the 


397 


7.  29 


ECCLESIASTES 


9.  10 


East  has  always  been  favourable  to  the  gi-owth 
of  habits  of  frivolity,  cunning,  and  licentious- 
ness ;  also  that  elsewhere  (c.  9  :  cp.  perhaps  also 
48)  he  modifies  this  judgment.  It  remained 
for  Christianity  to  bring  woman  back  to  her 
rightful  position  as  a  helpmeet  for  man. 

29.  Many  inventions]  From  the  Fall  in  Eden 
there  has  been  a  continued  display  of  manifold 
ingenuity  to  thwart  God's  benevolent  purposes 
for  man. 

CHAPTEE  8 

Kings'  Courts  need  wary  walking 
1-17.  Be  discreet  in  relation  with  a  ruler. 
God's  purpose  must  be  carried  out.  His  rule 
must  be  righteous,  though  this  is  often  not  seen 
in  actual  life.  God's  ways  are  just,  and  past 
finding  out. 

The  writer  now  enters  on  a  subject  which  it 
would  not  have  been  wise  to  treat  too  plainly, 
viz.  the  need  of  showing  tact  in  dealing  with 
the  arbitrary  power  of  an  absolute  monarch. 
No  part  of  the  book  is  more  decidedly  at 
variance  with  the  Solomonic  authorship  than 
this  c. 

1.  Who  is,  etc.]  "Which  of  his  readers  has 
skill  to  see  the  meaning  of  his  language,  inten- 
tionally left  obscure  ?  Boldness]  R  V  '  hard- 
ness.'    Skill  of  this  kind  refines  the  features. 

2.  Oath  of  God]  Ptolemy  Soter,  king  of 
Egypt  (305-285  B.C.),  having  transplanted 
certain  Jews  from  Palestine  to  Alexandria, 
caused  them  to  swear  allegiance  to  his  suc- 
cessors. It  is  possible  that  the  reference  here 
may  be  to  that  event.  If  so,  we  have  an  in- 
dication of  the  place  and  time  of  writing. 

3.  Be  not  hasty]  Do  not  rashly  throw  up 
office.  Stand,  etc.]  EV  '  persist.'  Do  not 
take  sides  with  the  ruler's  open  or  covert 
enemies.  The  expression,  however,  in  the 
Heb.  is  obscure,  probably  of  set  intention. 

5,  Whose  keepeth,  etc.]  Submission  is  a 
practical  guide  in  life.  Time  and  judgment] 
The  wise  man  will  bide  his  time,  hoping  that 
justice  will  be  done  in  the  end. 

6.  To  every  purpose]  God's  purpose  must 
eventually  prevail,  and  retribution,  if  deserved, 
come  even  on  the  highest.  Therefore]  EV 
'  because.'  Misery]  EM  '  evil.'  "Wickedness, 
like  a  lead,  bears  the  bad  man  down  to  his  doom. 

8.  Spirit]  EM  'wind,'  which  it  is  God's 
prerogative  to  control.  No  discharge]  Under 
the  Jewish  law  exemption  from  service  in 
war  was  granted  in  certain  cases  (Dt20^'8). 
In  the  battle  with  death  no  such  release  may 
be  had. 

9,  10.  These  vv.  are  expressed  in  such 
guarded  language  that  to  us  they  are  scarcely 
intelligible.  The  line  of  thought  is  probably 
as  follows.  Although  death  swallows  up  the 
wicked  in  the  end,  nevertheless  the  writer's 
wide  experience  ever  brings  back  to  his  mind 


cases  where  a  man  has  exercised  misrule  to 
the  hurt  of  his  fellow-men.  And  then  these 
evil  men  have  received  a  stately  burial,  and 
been  gathered  to  their  fathers  with  all  due 
observances.  On  the  contrary,  those  who 
had  lived  virtuously  have  been  dishonoured, 
expelled  from  the  Temple  and  the  Holy  City, 
and  dismissed  from  the  minds  even  of  the 
people  among  whom  their  good  deeds  had 
been  done.  Both  honour  and  oblivion  had 
been  misplaced.  10.  Who  had  come]  EV 
'  and  they  came  '  to  the  grave.  And  gone  .  . 
so  done]  EY  '  and  they  that  had  done  right 
went  away  from  the  holy  place,  and  were  for- 
gotten in  the  city.' 

12.  I  know  that  it  shall  be  well]  The  writer, 
after  all,  is  one  of  those  who  '  keep '  (or  at 
any  rate  revert)  '  to  the  sunny  side  of  doubt.' 
The  rule  of  final  justice,  he  says,  must  hold. 

14,  15.  But  now  it  is  often  not  so.  There- 
fore temperate  enjoyments,  joined  with  labour, 
are  the  most  abiding  possession  of  man  :  cp. 
22-4,  etc.  16,  17.  These  problems  are  beyond 
man's  power. 

16.  For  also,  etc.]  EM  '  how  that  neither 
by  day  nor  by  night  do  men  see  sleep  with 
their  eyes.' 

CHAPTEE   9 
Live  worthily  while  you  may 

1-3.  The  future  is  in  God's  hands.  Good 
and  bad  alike  must  die. 

I.  Considered  in]  EV  '  laid  to.'  Declare] 
EV  '  explore.'  No  man  .  .  before  them]  EV 
'  whether  it  be  love  or  hatred,  man  knoweth 
it  not  ;  all  is  before  them.'  Whether  God's 
dealings  with  them  shall  be  such  as  to  suggest 
His  favour  or  displeasure  is  unknown,  because 
the  part  of  life  not  yet  traversed  cannot  be 
penetrated.  2.  There  seems  no  discrimina- 
tion in  the  lot  of  men. 

4.  A  living  dog]  Life  has  at  any  rate  one 
advantage  over  death.  The  miserable  hope  that 
either  positive  happiness,  or  at  least  better 
fortune  than  in  the  past,  may  lie  before  them. 
The  saying  receives  its  point  from  the  con- 
tempt with  which  a  dog  is  regarded  in  the 
East.  5.  The  living  know]  A  conscious  re- 
cognition of  the  inevitable  is  better  than  the 
oblivion  which  belongs  to  death. 

7-10.   Couple  enjoyment  and  work. 

8.  White]  as  symbolical  of  cheerfulness 
(2Ch5i-),  and  perhaps  here,  as  later  (e.g. 
Eev  3  ■**•),  of  purity.  "White  was  constantly 
worn  at  feasts.  Ointment]  Sweet  fragrant 
unguents  for  perfuming  the  person.  10.  Be 
not  half-hearted  in  any  duty.  The  present 
alone  is  yours  :  cp.  '  in  diligence  not  slothful ' 
(Eo  1 2 11  E V).  In  St.  Paul's  day  the  darkness 
had  been  lighted  up,  and  this  precept  conse- 
quently transformed  in  the  words  which  close 
the  great  Eesurrection  chapter  (1  Cor  15  ^8). 


398 


9.  11 


ECCLESIASTES 


11.  10 


11-18.  Results  must  be  left  to  God.  Wis- 
dom is  better  than  strength,  yet  it  is 
despised. 

17,  Are  heard  in  quiet]  RV  'spoken  in 
quiet  are  heard.'  There  are  times  when 
men's  voices  are  hushed  to  listen  to  wise 
counsel.  18.  One  sinner,  etc.]  One  man's 
evil  deed  may  bring  to  nought  wide-reaching 
purposes  of  good. 

CHAPTER   10 

Practicai,  Advice  touching  Life's 

Puzzles 

1-8.   Cultivate  wisdom  and  tact,  specially 

in  the  dangers  that  attend  upon  courts,  but 

also  in  ordinary  operations. 

1.  Dead  flies,  etc.]  This  v.  really  belongs 
to  the  end  of  c.  9.  As  a  few  of  the  poison- 
ous flies  abounding  in  hot  countries  would 
render  valueless  a  whole  jar  of  perfume,  so  a 
man  by  a  slight  admixture  of  error  may  render 
nugatory  much  of  his  own  skilful  or  upright 
conduct. 

2.  At  his  right  hand .  .  left]  A  wise  man's 
mind  directs  him  to  appropriate  conduct.  A 
fool  is  sure  to  do  the  wrong  thing.  He  is 
gauche.  3.  Saith  to  every  one]  He  advertises 
his  folly  by  his  speech.  4.  The  advice  of  8^ 
is  repeated.  St.  Peter  (1  Pet  2  20-23)  jg  able  to 
add  to  the  same  precept  a  new  and  inspiring 
motive.  Yielding  pacifieth  great  offences]  RM 
'  gentleness  leaveth  great  sins  undone  '  :  both 
sides  will  be  saved  from  committing  serious 
misdeeds.  6,  7.  He  hints  that  through  the 
ruler's  error  of  judgment,  as  he  gently  puts  it, 
the  wrong  people  have  received  promotion. 

8,  9.  Prudence  is  needed  in  many  applica- 
tions. Otherwise  you  may  dig  a  pit  to  entrap 
your  enemy,  and  then  fall  into  it  yourself  ; 
or,  in  pulling  down  a  fence,  if  you  are  not 
heedful,  one  of  the  serpents  lodging  in  the 
crannies  may  bite  you.  Similarly  the  quarry- 
ing of  stones  and  the  felling  of  timber  call 
for  watchfulness.  10.  If  you  are  not  wise 
enough  to  act  with  tactful  sagacity,  you  must 
compensate  for  this  by  extra  force. 

11.  RV  'If  the  serpent  bite  before  it  be 
charmed,  then  is  there  no  advantage  in  the 
charmer.'  The  snake  charmer,  who  has  neg- 
lected to  use  his  voice  with  proper  skill  in 
order  to  effect  his  object,  will  have  cause  in 
his  own  person  to  discover  that  the  mere  fact 
of  his  proficiency  will  not  avail  him. 

12-15.   Description  of  folly  and  its  results. 

12.  Are  gracious]  there  is  beauty  in  his 
talk.  Will  swallo'w  up  himself]  he  often  will 
have  to  eat  his  own  words.  14.  A  fool  talks 
confidently  and  fluently  of  the  future,  as  though 
it  could  be  foreseen.  15.  He  wearies  himself 
with  ineffectual  attempts,  because  he  is  incap- 
able of  carrying  on  the  most  ordinary  affairs 
of  life. 


16-20.  Much  depends  on  the  ruler.  What- 
ever he  be,  he  must  be  reverenced. 

16,  17.  The  case  referred  to  can  hardly  be 
an  imaginary  one.  Ptolemy  Epiphanes  suc- 
ceeded his  father  Philopater  as  king  of  Egypt 
at  the  age  of  six  years  (205  B.C.),  and  during  his 
minority  there  was  much  strife  between  the 
Syrian  and  Jewish  factions  in  Egypt,  and,  on 
the  part  of  some  in  high  places,  licentious 
indulgence  all  day  and  every  day  (eat  in  the 
morning). 

18.  When  the  timber-work  of  a  house  is 
neglected,  it  gives  way.  So  will  it  be  also 
with  the  fabric  of  the  state.  Droppeth 
through]  RV  '  leaketh.' 

19.  If  a  man  is  wealthy  enough  to  pay  his 
way,  there  need  be  but  little  stint  to  the 
pleasures,  lawful  or  unlawful,  in  which  he  may 
recklessly  indulge.  But  in  proportion  to  the 
height  of  the  position  he  occupies,  will  be  the 
injury  done.  But]  RV  '  and.'  Answereth] 
i.e.  provides.  20.  Nevertheless  silent  sub- 
mission to  authority  is  the  only  safety  for  an 
ordinary  person. 

CHAPTER  11 

Life  after  all  is  worth  living 
1-3.  Fulfil  the  duty  of  beneficence,  Jpiowing 
that  results  are  in  the  hands  of  God. 

1.  Cast  thy  bread,  etc.]  show  kindness,  even 
where  a  return  is  least  to  be  expected.  A 
blessing  in  some  sort,  although  it  may  be  long 
delayed,  will  result.  There  is  perhaps  a  refer- 
ence to  the  sowing  of  seed  on  irrigated  land. 

2.  Give  a  portion,  etc.]  be  not  niggardly  or 
calculating  in  the  bestowal  of  favours.  You 
know  not  when  you  may  need  them  yourself. 

3.  The  fixed  laws  by  which  the  world  is 
governed.  Where  the  tree  falleth,  etc.]  There 
is  no  reference  here  to  the  state  of  man  after 
death. 

4-6.  Man's  knowledge  is  limited,  while 
God's  purposes  are  inscrutable.  Winds, 
clouds,  and  the  whole  ordering  of  nature  are 
His.  Submit  to  His  decrees,  and  do  thy  daily 
part,  leaving  the  issue  to  Him. 

7-9.  Existence  has  its  pleasures,  but  its  span 
is  brief.  Youthful  enjoyment  is  commended, 
provided  it  be  such  as  need  not  dread  God's 
judgment.  8.  RV  '  Yea,  if  a  man  live  many 
years,  let  him,'  etc.  The  remembrance  that 
life  is  brief  is  to  be  itself  a  motive  for  enjoy- 
ment while  it  is  possible. 

9.  Rejoice,  O  young  man]  Youth  is  naturally 
cheerful.  Be  it  so.  But  there  must  be 
present  that  which  shall  check  excess,  viz.  the 
knowledge  that  the  Divine  Judge  will  mark 
and  punish  sinful  indulgence  ;  not  always  in 
this  life  (for  cp.  8 1*),  but,  if  not,  then  beyond 
the  gi-ave.  10.  Childhood  and  youth]  RV 
'  youth  and  the  prime  of  life.'  Vanity]  i.e. 
fleeting. 


399 


12.  1 


ECCLESIASTES 


12.  14 


CHAPTER  12 

In  Life  remember  Death  and  Judgment 

I.  The  Creator  is  to  be  remembered  in 
youth.  When  the  powers  of  mind  and  body 
are  failing,  it  will  be  too  late. 

1-7.  Commentators  have  diifered  much  as 
to  the  interpretation  of  this  passage.  It  has 
been  taken  by  many  as  a  description  of  the 
gradual  failing  of  one  bodily  organ  after 
another  till  death  supervenes.  In  that  case 
we  may  explain  vv.  2  f .  thus  :  The  light  growls 
dim  to  the  aged  sense,  and  reason  is  dulled 
and  ceases  to  illuminate.  The  old  man  weeps 
in  his  distress,  and  the  troubles  that  draw 
forth  those  tears  ever  recur  (v.  2)  The  limbs 
tremble  ;  the  arms,  once  strong,  are  become 
bent  and  feeble  ;  the  few  teeth  that  are  left 
no  longer  do  the  work  of  mastication  ;  the 
eyes  grow  darkened  (v.  3).  The  means  by 
which  the  processes  of  nourishment  and  sensa- 
tion have  been  carried  on,  in  other  words,  the 
body's  means  of  communication  with  the  outer 
world,  are  shut ;  the  voice  is  low  and  feeble  ; 
the  slightest  sound  breaks  in  upon  rest  (or, 
'  the  bird  shall  rise  with  a  cry,'  i.e.  the  voice 
assumes  the  piping  treble  of  age),  and  music 
no  longer  gives  pleasure  (v.  4).  Fancied 
terrors  haunt  the  soul,  and  bar  the  path.  The 
sleeplessness,  of  which  the  almond  tree  (the 
Heb.  name  for  it  meaning  '  the  early  waker,' 
cp.  Jerlii)  is  a  symbol,  becomes  the  old  man's 
lot  ;  the  lightest  weight  is  a  burden,  and  nothing 
rouses  the  flagging  appetite,  because  he  is  set- 
ting out  on  his  journey  to  the  tomb,  and  the 
hired  mourners  are  already  awaiting  him  ; 
even  before  the  actual  dissolution  comes  (v.  5), 
and  the  golden  bowl  of  the  lamp  of  life  is 
broken,  and  the  silver  cord,  by  which  it  is 
suspended,  loosed  ;  and  the  pitcher,  which  has 
gone  so  oft  to  draw  at  the  fountain  of  life,  is 
shattered,  and  so  is  the  wheel,  which  works  the 
rope  and  bucket  to  raise  water  from  the  deep- 
sunk  well  (v.  6).  Some  refer  these  last  two 
clauses  respectively  to  the  action  of  the  lungs 
and  of  the  heart. 

Others,  however,  have  explained  these  vv. 
as  setting  forth  a  description  of  a  storm  and 
the  alarm  which  it  produces,  under  which 
figure  are  indicated  the  signs  which  accompany 
death.  The  following  is  a  sketch  of  that 
interpretation  of  the  passage  which  sees  in  it  a 
description  of  the  time  specially  fatal  to  aged 
persons  in  Palestine,  that  is  to  say,  the  last  few 
days  of  winter,  marked  by  a  violent  tempest ; 


the  picture  being  continued  by  a  description 
of  the  spring  time  of  natm-e,  which,  however, 
brings  no  retm-ning  vigour  to  those  who  are 
in  the  extreme  winter  of  their  days. 

There  comes  on  the  storm  of  excep- 
tional severity,  which  concludes  the  broken 
weather  of  winter  (v.  2).  Servants  and  masters 
are  alike  dismayed.  The  grinding  women 
cease  from  their  work,  and  the  ladies  of  the 
harem,  stricken  with  fear,  no  longer  idly  gaze 
from  the  lattices  on  the  passers  by  (v.  3). 
Ordinary  work  has  ceased,  and  the  house  is 
shut  up.  But  soon  the  last  and  greatest  storm 
of  winter  is  over,  and  the  advent  of  spring  is 
welcomed  by  the  bird-note,  to  imitate  the 
sweetness  of  which  is  the  despair  of  the  pro- 
fessional daughters  of  song  (v.  4).  Nature  is 
joyous,  but  the  aged  are  full  of  suspicion  that 
danger  lurks  about  and  above  their  path.  And 
yet  there  is  on  every  side  evidence  of  renewed 
power.  The  almond  tree  blossoms  ;  the 
locust  crawls  out  from  its  shelter  ;  but  the 
aged  are  not  in  sympathy.  They  are  beyond 
the  influence  of  appetising  stimulants  ;  for 
they  are  approaching  the  grave,  and  the  hired 
mourners  are  near  (v.  5).  Then  follow  the 
figures  of  speech,  already  touched  on,  indicat- 
ing bodily  dissolution  (v.  G). 

8-13.  Eulogy  of  the  Preacher  and  his 
method.     Summary  of  his  teaching. 

This  is  the  Epilogue,  and  was  probably 
added  by  a  different  hand.  It  answers  to  a 
commendatory  preface  in  the  case  of  a  modern 
book. 

10.  Acceptable  w^ords]  He  feels  that  pro- 
verbs were  a  form  of  speech  that  will  find 
favour. 

11.  The  words  of  the  wise,  etc.]  Leaders 
of  thought  in  each  age  have  the  gift  of  fixing 
their  words  securely  in  the  memories  of  their 
disciples  (goads .  .  nails),  a  gift  which  comes 
to  them  from  Him  who  is  the  supreme  Guide 
and  Disposer  of  the  affairs  of  men  (one 
shepherd).  Masters  of  assemblies]  RM  '  col- 
lectors of  sentences.' 

12.  Be  admonished]  Jewish  teaching  was 
largely  oral.  Gentile  philosophers,  on  the 
other  hand,  committed  their  speculations  to 
Ti'riting,  sometimes,  e.g.  Epicurus,  to  the 
extent  of  many  volumes.  Among  such  it  was 
easy  to  be  bewildered  and  wearied. 

13-14.  The  writer's  conclusions.  There  is 
a  moral  Governor  of  the  world.  Here  or  here- 
after there  shall  be  a  recompense,  good  or 
evil. 


400 


THE  SONG  OF  SOLOMON 


INTRODUCTION 


I.  Contents.  Two  points  strike  every  care- 
ful reader  of  the  poem  :  the  extreme  difficulty 
of  determining  its  meaning  as  a  whole  and 
deciding  as  to  the  class  of  poetry  in  which  it 
is  to  be  placed ;  and  the  fascinating  beauty  of 
its  details.  The  former  is  evident  on  a  mere 
glance  at  the  attempts  which  have  been  and 
still  are  being  made  to  define  its  scope  and 
character.  The  Jews  admitted  it  into  the 
Canon  on  the  supposition  that  it  depicts  the 
relations  between  Jehovah  and  His  people. 
But  for  that  interpretation  the  doubts  which 
gathered  round  it  and  were  not  authoritatively 
discouraged  till  the  Synod  of  Jamnia  (90  a.d.), 
would  never  have  been  dispelled.  The  Chris- 
tian Church  followed  the  same  general  line, 
explaining  the  Song  as  an  allegory  of  the  love 
between  Christ  and  the  Church  or  Christ  and 
the  soul.  In  this  sense  St.  Bernard  wrote  no 
fewer  than  eighty-six  sermons  on  the  first  two 
chapters.  The  headings  of  chapters  and  pages 
in  the  English  Bible  express  the  same  idea. 
In  all  ages,  however,  amongst  both  Jews  and 
Christians,  there  were  thinkers  who  perceived 
that  the  theme  is  not  divine  love  but  human. 
In  course  of  time  the  poem  came  to  be  regarded 
by  many  as  a  drama.  The  adherents  of  this 
view  were  divided  as  to  the  plot.  Some  took 
it  to  be  the  story  of  Solomon's  love  for  a 
country  maiden,  whom  he  raised  to  the  rank  of 
queen,  himself  for  a  while  adopting  a  simpler 
mode  of  life,  and  although  he  eventually 
reverted  to  luxury  and  polygamy  the  poem 
remained  as  a  protest  against  undue  self- 
indulgence.  The  other  and  more  plausible 
version  of  the  dramatic  theory  is  that  the 
maiden  was  carried  off  to  Solomon's  harem 
and  exposed  to  the  blandishments  of  the 
monarch,  who  was  seconded  by  the  ladies  of 
the  court.  But  she  continued  faithful  to  her 
shepherd-lover,  to  whom,  in  the  end,  the  king 
magnanimously  restored  her.  Another  opinion 
has  recently  been  maintained  with  much  con- 
fidence and  has  found  considerable  acceptance. 
According  to  it  we  have  to  do  neither  with 
drama,  opera,  nor  unity  of  any  kind,  but  with 
a  collection  of  love -ditties,  partly  composed 
for,  and  all  suitable  for  use  at,  marriage  festi- 
vals. The  title  '  king  '  (1  *.  12  75)  is  explained 
by  the  fact  that  in  Syria  bride  and  bridegroom 
play  the  part  of  queen  and  king  during  '  the 
king's  week,'  the  first  week  of  married  life. 
Seated  on  a  throne  which  is  erected  on  the 


26 


village  threshingfloor,  they  receive  the  homage 
of  the  whole  country-side.  Nuptial  songs  and 
dances  are  executed  by  the  bridesmen,  the 
chorus  of  male  and  female  bystanders,  and  the 
wedded  pair.  A  plausible  account  can  thus  be 
given  of  the  abrupt  transitions,  the  apparent 
lack  of  connexion  between  the  parts  of  which 
Canticles  is  composed.  But  the  whole  of  the 
facts  are  not  quite  explained.  Amidst  all  the 
admitted  inconcinnity  there  is  an  equally  un- 
deniable unity.  The  recurrence  of  certain 
expressions  (2  7  35  8^:  217  46  814)  is  doubtless 
meant  to  mark  breaks  in  what  is  conceived  of 
as  a  single  poem.  The  sentiments  and  style 
are  too  similar  throughout  to  have  sprung  from 
divers  writers.  Nor  is  this  to  be  met  by  the 
assertion  that  we  have  before  us  a  collection  of 
folk-songs  which  resemble  each  other  because 
they  all  belong  to  the  same  period  and  locality. 
Canticles  reads  like  the  work  of  an  author  who 
composed  amatory  poems  on  various  occasions 
and  subsequently  wove  them  into  a  garland 
of  verse.  Perhaps  some  of  the  shorter  pieces 
have  fallen  out  of  the  places  which  he  assigned 
to  them  :  this  has  been  forcibly  argued  with 
reference  to  SH^-  81^^.  But  when  we  remem- 
ber the  irrelevance,  from  our  point  of  view,  of 
the  verses  which  are  often  sung  in  Eastern 
lands  to-day  we  shall  be  slow  to  deny  that  the 
singers  and  hearers  of  the  Song  of  Songs  under- 
stood allusions  and  perceived  a  fitness  which 
are  hidden  from  us.  We  shall  be  compelled 
to  admit  that  there  is  no  definite  line  of  ad- 
vance, no  initial  simplicity,  followed  by  compli- 
cation, rounded  off  by  a  dramatic  dmoueme7it. 
Matters  are  as  far  advanced  at  1*  2*  as  at  8*. 
Yet  the  following  brief  analysis  shows  that 
the  book  falls  into  what  may  fairly  be  called 
seven  cantos.  Canto  I,  12-27;  A  rural  bride 
declares  her  ardent  affection  for  her  husband, 
deprecates  the  townswomen's  criticism  of  her 
beauty,  desires  to  know  where  she  may  find 
her  beloved.  The  lovers  praise  each  other. 
Canto  II,  28-217  ;  She  relates  a  visit  he  once 
paid  her  and  the  invitation  he  addressed  to 
her.  Canto  III,  .3 1-.SII  :  Her  thoughts  of  him 
and  search  for  him  by  night.  An  interlude. 
Canto  IV,  4 1-5 1  :  He  depicts  and  eulogises  her 
charms.  He  is  ready  to  escort  her  through  the 
most  dangerous  regions.  Her  invitation  and  his 
response.  Canto  V,  52-G9  ;  A  waking  dream, 
with  painful  ending.  She  describes  her  lover. 
He  has  entered  his  garden.     Once  more  he 


401 


INTRO. 


THE   SONG   OF   SOLOMON 


INTRO. 


dilates  on  her  loveliness,  which  surpasses  that 
of  the  ladies  belonging  to  the  royal  harem. 
Canto  VI,  6 10-8 -i  :  A  short  dialogue  betwixt 
these  ladies  and  her.  Again  he  praises  her  and 
she  replies  in  terms  of  love  and  desire.  Canto 
VII,  8  5-8  i-t  :  An  inquiry.  The  bride  reminds 
her  husband  of  their  early  experiences,  cele- 
brates the  might  and  spontaneity  of  love, 
remembers  how  carefully  her  brothers  guarded 
her.  He  sets  forth  her  preciousness  in  figura- 
tive language.  Then  he  begs  her  to  sing.  She 
closes  the  poem  with  a  repetition  of  2 1^. 

2.  Value.  At  the  first  blush  we  are  sur- 
prised to  find  in  the  Bible  a  poem  on  human 
love.  But  we  must  remember  that  the  mutual 
attraction  of  the  sexes  is  of  God's  ordaining. 
So  far  from  being  intrinsically  evil,  it  contains 
for  both  parties  an  immeasiu-able  possibility  of 
blessing.  And  the  love  which  is  here  sung  is 
ordered,  regulated,  legitimate.  The  imagery 
is  too  suggestive,  and  the  description  of  phy- 
sical charms  too  minute,  for  our  taste,  but  it 
was  produced  by  an  Oriental  for  Orientals. 
More  reticence  does  not  necessarily  imply  truer 
purity.  No  doubt  we  should  have  welcomed 
a  clear  recognition  of  the  intellectual,  ideal, 
and  spiritual  side  of  marriage,  but  it  would  be 
a  mistake  to  argue  that  the  poet  was  a  stran- 
ger to  this  better  part.  And  such  love  as  8'^ 
describes  is  based  on  broader  foundations  than 
those  supplied  by  mere  sensuous  charms  alone. 

Again,  whilst  it  is  admitted  that  the  poem 
was  not  meant  to  be  understood  either  typi- 
cally or  allegorically,  all  true  human  love  is, 
in  the  Apostle's  sense  of  the  word,  a  mystery 
(Eph  5  28-33^  which  carries  the  Christian's  mind 
upward  to  the  union  of  the  soul  with  Christ. 
Sensuous  thoughts  and  images  are  never  to 
hold  us  prisoners.  The  earthly  is  a  stepping- 
stone  to  the  heavenly.  Spenser  tells  us  that, 
having  in  the  gi-een  time  of  his  youth  com- 
posed two  Hymns  in  praise  of  Love  and 
Beauty,  '  and  finding  that  the  same  too  much 
pleased  those  of  the  like  age  and  disposition, 
which  being  too  vehemently  caried  with  that 
kind  of  aifection,  do  rather  sucke  out  poyson 
to  their  strong  passion,  then  hony  to  their 
honest  delight,'  he  afterwards  resolved,  '  by 
way  of  retractation,  to  reforme  them,  making, 
in  stead  of  those  two  Hymnes  of  earthly  or 
naturall  love  and  beautie,  two  others  of 
heavenly  and  celestiall.'  In  this  he  is  a  safe 
guide — 

'  All  the  glory  and  the  grace  of  tilings, 
Witchcraft  of  loveliness,  wonder  of  flesh, 
Fair  sjmimetry  of  forms,  deep  harmonies 
Of  line  and  li'mh — are  hut  as  shadows  cast 
From  hidden  light  of  Beauty  and  of  Love. ' 

It  would  be  a  dull  eye  that  missed  the  beauty 
of  the  poem.  Its  author  responded  imme- 
diately to  every  charm  of  Nature  or  of  Art. 
Above  all  was  his  soul  attuned  to  Nature.    He 


carries  us  along  with  him  into  the  open  air, 
to  the  vineyards,  the  villages,  the  mountains. 
He  awakes  us  at  daybreak  to  catch  the  scent 
of  the  forest  trees,  to  gather  the  apples  and 
the  pomegranates,  to  listen  to  the  grateful 
plash  of  falling  waters.  How  he  loved  the 
flocks  of  wild  pigeons,  the  crocuses,  the  fields 
embroidered  witli  lilies  !  His  verse  is  fragrant 
with  the  breath  of  spring.  And  the  soul  of 
artistry  within  him  was  moved  by  the  pomp 
of  the  court,  the  magnificence  of  a  royal  litter, 
the  glittering  whiteness  of  an  ivory  tower,  the 
proud  display  of  warriors'  shields,  the  orna- 
ments and  costly  dress  of  women.  No  other 
poem  in  the  Bible  can  be  compared  with  this. 
It  still  merits  the  title,  prefixed  by  the  men 
who  inserted  it  in  the  Canon,  '  The  Song  of 
Songs,'  the  most  beautiful,  the  one  that  most 
nearly  corresponds  with  the  ideal  of  its  class. 

3.  Authorship.  But  whilst  we  admit  that 
the  title  is  a  fitting  one,  we  must  remember 
that  it  has  no  authority  to  determine  date  or 
authorship  (see  v.  1).  The  internal  evidence  is 
conclusive  against  Canticles  having  been  writ- 
ten by  Solomon,  and  points  to  a  date  subsequent 
to  the  exile,  not  earlier  than  the  4th  cent.  B.C. 
The  language  alone  suffices  to  prove  these 
points  :  it  is  of  the  very  latest  strain  of  biblical 
Hebrew. 

4.  The  following  are  improvements  on  the 
Authorised  Version  : — 

CHAPTER  1 

4.  RV  '  Make  mention  of,'  for  remember. 
RV  'Rightly  do  they  love  Thee,'  for  the 
upright,  etc. 

6.  RV  •  Swarthy,'  for  black. 

7.  RM  '  Wandereth,'  for  turneth  aside. 

9.  RV  '  A  steed '  (better  still,  '  a  mare '),  for 
a  company  of  horses. 

13.  RM  'Bag,'  for  bundle.  'That  lieth,' 
for  he  shall  lie. 

14.  RV  •  Henna-flowers,'  for  camphire. 

CHAPTER  2 
I.  RM  'Autumn  crocus,'  for  rose. 

4.  Lit.  '  House  of  wine,'  for  banqueting 
house. 

5.  RM  '  Cakes  of  raisins,'  for  flagons. 
7.  RM  '  Gazelles,'  for  roes. 

RV  '  Awaken  love,  until  it  please,'  for  awake 
my  love,  till  he  please. 

9.  The  sense  requires  that  she  gaze  forth  at 
him,  not  he  at  her. 

13.  RV  'Ripeneth,'  for  putteth  forth, 

RV  '  The  vines  are  in  blossom,  they  give 
forth  their  fragrance.'  for  the  vines  vith  the 
tender  grape  give  a  (joocl'  smell. 

14.  RV  '  Covert  of  the  steep  place,'  for  secret 
j^Iare.^  of  the  stairs. 

15.  RV  '  Vineyards  are  in  blossom,'  for  vines 
hare  tender  grapes. 

16.  RV  '  Feedeth  his  flock,'  for  feedeth. 


402 


I 


iNtro. 


THE  SONG   OF  SOLOMON 


1.6 


6. 

7- 
bed, 

9- 


CHAPTER   3 

'  What '  is  better  than  Who. 
RV  '  It  is  the  litter  of  Solomon,'  for  his 
which  is  Solomon's. 
RV  'Palanquin,'  for  chariot. 
10.   '  Inlaid  with  ebony  from,'  for  paved  with 
love  for. 

CHAPTER  4 

1.  RV  '  Thine  eyes  are  as  doves  behind  thy 
veil,'  for  Thou  huM  doves'  eyes  within  thy  locks. 

RV  '  Lie  along.'  for  appear. 

2.  RV  '  Ewes  that  are  newly,'  for  sheep  that 
are  eren. 

RM  '  Are  all  of  them  in  pairs,'  for  every 
one  bear  twins.     RV  '  Bereaved,'  for  barren. 

3.  RV  'Mouth  .  .  behind  thy  veil,'  for 
speech  .  .  within  thy  locks. 

4.  RM  '  With  turrets,'  for  for  an  armoury. 

6.  RV  '  Be  cool,'  for  break. 

9.  RM  '  One  look  from,'  for  one  of. 

12.  RM  '  Barred,'  for  inclosed.  '  Garden,' 
for  spring. 

13.  RM  '  Paradise,'  for  orchard. 
RV  '  Henna,'  for  camphire. 

15.  RV  supplies  '  Thou  art.' 

CHAPTER  5 

1.  RM  '  Of  love,'  for  O  beloved. 

2.  RV  '  I  was  asleep,'  for  I  sleep. 

3.  '  Tunic,'  for  coat. 

5.  RV  '  Bolt,'  for  lock. 

7.  '  Wrapper,'  for  veil. 

12.  RM '  Sitting  by  full  streams,'  for  fitly  set. 

14.  RM  '  Topaz,'  for  beryl. 

'  Lapis  lazuli,'  for  sapphires. 

16.  RM  '  Speech,'  for  mouth. 

CHAPTER  6 

4.  '  Awe-inspiring  as  bannered  hosts,'  for 
terrible  as  an  army  with  banners. 

10.  RM  '  Pure,'  for  clear. 

11.  RV  '  Green  plants,'  for  fruits. 
RV  '  Budded,'  for  flourished. 

12.  RV  '  Set  me  aniot/g,'  for  made  me  like. 

13.  RV  '  The  dance  of  Mahanaim,'  for  the 
company  of  two  armies. 

CHAPTER  7 

1.  RM  '  Steps,'  for  feet ;  '  in  sandals,'  for  with 
shoes.  '  The  turnings  '  or  '  windings,'  for  the 
joints. 

2.  RV  '  Mingled  wine,'  for  liquor. 

5.  RV  '  Held  captive  in  the  tresses  thereof,' 
for  held  in  the  galleries. 

8.  RV  '  Breath,'  for  nose. 

12.  RV  '  Whether  the  vine  hath  budded,  and 
its  blossoms  be  open,'  for  if  the  vine  flourish, 
■whether  the  tender  grape  appear. 

13.  RV  '  Doors,'  for  gates. 

CHAPTER  8 
I.  RV  '  And  none  would  despise  me,'  for 
Yea,   I  should  not  be  despised. 


403 


2.  RV  '  Spiced  wine,  Of,'  for  spiced  wine  of. 

5.  RV  '  I  awakened,'  for  I  raised. 

6.  RM  'Hard,'  for  cruel;  '  Sheol,'  for  the 
grave.  RV  '  Flashes,'  for  coals  ;  '  a  very  flame 
of  the  Louu,'  for  a  most  vehement  flame. 

7.  '  Would  any  man  despise  him,'  for  it  would 
utterly  be  contemned. 

9.  RM  '  Battlement,'  for  palace. 

10.  RV  'Peace,'  for  favour. 

12.  RV  '  Shall,'  for  must. 

13.  RV  '  For,'  for  to. 

CHAPTERS    12-27 
The  ardent  Affection  of  the  Lovers 
2-7.   Songs  of  the   bride  :  her  enquiry  and 
his  answers. 

2.  Love]  The  original  has  '  loves,'  i.e.  ex- 
pressions of  love,  repeated  kisses  and  embraces. 

3.  Ointments]  Orientals  have  always  been  pas- 
sionately fond  of  perfumes.  The  literatures  of 
Egypt,  Greece,  and  Rome  abound  in  references 
to  them  :  in  the  Bible  see  Ps  235  457.8  Prov 
717  279  Lk  746  Jn  12  3.  A  modern  traveller 
writes  :  '  Arabs  are  delighted  with  perfumes  ; 
the  nomad  housewives  make  treasure  of  any 
they  have,  with  their  medicines  ;  they  often 
asked  me,  "  Hast  thou  no  perfumes  to  sell  ?  "  ' 
The  '  povired-out '  unguent  gives  forth  its  fra- 
grance :  even  so  is  the  beloved's  name  praised 
of  many. 

4.  The  king,  i.e.  the  bridegroom,  has  brought 
the  bride  into  his  house,  and  she,  freed  fi'om 
any  taint  of  envy,  nay,  with  an  ingenuous 
pride,  mentions  the  love  with  which  others 
'  rightly '  (RV)  regard  him.  Some  scholars 
prefer  to  read,  '  Bring  me,  0  king,'  etc.  5.  In 
speaking  of  herself  as  black  and  '  swarthy ' 
(RV),  she  is  acknowledging  herself  to  be  a 
country  girl  :  in  the  current  songs  of  Palestine 
town-girls  are  called  '  the  white  ' ;  those  of 
the  country  '  the  black.'  For  Kedar  see  Gn 
25i3Isa42ii  607.  The  Arab  tents  are  of  ten 
made  of  black  goats'  haii'  or  black  woven  stuff. 
If  our  present  text  is  correct  the  maiden 
claims  a  beauty  of  her  own,  comparable  to  that 
of  the  richly  embroidered  curtains  in  Solo- 
mon's palace.  But  possibly  the  reference  may 
be  to  the  Salamites,  who  followed  the  Kedar- 
enes  in  occupying  the  territory  S.  of  Palestine. 
Her  face  has  been  bronzed  by  the  sun's  '  look- 
ing upon  her,'  as  the  prince  of  Morocco,  in 
the  '  Merchant  of  Venice,'  speaks  of  his  com- 
plexion : 

'  The  shadow'd  lively  of  the  burnish'd  sun, 
To  whom  I  am  a  neighbour,  and  near  bred. ' 

6.  Her  mother's  sons  have  made  it  impos- 
sible for  her  to  avoid  this,  treating  her  with 
that  arbitrary  tyranny  which  male  relatives 
so  often  display  in  the  East.  '  I  have  known 
an  ill-natured  child,'  says  Doughty,  '  lay  a 
stick  on  the  back  of  his  good  cherishing 
mother  '  :  cp.  1 S 17  28.     Her  own  vineyard,  her 


1.7 


THE   SONG   OF  SOLOMON 


2.7 


complexion,  she  was  forced  to  leave  uncared 
,for.  7.  Running  to  her  lover,  she  would  fain 
spend  the  siesta  hour,  the  hot  midday,  with 
him.  Failing  to  find  him,  she  would  have 
to  wander  aimlessly  (RM)  beside  the  other 
shepherds,  in  whom  she  took  no  interest. 

8.  With  kindly  banter  he  bids  her  lead  out  her 
little  flock  of  female  kids  and  take  her  chance 
of  finding  him.  9-1 1.  It  would  not  occur  to 
us  to  compare  a  woman  to  a  beautiful  mare  : 
but  an  Eastern  at  once  appreciates  the  simile. 
In  Damascus  '  the  mare  comes  before  wife  and 
child  '  :  she  may  be  worth  £40,000,  and  there 
really  is  no  more  beautiful  creature.  The 
Egyptian  horse  was  once  prized  much  as  the 
Arab  now  is  (2Ch92S). 

10.  With  the  '  string  of  jewels  '  (RY)  com- 
pare a  song  which  may  be  heard  now  in  Syria  : 

'  From  above,  Abu  Tabba,  from  above,  Abu  Tabba, 
Put  golden  coins  upon  her,  and  under  her  neck  a 
string  of  pearls. ' 

The  necklace  usually  worn  consists  of  three 
rows  of  pearls.  Lady  Burton  says  of  a  Sama- 
ritan woman  :  '  Upon  her  head  she  wore  a 
coat  of  mail  of  gold,  and  literally  covered  with 
gold  coins,  of  which  a  very  large  one  dangled 
on  her  forehead.  She  wore  diamond  and 
enamelled  earrings,  and  a  string  of  pearls 
coquettishly  arranged  on  one  side  of  her  head 
in  a  festoon.' 

12-14.  The  king,  i.e.  the  bridegroom,  is  re- 
clining on  his  divan  or  couch,  and  the  bride's 
presence  is  as  delightful  to  him  as  the  scent  of 
the  costly  oil  of  the  Indian  nard  (Mk  1 4  3).  The 
odoriferous  myrrh  is  a  gum,  which  exudes  from 
the  bark  of  a  spiny  shrub  growing  in  Ai-abia 
and  India.  Women  wore  little  flasks  of  this 
on  their  breast.  14.  The  henna  (RV  '  the 
flower  of  paradise ')  has  fragrant  yellowish 
white  flowers,  growing  in  clusters  like  grapes. 
It  is  still  found  in  the  wadi  of  En-Gedi,  the 
most  delightful  spot  on  the  W.  shore  of  the 
Dead  Sea,  an  oasis  of  luxurious  vegetation. 
The  sentiment  of  these  vv.  is  thus  reproduced 
in  a  song  still  popular  in  Palestine  : 

'  Make  of  me  a  silver  necklace. 
And  toss  me  about  on  thy  Ijreast. 
Make  of  me  a  golden  earring, 
And  hang  me  in  thine  ear. ' 

15.  He  compares  her  eyes  to  doves.  Eastern 
women  spend  much  pains  on  their  eyes,  paint- 
ing them  round  with  kohl  to  add  to  their 
apparent  size  and  increase  their  expressiveness. 
And  the  comparison  of  maidens  to  doves  is 
exceedingly  common  in  the  popular  poetry  : 

'  Lovely  girls  are  there,  like  a  flock  of  doves.' 

16.  17.  She  looks  forward  to  their  union  in 
the  sweet  rural  district,  amongst  the  cedars 
and  the  firs.  It  is  as  in  the  bower  which  Milton 
found  in  the  earthly  Paradise  : 


'  The  roof 

Of  thickest  covert  was  in  woven  shade, 
Laurel  and  myrtle,  and  what  higher  grew 
Of  tinii  and  fragi-ant  leaf ;  on  either  side 
Acanthus,  and  each  odorous  bushy  shrub 

Fenc'd  up  the  verdant  wall  ; 

Here  iu  close  recess. 
With  flowers,  garlands,  and  sweet-smelling  herbs, 
Espoused  Eve  deckt  first  her  nuptial  bed.' 

CHAPTER  2  ^ 

1.  She  compares  herself  to  a  simple  wild 
flower,  the  crocus  (RM)  of  Sharon.  The  plain, 
which  extended  from  Joppa  to  Csesarea,  was 
proverbial  for  its  flowers  (Isa  35  2),  and  travellers 
continue  to  revert  to  this  feature  :  '  We  con- 
stantly had  reason  to  admire  the  faint  har- 
monious colouring  of  the  wild  flowers  on  the 
untilled  plain.  Csesarea  was  surrounded  by 
fields  of  the  yellow  marigold.  Other  flowers 
were  also  conspicuous — the  red  pheasant's  eye, 
in  some  cases  as  big  as  a  poppy  ;  blue  pimper- 
nels, moon-daisies,  the  lovely  phlox,  gladioles, 
and  high  hollyhocks.' 

2.  He  will  not  suffer  her  to  depreciate  her 
own  value  :  compared  with  other  women  she 
is  a  lily  among  thorns  (ProvSl  ^9).  The  Huleh 
lily,  in  the  north  of  the  Holy  Land,  grows  in 
the  midst  of  thorns,  which  lacerate  the  hands 
of  the  flower-gatherers.  The  soil  near  Beth- 
lehem, in  the  S.,  is  enamelled  with  lilies 
and  covered  almost  everywhere  with  dwarf 
thorns. 

3-7.  In  this  strife  of  mutual  compliments  she 
now  likens  him  to  the  beautiful,  flowering, 
fruit-bearing  apple  tree,  which  gives  a  welcome 
shade,  gratifies  the  sense  of  taste,  and  is 
to  Orientals  a  symbol  of  love.  4.  He  has 
brought  her  to  a  '  house  of  wine  '  (RM),  a  place 
of  feasting  and  enjoyment,  where  the  banner 
floating  over  them  was  not  merely  inscribed 
with  the  word  Love,  but  was  Love  itself.  The 
entire  description  is  figurative,  and  if  the  lan- 
guage were  not  sufficient  to  indicate  this  we 
should  be  driven  to  the  conclusion  by  the 
fact  that  it  was  not  considered  decorous  for 
women  to  be  present  at  banquets  (Esth  1 12 
Dan  5 10, 23)  _  in  Egypt  the  house  where  a 
marriage-festival  is  in  progress  is  marked  by 
rows  of  flags  and  streamers  stretched  across 
the  street.  5.  She  begs  her  friends  to  sus- 
tain her  with  cakes  of  pressed  raisins  (RV), 
such  as  were  given  to  those  who  were  fainting 
for  hunger  (IS 25 18  .3012  2S619  Hos3i). 
7.  And  they  are  to  leave  her  and  her  beloved 
for  the  present  undisturbed  by  the  festal 
dances  and  songs.  The  request  is  repeated 
35  84,  and  on  each  occasion  is  evidently  meant 
to  mark  one  of  the  main  divisions  of  the  poem. 
The  adjuration,  by  the  gazelles  (RM),  and  by 
the  hinds  of  the  field,  is  suggested  by  the 
beauty  and  the  timidity  of  those  graceful 
creatures. 


404 


2.  8 


THE   SONG   OF   SOLOMON 


3.  11 


CHAPTERS   28-217 

A  Visit  and  an  Invitation 

8-13.  After  an  interval  she  relates  one  of 
his  visits  to  her  home.  He  comes  swiftly  and 
easily ;  hills  and  mountains  are  no  obstacle. 
He  stands  behind  the  •wall  of  her  mother's 
house,  and  she  gazes  at  him  through  the  lattice, 
for  she  has  seen  his  approach  from  afar.  The 
unglazed,  latticed  windows  of  an  Oriental 
house  admits  air  and  a  softened  light,  allow 
those  within  to  see  out,  and  prevent  their 
being  observed  from  outside.  10.  He  would 
have  her  accompany  him  to  the  open  country. 
II.  It  is  the  right  season.  The  -winter  and 
the  rains  are  over,  for  in  that  climate  there  is 
a  cloudless  sky  from  the  beginning  of  May  to 
the  end  of  October. 

12.  It  is  the  time  of  flowers:  '  Everywhere 
this  day  the  earth  was  beautifully  green,  and 
carpeted  with  flowers.  The  air  was  fresh  and 
balmy  and  laden  with  the  sweet  scents  of 
spring.  .  .  The  sky  was  so  blue,  the  mountains 
and  plains  looked  so  beautiful,  the  birds,  in- 
sects, the  wild  flowers,  the  fresh  balmy  breeze, 
the  sweet  smells,  and  gentle  sun,  the  black 
tents,  all  combined  to  make  one  glad  to  be 
alive.'  '  Come  here  in  spring,  O  traveller  ! ' 
Lady  Butler  says,  '  and  not  in  the  arid,  dusty, 
burnt-up  autumn.' 

13.  The  early  figs  are  growing  spicy  ;  the 
vines  are  all  blossom  and  fragrance.  It  is  the 
season  when  a  young  man's  mind  turns  lightly 
to  thoughts  of  love.  Even  in  our  cold  England 
the  poet  sings — 

*  'Twas  when  the  spousal  time  of  May 

Hangs  all  the  hedge  with  bridal  wreaths, 
And  air  's  so  sweet  the  bosom  gay 

Gives  thanks  for  every  breath  it  breathes  ; 
When  like  to  like  is  gladly  moved, 

And  each  thing  joins  in  Spring's  refrain, 
"  Let  those  love  now  who  nt-ver  loved  ; 

Let  those  who  have  loved  love  again." ' 

14.  15.  He  begs  her  to  lay  aside  her  coyness, 
for  she  is  concealing  herself,  like  a  dove  in  an 
inaccessible  mountain  gorge.  Where  there  is 
no  village  pigeon-house  the  wild  doves  of  Syria 
build  in  hollows  of  the  steep  rocks.  At 
the  monastery  of  St.  Saba  '  one  sees,  sailing 
on  outstretched  wings  from  out  of  those 
caverns,  flights  of  the  fair  blue  pigeons.'  15. 
She  sings  him  the  little  ditty  concerning  the 
foxes  that  ruin  the  vineyards  :  any  song,  on 
any  theme,  would  have  pleased  him,  and  short 
poems  that  seem  to  have  no  special  relevance 
to  the  occasion  are  still  in  common  use 
amongst  the  peasants  and  the  Bedouin. 

16,  17.  She  declares  their  unchangeable, 
mutual  devotion,  and  bids  the  shepherd,  who 
pastures  his  flock  in  the  fields  bright  with 
lilies,  come  to  her. 

17.  At  midday  the  heat  is  overpowering — 


'All  round  the  coast  the  languid  air  did  swoon, 
Breathing  like  one  that  hath  a  weary  dream. ' 

But  at  sunset  the  day  '  breathes '  (RM)  ;  a 
cool  breeze  blows,  and  the  shadows  gradually 
disappear  (Gn  3  «  Job  1 4  2).  The  gazelles  (RM) 
descend  at  night  to  the  plains  to  feed  ;  they 
leap  and  run  safely  on  the  mountains  of  Bether. 
The  meaning  of  the  last  word  is  not  clear  :  it 
may  be  the  name  of  a  locality  not  mentioned 
elsewhere  in  Scripture  ;  it  may  signify  '  the 
cloven  mountains'  ;  it  may  be  the  same  as  the 
hesamiin  (=  spices)  of  S^*,  or,  as  RM  suggests, 
the  spice  malobathron. 

CHAPTER  3 

Night  Thoughts  and  an  Interlude 

I  -4.  There  is  a  charming  lightness  of  touch 
and  quickness  of  movement  in  the  story  she 
tells,  and  it  is  all  the  more  interesting  for  our 
having  to  supply  the  prosaic  connecting  links. 
'  The  Unrest  of  Love  '  is  an  apt  title.  We 
can  only  understand  it  as  a  maiden's  dream. 

2.  The  broad  ways  are  what  we  should  call 
the  squares ;  wide,  open  spaces  by  the  city 
gates  and  elsewhere.  4.  The  '  mother's  house  ' 
is  the  women's  apartments,  into  which  a 
strange  man  dare  not  enter. 

6-1 1.  It  is  possible  that  this  is  a  song  of 
the  bridegroom's  companions  on  the  morrow 
of  the  wedding,  when  the  throne  is  set  up  for 
the  bridal  pair.  But  more  probably  it  is  a 
kind  of  interlude,  intended  to  convey  the  sense 
of  contrast  between  the  simple,  fearless  life  of 
the  happypair,  and  the  luxurious  but  anxious 
state  which  the  most  magnificent  of  Hebrew 
kings  had  kept.  The  singer  sees  in  imagina- 
tion King  Solomon's  procession.  He  makes 
us  hear  the  questions  and  remarks  of  the  crowd, 
as  in  the  last  scene  of  Shakespeare's  '  Henry 
the  Fourth.'  6.  One  man  asks,  '  What  is  this 
litter  (RV)  that  is  coming  out  of  the  wilder- 
ness, the  uncultivated  grazing  land  ?  '  The 
pillars  of  smoke  are  caused  by  the  burning  of 
sweet  perfumes.  Frankincense  was  an  aro- 
matic gum-resin  obtained  from  balsamic  plants 
which  grow  in  Arabia  and  Eastern  Africa. 
The  powders  of  the  merchant  are  powdered 
perfumes.  The  question  of  v.  6  is  answered 
in  vv.  7,  8,  and  possibly  we  have  a  third  speaker 
in  9,  10.  In  any  case,  another  word  is  here 
used  for  '  litter '  (R V),  a  word  which  came  after- 
wards to  be  specially  employed  for  the  litter 
in  which  the  bride  was  carried  in  procession. 

9.  King  Solomon's  palanquin  (RV)  is  made 
of  the  costly  woods  of  Lebanon,  cedar  and 
Cyprus.  ID.  The  pillars  supporting  the  canopy 
are  of  silver,  the  arms  of  gold,  the  seat  (RV) 
covered  with  a  costly  purple  fabric.  An<5,  as 
the  Hebrew  words  for  love  and  '  ebony '  are 
very  similar,  the  closing  part  of  the  description 
may  originally  have  run,  'inlaid  with  ebony 
from  the  daughters  of  Jerusalem.'     u.  The 


405 


4.  1 


THE   SONG   OF   SOLOMON 


5.4 


women  of  the  chorus  are  to  fancy  themselves 
meeting  the  procession  and  feasting  their  eyes 
with  the  sight  of  the  king  in  all  his  glory. 
At  a  Jewish  wedding  both  bride  and  gi'oom 
wear  crowns :  in  Syria,  at  the  present  day,  the 
bride  wears  one ;  in  Bulgaria  she  has  a  crown  of 
alloyed  silver. 


CHAPTERS  41-51 
Description  or  her  Charms. 

Invitation 


Her 


1-7.  This  short  poem  belongs  to  the  class 
which  the  Arabs  call  loasf^  in  which  the  bride's 
charms  are  described :  they  are  sung  while  she 
is  being  dressed,  or  when  she  exhibits  herself 
in  her  nuptial  array,  or  on  the  day  subsequent 
to  the  ceremony.  Here  is  one  that  is  still  to  be 
heard  in  Palestine: 

'  Oh,  her  eyes  are  like  the  hne  of  ink  drawn  by  the 

stylus, 
And  her  hair,  when  she  dyed  it  with  henna,  like 

birds'  feathers  ; 
Her  nose  as  the  handle  of  a  glittering  Indian  sword; 
Her  teeth  like  hailstones,  yea,  even  more  lovely  ; 
Her  cheeks  like  rosy  apples  of  Damascus  ; 
And  her  breasts  lovely  i3omegi'anates,  hanging  on 

the  tree  ; 
Her  neck  like  that  of  a  scai  ed  antelope  ; 
And  her  arms  staves  of  pure  silver  ; 
And  her  fingers  sharp-pointed  pens  of  gold. ' 

I.  The  maiden's  eyes  are  here  compared  to 
doves,  peeping  out  from  behind  the  veil  (RV). 
As  is  usual  with  Syrian  brides  her  hair  is  not 
braided,  but  hangs  loosely  down,  like  a  flock 
of  black  goats  which  graze  along  the  slope  of 
a  mountain,  and  look  as  though  they  were  sus- 
pended from  it  (RV).  2.  Her  teeth  are  white, 
regular,  a  perfect  set.  Her  cheek  resembles 
the  rich  colours  of  the  pomegranate.  She  has 
a  swan's  neck,  a  graceful,  slender  tower,  hung 
round  with  ornaments,  as  the  tow^er  of  David 
— whatever  that  may  have  been — was  hung  with 
shields (1  KlQie.iv  2K 11 10  Ezk27 n  1  Mac 4 57). 
For  sweetness  she  may  be  compared  to  moun- 
tains on  which  odoriferous  shrubs  abound. 

8.  The  idea  conveyed  by  this  abrupt  and 
obscure  v.  seems  to  be  that  she  will  be  perfectly 
safe,  even  in  regions  remote  from  home,  and 
where  many  dangers  lurk,  if  only  her  lover  is 
at  hand.  His  presence  ensures  happiness  and 
security.  The  exclamation,  '  Look,'  etc.,  re- 
minds us  of  a  modern  traveller's  remark  con- 
cerning the  southern  part  of  Lebanon  :  '  I 
have  travelled  in  no  part  of  the  world  where  I 
have  seen  such  a  variety  of  glorious  mountain 
scenes  within  so  narrow  a  compass.'  Amana 
may  perhaps  be  the  name  of  what  is  now  called 
Jebel  ez-Zebediini,  below  which  is  the  source 
of  the  river  Amana  or  Abana  (2K512).  On 
some  inscriptions  of  the  Assyrian  kings  the 
range  of  Anti-Libanus  is  called  Ammana. 
Here,  and  at  iChS^^^  Shenir  is  distinguished 
from  Hermon.     The  highest  point  of  Hermon, 


Jebel  el-She" kh,  9,166  ft.  high,  is  visible  from 
the  greater  part  of  Palestine. 

9-15.  He  praises  her  in  ecstatic  terms.  In 
the  ancient  Egyptian  love-songs  the  lovers  call 
one  another  '  brother '  and  sister.  One  glance 
from  her  eyes,  one  pendant  hanging  from  her 
neck,  is  enough  to  steal  his  heart,  as  it  is  said 
of  Judith  (169),  '  Her  sandal  ravished  his  eye.' 

ID.  The  smell  of  her  garments  is  like  the 
fresh  and  healthy  odour  of  the  cedars,  or,  as 
we  in  England  should  say,  of  the  pine  woods: 
cp.  Gn2727Ps45». 

11.  Honey  and  milk  are  most  highly  prized 
amongst  Orientals  (Isa  715). 

12.  She  is  as  a  garden  barred  (RM)  to 
strangers. 

1 3.  Her  charms  are  like  the  young  plants  in 
an  orchard  of  pomegranates,  protected  from  the 
depredations  of  wild  beasts. 

14.  The  saffron  is  the  autumnal  crocus,  the 
dried  flowers  of  which  are  employed  in  medi- 
cine, dyeing  and  perfumery.  The  thick, 
creeping  rootstock  of  the  calamus  is  pungent 
and  aromatic.  The  resin  of  aloes  is  used  in 
the  preparation  of  incense.  15.  The 'flowing' 
(RV)  streams,  etc.,  reminds  us  of  ,  the  many 
streams  which  run  into  the  sea  between  Tyre 
and  Beyrout. 

16.  Accepting  his  figurative  description  of 
her,  she  bids  him  welcome.  The  colder  north 
wind  and  the  warmer  south  are  naturally 
mentioned  :  not  the  east,  which  brings  drought, 
nor  the  west,  which  carries  moisture  from  the 
sea. 

C.  5.     I.  The  bridegroom's  reply.     He  bids 
his  friends  follow  his  example  :   '  Drink,  yea, . 
drink  freely  of  the  delights  of  love '  (RV). 

CHAPTERS  52-69 
A  Dream.     His  Be.\uty  and  hers 

2-7.  Another  dream  of  hers,  with  a  painful 
ending.  The  accumulation  (v.  2)  of  names  of 
endearment  reminds  us  of  the  frequent  repeti- 
tion, by  a  Palestinian  bridegroom  during  the 
wedding  dance,  of  Yd  haldli,  Yd  mdU,  '  O  my 
property,  0  my  possession  ! ' 

2.  Hea\'y  dew  falls,  especially  during  spring 
and  in  the  second  half  of  the  night.  The 
Spanish  poet  whom  Longfellow  translated  had 
in  his  mind  our  passage  and  RevS^*^  : 

'  Lord,  what  am  I,  that,  with  unceasing  care, 
Thou  didst  seek  after  me, — that  thou  didst  wait, 
Wet  with  unhealthy  dews  liefore  my  gate, 
And  pass  the  gloomy  nights  of  winter  there  ? 

How  oft  my  guardian  angel  gently  cried, 

"  Soul,  from  thy  casement  look,  and  thou  shalt  see 

How  he  [lersists  to  knock  and  wait  for  thee." ' 

And  our  Lord's  parable  (Lk  1 1  5-s)  presents  a 
parallel  to  v.  3.  The  tunic  had  been  put  ofB 
(Ex  22  26  Dt24i3).  The  feet,  shod  only  with 
sandals,  needed  washing  each  night.     4.  A  hole 


406 


5.  5 


THE   SONG   OF  SOLOMON 


7.6 


is  still  cut  in  the  door  of  Syrian  houses,  through 
which  the  owner  can  insert  his  arm  and  the 
key.  5.  '  Myrrha  stacta,'  liquid  myrrh,  which 
flowed  from  the  bark  of  the  plant,  was  the 
finest  and  most  costly.  In  two  modern 
Egyptian  poems  we  find  :  '  My  love  hath 
jDerfumed  herself  on  the  nights  of  the  festival,' 
and  '  0  thou,  with  sweet  hands  ! ' 

7.  The  watchmen  treat  her  as  a  mere  night- 
wanderer  :  cp.  the  solicitude  of  Boaz  for  Ruth 
(Ruth  3 1"^).  They  tore  off:  her  wrapper 
(Mk  14  51, 52)^  a  light  garment  which  rested  on 
the  shoulders,  or  was  thrown  round  the  head  as 
a  veil. 

9.  The  chorus  prepares  the  way  for  her 
eulogy  of  her  beloved. 

10-16.  Nuptial  songs  in  praise  of  the  bride- 
groom's beauty  are  at  the  present  day  compara- 
tively rare  in  Palestine.  His  head  is  the  most 
fine  gold,  an  expression  which  recalls  Shake- 
speare's '  Golden  lads  anei  girls.'  His  eyes  are 
doves,  building  in  a  ravine  through  which  a 
stream  flows.  Possibly  the  fact  that  these 
birds  delight  in  clear  water  and  frequently 
bathe  in  it  may  explain  the  '  sitting  by  full 
streams  '  of  the  RV,  or,  '  sitting  upon  fulness,' 
which  literally  represents  the  original. 

13.  The  '  banks  of  sweet  herbs '  (RV)  have 
also  been  rendered,  '  towers  of  perfumes. '  The 
lips  are  compared  to  red  lilies,  red  being  the 
dominant  colour  of  the  flora  of  that  land. 

14.  The  fingers  are  round  and  shapely  ;  the 
nails  like  topazes  ;  the  body  (RV)  a  plate  of 
ivory  encrusted  with  lapis  lazuli,  blue  veins 
showing  tlu-ough  the  lighter  skin.  15.  The 
pillars  of  marble  remind  us  of  a  song  still 
current  in  those  regions  :  the  singer  avers  that 
his  dear  one's  foot  is  of  white  silver,  which 
would  be  scratched  if  she  walked  even  on 
cloth. 

C.  6.  1-3.  The  chorus  enquire  where  he 
may  be  found,  and  she,  in  dreamy  and 
indefinite  language,  informs  them. 

4-9.  He  again  strikes  in,  celebrating  her 
beauty.  Tirzah  is  in  a  lofty  and  delightful 
situation,  surrounded  by  olive  groves  :  its  name 
(=  '  Delight  ')  implies  its  attractiveness. 
Jerusalem  has  always  been  lovely  to  an  Israel- 
ite's eye  (Ps482  502  Lam  2  is,  etc.).  A  pure 
and  charming  woman  is  '  awe-inspiring  as 
bannered  hosts'  (RM).  Coventry  Patmore 
speaks  of  '  her  awful  charm  of  grace  and 
innocence  sincere '  : 

'  And  though  her  charms  are  a  strong  law 

Compelling  all  men  to  admire, 
They  go  so  clad  with  lowly  awe 
None  but  the  noble  dare  desire.' 

5.  Her  eyes  have  thrown  him  into  con- 
fusion. 8.  She  is  far  above  all  the  queens  and 
concubines,  the  ladies  of  the  harem,  who  are 
just  now  at  hand.  9.  She  is  her  mother's  only, 
i.e.  dearest,  one  (Gn222),  and  her  pure  one. 


CHAPTERS  610-84 
A  Dialogue.     Her  Loveliness 

10-13.  A  dialogue  between  these  ladies  and 
her.  They  compare  her  to  the  dawn,  stooping 
down  to  look  on  the  earth  from  the  sky.  It 
is  still  common  in  Arabic  poems  to  address 
the  beloved  as  '  Moon,'  or  '  Full  moon  '  ! 

II,  12.  She  tells  of  her  visit  to  the  nut- 
garden,  where,  ere  she  was  aware  of  it,  her 
soul,  i.e.  her  desire,  set  her  in  the  chariots  of 
Ammi-nadib,  The  precise  meaning  of  this 
expression  cannot  be  determined.  The  general 
sense  appears  to  be  that  she  was  sunk  in 
reverie,  carried  away  in  a  lover's  dream,  a 
flight  of  fancy.  Aroused  from  this,  she  would 
shyly  hasten  away.  13.  But  the  chorus  beg 
her  to  return  and  perform  for  them  the 
'  Dance  of  Mahanaim  '  (RV),  a  sword-dance,  no 
doubt,  such  as  the  bride  executes,  sword  in 
hand,  on  the  evening  of  the  marriage,  amidst 
a  half -circle  of  men  and  women,  whilst  a  poem 
(tnaff=  '  description  ')  of  the  character  of  7'^-'^ 
is  being  sung.  The  title  Shulamite  is  derived 
from  the  town-name  Shulem  (otherwise  spelled 
'  Shunem '),  from  which  Abishag,  the  fairest 
maiden  of  her  day,  came  (1 K  1 4)  :  obviously 
it  is  another  way  of  calling  her  '  fairest  among 
women' (18  59  6I). 

CHAPTER  7 

1-6.  The  iva.sf  begins  with  a  eulogy  of  her 
dancing  :  her  steps  in  sandals  (RV)  are  lovely, 
and  the  circling  movements  of  her  body  are 
graceful  as  ornamental  chains.  In  Eastern 
dancing  the  twisting  and  vibration  of  the  body 
are  of  more  consequence  than  the  rapid  move- 
ment of  the  feet.  The  title  '  noble's  daughter  ' 
may  be  merely  a  conventional  compliment,  or  it 
may  point  to  the  dignity  of  her  character  :  cp. 
'  a  daughter  of  Belial,'  1  S 1 1".  2.  The  Talmud 
states  that  the  proportions  for  mixed  wine 
(RV)  were  two-thirds  water,  one-third  wine. 
In  Syria  the  colour  of  wheat  is  considered  to 
be  the  most  beautiful  for  a  human  body. 

4.  Her  neck  is  like  a  tower  of  ivory,  long,  and 
dazzling  white.  But  what  about  the  swarthi- 
ness  of  1 S'  *5  ?  The  answer  is  that  the  exact- 
ness and  consistency  of  prose  are  not  to  be 
expected  in  an  epithalamium.  Heshbon  lies 
five  and  a  half  hours  E.  of  the  N.  point  of  the 
Dead  Sea,  in  a  fertile,  well-watered  region  : 
there  are  several  deep  wells  cut  in  the  rock, 
and  a  large  reservoir.  5.  Carmel  was  regarded 
as  the  '  Park '  of  the  land  ;  there  alone  were 
rocky  dells,  with  deep  jungles  of  copse.  A 
'  king  is  held  captive  in  the  tresses '  (RV)  of 
the  bride's  hair  :  cp.  the  Arab  song  : 

'  Oh,  thy  thick  hair  hangs  down  ; 
Seven  plaits  of  it  take  us  captive. ' 

6-10.  The  bridegroom  begins  with  a  general 
assertion  of  the  delightfulness  of  his  beloved  : 


407 


7.  10 


THE   SONG   OF   SOLOMON 


8.  14 


then,  in  like  manner  as  the  Greek  poet  Theo- 
critus compares  Helen  to  the  straight  cyprus 
tree,  our  poet  likens  the  bride  to  the  tall, 
straight  palm,  the  loveliest  of  all  trees  in  his 
eyes, '  man's  sister,'  as  the  Arabs  call  it.  Some- 
thing of  the  same  feeling  appears  in  the 
English  poem  : 

'  A  daughter  of  the  gods,  divinely  tall, 
And  most  divinely  fair. ' 

One  or  two  slight  changes  in  the  text,  partly 
supported  by  the  ancient  versions,  make  of 
V.  9  an  expression  of  desire  that  her  mouth 
may  be  like  the  best  wine  for  her  beloved, 
'  gliding  over  his  lips  and  teeth.'  Syrian 
women  cried  out  to  an  English  lady :  '  Go  on  ! 
when  you  speak  Arabic,  your  words  drop  out 
of  your  mouth  like  sugar.' 

10-14.  Again  she  declares  her  affection.  An 
intense  delight  in  rural  life  breathes  through 
these  lines.  13.  For  the  effect  ascribed  to 
the  mandrake  see  Gn  30  i*-i6.  It  is  not  a  very 
common  plant  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Jeru- 
salem, but  grows  freely  in  Galilee  ;  its  reddish- 
golden  apples,  about  an  inch  and  a  half  in 
diameter,  emit  a  somewhat  sweet  odour.  On 
a  shelf  over  the  inner  door  (RV)  of  the  house 
she  has  laid  up  some  of  the  old  fruits  for 
him. 

C.  8.  if.  Obviously  this  is  supposed  to 
be  spoken  in  the  days  of  their  first  love, 
before  others  were  aware  of  it.  Amongst  the 
Bedouin,  brothers  and  cousins  on  the  father's 
side  are  the  only  male  relatives  who  may 
kiss  a  maiden.  In  place  of  the  very  difficult 
expression,  who  would  instruct  me,  two  ancient 
versions  have  a  clause  parallel  to  the  preced- 
ing one,  '  and  to  the  chamber  of  her  who  con- 
ceived me.'  In  Persia  wine  is  obtained  from 
pomegranates. 

CHAPTER   85-14 
Memories.     The  Close 

5.  The  chorus  enquire  who  this  happy  bride 
may  be.  And  the  bridegroom  points  her  to 
the  apple-tree  where  he  had  once  found  her 
asleep,  and  to  the  spot  where  she  was  bom. 
These  are  lovers'  reminiscences,  sweet  to  them, 
trivial  to  others. 

6,  7.  Her  passionate  clinging  to  him,  and 
her  assertion  of  the  irresistibleness,  the  in- 
destructibleness,  the  unselfishness  of  genuine 
love. 

6.  She  would  fain  be  as  inseparable  from 
him  as  the  seal-cylinder,  which  men  wore  on  a 


cord  round  the  neck,  or  the  seal-ring  on  the 
right  hand  (Gn  38 1*  Jer  22  24).  Love  is  strong 
as  resistless  death.  Jealousy  can  be  hard  as 
Sheol  (RV),  the  place  of  the  dead. 

'  Turning  all  love's  delight  to  miserie, 
Through  feare  of  loosing  his  felicitie. ' 

And  this  is  especially  true  of  Orientals  :  '  A 
son  of  the  East  cannot  quietly  enjoy  his 
inward  felicity,  cannot  love  without  being 
consumed  with  the  suspicion  that  others  will 
rob  him  of  this  sweet  treasure  ;  and  jealousy, 
the  passion  which  gives  birth  to  hatred  and 
blood-feuds,  establishes  its  way  in  his  heart, 
growing  apparently  out  of  a  morbid  excess  of 
sentiment.'  Othello  kills  the  person  he  most 
dearly  loves.  It  is  '  a  very  flame  of  the  Lord  ' 
(RV),  resistless,  fierce,  consuming  (Gn236 
PsSQio  Jon32  Ac720). 

7.  Render,  '  If  a  man  were  ready  to  give 
the  whole  substance  of  his  house  for  love, 
could  any  one  despise  him  ?  '  No.  It  is  better 
worth  the  purchase  than  anything  else  on 
earth. 

8,  9.  The  solicitude  which  the  brothers  once 
felt  concerning  their  sister.  If  she  repels  all 
improper  advances  they  will  do  her  honour  : 
if  she  is  weak  they  will  carefully  guard  her. 
When  she  hath  no  breasts,  she  is  not  of 
marriageable  age.  To  be  spoken  for  is  to  be 
asked  in  marriage. 

ID.  Our  heroine  can  proudly  assert  her 
purity,  and  her  beloved  honours  her. 

II,  12.  In  figurative  speech  he  expresses  his 
contentment.  King  Solomon  has  a  fertile  and 
profitable  vineyard  at  Baal-hamon  (perhaps 
the  town  mentioned  in  Josh  19  28).  Any  one 
would  give  for  its  produce  a  thousand  shekels 
(about  £130).  Those  to  whom  it  is  entrusted 
will  not  make  less  than  two  hundred  shekels 
profit.  But  the  happy  lover  is  well  satisfied 
that  Solomon  should  have  his  thousand  shekels 
and  the  keepers  their  two  hundred,  provided 
he  may  have  his  dear  one.  The  Arab  poet 
sings,  '  Take  away  all  roses  ;  one  little  garden 
is  enough  for  me.'  Solomon  here  is  the  typical 
wealthy  king,  the  Croesus  of  Hebrew  fancy 
(IK  10 21):  cp.  alsoEccl25. 

13.  The  bridegroom  once  more  (see  2  !■*)  begs 
her  to  sing.  His  companions  are  the  young 
men  (Jgl4ii)who  attended  him  all  through 
the  festivities. 

14.  Her  final  word,  of  invitation  to  her 
husband,  is  a  slightly  modified  repetition  of 
the  refrain  217, 


408 


ISAIAH 


INTRODUCTION 


We  know  comparatively  little  of  the  per- 
sonal life  of  Isaiah.  He  was  the  son  of 
Amoz  (1 1),  and  from  his  influence  at  court  it 
has  been  inferred  that  he  was  of  royal  blood, 
a  rabbinic  tradition  making  him  nephew  to 
king  Amaziah.  He  was  married  and  had  at 
least  two  sons  to  whom  were  given  symbolic 
names,  embodying  the  substance  of  his  teach- 
ing (73  8  3'^*^).  Isaiah  lived  in  Jerusalem, 
and  there,  in  close  connexion  with  the  king 
and  court  and  in  the  centre  of  the  national 
life,  he  exercised  his  ministry.  He  received 
his  call  to  be  a  prophet  in  the  last  year  of 
Uzziah  (740  B.C.),  and  his  latest  prophecies 
which  can  be  dated  with  certainty  are  con- 
nected with  Sennacherib's  invasion  of  Judah 
(701  B.C.),  so  that  his  ministry  extended  over 
a  period  of  at  least  40  years.  How  long 
Isaiah  survived  the  crisis  of  Sennacherib's 
invasion  we  know  not,  but  according  to  a 
Jewish  tradition,  alluded  to  by  Justin  Martyr 
about  150  A.D.  ('  Dial.  Trypho,'  cap.  cxx),  he 
suffered  martyrdom  by  being  sawn  asunder 
during  the  persecution  of  the  true  servants  of 
Jehovah  under  king  Manasseh.  It  is  thought 
that  the  traditional  manner  of  Isaiah's  death 
may  also  be  alluded  to  in  Heb  1 1  ^'^. 

The  Historical  setting  of  Isaiah's 
Prophecies 

Reign  of  Uzziah.  In  the  last  year  of  this 
king  Isaiah  received  his  call  (740  B.C.),  c.  6. 

Reign  of  Jotham  (740-736).  It  would  seem 
that  Isaiah's  ministry  was  not  immediately 
exercised,  for  no  utterances  have  come  down 
to  us  which  can  with  certainty  be  assigned  to 
this  reign. 

Reign  of  Ahaz  (736-728).  About  736  the 
prophet  becomes  a  more  prominent  figure. 
Chs.  2-5  form-  a  summary  of  his  teaching  at 
this  period,  and  throw  much  light  upon  the 
internal  condition  of  Judah  during  the  reign 
of  Jotham,  and  at  the  time  of  Ahaz's  acces- 
sion, while  they  exhibit  Isaiah  as  an  ardent 
religious  and  social  reformer.  The  period  of 
the  prophet's  youth  had  been  an  age  of  pros- 
perity and  material  progress  for  Judah  under 
Uzziah  and  Jotham.  The  relations  of  the 
kingdoms  of  Israel  and  Judah  were  on  the 
whole  harmonious,  and  both  were  free  from 
aggression  from  without.  Uzziah  conducted 
successful  campaigns  against  the  tribes  border- 
ing   on    Palestine,    reducing    the    Edomites 


and  Ammonites  to  vassalage.  He  greatly 
strengthened  the  fortifications  of  Jerusalem 
and  reorganised  the  army.  He  also  did  much 
to  develop  the  resources  of  the  country  and 
to  encourage  commerce,  the  port  of  Elath 
(on  the  Red  Sea)  being  rebuilt  in  his  reign. 
Under  Jotham  a  like  policy  was  pursued,  and 
the  country  enjoyed  prosperity  and  peace. 
But  though  outwardly  prosperous  Judah  was, 
at  the  time  of  Ahaz's  accession,  inwardly  cor- 
rupt. The  development  of  national  wealth 
brought  with  it  social  evils  ;  the  accumulation 
of  large  estates  in  the  hands  of  a  few  holders 
(5^),  oppression  of  the  poor  (S^^-i^)^  perver- 
sion of  justice  (57.23^,  luxury  and  wrongful 
indulgence  (27  316^-  5ii>i2,22).  in  religion 
there  was  a  corresponding  decay  ;  the  land 
was  full  of  idols  (28.20)^  and  the  people,  having 
lost  their  faith,  were  given  to  superstitions, 
magic  and  necromancy  (2  6  33)^  or  had  become 
callous,  indifferent  and  sceptical  (5 1^).  Isaiah's 
teaching  in  view  of  this  condition  of  affairs  is 
outlined  in  the  vision  wherein  he  received  his 
call.  Jehovah  is  the  all-Holy  (6  3),  and  as 
the  Holy  One  of  Israel  (a  characteristic  title 
in  this  book)  cannot  let  these  things  go  un- 
punished, but  is  bound  to  vindicate  His  holi- 
ness (611=^  29'5)  ;  this  He  will  do  by  a  searching 
judgment  (6 11.12  210-22  324_4i  526-30)^  ^^hich 
will  not,  however,  destroy  the  nation,  but  a 
faithful  remnant  shall  be  left  (6 13  4  2-6)  tln-ough 
which  Israel  will  attain  its  glorious  destiny. 

The  Syro-Ephraimite  invasion.  It  is  in 
connexion  with  this  crisis  in  the  history  of 
Judah  that  Isaiah  first  comes  forward  as  a 
statesman.  Tiglath-pileser,  the  Assyrian 
monarch,  had  inaugurated  a  new  epoch  for 
that  Empire  by  forming  a  great  scheme  of 
conquest  which  should  unite  all  W.  Asia 
under  his  sway.  The  smaller  states  naturally 
took  alarm  and  sought  by  combination  to  keep 
off  the  common  enemy.  Rezin,  king  of  Syria, 
and  Pekah,  king  of  Israel,  thus  made  an 
alliance,  and  further  endeavoured  to  compel 
Judah  to  throw  in  its  lot  with  them.  Towards 
the  end  of  Jotham's  reign  they  first  assailed 
Judah  (2X1537),  and  before  Ahaz  had  long 
been  on  the  throne  they  made  a  determined 
attack  with  the  object  of  overthrowing  the 
Davidic  dynasty,  and  setting  on  the  throne  of 
Ahaz  a  nominee  of  their  own,  probably  a 
Syrian,  who  would  follow  their  line  of  policy 
(7  '5).     The  invasion  caused  a  panic  in  Judah, 


409 


INTRO. 


ISAIAH 


INTRO. 


and  Ahaz  suffered  serious  losses.  The  pas- 
sages bearing  on  the  crisis  are  chs.  71-9* 
98_104  171-11  (the  hist  two  being  more  espe- 
cially concerned  with  the  kingdom  of  Israel)  : 
cp.  2  K 165-9  2Ch285f.  Ahaz  formed  the 
project  of  calling  in  the  aid  of  Tiglath- 
pileser  (2K167  2Ch28i6),  a  course  which 
Isaiah  strongly  opposed,  foreseeing  that  it 
would  bring  calamity  upon  Judah  (7 17-20)  .  ^g 
urged  that  Judah  had  really  nothing  to  fear 
from  Rezin  and  Pekah,  whose  power  was 
doomed  to  speedy  overthrow  (7"^  8*  17i'3)^ 
and  urged  reliance  in  faith  upon  Jehovah 
(79)  as  the  only  way  to  secm-e  the  safety  and 
prosperity  of  the  kingdom.  Ahaz,  however, 
persisted  in  his  policy  of  buying  the  support 
of  Assyria,  with  the  result  that  Judah  became 
a  dependency  of  that  Empire,  and  was  further 
committed  to  religious  apostasy  (2  K 1 6  "^^  ^'  io-iS)_ 
While  the  seeds  of  future  trouble  and  disaster 
were  thus  sown,  as  Isaiah  foresaw,  Judah  was 
saved  from  the  danger  of  the  moment,  for  the 
Assyrians  overran  Syria,  captured  Damascus 
(732  B.C.),  slew  Rezin,  and  deported  the 
people  (2K169)  ;  the  kingdom  of  Israel  was 
also  at  the  same  time  reduced  to  a  dependent 
condition  and  the  people  of  its  N.  tribes  taken 
captive  to  Assyria  (2 K  15^9). 

Reign  of  Hezekiah  (727-699).  This  reign 
forms  the  third  period  of  Isaiah's  prophetic 
activity.  Hezekiah  was  guided  by  the  true 
prophets  of  Jehovah,  and  with  the  support  of 
Isaiah  and  Micah  (Jer26i8'i9)  carried  out  a 
great  reformation  in  religion,  so  that  Isaiah's 
ministry  was  exercised  under  more  favourable 
conditions  than  before.  About  the  time  of 
Hezekiah's  accession,  Tiglath-pileser  was  suc- 
ceeded on  the  throne  of  Assyria  by  Shal- 
maneser  IV.  Egypt  at  this  time  was  ruled  by 
Shebek  (Sabaco,  or  So)  of  the  Ethiopian 
dynasty.  Efforts  were  apparently  made  in 
the  early  years  of  Hezekiah's  reign  to  unite 
the  smaller  states  with  Egypt  in  order  to 
oppose  the  Assyrian  advance  westward. 
Hoshea,  king  of  Israel,  actually  allied  himself 
with  So  (2K17-i),  and  a  strong  party  in 
Judah  favoured  a  like  course.  This  line  of 
policy  Isaiah  consistently  opposed.  Earlier 
he  had  endeavoured  to  dissuade  Ahaz  from 
committing  himself  to  Assyria  and  from  en- 
tangling Judah  politically,  urging  him  to 
'take  heed  and  be  quiet'  (7 4).  Now  that 
Judah  had  become  tributary  to  Assyria,  he 
discouraged  the  project  of  attempting,  in  com- 
bination with  neighbouring  states  and  relying 
on  Egyptian  aid,  to  throw  off  allegiance,  for 
he  saw  that  prosperity  for  the  future  lay  in 
accepting  the  situation,  and  that  restless  plot- 
ting against  Assyria  would  involve  disaster  ; 
'  in  returning  and  rest  shall  ye  be  saved,  in 
quietness  and  confidence  shall  be  your  strength ' 
was  the  burden  of  his  advice  (30 1^).     Most 


especially  were  his  utterances  directed  against 
the  politicians  who  looked  upon  Egypt  for  sup- 
port against  Assyria,  exposing  their  scepticism, 
mistrust  in  Jehovah,  and  misplaced  confidence 
in  material  power  which  could  not  avail  them 
in  the  time  of  need  (chs.  28-31).  Shalmaneser 
led  an  army  to  Palestine  to  subdue  the  dis- 
affected states  ;  and,  after  a  siege  of  three  years, 
Samaria  was  captured  (722  B.C.)  by  his  suc- 
cessor Sargon,  the  Israelites  were  taken  into 
exile,  and  the  northern  kingdom  came  to  an 
end.  Sargon  then  advanced  against  the 
Egyptians  whom  he  completely  overthrew  in 
battle  at  Eaphia  (720  B.C.),  thus  justifying 
Isaiah's  warnings  as  to  the  futility  of  trusting 
in  the  power  of  Egypt.  Sargon  was  again  in 
Palestine  in  711  B.C.,  quelling  revolts  of  some 
of  the  smaller  states.  To  this  period  belong 
chs.  19,  20  (and  perhaps  22i-i4),  and  at  this 
time  were  probably  delivered  the  utterances 
concerning  the  fate  of  some  of  the  neighbour- 
ing nations  and  tribes  in  view  of  the  Assyrian 
advance  westward  (15,  16,  18,  21ii-i7  23). 
Sargon  was  succeeded  by  Sennacherib  in  705 
B.C.  Again  attempts  were  made  to  stu-  up 
revolt  against  Assyria  on  a  large  scale  with 
the  support  of  the  ^Ethiopian  Tirhakah,  now 
king  of  Egypt  (704  B.C.)  ;  in  the  negotiations 
a  leading  part  was  taken  by  Merodach-Baladan, 
king  of  Babylon  (c.  39).  Hezekiah  at  this 
time  refused  to  be  guided  by  Isaiah'  s  counsel 
of  submission  to  the  suzerainty  of  Senna- 
cherib and  joined  the  rebellion.  Sennacherib 
promptly  set  out  to  put  down  his  vassals  ; 
Babylon  was  captured  (21i-iO)  ;  Hezekiah  was 
reduced  to  submission  and  made  to  pay  a  heavy 
fine  (2  K  181^-1*'),  and  the  Assyrians  advanced 
against  Egypt.  A  little  later,  seeing  the  un- 
wisdom of  leaving  so  strong  a  fortress  as 
Jerusalem  intact  in  his  rear,  Sennacherib  sent 
an  embassy  to  demand  its  surrender,  con- 
temptuously defying  Jehovah's  power  to 
defend  it.  The  history  of  the  crisis  is  told  in 
chs.  36,  37,  and  the  prophecies  bearing  on  this 
great  invasion  of  Sennacherib  (701  B.C.)  are 
contained  in  chs.  105-126  1424-27  1712-u  33 
37  6, 7, 21-35.  The  prophet  taught  that  Jehovah 
is  supreme  over  all,  the  Assyrian  invader  was 
but  His  instrument  appointed  to  chastise  His 
people  for  their  sins  ;  he  could  not  therefore 
defy  Jehovah  with  impunity  ;  but  when  his 
work  was  finished  would  be  pl^nished  for  his 
arrogance  ;  a  sudden  disaster  should  overtake 
the  Assyrians,  and  Jehovah  would  preserve 
Jerusalem  inviolate,  a  prophecy  which  received 
a  remarkable  fulfilment  (37  3'^).  This  was  the 
culminating  point  of  Isaiah's  ministry,  and  no 
prophecies  of  a  later  date  which  may  be  with 
certainty  assigned  to  him  have  come  down  to  us. 

The  Work  of  Isaiah  as  a  Prophet 
It  was  the  work  of  a  prophet,  in  the  first 


410 


INTRO. 


ISAIAH 


INTRO. 


place,  as  a  preacher  of  righteousness,  to  speak 
in   the   Name  of  Jehovah,   and   it  is  in   this 
capacity  that  Isaiah  appears  about  the  time  of 
Ahaz's  accession,  rebuking  the  idolatry,  super- 
stition and  oppression  that  were  rife  in  the 
nation,    announcing    the    approaching    divine 
judgment  for   these   things,   yet  holding   out 
hope  of    a   golden   age   in   the   future,  for  a 
faithful  remnant  would  be  preserved  to  be  the 
nucleus  of  a  new  people,  true  to  its  divine 
calling.    This  doctrine  of  the  remnant  is  speci- 
allj^  characteristic  of   Isaiah  ;    for,   while   we 
meet  with  it  in  other  prophets  (Amos,  Zeph- 
aniah,  Habakkuk),  it  forms  the  keynote  of  his 
teaching  and    is    an   essential    and   persistent 
element  in  it.     The  idea  takes  shape  in   his 
call  to  be  a  prophet  (6^^),  it  is  embodied  in 
the  name  of  one  of  his  sons  (7  ^),  and  is  referred 
to  again  and  again -in  his  discourses  (4^  lO^i 
SQisf-).    But  Isaiah's  position  and  influence  at 
court  gave  a  wide  scope  to  his  genius,  so  that 
he  comes  before  us  as  a  statesman,  and  adviser 
of  kings  ;  both  under  Ahaz  and  under  Heze- 
kiah  it  was  his  work  to  endeavour  to  guide  the 
counsels  of  the  nation  in  accordance  with  the 
principles  of  true  religion,  and  with  the  will 
of  Jehovah  as  revealed  to  himself.     Thus  he 
attempted  to  dissuade  Ahaz  from  buying  As- 
syrian aid  in  the  crisis  of  the  Syro-Ephraimite 
invasion,  and  in  Hezekiah's  reign  was  the  con- 
sistent opponent  of  the  policy  of  alliance  with 
Egypt.      But   it  was   also    the    characteristic 
function  of  a  prophet  to  foretell  the  future, 
and  in  connexion  with  his  work  as  a  statesman 
Isaiah  uttered   some    remarkable    predictions 
which  received  speedy  and  striking  fulfilment. 
During  the  panic  caused   by  the  invasion  of 
Rezin  and  Pekah,  Isaiah  supported  his  exhorta- 
tions to  equanimity  by  foretelling  the  speedy 
ruin  of  the  hostile  kingdoms  (7^''  S'^),  and  the 
event  proved  him  right.     Again   during  the 
Assyrian  invasions  in  Hezekiah's  reign  Isaiah 
consistently  taught  the  inviolability  of  Jeru- 
salem and  repeatedly  predicted    sudden    and 
unlooked-for  disaster  to  the  Assyrians  in  the 
moment  of    their  apparent   triumph   (10i'''33 
1425  1712-14  376,7,21-35)^  prophecies  which  re- 
ceived a  remarkable  fulfilment  in  the  mysterious 
mortality  in  SerTnacherib's  army  which  obliged 
that  monarch  to  abandon  his  designs  against 
Jerusalem.     These  forecasts  must  have  been 
quite  beyond  the  range  of  a  politician's  calcula- 
tion, and  can  only  be  adequately  accounted  for 
by  the  possession  of  prophetic  insight.     The 
future  of  Judah  is,  in  Isaiah's  view,  bound  up 
with  the  fortunes  of  the  royal  house,  whose 
continuance  he  affirms  (9'^),  though  he  antici- 
pates for  it  dark  days  and  apparent  overthrow 
(10 11)  in  the  near  future.     The  deliverer  of 
God's  people  from  its  foes,  and  from  the  As- 
syrian in  particular,  is  to  be  a  king  of  David's 
line  whose  reign  is  to  introduce  a  golden  age 

41 


for  the  whole  world,  being  marked  by  right- 
eousness and  universal  peace.  While  earlier 
prophets  (Amos  and  Hosea)  had  merely  fore- 
told the  permanence  of  David's  line,  Isaiah 
goes  further,  fixing  his  attention  on  an  indi- 
vidual Messianic  King,  whose  character  and 
work  he  outlines  (9 1^. "  11 1-9).  He  is  the  agent 
of  Jehovah,  but  He  is  more  than  this,  for 
Isaiah  calls  Him  by  the  Divine  Name  (9  6)  and 
pictures  the  spirit  of  Jehovah  as  resting  upon 
Him  in  all  its  fulness  (1 1  2, 3)_  Thus,  according 
to  Isaiah,  Jehovah  was  to  be  fully  present  in 
the  person  of  the  Messianic  King,  who  was  to 
be  His  perfect  manifestation  as  Ruler  of  His 
people.  It  is  true  that  Isaiah  connects  the 
appearance  of  this  glorious  monarch  with  the 
defeat  of  the  Assyrians,  the  last  enemy  of 
Judah  on  his  horizon,  his  view  of  future  times 
being  foreshortened,  and  it  may  be  doubted 
how  far  he  understood  the  true  import  of  the 
words  that  he  spoke  concerning  the  person  and 
work  of  the  King,  seized  as  he  was  by  over- 
mastering inspiration  and  carried  quite  beyond 
himself  ;  but  Christians  can  read  his  utterances 
in  a  larger,  fuller  light,  and  see  how  wonder- 
fully they  were  fulfilled  in  the  Person  and 
work  of  Jesus  Christ  our  Lord. 

Chronological  Table 

745  Tiglath-pileser.  king  of  Assyria 

740  Call  of  Isaiah 

735  Ahaz,  king  of  Judah 

734  Pekah,  king  of  Israel,  defeated  and  slain 

by  the  Assyrians 
732  Rezin,  king  of  Syria,  slain,  and  Damascus 

taken  by  the  Assyrians 
727  Shalmaneser,  king  of  Assyria 
726  Hezekiah,  king  of  Judah 
722  Sargon,  king  of  Assyria.    Fall  of  Samaria 

and  end  of  kingdom  of  Israel 
711   Siege  of  Ashdod  by  the  Assyrians 
710  Defeat  of  Merodach-Baladan  and  capture 

of  Babylon  by  Sargon 
705  Sennacherib,  king  of  Assyria 
701  Great  invasion  of  Judah  by  Sennacherib 
G07  Nineveh  taken  by  the  Babylonians.    Rise 
,    of     the     Babylonian     Empire     under 

Nebuchadnezzar 
586  Jerusalem  taken  by  Nebuchadnezzar.  End 

of  kingdom  of  Judah 
549  Beginning  of  Cyrus'  victorious  career 
538  Capture  of  Babylon  by  Cyrus,  followed 

by  decree  for  the  return  of  the  Jewish 

exiles 

NoN-IsAiANic  Sections 

A  careful  study  of  the  internal  evidence 
(the  contents,  allusions,  implied  historical  set- 
ting and  literary  style)  has  led  the  majority  of 
modern  scholars  to  the  conclusion  that  some 
poridons  of  this  book  as  we  now  have  it  are 
not  the  work  of  Isaiah  the  son  of  Amoz,  but 
1 


INTRO. 


ISAIAH 


INTRO. 


were  added  to  his  prophecies  at  a  later  period, 
much  in  the  same  way  as  psalms  by  later 
writers  were  added  to  the  original  collection 
ascribed  to  David,  and  as  prophecies  of  various 
dates  by  unknown  authors  were  appended  to 
the  written  works  of  Zechariah.  The  most 
considerable  sections  which  have  thus  been 
separated  by  critical  study  from  the  works  of 
Isaiah  are  : — 

(1)  Chs.  40-66,  now  assigned  by  quite  a 
general  consensus  of  opinion  to  an  author  (or 
possibly  authors)  who  lived  towards  the  close 
of  the  Babylonian  exile. 

(2)  Chs.  13-1423  (see  notes). 

(3)  Chs.  24-27  (see  notes). 

(4)  Chs.  34,  35  (see  notes). 

(5)  Chs.  36-39,  parallel,  and  in  the  main 
identical,  with  2  K 1813-2019.  An  historical 
appendix  added  because  of  its  bearing  on 
Isaiah's  prophetic  activity  in  the  reign  of 
Hezekiah. 

The  reasons  for  separating  chs.  40-66  from 
the  acknowledged  prophecies  of  Isaiah  are  : — 

(a)  The  standpoint  of  the  writer  is  that  of 
the  Babylonian  exile,  more  than  a  century  after 
Isaiah's  death  :  he  is  living  amongst,  and  speak- 
ing to,  the  Jews  in  exile.  See  e.g.  42^2  4328 
47  ^  52  5.  Jerusalem  is  no  longer  inviolate  as  in 
1-39,  but  has  been  for  some  time  deserted  and 
in  ruins  (4426  5812  61  ^  63  is  64io.ii),  and  the 
return  of  the  captives  to  their  own  land  is 
anticipated  in  the  immediate  future  (46 1^  48  20). 
In  Isaiah's  time  Assyria  under  Shalmaneser, 
Sargon,  and  Sennacherib  was  the  dominant 
world  power.  But  in  40-66  the  Babylonian 
Empire,  which  under  Nebuchadnezzar  had  suc- 
ceeded to  the  power  of  Assyria,  is  tottering  to 
its  fall,  and  destined  to  be  overthrown  by 
Cyrus  who  has  embarked  on  his  victorious 
career.  Isaiah's  name  and  personality,  again, 
so  prominent  in  1-39,  are  never  alluded  to  in 
40-66.  Now,  however  far  an  OT.  prophet 
may  project  his  vision  into  the  future,  the 
standpoint  from  which  he  does  so  is  always 
that  of  his  own  time,  and  his  words  are  for 
the  warning  or  encouragement  of  those  of  his 
own  age.  But  on  the  supposition  that  Isaiah 
is  the  author  of  these  chs.  not  only  does  he 
project  his  vision  into  the  future,  but  first 
projects  himself  to  a  standpoint  in  the  future, 
and,  though  living  while  the  kingdom  of  .ludah 
was  still  in  existence  and  Jerusalem  outwardly 
flourishing,  addresses  himself  to  the  encourage- 
ment of  the  Jews  of  a  future  age,  when  they 
should  be  in  exile,  and  their  city  and  Temple 
a  heap  of  ruins.  But  this  would  be  a  case 
without  parallel  in  OT.  prophecy,  and  it  is 
therefore  much  more  likely  that  these  chs.  are 
the  work  of  one  who  actually  lived  towards 
the  close  of  the  exile. 

(b)  The  argument  in  chs.  41,  45  seems  to 
depend   on  the   fact  that  Cyrus,  the  Persian 


conqueror,  has  begun  his  victorious  career. 
The  action  of  Cyrus  is  appealed  to  as  a  proof 
that  Jehovah  has  not  forgotten  His  people  and 
will  perform  His  promises.  The  passages 
concerning  Cyrus  are  not  prophecies  of  his 
coming  (as  is  sometimes  said),  but  rather 
triumphant  appeals  to  the  fact  that  he  has 
come.  His  career  is  followed  with  anxious 
interest,  and  his  successes  are  regarded  as 
accumulating  evidences  of  Jehovah's  care  for 
His  people,  and  of  the  working  out  of  His 
will  in  the  course  of  human  history.  This 
points  to  a  date  shortly  after  the  middle  of 
the  6th  century  B.C.  :  for  Cyrus,  whom  the 
Jews  rightly  anticipated  as  their  deliverer, 
first  appeared  about  550  B.C.,  overthrew  the 
Median  empire  in  549,  and  after  other  achieve- 
ments captured  Babylon  in  538,  and  gave 
permission  for  the  return  of  the  captive  Jews 
to  their  own  country. 

(c)  When  we  look  into  chs.  40-66  we  find 
that  they  differ  considerably  from  the  earlier 
part  of  the  book  both  in  language  and  style. 
This  by  itself  is  not  a  conclusive  argument, 
because  a  man's  style  may  alter  a  great  deal  at 
different  periods  in  his  life,  being  liable  to 
modification  from  varying  circumstances,  age, 
or  change  of  subject  matter  ;  nevertheless  it 
materially  strengthens  the  case  when  taken  in 
connexion  with  the  other  arguments  noticed. 
Some  of  the  more  striking  differences  of  style 
observable  are  : — 

(1)  Some  words  or  expressions  characteristic 
of  1-39  are  absent  from  40-66,  such  as  :  the 
title  'the  Lord  Jehovah  of  hosts'  (124  31 
1 0 16, 33  1 9  4)  .  the  word  used  for  '  idols  '  (2  ».  is,  20 
1011  191.3  317);  the  use  of  the  figm-e  of 
Jehovah  '  arising '  or  '  being  exalted '  (e.g. 
2 11. 19  5 1«  28  21  30 18)  ;  the  expression  '  glory '  of 
a  nation  (e.g.  5i3  8^  IOI6.18);  the  figm-e  of 
Jehovah's  '  hand  stretched  out '  in  judgment 
(e.g.  525  912.17,21  104  1426,27  2311  313);  a 
peculiar  word  for  the  '  blinding '  of  the  eyes, 
variously  rendered  in  AV  '  shut '  (6 1*^),  '  closed ' 
(29  K^),  '  dim  '  (323)  .  a  striking  word  '  stir  up  ' 
(9 11),  'set  up,'  'set'  (192);  the  expression, 
'head  and  tail,  palm  branch  and  rush,'  figura- 
tively used  (914  1915);  the  term  'fruitful 
field  '  (10  IS  2917  and  other  places)  ;  the  very 
characteristic  word  '  remnant '  (in  the  name 
S/imr-jashub,  73  1020,21  nil  and  elsewhere)  ; 
an  unusual  word  for  'many'  (16  i*  1712  282). 

(2)  On  the  other  hand,  noticeable  words  or 
expressions  recur  in  40-66,  which  are  absent 
from  undoubted  prophecies  of  Isaiah,  such  as  : 
'  all  flesh  '  (405,6  4926  6616.23,24)  .  the  expres- 
sion '  as  nothing  '  (4017  41 11.12)  ;  the  exhorta- 
tion to  '  lift  up  the  eyes  '  (4026  49  is  51 6  604)  ; 
the  verb  '  choose  '  in  connexion  with  Jehovah's 
choice  of  His  people  (418,9  4310,20  and 
frequently)  ;  the  verb  '  praise '  and  cognate 
noun    (428,10,12    4321    and    often);     a    rare 


412 


INTRO. 


ISAIAH 


1. 


expression  for  'things  to  come'  (4123  447 
45 11)  ;  the  verb  rendered  '  spring  up '  or  '  spring 
forth  '  (e.g.  42^  44*  45  8)  ;  an  uncommon  word 
for  'bow  down'  (4415, 17,19  4g6)  .  ^n  unusual 
word  meaning  to  '  break  forth '  into  singing 
(4423  4913  and  other  places)  ;  the  title  'Holy 
City  '  (48  2  521);  references  to  the  '  mirage  ' 
(4910,  also  35^  [non-Isaianic]  )  ;  the  phrase  '  to 
clothe  oneself,'  or,  '  be  clothed  with,'  used 
figm-atively  (49 1^  50  ^  and  elsewhere)  ;  frequent 
reference  to  the  '  sons  of  Zion  '  (4917,22,25  51  20 
and  often)  ;  utterances  of  Jehovah  beginning 
with  the  words  'I  am'  (455,6,18  and  very 
frequently). 

Some  of  the  most  striking  differences  in 
phraseology  have  been  noted  by  way  of 
example,  but  much  longer  lists  might  be  given. 
It  is  true  that  those  who  argue  for  unity  of 
authorship  are  able  to  point  to  certain  resem- 
blances, such  as  the  use  of  the  characteristic 
title  '  Holy  One  of  Israel '  and  the  reciu-rence 
of  Tohu  ('chaos,'  Gnl^)  ;  but  the  midoubted 
affinities  between  the  two  parts  of  the  book 
may  be  explained,  it  is  thought,  by  the  influ- 
ence of  the  prophecies  of  Isaiah  upon  the 
author  of  40-66. 

(f?)  As  there  is  considerable  divergence  in 
phraseology  between  the  two  main  divisions 
of  the  book,  so  the  underlying  ideas  and  doc- 
trines are  in  some  respects  widely  different,  e.g. : 

(1)  The  conception  of  the  faithful  remnant 
so  characteristic  of  chs.  1-39,  though  it  may 
be  implied  in  a  few  places  (59^0  65  s>^),  has  no 
important  position  in  40-66,  and  Isaiah's  word 
'  remnant '  (Shear)  does  not  occur. 

(2)  The  conception  of  Jehovah  in  chs.  40- 
Qio  shows  an  advance  on  that  of  the  acknow- 
ledged prophecies  of  Isaiah.  It  is  broader  and 
fuller,  bringing  into  prominence,  not  the 
transcendent  greatness  and  holiness  of  God, 
but  His  infinite  wisdom,  knowledge,  and  power, 
as  seen  in  the  creation,  sustaining,  and  govern- 
ment of  the  world. 

(3)  Chs.  40-66  are  marked  by  the  introduc- 
tion of  subjects  that  are  new.  The  most 
remarkable  of  these  is  the  wonderful  conception 
of  '  the  servant  of  Jehovah.' 

(4)  Again,  subjects  that  are  not  new  in 
themselves  receive  in  chs.  40-66  quite  different 
treatment.  Jerusalem  in  1-39  is  the  capital 
and  sanctuary,  threatened  yet  secure  in 
Jehovah's  protection.  In  40-66  the  city  is 
already  ruined  (61*),  but  destined  to  be 
gloriously  restored,  and  the  delineation  of  the 
glories  of  the  new  Jerusalem,  with  intimation 
of  the  part  that  the  nations  of  the  world  shall 
take  in  its  restoration,  forms  a  remarkable 
featm-e  of  the  later  chapters  of  the  book  (see 
especially  c.  60). 

(5)  Very  remarkable  is  the  change  which 
comes  over  Messianic  prophecy  when  we  pass 
to  chs.  40-66.     In  the  utterances  of  Isaiah 


413 


the  hopes  for  the  realisation  of  the  ideal 
future  are  centred  in  a  Scion  of  the  House  of 
David  (97  111);  but  the  promises  so  imper- 
fectly realised  during  the  period  of  the 
kingdom  are  in  40-66  transferred  from  the 
Messianic  king  to  the  nation  as  Jehovah's 
chosen  servant  ;  not,  however,  to  the  people 
considered  in  themselves,  but  in  dependence 
on  an  individual,  a  personal  representative  of 
Jehovah,  in  whom  as  a  perfect  servant  are 
summed  up  the  ideal  qualities  of  Israel. 

Taking  together  the  arguments  thus  briefly 
summarised,  it  is  difficult  to  avoid  the  conclu- 
sion that  chs.  40-66  are  not  the  work  of 
Isaiah,  but  of  a  prophet  who  exercised  his 
ministry  towards  the  end  of  the  period  of  the 
Jewish  exile  in  Babylon.  There  is  no  reason 
why  the  student  of  Holy  Scripture  should 
be  disquieted  by  such  a  conclusion,  for  it  does 
not  follow  that  the  trustworthiness  and 
inspiration  of  chs.  40-66  must  be  given  up.  The 
author  of  these  chs.  does  not  claim  to  be  Isaiah, 
and  the  name  of  that  prophet  is  not  even 
mentioned  in  them.  Belief  in  the  inspiration 
and  divine  authority  of  the  OT.  cannot  fairly 
be  held  to  bind  us  to  a  particular  theory  or  to 
human  traditions,  as  to  the  literary  structure 
of  the  several  books.  This  has  to  be  investi- 
gated by  the  ordinary  methods  of  literary 
research,  because  God's  revelation  has  come 
down  to  us  embodied  in  a  literature  which  has 
not  been  exempted  from  the  ordinary 
conditions  of  literary  composition  and  trans- 
mission. 

CHAPTER   1 

Jehovah's  Arraignment  of  His  People 
This  c.  is  general  in  character,  and  much  of 
it  (e.g.  vv.  10-17)  might  refer  to  almost  any 
period.  This  general  character  of  the  pro- 
phecy renders  it  especially  suitable  as  an 
introduction,  and  may  account  for  its  position 
at  the  beginning  of  the  book.  It  gives  us  a 
picture  of  the  internal  condition  of  Judah  in 
Isaiah's  age,  and  not  only  brings  out  his  charac- 
teristic teaching,  but  more  than  any  other  OT. 
passage  indicates  the  general  line  of  prophetic 
doctrine.  Owing  to  the  corrupt  state  of  the 
nation  Jehovah  will  avenge  Himself  by  a 
judgment,  through  which,  while  it  proves  the 
destruction  of  sinners,  the  people  will  be 
purified,  and  its  ideal  character  realised  by  the 
remnant  that  shall  be  left  (vv.  24-26  :  cp.  v.  9). 
Some  indication  of  date  is  afforded  by  vv.  7-9, 
where  the  prophet  states  that  the  land  is 
wasted  by  foreign  invaders  and  the  capital  cut 
off  from  outside  help.  The  prophecy  might 
accordingly  be  assigned  to  (1)  the  invasion  by 
Rezin  and  Pekah  in  the  reign  of  Ahaz  (7i), 
735  B.C.;  (2)  an  invasion  by  Sargon  (201), 
711  B.C.  ;  or  (3)  the  invasion  by  Sennacherib 
(chs.  36,  37)  in  Hezekiah's  reign,  701  B.C.     It 


1.  2 


ISAIAH 


% 


is  in  favour  of  (1)  that  the  prophecy  occurs  in 
connexion  with  others  belonging  to  the  reign 
of  Ahaz  (chs.  2-5),  and  perhaps  the  rebuke  of 
formal  worship  suits  this  period  best ;  the 
'  strangers  '  of  v.  7  would  then  be  Pekah's 
Syi'ian  allies.  Most  recent  commentators,  how- 
ever, assign  the  prophecy  to  date  (3).  There 
is  a  similar  rebuke  of  formal  religion  in  29  ^^ 
(same  period),  though  the  tone  of  this  c.  is  un- 
like that  of  those  prophecies  which  undoubtedly 
refer  to  Sennacherib's  invasion  (e.g.  chs.  29, 30). 
2-9.  Judah's  unnatural  conduct  and  its 
consequences.  10-17.  Sedulous  worship  of 
Jehovah  is  no  defence,  because  a  merely  formal 
service  is  displeasing  to  Him.  18-23.  Je- 
hovah offers  reconciliation  on  condition  of 
amendment.  24-31.  The  gracious  offer  being 
refused,  sentence  is  passed. 

1.  See  Intro. 

2.  Children]  Jehovah  claimed  Israel  as  His 
son  at  the  exodus  (Ex  4  22).  3.  The  un- 
naturalness  of  Israel's  conduct  is  similarly 
contrasted  with  the  behaviour  of  the  animal 
creation,  in  JerS'^.  4.  Seed  of  evildoers] 
i.e.  consisting  of  evildoers  (1420).  Are  cor- 
rupters] B,V  '  deal  corruptly. '  The  Holy  One 
of  Israel]  The  use  of  this  title  is  character- 
istic of  Isaiah,  and  traceable  to  the  impression 
made  by  the  vision  wherein  he  received  his 
call  and  heard  the  seraphic  '  Ter-Sanctus.' 
See  Intro. 

5.  EV  '  "Why  will  ye  be  still  stricken,  that 
ye  revolt  ? '  etc.  Why  expose  yourselves  to 
further  punishment  ?  Read,  '  Every  head  .  . 
every  heart.'  The  noblest  parts  of  the  body 
stand  for  the  rulers  and  counsellors  of  the 
body  politic. 

7.  As  overthrown  by  strangers]  lit.  '  as  an 
overthrow  of  strangers,'  i.e.  (a)  as  an  over- 
throw wrought  by  strangers,  or  {V)  as  when 
strangers  (whom  God  cares  not  for)  are 
overthrown. 

8.  Cottage .  .  lodge]  solitary  huts  where 
watchmen  lived  :  cp.  Lam2''  RV.  The  figures 
express  isolation.  Owing  to  the  occupation 
and  devastation  of  the  country  by  invaders  the 
city  is  left  helpless. 

9.  The  cities  of  the  plain  had  perished 
through  lack  of  a  righteous  remnant  (G-n  18  24-32). 
The  possession  of  such  a  remnant  had  proved 
the  salvation  of  Judah. 

10.  The  rulers  of  Jerusalem  are  addressed 
as  jTilers  of  Sodom,  and  the  nation  as  people  of 
Gomorrah.  Thus  are  emphasised  both  their 
wickedness  and  their  peril  :  cp.  EzklG'is-^*^. 

The  law  of  our  God]  referring  not  to  the 
written  law,  but  to  the  divine  teaching  which 
follows,  delivered  through  the  prophet  :    see 

23  816. 

11.  Idelightnot]  cp.  Pss406  SPe  Am52i,22 
Mic67.  12.  Tread]  RV  trample';  like  beasts 
without    understanding.      The    worship    was 


merely  formal.  13.  Vain  oblations]  Not  the 
offerings  in  themselves,  but  their  hypo- 
critical character  is  reprobated.  Iniquity] 
lit.  'nothingness,'  '  worthlessness.'  14.  New 
moons]  refeiTing  to  the  monthly  festivals 
(Nu28ii  IS 20 5). 

15.  Your  hands,  etc.]  The  hands,  uplifted 
in  prayer,  are  stained  with  blood. 

16.  17.   Condition  of  acceptance  with  God. 

17.  Judgment]  i.e.  justice.  Relieve  the 
oppressed]   EM  '  set  right  the  oppressor.' 

18.  Let  us  reason]  i.e.  that  the  right  may 
appear.  Forgiveness  will  follow  obedience  and 
repentance. 

21.  An  harlot]  figuratively  expressing  the 
faithlessness,  through  its  idolatry,  of  the  nation 
which  had  been  betrothed  to  God  :  cp.  Ex  34 1^ 
Dt31i*5.     Judgment]  i.e.  justice,  as  in  v.  17. 

22.  Mixed]  read,  '  weakened.'  The  images 
describe  the  degeneracy  of  the  rulers ;  the 
best  have  become  debased.  23.  Companions 
of  thieves]  i.e.  conniving  at  miscarriage  of 
justice:  cp.  Mic7^. 

24.  Mine  adversaries]  the  evildoers  in  Jeru- 
salem.    God  will  purge  the  city  of  them. 

25.  Purely  purge,  etc.]  RM  'purge  away 
thy  dross  as  with  lye,'  lye,  or  potash,  being 
used  as  a  flux  in  purifjdng  metals.  Tin]  i.e. 
alloy.  27.  With  judgment .  .  with  righteous- 
ness] i.e.  (a)  through  the  manifestation  of 
God's  justice  and  righteousness,  or  (&)  through 
the  justice  and  righteousness  which  the  re- 
generate people  exhibit.  Her  converts]  i.e. 
those  of  her  who  return  (to  Jehovah). 

29.  They  shall  be  ashamed . .  ye  have  desired] 
The  subject  in  each  clause  is  the  same  in 
thought,  though  the  person  of  the  verb  is 
changed.  Such  abrupt  change  of  person  is 
not  uncommon  in  Hebrew,  especially  in  the 
prophets,  e.g.  Mic  7 1^  Mai  2  is. 

29.  The  oaks]  mentioned  as  connected  with 
idolatrous  worship  :  cp.  2Kl6'i  17  i^.  Sacred 
trees  were  supposed  to  be  inhabited  by  a  deity, 
to  whom  the  worship  was  offered.  The 
prophet  indicates  that  such  nature-worship 
will  disappoint  its  votaries.  TTie  gardens] 
referred  to  as  the  scene  of  heathen  rites  :  cp. 
653.  30.  The  fate  of  the  wicked  described  in 
imagery  suggested  by  v.  29.  31.  Read,  '  And 
the  strong '  (i.e.  the  wealthy  and  powerful 
man)  '  shall  be  as  tow,  and  his  work '  (i.e.  the 
idolatrous  image)  '  as  a  spark.'  The  meaning 
is  that  his  sin  will  be  the  cause  of  his  ruin. 

CHAPTERS  2-5 

Isaiah's  Preaching  early  in  the 
Reign  of  Ahaz 
Chs.  2-4  are  closely  connected,  and  c.  5  is 
generally  thought  to  belong  to  the  same  period, 
though  it  probably  represents  discourses  de- 
livered rather  later.  There  are  two  points 
which  serve  as  indications  of  date  :  (a)  The 


414 


%% 


ISAIAH 


8.  1 


influx  of  foreign  fashions,  both  in  religion 
(2'^>'^)  and  in  common  life  (3  ^'^•23,  where  the 
difficulty  of  explaining  the  names  for  the 
various  articles  of  female  attire  from  the 
Hebrew  suggests  that  the  articles,  like  the 
names,  were  of  foreign  importation).  (V) 
The  weak  and  capricious  character  of  the  king 
and  his  advisers  (3 1'-^).  These  features  point 
to  the  reign  of  Ahaz,  who  was  an  innovator  in 
religion  (2K162-4.  lO)^  but  in  that  case  these 
chs.  must  be  placed  quite  early  in  his  reign, 
because  we  should  gather  from  the  mention 
of  deep-sea  sliips  (2 1^)  that  Elath,  the  one  sea- 
port of  the  kingdom,  was  still  in  the  possession 
of  Judah,  while  we  read  in  2  K 1 6  *>  that  the 
Syrians  captured  it  during  the  invasion  by 
Rezin  and  Pekah. 

C.  2.  2-4.  Isaiah  quotes  a  prophecy  that 
the  nations  shall  resort  to  Zion,  and  there 
learn  true  religion,  with  the  result  of  universal 
peace.  5-9.  Before  this  future  can  be  real- 
ised, God's  own  people  must  trust  in  Him  and 
forsake  their  idolatry.  10-22.  The  retributive 
judgment  that  is  coming  on  the  nation  is 
described  in  detail. 

C.  3.  i-iS-  The  ruin  of  social  order  in 
Judah,  traceable  to  the  misconduct  of  the 
rulers,  who  shall  be  punished. 

16-C.  4I.  The  sin  and  punishment  of  the 
ladies  of  Jerusalem.  2-6.  The  day  of  the 
Lord,  though  a  day  of  judgment  for  the 
wicked,  will  prove  a  day  of  salvation  for  the 
faithful  remnant. 

C.  5.  1-7.  Judah  compared  in  a  parable  to 
an  unfruitful  vineyard.  8-24.  The  charge  of 
bringing  forth  evil  fruit  is  proved  in  detail. 

[25-30.  The  coming  invasion  and  dark 
prospect.] 

CHAPTER  2 

2-4.  occur  also  with  a  few  slight  variations 
in  Mic-ii--*.  The  passage  appears  to  be  bor- 
rowed in  Isaiah,  because  (a)  it  suits  its  context 
better  in  Micah,  and  [li)  it  is  more  complete  in 
Micah,  Mic4'*  being  a  part  of  it.  If  Isaiah  is 
quoting  from  Micah,  the  latter  prophet  must 
have  spoken  the  words  before  the  occasion  re- 
ferred to  in  Jer26i^.  Both  prophets  may  be 
quoting  from  some  ancient  and  well-known 
prediction  regarding  the  future  of  Zion. 

2.  In  the  last  days]  RV  '  in  the  latter  days.' 
The  phrase  has  the  general  meaning  of  '  future 
time  '  (Gn  49 1  Dt  4  30  Jer  23  20).  Its  use  in  the 
prophetic  books  makes  the  expression  practi- 
cally equivalent  to  '  Messianic  times,'  and  the 
Apostles  in  NT.  use  the  corresponding  Gk.  in 
the  sense  of  '  the  Christian  dispensation ' 
(Ac  2 17  1  Pet  1 20  ijn  2 18  Heb  1 L  2).  In  the  top 
of]  RM  '  at  the  head  of.'  Under  the  figure 
of  a  physical  change  is  set  forth  the  supremacy 
of  Israel's  religion  :  Zion  will  be  recognised 
as  the  spiritual  capital  of  the  world. 


415 


3.  People]  RV  'peoples.'  The  law]  RM 
'  teaching  '  or  '  instruction,'  such  as  was  given 
by  prophets  and  priests  :  see  8 1*5.  4.  Among] 
RV  '  between.'  The  nations  will  submit  their 
disputes  to  the  arbitration  of  Israel's  God. 
The  conviction  of  the  universality  of  the 
religion  of  Israel  is  here  plainly  shown. 

5.  The  prophet  urges  the  people  to  repent, 
that  they  may  fulfil  their  destiny. 

6.  Therefore]  RV  '  For.'  Replenished  from 
the  east]  alluding  to  the  influx  of  settlers  and 
foreign  customs  from  that  quarter.  Sooth- 
sayers, etc.]  Soothsayers  are  forbidden  amongst 
the  Israelites  in  Dt  18 10.  We  find  an  Israelite 
king  sending  to  consult  at  the  Philistine  town 
of  Ekron  (2  K 1 2).  Please  themselves  in]  RV 
'  strike  hands  with':  i.e.  'make  compacts  with' 
born  heathen.  The  reference  is  to  bargains 
and  commercial  undertakings  (2  K  14^2  166). 

7.  The  increase  of  wealth  and  military  or- 
ganisation here  referred  to  were  features  of 
Uzziah's  reign  (2Ch26i-i5).  9.  Boweth  down 
.  .  humbleth  himself]  i.e.  before  the  idols. 

12.  The  day  of  the  LORD  of  hosts  >>hall  he\ 
RM  '  the  Lord  of  hosts  hath  a  day.'  '  Day  ' 
might  mean  (a)  day  of  battle  or  victory,  cp. 
Am  5 18-20,  the  earliest  mention  of  the  Day  of 
the  Lord,  or  (ft)  day  of  judgment.  This  be- 
came the  usual  meaning  ;  so  regularly  in  NT. 
Cp.  lCor43-5.  13-16.  The  proud  will  be 
humbled  by  the  destruction  of  the  things  that 
minister  to  their  pride.  15.  Alluding  to  the 
works  and  fortifications  of  Uzziah  and  Jotham 
(2  Ch  209.10  273,4). 

16.  Ships  of  Tarshish]  i.e.  deep-sea  ships 
used  for  foreign  trade.  Tarshish  is  supposed 
to  have  been  in  S.  Spain,  at  the  furthest  limit 
of  Phoenician  commerce.  Judah  at  this  time 
possessed  a  mercantile  fleet,  the  station  of 
which  was  at  Elath,  on  the  Red  Sea  (2K16t'). 

Pleasant  pictures]  The  word  rendered  '  pic- 
tures '  means  something  figured  or  with  imag- 
ery upon  it.  A  cognate  word  is  used  of  idol- 
atrous imagery  (Nu3352)  and  of  idolatrous 
images  painted  on  walls  (Ezk8i2).  Since  the 
word  here  occurs  in  close  connexion  with 
ships,  the  reference  may  be  to  the  sails,  which 
were  often  embroidered  with  figures  in  an- 
cient times.  Some  prefer  the  meaning  '  watch- 
towers,'  the  root  ha^'ing  in  Aramaic  the  sense 
'  to  look  out.' 

20.  Cast  his  idols]  in  disgust  at  their  in- 
ability to  help.  21.  Men  will  try  to  hide 
from  God  in  terror.  22.  Wanting  in  LXX, 
and  pei-haps  a  gloss. 

CHAPTER  3 

I.  Stay  and  the  staff]  A  prophecy  of  famine: 
cp.  V.  7,  as  the  clause  following  explains.  But 
if  the  latter  clause  is  a  gloss  then  '  stay  and 
staff '  would  refer  to  the  classes  upon  which  the 
stability  of  the  life  of  the  community  depends. 


3.  2 


ISAIAH 


5.  25 


'  Staff '    in    the    Heb.    is   the  fern,  form   of 
'  stay.' 

2.  The  prudent]  RV  '  the  diviner,'  at  this 
time  in  high  estimation  (26).  The  ancient] 
E,M  '  the  elder,'  who  held  orfices  in  villages 
and  towns  (Ruth  4  2. 4  2  K  11)1).  3.  Artificer] 
cp.  Jer24i;  but  RM  'charmer.'  Eloquent 
orator]  '  skilful  enchanter.'  4.  Children  .  . 
babes]  in  character  rather  than  in  years. 

6,  7.  The  meaning  is,  the  state  of  society 
shall  be  such  that  a  man  who  ajjparently  has 
the  bare  necessaries  of  life  shall  be  invited  to 
be  dictator,  but  in  vain. 

9.  The  shew  of  their  countenance]  i.e.  their 
expression  ;  the  meaning  being  that  their  char- 
acter may  be  read  in  their  face.  But  RM  has, 
'  Their  respecting  of  persons  doth  witness,' 
etc.  12.  Cp.  V.  4.  They  which  lead  thee]  lit. 
'  they  that  set  thee  right,'  i.e.  they  that  should 
set  thee  aright.  The  reference  is  to  king 
Ahaz  and  his  counsellors,  amongst  whom  the 
queen-mother  was  prominent.  13.  People] 
RV  '  peoples.'  14.  Ancients]  see  v.  2.  For 
ye]  the  pronoun  is  emphatic  :  RV  '  It  is  ye 
that  have  eaten  up.' 

16  f.  A  protest  against  prevalent  luxury  as 
evidenced  in  the  extravagant  toilette  of  the 
ladies  of  Jerusalem. 

16.  Tinkling]  caused  by  silver  bells  on  the 
ankles.  18.  Cauls]  RM  'networks.'  Round 
tires  like  the  moon]  RV  '  crescents ' ;  mentioned 
as  iSIidianitish  ornaments  (Jg8-i'26)_ 

19.  Chains]  RV  '  pendants,'  or  '  eardrops  '  ; 
mentioned  as  Midianitish  ornaments  (JgS'^''). 

20.  Bonnets]  RV  '  headtires.'  The  same  word 
is  used  of  a  bridegroom's  headdi-ess  (61  lO). 

Ornaments  of  the    legs]   RV  '  ankle-chains.' 
Headbands]    RV  '  sashes,'    such     as    were 
worn    by   brides  (4918  Jer  2  32).     Tablets]  RV 
'  perfume  boxes.'     Earrings]  RV  '  amulets.' 

21.  Nose  jewels]  fastened  to  the  nostril  : 
see  Gn2422.  22.  Changeable  suits  of  ap- 
parel] RV  'festival  robes.'  Wimples]  RV 
'  shawls.'     Crisping  pins]    RV   '  satchels.' 

23.  Glasses]  RV  '  hand  mirrors.'  Hoods] 
RV  '  turbans.' 

24.  Instead  of,  etc.]  RV  '  instead  of  sweet 
spices  there  shall  be  rottenness.'  Rent]  RV 
'  rope,'  i.e.  binding  the  captive.  Burning]  RV 
'  branding.'  i.e.  of  a  slave. 

25.  26.  Thy,  her]  the  pronouns  refer  to 
Zion.  26.  Sit  upon  the  ground]  a  posture  of 
mourning  :  cp.  Lam  1 1. 

CHAPTER  4 

I.  The  women  do  not  claim  to  be  kept  as 
the  man's  wives,  but  only  pray  that  he  will 
remove  from  them  the  reproach  of  being 
childless  (cp.  Gn3023),  so  depopulated  has  the 
land  become.     The  v.  belongs  to  c.  3. 

In  that  day]  i.e.  when  the  Day  of  God's 
judgment  (2 12  3 1^)  is  over. 


2.  Branch]  not  here  a  title  of  Messiah  (the 
word  is  not  the  same  in  111)  ^^t  referring  to 
the  verdm-e  of  the  land.  Fertility  of  the  soil 
is  often  a  feature  of  the  ideal  future  in  the 
prophets  (30^3  Am'Jis  Zech  9 1^- 17).  For  the 
expression  '  branch  of  Jehovah  '  cp.  '  cedars 
of  God,'  PsSQiO;  'trees of  Jehovah,'  Psl04i'5. 

Escaped]  referring  to  the  godly  remnant 
(613).  2,  Shall  be  called  holy]  i.e.  as  actually 
being  so  :  cp.  1 2<5.  Written]  i.e.  enrolled  as  a 
citizen.  4.  Spirit]  RM  '  blast.'  5.  Upon 
every  dwelling  place]  RV  '  over  the  whole 
habitation.'  A  cloud,  etc.]  the  sign  of  God's 
protecting  presence  ;  the  imagery  is  from  the 
exodus  (Ex  1321, 22  Ui9,20).  Upon  all,  etc.] 
'  over  all  the  glory  shall  be  spread  a  canopy,' 
i.e.  for  shadow  and  refuge,  as  explained  in  the 
next  V.     6.  Tabernacle]  RV  '  pavilion.' 

CHAPTER   5 

1-24.  Judah,  God's  unfruitful  vineyard,  and 
the  judgment  upon  it. 

I.  I]  i.e.  Isaiah.  To  my]  rather,  '  for  my,' 
or  '  of  my.'  The  beloved,  as  appears  later,  is 
Jehovah  :  cp.  our  Lord's  parable  (Mt2133). 
The  allegory  is  rhythmical  in  form  :  cp.  Song 
8 11-1-^).     2.  Tower]  watch-tower  :  see  on  1^. 

3  f.  God  speaks. 

7.  Judgment]  i.e.  justice.  Oppression]  per- 
haps better,  'bloodshed.'  Aery]  i.e.  of  the 
oppressed. 

8-10.  Unjust  seizure  of  land  resulting  in 
barrenness  and  want  of  population.  8.  Place] 
RV  '  room.'  10.  Bath]  about  8  gallons.  And 
the  seed,  etc.]  RV  '  and  a  homer  of  seed 
shall  yield  but  an  ephah.'  An  ephah  is  the 
tenth  part  of  a  homer,  which  was  10  or  12 
bushels  (Ezk  4.5 11). 

II.  That  continue  until  night]  RV  'that 
tarry  late  into  the  night.'  12.  Regard  not, 
etc.]  i.e.  have  no  regard  for  the  working  of  the 
Lord's  will  in  the  events  of  history.  13.  Are 
gone  into  captivity]  an  example  of  the  '  pro- 
phetic perfect.'  The  future  is  regarded  as  so 
certain  that  it  is  described  as  past.  14.  Hell] 
Heb.  Sheol,  i.e.  the  place  of  departed  spirits, 
RM  '  the  gi-ave  '  :  cp.  Gn3735.     15.  Cp.  2^,17. 

17.  After  their  manner]  RV  '  as  in  their 
pasture.'     So  desolate  will  the  cities  be. 

Strangers]  RM  '  wanderers.'  The  meaning 
is  that  nomad  tribes  wander  over  the  land  at 
pleasure. 

18.  The  people  have  chained  themselves  to 
sin  like  beasts  of  burden.  19.  They  scoff  at 
the  declared  judgments  of  God.  20.  The  per- 
verting of  all  moral  distinctions.  23.  Bribery 
and  injustice. 

25-30.  The  position  of  these  w.  is  doubtful. 
Very  probably  they  should  be  connected  with 
the  prophecy,  98-10'^.  In  that  section  the 
closing  words  of  v.  25  occur  four  times  as  a 
sort  of  refrain. 


416 


5.  26 


ISAIAH 


7. 


26.  Lift  up  an  ensign]  i.e.  as  a  signal  to 
muster  them  :  cp.  1 1  ic  18^  49  -^'^  62 10.  Nations] 
i.e.  those  under  the  dominion  of  the  Assyrian 
king  and  serving  in  his  army.  Hiss]  The 
metaphor  is  from  collecting  a  swarm  of  bees 
(7  IS).  30.  They  shall  roar  against  them]  i.e. 
the  enemies  against  God's  people. 

CHAPTER  6 
The  Prophet's  Call 

This  c,  which  recounts  the  prophet's  call 
and  commission,  would  stand  first  in  a  chrono- 
logical arrangement  of  the  book.  The  opening 
words  remind  us  of  the  vision  of  Micaiah 
(IK 22 19),  and  we  should  compare  the  visions 
of  Jeremiah  and  Ezekiel  which  inaugurated 
their  prophetic  activity.  In  St.  John's  vision 
(Rev  4)  the  same  anthem,  '  Holy,  holy,  holy,'  is 
sung  by  the  six-winged  living  creatures  round 
about  the  thi'one.  Isaiah's  vision  foreshadows 
such  leading  elements  of  his  thought  as,  (1)  the 
majesty  of  God,  (2)  the  uncleanness  of  the 
people,  (3)  his  conviction  that  he  had  a  divine 
message  for  them,  (4)  their  stubbornness  and 
heedlessness,  (5)  the  necessity  of  judgment, 
(6)  the  idea  of  the  remnant. 

1-4.  Isaiah's  vision  of  Jehovah  enthroned 
and  the  worship  of  heaven.  5-7.  He  confesses 
his  sin  and  is  absolved.  8-13.  He  receives  his 
prophetic  commission. 

1.  The  year  that  king  Uzziah  died]  740  B.C. 
See  Intro.  The  prophet,  when  meditating 
perhaps  on  the  condition  of  the  nation  and 
its  gloomy  prospects,  is  favoured  with  a  vision 
of  the  glory  of  God.  Train]  i.e.  the  skirts 
(RM)  of  his  royal  robes. 

2.  Above  it]  RV  '  above  him.'  The  sera- 
phims]  here  only  in  OT.  the  word  denotes 
supernatural  beings.  It  is  derived  from  the 
verb  '  to  burn,'  and  may  simply  indicate  the 
fiery  or  glowing  appearance  of  Jehovah's 
attendant  angels  (Ezk  1 1^,  14)  Elsewhere,  how- 
ever, the  same  word  stands  for  venomous  ser- 
pents (Nu216  Isal429  30*5),  and  it  may  here  be 
intended  to  convey  the  meaning  that  the 
guardians  of  Jehovah's  throne  are  of  serpentine 
form.  This  is  scarcely  borne  out  by  the  con- 
text (vv.  6,  7),  though  in  Ezekiel's  vision  of 
heaven  animal  forms  are'  introduced  (Ezk  1 10.) 

Covered  his  face]  in  reverence. 

3.  Holy,  holy,  holy]  The  threefold  repetition 
denotes  emphasis  or  intensity  (Jer7*).  It  is 
significant  that  the  title  of  Jehovah  most 
characteristic  of  Isaiah's  prophecies  is  '  the 
Holy  One  of  Israel.'  In  the  light  of  later 
revelation  Christians  have  not  unnaturally  seen 
here  a  foreshadowing  of  the  Holy  Trinity  : 
cp.  Rev  4  8.  4.  The  posts  of  the  door  moved] 
RV  '  the  foundations  of  the  thresholds  were 
moved.'  Smoke]  a  symbol  of  the  divine 
presence,  as  in  Ex  19 9. is  IKSio.n. 

5.  Lips]   the  pure  praises  of  the  seraphim 


made  Isaiah  think  by  contrast  of  his  own  sins 
of  the  lips.  For  mine  eyes  have  seen,  etc.]  No 
man  could  see  God  and  live  (Ex  33  ^Oj.  6.  Live 
coal]  Fire  is  the  symbol  of  purification  :  cp. 
Mai  3  2  MtSii.  8.  For  us]  the  plural  in  the 
mouth  of  God  as  in  Gn  1 26  3  22  1 1 7.  Jehovah 
consults  with  the  angels  around  His  throne  ; 
similarly  in  Micaiah's  vision  (IK 22 19, 20  ;  cp. 
Ps897). 

ID.  The  result  of  the  prophet's  preaching 
described  as  though  it  were  the  purpose.  Most 
of  his  hearers  will  stubbornly  reject  his  message, 
with  the  result  that  they  will  become  dead  to 
all  impressions.  The  heart]  regarded  by  the 
Hebrews  as  the  seat  of  the  understanding  : 
cp.  Hos7ii.     Convert]   RV  '  turn  again.' 

II,  12.  Isaiah  feels  that  such  a  state  of 
things  cannot  be  allowed  to  continue,  and  is 
assured  that  Jehovah  will  interpose  with  a 
terrible  judgment  of  war  and  exile.  I2.  There 
be  a  great  forsaking]  RV  '  the  forsaken  places 
be  many.' 

13.  RV  '  And  if  there  be  yet  a  tenth  in  it, 
it  shall  again  be  eaten  up  :  as  a  terebinth,  and 
as  an  oak,  whose  stock  remaineth,  when  they 
are  felled  ;  so  the  holy  seed  is  the  stock  there- 
of.' The  meaning  is  that  the  coming  judgment 
is  not  a  single  one  but  a  series.  Yet  as  when 
an  evergreen  tree  is  cut  down  the  stump 
remains  from  which  new  shoots  may  grow,  so 
there  will  be  a  faitliful  remnant  of  Israel  left, 
to  be  the  germ  of  a  renewed  people.  This 
doctrine  of  the  remnant  is  characteristic  of 
Isaiah:  cp.  43  7^  10 20, 21. 

CHAPTERS  71-97 
The  Syro-Ephraimite  Invasion 
The  group  of  prophecies  contained  in  this 
section  belongs  to  the  reign  of  Ahaz,  when 
Judah  was  threatened  by  the  allied  forces  of 
Syria  and  Israel  (71  2K1537  165-9  2Ch285-i5). 
With  the  reign  of  Tiglath-pileser,  the  Assyrian 
empire  entered  on  a  new  epoch,  that  monarch 
aiming  at  bringing  the  whole  of  W.  Asia  under 
his  sway.  With  a  view  to  resisting  the  As- 
syrian advance  and  preserving  their  independ- 
ence, Rezin,  of  Syria,  and  Pekah,  of  Israel, 
formed  an  alliance,  and  their  war  against  Ahaz 
was  apparently  undertaken  in  order  to  force 
Judah  to  join  the  coalition,  the  immediate 
object  of  the  invaders  being  to  dethrone  Ahaz 
and  set  over  the  kingdom  one  who  would  be 
willing  to  favour  their  projects  (7*5).  Isaiah 
foresaw  that  Syria  and  Israel  were  doomed  to 
fall  before  the  Assyrian  power,  and,  therefore, 
exhorts  to  calmness  and  confidence  in  Jehovah 
(74,  s,  16  §4^  Ahaz,  on  the  other  hand,  was  set 
upon  seeking  aid  from  Tiglath-pileser,  a  policy 
which  Isaiah  reprobated  as  indicating  want  of 
trust  in  Jehovah,  and  as  certain  to  lay  Judah 
also  open  to  disaster  from  Assyrian  inroads 

(7 17-25-). 


27 


417 


7.  1 


ISAIAH 


7.  16 


C.  7.  I,  2.  The  occasion  of  the  prophecies 
following.  3-9.  In  view  of  the  panic  caused 
by  the  Syro-Israelite  invasion,  Isaiah  is  sent 
to  the  king  with  a  message  of  encouragement 
(10-16),  which  is  confirmed  by  the  sign  of 
Immanuel.  17-25.  The  disastrous  conse- 
quences of  the  policy  of  seeking  aid  from 
Assyria  foretold. 

C.  8.  1-4.  The  speedy  ruin  of  Syria  and 
Israel  foretold  by  the  sign  of  Maher-shalal- 
hash-baz.  5-8.  The  Syrian  invasion  of  Judah 
foretold.  9-15.  The  nations"  fear  in  the  present 
crisis  contrasted  with  the  assurance  that  should 
spring  from  trust  in  Jehovah.  16-20.  Isaiah's 
own  confidence  in  his  message.  21-C.  9.  7.  The 
coming  calamity  and  the  bright  future  that 
lies  beyond.  Those  parts  of  the  land  which 
first  sutf ered  from  the  Assyrian  shall  be  corre- 
spondingly glorified,  for  the  Messiah  shall 
appear  and  the  kingdom  of  David  shall  be 
established  on  an  indestructible  foundation. 

CHAPTER  7 

1-16.  Isaiah  assures  Ahaz  by  a  sign  that 
Judah  will  be  delivered  from  Syria  and  Israel. 

1.  See  prefatory  note  to  the  section. 

2.  Ephraim]  the  popular  name  for  the 
northern  kingdom  (9^''^).  His  heart  was 
moved]  i.e.  the  heart  of  king  Ahaz,  because 
of  the  formidable  confederacy  against  him. 
Serious  reverses  suffered  by  Judah  at  this  time 
are  recorded  in  2  Ch  28  ^-is. 

3.  Shear-jashub]  i.e.  '  a  remnant  shall  re- 
turn.' Already  in  the  reign  of  Ahaz  the 
prophet  had  summed  up  the  characteristic 
feature  of  his  teaching  (see  on  6^^)  in  a 
symbolic  name  given  to  his  son.  Similarly 
he  called  another  son  Maher-shalal-hash-baz 
('  spoil  speedeth,  prey  hasteth  ')  that  he  might 
impressively  indicate  the  speedy  spoliation  of 
Syria  and  Israel  (S^-'t).  Thus  the  prophet  and 
his  family  were  for  signs  to  the  people  (8  '^^). 
There  is  a  special  significance  in  the  presence 
of  Shear-jashi;b  at  this  meeting  of  Isaiah  with 
king  Ahaz.  The  prophet  has  to  foretell  inva- 
sion and  spoliation  of  Judah  by  the  Assyrians 
(v.  20),  but  the  presence  of  Shear-jashub  gives 
assurance  that  a  remnant  shall  return.  The 
conduit]  The  king's  object  doubtless  was  to 
stop  the  waters  outside  the  walls  of  the  city 
(2  Ch.323),  so  that  the  enemy,  in  the  siege  that 
was  imminent,  might  be  without  supply  of 
water.  Upper  pool]  probably  the  same  as  the 
upper  watercourse  of  G-ihon  on  the  W.  of  Jeru- 
salem (2Ch3230).  A  lower  pool  is  mentioned 
in  229. 

4.  Neither  be  fainthearted,  etc.]  RV  '  let 
not  thine  heart  be  faint  because  of  these  two 
tails  of  smoking  firebrands.'  The  prophet 
regards  them  as  no  more  than  expiring  torches. 

6.  Tabeal]  the  name  is  Syrian,  not  Hebrew  : 
see  prefatory  note. 


8.  Within  threescore,  etc.]  We  should  prob- 
ably regard  this  prophecy  as  fulfilled  when 
the  power  of  the  northern  kingdom  was  finally 
broken  by  the  importation  of  foreigners  under 
Esarhaddon  (Ezr42).  On  a(3C0unt  of  the 
manner  in  which  this  prediction  interrupts  the 
parallelism,  some  modern  scholars  regard  it  as 
an  addition  by  a  later  editor. 

9.  The  need  of  faith  is  emphasised  ;  without 
it  there  is  no  security. 

11.  Ask  thee  a  sign]  to  prove  that  he  may 
trust  in  Jehovah's  promise.  Ahaz's  choice 
should  be  'unlimited,  he  might  ask  a  sign  in 
heaven  or  from  the  nether  world. 

12.  Neither  will  I  tempt,  etc.]  Abaz  gives 
utterance  to  a  sound  principle  (DtG^*').  But 
Jehovah  had  offered  a  sign,  and  to  refuse  it 
showed  distrust  of  God.  Ahaz  had  already 
made  up  his  mind  to  the  Assyrian  alliance  and 
cloaks  his  self-will  with  the  language  of  faith. 

13.  The  prophet's  indignation. 

14.  A  virgin]  The  Hebrew  word  is  not  the 
distinctive  one  for  virginity,  but  denotes  rather 
one  of  maturing  and  marriageable  age  :  cp.  e.g. 
Gn  24  "^3  Ex  2 §.  In  the  first  place,  this  prophecy 
must  have  been  intended  by  Isaiah  as  a  sign 
of  encouragement  to  Ahaz — before  a  child, 
shortly  to  be  bom,  could  arrive  at  years  of 
observation  the  enemies  of  Judah  would  be 
brought  to  nought.  At  the  same  time,  it  is 
evident  that  the  child  is  no  ordinary  one,  from 
the  waj^  in  which  the  prophet  refers  to  him  as 
Lord  of  the  land  (8**),  and  from  the  titles 
given  to  him  in  9  6.  The  child  is,  in  fact,  the 
Messiah,  whose  advent  Isaiah  seems  to  have 
expected  in  the  near  future  in  connexion 
with  the  Assyrian  invasion  (9  !■'''  1 1  ^-^).  The 
prophet's  anticipations  were  realised,  but  in  a 
manner  far  surpassing  his  expectations,  in  the 
birth  of  our  Lord. 

Immanuel]  i.e.  '  God  is  with  us '  (810).  The 
child  whom  the  prophet  has  in  mind  received 
this  symbolic  name  as  being  a  pledge  of  God's 
presence  with  His  people.  Christ,  the  true 
Son  of  David,  is  in  the  highest  conceivable 
sense  Immanuel.  The  sign  given  by  Isaiah  is 
not  concerned  with  the  manner  of  the  child's 
birth,  but  rather  connected  with  his  name  Im- 
manuel. Accordingly  in  Mt  1 23  the  emphasis 
is  upon  the  name. 

15.  Butter  (RM  'curds')  and  honey]  i.e. 
simple  pastoral  products,  not  bread  and  meat, 
because  the  land  has  gone  out  of  cultivation : 
the  '  honey  '  was  probably  wild  honey.  That 
privation  is  implied  is  clear  from  the  context 
(vv.  20-22).  That  he  may  know]  so  some 
ancient  versions,  but  better,  '  when  he  knoweth ' 
(RV),  or  '  till  he  know.' 

16.  Though  the  child  about  to  be  bom  must 
in  his  early  years  endure  privation,  yet  before 
he  comes  to  years  of  disci'etion  Judah's  present 
enemies  shall   be   brought   to   nought.     The 


418 


7.  17 


ISAIAH 


8.  13 


land,  etc.]  RV  '  the  land  whose  two  kings 
thou  abhorrest '  (i.e.  '  fearest  horribly  ')  '  shall 
be  forsaken.' 

17-25.  The  disastrous  consequences  of  any 
alliance  between  Judah  and  Assyria  foretold. 

17-19.  Isaiah  foresees  that  Judah  will  be 
involved  in  the  struggle  between  Egypt  and 
Assyria  and  will  be  invaded  by  both  powers, 
their  armies  penetrating  everywhere  like 
swarms  of  insects. 

17.  Ephraim  departed]  alluding  to  the  dis- 
ruption of  the  kingdom  in  Rehoboam's  reign. 
Since  Ephraim  was  the  most  powerful  of  the 
seceding  tribes  the  northern  kingdom  was 
called  by  its  name  (v.  2  ;  98.9). 

18.  Hiss]   see  526. 

19.  Desolate]  RV  '  rugged.'  Bushes]  RV 
'  pastures.' 

20.  A  razor  that  is  hired]  The  reference  is 
to  Ahaz's  policy  of  calling  in  the  aid  of  Tiglath- 
pileser.  Retribution  would  come  through  that 
very  power  on  which  Ahaz  relied,  and  the  land 
would  be  laid  bare. 

21-25.  ^  pastoral  life  will  be  the  only 
possible  one,  because  the  land  is  laid  waste, 
and  where  vineyards  once  flourished  men 
will  hunt  wild  beasts  in  the  thickets,  or  seek 
pasturage  for  their  cattle. 

22.  The  V.  means  there  will  be  curds  and 
wild  honey,  and  nothing  else. 

23.  Every  place,  etc.]  RV  '  every  place, 
where  there  were  a  thousand  vines  at  a  thou- 
sand silverlings,  shall  even  be  for  briers  and 
thorns.'  Silverlings]  i.e.  pieces  of  silver, 
shekels  ;  1,000  shekels  would  be  an  average 
price. 

25.  RV  '  And  all  the  hills  that  were  digged 
with  the  mattock,  thou  shalt  not  come  thither 
for  fear  of  briers  and  thorns.'  Vines  were 
usually  grown  on  terraces  on  the  hills  of 
Palestine.     Lesser  cattle]  RV  '  sheep.' 

CHAPTER  8 

1.  Take,  etc.]  read  '  Take  thee  a  great 
tablet,  and  write  upon  it  with  the  pen  of  a 
man,  Maher-shalal-hash-baz.'  A  man's  pen] 
i.e.  such  as  a  common  man  would  use 
for  writing  in  larg^  characters  that  all 
might  undertsand  the  words.  Maher-shalal- 
hash-baz]  i.e.  '  The  spoil  speedeth,  the  prey 
hasteth.'  The  inscription  intimated  the  speedy 
spoliation  of  Syria  and  Israel  (v.  4). 

2.  And  I  took]  RV  '  And  I  will  take,'  the 
speaker  being  Jehovah  as  in  v.  1.  Witnesses] 
who  would  be  able  when  the  fulfilment  came 
to  testify  that  the  prophecy  had  been  delivered. 

3.  The  prophetess]  i.e.  the  prophet's  wife. 
Call    his     name]      see     on     7^.        4.   This 

prophecy  was  fulfilled,  Damascus  being  cap- 
tured by  the  Assyrians  in  732  B.C.,  and  Samaria 
ten  years  later:  cp.  10 9. 

6.  This   people]    i.e.  the  Ten    Tribes   (re- 


419 


f erred  to  as  '  this  people '  again  in  9  '^%  who 
refused  the  mild  rule  of  the  House  of  David, 
and,  having  set  up  their  own  king,  have  allied 
themselves  with  Rezin.  The  waters  of  Shi- 
loah]  The  gently-flowing  stream  that  issued 
from  Zion  near  the  sanctuary  (Ps46*)  sym- 
bolises the  divinely-appointed  government  of 
the  House  of  David,  and  is  contrasted  in  the 
next  V.  with  the  wide  flood  of  Euphrates, 
symbolising  the  devastating  power  of  Assyria, 
which  within  a  short  period  overthrew  the 
kingdoms  of  Israel  and  Syria  (2K160  189.10)^ 
as  Isaiah  repeatedly  foretold  :  cp.  7  s,  i6_ 

7.  The  river]  i.e.  as  elsewhere,  the 
Euphrates  (Josh  24  2)  ;  denoted  in  RV  by  a 
capital  R. 

8.  Pass  through]  RV  '  sweep  onward  into.' 
To   the   neck]    The    head,    therefore,    will 

escape.  So  Isaiah  regularly  indicates  the 
preservation  of  a  remnant  in  the  judgments 
that  are  coming  upon  the  nation.  The  stretch- 
ing out,  etc.]  The  image  is  suddenly  changed 
from  that  of  a  devastating  flood  to  that  of  a 
bird  of  prey  swooping  with  wings  outspread. 

O  Immanuel]  The  country  thus  threatened 
is  the  land  to  which  the  divine  pledge  has  been 
given  and  embodied  in  the  child  Immanuel 
(7 14-16).  At  the  thought  the  prophet  is  filled 
with  confidence  in  the  protection  of  Jehovah; 
hence  the  triumphant  strain  of  defiance  in 
which  he  addresses  the  invaders  in  the  vv. 
that  follow. 

9, 10.  Alliances  formed  against  God's  people 
must  end  in  disaster  and  hostile  purposes  must 
fail,  for  '  Grod  is  with  us.'  9.  People]  RV 
'  peoples.'     Gird  yourselves]   i.e.  for  warfare. 

10.  God  is  with  us]  alluding  to  the  signi- 
ficance of  the  name  Immanuel  (v.  8,  cp.  71^). 

11,  12.  The  prophet  has  been  divinely 
warned  not  to  show  the  unreasoning  fear  of 
the  Syro-Ephraimite  alliance  which  the  men 
of  Judah  exhibit. 

11.  With  a  strong  hand]  In  Heb.  phrase- 
ology the  coming  of  prophetic  inspiration  is 
spoken  of  anthropomorphically  as  seizure  by  the 
hand  of  Jehovah  (2K315  EzkP  3^22  8 1  371). 

12.  A  confederacy]  alluding  to  the  alliance 
between  Israel  and  Syria,  which  caused  so 
much  fear  in  Judah  (7  2).  The  same  word  is, 
however,  elsewhere  rendered  '  conspiracy  '  or 
'treason'  (2K17^  2Ch23i3)  :  so  RV  'con- 
spiracy '  here.  In  that  case  the  allusion  would 
be  to  the  cry  of  '  Conspiracy  !  '  which,  as  some 
suppose,  was  raised  against  Isaiah  and  his  fol- 
lowers by  those  in  Judah  who  opposed  the 
line  of  policy  he  advocated,  and  favoured 
Ahaz's  project  of  alliance  with  Assj^ria.  Simi- 
larly, the  political  opponents  of  Jeremiah  at- 
tempted to  discredit  his  teaching  by  accusing 
him  of  treachery  against  his  country  (Jer  37 13). 

13.  The  meaning  is,  'recognise  Jehovah  in 
His  true  character  as  the  all-holy  One '  (so  He 


8.  14 


ISAIAH 


9.  3 


had  revealed  Himself  to  the  prophet,  6  2),  '  and 
stand  in  awe  of  Him  accordingly.' 

14.  Sanctuary]  The  secondary  meaning  of 
'  refuge  '  is  here  the  prominent  one   (1  K  1  ^0 

228). 

Both  the  houses]  i.e.  the  two  kingdoms  of 
Judah  and  Israel.  Every  revelation  of  God 
puts  men  on  their  trial  and  sifts  them  :  to 
those  who  accept  it  in  faith  and  turn  to  Him 
it  means  deliverance,  but  those  who  reject  it 
bring  judgment  on  themselves.  This  was  seen 
in  God's  revelation  of  Himself  in  Christ  ;  to 
those  who  accepted  Him  He  gave  power  to 
become  sons  of  God  (Jn  1 1'^).  He  came  to 
save  the  world  ( Jn  1 2  47)  ;  yet  it  may  also  be 
said  that  for  judgment  He  came  into  the  world 
(JnO^^),  because  those  who  received  Him  not 
brought  judgment  on  themselves,  and  found 
Him  to  be  a  rock  of  offence.  Thus  Isaiah's 
words  are  quoted  in  NT.  with  a  Christian 
application  (Mt214i  EoD^s  1  Pet  2  7,8). 

15.  Many  among  them  shall  stumble]  RV 
'  many  shall  stumble  thereon.' 

16.  Bind  up]  i.e.  tie  up  the  parchment  roll 
on  which  the  prophet's  teaching  has  been 
written,  and  lay  it  aside  to  be  consulted  later. 

The  testimony]  i.e.  the  inspired  admonition 
which  the  prophet  has  just  delivered.  The 
law]  not  referring  to  the  written  law  of  God, 
but  used  in  the  wide  sense  of  '  instruction  '  or 
'  teaching  '  (RM)  :  the  inspired  teaching  given 
by  the  prophet  himself  (cp.  1 10  524  309),  which 
he  commits  to  writing  and  delivers  to  his 
disciples. 

18.  The  ground  of  the  confidence  just  ex- 
pressed. The  prophet  and  his  children  are  by 
their  names  Isaiah  (salvation  of  Jehovah), 
Shear-jashub  (a  remnant  shall  return,  7^),  and 
Maher-shalal-hash-baz  (8  3),  pledges  of  a 
brighter  future  in  fulfilment  of  the  prophet's 
words.  Wonders]  i.e.  omens  :  cp.  Ezkl2<5,ii 
2424,27  ZechSS.  This  v.  is  quoted  in  NT., 
Heb2i3,  without  regard  to  its  original  con- 
text, but  the  writer  simply  uses  it  there  that 
he  may  express  in  scriptural  terms  the  truth 
of  the  community  of  nature  between  Christ 
and  His  people. 

19.  Seek  unto]  i.e.  with  a  view  of  consulting 
as  an  oracle,  despairing  of  other  help.  Familiar 
spirits]  The  forms  of  necromancy  referred  to 
are  forbidden  in  DtlS^i,  and  the  nature  of 
the  practices  reprobated  is  well  illustrated  by 
the  famous  example  of  the  witch  of  Endor 
(IS 28 ■!■*•)•  Peep]  i.e.  'chirp'  (RV)  as  a  bird 
(10^4);  referring  to  the  thin  and  feeble  voice 
of  ghosts  from  Sheol  (29  *).  For  the  living  to 
the  dead]  RV  '  on  behalf  of  the  living  should 
they  seek  unto  the  dead  ?  ' 

20.  The  law  .  .  the  testimony]  i.e.  Isaiah's 
own  teaching,  which,  by  his  direction,  had  been 
written  down  and  carefully  preserved  (v.  16). 

If  they  speak  not,  etc.]   The  meaning  seems 


to  be,  'If  they  speak  not  according  to  this 
word'  (viz.  'to  the  law  and  to  the  testimony ') 
'  surely  there  is  no  morning  for  them  '  (RV)  : 
i.e.  the  only  hope  of  a  brighter  dawn  lies  in 
being  guided  by  Isaiah's  teaching.  But  an- 
other rendering  is  possible,  '  Surely  according 
to  this  word  shall  they  speak  for  whom  there 
is  no  morning  '  (RM),  i.e.  they  will  recognise 
too  late  the  value  of  the  principles  inculcated 
by  Isaiah. 

21.  Curse  their  king,  etc.]  RV  '  curse  by 
their  king  and  by  their  God.'  The  expression 
is  the  same  as  in  IS  1743.  22.  Dimness,  etc.] 
RV  '  gloom  of  anguish  ;  and  into  thick  dark- 
ness they  shall  be  driven  away.'  Note  the 
close  connexion  with  c.  9,  where  a  brighter 
future  is  predicted. 

CHAPTER   91-7 

1 .  RV  '  But  there  shall  be  no  gloom  to  her 
that  was  in  anguish.  In  the  former  time  he 
brought  into  contempt  the  land  of  Zebulun 
and  the  land  of  Naphtali,  but  in  the  latter 
time  hath  he  made  it  glorious,  by  the  way  of 
the  sea,  beyond  Jordan,  Galilee  of  the  nations.' 
By  the  contempt  brought  upon  the  land  of 
Zebulun  and  Naphtali  the  prophet  signifies 
the  spoiling  of  the  country  and  deportation 
of  the  inhabitants  by  Tiglath-pileser  (narrated 
2 K 1529).  Galilee  of  the  nations]  lit.  'the  cir- 
cuit,' or  '  district  of  the  nations.'  The  region 
indicated  lay  in  the  extreme  N.  of  Naphtali  and 
received  its  name,  probably,  from  the  inter- 
mixture in  that  locality  of  Israelites  with  the 
former  inhabitants.  The  term  GaVd  later  be- 
came the  proper  name  Galilee. 

2.  Walked  in  darkness]  as  described  in 
321,22  Have  seen]  The  light  of  the  new  age  to 
which  the  prophet  looked  forward  was  of  course 
in  the  future,  but  to  his  vision  it  is  so  assured 
that  he  describes  it  as  having  already  dawned. 
Such  use  of  the  past  tense  (prophetic  perfect) 
is  frequent  in  the  prophetic  writings.  Dw^ell] 
R V  '  dwelt ' :  the  tense  being  parallel  to 
'  walked  '  in  the  preceding  clause. 

Vv.  1,  2  are  referred  to  in  Mt4i5>i6  as  ful- 
filled in  our  Lord's  Galilean  ministry.  We 
need  not  suppose  that  Isaiah  had  this  distinctly 
in  mind.  He  only  speaks  in  these  verses  in 
general  terms  of  the  light  of  the  new  and 
glorious  age  shining  upon  that  district  which 
should  be  the  first  to  suffer  the  affliction  of  con- 
quest .and  captivity.  When  Christ,  the  true  Sun 
of  Righteousness,  illumined  that  very  same  dis- 
trict it  was  natural  that  the  Evangelist  should 
see  the  ultimate  fulfilment  of  the  prophecy 
which  Isaiah,  unconscious  of  the  wonderful 
fulfilment  which  awaited  his  words,  had 
uttered. 

3.  And  not  increased  the  joy]  So  Heb. 
wi'itten  text,  ancient  Greek  versions  and  Vulg. 
But  Heb.  traditional  reading,  Syr.,  and  LXX 


420 


9.  4 


ISAIAH 


9.  11 


give  '  increased  the  joy  to  it,'  RV  '  increased 
their  joy ' ;  and  this  reading  is  demanded  by  the 
context,  where  figures  are  multiplied  to  indicate 
excessive  joy.  The  past  tenses  (prophetic 
perfect,  see  v.  2)  are  again  used  to  describe 
what  is  yet  in  the  future.  Before  thee]  appear- 
ing as  worshippers  before  Jehovah  in  His 
sanctuary  (Dtl2i2). 

4.  Staff  of  his  shoulder]  i.e.  with  which  he  is 
beaten  by  the  taskmaster.  The  dominion  of 
Assyria  shall  be  broken.  As  in  the  day  of 
Midian]  referring  to  the  memorable  victory  of 
Gideon  (Jg 7, 8). 

5.  Read,  '  For  all  the  armour  of  the  armed 
man  in  the  tumult,  and  the  garments  rolled  in 
blood,  shall  be  for  burning,  for  fuel  of  fire.' 
After  the  great  victory  over  the  oppressor  the 
weapons  of  war  are  burnt  (Ezk  39  9)  as  a  pre- 
lude to  the  era  of  peace  which  is  to  follow. 

6.  From  a  general  description  of  the  future 
reign  of  peace  the  prophet  goes  on  to  picture 
the  king  upon  whom  it  depends,  and  whom  he 
apparently  identifies  with  the  child  of  7^'^. 
Then  he  proceeds  to  indicate  the  features  of 
his  rule  by  a  series  of  majestic  titles.  Wonder- 
ful, Counsellor]  RM  '  Wonderful  Counsellor,' 
or  'Wonder-Counsellor.'  The  title  implies 
that  the  future  king's  rule  shall  be  guided  by  a 
divinely-inspired  wisdom  (ll^-i)  which  shall 
command  the  awe  with  which  men  regard  the 
counsel  of  God.  The  word  '  wonderful '  (with 
its  cognates)  is  constantly  used  of  the  divine 
action  (Ex  1 511  JglS^a  Psll823),  and  is 
applied  to  the  divine  name  ( JglS^S).  The 
mig-hty  God]  The  word  '  God '  has  been  ex- 
plained by  some  in  the  sense  of  '  ruler '  or 
'  king.'  The  plural  of  the  same  word  is  some- 
times so  employed  (Ex  21*5  Ps  821' t').  Isaiah, 
however,  here  uses  the  singular,  and  directly 
applies  the  very  same  title  to  Jehovah  else- 
where (10  21  ;  cp.  Dt  10 17  Jer  32  is).  It  should 
be  noted  also,  (1)  that  the  significance  of  the 
word  '  God '  (El)  as  a  title  of  Jehovah  was  at 
this  time  in  the  prophet's  thoughts  in  the  name 
Immanu-El  ;  and  (2)  the  titles  that  precede 
and  follow  this  one  seem  to  have  a  mysterious 
divine  significance.  For  such  direct  ascription 
of  a  divine  title  to  the  Messianic  King  the 
nearest  parallel  is  Ps4.56  :  cp.  Zechl2  8  1  Ch 
29  23.  The  everlasting  Father]  Father  because 
of  the  protecting  care  exercised  by  him  over 
his  people.  Everla.sting  because  his  kingdom 
is  to  be  for  ever  (v.  7).  Prince  of  Peace] 
peace  being  regarded  as  a  prominent  feature 
of  that  great  future  (22-4)  which  the  Messiah 
is  to  inaugurate  (Mic,5^  Zech9io). 

7.  David]  The  mention  of  David  implies 
that  the  ideal  king  is  to  be  of  the  lineage  of 
David.  The  v.  might  be  explained  as  a  pro- 
mise that  the  dynasty  of  the  great  king  whom 
the  prophet  has  in  mind  should  reign  in  undis- 
puted possession  of  the  kingdom,  and  should 


not  fail.  The  prophecy  would  in  that  case  be 
parallel  to  those  earlier  ones  which  promise  a 
lasting  dominion  to  the  House  of  David  (2  S 
712-iti  Hos35  Am 9 11);  but  the  title,  'Ever- 
lasting Father,'  which  has  just  preceded,  makes 
it  more  likely  that  the  promise  is  one  of  per- 
sonal sovereignty  to  the  individual  king  of 
whom  the  prophet  is  thinking.  To  order  it, 
and  to  establish  it]  RV  '  to  establish  it,  and  to 
uphold  it.' 

Justice]  RV  '  righteousness.'  The  zeal,  etc.] 
the  jealous  love  of  God  for  His  people  is  a 
guarantee  of  this. 

CHAPTERS   98-104 

Divine  Judgments  on  the  Kingdom  of 

Israel 

This  section  relates  throughout  to  the 
kingdom  of  Israel.  It  belongs  to  the  same 
period  as  the  chs.  immediately  preceding,  and 
treats  of  the  ruin  which  Isaiah  foresaw  would 
shortly  overtake  the  kingdom  of  the  Ten 
Tribes:  cp.  T^*^  8-^.  The  prophet  traces  the 
fall  of  Israel  to  the  moral  and  social  condition 
of  its  people.  His  prophecy  was  speedily 
fulfilled  in  the  conquest  of  Syria  and  Israel  by 
the  Assyrian  armies.  The  prophecy  falls  into 
four  parts,  each  closing  with  the  refrain,  'For 
all  this  his  anger  is  not  turned  away,  but  his 
hand  is  stretched  out  still.'  As  the  same 
phrase  occui's  in  525,  many  commentators  are 
of  opinion  that  the  short  section  525-30  is  con- 
nected in  date  and  subject  with  this  prophecy. 

C.  9.  8-21.  Because  of  its  pride  and  self- 
confidence  foes  are  stirred  up  against  Israel  on 
all  hands,  and  sudden  calamity  shall  over- 
take it,  followed  by  internal  anarchy. 

C.  10.  1-4.  The  kingdom  being  hopelessly 
corrupt  cannot  stand  when  attacked. 

CHAPTER   9  (continued) 

8.  Jacob  .  .  Israel]  Both  names  here  stand 
for  the  northern  kingdom,  as  is  made  clear  by 
what  follows  in  the  next  v.  9.  Shall  know] 
i.e.  shall  be  taught  by  experience  (Nul434). 

10.  If  the  language  is  to  be  understood 
literally,  the  allusion  is  to  the  way  in  which 
the  people  set  themselves  to  repair,  and  more 
than  make  up  for,  the  devastation  caused  by 
invasion.  But  it  is  more  likely  that  the  pro- 
phet refers  in  a  figure  to  the  frequent  changes 
of  dynasty  in  the  N.  kingdom  ;  no  sooner  is 
one  dynasty  overthrown  than  another  rises  up 
to  take  its  place  in  vain  self-confidence.  This 
interpretation  is  suggested  by  the  word  '  we 
will  change,'  which  literally  signifies,  '  we  will 
make  cedars  to  succeed.'  The  Arabic  Caliph, 
meaning  successor  (of  the  prophet  Mohammed), 
is  from  the  same  Semitic  root. 

11.  The  adversaries  of  Rezin]  Perhaps  we 
should  read  (with  some  Heb.  MSS)  'the  princes 
of  Rezin  '  ;  the  meaning  would  then  be  that 


421 


9.  12 


ISAIAH 


10.  14 


the  Syrian  allies  of  Israel  (7^>^)  will  turn 
against  it.  This  suits  the  context,  for  we 
read  in  the  next  v.  the  Syrians  before.  Join  his 
enemies  together]  E,V  '  stir  up  his  enemies.' 

12.  Before]  RM  '  on  the  east.'  Behind] 
B,M  '  on  the  west.'  The  point  is  that  Israel 
is  attacked  on  all  hands. 

14.  Branch]  RV  '  palm  branch  '  :  '  palm- 
branch  and  rush  ' — a  proverbial  expression  sig- 
nifying high  and  low  (19 1^). 

15.  Explanatory  of  the  metaphorical  lan- 
guage in  V.  14  :  cp.  vv.  20,   21. 

18.  Briers  and  thorns]  figuratively  put  for 
evil  men  (2S23<').  19.  Darkened]  RV 
'burnt  up.'  20.  He  shall]  RV  'one  shall': 
not  to  be  taken  literally  as  indicating  the  ap- 
proach of  famine,  but  a  figurative  prophecy  of 
the  ruin  of  the  nation  through  anarchy  and 
civil  strife,  as  is  made  clear  by  the  first  part 
of  V.  21. 

C.  ID.  I.  And  that  write,  etc.]  RV  '  and  to 
the  writers  that  wi-ite  perverseness,'  referring 
to  the  registering  of  unjust  and  oppressive  legal 
decisions  by  the  scribes.  There  is  thus  a 
double  reference  (a)  to  unjust  legislation,  and  (h) 
to  unjust  administrations  of  the  law.  3.  Glory] 
i.e.  wealth  and  possessions,  in  which  the  people 
take  pride.  See  the  same  word  in  the  same 
sense  Gn.Sl^. 

4.  Without  me  they  shall  bow  down] 
rather,  RV  '  except  they  bow  down,'  or 
'  they  shall  only  bow  down.'  Ironical — men's 
only  safety  will  be  with  the  wretched  train 
of  captives,  or  beneath  the  corpses  on  the 
battle-field. 

CHAPTERS  105-126 
The  Assyrian  Invasion  and  its  Sequel 
This  is  one  of  the  finest  of  Isaiah's  prophe- 
cies. The  subject  is  the  advance  against 
Jerusalem  of  the  arrogant  Assyrian  conqueror, 
who  meets  with  a  sudden  check  and  is  foiled 
when  his  triumph  is  apparently  secure.  Then 
with  Jehovah's  interposition  for  the  deliver- 
ance of  Zion  is  connected  a  forecast  of  the 
reign  of  the  Messianic  king  (lli-^O).  The 
occasion  to  which  the  prophecy  probably  refers 
is  Sennacherib's  famous  invasion  in  the  reign 
of  Hezekiah,  701  B.C.  (36,  37  2  K 1813-1930), 
but  some  scholars  place  it  earlier,  in  the  time 
of  the  preceding  Assyrian  king,  Sargon.  The 
cities  referred  to  in  10^  were  captured  between 
740  and  717  B.C.,  so  that  the  Assyrian  king's 
boast  must  at  least  be  later  than  717  B.C.  It 
may  be  true  that  the  line  of  march  which 
Sennacherib  followed  was  not  identical  with 
that  which  the  prophet  represents  the  invader 
as  taking  in  1028-32  ;  but  Isaiah  speaks  before 
the  event,  and  naturally  thinks  of  the  As- 
syrians as  approaching  Jerusalem  by  the  usual 
route  from  the  N.;  he  is  drawing  a  vivid 
imaginative  picture  of  the  threatening  danger. 


and  expresses  his  confident  expectation  of 
a  wonderful  deliverance  through  a  sudden 
discomfiture  of  the  foe  (1016-19,33,34).  The 
same  remarkable  anticipation  is  a  feature  of 
Isaiah's  other  utterances  at  this  crisis  (1425 
1713-14  33,  376,7,29-35),  and  it  received  a  start- 
ling fulfilment  (3736,37). 

C.  10.  5-11.  The  Assyrian,  though  proud 
of  his  conquests,  is  but  the  instrument  of 
divine  punishment,  12-19.  ^ii<i  when  God's 
purposes  have  been  accomplished  through  him 
he  shall  be   punished  for  his  pride. 

20-27.  The  faithful  remnant  of  God's  people, 
therefore,  need  not  fear.  28-34.  Though  his 
advance  towards  Jerusalem  seems  irresistible, 
the  Assyrian  will  meet  with  a  sudden 
discomfiture. 

C.  II.  i-io.  The  future  king  of  David's 
line  and  the  nature  of  his  kingdom. 

11-16.  God's  people  shall  be  restored  to 
their  own  land  and  re-united. 

C.  12.  Two  hymns  of  the  redeemed.  1-3.  A 
hymn  of  joy  in  the  deliverance  Jehovah  has 
wrought.  4-6.  A  hymn  of  praise  for  God's 
mighty  deeds,  which  have  manifested  His  glory 
to  all  the  world. 

CHAPTER  105-34 

5.  And  the  staff  in  their  hand]  RV  '  the 
stalf  in  whose  hand  '  :  Jehovah  speaks,  declar- 
ing the  Assyrian  the  minister  of  His  wrath. 

6.  Hypocritical]  RV  '  profane.'  Nation  .  . 
people]  not  merely  referring  to  Judah,  but  to 
be  understood  generally  :  the  Assyrian  has 
been  commissioned  in  the  divine  providence  to 
punish  godless  nations.  Similarly  in  later 
history  Clu-istians  recognised  Attila  as  '  the 
scourge  of  God.' 

7-1 1.  The  spirit  of  the  Assyrian  is  re- 
presented ;  he  has  no  idea  of  his  mission,  but 
is  fired  by  ambition  and  pride  of  conquest. 

8.  Altogether]  RV  'all  of  them.'  9.  The 
places  named  were  all  captured  by  the 
Assyrians  under  Tiglath-pileser,  Shalmaneser, 
or  Sargon  ;  Calno  (a  Chaldean  city,  cp.  Gn  10 1^) 
in  738  B.C.,  Carchemish  (on  the  W.  bank  of 
the  Euphrates)  in  717  ;  Hamath  (on  the 
Orontes,  in  early  times  the  Hivite  capital)  in 
720  ;  Arpad  (near  Hamath,  with  which  it  is 
always  coupled  in  OT.)  in  740  ;  Samaria 
(capital  of  Israel)  in  722  ;  Damascus  (capital 
of  Syria)  in  732.  The  mention  of  the  last 
two  cities  amongst  the  Assyrian  conquests 
shows  that  at  this  time  Isaiah's  prophecy 
in  84  had  been  fulfilled. 

10,  II  The  Assyrian's  argument  is — how 
can  Jerusalem,  with  fewer  gods  to  protect  it, 
hope  to  hold  out  successfully  ? 

12.  Work]  i.e.  of  judgment,  or  punishment. 

13.  People]  RV '  peoples.'  I  have  put  down] 
RV  '  I  have  brought  down  as  a  valiant  man 
them  that  sit  on  thrones.^     14.  The  helplessness 


422 


10.  15 


ISAIAH 


11.  6 


of  the  world  before  the  Assyrians  is  vividly 
imaged.  Left]  RV  'forsaken.'  Peeped]  B,V 
'  chirped  ' :  cp.  8 19. 

15.  The  prophet  now  speaks  in  indignant 
retort  to  the  vain-glorious  boasting  of  the 
Assyrian  ;  how  can  he,  being  but  an  instrument 
of  providence,  exalt  himself  against  Jehovah  ? 

As  if  the  rod,  etc.]  RV  '  as  if  a  rod  should 
shake  them  that  lift  it  up,  or  as  if  a  staif 
should  lift  up  him  that  is  not  wood.' 

16.  The  two  figures  of  famine  and  fire  are 
used  to  express  the  destruction  of  the  Assyrian 
host.  17.  The  light  of  Israel]  i.e.  Jehovah,  who, 
while  He  gives  light  to  His  own  people,  at  the 
same  time  consumes  their  enemies  (29  6,7  30^7 
33  ^•*).  In  one  day]  Isaiah  antieipates  a  sudden 
catastrophe  for  the  Assyrians  (vv.  32-34). 

18.  A  standardbearer  fainteth]  RV  '  a  sick 
man  pineth  away.'  19.  Rest]  RV  'remnant' 
(of  the  Assyrian  armies). 

20-23.  The  divine  judgment  will  have  a 
purifying  effect  on  Judah ;  a  remnant  shall 
escape  (1^  G^^)  who  shall  be  truly  devoted 
to  Jehovah. 

20.  Upon  him  that  smote  them]  i.e.  the 
Assyrian,  on  whose  help  Ahaz  relied  (7  20). 

21.  Characteristic  teaching  of  Isaiah,  which 
he  had  embodied  in  the  symbolic  name  Shear- 
jashub  ('  a  remnant  shall  return  '),  given  to 
his  son  (7  3).  It  is  noteworthy  that  in  this 
same  verse  there  occurs  also  the  divine  title 
'  Mighty  God,'  which  the  prophet  had  ascri})ed 
to  the  Messianic  king  (9^).  22.  Yet  a  rem- 
nant] RV  '  only  a  remnant.'  The  consumption, 
etc.]  RV  '  a  consumption '  (i.e.  judgment)  '  is 
determined,  overflowing  with  righteousness.' 

24.  He  shall  smite,  etc.]  RV  '  though  he 
smite,'  etc.  After  the  manner,  etc.]  alluding 
to  the  oppressive  cruelty  of  Pharaoh. 

25.  Cease]  RV  '  be  accomplished.'  God's 
indignation  against  His  people  will  be  appeased 
after  their  punishment,  and  His  anger  will 
then  turn  to  the  destruction  of  their  enemies. 

26.  Scourge  for  him]  i.e.  for  the  Assyrian. 
According  to]  RV  '  as  in.'  The  slaughter  of 
Midian  is  also  referred  to  as  a  typical  deliver- 
ance in  9^.  His  rod]  i.e.  Jehovah's,  contrasted 
with  the  Assyrian  oppressor's  rod  (v.  24).  As 
the  Egyptian  oppression  was  followed  by  the 
exodus,  so  the  Assyrian  oppression  is  to  be 
succeeded  by  a  similarly  striking  deliverance. 

27.  Because  of  the  anointing]  i.e.  because  of 
the  anointed  king  of  David's  house  to  which 
God  has  promised  a  lasting  kingdom.  But  RV 
'  by  reason  of  fatness.'  A  new  metaphor. 
Judah  is  compared  to  a  bullock  which  gi-ows 
so  fat  and  strong  that  a  yoke  can  no  longer 
be  imposed  upon  it.  A  conjectural  emenda- 
tion by  Robertson  Smith  makes  the  last  sen- 
tence of  this  V.  read,  '  There  cometh  up  from 
the  north  the    destroyer.' 

28-32.  The  prophet  reverts  to  the  present. 


423 


The  Assyrian  advance  and  consequent  panic 
vividly  portrayed. 

28.  The  towns  mentioned  are  all  to  the  N.  of 
Jerusalem.      Passed  to]  RV  '  passed  through.' 

Hath  laid  up,  etc.]  RV  '  layeth  up  his  bag- 
gage ' :  cp.  1  S  1 7  20.  Carriage  is  used  in  A V 
for  '  things  carried.'     29.   Passage]  RV  '  pass.' 

30.  Cause  it  to  be  heard,  etc.]  RV  '  hearken, 
0  Laishah,'  viz.  to  the  noise  of  the  approaching 
armies.  O  poor  Anathoth]  RM  '  Answer  her, 
O  Anathoth.'  31.  Is  removed]  RV  '  is  a  fugi- 
tive.' Gather  themselves  to  flee]  rather,  '  save 
their  households  by  flight'  :  cp.  ExQi^. 

32-34.  Arrived  within  sight  of  Jerusalem, 
and  threatening  the  city,  the  Assyrian  meets 
with  sudden  disaster. 

32.  RV  '  This  very  day  shall  he  halt  at 
Nob,  he  shake th  his  hand  at  the  mount.'  etc. 

33.  Haughty,  etc.]  RV  'lofty  shall  be 
brought  low.'  34.  The  figure  is  the  same 
as  in  vv.  17-19.  The  Assyrians  are  to  fall 
like  a  forest  that  is  hewn  down.  Note  close 
connexion  with  c.  11. 

CHAPTER  11 

1.  Rod  out  of  the  stem]  RV  '  shoot  out  of 
the  stock,'  implying  that  the  tree  has  been  cut 
down.  The  Assyrians  have  been  compared 
in  the  vv.  preceding  to  cedars,  which  when 
felled  throw  out  no  fresh  suckers  ;  now  the 
house  of  David  is  likened  to  an  oak  whose  life 
remains  in  it  after  it  has  been  cut  down 
(613).  From  the  royal  family  of  Judah, 
though  it  may  seem  ruined,  is  to  spring  the 
ideal  Ruler  in  the  future.  It  has  been  already 
implied  (9  7),  and  is  here  expressly  stated,  that 
the  Messiah  is  to  be  of  the  house  of  David 
(Mic52). 

2.  Leaving  the  figure  Isaiah  here  indicates 
the  character  of  the  future  Ruler.  The  gifts 
of  the  divine  Spirit  bestowed  upon  Him  are 
arranged  in  three  pairs,  the  first  pair  indicating 
perfection  of  intellectual  endowment,  the 
second  pair  full  possession  of  a  ruler's  practical 
qualities,  and  the  third  referring  to  the  religious 
spirit  which  is  to  crown  and  direct  all  other 
gifts. 

3.  Make  him  of  quick  understanding]  RV 
'  his  delight  shall  be  in  the  fear  of  Jehovah,' 
i.e.  when  He  sees  it  in  others.  Not  judge, 
etc.]  i.e.  by  appearances  or  hearsay.  4.  The 
ideal  Ruler  combines  mercy  and  judgment 
(PslOli).  With  the  rod  of  his  mouth]  The 
power  ascribed  to  the  word  of  Messiah  is  a  strik- 
ing feature  (49-  Zech  9^0),  and  suggests  a 
superhuman  personality  (Hos()-5).  5.  The 
girdle]  stands  for  readiness  for  action — He 
shall  he  always  ready  for  righteousness  and 
faithfulness. 

6.  From  the  person  and  character  of  the 
Ruler  Isaiah  now  passes  on  to  the  effects  of 
His  rule.     Evil  having  been  eradicated  from 


11.  8 


ISAIAH 


13.2 


human  society,  there  will  be  a  corresponding 
regeneration  of  the  rest  of  creation  (65^5 
Eo8i9f-)-  8.  Cockatrice]  RV  'basilisk,'  or 
'  adder '  (RM)  :  probably  the  great  yellow 
viper  common  in  Palestine.  9.  My  holy 
mountain]  i.e.  Zion  wonderfully  transformed 
according  to  the  prophecy  in  2^  (Zech  1410,  iij. 

ID.  RV  '  And  it  shall  come  to  pass  in  that 
day,  that  the  root  of  Jesse,  which  standeth  for 
an  ensign  of  the  people,  unto  him  shall  the 
nations  seek.'  Root  of  Jesse]  the  same  as  the 
shoot  growing  from  the  root  (v.  1).  The  great 
scion  of  the  house  of  David  is  not  only  to  be 
king  of  Israel,  but  the  nations  of  the  world 
shall  rally  to  him.  Seek]  i.e.  resort,  a  word 
specially  used  of  resorting  for  prayer  (556)  or 
of  consulting  oracles  (S^^  19  3).  Rest]  i.e. 
resting-place  :  referring  to  Jerusalem,  the  seat 
of  the  royal  house. 

II.  Next  the  prophet  speaks  of  the  restora- 
tion of  the  dispersed  Israelites  from  their  exile 
in  the  various  kingdoms  by  which  Judah  was 
surrounded.  The  second  time]  The  first  time 
was  at  the  Mosaic  exodus.  Recover]  RM 
'purchase'  :  cp.  Exl5i6.  Pathros]  upper,  or 
southern,  Egypt.  Cush]  Ethiopia,  still  further 
S.  (181  37^).  Elam]  the  country  at  the  head 
of  the  Persian  Gulf.     Shinar]  i.e.  Babylonia. 

Hamath]  see  on  10  9.  Islands  of  the  sea] 
a  phrase  found  here  only  in  chs.  1-39,  but 
several  times  in  chs.  40-66.  It  denotes  the 
islands  of,  and  lands  bordering  upon,  the 
Mediterranean  Sea,  and  sometimes  stands  for 
distant  countries  generally. 

13.  A  further  feature  of  Messiah's  sign. 
The  bitter  feeling  between  the  N.  kingdom  and 
Judah  (9  21)  shall  cease.  The  adversaries  of] 
RV  '  they  that  vex.' 

14.  The  reunited  people  will  be  victorious 
over  their  old  enemies,  the  tribes  immediately 
sm-rounding  Palestine.  Shoulders]  '  shoulder,' 
i.e.  side  or  border,  as  in  Josh  15^'  ^^'  ^^.  Them 
of  the  east]  lit.  '  the  children  of  the  east,'  i.e. 
the  Bedouin  Arabs  :  Jg63  2Ch21i6. 

15.  16.  Isaiah  pictures  a  mu-aculous  deliver- 
ance of  the  exiles  parallel  to  the  former  de- 
liverance from  Egypt.  The  tongue,  etc.]  i.e. 
the  Gulf  of  Akaba.  Tongue  is  used  for  an  arm 
of  the  sea  as  in  Josh  152  18 1^.  The  river]  i.e. 
Euphrates.     In  the  seven]  RV  'into  seven.' 

An  highw^ay]  i.e.  a  raised  road  such  as 
Eastern  monarchs  made  for  the  passage  of 
their  armies  (19  23  49  H).  It  was]  RV  '  there 
was.' 

CHAPTER  12 

I.  The  thanksgiving  that  now  follows  is 
the  counterpart  of  the  hymn  of  praise  sung 
after  the  passage  of  the  Red  Sea  (Ex  15),  and 
is  partly  based  upon  it.  Some  scholars  doubt 
its  Isaianic  authorship  and  date  it  after  the 
return  from  exile. 


3.  Draw  water]  Under  a  figure  it  is  indi- 
cated that  there  shall  be  a  continual  supply  of 
divine  protection  and  deliverance.  Or,  if  we 
follow  the  Talmud,  there  may  be  an  allusion 
to  the  ceremonial  of  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles, 
on  the  last  day  of  which  water  was  drawn 
from  the  pool  of  Siloam  by  the  priests  and 
poured  at  the  altar  of  burnt-oifering  (see 
Jn737).  5,  He  hath  done  excellent  things] 
from  Ex  151,  '  triumphed  gloriously,'  the  same 
word.  This  is  known]  RV  '  let  this  be 
known.' 

CHAPTERS  131-1423 
The  Judgment  of  Babylon  and  its  King 

This  is  the  first  of  a  series  of  prophecies 
dealing  mainly  with  foreign  nations.  Its 
subject  is  Babylon,  where  the  Jews  are  repre- 
sented as  undergoing  exile,  from  which  they 
are  about  to  be  delivered  (141-3)  owing  to  the 
capture  of  Babylon  by  the  Medes  ( 1 3 1^.  The 
historical  setting  of  the  prophecy  is  thus  much 
later  than  the  age  of  Isaiah,  in  whose  time  the 
Assyrians  were  the  great  enemies  of  God's 
people.  On  this  ground  most  modern  scholars 
regard  this  section  as  non-Isaianic,  and  date 
it  during  the  Babylonian  exile.  As  the  Medes 
alone  (not  Cyrus  and  the  Persians)  are  men- 
tioned as  the  instruments  used  by  God  in  the 
deliverance  of  His  people,  the  prophecy  must 
be  dated  before  549  B.C.,  the  year  in  which 
Cyrus  overthrew  the  Medes,  who  afterwards 
were  united  with  him  in  the  conquest  of 
Babylon  (538  B.c). 

C.   13.     I.  Title  prefixed  to  the  section. 

2-18.  Hostile  hosts  are  mustered  to  carry 
out  Jehovah's  purpose  of  judgment  against 
Babylon,  19-22.  with  the  result  that  it  shall 
be  utterly  desolate. 

C.  14.  1-3.  The  deliverance  of  captive 
Israel. 

4-20.  A  song  of  triumph  over  the  king  of 
Babylon.  1st  scene :  Hades,  where  the  spirit 
of  the  vain-glorious  monarch  is  brought  low 
(4-15).  2nd  scene  :  The  battle-field,  where 
his  dishonoured  corpse  lies  with  the  slain 
(16-20).  21-23.  The  completeness  of  Baby- 
lon's overthrow. 

CHAPTER  13 

1.  Burden]  The  corresponding  verb  means 
'  to  lift  up  '  (a)  a  load,  {b)  the  voice  (cp.  3''' 
422-11),  used  of  Balaam  lifting  up  his  voice 
in  oracular  utterance  (Nu  24  3,  is,  23)_  Hence 
the  noun  signifies  an  utterance  ,  or  oracle  (e.g. 
2K925),  and  is  often  prefixed,  as  here,  to 
prophetic  utterances  (Zech9i  12i  Prov31 1). 
Since  it  is  often  applied  to  threatening  utter- 
ances, the  meaning  of  '  burden'  is  also  suitable. 
In  Jer2333  there  is  a  play  on  the  two  mean- 
ings of  the  word. 

2.  Banner]  RV  '  ensign,'  i.e.  a  signal  for  the 


424 


13.  3 


ISAIAH 


14.  19 


mustering  of  distant  armies  (5  26).  High]  RV 
'bare,'  i.e.  without  trees  ;  upon  such  a  mountain 
the  signal  would  be  clearly  seen.  Unto  them] 
i.e.  the  people  whom  the  prophet  has  in  mind, 
though  they  have  not  yet  been  mentioned. 

Shake  the  hand]  the  threatening  gesture  of 
besiegers  (10  3^).  3.  Sanctified  ones]  RV  '  con- 
secrated ones,'  i.e.  warriors.  The  thought 
may  be  that  the  war  is  a  holy  one,  Babylon's 
destroyers  being  the  ministers  of  Jehovah's 
vengeance. 

4.  The  prophet  hears  the  noise  of  the 
armies  assembling  at  the  signal  (v.  2).  Of  the 
battle]  RY  '  for  the  battle.' 

6.  The  Almighty]  Heb.  Shaddai^  a  name  of 
God  frequent  in  the  Pentateuch,  and  belong- 
to  the  pre-Mosaic  revelation  (ExG^)  ;  it  is  not 
often  found  in  the  prophets,  and  when  it 
occurs  the  severe  and  awful  aspect  of  the 
divine  nature  is  the  more  prominent  one  (Joel 
li5Ezkl2i  105). 

8.  ^4.s'  flames]  RV  '  faces  of  flame,'  i.e. 
flushed  with  agitation. 

10.  The  day  of  Jehovah  is  accompanied  by 
signs  in  the  heavens  as  in  Joel  2  lO'  ^i  3  ^^  Zeph 
1 14, 15_  Such  language  need  not  be  understood 
literallj',  but  vividly  expresses  a  time  of  terror 
and  dismay.  12.  Precious]  RV  'rare'  ;  the 
slaughter  will  be  so  great  that  few  men  will 
be  left  (246).  Golden  wedge]  RV  'pure 
gold'  ;  the  gold  of  Ophir  was  most  esteemed. 

13.  See  a  similar  description  Hag  2  6.  The 
prophets  are  carried  in  thought  beyond  the 
particular  political  convulsion  in  view  to  the 
final  overthrow  of  all  that  is  hostile  to 
God. 

14.  RV  '  And  it  shall  come  to  pass  that  as,' 
etc.  That  no  man  taketh  up]  i.e.  without  a 
shepherd.  They  shall .  .  turn]  i.e.  the  settlers 
in  Babylon,  either  taken  captive  from  other 
countries,  or  resorting  thither  for  trade  (Jer 
5016),  will,  on  the  overthrow  of  the  city,  dis- 
perse to  their  own  lands.  1 5.  The  reason  for 
the  hurried  flight  of  v.  14  ;  the  fall  of  the  city 
will  be  accompanied  by  indiscriminate  slaughter. 

Joined  unto  thein^  i.e.  by  colonisation.  But 
RV  '  taken,'  not  having  been  able  to  make  good 
his  escape.  16.  The  atrocities  referred  to 
frequently  accompanied  the  sack  of  a  city 
(2K812  Hosl0i4l3i6). 

17.  The  invaders  of  Babylon  are  here  first 
mentioned  by  name,  though  the  prophet  has 
had  them  in  mind  from  v.  2.  The  Medes  had 
settled  in  the  district  SW.  of  the  Caspian  Sea, 
and  are  mentioned  in  Assyrian  annals  from 
Sargon's  time  onwards  (cp.  2K176  IS^i)  :  see 
intro.  to  this  section.  Shall  not  regard]  i.e. 
they  are  not  to  be  turned  aside  by  bribes. 

18.  Bows]  The  Medes  were  noted  archers 
(JerSl^i).      19.   Excellency]  RV  '  pride.' 

20.  Make  their  fold]  RV  '  make  their  flocks 
to   lie   down.'      A   more    terrible    desolation 


awaits  Babylon  than  that  which  had  been  fore- 
told for  Judah  (7  21, -'-^^ 

21.  Doleful  creatures]  probably  owls.  Owls] 
RV  '  ostriches.'  Satyrs]  i.e.  uncanny  creatures, 
or  demons  (so  Targum,  LXX,  and  Syr.),  such 
as  were  thought  by  the  Jews  to  haunt  ruins 
and  desert  places  :  cp.  Lk  1 1  24.  But  as  the 
other  names  in  the  context  stand  for  animals 
many  prefer  to  render,  'he-goats'  (RM,  Vulg.). 

22.  The  wild  .  .  houses]  RV  '  wolves  shall 
cry  in  their  castles.'     Dragons]  RV  '  jackals.' 

The  anticipation  of  the  utter  ruin  of  Baby- 
lon has  been  literally  fulfilled.  In  538  B.C. 
it  was  captured  by  the  Medes  and  Persians 
under  Cyrus ;  and,  though  its  glory  lingered 
for  a  time,  it  died  away  before  the  beginning 
of  the  Christian  era,  and  Babylon  is  now,  and 
has  long  been,  only  a  heap  of  ruins. 

CHAPTER    14 

1.  Strangers]  The  thought  of  the  voluntary 
adhesion  of  strangers  is  prominent  in  the  later 
chapters  of  the  book  (445  555  eo5). 

2.  People]  RV  '  peoples.'  Similar  anticipa- 
tions are  found  in  492"^  60^0  61  5;  these  were 
in  some  measure  fulfilled  in  the  time  of  Ezra : 
Ezrli-i  67,8. 

4.  Proverb]  RV  'parable'  (Hab26),  or 
'  taunting-song.'  The  King]  Nabonidus  was 
king  of  Babylon  from  555  till  its  fall  549 
B.C.  Golden  city]  rather,  RM, '  exactress,'  or 
'raging  one.'  7.  The  nations  rejoice  in  the 
peace  which  follows  the  fall  of  their  oppressor. 

9.  The  spirit  of  the  dead  king  of  Babylon 
is  greeted  by  the  shades  in  Hades.  The  dead] 
lit.  '  feeble  ones '  ;  the  word  is  used  in  Heb. 
for  disembodied  spirits  (PsSSiO).  It  hath 
raised,  etc.]  In  Hades  the  dead  monarchs  are 
conceived  as  retaining  some  shadow  of  their 
former  greatness  :  cp.  Ezk322i.  n.  The 
grave]   RV  '  hell,'  as  in  v.  9  ;  i.e.  Hades. 

12.  The  fall  of  the  mighty  king  is  compared, 
first,  to  the  fall  of  the  bright  star  of  dawn  from 
the  sky,  then,  by  a  sudden  change  of  figure,  to 
the  felling  of  a  great  tree.  Lucifer]  RV  '  day- 
star.'     Weaken]   RV  '  lay  low.' 

13.  The  arrogant  self -deification  here  put 
into  the  mouth  of  the  Babylonian  king  finds  a 
parallel  in  some  of  the  Assyrian  inscriptions. 

Mount,  etc.]  not  Zion,  as  many  ancient 
commentators  explain,  comparing  Ps482,  but 
the  mount  in  the  far  N.  where  the  gods  are 
imagined  to  reside — the  Babylonian  Olympus  : 
cp.  Ezk28i2-u.  Sides]  RV  '  uttermost  parts,' 
and  so  in  v.  15. 

16.  The  scene  now  shifts  to  the  battle-field, 
where  men  gaze  upon  the  dishonoured  corpse 
of  the  dead  king.  18.  Lie]  RV  '  sleep.'  In 
his  own  house]   i.e.  in  a  tomb  of  his  own. 

19.  An  abominable  branch]  i.e.  a  blighted 
branch  cut  oif  from  a  tree  and  left  to  rot  upon 
the  ground.     A7id  as  the  raiment .  .  slain]   RV 


425 


14.  20 


ISAIAH 


15. 


'clothed  with  the  slaia.'  The  king's  corpse 
lies  under  heaps  of  f^e  slain  on  the  field  of 
defeat.  The  stones  6l  the  pit]  referring  to 
stones  flung  together  in  a  hastily-made  grave 
on  the  battle-field. 

20.  Shalt  not  be  joined,  etc.  ]  To  be  excluded 
from  burial  was  the  extremest  disgi'ace  for  a 
king:  Jer22i9  2Ch2120  2425.  with  them] 
i.e.  the  honourably  buried  kings  (v.  18). 

Shall .  .  renowned]  RV  '  shall  not  be  named 
for  ever '  ;  a  similar  curse  is  pronounced  on 
Jehoiachin  (Jer2230).  The  taunt-song  ends 
with  this  verse,  and  in  vv.  21-23  the  prophet 
speaks  in  his  own  person. 

21.  With  cities]  as  emblems  of  their  domi- 
nion.    22.   Nephew]   RV  '  son's  son.' 

23.  Pools  of  water]  The  works  of  irrigation 
connected  with  the  Euphrates  being  destroyed 
the  land  would  become  a  morass.  This,  in  fact, 
happened  after  the  conquest  of  Babylon  by 
Cyrus. 

CHAPTER  1424-27 

The  Destruction  of  the  Power  of 
Assyria 

A  short  section  belonging  to  the  same  period 
as  105-126  (cp.  V.  25  with  1027)  ;  the  subject 
is  the  overthrow  of  the  Assyrian  invader,  and 
the  prophecy  was  literally  fulfilled  in  the  de- 
struction of  Sennacherib's  army. 

24-27.  It  is  Jehovah's  sworn  and  unalterable 
purpose  to  destroy  the  Assyrian  power,  that 
his  burdensome  rule  over  Judah  and  the  nations 
may  cease. 

25.  Upon  my  mountains]  i.e.  the  mountains 
of  Judah  (4911  659).  26.  All  the  nations] 
Jehovah's  merciful  purpose  embraces  not  only 
His  own  people,  but  the  nations  generally. 

CHAPTER    1428-32 
Warning  to  the  Philistines 

This  prophecy  is  assigned,  in  the  title  pre- 
fixed to  it,  to  the  year  that  king  Ahaz  died 
(728  B.C.).  The  Philistines  are  represented  as 
exulting  over  the  death  of  their  oppressor,  but 
are  warned  that  their  joy  is  premature,  for  worse 
times  are  in  store  for  them.  The  oppressor 
of  Philistia  referred  to  may  be  (1)  Ahaz, 
whose  death  may  have  formed  the  occasion  of 
the  utterance,  or,  more  probably,  (2)  Tiglath- 
pileser,  whose  ally  Ahaz  had  been  ;  in  that  case 
Sargon  and  Sennacherib  are  indicated  by  the 
cockatrice  and  fiery  serpent  (v.  29),  each  one 
proving  more  terrible  and  formidable  to  the 
nations  of  Western  Asia  than  his  predecessor. 

The  joy  of  Philistia  is  premature,  for, 
though  apparently  broken,  the  Assyrian  power 
will  recover  and  become  more  formidable  than 
before  (v.  29).  While  Judah  escapes,  Philistia 
will  suffer  from  famine  and  sword  (30),  and 
the  smoke  on  the  horizon  already  marks  the 
invader's    approach    (31).     Philistine    ambas- 


sadors arrived  in  Judah  to  arrange  a  defensive 
alliance  ;  the  prophet's  answer  is  an  expression 
of  confidence  in  Jehovah,  who  has  promised 
safety  to  Zion  (32). 

29.  Thou,  whole  Palestina]  RV '  0  Philistia, 
all  of  thee.'  Rod  of  him,  etc.]  RV  'rod  that 
smote.'  The  rod  symbolises  the  Assyrian 
power,  as  in  102'i.  Serpent's  root,  etc.]  Each 
species  mentioned  is  more  deadly  than  the 
preceding,  the  fiery  serpent  being  the  worst  of 
all  (30  ^  Nu  216)  ;  the  serpent  also  symbolises 
Assyria  in  27 1. 

30.  Firstborn  of  the  poor]  i.e.  the  very  poor, 
those  inheriting  a  double  portion  (Dt21i''')  of 
poverty.  The  reference  is  to  the  people  of 
Judah,  who,  though  afflicted,  shall  escape, 
whereas  of  the  Philistines  will  be  left  no 
remnant  to  return.  31.  Thou .  .  dissolved] 
RV  '  thou  art  melted  away,  O  Philistia,  all  of 
thee.'  The  north]  the  way  by  which  the  in- 
vader would  naturally  approach.  Shall  be 
alone  in]  RV  '  standeth  aloof  at.'  The  mean- 
ing is  that  no  soldier  is  missing  from  the  ranks 
of  the  enemy.     32.  Trust]   RV  '  take  refuge.' 

CHAPTERS  15,  16 
Moab's  Calamity  and  the  Way  of  Escape 
This  section  consists  of  two  parts :  (a) 
15^-16^2,  a  prophecy  announcing  that  a  great 
disaster  is  about  to  fall  upon  Moab,  and  (i) 
16 13'  14,  a  short  appendix  in  which  Isaiah  affirms 
the  speedy  fulfilment  of  the  foregoing  prophecy. 
The  first  part  is  not  necessarily  by  Isaiah,  and 
may  hare  been  uttered  earlier  than  his  time  ; 
much  of  it  is  also  quoted  by  Jeremiah  (48 1"4"). 
Cp.  2  2-4,  where  there  is  reason  to  suppose  that 
an  earlier  prophecy  has  been  used  by  both 
Isaiah  and  Micah.  The  Moabites  inhabited  the 
elevated  land  E.  of  the  Dead  Sea,  and  though 
a  people  related  by  blood  to  Israel,  the  mutual 
relations  of  the  two  nations  were  hostile  from 
the  time  of  Saul  onwards.  Saul  fought  against 
them  (IS  144V),  and  David  overcame  them 
(2S82).  Ahab  oppressed  them  and  exacted 
tribute  (2K34,  confirmed  by  king  Mesha  of 
Moab  in  the  inscription  known  as  the  Moabite 
Stone)  ;  but  after  his  death  the  Moabites  threw 
off  the  Israelite  yoke  (2  K  1 1  3  5,  Moabite  Stone), 
and  Jehoram's  efforts  to  maintain  his  authority 
over  them  were  ineffectual  (2  K  3  6-27).  The 
exact  date  of  the  prophecy  is  uncertain,  but  the 
enemy  who  will  inflict  the  coming  calamity 
upon  Moab  is  the  Assyrian  king,  either  Sargon 
or  Sennacherib,  referred  to,  perhaps,  in  15  ^ 
under  the  figure  of  a  lion. 

C.  15.  1-9.  Calamity  is  imminent  for  Moab  ; 
the  terror  and  flight  of  her  people. 

C.  16.  1-5.  A  condition  of  safety  indicated. 
Let  Moab  acknowledge  the  suzerainty  of  Judah 
(vv.  1-3)  ;  Zion  will  shelter  her  fugitives  (4), 
for  to  Zion  the  promise  of  the  Messianic  king 
has  been  given  (5).     6-12.  Moab's  proud  spirit 


426 


15.  1 


ISAIAH 


16.  14 


prevents  her  from  accepting  the  condition. 
Desolation  therefore  awaits  her  land.  13,  14. 
The  above  prophecy  had  been  delivered  at  an 
earlier  period.  Isaiah  affirms  that  it  shall 
speedily  be  fulfilled. 

CHAPTER  15 

I,  Burden]  see  on  lo^.  Because ..  night] 
RV  '  For  in  a  night.'  Ar  of  Moab]  i.e.  city 
of  Moab.  The  capital  (Nu223t5  joshlSi'^)  is 
doubtless  meant.  The  places  referred  to  in 
the  c.  are  in  Moabite  territory.  Silence]  RV 
'  nought.'  Kir]  probably  Kerak,  a  fortress  on 
the  Dead  Sea.  2.  He  is  gone,  etc.]  i.e.  the 
Moabite  people.  Bajith]  '  the  house,'  i.e.  the 
temple  of  the  Moabite  deity,  Chemosh.  Dibon] 
here  the  Moabite  Stone,  with  inscription  by 
king  Mesha(2  KS*),  was  found  in  1869.  Nebo] 
not  the  mountain  (Dt  34 1),  but  a  Moabite  city 
in  its  vicinity,  thought  to  be  called  after  the 
deity  of  the  same  name.  Baldness,  etc.]  in 
token  of  mourning.  Heshbon,  Elealeh]  neigh- 
bouring hill-towns  of  Moab. 

4.  His  life,  etc.]  RV  '  his  soul  trembleth 
within  him.' 

5.  Fugitives]  RV  '  her  nobles.'  An  heifer 
of  three  years  old]  i.e.  not  broken  in  :  imply- 
ing that  the  place  was  hitherto  impregnable. 
Places  are  thus  sometimes  compared  to  animals 
(Jer4620Hos4i<5  IQH).  Most  modern  scholars, 
however,  understand  the  words  as  a  proper 
name  '  to  Eglath-shelishiyah  '  (RV).  Mounting 
up]  RV  '  ascent ' :  the  prophet  sees  the  ascent 
of  Luhith  crowded  with  weeping  fugitives. 

6.  Shall  be  desolate]  because  they  have  been 
stopped  at  the  source  (2  K  3 19, 25),  Hay .  .  grass] 
RV  '  grass  . .  tender  grass.'  7.  The  brook  of  the 
willows]  Evidently  mentioned  as  the  boundary 
of  the  land  and  generally  identified  with  the 
brook  Zered  (Nu21i-'  Dt2i3).  The  fugitives 
are  pictured  as  carrying  their  possessions  to  the 
border  for  safety.  8.  The  cry]  i.e.  of  destruc- 
tion (v.  5).  No  part  of  the  land  escapes.  9.  The 
waters  of  Dimon]  i.e.  the  Arnon.  Dimon  is 
probably  a  symbolical  variation  for  Dibon, 
adopted  because  the  sound  of  it  suggests  blood 
{(lam).  Lions]  perhaps  to  be  understood  liter- 
ally (2  KI725),  or  it  may  stand  metaphorically 
for  invading  foes  :  Jer  47  5^. 

CHAPTER  16 

I.  RV  '  Send  ye  the  lambs  for  the  ruler  of 
the  land  from  Sela  lohich  is  toward  the  vdl- 
derness,'  etc.  Mesha,  king  of  Moab,  had  ren- 
dered to  Israel  tribute  of  lambs  and  rams 
(2  K34).  The  prophet  here  bids  the  Moabites 
send  tribute  to  Judah  and  thus  secure  pro- 
tection by  renewing  their  allegiance  to  God's 
people  ;  or  perhaps  in  this  v.  the  Moabite  chiefs 
are  pictured  as  exhorting  one  another  to  this 
step.  From  Sela]  in  Edom,  where  the  fugitive 
Moabites  have  taken  refuge.     2.   Timid  and 


not  knowing  which  way  to  take,  the  people 
are  gathered  at  the  Arnon  preparatory  to 
migrating. 

3.  An  appeal  from  the  Moabites  to  Zion 
that  she  will  interpose  and  shelter  the  fugi- 
tives. Take  counsel]  'bring counsel,' i.e.  give 
us  advice.  Execute  judgment]  '  make  a  de- 
cision,' by  interposing  between  us  and  our 
oppressors. 

4.  The  appeal  to  Zion  continued.  Read, 
'  Let  mine  outcasts  dwell  with  thee  (Zion)  ; 
as  for  Moab,  be  thou  (Judah)  a  covert,'  etc. 
The  reason  follows  why  safety  may  be  sought 
at  Zion — because  of  the  peace  to  be  enjoyed 
there  under  the  rule  of  the  Messianic  king 
(v.  5),  the  establishment  of  whose  kingdom  is, 
in  the  prophet's  view,  to  follow  upon  the  de- 
struction of  the  Assyrians.  5.  Hasting  right- 
eousness] RV  '  swift  to  do  righteousness  '  : 
cp.  11  •4' 5. 

6.  The  pride]  which  prevented  Moab  from 
accepting  conditions  :  the  same  national  fail- 
ing is  alluded  to  25  ^1  (cp.  Zeph28).  But  his 
lies,  etc.]  RV  '  his  boastings  are  nought.' 

7.  Foundations]  RV  '  raisin-cakes '  :  cp. 
Hos3i.  The  trade  in  these  would  cease 
through  the  desolation  of  the  vineyards. 

Kir-hareseth]  named  in  2 K3 25  as  a  strong 
fortress. 

8.  The  lords,  etc.]  RM  '  her  choice  plants 
did  break  down  the  lords  of  nations,'  alluding 
to  the  strength  of  the  wine  of  Sibmah. 

Principal]  RV  '  choice.'  Are  come .  . 
through  .  .  are  stretched  out,  they  are  gone 
over]  RV  '  reached  .  .  into  .  .  were  spread 
abroad,  they  passed.'  The  words  describe  the 
area  over  which  the  cultivation  of  the  vine 
extended  in  Moab,  but  which  is  now  desolate; 
or  perhaps  the  language  used  in  this  v.  may 
be  used  figuratively  to  express  the  wide  extent 
of  Moabite  influence  :  cp.  PsSOS*-,  etc. 

9.  With  the  weeping  of  Jazer]  i.e.  with 
sorrow  as  genuine  as  that  of  the  IMoabites 
themselves.  For  the  shouting,  etc.]  RV  '  for 
upon  thy  summer  fruits  and  upon  thy  harvest 
the  battle  shout  is  fallen.'  11.  My  bowels] 
regarded  as  the  seat  of  the  emotions  (Jer  3 1  ^O). 
The  speaker  is  probably  Jehovah,  as  in  v.  10 
(6315). 

12.  RV  '  And  it  shall  come  to  pass,  when 
Moab  presenteth  himself,  when  he  wearieth 
himself  upon  the  high  place,  and  shall  come 
to  his  sanctuary  to  pray,  that  he  shall  not 
prevail.'  The  allusion  is  to  the  worship  of 
the  national  deity,  Chemosh. 

13.  Since  that  time]  RV  '  in  time  past.' 
The  expression  may  denote  a  previous  time  in 
the  speaker's  life  (2  8153*),  or  a  more  distant 
past  (448). 

14.  The  years  of  an  hireling]  i.e.  definitely 
reckoned,  with  no  grace  allowed.  Feeble] 
RV  '  of  no  account.' 


427 


17.  1 


ISAIAH 


18.  2 


CHAPTER  171-11 
Judgment  ox  Syria  and  Israel 

This  section  is  headed,  '  oracle  concerning 
Damascus,'  but  its  subject  is  in  fact  wider  ; 
it  treats  of  the  impending  ruin  not  only  of 
Syria,  but  also  of  Ephraim,  i.e.  the  kingdom  of 
Israel  (v.  3).  This  connexion  of  Ephraim  with 
Syria  is  best  explained  by  the  alliance  of  the 
two  kingdoms  against  Judah  (71- 2).  Isaiah 
here  teaches  (as  in  716  8  4)  that  they  will  both 
be  completely  overthrown,  an  anticipation 
which  was  literally  fulfilled  (10 9  2K15^9  16^). 
The  date  of  this  prophecy  would  thus  be  sub- 
sequent to  the  formation  of  the  Syro-Epkraim- 
ite  alliance  (i.e.  the  reign  of  Jotham  in  Judah, 
2K153''),  and  some  time  before  the  capture  of 
Damascus  by  the  Assyrians  (732  B.C.). 

1-3-  The  imminent  ruin  of  Damascus,  in 
which  Israel  also  will  be  involved.  4-6.  The 
state  to  which  Israel  will  be  reduced  figur- 
atively set  forth.  7,  8.  The  spiritual  effect  of 
the  chastisement.  9-1 1.  The  cause  of  it — 
desertion  of  Jehovah  for  foreign  deities,  who 
cannot  help  in  the  day  of  calamity. 

I.  Burden]  see  on  13 1.  2.  The  cities  of 
Aroer]  This  Ai'oer  is  probably  the  one  in  Gad 
(Josh  13  25),  and  the  reference  is  to  the  cities 


Shalt  set]  RV  '  plantest . .  settest.'  This  is  a 
metaphor  of  the  foreign  worships  so  carefully 
introduced. 

CHAPTER  1712-14 

Discomfiture  of  the  Assyrians 

A  short  prophecy,  in  which  Isaiah  foretells 

sudden  disaster  for  the  Assyrian  invaders  ;    it 

is  parallel  to  14  24-27,  and  belongs  to  the  same 

period. 

12-13.  The  Assyrian  hosts  advance  against 
Judah,  but  are  suddenly  dispersed  in  a  single 
night. 

12.  Read,  '  Ah,  the  uproar  of  many  peoples, 
which  roar  like  the  roaring  of  the  seas  ;  and 
the  rushing,'  etc.  Many  people]  The  Assyrian 
army  was  recruited  from  many  nations. 

13.  Rolling-  thing]  RV  'whirling  dust ':  cp. 
Ps83i3.  14.  Specially  fulfilled  in  the  de- 
struction of  Sennacherib's  army  (3736^. 

CHAPTER    18 

Ethiopia  Reassured 
Isaiah  here  addresses  the  Ethiopians,  who, 
agitated  at  the  advance  of  the  Assyrians  west- 
ward, were  sending  ambassadors  to  other 
states  to  organise  resistance.  He  foretells 
the  sudden  overthrow  of  the  Assyrians,  as  in 


belonging  to  the  knigdom  of  Israel  on  the  E.     10  2s-34  14  24-27  17 12-14  .  and  this  prophecy  should 


of  Jordan.  Some  ancient  versions,  however, 
read, '  the  cities  are  forsaken  for  ever.'  3.  And 
the  remnant,  etc.]  RM  'and  the  remnant  of 
Syria  shall  be  as,'  etc.  As  the  glory]  ex- 
plained in  vv.  4-6,  where  it  is  shovra  that  the 
glory  of  Israel  shall  pass  away. 

4-6.  By  three  separate  figures  the  gloomy 
prospects  of  Israel  are  set  forth  :  (a)  that  of 
an  emaciated  body,  v.  4  ;  (b)  that  of  a  harvest 
field  that  is  reaped,  v.  5  ;  (c)  that  of  vines  or 
olives  when  the  fruit  is  gathered,  v.  6.  The 
teaching  is  characteristic  of  Isaiah,  for  the 
figures  imply  that  for  Israel,  as  for  Judah  (4  3 
613  73)  there  shall  be  a  remnant.  5.  As  he 
that  gathereth]  RV  '  as  when  one  gleaneth.' 

Valley  of  Rephaim]  SW.  of  Jerusalem 
(Joshl5«). 

8.  Groves]  Heb.  ^4.s^erm(RV).  These  were 
symbols  of  the  Canaanite  goddess  Asherah. 
The  symbol  seems  to  have  been  a  pole,  tree- 
trunk,  or  carved  pillar  (Dtl62i  2K217), 
erected  near  an  altar  (Jg6  25).  Images]  RV 
'  sun-images,'  pillars  dedicated  to  the  sun-god. 

9.  As  a  forsaken,  etc.]  RV  '  as  the  forsaken 
places  in  the  wood  and  on  the  mountain  top, 
which  were  forsaken  from  before  the  children 
of  Israel.'  LXX,  however,  reads,  'forsaken 
places  of  the  Amorites  and  the  Hivites  which 
were  forsaken,'  etc.  The  sense  is  that  Israel 
shall  be  punished  with  a  desolation  like  that 
which  the  former  inhabitants  experienced  at 
the  hands  of  the  Israelites.  10.  Rock]  a  title 
of  Jehovah  (30  29  Dt  32  4).    Shalt  thou  plant .  . 


428 


accordingly  be  grouped  with  those,  as  relating 
to  Sennacherib's  great  invasion  in  the  reign  of 
Hezekiah,  701  B.C. 

1-3-  The  Ethiopians  need  not  be  anxious, 
but  are  bidden,  with  all  nations,  to  watch. 

4-6.  For  Jehovah  will  interpose  and  utterly 
ruin  the  Assyrian  plans.  7.  On  witnessing 
the  deliverance,  Ethiopia  will  render  homage 
to  Jehovah. 

1.  RV  'Ah,  the  land  of  the  rustling  of 
•wings,'  probably  alluding  to  the  buzzing 
swarms  of  flies  characteristic  of  Ethiopia 
(the  land  between  the  Upper  Nile  and  the 
Red  Sea  and  Arabian  Gulf),  but  some  see  a 
reference  to  the  disk  with  wings,  which  appears 
in  ancient  Egyptian  paintings  as  a  symbol  of 
Ethiopian  sovereignty. 

2.  Vessels  of  bulrushes]  i.e.  made  of  papy- 
rus, such  as  are  still  in  use  on  the  Nile.  Omit 
myhtg  and  understand  the  exhortation  Go  ye, 
etc.,  as  addressed  by  the  prophet  to  the  Ethio- 
pian ambassadors,  bidding  them  return  home 
and  prepare  their  nation,  not  for  war,  but  to 
be  spectators  (v.  3)  of  what  follows.  A  nation 
scattered,  etc.]  AV  implies  that  the  reference 
is  to  Judah  ;  but  we  should  doubtless  take  it 
as  referring  to  the  Ethiopians,  and  read,  'a 
nation  tall  and  smooth  .  .  that  meteth  out  and 
treadeth  down,  whose  land  the  rivers  divide ' 
(RV).  Notice  in  all  these  short  prophecies 
the  familiarity  of  Isaiah,  not  only  with  the 
physical  features  of  the  different  countries,  but 
with  their  national  characteristics  :  cp.  16  ^  19. 


18.  4 


ISAIAH 


20. 


4.  The  V.  vividly  depicts  the  calmness  of 
Jehovah  in  contrast  to  the  unrest  amongst  the 
nations.  Like  .  .  herbs]  B.M  •  when  there  is 
clear  heat  in  sunshine.'  5.  When  the  bud .  . 
flower]  RV  '  when  the  blossom  is  over  and 
the  flower  become th  a  ripening  grape.'  The 
Assyrian  plans  are  maturing  (under  apparently 
favourable  conditions,  v.  4),  but  just  as  they 
become  ripe  they  are  suddenly  marred.  The 
sudden  overthrow  of  the  Assyrians  is  similarly 
foretold,  10 17  14  25  17 13.  6.  Leaving  the  figure, 
the  prophet  refers  to  the  corpses  of  the  slain. 

7.  A  people  scattered]  Correct  the  rendering 
as  in  V.  2. 

CHAPTER  19 

The  Judgment  on  Egypt 

A  prophecy  concerning  Egypt,  probably 
belonging  to  the  same  period  as  c.  18,  and 
designed  ^  to  show  the  speedy  collapse  of 
Egypt's  power,  on  which  a  strong  political 
party  in  Judah  in  Hezekiah's  reign  had  placed 
their  hopes  (see  Litro.).  Sargon  defeated  the 
Egyptians  at  Raphia  in  720  B.C.,  and  the 
prophet  in  vv.  2,  3  may  refer  to  the  anarchy 
and  confusion  consequent  upon  that  overthrow. 
At  any  rate,  he  shows  a  remarkable  acquaint- 
ance both  with  the  country  and  the  people  of 
Egypt. 

i-io.   The  impending  calamity  of  Egypt. 

11-15.  Its  helplessness  at  the  crisis. 

16-25.  The  outcome  of  the  judgment :  (a) 
a  state  of  terror  (16,  17)  ;  {b)  recognition  of 
Jehovah  (18-22)  ;  (c)  followed  by  a  call  to 
share  the  blessings  of  God's  chosen  people 
(23-25). 

I.  Burden]  see  on  13^.  Rideth]  cp.  Ps 
189,  io_  xhe  strength  of  Egypt  is  broken  at 
Jehovah's  approach.  2.  Civil  war  rages  be- 
tween the  petty  princes  of  lower  Egypt. 

4.  The  Assyrian  monarch  Sargon  may  be 
the  cruel  lord  in  the  prophet's  thoughts  ;  he 
defeated  the  Egyptians  more  than  once  (720, 
711,  B.C.). 

6.  RV  '  And  the  rivers  shall  stink ;  the 
streams  of  Egypt  shall  be  minished  and 
dried  up.'  7.  RV  '  The  meadows  by  the  Nile, 
by  the  brink  of  thei  Nile,'  etc.  8.  With  the 
failure  of  the  river  the  occupation  of  the 
fishermen  will  be  gone.     Brooks]   RY  '  Nile.' 

9.  Networks]  RV  'white  cloth.'  10.  RV 
'  And  her  pillars  shall  be  broken  in  pieces,  all 
they  that  work  for  hire  shall  be  grieved  in 
soul.'  Pillars]  i.e.  the  foundations  of  society 
(Ps  1 1 3),  or  principal  men  (Gal  2  9). 

II.  Zoan]  or  Tanis,  in  the  Delta.  12.  The 
first  proof  of  their  folly  ;  they  cannot  foresee 
the  future.  13.  A.  second  proof,  by  ill-judged 
counsel  they  have  brought  about  disaster. 

Noph]  i.e.  Memphis,  a  chief  city  of  Lower 
Egypt.  Stay]  RV  '  corner  stone  '  :  cp.  Zech 
lO'i.     15.   Branch]    RV    'palm   branch':  cp. 


9 1^ ;  the  expressions  in  the  v.  are  figurative  of 
all  classes  of  society.  16.  In  that  day]  the 
Day  of  God's  judgment.  17.  Egypt  is  filled 
with  terror  at  the  mention  of  Judah,  because 
of  Judah's  God. 

18.  Five]  a  small  number.  Language  of 
Canaan]  Hebrew.  Swear]  i.e.  swear  alle- 
giance. Shall  be  called]  as  deserving  the 
name  (1  -''). 

City  of  destruction]  i.e.  Heliopolis,  the  city 
of  the  sun  (Ir-hachei-es),  but  by  a  slight  change 
in  one  letter  {Ir-haheres),  the  prophet  sym- 
bolically indicates  its  fate — the  place  where  the 
sun  was  worshipped  will  be  destroyed.  Some- 
what similarly  Beth-El  ('  house  of  God ')  is 
written  Beth-Aven  ('  house  of  nought '),  Hos 
415^  and  Bosheth  ('shame')  stands  for  Baal 
(Jerlli3). 

19.  There  will  be  visible  signs  of  Egypt's 
allegiance  to  Jehovah.  Pillar]  or  obelisk,  such 
as  were  common  in  Egypt ;  the  mark  of  a 
holy  place. 

20-22.  Isaiah  looks  forward  to  a  time  when, 
instead  of  Egypt  exercising  an  evil  influence 
over  the  destiny  of  Judah,  Judah  shall  be  the 
means  of  spiritual  blessing  to  Egypt. 

23-25.  The  prophet  in  rapt  vision  sees  the 
historic  and  traditional  enemies  of  his  nation 
joined  with  it  in  membership  of  one  holy 
people  of  God,  where  all  share  equal  privilege. 
A  like  wonderful  catholic  and  missionary  spirit 
is  shown  in  Ps87. 

Like  Isaiah's  other  pictures  of  the  ideal 
future,  this  prophecy  (vv.  20-25)  yet  awaits  its 
complete  fulfilment.  We  may,  however,  trace 
partial  and,  as  it  were,  preparatory  fulfilments 
(a)  in  the  influence  of  the  Persian  monarchy, 
which  succeeded  the  Assyrian  empire  and  did 
much  for  the  spread  of  monotheism  in  the 
world.  Cyrus  himself,  in  his  proclamations, 
recognised  Jehovah  as  the  God  of  heaven 
(Ezr  1 2)  ;  (ft)  the  Jewish  exiles  in  Egypt  acted 
as  leaven,  and  under  the  Ptolemies  the  Hebrew 
Scriptures  were  translated  into  Greek.  Thus, 
in  a  wonderful  manner  was  the  way  prepared 
for  the  extension  of  the  gospel  of  Christ,  and 
the  bringing  of  the  nations  to  the  knowledge 
of  the  true  God. 

CHAPTER  20 
Egypt's  Captivity  symbolised 
This  c.  is  assigned  in  the  title  to  the  time 
when  Sargon  besieged  Ashdod  (711  B.C.).  The 
Philistine  city  was  at  that  time  the  centre  of 
revolt.  Sargon  interposed  and  set  up  a  new 
king,  but  the  people  were  dissatisfied  and  sub- 
stituted another  ;  the  siege  and  capture  of 
Ashdod  by  the  Assyrians  followed.  It  seems 
that  the  Palestinian  peoples  who  revolted 
against  Assyria  relied  upon  the  support  of 
Egypt.  Isaiah,  by  putting  on  captive's  garb, 
and  walking  the  streets  of  Jerusalem  for  three 


429 


20.  2 


ISAIAH 


21.  16 


years,  indicates  in  a  striking  manner  the  vanity 
of  their  expectations. 

2-6.  Isaiah's  striking  action  intended  to 
symbolise  the  captivity  of  Egj^pt  and  Ethiopia, 
which  would  confound  those  who  looked  to 
them  for  aid. 

1.  Tartan]  rather,  '  the  Tartan ':  the  official 
title  of  the  Assyrian  commander-in-chief  (2K 
181").  Sargon]  The  only  known  mention  of 
this  monarch  until  modern  times.  Inscriptions 
have  now  thrown  much  light  on  his  reign.  He 
followed  Shalmaneser  (2K189)  722  B.C.  and 
reigned  till  705,  when  he  was  succeeded  by 
Sennacherib. 

2.  Sackcloth]  such  as  prophets  sometimes 
wore  (2K18  ZechlS-t).  Naked,  etc.]  i.e.  in 
the  guise  of  a  captive.  Not  only  by  word,  but 
by  action  calculated  to  arrest  attention,  Isaiah 
strove  to  impress  his  message.  Such  symbolic 
actions  were  frequently  performed  by  the  pro- 
phets (IK  11 30  Jerl9i*-  272).  4.  The  pro- 
phet's strange  action  explained.  6.  Isle]  RV 
'  coast-land,'  referring  especially  to  Philistia, 
which  had  been  foremost  in  the  revolt  against 
Assyria.     Flee]   RV  '  fled.' 

CHAPTER  211-10 
Vision  of  Babylon's  Faxl 

The  subject  of  this  section  is  the  siege  of 
Babylon,  and  the  dismay  with  which  the  pro- 
phet receives  tidings  of  its  fall.  The  siege 
referred  to  can  scarcely  be  the  one  at  the  close 
of  the  exile,  as  is  maintained  by  many  scholars, 
because  («)  the  prophet  is  much  depressed  at 
the  thought  of  Babylon's  fall,  which  he  fore- 
sees will  involve  calamity  for  Judah  (vv.  2-4, 
10)  ;  (i)  distance  from  Babylon  is  presupposed 
(vv.  6-9)  ;  and  (c)  Assyrian  researches  have 
revealed  three  earlier  sieges,  in  710  by  Sargon, 
and  in  703  and  696  by  Sennacherib.  In  710 
and  703  the  king  of  Babylon  was  Merodach- 
Baladan,  who  sent  an  embassy  to  Hezekiah 
(39 1),  and  whose  immediate  interests  were 
identical  with  those  of  Hezekiah  with  whom 
he  desired  an  alliance.  This  would  account 
for  the  depression  in  this  prophecy  ;  in  the 
capture  of  Babylon  by  the  Assyrians,  Isaiah 
sees  a  warning  of  the  fate  that  may  overtake 
Judah  (v.  10).  The  prophecy  accordingly  may 
be  dated  either  after  710  or  703. 

1-5.  The  prophet  is  filled  with  terror  at  a 
vision  of  the  fall  of  Babylon.  6-9.  To  the 
expectant  prophet  tidings  of  its  fall  is  brought 
by  a  travelling  caravan.  10.  His  dismay  be- 
cause of  the  suffering  involved  for  Judah. 

I.  Burden]  see  13 1.  Desert  of  the  sea]  i.e. 
Babylonia  :  sea  refers  to  the  Euphrates,  the 
word  being  used  in  Hebrew  of  a  large  river, 
as  in  195  of  the  Nile.  South]  the  technical 
name  for  the  S.  of  Judah,  a  region  specially 
liable  to  tempests  :  Jer  4  ii-i3  Hos  13  is  Zech  9 1+. 

It  Cometh]  i.e.  the  tidings  conveyed  in  the 


prophet's  vision.  2.  Treacherous  dealer]  i.e. 
the  Assyrian  (33 1).  Go  up,  etc.]  the  command 
of  the  Assyrian  to  the  tributaries  serving  in 
his  army.  Sighing  thereof]  i.e.  caused  by 
Babylon. 

5.  Prepare .  .  drink]  read  these  verbs  as 
present  indicative,  '  they  prepare,'  etc.  ;  the 
Babylonian  feast  is  at  its  height  when  the  cry 
to  arms  is  raised.  Anoint  the  shield]  Leather 
shields  were  greased  before  going  to  battle 
that  the  weapons  of  the  enemy  might  glide  off. 

6.  The  prophet  himself  is  the  watchman. 

7.  RV  '  And  when  he  seeth  a  troop,  horse- 
men in  pairs,  a  troop  of  asses,  a  troop  of 
camels,  he  shall  hearken,'  etc.  8.  RV  '  cried 
as  a  lion.'  9.  Just  as  he  groans  aloud  in  im- 
patience, he  sees  a  company  approaching,  and 
recognises  that  they  are  the  bearers  of  the 
expected  tidings. 

10.  Referring  to  Judah  which  ha^  suffered 
much  from  the  Assyrian  invader  already  (10  5). 
The  news  of  this  fresh  Assyrian  victory  over 
Babylon  is  distasteful,  but  the  prophet  must 
deliver  his  message. 

CHAPTER  2111.12 
The  Fate  of  Edom 
An  oracle  concerning  Edom,  here  symbolic- 
ally called  Dumah  ('  silence  '),  because  of  the 
silence  and  desolation  in  store  for  it.  The 
prophecy,  like  that  which  follows,  refers  to  a 
time  when  the  peoples  concerned  were  in 
danger,  probably  from  the  Assyrians  ;  and,  as 
Sargon  was  waging  war  in  these  districts  both 
in  720  and  711  B.C.,  the  two  prophecies  may 
be  referred  to  either  of  these  years. 

11,  12.  To  the  enquiring  Edomites  the  pro- 
phet gives  enigmatic  answer — while  the  im- 
mediate future  looks  bright,  calamity  is  im- 
pending. 

II.  Seir]  another  name  for  Edom  (Gn368 
Dt2i2).  12.  If  ye  will,  etc.]  suggesting  the 
possibility  of  there  being  another  answer  at 
another  time. 

CHAPTER  2113-iT 
Judgment  upon  Arabia 

This  section  concerns  the  N.  Arabian  tribes. 
For  the  occasion  see  prefatory  note  on  21 11.12. 

13-17.  Owing  to  the  incursions  of  the  As- 
syrians the  Dedanite  caravans  must  take  to 
flight,  and  other  Arabian  tribes  shall  share 
their  fate. 

13.  In  the  forest,  etc.]  The  trading  caravans 
must  turn  from  their  route  and  hide  themselves 
because  of  the  invasion.  Arabia]  in  OT.  de- 
notes the  N.  part  of  what  we  call  Arabia. 

Dedanim]  a  tribe  dwelling  near  Edom  (Ezk 
27 1'').  14.  The  Edomites  (inhabitants  of,. 
Tema)  succour  the  fugitives.  Prevented,  etc.] 
RV  '  did  meet  the  fugitives  with  their  bread.' 

16.   According  to  the  years,  etc.]   see  16 1*. 


430 


21.  17 


ISAIAH 


22.  25 


Kedar]  a  general  name  for  the  tribes  of  N. 
Arabia  (Ps  120  5). 

17.  The  forecast  was  fulfilled  in  the  victories 
over  the  Arabian  tribes  by  Sargon  and  Sen- 
nacherib, as  related  in  their  inscriptions. 

CHAPTER    221-14 
Jerusalem  Rebuked 

A  severe  rebuke  of  the  conduct  of  the 
people  of  Jerusalem  in  a  time  of  calamity. 
The  crisis  refered  to  cannot  be  certainly 
identified.  The  difficulty  in  assigning  the 
passage  to  Sennacherib's  invasion  (701  B.C.)  is 
that  other  prophecies  relating  to  it  are  marked 
by  encouragement,  not,  as  here,  by  a  tone 
of  rebuke.  Perhaps  the  present  prophecy 
should  be  dated  711,  the  time  of  Sargon's 
invasion. 

1-7.  The  unworthy  behaviour  of  the  people 
of  Jerusalem  when  attack  is  imminent. 

8-1 1.  Every  measure  is  taken  for  defence 
except  to  turn  to  Jehovah.  12-14.  Instead  of 
mourning,  they  give  themselves  to  reckless 
revelry.  Such  conduct  must  bring  destruction 
as  its  punishment. 

1.  Valley  of  vision]  This  expression  in  the 
title  is  evidently  taken  from  v.  5.  It  is 
generally  understood  to  signify  Jerusalem. 

Housetops]  the  natural  place  of  concourse 
(Jg  16  2'^).    The  city  is  apparently  en  fete  (v.  13). 

2.  The  joy  is  the  forced  gaiety  of  despair 
(v.  13).  Slain]  It  is  implied  that  they  have 
died  through  famine.  3.  Which  .  .  far]  RV 
'  they  fled  afar  off.'  4.  Daughter]  poetical 
personification  of  the  people  (10  3'-).  5.  By  the 
Lord]  RV  '  from  the  Lord.'  Valley  of  vision] 
Jerusalem  may  be  so  designated  as  being  the 
home  of  prophetic  vision.  6.  Elam  .  .  Kir] 
peoples  who  furnished  auxiliaries  to  the 
Assyrian  army.  Uncovered]  took  off  its  case 
in  preparation  for  battle.  7.  Shall  be  .  .  shall 
set]  RV  '  were  .  .  set.' 

8.  Discovered,  etc.]  R  V '  took  away  the  cover- 
ing,' which  concealed  the  danger  from  the 
people's  eyes.  Thou  didst  look]  The  people 
of  Judah  are  addressed.  Instead  of  looking 
to  Jehovah  for  help,  they  rely  wholly  on 
their  material  resourqes.  House  of  the  forest] 
i.e.  the  house  of  the  forest  of  Lebanon  (1  K72 
101'''),  part  of  Solomon's  palace,  used  as  an 
armoury.  9.  Seen]  i.e.  inspected.  Vv.  9,  10 
refer  to  hasty  measures  taken  for  defence. 

Gathered  together,  etc.]  to  secure  a  supply 
during  the  siege.  10.  Numbered]  to  see  what 
material  could  be  spared  for  strengthening  the 
fortifications.      11.    Ditch]  RV  '  reservoir." 

The  old  pool]  probably  the  pool  of  Siloam. 

The  maker  thereof]  RV  '  him  that  hath  done 
this,'  i.e.  God  who  has  brought  this  trouble 
upon  them. 

12.  Weeping]  the  outward  tokens  of 
national  repentance.     13.  The  reckless  enjoy- 


ment of  the  despairing  people',  who  urged  the 
shortness  of  the  time  that  remained  to  them 
as  an  excuse  for  their  excesses.  Let  us  eat, 
etc.]  the  argument  of  men  who  believed  in  no 
hereafter  (1  Cor  15  32). 

CHAPTER  2215-25 
Denunciation  of  Shebna 
This  section  contains  Isaiah's  only  invective 
against  an  individual.  He  denounces  Shebna, 
the  king's  chief  minister,  who  may  have  been 
a  leader  of  the  party  which  favoured  alliance 
with  Egypt.  The  prophecy  was  delivered 
before  Sennacherib's  invasion  (701  B.C.), 
because  at  that  time  we  read  that  Eliakim  held 
the  office  Isaiah  here  promises  him,  while 
Shebna  occupied  a  subordinate  position 
(363  372). 

15-25.  The  deposition  of  Shebna.  The 
elevation  of  Eliakim. 

15.  Over  the  house]  i.e.  steward  of  the 
royal  palace,  a  very  high  office  sometimes  held 
by  a  king's  son  (2  Ch262i).  16.  What  hast] 
RV  '  what  doest.'  Shebna  was  apparently  a 
foreigner,  who  ostentatiously  presumed  to 
treat  Jerusalem  as  his  native  place.  A  sepul- 
chre] Kings  and  great  men  in  the  East  used 
to  prepare  their  tombs  in  their  life -time. 

17.  Carry,  etc.]  RV  '  hurl  thee  away  vio- 
lently as  a  strong  man,  yea  he  will  wrap  thee 
up  closely.'  18.  Large  country]  i.e.  a  broad 
land,  where  it  may  roll  on  and  on  and  not 
return.  There  the  chariots,  etc.]  RV  '  there 
shall  be  the  chariots  of  thy  glory,  thou  shame 
of  thy  lord's  house.'  The  chariots  are  another 
feature  of  Shebna's  ostentation.  19.  I  will 
.  .  shall  he]  Though  the  person  is  changed,  the 
subject  is  the  same  (viz.  Jehovah)  in  both 
clauses.  Such  changes  of  person  are  common 
in  Hebrew  (129  1012). 

22,  The  key]  the  symbol  of  the  office.  The 
V.  shows  the  powerful  influence  exercised  by 
this  official.  He  had  the  right  of  admitting 
to,  or  excluding  from,  the  king's  presence. 
This  is  symbolically  applied  to  Christ  (Rev  3  '^). 

23,  24.  The  office  of  Eliakim  is  to  be  firmly 
established.  His  family  will  rest  upon  him, 
and  all  kinds  of  dependents  cluster  round  him. 
Eliakim  means  'God  establishes.'  25.  The 
burden,  etc.]  i.e.  the  vessels  hanging  upon  the 
nail ;  figuratively  put  for  the  dependents  upon 
a  great  man. 

25.  Perhaps  the  prophet  may  revert  in 
thought  to  the  fall  of  Shebna,  but  the  con- 
tinuation of  the  figure  of  the  nail  seems  to 
point  to  Eliakim,  whose  fall,  if  he  abused  his 
power,  would  involve  the  ruin  of  his  depend- 
ents. Neither  the  promises  nor  the  denuncia- 
tions of  the  prophecy  need  be  considered  as 
absolute,  but  rather  conditional.  Eliakim  did 
indeed  succeed  to  Shebna's  office  (see  pre- 
fatory note),  but  we  do  not  know  that  Shebna 


431 


22.  1 


ISAIAH 


M 


suffered  the  penalty  of  exile  (v.  18)  ;  this  may 
have  been  averted  by  repentance. 

CHAPTER  23 
The  Doom  of  Tyre 

Tyre  was  a  gi-eat  mercantile  centre  of  the 
ancient  world,  and  at  the  time  of  the  Hebrew 
monarchy  chief  state  of  Phoenicia,  the  parent 
of  many  colonies,  and  mistress  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean. It  is  uncertain  what  siege  of  Tyre  is 
here  referred  to  ;  but  see  on  v.  13. 

1-5.  The  news  of  the  fall  of  Tyre  is  spread. 
6-9.  Tyre  must  take  refuge  in  her  distant 
colonies,  for  her  doom  is  purposed  by  Jehovah. 
10-14.  But  even  her  colonies  will  afford  no 
refuge,  for  the  power  of  Phoenicia  will  be  al- 
together broken.  The  fate  of  Chaldea  serves  as 
a  warning  of  coming  desolation.  15-18.  After 
seventy  years  Tyre  shall  recover  her  com- 
mercial prosperity,  but  her  gains  shall  be  con- 
secrated to  Jehovah's  service. 

I.  Homeward-bound  ships  are  greeted  at 
Chittim  (Cyprus)  with  the  news  that  Tyre  has 
fallen.  Ships  of  Tarshish]  Tarshish  is  pro- 
bably Tartessus,  in  Spain  ;  the  expression 
denotes  deep-sea  ships.  2.  Isle]  '  coastland,' 
i.e.  of  Phoenicia.  3.  Sihor]  i.e  '  black,'  a  name 
for  the  Nile (Jer  2  IS).  River]  EV 'Nile.'  Tyre 
reaped  large  revenues  from  Egypt  by  carrying 
her  corn.     Is  .  .  is]  RV  '  was  .  .  was.' 

4.  Strength]  stronghold,  i.e  Tyre.  Saying, 
etc.]  The  once  busy  quays  are  deserted,  and 
the  prophet  pictures  the  city  as  a  bereaved 
mother  mourning  her  children.  5.  RV  '  When 
the  report  cometh  to  Egypt  they  shall  be 
sorely  pained.' 

6.  Tarshish]  Tartessus,  in  Spain.  The 
Tyrians  are  bidden  to  seek  refuge  in  their 
western  colonies  on  the  shores  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean. Of  these  Phoenician  colonies  Car- 
thage was  the  most  famous.  7.  Her  owm,  etc.] 
RV  '  whose  feet  carried  her.'  8.  Taken  this 
counsel]  RV  '  purposed  this.'  Crowning  eiti/'\ 
alluding  to  the  many  dependent  kings  in  her 
colonies. 

10.  A  river]  RV  'the  Nile.'  There.. 
strength]  '  There  is  no  girdle  about  thee  any 
more.'  The  Tyrian  colonies,  released  from  all 
restraint,  throw  off  allegiance.  11.  Against 
.  .  city']  RV  '  concerning  Canaan,' i.e.  Phoenicia. 

12.  Oppressed]  or  '  defiled.'  Tyre  was  no 
longer  a  virgin  citadel.  Pass  over  to  Chittim] 
Flight  to  Cyprus  would  not  secure  safety  from 
Assyria. 

13.  This  people,  etc.]  According  to  AV  ren- 
dering, this  v.  describes  '  the  consolidation 
of  the  Chaldeans  into  a  nation  by  the  Assy- 
rians. There  is,  however,  no  other  record  of 
this,  and  it  is  better  to  read,  '  This  people  is 
no  more  ;  the  Assyrian  hath  appointed  it  for 
the  beasts  of  the  wilderness '  (i.e.  made  it 
desolate)  :  '  they   set   up  their  towers '  (siege- 


432 


towers),  '  they  overthrew  the  palaces  thereof  ; 
he  made  it  a  ruin  '  (RV).  The  fate  of  the 
Chaldeans  at  the  hand  of  the  AssjTians  is 
quoted  as  a  warning  for  Tyre.  Babylon,  the 
Chaldean  capital,  was  taken  by  the  Assyrians 
in  710  and  703  B.c,  (see  on  21  i-iO).  The  present 
prophecy  accordingly  should  be  dated  between 
one  or  other  of  those  years  and  Sennacherib's 
invasion  of  W.  Asia  (701).  14.  Strength] 
RV  '  stronghold.' 

15.  Seventy]  perhaps  a  symbolic  number  for 
a  long  period.  According  to,  etc.]  i.e.  with- 
out revolution  or  change.  16.  The  v.  is 
figurative  of  Tyre  seeking  to  renew  her  com- 
merce.     17.   Figurative  of  her  restored  traffic. 

18.  The  old  occupation  will  be  renewed, 
but  purged  of  its  worldliness. 

CHAPTERS    24-27 
The  coming  Judgment  and  establish- 
ment OF  Jehovah's  Kingdom 

The  subject  is  the  overthrow  of  a  power 
hostile  to  God's  people,  with  a  description  of 
the  deliverance  of  the  Jews  and  their  future 
glory.  The  hostile  power  is  not  named,  and 
the  tone  of  the  whole  prophecy  is  so  general 
that  it  is  impossible  to  assign  it  to  any  occa- 
sion. With  the  anticipated  overthrow  of  the 
enemy  the  prophet  associates  in  thought 
Jehovah's  final  judgment  of  the  world.  Most 
modern  scholars  assign  this  whole  section  to 
a  date  later  than  the  age  of  Isaiah,  urging 
that  (a)  Isaiah's  time  does  not  afford  a  suit- 
able occasion,  (b)  the  literary  style  is  unlike 
Isaiah's,  and  (c)  some  of  the  thoughts  are 
characteristic  of  a  later  age,  e.g.  the  concep- 
tion of  guardian  spirits  of  earthly  kingdoms 
(2421),  and  the  anticipation  of  a  resurrection 
of  God's  people  from  the  dead  (2619).  In 
these  particulars  the  section  exhibits  affinity 
with  the  book  of  Daniel  (Dan  10 13  121.2). 
The  wide  and  general  expressions  used  in 
these  chs.  make  it  easier  to  apply  the  im- 
portant spiritual  teaching  contained  in  them 
to  God's  people  in  every  age. 

C.  24.  1-12.  The  imminent  judgment 
caused  by  man's  guilt.  13-15.  The  result — 
the  remnant  praise  Jehovah.  16-23.  The 
judgments  that  precede  the  establishment  of 
Jehovah's  kingdom. 

C.  25.  1-5.  The  hymn  of  those  delivered 
when  Jehovah's  kingdom  is  set  up.  6-8.  The 
blessings  of  which  Zion  shall  then  be  the 
centre.  9-12.  The  thanksgiving  of  the  re- 
deemed for  the  fall  of  Moab. 

C.  26.  1-4.  Another  hymn  of  the  re- 
deemed. 5,  6.  The  ground  of  this  thanks- 
giving, the  overthrow  of  the  hostile  city. 
7-14.  Jehovah's  judgments  teach  the  world 
righteousness  and  destroy  oppression.  15-21. 
The  wonderful  revival  of  God's  people. 

C.  27.   1-6.  Jehovah's  care  for  BQs  people 


24.  2 


ISAIAH 


26.  19 


7-1 1.  Their  sufferings  are  due  to  their  own 
sin  and  folly.  12,  13.  But  restoration  awaits 
them. 

CHAPTER   24 

2.  All  class  distinctions  are  obliterated  and 
confused.  5.  Defiled]  i.e.  desecrated  by  blood- 
shed (Nu353^).  Everlasting-  covenant]  The 
phrase  seems  to  allude  to  Gn  d  i*^,  the  covenant 
with  Noah  and  his  sons.  The  bloodshed,  upon 
which  the  great  world-empires  were  founded, 
was  a  violation  of  this  primitive  covenant. 

7-9.  The  meaning  is  that  every  form  of 
enjoyment  has  ceased.  10.  Confusion]  or, 
' '  chaos  '  (Gn  1 2),  so  called  because  of  the 
desolation  awaiting  it.  No  man,  etc.]  the 
entrance  being  blocked  with  ruins.  1 1.  Crying 
for,  etc.]  i.e.  '  because  of '  wine,  the  vintage 
having  failed  (Joel  1 5). 

13.  When  .  .  people]  RV  '  For  .  .  peoples.' 
Omit  '  there  shall  be.'  14.  They]  i.e.  the 
escaped  remnant,  figuratively  described  in 
V.  13  :  cp.  17 '^.  The  majesty]  as  shown  in 
their  deliverance.  They  shall  cry  .  .  from  the 
sea]  i.e.  the  dispersed  remnant  shall  raise 
their  cry  of  praise  from  the  far  West.  The 
sea,  as  usual,  denotes  the  Mediterranean. 

15.  Fires]  RV  ■  east.'  Songs  of  praise 
arise  both  in  E.  and  W.  (the  isles). 

16.  Glory,  etc.]  i.e.  splendid  is  the  lot  of  the 
righteous.  My  leanness,  etc.]  RV  '  I  pine  away, 
I  pine  away,  woe  is  me  ! '  Songs  of  joy  are 
premature  ;  the  barbarian  has  yet  to  complete 
the  desolation.  17  f.  The  desolation  yet  to 
come.  18.  Windows,  etc.]  a  judgment  like 
the  deluge  (Gn7ii).  20.  Removed,  etc.] 
RV  '  moved  to  and  fro  like  a  hut.' 

21.  Host,  etc.]  i.e.  the  guardian  spirits  of 
the  nations  (Dan  10  ^^  12 1),  who  are  responsible 
for  their  respective  nations,  and  whose  fate  is 
bound  up  with  theirs.  22.  Visited]  i.e.  favour- 
ably, and  set  free.  23.  The  prophet  has 
passed  in  thought  to  the  final  convulsion  of 
nature,  and  the  manifestation  of  Jehovah's 
kingdom  in  all  its  glory. 

CHAPTER  25 

I.  Thy  counsels,  etc.]''RV  '  even  counsels  of 
old '  (i.e.  formed  of  old)  '  in  faithfulness  and 
truth.'  2.  A  city]  viz.  the  one  that  oppressed 
God's  people  (24  lO).  Strangers]  aliens  from 
God's  covenant  people  (1'^).  3.  The  hostile 
power  is  not  utterly  destroyed  ;  its  remnant 
acknowledges  Jehovah.  4.  Strength]  RV 
'  stronghold.'  5.  As  the  heat]  i.e.  as  heat  is 
assuaged  by  the  shadow  of  a  cloud.  Branch] 
RV  '  song '  ;  viz.  of  triumph. 

6.  The  temporal  and  spiritual  blessings 
which  the  rule  of  Jehovah  will  bring  to  man- 
kind. This  mountain]  i.e.  Zion  (2^'^).  Fat 
things]  i.e.  of  flesh,  offered  in  sacrifice.  On 
the   lees]  left   on    the    lees   to   heighten    the 


flavour.  7.  Covering]  Covering  the  face  was 
a  token  of  mourning  for  the  dead  (2  819"*)  ; 
the  taking  away  of  the  veil  or  covering  is 
symbolically  put  for  the  destruction  of  death 
(v.  8).  8.  In  victory]  so  some  early  Gk. 
versions  and  St.  Paul  in  quoting  this  passage 
(1  Cor  155^).     Heb.  text  has  'forever'  (RV). 

Will  vnpe,  etc.]   quoted  Rev  7^7  21  *. 

Rebuke]  RV  '  reproach.' 

10.  Hand]  protecting  hand.  Under  him] 
RV  '  in  his  place,'  where  he  stands.  Moab  is 
here  mentioned  as  being  a  proud  (c.  16)  and 
hostile  power,  a  typical  enemy.  For  the 
dunghill]   RV  '  in  the  waters  of  the  dunghill.' 

11.  He  shall  spread]  i.e.  Moab,  who  vanily 
endeavours  to  save  himself.  He  shall  bring] 
i.e.  Jehovah.     Spoils]  RV  '  craft.' 

CHAPTER  26 

I.  Salvation,  etc.]  the  assurance  of  divine 
protection  takes  the  place  of  material  bul- 
warks. 

4.  Everlasting  strength]  RM  '  a  rock  of 
ages.'  Rock  is  applied  as  a  title  to  God  (30 -'J 
Dt324).  5.  Lofty  city]  the  power  hostile  to 
God's  people  (24  lO). 

7.  Uprightness]  '  straightness,'  implying 
freedom  from  impediment.  Weigh]  RV 
'  direct.'  8.  In  the  way  of  thy  judgments] 
i.e.  in  the  way  which  God,  by  His  judgments 
or  decrees,  set  out  for  His  people  to  walk 
in.  The  context  (v.  7)  shows  this  to  be  the 
meaning.  Thy  name]  i.e.  the  manifestation 
of  thyself.  The  remembrance  of  thee]  RV 
'  thy  memorial,'  a  synonym  for  '  name  '  : 
Ex  3 15.  9.  Night]  the  season  of  meditation 
(Ps44). 

10.  Carries  on  the  thought  of  v.  9.  God's 
judgments  are  necessary,  because  His  favour 
is  ineffectual.  11.  Bicf  they  shall  see,  etc.] 
RV  '  but  they '  (the  adversaries)  '  shall  see 
th/j  zeal  for  the  people'  (Israel  :  cp.  63i5f.) 
'  and  be  ashamed  ;  yea,  fire  shall  devour  thine 
adversaries.' 

12.  In  us]  RV  'for  us.'  13.  Other  lords] 
the  oppressors  of  Israel.  Perhaps  the  pro- 
phet also  has  in  mind  the  deities  in  whose 
name  they  professed  to  act.  Make  mention, 
etc.]  i.e.  celebrate  Thy  name  in  praise.  14. 
Thi'!/  are  dead]  i.e.  the  oppressors.  15.  The 
nation]  i.e.  Israel.  Thou  hadst,  etc.]  RV 
'  thou  hast  enlarged  all  the  borders  of  the 
Ian  1.'      18.   The  fruitlessness  of  human  effort. 

Fallen]  i.e.  been  born. 

19.  Thy  dead  .  .  arise]  RV  '  Thy  dead  shall 
live  ;  my  dead  bodies  shall  arise.'  The  pro- 
nouns '  thy '  and  '  my '  both  refer  to  Israel. 
The  passage  seems  to  imply  that  for  God's 
people,  as  opposed  to  the  heathen  (v.  14),  the 
prophet  expected  a  literal  resurrection.  Some 
think,  however,  that  a  national  restoration, 
surpassing  all  expectation,  is  set  forth  under 


28 


433 


26.  20 


ISAIAH 


28.  16 


the  figure  of  resurrection  from  the  dead,  as  in 
Hos62  Ezk37i-io.  Herbs]  RM  'light':  i.e. 
morning  dew  (Ps  1 10  3).  20.  Israel  may  retire 
and  be  secure,  while  the  divine  judgments 
pass  by.  2i.  Disclose  her  blood]  so  that  it 
may  cry  for  vengeance  (Gn-ii'^'i^). 

CHAPTER  27 

1.  The  powers  hostile  to  God's  people  are 
here  symbolically  represented  as  monsters. 
Leviathan  the  piercing  (RV  '  swift ')  serpent 
perhaps  stands  for  Assyria,  watered  by  the 
rapid  Tigris,  and  '  leviathan  the  crooked  ser- 
pent '  (RV)  for  Babylon,  whose  river  was  the 
winding  Euphrates.  The  dragon]  crocodile, 
i.e.  Egj-pt,  as  in  51^. 

2.  Sing  ye,  etc.]  RV  '  a  vineyard  of  wine, 
sing  ye  unto  it.'  The  vineyard  is  God's  people 
(c.  5);  the  song  begins  at  v.  3.  4.  Who  would, 
etc.]  RV  '  would  that  the  briers  and  thorns 
were  against  me.'  Go  through]  RV  '  march 
upon.'  God's  anger  against  his  vineyard  has 
ceased,  and  He  will  now  turn  against  their 
enemies,  figuratively  represented  as  briers  and 
thorns  (9^8  10 1").  5.  A  gracious  overtiu-e 
even  to  God's  enemies.  6.  He  shall  cause] 
RV  '  In  days  to  come  shall  Jacob  take  root '  ; 
the  image  of  the  vineyard  continued. 

7.  Hath  Jehovah  smitten  Israel  as  he  smote 
their  oppressors  ?  Is  Israel  slain  according 
to  the  slaughter  of  those  slain  by  Jehovah  ? 
The  implied  answer  is  No.  8.  When,  etc.] 
RV  '  when  thou  sendest  her  away  thou  dost 
contend  with  her  ;  he  hath  removed  her  with 
his  rough  blast,'  etc.  Israel  has  been  smitten 
but  only  in  measure. 

9.  The  sense  is  that  Israel's  sin  will  be 
purged  on  condition  that  it  rejects  all  idolatry. 
The  fruit]  RV  '  the  fruit  of  taking  away '  :  i.e. 
the  result  or  proof  of  contrition  required  as 
a  condition  of  taking  away.  Groves  and 
images]  R V  '  Asherim  and  sun-images  '  :  see 
17  ^.  Not  stand  up]  RV '  rise  no  more.'  10.  De- 
fenced  city]  i.e.  of  the  enemies  (as  in  2,5'^). 
Some,  however,  understand  Jerusalem,  which 
must  for  a  season  be  desolate.    11.  It]  i.e.  Israel. 

12.  Beat  off]  RV  '  beat  off  the  fruit '  as 
from  olive  trees  (Dt  2420).  The  ingathering 
of  exiled  Israel  compared  to  a  fruit  harvest. 
River]  RV  'River,'  i.e.  Euphrates.  Stream 
of  Egypt]  the  stream  dividing  Palestine  from 
Egypt  (IKS^^^).  13.  Trumpet]  summoning 
the  sacred  assembly  (Nu  lO^"!'^^'). 

CHAPTERS  28-33 
Warnings  to  Judah 
These  chs.  refer  to  the  state  of  affairs 
during  the  reign  of  Hezekiah,  when  Palestine 
was  threatened  by  Assyria,  and  an  influential 
party  in  Judah  favoured  resistance,  relying  on 
the  support  of  Egypt  ;  a  line  of  policy  con- 
sistently opposed  by  Isaiah. 


CHAPTER  28 

This  c.  must  be  assigned  (v.  1)  to  a  date 
prior  to  the  capture  of  Samaria  by  the 
Assyrians  (722  B.C.)  and  fall  of  the  northern 
kingdom. 

1-6.  Samaria's  luxury  and  self-indulgence 
pave  the  way  to  ruin.  7-10.  Judah  likewise 
is  given  up  to  indulgence  and  heeds  not  the 
prophet's  warning.  11-13.  Therefore  Jehovah 
will  teach  the  people  by  means  of  foreign 
invasion  and  disaster.  14-22.  Judah's  safety 
lies  not  in  faithless  diplomacy,  but  in  trust 
in  Jehovah.  23-29.  A  parable  of  Jehovah's 
way  of  working,  drawn  from  the  action  of  the 
husbandman,  who  conducts  his  operations  in 
accordance  with  a  wise  plan. 

I.  RV  'Woe  to  the  crown  of  pride  of  the 
drunkards  of  Ephraim,  and  to  the  fading  flower 
of  his  glorious  beauty  which  is  on  the  head,' 
etc.  The  city  of  Samaria  crowning  its  fair 
valley  is  destined  to  fade  and  pass  away  like 
the  flower-garlands  of  her  revellers.  2.  A 
mighty .  .  one]  viz.  the  Assyrian,  Jehovah's 
agent.  4.  Hasty  fruit]  RV  '  first-ripe  fig '  :  a 
delicacy  eagerly  devoured.  5.  In  place  of  the 
false  glory  destined  to  perish,  Jehovah  is  to  be 
a  true  glory  for  the  faithful  remnant.  6.  True 
administration  of  justice  within,  and  strength 
to  repel  the  invader.  Turn,  etc.]  RV  '  turn 
back  the  battle  at  the  gate.' 

7.  They  also]  the  men  of  Judah.  They 
err  in  vision,  etc.]  They  are  chnink  when  en- 
gaged in  the  sacred  duties  of  their  office  ;  the 
tables  they  have  just  left  prove  it  (v.  8). 

9.  They  mock  the  prophet  ;  his  teaching  is 
only  fit  for  babes  !  10.  The  people's  mockery 
continued.  Must  he']  RV  '  is.'  Precept .  . 
line]  The  words  in  Heb.  are  monosyllables, 
such  as  would  be  used  in  teaching  little 
children. 

II.  Isaiah's  retort,  Jehovah  will  teach  them 
through  a  foreign  invader.  RV  '  Nay,  but  by 
men  of  strange  lips  and  with  another  tongue,' 
etc.  12.  This  is  the  rest,  etc.]  cp.  301^.  Je- 
hovah through  His  prophet  had  pointed  out 
the  way  of  peace  and  recovery  for  the  nation 
that  already  under  Ahaz  had  suflEered  much 
through  foreign  alliance.  But  the  politicians 
of  Judah  were  without  patient  trust  in  Jehovah, 
and  were  preparing  further  trouble  by  seeking 
alliance  with  Egypt.  13.  RV '  Therefore  shall 
the  word  of  the  Lord  be  unto  them,'  etc.  The 
teaching  they  refused  will  prove  a  burden  and 
a  stumblingblock. 

15.  Made  a  covenant]  they  thought  that  by 
their  policy  they  had,  as  it  were,  bought  off 
death  and  Hades — made  themselves  secure. 

Lies,  etc.]  Though  the  words  are  put  into 
the  mouth  of  the  politicians,  the  point  of  view 
is  the  prophet's. 

16.  Zion]   as  being  Jehovah's  foundation, 


434 


28.  17 


ISAIAH 


30. 


shall  stand  firm.  The  imagery  was  suggested 
by  the  large  stones  of  the  Temple.  Shall  not 
make  haste]  i.e.  hasten  hither  and  thither  to 
seek  security  by  alliances  (e.g.  with  Egypt), 
but  may  wait  confidently  on  Jehovah.  The 
Apostles  saw  the  ultimate  spiritual  fulfilment 
of  Isaiah's  words  in  the  person  of  Christ 
(Eph220  iPet2<3,7). 

17.  RV  '  Judgment  also  will  I  make  the  line 
and  righteousness  the  plummet.'  Righteous- 
ness is  the  standard  by  which  Jehovah  will  try 
conduct.  The  sense  of  what  follows  is  that 
the  false  refuges  and  alliances  (v.  18),  by  which 
men  seek  to  secure  themselves,  will  be  swept 
away.  19.  From  .  .  forth]  RV  '  As  often  as 
it  passeth  through.'  A  vexation,  etc.]  RV 
'  nought  but  terror  to  understand  the  message,' 
which  they  before  rejected  (vv.  12,  13);  it  is 
now  nothing  but  terrifying  rumours.  20.  De- 
picts in  an  expressive  figure  the  failure  ending 
in  restless  discomfort  and  distress,  towards 
which  the  policy  of  the  dominant  party  is 
tending. 

21.  Perazim  .  .  Gibeon]  referring  to  David's 
victories  over  the  Philistines  (2  S  5  20  1  Ch  14 16). 
Then  God  interposed  on  behalf  of  His  people. 
His  strange  -work  is  His  work  of  judgment 
against  them.  22.  Their  scornful  attitude  will 
only  lead  to  heavier  foreign  oppression.  Lest 
your  bands]  They  are  acting  in  such  a  way  as 
to  fix  the  Assyrian  yoke  more  firmly  upon 
Judah,  and  render  it  more  galling.  Consump- 
tion] RV  '  consummation'  :  see  1022,23 

24.  The  implied  answer  is  No  ;  he  doth  not 
do  these  things  continually.  25.  Fitches]  (i.e. 
fennel-seed)  and  cummin  were  the  smallest  and 
most  delicate  seeds.  Cast  in,  etc.]  RV  '  put 
in  the  wheat  in  rows,  and  the  barley  in  the 
appointed  place,  and  the  spelt  in  the  border 
thereof.'  28.  '  Is  bread  corn  crushed  ?  Nay, 
he  .  .  and  though  the  wheel  of  his  cart  and  his 
horses  scatter  it,  he  doth  not  grind  it.' 

29.  Working]  RV  'wisdom.' 

In  vv.  24-29  the  skill  of  the  agriculturalist 
in  varying  his  operations  is  treated  as  a  re- 
flexion and  parable  of  the  divine  wisdom. 
Delicate  grains  are  threshed  but  not  crushed 
so  heavily  as  to  spoil  them  (vv.  27,  28)  ;  so  Je- 
hovah's judgments  are  not  for  destruction,  but 
to  prepare  men  for  their  gi-eat  destiny. 

CHAPTER  29 

This  c.  and  the  three  which  follow  and  com 
plete  the  section,  evidently  belong  to  the  very 
eve  of    Sennacherib's   invasion  of   Judah   in 
701  B.C. 

1-8.  Jerusalem  is  besieged  and  at  the  last 
extremity,  but  the  enemy  shall  be  suddenly 
discomfited.  9-24.  Judah's  infatuation  at  this 
crisis,  contrasted  with  the  very  different  and 
teachable  spirit  that  shall  mark  its  future. 

I.  RV    '  Ho   Ariel.'     Ariel   is   a   symbolic 


name  for  Jerusalem,  meaning  either  (1)  lion  of 
God,  i.e.  hero  (2  S  2320),  the  lion  being  the 
symbol  of  Judah  ;  or  (2)  altar-hearth  of  God. 

Dwelt]  RV '  encamped.'  Add  ye,  etc.]  The 
meaning  is  that  when  the  new  year  succeeds 
that  which  is  now  running  its  course,  and  the 
cycle  of  feasts  has  been  completed,  Jehovah 
will  bring  distress  upon  Jerusalem.  Let  them, 
etc.]  RV  '  let  the  feasts  come  round.'  2.  And 
it  shall .  .  Ariel]  RM  '  Yet  it  shall  be,'  etc.  In 
spite  of  all,  the  name  shall  not  be  falsified. 
Jehovah  will  protect  His  sanctuary  as  indicated 
in  vv.  6-8.  4.  Out  of  the  dust]  so  deep  will, 
be  her  humiliation.     Thy  voice,  etc.]   cp.  8^^. 

5-8.  As  in  other  prophecies  of  the  same 
period,  Isaiah  foretells  sudden  and  over- 
whelming disaster  for  the  enemy  (37^1'). 

5.  Strangers]  RV  '  foes.'  7.  Multitude  .  . 
nations]  The  Assyrian  army  was  recruited 
from  many  nations.  Munition]  RV  '  strong 
hold.' 

9  f .  Here  the  prophet  sets  out  the  sins  which 
brought  upon  Judah  the  punishment  of  in- 
vasion. Stay  .  .  cry]  RM  '  Be  ye  amazed  and 
wonder  ;  blind  yourselves  and  be  blind.' 

10.  Hath  closed,  etc.]  RV  '  hath  closed  your 
eyes,  the  prophets  ;  and  your  heads,  the  seers, 
hath  he  covered.'  Even  the  prophets,  who 
ought  to  be  the  nation's  watchmen  (cp.  21 8), 
share  the  general  infatuation. 

13.  The  service  of  Jehovah  is  merely  formal. 
Their  fear,  etc.  ]  RM  '  their  fear  of  me  is  a 

commandment  of  men,  learned  by  rote.' 

14.  Marvellous]  because  Jehovah  acts  con- 
trary to  expectation  against  His  people  (2821). 

15.  The  politicians  who  sought  alliance  with 
Egypt  endeavoured  to  conceal  their  project. 

16.  Surely,  your  turning,  etc.]  RM  '  O  your 
perversity  !  Shall  the  potter  be  counted  as 
clay  ?  '  The  potter  stands  for  Jehovah,  whom 
the  politicians  of  Judah  ignored  in  their 
schemes. 

17.  The  future  change  in  the  aspect  of 
affairs  is  expressed  under  the  figure  of  physical 
transformation.     18.  Reversal  of  vv.  10-12. 

20.  Terrible  one]  the  foe  without.  The 
scorner]  within  (28 1^).  21.  For  a  word]  RV 
'  in  a  cause  '  :  i.e.  a  case  brought  for  judgment. 

Reproveth]  pleadeth  ;  the  reference  is  to 
the  corrupt  rulers  who  attempt  to  silence  those 
that  plead  for  justice.  The  gate]  the  place  of 
judgment.  23.  There  are  alternative  inter- 
pretations :  (1)  when  the  nation  sees  fresh 
generations  growing  up  under  the  divine  favour, 
it  will  serve  God  more  perfectly  ;  (2)  when 
his  children  see  the  work  of  My  hands,  etc. 

CHAPTER  30 

1-7.  The  Egyptian  alliance  is  profitless. 
8-1 1.  The  perversity  of  Judah,  12-17.  ^^^ 
its  disastrous  consequences.  18-26.  There  is 
a  glorious  prospect  for  the  repentant  people. 


435 


30.  1 


ISAIAH 


32.  12. 


27-33.  But  first  Jehovah  will  destroy  the 
Assyrian. 

I.  Cover,  etc.]  seek  pretence  to  conceal 
their  designs  (29 1^).  4.  Were  . .  came]  EV 
'  are  .  .  come  '  :  the  ambassadors  of  Judah  go 
from    place    to    place    in    Egypt   seeking  aid. 

Zoan  (Gk.  Tanis)  and  Hanes  (Gk.  Hera- 
cleopolis)  were  botla  cities  in  the  Delta  of  the 
Nile.  5.  Were  all]  EV  'shall  all  be.'  A 
people]  Egypt. 

6.  The  burden  .  .  south]  a  title  prefixed  to 
the  short  utterance,  vv.  6,  7.     Burden]  see  13 1. 

South]  Negeb,  i.e.  the  desert  tract  S.  of  Judah 
on  the  way  to  Egypt.  The  v.  pictures  the 
journey  of  the  Judaean  ambassadors  through  a 
district  infested  with  dangerous  beasts,  their 
camels  and  asses  laden  with  presents,  where- 
with they  hope  to  purchase  Egypt's  aid. 

7.  This]  i.e.  Jerusalem  (according  to  AV), 
who,  instead  of  thus  seeking  foreign  aid,  ought 
to  rest  confident  in  Jehovah's  protection  (v.  15). 
But  more  probably  the  reference  is  to  Egypt. 
'  Therefore  have  I  called  her  Eahab  that  sitteth 
still '  (RV),  i.e.  is  inactive  in  the  day  when  help 
is  expected  from  her  (36  6).  '  Rahab '  ('  pride ')  : 
a  symbolic  name  for  Egypt,  as  in  51^. 

8.  Write  it]  i.e.  the  foregoing  prophecy  or 
the  name  Rahab  (8 1).     Table]  RV  '  tablet.' 

9.  The  la-w]  i.e.  oral  instruction  given 
through  the  prophet  (8 1*').  13.  This  iniquity] 
i.e.  disregard  of  Isaiah's  admonition  and  re- 
liance on  Egypt  is  a  symptom  of  ruin,  like  the 
bulging  of  a  wall  on  the  point  of  falling. 

15.  In  returning,  etc.]  i.e.  in  giving  up  your 
restless  trust  in  man  and  calmly  relying  upon 
Jehovah.  16.  It  was  the  reputation  of  its 
cavalry  especially  that  made  Egypt  so  desir- 
able an  ally  (36'-').  17.  One  thousand,  etc.] 
the  words  indicate  the  complete  rout  (Lv268). 

Beacon  .  .  ensign]  striking  symbols  of 
solitariness. 

18.  Wait]  The  above  threatenings  are  con- 
ditional, Jehovah  will  wait  to  give  them  an 
opportunity  of  repentance.  Of  judgment]  and 
therefore  not  unduly  severe.  20.  Removed  .  . 
corner]  RV  '  hidden  '  ;  the  prophets  will  not 
need  to  hide  themselves  but  will  be  publicly 
recognised.  22.  The  altered  frame  of  mind 
manifested  in  destruction  of  idols.  Cover- 
ing .  .  ornament]  RV  '  overlaying  .  .  plating.' 

23-26.  trent  of  the  corresponding  change 
in  nature  which  shall  mark  the  ideal  future 
(42).  24.  Clean]  'salted.'  Even  the  cattle 
shall  not  lack  carefi^lly  prepared  and  seasoned 
provender.  25.  Slaughter]  i.e.  of  the  Assyrians. 

Towers]  siege-towers.  26.  Breach]  RV 
'hurt.' 

27.  Reverts  to  the  more  immediate  future, 
the  judgment  on  the  Assyi'ians  which  is  pre- 
paratory to  the  great  future.  The  name] 
practically  equivalent  to  '  the  manifestation.' 

And  .  .  heavy]  RV 'and  in  thick  risingsmoke,' 


smoke  being  a  symbol  of  anger.  28.  With  .  . 
vanity]  i.e.  the  sifting  will  reduce  them  to 
nothingness.     29.   Ye]  i.e.  God's  own  people. 

Mighty  One]  R  V  '  Rock '  implies  that  Jehovah 
is  the  strength  of  His  people.  30.  Voice]  the 
thunder.  Jehovah's  wrath  is  figured  as  a 
storm.     Scattering]  RV  '  a  blast.' 

31.   Beaten   down]  RV  'broken   in   pieces.' 

Which  smote]  see  10 ^-i.  32.  And  .  .  pass] 
RM  '  And  every  stroke  of  doom.'  With  tabrets, 
etc.]  i.e.  with  songs  of  exultation  on  the  part 
of  God's  people.     With  it]  RV  'with  them.' 

33,  The  destruction  of  the  Assyrian  set  forth 
under  the  image  of  a  funeral  pyre.  Tophet]  '  a 
Tophet,'  i.e.  a  place  of  burning.  The  name 
was  given  to  the  valley  of  Hinnom,  where, 
previous  to  Hezekiah's  accession,  sacrifices  were 
ofi:ered  by  fire  (2  K  16  3).  The  breath,  etc.]  It 
is  here  indicated  as  elsewhere  (cp.  31  ^)  that  the 
destruction  of  the  Assyrians  shall  not  be 
brought  about  by  human  agency. 

CHAPTER  31 

1-5.  Judah  should  trust  not  in  Egypt,  but 
in  Jehovah.  6-9.  The  wonderful  deliverance 
from  the  Assyrian. 

I.  See  301*5.  2.  Somewhat  sarcastic  ;  Je- 
hovah is  wise,  as  well  as  the  politicians  of 
Judah.  Evil]  i.e.  calamity.  5.  Flying]  i.e. 
hovering  over  the  nest  to  protect  it.  Passing 
over]  an  allusion  to  the  Passover,  the  same 
word  being  used. 

6.  The  children,  etc.]  RV  '  ye  have  deeply 
revolted,  O  children  of  Israel.'  8.  The  Assy- 
rian's fall  will  be  brought  about  by  no  human 
agency.  For  the  fulfilment  see  37  ^'5.  Be  dis- 
comfited] RV  '  become  tributary.'  9.  And  he 
shall,  etc.]  RV  '  and  his  rock '  (i.e.  strength) 
'  shall  pass  away  by  reason  of  terror.'  Ensign] 
the  word  denotes  a  standard,  or  signal,  forming 
the  rallying  point  of  an  army.  In  this  con- 
text the  signal  is  for  the  gathering  of  the  foes 
of  the  Assyrian.  Whose  fire]  see  10 1^'^'''. 
The  presence  of  Jehovah  is  as  a  consuming 
fire  to  His  enemies. 

CHAPTER    32 

1-8.  Characteristics  of  the  future  age.  9-14. 
A  warning  of  coming  desolation  to  the  over- 
confident people.  15-20.  Afterwards  shall  be 
a  peaceful  and  prosperous  future. 

I.  The  ideal  future.  2.  Men  will  defend 
and  protect  their  inferiors  instead  of  oppressing 
them.  3.  Cp.  2918.  51  Moral  confusion  shall 
cease  ;  men  shall  be  taken  at  their  true  value, 
their  character  being  clearly  seen  in  their 
actions.     6.  Hypocrisy]  RV  '  profaneness.' 

8.  By  .  .  stand]  RV  'in  liberal- things  shall 
he  continue.' 

9-14.  Cp.  3i<'--6.  10.  Many  .  .  years]  RM 
'  Days  above  a  year,'  i.e.  in  little  more  than  a 
year.     12.   Lament  .  .  teats]  RV  '  smite  upon 


436 


32.  14 


ISAIAH 


34.  17 


the  breasts,'  a  gesture  of  despairing  lamenta- 
tion over  the  desolated  vineyards.  14.  Multi- 
tude .  .  city]  RV  '  populous  city.' 

15.  A  limit  is  set  to  the  desolation.  A 
bright  future  is  in  store,  when  the  outward 
transformation  of  the  country  will  correspond 
with  the  moral  reformation  (v.  16).  This 
change  alike  in  man  and  in  nature  is  attributed 
to  an  outpouring  of  the  divine  and  life-giving 
spirit.  19.  When]  RV  '  but' :  a  judgment  is 
to  precede  the  time  of  peace  just  described. 

Coming,  etc.]  RV  '  in  the  downfall  of  the 
forest,'  i.e.  of  the  Assyrian.  The  city]  Jerusa- 
lem too  must  be  humbled.  20.  Refers  to  the 
bright  future  again,  when  the  land  shortly  to 
be  desolate  (vv.  1.3,  14)  shall  be  fully  culti- 
vated. Beside  all  waters]  for  the  land  will  be 
everywhere  irrigated  (30  ^^^^ 

CHAPTER  33 

1-12.  The  deliverance  of  Jerusalem  from 
the  invader.  13-24.  The  consequences  of  the 
interposition  of  Jehovah  for  those  that  dwell 
in  the  city. 

1.  The  Assyrian  is  addressed.  That  spoilest, 
etc.]  may  mean,  (1)  that  the  Assyrian  attacked 
Judah  without  provocation,  or  (2)  that  he  has 
so  far  spoiled  other  nations  unchecked. 

2.  Their  arm]  viz.  Jerusalem's  defenders'. 

3.  Disaster  overtakes  the  enemy.  People  .  . 
nations]  refer  to  the  various  races  subject  to 
Sennacherib  and  serving  in  his  army. 

4.  As  .  .  upon  them]  RV  '  as  locusts  leap 
shall  they  leap  upon  it '  :  the  people  of  Jeru- 
salem seizing  the  spoil  compared  to  insects 
devastating  the  fields. 

6.  Thy  times .  .  his  treasure]  The  pronoun 
in  each  clause  refers  to  the  people  of  Judah. 
In  the  last  clause  there  may  be  an  implied 
rebuke  of  the  tendency  of  Hezekiah  to  trust 
in  his  material  treasure  (cp.  39  2,  etc.). 

7.  Ambassadors  of  peace]  i.e.  sent  to  obtain 
peace.  The  reference  is  to  Hezekiah's  in- 
effectual embassy  to  Sennacherib  at  Lachish 
(2  K 1 8  i-i-i'J).  8,  9.  describe  the  country 
ravaged  by  the  invader.  Broken  the  covenant] 
cp.  2X181"^.  II,  12.  set  forth  figuratively 
the  destruction  of  the  As^jrian  army. 

14.  Jehovah's  interposition  strikes  terror  to 
the  unworthy  in  Zion.  Fire  .  .  burnings]  i.e. 
God,  who  is  a  consuming  fire  (3033  31  ^). 

15,  16.  The  righteous  finds  in  the  manifes- 
tation of  Jehovah  his  protection.  17.  The 
king]  i.e.  the  reigning  king  of  Judah, 
Hezekiah.  In  his  beauty]  no  longer  in  sack- 
cloth (37 1).  The  land.,  off]  RV  'a  far- 
stretching  land,'  no  longer  hemmed  in  by  foes. 

18.  Meditate]  i.e.  muse  upon  it  as  something 
past.  Where  .  .  receiver]  RV  '  where  is  he 
that  counted,  where  is  he  that  weighed  ? '  The 
Assyrian  officials  before  whom  the  people  had 
to  appear  with  their  tribute  will  be  no  more. 


19.  The  common  language  of  Syria  and 
Assyria  was  Ai-amaic,  which,  though  a  Semitic 
tongue,  was  unintelligible  to  the  ordinary 
Hebrew-speaking  Israelite  :    cp.  28^1  36 11. 

20.  Zion  likened  to  a  tent  which  nothing 
can  root  up.  21.  The  image  is  changed  to 
that  of  a  city  encircled  by  a  protecting  stream  : 
cp.  Ps  46  ■*  Nah  3  §.  23.  Reverts  to  the  present. 
Zion  is  like  a  shattered  ship.  Nevertheless 
the  spoil  from  her  foes  will  be  so  gi-eat  that 
even  cripples  take  their  share. 

CHAPTERS  34,  35 

Sentence  on  the  Nations.     Blessings 

IN  store  for  Gtod's  People 
These  chs.  are  now  generally  considered 
non-Isaianic  and  referred  to  the  period  of  the 
exile,  on  two  grounds  :  (a)  the  literary  style  is 
unlike  Isaiah's.  (J)  The  strong  feeling  against 
Edom  points  to  a  date  subsequent  to  the 
capture  of  Jerusalem  by  Nebuchadnezzar, 
when  the  Edomites  exulted  in  the  city's  fall 
and  sided  against  the  Jews,  conduct  which 
provoked  bitter  resentment  (Obad  vv.  10-16 
Lam  4  21,  22  Ps  137  7). 

C.  34.  1-4.  The  judgment  upon  the 
nations,  5-17.  and  upon  Edom  in  particular. 

C.  35.  The  blessings  in  store  for  God's 
redeemed  people. 

CHAPTER   34 

4.  Cp.  1310.  5.  Shall  be  bathed]  RV  '  hath 
drunk  its  fill.'     Idumea]  RV  '  Edom.' 

6.  Bozrah]  a  strongly  fortified  city  of  Edom 
(631  Am  11-  Jer49i3).  See  the  same  imagery 
Jer46i0.  The  men  slain  hj  divine  vengeance 
are  compared  to  beasts  offered  in  sacrifice. 

7.  Unicorns]  RV  '  wild-oxen.'  Come  down] 
i.e.  to  the  shambles.  8.  Controversy]  'quarrel.' 
The  calamity  of  Edom  is  a  punishment  from 
Jehovah  for  its  hostility  to  Zion. 

9,  10.  Imagery  suggested  by  the  fate  of 
Sodom  and  Gomorrah  ( Jer  49 1^),  and  by  the 
volcanic  character  of  the  land  of  Edom. 

11-15.  A  graphic  picture  of  a  desolate  land 
haunted  by  wild  and  uncanny  creatures. 

1 1 .  Cormorant  .  .  bittern]  R  V  '  pelican  .  . 
porcupine.'  Stones]  RV  'plummet,'  implying 
that  the  work  of  destruction  will  be  as  thorough 
as  that  of  building  generally  is.  Confusion  .  . 
emptiness]  The  words  are  those  of  Gnl^,  and 
suggest  a  return  to  primeval  chaos. 

13.  Dragons.  .  owls]  RV  'jackals  .  .  os- 
triches ' :  cp.  1 3  21, 2-2.  1 4.  Wild  .  .  islands]  R V 
'  wolves  '  (13  22).  Satyr]  see  on  1321.  Screech 
o^vl]  Heb.  Lilifh,  the  name  of  a  night-demon 
or  vampire;  RV  '  night-monster.'  15.  Great 
owl]  RV  '  arrowsnake.'  16.  Seek,  etc.]  An 
invitation  to  future  generations  to  compare 
the  event  with  the  prediction,  and  note  its 
precise  fulfilment.      Fail]  RV  '  be  missing.' 

17.   God,     who    assigns    to    nations    their 


437 


35.  1 


ISAIAH 


38. 


territories  (Ac  17  26),  has  allotted  Edom  to  the 
desert  creatures  for  ever. 

CHAPTER  35 

1.  While  Edom  becomes  a  desert,  for  Grod's 
people,  on  the  other  hand,  the  desert  places 
bm-st  into  bloom,  the  fairest  parts  of  Palestine 
sharing  their  fertile  beauty  with  the  waste 
places  (v.  2). 

7.  Parched  gfround]  E,M  '  mirage '  :  this 
which  so  often  deceives  travellers  in  the  desert 
yill  become  a  real  lake. 

Dragons]  RV  '  jackals.'  8.  An  highway] 
by  which  the  exiles  may  return  through  the 
desert.     9.  Cp.  51^1. 

CHAPTERS  36,  37 
The  Invasion  of  Sennacherib 

An  account  of  Sennacherib's  invasion  of 
Judah  (701  B.C.)  and  its  sudden  termination. 
The  narrative  is  closely  parallel  to  that  of 
2  K 1813-19^''  (where  see  notes),  from  which 
it  was  probably  taken,  and  added  to  this  book 
by  a  compiler  because  of  its  bearing  on  the 
prophetic  activity  of  Isaiah. 

C.  36.  1-3.  The  mission  of  the  Rabshakeh 
from  Sennacherib  to  Jerusalem.  4-10.  The 
Rabshakeh's  first  speech — the  folly  of  resist- 
ance, relying  either  upon  Egypt,  or  upon 
Jehovah.  11-20.  The  Rabshakeh's  second 
speech — the  fall  of  Jerusalem  certain,  favom*- 
able  terms  offered  in  case  of  surrender. 
21,  22.  The  Rabshakeh's  words  are  reported 
to  Hezekiah. 

C.  37.  1-7.  Hezekiah  sends  a  deputation 
to  Isaiah,  who  in  reply  foretells  the  retreat 
of  the  enemy.  8-13.  Sennacherib's  second 
embassy  to  Jerusalem — trust  in  Jehovah  will 
not  avail  to  save  the  city.  14-20.  Heze- 
kiah's  prayer  to  Jehovah  to  vindicate  Himself. 
21-35.  TI16  answer  through  Isaiah — the 
Assyrian  is  Jehovah's  instrument,  under  His 
control,  and  shall  be  turned  back  from  Jeru- 
salem. 36-38.  The  fulfilment  of  Isaiah's 
words. 

CHAPTER  36 

I.  In  the  fourteenth  year]  The  chronology  is 
difficult.  From  38 1  39 1  we  might  conclude 
that  Hezekiah's  sickness  and  the  Babylonian 
embassy  followed  Sennacherib's  invasion, 
whereas  chs.  38  and  39  chronologically  must 
precede  chs.  36,  37.  Samaria  fell  in  722, 
Hezekiah's  6th  year  (2K1810)  ;  Sennacherib's 
invasion  of  Judah  was  in  701,  which  would 
therefore  be  Hezekiah's  27th  year.  The  date 
14th  year  here  given  must  then  be  an  error. 
Hezekiah  reigned  in  all  29  years  ;  15  additional 
years  were  promised  in  his  sickness  (38^),  which 
accordingly  must  have  befallen  him  in  his  14th 
year.  It  looks  as  though  the  note  of  time  in 
this  V.  originally  applied  to    c.  38,  where  it 


would  be  accurate,  but  has  by  the  compiler 
been  transposed  to  the  conunencement  of  this 
historical  appendix  to  Isaiah's  prophecies. 

2.  Rabshakeh]  is  a  title,  '  the  Rabshakeh,' 
i.e.  chief  officer,  or  cupbearer.  6.  Broken] 
RV  '  bruised.'  Pharaoh]  This  was  Tirhakah, 
of  the  Ethiopian  dynasty  (379).  7.  The  allu- 
sion is  to  Hezekiah's  reformation  ;  the  reduction 
of  the  number  of  shrines  would  seem  to  a 
heathen  to  dishonour  the  national  god. 

19.  Cp.  109-11. 

CHAPTER   37 

7.   Send  .  .  him]  RV  '  put  a  spirit  in  him.' 
22.  Virgin]  the  figure  as  in  2312. 

24.  Sides]  RV  '  innermost  parts.'  The 
height .  .  Carmel]  RV  'his  farthest  height,  the 
forest  of  his  fruitful  field.' 

25.  Digged]  Deserts  cannot  impede  his 
march,  for  he  digs  wells  there.  Have  I  dried, 
etc.]  R  V  '  will  I  dry  up  all  the  rivers  of  Egj-pt '  : 
the  AssjTian  boasts  that  he  will  pass  on  to 
conquer  Egypt.  26.  Jehovah  is  here  the 
speaker.  Done  .  .  formed  it]  Referring  to  the 
ordering  of  events  in  the  divine  providence. 

That  thou,  etc.]  The  Assyrian  is  Jehovah's 
instrument.     28.   Abode]  RV  '  sitting  down.' 

29.  My  hook]  Assyrian  sculptures  represent 
both  captives  and  beasts  as  led  in  this  way. 
Jehovah  will  treat  the  Assyrian  as  His  cap- 
tive, or  as  a  beast  which  must  be  tamed  and 
restrained. 

30.  A  sign  given  to  the  people  of  Judah 
that  the  Assyrian  shall  not  return.  This  year, 
the  year  of  the  invasion,  since  the  harvest  has 
been  destroyed  they  must  eat  the  aftergrowth. 
Since  they  have  not  been  able  to  sow  this  year, 
next  year  they  must  depend  upon  what  grows 
of  itself,  but  the  year  after  they  will  be  able 
to  sow  and  reap  freely,  for  the  land  will  be 
fi'ee  from  enemies. 

33-35.  Another  short  utterance  repeating 
the  promise  of  deliverance.  36.  The  striking 
fulfilment  of  Isaiah's  words.  The  angel]  The 
expression  points  to  pestilence  as  the  instru- 
ment of  the  Assyrians'  overthrow  (1  Ch21  !•*'  i^ 
Ps  78 -19, 50).  38.  The  death  of  Sennacherib 
took  place  in  681  B.C.,  so  that  it  did  not  im- 
mediately follow  the  discomfiture  of  his  army. 

With  the  sword]  in  fulfilment  of  Isaiah's 
words  (v.  7). 

CHAPTER   38 

Sickness  and  Recovery  of  Hezekiah  . 

Continuation  of  the  historical  appendix  to 
Isaiah's  prophecies.  The  c.  is  parallel  to  2K 
201-11  (where  see  notes),  but  contains  a  con- 
siderable addition  in  the  shape  of  Hezekiah's 
song  of  thanksgiving  upon  his  recovery. 
Chronologically  this  c.  precedes  36  and  37  : 
see  on  36 1. 

1-8.  To  Hezekiah   in   his   sickness   Isaiah 


438 


38.  1 


ISAIAH 


40. 


promises  15  more  years  of  life,  and  confirms 
the  promise  by  a  sign.  9-20.  Hezekiah's  song 
of  thanksgiving.  21,  22.  The  remedy  for  the 
king's  disease  was  suggested  by  Isaiah,  and 
the  sign  was  given  at  the  king's  request. 

I.  Thus  saith,  etc.]  The  passage  affords  a 
striking  illustration  of  the  conditional  nature 
of  prophetic  utterance,  for  at  Hezekiah's  inter- 
cession the  sentence  was  revoked.  5.  Fifteen 
years]  Hezekiah's  sickness  therefore  befell  him 
in  his  14th  year  (714)  :  see  on  36^.  Though 
some  long  time  before  Sennacherib's  great  in- 
vasion, danger  was  already  apprehended  from 
Assyria  (v.  6).  8.  The  account  in  2K20S-ii 
is  fuller.  Degrees . .  sun  dial]  E  V  '  steps  .  . 
steps.'  Some  kind  of  clock  is  evidently  indi- 
cated, probably  a  pillar  standing  upon  steps 
and  casting  a  shadow  in  such  a  way  that  a 
particular  portion  of  time  was  represented  by 
a  step. 

10.  Cutting  off]  RV  'noontide.'  11.  See 
the  Lord]  Hezekiah  is  probably  thinking  of 
the  Temple  worship.  The  v.  illustrates  the 
gloomy  conception  of  the  Hebrews  as  to  the 
state  of  man  after  death  :  cp.  v.  18.  12.  Cut 
off]  RV  '  rolled  up.'  With  pining  sickness] 
RV  '  from  the  loom.'  From  day  .  .  night]  i.e. 
in  one  day.  The  words  refer  to  the  swiftness 
with  which  the  end  comes,  not  to  prolongation 
of  suffering.  13.  I  reckoned  .  .  lion]  RV  '  I 
quieted  myself  until  morning  ;  as  a  lion,'  etc. 

14.  Mourn]  i.e.  moan,  referring  to  the 
sound  made  by  the  dove.  Undertake  for  me] 
RV  'be  thou  my  surety  '  :  Gn439  4432. 

15.  Softly]  RM  'as  in  solemn  procession' 
(Ps424).  In]  RV  '  because  of .'  16.  By  these 
things]  i.e.  the  word  of  God  and  the  action  of 
His  providence.  The  reference  is  to  the  first 
part  of  V.  15:  cp.  Dt83  Mt4'i.  So  wilt  thou] 
RV  'wherefore.'  17.  Behold  ..  bitterness] 
RV  '  Behold  it  was  for  my  peace  that  I  had,' 
etc.  He  sees  on  looking  back  that  the  chas- 
tisement had  been  for  his  good.  My  sins] 
G-od's  favour  in  restoration  to  health  is  viewed 
as  a  sign  of  forgiveness. 

CHAPTER  39 
Alliance  with  Babylon  denounced 
Conclusion  of  the  historical  appendix.  The 
c.  belongs  to  the  period  when  Merodach-Bala- 
dan  of  Babylon  was  making  efforts  to  bring 
the  various  peoples  of  W.  Asia  into  alliance 
against  the  common  enemy,  the  king  of  As- 
syria (at  this  time  Sargon,  20 1).  The  arrange- 
ment of  such  alliance  with  Hezekiah  was, 
doubtless,  the  object  of  the  embassy,  and  this 
explains  Hezekiah's  gladness  and  exhibition  of 
his  resources  (v.  2).  Congratulation  to  the 
king  of  Judah  on  his  recovery,  and  enquiry 
into  the  astronomical  marvel  at  Jerusalem 
(38  8)  formed  pretexts  for  the  embassy  (v.  1  ; 
2  K  20 12  2  Ch  32  31). 


439 


1,2.  The  embassy  from  Babylon.  3-8.  Isaiah 
rebukes  the  king  and  foretells  captivity  in 
Babylon. 

5  f .  Isaiah  consistently  opposes  reliance 
upon  a  human  ally  in  place  of  trust  in  Jeho- 
vah. 6,  7.  A  remarkable  prophecy  of  cap- 
tivity in  Babylon,  though  the  Assyrians  were 
the  foe  which  at  this  time  threatened  Judah. 

7.  Thy  sons]  fulfilled  in  the  captivity  of 
Manasseh  (2Ch33ii),  and  later  in  the  fate  of 
Jehoiachin  (2K25^'').  8.  Truth]  i.e.  stability 
(Jerl4i3). 

With  words  of  pious  resignation  Hezekiah 
acquiesces  in  the  will  of  Jehovah  (cp.  1  S  3 1^), 
then  in  the  words  that  follow — For  there  shall 
be  peace,  etc. — he  expresses  his  thankfulness 
that  the  punishment  has  been  postponed.  The 
prediction  of  the  captivity  of  the  royal  house 
must  have  been  a  great  blow  to  Hezekiah, 
especially  so  since  the  Hebrews  firmly  held 
the  principle  of  the  solidarity  of  the  forefather 
and  his  posterity.  The  postponement  of  the 
blow  was  a  divine  mercy  and  token  of  God's 
favour,  for  which  Hezekiah  did  well  to  be 
thankful.  It  is  quite  unnecessary  to  read  a 
tone  of  selfishness  into  his  utterance  ;  on  the 
contrary,  his  spirit  at  this  time  seemed  rather 
to  have  been  one  of  humble  contrition 
(2Ch322t3). 

CHAPTERS  40-66 
Israel's  Restoration  from  Exile  in 

Babylon 
On  the  authorship  and  date  of  these  chs.  see 
Intro.  According  to  their  subject  matter,  they 
fall  naturally  into  three  divisions  of  almost 
equal  length  (chs.  40-48,  49-57,  and  58-66), 
the  close  of  each  division  being  marked  by  an 
intimation  that  the  wicked  shall  not  share  in 
the  blessings  promised  to  God's  people. 

§  1.  CHAPTERS  40-48 
The  hope  of  return  is  grounded  by  the 
prophet  upon  the  fact  that  Jehovah  is  the  only 
God,  the  Creator  and  Ruler  of  all  things,  the 
Disposer  of  the  fate  of  nations,  who  guides 
the  course  of  history  according  to  His  will. 
The  tone  of  this  section  is  argumentative,  the 
respective  claims  of  Jehovah  and  of  the  heathen 
gods  being  discussed  as  in  a  court  of  justice. 
The  object  of  the  argument  is  to  encourage 
the  Jews  in  their  exile  by  showing  that,  since 
Jehovah  is  thus  supreme,  no  obstacles  will  be 
able  to  interfere  with  the  restoration  to  their 
own  land  which  He  has  promised.  With  fine 
irony  the  prophet  exhibits  the  infatuation  of 
idol-makers  and  idol-worshippers ;  proving 
that,  while  the  idols  are  senseless  blocks  and 
less  than  nothing  (40 1'^),  Jehovah  is  Lord  of 
the  world  and  controls  all  things.  The  Israel- 
ites can  testify  to  His  power,  because  through 
His  prophets  He  has  told  them  of  things  be- 


40.  1 


ISAIAH 


41.  8 


fore  they  came  to  pass.  Jehovah  is,  therefore, 
set  forth  as  the  deliverer  of  His  people.  But 
in  the  carrying  out  of  His  purposes  He  employs 
agents  :  (a)  Cyrus,  who  is  commissioned  as  His 
shepherd  (44  ^*'),  His  anointed  (45 1),  to  perform 
all  His  pleasure  in  the  overthrow  of  Babylon 
and  deliverance  of  the  Israelites  from  their 
exile  ;  (h)  the  nation  of  Israel,  which  has  its 
own  work  to  do  in  the  furthering  of  Jehovah's 
purposes.  The  title  '  servant  of  Jehovah,' 
hitherto  applied  to  individuals,  is  in  these  chs. 
(418  441,2,21  4820)  applied  to  the  nation  in  its 
corporate  capacity  :  perhaps  also,  though  less 
directly,  to  the  faithful  Jews  within  the  nation 
(421-7,18  438,10)  on  whom  would  devolve  the 
fulfilment  of  God's  will.  The  name  implies,  in 
the  first  place,  the  fact  of  the  nation's  election 
by  Jehovah  (48  ^  '•),  and  further  the  truth  that 
Israel  has  a  mission  in  the  world,  viz.  to 
bring  the  knowledge  of  true  religion  to  the 
Gentiles,  and  be  a  means  of  universal  blessing 

(42i^-)- 

CHAPTER  40 

The  Proclamation  of  Deliverance 

1,  2.  The  theme  of  the  prophecies  following: 
the  period  of  Zion's  trouble  and  affliction  is 
over.  3-26.  Celestial  voices  give  the  message 
of  restoration  to  God's  people,  who  are  en- 
couraged by  the  thought  of  His  infinite  power. 
27-31.  Trust  in  Jehovah  is,  therefore,  the 
source  of  true  strength. 

2.  Warfare]  RM '  time  of  service,'  i.e.  en- 
forced service  and  hardship :  cp.  Job  7  ^.  Double] 
i.e.  double  (ample)  penalty  (Jerl7i8)^  in  the 
sufEerings  of  the  exile. 

3-5.  A  first  voice  enjoins  preparation  for  the 
progress  of  the  great  King,  who  will  bring  back 
His  people  from  exile.  3.  Crieth,  etc.]  RV 
'  crieth.  Prepare  ye  in  the  wilderness.'  The 
passage  was  understood  by  the  Baptist  as  pro- 
phetic of  his  own  mission  (Jn  1  ^3)^  and  is  so 
taken  by  the  Evangelists  (MtB^  and  parallels). 

4.  This  imagery  is  from  the  practice  of  East- 
ern monarchs,  who  thus  made  roads  for  the 
passage  of  their  armies.  5.  Shall  see]  shall  see 
Jehovah's  glorious  deeds  for  His  people,  and 
acknowledge  Him. 

6-8.  The  message  of  the  second  voice. 
Human  things  must  decay  :  Israel's  oppressors 
are  mortal ,  but  Jehovah ' s  promi se  is  sure .  6 .  He 
said]  i.e.  the  prophet  himself  ;  then  in  the  words 
following,  in  reply  to  his  question,  a  message  is 
put  into  his  mouth.  7.  Spirit]  RV  '  breath,'  or 
wind. 

9-1 1.  The  third  voice — the  good  tidings 
brought  to  Zion  that  Jehovah  is  approaching 
in  triumph,  bringing  back  His  people.  9.  Read, 
'  O  thou  that  tellest  good  tidings  to  Zion  .  .  O 
thou  that  tellest  good  tidings  to  Jerusalem.' 
'  Thou  that  tellest '  is  f  em.  in  Heb.  The  prophet 
in  spirit  sees  a  maiden,  or  a  company  of  women 


(Ps  68 11),  bringing  the  news.  10.  His  reward, 
etc.]  The  figure  is  that  of  a  conqueror  bringing 
the  spoils  of  war.  His  work]  RV  '  recom- 
pense,' his  redeemed  people  regarded  as  the 
prize  of  war.  11.  The  v.  indicates  in  a  figure 
the  tender  care  with  which  God  will  support 
His  people  on  their  journey  home.  Are  with 
young]  RV  '  give  suck.' 

12-26.  The  prophet's  object  is  to  show  the 
power  of  Jehovah  to  deliver  the  people  from 
captivity.  He  emphasises  two  thoughts  :  (a) 
the  wonderful  order  and  proportion  in  the 
universe  show  His  infinite  power  and  wisdom 
(vv.  12-17),  and  (b)  no  representation  can  be 
made  of  Him.  How  futile  are  the  idols  that 
men  make  !  (vv.  18-20). 

20.  RV  '  He  that  is  too  impoverished  for 
such  an  oblation,'  etc.  24.  Shall  not]  read 
the  tenses  as  past  (RV).  The  v.  expresses 
the  transitory  character  of  earthly  powers  in 
the  sight  of  Jehovah.     26.  Faileth]  is  missing. 

27.  The  foregoing  argument  is  addressed 
to  a  people  who  had  suffered  so  long,  that 
they  thought  God  had  forgotten  them,  and 
were  despondent. 

CHAPTER   41 
Cyrus   God's  Agent 

1-7.  Jehovah  and  the  gods  of  the  heathen 
compared  as  in  a  court  of  judgment.  Jehovah 
has  raised  up  Cyrus  and  given  him  victory, 
in  order  to  carry  out  His  good  purposes,  while 
the  heathen  gods  are  powerless  to  affect  the 
course  of  events.  8-20.  A  digression  :  the 
events  which  bring  terror  to  the  nations  bring 
deliverance  to  Israel.  21-29.  Comparison  of 
Jehovah  with  the  gods  of  the  heathen  con- 
tinued. 

I.  The  heathen  nations  lately  conquered 
by  Cyrus  are  called  to  plead  their  case  as  in 
a  law-court. 

2-4.  The  evidence  produced  on  Jehovah's 
side.  It  is  He  who  has  called  Cyrus  to  his 
career  of  conquest  in  fulfilment  of  His  own 
purpose.  2.  Who  raised  up,  etc.]  RV  '  Who 
hath  raised  up  one  from  the  east,  whom  he 
calleth  in  righteousness  to  his  foot,'  i.e.  to 
accompany  Him.  The  one  thus  raised  up  is 
Cyrus  :  cp.  44  ^^  46 11.  He  is  called  in  righteous- 
ness by  Jehovah,  i.e.  in  fidelity  to  His  covenant 
promises,  which  are  to  be  realised  through 
Cyrus.     See  the  same  thought,  42*^  45 1^. 

5-7.  The  heathen,  alarmed  by  Cyrus's  suc- 
cesses, make  alliances  for  mutual  support,  and 
attempt  to  avert  disaster  by  manufacturing  or 
repairing  idols.  7.  Saying,  etc.  ]  RV  '  saying 
of  the  soldering,  It  is  good.' 

8-10.  Israel,  on  the  other  hand,  descended 
from  the  patriarchs,  God's  chosen  people,  need 
have  no  fear. 

8.  Servant]  with  a  special  mission,  as  will 
hereafter  appear.     But  here  the  emphasis  is 


440 


41.9 


ISAIAH 


43.  10 


on  what  God  does  for  Israel,  not  on  what 
Israel  does  for  God.  Friend]  cp.  2Ch207 
Jas  2  23.  '  The  friend  of  God '  is  still  the  usual 
title  of  Abraham  in  the  East.  9.  Chief  men] 
RV  '  corners.'  10.  My  righteousness]  i.e. 
faithfulness  to  My  purpose  as  declared  in  My 
promises  (see  v.  2).  11-14.  It  is  impossible 
that  the  servant  thus  chosen  and  honoui-ed 
can  be  cast  off  (oppressed  for  ever). 

15-16.  With  Jehovah's  aid  Israel  shall  be- 
come terrible  to  its  foes. 

17-20.  Jehovah  will  make  easy  their  return 
through  the  desert,  exchanging  their  misery 
and  need  for  plenty  and  happiness,  that  man 
may  acknowledge  Him.  18.  High  places] 
RV  ' bare  heights.'     19.  Shittah]  RV  'acacia.' 

21.  The  V.  reverts  to  the  scene  of  the  court 
of  judgment  (v.  1).  22,  23.  A  challenge  to 
heathen  gods  to  foretell  the  future,  to  do 
something  or  other  to  show  that  they  exist. 

24.  The  case  is  summed  up  against  them. 

25.  Jehovah,  on  the  other  hand,  has  shown 
His  power  by  raising  up  Cyrus.  The  north  .  . 
the  rising  of  the  sun]  referring  to  the  Medo- 
Persian  empire.  Princes]  i.e.  of  Babylon, 
who  hold  Israel  in  bondage.  26,  27.  While 
the  heathen  oracles  have  been  dumb,  Jehovah 
has  promised  restoration  to  Zion.  26.  He  is 
righteous]  i.e.  has  been  proved  right  by  the 
fulfilment  of  His  prophecy.  27.  RV  '  I  first 
loill  say  unto  Zion,'  etc.  Behold  them]  the 
returning  exiles.  28,  29.  No  reply  is  possible 
on  the  part  of  the  heathen  ;  their  gods  are 
nought. 

CHAPTER  42 
The  ideal  Servant 

1-9.  The  characteristics  and  functions  of 
Israel  as  the  ideal  Servant  of  Jehovah.  10-17. 
A  song  of  praise  to  Jehovah.  18-25.  The 
deficiencies  of  the  actual  Israel,  considered  as 
Jehovah's  Servant. 

I.  My  servant]  On  the  conception  of  these 
chs.  see  Intro.  Judgment]  or  '  right.'  The 
Servant's  office  is  to  teach  the  world  true  reli- 
gion. 2,  3.  He  will  not  be  ostentatious  nor 
unduly  severe.  How  Christ  corresponded  to 
the  ideal  is  noted  in  Mtl2i'''-2i  3.  Smoking 
flax]  RM  '  dimly-burning  wick.'  Unto  truth] 
RV  '  in  truth.' 

4.  The  V.  implies  that  the  Servant's  work 
will  be  attended  with  difficulty,  which  he  will 
face  and  overcome.  Set  judgment]  established 
true  religion. 

6.  Two  purposes  of  the  Servant's  call  indi- 
dicated,  (a)  to  be  the  embodiment  of  a  new 
covenant  with  Israel  (the  people),  (i)  to  be  the 
instrument  of  a  revelation  to  the  Gentiles. 

In  righteousness]  i.e.  in  faithfulness  to  My 
purpose  as  declared  in  My  promises  (4 1 2, 10 
4513).  7.  The  thought  of  enlightenment  con- 
tinued,  the  imagery  being  suggested  by  the 


441 


condition  of  the  Jews  in  exile.  8,  9.  A  re- 
turn to  the  thought  of  Jehovah's  superiority 
to  heathen  gods.  He  shows  His  control  of 
events  by  foretelling  them.  11.  Kedar]  the 
tribes  of  Ai-abia.  The  rock]  RV  '  Sela,'  the 
rock-city  of  Edom. 

13-17.  The  vv.  refer  to  the  coming  deliver- 
ance :  in  vv.  14  f.  the  speaker  is  Jehovah. 

13.  Jealousy]  on  behalf  of  His  people  :  cp. 
9'^.  14.  Holden  my  peace]  leaving  prayers 
unanswered  (Ps  28  1  Habli3).  Refrained  my- 
self] not  interposing  by  miracles  or  mighty 
acts.  During  the  period  of  the  exile  there 
had  been  no  divine  interposition  on  behalf  of 
Israel.  Destroy  and  devour]  RV  '  gasp  and 
pant.'  15,  16.  The  difficulties  in  the  way  of 
the  returning  exiles  will  disappear. 

18-20.  Israel,  though  called  to  be  Jehovah's 
Servant,  cannot  comprehend  His  message  given 
through  the  prophet.  Note  the  contrast  to 
the  ideal  Servant  (vv.  1-4),  which  suggests 
that,  in  the  end,  the  Servant  will  be  an  Israel 
within  Israel.  19.  Perfect]  RV  'at  peace  vuth 
me.'  20.  Opening  the  ears]  RV  '  his  ears  are 
open.'  21.  RV  'It  pleased  the  Lord,  for 
his  righteousness'  sake,  to  magnify,'  etc.  In 
accordance  with  His  purpose,  Jehovah  had  sen! 
prophetic  teachers  :  their  teaching  had  been 
great  and  glorious,  both  in  itself  and  in  its  ful- 
filment. The  law]  RM  '  the  teaching,'  given 
through  His  prophets.  Jehovah,  on  His  part, 
gi-aciously  taught  His  people,  but  their  insen- 
sibility (vv.  18-20)  has  brought  them  to  their 
present  condition  of  misery  and  exile  (vv.  22- 
25).  23.  Who  among  you,  etc.]  i.e.  who  will 
learn  the  lesson  of  the  past  ? 

CHAPTER  43 
The  Mission  of  Israel 

1-21.  The  dispersed  Israelites  shall  be  ran- 
somed and  restored.  They  are  witnesses  before 
the  world  that  Jehovah  is  the  true  God.  A 
second  and  more  wonderful  exodus  is  in  store 
for  Israel.  22-28.  This  deliverance  is  not  a 
return  for  service  rendered  to  God,  but  a  free 
gift. 

I.  But  now]  In  contrast  to  the  wrath  poured 
upon  Israel  (42  24,25)  God  will  manifest  His 
redeeming  love.  3.  Egypt,  etc.]  The  mean- 
ing is  that  these  nations  shall  take  the  place 
of  Israel  as  vassals.  Jehovah  is  willing  to 
give  the  richest  lands  as  ransom  for  His  people. 

4.   Thou  hast  been]   RV  '  and  hast  been.' 

People]  RV  '  peoples.'  5,  6.  Every  nation 
where  Israelites  were  dispersed  must  restore 
them  to  their  home. 

8.  Blind,  etc.]  see  42  is.  9f.  Another  judg- 
ment scene,  similar  to  4121.  9.  The  heathen 
are  challenged  to  bring  witnesses  on  behalf  of 
their  gods,  that  they  can  foretell  the  future. 

10-13.  The  Israelites  themselves  are  Je- 
hovah's witnesses,  proving  in  their  experience 


43.  14 


ISAIAH 


45.1 


that  He  alone  is  the  Eternal,  the  Almighty, 
who  can  save  and  foretell  the  future. 

14.  Babylon]  Here  for  the  first  time  the 
place  of  exile  is  named.  Have  .  .  nobles]  RV 
'  will  bring  down  all  of  them  as  fugitives,  even 
the  Chaldeans.'  Whose  cry,  etc.]  RV  '  in  the 
ships  of  their  rejoicing.'  Babylonia  was  famous 
for  its  shipping  ;  ships  belonging  to  it  and 
other  cities  on  the  Persian  Gulf  are  referred 
to  in  the  earliest  Babylonian  legends. 

16,  17.  The  imagery  for  this  second  exodus 
is  borrowed  from  the  exodus  from  Egypt. 

18,  19.  The  mighty  works  of  the  past  shall 
be  forgotten,  in  view  of  a  still  greater  deliver- 
ance :  cp.  Jer23'''S.  20.  Dragons  ..  owls] 
EiY  '  jackals  . .  ostriches.' 

22-24.  Israel's  service  has  not  been  such  as 
to  deserve  Jehovah's  interposition.  23.  Small 
cattle]  Heb.  '  lambs  or  kids  '  (mg.).  I  have 
not  caused,  etc.]  i.e.  I  have  not  laid  too  heavy 
burdens  on  you.  24.  Sweet  cane]  from  which 
anointing  oil  was  prepared  (ExSO^^).  Thou 
hast  made  me  to  serve,  etc.]  i.e.  I  have  had 
to  endure. 

26.  An  invitation  to  produce  any  argument 
in  defence  of  their  conduct.  27,  28.  Nothing 
can  be  m-ged  ;  they  have  sinned  from  the  be- 
ginning of  their  national  existence  ;  hence  the 
calamity  of  the  exile,  which  has  made  them  an 
object  of  scorn  to  the  world.  27.  First  father] 
Jacob:  cp.v.  28.  28.  Profaned,  etc.]  i.e. treated 
the  chief  priests  (cp.  1  Ch  24  ^)  as  though  they 
were  ordinary  unconsecrated  men.  During  the 
exile  their  priestly  functions  were  in  abeyance. 

CHAPTER  44 

The  Impotence  of  Idols 
1-23.  The  reproach  of  God's  people  shall 
be  entirely  removed.  Jehovah  the  Eternal, 
who  rules  the  events  of  history,  contrasted 
with  the  futile  gods  of  the  heathen.  24-28. 
This  great  Jehovah  "pledges  the  restoration  of 
His  people  through  Cyrus. 

2.  Jesurun]  i.e.  '  upright,'  a  symbolic  name 
of  Israel  (Dt32i5),  indicating  its  ideal  char- 
acter. Fear  not]  i.e.  on  account  of  past  failure 
and  apparent  inability  to  realise  the  future 
which  God  sets  before  you.     3.   Cp.  4320. 

5.  The  meaning  is  that  the  nations  of  the 
world  will  count  it  an  honour  to  associate 
themselves  with  Israel  and  be  reckoned  as  the 
Lord's  people.  Subscribe,  etc.]  i.e.  sign  him- 
self as  the  Lord's.  Surname  himself]  as  with 
a  title  of  honour. 

6.  Cp.  43 11' 13.  His  redeemer]  i.e.  the  de- 
liverer of  Israel.  7.  A  challenge  to  others  to 
foretell  the  future,  as  Jehovah  does  by  His 
prophet  (4122).  rm  'And  who,  as  I,  can 
proclaim  ?  let  him  declare  it,'  etc.  8.  From 
that  time]  RV  '  of  old.'  My  witnesses]  see 
4310.12.  No  God]  RV  '  no  Rock.'  Rock,  as 
a  title  of  God  (cp.  17  "  Dt  3 2  4.  is,  is),  expresses 


the  permanent   strength  and   protection   He 
affords. 

8-20.  The  folly  of  idolaters  exposed. 

9.  They  are  their  own,  etc.]  RV  '  their  own 
witnesses  see  not,'  i.e.  the  witnesses  on  behalf 
of  the  idols  (the  heathen),  as  opposed  to  Je- 
hovah's witnesses  (the  Jews),  v.  8.  11.  All 
his  fellows]  RM  '  all  that  join  themselves 
thereto.'  They  are  of  men]  i.e.  of  human 
origin,  and,  therefore,  cannot  make  God.  Read, 
'  The  smith  sharpeneth  a  tool  and  worketh,' 
etc.  (RM).  12.  Description  of  the  making  of 
a  metal  idol.     The  maker  is  frail  man. 

13,  etc.  Description  of  the  making  of  a 
wooden  idol.  A  line]  RV  '  a  pencil."  Fitteth] 
RV  '  shapeth.'  14.  The  v.  describes  the  choos- 
ing of  the  wood,  and  the  planting  of  the  tree, 
for  making  an  idol.  Cypress ..  ash]  RV'holm 
tree  .  .  fii'.'  Strengtheneth]  i.e.  carefully  tends 
its  growth,  or  chooses,  selects.  15-17.  The 
uses  to  which  the  tree  is  put.  Part  is  used  for 
human  purposes,  part  to  make  a  god. 

18-20.  Idolaters  are  so  infatuated  that  they 
do  not  see  the  contradiction  involved  in  such 
conduct. 

21-23.  A  contrast.  Jehovah  will  show  His 
power  and  graciousness  in  the  deliverance  of 
His  people.  22.  A  cloud]  which  soon  dis- 
perses.    24.   He  is  supreme  over  all  things. 

By  myself]  RV  '  who  is  with  me  ?  '  implying 
that  Jehovah  alone  does  these  things.  25.  He 
frustrates  false  prophets,  but  pledges  Himself 
to  fulfil  the  predictions  of  His  own  prophets 
as  to  the  restoration  of  Jerusalem  (vv.  26—28). 

26.  Servant]  here  a  synonyni  for  '  prophet ' : 
cp.  20  3.    Messengers]  the  prophets  generally. 

27.  The  allusion  is  to  the  drying  up,  (a) 
of  the  waters  which  would  impede  the  re- 
turning exiles,  or  (6)  of  the  waters  which 
protected  Babylon  (JerSO^s  51 3^).  Cyrus,  in 
fact,  entered  Babylon  by  diverting  the  Euplira- 
tes  from  its  usual  channel  and  marching  by 
the  river  bed. 

28.  As  the  Assyrian  was  Jehovah's  appoint- 
ed instrument  for  the  chastisement  of  His 
people  (10  5  f-),  so  Cyrus  is  singled  out  as  His 
instrument  for  their  restoration.  Even  saying, 
etc.]  literally  fulfilled  in  the  decree  of  Cyrus 
(Ezrlif-  2  Ch  36  22, 23). 

CHAPTER   45 
The  Meaning  of  the  Conquests  of  Cyrus 

1-13.  The  conquests  of  Cyrus  are  ordained 
by  Jehovah  for  His  purposes.  Let  not  Israel 
criticise  the  manner  of  its  deliverance.  14-17. 
Great  honour  awaits  Israel.  18-25.  All  the 
world  shall  recognise  Jehovah's  righteousness 
and  power. 

I.  His  anointed]  as  being  consecrated  to 
carry  out  the  purposes  of  Jehovah,  i.e.  to 
release  Israel  from  Babylon.  This  is  the 
only  place  where  a  non-Israelite  king  is  .so 


442 


45.  2 


ISAIAH 


48.  1 


entitled.  Somewhat  similarly  Nebuchadnezzar 
is  called  Jehovah's  servant  (Jer27*'  43^0) 

Whose  right  hand  I  have  holden]  cp.  41 13. 

Loose  the  loins]  lit.  '  ungird,'  i.e.  disarm. 

The  two  leaved  gates]  i.e.  of  the  cities  which 
Cyrus  attacks. 

2.  Crooked  .  .  straight]  RV  rugged  .  .  plain.' 

3.  Treasures]  referring  primarily  to  the  vast 
wealth  of  Babylon  :  cp.  Jerol^^.  Cyrus  also 
captured  Sardis  with  the  riches  of  Croesus 
(Herod.  I,  84).  4.  Surnamed]  i.e.  given  an 
honourable  title,  referring  to  '  Anointed ' 
(v.  1),  or  to  'shepherd'  (4428).  5,  Though 
thou  hast]  better,  '  when  thou  didst  not  know 
me,'  i.e.  before  thy  birth  :  cp.  49 1.  Or  it  may 
mean,  before  thou  didst  acknowledge  me:  cp. 
Ezrli'2.  7.  Evil]  not  moral  evil,  but  mis- 
fortune or  calamity,  the  opposite  of  peace. 

8.  Righteousness]  i.e.  fidelity  to  promises  : 
so  also  V.  13. 

pf.  A  possible  objection  is  now  met  from 
Israelites  dissatisfied,  either  with  the  nationality 
of  the  deliverer  (a  Gentile  instead  of  a  prince  of 
the  House  of  David),  or  with  the  tardy  approach 
of  the  deliverance.  Let .  .  potsherd]  RV  '  a 
potsherd  among  the  potsherds  of  the  earth  !  ' 

II.  Ask,  etc.]  Read  as  interrogative,  '  Will 
ye  ask  .  .will  ye  command  me  ?  '  13.  Him] 
i.e.  Cyrus.  Will  Israel  venture  to  dictate  to 
Jehovah  what  He  shall  ordain  for  His  people  ? 

14.  The  nations  shall  come  to  acknowledge 
the  God  of  Israel.  15.  An  exclamation  of 
wonder  on  the  prophet's  part  at  the  unsearch- 
able ways  of  God.  Some  have  understood  the 
words  as  an  expression  of  the  wondering  adora- 
tion of  the  nations.  Hidest]  refers  to  the 
period  of  the  exile,  when  Jehovah  seemed  not 
to  hear  the  prayers  of  His  people  nor  to  help 
them.  19.  Not.,  in  secret]  Jehovah  had 
plainly  foretold  the  future,  so  that  men  might 
compare  the  prophecy  with  the  event.  I  said 
not .  .  Seek  ye  me  in  vain]  Israel's  hopes  will 
not  be  disappointed. 

21.  A  challenge  to  the  idolaters,  Jehovah 
is  the  only  God  who  can  fulfil  His  prophecies  ; 
therefore  shall  all  the  nations  acknowledge 
Him  (vv.  22,  23).  23.  The  religion  of  Israel 
is  to  become  the  religion  of  the  whole  world. 
This  anticipation  finds  its  fulfilment  in  the 
Christian  dispensation,  and  thus  St.  Paul  ap- 
plies the  latter  part  of  the  v.  to  Christ  in  Phil 
210,11.  24.  Read,  'Only  in  the  Lord,  shall 
one  say  unto  me,  is  righteousness  and  strength.' 

25.   Be  justified]  lit.  '  be  righteous.' 

CHAPTER  46 

The  Contrast  between  Jehovah  and 
THE  Deities  of  Babylon 

I,  2.  The  idols  of  Babylon  will  be  borne 
away  by  the  conquerors  amongst  the  spoil,  the 
gods  being  powerless  to  save  their  images. 

I.   Bel]  the  chief  Babylonian  deity  (Jer  50  2). 


443 


Boweth .  .  stoopeth]  before  the  conqueror. 

Nebo]  son  of  Bel,  the  Babylonian  Mercury. 
The  name  means  'revealer.'  Your  carriages, 
etc.]  RV  '  the  things  that  ye  carried  about  in 
processions  are  made  a  load,'  of  spoil  for  the 
conquerors:  see  on  10'-^^.  3,  4.  So  far  from 
being  thus  ignominiously  carried  about,  Jeho- 
vah, on  the  other  hand,  carries  His  people. 

5-7.  The  argument  against  idolatry  renewed 
(40isf.  44  9  f-)- 

8  f .  These  vv.  are  addi-essed  to  those  amongst 
the  Jews  who  were  inclined  to  object  to  God's 
manner  of  deliverance  (cp.  45^);  they  are 
bidden  to  remember  the  things  He  has  done 
for  His  people  in  the  past  (v.  9),  and  how  He 
has  shown  by  prophecy  that  He  orders  events 
according  to  His  purpose  (v.  10);  they  may 
accordingly  rely  on  the  fulfilment  of  the 
prophecies  concerning  Cyrus  (v.  11).  11.  A 
ravenous  bird]  i.e.  Cyrus.  The  conqueror  is 
compared  to  a  bird  of  prey  as  in  Jer  49-^  Ezk 
173.  The  image  is  the  more  appropriate, 
because  the  standard  of  Cyrus  was  a  golden 
eagle.     12.  Stouthearted]  i.e.  stubborn. 

CHAPTER  47 

An  Ode  on  the  Humiliation  of 

Babylon 

1-15.  The  coming  calamity.  The  reason  of 
Babylon's  fall.     Her  helplessness  to  avert  it. 

2.   Grind]  i.e.  as  a  slave  (Ex  11 5). 

Uncover,  etc.]  RV  'remove  thy  veil,  strip 
off  the  train,  uncover  the  leg.'  The  over- 
throw of  the  city  is  set  forth  under  the  figure 
of  a  maiden  carried  away  into  slavery.  Pass 
over]  on  the  way  to  exile.  3.  Will  not  meet, 
etc.]  RV  'will  accept  no  man,'  i.e.  none  shall 
be  spared. 

6.  Babylon  is  to  be  thus  punished  because, 
when  the  Jewish  exiles  were  in  her  power,  she 
had  treated  them  cruelly  (Zech  1 15)^  and  in  her 
false  security  she  acted  as  though  irresponsible 
(vv.  7,  8).  Polluted]  i.e.  treated  as  common, 
RV  profaned.'  9.  Perfection  for]  '  full  mea- 
sure in  spite  of.'  Sorceries]  Babylon  was 
renowned  in  the  ancient  world  for  astrology, 
and  for  the  practice  of  all  kinds  of  magic. 

II.  From  whence  it  riseth]  RM  'how  to 
charm  it  away.'  12.  Stand  .  .  with]  i.e.  per- 
sist in.  13.  See  on  V.  9.  14.  There  shall  not 
be]  '  it  shall  not  be,'  i.e.  it  will  not  be  like  a  fire 
on  the  hearth,  but  a  devouring  conflagration. 

CHAPTER  48 

Let  the  Exiles  trust  in  Jehovah,  and 

COME  OUT  OF  Babylon 

i-ii.  Jehovah's  purpose  will  be  executed, 

but  not  for  Israel's  merit.      12-22.  Let  Israel 

recognise  His  leading  in  the  course  of  history, 

and  learn  to  obey  Him. 

I.  The  prophet  here  addresses  those  whose 
professions  of  allegiance  to  Jehovah  are  hollow 


48.3 


ISAIAH 


49. 


(46^),  and  who  in  the  land  of  exile  had  in  their 
hearts  apostatised  :  cp.  42 1''.  Come  .  .  waters] 
i.e.  are  descended  from  Judah  (PsG8"'^). 

3-5.  Events  of  their  history  had  been  fore- 
told by  Jehovah  long  before  they  happened, 
lest  in  their  perversity  they  should  attribute 
them  to  their  false  gods. 

6-8.  But  now^  the  things  Jehovah  purposes 
are  declared  on  the  eve  of  the  event,  lest  in 
their  presumption  they  should  say  that  they 
knew  them  before. 

6.  I  have  she'wed]  E,M  '  I  shew.'  7.  Before, 
etc.]  B,V  'and  before  this  day  thou  heardest 
them  not.'  8.  Yea,  from,  etc.]  RV  '  yea,  from 
of  old  thine  ear,'  etc.  10.  Read, '  not  as  silver ' 
(E,  V).  So  severe  a  refining  (Ps  126)  would  have 
meant  the  destruction  of  Israel.  Chosen]  RM 
'  tried.'     11.   Do  it]  i.e.  execute  My  purpose. 

13.  Spanned]  RV'stretchedout.'  14.  Achal- 
lenge  to  the  heathen,  as  in  43  9.  14,  15.  Loved 
him  .  .  called  him]  i.e.  Cyrus  :  cp.  44  ^s  45 1. 

16.  Jehovah,  unlike  the  idols  (v.  14),  declared 
the  future  unambiguously.  And  novy]  i.e.  now 
that  the  crisis  is  at  hand  the  Lord  has  sent  His 
prophet  with  the  message  of  deliverance. 

18, 19.  Hadst  hearkened . .  had  been  as]  This 
is  the  literal  rendering,  but  the  passage  may  be 
a  promise  for  the  future, '  0  that  thou  wouldst 
hearken  .  .  shall  be.'  19.  Thy  seed,  etc.]  Old 
promises  would  have  been  realised  (Gn22i''). 

20.  The  exiles  are  bidden  to  prepare  to  leave 
Babylon.  21.  The  imagery  is  from  the  former 
exodus  from  Egypt.  22.  Those  who  are  un- 
faithful cannot  share  the  promised  peace.  The 
words  are  repeated  almost  exactly  at  57^1. 

§  2.  CHAPTERS  49-57 

This  section  is  not  so  argumentative  in  tone 
as  the  last.  Its  distinguishing  feature  is  the 
development  of  the  prophet's  teaching  concern- 
ing the  Servant  of  Jehovah.  The  conception 
seems  to  arise,  as  has  been  noted,  with  the 
nation  considered  collectively  as  a  Servant  of 
God  (41 8>  9  44i>2,2i  454).  So  long  as  the  atti- 
tude and  work  of  God  in  relation  to  the  nation 
are  solely  in  view,  there  is  no  limitation  of  the 
idea  ;  but  when  the  nation's  work  and  attitude 
to  Him  and  the  fulfilment  of  His  purposes 
come  to  be  considered,  the  Servant  of  God 
seems  to  take  on  a  narrower  sense.  The  actual 
Israel,  with  its  many  shortcomings — its  blind- 
ness to  the  truth,  its  deafness  to  God's  message 
— gives  way  to  those  more  select  souls — a  part 
only  of  the  people — through  whom  the  duties 
and  destiny  of  the  nation  will  be  fulfilled.  At 
the  same  time,  it  is  clear  that  the  idea  passes 
on  to  an  individual  distinct  from  the  nation 
(49  5. 6),  in  whom  are  concentrated  all  the  attri- 
butes of  the  ideal  nation,  and  who  shall  realise 
all  that  Israel  was  intended  to  be.  His  character 
and  office  are  thus  delineated  :  (a)  He  is  pre- 
pared by  Jehovah  from  the  womb  for  His  life- 


work  (49  1'  2)  ;  (5)  He  is  endowed  with  the  Divine 
Spirit  (42 1)  ;  (c)  He  is  not  ostentatious  or  un- 
duly severe  (42  ^'  ^)  ;  ((/)  He  is  to  be  the  embodi- 
ment of  a  New  Covenant  between  Jehovah  and 
His  people  (42  6  49  8).  (g)  and  to  teach  all 
nations  true  religion  (42i.<5  49*')  ;  (/)  but  most 
remarkable  of  all,  and  especially  characteristic 
of  this  division  of  the  book,  are  the  passages 
which  intimate  that  this  great  work  is  only  to 
be  accomplished  through  humiliation,  suffering, 
and  death,  issuing  in  a  new  and  glorious  life. 
The  first  hint  that  the  Servant's  work  is  to  be 
carried  on  in  face  of  difficulty  and  discourage- 
ment is  found  in  42*1.  His  exposure  to  insult 
and  contumely  in  the  exercise  of  His  mission 
is  expressly  indicated  in  50^;  then  follows 
(52 13-53)  a  section  entirely  devoted  to  the  sub- 
ject, in  which  the  prominent  features  are  the 
Servant's  gentleness  and  patience  under  afflic- 
tion, the  vicarious  nature  of  His  sufferings, 
which  are  not  endured  on  His  own  account,  but 
for  the  sins  of  His  people,  and  the  intimation 
that  after  pain  and  death  there  awaits  Him  new 
life  full  of  joy  in  the  contemplation  of  the  suc- 
cess of  His  work.  The  correspondence,  even  in 
detail,  with  the  Passion  of  Jesus  Christ  cannot 
fail  to  arrest  attention.  The  way  in  which  the 
Servant  is  despised  and  misunderstood  by  His 
contemporaries  (53  3),  His  patience  and  silence 
before  His  accusers  (53  7),  and  His  association 
with  malefactors  in  His  death  (53  ^)  :  these  read 
like  a  description  of  what  happened  in  the  case 
of  our  Lord.  How  far  the  prophet  understood 
the  meaning  of  his  own  words  it  is  difficult  to 
say.  No  doubt  he  was  thinking  at  the  outset 
of  the  faithful  core  of  Israel  as  being  Jehovah's 
Servant  with  a  great  mission  to  accomplish, 
and  the  experience  of  the  exile  showed  him  that 
this  great  work  for  the  whole  world  was  only 
to  be  wrought  through  contumely  and  suffer- 
ing ;  yet  Jehovah  sometimes  spake  '  with  a 
strong  hand'  (EzkS^^),  and  we  can  scarcely 
doubt  that  the  Divine  Spirit  in  these  wonderful 
passages  through  the  prophet  foreshadowed 
the  things  that  should  be  suffered  and  accom- 
plished by  the  perfect  Servant  of  God,  the 
embodiment  of  Israel's  splendid  ideal,  our 
Lord  Jesus  Christ. 

CHAPTERS  49,  50 

The  Servant  of  Jehovah 
C.  49.  1-13.  The  Servant  of  Jehovah  tells 
of  His  call  and  mission.  Jehovah  confirms  the 
confidence  of  His  servant.  14-26.  Objections 
arising  from  little  faith  answered  :  («)  it  can- 
not be  that  Zion  is  forgotten  by  Jehovah,  as 
she  thought  (vv.  14-23)  ;  (b)  the  grasp  of 
the  captors  is  not  too  strong  for  Jehovah  to 
release  His  people  (vv.  24-26). 

C.  50.  i-ii.  The  people's  banishment  is 
not  by  Jehovah's  will,  and  He  is  able  to  de- 
liver them.     The  Servant  of  Jehovah  declares 


444 


49.  1 


ISAIAH 


51.6 


the  conditions  of  his   work.     The  prophet's     the  terrible  one  '  (Vulg.,  Syr.,  RM).     26.  Feed, 

etc.]  a  figure   expressing   the    destruction  of 
Zion's  enemies  by  mutual  hostility  (9  ^O). 


comment  on  the  Servant's  words. 

CHAPTER  49 

1.  The  speaker  is  the  Servant  of  Jehovah. 
From  the  v7omb]  The  thought  is  that  of  pre- 
destined creation,  as  in  Jer  1  ^  Lk  1  is  Gal  1 1^. 

2.  He  is  trained  and  protected  by  Jehovah. 

3.  Though  here  identified  with  Israel  as 
fulfilling  its  ideal,  the  Servant  is  yet  a  Person 
distinct  from  the  nation,  or  perhaps  a  per- 
sonification of  the  pious  core  of  the  nation, 
who  is  to  be  the  means  of  its  restoration  (v.  6). 

4.  Though  for  a  moment  discouraged,  the 
thought  that  God  will  vindicate  the  right  and 
reward  him  reassures  him.  Work]  RV  '  re- 
compense.' 5.  Though .  .  glorious]  RV  '  and 
that  Israel  be  gathered  unto  Him  ;  for  I  am 
honourable.'  6.  Cp.  426.  The  Servant's 
mission  is  not  limited  to  Israel.  He  is  to 
proclaim  a  world-wide  salvation. 

7.  A  promise  to  the  nation  now  despised 
and  in  bondage  that  the  highest  honour  is  yet 
in  store  for  it.  And  he  shall  choose]  RV 
'who  hath  chosen.'  8.  To  establish,  etc.] 
RV  '  to  raise  up  the  land,  to  make  them  in- 
herit,' fulfilled  in  the  first  place  in  the  work 
of  Zerubbabel.  Give  thee  for  a  covenant,  etc.] 
see  42 15.  9.  Cp.  42'^.  High  places]  RV  'bare 
heights.'     The  prisoners]  i.e.  in  Babylon. 

ID,  II.  The  journey  homeward  shall  be 
made  easy  for  them.  The  language  of  v.  10 
is  borrowed  in  RevT^'^'i^.  10.  Heat]  pro- 
perly, '  mirage  '  (35  '^).  12.  From  all  quarters 
the  returning  exiles  will  come.  Sinim  stands 
for  distant  lands  generally  ;  in  the  opinion  of 
most  scholars  it  strictly  signifies  China. 

16.  Graven]  refers  to  the  custom  of  tattoo- 
ing, by  which  devotees  often  indicated  their 
consecration  to  a'  deity.  According  to  the 
prophet's  bold  figure,  Jehovah  is  devoted  to 
Jerusalem,  and  cannot  use  His  hands  without 
being  reminded  of  her.  17.  Children]  LXX 
and  Vulgate  read,  '  builders.' 

19.  The  land  of  thy  destruction]  RV  'thy 
land  that  hath  been  destroyed.'  20.  The 
children  . .  other]  RV  '  the  children  of  thy 
bereavement,'  i.e.  the  vchildren  born  in  the 
days  (of  the  exile)  when  Zion  thought  herself 
bereft  of  all  her  children. 

22.  Arms]  RV  '  bosom.'  A  particular  ful- 
filment of  vv.  22,  23  may  be  traced  in  the 
favour  shown  by  Persian  monarchs  to  Jeru- 
salem after  the  return  from  the  exile  (Ezr 
11-4  61-15  711  Neh2i-9)  ;  a  higher  and  spiritual 
fulfilment  in  the  way  in  which  princes  in  all 
lands  have  shown  themselves  patrons  of  the 
Church. 

24.  An  incredulous  question  on  the  part  of 
despondent  Israelites.  Lawful  (lit.  'righteous  ') 
captive]  i.e.  captive  taken  from  the  righteous, 
or,  adopting  a  slight  emendation,  '  captive  of 


445 


CHAPTER  50 

1.  The  children  of  Zion  (4920,21)  are  ad- 
dressed. Their  servitude  is  not  irrevocable  ; 
Jehovah  has  not  formally  repudiated  Zion 
(Dt24i)  ;  nor,  though  they  had  to  learn  by 
discipline,  can  any  creditors  claim  His  people 
as  slaves  (2K4i)  :  cp.  Jer  244-0  Ezk37. 

2,  3.  'The  imagery  is  from  the  exodus 
from  Egypt.  2.  Wherefore  .  .  answer]  These 
clauses  emphasise  the  hopelessness  of  Israel's 
case  from  a  human  point  of  view.  Only 
the  divine  power  could  effect  the  deliverance 
of  the  exiles. 

4.  The  Servant  of  Jehovah  is  here  the 
speaker  (as  in  49 1).  He  is  taught  by  Jehovah, 
receiving  the  divine  message  each  morning. 

To  speak,  etc.]  RV  '  to  sustain  with  words 
him  that  is  weary.'  5,  6.  The  Servant  does 
not  shrink  from  his  mission  in  spite  of  the 
sufl'ering  and  humiliation  involved. 

7,  9.  Being  sustained  by  the  strength  of 
Jehovah,  and  therefore  confident  of  victory, 
he  is  unflinching  and  challenges  his  advei'saries. 

10,  II.  Words  addressed  by  the  prophet  to 
the  Israelites  ;  let  the  faithful  ones  amongst 
the  exiles  trust  in  Jehovah  (v.  10)  ;  as  for 
those  who  resist  Him  and  arm  themselves 
against  His  prophets,  their  weapons  shall  recoil 
upon  themselves  (v.  11).  10.  Read,  '  .  .  ser- 
vant ?  he  that  walketh  in  darkness  and  hath 
no  light,  let  him  trust,'  etc.  (RV). 

11.  Sparks]  RV  '  firebrands.* 

CHAPTERS  51-5212 
The  Hope  op  speedy  Return  for  the 
Exiles 
C.    51.      1-16.    Encouragement   from   con- 
sideration   of   the    past.      Jehovah's  purpose 
for  His  people  is  sure.     Prayer  for  deliver- 
ance (based  on  the  deliverance  of  the  exodus). 
Jehovah    in    response    reassures   His    people. 
17-23.  The  divine  wrath,  which  was  upon  Jeru- 
salem, shall  be  turned  against  her  oppressors. 
C.  52.      1-6.   The  glorious  change  in  Zion's 
fortune.     7-12.   The  deliverance  of  the  exiles 
imminent. 

CHAPTER  51 

I,  2.  In  the  past  God  made  Israel  a  great 
nation  from  a  single  ancestor,  and  that  wonder- 
ful gi'owth  should  be  an  encouragement  to 
the  righteous  remnant  now  to  believe  in  their 
restoration.  2.  Alone]  RV  '  when  he  was  but 
one,'  i.e.  childless. 

4.  A  law,  etc.]  through  Israel,  Jehovah 
purposes  to  reveal  Himself  to  the  nations 
(421).     4,5.  The  people]   RV  'peoples.' 

6.   The  V.  contrasts  the  certainty  of  God's 


51.8 


ISAIAH 


53.4 


purposes  for  His  people  with  the  transitory 
character  of  the  visible  world.  8.  My  right- 
eousness] i.e.  as  shown  in  faithfulness  to  My 
promises. 

9-1 1.  An  appeal  from  Israel  to  Jehovah 
that  He  will  show  His  power  as  of  old  at  the 
exodus,  that  the  exiles  may  return  triumph- 
antly to  Zion.  9.  Rahab]  a  symbolic  name 
for  Egypt,  as  in  .30"  RV.  Dragon]  standing 
for  Egypt  (Ps74i3). 

12-16.  Grod  assures  His  people  of  their 
speedy  deliverance.  13.  As  if .  .  ready]  RV 
'  when  he  maketh  ready.'  14.  Read,  '  He  that 
is  bowed  down  shall  speedily  be  loosed,  and 
he  shall  not  die  in  the  pit,  neither  shall  his 
bread  fail.' 

15.  Divided,  etc.]  RV  '  stirreth  up  the  sea, 
that  the  waves  thereof  roar.'  Jehovah  rules 
in  the  world,  and  therefore  has  power  to  per- 
form His  promise.  16.  While  vv.  12  f.  are 
spoken  to  the  Jewish  exiles,  the  parallel 
between  this  passage  and  49  2  suggests  that 
the  ideal  Israel — Jehovah's  Servant — is  here 
addressed. 

17.  Hast  drunk]  The  prostrate  condition 
of  Jerusalem  under  the  wrath  of  Jehovah  is 
set  forth  under  the  figure  of  one  stupefied 
and  reeling  owing  to  a  deep  draught.  19.  By 
whom]  RV  '  how.'  20.  A  wild  bull]  RV  '  an 
antelope  '  :  the  figure  denotes  helplessness. 

21-23.  Jehovah's  wrath  is  now  to  be  turned 
against  Jerusalem's  oppressors. 

CHAPTER   521-12 

I,  2.  Zion  invited  to  array  herself  as  a 
queen  and  sit  enthroned,  freed  from  the  pre- 
sence of  heathen  foes,  and  with  her  children 
restored  from  captivity,  i.  Thy  strength] 
Strength  returns  to  Zion  when  the  Arm  of 
Jehovah  works  within  her  (51 9).  3.  Her 
captors  paid  no  price,  and  therefore  have  no 
claim  upon  her.  4.  The  Assyrian  oppressed] 
alluding  to  the  sufferings  of  God's  people  at 
the  hands  of  Sargon  and  Sennacherib. 

5.  What  have  I]  RV  'what  do  I.'  The 
argument  is  that  the  Egyptian  and  Assyrian 
oppressors  were  but  temporary  ;  is  there  any 
reason  why  the  Babylonian  exile  should  be 
permanent  ?     Make  .  .  howl]    RV  '  do  howl.' 

Every  day]  RV  'all  the  day.'  6.  Shall 
know  my  name]  Owing  to  the  exile  men  had 
doubted  Jehovah's  power  (cp.  v.  5,  '  my 
name  .  .  is  blasphemed '),  but  in  the  ensuing 
deliverance  He  will  vindicate  Himself,  and 
His  people  shall  know  Him  in  His  true 
character. 

7.  Cp.  40^.  This  and  the  following  vv. 
refer  to  the  return  from  the  exile.  8.  Watch- 
men] may  refer  to  prophets  (cp.  21 6,  n,  12  r,(-,  io~)^ 
or  to  heavenly  spirits  (cp.  Dan4i3).  Eye  to 
eye]  i.e.  as  one  looks  into  the  eye  of  his 
friend.     10.  His  holy  arm]  cp.  51^. 


II.  No  unclean  thing']  cp.  v.  1.  That  bear 
the  vessels,  etc.]  i.e.  the  priests  and  Levites, 
who  are  to  carry  back  to  Jerusalem  for  use  in 
the  restored  Temple  the  sacred  utensils,  which 
Nebuchadnezzar  had  taken  away  to  Babylon. 
See  the  fulfilment  of  this  recorded  in  Ezr 
l''-ii.  12.  With  haste,  etc.]  in  contrast  to 
the  exodus  from  Egypt  (Ex  12  39). 

Rereward]   i.e.  rearguard. 

CHAPTER   5213-5312 
The  Suffering  of  Jehovah's  Servant  : 
ITS  Meaning  and  Results 
See  introductory  note  to  chs.  49-57. 
C.  52.     13-15.   The  contrast  between  the 
Servant's     humiliation    and     exaltation  ;    its 
effect  upon  the  world. 

C.  53.  1-12.  The  import  of  the  Servant's 
suffering  not  understood.  The  vicarious  nature 
and  triumphant  issue  of  the  Servant's  suffering. 

CHAPTER   5213-15 

13.  Deal  prudently]  RV '  wisely.'  The  word 
implies  success  as  the  result  of  prudent  plan  ; 
it  is  used  of  David's  behaviour  (1  S18i4,i5,30). 

Exalted,  etc.]  The  idea  is  repeated  for 
emphasis. 

14.  15.  At  the  Servant's  exaltation,  following 
upon  his  deep  humiliation  and  suffering,  the 
nations  and  their  rulers  are  dumb  with  awe, 
and  learn  truth  unknown  before.  This  was 
fulfilled  in  the  effect  upon  the  world  of  the 
resurrection  and  exaltation  of  Christ  following 
upon  His  passion. 

15.  So  corresponds  to  as  (v.  14),  the  words 
his  visage . .  men  being  a  parenthesis.  Sprinkle] 
i.e.  so  as  to  cleanse  (Pesh.  '  he  shall  purify  '■)  : 
or,  read,  '  startle  '  (RM). 

CHAPTER   53 

1-3.  The  tenses  are  past  (prophetic  perfect), 
the  future  being  viewed  as  already  accomplished. 

1.  The  questions  are  asked  by  the  prophet, 
and  the  implied  answer  is  'No  one.'  None  or 
few  received  the  divine  message,  or  recognised 
the  working  of  Jehovah's  power  in  His  Servant. 

Arm]   cp.  519  5210. 

2.  The  people  here  speak.  There  was 
nothing  in  the  servant's  appearance  to  attract  • 
them.  Shall  grow]  RV'grew.'  Before  him] 
i.e.  before  God.  Tender  plant,  etc.]  not  like 
a  stately  tree,  but  like  a  lowly  plant,  struggling 
in  arid  soil.  So  the  human  life  of  the  Messiah 
was  one  of  obscurity  and  humility. 

3.  Sorrows  .  .  grief]  lit.  '  pains  . .  sickness.' 
He  was  despised,  etc.]  literally  fulfilled  in 

the  attitude  of  His  contemporaries  generally 
towards  our  Lord  :  cp.  Jnlio.n  848  924  1020. 
4-6.  Though  they  thought  him  the  object 
of  Jehovah's  wrath,  he  was  in  truth  afflicted 
that  they  might  be  delivered  ;  the  penalty  of 
their  sin  fell  on  him,  instead  of  recoiling  upon 


446 


53.  5 


ISAIAH 


55.3 


the  transgressors.  A  remarkable  prophecy  of 
Christ,  Himself  sinless,  sutfering  that  men 
might  be  delivered  from  their  sins  and  the 
penalty  due  to  them. 

5.  Chastisement  of  our  peace]  i.e.  resulting 
in  our  peace. 

7.  The  V.  expressively  sets  forth  the  meek- 
ness of  the  Messiah  under  persecution.  See 
the  literal  fulfilment  recorded  in  Mt2663 
27 12, 1-1  and  parallel  passages. 

8.  Read,  '  By  oppression  and  judgment  he 
was  taken  away  ;  and  as  for  his  generation,  who 
among  them  considered  that  he  was  cut  off,' 
etc.  (RV)  ;  i.e.  his  persecution  ended  in  death, 
but  his  contemporaries  did  not  understand  that 
this  was  for  his  people's  transgressions,  not  for 
his  own.  The  ignorance  of  those  who  crucified 
Christ  (Ac  3 17  1327  1  Cor  28)  is  here  fore- 
shadowed. 

9.  He  made  .  .  because]  RV  '  they  made  , . 
although.'  Though  himself  guiltless,  he  was, 
in  his  end,  associated  with  malefactors.  Rich 
is  parallel  to  wicked,  and  stands  for  the  wrong- 
fully rich  (Ps4y'5  Provllit^).  The  words 
received  their  fulfilment  in  detail  in  the  cruci- 
fixion of  Christ  between  two  robbers. 

10.  Yet  it  pleased]  His  sufferings  were  in 
accordance  with  the  divine  purpose  (cp.  Ac  2  ^3 
428).  Offering  for  sin]  lit.  'trespass-offering' 
(Lv  5  !■**•).  Sin  is  an  infringement  of  God's 
honour  and  rights,  and  the  life  of  the  Servant 
is  the  satisfaction  paid  for  it.  This  sacrifice 
of  the  Servant  is  the  condition  (d)  of  spiritual 
parentage,  (6)  of  continued  life  after  death, 
and  (c)  of  the  fulfilment  of  his  divine  mission 
(49  5'  *5).  The  prophet  here  plainly  teaches  the 
atoning  efficacy  of  the  death  of  the  Messiah, 
the  accomplishment  of  His  work  through  His 
sacrifice  and  His  glorious  after-life. 

11.  His  knowledge]  i.e.  either  (a)  the  know- 
ledge which  he  possesses  (cp.  JnlT^^)^  or  (6) 
knowledge  of  him  (cp.  Jn  17^).  Justify  many] 
RV  '  make  many  righteous,'  by  delivering  them 
from  the  guilt  and  consequences  of  their  sins. 

12.  Jehovah  gives  him  victory  as  a  great 
ruler  of  mankind  because  of  his  willing  self- 
sacrifice. 

CHAPTERS  541-568 
Renewed  Promises  op  Restoration 

C.  54.  1-6.  Zion  addressed  as  a  woman 
whose  period  of  barrenness  and  afiliction  is 
over  ;  the  desolation  and  reproach  of  the  exile 
are  to  be  things  of  the  past.  7-10.  From  His 
promise  of  mercy  to  Zion  Jehovah  will  not  go 
back.  1 1-17.  The  re-establishment  of  the  city. 
Its  security  from  enemies, 

C.  55.  1-7.  The  prophet  invites  mankind 
to  those  blessings  which  Jehovah  has  coven- 
anted ;  and  exhorts  to  put  away  obstacles  to  their 
enjoyment.  8-13.  Jehovah's  promise  is  sure, 
and  great  joy  and  glory  await  His  people. 


C.  56.  I,  2.  They  that  do  right  shall  be 
rewarded.  3-8.  In  the  restored  Jerusalem 
the  privileges  of  God's  people  shall  be  for  all 
without  distinction. 

CHAPTER  54 

I.  Married  wife]  referring  to  the  days  of 
Jerusalem's  prosperity.  2.  The  figure  is 
that  of  a  tent  which  must  be  enlarged  to  take 
in  increasing  numbers  (33^0).  The  ultimate 
fulfilment  is  seen  in  the  extension  of  the 
religion  of  Zion  so  as  to  embrace  the  nations 
in  the  Christian  dispensation.  3.  Break  forth] 
RV  '  spread  abroad.'  Make  the  desolate 
cities,  etc.]  (cp.  49 ^  5812  gi4)  j  e.  reoccupy 
cities  which  had  suffered  from  Babylonian 
invasions. 

4.  Shame  of  thy  youth]  i.e.  desertion  of 
Jehovah  for  other  gods  in  her  earlier  history. 

Thy  widowhood]  the  period  of  the  exile, 
when  Jehovah  seemed  to  have  forsaken  her. 

5.  Thine  husband]  and  therefore  faithful, 
even  though  Israel  may  be  faithless.  6.  Called 
thee]  i.e.  back  again  to  take  thy  place  as  wife. 

When  .  .  refused]  RV  when  she  is  cast  off.' 

7.  A  small  moment]  i.e.  during  the  70  years' 

exile   in    Babylon  :    cp.   26  20.     g.    In  a  little 

wrath]    '  in  overflowing  WTath '  (RV),  i.e.   in 

transient  outburst.     9.  Referring  to  Gn  9  n. 

ID.  Covenant .  .  peace]  RM  '  covenant  of 
peace.' 

II.  The  restoration  of  Jerusalem.  Fair 
colours]  lit.  '  antimony,'  to  set  off  their 
brilliancy  :  mentioned  elsewhere  as  used  for 
painting  the  eye-lids,  to  enhance  the  brilliancy 
of  the  eyes  (2K930  RV).  12.  Windows  of 
agates]  RV  '  pinnacles  of  rubies.'  See  similar 
symbolism  in  connexion  with  the  new  Jerusa- 
lem, Tobl3i6.i7  Rev 21 19,  etc.  13.  The  out- 
ward splendour  is  to  be  worthy  of  the  citizens 
(Jer3134). 

15.  They  shall  surely]  RV  'they  may.' 
This  refers  to  Zion's  enemies.  Not  by  me] 
i.e.  not  at  Jehovah's  bidding,  as  was  the  case 
with  Sargon  and  Sennacherib,  who  were 
divinely  appointed  instruments  of  chastise- 
ment :  cp.  105  3726.  For  thy  sake]  RV 
'because  of  thee.'  16.  I  have  created,  etc.] 
and  therefore  they  cannot  work  against  My 
will.  17.  This  is  the  heritage]  viz.  the  dis- 
comfiture of  their  enemies.  Righteousness  i.e. 
justification  in  the  eyes  of  the  world  through 
Jehovah's  faithfulness  to  His  promises. 

CHAPTER  55 

I.  Waters  .  .  wine  .  .  milk]  These  stand 
figuratively,  as  the  whole  context  shows,  for 
spiritual  blessings.  2.  Wherefore,  etc.]  refers 
to  the  assiduous  practice  of  idolatry,  which 
had  been  Israel's  besetting  sin. 

3.  Mercies]  loving-kindnesses.  The  mean- 
ing is  that  Jehovah  will,  without  fail,  fulfil 


447 


55.  4 


ISAIAH 


57.8 


for  His  people  the  promises  of  loving-kindness 
made  to  David  (Ps8935).  4.  Read,  'I  gave 
him,'  i.e.  David.  People]  RV  'peoples.' 
David's  successes  gave  him  a  position  which 
made  his  religion  known  in  the  world,  and 
thus  he  witnessed  for  Jehovah.  5,  Israel 
shall  similarly  so  testify  that  the  nations  shall 
turn  to  Jehovah.  6,  7.  The  exhortation 
shows  that  the  promises  given  are  conditional. 

8,  9.  These  vv.  are  especially  addressed  to 
those  of  the  Israelites  who  were  incredulous 
as  to  the  possibility  of  restoration  to  their 
own  land.  10,  11.  As  certainly  as  the  elements 
fulfil  their  purposes,  so  will  Jehovah  fulfil 
His  promise. 

12.  With  joy  .  .  peace]  not  in  haste  or  flight, 
as  from  Egypt.  The  passage  describes  the 
exodus  from  Babylon.  All  natui-e  rejoices 
with  God's  people.  13.  Cp.  35i  41  if.  And 
it  shall  be,  etc.]  These  words  form  an  assur- 
ance that  the  state  of  things  foretold  in  the 
clauses  preceding  shall  surely  come  to  pass 
and  shall  be  permanent. 

CHAPTER  561-8 

I,  2.  Further  conditions  to  be  observed 
that  men  may  share  in  the  approaching  deliver- 
ance. I.  Keep  ye  .  .justice]  i.e.  keep  the  law, 
and  practise  righteousness.  2.  Layeth  hold  on] 
RV  'holdeth  fast  by.'  Polluting]  RV  'pro- 
faning.' 

3-7.  The  privileges  of  the  people  of  God 
are  open  to  all,  even  to  those  who  think  them- 
selves excluded  by  race,  or  by  physical  dis- 
ability (Dt23i).  The  sabbath  appears  to 
have  been  more  strictly  observed  in  the  Baby- 
lonian period  than  it  had  been  under  the 
monarchy  (JerllW-  Ezk20iif-  Neh  1 .3 15 *•)• 

5.  Place]  RV  '  memorial.'  7.  People]  RV 
'  peoples.'  The  passage  is  I'eferred  to  by  our 
Lord  at  the  cleansing  of  the  Temple  (Mt21 1^). 

8.  Beside  those,  etc.]  RV  '  beside  his  own 
that  are  gathered.' 

CHAPTERS  569-5721 
The  Idolatries  of  Israel 
It  is  difficult  to  determine  the  date  of  this 
section  with  certainty.  Many  scholars  assign 
it,  with  the  rest  of  chs.  40-66,  to  the  period 
of  the  exile,  or  to  a  date  after  the  return  ; 
but  some  give  it  a  pre-exilic  date,  on  the 
following  grounds  :  (a)  The  picture  that  is 
drawn  of  the  self-indulgent  and  infatuated 
leaders  of  the  nation  (56 10-12)  would,  it  is 
thought,  apply  more  accurately  to  the  period 
preceding  the  exile,  than  to  the  exile,  (b) 
The  idolatrous  rites  alluded  to  (575-9)  are 
those  practised  in  the  later  days  of  the  Jewish 
monarchy,  (c)  57 1  implies  persecution  of  the 
true  servants  of  Jehovah,  such  as  marked  the 
reign  of  Manasseh.  (cl)  The  natural  features 
in  575.6  are  Palestinian,     (e)  The  allusion  in 


57  9>  10  to  seeking  foreign  alliances  suits  the 
days  of  the  monarchy  better  than  the  exile 
period.  Those  who  assign  the  section  to  the 
exile  period  maintain  that  the  above  reasoning 
is  scarcely  conclusive,  because  the  writings  of 
Jeremiah  and  Ezekiel  show  that  heathen  rites 
such  as  are  here  described  prevailed  right  up 
to  the  exile,  and  the  tendency  to  practise  them 
no  doubt  was  strong  amongst  the  Jews 
generally  during  the  exile:  cp.  65  ^"^.ii. 
Again,  there  were  other  and  later  persecutions 
than  that  under  Manasseh  ;  and  that  the 
Jewish  exiles  were  subject  to  persecution  is 
shown  by  the  case  of  Daniel  and  his  friends. 
The  Palestinian  setting  of  the  idolatrous 
sacrifices  referred  to  may  be  accounted  for 
by  supposing  that  these  are  described  as  they 
had  been  pra.ctised  by  the  nation  in  Palestine. 

Chs.  569-12-572.  Rebuke  of  the  unworthy 
leaders  of  the  nation.  Israel  is  exposed  to 
danger  because  the  rulers  are  infatuated, 
self-seeking,  self-indulgent,  and  careless  of 
justice. 

C.  57.  3-10.  Rebuke  of  those  given  to 
idolatry.  A  picture  of  the  idolatrous  rites  in 
which  they  have  indulged.  11- 14.  Jehovah 
will  not  endure  this,  but  will  interpose.  15-21. 
He  points  the  way  of  restoration  through 
penitence. 

CHAPTER  569 

9.  Israel  pictured  as  a  neglected  and  help- 
less flock,  exposed  to  the  attacks  of  wild  beasts. 

CHAPTER  57 

2,  The  peace  of  the  grave  is  better  than  the 
condition  of  unrest  under  their  rulers  (v.   1). 

Shall  enter. .  shall  rest]  RV  'entereth  . .  rest.' 

3,  5.  Sons,  etc.]  i.e.  descendants,  perpetu- 
ating the  character  of  their  ancestors.  Seed, 
etc.]  i.e.  through  your  idolatry  violating  the 
mystical  union  between  Jehovah  and  His 
people  :    cp.  Ezkie*''. 

4,  Sport  yourselves]  implying  that  they 
find  delight  in  the  misfortune  of  the  servants 
of  Jehovah.  5.  Enflaming]  The  word  de- 
scribes the  excitement  attending  the  orgies 
which  accompanied  the  celebration  of  heathen 
rites  :  cp.  1  K 18 -'5, 28  Slaying,  etc.]  referring 
to  human  sacrifices  practised  under  Ahaz  and 
Manasseh  (2  Ch283  2  K216). 

6.  An  allusion  to  stone-vwrship  (JerS^). 
Large  stones,  such  as  those  referred  to,  were 
fetiches  of  the  Semitic  races  in  early  times, 
and  were  thought  to  be  abodes  of  a  deity  :  cp. 
the  action  of  Jacob,  Gn  28ii'i8.  Thy  lot]  where- 
as Jehovah  was  their  true  portion  (JerlQi^ 
Psl65),  Should  ..  these ?]  RV  'shall  I  be 
appeased  for  these  things  ? '  7.  Thy  bed]  Idola- 
try is  in  OT.  commonly  figured  as  adultery 
(Ex34i5  Dt31i6);  hence  bed  is  put  for  the 
place  of  idol-worship.     8.   Remembrance]  RV 


448 


57.9 


ISAIAH 


59.  5 


'  memorial,'  i.e.  idolatrous  inscription,  in  place     right  matters,  but  Jehovah  will  interpose  to 


of  the  memorial  of  God's  law  (Dt6^). 

9.  The  figure  is  that  of  a  woman  trying  to 
attract  admirers.  Judah  had  coquetted  with 
foreign  kings,  especially  with  the  king  of 
Assyria  (2  K 16  7'  ^O).  Or  perhaps  for  the  king 
we  should  read  '  Moloch  '  ;  the  reference  then 
is  to  idolatry,  as  in  the  preceding  vv. 

Messengers]  RV  '  ambassadors.'  Unto  hell] 
i.e.  Hades,  put  for  the  lowest  abasement. 

10.  In  the  greatness]  RV'with  the  length.' 
Hast  found  .  .  hand]  B, V  '  didst  find  a  quick- 
ening of   thy  strength,'  i.e.  Judah    imagined 
her  power  increased  by  foreign  alliances. 

Grieved]  RV  'faint.'  11.  Of  whom]  i.e. 
heathen  gods.  Lied]  in  outwardly  recognising 
Jehovah,  while  in  heart  faithless  to  Him. 

Of  old]  RV   '  of  long  time.'      12.   Ironical. 

And  thy  works,  etc.]  RV  '  and  as  for  thy 
works,  they  shall  not  profit  thee.' 

13.  Companies]  RM  '  rabble,'  alluding  to 
the  numerous  gods  introduced.  Vanity,  etc.] 
RV  '  a  breath  shall  carry  them  away.'  14.  Let 
all  barriers  to  the  return  be  removed. 

15.  Jehovah  remembers  and  will  restore  the 
faithful  among  the  exiles.  16.  For  the  spirit 
should  fail]  i.e.  mankind  could  not  survive 
God's  judgments.  17.  God  hid  His  face  and 
was  angry,  in  order  to  turn  His  people  from 
their  sins.     Covetousness]  cp.  JerB^^  Am  8*. 

18.  His  ways]  of  repentance.  19.  I  create, 
etc.]  i.e.  Jehovah  gives  men  occasion  to  praise 
Him.  Far  off .  .  near]  referring  to  the  dis- 
persed Israelites,  those  far  oif  from  Jerusalem, 
and  those  near  to  it  :  cp.  Dan  9  ". 

§3.  CHAPTERS  58-66 

The  glorious  Future  of  the  Jewish 
Race 

This  concluding  group  of  chapters  is  chiefly 
distinguished  by  glowing  pictures  of  the  future 
of  Jerusalem,  when  the  Jews  shall  be  restored 
to  their  land  again.  A  glorious  restoration  is 
promised  (60 1' 2  61'i'i0'i^),  ^11  nations  are  to  be 
members  of  the  restored  city  (60  ^•^),  the  glories 
of  which  are  vividly  pictured  (60  6  f-),  the 
crowning  glory  being  the  holiness  of  the 
citizens  (60  ^i).  The  fulfilment  of  the  prophet's 
utterances  may  be  traced  in  the  spiritual  glories 
of  the  new  Jerusalem  above,  which  is  the 
mother  of  us  all. 

C.  58.  1-7.  Mere  outward  service  of 
Jehovah  is  vain  ;  He  desires  mercy  rather 
than  sacrifice.  8-12.  They  who  thus  serve  Him 
in  a  right  spirit  shall  be  wonderfully  rewarded, 
and  shall  restore  Jerusalem  ;  13,  14.  as  also 
shall  they  who  duly  observe  the  sabbath. 

C.  59.  I.  But  why  is  Jehovah's  help  so 
long  delayed  ?  2-8.  Because  of  the  depravity 
of  the  leaders  of  Israel,  9-15^  and  because  of 
the  sins  of  the  people,  which  they  recognise  and 
confess.     15^-21.  No  human  aid  can  suffice  to 


29 


449 


vindicate  and  deliver  His  oppressed  people. 

C.  60.  1-9.  Then  shall  the  dispersed  Israel- 
ites be  gloriously  restored.  10-13.  Jerusalem 
shall  be  rebuilt  with  splendour,  and  14-22.  her 
people  shall  be  dominant  and  prosperous. 

C.  61.  1-3.  The  prophet  is  commissioned 
to  announce  the  restoration  of  exiled  Israel. 
4-9.  The  rebuilding  of  Jerusalem  and  the 
coming  glory  of  her  people.  10-12.  Jerusa- 
lem's song  of  praise. 

C.  62.  1-7.  The  great  change  that  is  im- 
minent in  the  fortunes  of  Jerusalem,  and 
8-12.  in  the  lot  of  her  afflicted  people. 

CHAPTER  58 

2.  Did  righteousness]  i.e.  kept  the  law. 
They  are  ready  enough  for  the  external  re- 
quirements of  religion.  3.  The  questions  ex- 
press surprise  that  the  fast  is  without  effect. 

Find  pleasure,  etc.]  render,  '  carry  on  busi- 
ness and  oppress  all  your  labourers.'  With  all 
their  professions  of  self-denial  they  are  selfish. 

4.  For  strife]  i.e.  strife  is  the  result  of  this 
formal  fasting.  Ye  shall  not,  etc.]  RV  '  ye 
fast  not  this  day  so  as  to  make  your  voice,'  etc. 

5-7-  Literal  fasting  is  not  here  excluded, 
but  the  prophet  declares  its  uselessness  when 
divorced  from  the  spirit  of  love.  Our  Lord 
in  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount  closely  connects 
fasting  and  almsgiving  (Mte^'i^^).  6.  The 
heavy  burdens]  RV  'the  bands  of  the  yoke.' 

8.  Health]  RV  '  healing.'  Thy  righteous- 
ness] i.e.  thy  inward  personal  righteousness  : 
cp.  1 27  ;  or,  perhaps,  '  thy  justification  in  the 
eyes  of  the  world  '  :  cp.  54 17.  Shall  be  thy 
rereward]  i.e.  shall  protect  thee.  The  allusion 
is  to  the  exodus,  when  the  visible  manifestation 
of  Jehovah's  presence  was  a  defence  to  the 
Israelites  from  the  Egyptians  pursuing  in  the 
rear  (Ex  14 19).     Rereward]  i.e.  rearguard. 

9.  Yoke]  i.e.  of  enforced  or  oppressive 
labour.  Putting  .  .  finger]  i.e.  in  scorn.  Vanity] 
RV  '  wickedly.'  10.  Draw  out,  etc.]  i.e.  supply 
to  the  hungry  such  things  as  thou  thyself 
desirest.      11.   Fat]  RV  '  strong.' 

12.  Primarily  the  prophet  contemplates  the 
restoration  of  the  ruined  buildings  of  Jeru- 
salem, but  the  wider  spiritual  application  of 
his  words  is  obvious.  The  faithful  soul  is  not 
only  itself  fruitful  (v.  11),  but  a  means  of 
bringing  help  and  blessing  to  others.  13.  Turn 
away  thy  foot  from  the.  sabbath]  so  as  not  to 
profane  it.  14.  Cause  thee,  etc.]  i.e.  give 
thee  triumphant  possession  of  the  land. 

CHAPTER  69 

I,  2.  An  answer  to  the  implied  objection 
that  the  promises  of  restoration  have  not  yet 
been  fulfilled.  3.  Cp.  lis.  4.  Ry  'None 
sueth  in  righteousness  .  .  in  truth.'  The  allu- 
sion is  to  unjust  prosecutions.     5.  Cockatrice] 


59.  6 


ISAIAH 


61.  11 


RM  '  adder.'  He  that  eateth,  etc.]  i.e.  the  man 
who  falls  in  with  their  plans  is  ruined  thereby, 
and  he  who  opposes  them  is  confronted  with 
a  still  greater  danger.  6.  Their  schemes  can- 
not even  benefit  themselves.  9.  The  prophet 
and  the  people  confess  their  sins.  Light]  i.e. 
deliverance. 

10.  Grope  .  .  -wall]  seeking  guidance:  cp.  Dt 
2829.  We  are  .  .  dead  iiien']  E,V  '  among  them 
that  are  lusty  we  are  as  dead  men.'  11.  Mourn] 
i.e.  moan  (38 1'^).  12.  With  us]  i.e.  present  in 
our  thoughts.  14.  The  street]  the  open  space 
in  the  city  where  business  is  done,  and  cases 
are  brought  before  the  judges. 

15.   Injustice  arouses  God's  indignation. 

Faileth]  RV  '  is  lacking.'    Judgment]  justice. 

16 f.  Cp.  63 5f.  17.  The  attributes  of  Jeho- 
vah, which  come  out  clearly  in  His  inter- 
position, are  figured  as  His  armour.  St.  Paul's 
imagery  (EphGi**-)  is  based  on  this  passage. 

18.  Islands]  put  for  distant  lands  generally. 
The  judgment  aifects  the  world  at  large  as 
well  as  Israel.  19.  When  .  .  against  him]  RV 
'  for  he  shall  come  as  a  rushing  stream,  which 
the  breath  of  the  Lord  '  (i.e.  a  strong  wind) 
'  driveth.' 

20.  Redeemer]  i.e.  Jehovah,  who  is  so  called 
elsewhere:  cp.  41 1*  43 1.  This  was  fulfilled 
at  Christ's  first  coming,  when  He  was  accepted 
by  the  faithful  few  in  Israel.  But  St.  Paul 
(Ro  1 1 2<5)  applies  the  promise  to  the  time  when 
Israel,  which  did  not  accept  the  gospel,  shall 
be  restored  again  to  Grod's  Church,  so  that  its 
final  fulfilment  is  yet  in  the  future.  Zion]  i.e. 
the  faithful  remnant  of  the  nation,  as  the  next 
clause  explains.  21.  My  spirit,  etc.]  The 
faithful  remnant  is  to  be  the  inspired  organ 
of  Jehovah's  revelation. 

CHAPTER  60 

1.  The  light  of  deliverance  so  long  waited 
for  (599)  is  about  to  shine.  This  prophecy 
received  its  highest  fulfilment  at  the  coming 
of  Christ,  the  true  Light  of  the  world,  which 
was  followed  by  a  great  ingathering  of  the 
nations  to  the  Church  of  God  (vv.  3,  etc.). 

2.  People]  RV  '  peoples.'  4.  Cp.  4918.  All 
they  gather  themselves]  i.e.  the  exiles  who  had 
been  dispersed.  Nursed  .  .  side]  i.e.  carried  on 
the  hip,  in  the  Eastern  fashion.  5.  Flow 
together]  RV  'be  enlightened.'  Fear]  RV 
'  tremble,'  with  strong  emotion.  Abundance 
of  the  sea]  the  rich  seafaring  people.  Forces, 
etc.]  RV  'wealth  of  the  nations.' 

6  f .  The  nations  are  pictured  as  coming  in  a 
long  train,  to  bring  their  riches  for  the  service 
of  the  sanctuary.  Ephah]  a  Midianite  tribe 
(Gn254).  Sheba]  Ps72io.  7.  Kedar]  cp. 
2117.  Nebaioth]  a  tribe  allied  to  Kedar,  de- 
scended from  Ishmael  (Gn  2513).  8.  The  ships 
with  sails  spread  speed  over  the  waters,  like 
doves  to  their  nest.     9.   Isles]    the  maritime 


lands  of  the  west  (49 1).  Ships  of  Tarshish] 
cp.  21*^  IK  10 22  22'*'^.  Deep-sea  ships  suitable 
for  long  voyages,  such  as  that  to  Tarshish 
across  the  Mediterranean. 

ID.   In  my  wrath]  cp.  54 ''■8. 

II.  The  gates  are  open  continually,  that  the 
trains  of  caravans  bearing  gifts  may  enter. 

And  that  their  kings,  etc.]  RV  '  and  their 
kings  led  with  them,'  i.e.  as  captives.  The  re- 
building of  the  Temple  is  pictured  in  language 
recalling  its  erection  in  the  days  of  Solomon. 

13.  Cp.  35'^.  Place  of  my  feet]  i.e.  the 
Temple  (Ps995  1327). 

15.  The  figure  is  that  of  a  forsaken  wife 
(54  6),  but  is  quickly  changed  to  that  of  a  deso- 
late land.  16.  The  thought  is  the  same  as  in 
4923.  17.  The  language  suggests  a  return  to 
the  prosperity  which  marked  Solomon's  reign, 
with  the  great  difference  that  the  officers  shall 
not  be  agents  of  oppression  (lK12'i).  Ex- 
actors] RM  'taskmasters.'  18.  Thy  walls, 
etc.]  cp.  261.  19.  Cp.  Rev  21 23  22  5.  21.  The 
people  shall  all  fulfil  the  law,  so  that  there 
will  be  no  need  of  the  discipline  of  exile  : 
cp.  5913,14. 

22.  A  little  one]  RV  '  the  little  one,'  i.e.  the 
smallest  ;  he  who  has  no  childi-en,  or  few.  In 
his  time]  RV  '  in  its  time.' 

CHAPTER   61 

I.  The  speaker  is  the  prophet,  either  in  his 
own  person,  or  in  that  of  the  Servant  of  Jehovah. 
The  mission  here  spoken  of  is  identical  with 
the  mission  of  the  Servant  as  already  indicated ; 
e.g.  to  bind  up,  etc.  (cp.  423,7)^  and,  again,  pro- 
claim liberty,  etc.  (cp.  42  7  49  9).  This  phrase 
is  taken  from  the  law  of  the  year  of  jubilee 
(Lv25^-i*^).  Our  Lord  applies  the  passage  to 
His  own  work  in  Lk  416*.  Anointed]  i.e.  to 
prophetic  office  (IK  19 1*5).  2.  The  period  of 
God's  favour  (acceptable  year)  is  contrasted 
with  the  short  time  that  His  wrath  endures 
(day  of  vengeance).  3.  Appoint]  assign  to, 
provide.     Beauty]  RV  '  a  garland.' 

4.  The  outcome  of  the  mission  recounted  in 
V.  1  is  the  same  as  the  issue  of  the  Servant's 
work  (498).  5.  Other  nations  represented  as 
filling  menial  offices.  6.  Israel  will  attain  its 
original  ideal  (Ex  1 9^).  Riches . .  Gentiles]  wealth 
of  the  nations.  In  their  glory,  etc.]  RM  'to 
their  glory  shall  ye  succeed.'  7.  Double]  i.e. 
by  way  of  compensation  or  reward  (402). 

8.  Judgment]  i.e.  justice.  For  burnt  offer- 
ing] RV  '  with  iniquity.'  The  reference  is  to 
the  spoliation  of  which  Israel  is  the  victim. 

Direct  their  work]  RV  'give  them  their 
recompence.'     9.   Knowm]  i.e.  renowned. 

ID.  Decketh.  .  ornaments]  lit.  'decketh  him- 
self with  a  priestly  head-dress.'  The  allusion 
is  to  the  custom  of  the  bridegroom  wearing  a 
special  head-dress  on  the  wedding  day  (Song 
3 11).     II.  As  the  earth,  etc.]  i.e.  as  surely  as 


450 


62.1 


ISAIAH 


63.  19 


the  seasons  come  round.  Righteousness]  i.e. 
the  justification  of  his  people  in  the  eyes  of 
the  world. 

CHAPTER   62 

1.  The  speaker  is  probably  Jehovah  Him- 
self. Hold  my  peace]  cp.  42 1*.  The  righteous- 
ness] i.e.  her  vindication,  the  setting  of  her 
right  in  the  eyes  of  the  world  (cp.  58  S).  Salva- 
tion] i.e.  deliverance.  2.  New  name]  as  befits 
her  new  character  (126  JerSSi")  :  see  v.  4. 

3.  In  the  hand]  so  held  for  the  admiration 
of  the  world. 

4.  The  figure  is  again  that  of  a  bride  (54'') 
in  whom  her  husband  delights.  Hephzi-bah  . . 
Beulah]  meaning,  '  My  delight  is  in  her,'  and 
'  Married.'  5.  The  same  image  differently 
applied,  the  people  being  regarded  as  the  bride- 
groom and  their  country  as  the  bride. 

6.  Watchmen]  These  are  angelic  beings 
who  report  to  Jehovah  what  happens  on  earth, 
and  intercede  for  mercy  to  Zion  (Zech  1  ^^'  ^^), 

Ye  that  make,  etc.]  RV  '  ye  that  are  the 
Lord's  remembrancers,  take  ye  no  rest.' 

8,  9.  The  foe  will  no  more  rob  them  of  their 
harvests,  but  the  produce  of  the  land  shall  be 
used  for  the  service  of  the  Temple.  Holiness] 
RV  '  sanctuary.'  10.  A  command  to  prepare 
the  way  for  the  returning  exiles  (402  571-*). 

For  the  people]  RV  '  for  the  peoples,'  that 
they  may  escort  the  Israelites.  11.  His  re- 
ward, etc.]  see  on  40 1^.  Work]  RV  '  recom- 
pence.'  12.  Holy  people]  Israel's  ideal  char- 
acter realised  (Ex  19'';  cp.  IsaGl^).  Sought 
out]  contrast  Jer  30  ^'^.    Not  forsaken]  Cp.  v.  4. 

CHAPTER   631-6 
The  Divine  Warrior 

I.  The  prophet  asks  who  is  this  warrior 
coming  from  Edom  ?  The  Warrior  replies. 
He  is  the  Divine  Deliverer.  2.  The  prophet 
asks  why  is  His  raiment  red  ?  3-6.  The 
Warrior  explains,  He  is  returning  from  venge- 
ance upon  the  enemies  of  His  people. 

I.  Travelling]  lit.  'bending,'  denoting  move- 
ment in  marching  (RV).  In  righteousness]  i.e. 
in  faithfulness  to  promises.  Speak,  etc.]  cp. 
4519.  3.  The  winepress  is  the  symbol  of 
slau'ghter  in  battle  (Joel3i3  Revl4i8-20). 

Alone,  etc.]  i.e.  no  human  agent  assisted. 

People]  RV '  peoples.'  I  will  tread,  etc.]  RV 
'  trod  . .  trampled  . .  is  sprinkled  . .  have  stained.' 

4.  Is]  RV  'was.'  Year]  see  61  2.  5.  The 
absence  of  human  aid  (v.  3)  further  emphasised 
(502  59 1'^). 

6.  Will  tread  .  .  make]    RV  '  trod  . .  made.' 

People]  RV  'peoples.'  The  divine  vengeance 
falls  upon  the  nations  in  general,  but  upon 
Edom  in  particular  (v.  1),  the  prophet  fixing 
his  thoughts  upon  this  nation  because  of  the 
long-remembered  hostility  of  Edom  in  the  day 
of  Jerusalem's  calamity  (see  prefatory  note  to 


c.  34).  Drunk]  a  figure  for  stupefying  disaster 
(51 1").  Will  bring,  etc.]  R  V  '  poured  out  their 
lifeblood  on  the  earth.'  The  imagery  of 
Christ's  final  triumph  and  judgment  is  taken 
from  this  passage  (Rev  1 9  i^),  which  is  thus 
shown  to  be  a  prophecy  that  will  receive  its 
full  fulfilment  in  the  punishment  of  the  enemies 
of  God's  Church  at  the  last  day.  The  Warrior, 
who  in  V.  3  is  represented  as  treading  the 
winepress  alone,  thus  stands  for  the  Son  of 
God,  to  whom  alone  the  Father  has  committed 
all  judgment  (Jn522).  The  prophecy  is  also 
sometimes  applied  by  analogy  to  Christ's  vic- 
tory over  the  powers  of  evil  in  His  Passion 
(Jn  12  31' 32)^  wherein  He  contended  alone 
(Mt27'»6). 

CHAPTERS  637-6412 
Past  Deliverances  and  Present  Needs 

C.  63.  7-14-  Commemoration  of  Jehovah's 
mercies  to  Israel  in  the  past.  15. -C.  64.  5^ 
Prayer  that  He  will  interpose  to  deliver  His 
people  from  their  present  calamities. 

C.  64.  5''- 1 2.  Acknowledgment  that  these 
are  due  to  their  sins.  Appeal  to  Jehovah  that 
He  will  look  upon  the  pitiable  state  of  His 
people  and  sanctuary. 

CHAPTER  63  ^i^ 

8.  Lie]  RV  'deal  falsely.'  9.  He  was 
afflicted]  so  Heb.  traditional  reading,  meaning 
that  He  felt  His  people's  pains  as  His  own 
(JglQi^).  But  Heb.  written  text  'he  was  no 
adversary '  (RM),  but,  on  the  contrary,  their 
deliverer.     The  angel]  see  Ex  23  20  3234  332. 

Bare  them]  see  Dtl3i  32  n. 

10.  Cp.  Ps  7840.  II.  He  (Israel)  remem- 
bered] The  thought  of  past  mercies  evoked 
penitence  (Ps7835).  Shepherd]  RV  'shep- 
herds.' Within  him]  i.e.  Israel,  e.g.  Ex  35 31 
Null 25.  12.  RV  'That  caused  his  glorious 
arm  to  go  at  the  right  hand  of  Moses.'  Arm] 
see  51 9  (also  in  connexion  with  the  exodus). 

13.  In  the  wilderness]  i.e.  in  a  grassy  plain. 

14.  RV  '  As  the  cattle  that  go  down.'  This 
refers  to  the  settlement  in  Canaan. 

15.  Strength]  RV  '  mighty  acts.'  Sounding 
of  thy  bowels]  stands  for  sympathetic  pity 
(16 11).  Read, '  the  sounding . .  and  thy  mercies 
toward  me  are  restrained.'  16.  The  patriarchs 
might  disown  their  descendants,  but  Jehovah's 
love  is  sure.  The  thought  is  similar  to  49 1^. 
The  passage  is  remarkable  as  one  of  the  very 
few  in  OT.  where  God  is  addressed  as  Father 
(64S).  1 7 f.  A  bold  expostulation.  Hardened, 
etc.]  Have  their  sins  caused  God  to  give  them 
up  and  become  their  adversary,  as  in  Pharaoh's 
case  ?  18.  A  little  while]  whereas  Jehovah 
had  promised  them  an  everlasting  inheritance  1 

19.  RV  '  We  are  become  as  they  over  whom 
thou  never  barest  rule  ;  as  they  that  were  not 
called,'  etc. 


451 


64.  1 


ISAIAH 


66.3 


CHAPTER  64 


1-3.  The  imagery  is  taken  from  the  accomit 
of  the  divine  manifestation  at  Sinai  (Ex  19  ^8). 

2.  RV  As  when  fire  kindleth  the  brushwood, 
and  the  fire  causeth,'  etc.  4.  O  God,  etc.] 
E,V  '  a  Grod  beside  thee,  which  worketh  for 
him  that  waiteth  for  Him.'  St.  Paul  (1  Cor  2  9) 
alludes  to  this  passage  to  emphasise  the  fact 
that  human  wisdom  cannot  fathom  the  working 
of  God.     Meetest]  i.e.  as  a  friend. 

Art]  RV  'wast.'  In  those,  etc.]  RV  'in 
them '  (i.e.  our  sins)  '  have  we  been  of  long 
time,  and  shall  we  be  saved  ?  '  6.  An  unclean 
thbig']  RV  '  one  that  is  unclean.'  Filthy  rags] 
RV  '  a  polluted  garment ' :  such  as  was  cere- 
monially unclean.  8.  Cp.  63i«  Ro920.  An 
appeal  to  God  that  He  will  not  abandon  the 
work  of  His  own  hands. 

10,  II.  Another  motive  for  Jehovah's  inter- 
ference— the  present  desolation  of  the  land 
and  sanctuary  dedicated  to  Him.  10.  Holy 
cities]  Elsewhere  Jerusalem  only  is  so  called, 
but  the  attribute  is  here  extended  to  the 
whole  land  (Zech2i2).  n.  Pleasant  things] 
the  same  word  as  'goodly  vessels,'  2Ch36i9_ 

12.  Refrain  thyself]  i.e.  refuse  to  give  way 
to  natural  tenderness  (Gn45i). 

CHAPTERS  65,  66 

The  Punishment  of  Apostate  and 
Reward  of  Faithful  Israel 

C.  65.  i-io.  Israel's  obduracy  to  Jeho- 
vah's appeals,  and  persistent  idolatry,  which 
He  will  surely  punish  ;  yet  a  faithful  remnant 
shall  be  preserved.  1 1-25.  The  fate  in  store 
for  the  unfaithful.  The  glories  of  the  coming 
age  for  God's  faithful  people. 

C.  66.  1-4.  The  danger  of  trusting  in  ex- 
ternals ;  a  merely  formal  worship  is  an  abomi- 
nation to  Jehovah.  5.  A  message  of  comfort 
for  the  faithful  who  are  persecuted.  6-14^. 
The  wonderful  restoration  of  Israel.  14^-18^^. 
The  divine  judgment  on  the  nations,  and  on 
all  idolaters.  i8^'-24.  The  recognition  and 
worship  of  Jehovah  by  all  nations. 

CHAPTER  65 

I.  Render,  '  I  have  off ered  answers  to  those 
who  asked  not  ;  I  have  been  at  hand  to  those 
who  sought  me  not . .  a  nation  that  hath  not 
called  upon  my  name.'  The  v.  refers  to  the 
Israelites  who  neglected  Jehovah's  appeals  so 
often  made.  St.  Paul  (R0IO20)  applies  the 
passage  by  inference  to  the  heathen  world. 

3.  Gardens]  the  scenes  of  idolatrous  rites 
in  the  pre-exile  period  (129  575),  Upon 
altars,  etc.]  RV  '  upon  bricks,'  i.e.  perhaps  the 
tiled  roofs  of  houses  (2  K  23 12).  4.  Monu- 
ments] RV  '  secret  places.'  The  v.  alludes  to 
the  custom  of  sleeping  in  sepulchres  or  vaults 
of  idol  temples  to  learn  the   future  through 


dreams.  Eat  swine's  flesh]  i.e.  in  sacrificial 
meals  (66 1")  ;  it  was  forbidden  by  the  Law  as 
unclean  (Lv  11 "  Dtl48).  Broth,  etc.]  re- 
ferring to  a  sacrificial  feast  of  unclean  food. 

5.  Which  say,  etc.]  The  words  are  uttered  by 
those  initiated  into  heathen  mysteries,  and 
who  therefore  considered  themselves  peculiarly 
sacred.  .6.  It  (i.e.  their  sin)  is  written]  cp.  Jer 
171.     7.   Upon  the  mountains]  cp.  57"  Hos4i3. 

Therefore .  .  work]  R V  '  there  will  I  first  mea- 
sm-e  their  work.'  Jehovah  must  first  of  all 
punish  these  deeds. 

8.  The  meaning  is  that  as  a  few  good  grapes 
often  save  a  cluster  from  being  destroyed,  so 
Israel  shall  be  preserved  through  the  faithful 
remnant.  10.  Sharon]  the  maritime  plain  on 
the  W.  of  Palestine  and  the  valley  of  Achor 
near  Jericho  on  the  E.,  are  put  for  the  whole 
land.     II.  Ye  are  they  that]  RV  'ye  that.' 

Prepare  a  table]  alluding  to  rites  such  as  are 
described  in  Jer  7 1^.  That  troop]  Heb .  Gacl^ 
i.e.  'Fortune' (RV):  cp.  Josh  111''.  Furnish, 
etc.]  '  fill  up  mingled  wine  imto  Meni '  (i.e. 
'  destiny ').  '  Meni '  and  '  Gad '  in  the  clause 
preceding  are  names  of   heathen  deities. 

12.  Number  you]  RV  '  destine  you.'  15.  Ye 
shall  leave,  etc.]  So  fearful  will  their  fate  be 
that  their  name  will  be  used  in  imprecation. 
Jer  2922  exactly  illustrates  what  is  meant. 

16.  The  meaning  is  that  men  will  recognise 
the  faithfulness  of  Jehovah.  17.  The  same 
language  is  in  NT.  applied  to  God's  final  in- 
terposition and  restoration  of  all  things 
(2Pet3i3  Rev 211).  Nature  itself  will  be 
transformed  to  be  in  harmony  with  regenerate 
Israel :  cp.  11 6-9.  20.  The  future,  in  the  pro- 
phet's view,  will  be  marked  by  a  return  to 
patriarchal  longevity  (Gn5),  the  power  of 
death  being  not  altogether  removed,  but 
limited.  Those  who  die  at  100  will  be  reck- 
oned as  but  children,  or  as  prematurely  cut 
off  for  their  sins.  21,  22.  Reversal  of  the 
curse  (Dt  28  ^O).  25.  Together  with  the  coming 
golden  age  for  humanity  the  prophet  anticipates 
a  transformation  of  the  lower  creation,  as 
in  11 6f-  :  cp.  R0819*.  Dust,  etc.]  the  serpent 
will  be  content  with  the  food  God  assigned 
to  it  (Gn  3 14). 

CHAPTER  66 

I.  Where,  etc.]  RV' what  manner  of  house 
.  .  what  place  shall  be  my  rest.'  The  v.  is  a 
strong  rebuke  of  such  as,  without  a  really 
religious  spirit,  idly  trusted  in  the  inviolability 
of  Zion,  and  the  protection  they  thought  the 
sanctuary  would  afford.  A  like  fault  is  re- 
buked in  Jer  7 1-1*5.  This  passage  is  quoted  by 
St.  Stephen  (Ac  749,50).  2.  Those  things]  i.e. 
the  universe.  All .  .  have  been]  RV  '  so  all 
these  things  came  to  be.'  3.  They  who  offer 
the  due  sacrifices,  yet  without  a  proper  spirit, 
are  no  better  than  they  who  perform  unclean 


452 


66.  4 


ISAIAH— JEREMIAH 


INTRO, 


or  idolatrous  acts.  4.  Their  delusions]  i.e. 
things  to  delude  them.  5.  Your  brethren,  etc.] 
These  are  the  apostate  Israelites  (also  referred 
to  65  5)  who  despise  the  true  worshippers  of 
Jehovah.  Let  the  LORD,  etc.]  RV  '  Let  the 
Lord  be  glorified,  that  we  may  see  your  joy  ; 
but  they '  (who  so  speak)  '  shall  be  ashamed.' 
The  apostate  taunt  the  faithful  with  wor- 
shipping a  God  w]io  does  not  help  them. 

6.  The  prophet  seems  to  hear  a  sound  as  of 
one  stirring  in  the  Temple  and  preparing  for 
vengeance. 

7-9.  The  mother  is  Zion,  the  child  regene- 
rate Israel,  and  in  v.  8  the  normally  slow 
processes  of  birth  and  growth  are  contrasted 
with  the  astonishing  development  of  God's 
people.  8.  Shall  the  earth  .  .  bring  forth]  RV 
'  Shall  a  land  be  born.'  9.  God  will  not  delay, 
or  leave  unfinished,  the  work  of  restoration. 

II.  The  figure  of  Zion  as  a  mother  is  still 
continued.      12.    Flowing]  RV  '  overflowing.' 

14.  An  herb]  RV  'the  tender  grass';  their 
youth  will  be  renewed. 

16.  Plead]  i.e.  hold  judgment.  17.  Sanctify 
themselves]  referring  (as  in  65  s)  to  the  apos- 
tates who  are  initiated  into  some  form  of 
heathen  mysteries.  Behind  one]  i.e.  (a)  '  be- 
hind one  Asherah,'  i.e.  idol  tree-trunk  (RM, 
cp.  17^)^  or,  (b)  'behind  one  man,'  as  priest 
and  leader  of  their  worship.  LXX  omits  the 
words.     Eating,  etc.]  cp.  65'^.      The  mouse] 


unclean  by  the  Law  (Lvll29).     18.   It  shall 
come]  RV  '  the  time  cometh.' 

19.  Those  that  escape  the  divine  judgment 
on  the  nations  opposed  to  Israel  are  repre- 
sented as  going  as  missionaries  to  the  more 
distant  peoples.  Tarshish]  in  Spain  ;  put  for 
the  far  West.  Pal  (i.e.  Phut)  and  Lud] 
probably  African  peoples  ;  they  are  mentioned 
together  as  serving  in  the  Egyptian  army  (Ezk 
30^).  Tubal]  Scythian  tribes  near  the  Black 
Sea  (Ezk  38  ^'3).  Javan]  lonians,  i.e.  Greeks 
settled  in  Asia  Minor.  20.  The  remoter 
nations  bring  back  the  Israelites  dispersed 
among  them.  21.  Take  of  them]  i.e.  (a)  of 
the  nations  who  bring  back  the  Jews ;  or,  (i) 
of  the  Jews  themselves  thus  brought  back  ; 
all  Israel  shall  be  eligible  for  the  priesthood. 
61*^  favours  this  latter  interpretation.  22.  Cp. 
6517. 

24.  The  picture  of  restoration  is  completed 
with  the  thought  of  the  judgment  upon  the 
wicked  (similarly  48^2  57^1),  who  are  here 
thought  of  as  having  been  slain  in  battle  by 
Jehovah  (vv.  15,  16).  Their  worm,  etc.] 
These  words  may  be  intended  to  refer  only  to 
the  literal  destruction  of  their  corpses,  or  may 
also  include  the  torment  of  the  spirits  of  the 
ungodly.  Jewish  interpretation  adopted  the 
latter  view  (Ecclus7i7  Judith  1 6^7),  and  it  ap- 
pears also  to  have  the  sanction  of  our  Lord's 
teaching  (Mk  9  43-48), 


JEREMIAH 


INTRODUCTION 


I.  Life  and  Times  of  Jeremiah.  Jeremiah 
(the  name  probably  meaning  '  appointed  by 
God ')  belonged  to  a  priestly  family  living  at 
a  small  town  named  Anathoth  (now  'Anata, 
consisting  of  about  a  dozen  houses  and  the 
remains  of  a  church)  son^e  two  miles  to  the 
NE.  of  Jerusalem.  The  high  priest  Abiathar, 
of  the  line  of  Ithamar,  had  settled  there  in 
the  days  of  David  (IK 2 26).  The  prophet's 
family  had  apparently  been  owners  of  land  in 
that  region  ever  since  Abiathar's  time,  and 
their  social  status  is  further  indicated  by  the 
fact  that  Jeremiah  had  for  his  scribe  Baruch, 
whose  brother  was  chief  chamberlain  to  Zede- 
kiah  (51  ^9;  see  also  on  45 1).  We  may  add 
that  Hilkiah,  the  father  of  Jeremiah,  is  not  to 
be  identified  with  the  reforming  high  priest 
of  Josiah's  day  (2K228),  as  the  latter  belonged 
to  the  line  not  of  Ithamar  but  of  Eleazar. 

At  an  early  period  in  Jeremiah's  life  (though 


the  expression  '  child '  in  1  ^  may  partly  at 
least  refer  to  his  sense  of  unfitness  for  such  a 
task)  he  was  moved  to  realise — probably  in 
gradually  increasing  measure — the  working  of 
the  divine  spirit  within  him.  In  the  thir- 
teenth year  of  Josiah,  626  B.C.,  he  received 
his  call  to  be  a  prophet,  and  his  prophetic  life 
was  continued  under  that  king's  fom-  succes- 
sors, viz.  Jehoahaz,  Jehoiakim,  Jehoiachin,  and 
Zedekiah.  Eventually  the  danger  which  had 
long  threatened  the  southern  kingdom  culmin- 
ated in  the  overthi-ow  of  the  Jewish  monarchy 
by  the  Babylonian  power,  which  had  lately 
risen  on  the  ruins  of  that  of  Assyria.  Zede- 
kiah and  a  large  number  of  his  subjects  were 
carried  captive  to  Babylon.  The  prophet,  with 
unselfish  patriotism,  rejecting  the  conqueror's 
offer  of  honourable  treatment  in  exile,  remained 
in  Judaea,  carrying  on  his  prophetic  office  during 
the  turbulent  times  which  ensued,  until  a  body 


453 


INTRO. 


JEREMIAH 


inteo. 


of  his  countrymen  forced  him  to  accompany 
them  to  Egypt  (43**-).  There,  according  to 
a  Christian  tradition,  he  met  a  martyr's  death 
at  Tahpanhes,  being  stoned  by  the  Jews  who 
resented  his  faithful  reproofs. 

Thus  Jeremiah  has  fitly  been  called  '  the 
prophet  of  the  decline  and  fall  of  the  Jewish 
monarchy,'  and  the  manner  of  his  end  seems 
to  have  been  in  close  accord  with  the  character 
of  his  life-work  and  sufferings.  For,  like 
Cassandi-a,  it  was  his  fate  through  life  to  gain 
but  little  credence  for  his  warnings. 

Jeremiah  is  one  who  reveals  with  frankness 
the  workings  of  his  mind.  Hence  his  pro- 
phecies are  charged  with  a  large  element  of 
human  interest.  His  countrymen  as  a  whole — 
alike  those  who  had,  and  those  who  had  not, 
sympathised  with  Josiah's  reforms  (2Ch34) — 
refused  to  see  that  nothing  short  of  a  thorough 
amendment  of  life  and  morals  would  satisfy 
God's  law  and  avert  national  disaster.  The 
prophet's  office  then  was  to  utter  and  reiterate 
a  needed  warning,  emphasising  it  by  fervour 
of  language  and  variety  of  illustration,  though 
sensible  all  the  time  that  his  appeals  were 
probably  in  vain.  The  end  was  approaching, 
and  at  last,  when  princes  and  people  alike 
proved  faithless,  he  centred  his  hopes  upon 
the  few  in  whose  case  adversity  and  exile  had 
had  their  chastening  uses. 

Belonging  to  the  orders  both  of  priest  and 
prophet,  and  living  at  the  very  time  when  each 
had  sunk  to  its  lowest  degree  of  degi'adation, 
he  was  compelled  to  submit  to  the  bufi^eting 
which  they  each  bestowed  upon  one  who  by 
his  every  word  and  deed  was  passing  sentence 
upon  them.  Hostility,  abuse,  powerlessness  to 
avert  the  coming  ills,  a  solitary  life  and  pro- 
hibition of  marriage  (16  2) — these  were  the 
conditions  of  life  allotted  to  a  man  of  shy  and 
timid  disposition  and  naturally  despondent 
mind.  No  miracle  was  wrought  for  his  benefit. 
His  predictions  were  scorned.  He  failed  to 
induce  his  compatriots  to  recognise  the  solidity 
of  his  claims  to  a  hearing.  At  times  he  de- 
spaired even,  as  it  seems,  of  life  (20 1^*'!^).  And 
yet  he  could  not  be  silent.  The  divine  message 
must  find  its  utterance  (20  ^'9),  and  in  fact  the 
promise  made  to  him  at  the  time  of  his  call 
(l^S),  and  renewed  later  (15  ^0),  did  not  fail. 

Reign  of  Josiah.  During  the  reign  of  this 
king,  commencing  639  B.C.,  the  dangers  arising 
to  Judsea  from  its  geographical  position  became 
painfully  evident.  It  was  the  natural  battle- 
ground between  the  rival  powers  of  Assyria 
and  Egypt.  So  small  a  kingdom  could  not 
cope  with  either  of  these  dangerous  neigh- 
bours without  the  support  of  the  other,  and 
therefore  the  problem  which  pressed  for  solu- 
tion was  with  which  of  the  two  it  was  most 
prudent  to  throw  in  their  lot.  There  was  still, 
as  earlier,  in  Isaiah's  time  (IsaSO^-^  Sl^-^),  a 


strong  party  in  the  state  favouring  either 
alternative.  The  extension  of  Josiah's  work 
of  reformation  (to  which  we  are  about  to  refer), 
beyond  the  borders  of  his  own  kingdom  north- 
wards (to  Geba,  2  K  23  ^),  showed  that  the  power 
of  Assyria,  which  just  a  hundred  years  earlier 
had  overthrown  the  kingdom  of  the  Ten  Tribes, 
was  on  the  wane.  On  the  other  hand,  it  by 
no  means  followed  that  Egypt  was  to  be  de- 
pended on,  even  though  the  Chaldean  (Baby- 
lonian) power,  soon  to  take  the  place  of  Assyria, 
was  scarcely  yet  above  Judaea's  political  horizon. 

Notwithstanding  this  precarious  position 
with  regard  to  external  politics,  the  inner  life 
of  the  state  did  not  lack  certain  hopeful 
features.  The  new  king,  unlike  his  idolatrous 
predecessors,  Manasseh  and  Amon,  was  one 
whose  ardour  on  the  side  of  Jehovah,  seconded 
as  it  was  by  wise  counsellors,  took  the  form  of 
a  vigorous  campaign  against  the  idol-worship 
and  immorality  which  had  polluted  those  two 
reigns.  The  altars  erected  to  Baal,  the 
worship  of  'the  host  of  heaven'  (2K1716), 
the  images  of  the  horses  and  chariots  of  the 
sun  within  the  very  precincts  of  the  Temple, 
the  offering  of  human  sacrifices  in  the  valley 
of  Hinnom  (on  the  S.  and  W.  of  Jerusalem), 
the  gross  inunoralities  of  Canaanitish  worship — 
these  were  wide-spread  indications  of  the 
religious  corruptions  which  Josiah  assailed. 
The  great  principle  underlying  his  reforms 
was  that  Jehovah  alone  should  be  the  object  of 
worship,  and  that  that  worship  should  be 
centralised  at  Jerusalem.  So  far  as  this 
principle  took  effect,  it  had  very  important 
consequences  on  the  religious  life  of  the  nation. 
This  centralisation  was  a  standing  protest 
against  the  worship  of  a  plurality  of  gods. 
Moreover,  the  limitation  of  sacrifice  to  the 
central  sanctuary  tended  to  throw  into  greater 
relief  worship  in  its  more  spiritual  aspect 
independent  of  any  particular  locality. 

But,  as  Jeremiah  clearly  saw,  the  abuses 
were  too  deeply  rooted  for  these  reformers  to 
penetrate  much  below  the  surface,  and  the 
mass  of  the  people  were  supported  in  their 
adherence  to  the  old  ways  by  the  priests  of 
the  local  shrines  ('  high  places ')  throughout 
the  land,  who  naturally  resisted  a  change  that 
deposed  them  from  their  office  and  cut  away 
an  important  soiu-ce  of  subsistence  (2K23'^). 
Accordingly,  the  picture  which  the  prophet 
draws  of  the  condition  of  society  is  a  startling 
one.  On  every  side  among  high  and  low  there 
was  dishonesty,  false  swearing,  murder,  and 
open  licentiousness.  (For  an  account  of  the 
local  Baal-worship  see  Intro,  to  Hosea.) 

Many,  doubtless,  were  the  influences  which 
culminated  in  what  we  term  Jeremiah's  call. 
The  sight  of  abounding  immorality  and 
idolatry,  the  tradition  of  his  house,  and  the 
hostility  to  reforms  on  the  part  of  many  of 


454 


INTRO. 


JEREMIAH 


INTRO. 


the  natural  guardians  of  religion,  both  priests 
and  prophets,  moved  him  to  painful  self- 
communing,  and  urged  him  to  lift  up  his  voice 
against  the  sins  of  the  nation.  A  strong 
impetus  no  doubt  was  given  to  his  prophetic 
ardour  when,  five  years  after  his  call,  the 
Book  of  the  Law  came  to  light  in  the  Temple 
(2K22S).  That  book  contained  at  least  a 
considerable  portion  of  our  book  of  Deut- 
eronomy. Such  graphic  pictures  of  punish- 
ment for  unfaithfulness  to  Jehovah,  as  are  to 
be  found  in  Dt28,  cannot  but  have  served  as 
an  antidote  to  the  shyness  of  his  nature,  and 
nerved  him  afresh  for  the  task  appointed  him. 
He  had  to  face,  on  the  one  hand,  the  immoral 
and  idol  worshippers,  on  the  other,  persons 
who  maintained  that,  to  secure  the  abiding 
favour  of  Jehovah,  it  was  only  necessary  to 
offer  more  numerous  and  costly  sacrifices  and 
to  increase  the  splendour  of  the  Temple  ritual. 
According  to  them,  the  Temple  was  in  itself  a 
charm  which  must  render  Jerusalem  and  its 
inhabitants  seciu-e  (7  4). 

Shortly  before  the  newly  risen  Chaldean 
power,  by  the  capture  of  Nineveh,  made  good 
its  claim  as  the  successor  to  Assyria  (607  B.C.), 
Josiah  openly  espoused  its  side  (2  K  23  29), 
confronted  Necho,  king  of  Egypt,  on  his  march 
against  Chaldea,  and  was  slain  in  battle  at 
Megiddo  (608  B.C.). 

Reign  of  Jehoahaz  (the  Shallum  of  22 1^), 
608  B.C.  After  a  brief  reign  of  three  months 
this  king  was  carried  captive  to  Egypt  by 
Necho,  and  the  land  made  tributary  (2  K  23  33). 
The  prophet  evidently  felt  that  in  Jehoahaz 
the  nation  had  lost  one  who  would  have  used 
his  power  for  good  (22io-i2). 

Reign  of  Jehoiakim,  elder  brother  of  Jeho- 
ahaz (2Ch362.5).  The  king  of  Egypt  placed 
him  on  the  throne,  and  his  reign  lasted  for 
eleven  years  (608-597  B.C.).  His  policy,  the 
reverse  of  that  of  his  father  Josiah,  was  a 
disastrous  one  (2  K  241-4).  Under  him  the 
hope  of  averting  the  ruin  of  the  country  soon 
faded  away.  In  the  worship  of  '  the  high 
places '  and  in  the  bloodstained  rites,  either 
encouraged  or  at  least  connived  at  by  him, 
men  sought  deliverance  from  the  troubles  of 
servitude  to  a  foreign  o'^pressor.  The  king 
was  cruel,  frivolous,  eager  for  his  own  glori- 
fication, and  regardless  of  the  national  religion 
(Jer  22 13-17).  Under  his  rule  the  faithful  few 
were  refined  by  adversity,  and  it  was  seen,  as 
in  the  time  of  Manasseh,  that  faithfulness  to 
God  might  easily  lead  to  martyrdom.  The 
priests  and  false  prophets,  exasperated  by 
Jeremiah's  rebukes  and  warnings,  and  en- 
couraged by  the  king's  murder  of  Urijah,  even 
demanded  that  Jeremiah  too  should  die,  but 
were  foiled  in  the;r  purpose  (26 1''). 

Real  and  not  pretended  service  is  the  great 
lesson  which  Jeromiah  at  this  time  enforced. 


and  in  so  doing  he  excited  the  animosity  of 
his  foes  by  the  very  truth  of  the  charges  that 
he  brought  against  them.  In  opposition  to 
those  who  still  advocated  alliance  with  Egypt 
against  Babylon,  he  declared  that  the  latter 
would  assuredly  prevail,  and  illustrated  his 
words  by  the  symbol  of  the  potter's  clay  and 
the  breaking  of  the  earthen  vessel  (chs.  18, 19). 

The  fourth  year  of  Jehoiakim 's  reign  (605 
B.C.)  gave  noteworthy  proof  of  Jeremiah's 
prescience.  Nebuchadnezzar,  king  of  Babylon, 
defeated  the  army  of  Necho  at  Carchemish  on 
the  Euphrates,  and,  advancing  into  Palestine, 
drove  many,  including  the  Rechabites  (c.35), 
to  seek  shelter  within  the  walls  of  Jerusalem. 
The  conqueror  advanced  to  the  capital  and 
bore  away  both  captives  and  sacred  vessels  to 
Babylon  (2  Ch  36 ''' 'i').  The  complete  over- 
throw was  deferred,  only  because  of  Nebu- 
chadnezzar's hasty  return  home  on  the  report 
of  his  father's  illness,  in  order  to  secure  his 
succession  to  the  throne.  From  this  time 
forth  Jeremiah's  forecasts  assume  an  air  of 
greater  definiteness.  He  speaks  no  longer,  as 
in  11**  61,  of  an  enemy  from  'the  north,'  but 
declares  plainly  that  the  king  of  Babylon,  as 
God's  instrument  of  punishment,  is  destined 
to  prevail,  urges  submission,  and  promises  that 
those  who  abide  by  his  counsel  shall  be  left 
undisturbed  in  their  land.  The  rest,  though 
captivity  for  seventy  years  is  to  be  their  lot, 
shall  in  the  end  be  restored.  Probably  it  was 
soon  after  the  battle  of  Carchemish  that  there 
occurred  the  scene  of  the  king's  burning  of 
the  prophet's  roll  and  repudiation  of  his 
warnings  (c.  36).  From  this  time  till  the  end 
of  Jehoiakim's  reign  Jeremiah  seems  to  have 
been  absent  from  Jerusalem.  The  king 
received  no  more  warnings.  After  three  years' 
payment  as  vassal  of  the  tribute  which  he 
yearned  to  spend  upon  self-indulgence,  he 
rebelled,  was  attacked  by  bands  of  Chaldeans 
and  others,  and  probably  in  an  engagement 
with  some  of  them,  came  to  a  violent  end  and 
a  dishonoured  burial  (2218,19). 

Reign  of  Jehoiachin  (the  Jeconiah  of  241, 
and  the  Coniah  of  2224,28),  597  g.c.  He 
was  the  son  of  Jehoiakim,  was  set  up  by 
Nebuchadnezzar,  and,  like  his  uncle  Jehoahaz, 
reigned  but  three  months,  when  he  and  the 
flower  of  the  community  with  him  (the  '  good 
figs '  of  c.  24)  were  deported  to  Babylon. 
After  thirty-six  years'  imprisonment  he  was 
released  by  Nebuchadnezzar's  son  and  successor, 
Evil-merodach  (52^1).  To  this  period  belongs 
c.  13,  with  its  acted  symbol  of  the  linen  girdle. 

Reign  of  Zedekiah,  597-586  B.C.  He  was  the 
youngest  son  of  .Josiah,  well  disposed,  but  utterly 
weak.  He  showed  more  disposition  than  his 
predecessors  had  done  to  consult  with  Jere- 
miah (3717-21  3814-28),  and  under  his  advice  to  ^ 
submit  to  Babylon.     On  the  other  hand,  he 


455 


INTRO. 


JEREMIAH 


INTRO. 


was  devoid  of  any  real  zeal  for  religion,  and 
yielded,  now  to  the  suggestions  of  the  prophet, 
now  to  those  of  the  princes,  who  advocated 
resistance,  either  single-handed  or  in  alliance 
with  Egypt.  Thus  he  was  virtually  powerless 
against  the  strong  wills  and  more  vigorous 
leadei's  opposed  to  him  (385.25)  Xo  the 
worthiest  part  of  the  nation,  who  were  in  cap- 
tivity, Jeremiah  writes  a  letter  of  comfort  (c. 
29),  advising  submission,  and  promising  re- 
storation in  due  time. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  ninth  year  of  Zede- 
kiah  a  Chaldean  army  laid  siege  to  Jerusalem. 
Jeremiah  had  already  from  time  to  time  worn 
a  yoke  upon  his  neck,  symbolical  of  the  coming 
servitude    (Jer  27  2),  and  when  the   false    pro- 
phet,   Hananiah,    who    promised    deliverance, 
had  broken  the  yoke  (281°),  he  received  the 
sentence  of  speedy    death   at   the  mouth  of 
Jeremiah  (28  ^^)  because  he  had  '  spoken  re- 
bellion against  the  Lord.'     It  was  natural  for 
self-reliant,  irreligious  men  to  be  highly  dis- 
pleased with  such  acts  and  words  as  these,  and 
much  persecution,  including  imprisonment,  fell 
to  the  prophet's  lot  in  consequence,  the  king 
being  too  weak  to  give   him   any  permanent 
support  (Jer37ii--i).     In  the  eleventh  year  of 
Zedekiah,   586  B.C.,  the  city  was  sacked  and 
the  Temple  burnt.     Zedekiah's  eyes  were  put 
out,  and  he  was  brought  to  Babylon,  and  im- 
mured in  a  dungeon,  apparently  till  his  death. 
Jeremiah   was  permitted  to   remain  under 
Gedaliah.  Nebuchadnezzar's  new  governor,  who 
was  of  a  family  friendly  to  the  prophet.     But  in 
two  months'  time  Gedaliah  was  murdered  by 
the  irreconcilables  among  the  remnant  in  the 
land.     In  the  turbulent  period  that  followed, 
the  prophet,  viewed  by  the  people  as  a  traitor, 
foretold  the  want  and  misery  that  would  ensue, 
if,   through  fear   of  the  vengeance  of  Nebu- 
chadnezzar (42  7 f-),  they  went  down  to  Egypt. 
They  only  replied  by  compelling  him  to  accom- 
pany them  thither.     From  Tahpanhes,  a  town 
near  the  eastern  border  of  Lower  Egypt,  we 
draw  the  last   certain  notice  of  him  that  we 
possess.     He  declares  that  the  fate  which  had 
befallen  Judaea  shall  also  be  that  of  Egypt, 
and  that  Nebuchadnezzar's  throne  shall  be  set 
up  at  the  entrance  to  Pharaoh's  house  (43  lO). 
He   also  makes   a    dying  protest  against  the 
idolatrous  worship   practised  by  his  country- 
men (c.  44).     We  have  no  notice  in  the  Bible 
of  his  death. 

2.  Jeremiah's  Attitude  towards  the  Cere- 
monial Law  and  the  Sabbath.  Jeremiah's 
unvarying  theme  is  that  in  God's  sight  the 
moral  always  takes  precedence  of  the  cere- 
monial Law  (although  laxity  in  sabbath 
observance  is  sharply  rebuked  in  17  ^^■^'^). 
This  principle  he  applies  to  the  people's  re- 
verence for  the  ark  (3 1'')  and  the  tables  of  the 
Law  (313if.,  cp.  3240),  to  circumcision  (4  4  6io 


926),  to  the  Temple  (74,iof.  nis  173  266,9,12 
27 16),  to  sacrifices  (6  20  72if.  1115  1412).  We 
may  further  note  that  in  many  of  the  passages 
where  the  '  Law  '  is  mentioned,  the  prophet  is 
describing  the  '  oral '  teaching  given  by  priests 
(Dtl7ii)  and  prophets  to  those  who  consulted 
them  on  points  of  ritual  or  practice  :  see  2^ 
913  1818  264,5. 

3.  The  Messianic  Passages  and  the  Nature 
of  the  Prophet's  Hope  for  the  Future.  A  charac- 
teristic of  Jeremiah's  style  is  to  insert  a  bright 
thought  among  gloomy  ones,  so  that  at  the 
most  terrible  period  of  his  country's  fortunes 
his  Messianic  hopes  are  clearest  in  their  ex- 
pression. These  hopes  are  gathered  round 
(a)  the  Davidic  house,  (b)  Jerusalem. 

The  chief  Messianic  passages  (1725,26  23  ^^s 
309.21   3314-iS)   are  deserving   of  close   study, 
as  indicating  the  gradually  increasing  clearness 
of   the    hope.      The  worthless  rulers   of    the 
prophet's  days  should  be  succeeded  by  a  king 
of  David's  line,  who  should  reign  in  righteous- 
ness ;   out  of  the  ruins  of  Jerusalem    should 
arise  a  new  city,  which  should  bear  the  name, 
'  The    Lord    is    our  righteousness  '  ;  and  the 
old  covenant,  which  had  proved  itself  unable 
either  to  cleanse  from  sin  or  to  enforce  obe- 
dience, should  give  place  to  a  new  covenant  of 
grace,  written  not  on  tables  of  stone,  but  on 
fleshy  tables  of  the  heart.     Then  '  they  shall 
all  laiow  me  from  the  least  of  them  even  unto 
the  greatest  of  them'  (3134).     Such  was  the 
dim  forecast,  as  revealed  to  Jeremiah,  of  the 
New    Order  which,    in  the   fulness    of   time, 
was  to  arise  out  of  the  Jewish  dispensation 
through   the   coming  of  the    Saviour   of  the 
world.     '  The  New  Covenant  has  been  esta- 
blished   in   the   spiritual   dispensation   of  the 
gospel,  in  a  law  written  by  the  Spirit  in  the 
hearts  of  men,  and  in  the  new  revelation  the 
means  of  pardon  and  of  purification  have  been 
provided   and   made  known  to   man  '    (Kirk- 
patrick,   '  The   Doctrine  of   the  Prophets,'   p. 
324).     Christ,  both  Priest  and  King,  and  heir 
of  David's  line,  has  come  to  dwell  among  men 
in  a  higher  sense  than  it  was  given  to  Jere- 
miah to  realise. 

4.  Arrangement  of  the  Contents  of  the  Book. 
The  book  of  Jeremiah  gives  us  interesting 
indications  of  what  we  may  call  the  literary 
history  of  a  prophetical  collection.  More  than 
twenty  years  had  elapsed  since  Jeremiah's  call 
when  Baruch  was  bidden,  apparently  for  the 
first  time,  to  take  down  prophecies  from  his 
dictation.  And  when  the  roll  which  thus  came 
into  existence  was  burnt,  that  which  succeeded 
it  contained  the  same,  and,  in  addition,  '  many 
like  words'  (3(532).  From  the  nature  of  the 
case  there  must  have  been  a  certain  amount  of 
condensation,  as  the  ipalssima  verba  of  the  pro- 
phet's utterances  would  not  remain  in  his  mind 
during  so  long  a  period,  and  much  of  what  he 


456 


INTRO. 


JEREMIAH 


INTRO. 


said  must  have  been  from  time  to  time  sub- 
stantially repeated  in  the  course  of  the  twenty- 
years.  We  also  find  that  while  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  prophecies  preceding  c.  36  is  in 
the  main  the  order  of  delivery,  that  order  is 
occasionally  broken,  the  prophet  grouping  with 
some  particular  deliverance  other  prophecies  of 
kindred  subject-matter.  Moreover,  the  roll, 
we  may  perceive,  can  only  have  been  in  general 
agreement  with  the  section  of  the  book  down 
to  c.  36,  for  portions  of  that  section  are  clearly 
later  than  the  fifth  year  of  Jehoiakim ;  while 
the  prophecies  against  foreign  nations,  some  of 
which  were  contained  in  the  roll  (c.  36  2),  are 
now  all  at  the  end  of  the  book  according  to 
the  Hebrew  arrangement  (see  next  section, 
'  The  Septuagint  Version  of  Jeremiah ').  We 
can  trace  signs  of  a  distinction  between  the 
methods  in  which  the  earlier  and  later  parts 
of  the  book  (those  directly  dictated  to  Baruch, 
and  those  which  Baruch  himself  arranged,  as 
editor)  assumed  their  present  shape.  For  such 
a  formula  as  '  the  word  of  the  Lord  came  unto 
me  '  in  the  earlier  part,  we  find  later  '  The  word 
of  the  Lord  came  to  Jeremiah.^  In  the  same 
way  the  expression  '  Jeremiah  the  prophet,' 
more  likely  to  be  used  by  Baruch  when  acting 
as  editor  than  as  amanuensis,  is  characteristic 
of  the  later  chapters.  In  this  way  the  earlier 
seem  to  give  us  the  voice  of  the  prophet  him- 
self, while  in  the  later  we  have  the  scribe  col- 
lecting the  utterances  of  his  master,  arranging 
them  as  he  deems  best,  and  editing  the  records 
of  his  life.  It  follows  from  what  we  have 
said  that  the  order  of  the  groups  of  prophecies 
is  not  always  that  of  time.  Moreover,  while 
it  is  in  some  cases  clear,  it  is  also  often  uncer- 
tain when  they  were  delivered.  The  convul- 
sions through  which  the  nation  was  passing 
during  the  latter  part  of  the  period  were  far 
from  favourable  to  any  formal  arrangement  of 
the  contents.  But  the  very  lack  of  order  here 
and  there  observable  serves  a  valuable  end,  in 
showing  that  we  may  consider  ourselves  to 
possess  the  words  of  Jeremiah  put  together 
in  those  same  troublous  times  at  which  they 
were  spoken,  and  not  as  they  might  afterwards 
have  been  remodelled  and  fitted  to  the  notions 
of  men  of  a  later  generation. 

The  following  can  only  claim  to  be  a  rough 
approximation  to  a  chronological  arrangement. 


CHS. 

1-12 
14-20 
26 
25 

46-49 
35,36 
45 
13 
29 
27 


Josiah 

Jehoiakim 

1st  year  of  Jehoiakim 

4th 


1) 


71 
1) 


5> 


Jehoiachin 

(?  1st  year  of)  ZedeMah 


CHS. 

50,51 

28 

21-24 

34 

37 

30-33 

38 

52 

39-44 


(?  4th  year  of)  Zedekiah 

4th 

9th 


J) 

)1 


(9th  or)  10th 
10th 


51 


5) 

nth 

Period  of  exile 


It 

5) 

55 


or  later 


457 


5.  The  Septuagint  Version  of  Jeremiah.     The 

LXX,  as  a  whole,  adheres  with  tolerable  fidelity 
to  the  Hebrew  as  we  now  possess  it.  But  the 
book  of  Jeremiah  in  the  Greek  presents  in 
various  places  so  startling  an  exception  to  this 
rule,  that  it  has  been  questioned  whether  the 
Greek  is  not  in  this  case  at  least  the  more 
correct  text. 

The  two  main  points  of  difference  in  the 
two  texts  are  (a)  that  the  Greek  version  omits, 
at  different  points,  words  amounting  in  the 
whole  to  about  one-eighth  of  the  text  as  it 
stands  in  the  Hebrew  ;  (6)  that  in  the  Greek 
the  prophecies  against  foreign  nations,  instead 
of  coming  near  the  end  of  the  book  (chs. 
46-51),  stand  after  25 1^,  their  logical  place, 
where  in  the  Hebrew  text  there  is  merely  a 
reference  to  them.  Also  their  order  of  se- 
quence among  themselves  varies  from  that  of 
the  Hebrew. 

Space  does  not  allow  further  treatment  of  the 
question  here  ;  but  it  may  be  said  that  while 
there  seems  good  reason  for  thinking  that  the 
form  of  the  book  on  which  the  Greek  trans- 
lators' work  was  based  preserves  purer  readings 
in  many  passages,  and  that  the  Hebrew  has  in 
some  passages  glossed  or  expanded  the  text, 
'  on  the  whole  the  Massoretic  text  deserves  the 
preference  '  (Driver). 

6.  Jeremiah's  Relations  to  his  Predecessors. 
The  prophet  to  whom  Jeremiah  is  most 
closely  related  in  thought  and  teaching  is 
Hosea.  Just  as  Hosea  found  idolatry  and 
licentiousness  in  the  kingdom  of  Israel  in  the 
years  before  its  fall,  so  Jeremiah  found  them 
in  Judah  in  similar  political  circumstances. 
It  is  probable  that  Jeremiah  was  acquainted 
with  the  prophecies  of  his  large-hearted  pre- 
decessor. Both  were  men  of  the  same  type 
of  mind  ;  both  were  deeply  religious  and 
jealous  for  Jehovah's  service  ;  and  certain 
passages  in  the  book  of  Jeremiah  suggest  the 
influence  of  the  prophet  of  the  North  :  cp. 
Jer2i-<5  with  Hos2i-5,  Jer3i>2  ^jth  Hos3i, 
Jer322  with  Hosl44,  Jer53i  with  Hos49, 
etc. 

As  already  mentioned,  in  the  early  part 
of  the  prophet's  career  the  '  book  of  the  Law ' 
(Deuteronomy)  was  found  in  the  Temple.  Its 
teaching  supported  him  in  his  appeals  to  the 
people,  and  as  the  results  of  its  discovery  the 
reformation  of  worship  was  made  by  Josiah. 


INTRO. 


JEREMIAH 


2. 


That  Jeremiah  was  influenced  by  this  book  is 
seen,  negatively,  in  the  fact  that  we  have  no 
prophecies   belonging  to    the    latter   part   of 
Josiah's  reign,  the  teaching  of  Deuteronomy 
and    the    adoption    of    its    precepts    having 
rendered  his  work  unnecessary  for  the  time ;  and 
positively  in  the  frequent  references  to  it  which 
occur  in  his  prophecies  :  cp.  2"3  with  Dt32io^ 
515  with  Dt28-t9,  733  with  Dt282<5,  113  ^ith 
Dt  272«5,  115  with  Dt7i2.i3,  249  with  28  25,  etc. 
Jeremiah  is  concerned  with  the  sin  of  the 
people  as  exhibited  in  their  unfaithfulness  to 
God.     It  was  not  enough   that   they  should 
have  a  reform  of  worship  ;  the  true  reform 
was  that  of  the  human  heart  (4  4)  ;  what  they 
needed   was   a   change    of   heart  (24 'i'    3131). 
The  importance  of  the  individual  in  the  sight 
of    God    is    a   prominent    thought    with    our 
prophet.     Men  were  to  be  punished  for  their 
own  sins,  he  taught,  not  for  those  of  their 
forefathers  (3129).     Individual  responsibility 
was  to  be  the  foundation   of   character  and 
spiritual    life.      And    consequently    the    new 
law  was  to  be  a  spiritual  bond  between  God 
and  man,  a  law  written  in  men's  hearts,  and 
obeyed    in    love    and    loyalty    (3131).       This 
teaching  of  the  importance  of  the  individual 
was  the  first  step  towards  that  faith  in  per- 
sonal (as    distinguished   from   racial)  immor- 
tality, which  from  this  time  begins  to  be  dimly 
sought  after  by  Jewish  thinkers. 

CHAPTER    1 

The  Call  of  Jeremiah  (13th  year  of 

Josiah).     First  Prophecy 
1-3.   See  Introduction. 

3.  The  fifth  month]  i.e.  when  Jerusalem 
was  destroyed  (2  K  26  3>  8). 

4-10.   Jeremiah's  call  and  first  prophecy. 

4.  The  word  of  the  LORD  came  unto  me] 
see  art.  '  Introduction  to  Hebrew  Prophecy.' 
We  cannot  doubt  that  Jeremiah  had  long 
moiu-ned  over  his  people's  sins,  and  yet  perhaps 
hesitated  to  undertake  the  biu-den  of  witness- 
ing against  them.  At  length  he  became  con- 
scious of  a  divine  call  to  the  prophetic  office, 
which  was  not  to  be  restricted  :  cp.  20  7. 

5.  I  knew  thee]  approved,  selected  thee  : 
cp.  Gnl8i9  Psl6  Nahl7.  Sanctified]  con- 
secrated :  cp.  John  Baptist  (Lk  1 15-17)  and 
St.  Paul  (Gal  1 15- 16).  Unto  the  nations]  This 
points  out  a  distinction  between  the  work  of 
Jeremiah  as  a  prophet  and  that  of  many  of 
his  predecessors,  e.g.  Elijah  and  Elisha.  Their 
predictions  were  concerned  with  the  Jews 
only.  Those  of  Jeremiah,  on  the  other  hand, 
had  to  do  with  the  heathen  world  as  well,  and 
also  with  the  nations  of  subsequent  ages,  as 
he  foretold  the  blessings  that  were  to  come 
on  the  earth  through  the  Messiah.     See  Intro. 

6.   A  child]   not  probably  in  years,  but  in 
fitness.     '  Who  is  sufficient  for  these  things  ?  ' 


9.  Touched  my  mouth]  symbolic  of  divine 
grace  and  inspiration  :  cp.  IsaSt^  Ezk29-33. 

ID.  Jeremiah's  work  was  to  be  radical  and 
destructive  in  denouncing  the  sins  of  his 
people  and  predicting  their  chastening,  but 
also  one  of  restoration  and  rebuilding  through 
leading  them  to  repentance. 

I1-19.  Words  of  encouragement.  Jeremiah 
is  vouchsafed  two  visions.  The  first  (11,  12) 
was  the  branch  of  an  almond  tree,  which  is 
extremely  early  in  blossoming.  This  indicated 
that  God  would  very  soon  execute  His  pur- 
poses and  judgments.  12.  Since  the  days  of 
Manasseh  the  Lord  had  not  visited  upon  the 
people  their  sins.  That  period  of  rest  was  like 
the  winter.  The  Lord  is  now  rousing  Him- 
self ;  yet  not  only  to  punish,  but  to  save  as 
well.  Through  Josiah's  reforms  and  Jere- 
miah's ministry  religion  is  to  be  kept  alive  in 
a  remnant,  viz.  those  carried  to  Babylon,  and 
so  the  return  shall  at  last  be  brought  about. 

13.  The  second  vision  was  that  of  a  seething 
pot  with  its  mouth  '  towards  the  south '  (lit. 
'  from  the  face  of  the  north '),  and  about  to 
boil  over.  The  meaning  was  as  hinted  in 
V.  14,  that  the  great  Babylonian  power  to  the 
N.  of  Palestine,  which  had  long  been  at  strife 
with  Elam  and  Media,  would  soon  be  directed 
against  Judaea,  the  danger  to  which  always 
depended  upon  the  fact  that  it  lay  on  the 
direct  route  of  an  army  proceeding  from  the 
E.  against  Egypt. 

15.  Shall  set  every  one  his  throne,  etc.] 
This  prediction  was  literally  fulfilled  (see 
393).  The  function  of  administering  justice 
was  exercised  by  the  king  in  person,  and 
the  neighbourhood  of  the  city  gate  was  the 
ordinary  place  at  which  trials  were  held. 
Here  then  the  rulers  of  the  invader's  army 
will  sit  in  judgment  on  the  conquered  people. 
17.  Gird  up  thy  loins]  The  shortening  of 
the  robe  by  drawing  it  up  through  the  girdle 
was  preparatory  to  active  exertion  :  cp.  Elijah 
1K184'3.  18.  I  have  made  thee  .  .  a  defenced 
city,  etc.]  God  would  endue  Jeremiah  with 
firmness  and  resolution  to  carry  out  his  mission 
in  spite  of  all  opposition. 

CHAPTERS   2-6 
The    Prophet    sets   forth    the    Sin    of 
the  Nation  and  points  out  the  in- 
evitable   Result      (Reign    of     Josiah, 
and  probably  before  the  reforms  of  that 
king  :  cp.  3^) 
This  section  furnishes  us  with  the  gist  of 
the  prophet's  testimony  during  the  early  years 
of  his  ministry,  and  doubtless  represents  the 
commencement  of  the  roll  written  by  Baruch 
at  Jeremiah's  dictation.     In  these  five  chs.  he 
lays  before  his  hearers  the  grossness  of  their 
conduct    in    deserting    Jehovah,    and    urges 
repentance    and    amendment   while    yet   the 


458 


2.  2 


JEREMIAH 


2.  34 


impending  judgment  is  delayed.  For  the 
idolatrous  and  '  high  place '  worship  of  the 
period  see  Intro.,  and  cp.  Intro,  to  Hosea. 

CHAPTEE  2 
Jeremiah's  Second  Prophecy  (21-35) 
The     prophet     expostulates     with     Israel 
because  of  their  unfaithfulness  to   Jehovah. 
I- 1 3.  Under   the    figure    of    the   marriage 
relation  Jehovah  reminds  the  people  of  His 
past  favours,  and  charges  them  with  faithlessness 
to  their  first  love,  as  shown  by  their  idolatry. 

2.  The  kindness  of  thy  youth,  etc.]  Israel's 
earliest  devotion  to  Jehovah  at  Sinai  (Ex  248). 

3.  Firstfruits  of .  .  increase]  i.e.  the  conse- 
crated part.  All  that  devour,  etc.]  The  priest 
and  his  family  alone  were  to  eat  of  the  first 
fruits  (Lv22io,i6)_  if  any  unhallowed  person 
took  of  them,  he  trespassed  or  '  offended.' 
In  like  manner  if  heathen  nations  meddle  with 
Israel  (the  consecrated  people),  they  will  be 
guilty  as  those  who  eat  the  fruits. 

5.  Vanity]  i.e.  idols  :  cp.  10 1^.  6.  The 
shadow  of  death]  RV  '  deep  darkness,'  as 
referring  to  a  region  where  the  supply  of  the 
necessaries  of  life  was  so  precarious  that  the 
fear  of  death  was  always  present. 

8.  The  priests,  the  pastors  (i.e.  rulers)  and 
the  prophets  were  all  alike  in  sympathy  with 
the  degraded  worship  of  Jehovah  at  the  high 
places,  mingled  as  it  was  with  the  worship  of 
the  Baalim.  The  priests  were  more  concerned 
with  gain  than  with  purity  of  worship  ;  and 
the  prophetic  guilds  bad  also  become  cor- 
rupted by  the  general  idolatry  and  immor- 
ality. It  was  the  most  degraded  period  of 
both  these  orders. 

9.  Plead] 'argue, '  or 'contend.'  10.  Chittim] 
probably  Citium  in  Cyprus.  Kedar]  As 
Chittim  represented  the  parts  to  the  west- 
ward of  Palestine,  so  did  Kedar  (the  NW.  of 
Arabia)  those  to  the  east.  11.  None  of  the 
nations  have  forsaken  their  ancestral  worship, 
false  though  it  be.  Israel  has  forsaken  her 
ancient  religion,  though  true. 

13,  Grod's  blessing,  under  the  figure  of  fresh 
water  as  supplied  by  a  spring  or  rivulet,  is  con- 
trasted with  the  vanity  o^  serving  idols,  which 
is  as  devoid  of  profit  as  is  a  cracked  reservoir 
(dug  to  collect  rain  water)  for  that  which  it  is 
intended  to  supply. 

14-35,  Not  only  by  her  idolatry,  but  by  her 
quests  for  alliance,  now  with  Egypt  and  now 
with  Assyria,  has  Judah  shown  her  faithlessness. 
For  both  these  sins  she  will  be  punished. 

14.  Is  Israel,  etc.]  The  meaning  here  pro- 
bably is.  How  is  it  that  Israel,  the  people  of 
God,  has  become  a  slave  to  neighbouring  powers? 
V.  17  gives  the  answer.  15.  The  young  lions, 
etc.]  the  enemies  of  Israel.  16.  Noph]  pro- 
bably Memphis,  the  capital  of  northern  (lower) 
Egypt.     Tahapanes]   the  classic  Daphnae,  an 


Egyptian  fortress  on  the  E.  frontier  of  Lower 
Egypt.  It  is  again  mentioned  (43"-i0)  as  the 
future  scene  of  the  acknowledgment  of  Nebu- 
chadnezzar's supremacy  over  Egypt.  The  sense 
of  the  V.  is,  Egypt  is  God's  instrument  for 
punishing  Judah.  Have  broken]  RM  '  fed 
on,'  so  as  to  make  it  bald  ;  a  disgi-ace. 

18.  Egypt]  Some  of  Judah's  politicians 
desired  an  alliance  with  Egypt  ;  others  with 
Assyria,  or  rather  with  Babylonia,  Assyria's 
successor  in  the  command  of  the  East.  Sihor] 
here  the  Nile  ;  so  in  Isa233.  Assyria]  The 
Assyrian  power  had  passed  to  Babylonia,  but 
the  name  had  been  familiar  for  generations 
and  was  still  in  use  for  the  great  Eastern 
power.     The  river]   Euphrates. 

20.  See  Intro,  respecting  worship  in  '  high 
places,'  simultaneously  with  that  of  Jehovah, 
which  they  thought  a  lawful  combination.  I 
have  broken  .  .  a)id  burst,  etc.]  RM  '  thou  hast 
broken,'  etc.,  i.e.  thou  hast  cast  off  allegiance  to 
Me,  thy  Maker.     Transgress]   RV  '  serve.' 

When]  RV  '  for.'  Wanderest]  RV  '  didst 
bow  thyself,'  in  idolatry,  thus  dishonouring  thy 
rightful  spouse.  21.  A  noble  vine]  a'Sorek' 
vine,  the  word  probably  indicating  the  dark- 
purple  colour  of  the  fruit.  Strange  vine]  cp. 
Isa52>4.  22.  Nitre]  RV  '  lye,' i.e.  natron,  or 
carbonate  of  soda. 

23.  Baalim]  the  Heb.  plural  of  '  Baal '  :  cp. 
'cherubim,'  'seraphim.'  The  Baalim  were  the 
images  of  the  local  Baals  under  the  form  of  a 
bull  at  the  various  shrines.  The  valley]  Most 
likely  Hinnom  (S.  of  Jerusalem),  which  was 
defiled  by  Josiah  in  order  that  the  impure  rites 
(viz.  the  worship  of  Moloch  =  Baal)  here  re- 
ferred to  might  cease.  Traversing]  running 
quickly  hither  and  thither  in  the  eagerness  of 
her  passion.  Vv.  23-25  are  figurative  of  Israel's 
shameless  love  of  idolatry.  24.  At  her  pleasure] 
RV  'in  her  desire.'  25.  Withhold,  etc.]  pursue 
not  thy  reckless  wanton  quest  with  parched 
throat  and  worn-out  sandal. 

30.  Your  prophets]  Such  as  Isaiah  (said  to 
have  been  sawn  asunder)  and  Zechariah  son  of 
Jehoiada  (2  Ch  24  20),  and  those  whom  Jezebel 
(IK  18 13)  or  Manasseh  (2K21i<5)  slew:  cp. 
Mt 23 29-39.  31.  A  wilderness]  i.e.  fruitless, 
useless.  We  are  lords]  RV  'we  are  broken 
loose  ' ;  we  are  our  own  masters.  33.  Why  art 
thou  so  careful  in  thy  devotion  to  strange  gods  ? 
In  so  doing  thou  hast  made  wicked  ways  to  be 
a  second  nature  to  thee  (or,  thou  hast  taught 
the  wicked  women  thy  ways). 

34.   Poor  innocents]  RV  '  the  innocent  poor.' 

By  secret  search]  RV  'at  the  place  of  break- 
ing in.'  The  allusion  is  to  the  law  (Ex  22  2) 
by  which  it  was  permissible  to  slay  a  thief 
caught  in  the  act  of  breaking  into  a  house. 
But  those  '  innocent  poor '  had  committed  no 
such  crime,  yet  their  blood  had  been  wantonly 
shed  :  cp.  the  cruelties  of  Manasseh  2  K  2116. 


459 


2.35 


JEREMIAH 


4.  10 


Upon  all  these]  EM  '  upon  every  oak,'  or, 
perhaps,  '  because  of  this,'  i.e.  your  lust  for 
idolatry. 

35.  Plead]   RV  '  enter  into  judgement.' 

36.  Ashamed  of  Egypt]  literally  fulfilled 
when  the  Egyptians  in  the  reign  of  Zedekiah 
were  expected  to  raise  the  siege  of  Jerusalem, 
but  failed  to  do  so  :  cp.  37  s.  Ashamed  of 
Assyria]  A  conspicuous  instance  was  in  the 
reign  of  Ahaz  (2Ch282i).  37.  Thine  hands 
upon  thine  head]   clasped  in  disgrace. 

C.  3.  I.  That  land]  an  allusion  to  the  law 
(Dt24i-'i)  that  under  such  circumstances  the 
reunion  of  husband  and  wife  would  pollute  the 
land.  Yet  return  again,  etc.]  RM  'and  thinh- 
est  thou  to  return  again.' 

2.  The  Arabian]  the  Bedouin  freebooters. 
As  they  are  eager  to  despoil  a  passing  cara- 
van, so  is  Israel  eager  for  the  worship  of  false 
gods.  5.  Behold,  thou  hast  spoken,  etc.]  EM 
'  Thou  hast  spoken  fh  nx,  but  hast  done  evil 
things.'  As  thou  couldest]  EY  '  and  hast  had 
thy  way.' 

CHAPTEES   36-44 

Jeremiah's  Third  Prophecy.     The  Fate 

OF  THE  Ten  Tribes  a  warning  to  Jxjdah 

In  this  prophecy,  as  in  the  last,  idolatry  is 
denounced  under  the  figure  of  unfaithfulness 
to  the  marriage  vow.  But  as  a  marked  dis- 
tinction, God  here  invites  to  repentance,  and 
on  this  there  hinges  pardon. 

6-20.  Israel  and  Judah  have  both  forsaken 
their  Divine  Spouse,  but  forgiveness  will  follow 
repentance. 

7-1 1.  Samaria,  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of 
the  Ten  Tribes,  after  a  stubborn  resistance  had 
been  captured  by  Sargon,  king  of  Assyria,  722 
B.C.,  and  more  than  27,000  of  its  inhabitants  de- 
ported. The  isolation  and  comparative  poverty 
of  Judah  helped  her  to  survive  her  northern 
sister  for  well  over  a  hundred  years.  But 
failure  to  take  advantage  of  the  warning  thus 
afforded  her  brought  its  inevitable  results. 
Moreover,  in  spite  of  greater  privileges,  she 
had  added  to  apostasy  treachery,  by  hypo- 
critically feigning  still  to  pay  homage  to  Je- 
hovah under  cover  of  idolatrous  rites.  She 
had  rejected  Josiah's  reforms,  and  this  rejection 
sealed  her  fate.  '  It  is  not  by  the  act  of  its 
government  that  a  nation  stands  or  falls  ;  Ahaz 
and  Manasseh  lent  the  weight  of  their  influence 
to  the  cause  of  idolatry  ;  Hezekiah  and  Josiah 
to  the  cause  of  truth  :  but  the  nation  had  to 
determine  which  should  prevail '  (Speaker's 
Commentary). 

8.  I  saw]  some  read,  '  she  saw.'     Bill  of  di- 
vorce] i.e.  exile. 

11.  Justified  herself  more]   for  Judah  had 
even  more  warning  than  Israel. 

12.  Toward    the    north]  to    Assyria,    the 
place  of  Israel's  captivity. 


14.  One  of.  .  two  of,  etc.]  A  'city'  might 
be  a  mere  village.  A  '  family,'  i.e.  descendants 
of  a  common  ancestor,  suggested  a  larger 
number.  There  were,  e.g.,  only  four  or  five 
families  in  the  whole  tribe  of  Judah.  The 
reference  here  is  to  the  return  from  the  exile 
to  Palestine. 

16.  The  blessings  of  repentance  and  obedi- 
ence. Even  the  ark  with  the  mercy  seat  on 
which  the  brightness  which  marked  Jehovah's 
presence  rested  shall  be  forgotten,  for  Jehovah 
shall  no  longer  be  confined  to  one  place  or  one  ' 
people.  All  nations  shall  serve  Him  ;  His  do- 
minion centred  in  Jerusalem  shall  extend  to 
the  ends  of  the  earth.  17.  Imagination]  EV 
'  stubbornness.'  19.  The  Lord  tells  of  His 
affection  for  Israel.  But]  rather, 'and.'  How] 
i.e.  In  what  honourable  position  ?  The  child- 
ren] the  nations  of  the  earth,  all  of  them  God's 
children,  as  created  by  Him. 

22-25.  An  acceptable  prayer  of  repentance. 

23.  The  multitude  of  mountains]  EV  '  the 
tumult '  (EM  '  the  noisy  throng ')  '  on  the 
mountains '  :  the  orgies  and  clamorous  suppli- 
cations of  idolatrous  crowds  at  the  high  places. 

24.  Shame]  EY  '  the  shameful  thing,'  i.e. 
the  god  Baal  :  cp.  11 13.  Hath  devoured]  hath 
consumed  in  the  form  of  sacrifices  the  fruits 
of  our  toil. 

C.   4.      1-4.   The  assurance  of  forgiveness. 
I.  Then    shalt,    etc.]     EM    'and   wilt  not 
wander.' 

3.  Break  up,  etc.]  As  the  farmer  is  care- 
ful to  clear  the  soil  of  weeds  before  sowing 
his  seed,  so  with  Israel.  The  sowing  of 
repentance  must  be  serious  and  real. 

4.  Circumcise]  Circumcision  was  a  dedi- 
cation of  self  to  God's  service,  and  a  removal 
of  imperfections. 

CHAPTEES  45-630 
Jeremiah's  Fourth  Prophecy   (or  group 
OF  prophecies).    God's  Judgment  upon 
the  Unrepentant 
When  the  check   which    Josiah's  personal 
character  and  influence  put  upon  idolatry  was 
removed,  Jeremiah  foresaw  that  the  condition 
of  the  nation  would   become  well-nigh  des- 
perate. 

CHAPTEE  45-31 

5-10.  Destruction  approaches  Jerusalem. 

6.  Set  up  the  standard]  to  mark  out  the 
safest  route  to  those  who  were  seeking  the 
shelter  of  the  walls  of  Jerusalem.  Evil  from 
the  north]  The  enemy  (see  v.  13)  used  chariots, 
and  were  therefore  probably  the  Chaldeans, 
not  (as  some  have  supposed)  Scythians.  7.  The 
lion]  i.e.  the  enemy.  Of  the  Gentiles]  EY  '  of 
nations.' 

10.  Jeremiah  here  struggles  against  the  fate 
announced   for    the    nation.      After    oil    its 


460 


4.  11 


JEREMIAH 


6.9 


glorious  history  and  the  many  promises  of 
coming  glory  that  prophets  like  Isaiah  had 
made  to  it,  was  this  to  be  the  end  ?  The 
prophet  was  '  in  a  strait  betwixt  two,'  sorrow- 
ing for  the  doom  of  the  nation  and  anxious  to 
avert  it,  and  yet  desirous  to  vindicate  Jeho- 
vah's ways  to  them.  Hence  this  exceeding 
bitter  cry.  Some,  however,  regard  the  v.  as  a 
reference  to  the  mischief  done  by  the  false 
prophets,  who  had  promised  peace  in  the  name 
of  the  Lord. 

11-18.  Description  of  the  attack. 

II.  A  dry  wind]  the  Chaldean  army  coming 
like  a  sirocco  from  the  E.  15.  Dan  was  on 
the  northern  border  of  Palestine.  Mount 
Ephraim  was  the  range  immediately  N.  of 
Judah,  only  about  10  m.  from  Jerusalem  it- 
self.    Thus  the  enemy's  approach  is  rapid. 

16.  The  nations  summoned  to  witness  the 
vengeance  on  the  chosen  people.  The  watchers 
are  the  Chaldean  besiegers.  17.  The  besiegers' 
tents  compared  to  the  booths  of  shepherds  or 
husbandmen. 

19-31.  The  prophet  expresses  horror  at  the 
approaching  calamity. 

19.  My  bowels]  supposed  to  be  the  seat  of 
emotions.  21.  See  v.  6.  22.  God's  answer 
to  the  implied  appeal  to  know  why  the  in- 
vasion was  permitted.  It  is  not  without  cause, 
for,  etc.     24.   Lightly]  RV  '  to  and  fro.' 

27.  Yet  will  I  not  make  a  full  end]  The  de- 
struction will  not  be  complete  :  a  remnant 
shall  return  :  cp.  AmO^.  30.  And  vJien  thou 
art  spoiled]  better, '  and  thou,  spoiled  one,'  i.e. 
Jerusalem.  Rentest  thy  face  with  paint- 
ing] RV  '  enlargest  thine  eyes  with  paint.' 
The  Eastern  custom  was  to  paint  black  the 
border  of  the  eyes,  so  as  to  give  the  effect  of 
size  and  brilliancy.     So  Jezebel  in  2K920. 

CHAPTER  5 

1-9,  The  universal  corruption  of  the  city 
prevents  forgiveness. 

2.  Though  they  say,  The  LORD  liveth]  i.e. 
though  they  take  the  most  solemn  form  of  oath, 
as  opposed  to  those  held  by  the  Jews  to  be 
of  less  obligation  :  cp.  Mt  5  ^-i.  35.  3.  The  truth] 
RM  '  faithfulness.'  It  is  this  that  God  looks 
for.  4.  These  are  poor,  etc.]  i.e.  the  ignorant 
ones  who  know  no  better.  5.  Yoke  .  .  bonds] 
i.e.  restraints  of  God's  law.  6.  Lion]  i.e.  the 
invader:  cp.  4'^.     Evenings]  RM  'deserts.' 

7,  8.  All  idolatry  was  unfaithfulness  to  God, 
to  whom  Israel  was  espoused,  but  gross  licen- 
tiousness was  literally  the  common  accompani- 
ment of  the  worship  of  the  reproductive 
powers  of  nature,  such  as  was  practised  by  the 
Canaanites. 

8.  In  the  morning]  RM  '  roaming  at  large.' 
10-31.  In  spite  of  fancied  security  desola- 
tion is  at  hand  in  requital  for  rebellion  and 
faithlessness. 


10.  Jerusalem  is  likened  to  a  walled-in  vine- 
yard, and  the  Chaldean  host  is  bidden  to  batter 
and  trample  it.  Yet  the  overthrow  shall  not 
be  complete,  for  Israel  is,  after  all,  a  chosen 
nation.  Battlements]  RV  '  branches,'  so  as  to 
keep  up  the  figure  of  the  vine.  Though  the 
tendrils  be  cut  away  yet  the  stock  shall  be  left. 

12.  It  is  not  he]  It  is  not  God  who  sends 
these  messages  of  woe.  13.  The  prophets, 
etc.]  These  are  still  the  words  of  the  scoffing 
Jews.  15.  A  nation]  the  Assyrian.  16.  Zs  as 
an  open  sepulchre]  for  it  is  filled  with  missiles 
dealing  death. 

19.  Note  the  distinct  prophecy  of  the  cap- 
tivity of  Judah.  24.  Jeremiah  reminds  them 
of  the  providence  of  God,  who  sends  the 
winter  and  spring  rains,  so  needful  for  the 
crops,  and  maintains  a  dry  season  between 
Passover  and  Pentecost  for  harvesting. 

25-28.  A  strong  testimony  to  the  deception, 
avarice,  and  oppression  of  the  time.  28.  Yet 
they  prosper]  RV  '  that  they '  (the  orphans) 
'  should  prosper.' 

31.  Prophets,  priests,  and  people  alike  con- 
nived at  and  took  part  in  these  crimes.  By 
their  means]  RM  'at  their  hands.'  Formerly 
the  prophetic  guilds  had  borne  witness  for 
righteousness  and  withstood  the  priests  :  now 
they  are  become  false  prophets,  abetting  the 
priests  in  their  idolatry  and  wickedness. 

CHAPTER  6 

1-8.  The  hostile  army  approaches. 

I.  Benjamin]  Jerusalem  was  within  the 
territory  assigned  to  this  tribe.  Tekoa]  11m. 
S.  of  Jerusalem,  and  in  the  line  of  flight  for 
its  inhabitants  seeking  to  escape  an  enemy 
from  the  N.  A  sign  of  fire]  a  warning 
signal.  Beth-haccerem]  probably  a  hill  be- 
tween Jerusalem  and  Tekoa,  and  thus  suitable 
for  a  beacon  station.  2.  RV  '  The  comely 
and  delicate  one,  the  daughter  of  Zion  will  I 
cut  off,'  a  tenderly  worded  lament  over  the 
ill-fated  city.  Daughter]  is  used  for  the 
inhabitants  collectively.  3.  A  figure  of  the 
devastating  enemy.  Flocks  eating  the  herbage 
on  every  side  are  a  figure  to  express  devasta- 
tion. 

4,  5.  The  invaders  propose  a  determined 
and  continuous  attack.  4.  Prepare]  RM 
'  Heb.  sanctify.'  Entering  on  a  war  was 
accompanied  by  religious  ceremonies  :  cp. 
Dt  20-*.  6.  Hew  ye  down  trees]  to  clear 
the  approaches  to  the  city.  Cast  a  mount] 
earth  was  carried  in  baskets  and  poured  in  a 
heap  until  it  was  on  a  level  with  the  walls  : 
cp.  this  method  of  assault  in  2  K  19^2  Isa293. 

To  be  visited]  with  punishment.  7.  Grief] 
RV  '  sickness.' 

9-21.  Retribution  awaiting  the  guilty  people. 

9.  Into  the  baskets]  RM  '  upon  the  shoots.' 
As   the    gi-ape-gatherer   goes   back   over   the 


461 


6.  10 


JEREMIAH 


tendrils,  lest  he  should  have  missed  any  of  the 
fruit,  so  the  people  shall  be  subject  to  suc- 
cessive gleanings  at  the  hand  of  their  con- 
querors, who  are  here  addressed.  lo.  Uncir- 
cumcised]  in  the  sense  of  '  imperfect '  :  cp. 
Ex6i-.      II.   Abroad]  RV  '  in  the  street.' 

14.  They]  the  leaders,  prophets,  and  priests. 

The  hurt]  the  sins  and  shortcomings.  They 
are  like  physicians  who  for  their  own  ease 
assure  their  patients  that  all  is  well. 

16.  God's  appeal.  '  A  national  calamity  is 
at  hand.  As  prudent  men  ye  will  desire  to 
avoid  it.  Make  enquiries  what  paths  led  your 
ancestors  to  prosperity.  Were  they  those  of 
idolatry  or  of  true  religion  and  purity  ?  ' 

17.  Watchmen]  the  prophets  sounding  the 
alarm.  The  trumpet]  warning  of  approaching 
danger.  18.  What  /s-  among  them]  i.e.  what 
is  the  punishment  impending  over  Judah. 

20.  Sheba]  in  the  S.  of  Arabia.  The 
general  sense  of  the  v.  is,  '  To  obey  is  better 
than  sacrifice'  (IS  1522).  Cane]  i.e.  calamus, 
a  sweet-scented  reed,  used  in  making  the 
anointing  oil.  21.  Stumblingblocks,  etc.]  the 
enemy's  invasion,  which  would,  as  it  were,  trip 
them  up  in  their  easy-going  ways. 

22-24.  T^^^  approaching  invader.  These 
vv.  are  repeated  with  necessary  changes  in 
5041-43^  where  Babylon  is  the  object  of  the 
threat. 

22.  The  sides  of  the  earth]  an  expression 
for  the  far  distance. 

23.  The  Assyrian  monuments  show  us  rows 
of  impaled  victims  hanging  round  the  walls  of 
besieged  towns,  also  men  collecting  in  heaps 
hands  cut  off  from  the  vanquished  enemy. 

25.  Fear  /.s  on  every  side]  a  favourite 
expression  with  Jeremiah  (203™s.io  455  4929). 

27-30.  The  nation  incapable  of  reform. 
Jehovah  reassures  Jeremiah  of  his  divine 
commission.  The  prophet  appears  under  the 
figure  of  one  testing  metal  by  smelting.  The 
result  of  the  process  is  that  no  precious  metal 
is  found.     All  is  dross. 

27.  A  tower]  RM  '  trier,'  or  tester.  A  for- 
tress] He  shall  have  God's  protection  in  his 
task.  28.  They  are  brass  and  iron]  They 
have  none  of  the  precious  metal  in  them. 

29.  All  the  prophet's  fervour  is  without 
effect.  Nothing  of  value  rewards  the  long 
assay.     Are  burned]   RV  '  blow  fiercely.' 

Plucked  away]  i.e.  eliminated  from  the  good. 

30.  Reprobate]  RV  '  refuse.' 

CHAPTERS  71-1025 
Jeremi.\h's  Fifth  Prophecy  (or  group  of 

prophecies).     Address  at  the  Temple 

Gate  (Reign  of   Josiah  or  beginning   of 

that  of  Jehoiakim) 

The  prophet  takes  advantage  of  a  solemn 

gathering  of  the  people  at  Jerusalem  to  stand 

at  one  of  the  Temple  gates  as  they  pass  in. 


7.22! 
;titious      I 


and  warns  them  against  their  superstitious 
confidence  that  the  possession  of  the  Temple 
was  itself  a  charm  against  danger  fi'om  with- 
out. As  immorality  had  already  brought 
about  the  overthrow  of  an  older  sanctuary 
(Shiloh)  as  well  as  of  the  Ten  Tribes,  so  shall 
it  be  with  them.  Punishment  for  the  wicked- 
ness of  leaders  and  people  can  only  be  averted 
by  a  speedy  amendment  of  life. 

It  is  possible  that  these  chapters  may  be  an 
expanded  account  of  the  prophecy  closely 
resembling  them,  which  is  recorded  in  c.  26  as 
spoken  at  the  commencement  of  Jehoiakim's 
reign.  But  it  is  more  likely  that  the  two 
occasions  are  distinct. 

CHAPTER  7 

1-20.  Ceremonies  and  sacred  places  shall  be 
no  defence. 

4.  God,  said  the  false  prophets,  will  never 
allow  His  Temple  to  be  overthrown  :  cp.  Mic  3  ^i. 

The  temple,  etc.]  The  threefold  repetition 
suggests  '  the  energy  of  iteration  that  only 
belongs  to  Eastern  fanatics '  (Stanley,  '  Jewish 
Church,'  ii,  438). 

5-7.  Their  tenure  of  the  Temple  is  condi- 
tional on  obedience  to  the  covenant  made  by 
God  with  their  fathers.  10.  We  are  delivered] 
By  the  discharge  of  this  formality  we  are  set 
free  for  a  return  to  wickedness.  11.  Den  of 
robbers]  a  place  of  retreat  in  the  intervals 
between  acts  of  violence:  see  Mt21i3  and 
parallel  passages. 

12.  Shiloh]  a  town  of  Ephraim,  in  a  central 
position,  chosen  by  Joshua  as  the  resting-place 
of  the  ark  and  for  the  Tabernacle.  It  was  a 
considerable  place  in  the  time  of  the  Judges 
( Jg  2119'  21)  Its  fall  into  idolatry  was  followed 
by  loss  of  the  ark  (1  S4)  and  subsequent  cap- 
tm-e  and  cruel  treatment  (Ps  78^8  f-).  Thence- 
forward it  became  insignificant,  so  that  Jero- 
boam, when  setting  up  calves  for  his  rival 
worship,  passed  it  by.  15.  Ephraim]  meaning, 
as  often  (e.g.  Isa  7  2),  the  ten  northern  tribes  in 
captivity  for  nearly  a  century. 

16.  So  in  14'^,  when  Jeremiah  does  intercede 
for  them,  the  prayer  is  rejected.  18.  Queen  of 
heaven]  identified  either  with  the  moon  or  with 
the  Assyrian  Ishtar,  the  planet  Venus.  The 
Jewish  women  were  specially  given  to  that 
worship,  offering  incense  and  cakes  stamped 
with  a  representation  of  the  goddess  :  cp.  44 1^. 

19.  Do  they  provoke  me]  Then-  sin  does  not 
provoke  God  to  a  mere  helpless  anger,  but  to  a 
wrath  that  is  quick  to  punish  and  destroy  them. 

21-28.  The  moral  law  has  always  taken 
precedence  of  the  ceremonial. 

21.  Put  your  burnt  offerings,  etc.]  Multiply 
your  victims  ad  Ubitum.   It  will  avail  you  nought. 

22,  23.  This  need  not  be  more  than  a  forcible 
oratorical  expression,  not  meaning  that  no  cere- 
monial laws  were  given  to  Israel  when  brought 


462 


7.  24 


JEREMIAH 


9.  17 


out  of  Egypt,  but  that  in  the  promulgation  of 
the  Ten  Commandments  on  Sinai  there  was  no 
direction  concerning  sacrifice.  These  were  the 
only  precepts  which  had  the  honour  of  being 
treasured  up  in  the  ark.  Thus  from  the  fii:st 
they  were  shown  to  hold  the  chief  place  :  cp. 
Isa  1  ii-i'i.  '  The  law  of  obedience  was  the 
earliest  law  of  all  (Gn2i6f.),  and  the  most  im- 
portant ;  that  of  sacrifice  was  of  secondary  im- 
portance '  (Deane).  24.  Imagination]  see  on 
3^'''.  27.  Jeremiah  need  not  therefore  expect 
that  his  words  will  be  heeded. 

29-34.  Where  they  sinned  there  shall  they 
be  punished. 

29.  Cut  off  thine  hair]  in  token  of  mourning, 
or  as  a  Nazirite  shaved  his  head  after  immediate 
contact  with  a  dead  body  (Nu  6  9)  to  mark  defile- 
ment. The  hair  was  the  mark  of  consecration 
of  the  High  Priest  (Ex  29  6)  and  of  the  Nazirite 
(Nu  6  5).  Here  it  is  the  mark  of  Jerusalem  as 
chief  city  of  a  consecrated  people. 

31.  Valley  of  Hinnom]  on  the  W.  and  S.  sides 
of  the  city,  Tophet  being  near  the  E.  extremity 
of  the  S.  reach.  The  valley  had  an  evil  name, 
(a)  as  the  place  of  human  sacrifices  ;  (b)  as  de- 
filed by  Josiah  ;  (c)  as  the  receptacle  of  the  oflEal 
and  filth  of  the  city.  Hence  it  afterwards  became 
with  the  Jewish  Rabbis  the  visible  emblem  of 
the  place  of  future  punishment,  Gehenna :  cp. 
Mt522.  To  burn,  etc.]  in  honour  of  Moloch, 
often  identified  with  Baal,  the  sun-god  (see  on 
Gn22  2K163).  32.  Till  there  be  no  place] 
rather,  '  for  want  of  room '  (elsewhere).  The 
carnage  of  war  shall  extend  far  beyond  the 
valley. 

Some  think  that  the  immediate  result  of  this 
discourse  was  the  trial  of  the  prophet,  as  recorded 
in  26'i'-2'i,  when  the  mob  rose  against  him  and  he 
was  saved  with  difficulty. 

CHAPTER  8 

1-3.  The  dead  shall  share  in  the  universal 
punishment. 

I.  Shall  bring  out  the  bones]  either  from  pure 
wantonness,  or  in  the  hope  of  finding  treasure 
or  ornaments  of  value.  2.  Before  the  sun]  the 
heavenly  bodies  will  not  be  prevented  by  all  the 
offerings  and  devotions  that  they  have  received 
from  using  their  influence  fo  hasten  the  rotting 
of  the  carcases  of  their  sometime  worshippers. 

3.  Family]   the  whole  nation  :  see  on  S^^. 
4-17.   The  people  are  hardened  in  sin. 

4.  They]  RV  '  men.'  If  a  man  stumble, 
he  will  naturally  regain  his  footing  :  if  he 
lose  his  way  he  will  return  to  it.  Not  so 
with  this  people.  6.  As  the  horse,  etc.] 
meaning,  an  eager  plunge  into  wrongdoing. 

7.  The  turtle  and  the  crane  and  the  swallow] 
rather,  '  The  turtle  dove  and  the  swift  and  the 
crane  '  :  cp.  Isa  1 3. 

8.  Lo,  certainly  in  vain  .  .  in  vain]  R  V  '  But, 
behold,    the    false    pen    of    the    scribes  hath 


wrought  falsely,'  i.e.  they  have  used  their 
knowledge  of  the  Law  to  deceive  others, 
persuading  them  that  they  may  transgress 
with  impunity.  The  scribes  (frequently  men- 
tioned in  NT.)  were  a  class  of  persons 
who  devoted  themselves  to  the  study  and 
exposition  of  the  Law.  That  they  were  a 
leading  class  as  early  as  the  time  of  Josiah 
(and  Jeremiah's  whole  argument  depends  on 
this  fact)  is  a  strong  argument  in  favour  of  the 
belief  that  the  Book  of  the  Law  even  at  that 
time  had  well-grounded  claims  to  antiquity. 

10.  Shall  inherit  theiii]  shall  take  possession 
of  them.  The  idea  is  forcible  seizure  by  the 
invader.  11.  See  on  G^*^.  13.  And  the  things 
.  .  from  them]  RM  '  I  have  appointed  them 
those  that  shall  pass  over  them '  :  viz.  the 
Assyi-ians  invading  them  as  a  flood. 

14  f.  The  people  address  one  another,  while 
suffering   under  the  troubles  thus   described. 

Enter  into  the  defenced  cities]  i.e.  out  of 
villages  for  protection.  Water  of  gall]  bitter- 
ness is  our  portion.  16.  His  horses]  i.e.  those 
of  the  Babylonian  invader.  Strong  ones]  war- 
horses.  So  in  473  5011.  17.  Cockatrices]  RV 
'  basilisks,'  RM  '  adders '  :  Jeremiah  may  have 
chosen  the  word  because  of  its  resemblance  in 
sound  in  the  Hebrew  to  the  word  northern^  the 
invaders  coming  from  that  quarter.  Charmed] 
so  as  to  be  harmless. 

18-22.  Jeremiah  speaks.  18.  When  I 
would]  RY  '  O  that  I  could.'  19  f.  Jeremiah 
is  in  thought  anticipating  the  captivity  and 
the  distressful  cries  of  the  exiles  in  the  direction 
of  their  home.  20.  "When  the  harvest  was 
bad  there  was  still  hope  of  the  yield  from 
grapes,  etc.  But  the  people  had  lost  one 
chance  of  deliverance  after  another,  and 
might  now  despair.  Summer]  RIM  '  ingather- 
ing of  summer  fi'uits.'  21.  Black]  RM 
'  mourning.'  22.  '  Is  there  no  way  of  saving 
this  people  ? '  Gilead  was  a  mountainous 
part  of  Palestine  E.  of  the  Jordan.  Balm 
(balsam)  was  found  there,  and  naturally  in  the 
same  place  would  be  found  those  skilled  in 
its  use. 

CHAPTER   9 

1-22.  The  prophet  continues  his  lament. 
The  impending  doom. 

2.  A  lodging  place,  etc.]  a  caravanserai 
(khan),  supplying  a  bare  shelter,  even  the 
most  desolate  spot,  if  he  may  thereby  escape 
the  crimes  of  Jerusalem. 

7.  Melt .  .  try]  i.e.  remove  the  dross,  and 
test  whether  the  metal  is  now  pure.  8.  Kis 
wait]  RV  '  wait  for  him.'  10.  Habitations] 
RV  '  pastures.'  11.  Dragons]  RV  '  jackals  '  ; 
so  in  4933.  12.  For  what,  etc.]  rather  (with 
RV),  a  new  question,  '  Wherefore  is  ?  '  etc. 
Why  this  heavy  chastisement  ? 

17.   Mourning   women]    professionals,    who 


463 


9.  23 


JEREMIAH 


11.  10 


with  dishevelled  locks  and  bared  breasts  led 
the  loud  weeping.     Cunning]  skilful. 

23,  24.  The  people  have  been  trusting  in 
worldly  wisdom,  power,  and  riches  ;  but  the 
only  sure  trust  is  in  knowing  the  will  of  God, 
who  Himself  acts  righteously,  and  desires  that 
men  should  do  the  same. 

25.  Them  ivhkh  are  circumcised  with  the 
uncircumcised]  RV  '  Them  which  are  circum- 
cised in  their  uncircumcision.'  They  are 
circumcised  in  the  flesh,  but  uncircumcised  in 
spirit  :  cp.  DtlQie  Ro228,29.  Judah  is  be- 
come as  the  other  nations  which  observe  the 
outward  rite,  but  have  not  the  spirit  of  which 
it  is  the  symbol.  26.  That  are  in  the  utmost 
corners]  RV  '  that  have  the  corners  of  their 
hair  polled':  cp.  Lvl927.  The  reference 
is  to  the  tribes  of  Kedar  :    see  4928,32_ 

CHAPTER  10 

I- 1 6.  The  folly  of  idolatry. 

This  section  of  the  prophecy  is  of  doubtful 
authorship.  For  (a)  it  introduces  a  break  in 
the  sense  ;  (6)  there  is  less  smoothness  between 
the  parts  than  we  generally  find  in  Jeremiah's 
writings  ;  (c)  its  language  differs  considerably 
from  his  use  elsewhere,  and  closely  resembles 
that  of  Isaiah  40-44  ;  {(I)  the  writer  empha- 
sises the  fact  that  false  gods  are  incapable  of 
hurting,  while  Jeremiah  elsewhere  speaks 
rather  of  them  as  powerless  to  aid  ;  (e)  vv. 
2,  4  read  as  though  addressed  to  men  who 
were  contemplating  the  idolatry  around  them, 
rather  than  guilty  of  it  themselves.  For 
these  reasons  it  is  held  by  some  to  be  a  dis- 
course addressed  by  an  unknown  author  during 
the  captivity  to  the  exiles  at  Babylon  :  cp. 
the  spurious  letter  ascribed  to  Jeremiah,  which 
forms  c.  6  of  the  (apocryphal)  book  of 
Baruch. 

It  should,  however,  be  said,  on  the  other 
hand,  that  the  Septuagint  version  of  this 
book,  though  omitting  much  that  is  found 
in  the  Hebrew  (see  Intro.),  yet  contains  this 
chapter. 

2.  Signs  of  heaven]  portents  in  the  sky,  such 
as  comets  and  meteors.     3.   People]  nations. 

5.  Upright  as  the  palm  tree]  RV  '  like  a 
palm  tree,  of  turned  work.'  These  idols  are 
as  stiff  and  lifeless.  7.  To  thee  doth  it  apper- 
tain] Thine  is  the  supreme  kingship.  8.  The 
stock,  etc.]  RV  '  the  instruction  of  idols,  it  is 
but  a  stock '  :  an  idol  is  wood,  and  can  never 
get  beyond  it.  9.  Tarshish]  probably  Tar- 
tessus  in  Spain,  or  perliaps  Tarsus  in  Cilicia. 

Uphaz]  perhaps  the  same  as  Ophir,  which 
was  probably  either  in  India  or  on  the  E. 
coast  of  Ai-abia,  Founder]  RV  '  goldsmith'  : 
so  in  V.  14. 

II,  This  V.  is  in  the  later  Hebrew  or 
Aramaic.  It  may  therefore  have  been  origin- 
ally a  note  on  the  margin  of  the  manuscript, 


afterwards  copied  into  the  text.  13.  The 
ascent  of  the  vapours  in  clouds  is  spoken  of 
poetically,  as  though  it  were  the  consequence 
of  the  thunder  (his  voice),  because  it  is  seen  to 
follow  it.  14.  In  7i/.s  knowledge]  RV  '  and  is 
without  knowledge.'  16.  The  portion  of 
Jacob]  i.e.  the  true  God,  upon  whom  Israel  has 
a  claim.  Former]  Maker,  Fashioner.  The  rod] 
RV  '  tribe.'  17-25.  The  coming  troubles. 
This  section  seems  to  be  closely  connected 
with,  and  should  probably  be  read  after,  9  '^-"'^. 
17.  Gather  up,  etc.]  i.e.  collect  articles  for 
a  hasty  flight,  0  thou  who  art  in  a  besieged 
city  '  ;  i.e.  prepare  for  exile.  18.  Find  it  .so] 
RV 'feel /<'.     ipf.  The  lament  of  Jerusalem. 

20.  The  spoiling  and  exile  represented  in 
figurative  language.     Tabernacle]  RV  '  tent.' 

21.  The  condemnation  of  the  rulers. 

22.  The  bruit]  RV  '  a  rumour.'  The  north 
country]  see  on  lis.      Dragons]  see  on  9^^. 

23.  Jeremiah's  prayer  :  the  helplessness  of 
man,  and  his  dependence  on  God. 

CHAPTERS  11,  12 

Jeremiah's    Sixth     Prophecy    (Reign   of 
Josiah).     The    Broken    Covenant   en- 
tails A  Curse 
These    chs.    form   a   connected    prophecy. 
They  probably  belong  to  Josiah's  time,  for 
(a)  'the  words  of  this  covenant'  (11^)  seem  to 
refer  to  the  reading  of  the  newly  discovered 
law  mentioned  in  2K233  ;  (b)  Jeremiah  has 
not  yet  removed  from  Anathoth  to  Jerusalem 
(11-1),  and  (c)  the  apparent  allusion  (12*)  to 
a  drought    accords  with  similar  references  in 
prophecies  belonging  to  Josiah's  reign  (3^  5^1). 

CHAPTER  11 

1-14.   Punishment  must  follow  faithlessness. 

3.  Cursed,  etc.]  cp.  the  language  of  the 
warnings  in  Deuteronomy  (2715-26)^  ^  book 
with  which  this  passage  has  other  features  in 
common.  4.  The  iron  furnace]  the  brick- 
kilns of  the  bondage  in  Egypt  (Ex  1 14)  may 
have  given  rise  to  the  figure  as  expressive  of 
affliction.  6.  The  cities  of  Judah]  Jeremiah 
may  have  accompanied  Josiah  in  the  journey 
which  he  made  to  Bethel  and  to  the  cities  of 
Samaria  for  the  overthrow  of  idolatry  (2K 
2315, 19)_  j^  Rising  early]  a  frequent  phrase 
with  Jeremiah  to  denote  earnestness,  but  not 
occurring  in  that  sense  elsewhere.  8.  Imagin- 
ation] RV  '  stubbornness.' 

9.  A  conspiracy]  The  words  seem  to  point 
to  an  actual  secret  combination  against  Josiah 
on  account  of  his  reforms.  10.  The  iniquities 
of  their  forefathers]  referring  to  the  idolatry 
in  the  wilderness  days.  They  went  after] 
RV  '  they  are  gone  after,'  viz.  the  Jews  of 
the  prophet's  own  day.  The  reformation  had 
not  taken  hold  of  the  hearts  of  the  people, 
they  had  returned  to  their  heathenism. 


464 


11.  13 


JEREMIAH 


13.  16 


13.  The  worship  of  Baal  was  practised 
secretly  or  openly  in  all  parts  of  the  country 
and  city.     Shameful  thing]  i.e.  Baal. 

15-20.   The  people  resent  rebuke. 

15.  Faithless  Judah's  presence  in  the  Tem- 
ple is  only  an  intrusion.  And  the  holy  flesh  is 
passed  from  thee]  better,  perhaps,  '  shall  vows 
and  holy  flesh  (i.e.  sacrifices)  take  away  thy 
wickedness  ? ' 

16.  The  fair  promise  and  the  punishment 
which  apostasy  brought  about. 

18.  The  prophet  passes  from  the  general  to 
the  particular,  and  charges  his  fellow-townsmen 
of  Anathoth  with  conspiring  to  silence  and  even 
to  kill  him.  The  Lord  had  shown  him  their 
intentions. 

19.  Like  a  lamb  or  an  ox]  RV  '  like  a  gentle 
lamb.'  The  tree  with  the  fruit  thereof]  ap- 
parently a  proverb.  Not  only  is  the  tree  to 
perish  but  there  is  to  be  no  chance  of  repro- 
duction by  the  sowing  of  its  seed. 

21-23.   Anathoth  shall  be  punished. 

23.  There  shall  be  no  remnant  of  them]  viz. 
of  the  actual  conspirators.  Among  those  who 
return  from  exile  are  mentioned  '  men  of 
Anathoth'  (Ezr223). 

CHAPTER    12 

1-4.  The  prosperity  of  the  wicked  per- 
plexes Jeremiah. 

I.  Wherefore,  etc.]  The  question  was  one 
which  much  exercised  men  of  pre-Christian 
times  who  had  no  clear  view  of  any  but  tem- 
poral rewards  and  punishments.  See  Pss  37, 
39,  49,  73,  and  Job  (specially  21 7f.).  The 
plots  of  his  fellow-townsmen  at  Anathoth 
(see  c.  11)  were  probably  the  occasion  of  this 
outburst  of  Jeremiah's.  2.  Near  in  their 
mouth,  etc.]  They  honour  God  with  their  lips 
but  their  heart  is  far  from  Him.  4.  A  drought 
has  been  sent  in  punishment.  He  shall  not 
see,  etc.]  Jeremiah's  denunciations  are  derided 
by  his  enemies. 

5,  6.  God's  answer  to  the  prophet's  appeal. 
By  two  proverbial  expressions  He  shows  him 
that  he  must  prepare  to  endure  worse  things 
than  any  he  has  yet  been  called  upon  to  face. 
He  has  been  in  danger  at  Anathoth,  but  greater 
dangers  await  him  at  Jerusalem.  Let  him 
therefore  be  strong  and  play  the  man. 

5.  Swelling]  RV  '  pride,'  referring  to  the 
luxuriant  vegetation  on  the  banks,  which 
formed  a  source  of  danger,  as  a  covert  for 
wild  beasts. 

7-13.  A  lament  over  the  desolate  land. 
Some  scholars  think  that  this  passage  belongs 
to  the  time  after  the  first  siege  and  capture  of 
Jerusalem,  where  Jehoiachin  was  led  into 
captivity. 

8.  The  V.  indicates  the  hostile  attitude  of 
the  people  to  God.  9.  The  figures  to  repre- 
sent the  coming  desolation  are,  first,  that  of 


binis  assembling  round  one  of  their  own  kind 
and  maltreating  it,  because  its  plumage  attracts 
their  attention  as  unusual,  and  then  that  of 
hungry  beasts  of  prey.  10.  Pastors]  leaders 
of  the  invading  armies  :  cp.  6  3,  where  they  are 
called  '  shepherds.' 

12.  High  places  through]  RV  'the  bare 
heights  in '  :  no  spot  shall  escape. 

13.  And  they  shall  be  ashamed]  RV  '  And 
ye  shall,'  etc.     Revenues]  RV  'fruits.' 

14.  Mine  evil  neighbours]  Syrians,  Edomites, 
Moabites  and  others  who  would  feel  that 
Judah's  difficulty  formed  their  opportunity. 
Both  they  and  Judah  shall  be  punished  by 
exile  ;  but  God  will  restore  them  in  His 
mercy,  tf  the  heathen  will  but  seek  to  serve 
God,  they  shall  share  in  the  blessings  He  has 
in  store  for  Judah  after  they  have  suffered 
and  repented. 

CHAPTER  13 

Jeremiah's  Seventh  Prophecy  (Reign  of 
Jehoiachin).     The  Linen  Girdle 

The  date  of  this  prophecy  is  shown  pretty 
clearly  by  the  word  '  queen '  (v.  18),  which 
means  queen-mother,  namely,  Nehushta,  mother 
of  Jehoiachin.  The  queen-mother  had  always 
a  high  position,  and  in  Jehoiachin's  case  this 
would  be  specially  so,  owing  to  his  tender 
years. 

i-ii.  The  symbol  of  the  linen  girdle. 

I .  Go,  etc.]  It  is  doubtful  whether  this  and 
the  subsequent  acts  of  the  prophet  were  real  or 
done  only  in  symbol.  As,  however,  Jeremiah 
appears  to  have  been  absent  from  Jerusalem 
during  the  most  of  the  latter  years  of  Jehoia- 
chin, he  may  well  be  supposed  during  part  of 
that  time  to  have  been  in  or  near  Babylon: 
cp.  V.  4.  This  would  account  for  the  kindly 
feeling  shown  towards  him  afterwards  by 
Nebuchadnezzar  (39  ii),  which  seems  to  point  to 
an  earlier  acquaintance. 

The  girdle  represents  the  people  of  Judah 
(vv.  9,  10).  Jehovah  chose  them  for  His 
service  and  glory,  but  they  turned  away  and 
served  other  gods.  Therefore  as  the  girdle 
lost  its  beauty,  so  will  they  lose  their  beauty 
and  come  to  ruin  beside  the  Euphrates. 

ID.   Imagination]  RV  'stubbornness.' 

12-14.  The  symbol  of  the  bottles.  Under 
the  figure  of  intoxication,  through  which  the 
people  shall  be  helpless  to  resist  the  enemy's 
attack,   the    prophet  intimates  God's  punish- 


ment   for    headstrong    continuance    in 


sm  : 


cp.  2515  ;  and  for  Israel  under  the  figure  of 
a  bottle  or  jar,  cp.  18i-«.  Bottle]  RM  'jar' 
(of  earthenware  ;  not  the  skin  bottles  of  NT.). 
The  bottle  represents  the  people,  and  the 
wine  the  wrath  of  God.  But  the  people  failed 
to  see  the  significance  of  the  message. 

15-27.  Vain  appeal  to  Judah. 

16.  Give  glory]   a  Hebrew  idiom,  meaning, 


30 


465 


13.  17 


JEREMIAH 


15.  20 


confess  your  sins  :  cp.  Josh  7^9  Jn924.  Dan- 
ger, difficulty,  and  gloom  are  near.  17.  In  secret 
places]  The  prophet  will  mourn  apart,  as  he 
did  in  Jehoiakim's  reign.  18.  See  note  at 
head  of  c.  The  kings  practised  polygamy  ; 
hence  the  high  position  taken  by  the  queen- 
mother  :  cp.lK15i3  2K10i3.  Principalities] 
RV  '  head  tires,'  diadems. 

19.  Cities  of  the  south]  i.e.  of  Judah. 
Shall  be]  RV  'are.'  Shut  up]  i.e.  besieged, 

blockaded,  by  the   Chaldeans. 

20.  The  north]  see  on  l^^.  Where  is  the 
flock?]  Where  are  the  towns  that  once  lay, 
like  a  fair  flock  of  sheep,  grouped  aroimd 
thee? 

21.  RV  '  What  wilt  thou  say  when  he  shall 
set  thy  friends  over  thee  as  head,  seeing  thou 
thyself  hast  instructed  them  against  thee?'  The 
reference  is  to  Egypt  and  Babylon,  the  friend- 
ship and  guidance  of  which  countries  Judah 
had  alternatively  courted,  and  thus  was  but 
preparing  the  way  for  subjection  to  them.  He 
is  Jehovah.  22.  Made  bare]  and  thus  sub- 
ject to  the  roughness  of  the  road  as  thou 
art  led  captive.  23.  They  are  incapable  of 
repentance.  24.  The  wind  of  the  wilderness] 
see  on  411.  25.  Of  thy  measures]  RV  '  measured 
unto  thee.'  Falsehood]  i.e.  idolatry:  cp.  10^^ 
1619.  27.  Made  clean]  i.e.  from  infidelity  and 
idolatry.  When  shall  it  once  be  .?]  RY  '  How 
long  shall  it  yet  be  ?  ' 

CHAPTERS  14,  15 
Jeremiah's  Eighth   Prophecy   (Reign    of 
Jehoiakim  ?).     The  impending  Drought 

AND    OTHER   WOES 

Dialogue  between  the  prophet  and  God. 
He  intercedes  ;  but  in  vain,  for  the  nation 
persists  in  sin.  In  this  section  we  probably 
see  the  state  of  matters  in  the  early  part 
of  Jehoiakim's  reign.  There  is  no  historical 
allusion  to  the  drought  which  formed  the 
occasion  of  the  prophecy. 

CHAPTER  14 

1-6.   Description  of  the  drought. 

2.  The  gates  thereof  languish]  Figurative 
of  the  people  who  collect  there.  They  are 
black  unto]  RV  '  They  sit  in  black  (mourning) 
upon.'  3.  Covered  their  heads]  as  a  sign  of 
grief  or  confusion:  cp.  David  (2S19-*)  and 
Haman  (Esth6i"^).  6.  They  snuffed  up  the 
wind]  RV  '  They  pant  for  air.'  Dragons]  RV 
'  jackals.' 

7-22.  Jeremiah's  pleadings  and  God's 
replies. 

7.  Do  thou  it]  RV  '  work  thou.'  8.  As  a 
stranger,  etc.]  one  who  has  no  interest  in  the 
people.  Turneth  aside]  RM  '  spreadeth  his 
tent.'     9.   Astonied]  hesitating,  inactive. 

13.  Jeremiah  pleads  that  the  false  prophets 
have    misled    the    people.      17.  The    virgin 


daughter  of  my  people]  i.e.  Judah,  whom  God 
had  hitherto  protected.  19.  The  prophet 
again  intercedes.  21.  The  throne  of  thy 
glory]  Jenisalem,  or,  more  particularly,  the 
Temple. 

22.  A  reference  to  the  drought  (v.  1).  God 
alone  can  remove  it. 

CHAPTER  15 

1-9.  The  coming  woes  described. 

I.  Moses  (Ex  17 11  32 n*-  Nu  1413-20)  and 
Samuel  (1S79  1223)  were  successful  pleaders 
with  God  in  time  past  :  cp.  Ps996.  2.  To 
death]  meaning,  by  pestilence.  4.  To  be 
removed  into]  RV  '  to  be  tossed  to  and  fro 
among.'  For  Manasseh's  wickedness  see 
2K213f.  7.  They  shall  be  dispersed  and 
driven  forth  from  the  land  by  every  way  of 
exit.  8.  Even  the  mothers  of  warriors  in  the 
prime  of  youth  shall  have  none  to  protect 
them.  At  noonday]  taking  them  by  surprise  : 
see  6 4.  I  have  caused  him,  etc.]  RV  'I 
have  caused  anguish  and  terrors  to  fall  upon 
her  '  (the  mother)  '  suddenly.' 

10-21.  Jeremiah's  lament  and  appeal. 
God's  reply. 

ID.  I  have  neither  lent,  etc.]  The  Jews  were 
forbidden  to  take  interest  from  one  another 
(Dt2320),  and  the  money-lender  accordingly 
was  held  in  extreme  disfavour.  Jeremiah 
laments  that  his  mission  is  constantly  one  of 
strife  with  his  people.  11.  It  shall  be  well 
with  thy  remnant]  RV  '  I  will  strengthen  thee 
for  good.'  His  enemies  shall  not  only  spare 
Jeremiah,  but  invoke  his  aid.  This  took  place 
more  than  once  :  see  21 1*-  37  ^  422. 

12.  Judaea  is  not  tough  enough  to  with- 
stand the  Chaldean  power.  For  northern,  cp. 
61.  14.  I  will  make  thee  to  pass  with]  Some 
authorities  read,  '  I  will  make  thee  to  serve.' 
So  it  runs  in  the  parallel  passage,  17*. 

16.  He  describes  the  joyful  acceptance  with 
which  he  first  received  the  divine  commission. 

17.  The  mockers]  RV  '  them  that  make 
merry.'  There  is  no  suggestion  of  wrong 
doing  in  the  original  word.  Because  of  thy 
hand]  meaning  God's  guidance,  His  inspira- 
tion. For  this  sense  of  'hand'  cp.  IsaSH 
and  Ezkl3  371.  18.  Liar]  RV  'deceitful 
brook.^  As  waters  that  fail]  The  figure  is  that 
of  a  watercourse,  which  being  dried  up  belies 
the  anticipations  of  the  thirsty  traveller : 
cp.  Job  6 15  ^  Jeremiah  laments  that  his  mes- 
sage seems  to  have  no  effect. 

19.   Return]   i.e.  repent  of  his  murmuring. 

Stand  before  me]  as  my  servant  :  cp.  for 
the  phrase,  1 K 1 8 15  2  K  3 1'l.  Take  forth  the 
precious  from  the  vile]  i.e.  pm-ge  himself  of 
his  distrust.  Let  them  return,  etc.]  Deliver 
your  message,  regardless  of  the  people's 
favour.     They  must  turn  to  God.     20.  See 

1  IS,  19. 


1 


466 


16.  1 


JEREMIAH 


18.  3 


CHAPTEKS   16,  17118 

Jeremiah's  Ninth  Prophecy  (Beign  of 
Jehoiakim  ?).  Punishment  of  Judah 
BY  Pestilence  and  Exile 

It  is  clear  from  17 1^,  in  which  the  people 
challenge  the  prophet  to  point  to  a  fulfilment 
of  his  prophecies  of  woe,  that  it  is  at  any  rate 
earlier  than  the  capture  of  Jerusalem  at  the 
end  of  Jehoiachin's  reign. 

CHAPTEE   16 

1-13.  Self-denial  and  an  ascetic  life  are  to 
be  the  prophet's  lot. 

6.  Nor  cut  themselves]  in  token  of  mourn- 
ing :  cp.  475.  7.  Tear  themselves  for  them] 
RV  '  break  bread  for  them.'  The  reference 
here  and  in  the  rest  of  the  v.  is  to  the  custom 
that  the  friends  should  urge  the  mom'ners  to 
eat  and  drink  :  cp.  2S335  12i6f.  Prov31«5. 

12.  Imagination]  cp.  31^.  13.  There  shall 
ye  serve  other  gods]  if  you  please.  Spoken 
ironically. 

14-21.  The  deliverance  will  be  in  propor- 
tion to  the  severity  of  the  punishment. 

14.  15.  Yet  the  coming  deliverance  shall  be 
one  in  comparison  with  which  even  the  exodus 
from  Egypt  shall  pale.  For  Jeremiah's  cus- 
tom of  throwing  in  a  bright  thought  among 
gloomy  ones  see  31*  427  510,18  0722  303  3237. 

15.  The  land  of  the  north]  i.e.  Babylon  :  a 
promise  of  restoration  after  the  exile. 

16.  Many  fishers]  Judah's  enemies.  The 
people  shall  be  hunted  down  with  energy 
wherever  they  may  be  found. 

19-21.  God's  power  thus  shown  in  the  care 
of  His  people  for  evil  and  then  for  good,  and 
witnessed  by  other  nations,  shall  lead  even  the 
most  distant  of  them  to  acknowledge  Him. 


CHAPTER   17  lis 


Hence 


1-4.  The  sin  of  Judah  is  indelible, 
the  severity  of  the  punishment. 

2.  Groves]  RV  '  Asherim,'  wooden  pillars, 
or  monuments,  set  up  in  honour  of  Astoreth 
(Astarte),  generally  near  altars  (e.g.  Jg625). 
The  Law  ordered  them  to  be  pulled  down 
(Ex  34 13).  3.  O  my  mountain  in  the  field]  The 
hill  on  which  Jerusalem  is  built  rises  high 
above  the  plain.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is 
lower  than  the  surrounding  mountains,  hence 
can  be  spoken  of  as  a  '  valley '  in  2 1  is.  For 
sin]   i.e.  because  of  sin. 

5-8.   Grod  alone  is  worthy  of  trust. 

6.  The  heath]  RM  '  a  tamarisk.'  The  figure 
is  that  of  a  barren,  profitless  life.  7,  8.  Note 
the  parallels  to  Ps  1.  But  which  has  been 
influenced  by  the  other  is  a  question  more 
difficult  than  important.     8.   See]   RV  '  fear.' 

Careful]   i.e.  anxious. 

9-u.  God  searches  out  and  punishes  evil. 

II.  RV  'As  the  partridge  that  gathereth 


young  which  she  hath  not  brought  forth,'  and 
which  will  soon  fly  away — a  popular  belief  of 
which  Jeremiah  avails  himself  to  illustrate 
the  truth  that  riches  unlawfully  gotten  are  a 
precarious  possession. 

12-18.   God  is  the  Saviour  of  the  faithful. 

12,  13.  Connected  with  the  preceding  v. 
The  covetous  man  will  be  disappointed  ;  and 
all  they  who  forsake  Jehovah  and  His  sanc- 
tuary shall  not  endure.  12.  Place  of  our 
sanctuary]  i.e.  Zion,  where  Jehovah's  glory 
abode.  13.  Shall  be  written  in  the  earth]  i.e. 
shall  disappear — a  natural  simile,  a  board 
covered  with  sand  being  used  for  writing 
lessons  in  Eastern  schools  to  this  day,  owing 
to  the  scarcity  of  writing  materials.  15.  See 
intro.  to  c.  16.  16.  I  have  not  hastened,  etc.] 
I  have  not  sought  to  resign  the  oflice  of 
assistant  shepherd  for  Thy  people.  The 
woeful  day]  when  his  predictions  would  be 
fulfilled. 

CHAPTER  1719-27 

Jeremiah's  Tenth  Prophecy  (Reign  of  Je- 
hoiakim, or  even  Josiah,  for  it  speaks  of 
the   possibility  of  the  continuance  of  the 
Monarchy).     The  Sabbath  Obligation 
19.  The   children   of    the   people]    perhaps 
meaning  the  lay  folk  as  opposed  to  the  priests. 
25.   A  promise  of  the  continuance   of  the 
lineage  of   David.      26.   The  plain]   from  the 
hill-country  westward  to  the   Mediterranean. 
The  mountains]  the  central  portion  of  the 
land  running  from  N.  to  S.     Meat  offerings] 
RV  '  oblations.'     RM 'meal  offerings.'     They 
were  made  of  flour  and  oil,  with  frankincense 
strewn  on  the  top  (Lv  2 1). 

CHAPTERS   181-2018 
Jeremiah's  Eleventh  Prophecy  (Reign  of 
Jehoiakim).      Prophecies    illustrated 
from  the  Work  of  the  Potter 

C.  18  gives  and  explains  the  figure  of  the 
potter's  clay,  and  tells  of  the  effect  upon  the 
people.  C.  19  gives  and  applies  the  figure  of 
the  potter's  broken  vessel,  while  c.  20  describes 
the  consequent  sufferings  of  Jeremiah  and  his 
complaints. 

The  outrage  on  the  prophet  committed  by 
Pashur  (202)  would  certainly  not  have  been 
permitted  in  Josiah's  time.  On  the  other 
hand,  there  seems  from  the  language  used  to 
be  still  a  chance  for  the  people,  and  the  calam- 
ity threatened  had  not  yet  arrived.  Therefore 
we  may  date  the  symbolical  actions  early  in 
Jehoiakim's  reign. 

CHAPTER    18 

1-17.  Figure  of  the  potter's  clay. 

3.  The  potter's  house]  Clay  from  which  pot- 
tery was  made  was  found  S.  of  Jerusalem : 
cp.  Zechllis  Mt27io.      The    potter    teaches 


467 


18.7 


JEREMIAH 


21.  1 


Jeremiah   important    lessons   concerning   the     as  gathering  places:  see  e.g.  Jgl627  NehS^^ 


providential  rule  of  the  world.  '  As  I  watched 
him  shaping  the  pliant  clay,  remodelling  the 
imperfect  vessels  until  they  conformed  to  his 
ideal,  God  revealed  to  me  the  manner  in  which 
He  is  able  to  mould  at  His  will  the  nations. 
At  the  same  time  I  realised  that  man  may 
render  God's  work  imperfect '  (Sanders  and 
Kent,  '  Messages  of  the  Earlier  Prophets  '). 

7-10.  Predictions  of  good  or  evil  were 
conditional  on  the  moral  state  of  those 
addressed. 

II.  Frame]  the  Hebrew  word  is  the  same 
as  that  for  '  potter.' 

14.  Will  a  man  leave,  etc.]  RV  '  Shall  the 
snow  of  Lebanon  fail  from,'  etc.  Understand 
the  answer,  '  No,  it  is  perpetual.'  Shall  the 
cold,  etc.]  RV  '  Shall  the  cold  waters  that  flow 
down  from  afar  '  (mg.  '  of  strange  land  that 
flow  down  ')  '  be  dried  up  ?  '  Nature  is  con- 
stant in  her  operations,  but  God,  the  Rock  of 
Israel,  is  forsaken  by  those  who  used  to  trust 
in  Him. 

15.  Vanity]  i.e.  idols. 

16.  Hissing]  not  in  contempt,  but  amaze- 
ment. 

17.  I  -will  shew  them  the  back]  God's 
countenance  will  be  turned  away. 

18-23.  Invocation  of  evil  on  the  prophet's 
enemies. 

18.  The  people's  appeal  against  Jeremiah's 
words  to  the  three  classes  of  persons  whom 
they  thought  to  be  in  undoubted  possession  of 
the  truth. 

21-23.  The  stern  spirit  of  the  OT.  dispen- 
sation, as  shown  in  these  imprecations,  was 
connected  with  the  comparative  darkness  in 
which  a  future  existence  was  then  shrouded. 
This  would  make  righteous  men  more  eager 
that  God's  glory  should  be  vindicated  and  His 
people  avenged  in  this  life. 

CHAPTER  19 

In  c.  18  the  special  lesson  was  the  power  of 
God  to  alter  at  any  moment  the  destinies  of  a 
people.  Here,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  taught 
that  the  time  may  come  when  the  only  altera- 
tion must  take  the  form  of  a  breaking  or 
overthrow. 

1-13.  Figure  of  the  broken  vessel. 

I.  Ancients]  RV  '  elders.'  2.  Valley  of  the 
son  of  Hinnom]  see  on  T^i.  East  gate]  He- 
brew is  obscure.  RM  '  gate  of  potsherds,' 
perhaps  because  refuse  of  this  sort  was  thrown 
there.  3.  Kings]  the  whole  dynasty  with  their 
accumulated  transgressions.  4.  Estranged 
this  place]  i.e.  alienated  it  from  the  worship 
of  God.  6.  Tophet]  see  on  7  3i.  8.  An  hissing] 
see  on  IS^^^.  p.  This  was  fulfilled  in  the 
Chaldean  siege  of  Jerusalem  :  see  Lam  2  20 
410.  II.  Till  there  be  no  place  to  bury]  see 
on  732.     13.  The  fiat  roofs  were  easily  used 


Zeph  1 5. 

14.  This  V.  as  introducing  another  address 
should  commence  a  new  paragraph  ending 
with  206. 

CHAPTER    20 

1-6.   Pashur's  act  and  Jeremiah's  reply. 

2.  Pashur]  In  c.  381  two  Pashurs  are  men- 
tioned. This  one  is  perhaps  the  father  of 
Gedaliah  there  spoken  of,  while  Pashur  the 
son  of  Malchiah  of  that  v.  is  probably  identical 
with  the  Pashur  of  21 1.  The  houses  repre- 
sented by  both  men  were  strong  in  numbers 
amongst  the  few  priestly  courses  that  returned 
from  Babylon  (Ezr23(3-39). 

3.  Magor-missabib]  i.e.  '  fear  is  on  every 
side '  :  see  on  6  '^^.  The  name  is  symbolic  of 
his  coming  fate,  consisting  in  part,  at  least,  of 
remorse  at  the  ruin  which  he  had  brought 
upon  his  country  by  opposing  the  warnings  of 
Jeremiah  and  perhaps  claiming  prophetic 
powers.  For  other  cases  of  names  given  to 
symbolise  and  sum  up  a  prophetic  message, 
cp.  Shear-jashub,  '  a  remnant '  (only)  '  shall 
return'  (Isa73),  and  Maher-shalal-hash-baz, 
'  speedy  spoliation '  (Isa  8  ^  *•). 

7-13.   The  prophet's  cry  to  God. 

7.  Deceived]  RM  '  enticed,'  to  undertake 
his  mission.  8.  For  since  I  spake,  I  cried  out] 
RV  '  for  as  often  as  I  speak  I  cry  out '  (com- 
plain loudly).  9.  The  prophet  cannot  refrain 
from  delivering  his  message,  though  it  entailed 
derision  and  mockery.  10.  Report  say  they, 
etc.]  the  words  of  two  groups  of  his  foes,  the 
first  arguing  that  his  language  should  be 
brought  under  the  notice  of  those  in  power, 
the  second  undertaking  to  do  so. 

14-18.  For  the  vehemence  of  the  impreca- 
tions cp.  Job  33  10 1'^,  and  David's  address  to 
Gilboa  (2  S 1 21).  It  is  interesting  to  note  that 
in  later  time,  when  the  prophet  had  still  more 
afflictions  to  endure,  we  no  longer  read  of  his 
trembling  or  bewailing  the  sufferings  connected 
with  his  calling.  16.  The  cry  .  .  the  shouting] 
of  war  and  trouble. 

CHAPTER    211-10 
Jeremiah's  Twelfth  Prophecy  (Reign  of 
Zedekiah  dm-ing  the  siege).     Zedekiah's 
Roll 

This  c.  commences  a  new  division  of  the 
book  extending  to  the  end  of  c.  24.  We  pass 
from  the  time  of  Jehoiakim  to  that  of  the  last 
king  of  Judah,  when  Jerusalem  was  attacked 
by  the  Chaldeans.  The  city  must  be  taken, 
but  surrender  may  still  ensure  safety. 

i-io.  The  king's  appeal  to  the  prophet,  and 
the  reply. 

I.  Pashur]  see  on  20 2.  Zephaniah]  men- 
tioned again  29^5  373  5224.  in  c.  52  he  is 
spoken  of  as  '  the  second  priest,'  meaning  next 


468 


21.  2 


JEREMIAH 


23.  6 


in  rank  to  the  high  priest.  Both  men  were 
for  resisting  Nebuchadnezzar.  2.  Nebuchad- 
rezzar] meaning,  '  0  Nebo,  defend  the  hmd- 
mark.'  It  is  a  more  correct  spelling  than 
'Nebuchadnezzar'  in  341.  4.  The  defenders 
will  be  driven  back  into  the  city.  9.  He  that 
goeth  out,  etc.]  Manj^  acted  upon  this  sugges- 
tion :  see  39  ^  52 1^.  His  life  shall  be  unto  him 
for  a  prey]  i.e.  he  shall  snatch  it  from  destruc- 
tion.    10.   He  shall  burn  it  with  fire]  see  52 13. 

CHAPTEES    2111—2410 
Jeremiah's  Thirteenth  Prophecy 

A  collection  of  short  prophecies  here  form- 
ing one  group,  delivered,  however,  at  various 
dates,  and  perhaps  reissued  with  modifications 
from  time  to  time  to  suit  the  needs  of  succes- 
sive occasions. 

Chs.  2111-2230  deal  with  the  sins  of  succes- 
sive kings,  231-^  give  expression  to  Messianic 
hopes.  241-10  show  by  the  figure  of  baskets 
of  worthless  figs  the  rottenness  to  which  the 
state  had  been  reduced  under  Zedekiah. 

CHAPTER  2111-14 

11-14.  Exhortation  and  warning  to  the 
royal  house. 

12.  Execute  judgment]  An  important  part 
of  the  king's  duties  was  to  adjudicate  cases  of 
dispute  in  the  open  space  at  the  gate  of  the 
city  :  cp.  2  815^*.     13.  Valley]  see  on  17 3. 

14.  The  forest]  referring  to  the  houses  of 
Jerusalem  clustered  together,  or  perhaps  to 
the  house  of  the  forest  of  Lebanon  (1  KT^). 

CHAPTER  22 

1-9.   Call  to  amendment  of  life. 

I.  Go  down]  The  king's  house  was  on  lower 
ground  than  the  Temple  :  cp.  36 1^.  3.  The 
reference  is  to  the  special  crimes  of  Jehoiakim 
more  fully  stated  in  vv.  13f.  :  cp.  2  K  23^5. 
He  oppressed  his  people  in  order  that  though 
paying  tribute  to  Necho  he  might  yet  build 
himself  sumptuous  palaces.  Neither  shed 
innocent  blood]  For  his  sins  in  this  respect 
cp.  26  20f.  4.  Cp.  1725.  6.  Gilead,  with  its 
balm  (822)  and  its  flocks  of  goats  (Song4i  65), 
and  the  forests  crowning  the  highest  parts  of 
Lebanon,  represent  things  that  are  most 
precious.  7.  Prepare]  see  on  6  *.  Thy  choice 
cedars]  either  the  house  of  the  forest  of 
Lebanon  (see  on  v.  6),  or  figuratively  for  the 
chief  men  of  the  state. 

10-12.   Lament  for  the  fate  of  Jehoahaz. 

10.  Weep  ye  not  for  the  dead]  viz.  Josiah. 
The  sense  is  that  even  his  fate  (as  slain  at 
Megiddo)  is  preferable  to  that  of  his  son  and 
successor  Jehoahaz  (Shallum)  carried  into 
hopeless  captivity  in  Egypt  :  see  2  K  23  29-34_ 
Lamentations  for  Josiah  came  to  be  a  fixed 
custom  (2Ch3525). 

13-23.  Jehoiakim's  evil  deeds  and  fate. 


15.  Closest  thytit'lf]  RV  '  strivest  to  excel,' 
rivalling  Solomon  with  his  cedar  palaces  in- 
stead of  aiming  at  just  rule.  Thy  father] 
Josiah.  18.  Ah  my  brother  !  or,  Ah  sister] 
The  reference  may  be  to  a  chorus  of  mourners 
male  and  female  addressing  themselves  anti- 
phonally.  18,  19.  The  capture  and  death  of 
Jehoiakim  are  mentioned  in  2  ChSG^  2  K  246. 

20.  The  passages]  RV  'Abarim,'  a  range  of 
mountains  in  the  SE.  Thy  lovers]  Egypt  and 
the  other  nations  whose  aid  Judah  hoped  for  : 
see  273.  23.  Inhabitant  of  Lebanon]  referring 
to  the  king  and  his  nobles  as  dwelling  in  cedar 
houses.  How  gracious]  RV  '  how  greatly  to 
be  pitied.' 

24-30.   Punishment  of  Jehoiachin. 

24.  Coniah]  so  in  371  :  called  Jeconiah  in 
241,  etc.  The  change  of  his  name  to  Jehoia- 
chin, as  in  the  case  of  his  uncle  Jehoahaz  (the 
Shallum  of  v.  11),  was  probably  made  on  his 
accession  to  the  throne.  All  three  names 
mean,  '  The  Lord  will  establish.'  Signet] 
emblem  of  royal  authority.     26.   See  52  3i*. 

28.  A  lament  over  Jehoiachin's  fate.  Idol] 
RV  '  vessel,'  a  piece  of  earthenware  cast  out 
as  useless.  29.  For  the  emphasis  by  three- 
fold repetition  cp.  7  *. 

30.  Write  ye,  etc.]  addressed  to  those  who 
kept  his  family  registers.  They  are  bidden  to 
enter  the  fact  now  instead  of  waiting  for  his 
death.  Even  though  he  had  children  (1  Ch  3 1"  ^•) 
they  were  not  to  succeed  to  the  throne. 
'  Whether  childless  or  not  Jehoiachin  was  the 
last  king  of  David's  line.  His  uncle,  indeed, 
actually  reigned  after  him,  but  perished  with 
his  sons  long  before  Jehoiachin's  death  (52  lO).' 

CHAPTER   23 

1-4.   A  remnant  shall  return. 

I.  The  pastors]   i.e.  the  rulers  of  Judah. 

4.  Shepherds]  e.g.  Ezra,  Nehemiah,  etc. 
5-8.  Promise  of  the  Messiah. 

5.  Branch]  rather,  '  sprout,'  '  shoot,*  that 
which  is  immediately  connected  with  the  root, 
and  contains,  as  it  were,  the  springs  of  life. 
So  in  3315,  and  in  later  time  Zech3^  6 12.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  word  in  Isa  111  denotes 
'  branch,'  properly  so  called.  The  v.  predicts 
the  coming  of  an  ideal  descendant  of  David,  a 
king  who  shall  reign  in  righteousness  over  the 
people.  We  see  the  fulfilment  of  the  prophecy 
in  the  spiritual  conquests  of  Christ.  And 
prosper]  RV  '  and  deal  wisely,'  as  David  did 
(lS185-ii).  6.  THE  LORD  OUR  RIGHT- 
EOUSNESS] RV  '  The  Lord  is  our  right- 
eousness.' The  coming  king  shall  be  a  right- 
eous ruler,  whose  reign  shall  be  marked  by 
absolute  justice  ;  He  shall  be  called  Jehovah- 
Tsidkenu  ('  The  Lord  is  our  righteousness ')  ; 
and  His  name  shall  be  the  sign  that  God  will 
make  His  people  righteous  :  cp.  33 1'^.  Cp.  also 
'Immanuel'  ('God  with  us'),  Isa7i-'8io. 


469 


23.7 


JEREMIAH 


25.  23 


7,  8.  See  on  IG^^^-  The  deliverance  after 
the  captivity  will  be  even  more  wonderful  than 
that  from  Egypt. 

9-40.  Rebuke  of  false  prophets  and  priests. 
Their  disgrace  is  foretold. 

10.   Swearing]   EM  '  the  curse  '  (of  God). 

Pleasant  places]  RV  '  pastures.'  Course] 
manner  of  life.     Force]  exercise  of  power. 

13.  Samaria]  the  northern  kingdom.  In 
Baal]  i.e.  the  name  of  Baal.  14.  The  repre- 
sentatives of  God  encourage  evil  doers  by  their 
own  misdeeds.  17.  These  false  prophets 
promised  deliverance  from  Babylon.  18.  For 
who  hath  stood,  etc.]  meaning  that  at  any  rate 
these  false  prophets  had  not  done  so. 

20.  Consider]  RY  '  understand.'  21.  Yet 
they  ran]  as  if  appointed.  23.  Think  you  that 
My  knowledge  is  subject  to  human  limitations  ? 
These  men  do  not  deceive  Me  as  they  do  the 
people.  25.  I  have  dreamed]  By  repeating 
this  formula  they  caught  the  ear  of  the 
crowd. 

28.  The  contrast  between  true  and  false 
prophecy.  God's  word  contains  nourishment 
and  life.  Other  words  are  but  as  chaif,  or, 
rather,  straw.  29.  Fire]  which  consumes  the 
dross.  30,  31.  The  false  prophets  steal  the 
phrases  of  the  true,  e.g.  '  He  saith.'  32.  Light- 
ness] RV  '  vain  boasting.' 

33.  They  ask  jestingly  of  Jeremiah,  What 
is  thy  latest  message  for  us  ?  what  is  the 
burdensome  oracle  of  the  Lord  ?  '  Burden  ' 
was  often  used  in  this  sense  :  cp.  Nah  1 1 
Habli  Zech9i.  What  .  .  burden]  LXX  'ye 
are  the  burden.' 

34»  35-  The  misused  phrase  '  the  burden  of 
the  LoRn  '  is  to  be  used  no  more.  Some  other 
expression  is  to  take  its  place.  36.  Every 
man's  burden  shall  be  his  use  of  the  word. 
For  he  who  has  jokingly  enquired  after  the 
'  burden  of  the  Lord '  shall  find  that  those 
lightly  spoken  words  of  his  are  in  very  deed  a 
load  upon  him.     Perverted]  used  jestingly. 

CHAPTER  24 

The  two  Baskets  of  Figs 
The  evil  figs  were  such  of  the  people  as  had 
not  been  carried  away  with  Jehoiachin  to 
Babylon  after  the  first  siege  of  Jerusalem, 
597  B.C.,  but  had  failed  to  draw  any  warning 
from  the  fate  that  had  overtaken  their  breth- 
ren. Those  who  had  been  made  captives,  on 
the  other  hand,  should  yet  be  the  subjects  of 
God's  love  and  grace.  The  ripening  time  for 
both  baskets  was  over,  but  here  the  likeness 
between  them  ceased. 

I.  Carpenters]  RV  '  craftsmen,'  the  most 
valuable  captives.  2.  First  ripe]  In  the  case 
of  trees  bearing  twice  in  the  year,  the  first 
crop,  ripening  in  June,  was  considered  a 
special  delicacy.      Naughty]  RV  '  bad.' 

5.  Acknowledge]  RV  '  regard.'     8.   Egypt] 


cp.  2210.11.     9.  To  be  removed  into]  RV  'to 
be  tossed  to  and  fro  among.' 

CHAPTER  25 

Jeremiah's  Fourteenth  Prophecy  (Reign 
of  Jehoiakim).  The  Wine  Cup  of  God's 
Fury 

We  have  here  the  first  closely  dated  pro- 
phecy, taking  us  back  from  Zedekiah's  reign 
to  the  foui'th  year  of  Jehoiakim,  between  the 
news  of  the  victory  of  Nebuchadnezzar  over 
Pharaoh-Necho  and  the  Egyptians  at  Car- 
chemish  (605  B.C.)  and  the  arrival  of  the  Chal- 
dean army  under  the  walls  of  Jerusalem.  The 
prophet  advises  submission  to  Babylon  as  God's 
agent,  but  promises  its  overthrow  at  the  end 
of  the  seventy  years'  captivity  which  impends. 
He  announces  the  judgment  that  shall  descend 
on  the  nations. 

1-7.   The  people's  prolonged  waywardness. 

3.  The  three  and  twentieth  year]  of  Jere- 
miah's prophetic  ministry.  7.  The  works  of 
your  hands]  i.e.  your  idols. 

8-14.  Babylon's  victory  and  subsequent 
overthrow. 

9.  Families  of  the  north]  the  races  near  the 
Tigris  and  Euphrates.  My  servant]  God's 
agent  in  carrying  out  His  purposes  of  chastise- 
ment. 

II.  Seventy  years]  for  the  definite  number 
cp.  29 10.  The  Jewish  love  for  round  numbers 
would  lead  them  to  consider  the  number  seventy 
used  in  such  a  connexion  as  standing  for  any 
approximation  to  that  amount.  The  captivity 
seems  to  have  been,  in  fact,  for  somewhat  less 
than  seventy  years. 

Immediately  upon  v.  13  there  come  in  the 
Septuagint  (Greek)  version  of  this  book  the 
prophecies  against  foreign  nations,  which  in 
the  English  (following  the  Hebrew)  stand  at 
the  end  (chs.  46-51). 

14.  Of  them]  viz.  of  the  Chaldeans.  As 
they  have  done  to  the  people  of  God,  so  shall 
it  be  done  to  them. 

15-29.  The  wine  cup  of  God's  fury  to  be 
drunk  by  the  nations. 

15.  Wine  cup]  representing  disaster,  so  often 
in  OT.  :  cp.  4912  51 7.  16.  Be  moved]  RV 
'reel  to  and  fro.'  17.  Then  took  I  the  cup] 
not,  however,  in  a  literal  sense,  the  cup  being 
itself  only  figurative.  18.  As  it  ix  this  day]  a 
later  insertion  by  Jeremiah  or  another  as  com- 
ment on  the  fulfilment.  20.  The  mingled 
people]  those  who  had  attached  themselves  to 
a  nation  without  being  connected  with  it  by 
blood.  Uz]  Job's  country  near  Idumea 
(Lam  4  21).  Ashkelon,  etc.]  the  chief  cities 
of  Philistia.  Azzah]  RV  '  Gaza.'  22.  Isles] 
RV  'isle,'  RM  '  coastland,'  a  phi-ase  denoting 
generally  the  region  W.  of  Palestine,  with 
special  reference  to  the  Grecian  Archipelago. 

23.  For  Dedan  see  on  49  ^.    Tema  and  Buz 


470 


25.  25 


JEREMIAH 


28.7 


(to  which  Elihu  belonged,  Job  32  2)  were  neigh- 
bouring Arabian  tribes.  Utmost  corners]  see 
on  y^t).     25.   Zimrij  quite  unknown. 

26.  Sheshach]  Sheshach  stands  in  all  prob- 
ability for  Babel  (or  Babylon).  The  Jews  had 
a  species  of  cypher  writing,  the  form  of  which 
consisted  in  substituting  the  last  letter  of  the 
Hebrew  alphabet  for  the  first,  the  last  but  one 
for  the  second,  and  so  on.  Omitting  vowels, 
we  find  that  thus  Sh,  Sh,  Ch  will  represent 
B,  B,  L  :  cp.  51  "ii,  where  Sheshach  and  Babylon 
stand  in  parallel  clauses.  Another  instance  of 
the  cypher  is  in  51 1,  where  the  Heb.  for  '  in 
the  midst  of  them  that  rise  up  against  me  ' 
becomes,  when  thus  transmuted,  '  Casdim,'  i.e. 
Chaldeans. 

30-38.  Judgment  shall  come  upon  all  the 
peoples  of  the  earth. 

30.  Upon  his  habitation]  RV  '  against  His 
fold,'  i.e.  His  people.  31.  Plead]  in  a  legal 
sense,  judge.  32.  Coasts]  RV  '  uttermost 
parts.'  34.  Shepherds]  i.e.  rulers.  Like  a 
pleasant  vessel]  fair  but  fragile.  37.  Habita- 
tions are  cut  down]  RV  '  folds  are  brought  to 
silence.' 

38.  As  the  lion]  The  Lord  is  gone  forth  in 
wrath  to  lay  waste. 

CHAPTER  26 

Jeremiah's  Fifteenth  Prophecy  (Early  in 

the  reign  of  Jehoiakim) 

For  vv.  1-8  see  intro.  to  chs.  7-10.  This  c. 
gives  us  a  sketch  of  the  difficulties  and  dangers 
under  which  Jeremiah  had  spoken  the  preceding 
prophecies. 

1-6.  The  prophet  warns  the  people. 

6.  Like  Shiloh]  see  on  7 12.  A  curse]  i.e.  a 
subject  of  their  cui'sing,  as  being  contemptible. 

8.  A  prophet  speaking  without  Grod's  com- 
mand was  to  be  put  todeath(Dtl820).  This  was 
the  charge  against  Jeremiah,  and  the  alleged 
proof  was  that  God  could  not  permit  such  a 
calamity  to  fall  on  Jerusalem. 

7-15.  The  charge  against  Jeremiah,  and  his 
defence.  10.  The  princes]  apparently  heads 
of  prominent  houses,  who  had  taken  up  their 
quarters  in  Jerusalem. 

16-24.  The  princes  and  people,  not  being 
prejudiced  against  Jeremiah,  as  were  the  pro- 
phets and  priests,  gave  a  fair  decision. 

17.  The  elders]  for  their  action  in  criminal 
procedure  cp.  Dt2l-f-  ;  in  civil,  Ruth42*. 

18.  Micah]  the  minor  prophet :  seeMic3i2. 
The  king  and  the  people  listened  to  his  warn- 
ings. 20-23.  -^^^  instance  of  the  ill-treatment 
of  a  prophet.  This  part  of  the  narrative  was 
probably  introduced  later.  It  would  have  been 
dangerous  for  any  of  those  present  to  have  made 
such  an  attack  upon  the  reigning  king. 

24.  Ahikam]  father  of  Gedaliah,  who,  when 
appointed  governor  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  stood 
the  prophet's  friend  (39 1^  40  5). 


471 


CHAPTERS  27-29 

Jeremiah's  Sixteenth  Prophecy  (Reign  of 
Zedekiah,  earlier  part).  The  Babylonian 
yoke 

Babylon  had  already  shown  its  power. 
Jehoiakim  and  the  chief  of  the  people  had 
been  carried  captive.  Zedekiah  was  king  only 
on  sufferance.  The  neighbouring  nations  were 
under  those  circumstances  willing  to  make 
common  cause  with  the  Jews  against  Nebuchad- 
nezzar, many  of  whom,  however,  refused  to 
realise  the  gravity  of  the  danger.  In  these 
chs.,  therefore,  Jeremiah  sets  himself  to  show 
that  the  power  of  Babylon  would  be  permanent 
and  irresistible.  He  addresses  on  this  subject 
(271-11)  the  neighbouring  nations,  (vv.  12-15) 
Zedekiah,  (vv.  16-22)  the  priests  and  prophets, 
(c.  28)  the  false  prophets,  (c.  29)  the  exiles  in 
Babylon. 

CHAPTER  27 

1-29.  Judah  is  warned  to  submit  to  Babylon. 

1.  For  Jehoiakim  read  '  Zedekiah '  :  see 
vv.  3,  12,  20.  The  foi-nier  word  may  be  a 
copyist's  accidental  repetition  of  26 1.  2.  It  is 
plain  from  28  ^"^  that  Jeremiah  actually  wore  a 
yoke  in  public.  3.  Messengers]  These  ambas- 
sadors had  come  to  Jerusalem  probably  with 
the  view  of  forming  an  alliance  against  Babylon. 
This,  however,  was  not  accomplished,  as  Zede- 
kiah was  compelled  to  go  to  Babylon  and  swear 
allegiance  to  Nebuchadnezzar  (51^9). 

6.  My  servant]  see  on  25  9.  7.  Him,  and 
his  son,  and  his  son's  son]  meaning  simply  that 
there  was  to  be  no  speedy  riddance.  In  point 
of  fact,  Nebuchadnezzar  had  three  successors, 
Evil-Merodach,  Neriglissar,  and  Nabonidus,  in 
whose  seventeenth  year  Babylon  was  taken  by 
Cyrus.     The  very  time]  the  appointed  end. 

Great  kings]  Persia  and  Media  became 
masters  of  Babylon. 

9-1 1.  Rebellion  will  entail  exile.  There- 
fore let  them  submit. 

16.  The  vessels,  etc.]  Some  had  been  taken 
in  Jehoiachin's  reign  (2  K  24 13).  The  rest  were 
destined  to  follow  (2  K  25  ^3).  They  were  given 
back  by  Cyrus  (Ezr  1  7).  19.  The  sea]  in  which 
the  priests  washed  their  hands  and  feet  before 
sacrificing  (1 K  7  -^  ^•).  The  bases]  the  supports 
of  the  ten  lavers(lK72Tf-), 

CHAPTER  28 

i-ii.  Opposition  of  Hananiah  and  the  false 
pi'ophets. 

2.  Thus  speaketh  the  LORD  of  hosts,  the 
God  of  Israel]  a  formula  of  Jeremiah's,  and 
hence,  perhaps,  assumed  by  Hananiah  as  imply- 
ing an  equal  claim  to  inspiration. 

6.  Amen  :  the  LORD  do  so]  i.e.  would  that 
it  might  be  so. 

7-9.  Hananiah's  forecasts  of  peace  being  in 


28.  10 


JEREMIAH 


31.5 


opposition  to  those  of  his  predecessors,  the 
presumption  is  against  him,  and  can  only  be 
removed  by  the  fulfilment  of  his  predictions 
(the  test  laid  down  in  Dt  18  22),  which  assuredly 
is  not  to  take  place.     lo.   See  on  272. 

12-17.   Hananiah  rebuked  and  punished. 

13.  Hananiah's  act  by  inciting  Zedekiah  and 
his  people  to  resistance  only  makes  the  servi- 
tude which  they  will  have  to  undergo  harsher. 

17.  The  seventh  month]   cp.  v.  1. 

CHAPTER   29 

1-14.  Jeremiah's  letter  to  the  exiles.  Re- 
lease after  seventy  years. 

I.  Prophets]  The  exiles  in  Babylon  had 
also  false  prophets,  e.g.  Ahab  and  Zedekiah 
(v.  21),  and  Shemaiah(of  v.  24)  among  them. 
But  they  were  on  the  whole  of  a  better  class 
(see  24^-7),  and  the  prophet  might  hope  that 
his  words  would  have  more  effect.  2.  Car- 
penters] RV  '  craftsmen.'  4-7.  They  are 
not  to  sit  loose  to  the  land  of  their  exile, 
but  to  make  homes  for  themselves  there.  Else 
they  will  soon  dwindle  away.  10.  At  Babylon] 
RV  '  for  Babylon,'  referring  to  the  duration  of 
its  power:  cp.  25 1^.  11.  An  expected  end] 
RV  '  hope  in  your  latter  end.' 

15-23.  The  exiles  reply  : — The  prophets 
here  tell  us  that  we  shall  be  delivered  speedily. 
Jeremiah  answers  that  their  teaching  shall  soon 
be  disproved  by  the  overthrow  of  Jerusalem, 
and  they  shall  themselves  die  miserable 
deaths. 

17.  Vile  figs]  cp.  24  2  f.  The  exiles  would 
probably  already  know  that  prophecy. 

24-32.  On  the  arrival  of  Jeremiah's  letter 
at  Babylon,  Shemaiah  had  written  to  Zepha- 
niah,  the  acting  high  priest  (5224)  at  Jeru- 
salem, to  have  the  prophet  silenced  as  a  mad- 
man. Jeremiah,  having  seen  the  letter,  writes 
again  to  denounce  the  writer,  and  foretell 
his  punishment.  26.  In  prison,  and  in  the 
stocks]  RV  '  in  the  stocks  and  in  shackles.' 

CHAPTERS  30-33 
Jeremiah's  Seventeenth  Prophecy  (Reign 

of  Zedekiah  during  the  siege).     Israel's 

Hope 
Hitherto  the  general  character  of  Jeremiah's 
prophecies  has  been  gloomy.  The  whole  tone 
of  this  section,  on  the  other  hand,  is  one  of 
hopefulness,  which  is  the  more  remarkable  in- 
asmuch as  it  was  delivered  at  a  time  when  the 
prophet  was  subject  to  imprisonment,  and 
famine  and  pestilence  held  possession  of  the 
city,  and  the  prospects  of  the  nation  were  at 
their  lowest.  It  was  under  such  circumstances 
then  that  it  was  announced  through  Jeremiah 
that  the  chosen  people  should  not  perish,  that 
through  them  the  Gentile  nations  should  be 
led  to  a  knowledge  of  the  true  God,  that  the 
Righteous  Branch  should  yet  arise  from  the 


house  of  David,  and  Zion  '  shall  be  called,  The 
Lord  our  righteousness':  see  on  33 1^. 

CHAPTER  30 

1-9.  When  the  gloom  is  deepest,  deliverance 
shall  come.  2.  In  a  book]  Thus  his  words 
would  bring  abiding  comfort  in  the  approach- 
ing time  of  exile.     3.   Bring]  RV  '  tiu-n.' 

4.  Concerning  Israel  .  .  Judah]  Both  divisions 
of  the  kingdom  of  David  are  the  subject  of 
c.  31  :  see  above.  5.  Of  fear,  and  not  of 
peace]  RM  '  There  is  fear  and  no  peace,'  and 
the  present  circumstances  are  evil.  There  is 
nothing  but  fear  and  terror  in  the  hearts  and 
on  the  faces  of  men.  7.  That  day]  the  day 
of  Babylon's  overthrow.  8.  Serve  themselves 
of  him]  see  on  251'*.  9.  David  their  king]  the 
ideal  king  who,  as  coming  of  David's  line,  here 
receives  his  name.  So  in  Ezk  34  23  f.  37  24.  for 
David,  meaning  the  line  of  kings  of  his  house, 
see  1K121«. 

10-17.  God  will  remember  Israel  in  her 
affliction.  11.  In  measure,  etc.]  RV  'with 
judgment,  and  will  in  no  wise  leave  thee.' 

12-15.  These  vv.  describe  the  present  con- 
dition from  which  the  nation  shall  be  delivered. 

13.  Thy  cause,  that  thou  .  .  medicines] 
rather,  join  '  that  thou,'  etc.,  with  what  follows. 
'  For  the  closing  up  of  thy  wound  there  is  no 
healing,  no  plaister.'  14.  Thy  lovers]  the 
nations  that  sought  to  ally  themselves  with 
thee  :  see  27  ^. 

18-24.  Jerusalem  shall  be  restored  to  favour. 

18.  Bring]  see  on  v.  3.  Tents]  a  name  for 
dwellings  generally,  which  was  retained  from 
nomadic  times:  cp.  420.  Remain]  RM  'be 
inhabited.'  After  the  manner  thereof]  occupied 
by  a  king,  and  kept  up  suitably  as  aforetime. 

21.  Nobles]  RV  'prince,'  a  reference  to  the 
ideal  king.  Of  themselves]  no  longer  foreign- 
ers. Engaged  his  heart]  RV  '  hath  had  bold- 
ness.' The  new  king  will  have  close  access 
to  JehoA'ah.  •  He  will  do  His  will,  and  rule 
in  righteousness.  And  is  not  this  to  know 
the  Lord  ?  (221'^).  23,  24.  These  vv.  are  nearly 
identical  with  23 19.  24.  Consider]  R V  '  under- 
stand.' 

CHAPTER  31 

1-22.  Jeremiah  speaks  of  the  restoration  first 
of  Israel  (Ephraim,  vv.  2-22),  then  of  Judah 
(vv.  23  f.).  Those  who  survive  the  sufferings 
of  the  captivity  are  promised  a  safe  journey 
home.  The  words,  '  found  grace  in  the  wil- 
derness '  (v.  2)  are  probablj'  an  allusion  to  the 
journey  from  Egypt  under  Moses,  which  was 
thus  a  prophecy  to  the  captive  Israelites  of 
the  return  from  Assyria. 

3.  In  this  V.  the  people  are  the  speakers. 

4.  Tabrets]  tambourines.  5.  Shall  eat  them 
as  common  things]  RV  '  shall  enjoy  the  fruit 
thereof.'' 


472 


31.6 


JEREMIAH 


32. 


6.  Watchmen]  posted  on  heights  to  announce 
seasons  of  prayer  and,  according  to  Jewish  tradi- 
tion, the  appearance  of  the  new  moon  as  de- 
termining the  dates  of  festivals.  In  the  present 
case  they  are  posted  on  the  hills  of  Ephraim 
that  members  of  the  northern  kingdom  may  go 
up  to  keep  the  feasts  in  Jerusalem,  thus  be- 
tokening the  reunion  of  the  Twelve  Tribes  in 
worship.  8.  The  blind,  etc.]  None,  even  the 
feeblest,  shall  be  left  behind.  Thither]  RV 
'  hither' to  Palestine.  9.  With  weeping-]  tears 
at  once  of  contrition  and  joy.  Ephraim  /.y  my 
firstborn]  see  1  Ch5i.  God  will  not  forget  the 
house  of  Joseph,  the  head  of  northern  Israel. 

10.  The  isles]  see  on  2522.  12.  To  the 
goodness  of  the  LORD]  to  receive  from  Him 
the  blessings  of  a  fruitful  land.  For  wheat, 
etc.]  E.V  '  to  the  corn,  and  to  the  wine.'  Sor- 
row] rather,  '  droop,'  '  fade,'  keeping  up  the 
image  of  a  garden.  13.  Both  young  men]  RV 
'  and  the  young  men '  (shall  rejoice  with  the 
old).  14.  The  sacrifices  shall  be  so  numerous 
that  the  priests  and  their  families  shall  have 
abundance  for  their  share  :  see  LvT^if. 

15.  The  mourning  which  took  place  at  Ra- 
mah,  whether  on  account  of  some  unrecorded 
butchery  there  on  the  part  of  the  Chaldean 
conquerors,  or  in  reference  to  their  general 
cruelty  to  the  exiles  there  assembled  for  de- 
portation to  Babylon  (see  40 1),  is  referred  to 
by  St.  Matthew  (21'^*.)  as  a  forecast  of  the 
wailing  at  the  slaughter  of  the  Innocents  by 
Herod.  Rahel]  the  appropriateness  of  calling 
upon  Rachel  to  weep  in  Ramah  consists  in  this, 
that  she,  the  one  of  Jacob's  wives  who  had  so 
ardently  longed  for  children  and  the  mother 
of  Joseph  and  so  of  Ephraim  and  of  Manasseh 
(whose  lot  was  with  Judah),  should  lament  the 
overthrow  of  her  offspring  in  a  conspicuous 
border  town  of  the  two  kingdoms,  with  both 
of  which  she  was  thus  immediately  connected. 

16.  Thy  work  shall  be  rewarded]  Rachel 
by  the  death  of  her  descendants  had,  as  it  were, 
been  deprived  of  the  reward  for  which  she  had 
laboured  in  bearing  and  bringing  up  children. 
Now  by  their  restoration  she  shall  at  last 
receive  her  recompense.  17.  In  thine  end] 
RV  '  for  thy  latter  end.' 

18.  Ephraim]  i.e.  the  ^northern  kingdom, 
which  for  over  100  years  had  been  devastated  by 
the  Assyrians,  and  its  people  exiled.  19.  In- 
structed] by  punishment.  I  smote,  etc.]  in 
contrition.  The  reproach  of  my  youth]  the 
shame  incurred  through  the  sins  of  his  youth. 

20.  God  is  represented  as  addressing  Himself 
even  as  a  father  might  do,  when  dwelling  upon 
the  ingratitude  and  rebellion  of  a  son,  whom, 
nevertheless,  he  cannot  but  continue  to  love. 

Pleasant]  i.e.  beloved.  Bowels]  the  sup- 
posed seat  of  the  emotions.  21.  High  heaps] 
RV  '  guide-posts  '  for  the  returning  exiles. 

22.  Compass]   i.e.    as    protector.     In    the 


peaceful  future  the  women  will  be  a  sufficient 
guard  against  danger  from  without,  while  the 
men  perform  their  daily  tasks. 

23-26.  The  Lord  now  turns  from  Israel 
(Ephraim)  to  Judah  and  promises  her  like 
blessings. 

23.  As  yet]  RV  '  yet  again.'  Habitation  of 
justice]  the  same  expression  is  used  of  the 
Lord  in  SO*".  Mountain  of  holiness]  Jeru- 
salem, or  in  particular  the  Temple  mount. 

26.  The  words  of  the  prophet  at  the  con- 
clusion of  his  pleasant  vision. 

27.  I  will  sow,  etc.]  a  figure  to  express 
prosperity  and  rapid  increase. 

28.  See  on  1 10. 

29-34.  The  new  covenant  between  Jehovah 
and  His  people. 

29.  30.  The  proverb  here  quoted,  which  was 
common  among  the  Jews,  induced  them  to 
throw  upon  their  predecessors  the  responsi- 
bility for  their  own  misdeeds.  Accordingly 
the  prophet  restates  in  an  amended  form  the 
truth  which  it  embodies.  It  was  true  that  their 
fathers  had  sinned,  but  the  children  had  re- 
peated their  sins  and  they  were  suffering  the 
consequences  of  their  own  acts.  The  prophet 
emphasises  individual  responsibility  for  sin. 

31-34.  The  new  covenant  is  to  be  of  a 
spiritual,  personal  character,  rather  than  ex- 
ternal and  national.  It  shall  supersede  that 
of  the  exodus,  and  shall  differ  from  the  older 
Law  both  in  permanence  and  in  the  spring  of 
action.  Under  it  the  sense  of  forgiveness 
(v.  34)  ensures  a  willing  service  based  on  love, 
not  on  fear.  '  God  comes  to  man  as  giving  and 
not  as  requiring ' :  so  Bp.  Westcott  on  Heb  8  8-12, 
which  reproduces  this  passage,  applying  it  to 
the  Christian  dispensation. 

34.  The  sense  is  not  that  there  shall  be  no 
longer  any  need  of  instruction  in  religion,  but 
that  for  both  Jews  and  Gentiles  there  shall  be 
directness  of  access  to  God.  It  was  left  for 
later  times  to  reveal  clearly  Christ  as  the  means 
of  this  approach. 

35.  Which  divideth  the  sea  when]  RV '  which 
stirreth  up  the  sea,  that.'  36.  Israel's  national 
existence  is  as  assured  as  the  unchangeableness 
of  the  laws  imposed  by  God  on  the  universe, 
or  as  its  limitless  character. 

38-40.  See  on  7  ^i.  Jerusalem  in  her  future 
extension  is  to  enclose  spaces  hitherto  con- 
sidered unclean.  Tower  of  Hananeel]  at  the 
NE.  corner.  The  gate  of  the  corner]  at  the 
NW.  (see  on  2  K 1413).  Qareb  .  .  Goath]  not 
mentioned  elsewhere.  Gareb  means  '  leper's 
hill.' 

CHAPTER  32 

This  c.  forms  the  introduction  to  the  most 
continuously  historical  part  of  the  book,  which 
describes  incidents  in  the  two  years  preceding 
the  final  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  viz.  chs. 


473 


32.  1 


JEREMIAH 


34.  S 


34-43.  The  first  of  these  incidents  is  here 
given,  viz.  Jeremiah's  purchase  with  all  legal 
formality  of  a  field  of  which  he  had  the  right 
of  redemption,  in  order  to  encourage  the  people 
while  the  Chaldeans  were  investing  the  city  by 
showing  thus  his  faith  in  the  return  which  he 
foretells  in  these  chs. 

1-5.   The  general  position. 
2.   Of  the  prison]  RV  '  of  the  guard,'  i.e.  of 
the  palace  sentries.     For  Jeremiah's  imprison- 
ment see  chs.  37,  38. 

6-15.  Jeremiah's  purchase  at  Anathoth. 
6.  An  interesting  example  of  legal  pro- 
ceedings in  connexion  with  Hebrew  land- 
customs  :  cp.  Ruth  4 1-8.  7.  If  land  was  to  be 
sold  it  was  the  duty  of  the  nearest  of  kin  to 
buy  it,  so  that  it  should  not  pass  from  one 
family  to  another  :  see  Lv2524f-  Ruth  4  6. 

8.  Jeremiah  bought  the  estate  as  next  heir 
by  the  right  of  preemption.  10.  The  evi- 
dence] RV  '  the  deed,'  and  so  in  vv.  11,  12,  14, 
44.  Jeremiah  made  out  two  copies  of  the  deed, 
one  to  be  sealed,  the  other  left  open,  the  for- 
mer to  be  referred  to  in  case  at  any  time  it 
were  suspected  that  the  latter  had  been  tam- 
pered with.  II.  According  to  the  law  and 
custom]  RM  '  cniitainbifi  the  terms  and  con- 
ditions.'    15.   Possessed]  RV  '  bought.' 

1 6-25.  Jeremiah  cannot  reconcile  the  obvious 
sense  of  the  transaction  which  he  had  just 
carried  out  at  the  Lord's  command,  with  the 
overthrow  which  he  had  been  so  often  bidden 
to  announce  to  the  guilty  city.  24.  Mounts] 
see  on  6^. 

26-35.  The  first  part  of  God's  reply,  viz. 
judgment. 

36-44.  The  second  part  of  God's  reply,  viz. 
mercy.  36.  The  words  resume  the  thought  of 
V.  27,  '  Is  there  anything  too  hard  for  me  ?  ' 
44.  The  mountains  .  .  the  valley  .  .  the  south] 
The  several  parts  of  the  land  are  specified,  viz. 
the  central  (hilly)  portion,  the  plains  westward 
from  it  to  the  sea,  and  the  thinly  inhabited 
S.  of  .Judah.  Cause  their  captivity  to  return] 
i.e.  restore  them  from  captivity. 

CHAPTER  33 

1-13.  Restoration  and  honour  again  pro- 
mised. 

I.  See  on  322.  2.  The  maker  thereof]  RV 
'  that  doeth  it '  (viz.  that  which  He  hath  pur- 
posed). 4.  By  the  mounts,  and  by  the  sword] 
RV  '  to  make  a  defence  against  the  mounts, 
and  against  the  sword,'  to  make  room  for  the 
besieged  to  erect  defensive  works.  For 
'  mounts '  see  6  6.  5,  They]  the  besieged.  The 
only  result  of  their  fighting  is  that  they  fill 
these  houses  with  the  slain.  II.  Praise  the 
Lord,  etc.]  Jeremiah  quotes  from  the  Temple 
liturgical  forms  :  cp.  2Ch6i3  PslOGi. 

13.  Mountains,  etc.]  see  on  32*4.  Telleth] 
counteth. 


14-18.  Permanence  of  the  kingly  and 
priestly  line. 

15,  16.  See  on  23  5  f.  16.  The  LORD  our 
righteousness]  RV  '  The  Lord  is  our  right- 
eousness.' The  name  is  here  given  to  the 
city,  as  it  was  given  in  23^  to  the  king. 

17,  18.  In  these  vv.  the  prophet  declares 
the  permanence  of  the  office  of  king  in  the 
Davidic  line,  and  of  the  priesthood  among  the 
Levites.  The  prophecy  is  sometimes  mystic- 
ally interpreted  of  Chi-ist.  18.  Meat  offer- 
ings] see  on  1726. 

19-26.  God's  covenant  is  as  sure  as  the 
ordinances  of  nature. 

19  f.  See  on  31 3<5  for  the  argument.  21.  For 
the  covenant  with  David's  line  see  2  S  7 12*.,  and 
for  that  with  the  Levites  (in  the  person  of 
Phinehas)!N'u25i3.  24.  The  people,  seeing  that 
both  Israel  and  Judah  (the  two  families)  are 
being  apparently  cast  off,  despise  their  own 
nation,  despair  of  any  better  days,  and  con- 
sider their  national  existence  to  be  a  thing  of 
the  past. 

CHAPTER  34 

Jeremiah's  Eighteenth  Prophecy  (Reign 

of  Zedekiah).     The  Fate  of  Zedekiah. 

The  Treatment  of  Hebrew  Slaves 
Early  in  the  campaign  of  Nebuchadnezzar, 
whose  scheme  of  conquest  included  all  the 
region  as  far  as  Egypt  inclusive,  the  policy 
urged  by  Jeremiah  was  that  Zedekiah  should 
make  the  best  terms  he  could.  In  this  c.  we 
seem  to  have  a  sort  of  abbreviated  memo- 
randum of  the  conditional  promise,  which  in 
that  case  the  prophet  was  commissioned  to 
announce  to  Zedekiah,  viz.  peace  followed  by 
kingly  obsequies.  The  condition,  here  omitted, 
is  expressed  in  38 1'^. 

The  laws  as  to  the  limitation  of  the  length 
of  servitude  in  the  case  of  Hebrew  slaves  (Ex 
212  Lv 2539-55)  had  apparently  fallen  out  of 
use  with  many  Jews,  especially  in  the  country 
parts.  Very  possibly  the  arrival  of  many  of 
the  wealthier  Jews  at  Jerusalem  from  the 
country  to  escape  the  invading  army  made  the 
laxity  on  their  part  more  conspicuous  by  con- 
trast. The  agreement  here  spoken  of  seems 
to  have  been  brought  about  in  view  of  the 
impending  danger  of  invasion,  in  resisting 
which  the  slaves,  if  enfranchised,  might  be 
more  willing  to  co-operate.  But  when  the 
Babylonian  army  withdrew  for  a  short  time 
(375)  to  meet  the  Egyptian  forces,  which  they 
believed  to  be  threatening  them,  the  masters 
basely  cancelled  their  agreement. 

1-7.  Capture  and  burning  of  Jerusalem 
foretold. 

3.  Thine  eyes  shall  behold  .  .  the  king,  etc.] 
i.e.  at  Riblah,  before  being  blinded  and  carried 
to  Babylon:  see  39 7  529,  and  cp.  32 ^  Ezk 
1213. 


474 


34.5 


JEREMIAH 


36.  32 


5.  Shall  they  burn  odouni]  EV  '  Shall  they 
make  a  burning'  :  see  details  in  2Chl6i'*. 

7.  Against  Lachish,  and  against  Azekah]  in 
SW.  of  Judah  near  the  border  of  Egypt. 
Nebuchadnezzar  would  not  venture  to  advance 
into  that  country  on  his  career  of  conquest, 
leaving  these  fortresses  untaken. 

8-22.  The  masters  of  Hebrew  slaves  to  be 
punished  for  their  cruel  treatment  of  them. 

13.  Out  of  the  house  of  bondmen]  The  point 
is  that  Israel's  position  at  the  time  when  the 
covenant  was  made,  as  having  themselves  been 
delivered  from  Egyptian  slavery,  should  have 
taught  them  better.  17.  The  people  shall  no 
longer  as  hitherto  be  under  God's  protection 
as  His  servants,  but  be  thrown  by  Him  on 
their  own  resources,  and  so  exposed  to  their 
perils.  18.  Cut  the  calf  in  twain]  For  such 
mode  of  ratifying  a  covenant  see  on  Gn  1 5  s. 

21.  Which  are  gone  up  from  you]  i.e.  which 
have  raised  the  siege  for  the  time. 

CHAPTEE  35 
Jeremiah's  Nineteenth  Prophecy  (Eeign 
of  Jehoiakim).     The  Obedience  of  the 
Eechabites 

This  and  c.  36  form  a  break  in  the  narrative, 
bringing  us  back  from  the  tenth  year  of  Zede- 
kiah  to  the  insecurity  which  followed  upon 
Nebuchadnezzar  s  victory  of  Carchemish  (fourth 
year  of  Jehoiakim),  when  predatory  bands  of 
Chaldeans  and  others  had  compelled  many  of 
the  inhabitants  of  Palestine  to  take  refuge 
within  Jerusalem.  Among  these  were  the 
Eechabites,  a  nomadic  tribe  of  Kenite  descent. 
The  prophet  contrasts  their  obedience  to  the 
precepts  of  their  leader  Jonadab  (who  lived 
about  two  centuries  and  a  half  before  this 
time,  2K10i^^')  with  the  disobedience  of 
Judah.    Each  shall  receive  its  meet  recompense. 

i-ii.   The  Eechabites'  rule  of  life. 

2.  The  Eechabites  were  descended  from 
Hobab,  brother-in-law  of  Moses,  of  the  Kenite 
tribe.  They  migrated  with  the  Israelites  from 
the  wilderness  to  Palestine  :  cp.  Nu  1 0  -^"^^ 
Jglie.  5.  Pots]  EV  'bowls.'  6.  Command- 
ed us,  etc.]  perhaps  owing  to  the  excess  which 
he  saw  to  be  fostered  by  city  life.  For  Jona- 
dab see  2  K 10 15. 

12-17.  Application  of  the  lesson  to  the  Jews. 

18,  19.  The  Eechabites'  reward. 

CHAPTEE   36 

Events  connected  with  the  collection 
OE  Jeremiah's  Prophecies  into  a  vol- 
ume (4th  and  5th  years  of  Jehoiakim) 

The  prophecies  concerning  Israel  and  Judah 
are  now  ended,  and  we  have  here  the  record  of 
the  embodying  in  a  permanent  form  by  Jere- 
miah of  the  substance  of  these  prophecies. 
For  further  remarks  see  Intro. 

2.  A   roll   of  a   book]    Several  skins  were 


stitched  together  and  attached  to  a  roller  of 
wood.  The  writing  was  arranged  in  coliunns 
parallel  to  the  roller,  so  that  as  the  parchment 
was  gradually  unfolded  the  successive  columns 
could  be  read.  4.  Baruch]  the  prophet's 
companion  and  assistant  already  mentioned 
(321-f-).  5.  Shut  up]  not  meaning  imprisoned 
(with  which  v.  19  would  be  inconsistent),  but 
hindered  perhaps  by  the  extreme  unpopularity 
of  his  recent  utterances. 

9.  In  the  ninth  month]  our  December.  It 
was  thus  a  specially  appointed  fast,  not  that  of 
the  seventh  month  which  alone  was  prescribed 
by  the  Law  (Lv  16  29  23  2T).  10.  Gemariah]  he 
was  brother  of  Ahikam  (see  26  ^•i),  who  was 
friendly  to  Jeremiah  and  distinct  from 
Gemariah  of  29^. 

II.  When  Michaiah.  .  had  heard]  As  it  was 
in  the  chamber  of  Michaiah's  father  that 
Baruch  had  been  allowed  to  read  the  roll, 
Gemariah,  who  was  engaged  at  a  council  of 
the  leading  men  in  another  room,  would 
naturally  be  desirous  to  learn  as  soon  as  might 
be  what  had  occurred.  12.  Went  down]  see 
on  221.     Elnathan]  mentioned  in  2622. 

15.  Sit  down]  Baruch  was  invited  to  take 
the  position  ordinarily  assumed  by  an  Eastern 
teacher.  This  together  with  v.  1 9  shows  that 
the  princes  were  favourably  disposed  towards 
Jeremiah.  17.  How  didst  thou  write,  etc.] 
They  desired  to  know  how  much  was  Baruch's 
own  that  they  might  be  able  to  state  to  the 
king  the  amount  of  responsibility  that  rested 
upon  each. 

22.  The  ■winter-house]  a  separate  portion  of 
the  palace,  as  appears  from  Am3i5.  On  the 
hearth]  EV  '  in  the  brasier '  :  so  in  v.  23. 
Braziers  containing  charcoal  were  placed  in  a 
depression  in  the  middle  of  a  room  for  warm- 
ing purposes.  23.  Leaves]  EM  '  columns  ' : 
see  on  v.  2.  He]  i.e.  the  king.  24.  They 
were  not  afraid . .  neither  the  king,  etc.]  Con- 
trast with  this  the  conduct  of  the  king's  father 
Josiah  when  the  newly  discovered  Book  of  the 
Law  was  read  to  him  (2  K  22  H). 

29.  Shall  certainly  come,  etc.]  fulfilled  in 
the  time  of  Jehoiakim's  son,  Jehoiachin,  and 
finally  when  Zedekiah  was  carried  captive. 

30.  He  shall  have  none  to  sit,  etc.]  for  his 
son  was  carried  captive  in  three  months  from 
his  accession:  cp.  22^0.  His  dead  body,  etc.] 
see  on  2219.  32.  The  substance  of  the  second 
roll  is  doubtless  to  a  large  extent  preserved  to 
us  in  this  book. 

CHAPTEES  37,  38 
Events  during  the  Siege  or  Jerusalem 
(Eeign  of  Zedekiah) 
Here  after  two  parenthetical  chapters  (35, 
36)  concerning  the  time  of  Jehoiakim,  we 
revert  to  the  narrative  (beginning  in  c.  32) 
of  the  last  two  years  of  Zedekiah. 


475 


37.  1 


JEREMIAH 


40.6 


CHAPTER    37 

1-5.  The  general  position. 

I.  Coniah]  see  on  22  "■^■i.  Whom]  referring 
to  Zedekiah.     3.   Zephaniah]  see  on  21i. 

5.  This  refers  to  the  temporary  raising  of 
the  siege  of  Jerusalem  by  the  Babylonians  on 
the  approach  of  an  Egyptian  army  under 
Pharaoh-Hophra.  He  either  retired  or  was 
defeated,  for  the  siege  was  soon  renewed. 

6-10.  The  return  of  the  Chaldeans  foretold. 

I1-15.   Jeremiah  imprisoned. 

12.  To  separate  himself  thence]  RV  '  to  re- 


CHAPTER    39 

The  Capture  of  Jerusalem  (11th  year  of 
Zedekiah) 

The  narrative  in  this  c,  with  some  varieties 
in  detail,  coincides  with  that  of  c.  52  and  with 
2K25. 

1-7.  The  city  taken.     Zedekiah's  fate. 

3.  From  the  Eng.  it  would  appear  that 
there  are  six  persons  named.  But  Rab-saris 
(chief  of  the  eunuchs)  and  Rab-mag  (chief  of 
the  sorcerers)  are  only  the  titles  of  those 
whose  names  they  follow.     4.  The  •way  of  the 


ceive  his  portion  there,'  probably  referrmg  to  plain]   so  as  to  escape  to  the  eastern  bank  of 

an  allotment  of  communal  land  at  Anathoth.  Jordan.     5.  Riblah]  on  the  high  road  between 

In   the    midst    of    the   people]    there   was  Palestine    and    Babylon.      7.     See    on    343, 

naturally  a  rush  to  get    out    of    the  city  on  Putting  out  the  eyes  was  a  common  punish- 

account  of   the  confinement  as  well    as   the  ment  in  the  East. 


scarcity  of  provisions. 

16-21.  The  king  takes  compassion  on  Jere- 
miah. 

16.  Cabins]  RV  'cells.'  17.  Secretly] 
dreading  in  his  weakness  the  interference  of 
the  princes.     21.   See  on  32  2. 

CHAPTER  38 

1-3.  The  removal  of  Jeremiah  from  the 
prison  was  favourable  to  the  publication  of 
his  message.     Hence  the  alarm  of  the  princes. 

1.  Pashur]   see  on  20 2. 

2.  He  that  goeth  forth]  i.e.  submits  :  so 
V.  17. 

6.  Dungeon]  RM  '  pit,'  or  cistern.  It  is 
conjectuced  that  Ps69  may  have  been  com- 
posed by  Jeremiah  on  this  occasion. 

7-13.  Jeremiah  is  rescued  by  Ebed-melech. 

10.  Thirty]  possibly  a  copyist's  error  for 
'  three.'  The  two  words  resemble  each  other 
much  more  closely  in  Hebrew  than  in  English. 

14-28.  The  king  again  asks  the  prophet's 
advice.     Result. 

14.  The  third  entry]  Probably  referring  to 
some  passage  between  the  Temple  and  the 
palace.  15.  Wilt  thou  not  hearken  unto  me  ?  ] 
RV  '  Thou  wilt  not  hearken  unto  me.'  18.  The 
king  of  Babylon's  princes]  Nebuchadnezzar 
was  probably  himself  at  Riblah:   see  39^. 

19.  And  they  mock  me]  for  not  surrender- 
ing sooner  as  they  had  done. 

22.  The  women  of  the  harem  shall  join  in 
the  reproaches,  saying.  Thy  friends  have  per- 
suaded thee  against  thy  better  judgment,  and 
then  deserted  thee. 

24-26.  Zedekiah's  weakness  is  again  con- 
spicuous. 28.  And  he  was,  etc.]  RV  '  And 
it  came  to  pass  when  Jerusalem  was  taken '  ; 
the  words  thus  belonging  not  to  what  precedes, 
but  to  c.  39. 

CHAPTERS  39-437 

Jeremiah's  History  from  the  Fall  of 
Jerusalem  till  he  goes  down  to 
Egypt.     See  Introduction 


8-10.  Fate  of  the  city.  If  we  had  only 
this  narrative  we  should  suppose  that  Nebuzar- 
adan  was  present  in  person,  but  52^2  shows 
that  he  did  not  arrive  till  a  month  after  the 
taking  of  the  city. 

11-14.   Nebuchadnezzar  and  the  prophet. 

12.  Look  -well  to  him]  for  Jeremiah  had 
always  counselled  submission  to  Babylon  :  cp. 
401.     14.   Gedaliah]   see  on  2624. 

15-18.  Message  to  Ebed-melech. 

CHAPTER  40 

Gedaliah  as  Governor  (586  b.c.) 

Chs.  40 '^-43  6  are  briefly  summarised  in 
2  K  25  22-26.  The  account  in  the  book  of  Kings 
mentions  merely  the  accomplished  results ; 
while  here  the  process  by  which  these  results 
were  brought  about  are  fully  detailed.  We 
learn  here  in  particular  that  Ishmael  ben- 
Nethaniah  was  prompted  to  assassinate  Geda- 
liah by  the  Ammonite  king,  Baalis,  and  that 
Gedaliah  was  warned  of  the  plot  by  Johanan, 
but  that  he  refused  to  believe  that  Ishmael 
would  do  such  a  thing.  Full  details  of  the 
slaughter  of  the  people  at  Mizpah  are  also 
given  here,  as  well  as  an  account  of  the  pur- 
suit of  Ishmael  by  Johanan  and  the  recovery 
of  the  captives.  We  are  told  here  also  what 
is  omitted  in  Kings  that  when  Johanan 
desired  to  go  to  Egypt  for  safety,  Jeremiah 
sought  to  dissuade  him,  promising  safety  if 
the  people  remained  in  Judah,  but  destruction 
if  they  went  to  Egypt.  Johanan,  however, 
was  incredulous,  and  took  the  remnant  of 
Judah  down  to  Tahpanhes  in  Egypt,  and  with 
them  Jeremiah  and  Baruch. 

I.  The  word  that  came]  including  the 
history  which  follows.  No  prophetic  utter- 
ance comes  till  42  9.  To  the  Jews  history 
and  prophecy  were  intimately  connected  ; 
e.g.  they  included  most  of  the  historical  books 
of  the  Bible  under  the  title  of  Prophets. 

5.  Rew^ard]  RV  '  present.' 

6.  Mizpah]    a  city  of   Benjamin,  NW.  of 


476 


40.  7 


JEREMIAH 


44.  19 


Jerusalem,  and  the  chief  scene  of  the  events 
now  to  be  described.  7.  Forces  which  icere 
in  the  fields]  keeping  out  of  the  way  until  the 
Babylonian  army  departed,  and  they  should 
have  learned  the  nature  of  the  new  govern- 
ment :  cp.  V.  13. 

8.  The  Netophathite]  Netophah  was  a  village 
near  Bethlehem  (Neh  7  26). 

10.  Gather  ye  wine,  etc.]  Make  provision 
for  the  winter. 

12.  Returned]  reassured  by  the  fact  that 
the  new  governor  was  their  own  countryman. 

14.  Ishmael  felt  aggrieved  that  he,  though 
of  royal  birth  (see  41 1),  had  been  set  aside  in 
favour  of  Gedaliah.  The  instigation  by  Baalis 
may  have  arisen  through  designs  of  conquest. 

CHAPTER  41 

Plot  against  Gedaliah  and  its  Results 

(586  B.C.) 

i-io.  Ishmael  murders  Gedaliah  and  others, 
and  carries  off  captives. 

I.  And  the  princes]  RV  '  and  otie  of  the 
chief  officers ' ;  a  further  description  of  Ishmael 
himself,  not  an  addition  to  his  band.  Even] 
RV  '  and.'  5.  Having  their  beards  shaven, 
etc.]  in  mourning  for  the  destruction  of  the 
Temple  :  see  on  16  6.  6.  Weeping  all  along] 
feigning  equal  concern  with  them,  so  as  to 
put  them  off  their  guard.  7.  Pit]  RV 
'  cistern.'  8.  Treasures]  RV  '  stores  hidden.' 
Dry  cisterns,  covered  with  a  deep  layer  of 
earth,  are  commonly  used  for  this  purpose  in 
the  East.  9.  Because  of]  RV '  by  the  side  of,' 
i.e.  their  bodies  placed  by  his.  Asa . .  Baasha] 
see  IK  1522. 

11-18.  Johanan  rescues  the  captives  and 
they  start  for  Egypt. 

12.  Gibeon]  the  modern  El-jib,  a  city  of 
the  priests  (Josh  18  25  2117),  in  the  tribe  of 
Benjamin.      14.   Cast  about]   turned  round. 

15.  These  acts  of  treachery  may  well  have 
been  connected  with  woes  predicted  for  Ammon 
in  491*.  17.  The  habitation  of  Chimham] 
RM  '  the  lodging  place '  (i.e.  inn  or  khan)  of 
Chimham  :  see  2  S 1 9  ^7.  It  was  natural  that 
David  as  a  mark  of  gratitude  to  the  son  of 
Barzillai  should  have  givqn  Chimham  a  piece 
of  his  patrimony. 

CHAPTER   42 
Jeremiah's  Mbssage  from  God  to 
Johanan 
I.  Jezaniah]   the  Azariah  of  43 2  (and  pro- 
bably not  the  Jezaniah  of  40  S). 

7-22.  The  people  are  forbidden  to  go  down 
to  Egypt.  Jeremiah  had  always  denounced 
connexion  with  Egypt  (23i'  377). 

15.  And  now]  RV  'now.'  20.  Ye  dis- 
sembled in  your  hearts]  RV  '  ye  have  dealt 
deceitfully  against  yom-  own  souls,'  i.e.  while 
persuading  yourselves  that  you  are  prepared 


to  accept  God's  decision,  all  the  while  nothing 
but  your  own  way  would  content  you. 

CHAPTER   43 

The  Fate  of  Egypt 
1-7.   They  disobey  and  go  to  Egypt. 

7.  Tahpanhes]   see  on  216. 

Here  ends  the  historical  portion  of  the 
book,  the  remainder  consisting  of  prophecies 
directed  mainly  against  foreign  nations. 

8-13.   Prophecy  of  the  overthrow  of  Egypt. 

9.  In  the  clay  in  the  brick-kiln]  RV  '  in 
mortar  in  the  brickwork.'  11.  Death]  by 
famine  or  pestilence.  12.  Nebuchadnezzar 
shall  have  no  more  difficulty  in  spoiling  Egypt 
than  has  the  shepherd  in  wrapping  his  outer 
garment  about  him  after  his  labour. 

13.   Images]    RV  'pillars,'  RM  'obelisks.' 

Beth-shemesh  (Gk.  '  Heliopolis,'  Egyptian 
'  On  ')  was  a  city  of  obelisks,  two  of  which 
stood  before  the  Temple  of  the  Sun.  Its  site 
is  about  10  m.  KE.  of  Cairo. 

CHAPTER   44 
Jeremiah's   Latest    Prophecy   (after   586 
B.C.).     (The  prophecies  against  the  Gentile 
nations  (chs.  46-51)  were  mostly  uttered 
after  the  battle  of  Carchemish,  605  B.C.) 
He  denounces  the  unabated  idolatry  which 
still  characterised  the  people  now  that  they 
dwelt  in  Egypt.     Their  experience  of  suffer- 
ing had  taught  them  nothing. 

i-io.  Jeremiah's  countrymen  rebuked. 
I.   Migdol]    on  the  northern    boundary    of 
Egypt.     For  Noph  and  Tahpanhes  see  on  2 16. 

8.  The  works  of  your  hands]   i.e.  your  idols. 
Might  cut  yourselves  off]   RV  '  may  be  cut 

off.' 

11-14.   Their  punishment  foretold. 

15-19.   They  persist  in  their  idolatry. 

15.  All  the  women  that  stood  by]  Probably 
the  occasion  was  an  idolatrous  festival  in  which 
the  women  were  taking  a  leading  part.  All 
the  people,  etc.]  not,  of  course,  to  be  taken 
literally,  but  meaning  that  they  were  very 
numerous  and  represented  the  whole. 

17.  Whatsoever  thing  goeth  forth]  RV 
'  every  word  that  is  gone  forth.'  They  refer 
to  their  religious  vows  :  cp.  Nu302  Dt2323. 

Queen  of  heaven]  see  on  7  is.  The7i  had  we 
plenty  of  victuals]  They  perversely  attribute 
the  misfortunes  which  had  befallen  their  coun- 
try from  the  battle  of  Megiddo  and  death  of 
Josiah  onwards  to  the  attack  made  upon  idolatry 
(2  K  23)  by  that  king,  and  not  to  the  gradual 
degradation  of  the  people  through  the  medium 
of  that  idolatry  during  the  reigns  of  Manasseh 
and  Amon  and  the  earlier  part  of  that  of 
Josiah.  19.  Worship]  RM  '  pourtray,' refer- 
ring to  the  full  moon,  as  represented  either  by 
the  shape  of  the  cake  itself  or  by  a  figure  upon 
it.     Men]  RV  '  husbands.'     A  wife's  vow  was 


477 


44.  20 


JEREMIAH 


47. 


not  binding  unless  with  the  consent  of  the 
husband  :  see  NuSO^^ 

20-23.  Jeremiah  answers.  It  was,  he  says, 
owing  to  the  idolatry,  which  had  been  so  long 
rampant  and  which  Josiah's  reforms  had 
scotched,  not  killed,  that  the  overthrow  at  last 
came. 

25.  With  your  hand]  RV  '  with  your  hands,' 
pointing,  perhaps,  to  the  cakes  which  they  were 
carrying.  Ye  will  surely,  etc.]  RY  '  Establish 
then  . .  and  perform.'  If  ye  persist,  then  be  it 
so.  26.  As  being  faithless  to  their  covenant 
with  God,  they  shall  lose  the  right  of  calling 
upon  His  name  as  such.  29.  The  sign  referred 
to,  viz.  Nebuchadnezzar's  invasion  of  Egypt,  did 
not  take  place  till  586  B.C.  For  other  instances 
of  a  sign  not  to  take  effect  for  a  considerable 
time  after  its  announcement  cp.  Ex  3  ^^  2  K 
1929. 

It  is  not  improbable  that  it  was  on  this 
occasion  that  Jeremiah  met  with  a  martyr's 
death  at  the  hands  of  his  apostate  countrymen, 
as  tradition  recounts. 

CHAPTER   45 
Baruch's  Appendix  to  the  Roll  or  c.  36 

Baruch,  a  man  of  social  position  (see  Intro.), 
seems  to  have  expected  either  important  office 
in  the  state  or  more  probably  the  gift  of 
prophecy.  On  the  occasion  of  his  writing  of 
the  roll  at  Jeremiah's  dictation,  the  prophet 
warns  him  that  his  ambition  is  not  to  be 
gratified. 

3.  Sorrow]  RV  '  pain  '  at  the  sins  of  his 
countrymen.  The  added  '  grief '  was  caused 
by  the  predictions  of  punishment.  5.  But  thy 
life,  etc.]  Baruch's  life  should  be  preserved 
amidst  all  perils. 

CHAPTERS  46-51 
Prophecies  concerning  the  Nations 
The  custom  of  placing  in  a  group,  as  here, 
prophecies  against  heathen  nations  is  illus- 
trated by  Isaiah  (chs.  13-33),  Ezekiel  (chs.  25- 
32),  and  Amos  (chs.  1,  2).  For  the  position 
of  the  prophecies  at  the  end  of  the  book  as 
compared  with  that  which  they  hold  in  the 
LXX,  see  Intro,  and  on  25^1.  We  may  divide 
them  thus : — 

(a)  Chs.  46-49  (mostly  of  the  fourth  year 
of  Jehoiakim).  This  section  contains  prophe- 
cies concerning  Egypt  and  five  other  nations 
doubtless  included  in  the  roll  of  c.  36,  with 
the  exception  of  the  second  concerning  Egypt 
(vv.  14-28  :  see  note  on  v.  13)  and  of  the  last 
against  Elam  (49  34-39  ;  first  year  of  Zedekiah). 
These  prophecies  follow  a  natural  order. 
Egypt  is  at  the  head  as  the  nation  whose  over- 
throw by  Nebuchadnezzar  would  be  the  signal 
to  those  others  of  a  similar  fate.  We  go  thenc 
to  Philistia  (including  Tyre  and  Sidon)  ;  then 
(passing  round  to  the  E.  of  Palestine)  to  Moab, 


Ammon,  and  Edom  ;  then  to  Damascus,  as  re- 
presenting the  kingdoms  of  the  North ;  to 
Kedar  and  Hazor,  as  indicating  the  kings  men- 
tioned in  the  summary  of  25^4  ;  while,  lastly, 
the  nations  of  the  East  are  included  under  Elam. 
(b)  Chs.  50,  51  (of  doubtful  authorship). 
This  prophecy  concerning  Babylon  forms  an 
appropriate  conclusion  to  the  series.  The 
nations  immediately  bordering  upon  Palestine 
have  had  their  fate  foretold,  and  then  the 
more  remote.  Now  the  empire  which  was  to 
execute  God's  vengeance  upon  them  is  itself 
declared  to  be  destined  in  its  turn  to  fall.  See 
fm-ther,  in  intro.  to  c.  50. 

CHAPTER   46 

Against  Egypt 

1.  Against  the  Gentiles]  RV  'concerning 
the  nations '  around. 

2.  Carchemish]  see  Intro,  and  2  Ch  35  20-24  ; 
also  on  47^. 

3-6.  A  lively  description  of  the  preparation 
and  advance,  followed  by  the  defeat  at  Car- 
chemish.    4.   Brigandines]  RV 'coats  of  mail.' 

5.  Seen  them  dismayed]  RV  '  seen  it  ? 
They  are  dismayed.' 

7.  A  flood]  RV  '  the  Nile,'  their  own  sacred 
river  in  its  annual  overflow.     So  in  v.  8. 

9.  The  Ethiopians,  etc.]  mercenary  troops 
forming  the  chief  part  of  the  Egyptian  armies. 

ID.  A  day  of  vengeance]  on  the  Egyptians. 
They  are  to  be  the  sacrifice,  because  of  their 
treachery  to  Judah.  11.  The  medical  science 
of  Egypt  was  in  high  repute.  12.  The  land] 
RV  '  the  earth.' 

13.  The  second  part  of  the  prophecy  con- 
cerning Egypt  suggests  by  its  tone  a  more  inti- 
mate acquaintance,  and  is  probably  to  be 
ascribed  to  the  time  of  the  prophet's  residence 
in  that  country. 

14.  See  on  44 1  and  21^.  16.  They  said] 
the  mercenaries  :  see  on  v.  9.  17.  The  time 
appointed]  the  period  of  grace  is  over. 

18.  Omit  the  second  is.  The  v.  means  that 
Nebuchadnezzar  shall  resemble  Tabor  and 
Carmel,  standing  out  conspicuous  as  compared 
with  neighbouring  rulers. 

20.  Is  like^  RV  '  is.'  This  probably  is  an 
allusion  to  the  sacred  bull  Apis,  worshipped  at 
Memphis.  Destruction]  RM  '  the  gadfly.'  The 
north]  i.e.  Chaldea.  22.  Like  a  serpent]  rust- 
ling as  it  escapes  through  the  thick  underwood. 
Such  shall  be  the  sound  of  Egypt  as  it  flees 
away.     23.   Her  forest]  her  beauty  :  cp.  21 1*. 

Grasshoppers]  RV  '  locusts.'  25.  The  multi- 
tude of  No]  RV  '  Amon  of  No,'  i.e.  the  god 
worshipped  there.  No]  i.e.  Thebes  in  Upper 
Egypt. 

CHAPTER  47 
Against  Philistia 
The  Chaldean  armed  men  with  horses  and 


478 


47.  1 


JEREMIAH 


49.7 


chariots  shall  carry  terror  and  desolation  into 
Philistia  and  its  cities. 

1.  Before  that  Pharaoh  smote  Gaza]  The 
main  views  as  to  the  date  of  this  prophecy  are 
(a)  that  the  '  Pharaoh '  is  Necho,  and  that  he 
captured  Gaza  about  the  time  of  his  defeat  of 
Josiah's  army  at  Megiddo  (608  B.C.)  ;  (6)  that 
the  reference  is  to  the  same  king,  as  having 
taken  Gaza  on  his  way  back  from  his  defeat  at 
Carchemish  (605  B.C.)  ;  (c)  that  the  '  Pharaoh  ' 
is  Hophra  (588-570  B.C.),  and  that  he  captured 
Gaza  in  the  course  of  an  expedition  against 
Tyre  and  Sidon. 

2.  Waters . .  out  of  the  north]  i.e.  the  Chaldean 
army.  4.  Caphtor]  the  place  of  origin  of  the 
Philistines  (see  Dt223  Am  9'''),  probably  to  be 
identified  with  Crete.  5.  Baldness]  in  token 
of  mourning  :  cp.  48  ^7.    Cut  thyself]  see  on  16  ^. 

6.  The  prayer  of  the  Philistines.  7.  Jere- 
miah's reply. 

CHAPTEK  48 

Against  Moab 

Moab,  in  recompense  for  its  pride  and  security, 

and  for  its  triumphing  over  Israel  in  the  day  of 

her  calamity,  shall  itself  be  laid  waste  and  taken 

captive  :  cp.  the  '  burden  of  Moab '  in  Isa  15,  16. 

I .  Nebo]  not  the  mountain,  but  the  Reubenite 
town  (Nu3238)^  which  had  been  annexed  by 
Mesha,  king  of  Moab  (about  895  B.C.),  according 
to  the  '  Moabite  Stone  '  records.  Several  places 
mentioned  in  this  c.  have  not  been  certainly 
identified.  2.  Heshbon]  an  Ammonite  town 
on  the  border  of  Moab,  where  the  Chaldean  in- 
vaders would  lay  their  final  plans.  Madmen] 
a  place  unknown.  5.  RV  '  For  by  the  ascent 
of  Luhith  with  continual  weeping  shall  they  go 
up.'  6.  The  heath]  see  on  17''.  7.  Chemosh] 
the  god  of  Moab's  national  worship.  8.  The 
valley]  of  Jordan,  bounding  part  of  Moab  on 
the  W.  ID.  Deceitfully]  RV  'negligently.' 
Moab's  foe  must  not  be  slack  in  executing 
God's  command. 

II.  Settled  on  his  lees]  i.e.  like  wine  which 
has  remained  undisturbed  and  not  lost  its 
flavour.  Lees  means  sediment.  Moab  had  re- 
tained its  strength,  but  it  was  not  to  last. 

12.  Wanderers,  that  shall  cause  him  to  wan- 
der] RV  '  them  that  pour  off,  and  they  shall 
pour  him  off.'  The  figure  of  jars  of  wine  is 
continued.  They  are  emptied  by  being  tilted 
on  one  side,  an  operation  that  was  performed 
slowly  and  carefully,  that  the  jars  might  be  safe 
and  the  wine  run  off  clear,  while  the  sediment 
was  left.  This  work,  however,  in  the  case  of 
Moab,  shall  be  done  roughly.  13.  Bethel]  the 
southern  seat  of  the  idolatrous  worship  intro- 
duced by  Jeroboam  (1 K 12  29). 

15.  And  gone  up  out  of  her  cities]  RM  'and 
her  cities  are  gone  up  in  smoke.''  18.  Come 
down]  Dibon  stands  on  two  hills.  25.  Horn] 
symbol  of  strength  and  pride.     27.  Was  he 


479 


found  among  thieves]  that  he  merited  such 
treatment.  Since]  RV  '  as  often  as.'  30.  But, 
etc.]  RV  '  that  it  is  nought ;  his  boastings  have 
wrought  nothing.' 

Z2.  Cp.  Isal68.9.  With]  RV  'with  more 
than.'  Plants]  RV  '  branches.'  Sibmah  seems 
to  have  been  famous  for  its  vineyards.  Over 
the  sea]  as  far  as  the  W.  shore  of  the  Dead 
Sea.  Jazer]  N.  of  Heshbon.  Near  its  ruins 
are  two  large  ponds.  33.  Their  shouting,  etc.] 
The  vintage  shout  shall  be  changed  to  the  cry 
of  panic. 

36.  Pipes]  They  were  used  at  funerals,  so 
that  the  word  is  appropriate  to  express  moui-n- 
ing.  37.  All  shall  have  the  usual  emblems  of 
mourning  :  cp.  47^. 

38.  Vessel]  see  on  22^8. 

40.   He  shall  fly]  i.e.  the  Chaldean  power. 

45.  They  that  fled  .  .  force]  RV  '  They  that 
fled  stand  without  strength  under  the  shadow 
of  Heshbon.'  While  the  fugitives  of  Moab 
wait  in  hope  of  aid  under  the  walls  of  the 
Ammonite  city,  there  bursts  forth  from  it  a 
flame  kindled  by  the  Chaldean  foe  like  that 
which  in  old  days  was  kindled  at  the  same  place 
by  Sihon,  the  Amorite  conqueror  (Nu212S). 

Tumultuous  ones]  the  fugitives. 

47.  For  the  note  of  comfort  at  the  end  of 
the  prophecy  cp.  46^6  49<^'39. 

CHAPTER  49 

Against   Ammon,   Edom,   and  other 
Nations 

1-6.  The  territory  of  Ammon  was  N.  of 
Moab,  and  the  two  peoples  were  connected  by 
descent.  The  carrying  away  of  the  tribes  on 
the  E.  of  Jordan  by  Tiglath-pileser,  king  of 
Assyria  (2  K 1529),  strengthened  the  hands  of 
Ammon,  and  it  is  their  occupation  of  the  por- 
tion of  Gad  upon  that  occasion  that  forms  the 
crime  which  is  dwelt  on  in  this  prophecy,  and 
which  shall  bring  on  them  judgment. 

I.  Their  king]  RV  'Malcam,'  or  Moloch,  the 
god  of  the  Ammonites,  and  so  in  v.  3.  So  in 
48  7  Chemosh  is  used  for '  Moab.'  2,  3.  Rabbah 
.  .  Heshbon  .  .  Ai]  Ammonite  towns. 

Hedges]  fences,  inclosures  of  vineyards. 

4.  Thy  flowing  valley]  Ammon  was  full  of 
valleys  and  streams  running  into  Jordan. 

7-22.  Concerning  Edom]  The  bitterness  of 
the  tone  in  which  Edom  is  addressed  in  this 
prophecy  is  doubtless  to  be  ascribed  to  the 
affinity  between  them  and  the  Jews,  which 
made  the  unnatural  exultation  of  Edom  over 
the  fallen  fortunes  of  their  kinsmen  the  more 
offensive. 

Much  of  the  earlier  part  of  this  prophecy 
is  almost  verbally  the  same  as  Obad  vv. 
1-8,  while  in  Obadiah  the  vv.  come  in  more 
natural  sequence.  Obadiah  seems  to  have 
written  (see  his  v.  11)  after  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem,  whereas  the  prophecy  in  Jeremiah 


49.7 


JEREMIAH 


50.  12 


is  connected  by  its  grouping  with  the  4th  year 

of  Jehoiakim  (see  intro.  to  chs.  46-49).     To 

meet  this  difficulty  it  has  been  suggested  either 

(a)  that  the  earlier  part  of  Obadiah's  prophecy 

was   written   before    Nebuchadnezzar's    over- 
throw of  Jerusalem,  and  only  the  latter  part 

after   that   event  ;  or,  (b)  that   both   prophets 

embodied  in  their  writings  an  earlier  predic- 
tion.      Another    suggested    solution    is     that 

Obadiah  is  referring  to  an  earlier  overthrow, 

viz.  in  the  time  of  Jehoram  (2Ch21i^). 

7.  Is  wisdom  no  more  in  Teman  ?]  Wisdom 

seems  to  have  been  a  special  characteristic  of 

Edom  :  see  v.  20,  Obad  v.  8,  and  cp.  (apocry- 
phal) book  of  Baruch  322*.    8.  Dedan]  a  tribe 

descended  from  Abraham  by  his  wife  Keturah 

(Gn253),  and  dwelling  SE.  of  Edom.     They 

are  bidden  to  keep  well  out  of  the  way  lest  they 

should  be  involved  in  the  overthrow  of  their 

neighbours  :  cp.  v.  30.     Esau]  i.e.  Edom. 

9.  Would  they  not  leave  some?]  EM 
'  they  will  leave  no,'  etc.      In  Obad  v.  6  the 

words  are   interrogative,  but   probably  not  so 

here.  The  enemy,  under  the  simile  of  grape- 
gatherers  and  of  thieves,  will  bring  about  com- 
plete desolation.  10.  Secret  places]  retreats 
and  fastnesses.  11.  The  widows  and  orphans 
of  the  slain  may,  however,  look  to  God's  pro- 
tection. 

12.  Whose  judgment  ivas  not]  RV  '  to 
whom  it  pertained  not.'  If  Israel  itself 
has  not  escaped  the  cup  of  woe,  how  should 
Edom  ?  16.  Thy  stern  mountain  fastnesses 
have  persuaded  thee  thou  art  impregnable. 

Rock]  Heb.  Selah,  is  probably  an  allusion  to 
the  precipice-protected  town  of  that  name 
(identical  with  Petra),  the  capital  of  Edom  : 
see  2K147.  17.  A  desolation]  RV  '  an  aston- 
ishment.' 

1 9.  He]  the  enemy  of  Edom.  Like  a  lion  from 
the  swelling  of  Jordan]  see  on  12  5.  Against 
the  habitation  of  the  strong]  RM  '  unto  the  per- 
manent pastures,'  as  the  spot  where  a  lion  would 
be  most  likely  to  find  his  prey.  But  I  will 
suddenly,  etc.]  RM  '  for  I  will  suddenly  drive 
them  away,'  i.e.  the  Edomites.  And  who  is 
a  chosen  imm,  that  I  may,  etc.]  RV  'and  whoso 
is  chosen  '  (viz.  my  servant  Nebuchadnezzar) 
'  him  will  I,'  etc.  The  time]  RV  '  a  time.' 
God  identifies  Himself  with  His  human  agent 
for  punishment.  The  reference  is  to  the 
right  of  the  plaintiff  in  a  suit  to  appoint  the 
time  of  trial.  Who  shall  dare  to  claim  such 
a  right  here  ?  cp.  Job  9 19.  Who  ix  that  shep- 
herd ?]  What  ruler  will  attempt  to  defend  his     shall  be  avenged 


relates  to  Syria  generally,  of  which  this  was 
the  most  important  city. 

23.  On  the  sea]  If  with  some  Heb.  MSS 
we  read  '  as  '  for  '  on  '  it  will  refer  to  the 
hearts  trouble-tossed  by  conquest.  25.  How 
is .  .  not  left]  i.e.  how  sad  it  is  that  the  inhabit- 
ants, paralysed  with  fear,  have  not  saved  them- 
selves by  fleeing  in  time  !  27.  Ben-hadad] 
Three  kings  of  Damascus  bore  this  name  (IK 
15i8f.  20 If-  2 K 1325). 

28-33.  Concerning  Kedar.  Kedar]  see  on 
2 10.      Hazor]  perhaps  in  Arabia. 

30.  Dwell  deep]  see  on  v.  8.  31.  Addressed 
to  the  invaders.  Wealthy]  RV  '  that  is  at  ease,' 
feeling  secure  against  invasion.  32.  Corners] 
see  on  9^6.     33.  Dragons]  RV  'jackals.' 

34-39.  Against  Elam]  RV  '  concerning 
Elam,'  a  country  to  the  E.  of  Chaldea.  For 
the  date,  as  compared  with  the  other  prophecies, 
see  intro.  to  chs.  46-49. 

35.  The  bovy]  their  chief  weapon  :  cp. 
Isa22  6.  36.  The  four  v^mids]  i.e.  invasion 
from  all  sides.     39.  See  on  48*7. 

CHAPTER   50 
The  Fall  of  Babylon  and  the  Restora- 
tion OF  Israel 

The  prophecy  concerning  Babylon  is  ascribed 
to  Jeremiah  in  51  ^^  This,  however,  need  not 
mean  more  than  that  it  represents  the  tone  of 
Jeremiah's  utterances  as  expanded  by  a  fol- 
loM^er,  e.g.  Baruch,  at  a  later  date.  The  reasons 
for  doubting  Jeremiah's  authorship  arc  :  Qi)  he 
elsewhere  speaks  in  friendly  terms  of  the 
Chaldeans  ;  here  their  overthrow  is  predicted  ; 
(i)  the  style  and  words  betray  another  writer  ; 
(c)  the  knowledge  displayed  of  Babylonian 
matters  is  greater  than  could  be  expected  of 
the  prophet  ;  (d)  the  Jews  are  in  exile  far 
away  from  Jerusalem  (50*' 6, 17, 33).  xhe  pro- 
phecy was  fulfilled  when  Babylon  was  taken 
by  Cyrus  or  his  general  Gobryas  (perhaps  the 
Darius  of  Daniel)  in  639  B.C.,  nearly  50  years 
after  the  fall  of  Jerusalem. 

2.  A  standard]  as  the  speediest  way  of  call- 
ing attention  to  the  news.  Merodach]  another 
name  for  Bel  (Baal),  the  tutelary  God  of 
Babylon.  3.  Out  of  the  north]  referring  to 
the  Medo-Persian  power.  Media  was  NW.  of 
Babylon. 

4,  The  overthrow  of  their  captors  shall  free 
the  Jews.  5.  Thitherward]  RM  '  Heb.  hither- 
ward.' 

8-16.   The  triumph  of  Babylon  over  Israel 


flock  against  Me  ?  20.  The  least,  etc.]  RV 
'  They  shall  drag  them  away,  even  the  little 
ones  of  the  flock.'  Edom  shall  be  as  helpless 
before  the  foe  as  sheep.  21.  Red  sea]  pro- 
bably the  Gulf  of  Akaba,  to  the  S.  of  Edom, 
not  the  Gulf  of  Suez. 

23-27.  Concerning  Damascus]  The  prophecy 


8.  As  the  he  goats]    in  joyful  alacrity. 

9.  An  assembly  of  great  nations]  see  for 
some  of  them  bl'^".  Herodotus  (vii.61*-)  says 
there  were  twenty-two.  11.  It  is  for  exulting 
over  Israel  that  Chaldea  suffers.  At  grass] 
RV  '  that  treadeth  out  the  corn.^  The  com- 
mand in  Dt  25*  would  have  this  effect.    12.  The 


480 


50.  15 


JEREMIAH 


51.  46 


hindermost,  etc.]  RV  '  She  (Babylon)  shall  be 
the  hindermost,'  etc.  15.  Given  her  hand]  RV 
'  submitted  herself,'  surrendered.  Founda- 
tions] RV  '  bulwarks.'  Her  walls  are  thrown 
down]  not  done  by  Cyrus,  but  (according  to 
Herod,  iii.  159)  at  the  later  capture  by  Darius. 

16.  They  shall  turn,  etc.]  The  captives  of 
other  nations  as  well  as  of  the  Jews  shall  be 
released. 

17-32.  Babylon  and  her  empire  are  doomed, 
while  Israel  shall  be  forgiven. 

17.  The  lions]  The  sculptured  winged  lions 
(Assyrian  and  Babylonian)  give  the  image  a 
special  point.  Assyria  had  devoured  the  Ten 
Tribes,  and  now  Babylon  was  crushing  the 
feeble  remnant  of  the  people.  Assyria  had  paid 
the  penalty  ;  so  too  shall  Babylon.  20.  Reserve] 
RV  '  leave  as  a  remnant.' 

21.  Merathaim  ..  Pekod]  Proper  names  bear- 
ing the  significant  senses  of  '  double -rebellion  ' 
and  '  visitation,'  alluding  to  Babylon. 

23.  Hammer]  Babylon:  cp.  51-0.  Indi- 
viduals at  other  times  have  borne  this  title  ; 
Judas  Maccabaeus  for  his  victories  over  Syria ; 
Charles  Martel,  grandfather  of  Charles  the 
Great  (Charlemagne),  who  conquered  the 
Saracens  in  a  decisive  battle  at  Tours,  732  a.d., 
and  Edward  I  of  England,  on  whose  tomb  at 
Westminster  Abbey  are  the  words,  '  Scotorum 
Malleus,'  or  '  hammer  of  the  Scots.' 

27.  Bullocks]  i.e.  her  choice  young  warriors  : 
cp.  48^5.  28.  The  vengeance  of  his  temple] 
the  requital  for  having  burnt  it :  cp.  51 11. 

29.  The  Holy  One  of  Israel]  cp.  51^,  not 
elsewhere  in  this  book,  but  characteristic  of 
Isaiah. 

33-40.  Babylon  shall  be  utterly  laid  waste. 

34.  Redeemer]  Heb.  Goel^  the  near  kinsman, 
to  whom  belonged  the  duty  of  avenging  a 
murder.  So  the  Lord  is  about  to  avenge  His 
people.     36.  Liars]  rather,  'boasters.' 

37.  Mingled  people]  see  on  25^0.  38.  Her 
waters]  the  many  canals  which  drained  and 
irrigated  the  country  around  Babylon :  cp.  51  ^^. 

Idols]  Heb.  '  terrors,'  meaning  their  gro- 
tesque forms,  such  as  winged  bulls  and  human- 
headed  lions.  39.  The  wil,d  beasts  of  the 
islands]  RV  '  the  wolves,'  Heb.  '  howling  crea- 
tures.'    Owls]  RV  '  ostriches.' 

41-46.  The  enemy  approaches  and  fulfils 
God's  behests. 

41-43.   See  on  622f. 

44-46.  Adapted  from  4919-21. 

CHAPTER  51 

1-14.  The  end  of  Babylon  arrives. 

I.  See  on  2526.  1,2.  The  imagery  is  of  the 
wind  scattering  the  chaff  on  the  threshing- 
floor.  The  wind  and  the  fanners  are  the 
Medes  (v.  11).  3.  Him  that  bendeth]  i.e.  his 
bow  in  defence  of  Babylon.  Brigandine]  coat 
of    mail.     5.  See  on  6029.      7.  Babylon  has 


been  God's  instrument  in  His  vengeance  on  the 
nations.  10.  Hath  brought  forth  our  righteous- 
ness] has  judged  that  the  Jews'  idolatry  has 
been  sufficiently  punished,  and  that  they  are 
again  to  be  treated  as  righteous. 

11.  The  kings  of  the  Medes]  the  leaders  of 
the  various  tribes  which  together  formed  the 
nation:  cp.  v.  28.     His  temple]  see  on  5028. 

12.  Upon]  RV  against.'  13.  Many  waters] 
see  on  50 3S.  Covetousness]  RM  'dishonest 
gain.'     14.  Caterpillers]RV 'the  cankerworm.' 

15-19.  The  Creator  of  all  things  is  the 
only  true  God.     See  on  10 1^^ 

20-58.   The  fate  appointed  for  Babylon. 

20.  My  battle  ax]  Many  commentators  think 
that  Babylon  is  meant,  but  as  Babylon  is  in 
this  passage  not  the  instrument  but  the 
object  of  God's  vengeance  (vv.  24-26),  it 
seems  more  natural  to  regard  Cyrus  as  indicated 
here.     Will  I  break]  rather,  'I  break.' 

25.  O  destro3ring  mountain]  The  same 
phrase  is  used  of  the  Mount  of  Olives  (AV 
'mount  of  corruption')  in  2 K 2313,  as  the 
scene  of  pernicious  idolatry.  Babylon  here 
receives  the  title,  as  at  once  hurtful  and  con- 
spicuous. Burnt]  i.e.  probably,  burnt  out, 
extinct. 

27.  Ararat,  Minni,  are  districts  of  Armenia, 
and  so  probably  was  Ashchenaz.  Minni  is 
frequently  mentioned  in  Assyrian  inscriptions, 
the  kings  of  Assyria  having  had  to  quell 
frequent  revolts  against  their  overlordship 
among  its  people.  28.  Prepare]  lit.  'sanctify': 
so  in  G"*  22'''.  His  dominion]  referring  to  the 
king  of  Media,  who  is  to  gather  to  the  attack 
his  tribes  with  their  leaders  :  cp.  v.  11. 

31.  Post]  running  messenger.  At  one  end] 
RV  '  on  every  quarter.'  32.  Passages]  with 
fords,  or  ferries.  Reeds]  RM  '  marshes,'  Heb. 
'  pools.'  The  reservoirs  and  pools  around 
Babylon  which  prevented  inundations  shall 
disappear  as  completely  as  what  is  inflammable 
does  by  the  action  of  fire.  33.  It  is  time  to 
thresh  her]  RV  '  at  the  time  when  it  is 
trodden.' 

34  f.   Oppressed  Israel  speaks. 

34.  Dragon]  here, '  sea-monster.'  Delicates] 
dainties  ;  here  only  used  as  a  substantive  in 
the  Bible.  36.  Sea]  a  great  lake,  or  reservoir, 
made  by  the  Babylonish  queen  Nitocris. 

Springs]  RV  '  fountain,'  referring  to  the 
net-work  of  canals  dug  for  commerce  and  irriga- 
tion. 37.  Dragons]  RV '  jackals.'  39.  While 
they  are  exulting  and  carousing,  I  will 
destroy  them  unawares.  In  their  heat]  when 
hot  with  wine. 

41.  Sheshach]  see  on  2526.  42.  The  sea] 
a  figure  for  the  invaders  :  cp.  v.  55,  46 'i'^ 

44.  Bel]  see  on  50  2.  That  which  he  hath 
swallowed  up]  the  riches  of  the  subjugated 
nations. 

46.   Lest]  RV  '  let  not.'    Rumour]  the  state 


31 


481 


51.48 


JEREMIAH— LAMENTATIONS 


INTRO. 


of  unrest  preceding  the  final  catastrophe  : 
cp.  Mt246,7. 

48.  Shall  sing  for]  RV  '  shall  sing  for  joy 
over.' 

50.  Ye  that  have  escaped  the  sword]  by 
being  already  in  exile  at  Babylon.  Afar  off] 
RV  '  from  afar,'  viz.  Babylon. 

51.  The  exiles  have  been  scoff ed  at  for  wor- 
shipping a  God  who  has  not  defended  His 
Temple  from  sacrilege. 

53.  Allusion  to  the  height  of  the  walls  or 
of  the  tower  of  Bel. 

55.  The  great  voice]  the  hum  of  the  city's 
life.  When  her  waves]  RV  '  and  their  waves,' 
the  sm-ging  hosts  that  encompass  the  city  : 
cp.  V.  4'2. 

58.  Broad  walls]  They  were  30  or  40  ft.  wide : 
see  Herod,  i.  178. 

And  the  people .  .  shall  be  weary]  The  labour 
expended  on  these  splendid  edifices  will  have 
been  in  vain. 

59.  Seraiah]  brother  of  Baruch  :   see  3212. 
Went  with  Zedekiah]   Zedekiah's  visit  was 

probably  an  act  of  homage  to  Nebuchadnezzar, 
perhaps  to  allay  suspicions  caused  by  the  com- 
munications between  the  former  and  neigh- 
bouring peoples  :  see  on  27  ^.  Possibly,  how- 
ever, we  should  read  '  from,'  instead  of  'with.' 

A  quiet  prince]  RV  '  chief  chamberlain,' mg. 
'  quarter-master,'  who  prepared  for  the  king's 
reception  at  each  halting-place  on  the  journey. 

61.  And  shalt  see,  and  shaltread]  RV  'then 
see  that  thou  read,'  so  that  the  Jewish  wit- 
nesses who  heard  could  testify  in  after  time  to 
the  prediction. 

64.  And  they  shall  be  weary]  the  last  word 
(in  Heb.  but  one)  of  the  prophecy  (see  v.  58) 
with  which  the  symbolic  act  is  thus  coupled. 

Thus  far,  etc.]  showing  that  c.  52  is  by 
another  hand. 


CHAPTER  52 

Historical  Appendix  (probably  by  the 
compiler  of  the  book) 

This  c.  is  substantially  the  same  as  c.  39  (see 
notes  there),  but  adds  particulars  relating  to 
the  Temple  vessels  (vv.  17f.),  while  omitting 
Nebuchadnezzar's  charge  as  to  Jeremiah's 
safety  (39  ^^  *•)•  Both  accounts  are  probably  | 
based  on  that  of  2  K  24 18-2530. 

i-ii.  Capture  of  the  city.  12-27.  Subse- 
quent severities.  28-30.  Nebuchadnezzar's 
deportations.  31-34.  Concluding  notice  of 
Jehoiachin.     4.   Nebuchadrezzar]  see  on  21 2. 

6.  Famine]  described  in  detail  in  the  'La- 
mentations.' 7.  Then  the  city  was  broken  up] 
RV  '  Then  a  breach  was  made  in  the  city.' 

9.  Riblah]  see  on  39  5.  11.  He  put  out  the 
eyes]  see  on  39  ".    17  f.   See  prefatory  remarks. 

18.  Caldrons]  RV  '  pots,'  for  carrying  away 
ashes  after  sacrificing.  22.  A  chapiter]  a 
capital.     24.  Zephaniah]  see  on  2 1^. 

25.  The  principal  scribe  of  the  host]  R  V '  the 
scribe  of  the  captain  of  the  host.' 

28-30.  This  passage  seems  to  have  been 
taken  by  the  compiler  from  a  separate  docu- 
ment. For  seventh  we  should  probably  read 
'  seventeenth,'  corresponding  to  Zedekiah's 
tenth  year,  while  the  siege  was  going  on.  Thus 
this  captivity  would  consist  chiefly  of  people 
from  the  country  parts.  The  next,  i.e.  Nebu- 
chadnezzar's eighteenth  year,  was  that  with 
which  this  chapter  deals.  Of  the  deportation 
of  his  three  and  tw^entieth  year  we  have  no 
other  mention. 

31.  The  seven  and  thirtieth  year]  561  B.C. 
Evil-merodach]  son  of  Nebuchadnezzar. 
Lifted  up  the  head]  released  :  cp.  Gn  40 13, 20. 

32.  The  kings]  captives  kept  at  his  court 
to  commemorate  his  conquests. 

33.  He  was  admitted  to  the  king's  table. 


THE   LAMENTATIONS  OF  JEREMIAH 


INTRODUCTION 


I,  Name,  Place  in  Canon,  and  Subject.  To 
the  Hebrews  this  book  is  kno\\Ti  by  its  initial 
word,  'Ekhah,  'How'  ;  by  the  ancient  Jews  of 
Alexandria  it  was  called  Threnoi,  'Dirges'; 
by  St.  Jerome,  Lamerifatio?ies,  whence  our 
English  title.  Its  position  in  the  English  and 
other  versions  is  due  to  the  influence  of  the 
Greek  or  LXX  version,  which  placed  it  imme- 
diately after  the  prophecies  of  Jeremiah  ;  but 
in  the  Hebrew  canon  it  is  usually  found  among 


the  Hagiographa,  or  '  Writings,'  constituting, 
along  with  Canticles,  Ruth,  Ecclesiastes,  and 
Esther,  a  small  collection  known  as  the  five 
MegiUoth,  or  'Rolls.'  The  great  theme  of 
the  book  is  the  siege,  capture,  and  destruction 
of  Jenisalem  by  Nebuchadnezzar.  Josephus, 
on  the  basis  of  2Ch3525,  erroneously  supposed 
that  it  was  written  as  an  elegy  over  the  death 
of  king  Josiah.  For  vividness  and  pathos 
the  book  is  unsurpassed  in  all  literature. 


482 


FNTRO. 


LAMENTATIONS 


1.  4 


2.  Analysis. 

C.  1.  Zion's  desolation  and  sorrow. 
C.  2.  Zion's  sorrows  due  to  Jehovah's  anger. 
C.  3.  Zion's  hope  in  God's  mercy. 
C.  4.  Zion's  former   glory  contrasted  with 
her  present  humiliation. 

C.  5.  Zion's  earnest  petition  for  deliverance. 

3.  Structure.  Of  the  five  lyric  poems  of 
which  the  book  consists,  the  fii'st  four,  in 
Hebrew,  are  acrostics  ;  each  poem  consisting 
of  22  portions  or  verses,  corresponding  to  the 
number  of  letters  in  the  Hebrew  alphabet, 
except  the  third,  in  which  each  letter  is  used 
thrice,  and  in  which,  consequently,  there  are 
3  times  22,  or  66  verses.  The  fifth  poem, 
though  not  an  acrostic,  has  22  verses.  The 
metre  is  known  as  Kinah  rhythm  or  elegiac, 
sometimes  spoken  of  as  'limping  verse,'  be- 
cause the  second  line  is  usually  considerably 
shorter  than  the  first.  No  book  shows  greater 
art  or  more  technical  skill  in  composition.  Isa 
144-21  is  written  in  the  same  metre. 

4.  Author.  In  the  original  these  poems  are 
anonymous,  but  tradition  has  long  since  as- 
scribed  them  to  Jeremiah.  The  LXX  prefaces 
the  book  with  these  words  :  '  And  it  came  to 
pass,  after  Israel  had  been  carried  into  cap- 
tivity and  Jerusalem  had  been  laid  waste  that 
Jeremiah  sat  weeping  and  lamented  with  this 
lamentation  over  Jerusalem  and  said '  ;  and 
this  ancient  tradition  is  confirmed  by  the 
Syriac,  the  Latin  Vulgate,  the  Targum  of 
Jonathan,  the  Talmud,  and  by  modern  Jews 
and  Christians,  who  point  to  the  very  cave  or 
grotto,  near  the  Damascus  gate  on  the  N.  side 
of  the  Holy  City,  in  which  Jeremiah  is  sup- 
posed to  have  written  them.  Various  allusions 
in  the  poems  themselves  look  in  the  same 
direction  ;  especially  the  vivid  descriptions  of 
Jerusalem  in  chs.  2  and  4,  which  are  evidently 
the  pen-pictures  of  an  eye-witness  ;  likewise 
the  strongly  sympathetic  temper  and  prophetic 
spirit  of  the  poems  throughout,  as  well  as 
their  style,  phraseology,  and  thought,  which 
are  all  so  characteristic  of  Jeremiah. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  is  possible^  of  course, 
that  they  were  written  by  a  contemporary  of 
Jeremiah,  perhaps  Baruch  ;  for,  as  has  been 
suggested  by  Professor  McFadyen,  being  ano- 
nymous, it  is  easier  to  think  that  the  traditional 
title  has  been  added  by  the  Greek  version  than 
that  a  genuine  one  has  been  lost  from  the 
Hebrew.  Besides,  the  allusion  to  the  pro- 
phets in  29,  bearing  the  iniquities  of  the 
fathers  in  5'^^,  and  the  expectation  of  help 
from  Egypt  in  41^,  are  unlike  Jeremiah.  But 
notwithstanding  all  the  objections  to  the  con- 
trary, the  balance  of  evidence,  both  internal 
and  external,  is  probably  in  favour  of  Jere- 
miah. 

5.  Unity  and  Date.  As  may  be  seen  from 
the  outline  given  above,  the  unity  of  the  book 


is  not  logical,  but  emotional  ;  hence  the  ques- 
tion of  its  literary  unity  is  largely  dependent 
upon  one's  attitude  toward  its  authorship  and 
date.     As  to  its   date,    it   is  very   generally 
agreed  that  it  was  composed  soon  after  the 
downfall  of  Jerusalem  in  586  B.C.    How  soon, 
it  is  difficult  to  state  :  the  author's  vivid  lan- 
guage points  to  a  time  immediately  subsequent, 
whereas  the  highly  artificial  and  acrostic  char- 
acter of  the  composition  would  indicate  that 
the  bitterness  of  the  siege  had  passed,  and 
that  the  poet  had  had  time  for  calm  reflection. 
6.   Permanent  Religious  Value.     The  richest 
portion  of  the  book  is  doubtless  the  section 
contained  in  319-39,   in  which   vv.   22-27   are 
particularly  precious.     But  the  entire  book  is 
of  value  to  teach  not  only  patriotism,    and 
patience,   and  prayer,   and  confession  of  sin, 
but  the  divine  character  of  chastisement,  the 
disciplinary  value  of  yoke-bearing,  how  God 
pities  those  whom  He  is  compelled  to  afflict  ; 
and,  what  is  deepest  and  most  important  of 
all,  how  ideal  Zion,  in  suffering  for  the  sins 
of  the  nation,  is  typical  of  the  Messiah  who 
'  bore  our  sins  and  carried  our  sorrows.'     The 
book  is  also  of  liturgical  value,  being  read  by 
pious  Israelites  every  Friday  afternoon  at  the 
Jews'  wailing  place,  within  the  city  of  Jeru- 
salem, but  just  outside  the  T«mple  area,  and 
in  Jewish  synagogues  the  world  over  on  the 
9th  of  Ab  (August),  the  day  on  which  the 
Temple  was  burned. 

CHAPTER  1 

Zion's  Desolation  and  Sorrow 
Though  the  five  poems  contained  in  the 
book  have  practically  the  same  theme — the 
downfall  of  Jerusalem — yet  each  poem  dwells 
on  a  different  phase  of  the  subject  as  intimated 
in  the  opening  words  of  each  c.  This  first 
one  emphasises  the  desolation  and  misery  of 
the  city,  describing  it  as  '  solitary,'  as  '  a  widow,' 
and  as  '  tributary,'  i.e.  Judah  has  lost  her 
independence  ;  and  there  is  'no  comforter,' 
vv.  2,  9,  17,  21.  It  falls  naturally  into  three 
sub-divisions,  as  seen  below.  In  structure  it 
is  strictly  alphabetical  :  each  v.  being  of  triple 
construction. 

i-ii.  The  poet  laments  Zion's  utter  deso- 
lation. 

1.  How]  a  characteristic  word  for  the 
commencement  of  an  elegy  :  cp.  2 1  4 1-  2  Isa  1 4  4. 

Sit  solitary]  in  the  sense  of  empty  houses 
and  deserted  streets.  Provinces]  the  neigh- 
bouring countries,   such  as  Edom  and  Moab. 

2.  Lovers]  synonymous  with  friends,  viz. 
her  allies  Edom  and  Egypt  (422). 

3.  Because  of  affliction  and  .  .  great  servi- 
tude] i.e.  Judah  chose  exile  to  escape  the 
sufferings  to  which  she  was  exposed  in  her 
own  land  (Jer40ii).  Between  the  straits] 
RV  '  within  the  straits.'     4.  The  ways  of  Zion 


483 


1.5 


LAMENTATIONS 


2.  20 


do  mourn]  The  roads  by  which  pilgrims  came 
up  to  the  feasts  are  now  deserted  (Jerl42). 

Her  virgins]  those  who  took  part  in  the 
festal  occasions  (Ps6825).  5.  Are  the  chief] 
RV  '  are  become  the  head  '  :  i.e.  Judah  has 
lost  her  leadership.  Before  the  enemy]  driven 
as  slaves.  6.  Her  princes  are  become  like 
harts]  referring  to  Zedekiah's  flight  with  his 
sons  (Jer  39  •*■"). 

7.   Remembered]  RV 'remembereth.' 

Sabbaths]  RV  '  desolations,'  in  the  sense 
probably  of  ceasings  :  cp.  the  enforced  sabbaths 
of  Lv  26  34, 35.  The  Heb.  word  employed  here 
is  not  found  elsewhere  in  OT.  8.  Is  removed] 
RV  'is  become  as  an  unclean  thing.'  Her 
nakedness]  her  sin  and  its  punishment  (4  2i). 

9.  Her  filthiness]  moral  pollution,  expressed 
by  a  bold  but  common  Oriental  figure  (Jer  I322). 

She  remembereth  not]  RV  '  she  remembered 
not.'  10.  Pleasant  things]  primarily  the 
vessels  of  the  sanctuary  (2  Ch  3610.19),  but  in- 
cluding all  of  Jerusalem's  precious  possessions. 

12-19.  Zion's  comfortless  condition  due  to 
Jehovah's  righteousness. 

12.  Zion  yearns  for  sympathy.  13.  From 
above]  RV  '  From  on  high.'  14.  Is  bound]  a 
bucolic  figure,  God  being  represented  as  bind- 
ing Judah's  sins  upon  his  neck  as  a  ploughman 
binds  the  yoke  upon  oxen  (Jer  27  -).  He  hath 
made  my  strength  to  fall]  rather,  'it  (the  yoke) 
hath  caused  my  strength  to  stumble.'  The 
Lord]  in  Heb.  Ado>iai,  used  14  times  in 
Lamentations  to  express  lordship  ;  the  name 
Jehovah  conveys  the  covenant  idea  of  redemp- 
tion. 15.  He  hath  called  an  assembly]  lit.  '  an 
appointed  time ' :  i.e.  a  religious  festival 
(Lev  23  4);  not  for  Israel,  however,  but  for 
the  enemy,  to  celebrate  the  defeat  of  Zion's 
soldiers.  16.  Mine  eye,  mine  eye]  The  em- 
phatic repetition  reminding  one  of  Jeremiah's 
style  (Jer4i9  6  i*).  17.  That  his  adversaries 
should  be  round  about  him]  i.e.  that  his  nearest 
neighbours  should  be  his  most  hateful  foes. 
In  this  V.  the  poet  speaks.  19.  Lovers]  see 
on  V.  2.  My  priests  and  mine  elders]  Even 
the  most  honoured  chiefs  of  the  city  died  of 
starvation. 

20-22.   In  distress  Zion  appeals  to  Jehovah 
for  redress. 

21.  The  day]  i.e.  the  day  of  vengeance  on 
Zion,  long  before  announced  (Jer25i"-26). 

22.  Let  all  their  wickedness  come  before 
thee]  a  not  infrequent  prayer  of  OT.  saints  for 
righteous  retribution  upon  the  enemy  •  cp 
P8s69,  109,  137  Jer  18  20-23.  not  altogether 
unjustifiable,  for  the  Hebrew  was  conscious 
that  wickedness  must  be  punished,  but  far 
below  the  plane  of  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount. 

CHAPTER  2 

Zion's  Sorrows  due  to  Jehovah's  Anger 
In  this  second  dirge,  the  cause  of   Zion's 


484 


woe  is  dwelt  upon.  Jehovah  has  become 
angry  with  His  people,  therefore  He  has  cast 
them  off.  Zion's  miseries  are  the  judgments 
of  God,  which  have  been  sent  because  of 
Judah's  sins.  In  structure  the  poem  is  an 
acrostic,  each  v.  being  of  triple  character,  as 
in  c.  1.     The  prophet  speaks. 

i-io.  The  agonies  caused  by  Adonai's 
anger. 

I.  The  beauty  of  Israel]  the  Temple 
(Isa  64 11),  or  possibly  the  heroes  of  Jerusalem 
(2 SI  19).  His  footstool]  the  ark  of  the 
covenant  (lCh282),  or  possibly  the  sanctuary 
(Pss995  1327  Isa  60 13).  2.  Swallowed  up] 
i.e.  destroyed  by  earthquake.  Habitations] 
open  villages  of  the  shepherds.  Strong  holds] 
fortified  towns.  3,  All  the  horn]  better, 
'  every  horn,'  in  the  sense  of  self-protection 
or  of  resistance,  the  horn  being  a  symbol  of 
strength.  4.  In  the  tabernacle  of  the  daughter 
of  Zion]  The  division  of  the  v.  in  AV  is 
faulty.  The  colon  after  Zion  should  stand 
after  eye,  as  in  RV.  6.  As  If  it  were  of  a 
garden]  i.e.  God  has  destroyed  His  Temple  as 
easily  as  a  man  removes  a  vintage  booth,  which 
has  served  its  purpose,  from  a  garden  (Isa  1  is). 

8.  He  hath  stretched  out  a  line]  Jehovah 
surveys,  but  to  destroy  :  cp.  Isa 34  n  Am 7 7. 

9.  Her  gates  are  sunk  into  the  ground]  a 
metaphor  expressing  their  total  destruction, 
not  a  vestige  being  left  above  ground.  The 
law  is  no  more']  including  the  national  ritual 
and  government.  Her  prophets  also  find  no 
vision]  because  so  hardened  by  sin. 

10.  The  elders  .  .  sit  upon  the  ground]  i.e.  in 
banishment. 

11-19.  Zion's  bitter  sorrow  and  lamentation. 

11.  The  scene  of  Jerusalem's  woes  is  to  the 
poet  heartrending.  My  liver]  a  phrase  not 
found  elsewhere  in  OT.,  but  expressive  of 
strong  emotion  :  cp.  our  English  use  of  '  spleen ' 
and  'humorous.'  12.  The  picture  of  helpless, 
innocent  children  crying  in  vain  for  food  is 
touching.  13.  What  thing  shall  I  take  to 
witness  for  thee  ?]  RV  '  What  shall  I  testify 
unto  thee  y '  in  the  sense  of  attempting  to  com- 
fort Jerusalem.  14.  False  burdens]  RM 
'oracles  of  vanity'  (Jer 23 33).  Causes  of 
banishment]  The  Heb.  word  employed  here  is 
not  found  elsewhere,  but  probably  means 
thmgs  which  draw  aside  and  drive  out 
(Jer  27 10, 15).  17.  The  LORD  hath  done]  The 
poet  points  to  Jehovah  as  Zion's  Destroyer, 
only  later  to  show  that  He  may  become  her 
Saviour.  18.  O  wall]  apostrophised  as  a 
human  mourner  (Isa  14 si).  No  rest]  RV  'no 
respite.'  Apple  of  thine  eye]  lit.  '  daughter,' 
i.e.  pupil  of  the  eye  :  cp.  Psl7S. 

20-22.  In    bewilderment   Zion    appeals   to 
Jehovah. 

20.  To  whom  thou  hast  done  this]    viz.  to 
His  own  chosen  people.     Children  of  a  span 


2.  22 


LAMENTATIONS 


8.60 


long]  E.V  '  the  children  that  are  dandled  in 
the  hands':  op.  v.  22,  Jerl99.  22.  My  terrors 
round  about]  as  in  JerB^s  20  2' i^.  Jehovah 
has  now  summoned  His  terrors  {Magor- 
missabib),  as  at  other  times  He  had  summoned 
His  people  to  the  festivals  (a  solemn  day). 

CHAPTER  3 
Zion's  Hope  in  God's  Mercy 

This  third  poem  is  the  most  elaborate  in 
structure  and  the  most  sublime  in  thought  of  all. 
The  poet  speaks  not  only  for  himself,  but  for 
the  nation.  The  order  of  thought  is  sorrow, 
confession,  repentance,  prayer.  Though  con- 
sisting of  66  vv.  the  poem  is  but  a  little  longer 
than  the  others.  Three  consecutive  vv.  are 
built  upon  each  letter  of  the  Heb.  alphabet  : 
each  triplet  is  usually  closely  associated  in 
thought,  and  consequently  grouped  together 
as  in  the  E.V. 

i-i8.   Zion  bewails  her  calamities. 

1-3.  I  am  the  man]  The  author  is  a  repre- 
sentative sufferer,  an  eye-witness,  and  typical 
of  Christ.  4-6.  Gall]  bitterest  sorrow 
(Jer8i4).  Travel]  RV  'travail,'  which  is  the 
more  modern  spelling,  in  the  sense  here  in- 
tended, of  painful  labour  (NU2014).  He  hath 
set  me]  RV  '  He  hath  made  me  to  dwell ' 
(Psl433).  Be  dead  of  old]  RV  'have  been 
long  dead.'  7-9.  He  hath  made  my  paths 
crooked]  in  the  sense  that  every  avenue  of 
advance  is  blocked.  10-12.  He  ■was'\  RV 
'  He  is.'  As  a  bear  .  .  «•'<  a  lion]  God  is  even 
lying  in  wait  to  oppose  him  (Jer4'^  5 '5). 

Danger  follows  distress.  13-15.  Arrows  of 
his  quiver]  RM  '  sons  of  his  quiver,'  a  poetical 
expression  for  the  enemies'  taunts  (Jer20^). 

My  reins]  The  English  equivalent  is  heart, 
denoting  the  seat  of  the  affections  (Jerl22). 

To  all  my  people]  better,  '  to  all  peoples,'  as 
in  many  Heb.  MSS  and  the  Peshitto. 

16-18.  Broken  my  teeth  with  gravel  stones] 
i.e.  God  has  forced  him  to  eat  bread  full  of 
grit  (Prov20i'i').  He  hath  covered  me  with 
ashes]  or,  '  He  made  me  cower  in  the  ashes.' 
Such  dreadful  thoughts  about  God  are  almost 
without  a  parallel  in  the  OT. 

19-39.  Hope  of  relief  through  God's  mercy. 

In  this  section  we  reach  the  highest  point 
of  trust  to  which  the  mourner  attains. 

19-21.  Remembering]  RV  'remember,'  in 
the  imperative  sense  (1^).  This  I  recall]  viz. 
what  just  precedes,  his  affliction.  25-27.  The 
Lord  is  good]  '  good '  is  the  initial  word  of 
each  v.  in  this  group.  Goodness  to  the  poet 
is  an  essential  attribute  of  Jehovah  and  the 
basis  of  his  hope.  He  is  too  good  to  keep 
them  always  in  despair.  Should  both  hope 
and  quietly  ^vait]  lit.  '  should  wait  and  in 
silence  '  ;  quiet  waiting  being  the  pre-requisite 
of  perceiving  that  God  is  good.  Yoke]  disci- 
pline, or  work  that  is  irksome,  compulsory  and 


485 


painful.  These  vv.  have  the  ring  of  auto- 
biography. 28-30.  The  leading  verbs  in  this 
triplet  are  to  be  taken  hortatively,  as  RV  '  Let 
him  sit,'  'put,'  'give,'  the  argument  being  that 
yoke -bearing  in  order  to  be  beneficial  must  be 
submitted  to  willingly.  Hath  borne]  RV  '  hath 
laid.'  Giveth  his  cheek]  the  climax  of  patience 
is  reached  when  suffering  that  comes  through 
human  agency  is  borne  without  murmuring. 

31-33.  Three  gi-ounds  are  given  for  resig- 
nation :  (1)  because  chastisement  is  only  tem- 
porary (Ps??"^  Jer35,i2);  (2)  because  by  nature 
God  is  merciful,  and  therefore  the  distress 
sent  will  not  exceed  what  is  absolutely  neces- 
sary (Isa548)  ;  (3)  because  all  affliction  is 
against  His  will,  hence  God  cannot  commit  an 
injustice.  34-36.  In  this  triplet  the  order  of 
thought  is  transposed  to  accommodate  the 
alphabetic  structure.  The  teaching  is,  the 
Lord  approveth  not,  (1)  of  cruelty  to  prisoners 
in  war,  as  Nebuchadnezzar  to  the  inhabitants 
of  Jerusalem  ;  (2)  of  perverting  justice  in 
court  (Ex  23*^)  ;  (3)  of  dishonesty  in  private 
business  (Ex  22  8>  9).  37-39.  This  group  rounds 
out  the  thought  of  the  section  :  each  v. 
contains  a  separate  interrogation  :  (1)  Who 
can  command  and  bring  to  pass  except  Adonai  ? 
(Ps339).  (2)  Do  not  evil  (i.e.  suffering)  and 
good  alike  proceed  from  God  ?  (Am  'd*^  Isa  45  7). 
(3)  Why  should  a  man  who  still  lives  complain 
when  he  is  only  being  punished  for  his  sins? 
(Jer455).  A  living  man]  The  word  'living' 
is  emphatic.  Life  in  itself  is  more  than  the 
sinner  merits.  Instead  of  having  been  over- 
paid, he  is  not  even  paid  in  full :  for  '  the 
wages  of  sin  is  death '  (Rom  6  23).  The  poet  is 
here  championing  the  divine  cause. 

40-54.   Exhortations  to  repent  and  confess. 

40-42.  Our  heart  with  ou?-  hands]  strictly, 
our  heart  to  our  palms,  in  the  sense  that  the 
heart  should  actually  follow  in  the  direction 
in  which  our  hands  point  (Jer43i). 

43-45.  Zion's  condition  is  dire  because 
Jehovah  will  not  hear  the  prayers  of  His 
miserable  victims.  People]  RV  'peoples,'  i.e. 
the  foreign  nations  round  about.  52-54.  These 
vv.  are  thought  to  point  to  Jeremiah  as  the 
author  of  the  poems  :  cp.  Jer  38.  Cast  a  stone 
upon  me]  i.e.  covered  with  a  stone  the  pit  into 
which  they  cast  him.  Waters  flowed  over 
mine  head]  There  was  no  water,  but  mire,  in 
Jeremiah's  dungeon  (Jer  38*^).  I  am  cut  off] 
the  sufferer  is  a  type  of  Christ  (Ps885Isa53«). 

55-66.  In  despair  Zion  prays  for  vengeance 
upon  the  enemy. 

55-57-  I  called  upon  thy  name]  i.e.  upon 
the  attributes  of  God  ;  referring  possibly  to 
Ps69,  supposed  by  some  to  have  been  com- 
posed by  Jeremiah  while  in  the  dungeon. 

Fear  not]  God's  answer  was  brief,  consisting 
of  but  two  words,  but  enough  since  they  came 
from  him.     58-60.   Pleaded]   as  an  advocate 


3.63 


LAMENTATIONS 


4.  22 


(Jer603'i).  All  their  imaginations]  EV  'all 
their  devices'  (Jerllis  18 1«).  63.  Musick] 
RV  'song.'  64-66.  AV  by  translating  the 
imperfect  tenses  of  the  verbs  in  this  triplet  as 
imperatives,  makes  the  language  appear  harsher 
than  it  really  is ;  still  it  must  be  allowed'  that 
the  poet  prays  for  retribution  upon  the  enemy 
(Jer  18  23  2  Tim  4 14).  Sorrow  of  heart]  RV 
'  hardness  of  heart.' 

CHAPTER  4 
Zion's   former   Glory   contrasted  with 
her  present  humiliation 

In  this  fourth  dirge  the  poet  describes  the 
miseries  of  the  various  classes  in  the  sack  of 
Jerusalem,  concluding  with  a  warning  to 
Edom.  In  structure,  each  alphabetic  v.  is 
composed  of  two  rather  than  of  three  sub- 
divisions, the  ideas  and  phrases  balancing  as 
in  ordinary  Hebrew  poetry.  This  is  considered 
the  finest  poetry  of  the  book.  The  mourner 
speaks  throughout. 

i-io.  The  terrible  distress  of  the  people 
and  nobles. 

I.  How  is  the  gold  become  dim]  The  three 
words  used  for  gold,  pure  gold,  and  fine  gold, 
in  vv.  1,  2,  all  stand  metaphorically  for  Jeru- 
salem's most  precious  possessions,  particularly 
her  inhabitants.  The  stones  of  the  sanctuary] 
the  choicest  portion  of  Zion's  citizens  (2i'J 
Zech9i6).  2.  Earthen  pitchers,  the  work  of 
the  hands  of  the  potter]  The  contrast  is  not 
merely  one  of  the  materials,  gold  and  clay, 
but  of  workmanship  (Jer  18 1-^  19  i-iO).  3.  The 
sea  monsters]  RV  '  the  jackals '  (Jer  9  ii).  The 
thought  is  that  even  wild  beasts  suckle  their 
young,  but  the  women  of  Jerusalem  are  be- 
come cruel  and  take  no  heed  of  their  children's 
pitiful  cries.  Like  the  ostriches]  here  taken 
as  the  type  of  cruelty  and  heartlessness,  be- 
cause they  forsake  their  young  at  the  least 
alarm  (Job39i3-i7).  5.  Delicately]  daintily 
(Prov  29  21).  Brought  up  in  scarlet]  lit.  '  carried 
upon  scarlet,'  as  infants.  Embrace  dunghills] 
lie  upon  dust  heaps.  The  contrast  is  most 
vivid.  From  the  highest  luxury,  the  upper 
classes  in  Jerusalem  have  been  reduced  to  the 
extremest  poverty. 

6.  For  the  punishment  of  the  iniquity]  RV 
'  For  the  iniquity.'  As  in  a  moment]  Sodom 
was  overthrown  suddenly  ;  Jerusalem's  suffer- 
ings were  prolonged.  Hence  it  is  inferred 
that  Jerusalem's  sin  was  greater  than  Sodom's. 
Our  Lord  modified  this  ancient  view  of  sin 
and  punishment  (LklSi-^).  And  no  hands 
stayed  on  her]  RV  '  and  no  hands  were  laid 
upon  her,'  i.e.  Sodom's  punishment  was  direct 
from  God.  7.  Nazarites]  RV  '  nobles,'  pro- 
bably alluding  to  the  Rechabites,  famous  at 
that  time  for  their  purity  and  temperance 
(Jer  35). 

9.    Better]    i.e.  better  off.     Death   by  the 


486 


sword,  prior  to  the  siege,  is  pronounced  pre- 
ferable to  being  gradually  wasted  by  famine. 

For  locmt  of  the  fruits  of  the  field]  lit.  '  from 
the  produce  of  the  field,'  famine  being  more 
cruel  than  the  enemy  (Ps  109  24).  10.  This  v. 
describes  a  gruesome  scene,  alluded  to  in  2^0^ 
and  predicted  in  Jer  19  9.  Pitiful  women]  the 
daughters  of  an  effete  civilisation,  who  had 
been  nursed  in  the  lap  of  luxury. 

I  i-i  6.  The  ignominious  fate  of  the  prophets 
and  priests. 

This  section  begins  and  ends  with  an  account 
of  the  wrath  of  Jehovah.  11.  Kindled  a  fire 
in  Zion]  poetic  for  the  glowing  of  Jehovah's 
anger  (2Ch36i9).  13.  For  the  sins  of]  RV 
'  It  is  because  of  the  sins  of.'  Zion's  prophets 
were  really  murderers  (2Ch242i  Jer  26  23). 

14.  They  have  wandered]  reeled  and  stag- 
gered, reckless  of  their  responsibilities  as 
leaders.  15.  They  cried  unto  them]  the 
people  applied  to  them  what  lepers  were  re- 
quired to  declare  of  themselves,  viz.  Unclean  ! 
Unclean!  (LvlS^^).  Theirs  was  spiritual 
leprosy.  They  said  among  the  heathen]  When 
ostracised,  people  abroad  said,  They  shall  tarry 
here  no  longer.  They  were  unwelcome  every- 
where ;  fugitives  and  vagabonds,  with  the 
mark  of  Cain  upon  them. 

16.  The  anger  of  the  LORD  hath  divided 
them]  lit.  '  the  face  of  Jehovah  hath  scattered 
them.' 

17-20.  The  vain  hope  of  escape  ;  even  the 
king  being  captured.  This  short  section  is  in 
the  first  person  plural. 

17.  RV  '  Our  eyes  do  yet  fail  in  looking  for 
our  vain  help.'  Egypt  or  some  other  expected 
ally  disappoints  (Jer37'i'  Isa366).  19.  Our 
persecutors]  RV  'our  pursuers.'  20.  The 
breath  of  our  nostrils]  a  rather  strong  expres- 
sion to  use  of  Zedekiah,  yet  he  was  Jerusalem's 
king,  and  though  weak,  'the  anointed  of 
Jehovah.'  Under  his  shadow]  even  as  cap- 
tives, they  hoped  to  be  allowed  some  sort  of 
national  organisation  with  Zedekiah  as  their 
head.     The  hope  expressed  is  pathetic. 

21,  22.   The  doom  of  Edom. 

21.  Rejoice  and  be  glad]  i.e.  enjoy  thy 
malicious  but  fleeting  satisfaction  (Jer  49  "-22). 
Edom  is  typical  of  the  church's  foes  to-day. 

Uz]  the  territory  lying  SE.  of  Palestine, 
extending  probably  into  Arabia  (Jer  25  20). 

The  cup]  the  symbol  of  divine  wrath  (Jer 
251'').  22.  The  punishment  of  thine  iniqui^  is 
accomplished]  lit.  'ended.'  For  one  brief 
moment  the  curtain  of  gloom  is  lifted,  and  a 
hope — in  a  sense  a  Messianic  hope — is  held  out 
to  Zion  (Isa402).  He  will  discover  thy  sins] 
i.e.  he  will  punish  thy  sins  ;  for,  if  to  cover 
is  to  forgive,  to  discover  must  be  to  punish 
(Pss32i  852).  Thus  the  poem  closes  with  a 
contrast.  Zion's  sins  shall  be  covered,  Edom's 
discovered.     Zion's  captivity  is  past,  Edom's 


i 


5.  1 


LAMENTATIONS 


5.  22 


yet  to  come.      The   Hebrews'   debt  is  paid, 
the  Edomites'  is  yet  to  be  exacted. 

CHAPTER   5 
Zion's  earnest  Petition  foe  Deliverance 

This  final  poem  is  not  so  much  an  elegy  as 
a  prayer  or  meditation.  The  tone  is  more 
calm  and  spiritual  than  the  others,  with  no 
trace  of  vindictiveness.  The  poet,  speaking 
for  the  people,  '  will  have  God  know  every- 
thing.' Though  divided  into  22  vv.,  it  is  not 
an  acrostic.  Rhyme  takes  the  place  of  the 
alphabetical  structure,  the  poem  having  not 
less  than  45  words  ending  in  the  sound  u  :  cp. 
Psl24.  Like  c.  4,  each  v.  is  composed  of  two 
members  which  are  balanced  with  the  greatest 
care,  both  as  to  form  and  thought.  In  the 
Yulgate  this  c.  is  given  a  separate  title, 
'  Oratio  Jeremise  prophetae.' 

i-i8.  A  pathetic  review  of  Zion's  condition. 

I.  Remember,  O  LORD]  Like  the  initial 
sentences  of  the  other  poems,  the  opening 
words  strike  the  key  of  what  follows.  The 
poet  is  about  to  pray,  so  he  secures  first  of  all 
God's  attention.  2.  Our  inheritance]  Canaan 
(Lv2024).  3.  Our  mothers  a/e  as  widows] i.e. 
without  protection  and  support.  5.  Our  necks 
are  under  persecution]  RV  '  our  pursuers  are 
upon  our  necks.'  6.  To  the  Ass3rrians]  Baby- 
lonians of  course  are  meant  (Jer  2  is  2  K  23  ^9). 

7.  And  we  have  borne  their  iniquities]  not 
in  contradiction  to  Jer 31-'''  EzklS^,  nor  that 
they  were  not  themselves  great  sinners,  for 
v.  16  shows  that  they  acknowledged  they 
were,  but  that  the  nation's  guilt  extended 
back  into  the  past.  Ideal  Zion,  like  Christ, 
was  to  '  be  made  perfect  through  suflEerings ' 
(Heb2i0).  8.  Servants  have  ruled  over  us] 
Babylonian  satraps  were  often  simply  house- 
hold favourites,  promoted  by  the  king  to  posts 
of  honom",  such  as  the  headship  of  the  wretched 
remnant  of  Judah  (Jer  39  3).  9.  We  gat] 
RV  '  We  got,'  lit.  '  we  bring  in.'  Because  of 
the  sword  of  the  wilderness]  alluding  to  the 


raids  of  the  Bedouins,  who  may  have  fallen 
upon  the  remnant  in  their  attempts  to  snatch 
a  little  food. 

ID.  Black]  RM  'hot.'  Terrible  famine] 
RV  '  burning  heat  of  famine.'  12.  Hanged 
up  by  their  hand]  The  Assyrian  custom  was 
to  impale  bodies  after  death  in  order  to  expose 
them  to  the  most  utter  contempt  possible 
(Dt  21 23  1 S31 10-12).  13.  They  took  the  young 
men  to  grind]  RV  '  The  young  men  bare  the 
mill,'  work  usually  done  by  women  and  slaves 
(Isa472). 

14.  From  the  gate]  corresponding  to  our 
public  square  or  park  (Jer  14  2). 

16.  The  crown  is  fallen  from  our  head]  a 
figurative  expression  conveying  the  thought 
that  Zion  has  lost  her  dignity  of  statehood. 

Woe  unto  us,  that  we  have  sinned]  a  distinct 
confession  on  the  part  of  the  people,  and  the 
effect  desired  has  been  obtained.  17.  For 
this .  .  for  these  things^  loss  of  nationality  and 
present  distress  respectively. 

19-22.  A  final  appeal  to  Jehovah  to  remove 
Zion's  reproach. 

The  book  closes  with  a  majestic  apostrophe 
to  Jehovah.  19.  Remainest]  RV  '  sittest,' 
as  king.  Jehovah  had  not  abdicated,  though 
Zedekiah  had  (Ps456  10212).  20.  Where- 
fore .  .  so  long  time]  a  hint  may  be  contained 
in  these  last  words  as  to  the  time  of  composi- 
tion, at  least  of  c.  5.  21.  Turn  thou  us  unto 
thee]  The  poet  realises  that  they  cannot  turn 
themselves.  The  doctrine  clearly  is  that 
repentance  is  of  grace.  It  is  useless  simply 
to  resolve  to  turn  (JerSli^). 

22.  But]  RV  '  unless,'  which  is  better  ; 
for  that  Jehovah  has  utterly  rejected  Zion  is 
to  the  poet  unthinkable.  The  tone  of  the  v., 
however,  is  so  melancholy  that  in  some  MSS 
V.  21  is  repeated  ;  so  that,  in  reading  the  roll 
in  the  synagogue,  the  book  might  end  more 
hopefully.  The  Jews  delighted  in  cheerful 
conclusions.  Similar  repetitions  occur  at  the 
close  of  Ecclesiastes,  Isaiah,  and  Malachi. 


487 


EZEKIEL 


INTRODUCTION 


I.  History  of  Ezekiel's  Times.  Ezekiel  was 
preeminently  a  prophet  of  the  Captivity  of 
Judah,  but  the  allusions  in  his  book  go  back 
over  the  last  half -century  of  the  existence  of 
the  Jewish  kindgom. 

Assyria,   Babylon,  and  Egypt.     The  kings 


This  was  the  first  captivity  (597  B.C.).  Ne- 
buchadrezzar, however,  spared  the  kingdom  of 
Judah  a  little  longer,  and  set  Zedekiah,  a  third 
son  of  Josiah,  on  the  throne.  But  Zedekiah 
proved  a  weak  ruler,  unable  to  resist  the  anti- 
Babylonian  party  in  Judah.     He  too  was  led 


of  Judah  had  long  been  vassals  of  Assyria,  but     into  intrigue  with  Egypt,  and  revolt  against 

Babylon.  Nebuchadrezzar  sent  an  army  against 
Jerusalem.  The  siege  began  on  the  tenth  day 
of  the  tenth  month  of  Zedekiah's  ninth  year  ; 
and  after  being  temporarily  raised  owing  to 
the  approach  of  an  Egj'ptian  army,  was  re- 
sumed, and  ended  on  the  ninth  day  of  the 
fourth  month  of  Zedekiah's  eleventh  year. 
The  king  fled,  but  was  captured,  had  his  eyes 
put  out,  and  was  taken  to  Babylon.  A  month 
later  Jerusalem  was  burnt,  and  the  bulk  of  the 
people  of  Judah  carried  into  exile.  This  was 
the  second  captivity  (586  B.C.). 

After  the  Second  Captivity.  Gedaliah,  a 
Jewish  noble,  was  made  Babylonian  Governor 
of  Palestine,  but  after  three  months  he  was 
murdered,  at  the  instigation  of  the  king  of 
Ammon,  by  a  noble  of  the  anti-Babylonian 
faction.  The  Jewish  leaders  of  Gedaliah's 
party  fled  with  their  followers  into  Egypt.  It 
was  probably  to  avenge  the  murder  of  Gedaliah 
that  a  further  deportation  of  Jews  to  Babylon 
took  place  five  years  later  (Jer  5230).  This 
was  the  third  captivity  (581  B.C.). 

Babylon,  Tyre,  and  Egypt.  Tyre  as  well  as 
Judah  revolted  against  Nebuchadrezzar,  and 
was  besieged  by  him  for  thirteen  years  from 
the  seventh  year  of  his  reign  (597-584  B.C.). 
In  his  thirty-seventh  year  (567  B.C.)  Nebu- 
chadrezzar was  engaged  in  a  campaign  against 
Egypt. 

2.  Ezekiel's  personal  history.  Ezekiel  ('God 
strengthens,'  or  'God  is  strong '),  the  son  of 
Buzi,  was  a  priest  who  was  carried  to  Babylon 
at  the  first  captivity  (597  B.C.).  This  is  the 
point  from  which  the  dates  in  his  book  are 
reckoned.  Nothing  is  known  of  his  age  at  the 
time  of  his  transportation,  or  of  his  previous 
history.  In  the  fifth  year  of  his  captivity 
(592  B.C.)  he  was  called  and  consecrated  to  the 
work  of  a  prophet  by  a  remarkable  vision  with 
which  the  book  opens,  and  he  carried  on  his 
ministry  at  intervals  for  twenty-two  years,  the 
latest  date  in  the  book  being  the  twenty-seventh 
yearof  the  captivity  (670  B.C.).  Our  knowledge 
of  his  personal  career  is  very  meagre.  He 
lived  in  a  house  of  his  own,  among  a  colony  of 


m  the  latter  half  of  the  7th  cent.  B.C.  the 
power  of  that  empire  was  declining.  Soon  after 
630  B.C.  Western  Asia  was  invaded  by  the 
Scythians — hordes  of  northern  barbarians  who 
penetrated  to  the  borders  of  Egypt.  Their 
irruption  is  not  directly  mentioned  in  Scripture, 
but  it  made  a  strong  and  terrifying  impression, 
of  which  traces  are  found  in  both  Jeremiah 
and  Ezekiel,  and  the  possibility  of  its  recurrence 
was  long  present  to  men's  minds.  About 
625  B.C.  Babylon,  hitherto  a  tributary  of 
Assyria,  became  independent  under  Nabo- 
polassar,  and  about  607  B.C.  Nineveh,  the 
Assyrian  capital,  fell  before  Nabopolassar  and 
his  allies.  The  supremacy  of  the  E.  was  thus 
transferred  to  Babylon.  When  Nineveh  fell, 
Pharaoh-Necho  of  Egypt  made  himself  tem- 
porarily master  of  Palestine,  but  in  605  B.C. 
he  was  defeated  at  Carchemish  by  Nebuchad- 
rezzar, the  son  of  Nabopolassar,  who  immedi- 
ately succeeded  his  father  as  king  of  Babylon 
and  ruler  of  all  Western  Asia. 

The  last  kings  of  Judah.  The  reign  of  Josiah 
(6.59-608  B.C.)  was  signalised  by  the  discovery 
of  the  Book  of  the  Law  in  the  Temple  (621  B.C.), 
and  by  the  great  reformation  that  followed  it. 
Josiah  was  slain  in  battle  at  Megiddo,  when 
attempting  to  oppose  the  northward  march  of 
Pharaoh-Necho  (608  B.C.).  The  people  of 
Judah  placed  Shallum  (generally  known  as 
Jehoahaz),  Josiah's  youngest  son,  on  the  throne, 
but  their  choice  did  not  satisfy  Pharaoh-Necho, 
who  deposed  Shallum,  and  carried  him  captive 
to  Egypt,  putting  Jehoiakim,  another  son  of 
Josiah,  in  his  place.  Jehoiakim  reigned  as  a 
vassal  of  Egypt  for  four  years,  but  Nebuchad- 
rezzar's victory  at  Carchemish  made  him  a 
subject  of  Babylon.  For  three  years  longer  he 
was  loyal  to  Nebuchadrezzar,  but  at  last  he 
l)egan  to  intrigue  again  with  Egypt.  He  died 
in  597  B.C.  before  Nebuchadrezzar  could  punish 
his  unfaithfulness,  but  the  blow  fell  on  his  son 
and  successor,  Jehoiachin,  who  was  deposed  after 
a  reign  of  three  months,  and  carried  captive  to 
Babylon,  along  with  the  flower  of  the  nobility 
and  the  best  of  the  craftsmen  of  the  land. 


488 


INTRO. 


EZEKIEL 


INTRO. 


his  fellow  exiles,  who  were  settled  at  a  place 
called  Tel-abib.  He  was  married,  and  his  wife 
died  suddenly  on  the  very  day  when  the  siege 
of  Jerusalem  began. 

3.  Ezekiel's  Audience.  This  consisted  out- 
wardly of  the  exiles  at  Tel-abib,  who  were  an 
organised  community  with  '  elders '  at  their 
head.  They  were  at  first  opposed  to  Ezekiel, 
and  were  inclined  to  believe  the  false  prophets 
who  held  out  hopes  of  a  speedy  return  to  their 
own  land  (Jer29S'9).  This  antagonism  pre- 
vented him  from  speaking  in  public,  but  the 
elders  visited  him  from  time  to  time  in  his 
house.  After  the  fulfilment  of  his  earlier 
prophecies  in  the  fall  of  Jerusalem,  the  atti- 
tude of  the  exiles  to  the  prophet  became  more 
favourable.  Though  living  in  Babylonia  Eze- 
kiel's chief  concern  was  with  the  fate  of  Jeru- 
salem, and  he  took  the  deepest  interest  in  all 
that  was  happening  in  Palestine.  The  pro- 
phecies spoken  to  the  elders  and  other  exiles 
at  Tel-abib  were  really  addressed  to  the  whole 
people  of  Israel  whom  they  represented.  At 
times  Ezekiel  makes  a  distinction  between  the 
exiles  and  their  brethren  in  Palestine,  and  in 
these  cases  his  verdict  is  in  favour  of  the 
former. 

4.  The  Book  of  Ezekiel  falls  into  three  well- 
marked  divisions.  The  first  (chs.  1-24)  pre- 
dicts the  fall  of  Jerusalem  as  the  necessary 
consequence  of  Israel's  sin.  The  second  (chs. 
25-32)  deals  with  God's  judgments  on  the 
surrounding  nations.  The  third  (chs.  33-48) 
describes  the  restoration  of  Israel  and  the 
establishment  of  the  perfect  kingdom  of  God. 
There  is  no  doubt  as  to  the  unity  and  authen- 
ticity of  the  book,  though  a  few  passages  here 
and  there  have  been  thought  to  be  duplicates 
of  the  same  prophecy.  The  Hebrew  text, 
however,  has  become  obscure  in  some  places 
through  the  mistakes  of  transcribers,  and 
the  true  sense  has  to  be  sought  either  in 
ancient  translations  like  the  LXX,  which  fre- 
quently give  a  better  meaning,  or  in  simple 
and  obvious  corrections.  The  prophecies  of 
Ezekiel  have  a  peculiar  style  and  character, 
due  to  the  prophet's  special  mental  qualities. 
The  most  marked  of  these  qualities  was  his 
powerful  imagination,  which  not  only  dis- 
played itself  in  strange  and  weird  conceptions, 
but  wrought  these  out  with  great  minuteness 
of  detail,  akin  to  what  we  find  in  Dante. 
Three  forms  of  prophecy  are  specially  char- 
acteristic of  Ezekiel.  We  have  symbolic  actions, 
in  which  the  truths  to  be  taught  are  practically 
illustrated  ;  allegories,  which  present  the  sub- 
jects in  hand  under  elaborate  figures  ;  and 
visions,  in  which  material  emblems  stand  out 
spontaneously  before  the  prophet's  mind.  It 
is  possible  that  some  of  the  symbolic  actions  de- 
scribed were  not  actually  performed.  In  24  3 
we  see  that  the  symbolic  action  and  the  allegory 


cannot  be  sharply  distinguished.  The  visions, 
too,  have  been  supposed  by  some  to  be  merely 
allegories  thrown  into  a  peculiar  literary  form, 
but  there  is  no  reason  to  doubt  that  they  were 
real  experiences,  though  some  of  the  details 
may  have  been  worked  out  more  fully  when 
the  visions  were  committed  to  writing. 

5.  Ezekiel  and  Jeremiah  were  contemporary 
prophets,  though  the  latter  was  much  the  older 
of  the  two.  Neither  prophet  mentions  the 
other,  but  the  book  of  Ezekiel  contains  many 
traces  of  Jeremiah's  influence.  During  the 
eleven  years  of  Zedekiah's  reign  both  were 
engaged,  the  one  in  Jerusalem,  and  the  other 
in  Babylonia,  in  proclaiming  practically  the 
same  truths — the  guilt  and  coming  punishment 
of  Judah,  the  sin  and  folly  of  opposing  Baby- 
lon and  seeking  help  from  Egypt,  the  cer- 
tainty of  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem.  After 
the  captivity  both  foretold  the  ultimate  restora- 
tion of  the  exiles.  Jeremiah's  prophecy  of 
the  New  Covenant  is  closely  paralleled  in 
different  parts  of  Ezekiel,  but  the  latter  left  a 
larger  place  for  ritual  and  external  law  than 
the  former  in  his  conception  of  the  perfect 
kingdom  of  God. 

6.  Ezekiel's  Leading  Doctrines.  The  glory 
and  holiness  of  God  are  very  prominent  in 
the  book  of  Ezekiel.  He  is  the  God  of  Israel, 
and  has  chosen  Israel  as  His  people.  His 
holiness  has  been  outraged  by  Israel's  sin,  and 
the  display  of  His  glory  is  the  great  motive  of 
all  His  dealings  with  them  both  in  judgment 
and  mercy.  What  He  does  is  '  for  His  Name's 
sake.'  The  sin  cannot  be  unpunished,  and  yet 
the  choice  of  Israel  cannot  be  finally  revoked. 
God  will  restore  and  purify  His  people  and 
dwell  among  them  for  ever.  The  result  will 
be  the  manifestation  of  His  true  character  to 
men.  '  They  shall  know  that  I  am  the  Lord  ' 
is  the  most  frequent  phrase  in  the  book. 

7.  Ezekiel's  Messianic  Prophecies.  The 
whole  of  the  last  part  of  the  book  pictures  an 
ideal  kingdom  of  God,  and  an  ideal  future 
king.  The  latter  is  symbolised  by  the  twig 
taken  from  the  top  of  the  cedar  (1722,23)^  is 
further  hinted  at  in  21 27^  and  is  clearly  repre- 
sented by  the  Davidic  king  of  3423,24  3724^ 
and  the  '  prince  '  of  the  concluding  chs. 

8.  Fulfilment  of  Ezekiel's  Prophecies.  Those 
in  the  first  part  were  accomplished  in  a  general 
sense  when  Jerusalem  fell.  Those  in  the  last 
part  were  partially  realised  in  the  return  of 
the  Jews  from  captivity  and  the  rebuilding  of 
the  Temple  ;  and  in  their  essence,  though  not 
in  their  literal  form,  they  have  been  or  are 
being  fulfilled  in  the  Church  of  Jesus  Christ. 
Ezekiel  conceived  of  the  future  kingdom  of 
God  as  a  national  and  Jewish  one,  and  allow- 
ance must  be  made  for  this  limitation  of  his 
view  in  dealing  with  the  prophecies  of  the 
second  part  as  well  as  with  those  of  the  third. 


489 


INTRO, 


EZEKIEL 


The  future  of  the  foreign  nations  is  foretold 
with  reference  to  their  influence  on  God's 
kingdom,  and  as  the  latter  did  not  preserve  the 
national  form  which  Ezekiel  contemplated  the 
literal  fulfilment  of  the  prophecies  about  the 
former  was  not  to  be  looked  for  either.  These 
prophecies  embody  general  truths  about  the 
overthrow  of  the  powers  of  evil  rather  than 
precise  anticipations  of  actual  history 

9-   Ezekiel  and  the   Law.      The    last  nine 
chapters  of  Ezekiel  have  an  important  bearing 
on  the  questions  connected  with  the  dates  of 
the  different  parts  of  the  Pentateuch      The 
ritual  and  legal  details  they  contain  show  that 
such    regulations  were  the  subject  of   much 
thought  dm-ing  the  exile,  and  their  differences 
from  the  Pentateuch  show  that  on  particular 
points  the  Law  was  not  absolutely  fixed  from 
the  first,  but  allowed  a  certain  elasticity  in 
practice.     The  most  important  question  is  that 
connected  with  the  relationship  between  the 
priests   and   the    Levites.     In    Deuteronomy 
which   guided    Josiah's  reformation,  the  two 
classes  are  regarded  as  identical,  while  in  the 
parts  of  the  Pentateuch  known  as  the  Priests' 
Code  they  are  distinct.     Ezekiel  (4410-I6)  in. 
dicates   that    up    to  his  time   the  priesthood 
had  been  common  to  all  the  tribe  of  Levi,  but 
that  in  future  it  would  be  confined  to'  the 
family  of  Zadok,  and  that  the  other  Levites 
would  be  reduced  to  the  rank  of  Temple  ser- 
vants.    Ezekiel  thus  marks  a  transition  from 
the    arrangement   of    Deuteronomy    to    that 


1. 


of  the  Priests'  Code,  and  the  inference  is 
that  the  latter  took  its  present  form  during 
or  after  the  exile.  With  the  part  of  the 
Priests'  Code,  however,  known  as  the  Law  of 
Holiness  (Lv  16-20),  the  book  of  Ezekiel  has 
many  points  of  correspondence.  This  por- 
tion of  the  Pentateuch,  therefore,  must  have 
been  in  substance  as  early  as  his  day. 

lo.   Ezekiel  and  the  New  Testament.     The 
language   and  thought    of    Ezekiel  have  had 
a  considerable  influence  on  the  writers  of  the 
New  Testament.     His  allegory  of  the  Good 
Shepherd  evidently  suggested    some   part  of 
our  Lord's  parables  of  the  Lost   Sheep   and 
the  Good  Shepherd.     The  promise  of  the  new 
heart  of  flesh  is  referred  to  in  2  Cor  3  3.     The 
idea  of  judgment  beginning  at  the   house  of 
God  reappears  in  1  Pet  4 17.     The  influence  of 
Ezekiel    is   specially   evident    in    Revelation, 
which  reproduces  the  eating  of  the  roll  (Rev 
109.10),  the  invasion  of  Gog  and  Magog  (207-9) 
the  measuring  of  the  Temple  (111,2)  the  life' 
giving  river  (22 1.2),  and  the  four-square  city 
with  Its  twelve  gates  (21 12-I6).     Many  of  the 
judgments  on  'Babylon'  in  Rev  18  are  taken 
from  Ezekiel's  chapters  on  Tyre. 

II.  The  Permanent  Message  of  Ezekiel. 
This  book  has  an  abiding  value  to  the  Christian 
because  of  its  promise  of  the  new  heart,  its 
doctrine  of  the  individual's  relation  to  God 
and  Its  assurance  that  God  has  no  pleasure  in 
the  death  of  the  wicked,  but  desires  that  all 
should  turn  to  Him  and  live. 


PART    1 


1. 


Sin  and  Judgment.     The  old  Israel  and  its  Overthrow  (Chs.  1-24) 


Ezekiel's  Call  and  Consecration 
AS  A  Prophet  (chs.  1-3). 
Date,  June-July,  592  B.C. 
Ezekiel's  call  and  consecration  to  his  pro- 
phetic work  took  place  by  means  of  a  vision 
of  God's  glory  (c.  1),  and  of  a  divine  commis- 
sion, or  rather  series  of  commissions,  conveyed 
partly  in  speech  and  partly  in  symbol  (chs.  2,  3). 

CHAPTER    1 

The  Yision  of  God's  Glory 
This  vision,  unlike  the  inaugural  visions  of 
Isaiah  and  Jeremiah,  came  to  Ezekiel  not  only 
at  the  beginning  of  his  prophetic  ministry, 
but  also  several  times  during  the  course  of  it. 
It  was  early  repeated  in  connexion  with  his 
call  and  commission  (3  23),  and  it  appeared  on 
two  other  occasions  (chs.  8-11,43  i-S).  In  c.  10 
in  particular  the  account  in  c.  1  is  closely  re- 
produced, with  some  additional  details. 

In  a  state  of  trance,  or  ecstasy,  Ezekiel  saw 
approaching  from  the  north  a  glowing  storm- 
cloud,  which  resolved  itself  into  a  remarkable 
group  of  four  living  creatures,  arranged  sym- 
metrically in  a  square.     Their  general  appear- 


490 


ance  was  human,  and  every  one  had  four  faces 
a  human  face  looking  outwards,  the  face  of  a 
hon  on  the  right,  the  face  of  an  ox  on  the  left 
and  the  face  of  an  eagle  looking  inwards  to 
the  centre  of  the  square.     Every  one  had  also 
four  wings,  two  of  which  were  stretched  out 
to  meet  those  of  the  living  creatures  on  either 
side,  the  points  where  the  tips  of  the  wings 
touched  each  other  being  the  corners  of  the 
square.     The  other  pairs  of  wings  covered  the 
bodies  of  the  living  creatures,  and  under  these 
wings  were  human  hands.      The  living  crea- 
tures had  straight,  jointless  limbs,   and   feet 
like  the  hoofs  of  a  calf.      The  whole  group 
was  pervaded  with  glowing  lambent  fire,  from 
which  lightnings  shot  forth.     It  moved  to  and 
fro  with  lightning  speed,  and  did  so  without 
turning,  as  its  four  sides  were  exactly  alike 
and  any  one  of  them  could  be  the  front  for 
the  time.     Beside  the  living   creatures   were 
four  vast  wheels,  the  rims  of  which  were  full 
of  eyes.     These  wheels  also  were  so  arranged 
that  they  could  move  in  any  direction  without 
changing  front.      Though    apparently  uncon- 
nected with  the  living  creatures  they  moved 


1. 


EZEKIEL 


1.7 


in  perfect  harmony  with  them,  ascending  and 
descending,  going  backwards  and  forwards,  or 
from  side  to  side,  exactly  as  they  did.  The 
motion  of  this  living  chariot  was  accompanied 
by  a  majestic  rushing  sound.  Above  the  heads 
of  the  living  creatures  there  was  a  solid  crystal- 
line platform,  supporting  an  enthroned  human 
Figure,  who  was  clothed  in  a  fiery  iridescent 
radiance.     Overawed  by  the  sight,  Ezekiel  fell 


The  details  of  the  vision  are  all  suggestive 
of  the  attributes  of  God.  The  Figure  on  the 
throne  is  an  emblem  of  His  sovereign  rule. 
The  general  human  form  and  the  various  faces 
of  the  living  creatures  symbolise  different 
aspects  of  divine  majesty  and  strength.  The 
imposing  height  of  the  wheels,  and  the  sub- 
lime sound  with  which  the  whole  living  chariot 
moved,    convey   the    same    impression.      The 


upon  his  face,  and  as  he  lay  he  heard  a  divine     symmetrical  arrangement  of  the  Hving  crea- 


voice  addressing  him 

The  whole  vision  brought  before  Ezekiel's 
consciousness  the  presence  and  glory  of  God, 
but  the  part  of  it  in  which  God  Himself  was 
more  directly  manifested  is  described  with  a 
reverent  reserve.  Ezekiel  is  careful  not  to 
identify  the  divine  essence  with  the  material 
emblems  which  he  beheld.  What  he  saw  was 
'  the  likeness  of  a  throne,'  and  upon  it  '  a  like- 
ness as  the  appearance  of  a  man.'  The  whole 
was  'the  appearance  of  the  likeness  of  the 
glory  of  Jehovah.'  The  details  of  the  vision 
are  concerned  rather  with  the  subordinate 
appearances  by  which  the  divine  glory  was 
accompanied  and  upborne. 

We  are  not,  of  course,  to  understand  that 
the  living  creatures  and  the  wheels  which 
Ezekiel  saw  were  actually  existing  realities. 
They  were  only  the  forms  in  which   certain 


tures  and  the  wheels,  and  their  swift  move- 
ments in  every  direction,  indicate  the  omni- 
presence of  God.  The  eyes  on  the  wheels 
denote  His  omniscient  intelligence.  The  spon- 
taneous and  united  motion  of  wheels  and 
cherubim  suggest  the  pervasive  presence  and 
universal  working  of  God's  Spirit,  controlling 
things  that  seem  to  be  independent.  The  fire 
is  a  symbol  of  divine  purity  and  holiness. 
The  rainbow  colours  add  a  touch  of  sublime 
beauty  to  the  conception  of  the  glory  of  God. 
I.  The  thirtieth  year]  The  reference  of  the 
number  is  uncertain.  Suggested  explanations 
are,  (1)  that  Ezekiel'g  age  is  meant  ;  (2)  that 
the  reckoning  is  from  some  recent  era,  such  as 
Josiah's  reformation  (621  B.C.),  or  the  inde- 
pendence of  Babylon  under  Nabopolassar  (625 
B.C.,  taking  thirty  as  a  round  number),  or  the 
accession  of  Nebuchadrezzar  (604  B.C.,  reading 


xney    were   uiiij    mc   iwimo   ^.i    „ ^^^^^^    ^ — — —  .     .     ,  ,^      ^  t-.ii- 

aspects  of  God's  glory  were  bodied  forth  before  '  thirteenth '  for '  thirtieth  ),  or  some  Babylonian 

his  mind's  eye.     And  while  the  visionary  com-  epoch  otherwise    unknown    to    us  ;    (3)    that 

bination  of  the  symbols,  and  the  impression  '  the  thirtieth  year '  is  an  insertion  made  with 

which  it  produced,  were  the  results  of  divine  the  object  of  harmonising  the  different  periods 


inspiration  acting   through  a  peculiar  mental 
condition,  it  is  permissible  to  seek  the  origin 
of  the  symbols  themselves  among  objects  which 
were  familiar  to  Ezekiel's  ordinary  sight,  and 
conceptions  which  were  familiar  to  his  ordinary 
thought.     Composite   animal    figures,  such   as 
winged  bulls  and  lions  with  human  heads,  and 
winged  and  eagle-headed  men,  were  very  com- 
mon  objects   in   the    temples   of    Babylonia. 
There  has  even  been  found  on  an  ancient  Baby- 
lonian seal  a  representation  of  a  god  in  a  four- 
wheeled  chariot  drawn  by  a  winged  monster. 
Then  Ezekiel  tells  us  himself  (10  20)  that  the 
living   creatures   were    cherubim,    like    those 
which  formed  part  of  the  furniture  (Ex  25 18-20) 
and  decoration   (Ex  2631)    of  the  tabernacle, 
and  of  the  Temple  of  Jerusalem  (1  K  6  23-29). 
In  Hebrew  poetry,  too,  the   cherubim   were 
personifications  of  the   storm-cloud  on  which 
Jehovah  rode  (PslSio,  also  Pss80i99iRV). 
In  the  winged  attendants,  the  glowing  fire, 
and  the  throne,  Ezekiel's  vision  has  points  of  re- 
semblance to  that  of  Isaiah  (Isa  6),  but  while  the 
imagery  of  Isaiah's  vision  was  evidently  that  of 
the  Temple  at  Jerusalem  expanded  and  glorified, 
the  scene  of  Ezekiel's  was  rather  the  great  temple 
of  nature,  where  Jehovah's  throne  is  above  the 
blue  sky,  and  His  chariot  is  the  thunder-cloud, 
with  lightnings  flashing  from  its  heart  of  fire 


assigned  for  the  duration  of  the  exile  by  Jere- 
miah (70  years,  Jer25ii  29^0)  and  Ezekiel  (40 
years,  4  6)  respectively.  Of  these  explana- 
tions (1)  is  improbable,  and  if  (3)  be  not  ac- 
cepted we  are  shut  up  to  some  of  the  forms 
of  (2).  Among  these  625  B.C.  (Nabopolassar) 
seems  a  more  likely  starting-point  for  an  epoch 
than  621  B.C.  (Josiah's  reformation),  but,  on 
the  other  hand,  the  latter  date  agrees  more 
exactly  with  the  number  given.  The  fourth 
■mo/ifh^  the  month  Tam/iu/s  =  June- July:  see 
on  81^.  The  river  of  Chebar]  the  ndr  Kabari 
(Great  River,  or  '  Grand  Canal ')  of  the  in- 
scriptions. It  was  a  large  navigable  canal 
branching  off  from  the  Euphrates,  and  passing 
near  Nippur,  SE.  of  Babylon.  It  is  probably 
represented  by  the  modern  Shatt-en-Nil,  a 
canal  120  ft.  wide,  which  divides  the  ruins  of 
Nippur  in  two.  2.  King  Jehoiachin's  captivity] 
the  first  captivity,  597  B.C.  :  see  Intro.  The 
fifth  year]  592  B.C.  3.  The  word  of  the  LORD 
came]  the  usual  formula  for  prophetic  in- 
spiration. Chaldeans]  Babylonians.  The 
hand  of  the  LORD  was  . .  upon  him]  producing 
the  trance  in  which  he  saw  the  vision. 

4.  Amber]  RM  '  electrum,'  an  alloy  of  gold 
and  silver.  7.  Feet]  rather, '  limbs.'  Straight] 
kneeless,  unjointed.  The  living  creatures  did 
not  move  by  walking.     Like . .  a  calf  s  foot] 


491 


1. 11 


EZEKIEL 


2.  10 


not  projecting  in  one  direction  as  a  human  foot 
does.  II.  Stretched  upward]  RV  'separate 
above.'  15.  One  wheel  .  .  with  his  four  faces] 
RV  '  one  wheel .  .  for  each  of  the  four  faces 
thereof,'  four  wheels  in  all. 

16.  A  wheel  in  the  middle  of  (RV  'within') 
a  wheel]  an  obscure  expression.  One  explana- 
tion is  that  every  wheel  had  another  joined  to 
it  at  right  angles,  so  that  the  compound  wheel 
would  appear  thus  -^  from  above,  and  could 
revolve  backwards  and  forwards  on  one  rim, 
and  from  side  to  side  on  the  other.  Another 
theory  places  the  four  wheels   symmetrically 


thus 


,  in  which  arrangement,  taking  any 


side  as  the  front ,  the  back  wheel  would  over- 
lap the  front  one  and  could  be  seen  through 
the  spokes  of  the  latter.  A  third  suggestion 
is  that  every  wheel  was  made  up  of  two  con- 
centric circles,  the  outer  rim  having  a  smaller 

wheel  within  it,  surrounding  the  axle,  thus^S^. 

17.  They  turned  not  when  they  went]  as  in 
vv.  9,  12.  The  wheels  of  course  revolved, 
but,  like  the  living  creatures,  they  could  move 
in  different  directions  without  changing  front. 

18.  Rings]  RM  'felloes.'  20,  21.  Living- 
creature]  The  group  of  fom-  is  spoken  of  as 
one.  24.  The  voice  of  the  Almighty]  the  voice 
of  Jehovah  is  a  common  OT.  expression  for 
thunder.  Voice  of  speech]  RV  '  noise  of 
tumult.'  The  articulate  voice,  as  distinguished 
from  the  sound  of  the  wheels,  is  not  men- 
tioned till  afterwards.  26.  A  sapphire  stone] 
see  the  very  similar  vision  of  God's  glory  in 
Ex  24 10. 

CHAPTERS  2,  3 

Ezekiel's  Commission  to  be  a  Prophet 
Ezekiel's  commission  came  to  him  by  three 
stages,  and  on  three  distinct  occasions.  The 
first  and  principal  occasion  was  the  immediate 
sequel  of  the  vision  described  in  c.  1.  The 
account  of  it  occupies  the  whole  of  c.  2, 
and  the  first  13  vv.  of  c.  3.  The  second  was 
seven  days  later,  among  the  exiles  at  Tel-abib 
(3 14-21).  The  third  was  connected  with  a 
repetition  of  the  vision,  apparently  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Tel-abib  (322-27). 

The  First  Commission  (21-3^3) 
This  consisted  of  two  series  of  instructions 
(2 1-7  and  3 '^-11)  separated  by  a  visionary  symbol 
of  prophetic  inspiration  (2S-33),  and  was 
followed  by  the  withdrawal  of  the  vision 
for  a  time  (3i2,i3).  A.s  Ezekiel's  opening 
vision  recalls  that  of  Isaiah,  so  his  first  com- 
mission has  much  in  common  with  that  of 
Jeremiah,  and  indeed  the  contents  of  the  two 
are  closely  parallel  in  order  as  well  as  in 
substance. 

(a)  First  Instructions  (2'^-'<) 
The  voice  which  addresses  Ezekiel  bids  him 


492 


stand  on  his  feet,  and  when  he  has  been  raised 
from  the  ground  by  an  unseen  force  he  is  told 
that  God  has  given  him  a  mission  as  a  prophet 
to  the  children  of  Israel.  He  is  warned  of 
their  rebelliousness  and  hardness  of  heart,  and 
encouraged  to  deliver  his  message  fearlessly 
no  matter  how  they  receive  it.  This  exhorta- 
tion corresponds  to  that  in  Jer  1 8. 

I.  Son  of  man]  a  term  reminding  Ezekiel 
of  his  human  weakness,  like  the  word  'mortal.' 
It  occurs  nearly  100  times  in  the  book. 

Stand,  etc.]  God's  call  does  not  suppress 
human  powers,  but  reinforces  them  and  makes 
use  of  them  at  their  best.  3.  Nation]  RV 
'  nations,'  the  whole  Hebrew  people,  both 
Judah  and  Israel.  Rebellious]  a  frequently 
recurring  description  of  Israel's  character 
foimd  very  often  in  the  phrase  a  'rebellious 
house,'  as  in  v.  5. 

5.  Hear,  or  .  .  forbear]  The  latter  is  chiefly 
expected.  They .  .  yet  shall  know,  etc.]  the 
result  which  will  keep  the  prophet's  work  from 
being  in  vain.  His  warnings  may  be  fruitless 
at  the  time,  but  they  will  be  fulfilled,  and  he 
will  be  recognised  in  the  end  as  God's  mes- 
senger. This  will  be  very  far  from  utter 
failure.  The  result  thus  indicated  is  the  first 
of  an  ascending  series  which  runs  thi-ough  the 
whole  book.  They  are  all  introduced  by  the 
phrase  'they  shall  know,'  and  they  describe 
the  production  in  Israel's  mind  of  convictions 
which  increase  in  depth,  and  solemnity,  and 
blessedness.  The  final  conviction,  which  itself 
has  various  stages  of  growing  significance,  is 
'theyshallknowthatlamtheLoRD.'  6.  Briers 
.  .  thorns  .  .  scorpions]  figures  for  the  oppo- 
sition of  the  Israelites  to  Ezekiel  and  his 
divine  message. 

(b)  A  Symbol  of  Inspiration  (28-33) 
In  Jeremiah's  commission  God  says  to  him, 
'  Behold,  I  have  put  my  words  in  thy  mouth ' 
(Jer  1 9),  and  Jeremiah  himself  says  afterwards, 
'  Thy  words  were  found,  and  I  did  eat  them, 
and  thy  words  were  unto  me  a  joy  and  the 
rejoicing  of  mine  heart '  (Jer  I516  RV).  The 
experience  thus  described  metaphorically  came 
to  Ezekiel  in  his  trance  in  a  concrete,  material 
way.  God's  words  seemed  to  be  set  before 
him  in  the  form  of  a  book,  which  he  ate  at 
God's  command,  and  found  to  be  as  sweet  as 
honey.  The  truth  underlying  this  visionary 
symbol  was  that  Ezekiel  was  divinely  inspired, 
in  other  words,  that  God  had  communicated  to 
him  a  message  which  he  was  called  to  proclaim 
to  men.  This  passage  is  the  basis  of  Rev  109. 10. 
9.  A  hand]  This  hand  is  not  said  to  be  that 
of  the  Figure  on  the  throne.  The  vague 
expression  is  another  instance  of  Ezekiel's 
reverent  reserve.  A  roll]  the  usual  form  of 
Eastern  books  :  see  Jer  36  2.  10.  Spread  it  be- 
fore me]  Ezekiel  had  a  view  from  the  first  of 


3.  3 


EZEKIEL 


3.  26 


the  whole  nature  of  his  message.  Within  and 
without]  indicating  the  abundance  of  calamity 
which  Ezekiel  had  to  proclaim.  Book  rolls 
were  usually  written  on  the  inner  side  alone  : 
see  Rev  5 1.  Lamentations,  etc.]  the  character 
of  Ezekiel's  message. 

C.  3.  3.  As  honey  for  sweetness]  The  privi- 
lege of  being  God's  messenger  brought  a  great 
joy,  though  the  message  itself  was  of  the  saddest. 

(c)  Further  Instructions  (S'^-i^) 

Having  thus  received  his  message  Ezekiel  is 
again  told  to  speak  it  to  his  countrymen.  He 
is  warned  in  fresh  terms  of  their  indifference 
and  obstinacy,  and  encouraged  further  by  the 
assurance  that  he  will  be  strengthened  to  with- 
stand their  utmost  opposition.  These  vv.  should 
be  compared  with  Jer  1  i''-i9. 

4.  With  my  words]  an  advance  upon  the 
general  instruction  of  2^^,  following  the  sym- 
bolical act  just  described.  6.  People]  RV 
'  peoples.'  Israel  will  be  less  responsive  to 
Ezekiel's  words  than  a  foreign  nation  to  whom 
his  speech  would  be  unintelligible.  7.  Impudent] 
RV  'of  a  stiff  forehead.'  This  rendering  gives 
greater  point  to  '  thy  forehead '  in  vv.  8,  9. 

9.  Adamant]  diamond:  see  Jer  17 1. 

11.  Them  of  the  captivity]  a  closer  definition 
than  in  2  ^  of  Ezekiel's  immediate  audience  : 
see  Intro. 

(d)  The  Vision  withdrawn  (3 12, 13) 

The  voice  that  has  been  speaking  to  Ezekiel 
has  proceeded  from  the  Figure  enthroned  above 
the  living  chariot  of  c.  1,  which  has  therefore 
been  present  during  all  these  instructions. 
Ezekiel  now  hears  the  sound  of  its  movement 
as  it  departs. 

12.  Behind  me]  Ezekiel's  face  is  now  turned 
away  from  the  visionary  chariot.  As  it  appeared 
from  the  N.  he  is  probably  looking  S.,  and 
Tel-abib  may  have  lain  in  the  latter  direction 
from  the  Chebar.  Blessed  be  the  glory,  etc.] 
A  change  of  one  letter  in  the  Hebrew  gives 
the  much  better  sense, '  When  the  glory  of  the 
Lord  went  up  from  its  place,'  i.e.  when  the 
vision  was  withdrawn.  13.  Noise  of  the  wheels] 
in  addition  to  the  noise  of  the  wings  of  the 
living  creatures.  The  latter  sound  alone  is 
mentioned  in  1 2*. 

The  Second  Commission  (31*-21) 

Ezekiel,  still  under  a  strong,  divinely  pro- 
duced excitement,  came  to  the  community  of 
exiles  at  Tel-abib,  near  the  Chebar,  and  after 
seven  days  of  stupefaction  he  received  a 
further  commission  from  God.  It  was  un- 
accompanied by  any  vision,  and  the  manner  in 
which  he  received  it  is  undescribed,  as  is  so 
often  the  case  with  the  prophets.  The  new 
element  in  this  second  commission  was  the 
thought  of  Ezekiel's  responsibility  for  the  fate 


493 


of  his  people,  and  it  was  set-  forth  in  the  title 
of  '  watchman,'  now  given  to  him  for  the  first 
time.  This  responsibility  was  exhausted  when 
he  had  warned  them  of  their  danger  and  duty. 
Only  if  he  failed  to  do  so  would  he  be  held 
accountable  for  their  sin  and  doom. 

1 4.  The  spirit  lifted  me]  to  be  taken  along  with 
I  went.  Ezekiel  was  not  miraculously  trans- 
ported to  Tel-abib,  but  in  his  movement  thither 
he  was  under  the  influence  of  God's  Spirit,  like 
Elijah  in  IK  18^*5,  15,  Tel-abib]  a  place  near 
the  Chebar,  where  a  colony  of  Jewish  exiles 
lived.  The  exact  site  is  unknown.  The  name 
is  usually  explained  to  mean  '  Hill  of  corn- 
ears  '  or  '  Corn-hill,'  but  some  recent  editors 
suggest  that  it  is  rather  the  same  as  til-abuhi, 
'Hill  of  the  deluge,'  the  Assyrian  name  for  the 
numerous  heaps  of  sand  and  debris  formed  by 
floods  in  Babylonia.  Astonished]  RV  'asto- 
nied,'  in  a  stupor  of  reaction  after  the  vision. 

18.  Die..  21.  Live]  not  to  be  understood 
in  the  highest  NT.  sense.  To  die  was  to  be 
cut  off  from  the  restored  kingdom  of  God, 
foretold  in  the  latter  part  of  this  book.  To 
live  was  to  survive  and  enjoy  its  blessedness. 

20.  I  lay  a  stumblingblock  before  him]  This 
difficult  phrase  does  not  mean  that  God  see^s 
to  make  the  righteous  fall,  but  that  the  tempt- 
ations of  the  righteous  are  under  God's  provi- 
dential control.  Where  there  is  a  temptation 
He  also  sends  a  warning,  and  the  two  consti- 
tute a  discipline  by  which  the  righteous  man 
is  tested,  and  under  which  he  has  an  oppor- 
tunity of  moral  growth.  The  case  of  a  right- 
eous man  sinning  and  perishing  in  spite  of 
warning  is  not  contemplated  at  all. 

The  Third  Commission  (322-27) 

In  a  plain  or  valley  near  Tehabib  the  great 
vision  of  God's  glory  formerly  seen  by  the 
Chebar  again  appeared  to  Ezekiel.  The  divine 
voice  further  explained  the  nature  of  his  com- 
mission. His  prophetic  activity  would  be 
subject  to  a  double  limitation.  He  would  be 
restrained  from  public  speech  by  the  opposi- 
tion of  the  people,  and  God  would  impose 
silence  upon  him  except  when  a  divine  mes- 
sage should  be  given  him  from  time  to  time. 
This  intermittent  silence  became  permanent 
from  2427  (January,  587  B.C.)  onward,  till  the 
restraint  on  his  speech  was  removed  altogether 
three  years  later  (3321,22). 

22.  Plain]  RM' valley.'  25.  They]  Ezekiel's 
fellow  exiles.  Bands]  not  literal  but  figur- 
ative. 26.  Dumb]  as  far  as  prophetic  speech 
is  concerned,  as  the  following  words  not . .  a 
reprover  show. 

§  2.  The  Overthrow  of  the  Jewish 
KINGDOM  foretold  (chs.  4-7) 

The  gi-eat  theme  of  the  first  part  of  Ezekiel's 
prophetic  ministry  was   the  certainty  of  the 


4.  1 


EZEKIEL 


4.6 


complete  downfall  of  the  Jewish  state. 
Though  Zedekiah  had  been  set  on  the  throne 
by  Nebuchadrezzar  after  the  first  captivity, 
there  was  no  hope  for  the  kingdom.  Zede- 
kiah's  reign  was  viewed  by  Ezekiel,  as  well  as 
by  Jeremiah,  only  as  a  temporary  respite,  to 
be  followed  by  a  second  captivity  which  would 
bring  the  state  to  an  end.  Chs.  4-7  contain 
the  first  gi-oup  of  Ezekiel's  prophecies  to  this 
effect.  They  are  to  be  placed  between  the 
date  of  his  prophetic  call  (June- July,  592  B.C.) 
and  that  of  the  next  group  of  prophecies  (Au- 
gust-September, 591  B.C.).  The  present  group 
includes  a  series  of  symbolic  prophecies  of  the 
siege  and  captivity  of  Jerusalem  (chs.  4,  5),  a 
prophecy  against  the  mountains  of  Israel  (c.  6), 
and  a  description,  partly  in  the  form  of  a 
poetic  lament  or  dirge,  of  the  final  desolation 
of  the  land  (c.  7). 

CHAPTEES  4,  5 
Symbolic  actions  representing  Jerusa- 
lem's Siege  and  Captivity 
Ezekiel  is  commanded  to  perform  four  re- 
markable actions  setting  forth  the  coming  siege 
with  its  hardships,  and  the  approaching  captivity 
with  its  evils.  It  is  uncertain  whether  these 
actions  were  literally  performed  or  not.  Sym- 
bolic methods  of  this  kind  were  certainly  used 
by  various  prophets,  but  some  of  those  in  c.  4 
are  so  extraordinary  that  many  suppose  that 
they  were  not  actually  carried  out,  but  only  ima- 
gined and  described.  The  explanation  of  the 
second  and  third  symbols  is  given  along  with  the 
account  of  the  symbols  themselves.  The  first 
and  fourth  are  explained  more  fully  in  5  ^-i ". 

(a)  A  Symbol  of  the  Siege  (4i-3) 
Ezekiel  was  told  to  draw  a  representation 
of  a  city  on  a  slab  of  clay,  and  to  conduct  a 
mimic  siege  of  it.  In  this  action  the  prophet 
played  the  part  of  the  enemies  of  Jerusalem, 
and  especially  of  God,  who  was  now  the  great 
Adversary  of  the  city. 

I.  A  tile]  or  '  brick,'  a  slab  of  clay,  such  as 
the  Babylonians  used  for  inscriptions  and 
sculptures  in  relief.  2.  A  mount]  an  embank- 
ment raised  in  ancient  warfare  by  besiegers  to 
enable  them  to  approach  the  top  of  a  city  wall. 
3.  Pan]  RM  '  flat  plate,'  such  as  was  used 
for  baking  (Lv  6  21  7  9).  This  may  be  taken  as 
a  symbol  either  of  the  stubbornness  of  the  de- 
fence or  of  the  rigour  of  the  siege.  Or  it  may 
represent  the  hopeless  barrier  which  now  sepa- 
rated God  from  His  people.  A  sign  to  the 
house  of  Israel]  The  symbol  was  intended  to 
teach  those  who  witnessed  or  heard  of  it  that 
the  stern  reality  which  it  represented  was  close 
at  hand. 

(h)  Symbols  of  the  duration  of  Siege 
and  Captivity  (44-8) 
Ezekiel  was  directed  to  lie  on  his  left  side 


494 


for  a  fixed  number  of  days  (390),  and  then  on 
his  right  side  for  another  fixed  number  (40). 
The  whole  time  was  supposed  to  represent  the 
length  of  the  siege  of  Jerusalem,  and  the  two 
numbers  of  days  were  supposed  to  correspond 
to  the  years  of  the  respective  captivities  of  Israel 
and  Judah.  The  constrained  posture  of  the 
prophet  was  a  symbol  of  the  loss  of  freedom 
awaiting  the  people. 

4.  The  house  of  Israel]  used  here  and  in  v.  5 
in  the  limited  sense  of  the  northern  kingdom 
of  the  Ten  Tribes. 

5.  Three  hundred  and  ninety  days]  This  is  a 
difficult  number.     Ezekiel   expected  the  cap- 
tivities of  Israel  and  Judah  to  end  together 
(37i5f.).     As  Israel's  captivity  was  to  be  350 
years  longer  than  Judah's,  it  must  have  begun 
350  years  sooner.     The  captivity  of  Judah  may 
be  dated  (a)  from  the  first  captivity  (597  B.C.), 
or  (b)  from  the  second  captivity  (586  B.C.)! 
The  latter  was  still  in  the  future  at  the  time 
of  this  prophecy,  and  would  not  be  a  fixed  date 
for  Ezekiel,   who    would    therefore   probably 
reckon  from  597  B.C.,  which  he  elsewhere  calls 
J  our  captivity '  (40 1).     The  captivity  of  Israel 
is  most  naturally  reckoned  («!)  from  the  fall  of 
Samaria  (721  B.c.,2Kl76);  but  it  may  possibly 
be   calculated  (&i)  from   the   first  ravages  of 
Tiglath-pileser  (734  B.C.,  2  K 1629).     From  (ai) 
to  (a)  gives  124  years,  and  from  (Ji)  to  (a)  137 
years.    Taking(i)  instead  of  (a) for  the  captivity 
of  Judah,  these  numbers  become  respectively 
135  and  148.     The  LXX  has  190  instead  of 
390,  which  would  give  150  instead  of  350  for 
the    difference    between    the   two    captivities, 
and    this    would    agree    approximately    with 
the  actual  dates,  especially  with  (fti)  to  (b). 
The  only  way  to  reach  anything  like  350  years 
is  to  count  Israel's  captivity  from  the  revolt  of 
the  Ten  Tribes  (939  B.C.).     This  was  342  vears 
before  (a)  and  353  years  before  (i),  but"  it  is 
imlikely  that  Ezekiel  should  have  given  the  time 
of  Israel's  siti  and  only  the  time  of  Judah's 
pwushme7it.     Another  explanation  is  that  since 
390  +  40  =  430,  Ezekiel  represented  the  united 
captivities  of  the  two  kingdoms  as  equal  in 
length  to  the  bondage  in  Egypt  (Ex  12  •if),  and 
that  of  Judah  as  equal  to  the  period  of  wander- 
ing in  the  wilderness  (Nu  1434).     The  latter  v. 
is  certainly  closely  parallel  to  this  passage,  and 
possibly  we  have  here  an  ideal  and  artificial 
scheme  of  numbers  with  no  relation  to  actual 
historic  dates.     If  a  historic  explanation  be 
preferred,  350  (or  150)  must  be  taken  not  as 
an  exact,  but  as  a  round  number. 

6.  Forty  days]  the  years  of  Judah's  cap- 
tivity and  of  Babylon's  supremacy  (2911-13). 
The  return  of  the  exiles  took  place  about 
538  B.C.,  fifty-nine  years  after  the  first  and 
forty-eight  years  after  the  second  captivity. 
If  the  number.  40  is  not  taken  from  Nul434 
(see  the  note  above),  it  is  a  round  number, 


4.7 


EZEKIEL 


6.7 


meaning  '  more  than  a  generation.'  7.  The 
siege  of  Jerusalem]  the  mimic  siege  described 
in  vv.  1-3.  The  first  and  second  symbolic 
actions  were  to  be  carried  on  together.  Thine 
arm  .  .  uncovered]   a  threatening  gesture. 

8.  Bands]  By  some  divine  restraint  Ezekiel 
would  be  prevented  from  turning.  The  days 
of  thy  siege]  The  number  430  represented  the 
days  of  the  siege  of  Jerusalem  as  well  as  the 
sum  of  the  years  of  the  two  captivities.  The 
actual  siege  lasted  almost  exactly  a  year  and  a 
half  (2K251-3  Jer39i>2). 

(c)  Symbols  of  Scarcity  during  the  Siege 
and  of  Defilement  in  Captivity  (49-17) 

Ezekiel  was  commanded  to  prepare  bread 
from  a  mixture  of  various  kinds  of  grain,  and 
to  live  on  scanty  rations  of  meat  and  drink 
while  he  lay  upon  his  side.  This  was  in  token 
of  the  scarcity  which  the  inhabitants  of  Jeru- 
salem would  suffer  duri  ng  the  siege.  The  bread 
was  to  be  baked  with  loathsome  fuel,  as  a  sign 
of  the  banishment  of  Israel  to  an  unclean 
foreign  land. 

9.  Wheat,  etc.]  a  mixture  of  all  sorts  of 
grain,  fine  and  coarse,  symbolising  the  poor  fare 
which  would  be  used  in  Jerusalem  during  the 
siege. 

ID.  Twenty  shekels]  eight  or  nine  ounces. 

II.  The  sixth  part  of  an  hin]  less  than  a 
quart.  12.  Bread  thus  baked  would  be  un- 
clean (Lv  5  3  7  21). 

13.  Eat  their  defiled  bread]  RV  '  eat  their 
bread  unclean.'  Foreign  lands  were  regarded 
as  unclean  in  themselves  (Am  7 1'^),  and,  besides, 
all  food  eaten  in  them  would  be  unclean,  be- 
cause it  could  not  be  consecrated  by  offering  a 
portion  to  God  in  the  Temple  :  see  Hos  93,4. 

14.  Ezekiel,  as  a  priest,  was  peculiarly  sensi- 
tive about  ceremonial  defilement.  15.  A  par- 
tial mitigation  of  the  symbol  for  the  prophet's 
sake.  The  dung  of  domestic  animals  was  often 
used  as  fuel,  and  does  not  seem  to  have  defiled 
the  food  cooked  upon  it.  Though  the  symbol 
was  modified,  it  was  not  implied  that  the  defile- 
ment of  captivity,  signified  by  the  fuel  first 
prescribed,  would  be  any  the  less. 

(d)  Symbols  of  Three  Calamities  awaiting 

Jerusalem  (S^-^) 

In  the  previous  symbols  Ezekiel  himself 
personated  both  the  besiegers  and  the  besieged. 
Now  the  hair  of  his  head  and  beard  is  made  to 
represent  the  people  of  Jerusalem.  He  is 
bidden  to  shave  it  off  and  divide  it  into  three 
parts.  One  of  these  he  is  to  burn,  as  an  em- 
blem of  those  who  will  die  of  pestilence  and 
famine  ;  another  he  is  to  smite  around  with  a 
sword,  as  a  symbol  of  those  who  will  be  slain  ; 
while  the  third  part  he  is  to  scatter  to  the  wind, 
as  representing  those  who  will  go  into  captivity. 
A  few  hairs  are  to  be  reserved  as  an  emblem  of 


the  pious  remnant  ;  but  even  these  are  partly 
to  be  burned,  in  token  of  the  trials  the  remnant 
will  endure. 

I.  A  sharp  knife  .  .  a  barber's  razor]  RV  '  a 
sharp  sword,  as  a  barber's  razor.'  4.  For  there- 
of] RV  '  therefrom.'  The  clause  thus  intro- 
duced is  obscure.  The  meaning  seems  to  be 
that  the  punishment  of  Jerusalem  will  extend 
to  the  whole  nation. 

(e)  Explanation  of  the  First  and  Fourth 
Symbols  (55-17) 

The  pictured  city  is  Jerusalem,  and  Grod 
is  her  great  Adversary  (vv.  5-8).  Her  un- 
paralleled sins  deserve  an  unparalleled 
punishment.  Famine  and  pestilence,  the 
sword,  and  captivity  await  her  people.  Only 
thus  can  God's  righteous  wrath  be  appeased 
(vv.  9-17). 

5.  This]  the  city  depicted  on  the  tile 
(4 1-3).  In  the  midst  of  the  nations]  God  gave 
Jerusalem  a  great  opportunity  of  displaying 
His  righteousness  and  truth  to  the  world.  Her 
position,  near  the  highway  between  Asia  and 
Africa,  was  peculiarly  central  and  conspicuous. 

7.  Multiplied]  RV  '  are  turbulent.'  Neither 
.  .  my  judgments  .  .  the  judgments  (RV  '  or- 
dinances ')  of  the  nations]  Israel  had  been 
worse  than  the  heathen,  who  had  at  least  been 
faithful  to  their  own  gods  :  see  Jer  2 10.  n.  8.  In 
the  sight  of  the  nations]  Punishment  must  be 
as  conspicuous  as  the  lost  opportunity. 

II.  Defiled  my  sanctuary]  This  charge  is 
substantiated  at  length  in  c.  8.  13.  Cause 
my  fury  to  rest]  RY  '  satisfy  my  fury.' 

CHAPTER  6 

A  Prophecy  against  the  Mountain 
Land  of  Israel 

The  coming  judgment  is  here  announced  to 
the  land  of  Israel,  which  is  identified  with  the 
people.  Vv.  8,  9,  following  up  the  hint  in 
6  3>  4,  speak  of  a  remnant  of  the  nation  which 
will  be  led  to  repentance  in  exile. 

2,  3.  The  physical  features  of  the  land  are 
described,  not  only  because  their  variety  was 
in  strong  contrast  to  the  monotony  of  the 
Babylonian  plains  where  Ezekiel  lived,  but 
also,  and  chiefly,  because  they  were  associated 
with  different  forms  of  idolatrous  and  impure 
worship.  The  mountains  and  hills  were  the 
sites  of  the  '  high  places ' — shrines  of  Canaanite 
origin  (Dt  1 2  2).  The  ravines  and  valleys  were 
the  scenes  of  Baal-worship  (Jer  2  23)  and  of 
child-sacrifice  (Isa575)  :  see  also  v.  13. 

4,  6.  Images]  RV  '  sun-images,'  probably 
obelisks  representing  the  sun-god. 

7.  Ye  shall  know  that  I  am  the  LORD] 
Ezekiel's  favourite  expression  for  the  result 
of  God's  dealings  with  men  in  prophecy  and 
in  history.  It  means  the  recognition  now  of 
one,  now  of  another,  aspect  of  the  character 


495 


6.  8 


EZEKIEL 


7.26 


of  the  true  God.  Here  it  is  the  conviction 
that  His  warnings  are  not  empty  threats  :  see 
vv.  10,  14. 

8.  A  remnant]  ah-eady  hinted  at  in  5^. 

g.  Because  I  am  broken  with,  etc.]  EM 
'  how  that '  (better,  '  when  ')  '  I  have  broken 
their  .  .  heart .  .  and  their  eyes.'  The  metaphor 
of  breaking  is  extended  to  'eyes,'  though  it 
strictly  applies  only  to  '  heart.'  Idolatry  was 
accompanied  by  licentiousness,  and  this  is  one 
reason  why  the  prophets  so  often  described  it 
under  the  figure  of  a  breach  of  the  marriage 
vow  :  see  especially  chs.  16  and  23. 

II.  Smite  (i.e. '  clap ')  .  .  and  stamp]  emphatic 
gestures  of  satisfaction  in  the  calamities  that 
are  announced.  Ezekiel  was  called  to  be  in 
complete  sympathy  with  God's  attitude  to- 
wards Israel  :  see  21i'i>i7  25''.  Alas  !]  rather, 
'  Aha  ! '  :  see  253.  12.  He  that  is  far  off,  etc.] 
The  judgment  would  fall  on  idolatrous  Israel- 
ites not  only  in  Jerusalem,  but  wherever  they 
might  be.  14.  More  desolate  than]  RV  '  waste, 
from.'  The  wilderness  toward  Diblath]  RV 
'Diblah.'  Diblath,  or  Diblathaim,  was  in 
Moab,  beyond  the  Dead  Sea  (NuSS^e  Jer4822). 
The  phrase  in  AV  would  mean  the  wilderness 
of  Judaea,  which  lay  in  that  direction  (east- 
wards) from  Jerusalem.  Another  and  more 
probable  reading  is  '  Riblah  '  instead  of  '  Dib- 
lah.' Riblah  was  a  city  of  Hamath  in  the  far 
north  (2 K 25 21).  'From  the  wilderness  to 
Riblah '  would  mean  '  from  one  end  of  the 
land  to  the  other.' 

CHAPTER   7 

The  Desolation  of  the  Land  of  Israel 
This  is  a  final  message  of  doom  upon  the 
whole  land  (v,  2).  God's  wrath  against  Israel's 
sin  is  relentless,  and  the  judgment  is  inevitable 
and  close  at  hand.  Social  relations  will  be 
broken  up  (v.  12);  preparations  for  defence  will 
be  unavailing  (v.  14);  wealth,  which  has  been 
an  occasion  of  sin  and  an  instrument  of  idolatry, 
will  not  avert  calamity,  but  will  become  the 
spoil  of  the  heathen  (vv.  19-21);  priests  and 
prophets,  king  and  nobles,  will  be  helpless  to 
deliver  (vv.  26,  17);  the  Temple  will  be  pro- 
faned (v.  22);  the  remnant  will  be  over- 
whelmed with  sorrow  (v.  16).  Vv.  6-7,  10-12 
are  in  the  poetic  metre  commonly  used  for 
laments  or  dirges. 

7,  10.  The  morning  is  come]  RV  '  Thy 
doom  is  come.' 

7.  Not  the  sounding  again  of  the  mountains] 
RV  '  not  of  joyful  shouting  upon  the  moun- 
tains.' The  shouting  of  harvest  or  vintage  is 
meant  :  see  Isa  1(5^10  Jer4833. 

9.  Ye  shall  know,  etc.]  another  aspect  of 
the  result  of  God's  judgment.  He  would  be 
recognised  as  the  God  who  punishes  sin. 

10,  II.  The  meaning  here  is  rather  obscure. 
If  the  rod  in  v.  10  is  that  of  chastisement, 

496 


pride  will  mean  the  same  thing.  Babylon  is 
called  'Pride'  in  Jer503i  (RM).  But  the 
violence  in  v.  11  seems  to  be  that  of  Israel, 
and  the  rod  of  wickedness  to  be  a  figure  for 
its  developed  form.  Possibly  '  the  rod  '  and 
'  pride  '  in  v.  10  may  also  refer  to  Israel's  sin. 
12.  The  same  kind  of  social  confusion  as  in 
Isa242.  13.  The  seller,  etc.]  This  may  mean, 
either  that  those  of  Ezekiel's  fellow-exiles  of 
the  fii'st  captivity  who  had  sold  their  possessions 
before  leaving  Jerusalem  would  not  return  to 
regain  them,  or  that  land  which  ought  to  have 
come  back  to  its  seller  at  the  year  of  Jubilee 
would  not  do  so,  since  the  destruction  of  the 
city  would  obliterate  this  and  all  other  social 
institutions.  The  vision  is  touching,  etc.]  A 
more  probable  reading  is,  '  wi-ath  is  upon,'  etc., 
as  in  vv.  12,  14. 

15.  No  safety   either  in  Jerusalem  or  out 
of  it :  see  6 12. 

18.  Baldness]  a  sign  of  mom-ning. 

19.  Removed]   RV  '  as  an  unclean  tiling.' 
Similarly  in  v.  20. 

20.  21.  The  rendering  in  AV  and  RV  means 
that  the  Temple,  profaned  already  by  Israel's 
idolatry,  would  be  further  polluted  by  the 
heathen  conquerors.  Most  scholars,  however, 
take  the  beauty  of  his  (the  people's)  ornament 
to  refer  to  the  silver  and  gold  of  v.  19,  and 
render  as  in  RM,  '  they  turned  it  to  pride  and 
they  made  the  images  .  .  thereof.'  The  wealth 
which  had  been  turned  to  idolatrous  uses 
would  be  defiled  by  passing  into  heathen 
hands. 

22.  Secret  2)iace]  RM  'secret  treasure.' 
Not  the  Holy  of  Holies  specially,  but  Jerusa- 
lem and  the  Temple  viewed  as  God's  precious 
possession. 

23.  A  chain]  a  figure  for  captivity.  Violence 
must  be  punished  by  forcible  restraint. 

26.  Prophets]  were  consulted  for  oracles  as 
to  God's  will,  priests  for  authoritative  decisions 
as  to  the  law,  elders  or  ancients  for  general 
advice  :  see  JerlS^s. 

§  3.  A  Vision  of  Jerusalem's  Sin  and 
Doom  (chs.  8-11) 

Date,  August- September,  591  B.C. 

A  year  and  two  months  after  his  call  to  be 
a  prophet,  Ezekiel  was  visited  in  his  house  by 
the  elders  of  the  Jewish  colony  at  Tel-abib, 
and  in  their  presence  he  fell  into  a  trance' 
during  which  he  was  transported  in  spirit  to 
Jerusalem,  and  witnessed,  as  in  a  dream,  a 
remarkable  drama  being  enacted  there.  The 
glory  of  God  was  present  during  this  vision 
m  the  same  symbolic  form,  and  accompanied 
by  the  same  living  chariot,  as  in  c.  1,  but 
with  this  difference,  that  it  sometimes  left 
the  chariot  and  took  up  its  position  else- 
where. Ezekiel  witnessed  first  the  idolatries 
practised   in   the    Temple    (c.    8),    then    the 


8.  1 


EZEKIEL 


8.  14 


slaughter  of  all  the  idolaters  in  Jerusalem 
(c.  9),  and  next  the  destruction  of  the  city  by 
the  fire  of  God's  holiness  (c.  10).  He  then 
heard  a  parable  of  judgment  pronounced 
against  the  leaders  of  Jerusalem's  wicked 
policy,  and  a  message  of  comfort  addressed  to 
the  exiles  who  were  despised  by  their  country- 
men at  home.  Finally  he  saw  the  glory  of 
God  departing  from  the  Temple,  and  having 
come  back  in  spirit  to  Babylonia  he  awoke 
from  his  trance  and  recounted  his  vision  to  the 
exiles  there  (c.  11).  There  is  no  reason  to 
doubt  that  Ezekiel  here  describes  an  actual 
experience.  He  was  not,  of  course,  literally 
transported  to  Jerusalem,  but  only  seemed  to 
be  taken  thither,  as  one  might  in  a  dream. 
The  idolatries  he  saw  were  those  which  he 
knew  to  be  carried  on  in  Jerusalem,  and  the 
persons  mentioned  in  the  vision  were  doubtless 
also  known  to  him  as  prominent  leaders  in  the 
sin  of  the  city.  Yet  in  his  trance  these 
persons  and  practices,  and  the  whole  scene, 
stood  out  before  his  mind's  eye  with  a  vivid- 
ness and  reality  which  enabled  him  to  describe 
them  as  actually  seen.  The  truths  presented 
in  the  symbols,  and  expressed  in  the  messages, 
of  judgment  were  really  communicated  to 
him  by  God. 

CHAPTER  8 
The  Idolatry  of  Jerusalem 
Various  forms  of  idolatry,  increasing  in 
heinousness  and  rising  to  a  climax,  were  seen 
practised  in  the  precincts  of  the  Temple. 
First  there  was  the  '  image  of  jealousy  '(vv.  3-6), 
next  a  species  of  secret  animal-worship  (vv. 
7-12),  then  the  lamentation  of  the  women  for 
Tammuz  (vv.  13-15),  and  lastly  the  worship  of 
the  sun  (vv.  16-18). 

1.  The  sixth  year .  .  the  sixth  month']  August- 
September,  591  B.C.  Mine  house]  to  which 
Ezekiel's  prophetic  activity  was  confined 
(324).  The  elders  of  Judah]  the  leading  men 
of  the  exiled  community  at  Tel-abib.  The 
hand  of  the  Lord  GOD  fell]  as  in  13.  The 
vision,  with  all  its  meaning,  was  the  result  of 
divine  inspiration. 

2.  The  same  appearance  as  the  enthroned 
Figure  in  c.  1.  The  living  chariot  is  not 
mentioned  here,  but,  as  it  appears  afterwards 
without  any  special  explanation,  it  was 
probably  present  in  the  vision  from  the  first. 

3.  The  form  of  an  hand]  the  same  reverent 
reserve  as  in  29.  In  the  visions  of  God] 
Though  Ezekiel's  transference  is  described  in 
physical  terms  he  was  not  taken  to  Jerusalem 
in  body,  but  only  in  spirit.  Inner  gate]  RV 
'  gate  of  the  inner  court.'  Solomon's  Temple 
had  two  courts  :  the  great  or  outer  court  (2  Ch  49), 
and  the  inner  court  or  court  of  the  priests 
(1  KG 36  2  Ch 4  9).  We  know  very  little  about 
the  arrangement  of  the  gates,  but  in  Ezekiel's 


time  the  inner  court  had  probably  three,  one 
on  every  side  except  the  W.,  and  the  outer 
court  at  least  two,  one  on  the  N.  and  one  on 
the  E.  The  gate  in  this  v.  is  the  inner 
northern  gate.  We  must  distinguish  between 
the  gate  or  gateway,  which  was  a  block  of 
buildings,  and  the  doors  by  which  the  gateway 
was  entered  at  either  end.  The  image  of 
jealousy]  An  idol  figure,  so  called  from  the 
divine  jealousy  which  it  aroused.  The  refer- 
ence is  probably  to  the  image  set  up  by 
Manasseh  (2K217)  and  removed  by  Josiah 
(2K236).  The  seat  means  the  place  where  it 
had  stood. 

4.  The  glory  .  .  was  there]  perhaps  over  the 
main  Temple  building,  S.  of  the  gate  where 
Ezekiel  was.  In  the  next  v.  he  turns  and 
looks  N.  All  the  idolatries  were  thus  enacted 
in  God's  very  presence. 

5.  Northward  at]  RV  '  northward  of.' 
Gate   of    the    altar]    apparently    still    the 

northern  inner  gate.  It  is  uncertain  why  it 
was  so  called.  This  image  of  jealousy]  Ezekiel 
saw  the  image,  which  had  not  been  there  when 
he  left  Jerusalem,  now  restored  to  its  old 
place.  It  was  in  the  outer  court,  and  Ezekiel, 
standing  within  the  gateway,  saw  it  through 
the  entrance. 

7.  The  door  of  the  court]  the  opening  of 
the  gateway  next  the  outer  court.  8.  A  door] 
leading  into  one  of  the  chambers  of  the  gate- 
way. 10.  This  animal-worship  may  have 
been  borrowed  from  Egypt,  where  beetles, 
crocodiles,  snakes,  cats,  jackals,  and  other  ani- 
mals were  worshipped  ;  or  it  may  have  been 
a  survival  and  revival  of  ancient  superstitions 
native  to  Palestine.  Some  think  that  Babylon 
is  as  likely  as  Egypt  to  have  been  the  source 
of  the  practices. 

11.  Jaazaniah  the  son  of  Shaphan]  Shaphan 
was  a  famous  scribe  who  took  part  in  Josiah's 
reformation  (2K228*-).  Two  of  his  sons, 
Ahikam  (Jer262't)  and  Gemariah  (Jer36io.-^5)^ 
were  friendly  to  Jeremiah.  If  Jaazaniah  was 
the  son  of  this  Shaphan  he  was  of  a  different 
character  from  his  father  and  brothers. 

12.  In  the  dark]  Secrecy  was  a  marked 
feature  of  this  animal-worship.  The  LORD 
seeth  us  not,  etc.]  This  was  the  excuse  and 
perhaps  the  belief  of  these  idolaters,  though 
God's  glorious  presence  was  even  then  manifest 
to  Ezekiel's  eyes. 

14.  The  door  .  .  toward  the  north]  probably 
the  outer  doorway  of  the  outer  northern  gate. 
The  women  would  thus  be  outside  the  Temple 
precincts  altogether.  Tammuz]  a  deity  wor- 
shipped both  in  Babylonia  and  in  Phoenicia — 
the  same  as  the  Greek  Adonis.  He  appears 
to  have  been  a  god  of  the  spring,  and  the  myth 
regarding  him  told  of  his  early  death  and  of  the 
descent  of  Istar  his  bride  into  the  underworld 
in  search  of   him.      The    death  of    Tammuz 


32 


497 


a  16 


EZEKIEL 


10.  4 


symbolised  the  destruction  of  the  spring  vege- 
tation by  the  heat  of  summer,  and  it  was 
celebrated  annually  by  seven  days  of  women's 
mourning  in  the  4th  month  (June-July),  which 
was  called  Tammuz.  This  superstition  had 
been  introduced  into  Jerusalem. 

1 6.  Between  the  porch  and  the  altar]  The 
altar  of  burnt  offering  was  probably  in  the 
centre  of  the  inner  court,  and  the  main  Temple 
building  faced  it  on  the  W.  The  sun-worship 
now  described  was  just  in  front  of  the  sacred 
building:  cp.  Mt2335  Lkll^i.  With  their 
backs,  etc.]  This  followed  from  their  turning 
towards  the  rising  sun.  Their  position  im- 
plied the  greatest  contempt  for  the  Grod  of 
Israel,  whose  glory  was  at  that  moment  visible 
to  the  prophet  close  to  them.  The  worship  of 
the  sun  and  other  heavenly  bodies  was  intro- 
duced by  the  kings  of  Judah  before  Josiah's 
day,  and  abolished  during  his  reformation 
(2  K  23  ^'11).  Sun-images  are  mentioned  as 
early  as  the  days  of  Asa  (2Chl45  RV).  Jere- 
miah describes  the  worsldp  of  the  Queen  of 
Heaven  (probably  the  moon  or  the  planet 
Venus)  as  prevalent  in  Jerusalem  before  the 
second  captivity  (Jer44i~).  17.  The  branch 
to  their  nose]  usually  explained  as  a  ceremony 
connected  with  sun-worship.  Persian  sun- 
worshippers  held  bunches  of  the  twigs  of 
certain  trees  before  their  mouths,  that  they 
might  not  contaminate  the  sun  with  their 
breath.  Many  scholars  think  we  should  read, 
'  they  send  a  stench  to  my  nostrils.' 

CHAPTER  9 

The  Slaughter  of  the  Idolaters  in 
Jerusalem 

The  voice  which  has  been  speaking  to  Eze- 
kiel  now  summons  six  supernatural  beings 
armed  with  weapons  of  slaughter.  They  are 
attended  by  a  seventh  robed  like  a  priest  and 
equipped  as  a  scribe.  They  come  from  the 
north,  and  take  their  stand  by  the  brasen  altar 
in  the  inner  court.  The  '  glory  of  God  '  leaves 
the  living  chariot  and  stands  at  the  threshold 
of  the  main  Temple  building.  The  man  who 
acts  as  scribe  is  instructed  to  go  through  the 
city  and  set  a  mark  on  the  foreheads  of  all 
those  who  mourn  for  the  prevailing  idolatries. 
The  other  six  are  instructed  to  follow  him,  to 
slay  all  those  who  are  not  thus  marked,  with- 
out respect  to  sex  or  age,  and  to  begin  at  the 
Temple  itself.  The  command  is  obeyed,  and 
the  sun-worshippers  in  the  Temple  are  the 
first  victims.  Ezekiel,  appalled  at  the  fate  of 
the  citizens,  falls  on  his  face  to  plead  that  the 
whole  nation  may  not  be  destroyed,  but  he  is 
told  that  punishment  must  be  sternly  executed 
on  those  who  have  so  fully  deserved  it.  The 
scribe-angel  reports  that  his  work  is  done,  and 
we  are  left  to  imagine  that  the  work  of  slaugh- 
ter was  carried  out  too.     This  c.  teaches  that 


while  Grod  visits  sin  with  doom.  He  is  per- 
fectly just,  and  will  not  suffer  the  righteous 
to  perish  with  the  wicked. 

2.  The  higher  (RV  '  upper  ')  gate  .  .  toward 
the  north]  the  northern  gate  of  the  inner 
court,  as  in  8  3. 5, 7.  The  brasen  altar]  made  by 
Solomon  (2  Ch  4 1),  and  probably  placed  in 
the  middle  of  the  inner  court.  Ahaz  made  a 
new  altar  of  stone,  and  removed  Solomon's 
brasen  altar  to  the  N.  side  of  it  (2  K 1614). 

3.  The  cherub]  mentioned  without  explan- 
ation. Throughout  this  vision  '  cherub '  is 
used  for  '  living  creature  '  for  the  reason  given 
in  10^0.  The  singular  number  is  used  here, 
as  in  1 20, 21^  for  the  group  of  four.  The  house] 
the  chief  Temple  building,  which  was  on  the 
W.  side  of  the  inner  court,  with  its  front 
facing  E.  4.  A  mark]  lit.  '  a  Tau,'  the  last 
letter  of  the  Hebrew  alphabet.  Its  early  form 
was  like  a  cross,  thus  -[-.  Rev?^  is  based  on 
this  passage. 

6.  The  ancient  men]  the  sun-worshippers 
in  8 1''.  The  thought  of  this  v.  is  taken  up  in 
1  Pet  4 17.  7.  Defile]  The  presence  of  corpses 
would  pollute  the  sanctuary.  8.  One  of  the 
few  instances  in  which  Ezekiel's  love  of  his 
nation  struggles  with  his  approval  of  God's 
judgments  upon  them.  He  fears  that  all 
Israel  may  share  Jerusalem's  fate. 

CHAPTER  10 
The  Destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  Fire 
In  this  c.  the  living  chariot  accompanying 
the  vision  of  God's  glory  is  the  most  prominent 
object.  The  living  creatures  are  now  recog- 
nised by  Ezekiel  as  cherubim,  and  called  so. 
Otherwise  the  description  is  largely  a  repeti- 
tion of  c.  1.  The  man  with  the  inkhorn  is 
directed  to  take  coals  of  fire  from  the  glowing 
interior  of  the  chariot  and  to  scatter  them 
over  the  city.  This  part  of  the  vision  points 
forward  to  the  burning  of  Jerusalem  as  the 
final  stage  of  her  punishment. 

1.  As  the  '  cherub  '  was  mentioned  without 
any  introduction  in  9  3,  the  living  chariot  with 
all  its  parts  now  appears  in  the  same  way.  It 
is  not  directly  stated  that  the  glorious  Figure 
is  on  the  throne.  The  '  glory '  had  left  the 
chariot  for  the  threshold  of  the  Temple  in  9  3, 
and  is  in  the  same  position  in  10  4.  It  may  or 
may  not  have  returned  to  the  chariot  in  the 
interval. 

2.  Wheels]  RV  '  whirling  wheels,'  and  so 
in  vv.  6,  13.  The  word  is  not  the  ordinary 
one  for  '  wheels.'  Cherub]  the  singular  de- 
noting the  group,  as  in  9  ^. 

3.  The  right  sida]  the  S.  side.  The  Hebrews 
described  the  points  of  the  compass  as  for  a 
spectator  facing  E.  The  S.  side  of  the  Temple 
building  was  the  part  of  the  precincts  nearest 
to  the  city. 

4.  The  house  was  filled  with  the  cloud]  a 


498 


10.5 


EZEKIEL 


11.7 


comparison  with  IKS^o.il  shows  that  the 
'  glory '  which  Ezekiel  saw  in  his  visions  was 
the  same  as  that  by  which  God's  presence  had 
been  hitherto  manifested  in  the  Holy  of 
Holies. 

5.  As  the  voice,  etc.]   like  thunder. 

6.  Beside  the  wheels]  RV  '  beside  a  wheel.' 

7.  One  cherub]  EV  '  the  cherub,'  the  cherub 
next  the  particular  wheel  just  mentioned.  The 
scribe-angel  did  not  actually  go  between  the 
wheels  himself,  but  stood  beside  the  chariot 
and  received  the  fire  from  one  of  the 
cherubim. 

12.  The  cherubim,  as  well  as  the  wheels, 
are  now  said  to  be  full  of  eyes. 

13.  It  was  cried  unto  them  .  .  O  wheel] 
RV  '  they  were  called  .  .  the  whirling  wheels.' 

14.  The  face  of  a  (RV  '  the ')  cherub  here 
takes  the  place  of  the  ox-face  of  1 10.  This 
seems  at  first  sight  to  indicate  that  the 
cherubim  already  known  to  Ezekiel  were  ox- 
faced.  But  the  cherubim  in  the  decoration 
of  Ezekiel's  visionary  temple  (44i8.i9)  had 
only  the  faces  of  a  man  and  a  lion.  The  sub- 
stitution of  '  cherub  '  for  '  ox,'  and  the  change 
in  the  order  of  the  faces,  may  be  explained  by 
supposing  that  Ezekiel,  still  standing  near  the 
N.  gate  of  the  inner  court,  looked  S.  towards 
the  chariot,  which  was  about  to  move  E.  (v. 
19).  The  cherub  on  the  E.  side  of  the  chariot 
would  be  the  leading  one,  and  so  might  be 
called  '•the  cherub.'  Ezekiel  would  see  the 
left,  or  OX-,  face  of  this  cherub,  the  front,  or 
human,  face  of  the  cherub  on  the  N.  side  of 
the  chariot,  the  right,  or  lion-,  face  of  the 
cherub  on  the  W.  side,  and  the.  back,  or  eagle-, 
face  of  the  cherub  on  the  S.  side,  thus  : 


The  prophet 


CHAPTER  11 


W 


eagle 

s 


18.  The  'glory'  now  returns  to  its  place 
above  the  chariot.  19.  Every  one']  RV 
'  they.'  The  east  gate]  the  eastern  gate  of  the 
outer  court.  The  presence  of  God  moves  to 
the  very  verge  of  the  Temple  precincts,  which 
it  is  about  to  leave  altogether. 

20.  I  knew  that  they  were  the  cherubims] 
RV  '  I  knew  that  they  were  cherubim.' 
Ezekiel  now  recognised  for  the  first  time  that 
the  '  living  creatures '  were  identical  with  the 
'  cherubim '  of  Hebrew  poetry  and  sacred 
symbolism.  He  thus  gives  a  clue  to  the 
source  of  the  ideas  which  had  unconsciously 
moulded  his  visionary  conceptions  from  the 
beginning. 


The    Doom    of    the    Leaders   op    Jeru- 
salem's    WICKEDNESS.        COMFORT     FOR 

THE  Exiles 

The  slaughter  in  c.  9  was  only  the  visionary 
rehearsal  of  a  judgment  still  in  the  future. 
The  vision  now  takes  another  turn,  and  shows 
the  wicked  inhabitants  still  alive.  Ezekiel  is 
brought  to  the  outer  eastern  gate  of  the  Temple 
where  he  finds  a  group  of  the  leaders  of  Jeru- 
salem's sinful  policy,  two  of  whom  are  men- 
tioned by  name  (vv.  1-2).  A  proverb  by 
which  they  express  their  light-hearted  security 
is  turned  into  a  parable  of  the  doom  that 
awaits  them  (vv.  3-12).  The  warning  is 
ratified  by  the  sudden  death  of  one  of  the 
leaders  (v.  13),  after  which  a  comforting 
message  is  spoken  to  the  exiles  whom  the 
people  of  Jerusalem  despised  (vv.  14-21). 
The  glorious  symbol  of  God's  presence  then 
forsakes  Jerusalem  (vv.  22,  23).  The  vision 
ends,  and  Ezekiel  finds  himself  again  in  Baby- 
lonia, where  he  describes  to  the  exiles  all  that 
he  has  seen  (vv.  24,  25). 

I.  The  east  gate]  the  outer  eastern  gate,  to 
which  the  chariot  with  the  '  glory '  upon  it 
had  already  moved.  At  the  door  of  the  gate] 
just  outside  the  Temple  precincts.  Jaazaniah , , 
and  Pelatiah]  men  of  whom  nothing  further 
is  known.  Jaazaniah  is  not  the  same  as  the 
Jaazaniah  of  S^i. 

3,  It  is  not  near;  let  us  build,  etc.]  or, 
as  in  RM,  'Is  not  the  time  near  to  build?' 
etc.  :  an  expression  of  security.  This  city  is 
the  caldron,  etc.]  The  '  wicked  counsel '  of  v. 
2  is  usually  understood  to  mean  proposals  of 
revolt  from  Babylon,  which  would  involve  the 
prospect  of  war  and  siege.  In  that  case  the 
proverb  about  the  caldron  and  the  flesh  would 
express  the  plotters'  trust  in  the  strong  forti- 
fications of  Jerusalem,  which  they  hoped  would 
save  them  from  the  '  fire  '  of  Nebuchadnezzar's 
armies.  This  would  be  a  grimly  humorous 
way  of  describing  the  desperate  course  they 
were  meditating.  They  expected,  as  we 
might  say,  to  be  in  the  frying-pan,  but  thought 
that  it  would  at  least  save  them  from  the  fire. 
Another  explanation  is  that  the  saying  is  a 
boast  over  the  exiles,  who  had  been  taken 
away  from  Jerusalem,  as  the  useless  '  broth  ' 
is  poured  out  of  a  pot  when  the  cooking  is 
over,  leaving  the  valuable  '  flesh '  behind. 
This  is  more  in  line  with  the  latter  part  of 
the  chapter. 

6.  The  wicked  counsellors,  whatever  their 
policy  may  have  been,  had  already  put  many  of 
their  fellow  citizens  unjustly  to  death.  7.  "The 
proverb  would  prove  true  in  quite  a  different 
sense  from  that  in  which  it  was  first  used. 
The  only  flesh  in  the  caldron  would  be  that  of 
the    wicked    leaders'    victims.      Those    who 


499 


11.  10 


EZEKIEL 


12. 


thought  they  were  the  flesh  would  be  taken 
out  of  the  caldron  and  slain  by  strangers  else- 
where. 10,  II.  In  the  border  of  Israel]  In- 
stead of  being  safe  in  Jerusalem  they  would 
meet  their  fate  far  away  from  it,  on  the  very 
outskirts  of  the  land.  Over  seventy  of  those 
taken  at  the  second  captivity,  including  twelve 
prominent  officials,  were  put  to  death  by  Nebu- 
chadrezzar at  Riblah,  in  the  extreme  N.  of 
Palestine  (2  K  25 18-21  Jer  52  24-27). 

13.  The  sudden  death  of  Pelatiah  may  have 
been  an  actual  occurrence,  of  which  Ezekiel 
had  heard,  and  which  was  reproduced  in  the 
vision.  It  may,  however,  have  been  an  ima- 
ginary incident,  symbolising  the  certainty 
and  suddenness  with  which  the  prophecy  of 
judgment  on  the  wicked  counsellors  would  be 
fulfilled.  Then  fell  I  down,  etc.]  As  in  9  §  Ezekiel 
was  dismayed  at  the  speedy  execution  of  God's 
threatening,  and  besought  God  that  the  whole 
nation  might  not  be  destroyed.  This  time  he 
received  a  comforting  assurance  that  the  exiles 
should  be  spared  and  restored,  while  the  people 
of  Jerusalem  who  despised  them  should  perish. 

15.  Thy  brethren  .  ,  all  the  house  of  Israel] 
The  exiles  of  the  first  captivity  are  identified 
with  the  true  Israel.  Get  you  far  from  the 
Lord,  etc.]  The  people  of  Jerusalem  claimed 
that  God  was  only  among  them,  and  that  the 
exiles  were  banished  from  His  presence.  This 
was  a  different  sentiment  from  that  expressed 
in  8i2_  Unprincipled  men  can  change  their 
theology  to  suit  their  circumstances.  16.  As 
a  little  sanctuary]  RV  '  a  sanctuary  for  a  little 
while.'  God's  presence  and  the  privileges  of 
the  Temple  were  not  confined  to  Jerusalem. 

17.  People]  RV  '  peoples.'  19.  A  promise 
of  an  inward  change,  which  Ezekiel  afterwards 
repeats  and  expands  (18  ^^  3625-27). 

22,  23.  The  emblem  of  God's  presence  now 
leaves  the  holy  city,  which  is  abandoned  to 
its  fate.  What  the  idolaters  had  said  in  un- 
belief (812)  became  a  terrible  truth.  23.  The 
mountain  .  .  on  the  east]  the  Mount  of  Olives. 
We  cannot  but  think  of  Christ's  words  of 
doom,  spoken  from  the  same  mountain,  to  the 
Jerusalem  of  His  day  (Lk  1937,41-44). 

§  4.  Further  Prophecies  of  Israel's 
Guilt  and  approaching  Punishment 
(chs.  12-19) 

This  is  a  somewhat  miscellaneous  group  of 
prophecies  intermediate  in  date  between  the 
preceding  (August-September,  591  B.C.)  and 
succeeding  (July-August,  590  B.C.)  sections. 
It  includes  fresh  symbols  of  exile,  flight,  and 
famine  (121-20),  a  doctrine  of  prophecy,  true 
and  false  (I221-I411),  an  explanation  of  God's 
exceptional  treatment  of  Jerusalem  in  sparing 
a  remnant  (1412-23)^  Ezekiel's  parable  of  the 
Vine  (c.  15),  the  parable  of  the  Foundling  Child 
(c.  16),  a  parable  of  Zedekiah's  perfidy  and  its 


punishment  (c.  17),  a  vindication  of  God's 
equity  (c.  18),  and  a  lament  over  the  royal 
house  of  Judah  (c.  19). 

CHAPTER  121-20 
Symbols  of  Exile,  Flight,  and  Famine 

Ezekiel's  audience  being  blind  to  the  mean- 
ing of  the  vision  he  has  just  described,  he  is 
commanded  to  give  them,  in  new  symbolic 
actions,  a  further  representation  of  the  coming 
fate  of  Jerusalem  and  its  king  and  people. 
He  is  told  to  gather  together  such  things  as 
one  leaving  home  would  take  with  him,  and  to 
carry  these  out  of  his  house  by  day.  At  night 
he  is  to  dig  a  hole  in  a  wall,  and  pass  through 
it  with  his  face  covered  and  his  baggage  on 
his  shoulder.  When  the  people  ask  him  next 
morning  what  these  proceedings  mean  he  is 
directed  to  tell  them  that  the  action  of  the 
day-time  is  a  symbol  of  the  captivity  awaiting 
Jerusalem,  and  that  the  action  of  the  evening 
foreshadows  the  secret  flight  which  Zedekiah 
will  attempt,  and  the  punishment  of  blindness 
which  will  prevent  him  from  seeing  the  land 
of  his  exile  (vv.  1-16).  Another  symbolic 
action,  resembling  that  of  49^-,  is  also  com- 
manded. Ezekiel  is  to  eat  and  drink  sparingly 
and  with  trembling,  in  token  of  the  famine 
which  the  coming  siege  will  cause  in  Jerusalem 
(vv.  17-20). 

2.  The  story  of  the  vision  seems  to  have 
produced  no  impression.  5.  The  wall]  Some 
understand  the  town-wall  of  Tel-abib,  or  the 
wall  of  the  courtyard  of  Ezekiel's  house,  but 
we  cannot  be  sure  that  these  walls  existed. 
The  house-wall  itself  may  be  meant,  but  in 
that  case  Ezekiel  would  have  to  carry  his 
luggage  indoors  again.  6.  Twilight]  R  V '  dark,' 
and  so  in  vv.  7,  12.  Cover  thy  face]  A  natu- 
ral emblem  for  disguise  and  secrecy,  but  with 
a  special  reference,  as  v.  13  shows,  to  Zede- 
kiah's blindness.  7.  Captivity]  RV  removing,' 
as  in  V.  4. 

10.  The  prince]  Zedekiah,  the  last  king  of 
Judah  :  see  Intro.  That  are  among  them] 
Changing  one  letter  we  may  render,  '  that  are  in 
it.'  The  prince  .  .  shall  go  forth]  Zedekiah 
attempted  to  escape  from  Jerusalem  towards 
the  end  of  the  siege,  but  was  captured  and 
brought  to  Nebuchadi-ezzar  at  Riblah.  There 
his  eyes  were  put  out,  and  he  was  then  taken  to 
Babylon  (2  K  25  4-7  Jer  394-7  52  7-ii).  1 2.  That 
he  see  not]  RV '  because  he  shall  not  see.' 

16.  I  will  leave  a  few]  This  is  really  an 
explanation  of  the  symbol  in  5  3. 

CHAPTERS  1221-1411 
On  Prophecy,  True  and  False 
After  rebuking  certain  prevalent  forms  of 
contempt  for  prophecy  (1221-28)^  Ezekiel  re- 
proves  the  false   prophets   (131-1^')  and   false 
prophetesses  (1317-23)  of  Israel.     A  visit  from 


500 


12.  22 


EZEKIEL 


14.  4 


the  elders  next  supplies  the  occasion  for  an 
announcement  of  the  principles  on  which  God 
deals  both  with  false  enquirers  and  with  the 
prophets  who  answer  them  (14 1-"). 

(a)  Contempt  of  Prophecy  Rebuked 

(1221-28) 

This   contempt  took  two  forms.     On   the 
one  hand  it  had  become  a  common  saying  that 


defences  of  Jerusalem.  And  one  built,  etc.] 
RV  '  and  when  one  '  (the  people)  '  buildeth  up 
a  wall,  behold  they '  (the  false  prophets) '  daub 
it,'  etc.  Untempered  moi^ter']  or  whitewash. 
The  false  prophets  could  only  give  the  wall 
a  specious  appearance  of  strength. 


(c)   False 


Prophetesses 

(1317-23) 


Denounced 


prophecy  was  no  longer  fulfilled  at  all  (v.  2-),         True  prophecy  was  represented  by  women 
and  on   the  other  hand  it  was  supposed  by     ^-j^^  Deborah,  Huldah,  and  Noadiah,  as  well  as 

many  that  Ezekiel's  prophecies,  though  true,     , „„j  £„i v,,.„„  ,„„„  „io^  r^,.n^+;c,orI 

referred  to  a  very  distant  future  (v.  27).     In 
answer  to  both  of  these  false  views  God  said 


that    His   word  would  be  fulfilled,  and   that 
without  delay. 

22.  Ezekiel's  message  frequently  takes  the 
shape  of  a  criticism  of  current  proverbs,  as  in 
113  1225  182  20^2.  24.  Vain  vision  .  .  flat- 
tering divination]  Forms  of  false  prophecy, 
more  fully  exposed  in  c.  13.  These  had  been 
unfulfilled,  and  this  had  led  to  contempt  for 
all  prophecy.  But  God's  true  word  would  no 
longer  be  confounded  with  such  things. 

25.  Prolonged]  RV  '  defen-ed,'  and  so  in 
v.  28. 

(b)  False  Prophets  Reproved  (I31-16) 
False  prophecy  accompanied  true  prophecy 
in   Israel  like  its    shadow.     While    the    true 
prophets  spoke  in  God's  name  a  message  which 
they  had  really  received  from  Him,  the  false 
prophets  used  God's  name  to  sanction  messages 
which  He  had  not  given  them  (vv.  6  7),  which 
were  merely  the  product  of  their  own  heart 
and  spirit,  and  not  the  result  of  inspired  in- 
sight (vv.  2,  3).     These  messages  were  smooth 
and  agreeable  (vv.  10,  17),  but  they  were  also 
vain,   false,  and  seductive  (vv.  6-10).     They 
did  not  deserve   the  name   of  prophecy,  but 
were  on  the  same  level  as  heathen  divination 
(vv.  6,  7,  9).     Ezekiel  compares  the  false  pro- 
phets first  to  foxes  that  burrow  in  ruins  and 
make  them  more  ruinous  (vv.  4,  5),  and  next 
to  men  who  daub  with  untempered  mortar  (or 
whitewash)  a  slim  and  tottering  wall ;  the  wall 
symbolising  the  vain  attempts  of  the  people 
to  defend  Jerusalem,  and  the  mortar  or  white- 
wash the  futile  encouragement  which  the  false 
prophets  lent  to  these  efforts.     Such  prophets 
would  be  blotted  out  of  Israel  (v.  9).     The 
wall  would  be  destroyed  by  the  storm  of  God's 
wrath,  and  the  daubers   would   perish   along 
with  it  (vv.  11-15). 

4.  Deserts]   RY  '  waste  places,'  ruins. 

5.  Gaps]  RM  'breaches.'  Hedge]  RV 
'fence.'  The  false  prophets  did  nothing  to 
repair  or  strengthen  Israel's  defences.  6.  That 
they  would  confirm  the  word]  RV  '  that  the 
word  should  be  confirmed.'  9.  The  false  pro- 
phets would  have  no  share  in  the  restoration 
of  Israel  which  Ezekiel  foretold. 

10.  A  wall]  RM  '  a   slight  wall,'  the  vain 


by  men,  and  false  prophecy  was  also  practised 
by  women  in  Ezekiel's  day.  In  their  hands 
it  was  accompanied  by  various  superstitious 
rites  and  ceremonies  (v.  18),  and  seems  to  have 
been  a  species  of  fortune-telling.  As  such  it 
might  be  popular  and  seem  harmless,  but  it 
was  mercenary,  ensnaring,  and  fatal  to  souls 
(vv.  18,  19).  It  discouraged  the  righteous  and 
encouraged  the  wicked  (v.  22).  These  women 
would  find  their  occupation  gone(vv.  20, 21,  23). 

18.  Pillows]  probably  'amulets,'  supposed 
to  have  magical  virtues.  They  were  worn  by 
the  false  prophetesses  themselves  (v.  20). 

Armholes]  RV  '  elbows,'  RM  '  joints  of  the 
hands.'  The  amulets  were  worn  in  some  way 
on  the  arms  or  wrists.  Kerchiefs]  or  '  fillets.' 
These  were  apparently  veils  put  over  the  heads 
of  those  consulting  the  false  prophetesses,  and 
were  of  different  sizes  to  suit  persons  of  differ- 
ent stature.  19.  Will  ye  pollute]  RV  '  ye  have 
profaned.'  Handfuls  of  barley,  etc.]  The  fees 
received  by  the  false  prophetesses.  Die  and 
live]  see  on  3  is.  This  whole  passage  should 
be  read  in  the  light  of  the  description  of  the 
true  prophet's  duty  in  316-21.  20.  To  make 
them  fly]  RM  '  as  birds.'  22.  The  truth  of 
prophecy  may  be  judged  by  its  moral  tendency. 
Whatever  encourages  sin  betrays  itself  as  false  : 
see  Jer2322.  By  promising  him  life]  RV  '  and 
be  saved  alive.' 

((l)  On  Insincere  Enquirers  and  those  who 
answer  them  (I41-11) 

The  Jewish  elders  of  Tel-abib  again  came  to 
consult  Ezekiel,  evidently  with  idolatrous  lean- 
ings in  their  hearts.  God  commanded  him  to 
speak  a  warning  to  all  such  enquirers,  calling 
them  to  forsake  idolatry,  and  threatening  that 
God  Himself  would  answer  them  by  destroying 
them  if  they  persisted  in  their  sin.  The  pro- 
phet who  should  answer  such  people  according 
to  their  desire  would  share  their  fate. 

3.  The  stumblingblock,  etc.]  idolatry:  see 
719.  Should  I  be  enquired  of?]  Such  enquiry 
was  a  mockery  of  God.  4.  That  I  may  take, 
etc.]  Sin  hardens  the  heart  and  so  leads  on  to 
destruction.  This  is  a  self-acting  law  of  divine 
retribution,  and  so  in  a  sense  the  result  is  God's 
doing.  But  God  does  not  seek  to  ensnare  men. 
On  the  contrary.  He  pleads  with  them  to  forsake 
their  evil  way  (v.  6). 


501 


14.  9 


EZEKIEL 


16. 


9.  When  he  hath  spoken  a  thing]  RV  '  and 
speaketh  a  word.'  A  true  prophet  will  not 
answer  insincere  enquirers  at  all,  but  will  leave 
it  to  God  to  answer  them  by  destruction  (  v  v.  7 , 8). 
To  give  any  answer  is  to  be  a  false  prophet, 
deceived  if  not  consciously  deceiving.  I  ,  .  have 
deceived  that  prophet]  the  same  idea  as  that  of 
the  '  lying  spirit '  from  the  Lord  by  which 
Ahab's  false  prophets  were  inspired  (1 K  22 19--'3 
2  Ch  18 18-22).  The  meaning  can  only  be  that 
the  deception  is  the  penalty  of  previous  dis- 
loyalty to  truth.  No  man  becomes  a  false  pro- 
phet without  blame  on  his  own  part.  To  lend 
oneself  to  the  purposes  of  insincere  enquirers 
reveals  a  certain  share  of  their  spirit,  which 
leads  naturally  to  increasing  blindness.  As  this 
law  is  of  God's  appointment  the  deception  is 
in  a  certain  sense  His  work.  The  OT.  writers 
emphasised  God's  supreme  control  of  all 
events,  and  were  not  troubled  by  the  ques- 
tions which  may  be  raised  as  to  the  bearing  of 
the  events  on  the  moral  character  of  God. 
Hence  they  were  not  careful  to  avoid  expres- 
sions which  appear  startling  to  us.  10.  The 
punishment  of  their  iniquity]  RV '  their  iniquity.' 

Punishment .  .  punishment]  RV  '  iniquity  .  . 
iniquity.' 

CHAPTER  1412-23 

A  Divine  Principle  and  an  apparent 
Exception 

As  a  rule  when  God  punishes  a  land  for  its 
wickedness  by  such  judgments  as  famine,  wild 
beasts,  sword,  or  pestilence,  the  presence  in  it 
of  the  most  eminently  righteous  men  will  not 
save  the  wicked,  not  even  the  members  of  their 
own  families.  They  will  only  escape  them- 
selves. Jerusalem  will  be  a  seeming  exception 
to  this  principle,  since  a  remnant  of  its  wicked 
sons  and  daughters  will  be  spared  when  the 
city  is  taken,  and  will  escape  into  exile.  But 
this  is  in  order  that  the  earlier  exiles,  seeing  the 
abandoned  conduct  of  the  later,  may  realise 
how  thoroughly  Jerusalem  has  deserved  its 
punishment,  and  may  cease  to  regret  its  fate. 

13.  The  land]  RV  'a  land.'  Vv.  13-21  sup- 
pose a  series  of  general  cases.  Then  vrill  I 
stretch,  etc.]  RV  '  and  I  stretch  .  .  and  break  .  . 
and  send  .  .  and  cut  off.'  All  this  is  part  of 
the  supposition.  14,  20.  Noah,  Daniel,  and 
Job]  Typical  righteous  men,  like  Moses  and 
Samuel  in  JerlS^. 

21,  22.  It  might  be  expected  that  none  of 
the  wicked  in  Jerusalem  would  be  spared, 
yet,  in  apparent  violation  of  the  law  just 
described,  some  of  them  would  escape  and 
go  into  exile.  22.  Ye  shall  see .  .  and  be 
comforted]  The  exiles  of  the  first  captivity 
would  be  distressed  at  the  fate  of  Jerusalem, 
but  the  conduct  of  the  survivors  would  con- 
vince them  that  it  had  been  well  deserved,  and 
was  not  to  be  regretted. 


CHAPTER    15 

Ezekiel's  Parable  of  the  Vine 

Jerusalem  and  Israel  are  compared  else- 
where in  Scriptm-e  to  a  cultivated  vine,  bearing 
or  expected  to  bear  fruit.  Ezekiel's  similitude, 
however,  is  that  of  the  wild  vine  (v.  2,  RV), 
regarded  simply  as  a  tree.  It  is  the  most 
worthless  of  trees.  Its  wood  is  of  no  use  for 
any  pm-pose,  being  too  weak  even  to  make  a 
peg  of.  A  vine  branch  that  happens  to  be 
half -burnt  is  even  more  worthless  than  it  was 
before.  Jerusalem  is  such  a  half-burnt  vine, 
already  charred  by  the  first  captivity.  It  is 
only  fit  for  fuel,  and  will  be  wholly  consumed. 
2.  Or  than  a  branch]  RV  '  the  vine  branch.' 
7.  From  o}ie  Rre, and amther  fire]  RV  'from 
the  fire,  but  the  fire.'  Jerusalem  has  survived 
one  captivity,  but  will  be  overtaken  by  a 
second  and  final  disaster. 

CHAPTER    16 

The  Foundling  Child  who  became  an 
Unfaithful  Wife 
From  Hosea  onwards  the  prophets  spoke  of 
idolatry  under  the  figure  of  unchastity.  God 
was  the  husband  of  Israel,  but  she  proved  un- 
faithful to  Him.  This  thought  has  already 
been  expressed  by  Ezekiel  in  6  9,  and  it  is. 
now  expanded  into  an  elaborate  historical 
allegory.  The  subject  is  nominally  the  city  of 
Jerusalem,  but  really  the  whole  nation  of 
Israel.  Jerusalem  was  a  girl-child  of  heathen 
extraction,  who  was  exposed  in  infancy  to  die 
(vv.  1-5).  God  saw  her  and  saved  her  life, 
and  she  grew  to  maturity,  though  still  in  a 
poor  and  mean  condition  (vv.  6,  7).  Then 
He  took  her  to  be  His  wife,  loading  her  with 
every  honour  (vv.  8-14).  But  she  was  dis- 
loyal to  Him,  admitting  idols  as  her  lovers  at 
the  high  places,  and  lavishing  on  them  the 
gifts  God  had  bestowed  upon  her  (vv.  15-19). 
She  even  sacrificed  to  them  her  own  children 
whom  she  had  borne  to  God  (vv.  20,  21).  By 
borrowing  the  idolatries  of  the  surrounding 
nations,  Egypt,  Assyria  and  Babylonia,  she 
made  them  all  her  paramours,  with  every 
aggravation  of  guilt  (vv.  23-34).  Her  sin 
had  already  brought  reproach  upon  her  from 
hostile  neighbours  like  the  Philistines  (v.  27), 
but  she  had  proved  incorrigible  and  must  now 
suffer  utter  humiliation  and  destruction  (vv.  35— 
43).  Men  would  speak  of  her  as  the  true 
daughter  of  her  parents,  the  true  sister  of 
Samaria  and  Sodom,  whose  guilt  had  been  less 
than  hers,  though  she  had  despised  them  in 
her  pride  (vv.  44-52).  Her  humiliation  would 
be  completed  by  her  being  put  on  a  level  with 
them,  and  sharing  the  mercy  extended  to  them 
(vv.  53-59).  Nevertheless  God  would  not 
forget  His  love  for  her,  but  would  pity  and 
restore  her,  giving  her    Samaria  and  Sodom 


502 


16.3 


EZEKIEL 


17.22 


for  daughters  instead  of  sisters.  Humbled, 
ashamed,  and  forgiven,-  she  would  know  at 
last  the  true  character  of  God  (vv.  60-63). 

3.  Thy  birth,  etc.]  Though  the  allegory 
deals  with  the  history  of  Israel  as  a  nation  it 
begins  by  tracing  the  origin  of  Jerusalem.  It 
was  a  Canaanite  city,  inhabited  by  Jebusites, 
long  before  it  became  the  capital  of  God's 
kingdom.     Josh  1 5  63  Jg  1 21  1 9  n  2  S  5  6-8. 

Amorite]  a  general  name  for  some  of  the 
tribes  originally  inhabiting  Canaan :  cp.  Gn  15 16 
Dt20i'i'.  Hittite]  The  Hittites,  or  children  of 
Heth,  were  another  portion  of  the  original 
inhabitants  of  Canaan  :  cp.  GnlO^s  Nul329. 
Another  branch  of  the  Hittites  had  a  power- 
ful empire  to  the  N.   of  Palestine    (Joshl^ 

Jgl26). 

7.  Thou  hast  increased,  etc.]  RV  'thou 
didst  increase,'  etc.  The  past  tense  should  be 
read  throughout  the  verse.  Whereas]  RV '  yet.' 

8.  A  covenant]  a  marriage  covenant,  prob- 
ably with  reference  to  the  covenant  at  Sinai. 

10.  Badgers'  skin]  RV  'sealskin,'  probably 
the  skin  of  the  dugong,  an  herbivorous  cetacean 
found  in  the  Red  Sea.  12.  A  jewel  on  thy 
forehead]  RV  '  a  ring  upon  thy  nose '  :  see 
IsaS^i. 

16.  High  places]  the  seats  of  ancient  Cana- 
anite worship,  retained  by  the  Israelites  for 
the  worship  of  the  true  God,  but  perverted  to 
their  old  uses  :  see  63>6,i3.  20,  21.  Human 
sacrifice  was  not  unknown  in  early  Israel  :  see 
on  Gn  22 1-14  Jg  11 30-40^  and  was  introduced  in 
later  times  by  Ahaz  (2K163  2  Ch  28  3)  and 
Manasseh  (2  K  21 6  2  Ch  33  6).  It  was  also  prac- 
tised in  the  northern  kingdom  (2  K 1 7 1'^). 

24,  25.  Besides  the  high  places  throughout 
the  land,  idolatrous  shrines  were  established 
in  the  streets  of  Jerusalem.  27.  Israel  suffered 
from  the  Philistines  both  in  the  days  of  the 
Judges  and  the  early  kings,  and  in  later  times 
(2Ch28i8). 

29.  In  the  land  of  Canaan,  etc.]  RM  '  vmto 
the  land  of  traffic,'  etc.     See  17'^. 

38.  As  women ..  are  judged]  see  Lv20io 
Dt22"2Jn85.  41.  Many  women]  the  neigh- 
bouring nations.  45.  Your  mother  .  .  your 
father]  The  plural  pronoun  refers  to  the  three 
sisters.  46.  Samaria]  the  capital  of  the  king- 
dom of  the  Ten  Tribes,  standing  for  the  whole 
of  that  kingdom.  Left  hand  .  .  right  hand  mean 
north  and  south  respectively  :  see  103. 

Elder .  .  younger]  refer  not  to  historical 
antiquity  but  to  importance.  57.  Syria]  Heb. 
'  Aram.'  We  may  change  one  letter  and  read 
'Edom.'  The  Edomites  exulted  over  the  fall 
of  Jerusalem  (Obad  vv.  10-14  Ps  137  ^).  The 
Philistines  seem  to  have  done  the  same.  Both 
nations  are  denounced  in  similar  terms  in 
2512-17. 

61.  Not  by  thy  covenant]  The  new  relation 
of  Jerusalem  to  Samaria  and    Sodom   would 


not  depend  on  anything  in  the  past,  but 
would  be  a  fresh  arrangement  of  God's 
grace. 

CHAPTER  17 
Zedekiah's  Perfidy  and  its  Punishment 

Zedekiah  had  been  placed  on  the  throne  of 
Judah  as  a  vassal  of  Babylon,  but  was  led  by 
his  nobles  to  intrigue  with  Egypt  and  to  throw 
off  the  Babylonian  yoke.  The  revolt  actually 
took  place  in  588  B.C.,  but  it  had  been  con- 
templated much  earlier  :  see  Jer27i-ii,  where 
'  Zedekiah '  should  be  read  for  '  Jehoiakim  '  in 
V.  1.  V.  15  of  this  c.  refers  to  an  embassy  to 
Egypt,  of  which  Ezekiel  had  heard  in  Baby- 
lonia. The  prophet  exposes  this  rebellious 
policy  in  an  allegory,  condemns  it,  and  pre- 
dicts its  failure  and  punishment.  The  royal 
house  of  Judah  is  a  cedar  of  Lebanon.  Baby- 
lon (or  Nebuchadrezzar)  is  an  eagle,  which 
crops  off  the  highest  twig  of  the  cedar  (Jehoia- 
chin)  and  carries  it  to  a  land  and  city  of  com- 
merce (Babylon).  The  eagle  takes  of  the  seed 
of  the  land  (Zedekiah)  and  plants  it  so  that  it 
becomes  a  dwarf  vine  bending  towards  the 
eagle  (subordinate  to  Babylon).  There  is  an- 
other eagle  (Egypt,or  Pharaoh-Hophra)  towards 
which  the  vine  (Zedekiah)  turns  (seeking 
Egyptian  instead  of  Babylonian  overlordship). 
God  will  not  allow  such  treachery  to  prosper. 
The  vine  will  be  uprooted.  Egyptian  help 
will  fail.  Zedekiah  will  be  taken  captive  and 
will  die  in  Babylon  (vv.  1-21). 

But  God  Himself  will  take  another  twig  of 
the  cedar,  and  will  plant  it  on  a  high  mountain 
of  Israel,  where  it  will  become  a  great,  spread- 
ing, and  fruitful  tree.  All  the  trees  (nations) 
will  learn  that  God  directs  the  destinies  of 
every  one  of  them  (vv.  22-24).  This  is  a 
prophecy  of  the  restoration  of  the  Jewish 
kingdom  which  was  never  literally  fulfilled, 
but  which  contains  a  promise  of  the  Messiah — 
the  ideal  future  king. 

5,  6.  A  willow  . .  a  vine  of  low  stature]  in- 
dicating the  dependent  position  of  Zedekiah's 
kingdom  :  see  v.  14.  12,  13.  These  vv.  de- 
scribe the  captivity  of  Jehoiachin  (597  B.C.) 
and  the  appointment  of  Zedekiah  as  king  under 
a  solemn  oath  of  allegiance  to  Babylon. 

17.  The  Egyptians  succeeded  in  raising  the 
siege  of  Jerusalem  (Jer37ii),  but  the  relief 
was  only  temporary,  as  Jeremiah  foretold  that 
it  would  be  (37  6-10).  jp.  Zedekiah  had  sworn 
allegiance  to  Nebuchadrezzar  in  God's  name. 
His  revolt  against  Babylon,  therefore,  did  dis- 
honour to  God.  For  another  example  of 
Zedekiah's  perfidy  see  Jer348-ii.  20,  21.  A 
repetition  of  1213.14. 

22-24.  Ezekiel  expected  that  the  restored 
kingdom  of  God  would  have  a  prince  (45 '^■^ 
461-18  4721,22).  This  was  only  fulfilled  in  a 
Messianic  sense. 


503 


18.2 


EZEKIEL 


19.  14 


CHAPTER  18 

God's  Equity  vindicated 

The  popular  view  of  Israel's  calamities,  as 
expressed  in  a  current  proverb,  was  that  they 
were  the  punishment  of  the  sins  of  former 
generations.  Though  there  was  a  measure  of 
truth  in  this,  the  proverb  was  used  in  a  false 
and  mischievous  sense.  It  led  the  present 
generation  to  ignore  their  own  sin,  to  doubt 
the  justice  of  God's  providence,  to  despair  of 
escape  from  the  working  of  a  blind  fate. 
Ezekiel,  consequently,  emphasised  in  the 
strongest  way  the  truths  of  individual  re- 
sponsibility, and  of  God's  impartiality  in  deal- 
ing with  every  man  according  to  his  own 
character  (vv.  1-4).  If  a  man  is  righteous  he 
shall  live  (vv.  5-9).  If  a  righteous  man  has  a 
wicked  son,  the  son  will  not  be  saved  by  his 
father's  righteousness,  but  will  die  (vv.  10-13). 
If  this  wicked  man,  in  turn,  has  a  righteous 
son,  the  latter  will  not  die  for  his  father's  sin, 
but  will  live  (vv.  14-18).  Further,  a  wicked 
man  who  repents  and  becomes  righteous  will 
live  (vv.  21,  22,  27,  28),  and  a  righteous  man 
who  becomes  wicked  will  die  (vv.  24,  26).  All 
this  is  unquestionably  just,  and  God  does  not 
wish  any  to  die,  but  appeals  to  all  to  forsake 
sin  and  live  (vv.  19,  20,  23,  25,  29-32).  This 
c.  recalls  S^'^'^i,  and  the  teaching  of  both  pas- 
sages is  repeated  in  33^*20. 

2.  The  fathers,  etc.]  The  same  proverb  is 
quoted  and  refuted  in  Jer  31  29, 30_    ^^   All  souls 

are  mine]  God  deals  directly  with  every  one, 
and  not  with  the  son  through  the  father. 

It  shall  die]  •  Die '  and  '  live  '  are  used 
in  the  sense  explained  under  3^8.  6.  Eaten 
upon  the  mountains]  shared  in  an  idolatrous 
meal  at  a  high  place.  7,  Restored . .  his 
pledge]  see  Ex  22  6  Dt24i2.  22.  Mentioned 
unto]  RY  '  remembered  against '  :  so  in  v.  24. 

24.  Ezekiel  does  not  raise  the  question 
whether  a  truly  righteous  man  could  thus  fall 
away.  He  assumes  that  a  man's  final  conduct 
expresses  his  real  and  final  character. 

CHAPTER  19 
A  Lament  for  the  Royal  House  op 

JUDAH 

This  c.  is  a  poem  in  which  the  measure 
used  for  a  dirge  or  elegy  is  more  or  less  trace- 
able throughout.  It  describes  first  a  lioness, 
two  of  whose  whelps  are  successively  caught 
and  taken  away  from  her  (vv.  1-9),  and  next 
a  vine  with  lofty  branches,  which  is  ruined  by 
a  fire  proceeding  from  one  of  them  (vv.  10-14). 
There  is  no  doubt  that  the  branch  from  which 
destruction  spreads  to  the  vine  is  Zedekiah. 
The  vine  itself  may  be  the  nation  of  Israel,  or 
the  royal  house,  or  the  mother  of  Zedekiah. 
There  are  two  interpretations  of  the  first  alle- 
gory.   The  lioness  is  usually  understood  to  be 


the  nation  or  the  royal  family  in  general,  and 
the  two  whelps  to  be  Shallum  and  Jehoiachin. 
But  some  take  the  lioness  to  be  Hamutal,  one 
of  the  wives  of  Josiah,  and  the  whelps  to  be 
her  two  sons,  Shallum  and  Zedekiah. 

2.  Thy  mother]  Hamutal,  whom  some  sup- 
pose to  be  meant  here,  was  one  of  the  wives  of 
Josiah,  and  the  mother  of  Shallum  (or  Jehoa- 
haz)  and  Zedekiah  (2  K  23  si  24  is).  Jehoiakim, 
the  other  son  of  Josiah  who  became  king,  had 
a  different  mother  (2  K  23  36). 

3,  4.  One  of  her  whelps,  etc.]  Jehoahaz,  or 
Shallum,  the  youngest  son  of  Josiah  (1  ChS^^), 
was  set  on  the  throne  by  the  people  after  his 
father's  death,  but  after  reigning  three  months 
he  was  deposed  and  carried  away  captive  to 
Egypt  by  Pharaoh-Necho  (2  K  23  30-34  2Ch 
36 1-4).     His  fate  is  lamented  in  Jer  22 10-12. 

5-9.  Another  of  her  whelps,  etc.]  Either 
Jehoiachin  or  Zedekiah.  Jehoiachin  was  a 
grandson  of  Josiah,  who  came  to  the  throne 
as  a  youth  and  was  carried  captive  to  Baby- 
lon in  597  B.C.  after  a  reign  of  three 
months  (2  K  24  8-I6  2  Ch  36  9-  lO).  Zedekiah,  the 
last  king  of  Judah,  was  a  son  of  Josiah  and 
Hamutal.  He  succeeded  his  nephew  Jehoia- 
chin, and  was  carried  captive  to  Babylon  in  586 
B.C.  :  see  Intro.  The  high  terms  in  which 
the  second  whelp  is  spoken  of  do  not  agree 
well  with  Ezekiel's  estimate  of  Zedekiah  in 
c.  17. 

9.  In  ward  in  chains]  RV  '  in  a  cage  with 
hoops.'  Lion  cages  are  represented  on  the 
monuments.  10.  Thy  mother]  The  language 
in  this  allegory  is  much  more  applicable  to 
the  nation  than  to  Hamutal.  In  thy  blood]  a 
meaningless  phrase.  Perhaps  we  should  read 
with  RM  'in  thy  likeness.'  11.  Strong  rods 
for  the  sceptres]  a  double  figure.  The  rods 
represent  both  the  kings   and  their  sceptres. 

12,  13.  These  vv.  describe  the  final  destruc- 
tion and  captivity  of  Judah.  14.  Out  of  a 
rod,  etc.]  Zedekiah's  rebellion  was  the  cause 
of  the  ruin  of  the  nation. 

§  5.  A  final  series  of  Prophecies  on 

THE  NECESSITY  OF  IsrAEL'S  PUNISHMENT  AND 
THE  DESTRUCTION  OF  JERUSALEM  (chs.  20-24) 

Date,  Aug.-Sept.  590  B.C.  to  Jan.-Feb. 
687  B.C. 

This  group  includes  a  warning  to  the  exiles 
against  idolatry  (20^-44),  a  description  of  the 
sword  of  the  Lord  directed  against  Jerusalem 
(20*5-2127)^  a  short  prophecy  against  the  Am- 
monites, connected  with  the  foregoing  (21  28-32^^ 
an  indictment  of  Jerusalem  (c.  22),  an  alle- 
gorical history  of  the  sins  of  Samaria  and 
Jerusalem  (c.  23),  a  fresh  parable  of  the  coming 
siege  and  destruction  of  Jerusalem  (24  i-i^), 
and  an  account  of  the  ^eath  of  Ezekiel's  wife, 
and  of  his  significant  conduct  in  his  bereave- 
ment (2415-27). 


504 


20.  1 


EZEKIEL 


20.  44 


CHAPTER  20  i-** 
History  Repeating  itself 
Some  four  years  before  the  fall  of  Jerusalem 
the  elders  of  Tel-abib  again  came  to  consult 
Ezekiel,  who  declared  that  God  had  no  answer 
to  give  them.  The  reason  was  that  their 
enquiry  was  insincere,  and  this  passage  is 
consequently  an  illustration  of  the  principle 
of  143.  The  exiles  were  beginning  to  avow 
idolatrous  tendencies  (v.  32),  with  which  the 
elders  were  in  secret  sympathy.  Ezekiel  re- 
counted how  God  had  dealt  with  Israel's 
idolatrous  spirit  in  the  past,  and  announced 
that  He  would  deal  in  the  same  way  with 
those  who  still  cherished  it. 

Israel  had  been  idolatrous  in  Egypt  aild 
yet  had  been  brought  forth  (vv.  5-12).  Suc- 
cessive generations  had  been  idolatrous  in  the 
wilderness,  and  of  these  the  first  had  been 
shut  out  of  the  Promised  Land,  while  the 
second  had  been  brought  into  it  under  a 
warning  of  exile  and  dispersion  should  they 
continue  unfaithful  (vv.  13-26).  They  had 
not  heeded  the  warning,  but  had  adopted 
the  worship  of  the  Canaanites,  and  God's 
threat  had  now  been  fulfilled  (vv.  27-29). 
In  all  this  course  of  mercy  and  judgment  God 
had  '  wrought  for  His  name's  sake,'  that  His 
character  might  be  truly  known  to  Israel  and 
to  the  world. 

The  present  exiles  were  no  better  than 
their  fathers.  They  too  were  resolving  to 
be  like  the  heathen  (vv.  30-32).  But  God 
would  frustrate  their  purpose.  He  would 
bring  them  also  into  a  wilderness,  and  would 
deal  with  them  there  as  He  had  dealt  with 
those  who  came  out  of  Egypt  (vv.  33-36). 
The  persistent  sinners  among  them  would  not 
enter  the  land  of  Israel,  but  the  others  would 
again  be  brought  into  a  covenant  with  God, 
and  restored  to  their  own  country,  where  they 
would  worship  God  acceptably  in  humble 
penitence  (vv.  37-43).  In  all  this  God  would 
act  from  the  same  great  motive  as  before 
(v.  44). 

I.  The  seventh  year ..  the  fifth  month] 
July-August,  590  B.C.  5.  Lifted  up  mine 
hand]  i.e.  sware,  and  so  in  vv.  6,  15,  23,  42. 

8.  Ezekiel  speaks  more  definitely  than  any 
other  OT.  writer  about  the  idolatry  of  the 
Israelites  in  Egypt:  see  23 «.  9.  For  my 
name's  sake]  God's  consistent  motive  was 
that  His  character  should  be  known  to  the 
world.  When  He  was  patient  with  Israel  it 
was  because  sudden  judgment  upon  them  would 
have  been  misunderstood  by  the  heathen: 
see  V.  22. 

II.  Referring  to  the  Law  given  at  Sinai. 
12.   My   sabbaths,  to   be   a   sign]    Though 

Ezekiel  attached  great  importance  to  the  sab- 
bath, he  regarded  it  not  as  one  of  the  moral 


ordinances,  obedience  to  which  brings  life 
(v.  11),  but  rather  as  a  special  sign  of  God's 
covenant  which  Israel  was  bound  to  observe. 

15.  The  first  generation  in  the  wilderness 
was  shut  out  of  Canaan  (Nu  1424-30  Ps95ii). 

23.  The  second  generation  was  warned  that 
unfaithfulness  would  be  punished  by  captivity 
(Lv  26  33, 34). 

25.  Statutes  that  were  not  good]  The  re- 
ference (as  V.  26  shows)  is  to  the  practice  of 
child  sacrifice,  which  might  seem  to  be  justified 
by  such  a  law  as  that  in  Ex  22  29.  The  first- 
born of  men,  however,  were  expressly  excepted 
(Ex  1312,13  Nu34<3,4T)^  and  Jeremiah  declared 
that  human  sacrifice  had  never  been  com- 
manded by  God(Jer73i  195).  God  did  not 
impose  sinful  laws,  but  some  of  His  laws  could 
be  perverted  by  sinful  men  and  made  an  ex- 
cuse for  their  wrongdoing.  Both  the  ambiguity 
of  the  Law  and  the  blindness  which  led  to  the 
misunderstanding  of  it  were  the  penalty  for 
previous  sin. 

29.  A  play  upon  words,  '  What  (mah)  .  .  go 
(ba)  ? '  Bamah  is  the  Hebrew  for  '  high  place,' 
and  by  this  punning  derivation  of  the  word 
(not  of  course  the  true  one)  Ezekiel  expresses 
his  contempt  for  the  thing  itself.  32,  God's 
zeal  for  His  name  is  stronger  even  than  the 
purpose  of  the  human  will  to  rebel. 

34.  People]  RV  '  peoples  '  :  so  in  vv.  35,  41. 

35.  Wilderness  of  the  people]  the  desert 
between  Babylon  and  Palestine,  corresponding 
to  the  desert  between  Egypt  and  Palestine 
which  had  been  the  scene  of  Israel's  former 
discipline.  37.  The  rod]  the  shepherd's  rod, 
used  in  counting  the  flock  (Lv  27  32).  The  bond 
of  the  covenant]  The  old  covenant  made  at 
Sinai  will  be  renewed.  Ezekiel  does  not  con- 
template such  a  difference  between  the  past  and 
the  future  as  is  expressed  in  Jeremiah's  pro- 
phecy of  the  New  Covenant  (.Jer3132). 

38.  Obstinate  transgressors  will  perish  in 
the  wilderness  like  the  first  generation  who 
came  out  of  Egypt.  39.  Pollute  ye  .  .  no  more] 
RV  '  My  holy  name  shall  ye  profane  no  more.' 
Those  who  wished  to  choose  idolatry  might  do 
so,  but  they  would  no  longer  have  any  con- 
nexion with  God  and  His  cause.  40.  In  the 
land,  serve  me]  RV  '  serve  me  in  the  land,'  a 
promise  of  restoration. 

44.  When  God  does  not  deal  with  men  as 
they  deserve,  it  is  for  the  sake  of  His  own  glory. 
This  really  means  that  His  mercy  is  the  highest 
aspect  of  His  character,  and  that  which  He  is 
most  desirous  to  display  to  the  world. 

CHAPTERS   2045-49,  21 

The  Sword  of  the  Lord  against 

Jerusalem  (and  Ammon?) 

C*  21   of   the  Hebrew  Bible   begins  with 

2045  of  the  English.     It  is  mainly  concerned 

with    Jerusalem    (2045-2127),     but    has     an 


505 


20.  46 


EZEKIEL 


21.  30 


appendix  consisting  of  a  short  prophecy  about 
Ammon,  which  has  been  interpreted  in  different 
ways  (2128-32). 

(a)  Against  Jerusalem  (2045-2127) 

An  enigmatic  parable  of  a  forest  fire  in 
the  S.  (20^5^^)  is  explained  as  referring 
to  the  land  of  Israel,  against  which  God's 
sword  is  drawn  (211-5).  Ezekiel's  distress  at 
the  announcement  is  a  sign  of  the  dismay 
which  all  will  feel  when  it  comes  to  pass 
(vv.  6,  7).  A  '  Song  of  the  Sword '  follows 
(vv.  8-17).  Next  comes  a  picture  of  Nebu- 
chadrezzar halting  on  his  march  on  Palestine, 
and  consulting  his  oracles  as  to  whether  Jeru- 
salem or  Ammon  should  be  attacked  first. 
The  omens  decide  for  Jerusalem,  which  is 
doomed  to  capture,  though  its  people  make 
light  of  the  heathen  oracles  (vv.  18-24).  The 
prophecy  ends  with  a  denunciation  of  Zedekiah, 
and  a  hint  of  the  future  ideal  king  (vv.  25-27). 

46,  47.  Field  . .  forest  of  the  south]  Palestine 
lay  almost  due  W.  of  Babylon,  but  the  way  be- 
tween them  took  a  circuit  N.  owing  to  the  desert, 
and  to  one  coming  from  Babylon,  Palestine 
lay  directly  S.  in  the  last  stages  of  the  journey. 

CHAPTEE  21 

3,  4.  The  righteous  and  the  wicked]  corre- 
sponding to  the  green  tree  and  the  dry  in  the 
parable  (20-*'').  In  spite  of  his  strict  theory  of 
retribution  in  c.  18,  Ezekiel  recognised  the  fact 
that  good  men  as  well  as  bad  would  perish  in 
the  siege  of  Jerusalem. 

10.  It  contemneth,  etc.]  RV  '  The  rod  of  my 
son,  it  contemneth  every  tree.'  These  words 
are  almost  hopelessly  obscure,  and  the  text  is 
probably  corrupt.  As  it  stands,  the  meaning 
may  be  (a)  that  the  rod  (the  sword)  with  which 
God  chastises  His  son  (the  king  or  people  of 
Israel)  is  more  severe  than  any  mere  rod  of 
wood  (any  previous  chastisement),  or  (b)  that 
the  king  of  Judah  (the  rod  or  sceptre  of  my 
son)  despises  all  other  powers  (every  other  rod 
or  tree). 

12.  Cry  . .  howl .  .  smite]  tokens  of  Ezekiel's 
excited  sympathy  with  God's  justice.  Terrors 
.  .  upon  my  people]  RY  'they '(the  princes)  'are 
delivered  over  to  the  sword  Mnth  my  people.' 

13.  What  if  the  sword  contemn  even  the  rod  ?] 
equally  obscure  with  v.  10.  RV  '  what  if  even 
the  rod  that  contemneth  shall  be  no  more  ? ' 
What  if  Judah  in  its  pride  shall  be  destroyed  ? 

14.  Smite,  etc.]  another  gesture  of  excited 
sympathy.  Doubled  the  third  time]  rather, 
'  doubled  and  trebled  '  in  its  destructive  power. 

Slain]  RV  'deadly  wounded.'  The  great 
men  that  are  slain]  RV  '  the  great  one  that  is 
deadly  wounded ' — Zedekiah.  15.  Point]  RM 
'  consternation.'     Ruins]  RV  '  stumblings.' 

Wrapped  up]  RV  'pointed.'  i7-  I  will 
also  smite]  God  also  exults  in  His  judgment. 


His  sternest  justice  is  a  true  expression  of 
Himself. 

Cause  .  .  to  rest]   RV  '  satisfy.' 

19.  Choose  thou  (RV  '  mark  out ')  a  place] 
rather,  '  grave  a  hand,'  i.e.  a  sign-post.  Nebu- 
chadrezzar is  imagined  as  halting  at  some  point 
where  the  roads  to  Jerusalem  and  Rabbah  (the 
capital  of  Ammon)  diverge,  and  as  consulting 
his  oracles  as  to  which  way  he  shall  take. 

20.  In  Jerusalem]   rather,  '  unto  Jerusalem.' 

21.  He  made  his  arrows  bright]  RV  '  He 
shook  the  arrows  to  and  fro.'  Two  arrows, 
inscribed  with  the  names  of  the  two  cities, 
were  put  into  a  bag  and  shaken,  and  then  one 
was  drawn  out.  With  images]  RV  '  the  tera- 
phim,'  the  portable  images  of  the  gods  whose 
advice  was  sought.  Looked  in  the  liver] 
another  ceremony  of  divination.  The  liver 
would  be  that  of  the  animal  sacrificed  on  the 
occasion,  and  an  omen  would  be  drawn  from 
its  shape  or  colour. 

22.  At  his  right  hand]  RV  '  In  his  right 
hand.  Nebuchadrezzar  drew  the  arrow  marked 
'Jerusalem.'  23.  The  people  of  Jerusalem 
would  make  light  of  Nebuchadrezzar's  omens. 

That  have  sworn  oaths]  This  may  refer  to 
the  broken  oaths  of  allegiance  to  Babylon  (see 
1 7  ^^'^^),  or  perhaps  to  the  covenant  to  free  their 
slaves  which  the  people  of  Jerusalem  made  in 
Zedekiah's  reign  (34  ^-lO)^  and  which  may  have 
led  them  into  self-righteous  confidence. 

25.  Profane  wicked]  RV  '  0  deadly  wounded 
wicked  one.'     Zedekiah  is  addressed. 

27.  Until  he  come]  the  future  ideal  king. 

(h)  Concerning  Ammon  (vv.  28-32) 

The  Ammonites  were  a  nation  E.  of  the 
Jordan,  and  descended  from  Lot  (GnlQ^*), 
They  had  joined  in  the  league  against  Nebu- 
chadrezzar (Jer273),  and  had  reason  to  fear  his 
vengeance  (v.  20  above).  But  they  seem  to  have 
thought  they  would  escape,  and  to  have  in- 
dulged in  reproach,  and  even  hostility,  against 
Judah.  Ezekiel  foretells  their  certain  punish- 
ment. For  another  prophecy  against  Ammon 
see  25 1-'''. 

28.  The  sword  .  .  is  drawn]  most  naturally 
understood  to  be  the  sword  of  the  Lord  against 
Ammon,  as  against  Jerusalem  in  v.  9.  But 
others  take  it  to  be  the  sword  which  Ammon 
drew  against  Jerusalem  :  see  on  v.  30. 

29.  They  see  vanity]  The  Ammonites  were 
misled  by  false  prophets.  Them  that  are  slain, 
of  the  wicked]  RV  '  The  wicked  that  are  deadly 
wounded  ' — the  people  of  Jerusalem  (v.  14). 

30.  Shall  I  cause  it]  RV  '  cause  it.'  As  it 
stands  this  is  a  command  to  Ammon  to  sheathe 
the  sword,  and  hence  the  sword  in  v.  28  is 
generally  understood  to  be  theirs.  But  the 
prophecy  is  so  closely  parallel  otherwise  to 
the  preceding  one  that  it  is  probable  that  the 
text  in  V.  30  is  corrupt,  and  that  the  sword  in 


506 


£1.31 


E2EKIEL 


24. 


V.  28  is  the  Lord's.  31.  Brutish  men]  most 
naturally  understood  of  the  Babylonians,  but 
see  254. 

CHAPTER   22 

Another  Indictment  of  Jerusalem 

The  various  religious  and  social  evils  that 
prevail  in  the  city  are  recited  (vv.  1-11).  Their 
coming  punishment  is  then  predicted,  first  in 
direct  terms  (vv.  13-16),  and  next  under  the 
figure  of  a  smelting  furnace  (vv.  17-22). 
Lastly,  all  classes  in  Jerusalem,  prophets, 
priests,  princes,  and  people,  are  included  in 
the  general  condemnation  (vv.  23-31). 

2.  The  bloody  city]  referring  to  those  un- 
justly put  to  death  by  the  wicked  rulers  of 
Jerusalem  :  so  in  vv.  3,  6,  12,  27  ;  see  also 
116.     5.  Much  vexed]  RV  '  full  of  tumult.' 

6.T0  their  power]  R  V '  according  to  his  power. ' 

13.  I  have  smitten  mine  hand]  God's  gesture 
of  indignation.  16.  Take  thine  inheritance] 
RV  '  be  profaned.'  18.  Dross]  the  baser 
metals  from  which  silver  has  to  be  purified. 

19-22.  Jerusalem  will  be  heated  like  a  fur- 
nace for  smelting  silver,  and  all  that  it  contains 
will  be  melted  in  the  fire  of  God's  wrath. 
Though  silver  is  mentioned  in  vv.  20,  22,  it  is 
not  suggested  that  any  of  the  precious  metal 
will  be  left  after  the  refining  process.  The 
whole  nation  is  '  dross.' 

24.  Not  rained  upon]  not  blessed  with  fer- 
tilising showers.  28,  30.  The  same  figures 
as  in  135.10-15. 

CHAPTER   23 

The  Unchaste  Sisters,  Oholah  and 
Oholibah 

The  idolatries  and  foreign  alliances  of  Jeru- 
salem and  Samaria  are  here  described  under 
the  same  strong  figure  which  is  used  in  c.  16. 
Oholah  (Samaria)  and  Oholibah  (Jerusalem) 
were  two  sisters,  both  seduced  in  Egypt  in 
their  youth  (v.  3),  both  espoused  by  God  (v.  4), 
and  both  unfaithful  to  Him.  Samaria  took  as 
her  lovers  first  the  Assyrians  (vv.  5-7),  and 
then  the  Egyptians  (v.  8),  and  was  at  length 
slain  by  the  former  (vv.  9,  10).  Jerusalem, 
not  warned  by  her  sister's  fate,  made  first 
the  Assyrians  and  then  the  Babylonians  her 
paramours  (vv.  11-16).  Being  alienated  from 
the  latter  she  has  turned  to  her  early  lovers  of 
Egypt  (vv.  17-21),  but  she  will  be  destroyed, 
like  her  sister,  by  the  lovers  whom  she  has 
just  forsaken  (vv.  22-35).  The  sin  and  judg- 
ment of  the  two  sisters  are  described  afresh 
(vv.  36-49). 

3.  Another  instance  of  Ezekiel's  belief  that 
Israel  practised  idolatiy  in  Egypt  :  see  20  8. 
Of  course  the  distinction  between  the  two 
branches  of  the  nation  does  not  really  go  back 
so  far. 

4.  Aholah  .  .  Aholibah]  RV  '  Oholah  . .  Oho- 


libah.' The  words  perhaps  mean  '  her  tent ' 
and  '  my  tent  in  her,'  respectively.  It  was  an 
Eastern  custom  to  give  similar  names  to  mem- 
bers of  the  same  family.  Samaria]  stands  for 
the  kingdom  of  the  Ten  Tribes,  of  which  it  was 
the  capital.  Oholah  is  called  the  elder  sister, 
probably  because  the  northern  kingdom  was 
the  larger  and  stronger  of  the  two.  Were 
mine]  RV  '  became  mine,'  in  marriage. 

5.  The  Assyrians]  In  2K15i'^-20  we  read 
that  the  northern  kingdom  became  tributary 
to  Assyria  in  the  reign  of  Menahem.  But  the 
Assyrian  monuments  show  that  this  subjection 
began  as  early  as  the  reign  of  Jehu. 

8.  Egypt]  The  northern  kingdom  wavered 
for  a  time  between  an  Assyrian  and  an 
Egyptian  policy  (Hos7ii).  Its  last  king, 
Hoshea,  revolted  against  Assyria  and  allied 
himself  with  Egypt  (2K174).  This  was  the 
cause  of  the  destruction  of  his  kingdom. 

12.  The  Assyrians]  The  southern  kingdom 
made  alliance  with  Assyria  in  the  days  of 
Ahaz,  who  eagerly  introduced  foreign  idola- 
tries (2  K 16 ''■*•).  Except  in  the  reign  of 
Hezekiah  the  Assyrian  overlordship  continued 
till  that  of  Babylon  took  its  place.  These 
political  relations  were  accompanied  by  reli- 
gious defections.  14.  Images  of  the  Chal- 
deans] Such  pictures  were  common  on  the 
walls  of  Babylonian  palaces.  Ezekiel  imagines 
them  as  being  seen  in  Jerusalem,  and  as 
awakening  the  nation's  desire  for  these  un- 
known lovers.  17.  Her  mind  (RV  '  soul ')  was 
alienated]  Judah  under  Jehoiakim  (2K241) 
and  Zedekiah  (2  K  24^0)  became  weary  of 
Babylonian  supremacy. 

19.  Egypt]  Like  Samaria,  Jerusalem  went 
back  to  her  first  seducers.  Intrigues  with 
Egypt  were  frequent  from  the  days  of 
Hezekiah  onwards  (IsaSO^i),  and  it  was  trust 
in  Egypt  which  led  to  Zedekiah's  revolt  and 
the  nation's  fall  :  see  17'''. 

23.  Pekod  .  .  Shoa .  .  Koa]  Eastern  peoples 
tributary  to  Babylon.  They  are  all  mentioned 
in  the  inscriptions.  The  Assyrians]  These 
now  formed  part  of  the  Babylonian  Empire. 

34.   Pluck  off]  RV  '  tear.' 

39.  Human  sacrifice  was  combined  with  the 
forms  of  God's  worship.  This  only  aggravated 
its  guilt.     42.   Sabeans]  RV  '  drunkards.' 

45.  The  righteous  men]  The  allegory  carries 
out  the  forms  of  justice  observed  in  an 
Israelite  city,  but  we  need  not  look  for  a 
counterpart  to  the  righteous  men  in  the  actual 
history. 

CHAPTER   24 

The  Allegory  op  the  Boiling  Caldron. 
Ezekiel's  Bereavement  and  Signifi- 
cant Silence 
This  prophecy  is  dated  on  the  day  on  which 

the    siege   of   Jerusalem   began.      Ezekiel    is 


507 


24.1 


EZEKIEL 


25.  8 


commanded  by  God  to  note  the  date,  and 
to  speak  to  the  exiles  a  final  parable  of  the 
city's  coming  fate.  Jerusalem  is  a  rusty  pot 
filled  with  water  and  meat  and  set  upon  a  fire. 
The  meat  is  well  boiled,  and  brought  out  piece 
by  piece  at  random.  The  empty  pot  is  then 
set  back  on  the  fire  that  the  rust  may  be 
burned  away.  The  rust  denotes  Jerusalem's 
impurity  and  bloodshed.  The  boiling  is  the 
siege,  and  the  emptying  of  the  pot  the  cap- 
tivity. The  heating  of  the  empty  pot 
symbolises  the  burning  of  the  city  at  the  end 
of  the  siege  (vv.  1-14). 

Ezekiel  spoke  this  message  in  the  morning, 
and  his  wife  died  on  the  evening  of  the  same 
day,  but  in  obedience  to  a  divine  command  he 
indulged  in  no  sign  of  mourning.  His  silent 
sorrow  was  an  emblem  of  the  stupor  into 
.  which  the  exiles  would  be  cast  when  they 
should  hear  of  the  fall  of  Jerusalem.  When 
the  survivors  of  the  siege  should  reach  Baby- 
lonia, however,  Ezekiel's  silence  would  be  at 
an  end  (vv.  15-27). 

I.  The  ninth  year .  .  the  tenth  month] 
January-February,  587  B.C.  For  the  date  see 
2K251  Jer39i  524. 

3,  Pot]  RV  '  caldron ' :  so  in  v.  6.     5.  Burn 


.  .  the  bones,  etc.]  We  must  read  either  with 
li  V  '  pile  .  .  the  bones  under  it '  (the  flesh),  or, 
'  burn  .  .  the  wood  under  it '  (the  caldron). 
The  bones  were  in  the  pot,  not  below  it. 

6.  Scum]  BY  '  rust ' :  so  in  vv.  11,12.  Let 
no  lot  fall]  The  meat  was  to  be  taken  out 
indiscriminately.  7.  The  top  of  a  rock]  RV 
'  the  bare  rock.'  Jerusalem's  bloodshed  was 
open  and  unconcealed.  8.  I  have  set]  What  was 
mere  shameless  wickedness  on  Jerusalem's 
part  was  yet  the  working  out  of  Grod's  purpose 
of  judgment.      10.   Kindle]  RV  '  make  hot.' 

Consume]  RV  '  boil  well.'  Spice  it  well] 
RV  '  make  thick  the  broth.'  Burned]  not  in 
the  fii-e,  but  singed  in  the  pot  by  the  intense 
heat  of  the  cooking.  12.  With  lies,  and] 
RV  'with  toil,  yet.'  13.  Caused ..  to  rest] 
RV  '  satisfied.' 

17.  Loosening  the  head-dress,  baring  the 
feet,  and  covering  the  lips,  were  signs  of 
mourning  (LvlO^  2 S 1530).  22.  The  bread  of 
men]  probably  food  offered  by  sympathising 
friends.  See  Jerl67  (RV).  23.  Pine., 
mourn  (RV  '  moan  ')]  The  sorrow  of  the  exiles 
for  the  fate  of  Jerusalem  would  be  tearless 
and  inarticulate,  like  Ezekiel's  sorrow  for  his 
wife.     27.  See  3322. 


PART    2  (Chs.  25-32) 
Prophecies  against  Foreign  Nations 


These  chs.  come  between  those  which  deal 
with  the  overthrow  of  the  Old  Israel  (1-24) 
and  those  which  describe  the  establishment  of 
the  New  Israel  (33-48),  and  they  form  an 
introduction  to  the  latter  group.  Their 
significance  is  well  explained  in  2821-26.  The 
fall  of  Jerusalem  seemed  to  be  a  victory  of 
heathendom  over  the  people  of  the  true  God, 
and  it  was  needful  to  show  that  it  was  not  so. 
The  God  of  Israel  who  had  visited  His  people 
with  this  punishment  would  send  His  judg- 
ments on  the  heathen  nations  also,  and  would 
convince  them  that  He  was  the  living  God. 
The  humiliation  of  these  nations  would  clear 
the  stage  for  the  restoration  of  Israel,  which 
would  no  longer  be  troubled  by  its  formerly 
hostile  neighbours.  These  prophecies  fall  into 
three  groups  :  (1)  against  the  lesser  and  nearer 
nations,  Ammon,  Moab,  Edom,  and  the  Philis- 
tines (c.  25),  (2)  against  Tyre  and  Sidon 
(chs.  26-28),  (3)  against  Egypt  (chs.  29-32). 
With  the  exception  of  29  ^'^"21,  these  prophecies 
are  mostly  dated  in  years  either  just  before  or 
just  after  the  capture  of  Jerusalem. 

§  1.  Ammon,  Moab,  Edom,  and  Philistia 

CHAPTER  25 
These  four  nations  were  the  neighbours  of 
Israel   on  the  E.,  SE.,  and  SW.  respectively, 
and  are  dealt  with  in  their  geographical  order. 


Ammon  and  Moab  are  denounced  for  their 
exultation  at  the  fall  of  Jerusalem,  Edom  and 
Philistia  for  their  revengeful  share  in  Israel's 
humiliation.  All  of  them  are  threatened  with 
destruction  from  God.  The  instruments  of 
the  judgment  are  to  be  the  Bedouins  of  the 
desert  in  the  case  of  Ammon  and  Moab.  and 
Israel  in  the  case  of  Edom.  The  destroyers 
of  the  Philistines  are  not  indicated. 

1-7.  Ammon. 

For  the  Ammonites  see  on  2128.  Jn 
addition  it  may  be  observed  that  the  king 
of  Ammon  was  a  party  to  the  plot  against 
Gedaliah,  the  governor  whom  Nebuchadrezzar 
left  in  Palestine  after  the  capture  of  Jeru- 
salem (Jer  40 14  41 10, 15).     See  Intro.     3.   The 

destruction  of  Jerusalem  has  taken  place.  The 
Ammonites  have  rejoiced  at  Israel's  calamity. 
V.  6  speaks  of  their  gestures  of  triumph. 

,4.  Men  of  the  east]  the  Bedouins  of  the 
desert  :  so  in  v.  10.  Palaces]  RV  'encamp- 
ments.'    5.   Rabbah]   the  capital  of  Ammon. 

8-1 1.   Moab. 

The  Moabites,  like  the  Ammonites,  were 
descended  from  Lot  (Gn  19  37).  Their  country 
lay  E.  of  the  Dead  Sea,  and  S.  of  Ammon,  the 
Arnon  being  the  boundary.  They  were  at 
times  subject  to  Israel  and  at  times  inde- 
pendent, but  always  hostile. 

8.  And  Seir]  These  words  should  be 
omitted.     Edom  (Seir)  is  dealt  with  separately 


508 


25.  9 


EZEKIEL 


27.  13 


below.  Behold,  etc.]  The  Moabites  denied 
Israel's  claim  to  be  the  people  of  the  true 
God.  Heathen]  HV  '  nations.'  g.  Side]  RM 
'  shoulder,'  i.e.  frontier.  Beth-jeshimoth, 
Baal-meon,  Kiriathaim]  three  frontier  cities 
of  Moab  :  see  NuSS-^^  Josh  123  1317,19,20. 
The  last  two  were  in  the  territory  of  Reuben 
(Nu  32  37, 38). 

12-14.   Edom. 

The  Edomites  were  descended  from  Esau 
(Gn36*3).  They  showed  a  specially  un- 
brotherly  spirit  when  Jerusalem  fell  :  see 
Psl377  Lam42i/22  Obad  vv.  11-16. 

13.  Teman]  a  grandson  of  Esau  (GnSG^i). 
Also  a  town  or  district  of  Edom  (Jer49''''20 
Am  1 11  Obad  v.  9).  And  they  of  Dedan]  RV 
'  even  unto  Dedan.'  Dedan  was  a  district  of 
N.  Arabia,  and  is  mentioned  here  as  the 
southern  border  of  Edom,  Teman  being  pre- 
sumably the  northern  extremity  :  see  GnlO''^ 
253Isa21i3  Jer2523. 

15-17.   Philistia. 

The  Philistines  dwelt  on  the  coast,  SW.  of 
Palestine.  They  were  oppressors  of  Israel  in 
early  times,  but  were  vanquished  by  David. 
They  sought  every  opportunity  of  annoying 
Israel  afterwards  (2Ch21i6  26  7  2818),  and 
they  seem  to  have  joined  with  Edom  in  em- 
bittering the  fate  of  Jerusalem  :  see  16^''. 

15.  For  the  old  hatred]  RV  'with  per- 
petual enmity.'  16.  Cherethims]  RV  '  Chere- 
thites,'  a  Philistine  tribe  (IS 3014  Zeph25) 
from  which  David's  body-guard  was  partly 
drawn  (2S818  15is  2071K138,  etc.). 

§  2.  Tyre  (and  Sidon)  (chs.  26-28) 

Tyre  was  the  capital  of  Phoenicia,  the  sea- 
board country  on  the  WW.  of  Palestine.  The 
Phoenicians  were  the  great  mariners  of  the 
ancient  world,  and  Tyre  was  a  famous  sea- 
port, renowned  for  its  wealth  and  splendour. 
It  joined  in  the  league  against  Nebuchad- 
rezzar, and  was  besieged  by  him  for  thirteen 
years  (597-584  B.C.).  See  Intro.  Ezekiel 
predicts  its  overthrow  in  three  prophecies, 
one  in  general  terms  (c.  26),  one  describing 
Tyre  under  the  figure  of  a  gallant  ship  (c.  27), 
and  one  directed  specially  against  the  king  of 
Tyre  (28i-i9).  Zidon  (or  Sidon)  was  another 
Phoenician  sea-port,  about  20  m.  N.  of  Tyre, 
which  was  its  younger  rival.  It  also  joined 
in  the  league  against  Babylon  (Jer273),  and 
its  downfall  too  is  predicted  by  Ezekiel 
(2820-26).  Part  of  the  language  of  these  chs. 
is  reproduced  in  Rev  18. 

CHAPTER  26 

The  Fall,  of  Tyre  predicted 

The  desolation  of  Tyre  is  announced  (vv.  1-6), 

its  siege  by  Nebuchadrezzar  is  vividly  described 

(vv.  7-14),  a  lamentation  for  its  fall  is  put  into 

the  mouths  of  the  princes  of  the  sea  (vv.  15-18), 


and  God's  threat  of  judgment  is  again  repeated 
(vv.  19-21). 

I.  The  eleventh  year]  586  B.C.  The  month 
is  not  given,  but  the  date  must  have  been  after 
the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  in  the  fifth  month 
of  that  year  (2  K  25  «)  :  see  v.  2.  2.  Tyrus]  RV 
'  Tyre,'  and  so  throughout  chs.  26-28.  Aha,  etc.] 
Tyre  had  rejoiced  because  of  the  commercial  ad- 
vantage she  would  reap  from  the  fall  of  Jerusa- 
lem. Gates  of  the  people]  RV  '  gate  of  the 
peoples.'  Jerusalem  lay  near  the  highway  of 
traffic  which  led  northward  to  Tyre,  and  its  fall 
would  remove  a  barrier  to  Tyrian  trade. 

4.  Like  the  top  of  a  rock]  R  V  '  a  bare  rock ' : 
so  in  V.  14.  6.  Her  daughters]  tributary  states 
or  cities.  15.  Isles]  the  maritime  countries  of 
the  Mediterranean.  16.  Princes  of  the  sea] 
the  rulers  of  these  sea-board  lands.  20.  Tyre 
is  personified,  and  represented  as  going  down 
into  the  under- world  of  the  dead:  see  31i*-i8 
3218-32  And  I  shall  set  glory]  perhaps  we 
should  read,  with  LXX,  '  nor  arise.' 

CHAPTER  27 
The  Wreck  of  the  gallant  Ship 

Under  the  figure  of  a  ship,  splendidly 
equipped,  fully  manned,  and  richly  laden,  but 
steered  into  stormy  waters  and  wrecked,  Ezekiel 
describes  the  fall  of  Tyre.  In  w.  10-20  the 
figure  is  partly  dropped. 

3.  People]  RV  '  peoples '  ;  and  so  every- 
where. 5.  6enir]Mt.  Hermon(Dt3i').  6.  The 
company  of  the  Ashurites  .  .  ivory]  RV  '  they 
have  made  thy  benches  of  ivory  inlaid  in  box- 
wood.' The  '  teasshur  '  (mistaken  in  AV  for 
Ashurites  or  Assyrians)  was  a  species  of  tree 
(probably  box  or  cypress)  found  in  Lebanon,  and 
mentioned  in  Isa  4 119  6013.     Chittim]  Cyprus. 

7.  Elishah]  mentioned  in  GnlO^  along 
with  Javan  (Ionia),  was  some  Mediterranean 
country,  perhaps  the  Peloponnesus  (Morea), 
which  was  famous  for  purple  dye.  8.  Arvad]  a 
Canaanite  city  (GnlOis  lChli6)  built  on  an 
island  (Ruwad)  2  m.  off  the  Syrian  coast  and 
nearly  100  m.  N.  of  Tyre. 

9.  Gebal]  a  coast  town  some  50  m.  N.  of  Tyre, 
the  classical  Byblos  :  see  Josh  13  5  1 K  5  i8(RV). 

Occupy]  RM  '  exchange.'  This  is  the  old 
meaning  of  the  word,  which  is  regularly  used 
in  this  sense  in  the  Bible  :  see  Lkl9i3. 

ID.  Lud  and .  .  Phut]  Ludim  appears  in  Gn 
1013  as  the  eldest  son  of  Mizi-aim  (Egypt),  and 
Phut  in  Gn  1 0*5  as  a  son  of  Ham  and  brother  of 
Mizraim.  Both  nations  are  mentioned  as  allies 
of  Egypt  in  30  5  (R V).  They  were  probably  N. 
African  peoples.  11.  Gammadim]  awordof  un- 
known reference.  12.  Tarshish]  either  Tartes- 
sus  in  Spain,  or  the  land  of  the  Tyrsenians 
(Etruscans)  in  Italy.  13.  Javan,  Tubal,  and 
Meshech]  these  nations  are  named  together  in 
Gnl02.  Javan  is  Ionia  in  Asia  Minor.  Tubal 
and  Meshech  are  usually  identified   with  the 


509 


27.  14 


EZEKIEL 


29.  10 


Tibareni  and  Moschi,  two  tribes  in  the  N.  of     thee,  O  covering  cherub]  more  probably,  '  the 


Asia  Minor.  For  the  slave  trade  of  Javan 
see  Joel36.  14.  Togarmah]  (GnlO^)  prob- 
ably Armenia.      15.    Dedan]  see  on  2b^^. 

17.  Minnith]  an  Ammonite  town  (Jg  11 33). 
For  Ammonite  wheat  in  Judah  see  2Ch27^. 

Pannag]  a  word  of  unknown  meaning.  RM 
says, '  Perhaps  a  kind  of  confection.'  18.  Hel- 
bon]  a  wine-growing  district  13  m.  N.  of  Damas- 
cus. 19.  Dan  also]  RV  '  Vedan.'  Going  to 
and  fro]  RM  '  from  Uzal.'  Vedan  and  Uzal 
are  uncertain  localities.  21.  Kedar]  an  Arabian 
district  (Gn'25i3).  22.  Sheba  and  Raaraah] 
countries  in  S.  Arabia  (GnlO"). 

23.   Haran]  in  Mesopotamia  (Gn  1 1 3i). 

Canneh]  perhaps  Calneh,  a  Babylonian  city 
(Gn  10 10).  Eden]  either  Beth-Eden,  a  state  in 
the  W.  of  Mesopotamia,  mentioned  in  the  in- 
scriptions and  in  -2  K 1 9 12  Isa  37 12  Am  1 5  (RM), 
or  Aden  in  Arabia.  Asshur]  Assyria.  Chilmad] 
an  unknown  place.  Perhaps  instead  of  taking 
it  as  a  proper  name  we  should  read,  •  Were  as  those 
accustomed  to  be  thy  merchants.'  25.  Ships 
of  Tarshish]  deep-sea  vessels  in  general  :  see 
1 K  22  48.  Did  sing  of  thee  in]  RV  '  were  thy 
caravans  for.' 

CHAPTER  281-19 
The  King  of  Tyke 

The  overweening  pride  of  the  prince  of  Tyre, 
which  has  led  him  to  claim  to  be  a  god,  is  re- 
buked, and  his  destruction  by  strangers  is  f  ore- 
told  (vv.  1-10).  He  is  compared  to  an  inmate 
of  Eden,  the  garden  of  God,  who  is  cast  out 
for  his  sin  (vv.   11-19). 

2.  The  prince  of  Tyrus]  the  king  of  Tyre  at 
this  time  was  Ithobalus(Ethbaal)  II.  3.  Daniel] 
a  type  of  wisdom  here,  as  of  righteousness  in 
14 14, 20.  Ezekiel's  references  to  Daniel  suggest 
a  sage  of  ancient  times  rather  than  a  youthful 
contemporary  in  Babylonia.  7.  Strangers]  the 
Babylonians.  10.  Deaths  of  the  uncircumcised] 
a  phrase  for  an  ignominious  end.     So  in  31 1^ 

3219,21,25,32. 

12.  Thou  sealest,  etc.]  an  obscure  phrase, 
alluding  in  some  way  to  the  wisdom  of  the  king 
of  Tyre.  13.  Thou  hast  been  (RV  '  wast ')  in 
Eden,  etc.]  Ezekiel  here  evidently  refers  to  a 
legend  similar  to  the  story  of  the  Fall  in  Gn  3. 
His  use  of  it  seems  to  indicate  that  in  his  day 
it  had  not  been  fixed  in  the  biblical  form. 

Every  precious  stone]  the  stones  mentioned 
are  the  same  as  those  in  the  first,  second,  and 
fourth  rows  of  stones  on  the  high  priest's 
breastplate  (Ex  28 17-20).  Gold. .  tabrets.  .  pipes] 
rather,  '  of  gold  was  the  workmanship  of  thy 
sockets  and  grooves,'  referring  to  the  setting  of 
the  precious  stones.  14.  Thou  art  (RV  'wast') 
the  anointed  cherub]  more  probal)ly,  '  thou 
wast  with  the  .  .  cherub.'  The  holy  mountain] 
another  phrase  for  the  garden  of  God. 

16.   I  will  destroy  (RV   'have  destroyed') 


covering  cherub  hath  destroyed  thee,'  i.e.  ex- 
pelled thee.  As  it  stands  the  passage  describes 
the  fall  of  a  cherub,  but  the  alternative  render- 
ings in  vv.  14-16  bring  it  more  into  line  with 
Gn3,  the  cherub  being  the  guardian  of  the  gar- 
den, and  the  prince  of  Tyre  a  privileged  inmate 
of  it,  who  is  driven  out  for  the  sin  of  pride. 

CHAPTER  2820-26 
God's  Judgment  on  Sidon 
Sidon,  the  partner  of  Tyre  in  opposing 
Nebuchadrezzar,  will  be  its  partner  in  de- 
struction (vv.  20-23).  The  overthrow  of  the 
heathen  nations  will  vindicate  the  supreme 
power  of  the  God  of  Israel,  will  prepare  the 
way  for  His  people's  restoration  to  their  own 
land,  and  will  ensure  their  security  and  peace 
in  the  future  (vv.  24-26).  These  last  vv.  have 
an  important  bearing  on  the  significance  of  all 
Ezekiel's  prophecies  against  the  nations. 

§  3.  Egypt  (chs.  29-32) 
The  most  of  this  series  of  prophecies 
against  Egypt  are  connected  with  dates  during 
the  siege  of  Jerusalem,  the  time  when  Ezekiel 
was  silent  as  a  prophet  of  Israel.  They  were 
therefore  probably  written  rather  than  spoken. 
C.  32  is  dated  in  the  year  after  the  fall  of  Je- 
rusalem, and  29 17-21  belongs  to  a  much  later  time. 
In  chronological  order  the  series  includes  (1 )  the 
destruction  of  the  crocodile  (291-1''),  (2)  the 
invasion  of  Egypt  by  Nebuchadrezzar  (30  i-i^), 

(3)  the  breaking  of  Pharaoh's  arms  (3020-26)^ 

(4)  the  fall  of  the  great  cedar  (c.  31),  (5)  two 
lamentations  for  Pharaoh  and  Egypt  (c.  32), 
(6)  Egypt  substituted  for  Tyre  (29  i7-2i). 

CHAPTER  29 1-16 
The  Destruction  of  the  Crocodile 
Pharaoh  is  compared  to  the  crocodile  of  the 
Nile.     God  will  drag  him  forth  with  hooks, 
and  cast  him,  with  the  fish  that  stick  to  his 
scales,  into  the  wilderness,  as  a  punishment 
for  his  deception  of  Israel  (vv.  1-7).     'Egypt 
will  be  desolate  for  forty  years  (vv.  8-12), 
after  which  it  will  be  restored,  but  not  to  its 
former  greatness  (vv.  13-15).     Israel  will  no 
longer  place  a  mistaken  confidence  in  it  (v.  16). 
I.   The  tenth  year  .  ,  the  tenth  month']  Janu- 
ary-February, 587   B.C.,  about  seven  months 
before  the  fall  of  Jerusalem.     2.   Pharaoh] 
The  king  of  Egypt  at  this  time  was  Pharaoh- 
hophra  ( Apries)  :    see  Jer  44  3o.     He  reigned 
from  588-569  B.C.     3.   Dragon]  the  crocodile. 
His  rivers]  the  Nile  and  its  branches. 
4.   Fish]  the  subjects  of  Pharaoh.    6,  7.  This 
was  the  constant  character  of  Egypt  in  its  re- 
lations with  Israel.     It  incited  Israel  by  pro- 
mises   of    help    to   rebel    against    Assyria    or 
Babylon,  and  failed  in  the  hour  of  need  :  see 
2 K 18 21  Isa307  313  Jer377.     10.  From  the 


510 


29.11 


EZEKIEL 


32. 


\ 


tower  of  Syene]  RM  '  from  Migdol  to  Syene,' 
and  so  in  80 '^.  The  places  named  represent 
the  N.  and  S.  extremities  of  the  country. 
Migdol  was  a  town  in  Lower  Egypt.  Syene  is 
the  modem  Assouan,  in  Upper  Egypt. 

II,  12.  Forty  years]  a  round  number,  stand- 
ing for  a  full  generation,  as  in  4*^.  The  period 
represented  Ezekiel's  forecast  of  the  duration 
of  Babylonian  supremacy:  see  Jer269"^i>i^. 

14.   Pathros]  Upper  Egypt. 

For  vv.  17-21  see  the  end  of  the  Section, 
after  c.  32. 

CHAPTER  301-19 

The  Invasion  of  Egypt  by 

Nebuchadrezzar 

No  special  enemy  of  Egypt  has  been  men- 
tioned in  291-1'',  but  the  king  of  Babylon  is 
now  pointed  out  as  its  conqueror. 

5.  Libya,  and  Lydia]  RV  '  Put  and  Lud ' : 
see  on  27 1^.  Chub]  an  unknown  people.  The 
land  that  is  in  league]  perhaps  we  should  read, 
'  the  land  of  the  Cherethites  '  (Philistia).  9.  In 
ships]  ascending  the  Nile  to  Ethiopia. 

13.  Noph]  Memphis,  the  capital  of  Lower 
Egypt.  14.  Zoan]  Tanis,  an  ancient  Egyp- 
tian city  (Nu  13  2^).  No]  No-ammon,  or  Thebes, 
the  capital  of  Upper  Egypt.  15.  Sin]  Pelu- 
sium,  a  frontier  city  at  the  NE.  extremity  of 
the  Delta  of  the  Nile.  17.  Aven]  On,  or 
Heliopolis:  see  Gn  41 -is.  so  4020.  it  lay  on 
the  E.  edge  of  the  Delta.  Pi-beseth]  Bubastis, 
a  city  of  Lower  Egypt.  18.  Tehaphnehes  (or 
Tahpanhes)]  Daphnse,  a  city  on  the  E.  frontier 
of  Lower  Egypt :  see  Jer437  44 1  4614. 

CHAPTER   3020-26 
The  Breaking  of  Pharaoh's  Arms 

This  prophecy  appears  to  have  been  occa- 
sioned by  some  reverse  sustained  by  Pharaoh 
shortly  before  the  fall  of  Jerusalem.  Probably 
the  reference  is  to  the  failure  of  his  attempt 
to  raise  the  siege  (Jer  375-11).  The  disaster  is 
metaphorically  described  as  the  breaking  of 
one  of  Pharaoh's  arms.  Ezekiel  predicts  that 
God  will  break  the  other  arm  also,  so  that 
Pharaoh  will  drop  his  sword.  The  king  of 
Babylon's  arms  will  be  strengthened.  God's 
sword  will  be  put  into  his  hand,  that  it  may 
be  stretched  over  Egypt.  The  Egyptians  will 
be  scattered  in  other  lands. 

20.  The  eleventh  year  .  .  the  first  month'] 
March-April,  68G  B.C.,  about  four  months 
before  the  fall  of  Jerusalem.  21.  Roller] 
bandage. 

CHAPTER   31 

The  Fall'  of  the  Great  Cedar 

Egypt  was  a  stately  cedar,  thick,  lofty,  and 

spreading  ;  sheltering  all  the  fowls  and  beasts 

(the  nations)   in    its   branches  and  under  its 

shadow  (vv.  1-6).     It  was  the  envy  of  all  the 


trees  (other  great  empires)  in  Eden,  the  garden 
of  God  (vv.  7-9).  But  because  of  its  pride 
it  is  given  into  the  hands  of  a  mighty  one 
(Nebuchadrezzar),  who  will  cut  it  down. 
Those  whom  it  sheltered  will  be  scattered  or 
will  trample  on  it  when  it  has  fallen  (vv.  10- 
13).  This  will  be  a  warning  to  all  trees 
(empires)  against  pride  (v.  14).  Egypt  will 
go  down  to  the  nether  world,  and  all  the 
great  nations  already  there  will  be  comforted 
when  it  arrives. 

I.  The  eleventh  year .  .  the  third  montK]  May- 
June,  586  B.C.,  about  two  months  before  the 
fall  of  Jerusalem.  3,  The  Assyrian]  has 
evidently  no  connexion  with  the  subject  of 
the  prophecy,  which  is  Egypt.  It  has  been 
supposed  that  the  c.  describes  the  down- 
fall of  Assyria,  as  a  type  of  that  of  Egypt, 
but  it  is  much  more  probable  that  instead  of 
'  the  Assyrian  '  we  should  read  '  a  teasshur  '  or 
box-tree,  as  in  27  ^.  '  Behold  a  box-tree, 
a  cedar,'  etc.  4.  Waters  .  .  rivers]  the  waters 
of  the  Nile.  The  allegory  is  not  strictly  con- 
sistent as  to  locality.  The  cedar  is  in  Lebanon 
and  also  apparently  in  Eden.  11.  I  have 
therefore  delivered]  RV  '  I  will  even  deliver.' 

14.  All  that  drink  water]  all  trees  :  so  in 
V.  16.  Delivered  unto  death]  another  instance 
of  Ezekiel's  conception  of  the  nations  as 
personified  and  surviving  in  the  under-world  : 
see  Isal49-20.  15.  The  deep  ..  the  floods 
(RV  '  rivers ')  .  .  the  waters]  those  referred  to 
in  V.  4.  Ezekiel  poetically  says  that  the  rivers 
of  Egypt  would  cease  to  flow,  in  token  of 
mourning  for  the  nation's  fall. 

CHAPTER  32 

Two  Lamentations  for  Pharaoh  and 
Egypt 

This  c.  consists  of  two  prophecies,  both 
dated  more  than  a  year  and  a  half  after  the 
capture  of  Jerusalem,  and  separated  from  each 
other  by  a  fortnight.  In  the  first  Pharaoh  is 
likened,  no  longer  to  a  young  lion,  but  to  a 
foul  river  monster,  which  will  be  caught,  cast 
on  the  mountains,  and  devoured  by  birds  and 
beasts  of  prey.  At  the  monster's  end  the 
lights  of  heaven  will  be  darkened,  and  the 
nations  will  be  dismayed  (vv.  1-10).  The 
allegory  is  explained  to  mean  the  desolation  of 
Egypt  by  the  king  of  Babylon  (vv.  11-16). 

'The  second  prophecy  is  a  burial  song  over 
Pharaoh  and  his  people  (vv.  17-32).  They  go 
down  to  the  under-world,  which  is  weirdly 
conceived  as  a  vast  land  of  graves,  the 
occupants  of  which,  however,  retain  their 
consciousness  and  their  speech.  Two  regions 
are  distinguished  in  it.  Sheol  or '  hell '  (vv.  21, 
27)  is  the  abode  of  the  ancient  heroes  who 
have  received  honourable  burial,  while  '  the 
pit '  is  a  remoter  region,  reserved  for  the 
nations    which    have    filled    the    earth    with 


511 


32.  1 


EZEKIEL 


33. 


violence  and  terror,  and  whose  people  have 
died  ingloriously  in  battle.  Each  of  these 
nations  has  its  own  portion  of  '  the  pit,'  where 
the  graves  of  its  people  are  grouped  around  a 
central  grave,  occupied  by  the  king  or  the 
personified  genius  of  the  nation.  Pharaoh  and 
his  people  will  have  a  place  among  these 
dishonoured  nations,  and  will  be  comforted 
to  find  that  they  are  not  alone  in  their 
humiliation. 

1.  The  twelfth  year .  .  the  t-welfth  month] 
February-March,  584  B.C.,  almost  a  year  and 
seven  months  after  the  fall  of  Jerusalem. 

2.  Thou  art  like .  .  and  thou  arti  E,V  '  thou 
wast  likened  . .  yet  art  thou,'  a  contrast  between 
a  noble  and  a  base  comparison.  Whale]  E.V 
'  dragon '  :  probably  a  crocodile  or  a  hippo- 
potamus is  meant.     3.   People]  RV  '  peoples.' 

6.  With  thy  blood  .  .  swimmest]  probably 
'  the  earth  with  the  outflow  of  thy  blood.' 

7.  Put .  .  out]  RV  '  extinguish.'  Pharaoh  is 
represented  as  a  heavenly  luminary,  at  the 
extinction  of  which  the  other  heavenly  bodies 
veil  their  light.  Some  suppose  that  there  is 
a  special  reference  to  the  constellation  of  the 
Dragon.  14.  Deep]  RV  '  clear.'  Clear  and 
smooth  rivers  betoken  an  uninhabited  land  : 
see  v.  13. 

17.  The  month  is  not  mentioned,  but  it  may 
be  assumed  to  be  the  same  as  in  v.  1.  18.  Cast 
them  down]  i.e.  in  the  burial  song.  Even  her, 
etc.]  rather,  '  thou  and  the  daughters,'  etc.,  fol- 
lowing up  the  thought  of  v.  16.  19.  Uncir- 
cumcised]  dishonourably  buried  :  see  on  28 10. 
The  term  is  practically  equivalent  to  '  slain  by 
the  sword'  :  so  in  vv.  21,  24,  25,  26,.29,  30, 
32.  20.  Draw  her]  RV  '  draw  her  away,'  to 
her  burial-place  in  the  under-world.  21.  The 
strong  among  the  mighty]  the  ancient  heroes, 
referred  to  also  in  v.  27.  Hell]  Sheol,  the 
place  of  the  honoured  dead  :  so  in  v.  27. 

They  are  gone  down,  etc.]  the  taunt  uttered 
by  the  heroes  against  the  Egyptians  and  their 
allies. 

22.  Asshur]  Assyria.  His  graves  are  about 
him]  The  central  grave  is  that  of  the  king,  or 
of  the  embodied  genius  of  the  nation  ('her 


grave,'  v.  23,  etc.).  23.  Sides]  RV '  uttermost 
parts,'  a  remoter  region  of  the  under-world 
than  that  assigned  to  the  heroes.  24.  Elam] 
a  country  E.  of  the  Tigris,  formerly  a  part  of 
the  Assyrian  empire  (Isa  22  6,  where  Elamite 
archers  appear  in  Sennacherib's  army).  In 
Jer  49  34-39  Elam  is  an  independent  state,  and  is 
threatened  with  conquest  by  Nebuchadrezzar. 
26.  Meshech,  Tubal]  see  on  2713.  These 
tribes  may  have  taken  part  in  the  Scythian 
invasion:  see  Intro,  and  382>3.  27.  The 
mighty  of.  .  the  uncircumcised]  A  very  slight 
change  in  the  original  gives  the  much  better 
sense  of  the  LXX,  'the  mighty,  the  Nephilim 
of  old  time.'  The  violent  nations  would  not 
be  permitted  to  share  the  place  of  the  heroes 
in  the  under- world.  For  the  Nephilim  see  Gn 
6*  Nul333  RV.  Their  iniquities  shall  be] 
rather,  '  their  shields  are.'  "The  heroes  were 
buried  honourably  with  their  weapons  and 
armour.  29.  Edom]  see  on  25  ^'^.  30.  Princes 
of  the  north  .  .  Zidonians]  the  states  of  Syria 
and  Phoenicia.  32.  I  have  caused  my  terror] 
RV  'I  have  put  his  terror.'  Pharaoh  in  his 
violence  had  been  unconsciously  carrying  out 
Grod's  purpose. 

CHAPTER  291^21 

Egypt  as  Nebuchadrezzar's  Wages  fob 
THE  Siege  or  Tyre 

This  is  the  latest  of  Ezekiel's  dated  pro- 
phecies, and  was  uttered  nearly  sixteen  years 
after  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem.  Nebu- 
chadrezzar's siege  of  Tyre  was  now  over,  and 
had  not  ended  so  successfully  as  Ezekiel  pro- 
phesied in  chs.  26-28.  Ezekiel  now  proclaimed 
that  Egypt  would  be  substituted  for  Tyre  as 
Nebuchadrezzar's  reward,  and  concluded  with 
a  promise  of  revival  to  Israel. 

17.  The  seven  and  twentieth  year,  the  first 
ntrmfh']  March-April,  570  B.C.  20.  They 
wrought  for  me]  Nebuchadrezzar  and  his 
army  were  God's  instruments.  21.  The 
humiliation  of  Egypt  would  open  the  way  for 
Israel's  restoration,  and  the  prophet  would  no 
longer  be  silenced  by  the  incredulity  of  his 
people. 


PART  3 

The  New  Israel  (Chs.  33-48) 


So  long  as  the  Jewish  kingdom  remained  in 
existence  Ezekiel's  prophecies  (those  in  chs. 
1-24)  dealt  almost  exclusively  with  the  nation's 
sin,  and  with  the  certainty  of  its  overthrow. 
But  when  these  prophecies  were  fulfilled  by 
the  fall  of  Jerusalem  his  message  assumed  a 
new  and  hopeful  character.  God's  punishment 
of  Israel's  sin  was  not  the  end  of  His  dealings 
with  His  people.  The  destruction  of  the  old 
sinful  Israel  would  be  followed  by  the  establish- 
ment  of   a   perfect   kingdom   of  God.     The 


humiliation  of  the  foreign  nations  (described 
in  chs.  25-32)  would  prepare  the  way  for  this, 
and  would  be  succeeded  by  the  restoration  of 
the  exiles.  The  new  kingdom  would  be  set 
up  under  new  conditions  of  worship  and 
fellowship  with  God.  This  concluding  part 
of  the  book  falls  into  two  sections,  the  first 
dealing  with  the  restoration  from  captivity 
(chs.  33-39),  and  the  second  with  the  new 
arrangements  and  laws  of  the  future  kingdom 
(chs.  40-48). 


512 


S3.  2 


EZEKIEL 


33.  33 


§  1.  The  Restoration  (chs.  33-39) 
After  an  introductory  passage  (33i-^0),  and 
two  short  prophecies  against  the  wicked  sur- 
vivors of  Jerusalem  and  the  careless  exiles 
(3321-33)^  this  section  describes  the  restoration 
in  connexion  with  the  Ruler,  the  Land  and  the 
People  successively.  As  to  the  Ruler,  God  is 
pictured  as  the  Shepherd  of  Israel  (c.  34).  As 
to  the  Land,  a  prophecy  against  Edom  (c.  35) 
introduces  a  new  address  to  the  mountain  land 
of  Israel  (c.  36).  As  to  the  People,  the  revival 
of  the  dead  nation,  and  the  reunion  of  the  two 
kingdoms  of  Israel  and  Judah  are  allegorically 
set  forth  (c.  37).  Finally,  we  have  a  description 
of  the  invasion  and  overthi-ow  of  Gog,  the  last 
enemy  of  God's  people  (chs.  38,  39).  The 
beginning  of  the  section  is  dated  in  December- 
January,  585-4  (or  586-5)  B.C.     See  on  3321. 

CHAPTER  331-20 
The  Prophet  and  the  Individual 

This  passage  combines  an  expanded  repe- 
tition of  3 1*^-21  with  a  condensed  repetition 
of  185-29.  The  prophet  is  a  watchman, 
responsible  for  warning  his  people  of  the 
consequences  of  sin.  God  deals  with  indi- 
vidual souls  in  strict  justice,  and  desires  that 
all  should  turn  from  their  evil  ways  and  live. 
These  principles,  already  announced,  became 
of  special  importance,  and  found  their  real 
application,  after  the  fall  of  Jerusalem.  As 
Ezekiel  had  foretold  (24^3),  that  disaster 
stunned  the  exiles  by  its  shock.  They  were 
overwhelmed  by  the  judgment  that  had  over- 
taken the  nation  for  its  sin.  They  pined 
away  under  it  and  felt  that  recovery  was 
hopeless  (v.  10).  The  nation  being  thus  de- 
stroyed there  was  only  a  company  of  individuals 
left,  and  the  religion  of  the  individual  came 
to  have  a  new  significance  which  has  never 
passed  away. 

2.  The  sword]  usually  a  symbol  of  impend- 
ing calamity  (see  1417^  c.  21),  but  here  it  is 
simply  a  detail  in  the  figure  of  the  watchman. 
The  destruction  of  Jerusalem  was  past,  and  no 
further  judgment  was  specially  in  view.  Of 
their  coasts]  RV  '  from  among  them.'  The 
prophet's  position  is  represented  as  due  to  the 
people's  choice  as  well  as  to  the  call  of  God. 
This  indicates  that  Ezekiel  had  now  more 
recognition  from  the  exiles  than  before. 

5.  But .  .  deliver]  RV  '  whereas  if  he  had 
taken  warning  he  should  have  delivered.' 

10.  If  our  transgressions. .  be]  RV'  ourtrans- 
gressions  . .  are.'  13.  For]  RV  '  in.'  For  it] 
RV  '  therein.'  16.  Mentioned  unto]  RV  '  re- 
membered against.'    18.  Thereby]  RV '  therein.' 

CHAPTER  3321-33 
The  Prophet,  the  Survivors,  and  the 
Exiles 
In  2427  it  was  announced  to  Ezekiel  that  the 


silence  which  began  with  his  wife's  death  and 
the  siege  of  Jerusalem  would  be  ended  when 
fugitives  from  the  captured  cities  should  arrive 
in  Babylonia.  This  took  place  a  year  and  five 
months  (but  see  on  v.  21)  after  Jerusalem  fell, 
and  Ezekiel  began  once  more  to  receive  and 
proclaim  messages  from  God.  This  passage 
contains  two  of  these.  The  first  was  directed 
against  the  wicked  survivors  who  remained  in 
the  land  of  Israel  and  boasted  that  it  would 
still  be  theirs.  They  were  destined  to  perish, 
and  the  land  to  be  utterly  desolated,  in  order 
that  God's  wrath  against  their  sin  might  be 
shown  to  the  uttermost  (vv.  23-29).  The 
second  describes  the  changed  attitude  of  the 
exiles  towards  Ezekiel.  They  were  now  inter- 
ested in  his  words,  discussing  them  in  their 
gatherings,  and  listening  eagerly  to  what  he 
had  to  say.  Yet  their  interest  had  more  of 
curiosity  than  of  earnestness.  Not  till  the 
final  punishment  of  the  wicked  survivors  took 
place  would  they  recognise  Ezekiel  as  a  prophet 
indeed  (vv.  30-33). 

21.  The  twelfth  year,  the  tenth  month]  De- 
cember 585-January  584  B.C.  The  Syriac 
Bible  reads  'the  eleventh  year.'  Five  months 
seem  more  likely  than  a  year  and  five  months 
as  the  time  to  be  allowed  for  a  journey  from 
Palestine  to  Babylonia. 

22.  Was]  RV  'had  been.'  Ezekiel  had 
come  under  the  power  of  divine  inspiration 
the  previous  evening,  when  the  truths  in 
vv.  1-20  had  shaped  themselves  in  his  mind. 
The  prophecy  against  the  wicked  survivors 
(vv.  23-29)  was  probably  called  forth  by  in- 
formation which  the  fugitives  brought  as  to 
their  attitude. 

24.  They  that  inhabit,  etc.]  the  surviving 
wicked  remnant  in  the  land  of  Israel.  Their 
wickedness  is  described  in  vv.  25,  26.  For  an 
historical  account  of  the  events  in  Palestine 
after  the  fall  of  Jerusalem  see  Jer  40-43. 
The  survivors  to  whom  Ezekiel  refers  are  prob- 
ably the  anti-Babylonian  party,  led  by  Ishmael, 
the  son  of  Nethaniah,  who  were  responsible 
for  the  murder  of  Gedaliah  :  see  Intro. 

Abraham  was  one,  etc.]  These  survivors 
reasoned — '  If  Abraham,  who  was  only  one 
man,  obtained  this  land  for  his  descendants, 
much  more  may  we,  who  are  many,  hope  to  do 
so  in  spite  of  all  that  has  happened.'  For 
a  sounder  use  of  the  same  argument  see 
Isa512. 

28.  From  Jer  52  30  we  learn  that  there  was  a 
further  deportation  of  745  Jews  to  Babylonia 
five  years  after  the  fall  of  Jerusalem. 

30.  The  children  of  thy  people]  the  exiles 
of  the  first  captivity.  Still  are  talking  against 
thee]  RV  'talk  of  thee.'  32.  The  exiles 
listened  to  Ezekiel's  words  as  they  would  to 
music,  which  was  entertaining  but  had  no 
practical  influence  on  their  lives.      33.  When 


33 


513 


34.  3 


EZEKIEL 


35.  2 


this  cometh  to  pass]   the  utter  desolation  of 
Palestine  foretold  in  vv.  27,  28. 

CHAPTER  34 
The  Good  Shepherd  of  Israel 

In  this  c.  Israel  is  described  as  God's  flock. 
Its  former  kings  were  evil  shepherds  who 
sought  their  own  selfish  ends  and  were  careless 
what  became  of  the  sheep.  The  flock  had  be- 
come the  prey  of  wild  beasts  (the  heathen 
nations).  God  would  judge  the  evil  shepherds 
and  deliver  the  sheep  from  them.  He  would 
Himself  be  the  Shepherd  of  His  people,  gather- 
ing the  scattered  and  lost,  caring  for  the  sick 
and  wounded,  feeding  the  flock  in  security 
(vv.  1-1 G).  The  flock,  too,  had  been  divided 
against  itself.  The  fat  and  strong  cattle  (the 
upper  classes)  had  tyrannised  over  the  lean 
and  weak  (the  common  people).  God  would 
judge  the  overbearing  cattle  also.  He  would 
unite  His  flock  under  David  as  their  shepherd 
(an  ideal  king  of  David's  line),  who  would  feed 
them  in  a  peaceful  and  fertile  land,  untroubled 
by  beasts  of  prey  (vv.  17-31).  This  c.  is  the 
basis  of  our  Lord's  parables  of  the  Lost  Sheep 
(Mtl8i2,i3  Lkl53-6)  and  the  Good  Shepherd 
(Jn  10 1-16). 

3.  Fat]  rather,  '  milk. '  Them  that  are  fed] 
RV  '  the  fatlings.'  Flock]  RV  '  sheep  '  :  so 
in  vv.  6,  8,  10,  15,  19,  31.  5.  There  /«]  RV 
'  there  was.'  12.  In  the  day  .  .  scattered]  bet- 
ter, '  in  the  day  when  all  his  sheep  are  scat- 
tered.' 13.  People]  RV  peoples.'  16.  With 
judgment]  RV  '  in  judgment.' 

17.  Between  cattle  and  cattle,  etc.]  rather, 
'  between  sheep  and  sheep,  even  the  rams  and 
the  he-goats.'  The  rams  and  he-goats  are  the 
second  class  of  sheep,  the  weaker  members  of 
the  flock  being  the  first  class.  18.  Deep]  RV 
'  clear.'  23.  My  servant  David]  David,  the 
shepherd  king,  is  introduced  as  a  type  of  the 
ideal  ruler  of  the  future  kingdom  of  God  : 
see  3724  JerSQO  Hos35.  24.  Prince]  instead 
of  king,  is  Ezekiel's  usual  designation  of  the 
ruler  of  the  future  :  see  chs.  45,  4(5.  25.  A 
covenant  of  peace]  see  3726.  Wilderness] 
means  not  '  desert,'  but  '  pasture-land ' :  see 
Ps  6512. 

26.  Read  with  LXX  '  I  will  set  them  round 
about  my  hill,  and  I  will  send  you  the  rain  (in 
its  season),  a  rain  of  blessing.'  There  is  a  hint 
here  of  the  place  which  the  Temple  is  to  have 
in  the  life  of  the  new  Israel  :  see  c.  40. 

27.  Those  that  served  themselves  of  them] 
the  evil  shepherds.  28.  Land]  RV  '  earth.' 
The  wild  beasts  denote  the  heathen.  29.  Plant 
of  renown]  RV  '  plantation  for  renown.'  The 
reference  is  not  to  the  Messiah,  who  is  already 
represented  in  the  allegory  by  David,  but  to 
the  fertility  of  the  land.  Other  readings  are, 
'a  plantation  of  peace,'  or  'a  fat  plantation.' 

30.  The  result  of  the  restoration  will   be 


that  Israel  will  recognise  not  only  the  charac- 
ter of  their  God,  but  the  fact  that  they  are 
His  people.  31.  Omit  are  men,  and  read, 
'  and  ye  are  my  flock,'  etc. 

CHAPTERS  35,  36 
The  Land  of  Israel  in  the  Future 
C.  35  is  an  introduction  to  c.  36,  the  con- 
nexion being  shown  by  36^.  The  claim  of 
Edom  to  the  land  having  been  repudiated  (c. 
35),  its  reoccupation  by  Israel  is  promised 
(361-1^),  and  the  reason  of  the  restoration  is 
explained  (3616-38). 

(o)  The  Punishment  of  Edora's  Presumption 

(c.  35) 

Edom  has  already  been  included  by  Ezekiel 
among  the  nations  whose  humiliation  would 
prepare  the  way  for  the  restoration  of  Israel 
(25i2-i'i),  and  this  new  prophecy  requires  a 
special  explanation,  which  is  easily  found. 
Before  the  land  could  be  given  to  its  true 
owners  all  false  claimants  had  to  be  disposed 
of.  The  claim  of  the  wicked  survivors  of 
Jerusalem  has  already  been  set  aside  (3323-29)^ 
and  the  claim  of  the  surrounding  heathen  has 
to  be  dealt  with  in  the  same  way.  Edom  is 
introduced  here  as  their  representative  (vv. 
10,  12).  Its  former  enmity  and  malice  are 
recalled  (v.  5),  and  the  arrogance  and  blas- 
phemy of  its  pretensions  to  possess  the  land 
of  Israel  are  specially  denounced.  Ezekiel 
foretells  that  God  will  repay  the  Edomites  in 
their  own  coin,  making  their  land  desolate, 
and  compelling  them  to  recognise  Him  as  the 
true  God. 

2.   Mount  Seir]  Edom  :  see  on  2512-14. 

5.  Time .  .  end]  RV  '  time  of  the  iniquity 
of  the  end,'  as  in  2125,29.  9.  Return]  RV 
'  be  inhabited.'  10.  These  two  .  .  countries] 
the  territories  of  Israel  and  Judah.  The  LORD 
w^as  there]  God  might  seem  to  abandon  His 
Temple  and  forsake  His  people,  but  He  never 
gave  up  His  choice  of  them  or  His  possession 
of  their  land.  14.  When  .  .  rejoiceth]  rather, 
'  to  the  rejoicing  of  the  whole  earth.' 

15.   Idumea]  RV  'Edom.' 

(i)  The  Mountain  Land  of  Israel  re- 
peopled  (36  i-i5) 

This  prophecy  is  the  counterpart  of  c.  6. 
The  land,  made  desolate  for  the  people's  sin,  as 
was  foretold,  and  presumptuously  claimed  by 
Edom  and  the  other  smTounding  nations,  will 
again  become  fertile,  fruitful,  and  populous. 
Israel  will  inhabit  it  once  more,  and  will  no 
longer  suifer  famine,  or  be  oppressed  by  the 
heathen. 

I.  The  mountains  of  Israel]  the  mountain 
land  of  Israel,  as  in  6i'2.  2.  The  ancient  high 
places]  the  everlasting  hills,  with  no  reference 
to  the  idolatrous  worship  associated  with  them : 


«    514 


36.  5 


EZEKIEL 


37.  19 


seeDt33i5.  5.  Idumea]  E,V  'Edom.'  This 
V.  makes  clear  the  connexion  of  c.  35  with 
the  present  passage.  To  cast  it  out]  better, 
perhaps,  '  to  possess  it.'  7.  Have  lifted  up 
mine  hand]  have  sworn. 

8.  They  are  at  hand  to  come]  The  restora- 
tion of  Israel  is  viewed  as  close  at  hand. 

13.  Bereaved  thy  nations]  RV  '  been  a 
bereaver  of  thy  nation.'  The  famines  to 
which  the  land  of  Israel  had  been  subject  had 
given  rise  to  the  reproach  that  it  bereaved  and 
devoured  its  inhabitants  (NulS^^^.  This 
would  be  the  case  no  longer.  14.  Nations] 
RV  'nation':  so  in  v.  15.  15.  Cause ..  to 
fall]  rather,  'bereave,'  as  in  v.  14. 

(c)  God's  Reason  for  restoring  Israel 

(3  G  1*5-38) 

God  had  justly  sent  Israel  into  exile  for 
their  sins  (vv.  17-19),  but  the  heathen  had 
misunderstood  this  event,  taking  it  as  a  sign 
of  God's  inability  to  save  His  people  (v.  20). 
In  this  way  the  exiles  had  occasioned  the  pro- 
fanation of  God's  name,  and  to  vindicate  His 
own  honour  He  was  corupelled  to  restore  them 
(vv.  21-24).  This  high  argument  passes  into 
a  promise  of  the  moral  renewal,  as  well  as  of 
the  outward  blessings,  which  would  accom- 
pany the  restoration  (vv.  25-30).  Yet  the 
fact  is  reiterated  that  all  this  will  be  done, 
not  because  Israel  has  deserved  it,  but  because 
God's  glory  has  required  it.  It  must  minister 
not  to  pride,  but  to  humility  (vv.  31,  32). 
When  the  sinful  nation  has  been  purified,  and 
the  desolate  land  repeopled,  the  heathen  will 
know  that  the  whole  is  God's  doing  (vv. 
33-36).  The  blessing,  too,  though  undeserved, 
will  be  sent  in  response  to  Israel's  prayers 
(vv.  37,  38). 

20.  Profaned]  not  now  by  actual  wicked- 
ness, but  indirectly,  as  the  v.  goes  on  to 
explain.  When  they  said  to  them]  RV  '  in 
that  men  said  of  them.'  23.  Sanctify]  the 
exact  opposite  of  '  profane.' 

25-28.  These  vv.  expand  the  promise  in 
1 1 19, 20.  They  include  purification  from  guilt, 
inward  renewal,  the  spirit  of  obedience,  and 
the  privileges  of  the  people  of  God.  In  its 
essence  this  passage  repeats  Jeremiah's  promise 
of  the  New  Covenant  (Jer  3 131-34).  26.  Heart 
of  flesh]  see  2  Cor  3  3  (RV).  31,  32.  Cp.  IG^i 
Jer  29 11-14.  36.  Build  .  .  and  plant]  RV  '  have 
builded  .  .  and  planted.'  37.  I  will  yet  for 
this]  RV  '  for  this  moreover  will  I.' 

38.  Holy  flock]  RV  'flock  for  sacrifice,' 
the  point  of  comparison  being  the  great 
numbers  :  see  lCh292i  2Ch75  29^3  357-9. 

Solemn]   RV  '  appointed.' 

CHAPTER  37 
The  Revival  and  Reunion  of  Israel 
From  the  future  of  the  land  Ezekiel  now 


turns  to  that  of  the  nation,  long  ago  divided 
by  the  revolt  of  the  Ten  Tribes,  and  now 
seemingly  extinct.  The  exiles  feel  themselves 
to  be  but  its  scattered  bones  (v.  11).  In  a 
striking  and  beautiful  vision,  suggested  no 
doubt  by  this  current  saying,  Ezekiel  predicts 
that  the  dead  nation  will  come  to  life  again 
(vv.  1-14),  and  by  a  symbolic  action  he  repre- 
sents the  coming  reunion  of  the  rival  kingdoms 
of  Israel  and  Judah  (vv.  15-28). 

(a)  The  Revival  (vv.   1-14) 

Ezekiel  is  transported  into  a  valley  full  of 
dry  bones.  As  he  prophesies  to  them  they 
come  together  into  complete  skeletons,  which 
become  covered  with  sinews,  flesh,  and  skin. 
Then  the  wind  blows  upon  the  inanimate  bodies 
and  they  stand  up  alive.  The  prophecy  does 
not  refer  to  a  literal  resurrection  of  the  Israel- 
ites actually  dead,  but  to  a  revival  of  the  dead 
nation,  of  which  the  exiles  seemed  to  be  the 
scattered  remains. 

I.  Ezekiel  saw  this  vision  in  a  prophetic 
trance,  under  the  influence  of  God's  inspira- 
tion. At  the  same  time  its  details  were  no 
doubt  due  to  the  peculiar  working  of  his  im- 
aginative mind  on  the  thought  expressed  by 
the  exiles  in  v.  11.  7.  A  shaking]  RV  'an 
earthquake.'  8,  9.  Wind  .  .  breath]  The  same 
Hebrew  word  means  wind,  breath,  or  spirit. 
The  wind  of  the  vision  represents  the  Spirit 
of  God  in  the  actual  process  of  the  nation's 
revival  :  see  v.  14. 

II.  Cut  off  for  our  parts]  RV  '  clean  cut  off.' 
12,  13.  Graves]  The  figure  here  is  some- 
what changed.  Still  the  reference  is  not  to  the 
graves  of  those  actually  dead,  but  to  the 
heathen  world  as  the  grave  of  the  dead  nation 
of  Israel,  compared  to  which  their  own  land 
was  the  land  of  the  living.  14.  My  spirit]  see 
on  vv.  8,  9. 

{b)  The  Reunion  (vv.   15-28) 

Ezekiel  is  directed  to  take  two  pieces  of 
wood,  one  having  '  Judah '  and  the  other 
'  Joseph  '  inscribed  upon  it,  and  to  join  them 
together  (vv.  15-17).  The  explanation  of  the 
symbol  is  that  the  two  divisions  of  the  nation, 
so  long  separated,  will  be  reunited  in  their 
former  land,  governed  by  one  king  of  the 
house  of  David,  under  the  same  covenant  with 
God,  and  worshipping  at  the  same  sanctuary 
(vv.  18-28). 

16.  Judah]  the  southern  kingdom  of  the 
Two  Tribes.  Joseph  .  .  Ephraim]  the  northern 
kingdom  of  the  Ten  Tribes ;  Ephraim,  one  of 
the  two  tribes  descended  from  Joseph,  being 
the  principal  one  of  the  ten.  Israel]  used  here 
and  in  v.  19,  as  generally  by  Ezekiel,  in  the 
sense,  not  of  the  northern  kingdom,  but  of  the 
Avhole  nation. 

19.   Him]   RV  'it.'     Mine  hand]   probably 


515 


37.  23 


EZEKIEL 


38.  19 


rather, 'his'  (Judah's)  'hand,'  to  correspond 
with  '  the  hand  of  Ephi-aim  '  already  mentioned 
in  the  v.  The  united  stick  is  placed  in  Judah's 
hand  because  the  king  is  to  belong  to  Judah's 
royal  house.  23.  Dwellingplaces]  RM  '  back- 
slidings.'  So  shall  they  be  my  people,  etc.] 
another  feature  taken  from  Jeremiah's  New 
Covenant  (Jer  31 33)  :  see  also  vv.  26,  27. 

24,  25.  My  servant  David]  in  the  same 
sense  as  in  3423j24 

26.  A  covenant  of  peace]  as  in  3425. 

26,  27.  Mysanctuary .  .  my  tabernacle]  Jero- 
boam had  set  up  rival  sanctuaries  to  Jerusalem 
at  Dan  and  Bethel  (IK  12 28-32)^  but  the  re- 
united nation  would  have  one  centre  of  re- 
ligious worship.  God  had  forsaken  the  Temple 
at  Jerusalem  (11  23),  but  He  would  return,  never 
to  leave  it  again.  The  latter  aspect  of  the 
promise  is  developed  in  chs.  40-48. 

CHAPTEES  38,  39 
God's  Final  Victory  over  the  Heathen 
Ezekiel's  earlier  group  of  prophecies  against 
the  nations  (chs.  25-32)  was  concerned  with 
Israel's  nearer  neighbours,  which  had  inter- 
fered more  or  less  in  former  times  with  her 
prosperity  ;  and  their  humiliation  was  regarded 
as  a  necessary  condition  of  Israel's  peaceful 
and  happy  future.  Ezekiel,  however,  contem- 
plated a  wider  extension  of  God's  glory  than 
these  prophecies  involved.  This  is  described 
under  the  form  of  an  invasion  of  the  restored 
Israel  by  hordes  of  the  remotest  heathen,  who 
will  be  destroyed  by  God  without  any  fighting 
on  Israel's  part.  His  glory  will  thus  be  mani- 
fested to  the  very  ends  of  the  earth.  Ezekiel  is 
alone  among  the  Old  Testament  prophets  in 
expecting  another  crisis  to  arise  after  the 
restoration  has  been  accomplished.  His  con- 
ception is  reproduced  in  the  New  Testament 
in  the  book  of  Revelation  (20  ''-'^%  and  the 
underlying  idea  in  both  cases  is  that  what 
seems  the  triumph  of  God's  kingdom  may  be 
followed  by  a  fresh  assault  of  the  forces  of 
evil,  which,  however,  are  destined  to  be  over- 
thrown at  last.  The  picture  of  Gog  may  have 
been  suggested  partly  by  the  memory  of  the 
great  Scythian  invasion  (see  Intro.),  and 
partly  by  the  ravages  of  Nebuchadrezzar's 
armies. 

C.  38  describes  Gog's  allies  (vv.  1-7),  his 
nefarious  plans  (vv.  8-13),  his  great  invasion 
(vv.  14-17),  and  God's  turning  of  the  forces 
of  nature  against  him  (vv.  18-23).  C.  39 
foretells  that  God  will  lead  him  on  to  destruc- 
tion (vv.  1-7)  ;  his  weapons  will  provide 
Israel  with  fuel  for  seven  years  (vv.  8-10)  ; 
seven  months  will  be  required  to  bury  the 
corpses  of  his  host,  which  will  fill  a  whole 
valley  on  the  E.  of  the  Dead  Sea  (vv.  11-13)  ; 
when  the  seven  months  are  over  special  officers 
will  still  be  required  to  search  out  and  bury 


the  dead  bodies  that  remain  (vv.  14-16)  ;  birds 
and  beasts  of  prey  will  enjoy  an  enormous 
banquet  (vv.  17-20)  ;  all  the  earth  will  re- 
cognise the  power  and  glory  of  the  true  God, 
the  heathen  will  understand  at  last  the  real 
meaning  of  Israel's  exile,  and  Israel  will  learn 
the  lessons  of  all  God's  dealings  with  them  in 
judgment  and  in  mercy  (vv.  21-29). 

CHAPTER  38 

2.  Gog,  the  land  of  Magog]  RV  '  Gog,  of  the 
land  of  Magog.'  The  exact  reference  of  the 
names  is  unknown.  Magog  is  the  land  ruled 
over  by  Gog.  The  conjecture  that  '  Magog ' 
(Mgg  =  Ggm  =  Bbl)  is  a  cryptogram  for  '  Babel ' 
(Babylon)  has  no  probability.  Gog  in  any 
case  is  the  representative  of  remote  heathen- 
dom, and  is  located  in  the  far  N.  (386,15  392)^ 
while  he  has  allies  in  the  distant  S.  (38^). 

Chief  prince  of  Meshech,  etc.]  RV  '  Prince  of 
Rosh,  Meshech,'  etc.,  and  so  in  v.  3,  391.  The 
land  meant  by  '  Rosh '  is  unknown,  but  there 
can  be  no  allusion  to  Russia.  On  Meshech 
and  Tubal  see  on  2713. 

4.  Turn  thee  back]  RV  '  turn  thee  about.' 
Perhaps  we  should  read,  '  lead  thee,'  and  so  in 
39  2.  God  directs  the  movements  even  of  the 
enemies  of  His  kingdom.  5.  Persia]  a  doubt- 
ful rendering.  Ethiopia,  and  Libya]  R V  '  Cush 
and  Put':  see  on  27 10  305.  g.  Corner] 
(Gnl02),  a  people  in  the  N.  of  Asia  Minor, 
usually  identified  with  the  Cimmerians. 

Togarmah]  Armenia  :  see  on  27  !•*.  The 
north  quarters]  RV  '  the  uttermost  parts  of  the 
north.'  Bands]  RV  '  hordes,'  and  so  through- 
out. People]  RV  '  peoples,'  and  so  throughout, 
except  in  v.  12,  and  39 13.  y.  Be  thou  a  guard 
unto  them]  LXX  reads,  '  hold  thyself  in  reserve 
for  me.' 

8.  The  latter  years]  The  invasion  of  Gog  is 
in  the  distant  future.  The  land  that  is  . . 
gathered,  etc.]  The  sense  requires  '  the  nation ' 
to  be  supplied  before  '  that  is  gathered '  :  see 
V.  12.  II.  The  peaceful  state  of  the  restored 
Israel  is  here  described.  12.  Midst  of  the 
land]  RV  '  middle  of  the  earth,'  the  supposed 
geographical  position  of  Palestine.  13.  Sheba 
. .  Dedan  . .  Tarshish]  see  on  2223,25  2715,20. 

Young  lions]  does  not  give  a  clear  sense. 
Other  suggested  readings  are,  '  Canaanites,' 
'  Cyprians,'  or  '  traffickers.'  The  nations  men- 
tioned were  spectators  of  Gog's  invasion,  and 
inquired  what  commercial  advantage  they 
might  reap  from  the  disposal  of  the  spoil. 

15.  North  parts]  RV  '  uttermost  parts  of 
the  north.'  17.  Certain  older  prophecies  were 
understood  by  Ezekiel  to  refer,  though  not  by 
name,  to  the  coming  invasion  of  Gog.  Per- 
haps he  had  in  view  Zeph  1 1^*-  3^  Jer  3-6. 

18.  At  the  same  time]  RV  '  in  that  day.' 
In  my  face]  RV  '  into  my  nostrils.' 

19.  Shaking]  or,  'earthquake.' 


516 


39.2 


EZEKIEL 


40.  11 


CHAPTEK  39 

2.  Leave  but  the  sixth  part  of  thee]  RV 
'  lead  thee  on.'  6.  Isles]  RM  '  coast-lands.' 
God  will  not  only  destroy  the  army  of  Gog  in 
Palestine,  but  will  extend  His  judgments  into 
the  lands  from  which  Gog  and  his  allies  have 
come.  8.  It  is  come  .  .  it  is  done]  RV  '  it 
3ometh  .  .  it  shall  be  done.'  9.  Set  on  fire]  RV 
'make  fii-es  of.'  Burn  them  with  fire]  RV 
'make  fires  of  them'  :  so  in  v.  10.  11.  There 
of  graves]  RV  '  for  burial.' 

Valley  of  the  passengers]  RV  '  valley  of 
them  that  pass  through.'  Others  read,  '  a 
valley  of  Abarim,'  Abarim  being  the  region  E. 
of  the  Dead  Sea.     The  sea]  the  Dead  Sea. 

Stop  the  7ioses,  etc.]  RV  '  stop  them  that 
pass  through.'  The  valley,  formerly  a  road- 
way, will  be  blocked  by  corpses.  Hamon-gog] 
means  '  the  multitude  of  Gog.'  14.  With  the 
passengers]  should  probably  be  omitted,  and 
bury  should  perhaps  be  '  search  out.'  There 
were  to  be  two  classes  of  officials,  the  searchers 
and  the  buriers,  and  this  v.  deals  with  the 
former.  The  duties  of  both  are  described  in 
V.  15.     Earth]  RV  'land.' 

15.  And  the  passengers,  etc.]  RV  '  and  they 
that  pass  through  the  land  shall  pass  through.' 
When  the  searchers  found  any  human 
remains  they  were  to  set  up  a  mark  to  attract 
the  attention  of  the  bm-iers,  who  followed 
them.  16.  And  .  .  Hamonah]  RV  'and  Ha- 
monah  shall  also  be  the  name  of  a  city.'  The 
reference  seems  to  be  to  a  city  to  be  built  near 
the  valley  of  Hamon-gog,  in  commemoration 
of  God's  victory  over  Gog  and  his  '  multitude.' 

18.  Bashan]  a  district  E.  of  the  Jordan, 
famous  for  its  cattle  :  see  Dt32i'i  Ps22i2. 

24.  Have  I  done]  RV  'did  I.'  26.  After 
that  they  have  borne]  RV  '  and  they  shall  bear '  ; 
more  probably,  '  and  they  shall  forget.' 

Dvyelt  safely  .  .  made  them  afraid]  RV  '  shall 
dwell  securely  .  .  shall  make  them  afraid.' 

28.  Have  left]  RV  '  I  will  leave.' 

§  2.  The  Ordinances  of  the  New 
Israel  (chs.  40-48) 

This  concluding  section  of  the  book  is  dated 
in  the  twenty-fifth  year  of  Ezekierscaptivity,i.e. 
the  fourteenth  year  after  the  fall  of  Jerusalem 
(572  B.C.).  It  is  therefore  thirteen  years  later 
than  the  previous  section  (chs.  33-39),  and,  with 
the  exception  of  29  ^"^-^^^  forms  the  latest  part 
of  the  book.  It  is  in  the  form  of  a  vision, 
which  is  the  counterpart  of  that  in  chs.  8-11. 
There  God  forsook  the  old  Temple  which  had 
been  polluted  by  idolatry.  Here  we  have  a 
description  of  the  Temple  of  the  restored 
kingdom,  of  God's  return  to  it,  and  of  the 
various  religious  arrangements  and  institutions 
of  the  future.  The  vision  is  marked  by  great 
minuteness  of  detail,   and  no  doubt  Ezekiel 


had  brooded  long  and  deeply  over  the  particu- 
lars of  the  Temple  and  its  ritxial.  Yet,  as  in 
former  cases,  there  is  no  reason  to  doubt 
that  this  vision  was  an  actual  experience,  in 
which  the  subjects  of  previous  reflection  stood 
out  vividly  before  the  prophet's  mind.  While 
the  material  details  are  so  minute,  some  fea- 
tm'es  of  the  vision  are  supernatural  and  mira- 
culous. The  whole  forms  an  ideal  picture, 
which  was  never  actually  to  be  realised,  but 
which  strikingly  embodied  the  conception  of 
the  abiding  presence  of  God  with  His  people, 
and  of  their  perfect  fellowship  with  Him. 

The  Plans  of  Ezekiel's  Temple,  on  p.  518, 
are  by  permission  of  the  Cambridge  University 
Press. 

CHAPTERS  40-42 
The  New  Temple 
Ezekiel,  transported  in  vision  to  Palestine, 
is  set  down  on  the  N.  side  of  the  Temple 
mountain,  and  sees  the  Temple  buildings  ex- 
tending to  the  S.  like  a  city.  A  supernatural 
figure,  like  those  in  c.  9,  appears,  and  measures 
the  various  parts  of  the  Temple  in  Ezekiel's 
presence  (40 1-^). 

(a)  The  Outer  Court  and  its  Gateways 

(405-27) 

The  Outer  Eastern  Gateway  (vv.  5-1 6),  Fig. 
3,  E.  For  the  following  details  see  Fig.  1. 
The  outer  boundary  of  the  Temple  was  a  wall 
6  cubits  thick  and  6  cubits  high  (v.  5).  Steps 
led  up  to  the  E.  gateway,  which  had  a  thres- 
hold (a)  6  cubits  broad  (v.  6,  ef),  and  10  cubits 
wide  (v.  11,  ee,  ff).  Within  the  threshold 
were  three  guard-rooms  (b)  on  either  side  (vv. 
7,  10),  each  6  cubits  square,  and  separated  by 
wall-spaces  (posts)  of  5  cubits  (gh,  ik).  The 
inner  tkreshold  (c)  had  the  same  dimensions  as 
the  outer  one  (vv.  6,  7).  Beyond  it  was  a 
porch  {il)  8  cubits  wide  (/««),  the  jambs  (posts) 
of  the  doorway  being  2  cubits  broad  (?<  0,  v.  9). 
The  whole  length  of  the  gateway  (eo)  was 
50  cubits  (v.  15),  and  its  breadth  25  cubits 
(v.  13).  The  guard-rooms  and  the  porch  were 
lit  by  windows,  and  there  were  also  windows 
in  the  wall-spaces  (posts)  between  the  guard- 
rooms. These  spaces,  too,  were  decorated 
with  palm  trees  (v.  16). 

5.  Cubit]  Various  sizes  of  cubit,  from  18 
in.  to  nearly  24  in.  were  employed  in  ancient 
measurements.  Ezekiel's  cubit  was  one  of 
the  larger  forms — an  ordinary  cubit  and  a 
handbreadth. 

6.  The  other  threshold]  is  that  mentioned  in 
V.  7  (c).  7.  Within]  RV  '  toward  the  house,' 
or  Temple  proper.  8.  Should  be  omitted.  It 
contradicts  v.  9,  and  is  evidently  a  copyist's 
repetition.    9.  Inward]  RV  '  toward  the  house.' 

II.  The  length  of  the  gate,  thirteen  cubits] 
an  obscure  statement,  not  reconcilable  with  the 


517 


40 


EZEKIEL 


40. 


Fig.  2.  Temple  House. 


FIG.  I.  Outer  Gateway. 


E 


C 


Lk 


c      e 


B 


id       d   i 


c       c 

A 

ViJ  hh 

JO  of" 


D g 

E 


-0 
■5 
-10 


Fig.  3.  Temple  Courts. 


■o 

10 
20 
■30 
■40 
-50 
80 
-70 
■SO 
■90 
-100 


Plans  of  Ezekiel's  Temple 


518 


40.  12 


EZEKIEL 


41.  1 


other  measurements.  If  '  breadth  '  instead  of 
'length'  were  meant  13  +  6  +  6  wovild  make 
25,  but  this  would  allow  no  space  for  the  outer 
walls  of  the  guard-rooms.  12.  The  space] 
EV  '  and  a  border,'  probably  a  low  parapet  in 
front  of  each  guard-room  (/'(/,  h i,  k I)  taking  a 
cubit  on  either  side  off  the  width  of  the  passage. 

14.  He  made .  .  threescore  cubits]  read,  with 
LXX, '  and  he  measured  the  porch  (d)  20  cubits ' 
(i.e.  in  length,  the  breadth  being  8  cubits, 
V.  9).     The  latter  half  of   the  v.  is    obscure. 

16.  Arches]  should  be  'porch,'  and  so  every- 
where. 

The  Outer  Court  (40i''-i9)  had  a  pavement 
(Fig.  3,  B)  50  cubits  wide,  corresponding  to 
the  length  of  the  gateways.  On  this  pave- 
ment were  30  chambers  (C),  the  exact  ar- 
rangement of  which  is  unknown.  From 
the  inner  opening  of  the  outer  gateways  to 
the  inner  gateways  was  100  cubits.  The 
whole  outer  court  including  the  pavement  was 
therefore  150  cubits  wide.  18.  Over  against] 
RV  '  answerable  unto.' 

The  Outer  Northern  Gateway  (vv.  20-23), 
Fig.  3,  N.  This  was  similar  to  the  E.  gateway. 
'  Porch  '  should  be  read  for  '  arches.'  Seven 
steps  led  up  to  this  gateway,  and  the  breadth 
of  the  outer  court  was  the  same  on  the  N.  as 
on  the  E.  side. 

The  Outer  Southern  Gateway  (vv.  24-27), 
Fig.  3,  S.  This  was  similar  to  those  already 
described.     '  Porch  '  for  '  arches '  as  before. 

(b)  The  Inner  Court  and  its  Gateways 

(40  ^8-^7) 

The  Inner  Southern  Gateway  (vv.  28-31), 
Fig.  3,  S^.  This  was  reached  from  the  outer 
court  by  8  steps.  It  was  exactly  similar  to 
the  outer  gateways,  except  that  the  porch 
(Fig.  1,  fZ)  was  at  the  outer  and  not  at  the 
inner  end.     V.  30  should  be  omitted  with  LXX. 

The  Inner  Eastern  Gateway  (vv.  32-34), 
Fig.  3,  E^,  and  the  Inner  Northern  Gateway 
(vv.  35-37),  Fig.  3,  N^,  were  similar  to  that 
on  the  S. 

Arrangements  for  Preparing  the  Sacrifices 
(vv.  38-43).  At  one  of  the  inner  gateways 
(probably  that  on  the  N.)  there  were  a  chamber 
for  washing  the  burnt  offerings  (v.  38)  and  a 
number  of  tables  for  slaying  and  preparing 
them  (vv.  39-43).  The  exact  position  of  the 
tables  must  remain  uncertain. 

38.  The  chambers  and  the  entries]  RV  '  a 
chamber  with  the  door.' 

The  Chambers  for  the  Singers  (vv.  44-47), 
Fig.  3,  DD.  These  were  two  in  number. 
One,  by  the  N.  gateway  and  looking  toward 
the  S.,  was  for  the  priests.  The  other,  by  the 
S.  gateway  and  looking  toward  the  N.,  was  for 
the  Levites. 

44.   East]  should  obviously  be  S.  :  see  RM. 

Without  the  inner  gate]  means  not  '  in  the 


outer  court,'  but  '  beyond  the  gateway,  in  the 
inner  court.' 

Dimensions  of  the  Inner  Court  (v.  47).  Ex- 
cluding the  space  occupied  by  the  gateways, 
this  court  formed  a  square  (Fig.  3,  iklm)  of 
100  cubits  each  way.  The  altar  (F)  was  in  the 
centre  of  the  court. 

(c)  The  Temple  Proper  (4048-4126) 
The  main  Temple  building  was  on  the  W. 
side    of    the   inner   court.     The    details   that 
follow  are  illustrated  in  Fig.  2. 

The  Porch  (4048.«),  Fig.  2,  A.  This  was 
20  cubits  long  (A  /; )  and  1 2  cubits  broad.  The 
posts  or  jambs  (ab)  of  the  doorway  were 
5  cubits  across,  and  the  side-walls  (/?  5,  hh) 
were  of  3  cubits  each.  This  left  14  cubits  for 
the  width  of  the  entrance  (aa,  hh).  Each 
jamb  had  a  pillar  beside  it.  The  porch  was 
approached  by  10  steps. 

48.  Breadth  of  the  gate]  should  be  '  sides  of 
the  entrance,'  as  in  412. 

49.  Eleven]  should  be  '  twelve,'  as  the  LXX 
reads,  and  the  other  measurements  require  : 
see  4113.  And  he  brought  me  .  .  whereby]  RM 
'  and  by  ten  steps.' 

CHAPTER  41 

The  Holy  Place  (411.2)^  Fig.  2,  B.  This 
was  the  '  temple  '  strictly  so  called.  The  posts 
of  its  doorway  were  6  cubits  across  (ccl).  The 
entrance  was  10  cubits  wide  (cc,  del),  and  the 
side-walls  (id,  di)  were  of  5  cubits  each.  The 
apartment  itself  was  40  cubits  long  and  20 
cubits  broad. 

I.  Tabernacle]  should  probably  be  'posts.' 

The  Holy  of  Holies  (41 3.4)^  Y\g.  2,  C.  Eze- 
kiel  did  not  accompany  the  measurer  into  this 
sacred  chamber.  The  posts  of  the  entrance 
(<?/)  were  two  cubits  across.  The  entrance 
itself  was  6  cubits  wide  (ee,ff)  and  the  side- 
walls  {kf,fk)  were  of  7  cubits  each.  The 
chamber  itself  was  a  square  of  20  cubits  each 
way. 

The  Side  Chambers  (415-7).  The  Temple 
had  a  double  wall,  the  inner  being  6  cubits 


thick  (v.  5),  and  the  outer  5  cubits  thick  (v.  9). 
Between  these  was  a  space  of  4  cubits  (D), 


519 


41.6 


EZEKIEL 


43. 


which  was  occupied  by  30  chambers  arranged 
in  three  stories.  The  chambers  in  each  story 
were  wider  than  those  below,  as  the  supporting 
beams  were  not  let  into  the  Temple  wall,  but 
rested  on  ledges,  which  took  away  successively 
from  the  thickness  of  the  wall  (Fig.  4). 

6.  Three]  RV  'in  thi-ee  stories.'  They 
entered  into]  should  probably  be  '  there  were 
rebatements  in,'  as  in  1 KS'^,  which  in  any  case 
gives  the  key  to  the  meaning  here. 

7.  And  there  loas  . .  chambers]  RV  '  and  the 
side  chambers  were  broader  as  they  encom- 
passed the  house  higher  and  higher.' 

The  Raised  Platform  and  Surrounding  Space 
(418-11).  The  Temple  building  and  the  side 
chambers  stood  on  a  basement  which  rose 
6  cubits  above  the  level  of  the  inner  court. 
This  basement  extended  5  cubits  (the  '  place 
that  was  left ')  beyond  the  outer  wall  on  either 
side  (Fig.  2,  E),  and  from  this  space  entry  was 
gained  to  the  side  chambers  on  either  side 
(Fig.  2,  gg).  Round  the  platform  there  was 
a  clear  space  of  20  cubits  (the  '  separate  place  ') 
on  the  N.,  W.,  and  S.  (Fig.  3,  HE  IT). 

8.  The  height  of  the  house]  RY  '  that  the 
house  had  a  raised  basement.' 

The  Western  Building  (4112),  Fig.  3,  K. 
This  was  on  the  W.  of  the  Temple  beyond  the 
'  separate  place '  (//),  and  had  walls  5  cubits 
thick.  Its  internal  measurement  was  90  cubits 
by  70,  and  its  external  one  100  cubits  by  80. 

General  Measurements  (41i3-i5a).  The 
Temple  was  100  cubits  long,  and  the  western 
space  H  (20  cubits)  with  the  building  K 
(70  cubits)  and  its  walls  (10  cubits)  made  up 
another  100  cubits  (v.  13)  from  E.  to  W.  The 
front  of  the  Temple  with  the  E.  ends  of  the 
separate  places  HH  on  either  side  of  it  made 
up  100  cubits  (/  n)  from  S.  to  N.  (v.  14).  The 
building  K  with  its  '  galleries '  (walls)  was  also 
100  cubits  {pq,  r«)  from  S.  to  N.  (v.  15). 

The  Interior  Decorations  of  the  Temple 
(41i5b.26).  V.  15  should  end  with  'cubits.' 
The  vv.  that  follow  are  somewhat  obscure. 
The  windows  that  lit  the  interior  of  the  Temple 
must  have  been  above  the  third  storey  of  the 
side  chambers.  What  follows  is  all  that  can  be 
clearly  made  out.  The  whole  interior  from 
the  floor  to  the  windows  was  panelled  with 
wood  and  ornamented  with  cherubim  and  palm 
trees,  placed  alternately.  Each  cherub  had 
two  faces,  a  lion's  and  a  man's.  The  porch 
seems  to  have  been  decorated  with  palm  trees 
only  (v.  26).  Both  the  Holy  Place  and  the 
Holy  of  Holies  had  two  doors,  each  consisting 
of  two  leaves.  These  had  cherubim  and  palm 
trees  like  those  on  the  walls.  Before  the  Holy 
of  Holies  (in  the  Holy  Place)  there  was  a  wooden 
altar-shaped  table  3  cubits  high  and  2  cubits 
long. 

15'^,  16.  should  perhaps  read,  'and  the 
Temple,  and  the  inner  house,  and  its  outer 


porch  were  covered  with  a  roof  work,  and  they 
three  had  their  closed  windows  and  their  gal- 
leries round  about.'  The  '  galleries '  may  have 
been  borders  or  dados.  21.  An  obscure  verse. 
22.  The  second  lengfth  should  be  '  base.' 
25.  Thick  planks  stands  for  a  word  of 
unknown  meaning. 

(fZ)  The  Priests'  Chambers  (421-14) 

This  is  the  most  obscure  part  of  Ezekiel's 
description.  The  following  are  the  clearest 
points.  On  the  N.  side  of  the  Temple,  and 
separated  from  it  by  the  space  H  (Fig.  3)  was 
a  gi'oup  of  buildings  (oumvi)  100  cubits  long 
and  50  cubits  broad  (v.  2).  It  consisted  of  a 
block  (G'),  next  the  Temple,  100  cubits  long, 
and  another  (G^),  next  the  outer  court,  50 
cubits  long  (v.  8).  The  remaining  50  cubits 
next  the  outer  court  was  occupied  by  a  wall 
(v  »;,  V.  7),  and  between  the  blocks  was  a  walk 
(0)  10  cubits  wide  and  100  cubits  long  (v.  4). 
This  left  20  cubits  as  the  width  of  each  block. 
The  chambers  in  these  buildings  were  in  three 
storeys,  and  were  over  against  the  space  H  on 
the  one  hand,  and  the  pavement  (i?)  of  the 
outer  com-t  on  the  other  (v.  3).  The  upper 
storeys  were  narrower  than  the  lower,  then- 
breadth  being  diminished  by  galleries  (vv.  3,  5) 
which  faced  each  other  across  the  walk  0  (Fig.  5). 
The  doors  of  G  were  towards  the  N.,  opening 
on  the  walk  0  (vv.  2,  4).  The  entry  (P)  from 
the  outer  court  was  at  the  E.  end  of  the  whole 
group  (v.  9).  There  was  an  exactly  similar 
group  of  buildings  on  the  S.  of  the  Temple 
(vv.  10-12).  All  these  chambers  were  to  be 
used  by  the  priests  for  eating  the  sacrificial 
flesh  and  for  changing  their  garments  (vv. 
13,  14). 

4.  One  cubit]  RM  '  a  hundred  cubits.' 

5.  Were  higher  than]  RV  '  took  away  fromi.' 
Than  the  lower]  RV  '  more  than  from.' 

10.  East  should  obviously  be  S. 


H 


O 


outer   court 


Fig.  5. 
(e)  Dimensions  of  the  Temple  Area  (4215-20) 

The  whole  formed  a  square  of  500  cubits 
each  way.  This  follows  from  the  measure- 
ments already  given.  '  Reeds '  is  a  mistake 
for  '  cubits,'  arising  from  the  fact  that  the 
reed  was  used  in  the  measurement. 

CHAPTERS  43,  441-3 
The  Restoration  of  the  Temple  Worship 
This  c.  describes  God's  return  to  the  Temple 


520 


43.  6 


EZEKIEL 


44.7 


(43 1-12),  and  His  directions  as  to  the  construc- 
tion (4313-17),  and  dedication  (4318-26)  of  the 
altar  of  burnt  offering.  When  these  directions 
were  carried  out  God's  sacrificial  intercourse 
with  Israel  would  be  resumed  (43^7).  The 
outer  eastern  gateway,  by  which  God's  glory 
returned,  was  to  be  permanently  shut  (44 1-3). 

(a)  God's  Return  to  the  Temple  (43i-i2) 

Ezekiel,  standing  at  the  outer  E.  gate,  saw 
the  appearance  of  God's  glory  in  the  same 
form  in  which  he  had  beheld  it  in  previous 
visions.  It  came  from  the  E.,  and  entered  the 
Temple  by  the  gate  on  that  side,  the  same  by 
which  it  had  formerly  departed  (10 1^  1122,23) 
Ezekiel  was  then  brought  to  the  inner  court, 
where  he  saw  the  glory  filling  the  Temple  as  in 
10*.  A  voice  from  within  the  Temple  an- 
nounced that  God  would  now  dwell  for  ever  in 
the  midst  of  His  people,  and  that  His  sanctuary 
would  no  longer  be  defiled  as  of  old  by  the 
people's  wickedness,  or  by  the  nearness  of 
the  royal  palace  and  sepulchres.  Ezekiel  was 
further  directed  to  make  known  the  plan  and 
ordinances  of  the  new  Temple  to  the  people. 

6.  The  man]  RV  'a man,'  the  divine  voice 
personified.  7.  Whoredom]  a  figure  for  idol- 
atry :  see  69  16,  23.   High  places]  RM  '  death.' 

Carcases,  etc.]  The  royal  sepulchres  were  in 
the  vicinity  of  Solomon's  Temple. 

8.  Solomon's  palace  and  Temple  were  close 
together,  and  formed  practically  a  single  group 
of  buildings.  In  Ezekiel's  vision  of  the  future 
the  city  stood  far  away  from  the  Temple  :  see 

4815-17. 

(b)  Measurements  of  the  Altar  of  Burnt 
Offering  (4313-18) 

The  altar  (Fig.  3,  P)  was  to  have  a  base 
(abs  f,  Fig.  6)  a  cubit  high  (ah,ts)  and  a  cubit 
broad  {be,  rs).  This  base  was  to  have  a  border 
a  span  in  height  (6,  s).     Above  this  was  to  be 


n 


6P- 


g 


P 


ns 


a 


Fig.  6. 
Plan  of  the  Altar  of  Bdent  Obferino 

the  lower  settle  (cdpr),  2  cubits  high  (gfZ,  rp) 
and  a  cubit  broad  (cZe,  op).  Next  was  to  come 
the  greater  settle  {efn  0),  4  cubits  high  (e/,  0 11) 
and  a  cubit  broad  {fg^mii).  Highest  of  all 
was  to  be  the  upper  altar  {ghl m),  4  cubits  high. 


and  having  a  square  top  12  cubits  each  way 
(h  I).  There  were  to  be  horns  (Ji  /,  k  /)  at  the 
four  corners.  The  upper  settle  would  form  a 
square  14  cubits  each  way  ifn).  The  whole 
height  of  the  altar,  excluding  the  horns,  would 
be  11  cubits  (nearly  20  ft.),  and  the  top  of  the 
altar  was  to  be  reached  by  stairs  on  the  E.  side. 
13.  Higher  place]  RV  '  base.'  15.  So  the 
altar]  RV  '  and  the  upper  altar.'  From  the 
altar] RV  'from  the  altar  hearth  '  :  so  in  v.  16. 

16.  Squares]  RV  '  sides  '  :  so  in  v.  17. 

17.  The  border  about  it]  is  probably  not  a 
border  about  the  settle,  but  a  border  about 
the  base  described  in  v.  13.  The  three  last 
clauses  of  v.  17  refer  to  the  altar  as  a  whole. 

(c)  The  Consecration  of  the  Altar 

(4318-27) 

Seven  days  would  be  required  for  this.  Each 
day  a  he-goat  was  to  be  sacrificed  as  a  sin- 
offering,  and  a  ram  and  a  young  bullock  were 
to  be  sacrificed  as  burnt  offerings.  On  the 
first  day  a  young  bullock  was  to  take  the  place 
of  the  he-goat.  These  vv.  may  be  compared 
with  Ex  29  36,37  Lv  8 11  1533.  20.  Purge]  RV 
'  make  atonement  for':  so  in  v.  26. 

22.   Kid  of  the  goats]  RV  '  he-goat.' 

26.  Themselves]  RV  '  it.' 

(cl)  The  Closing  of  the  Outer  Eastern 
Gate  (441-3) 
This  gateway,  by  which  God's  glory  had 
returned  to  the  Temple,  was  to  be  perma- 
nently shut  thereafter.  The  prince,  however, 
riight  use  it  for  sacrificial  meals,  entering  it 
by  the  porch  (Fig.  1,  cl)  from  the  outer  court, 
and  leaving  it  by  the  same  way. 

CHAPTER  444-31 
The  Priests  and  the  Levites 

Standing  at  the  inner  northern  gate  Ezekiel 
again  saw  the  glory  of  God  filling  the  Temple 
and  was  again  addressed  by  the  divine  voice 
(vv.  4,  5).  The  Speaker  first  rebuked  the 
custom  which  had  prevailed  in  the  old  Temple, 
of  having  foreigners  as  servants  in  the  sanctu- 
ary (vv.  6-8).  He  directed  that  in  future 
their  place  should  be  taken  by  the  Levites  who 
were  not  of  the  family  of  Zadok.  These  had 
formerly  shared  the  priestly  office,  but  for 
their  encouragement  of  Israel's  idolatry  they 
were  to  be  deprived  of  this  privilege,  and  to 
have  humbler  services  assigned  to  them  (vv. 
9-14).  The  Levites  of  the  family  of  Zadok 
alone  were  to  exercise  the  priesthood  in  future 
(vv.  15,  16).  No  mention  is  made  of  the  high 
priest.  Various  regulations  follow  as  to  the 
priests'  clothing,  marriage,  public  duties,  de- 
filement and  purification,  and  sacrificial  per- 
quisites (vv.  17-31).  This  passage  has  an 
important  bearing  on  the  date  of  certain  parts 
of  the  Pentateuch  (see  Intro.). 

7 .  Strangers]  In  2  K 1 1  we  have  an  instance  of 


521 


44.  10 


EZEKIEL 


45.  23 


foreign  mercenaries  ('  Carites,'  v.  4,  RV)  being 
employed  as  guards  in  the  Temple.  The 
Nethinim  (Ezr820)  were  apparently  captives 
employed  as  Temple  slaves:  see  Zechl42i. 

They]  EM  '  ye.'  Because  of]  RV  '  to  add 
unto.'  10.  Are  gone  away]  RV  '  went.'  The 
reference  is  to  the  worship  at  the  high  places, 
abolished  by  Josiah  (2  K  23  8.9).  15.  Zadok] 
made  priest  by  Solomon  when  Abiathar  was 
deposed  (IK 2 26, 27, 35).     17,  18.  Cp.  Ex 28 39-42 

3927-29  Lvl64.  19.  The  holy  chambers]  those 
described  inc.  42:  see42i3, i4. 

20.  Cp.Lv215.  21.  Cp.Lvl09.  22.  Cp.Lv 
2114.  23.  Cp.  LvlQio.  24.  Cp.  Dt  17 8-13 
19  17  21 5,  where  the  priests  are  associated  with 
secular  judges.  25.  Cp.  Lv  211-3.  26.  Cp. 
Nul9ii.  28.  Cp.  Nul820.  29.  Meat  offer- 
ing] cp.  Lv  2  3  7  9-11.  Sin . .  and . .  trespass  offer- 
ing] cp.  L V  G 18  7  6. 7  Nu  1 8  9, 10.  Dedicated] 
RV  'devoted':  cp.  Lv272S  Nul8i4.  30.  The 
firstfruits]  Cp.  Ex  2319  3426  Nul8i3  Dtl84. 

Oblation]  RM  'heave  offering':  cp.  Nu 
1519-21  1819.     31.  Cp.  Ex223i  Lv228. 

CHAPTER   451-8 
The  Lands  for  the  Priests,  Levites, 

Prince,  and  City 
The  division  of  the  whole  country  is  de- 
scribed in  ch.  48,  which  includes  the  substance 
of  the  present  passage,  and  shows  the  position 
of  these  lands  in  relation  to  those  of  the  tribes. 
The  holy  portion  (Fig.  7,  ahgh)  was  to  be 
25,000  cubits  long  (ab,gh)  and'  20,000  cubits 
broad  (ag^bh).  The  sanctuary  (.s)  was  to  oc- 
cupy a  square  of  500  cubits  each  way,  with  a 
border  on  every  side  of  50  cubits  more .  The  holy 
portion  was  to  be  subdivided  into  a  portion 
(efgh)  25,000  by  10,000  cubits,  containing  the 
a  b        


g 


i         k 


f 


h 


c  I         m  d 

Fig.  7. 

sanctuary,  and  allotted  to  the  priests  ;  and  a 
portion  (abef)  of  the  same  size,  allotted  to 
the  Levites.  Alongside  the  priests'  portion 
was  to  be  a  strip  (ghcd)  25,000  by  5,000  cubits, 
for  the  city  and  the  people.  These  three  por- 
tions would  form  a  square  of  25,000  cubits  each 
way,  and  E.  and  W.  of  this  the  possessions  of 
the  prince  (P,  P)  were  to  extend  to  the  bound- 
aries of  the  land. 

I.  Ten  thousand]  RM  '  twenty  thousand.' 


Reeds']  should  be  '  cubits.'  3.  And  the 
most  holy  place]  RV  '  which  is  most  holy.' 

5.  The  five  and  twenty .  .  the  ten]  omit  the 
with  RV.  For  twenty  chambers]  read  with 
LXX,  '  for  cities  to  dwell  in.'  6.  For  details 
of  this  portion  see  48 16-19.  7.  The  length  .  . 
portions]  RV  '  in  length  answerable  unto  one 
of  the  portions,'  i.e.  the  tribal  portions  on  the 
N.  and  S.     See  Fig.  8  and  4822. 

CHAPTER  459-17 
The  Prince's  Dues  and  Obligations 
The  oppressive  exactions  of  the  former 
rulers  were  to  be  unknown  in  the  restored 
Israel.  Weights  and  measures  were  to  be  just 
and  correct.  The  prince  was  to  receive  from 
the  people  a  sixtieth  of  their  wheat  and  barley, 
a  hundredth  part  of  their  oil,  and  one  in  two 
hundred  of  their  flocks.  Out  of  these  supplies 
the  prince  was  to  provide  all  the  regular  sacri- 
fices for  the  Temple. 

10.  The  ephah  (dry  measure)  and  the  bath 
(liquid  measure)  were  each  the  tenth  of  an 
homer.  12.  Twenty  shekels ..  maneh]  read 
with  LXX,  '  five  (shekels)  shall  be  five,  and 
ten  shekels  ten,  and  fifty  shekels  shall  be  your 
maneh.'  A  shekel  was  20  gerahs,  and  a  maneh 
50  shekels  or  1,000  gerahs.  13.  1  in  60:  see 
V.  10.  14.  Cor]  equivalent  to  '  homer.'  The 
proportion  is  1  in  100. 

CHAPTERS  4518-4624 
The  Offerings  at  the    Sacred 
Seasons,  etc. 
(This   whole   passage  should  be  compared 
with  Nu28,29.) 

(a)  The  Atonement  for  the  Sanctuary 


(4 


r,  18-20 


) 


This  was  to  take  place  twice  yearly,  on  the 
first  days  of  the  first  and  seventh  months. 
These  two  days  in  Ezekiel  serve  the  same  pur- 
pose as  the  great  Day  of  Atonement  on  the  tenth 
day  of  the  seventh  month  (Lvl6  Nu  29^-11). 

20.  The  seventh  day  of  the  month]  LXX  '  in 
the  seventh  month,  on  the  first  day  of  the 
month.'    Reconcile]  RV '  make  atonement  for.' 

(b)  The  Passover  (4521-24) 
With    these    regulations    cp.    Ex    1218-20 
Lv235-8Nu92,3Dtl6i-8. 

23.  Kid  of  the  goats]  RV  '  he-goat.' 

(c)  The  Feast  of  Tabernacles  (4525) 
This  was  to  hold  the  same  place  in  the 
seventh  month  as  the  Passover  in  the  first 
month:  cp.  Lv2334-3G  Nu29i2-38  Dtl6i3-i5. 
Ezekiel  makes  no  mention  of  the  Feast  of 
Weeks  (Pentecost).  • 

(d)  The  Sabbaths  and  New  Moons  (46 1-8) 
On  these  occasions  the  E.  gateway  of  the 
inner  court,  which  was  shut  at  other  times,  was 


522 


46. 


5 


EZEKIEL 


47.  12 


opened  all  day.  The  prince  was  allowed  to 
enter  the  gateway  by  the  porch,  which  was 
next  the  outer  court  (40  ^^),  to  prepare  his  offer- 
ings, and  to  worship  at  the  (inner)  threshold  of 
the  gateway,  but  not  to  enter  the  inner  court. 
The  people  worshipped  in  the  outer  court,  at 
the  entrance  of  the  same  gateway :  cp.  with 
these  vv.  Nu  28  9-15. 

5,  7.  Meat  offering]  RV  '  meal  offering.' 

7.  His  hand  .  .  unto]  RV  '  he  is  able.' 

(e)  Various  Regulations  for  Worship 

(4(39-12) 

No  one  was  to  leave  the  outer  court  by  the 
gate  by  which  he  came  in.  If  he  entered  by  the 
N.  gate  he  must  go  out  by  the  S.  and  vice  versa 
(v.  9).  The  prince  and  the  people  were  to 
enter  and  leave  together  (v.  10).  The  meat 
offering  on  all  sacred  occasions  was  to  be  the 
same  as  that  on  the  new  moon  (v.  1 1  :  cp.  v.  7). 
When  the  prince  wished  to  make  a  free-will 
offering  the  inner  E.  gate  was  to  be  opened  for 
him  as  on  the  sabbaths  and  new  moons  (v.  1 2). 

8.  The  prince  in  the  midst  of  them  .  .  shall  go 
in]  RV  '  the  prince  .  .  shall  go  in  in  the  midst 
of  them.' 

12.  Voluntary]  RV  'freewill  offering,  a.' 
Voluntarily]  RV  '  as  a  freewill  offering.' 

(/)  The  Daily  Burnt  Offering  (4613-15) 
Cp.  with  this  Ex  29  3s-±o  Nu  28  3-s.    The  pro- 
portions of  Ezekiel's  meal  offering  differ  from 
those  in  Ex   and  Nu,  and  he   says   nothing 
about  a  drink  offering  or  an  evening  sacrifice. 

14.  Temper  with]  RV  '  moisten.'  Meat 
offering]  RV  '  meal  offering ' :  so  in  v.  15. 

(g)  Gifts  of  Land  by  the  Prince  (46  le-is) 
Such  gifts  could  only  be  made  from  the 
Prince's  own  possessions  (Fig.  7,  FF).  If  they 
were  given  to  his  sons  they  were  made  in  per- 
petuity, but  if  to  his  servants,  they  returned 
to  him  in  the  year  of  jubilee  :  see  Lv  25 1^  27  ^4. 

(h)  The  Kitchens  of  the  Priests  and  the 
People  (4619-24) 

On  the  W.  of  the  holy  chambers  N.  of  the 
Temple  (Fig.  3,  G  G^)  Ezekiel  was  shown  a 
place  (L)  where  the  priests  cooked  the  parts 
of  the  sacrifice  which  they  ate  in  the  chambers 
(4213).  "WTe  may  assume  that  there  was  a 
similar  place  (L)  adjoining  the  holy  chambers 
((?6?l)  on  the  S.  of  the  Temple  (vv.  19,  20). 
In  every  corner  of  the  outer  court  there  was  a 
building  (ilf )  40  cubits  by  30,  where  the  Tem- 
ple servants  (the  Levites)  cooked  the  sacrifices 
to  be  eaten  by  the  people  (vv.  21-24). 

22.  Joined  of]  RV  '  inclosed.'  23.  Places 
of  them  that  boil]   RV  '  boiling  houses.' 

CHAPTER  471-12 
The  Life-giving  Stream 
Ezekiel  was  now  brought  in  his  vision  to  the 


528 


door  of  the  Temple  proper.  Here  he  saw  a 
stream  of  water  which  came  from  beneath  the 
threshold  somewhat  to  the  S.  of  the  entrance, 
and  ran  eastwards,  crossing  the  inner  court  on 
the  S.  of  the  altar,  and  leaving  the  outer  court 
on  the  S.  of  the  outer  E.  gate.  It  rapidly 
deepened  till  it  became  an  unfordable  river, 
with  trees  on  both  its  banks.  It  traversed  the 
barren  region  between  Jerusalem  and  the  Dead 
Sea,  and  entering  the  latter  removed  its  bitter- 
ness, so  that  its  waters,  hitherto  lifeless,  were 
filled  with  fish.  Only  the  salt  marshes  border- 
ing the  Dead  Sea  were  unaffected  by  the  river, 
as  they  were  necessary  for  the  supply  of  salt 
to  the  country.  The  trees  on  the  banks  of  the 
river  were  evergreen  and  bore  fruit  every 
month.  Their  fruit  was  nourishing  and  their 
leaves  medicinal.  This  pictm-e  probably  had 
its  origin  in  the  fact  that  a  small  stream  of 
water  actually  arose  in  the  Temple  hill,  but 
everything  in  the  account  of  Ezekiel's  river 
points  to  the  greatest  possible  change  in  the 
physical  conditions  of  the  coming  age,  a  change 
that  would  involve  the  miraculous,  as  no  natural 
stream  could  increase  in  volume  without  tribu- 
taries. To  Ezekiel  this  ri^■er  was  not  a  mere 
symbol  of  spiritual  refreshment.  The  perfect 
kingdom  of  God  still  presented  itself  to  him 
in  an  earthly  form,  accompanied  by  outward 
fertility  and  other  material  blessings.  This 
passage  is  the  basis  of  Rev  22 1. 2.  For  a  similar, 
yet  different,  picture  of  physical  change  in  the 
future  age  see  Zech  1 4  '^. 

I.  Right  side]  i.e.  S. :  so  in  v.  2.  2.  Ezekiel 
was  led  from  the  inner  court  thi-ough  the  inner 
and  outer  N.  gates,  round  to  the  outside  of  the 
outer  E.  gate.  This  was  necessary,  as  both  the 
inner  and  outer  E.  gates  were  shut.  8.  East 
country]  the  wilderness  of  Judaea,  between 
Jerusalem  and  the  Dead  Sea.  Desert]  RV 
'  Arabah,'  the  great  depression  of  the  Jordan 
valley  and  Dead  Sea.  9.  Rivers]  should  be 
'  river, '  as  in  LXX.  i o.  En-gedi . .  En-eglaim] 
places  on  the  shore  of  the  Dead  Sea.  The 
situation  of  the  latter  is  unknown.  The  great 
sea]  the  Mediterranean.  12.  Be  consumed] 
RV'fail.'  According  to  his  months]  RV  'every 
month.'    Medicine]  RV  '  healing.' 

CHAPTER  4713-23 
The  Boundaries  of  the  Land 
This  passage  may  be  compared  with  Nu 
341-12.  The  N.  border  started  from  a  point 
on  the  Mediterranean,  and  ran  eastward  by 
Hamath  and  other  places  to  Hazar-enon,  be- 
tween Damascus  and  the  Hauran.  The  E. 
border  ran  southward  from  here,  between 
Gilead  and  the  land  of  Israel,  and  followed 
the  Jordan,  ending  at  Tamar,  S.  of  the  Dead 
Sea.  From  Tamar  the  S.  border  ran  by  Meri- 
both-kadesh  to  the  brook  of  Egypt  at  the 
SE.   corner  of  the  Mediterranean.      The  W. 


47.  14 


EZEKIEL 


48.  30 


border  is  formed  by  the  Mediterranean  (vv. 
13-21).  Strangers  born  in  the  land  were  to 
share  it  with  the  Israelites  (vv.  22,  23). 

14.  Lifted  up  mine  hand]  sware. 

15,  16.  Hethlon  .  .  Zedad  .  .  Berothah,  Sib- 
raim]  are  unknown  localities.  As  men  go  to 
Zedad  ;  Hamath]  RY  '  unto  the  entering  in  of 
Zedad,  Hamath.'  Hamath  and  Zedad  have 
probably  changed  places.  'The  entering  in 
of  Hamath '  was  a  well-known  pass  between 
Lebanon  and  Anti-Lebanon. 

17.  Hazar-enan,  the  border,  etc.]  RV  'Ha- 
zar-enon  at  the  border.'  Hazar-enon  and 
Hazar-hatticon  (v.  16)  are  probably  the  same. 

18.  Ye  shall  measure]  should  possibly  be 
'  from  Hazar-enon  '  (see  v.  19).  From  Hauran, 
and  from  Damascus]  must  mean  '  between 
Hauran  and  Damascus,'  where  Hazar-enon  lay 
(vv.  16,  17).  Hauran  is  a  district  E.  of  the 
Jordan  and  S.  of  Damascus.  From  Gilead, 
and  from  the  land  of  Israel]  means,  'between 
Gilead '  (E.  of  the  Jordan)  '  and  the  land  of 
Israel'  (W.  of  it).  The  east  sea]  the  Dead 
Sea.  19.  Tamar]  unknown,  but  probably  near 
the  S.  end  of  the  Dead  Sea. 

Strife  m  Kadesh]  RV  '  Meriboth-kadesh,' 
Kadesh-barnea,  in  the  wilderness  on  the  S.  of 
Palestine  (Nu  20 13).  The  river]  RY '  the  brook 
of  Egypt,'  the  Rhinocolura  or  Wady-el-Arish, 
which  enters  the  Mediterranean  at  its  SE. 
corner. 

CHAPTER  48 
The  Division  of  the  Land  anb  the 
Plan  of  the  City 
(a)  The  Tribes  (vv.  1-7,  23-29) 
These  were  twelve  in  number,  as  the  two 
tribes  descended  from  Joseph  (47 1^)  made  up 
for  the  exclusion  of  Levi.     From  the  N.  bor- 
der (v.  1)  to  the  S.  border  (v.  28)  the  country 
was  divided  into   13  parallel   zones,  running 
across  it  from  the  E.  to  the  W.  boundary. 
Starting  from  the  N.,  seven  of   these  were 
assigned  in  order  to  the  tribes  of  Dan,  Asher, 
Naphtali,  Manasseh,    Ephraim,  Reuben,    and 
Judah.     Passing  over  the  eighth  portion,  the 
remaining  five  were  allotted  to  the  tribes  of 
Benjamin,  Simeon,  Issachar,  Zebulun,  and  Gad 
respectively  (see  Fig.  8). 

I.  To  the  coast  of]  RY  'beside.'  As  one 
goeth  to]  RY  'to  the  entering  in  of.'  For 
these  are  his  sides]  RY  '  and  they  shall  have 
their  sides.'     28.   See  on  47^9. 

(b)  The  Sacred  Territory  (vv.  8-22) 
This  has  already  been  partly  described  in 
451-8.  It  formed  a  zone  extending  from  the 
Mediten-anean  to  the  Jordan,  between  the  por- 
tion of  Judah  on  the  N.  and  that  of  Benjamin 
on  the  S.  (see  Fig.  8).  Its  breadth  was  25,000 
cubits  from  N.  to  S.  (v.  8).  The  central  portion 
formed  a  square  of  25,000  cubits  each  way, 
and   included   the   domains   of    the    Levites, 


priests,  and  city,  as  described  in  45  ^-^^  (see 
Fig.  7).  The  strip  of  25,000  cubits  by  5,000 
(Fig.  7,  ghcd),  assigned  to  the  city,  consisted 
of  a  central  square  5,000  cubits  each  way  (i  k 
I  tn),  which  contained  the  city  proper,  a  square 
of  4,500  cubits  each  way  (v  16),  surrounded 
on  all  sides  by  a  border  (suburbs)  250  cubits 
across  (v.  17).  E.  and  W.  of  this  square  were 
two  rectangles  (gicl,  khmd),  each  10,000 
cubits  by  5,000,  to  be  cultivated  by  the  citizens 
for  food  (vv.  18,  19).  On  the  E.  and  W.  of 
the  great  square  formed  by  the  lands  of  the 
Levites,  priests,  and  city,  lay  the  possessions 
of  the  prince  (Fig.  7,  PP),  extending  to  the 
Mediterranean  on  the  W.  and  the  Jordan  on 
the  E.,  as  described  in  45^  (vv.  21,  22). 

N 


W 


Dan 

Asher 

Naphtali 

Manasseh 

Ephraim 

d 

Gi 

Reuben 

1 

i 

Judah 

<-> 

13 

a 

Prince 

Obla- 

Prince 

-2 

tion 

i     1 

S 

IS 

Benjamin 

P 

Simeon 

Issachar 

Zebulun 

Gad 

s 
Fig.  8. 

8.  Offering]  RY  '  oblation.'  See  vv.  9,10, 
20,  21.  Reeds']  should  be  'cubits,'  and  so 
throughout.  9.  Ten  thousand]  RM  'twenty 
thousand,'  as  in  45 1.  13.  Over  against]  RY 
'answerable  unto':  so  in  vv.  18,  21.  15.  A 
profane  j^face']  RY  '  for  common  use.' 

18.  Serve]  RY  '  labour  in  '  :  so  in  v.  19. 

19.  Shall  serve  it]  RY  '  shall  till  it.' 

21.  The  portions]  The  territories  of  Judah 
and  Benjamin. 

(c)  The  Gates  of  the  City  (vv.  30-35) 
The  city,  excluding  the  suburbs,  was  a 
square  of  4,500  cubits  each  way,  or  18,000 
cubits  in  circuit.  It  had  twelve  gates,  three 
on  each  side,  and  called  after  the  twelve  tribes, 
Joseph  being  here  one  tribe.  The  name  of  the 
city,  Jehovah-Shammah,  expressed  the  abiding 
presence  of  God  with  His  people.  This  passage 
is  the  basis  of  Rev  22 12, 13, 16. 

30.  Measures]  means  'cubits' :  so  in  vv.  33, 
35.     In  vv.  32,  34  for  reeds  (RYl  read  '  cubits.' 


524 


DANIEL 


INTRODUCTION 


The  book  of  Daniel  occupies  a  place  by 
itself  in  the  OT.,  owing  to  the  exceptional 
features  which  it  presents  and  the  peculiar 
difficulties  with  which  it  confronts  the  reader. 
It  has  been  the  subject  of  much  discussion 
and  controversy,  especially  in  recent  times, 
and  most  Christian  scholars  now  hold  views 
both  of  its  interpretation  and  of  its  literary 
character,  authorship,  and  date,  different  from 
those  which  were  formerly  accepted  in  the 
church.  Before  entering  on  the  special  ques- 
tions at  issue  regarding  it,  it  will  be  of  advan- 
tage to  take  a  general  survey  of  its  contents. 

1.  Contents.  The  book  professes  to  be  a 
history  of  Daniel,  a  Jewish  exile  who  was 
carried  away  to  Babylon  before  the  fall  of  his 
native  kingdom,  lived  at  the  court  of  Nebuchad- 
nezzar, and  survived  till  the  days  of  Cyrus, 
the  Persian  conqueror  of  Babylon.  It  falls 
naturally  into  two  parts  :  (a)  chs.  1-6,  con- 
taining narratives  about  Daniel  and  his  com- 
panions, wi'itten  in  the  third  person,  and  (I) 
chs.  7-12,  containing  the  visions  of  Daniel 
regarding  the  future,  and  written  in  the  first 
person.  One  of  the  narratives — that  of 
Nebuchadnezzar's  Dream-Image  in  c.  2 — is 
akin  in  subject  to  the  latter  section.  From 
2  4  to  the  close  of  c.  7  the  book  is  written  in 
Aramaic  (known  also  as  Chaldee,  or  Syriac,  a 
kindred  language  to  Hebrew),  the  rest  of  the 
book  being  in  Hebrew.  The  division  of 
language  is  not  clearly  connected  with  any 
division  of  subject,  and  has  not  yet  been  satis- 
factorily explained.  The  following  table 
shows  the  contents  of  the  book  in  outline  : 

Narratives. 

C.  1.  The  training  of  Daniel  and  his  com- 
panions. 

C.  2.  The  Dream-Image  (predictive). 

C.  3.  The  Fiery  Furnace. 

C.  4.  The  Madness  of  Nebuchadnezzar. 

C.  5.  Belshazzar's  Feast. 

C.  6.  The  Den  of  Lions. 

Visions. 

C.  7.  The  Four  Beasts. 

C.  8.  The  Ram  and  the  He-Goat. 

C.  9.  The  Seventy  Weeks. 

C.  10-12.  The  Kings  of  the  N.  and  S. 

2.  Historical  Survey.  While  various  points 
in  the  predictive  portions  of  the  book  have 
received   different   interpretations,  there   are 


525 


undoubted  allusions  to  the  course  of  events 
for  several  centuries  following  Daniel's  time, 
and  a  brief  outline  of  the  period  is  therefore 
necessary  at  this  stage. 

The  Babylonian  Empire  was  founded  by  the 
father  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  and  became  supreme 
in  western  Asia  after  Nebuchadnezzar's  victory 
over  the  king  of  Egypt  at  Carchemish  in  605 
B.C.  (Jer46'^).  It  was  under  Nebuchadnezzar 
that  the  fall  of  the  Jewish  kingdom  and  the 
final  captivity  of  the  Jewish  nation  took  place 
in  686  B.C.  The  Babylonian  empire  lasted 
through  the  reigns  of  several  kings  who  suc- 
ceeded Nebuchadnezzar,  and  came  to  an  end 
in  539  B.C.,  when  Babylon  was  conquered  by 
Cyrus,  king  of  Persia,  who  in  his  first  year 
issued  an  edict  permitting  the  captive  Jews  to 
return  to  Palestine  to  rebuild  the  Temple  at 
Jerusalem  (Ezr  1 1-^). 

The  Persian  (or  Medo- Persian)  Empire 
lasted  from  539  to  333  B.C.,  when  its  last 
king  was  conquered  by  Alexander  the  Great. 
Its  first,  fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth  kings,  Cyrus, 
Darius  Hystaspes,  Xerxes  (Ahasuerus),  and 
Artaxerxes  are  mentioned  in  the  OT.  It  was 
Xerxes  who  conducted  the  great  invasion  of 
Greece  which  was  so  gloriously  repelled,  and 
which  has  made  the  names  of  Thermopylae 
and  Salamis  (480  B.C.)  immortal  in  history. 

The  Greek  Empire,  founded  by  Alexander 
the  Great,  was  of  short  dui'ation  in  its  un- 
divided state.  Alexander  died  in  322  B.C., 
and  his  dominions  were  broken  up.  After 
several  years  of  conflict  they  were  finally 
divided  among  four  of  his  generals.  Our 
attention  in  the  book  of  Daniel  is  confined  to 
two  of  these  and  their  successors.  Seleucus 
obtained  the  Babylonian  and  Syrian  portions 
of  Alexander's  empire,  and  fixed  his  capital 
at  Antioch.  His  descendants  are  known  as 
the  SeleucidEe,  or  Greek  kings  of  Syria. 
Ptolemy  Lagi  got  possession  of  Egypt,  and 
assumed  the  surname  of  Soter.  He  was  fol- 
lowed by  a  line  of  Lagidse  or  Ptolemies,  the 
Greek  kings  of  Egypt.  These  two  kingdoms 
of  Syria  and  Egypt  had  a  long  history  of 
rivalry,  varied  by  fruitless  attempts  to  establish 
alliance  through  royal  marriages.  Palestine 
formed  a  debateable  ground  between  them, 
and  many  struggles  took  place  for  its  posses- 
sion. Speaking  generally,  it  was  at  first  under 
the  power  of  Egypt,  and  afterwards  passed 


INTRO. 


DANIEL 


INTRO. 


into  the  hands  of  Syria.  The  eighth  Syrian 
king,  Antiochus  Epiphanes  (176-1G4  B.C.),  is 
especially  important  in  relation  to  the  book  of 
Daniel.  He  engaged  in  several  wars  with 
Egypt,  and  persecuted  the  Jews  with  great 
severity  on  account  of  their  resistance  to  his 
attempts  to  introduce  heathen  religious  obser- 
vances among  them.  His  profanations  and 
oppressions  led  to  the  heroic  and  successful 
struggles  of  Judas  Maccabaeus  and  his  brothers, 
which  are  recorded  in  the  books  of  Maccabees 
in  the  Apocrypha. 

3.  The  Visions  of  Daniel.     The  interpreta- 
tion of  the  predictive  portion  of  the  book  is 
quite  distinct  from  the  question  of  date  and 
authorship,   and    may   be    treated    separately. 
There  are  five  outlines  of  the  future  which 
call  for  consideration — those  in  chs.  2,  7,  8,  9, 
and  10-12  respectively.     Of  .these  the  thii'd 
and  the  last  are  clearly  explained  in  the  book 
itself  to  refer  to  the  events  of  which  an  outline 
has  been   given  in  the  last  paragraph.     The 
vision  of   the  Ram  and  the  He-Goat  (c.  8) 
describes  the  Medo-Persian  empire  (the  two- 
horned  Ram),  its  conquest  by  Alexander  the 
Great  (the  He-Goat),  the  four  successors  of 
Alexander  (the  four  horns  of  the  Goat),  and 
the   career  of   Antiochus  Epiphanes  (who   is 
universally  recognised  under  the  figure  of  the 
Little  Horn).     The  concluding  vision,  of  which 
c.   11   is  the    most   important   part,  similarly 
describes  the  first  kings  of  Persia,  and  alludes 
to  the  war  of  Xerxes  against  Greece.     Then 
come  Alexander's  conquest  of  Persia,  and  the 
breaking  up  of  his  kingdom  into  four.     The 
greater  part  of  the  vision  is  occupied  with  a 
minute  account  of  the  political  relations  be- 
tween successive  kings  of   Syria  and  Egypt, 
and  at  the  end  special  prominence  is  given  to 
the  doings  of  a  'vile  person,'  in  whom  again 
all  interpreters  recognise  Antiochus  Epiphanes. 
With  regard  to  the  remaining  predictions,  the 
four  parts  of  Nebuchadnezzar's  Dream-Image 
(c.  2),  and  the  Four  Beasts  of  c.  7,  have  always 
been  rightly  regarded  as  parallel,  and  the  inter- 
pretation of  the  one  series  therefore  decides 
that  of  the  other.     In  both  of  these  visions 
four  successive  kingdoms  are  spoken  of,  which 
the  older  expositors   identified  as   the  Baby- 
lonian, Medo-Persian,  Greek,  and  Roman.    The 
chief    ground    for   understanding  the    fourth 
kingdom  to  be  the  Roman  is  the  statement  in 
2  24,  '  In  the   days    of    those   kings  shall   the 
God  of  heaven  set  up  a  kingdom  which  shall 
never  be  destroyed,'   the   supposed  reference 
being    to    the    Advent    of    Christ    under   the 
Romans.     On  this  view  the  Ten  Horns  of  the 
Fourth  Beast  in  c.  7  have  to  be  connected  in 
some  way  with  the  Roman  empire,  while  the 
Little  Horn  of  the  same  chapter  is  identified 
with  the  Antichrist  foretold  in  the  NT.     The 
Seventy  Weeks  of  c.  9,  too,  have  been  supposed 


to  reach  down  to  Christian  times,  and  to  include 
the  Crucifixion  of  Christ,  and  the  destruction 
of  Jerusalem  by  the  Romans  in  70  a.d.  This 
interpretation  is  mainly  based  on  the  references 
to  '  Messiah  the  Prince  '  (9  ^5, 26)^  and  on  our 
Lord's  quotation  of  the  phrase  'the  abomination 
of  desolation  '  (9  ^")  in  His  discourse  on  the 
destruction  of  Jerusalem  and  the  end  of  the 
world  (Mt  24 15  MklSi*).  The  more  modern 
view  of  these  visions,  however,  is  that  the  fourth 
kingdom  of  chs.  2  and  7  is  not  the  Roman  but 
the  Greek  empire,  that  the  Ten  Horns  of  c.  7 
are  to  be  found  among  the  successors  of  Alex- 
ander the  Great,  and  that  the  Little  Horn  is 
Antiochus  Epiphanes.  The  Seventy  Weeks,  too, 
are  regarded  as  terminating  with  this  king,  the 
last '  week  '  covering  the  last  seven  years  of  his 
reign  (171-164  B.C.). 

The  reasons  in  favoiu-  of  the  latter  view  may 
be  briefly  indicated.  They  arise  mainly  from  a 
comparison  of  the  different  predictive  outlines 
in  the  book.  The  more  closely  these  outlines 
are  studied  side  by  side  the  more  clearly  does  it 
appear  that  they  are  all  parallel  to  one  another, 
and  have  all  the  same  termination  in  the  days 
of  Antiochus  Epiphanes.  Starting  for  example 
withe.  8,  where  the  Little  Horn (vv.  9-12,23-25) 
is  undoubtedly  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  we  may 
compare  it  with  c.  7,  where  another  Little  Horn 
and  its  end  are  described  in  very  similar  terms 
(vv.  8,  24-26).  Further,  the  period  of  1,150 
days  (2,300  evenings  and  mornings)  in  S^*  is 
approximately  the  same  as  the  '  time,  times, 
and  dividing  of  time  '  (3^  years)  in  7  ^5.  Or 
we  may  compare  c.  8  with  c.  9.  In  S^i'i^  the 
abolition  of  the  daily  sacrifice  by  Antiochus 
Epiphanes  is  described,  and  the  1,150  days 
ah'eady  referred  to  represent  the  period  during 
which  the  Temple  was  polluted  in  his  i-eign. 
Now  in  927  we  read  of  the  cessation  of  the 
daily  sacrifice  for  a  similar  time — the  half 
(3^  years)  of  the  seventieth  '  week.'  Or  again 
we  may  start  from  the  undisputed  ground  of 
the  last  vision.  Here  the  abolition  of  the  daily 
sacrifice  and  the  setting  up  of  the  'abomina- 
tion of  desolation '  are  ascribed  to  Antiochus 
Epiphanes  (11 31),  while  the  same  events  are  in 
9  "•^"  placed  together  at  the  end  of  the  Seventy 
Weeks.  C.  12  is  the  conclusion  of  the  vision 
of  which  c.  11  forms  the  principal  part,  and 
further  defines  the  '  time  of  the  end  '  to  which 
the  outline  in  the  latter  chapter  reaches.  Here 
again  we  have  the  taking  away  of  the  daily 
sacrifice  and  the  setting  up  of  the  '  abomination 
of  desolation  '  (12  H).  The  duration  of  the  per- 
secution by  Antiochus  Epiphanes  is  described 
as  '  a  time,  times,  and  a  half  '  (12"),  while  two 
other  turning  points  in  the  history  are  indicated 
as  happening  a  little  later,  at  the  end  of  1,290 
and  1,335  days  respectively.  The  phrase  the 
'  time  of  the  end  '  (8 1".  19  1 1 40  124, 9)  defined  as 
the  termination  of  the  visions  in  these  chapters, 


526 


INTRO. 


DANIEL 


INTRO. 


is  also  the  limiting  horizon  of  Daniel's  whole 
outlook  upon  the  ordinary  history  of  the  future : 


see  7  26  9  26.   These  parallelisms  are  more  clearly 
explained  in  the  subjoined  table. 


c.  7 


A     little 


horn 


Power  of  the 
little  horn  lasts  till 
'a  time,  times,  and 
the  dividing  of 
time' (7^5) 

'theend'(72«) 


c.  8 


The  little  horn. 
Antiochus    Epipha- 

nes    (8  9-12' 23-25) 

Daily  sacrifice 
taken  away  by  An- 
tiochus (8  ">i2) 

'  Transgi'ession  of 
desolation'  (8^^) 

Temple  cleansed 
after  1,1 50  days  (8") 


The  '  time  of  the 
end' (8 "'19) 


c.  9 


c.  11 


Daily  sacrifice 
taken  away  {9^'') 

'  Abomination  of 
desolation '  set  up 
(92')  for 

Half  a  '  week ' 
(3^  years)  (92^) 


'the  end' (926) 


Daily  sacrifice 
abolished  by  An- 
tiochus (ll»i) 

'  Abomination  of 
desolation  '  set  up 
by  Antiochus  (11"^) 


c.  12 


The  'time  of  the 
end'  (11*)) 


From  abolition 
of  daily  sacrifice 
(12")  and 

Setting  up  of 
'  abomination  of 
desolation'  (12^^) 

'A  time,  times, 
and  a  half  (12'') 
1,290  days 
1,335  days 
to 
the    '  time  of  the 
end'  (124' 9) 


It  thus  appears  probable  that  Antiochus 
Epiphanes  is  the  Little  Horn,  not  only  of 
0.  8,  but  also  of  c.  7  ;  that  the  fourth  kingdom 
in  chs.  2  and  7  is  consequently  not  the  Roman 
but  the  Greek  empire  ;  that  the  last  of  the 
Seventy  Weeks  falls  within  the  days  of  Antio- 
chus ;  that  all  the  references  to  the  taking  away 
of  the  daily  sacrifice  and  the  setting  up  of  the 
'  abomination  of  desolation  '  are  connected 
with  his  profanations  of  the  Temple  ;  and  that 
the  various  expressions  denoting  exactly  or 
approximately  Sj  years  refer  to  a  part  of  his 
reign. 

The  reasons  adduced  in  support  of  the  older 
interpretation  are  easily  met.  The  statement 
in  2  4*  about  the  establishment  of  the  kingdom 
of  God  '  in  the  days  of  those  kings  '  (the  Greek 
kings  of  Egypt  and  Syria)  is  to  be  explained 
by  the  absence  of  perspective  which  is  cha- 
racteristic of  OT.  prophecy,  and  which  is 
illustrated  elsewhere  in  Daniel.  Thus  in 
122  the  resurrection  of  the  dead  seems  to  be 
placed  immediately  after  the  destruction  of 
Antiochus  Epiphanes  and  the  deliverance  of 
the  Jews,  and  here  even  such  a  strenuous 
defender  of  the  older  interpretation  as  Dr. 
Pusey  sees  only  an  instance  of  'that  same 
foreshortening  which  we  find  throughout  Holy 
Scripture,  and  in  our  Lord's  own  prediction, 
first  of  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  and  then 
of  His  second  coming  to  judge  the  world.' 
This  '  foreshortening  '  is  equally  applicable  to 
2*4.  As  for  the  vision  of  the  Seventy  Weeks 
(c.  9),  while  the  phrases  'Messiah  the  Prince' 
and  'Messiah'  in  the  AV  naturally  suggest  a 
direct  reference  to  Christ,  the  true  rendering 
in  each  case  is  much  less  definite,  and  can  be 
most  consistently  explained  from  the  historical 
events  of  earlier  times  (see  RV  and  notes). 
Our  Lord's  reference  to  the  '  abomination  of 
desolation '  is  an  instance  of  the  frequent  NT. 


527 


usage  by  which  OT.  words  and  phrases  are 
quoted  with  an  application  different  from  that 
which  they  originally  bore.  That  the  '  abomina- 
tion of  desolation'  was  primarily  connected  with 
Antiochus  Epiphanes  is  proved  by  1 1 3i  and  by 
1  Mac  1 54j  where  this  very  phrase  is  used  of  the 
heathen  altar  set  up  by  Antiochus  at  Jerusalem. 

Assuming  the  fourth  kingdom  to  be  the 
Greek  empire  there  is  more  than  one  way  of 
identifying  the  other  three  :  see  notes  on 
chs.  2,  7,  and  table  on  p.  539.  If  the  Seventy 
Weeks  end  with  the  reign  of  Antiochus  there 
are  various  schemes  for  reckoning  the  earlier 
'  weeks,'  none  of  which  is  quite  free  from 
difficulty  (see  notes).  But  the  difficulties  of 
the  older  view  in  calculating  the  Seventy 
Weeks  and  in  identifying  the  Ten  Horns  of 
the  Fourth  Beast,  are  much  greater,  and  have 
given  rise  to  the  most  varied,  arbitrary  and 
conjectural  explanations.  The  newer  inter- 
pretation of  the  visions  is  the  result  of  reading 
the  book  of  Daniel  by  its  own  light,  and  is 
supported  by  scholars  like  the  late  Bishop 
Westcott,  who  have  not  committed  themselves 
to  modern  views  of  its  authorship  and  date. 

4.  Literary  Character,  Date,  and  Authorship 
of  Daniel,  It  has  generally  been  supposed, 
and  is  still  maintained  by  some,  that  the  book 
of  Daniel  is  the  work  either  of  Daniel  himself, 
or  of  a  contemporary  who  composed  the  narra- 
tives and  joined  to  them  Daniel's  own  account 
of  his  visions.  On  this  view  the  narratives  are 
literal  history,  and  the  predictive  cliapters  de- 
scribe revelations  of  the  future  actually  made 
to  Daniel  during  or  immediately  after  the 
Babylonian  exile. 

In  recent  times,  however,  a  different  view 
of  the  origin  of  the  book  has  met  with  increas- 
ing acceptance.  It  is  one  which,  though  start- 
ling at  first  sight  to  the  ordinary  reader,  has 
very  much  to  be  said  in  its  favour,  and  ought 


INTRO. 


DANIEL 


TKTRO. 


not  to  be  dismissed  until  the  grounds  on  which 
it  rests,  and  the  possibility  of  reconciling  it 
with  the  divine  inspiration  of  the  book,  have 
been  fairly  considered.  The  modern  concep- 
tion of  the  book  of  Daniel  is  briefly  this,  that 
it  dates  not  from  the  age  in  which  Daniel's 
career  is  placed,  but  from  the  close  of  the 
period  to  which  its  visions  refer — in  other 
wor(is  from  the  days  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes  ; 
that  its  apparent  outlines  of  the  future  are 
really  past  history  thrown  by  the  author  into 
the  guise  of  ancient  prediction  ;  that  the  nar- 
ratives, though  founded  more  or  less  on  his- 
torical tradition,  are  to  be  regarded  chiefly  as 
stories  with  a  practical  moral,  and  are  valuable 
mainly  on  this  account  ;  that  the  aim  of  the 
writer,  both  in  the  narratives  and  in  the  view 
of  history  presented  in  the  visions,  was  to 
encourage  the  Jews  to  constancy  under  the 
religious  persecutions  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes  ; 
and  that  the  true  prophetic  element  of  the 
book  lies  in  its  confident  anticipations  of  the 
overthrow  of  God's  enemies,  the  establishment 
of  God's  kingdom,  the  triumph  of  God's 
people,  the  resurrection  of  the  dead,  and  the 
final  reward  of  the  righteous.  The  reasons 
for  this  view  may  be  summarised  as  follows  : — 
(1)  The  Contrast  Between  the  Predictions  in 
Daniel  and  other  Old  Testament  Prophecies. 
Prophecy  was  not  merely,  nor  chiefly,  predic- 
tion of  the  future.  The  prophets  were 
preachers  of  righteousness  to  their  own  times. 
Their  messages  conveyed  rebuke,  or  warning, 
or  encouragement  to  those  among  whom  they 
lived.  In  this  work  the  prophets  spoke  in 
God's  name,  and  claimed  a  special  knowledge 
of  His  will  and  purpose.  Hence  they  made 
use  of  an  element  of  prediction,  foretelling  the 
consequences  of  evil-doing  on  the  one  hand, 
and  the  results  of  penitence  and  obedience  on 
the  other.  But  in  so  far  as  these  predictions 
were  definite,  they  related  to  the  immediate 
future,  dealing  with  the  destinies  of  men  and 
nations  already  existing,  or  with  the  issues  of 
movements  already  in  progress.  Further,  such 
predictions  were  always  provisional.  Their 
fulfilment  depended  upon  certain  moral  cir- 
cumstances and  conditions.  Threatened  doom 
might  be  averted  by  repentance.  Promised 
prosperity  might  be  forfeited  by  disobedience. 
This  principle,  clearly  stated  in  Jer  18 '^■^o,  is 
of  universal  application.  The  prophets  un- 
doubtedly spoke  of  the  distant  future  also,  but 
their  predictions  regarding  this  were  always  of 
a  more  or  less  general  nature,  consisting  not 
of  minute  anticipations  of  particular  historic 
events,  but  of  ideal  pictures  of  the  triumph  of 
righteousness,  of  the  universal  sway  of  God's 
kingdom,  and  of  the  advent  of  a  perfect  King 
and  Saviour.  The  last-mentioned  features  are 
not  wanting  in  Daniel,  but  in  all  the  other 
respects  which  have  been  referred  to,  this  book 


differs  widely  from  those  of  the  prophets 
properly  so-called.  Except  in  the  solitary 
exhortation  of  4^7,  it  contains  no  practical 
message  for  the  age  of  the  exile,  in  which 
Daniel  is  placed.  Its  teaching  is  expressly 
represented  as  sealed  up  for  a  future  age 
(826  iQi-u  i24,P).  The  earliest  period  (as 
interpreters  of  all  schools  agree)  in  which  it 
was  fitted  to  convey  instruction  and  encourage- 
ment, was  that  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  400 
years  after  the  captivity.  Again,  it  appears  to 
predict,  not  in  the  conditional  manner  of  the 
prophets,  but  with  absolute  certainty,  the  lead- 
ing particulars  of  the  course  of  history  during 
these  intervening  centuries,  the  successive 
empires  which  arose  after  the  fall  of  the 
Babylonian  power  (chs.  2,  7),  the  Persian  inva- 
sion of  Greece  (1 1 2),  the  conquests  of 
Alexander  the  Great  (8^-7.21  113)^  and  the 
breaking  up  of  his  empire  (8S'22  11*),  the 
minute  details  of  the  relations  between  the 
later  kings  of  Syria  and  Egypt  (11  ^-20),  and 
finally  the  character  and  career  of  Antiochus 
Epiphanes  (89-12,23-25  n  21-45).  The  contents 
of  c.  11  in  particular  are  altogether  unique  in 
this  respect,  and  have  no  resemblance  to  the 
predictions  of  OT.  prophecy  in  general.  So 
obvious  is  the  contrast  that  some  recent 
scholars,  while  seeking  to  maintain  the  earlier 
authorship  of  the  book  as  a  whole,  have  been 
constrained  to  regard  c.  11  as  an  addition, 
composed  after  the  events  which  it  describes. 
But  the  exceptional  features  which  appear  so 
strikingly  in  this  c.  are  more  or  less  charac- 
teristic of  all  the  visions  in  the  book,  and  point 
to  the  same  conclusion  with  regard  to  them  all. 
(2)  The  Resemblance  of  Daniel  to  the  so- 
called  '  Apocalyptic  '  Books.  At  first  sight  the 
only  alternative  to  the  older  view  of  the  book 
of  Daniel  appears  to  be  that  it  is  a  mere  for- 
gery which  can  have  no  right  to  a  place  in  the 
Scriptures.  But  a  closer  acquaintance  with 
the  Jewish  literatm-e  of  the  centuries  before 
and  after  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era 
shows  that  this  assumption  is  by  no  means 
necessary.  There  is  a  well-defined  class  of 
works,  known  as  '  apocalyptic,'  which,  though 
unfamiliar  in  modern  and  Western  literature, 
was  largely  represented  during  the  period  in 
question.  The  most  important  of  them  have 
only  come  to  light  during  the  last  hundred 
years,  and  the  study  of  them  has  shown  that 
the  very  features  which  distinguish  the  book  of 
Daniel  from  ordinary  prophecy  serve  to  connect 
it  closely  with  this  other  class  of  writings.  The 
most  accessible  example  of  '  apocalyptic '  litera- 
ture is  the  Second  book  of  Esdras  in  the 
Apocrypha.  The  principal  work  of  the  kind, 
however,  is  the  book  of  Enoch,  and  in  addition 
to  it  there  may  be  mentioned  the  book  of  the 
Secrets  of  Enoch,  the  Assumption  of  Moses,  the 
Ascension  of  Isaiah,  the  Apocalypse  of  Baruch, 


628 


[NTRO. 


DANIEL 


INTRO. 


the  Testaments  of  the  Twelve  Patriarchs,  the 
Psalms  of  Solomon,  and  the  Sibylline  Oracles. 
Many  of  these  in  their  present  form  are  com- 
posite works,  and  embody  Christian  as  well  as 
Jewish  elements.  But  in  so  far  as  the  original 
groundwork  can  be  separated  from  the  later 
additions,  it  may  be  said  in  general  that  these 
'  apocalyptic '  books  were  written  in  times 
when  the  Jewish  religion  seemed  in  danger 
of  being  overthrown  by  heathen  oppressors. 
Their  authors  preferred  (perhaps  from  pru- 
dential motives)  to  conceal  their  own  per- 
sonalities and  to  put  their  messages  to  their 
contemporaries  into  the  mouths  of  great  figures 
in  the  past,  such  as  Enoch,  Noah,  Moses,  or 
Ezra.  They  based  what  they  had  to  say  about 
the  present  and  the  future  upon  a  view  of  the 
world's  history  as  providentially  guided  and 
controlled  by  God,  and  hence  they  frequently 
presented  more  or  less  extended  surveys  of  the 
past  under  the  form  of  predictions  uttered  by 
the  great  men  of  earlier  times.  It  was  also 
common  for  the  history,  thus  disguised  as 
prophecy,  to  be  further  wrapped  up  in  symbolic 
visions.  Thus,  in  the  Second  book  of  Esdras, 
which  is  to  be  dated  shortly  before  or  after 
100  A.D.,  there  is  a  veiled,  yet  quite  recog- 
nisable, description  of  the  Roman  emperors  of 
the  first  Christian  century,  which  is  said  to 
have  been  given  in  answer  to  the  fastings  and 
prayers  of  Ezra  in  Babylon.  In  the  earliest 
portion  of  the  book  of  Enoch  (dating  from  the 
second  century  B.C.)  a  prediction  of  the 
Deluge  is  attributed  to  the  patriarch  whose 
name  it  bears.  The  Assumption  of  Moses 
(written  about  the  beginning  of  the  Christian 
era)  tells  how  Moses  addressed  to  Joshua  a  long 
account  of  the  future  history  of  the  Israelites, 
including  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  by 
Nebuchadnezzar,  the  restoration  of  the  Jews 
from  captivity,  the  oppression  of  Antiochus 
Epiphanes,  the  rule  of  the  descendants  of  the 
Maccabees,  and  that  of  Herod  the  Great.  Now 
the  predictive  portions  of  Daniel  have  the 
closest  resemblance  to  this  kind  of  veiled  his- 
tory, and  this  analogy  of  itself  suggests  that 
the  book  may  be  reasonably  regarded  as  a 
specimen  of  the  '  apocalyptic '  class  of  literature, 
that  it  was  written  not  earlier  than  the  time  of 
Antiochus  Epiphanes,  and  that  the  writer  chose 
Daniel,  a  great  sage  whom  he  placed  in  the 
time  of  the  Babylonian  captivity,  as  the  mouth- 
piece of  his  teaching.  This  view  of  the  book  of 
Daniel  is  borne  out  by  its  striking  resemblance 
in  several  other  respects  to  the  '  apocalyptic ' 
writings.  In  common  with  them  it  makes  a 
large  and  peculiar  use  of  vision  and  symbol. 
These,  indeed,  are  found  to  a  certain  extent  in 
some  of  the  regular  prophets,  especially  in 
Ezekiel  and  Zechariah,  but  it  is  only  in  Daniel 
and  the  '  apocalyptic '  books  that  they  are 
employed  to  represent  the  prolonged  course  of 


history.  In  Second  Esdras,  and  the  Apocalypse 
of  Baruch,  as  well  as  in  Daniel,  the  visions  are 
granted  after  fasting  and  prayer.  The  70 
'  weeks '  of  Daniel  mark  out  the  course  of  time 
according  to  an  artificial  scheme,  which  finds 
parallels  in  the  10  'weeks'  of  the  book  of 
Enoch,  the  250  '  times '  of  the  Assumption  of 
Moses,  and  the  12  epochs  of  world-history  in 
Second  Esdras.  Finally,  Daniel  is  the  only 
OT.  book  in  which  angels  have  names  given 
to  them  (Gabriel,  Michael),  and  special  nations 
assigned  to  their  care  (8 1«  9  21  10 13, 21  12 1).  This 
is  a  feature  which  is  still  further  developed 
in  the  other  '  apocalyptic '  books,  where 
additional  angelic  names  (Raphael,  Phanuel, 
Uriel,  etc.)  appear.  While  these  resemblances 
between  Daniel  and  the  '  apocalyptic '  writ- 
ings are  undeniable,  it  has  been  supposed  by 
the  supporters  of  the  older  view  of  the  book 
that  Daniel  is  a  work  containing  genuine  pre- 
dictions of  detailed  history,  and  has  simply 
provided  the  model  after  which  the  spurious 
predictions  of  later  '  apocalypses '  were  com- 
posed. But  this  leaves  the  special  features  of 
Daniel  without  any  real  parallel  either  in 
Scriptm-e  or  outside  of  it,  and  it  seems  to  be  a 
more  reasonable  deduction  from  the  facts  that 
Daniel  not  only  has  supplied  the  pattern  of  the 
other  '  apocalyptic  '  writings,  but  is  actually  a 
member,  though  the  earliest  and  greatest  one, 
of  the  same  class  of  literature  to  which  they 
belong. 

(3)  The  Absence  of  External  Evidence  for  the 
Earlier  Date  of  Daniel.  Along  with  the  fore- 
going considerations  there  must  be  taken  the 
important  fact  that  there  is  nothing  to  show 
that  the  book  of  Daniel  existed  before  the  age 
of  Antiochus  Epiphanes.  The  mention  of 
Daniel's  name  in  Ezekiel  (1414, 20  283)  has  no 
bearing  upon  the  date  of  the  book,  since  these 
prophecies  of  Ezekiel  were  uttered,  the  one 
before,  and  the  other  immediately  after  the  fall 
of  Jerusalem  in  586  B.C.,  while  the  book  of 
Daniel,  at  the  earliest,  cannot  have  been  com- 
posed before  the  third  year  of  Cyrus  (536  B.C.) 
to  which  its  narrative  comes  down  ( 1 1 1).  Then, 
though  in  the  English  Bible  Daniel  appears 
among  the  prophetical  books,  it  is  not  classed 
among  them  in  the  Hebrew  Bible,  but  belongs 
to  the  miscellaneous  group  of  '  Writings,'  which 
forms  the  third  division  of  the  Jewish  Canon. 
Now  the  Jewish  Canon  of  the  Prophets  was 
not  closed  till  after  the  date  of  Malachi  (about 
450  B.C.),  and  if  the  book  of  Daniel  was  in 
existence  then  it  is  not  easy  to  understand  why 
it  should  not  have  been  included  in  this  col- 
lection. It  is  probable,  indeed,  that '  the  books ' 
([)  ^),  among  which  Jeremiah  was  included,  are 
to  be  understood  of  the  Canon  of  the  Prophets 
as  already  complete  when  the  book  of  Daniel 
was  written.  Again,  the  book  of  Ecclesiasticus 
in   the   Apocrypha,    written   about   200   B.C., 


34 


529 


INTRO. 


DANIEL 


rNTRO. 


contains  (chs.  44-50)  a  list  of  the  worthies  of 
Israel,  in  which  Daniel  is  not  found,  though 
Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  Ezekiel,  the  Twelve  Minor 
Prophets,  Zerubbabel  and  Joshua  (from  Ezra), 
and  Nehemiah,  are  all  mentioned.  The  earliest 
references  to  the  contents  of  the  book  of  Daniel 
are  those  in  the  Sibylline  Oracles,  an  '  apoca- 
lyptic '  work  written  about  140  B.C.,  and  in 
1  Maccabees,  a  book  of  the  Apocrypha, 
composed  about  100  B.C.  This  silence  about 
Daniel,  previous  to  the  age  of  Antiochus  Epi- 
phanes  (176-164  B.C.),  is  significant.  Though 
the  mere  absence  of  allusions  to  the  book  before 
that  time  does  not  by  itself  prove  that  the 
book  was  not  then  in  existence,  it  nevertheless 
lends  an  additional  emphasis  to  the  arguments 
for  the  '  apocalyptic '  character  and  later  date 
of  the  work,  which  have  been  already  given. 

(4)  Historical  Difficulties  in  Daniel.  The 
book  of  Daniel  seems  to  contain  certain  his- 
torical inaccuracies  regarding  the  earlier  period 
with  which  it  deals,  which  present  grave  objec- 
tions to  the  view  that  it  was  written  by  the 
Daniel  of  the  exile,  or  by  one  of  his  con- 
temporaries. These  features,  however,  present 
no  difficulty  on  the  other  view,  and  in  no  way 
diminish  the  value  of  the  book  of  Daniel  as  an 
'  apocalyptic  '  work.  It  is  not  surprising  that 
an  '  apocalyptic '  writer,  casting  into  the  form 
of  prediction  a  series  of  past  events,  should  be 
more  accurate  in  describing  those  which  are 
more  recent  than  in  his  account  of  those  which 
are  more  remote.  Thus  in  Second  Esdras  the 
author  confounds  Ezra  with  Zerubbabel,  call- 
ing him  the  son  of  Salathiel,  and  placing  his 
vision  in  the  30th  year  of  the  captivity,  about 
a  century  before  Ezra's  real  time.  The  Apo- 
calypse of  Baruch,  again,  is  dated  in  '  the 
twenty-fifth  year  of  Jeconiah,  king  of  Judah,' 
though  Jeconiah  (Jehoiachin)  only  reigned 
3  months  and  10  days.  In  the  same  way  while 
the  visions  of  Daniel  describe  accurately  and 
minutely  the  events  of  the  age  of  Antiochus 
Epiphanes  and  his  predecessors,  the  book  is 
rather  meagre  and  vague  with  regard  to  the 
history  of  Daniel's  own  time,  and  in  particular 
its  statements  about  the  supposed  date  of 
Daniel's  captivity,  the  position  of  Belshazzar 
and  his  relationship  to  Nebuchadnezzar,  and 
the  reign  of  Darius  the  Mede,  are  difficult  to 
reconcile  with  our  knowledge  of  the  period 
derived  from  other  reliable  sources. 

(5)  Peculiarities  in  the  Language  of  Daniel. 
The  name  of  the  Babylonian  conqueror  of 
Jerusalem  is  always  spelt  in  Daniel  as  Nebu- 
chad//ezzar,  while  contemporary  writers  like 
Jeremiah  and  Ezekiel  generally  give  the  correct 
form  Nebuchad/ezzar  (N^ahu-l-nihori-ufsur), 
which  is  found  on  the  monuments.  The  '  Chal- 
deans,' who  in  Jeremiah  and  Ezekiel  are  the 
same  as  the  Babylonians  in  general,  appear  in 
Daniel  as  a  special  class  of  Babylonian  wise 


men.  This  usage  is  found  elsewhere  only  in 
the  later  classical  writers.  It  points  to  a  time 
when  the  Babylonian  empire  had  passed  away, 
and  when  the  name  formerly  borne  by  all  its 
people  was  confined  to  the  sages  or  magicians 
who  were  the  only  survivors  of  its  lost  civilis- 
ation. Lastly,  in  addition  to  the  Aramaic 
section  of  the  book,  there  are  in  Daniel  certain 
Persian  and  Greek  wftrds,  and  the  evidence  of 
date  furnished  by  the  language  has  thus  been 
summed  up  by  Professor  Driver  :  '  The  Persian 
words  presuppose  a  period  after  the  Persian 
empire  had  been  well  established  :  the  Greek 
words  demand,  the  Hebrew  sujjports,  and  the 
Aramaic  2]e7-mits  a  date  after  the  conquest  of 
Palestine  by  Alexander  the  Great  (B.C.  332).' 

All  these  lines  of  enquiry  lead  to  the  same 
general  conclusion,  that  the  book  of  Daniel 
belongs,  as  to  its  literary  character,  to  the 
extensive  class  of  '  apocalyptic '  writings,  and 
that  its  author  lived  not  earlier  than  the  age 
of  Antiochus  Epiphanes.  The  references  to 
the  setting  up  of  the  '  abomination  of  desola- 
tion '  show  that  it  was  written  after  Antiochus 
had  set  up  his  heathen  altar  in  the  Temple  at 
Jerusalem  in  168  B.C.,  while  on  the  other  hand 
the  general  terms  in  which  the  death  of  Anti- 
ochus (164  B.C.)  is  spoken  of  indicate  that  the 
writer  was  not  acquainted  with  the  exact  cir- 
cumstances in  which  it  took  place.  If  the 
modern  view  of  the  character  of  the  book  be 
accepted  its  composition  may  be  placed  with 
certainty  between  these  two  dates. 

5.  The  Narratives  of  Daniel.  On  the  '  apo- 
calyptic '  view  of  the  book  it  is  not  necessary 
to  regard  these  as  literal  history  throughout. 
They  are  to  be  viewed  primarily  as  stories 
with  an  instructive  moral  for  the  writer's  own 
time.  At  the  same  time  it  is  probable  that 
they  were,  partly  at  least,  founded  on  fact. 
The  mention  of  Belshazzar,  who  is  not  named 
elsewhere  in  OT.,  shows  that  the  writer  had 
access  to  some  independent  sources  of  informa- 
tion about  Babylonian  history,  and  the  picture 
given  of  the  achievements  and  the  character 
of  Nebuchadnezzar  is  in  perfect  keeping  with 
what  is  known  of  that  monarch  from  his  own 
inscriptions.  As  to  Daniel  himself,  there  is 
no  doubt  that  his  name  was  a  famous  one  in 
Jewish  history  (Ezkl4i4,20  28  3),  but  it  is  not 
so  clear  from  these  references  that  he  was  a 
fellow-exile  of  Ezekiel.  The  name  Daniel 
occurs  in  the  list  of  exiles  who  retm-ned  with 
Ezra  (Ezr82),  and  it  is  possible  that  this 
person  may  have  come  to  be  identified  with 
the  great  Daniel  of  Ezekiel,  and  may  have 
been  placed  by  tradition  in  Babylon  in  the 
century  before  Ezra's  day.  It  seems  likely 
that  many  stories  about  Daniel  had  been 
handed  down  to  the  age  of  Antiochus  Epi- 
phanes, and  that  the  writer  of  our  book 
selected  and  combined  those  which  were  best 


530 


INTRO. 


DANIEL 


INTRO. 


fitted  to  stir  up  his  oppressed  and  persecuted 
countrymen  to  courage  and  faitlifulness  to 
God.  Examples  of  other  stories  about  Daniel 
and  his  companions  are  found  in  the  additions 
to  the  book  contained  in  the  LXX  and 
the  English  Apocrypha.  They  include  '  The 
Song  of  the  Three  Holy  Children,'  'The 
History  of  Susanna,'  and  '  Bel  and  the 
Dragon.'. 

6.  The  Right  of  an  '  Apocalyptic '  Book  to 
a  place  in  Scripture.  It  is  perhaps  natural 
that  the  modern  view  of  the  book  of  Daniel 
should  at  first  sight  present  difficulties  to 
reverent  Christian  minds.  It  seems  to  in- 
volve a  degree  of  fiction,  if  not  of  fraud, 
inconsistent  with  the  divine  inspiration  which 
we  attach  to  the  books  of  Scripture,  and 
especially  inconsistent  with  the  way  in  which 
the  book  has  been  used  by  our  Lord.  But  it 
is  coming  to  be  more  and  more  clearly  recog- 
nised that  the  inspiration  of  the  Bible,  which 
guarantees  the  truth  of  its  spiritual  teaching, 
is  compatible  with  the  greatest  variety  of 
literary  form,  that  God  has  used  many  kinds  of 
human  writing  to  convey  His  revelation  to 
men,  and  that  each  kind  must  be  judged  and 
interpreted  according  to  its  own  ordinary  rules 
• — -history  as  history,  poetry  as  poetry,  parable 
as  parable,  etc.  And  if  we  find  that  the  book 
of  Daniel  belongs  to  a  class  of  literature  com- 
paratively unfamiliar  to  us,  but  quite  common 
at  a  certain  period  in  the  past,  we  must  not 
assume  that  inspiration  could  not  attach  itself 
to  such  a  form  of  composition,  or  that  divine 
revelation  could  not  be  conveyed  by  it.  We 
must  rather  seek  to  interpret  it  according  to 
its  own  nature,  when  this  has  been  understood, 
and  learn  to  place  its  real  value  in  the  special 
religious  truths  in  which  it  stands  apart  from, 
and  above,  other  writings  of  the  same  kind. 
The  objection  of  fraud  would  only  have  weight 
if  the  writer  were  supposed  to  have  desired  to 
deceive  his  readers.  But  when  we  read  in 
'Paradise  Lost'  (Books  11,  12)  the  long 
account  of  the  future  history  of  the  world 
which  the  angel  Michael  is  represented  as 
setting  before  Adam,  we  feel  that  Milton  is 
only  using  a  literary  device  which  is  as  trans- 
parent to  his  readers  as  to  himself — a  device 
which  had  been  used  by  poets  like  Virgil  and 
Dante  long  before.  And  there  is  every  reason 
to  believe  that  the  authors  of  the  '  apocalyptic  ' 
books  meant  their  writings  to  be  understood 
in  the  same  way.  Reference  has  already  been 
made  to  the  supposed  predictions  contained  in 
the  book  of  Enoch  and  the  Assumption  of 
Moses.  Now  both  of  these  works  are  quoted 
in  NT.  (2Pet2ii  Jude  vv.  9,  14,  15),  but  this 
does  not  compel  us  to  take  the  story  of  their 
predictions  as  literally  true.  It  is  but  a  single 
step  from  these  cases  to  the  book  of  Daniel. 
If    '  apocalyptic '    writings    like    those    just 


mentioned  can  be  quoted  by  NT.  writers,  there 
is  no  reason  why  a  work  of  the  same  kind 
should  be  unworthy  of  a  place  in  the  OT. 
itself.  The  term  '  prophet '  used  by  our  Lord 
is  not  inapplicable  to  the  writer  of  Daniel, 
and  there  is  nothing  in  His  reference  to  the 
book  committing  us  to  any  view  of  its  literary 
character  which  we  are  not  compelled  to  adopt 
with  regard  to  the  book  of  Enoch  and  the 
Assumption  of  Moses. 

It  is  true  that  the  character  and  claims  of 
the  book  of  Daniel  must  have  been  very 
early  misunderstood.  The  age  of  Antiochus 
Epiphanes,  in  which  it  appeared,  was  a  time 
when  the  real  nature  of  OT.  prophecy  was 
largely  forgotten,  and  when  there  was  a 
growing  tendency  to  confound  prophetic 
revelation  with  that  mere  prognostication  of 
the  future  which  formed  the  heathen  concep- 
tion of  inspired  oracles.  Not  only  the  book 
of  Daniel,  but  the  other  '  apocalyptic  '  writings 
as  well,  soon  came  to  be  regarded  by  the  Jews 
as  the  actual  utterances  of  the  men  whose 
names  they  bore,  and  the  fact  that  Daniel 
was  included  in  the  OT.  Canon  caused  this 
view  of  it  to  be  taken  over  and  long  main- 
tained in  the  Chi'istian  church.  But  the  mere 
length  of  time  during  which  such  a  tradition 
is  accepted  without  question  is  no  guarantee 
of  its  correctness.  Many  errors,  more  serious 
than  this,  survived  in  the  church  for  centuries 
before  the  progress  of  knowledge  dispelled 
them.  And  in  the  new  light  which  has  been 
thrown  on  the  book  of  Daniel  in  modern  times 
it  is  right  to  acknowledge  the  guidance  of  the 
Holy  Spirit,  whose  progressive  work  it  is 
to  lead  the  church  of  Christ  into  all  truth. 
If  the  book  of  Daniel,  when  interpreted  in  the 
same  way  as  other  '  apocalyptic '  writings,  is 
found  '  profitable  for  teaching,  for  reproof, 
for  correction,  for  instruction  in  righteousness,' 
its  inspiration  is  not  less  real  than  on  the  older 
view  which  regarded  its  narratives  as  con- 
temporary history,  and  its  apparent  predictions 
as  unique  and  miraculous  disclosures  of  the  re- 
mote future.  Tried  by  this  test  the  book,  viewed 
as  an  '  apocalyptic  '  work,  appears  well  worthy 
of  a  place  in  Scripture.  While  it  formed  the 
model  on  which  later  books  of  the  same  kind 
were  framed,  it  stands  far  above  them  all  in 
simplicity,  clearness,  dignity,  and  freedom 
from  tedious  digressions  and  extravagant  con- 
ceptions. It  teaches  in  an  incomparably  supe- 
rior way  the  truths  which  they  only  feebly 
echo  and  obscurely  reflect.  Beneath  its  arti- 
ficial literary  form  we  can  read  the  great 
lessons  that  God  presides  over  the  history  of 
the  world  ;  that  the  Gentile  nations  as  well 
as  the  Jews  have  always  been  under  His  con- 
trol ;  that  the  succession  of  human  empires  is 
ordained  by  Him ;  that  He  permits  the  pride 
and  fury  of  oppressors  for  a  time,  but  humbles 


631 


INTRO. 


DANIEL 


1.  1 


them  in  the  end,  and  saves  His  own  ;  that  His 
kingdom  will  come  at  length,  and  will  endiu-e 
for  ever  ;  that  faithfulness  and  constancy  to 
Him  lead  to  a  life  beyond  death,  and  to  an  eter- 
nal reward  of  glory. 

7.  Influence  of  Daniel  on  the  New  Testament 
Writers.  Besides  the  reference  to  the  '  abomi- 
nation of  desolation,'  a  few  other  sayings  of 
our  Lord  are  based  on  the  language  of  the 
book  of  Daniel,  as,  for  example,  the  descrip- 
tion of  the  gi-eat  tree  in  the  Parable  of  the 
Mustard  Seed  (Mt  13  32  Mk432  Lkl3i9),  the 
pictures  of  the  Son  of  Man  coming  in  the 
clouds  of  heaven  (Mt2430  2G<5i  Mk  132*5  1462)^ 
and  other  expressions  in  the  great  discourse  on 
theLastThings(Mt24Mkl3Lk21).  The  angel 
Gabriel  appears  again  in  Lk  1  if>>  26.  St.  Paul's 
description  of  the  Man  of  Sin  in  2Th2  in- 
cludes features  derived  from  the  portraits  of 
Antiochus  Epiphanes  in  Daniel.  But  it  is  in 
Revelation,  itself  an  '  apocalyptic  '  book,  that 
the  influence  of  Daniel  is  most  manifest.  The 
coincidences  in  language  and  imagery  are  too 
numerous  to  mention.  We  may  notice,  how- 
ever, the  description  of  the  appearance  of  the 
Son  of  Man  (Eev  1 13-15)  ;  His  coming  in  the 
clouds  to  judge  the  world  (Rev  14 1*)  ;  the 
composite  form,  and  especially  the  Ten  Horns, 
of  the  Dragon  (Rev  12  3),  and  the  Beast  (Rev 
17  2)  ;  the  part  played  by  the  archangel  Michael 
(Rev  12''),  and  the  repeated  mention  of  the 
period  of  3|  years  ('  a  time,  times,  and  half  a 
time,'  Rev  f2 14  ;  '  forty  and  two  months,'  Rev 
112  135.  '1,260 days,' Rev  11 3  12 6).  In  con- 
trast with  Dan  8  26  12  9  we  have  the  command  in 
Rev  22 10  not  to  seal  up  the  prophecy,  since 
the  time  is  at  hand. 

CHAPTER    1 

Introductory.  The  Abstinence  or  Dan- 
iel AND  HIS  Friends  from  Unclean 
Food 
Daniel  is  introduced  as  one  of  a  band  of 
Jews  taken  captive  to  Babylon  by  Nebuchad- 
nezzar in  the  third  year  of  Jehoiakim  (vv.  1,  2). 
Along  with  three  of  his  youthful  countrymen 
he  is  chosen  to  be  trained  during  three  years 
for  personal  attendance  on  the  king  (vv.  3-7). 
As  the  food  and  drink  provided  for  those  in 
this  position  are  ceremonially  unclean  Daniel 
resolves  not  to  partake  of  them.  After  an 
unsuccessful  appeal  to  the  chief  official  in 
charge,  he  persuades  a  subordinate  official  to 
give  himself  and  his  friends  vegetable  food 
and  water  for  ten  days.  The  results  of  the 
experiment  are  favourable,  and  the  four 
Jewish  youths  continue  to  live  on  this  fare 
during  the  three  years  of  their  training 
(vv.  8-16).  At  the  end  of  this  time  they  are 
found  superior  to  their  fellow-students  both 
physically  and  intellectually,  and  indeed  wiser 
than  all  the  learned  men  of  Babylon.     They 


are  accordingly  appointed  to  attend  upon  the 
king  (vv.  17-20).  Special  emphasis  is  laid 
upon  Daniel's  understanding  of  visions  and 
dreams,  and  the  superiority  of  the  Jewish 
youths  is  traced,  not  to  their  heathen  training 
but  to  God  (v.  17).  A  biographical  note  about 
Daniel  is  added  in  v.  21. 

Teaching.  This  c.  emphasises  the  duty 
of  abstaining  from,  food  contaminated  by 
idolatry,  or  otherwise  xmclean,  and  teaches 
that  firmness  in  this  respect  will  bring  its  own 
reward  from  God.  These  lessons  bore  very 
plainly  on  the  position  of  the  Jews  in  the 
days  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes  (see  IMacl^s, 
62,63  2  Mac  6 18-31  7 1-41),  and  were  of  practical 
importance  also  in  the  early  days  of  Chris- 
tianity :  see  Ro  14  1  Cor  10  20, 27-29.  The  wider 
moral  as  to  the  grandeur  of  fidelity  to  principle 
is  one  for  all  time. 

I.  The  third  year .  .  of  Jehoiakim]  presents  a 
historical  difficulty  at  the  outset.     Nebuchad- 
nezzar's supremacy  over  Palestine  dated  from 
the    battle    of    Carchemish   (605  B.C.).      This 
battle  took  place  in  the  fourth  year  of  Jehoia- 
kim (Jer462),  which  is  also  called  the  first 
year  of  Nebuchadnezzar  (Jer25i).     The  first 
question  is  how  Nebuchadnezzar  could  be  king 
of  Babylon  in  the  third  year  of  Jehoiakim. 
The  monumental  evidence,  however,  makes  it 
probable  that  the  first  year  of  Nebuchadnezzar 
coincided  partly  with  the  third  and  partly  with 
the  fourth  year  of   Jehoiakim,   so    that   the 
statements  of  v.  1  and  Jer25i  may  both  be 
correct.    The  second  and  more  serious  difficulty 
is  as  to  a  siege  of  Jerusalem  by  Nebuchad- 
nezzar in  Jehoiakim's  third  year.     The  chas- 
tisement of  Jehoiakim  by  '  bands  of  the  Chal- 
deans '  (2K24i>2)took  place  when  he  revolted 
after  serving  Nebuchadnezzar  for  three  years, 
i.e.  not  earlier  than  his  seventh  year.     It  is 
said  in  2  Ch  36  ^-^  that  Nebuchadnezzar  bound 
Jehoiakim  in  fetters  to  carry  him  to  Babylon, 
and  also  took  away  the  vessels  of  the  house  of 
the   Lord,  but   there  is  no  indication   of  the 
date  of  these  events,   while  it  appears  from 
Jer2.59  369>29,  that  in  the  fourth,  and  even  in 
the  fifth  year  of  Jehoiakim  a  siege  of  Jeru- 
salem by  Nebuchadnezzar  was  still  a  thing  of 
the  future.     It  has  been  thought  possible  that 
Nebuchadnezzar   may   have    followed  up   his 
victory   at   Carchemish  by   a  rapid  excursion 
southwards,  during  which  Jehoiakim  may  have 
averted  attack  by  a  timely  submission,  and  a 
gift  of  captives  and  sacred  vessels,  and  that 
this  may  be  referred  to  in  the  words  '  Nebu- 
chadnezzar came  up '  (2  K  24 1).    This,  however, 
is  very  doubtful.     It  is  much  more  probable 
that  the  writer  of  Daniel  mistook  the  three 
years    of  Jehoiakim's  submission  to  Babylon 
(2  K  24 1)  for  the  first  three  years  of  his  reign, 
and  placed  the  invasion  of  2  Ch  36  ^'  6  jn  the 
last  of  the  three. 


532 


1.2 


DANIEL 


2.  1 


Nebuchadnezzar]  For  the  spelling  see 
Intro. 

2.  His  god]  The  patron  deity  of  Babylon 
was  Marduk  (Merodach,  JerSO^).  Shinar]  the 
old  name  of  Babylonia  (Gn  10  ^O). 

3.  Master  of  his  eunuchs]  The  Heb.  is  rah 
sar/siin,  the  same  title  as  '  Rabsaris  'in  2  K 18  '^'^. 

The  king's  seed  .  .  the  princes]  It  is  un- 
certain whether  Israelites  or  Babylonians  are 
meant.  4.  Children]  RV  '  youths,'  and  so  in 
vv.  10,  13,  15,  17.  Blemish]  in  a  physical 
sense.  Cunning]  intelligent.  Science]  know- 
ledge, so  rendered  in  v.  17.  Learning]  lit. 
'book,'  literature:  so  in  v,  17.  Chaldeans] 
not  the  Babylonians  in  general,  but  a  special 
class  of  learned  men.  5.  Meat]  RM 'dainties.' 
A  Persian  word  occurring  nowhere  in  OT. 
save  in  Daniel.  Stand  before  the  king]  as 
court  attendants. 

6.  Children  of  Judah]  Daniel  and  his  friends 
belonged  to  the  royal  tribe.  Daniel]  The 
name  means  '  God  is  my  judge.'  Hananiah] 
'  Jehovah  is  gi-acious.'  Mishael]  '  Who  is  what 
God  is  ?'  Azariah]  '  Jehovah  has  helped.'  All 
these  names  are  found  elsewhere  inOT.:  see 
especially  Neh3^'"23,30  84_  ^.  The  changes 
of  name  have  a  parallel  in  the  case  of  Joseph 
(Gn4145).  The  new  names  had  no  refer- 
ence to  the  God  of  Israel,  and  perhaps  con- 
tained the  names  of  Babylonian  deities. 

Belteshazzar]  Balatsu-utzur^  'Protect  his 
life.'  Not  to  be  confounded  with  Belshazzar. 
Shadrach]  Perhaps  Shudur-Aku,  '  the  com- 
mand of  Aku,'  the  Moon-god.  Meshach]  of 
uncertain  meaning.  One  suggestion  is  Mi- 
sha-Aku,  '  Who  is  what  Aku  is  ? '  Abed-nego] 
Probably  a  corruption  of  Abed-Nebo, '  Servant 
of  Nebo.' 

8.  Defile  himself]  The  king's  food  might 
consist  of  the  flesh  of  unclean  animals,  or  might 
not  be  freed  from  blood,  or  part  of  it  might 
have  been  offered  in  sacrifice  to  idols.  Part  of 
the  wine  would  have  been  poured  out  as  a  liba- 
tion to  the  gods.  10.  Your  sort]  RV  '  your  own 
age.'  II.  Melzar]  RV  'the  steward':  so  in 
V.  16.     12.   Pulse]  RM  'herbs':  so  in  v.  16. 

17.  Daniel  had  understanding,  etc.]  A  special 
statement  by  way  of  introduction  to  what 
follows  in  the  book.  20.  Magicians]  A  word 
used  only  in  Daniel,  and  of  the  Egyptian 
magicians  in  Gn418,24  Ex  7 11.22  87  911. 

Astrologers]  RV  '  enchanters.'  The  Baby- 
lonians had  an  elaborate  system  of  magic,  the 
fame  and  practice  of  which  survived  long  after 
the  Babylonian  empire  had  ceased  to  exist, 

21.  The  first  year  of  king  Cyrus]  538  B.C., 
some  66  years  after  the  third  year  of  Je- 
hoiakim. 

CHAPTER   2 

Nebuchadnezzar's  Dream-Image 
Nebuchadnezzar   in  his  second  year  had  a 


533 


dream,  which  he  required  the  wise  men  of  his 
court  to  describe  and  interpret   on   pain  of 
death.       They   said    this   was     beyond   their 
power,  but  professed  their  readiness    to   ex- 
plain the  dream  if  the  king  would  tell  them 
its  nature.     Nebuchadnezzar  persisted  in  his 
first  demand,    and    as   the    wise    men    could 
not   satisfy    him   he    gave    orders    that   they 
should  be  slain  (vv.  1-13).     Daniel,  however, 
interposed  and  asked  that  the  execution  of  the 
penalty  should  be  delayed.     In  answer  to  his 
prayers  and  those  of    his    three   companions 
God   revealed  the  dream  and  its  meaning  to 
Daniel,  who  gave  thanks  and  praise  for  this 
favour  (vv.  14-23).     Daniel  was  then  brought 
before  Nebuchadnezzar,  and  after  explaining 
the  true  source  of  his  knowledge  proceeded 
to  describe  and  interpret  the  dream  (vv.  24- 
31).      What  Nebuchadnezzar  had  seen  was  a 
great  image  with  a  head  of  gold,  a  breast  and 
arms   of  silver,  a  belly  and  thighs  of  brass, 
legs  of    iron,  and  feet  of  iron  mingled  with 
clay.     A   stone  fell    on  the   feet  and    broke 
them  in  pieces,  and  the  whole  image  crum- 
bled   into  fragments,    and   was  carried  away 
by    the  wind.      The    stone    then    became   a 
great     mountain,     which     filled     the    whole 
earth  (vv.   31-35).      The    head   of    gold    re- 
presented Nebuchadnezzar's  empire  (vv.   36- 
38).     The  parts  of  the  image  made  of  silver, 
brass,  and  iron  represented  three  other  king- 
doms that  should  arise,  with    characteristics 
corresponding  to  their  various  materials  (vv. 
39-43).     In  the  days  of  the  last  of  these  God 
would  set  up  a  universal  and  everlasting  king- 
dom (vv.  44,  45).     On  hearing  the  interpreta- 
tion of  the  dream  Nebuchadnezzar  acknow- 
ledged  the   greatness   of    the  true  God,  and 
made    Daniel    governor   of    the  province    of 
Babylon,    and   chief    of    the   wise  men  (vv. 
46-48).     At  Daniel's  request  his  three  com- 
panions   also    received    posts  of  honour   and 
authority  (v.  49). 

Teaching,  On  any  interpretation  of  this 
c.  its  central  truth  lies  in  the  prophecy  of 
the  divine  kingdom,  which  is  to  supersede 
all  human  empires — a  prophecy  which  in  NT. 
times  is  receiving  an  ever-increasing  fulfilment. 
The  reasons  for  regarding  the  fourth  kingdom 
as  the  Greek  empire  have  been  given  in  the 
Intro.  The  first  three  are  usually  taken  to  be 
the  Babylonian,  the  Median  (represented  by 
'  Darius  the  Mede,'  whom  the  writer  of  Daniel 
places  before  Cyrus),  and  the  Persian.  An- 
other interpretation  supposes  that  Nebuchad- 
nezzar and  Belshazzar  were  the  only  Baby- 
lonian kings  known  to  the  author  (see  on 
5 "),  and  makes  the  first  two  kingdoms  to  be 
those  of  Nebuchadnezzar  and  Belshazzar,  fol- 
lowed by  the  Medo-Persian  empire  as  the 
third. 

I.  The   second    year]     seems   inconsistent 


2.  2 


DANIEL 


with  the  statement  in  1^,  that  Daniel  and 
his  companions  were  under  training  during 
three  years  of  Nebuchadnezzar's  reign.  But 
it  appears  from  the  monuments  that  the  Baby- 
lonian kings  counted  the  year  after  their  ac- 
cession as  their  first  year.  The  '  second '  year 
might  therefore  be  really  the  third,  while  the 
'  three  '  years  of  1  ^  might  include,  by  an- 
other mode  of  reckoning,  the  year  of  accession, 
the  following  year,  and  part  of  the  next.  The 
'  three  '  years  might,  therefore,  be  over  before 
the  end  of  the  '  second  '  year. 

2.  Sorcerers]    another  class  of  wise  men. 
Astrologers .  .  Chaldeans]   see  on  1  *,  20_ 

3.  Was  troubled]  RV  '  is  troubled.'  4.  In 
Syriack]  E.M  '  in  Aramaic'  The  Aramaic 
portion  of  the  book  begins  with  the  words 
'0  king.'  The  phrase  'in  Aramaic'  should 
probably  be  regarded  as  a  parenthesis  indicat- 
ing that  at  this  point  a  change  of  language 
takes  place  :  see  Intro.  5.  The  thing  is 
gone]  KM  '  the  word  is  gone  forth.'  Nebu- 
chadnezzar had  not  actually  forgotten  the 
dream,  but  he  was  resolved  to  test  the  wise 
men's  power  by  insisting  that  they  should 
describe  as  well  as  interpret  it  :  so  in  v.  8. 

Made  a  dunghill]  cp.  .  Ezr  6  n.  8.  Gain 
the  time]  EV  '  gain  time.'  9.  Till  the  time  be 
changed]  till  something  should  divert  the  king's 
purpose.  10.  Therefore  there  is]  RV  'foras- 
much as.' 

14.  Arioch]  Eri-Alm,  '  servant  of  Aku,'  an 
old  Babylonian  name  (Gn  141).  16.  Give 
him  time]  RV  '  appoint  him  a  time.'  Daniel's 
request  was  very  different  from  the  temporis- 
ing of  the  wise  men  in  v.  9.  27.  Soothsayers] 
still  another  class  of  Babylonian  wise  men. 

28.  Maketh  known]  RV  '  he  hath  made 
known '  :  so  in  v.  29.  29.  The  dream  was 
an  answer  to  Nebuchadnezzar's  waking 
thoughts.  30.  For  their  sakes  that  shall  make 
knovyn  the  interpretation]  RV  '  to  the  intent 
that  the  interpretation  may  be  made  known.' 

38.  Thou  art  this  (RV  '  the  ')  head  of  gold] 
The  golden  head  may  be  identified  either  with 
the  Babylonian  empire  which  Nebiujhadnezzar 
represented,  or  with  Nebuchadnezzar  person- 
ally. The  latter  is  the  more  natural  inter- 
pretation. 

39.  Another  kingdom  inferior]  either  the 
Median  rule  of  Darius,  which  the  writer  of 
Daniel  mistakenly  supposed  to  come  before 
that  of  Cyrus  the  Persian  (see  on  S^O),  or 
the  kingdom  of  Belshazzar,  who  is  contrasted 
with  Nebuchadnezzar  in  c.  5.  Another  third 
kingdom]  either  the  Persian  empire,  begin- 
ning with  Cyrus,  or  the  Medo-Persian  empire, 
which  is  represented  by  a  single  animal  (the 
ram)  in  c.  8.  40.  The  fourth  kingdom]  is  the 
Greek  empire,  founded  })y  the  conquests  of 
Alexander  the  Great.  41.  The  feet  and  toes] 
represent  Alexander's  empire  as   broken   up 


en-     I 


after  his  death.  Miry  clay]  RM  '  earthen 
ware.'  There  were  elements  both  of  strength 
and  weakness  in  the  rival  kingdoms  of  the 
Seleucidse  and  Ptolemies.  43.  They  shall 
mingle  themselves  with  the  seed  of  men]  refer- 
ring to  the  royal  marriages  by  which  these 
kingdoms  sought  to  establish   alliance  :    see 

116,17. 

44.  The  Messianic  kingdom  of  God  will 
overpower  and  succeed  the  kingdoms  of  Syria 
and  Egypt.  And  the  kingdom  . .  other  people] 
RV  '  nor  shall  the  sovereignty  thereof  be  left 
to  another  people.'  The  Messianic  kingdom 
will  be  in  the  hands,  not  of  foreigners,  but  of 
the  Jews.  Both  the  national  limitation  and 
the  foreshortening  of  view  in  this  v.  are  char- 
acteristic of  OT.  prophecy,  and  do  not  affect 
the  value  of  the  central  truth  which  is  taught. 

45.  The  dream  is  certain,  and  the  inter- 
pretation thereof  sure]  Note  the  absoluteness 
of  the  prediction,  so  unlike  the  conditional 
utterances  of  the  prophets  in  general :  see 
Intro. 

46.  Nebuchadnezzar  worshipped  Daniel,  but 
it  is  plain  that,  though  Daniel  is  not  said  to 
have  prevented  him,  the  king  really  meant  to 
give  the  glory  to  God.  47.  Of  a  truth,  etc.] 
RV  '  of  a  truth  your  God  is  the  God  of  gods 
and  the  Lord  of  kings.'  On  the  view  that 
this  narrative  is  literal  history  it  is  difficult  to 
account  for  Nebuchadnezzar's  conduct  in  c.  3. 

48.  Chief  of  the  governors]  RV  '  chief 
governor.'      49.  Sat']  RV  '  was.'     In  the  gate 

of  the  king]  RM  '  at  the  king's  court '  :    see 

Esth2i9.2i  32. 

CHAPTER   3 

The  Golden  Image  and  the  Fiery 

Furnace 
Nebuchadnezzar  sets  up  a  colossal 


image,  and  summons  to  its  dedication 


golden 
all  the 


officials  of  his  empire,  who  are  commanded  to 
fall  down  and  worship  the  image  at  a  given 
musical  signal,  on  pain  of  being  cast  into  a 
furnace  (vv.  1-6).  They  all  do  so,  with  the 
exception  of  Daniel's  three  friends,  whose 
refusal  is  reported  to  Nebuchadnezzar  (vv. 
7-12).  They  are  summoned  before  the  king, 
and  persist  in  their  refusal  (vv.  13-18). 
Nebuchadnezzar  commands  the  fm-nace  to  be 
heated  seven  times  hotter  than  usual,  and  the 
three  Jewish  youths  are  bound  and  cast  into 
it,  the  flames  slaying  their  executioners  (vv. 
19-22).  The  king  sees  them  walking  in  the 
fire  unbound  and  accompanied  by  a  divine 
figure  (vv.  23-25).  He  summons  them  forth, 
finds  them  unharmed,  magnifies  their  God, 
decrees  that  He  be  held  in  universal  reverence, 
and  gives  them  further  promotion  (vv.  26-30). 
Teaching.  This  story  of  religious  constancy 
and  its  reward  was  specially  fitted  to  instruct 
and    encourage    the    Jews    in    the    days   of 


634 


3.  1 


DANIEL 


5. 


Antiochus  Epiphanes.  There  is  a  similar 
legend  about  Abraham  and  Nimrod. 

I.  Of  gold]  not  necessarily  solid,  but 
perhaps  overlaid.  Threescore  cubits  .  .  six 
cubits]  90  feet  by  9,  or  rather  more.  Dura  is 
represented  by  the  mounds  of  Dura,  some  12 
m.  SSE.  of  Babylon.  2.  Princes  .  .  govern- 
ors .  .  captains]  RV  '  satraps  .  .  deputies  .  . 
governors '  :  so  in  vv.  3,  27.  '  Satraps  '  is  a 
distinctly  Persian  term.  Judges]  RM  '  chief 
soothsayers.'     Sheriffs]  RM  '  lawyers.' 

4.  People]  RV  '  peoples.'  5.  Sackbut] 
properly  trigon,  a  stringed  instrument  with  a 
triangular  frame  :  so  in  vv.  7,  10,  15. 

Psaltery]  ^jsaw/er/;?  =  Gk.  ^JsaZfejv'o/z — a 
stringed  instrument.  Dulcimer]  RM '  bagpipe ' : 
so  in  vv.  7,  10,  15.  6.  Burning  fiery  furnace] 
a  form  of  death  penalty  mentioned  in  Jer  29  22 
as  inflicted  by  Nebuchadnezzar. 

8.  Chaldeans]  a  special  official  class,  moved 
by  jealousy.  12.  See  2*9.  14.  Is  it  true., 
do  not  ye  serve]  RV  '  Is  it  of  purpose  .  .  that 
ye  serve  not.'  Nebuchadnezzar  is  willing  to 
put  a  favourable  construction  on  their  first 
refusal,  and  to  give  them  another  opportunity 
of  obeying.  16.  Are  not  careful]  RV  '  have 
no  need.'  17.  If  it  be  so,  etc.]  read,  '  If  our 
God  .  .  is  able  .  .  he  will  deliver  us.'  The 
words  do  not  really  question  God's  power,  but 
mean  rather,  '  If  our  God  sees  fit,'  etc. 

18.  But  if  not]  The  refusal  is  absolute,  come 
what  will. 

20.  The  most  mighty  men]  RV  '  certain 
mighty  men.'  21.  Coats  .  .  hosen  .  .  hats] 
R  V '  hosen . .  tunics '  (RM '  turbans ') . . '  mantles.' 

23.  In  LXX  the  '  Song  of  the  Three  Holy 
Children  '  is  inserted  after  this  v. 

25.  The  Son  of  God]  RV '  a  son  of  the  gods,' 
a  heavenly  being,  called  an  angel  in  v.  28. 
Nebuchadnezzar  could  not  have  used  the 
expression  in  the  definite  Christian  sense 
suggested  by  AV.  29.  Made  a  dunghill] 
see  on  2^. 

CHAPTER   4 
Nebuchadnezzar's  Dream  and  its 

fulfilment 
In  the  form  of  a  proclamation  Nebuchad- 
nezzar records  his  experience  of  the  power  of 
the  Most  High  God  (vv.  1-3).  He  had  a 
dream  which  none  of  his  wise  men  could 
interpret  (vv.  4-7).  He  then  called  Daniel, 
and  told  him  the  dream,  in  which  he  had  seen 
a  lofty  and  spreading  tree,  which  at  the 
bidding  of  an  angel  had  been  cut  down,  its 
stump  being  bound  among  the  grass  for  seven 
'  times '  (vv.  8-18).  Daniel  explained  that  the 
tree  was  Nebuchadnezzar  in  his  greatness,  that 
he  would  lose  his  reason  and  live  a  beast's 
life  for  seven  years,  after  which  he  would  be 
restored  to  his  tlu-one  (vv.  19-27).  All  this 
has  come  to  pass  (vv.  28-33),  and  Nebuchad- 


nezzar now  magnifies  the  King  of  heaven  who 
is  able  to  abase  the  proud  (vv.  34-37). 

The  picture  here  given  of  Nebuchadnezzar's 
pride  is  in  keeping  with  the  evidence  of  his 
own  boastful  inscriptions.  The  form  of  mad- 
ness attributed  to  him  is  not  an  uncommon 
one,  and  is  generally  known  as  '  lycanthi-opy.' 
No  historical  record  of  such  an  event  in  his 
life  has  come  to  light.  There  is,  however,  a 
tradition,  quoted  by  the  church  historian 
Eusebius  from  Abydenus,  a  Greek  writer  of 
the  2nd  cent,  a.d.,  which,  though  quite  differ- 
ent as  a  whole  from  the  story  in  this  c,  has 
one  or  two  points  of  contact  with  it. 

Teaching.  The  example  of  pride  brought 
low  which  this  c.  contains  would  afford  a 
significant  lesson  to  the  Jews  under  the  tyranny 
of  Antiochus.  It  is  suggestive  also  that  the 
conduct  of  Antiochus  led  some  to  substitute 
for  the  title  Epiphanes  ('  the  illustrious  ')  that 
of  Epimanes  ('  the  madman  '). 

I.  People]  RV  'peoples.'  2.  High]  RV 
'Most  High.'  7.  Astrologers]  RV  'enchant- 
ers.' 8.  According  to  the  name  of  my  god] 
This  is  merely  an  assonance,  not  a  strict  de- 
rivation. The  chief  god  of  Nebuchadnezzar 
was  Marduk  (Merodach).  The  word  Belte- 
shazzar  does  not  contain  the  name  of  the  god 
Bel  :  see  on  1 7.  9.  Master  of  the  magicians] 
see  on  2*^.  13.  A  watcher  and  an  holy  one] 
Both  terms  refer  to  the  same  being.  The 
name  '  watcher '  is  fii-st  used  for  '  angel '  in 
Daniel,  and  is  common  in  the  later  apocalyptic 
books.  16.  In  this  v.  the  figure  of  the  tree 
is  dropped.  Times]  years.  17.  Matter]  RV 
'  sentence.'  The  angels  are  represented  as 
enti'usted  with  the  power  of  deciding  the 
destinies  of  men.     19.  One  hour]  RV 'a  while.' 

The  dream  be]  i.e.  be  fulfilled  on.  27.  If 
it  may  be]  RV  '  if  there  may  be.' 

28-33.  In  these  vv.  the  narrative,  which 
has  hitherto  been  in  the  terms  of  Nebuchad- 
nezzar's proclamation,  passes  into  the  third 
person.     The  first  person  is  resumed  in  v.  34. 

30.  House  of  the  kingdom]  RV  '  royal 
dwelling  place.' 

CHAPTER  5 

Belshazzar's  Feast 
Belshazzar,  king  of  Babylon,  holds  a  great 
feast,  at  which  he  profanely  uses  the  sacred 
vessels  taken  by  Nebuchadnezzar  from  the 
Temple  at  Jerusalem  (vv.  1-4).  He  is  terrified 
at  seeing  part  of  a  human  hand  wi'iting  mys- 
terious words  on  the  wall  of  the  banqueting 
room,  and  vainly  offers  great  rewards  to  the 
wise  men  of  Babylon  if  they  can  read  and  ex- 
plain the  writing  (vv.  5-9).  The  queen  tells 
him  of  Daniel,  and  of  his  fame  for  wisdom, 
acquired  in  Nebuchadnezzar's  days.  Daniel  is 
accordingly  sent  for,  and  Belshazzar  repeats  to 
him  his  request  and  his  promises  (vv.  10-16). 


635 


5.  1 


DANIEL 


6. 


Declining  the  offered  reward  Daniel  rebukes 
Belshazzar  for  neglecting  the  lessons  of  humil- 
ity taught  by  Nebuchadnezzar's  history,  and 
interprets  the  writing  as  a  message  of  doom 
(vv.  17-29).  That  night  Belshazzar  is  slain 
and  Darius  the  Median  receives  the  kingdom 
(vv.  30,  31). 

Teaching.  The  profanations  of  Belshazzar 
were  very  similar  to  those  of  Antiochus  Epiph- 
anes  (1  Mac  1 20-24  2  Mac  5 1^-^'''),  and  Belshazzar's 
fate  would  encourage  the  Jews  in  the  time  of 
Antiochus  to  hope  that  their  oppressor  would 
be  similarly  cut  off. 

1.  Belshazzar  the  king]  These  words  raise 
another  historical  difficulty.  We  learn  from 
the  inscriptions  that  Belshazzar  was  the  son  of 
Nabuna'id  (Nabonidus),  the  last  king  of  Baby- 
lon, and  never  occupied  the  throne  himself. 
As  Nabuna'id,  however,  was  much  occupied 
with  antiquarian  pursuits  Belshazzar  was 
practically  '  pi'ince-regent.'     See  on  7^  8^. 

2.  Vessels]  see  1^.  His  father  Nebuchad- 
nezzar] another  historical  difficulty.  Nabu- 
na'id was  the  father  of  Belshazzar,  and  was  a 
usurper,  who  did  not  belong  to  the  same  family 
as  Nebuchadnezzar.  It  is  possible  that  he  may 
have  married  a  daughter  of  Nebuchadnezzar, 
but  of  this  nothing  is  known.  In  that  case 
'  father '  would  have  the  general  sense  of 
'  forefather '  which  it  often  bears  in  OT.  But 
the  emphasis  laid  on  'father'  (vv.  11,  13,  18) 
and  '  son  '  (v.  19)  seems  to  indicate  that  the 
writer  had  the  literal  relationship  in  view,  and 
regarded  Belshazzar  as  the  actual  son  and  im- 
mediate successor  of  Nebuchadnezzar. 

7.   Scarlet]  RV  '  purple  '  :  so  in  vv.  16,  29. 

Be  the  third  ruler]  RM  '  rule  as  one  of  three ' : 
so  in  vv.  16,  29.  The  meaning  is  illustrated 
by  the  arrangement  described  in  6  2. 

12.  Hard]  RV  'dark.'  13.  Jewry]  RV 
'Judah.'     19.   People]  RV  'peoples.' 

25.  The  words  are  names  of  weights.  The 
U  in  Lfiiharsin  stands  for  '  and,'  and  P(h)arsin 
is  the  plural  of  Peres  (v.  28).  The  literal 
meaning  of  the  writing  was  '  a  mina,  a  mina,  a 
shekel,  and  half  minas.'  26-28.  The  inter- 
pretation given  by  Daniel  is  connected  with 
the  derivation  of  two  of  the  terms.  Me/ie  sig- 
nifies 'numbered';  Tekel  (=  shekel)  suggests 
the  process  of  weighing  ;  and  Peres  is  doubly 
explained,  first  by  its  etymology  ('  division '), 
and  second  by  its  assonance  with  '  Persian.' 

30.  Chaldeans]  here  used  in  the  national 
sense,  as  equivalent  to  '  Babylonians.' 

Was  Belshazzar  .  .  slain]  The  traditions 
about  the  capture  of  Babylon  by  Cyrus,  which 
classical  historians  have  preserved,  are  now 
known  from  the  inscriptions  of  Cyrus  himself 
to  be  incorrect.  The  army  of  Cyrus  occupied 
Babylon  without  fighting,  and  Nabuna'id  was 
captured.  Cyrus  himself  afterwards  entered 
the  city  in  peace.  A  little  later,  however,  there 


was  a  night  assault  made  by  Gobryas,  the 
governor  under  Cyrus,  in  which  '  the  king's 
son '  was  slain. 

31.  Darius  the  Median  (RV  '  Mede  ')]  pre- 
sents the  greatest  historical  difficulty  in  the 
book.  In  this  v.  he  receives  the  kingdom  of 
Babylon  upon  the  death  of  Belshazzar.  In 
61,2,25,26  he  acts  and  speaks  as  a  supreme 
sovereign  ;  in  6  28  he  appears  as  a  predecessor 
of  Cyrus  the  Persian  ;  in  9^  he  is  called 
'  Darius  the  son  of  Ahasuerus,  of  the  seed  of 
the  Medes,  who  was  made  king  over  the  realm 
of  the  Chaldeans.'  No  such  person,  however, 
is  mentioned  in  any  other  historical  source,  and 
the  inscriptions  leave  no  room  for  an  inde- 
pendent king  of  Babylon  between  Nabuna'id 
and  Cyrus.  Cjrrus  had  conquered  Media  before 
invading  Babylon,  and  his  army  comprised  both 
Medes  and  Persians.  Gobryas,  the  general  of 
Cyrus,  who  acted  under  him  as  governor  of 
Babylon,  was  probably  a  Mede,  and  the  author 
of  Daniel  has  apparently  mistaken  his  subor- 
dinate office  for  an  independent  monarchy,  and 
has  confounded  his  name  with  that  of  Darius 
Hystaspes  (the  Darius  of  the  book  of  Ezra), 
who  was  the  father,  and  not  the  son,  of  Ahasu- 
erus (Xerxes). 

Took]  RV  '  received.' 

CHAPTER  6 
The  Den  of  Lions 

Darius  the  Mede  divides  his  kingdom  into 
120  satrapies,  the  whole  being  superintended 
by  three  higher  officials,  of  whom  Daniel  was 
one  (vv.  1 ,  2).  Daniel  is  in  special  favour,  and 
Darius  meditates  giving  him  a  still  higher 
office  (v.  3).  This  rouses  the  jealousy  of  his 
colleagues,  who  plot  his  ruin  (vv.  4,  5).  They 
persuade  Darius  to  make  a  decree  that  no  one 
shall  ask  anything  for  30  days  from  God  or 
man,  save  from  the  king,  on  pain  of  being  cast 
into  the  den  of  lions  (vv.  6-9).  Daniel,  as 
his  enemies  expect,  disregards  this  rule,  and 
being  accused  he  is  found  guilty,  and  is  cast, 
much  against  the  king's  will,  into  the  den  of 
lions  (vv.  10-17).  After  a  sleepless  night  Darius 
comes  to  enquire  for  Daniel,  and  finds  him 
alive  and  unhurt  (vv.  18-22).  Daniel  is  taken 
out  of  the  den,  and  his  accusers,  with  all  their 
families,  are  thrown  to  the  lions  and  instantly 
slain  (vv.  23,24).  Darius  then  makes  a  decree 
to  all  the  world  in  honour  of  Daniel's  God 
(vv.  25-27).  A  biographical  note  is  added  in 
V.  28). 

Teaching.  Apart  from  the  question  about 
Darius  the  Mede  (see  on  53i)  this  c.  pre- 
sents other  difficulties  if  taken  as  literal  his- 
tory. The  decree  of  Darius  seems  one  which 
even  a  heathen  king  would  not  be  likely  to 
make.  If,  however,  the  writer's  purpose  was 
to  construct  a  situation  for  Daniel  similar  to 
the  circumstances  of   the   pious  Jews  under 


636 


6.  1 


DANIEL 


7.9 


Antiochus  Epiphanes,  and  to  read  them  an 
encouraging  lesson  by  this  imaginative  use  of 
the  past,  the  c.  well  fulfils  this  object :  see 
especially  1  Mac  1  so. 

1.  Princes]  RV  'satraps ' :  so  in  -vv,  2,  3,  4,  6, 
7.  The  division  of  the  Persian  empire  into 
20  satrapies  was  actually  made  by  Darius 
Hystaspes.  Gobryas,  however  (see  on  5^1),  is 
said  in  the  inscriptions  to  have  appointed 
governors  in  Babylon,  and  this  may  have  led 
to  the  confusion  between  him  and  Darius. 
Cp.  the  127  provinces  of  Esthli  89. 

2.  Was  first]  RV  '  was  one.'  This  was 
the  arrangement  contemplated  by  Belshazzar 

(57,16,29). 

7.  Governors  .  .  captains]  RV  'deputies  .  . 
governors.'  Decree]  RV  '  interdict '  :  so  in 
vv.  8,  9,  12,  13,  15.  God]  RV  'god'  :  so  in 
V.  12.     8.   Medes  and  Persians]  see  on  5^^. 

Which  altereth  not]  cp.  Bsth  1 19  88. 

ID.  Toward  Jerusalem]  cp.  lK835Ps57  282. 
The  Talmud  says  that  the  Jews  in  foreign  lands 
turn  in  prayer  towards  the  land  of  Israel,  those 
in  the  land  of  Israal  towards  Jerusalem,  and 
those  in  Jerusalem  towards  the  Temple.  The 
Mohammedans  turn  in  the  same  way  towards 
Mecca.     11.   Praying]  RV  '  making  petition.' 

12.  Ask  a  petitio)i  of]  RV  'make  petition 
unto.'  This  exact  rendering  brings  Daniel's 
conduct  into  sharp  opposition  against  the  in- 
terdict in  V.  7.  14.  Displeased  with  him- 
self] RV  '  displeased.'  17.  That  the  purpose 
might  not  be  changed]  RV  '  that  nothing 
might  be  changed.'  18.  Instruments  of  mu- 
sick]  RM  '  dancing  girls.'  23.  Believed]  RV 
'  had  trusted.'     25.   People]  RV  '  peoples.' 

26.  Every  dominion]  RV  '  all  the  dominion.' 

CHAPTER  7 

The  Vision  of  the  Four  Beasts 
In  the  first  year  of  Belshazzar  Daniel  sees 
in  a  dream  four  beasts  rising  out  of  the  sea 
(vv.  1-3).  The  first  is  like  a  lion,  with  eagle's 
wings  (v.  4),  the  second  like  a  bear  (v.  5), 
the  third  like  a  leopard  (v.  6),  while  the  fourth 
is  a  unique  and  ferocious  monster  with  ten 
horns  (v.  7).  Among  the  horns  of  the  fourth 
beast  there  comes  up  a  little  horn  with  human 
eyes,  which  displaces  three  of  the  other  ten, 
and  carries  itself  proudly  (v.  8).  God  then 
appears  sitting  on  His  throne  of  judgment 
(vv.  9,  10).  The  fourth  beast  is  slain  (v.  11). 
A  human  figure  appears  in  the  heavens,  and 
receives  an  everlasting  kingdom  (vv.  13,  14). 

At  Daniel's  request  an  angel  explains  the 
vision  (vv.  1,5,  16).  The  four  beasts  represent 
^'four  kings  (or  kingdoms  :  see  on  v.  17)  which 
are  to  appear  in  succession,  and  are  to  be  fol- 
lowed by  the  kingdom  of  the  people  of  God 
(v.  18).  Daniel's  interest  centres  specially  in 
the  fourth  beast  and  the  conclusion  of  the 
vision  (vv.  19-22).     The  fourth  beast  is  ex- 


plained as  a  conquering  kingdom  (v.  23),  the 
ten  horns  are  ten  of  its  kings,  and  the  little 
horn  is  an  eleventh  king  who  shall  put  down 
three  of  the  former  ten  (v.  24),  and  shall  blas- 
phemously persecute  the  saints  for  '  a  time, 
times,  and  half  a  time  '  (v.  25).  In  the  day 
of  God's  judgment  the  little  horn  will  lose  his 
dominion  (v.  2G)  and  the  everlasting  kingdom 
of  the  saints  will  follow  (v.  27). 

Interpretation.  The  four  kingdoms  in  this 
c.  are  presumably  the  same  as  those  in  c.  2. 
The  reasons  for  regarding  the  fourth  as  the 
Greek  (rather  than  the  Roman)  empire  are 
given  in  Intro.     See  also  on  c.  2. 

Teaching.  This  c.  contains  a  prophecy  of 
the  Messianic  kingdom  of  God.  It  is  expected 
to  appear  after  the  overthrow  of  Antiochus 
Epiphanes,  and  to  be  in  the  hands  of  the 
Jewish  people. 

1.  Belshazzar  king  of  Babylon]  For  the  his- 
torical difficulty  see  on  5^.  Belshazzar  is 
clearly  regarded  as  actual  king,  since  the  years 
of  his  reign  are  reckoned  by  both  here  and  in 
81. 

2.  Strove]  RV  '  brake  forth.'  The  great 
sea]  the  Mediterranean.  3.  The  imagery  re- 
calls the  figures,  so  often  found  on  Babylonian 
bas-reliefs,  of  winged  lions  and  other  monsters. 
The  sea  symbolises  the  confused  welter  of 
nations  before  the  Babylonian  empire  arose. 

4.  The  first]  beast  is  either  the  Babylonian 
empire,  or  more  probably  Nebuchadnezzar 
himself  (see  on  2^8),  the  changing  of  the  beast 
from  the  brute  to  the  human  condition  refer- 
ring possibly  to  Nebuchadnezzar's  improve- 
ment under  God's  discipline  (c.  4).  The  feet] 
RV  '  two  feet.'  5.  The  second  beast  may  be 
either  the  alleged  Median  empire  of  Darius 
(the  three  ribs  in  its  mouth  being  perhaps  three 
nations  conquered  by  it  before  the  taking  of 
Babylon),  or  Belshazzar  (the  picture  of  the 
bear  describing  his  sluggish  and  sensual 
nature)  :  see  on  2  ^9.  6.  The  third  beast  is 
either  the  Persian  empire  founded  by  Cyrus,  as 
distinguished  from  the  Median  rule  attributed 
in  this  book  to  Darius,  or  the  Medo-Persian 
empire  regarded  as  one.  The  four  heads  are 
perhaps  the  four  Persian  kings  who  are  men- 
tioned in  OT.  —  Cyrus,  Darius  (Hystaspes), 
Xerxes  (Ahasuerus),  and  Artaxerxes.  7.  A 
fourth  beast]  the  conquering  Greek  empire  of 
Alexander  the  Great.  Ten  horns]  see  on  v. 
24.  8.  Another  little  horn]  Antiochus  Epiph- 
anes. The  description  of  this  horn  is  con- 
tinued in  vv.  24,  25.  Three  of  the  first  horns] 
see  on  v.  24. 

9,  10.  The  judgment  scene  is  presented  in 
the  form  of  a  material  spectacle,  which  is  first 
found  in  Daniel,  though  it  is  common  in  other 
apocalyptic  books  and  in  the  NT.  Cast  dowm] 
RV  'placed.'  His  wheels]  RV  'the  wheels 
thereof '  (of  the  throne).    Ancient  of  days]  An 


537 


7.  12 


DANIEL 


8. 


expression  for  G-od  peculiar  to  Daniel.     The 
book  of  Enoch  has,  '  The  Head  of  Days.' 

12.  The  rest  of  the  beasts]  the  former  king- 
doms, survived  as  nations,  but  without  power. 

13.  One  like  the  Son  of  man]  RV  'one  like 
unto  a  son  of  man  ' — a  human  figure  as  opposed 
to  the  four  brute  figures,  and  coming  from 
heaven  as  opposed  to  their  coming  from  the 
sea.  This  figure  denotes,  not  the  Messiah  as 
an  individual,  but  the  kingdom  of  God  as  the 
successor  of  the  kingdoms  of  this  world. 

14.  People]  E.Y  '  peoples.' 


17.  Four  kings]  This  statement  must  be 
taken  loosely.  The  fourth  beast  is  not  strictly 
a  king,  but  a  kingdom  with  various  kings  (vv. 
23,  24).     18.  Take]  RV  'receive.' 

19-22.   A  recapitulation  of  vv.  9-14. 

23.  The  fourth  kingdom]  RY  '  a  foiu-th 
kingdom,'  the  Greek  empire  of  Alexander  the 
Great. 

24.  The  ten  horns]  are  to  be  sought  among 
Alexander  and  his  successors.  The  following 
table  of  the  Greek  kings  of  Syria  and  Egypt 
may  be  useful  here  : 


Syria. 
Seleucus  I  (Nicator)    . 
Antiochus  I  (Soter)     . 

Antiochus  II  (Theos) 
Seleucus  II  (Callinicus) 

Seleucus  III  (Ceraunus) 

Antiochus  III  (the  Great 

Seleucus  lY  (Philopator) 

Antiochus  lY  (Epiphanes) 


B.C.  Egypt.  b.c. 

312-280     Ptolemy  I  (Soter) 305-285 

280-261  ) 

\  Ptolemy  n  (Philadelphus)  .     .  285-247 
261-246  ) 
246-226  ) 

Ptolemy  in  (Euergetes)      .     .  247-222 
226-223  ) 

(  Ptolemy  lY  (Philopator)      .     .  222-205 
223-187  < 

(  Ptolemy  Y  (Epiphanes)  .     .     .  205-181 
187-176  ) 

\  Ptolemy  YI  (Philometor)     .     .  181-146 
176-164  ) 


Antiochus  Epiphanes  was  the  son  of  Antiochus 
the  Great,  and  the  younger  brother  of  Seleu- 
cus lY,  whom  he  succeeded  on  the  throne. 
Seleucus  lY  was  murdered  by  a  usurper  named 
Heliodorus  ;  but  Antiochus  speedily  drove  out 
the  latter.  The  real  heir  to  the  throne  was 
Demetrius,  the  son  of  Seleucus  lY,  but  he  only 
obtained  the  kingdom  after  the  death  of  Antio- 
chus. Another  rival  of  Antiochus  is  said  to 
have  been  Ptolemy  YI,  of  Egypt,  whose 
mother,  Cleopatra,  was  a  daughter  of  Antiochus 
the  Great.  These  relationships  are  shown  in 
the  accompanying  table  : 

Antiochus  the  Great 


Seleucus  IV 


Demetrius 


Antiochus  Cleopatra, 

Epiphanes  m.  Ptolemy  V 

Ptolemy  VI 

The  ten  horns  are  variously  reckoned  as  in- 
cluding or  excluding  Alexander  the  Great,  and 
as  comprising  only  Syrian,  or  both  Syrian  and 
Egyptian  kings.  Including  Alexander,  the 
first  seven  may  be  Alexander  the  Great,  Seleu- 
cus I,  Antiochus  I,  Antiochus  II,  Seleucus  II, 
Seleucus  III,  Antiochus  III,  and  the  last 
three  Seleucus  lY  (whose  murder  may  have 
been  instigated  by  Antiochus  Epiphanes), 
Heliodorus,  and  Demetrius.  If  Alexander  be 
omitted,  the  first  seven  will  include  Seleucus  lY  ; 
while  the  last  three  may  be  Heliodorus,  Deme- 
trius, and  Ptolemy  YI.  The  number  ten  may 
be  a  round  one,  and  the  exact  interpretation  of 


the  ten  horns  is  of  less  consequence  than  the 
recognition  of  the  little  horn  as  Antiochus 
Epiphanes. 

25.  The  V.  exactly  describes  the  conduct  of 
Antiochus(lMacl-ii-50).  Laws]  RY' the  law.'  A 
time,  times,  andthedividingof  (RY'half  a')time] 
Three  years  and  a  half  appears  all  through  the 
book  of  Daniel  as  the  period  appointed  for  the 
tyranny  of  Antiochus.  It  is  to  be  regarded  as  a 
round  period  (the  half  of  seven  years),  denoting  a 
short  and  incomplete  interval  of  time.  27.  Of 
the  kingdom]  RY  '  of  the  kingdoms.'  People  of 
the  saints]  Here  and  in  v.  18  these  are  spoken 
of  as  the  rulers  of  the  future  kingdom  of  God. 
The  '  Son  of  man '  is  not  a  personal  king,  but 
a  symbolic  figure  for  God's  kingdom  in  its 
superiority  to  the  other  kingdoms  symbolised 
by  the  four  beasts.     28.   Hitherto]  RY  '  here.' 

The  table  on  next  page  sums  up  the  general 
interpretation  of  chs.  2,  7  adopted  in  the  notes. 

CHAPTER  8 

The  Yision  oe  the  Ram  and  the  He-Goat 
In  the  third  year  of  Belshazzar  Daniel  has  a 
vision  in  which  he  seems  to  stand  by  the  river 
Ulai,  near  Susa  (vv.  1,  2).  He  sees  a  two- 
horned  ram  which  behaves  aggi-essively  for  a 
time  (vv.  3,  4),  but  is  attacked  and  overthrown 
by  a  he-goat  which  comes  rapidly  from  the  W. 
(vv.  5-7).  The  he-goat  has  a  notable  horn 
(v.  6),  which  is  presently  broken,  and  instead 
of  which  four  others  come  up  (v.  8).  From 
one  of  these  there  springs  a  little  horn,  which 


538 


8.2 


DANIEL 


8.25 


Identification 

c.  2 

c.  7 

Compare  c.  8 

The    Babylonian    em- 
)ire,  or  Nebuchadnezzar 
limself 

The  head  of  gold 

The  lion 

The     '  Median '      em- 
pire, or  Belshazzar 

The   breast  and   arms 
of  silver 

The  bear 

The    Persian,    or    the 
Medo- Persian  empire 

The   Greek    empire  of 
Alexander  and  his  suc- 

The belly  and  thighs 
of  brass 

The  legs  of   u'on  and 
the  feet  of  iron  and  clay 

The  leopard 
The  beast  with  10  horns 

The  ram  (the  Medo- 
Persian  empire) 
The  he-goat 

cessors 

The     Messianic    king- 
dom 

The  stone  cut  from  the 
mountain. 

The   human  figure  'a 
son  of  man ' 

prospers  greatly,  and  behaves  arrogantly  and 
wickedly,  especially  against  the  sanctuary  and 
the  continual  burnt  offering  (vv.  9-1:2).  An 
angel  proclaims  that  its  oppressions  will  last 
for  2,300  evenings  and  mornings  (vv.  13,  14). 
The  angel  Gabriel  then  explains  the  vision  to 
Daniel  (vv.  15,  16).  It  relates  to  '  the  time  of 
the  end '  (vv.  17-19).  The  ram  is  the  Medo- 
Persian  empire  (v.  20),  and  the  he-goat  the 
Greek  empire  (v.  21).  The  notable  horn  is  the 
first  Greek  king  (Alexander  the  Great),  and 
the  four  horns  which  succeed  it  are  the  rulers 
of  the  four  divisions  of  his  empire  (vv.  20,  21). 
The  little  horn  is  a  king  of  one  of  these  divisions, 
and  the  description  plainly  points  to  Antiochus 
Epiphanes.  Gabriel  for^etells  his  various  acts 
of  oppression  and  blasphemy  and  his  sudden 
overthrow  (vv.  23-25).  The  last  two  vv.  con- 
tain Gabriel's  parting  message  to  Daniel,  and 
describe  the  effect  of  the  vision  on  the  latter 
(vv.  26,  27). 

2.  A  vision]  R  V '  the  vision.'  Shushan . .  the 
palace]  Susa,  the  capital  of  the  Persian  kings 
(Nehli  Esthl2).  Elam]  a  region  WW.  of 
Persia  proper,  frequently  mentioned  in  OT. 
(Gnl02--^  Isallii  Jer4934,  etc.).  Ulai]  the 
Eulseus,  a  large  canal  in  the  vicinity  of  Susa  : 
cp.  the  '  Chebar  '  in  Ezekiel's  vision  (Ezk  1 3), 
and  the  'Hiddekel'  (lO-i).  8.  For  it]  RV  'in- 
stead of  it.'  9.  Pleasant  (RV  'glorious')  land] 
Palestine. 

10.  The  host  of  heaven]  the  stars,  symbolis- 
ing in  Daniel  the  righteous  Israelites  (12  3), 
some  of  whom  were  slain  by  Antiochus :  see 
V.  24  1  Mac  12^.30, 57, 03). 

11.  The  prince  of  the  host]  God.  And  by 
him,  etc.]  RV  '  And  it  took  away  from  him ' 
(God)  '  the  continual  burnt  offering  '  :  see  1 1  ^i 
1  Mac  1  '*5>  59.  The  place  of  his  sanctuary  was 
cast  down]  see  1  Mac  1  ^i--'3>  39  3  45  4  38.  12.  The 
rendering  of  this  v.  is  uncertain.  RV  '  And 
the  host '  (of  the  Israelites)  '  was  given  over 
to  it '  (the  little  horn),  '  through  transgi-ession  ' 
(the  apostasy  of  the  heathen  party  in  Jerusa- 
lem, 1  Mac  111-15).  Practised]  RV  'did  its 
pleasure.'     Similarly  in  v.  24.     13.  Saint]  RV 


'  holy  one,' angel :  see  4i3.     Transgression  of 
desolation]  see  9^7  1131  1211  lMaclH59. 

14.  Days]  RV  '  evenings  and  mornings,' 
1,150  days.  The  period  between  1  Mac  1  ^4  and 
1  Mac  452, 53^  when  the  Temple  was  cleansed, 
was  3  years  and  10  days.  The  1,150  days 
may  be  reckoned  from  a  slightly  earlier  start- 
ing-point in  the  profane  career  of  Antiochus. 

16.  Gabriel]  the  first  mention  in  Scrijature 
of  an  angelic  name.  17.  At  the  time  of  the 
end,  etc.]  RV  '  The  vision  belongeth  to  the 
time  of  the  end.'  This  defines  the  limit  of 
Daniel's  outlook  upon  the  future.  The  termina- 
tion of  this  vision  is  therefore  that  of  all  the 
visions  in  the  book.  18.  Was  in]  RV  'fell 
into  ':  see  Ezk2i.2.  19.  Last  end]  RV  '  latter 
time.'  Indignation]  the  troubles  of  Israel 
are  tokens  of  God's  displeasure:  see  1136 
1  Mac  1 64.  At  the  time  appointed,  etc.]  R V  '  It 
belongeth  to  the  appointed  time  of  the  end.' 

20.  Kings  of  Media  and  Persia]  The  Medo- 
Persian  empire  is  symbolised  here  by  one 
animal,  but  its  two  portions  are  distinguished, 
and  the  Persian  rule  is  regarded  as  succeeding 
the  Median,  since  the  higher  of  the  two  horns 
comes  up  last  (v.  3).  21.  The  king  of  Grecia 
(RV  '  Greece  ')]  '  King  '  is  evidently  used 
loosely  for  '  kingdom '  (as  in  7 1'^),  since  the 
kings  are  particularised  as  horns  in  what 
follows.     The  first  king]  Alexander  the  Great. 

22.  Four  kingdoms]  those  of  Alexander's  four 
generals — Macedonia,Thrace,Egypt, and  Syria: 
see  Intro.  In  his  power]  RV  '  with  his  power.' 
These  kingdoms  were  severally  inferior  to 
Alexander's  empire. 

23.  A  king  of  fierce  countenance]  Antiochus 
Epiphanes.  Understanding  dark  sentences] 
skilled  in  deceitful  intrigues.  24.  Not  by  his 
own  power]  This  rendering  may  mean  '  by 
God's  permission,'  or,  '  by  craft  rather  than 
force.'  But  RM  has,  'not  with  his'  (Alex- 
ander's) '  power,'  as  in  v.  22.  Mighty]  RV 
'  mighty  ones.'  25.  By  peace]  RV  '  in  their 
security.'  Some  of  the  worst  outrages  of 
Antiochus  upon  the  Jews  had  this  treacherous 
character:     see     1121,24     1  Mac  129,  so.       xhe 


539 


8.  26 


DANIEL 


9.  S5 


Prince    of    princes]    God.      Broken    without 

hand]   destroyed  by  God's  power  :  cp.  2  34, 36_ 
26.    Evening  .  .  morning]    E.V    '  evenings  .  . 

mornings.'     The  reference  is  to  v.  14. 

Wherefore]  RY  'but.'     Shall  he  for  many 

days]  RV  '  belongeth  to  many  days  to  come,' 

to  a  future  remote  from  Daniel's  time. 

CHAPTER  9 

The  Seventy  Weeks 
In  the  first  year  of  Darius  the  Mede, 
Daniel,  studying  the  prophetical  books,  finds 
that  Jeremiah  has  predicted  that  the  desolation 
of  Jerusalem  will  last  for  seventy  years 
(vv.  1,  2).  He  prays,  confessing  the  great 
sin  of  Israel,  and  entreating  God  to  have 
mercy  on  His  people  (vv.  3-19).  Thereupon 
the  angel  Gabriel  explains  to  him  (vv.  20-24) 
that  Jeremiah's  seventy  years  are  seventy 
'weeks,'  or  'sevens,'  of  years  (  =  490  years), 
which  are  to  be  made  up  of  (7  +  62  + 1)  '  weeks.' 
The  seven  '  weeks '  begin  with  '  the  going 
forth  of  the  commandment  to  restore  and 
to  build  Jerusalem,'  and  end  with  '  the  anointed 
one,  the  prince,'  and  the  sixty-two  '  weeks ' 
include  the  building  of  the  city  in  troublous 
times  (v.  25).  The  events  of  the  last  '  week ' 
are  more  minutely  described.  An  anointed 
one  is  cut  off,  and  a  hostile  prince  destroys 
the  city  and  the  sanctuary  (v.  26).  He  makes 
a  covenant  with  many  for  the  one  'week'  ; 
for  the  half  of  the  '  week '  he  makes  the 
sacrifice  and  oblation  to  cease,  an  '  abomination 
of  desolation '  appears,  and  finally  the  desolator 
comes  to  a  sudden  end  (v.  27). 

Interpretation.  The  interpretation  of  this 
c.  is  not  without  difficulty  on  any  view  of  the 
book.  Its  explanation  of  the  70  years 
(Jer25ii'i2  29^0)  is  of  course  an  artificial  one. 
Jeremiah  meant  that  the  dominion  of  Baby- 
lon over  all  the  nations  of  Western  Asia 
would  last  for  70  years  from  the  fourth  year 
of  Jehoiakim  (605  B.C.)  (Jer25i.ii),  70 
years  being  a  round  number  for  two  genera- 
tions :  cp.  the  40  years  of  Ezk4«  29ii.i3.  In 
this  c.  the  meaning  is  extended  so  as  to  refer 
to  the  humiliation  of  Jerusalem  under  a  long 
succession  of  heathen  powers.  There  are  two 
main  interpretations  to  be  considered.  The 
first  places  the  beginning  of  the  last  '  week '  in 
the  time  of  Christ,  and  starts  in  its  reckoning 
of  the  70  '  weeks '  from  the  mission  of  Ezra 
(458  B.C.)  or  that  of  Nehemiah  (444  B.C.).  But 
though  the  end  of  the  70  'weeks'  is  to  be 
placed  490  instead  of  70  years  after  Jeremiah's 
time,  yet  the  beginning  of  this  period  ought 
to  coincide  more  closely  with  the  beginning  of 
Jeremiah's  70  years.  And  apart  from  other 
difficulties  this  view  fails  to  give  any  clear 
explanation  of  the  different  events  of  the  last 
'week.'  The  death  of  Christ  abolished  the 
OT.  sacrifices  not  merely  for  '  half  a  week ' 


but  for  ever,  while  the  destruction  of  Jerusa- 
lem (70  A.D.)  was  much  more  than  seven  years 
(one  '  week ')  after  the  crucifixion.  The 
second  interpretation  finds  in  the  events  of 
the  last  '  week '  another  picture  of  the  last 
seven  years  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  and  in 
the  first  seven  '  weeks '  the  time  (49  years) 
between  the  captivity  (586  B.C.)  and  the  edict 
of  Cyrus  (538  B.C.).  "That  the  Jews  already 
reckoned  Jeremiah's  70  years  from  the  date 
of  the  final  captivity  is  shown  by  2  Ch  36  20, 21 
The  difficulty  of  this  view  relates  to  the  62 
'  weeks.'  The  time  from  the  edict  of  Cyrus 
(538  B.C.)  to  the  beginning  of  the  last  seven 
years  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes  (171  B.C.)  is 
only  367  years,  which  is  less  than  62  '  weeks ' 
(434  years)  by  67  years.  To  this  it  may  be 
replied  either  that  the  62  '  weeks  '  are  merely 
a  broken  period,  not  to  be  reckoned  exactly, 
or  that  the  writer  of  Daniel  was  not  in  a 
position  to  know  the  precise  length  of  this 
interval.  Josephus  and  other  writers  make 
similar  errors  in  the  chronology  of  that  time. 

I.  Darius]  see  on  5^1.  Chaldeans]  Here 
in  the  national  sense.  2.  Books]  RV  '  the 
books,'  evidently  referring  to  a  collection  of 
sacred  writings.  The  Canon  of  the  Prophets 
was  not  completed  at  the  time  assigned  to 
Daniel. 

4-19.  The  prayer  of  Daniel  contains  many 
expressions  found  elsewhere  in  the  OT., 
which  may  be  traced  by  the  aid  of  a  reference 
Bible.  21.  Being  caused  to  fly  swiftly]  RM 
'  being  sore  wearied.'     For  Gabriel  see  8^^. 

24.  Seventy  weeks]  or, 'sevens' — 490  years. 
The  expressions  that  follow  certainly  form 

a  true  description  of  the  results  of  the  sacrifice 
of  Christ,  but  their  terms  are  general,  and  they 
contain  nothing  that  is  not  included  in  the 
pictures  of  the  Messianic  salvation  which  all  the 
prophets  connected  with  the  restoration  of  the 
Jews  to  God's  favour  :  see  Isa43  32i"'i7  45  ^'^ 
60-1.  To  finish  the  transgression,  and  to  make 
an  end  of  sins]  to  bring  Israel's  time  of  guilt 
and  punishment  to  an  end.  To  bring  in  ever- 
lasting righteousness]  to  introduce  a  new  era 
of  obedience.  To  seal  up  the  vision  and  pro- 
phecy] read,  '  to  seal '  (ratify)  '  vision  and  pro- 
phecy,' to  fulfil  the  anticipations  of  all  the 
prophetic  books.  To  anoint  the  most  Holy 
(RV  '  holy  '  )]  to  consecrate  a  most  holy  thing, 
an  altar  or  a  sanctuary. 

25.  The  going  forth  of  the  commandment, 
etc.]  Jeremiah's  prophecy  of  restoration  (Jer 
2910-14  3138-40)^  viewed  as  delivered  at  the  time 
of  the  captivity.  The  Messiah,  the  Prince] 
RV  '  the  anointed  one,  the  prince.'  Probably 
Cyrus,  who  is  called  God's  anointed  in  Isa45i. 
Possibly  Joshua  the  high  priest,  or  Zerubbabel 
(Ezr32  Hag  2  20-23  Zech  31-10  gs-is).  Seven 
weeks,  and  threescore  and  two  weeks]  read, 
'  seven  weeks  ;  and  for  threescore  and  two  weeks, 


540 


9.26 


DANIEL 


11.  2 


etc.  The  7  '  weeks '  refer  to  what  precedes,  the 
62  '  weeks '  to  what  follows.  The  street .  . 
times]  RV  '  it '  (the  city)  '  shall  be  built  again, 
with  street  and  moat,  even  in  troublous  times ' 
(the  days  of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah). 

26.  After  threescore,  etc.]  RV  '  after  the 
threescore,'  etc.  Messiah]  RV  '  the  '  (better, 
'  an ') '  anointed  one.'  A  different  person  from 
the  '  anointed  one '  of  v.  25  is  evidently  meant. 
The  one  appears  at  the  end  of  7,  and  the  other 
at  the  end  of  69  'weeks.'  The  reference  is 
probably  to  the  high  priest  Onias  III,  who  was 
deposed  by  Antiochus  in  176  B.C.,  and  murdered 
by  a  rival  in  1 7 1  B.C.  (2  Mac  4  7-^.  23-27, 32-35).  But 
not  for  himself]  RV  '  and  shall  have  nothing,' 
an  obscure  phrase,  meaning  perhaps, '  shall  have 
no  legitimate  successor.'  The  prince  that  shall 
come]  Antiochus  Epiphanes.     See  on  8 1^. 

The  end  thereof]  RV  '  his  end.'  Unto  the 
end  of  the  war]  RV  '  Even  unto  the  end '  (see 
817,19)  'shall  be  war.' 

27.  Confirm  the  covenant]  RV  '  make  a  firm 
covenant.'  There  was  a  party  among  the  Jews 
which  supported  the  heathenising  policy  of 
Antiochus  :  see  1  Mac  1  i^-i^.  One  week]  The 
last  seven  years  of  the  reign  of  Antiochus 
(171-164  B.C.).  In  the  midst  (RV  'for  the 
half ')  of  the  week]  The  same  period  of  3-^ 
years  elsewhere  assigned  to  the  profanations 
of  Antiochus  :  see  T^^  81'^  12  7.  Sacrifice  and 
.  .  oblation]  see  on  8  n,  and  cp.  1 1 3i  12 11.  For 
the  overspreading  of  abominations,  etc.]  A 
slight  change  in  the  Heb.  gives  the  clearer 
sense  '  and  in  its  place  shall  be  the  abomination 
that  maketh  desolate  '  :  see  on  8  ^3,  and  cp.l  1 3i 
1211.     Desolate]   RV  '  desolator,' Antiochus. 

CHAPTERS  10-12 
The  Final  Vision 
These  chs.  form  a  connected  whole,  with 
three  sub-divisions.  Chs.  IQi-lliare  intro- 
ductory; chs.  11 2-12  4  contain  a  detailed 
account  of  future  events  down  to  the  '  time 
of  the  end.'  This  time  is  further  defined  in 
the  concluding  section,  c.  12S-i3. 

(a)  Introduction  (chs.  IQi-lli) 

In  the  third  year  of  Cyras,  after  three  weeks 
of  mourning  and  fasting,  Daniel  has  a  vision 
by  the  river  Hiddekel  of  a  glorious  angelic 
being  (vv.  1-10),  who  addresses  him  in  en- 
couraging words  (vv.  11,  12).  This  angel  has 
been  delayed  by  a  conflict  with  the  guardian 
angel  of  Persia,  in  which  he  has  been  helped 
by  Michael,  the  guardian  angel  of  the  Jews. 
He  is  about  to  return  to  the  conflict,  and 
will  afterwards  have  to  oppose  the  guardian 
angel  of  Greece  (vv.  13-21).  Michael  has 
formerly  been  indebted  to  the  speaker  for 
help  (111). 

This  conception  of  guardian  or  patron  angels 
of  the  different  nations  is  not  found  elsewhere 


in  the  OT.,  but  is  prominent  in  the  book  of 
Enoch  (chs.  6-15). 

1.  The  third  year  of  Cyrus]  536  B.C.,  the 
latest  date  mentioned  in  Daniel's  life.  But  the 
time  appointed  ivas  long]  RV  '  Even  a  great 
warfare.'  4.  Hiddekel]  the  Tigris  (Gn2i4): 
see  on  8  2.  7.  Cp.  Ac97.  9.  See  8  is.  11.  Cp. 
Ezk2i.  12.  For  thy  words]  RV  'for  thy 
words'  sake.' 

13.  Prince]  guardian  angel  :  cp.  vv.  20,  21, 
121.  One  and  twenty  days]  the  period  of 
Daniel's  fasting  (v.  2).  The  conflict  with  the 
angel  of  Persia  explains  the  speaker's  delay. 

Michael]  a  second  angelic  name.  In  Daniel 
Michael  is  the  guardian  angel  of  the  Jews 
(v.  21,  121).  One  of  the  chief  princes]  a 
distinction  in  rank  among  the  angels  is  here 
recognised,  which  other  apocalyptic  books  carry 
out  in  great  detail.  In  Jude  v.  9  (in  a  quota- 
tion from  the  Assumption  of  Moses)  Michael 
is  called  an  'archangel,'  and  in  Rev  12 ^  he 
appears  as  a  leader  among  the  angels. 

Remained]  RM  '  was  not  needed.'  The 
arrival  of  Michael  enabled  the  speaker  to  come 
to  Daniel. 

20.  Grecia]  RV  '  Greece.'  The  interests 
of  the  Jews  would  have  to  be  maintained 
against  the  Persian  and  Greek  powers  in  suc- 
cession. 21.  Scripture]  RV  writing,'  the  book 
of  destiny.  In  these  things]  RV  '  against 
these  '  (the  '  princes  '  of  Persia  and  Greece) 

C.  II.     I.   Darius  the  Mede]   see  on  5^i. 

Him]  Michael. 

(b)  History  of  Persia,  Greece,  Syria,  and 
Egypt  (chs.  112-121) 

The  angel  describes  the  reigns  of  the  first 
Persian  kings  up  to  the  Greek  wars  of  Xerxes 
I  (112).  Then  he  passes  to  the  conquests  of 
Alexander  the  Great  (v.  3)  and  the  subdivi- 
sion of  his  empire  (v.  4).  Next  follows  a  very 
minute  account  of  various  episodes  in  the 
history  of  the  Greek  kingdoms  of  Syria  and 
Egypt  (the  kings  of  the  N.  and  S.  respectively, 
vv.  5-20).  Finally  we  have  a  full  description 
of  the  career  and  fate  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes 
(vv.  21-45),  and  a  picture  of  the  troubles 
which  will  follow  his  death  and  will  usher  in 
the  resurrection  and  the  reward  of  the 
righteous  (121-4). 

It  has  been  supposed  by  some  that  vv.  36-45, 
on  account  of  their  resemblance  to  7  25  9  26, 27^ 
refer  not  to  Antiochus,  but  to  Antichrist,  but 
this  view  does  violence  to  the  plain  continuity 
of  the  sense.  The  resemblances  only  go  to 
prove  that  the  other  passages  allude  not  to 
Antichrist  but  to  Antiochus. 

2.  Yet  three  kings]  in  succession  to  Cyrus 
who  is  already  reigning  (lOi).  The  three 
are  Cambyses,  Darius  I  (Hystaspes),  and  Xerxes 
I  (Ahasuerus).  The  fourth]  including  Cyrus  I, 
is  Xerxes  I,  who  was  a  king  of  vast  wealth, 


541 


11.3 


DANIEL 


11.  20 


and  prepared  a  great  army  and  navy  for  the 
invasion  of  Greece  (Herod,  vii,  20-29).  The 
expedition  was  an  utter  failure,  and  the  battles 
of  Thermopylae  and  Salamis  (480  B.C.)  and 
those  of  Platsea  and  Mycale  (489  B.C.)  are 
among  the  most  glorious  events  in  G-reek 
history.  3.  A  mighty  king]  Alexander  the 
Great  (333-322  B.C.).  4.  The  partition  of 
Alexander's  empire  is  described  :  see  c.  8^-22. 

5-20.  Along  with  the  notes  on  these  vv.  the 
table  of  Syrian  and  Egyptian  kings  on  p.  538 
should  be  consulted. 

5.  The  king  of  the  south]  Ptolemy  I  (Soter), 
the  first  Egyptian  king.  One  of  his  princes] 
Seleucus  I  (Nicator),  the  fii-st  Syrian  king,  was 
originally  an  oflEicer  under  Ptolemy  I.  He] 
Seleucus.     Above  him]  above  Ptolemy. 

6.  The  king's  daughter  of  the  south]  Bere- 
nice, the  daughter  of  Ptolemy  II  (Philadelphus) 
was  given  in  marriage  to  Antiochus  II  (Theos), 
the  king  of  the  north,  who  divorced  his  former 
wife  Laodice.  On  the  death  of  Ptolemy  II 
Antiochus  divorced  Berenice  and  took  Laodice 
back.  Laodice  poisoned  Antiochus,  and  their 
son  Seleucus  (afterwards  Callinicus)  murdered 
Berenice  and  her  child.  She  shall  not  retain  .  . 
she  shall  be  given  up]  allusions  to  the  fate  of 
Berenice.  Neither  shall  he  stand]  referring 
to  the  murder  of  Antiochus  by  Laodice.  He 
that  begat  her,  and  he,  etc.]  read, '  he  that  begat 
her  and  strengthened  her. '  Ptolemy  II  is  meant. 

7.  8.  Ptolemy  III  (Euergetes),  the  brother 
of  Berenice,  in  revenge  for  his  sister's  death, 
invaded  Syria  (then  ruled  by  Seleucus  II,  Calli- 
nicus), captured  Seleucia,  and  returned  to 
Egypt  with  much  spoil.  7.  A  branch  of  her 
(Berenice's)  roots]  her  brother  Ptolemy  III. 

In  his  estate  (EY  'place')]  in  place  of 
Ptolemy  II.  The  fortress]  Seleucia.  8.  Con- 
tinue more  years  than]  RV  '  refrain  some 
years  from.'  9.  Seleucus  II  (Callinicus)  in- 
vaded Egypt  in  242  B.C.,  but  had  to  retreat. 

So  the  king  of  the  south,  etc.]  RV  '  And 
he  '  (Seleucus  II)  '  shall  come  into  the  realm 
of  the  king  of  the  south  '  (Ptolemy  III). 

10-12.  Seleucus  II  (Callinicus)  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  two  sons,  Seleucus  III  (Ceraunus) 
and  Antiochus  III  (the  Great).  The  war  de- 
scribed was  really  conducted  by  the  latter. 
After  some  preliminary  campaigns,  Antiochus 
III  was  defeated  by  Ptolemy  IV  (Philopator) 
at  Raphia  (217  B.C.). 

ID.  But  his  sons]  Seleucus  III  and  Antio- 
chus III,  the  sons  of  Seleucus  II.  And  oiir^ 
RV  '  which.'  Then  shall  he]  RV  '  and  they 
shall.'  His  (Ptolemy's)  fortress]  probably 
Gaza.  II.  And  he  (Antiochus)  shall  set  forth 
.  .  into  his  (Ptolemy's)  hand]  alluding  to  the 
battle  of  Raphia.      12.  Refers  to  Ptolemy  IV. 

13,  14.  Twelve  years  later  Antiochus  joined 
with  Philip,  king  of  Macedon,  in  an  attack  on 
Ptolemy  V  (Epiphanes),  the  son  of  Ptolemy  IV. 


13.  After  certain  years]  The  actual  interval 
was  12  years.  14.  Many]  referring  to  the 
Macedonian  and  other  allies  of  Antiochus 
III.  The  robbers,  etc.]  RV  '  the  children  of 
the  violent  among  thy  people.'  The  allusion 
seems  to  be  to  some  faction  among  the  Jews, 
which  took  the  side  of  Syria,  and  thus  helped 
indirectly  to  '  fulfil  the  vision  '  by  establishing 
the  power  afterwards  abused  by  Antiochus 
Epiphanes. 

15,  16.  Scopas,  a  general  of  Ptolemy  V, 
was  shut  up  by  v^jitiochus  III  in  Sidon,  and 
compelled  to  sm-render  after  a  siege  (198  B.C.) 
Antiochus  then  overran  Palestine  and  menaced 
Egypt. 

15.  The  most  fenced  cities]  RV  '  a  well- 
fenced  city,'  Sidon. 

16.  He  that  cometh]  Antiochus  III.  Against 
him]  against  Ptolemy  V.  The  glorious  land] 
Palestine  :  see  8  9.  So  in  v.  41.  Which  .  .  con- 
sumed] RV  •  and  in  his  handshall  be  destruction.' 

17.  Antiochus  III  now  gave  his  daughter 
Cleopatra  in  marriage  to  Ptolemy  V.  And 
upright  ones  with  him  ;  thus  shall  he  do]  read, 
with  LXX,  '  but  shall  make  an  agreement  with 
him '  (Ptolemy  V). 

Corrupting  her]  better,  '  to  destroy  it.' 
Antiochus  in  this  alliance  aimed  at  the  ulti- 
mate conquest  of  Egypt. 

18.  19.  Antiochus  III  next  overran  Asia 
Minor  and  invaded  Greece.  This  brought  him 
into  contact  with  the  Romans,  by  whose 
general,  Lucius  Cornelius  Scipio,  he  was  de- 
feated at  Magnesia  in  Asia  Minor.  Three 
years  later  he  was  slain  in  Persia  (187  B.C.). 

18.  The  isles]  RM  '  coastlands,'  the  coun- 
tries on  the  shore  of  the  ^gean  Sea. 

A  prince  for  his  own  behalf]  RM  '  a  captain,' 
the  Roman  general  Scipio.  Without  his  own 
reproach,  etc,  ]  R V  '  Yea,  moreover,  he  ' 
(Scipio)  '  shall  cause  his  reproach '  (the  insults 
of  Antiochus  to  the  Romans)  'to  turn  upon 
him.' 

19.  Fort  (RV  'fortresses  ')  of  his  own  land] 
After  his  defeat  at  Magnesia  Antiochus  with- 
drew to  Syria. 

20.  Antiochus  III  was  succeeded  by  Seleu- 
cus IV  (Philopator),  who  sent  his  chief  minister 
Heliodorus  to  take  possession  of  the  Temple 
treasures  at  Jerusalem  (2  Mac  3).  Heliodorus 
murdered  Seleucus  IV  and  attempted  to  usurp 
the  kingdom,  but  was  dispossessed  by  Antiochus 
IV  (Epiphanes),  the  brother  of  Seleucus. 

Estate]  RV  '  place  ' — in  place  of  Antiochus 
III.  A  raiser  of  taxes  hi]  RV  '  one '  (Seleucus 
IV)  '  that  shall  cause  an  exactor  '  (Heliodorus) 
'  to  pass  through.'  The  glory  of  the  (Syrian) 
kingdom]  Palestine:  see  v.  16. 

21-45.  Antiochus  IV  (Epiphanes)  (176-164 

B.C.). 

21-24.  -^  general  account  of  Antiochus, 
describing  his  accession,  his  deceitful  policy, 


642 


11.  21 


DANIEL 


11.44 


his  hostility  to  the  Jewish  religion,  his  pros- 
perity and  his  ambitious  plans. 

21.  Vile]  EV  'contemptible.'  Shall  not 
give]  E,V  '  had  not  given.'  Though  Antiochus 
seized  the  kingdom,  the  real  heir  was  Deme- 
trius, the   son  of  Seleucus  IV:  see  on  T^-^. 

Peaceably]  RT  '  in  time  of  security '  ;  so  in 
V.  24  :  cp.  8^3.  22.  They]  the  opponents  of 
Antiochus.  The  prince  of  the  covenant]  the 
high  priest  Onias  III,  deposed  by  Antiochus  in 
175  B.C.  :  see  on  926. 

25-27.  The  first  campaigns  of  Antiochus  in 
Egypt.  The  king  of  Egypt  was  now  Ptolemy 
YI  (Philometor),  the  son  of  Ptolemy  V  and 
Cleopatra  (see  on  v.  17),  and  thus  the  nephew 
of  Antiochus.  In  170  B.C.  Ptolemy  was  pre- 
paring to  recover  Palestine,  but  was  attacked 
by  Antiochus,  who  defeated  and  captured  him. 
Physcon,  the  brother  of  Ptolemy  VI,  was  pro- 
claimed king  by  the  Egyptians,  and  Antiochus 
in  169  B.C.  again  made  war  on  Egypt,  pretend- 
ing to  act  in  the  interest  of  Ptolemy  VI.  whose 
friend  he  now  appeared  to  be. 

26.  The  defeat  of  Ptolemy  VI  in  170  B.C. 
is  traced  to  the  treachery  of  his  subjects. 

Overflow]  rather,  '  be  swept  away.' 

27.  Describes  the  friendship  which  was 
afterwards  professed  between  Antiochus  and 
Ptolemy,  but  which  was  insincere  on  both 
sides. 

28.  Returning  from  Egypt  after  his  first 
campaign  Antiochus  heard  of  disturbances  at 
Jerusalem,  due  to  the  struggles  of  two  rivals 
for  the  office  of  high  priest.  He  came  to  the 
city,  slew  many  of  the  Jews,  entered  the 
Temple,  and  carried  away  the  greater  part  of 
its  sacred  vessels  and  other  treasures  to  Anti- 
och  (1  Mac  1 20-28  2  Mac  5  n-i^). 

29.  30**.  Another  Egyptian  campaign  of 
Antiochus.  This  was  caused  by  the  news  that 
Ptolemy  VI  and  his  brother  Physcon  had  been 
reconciled.  The  Romans,  however,  interfered. 
Their  legate  Q.  Popilius  Lgenas  met  Antiochus 
four  miles  from  Alexandria  and  demanded  the 
recall  of  his  forces.  When  Antiochus  said 
that  he  would  take  time  to  consider,  the  Ro- 
man legate  drew  a  circle  round  him  in  the  sand 
with  his  staff,  and  insisted  on  his  replying 
before  he  should  leave  the  spot.  Antiochus 
then  yielded  and  withdrew  (168  B.C.). 

29.  As  the  former,  etc.]  RV'in  the  latter 
time  as  it  was  in  the  former.'  30.  Ships  of 
Chittim]  the  Roman  fleet.     Chittim  is  Cyprus. 

30^-35.  The  persecution  of  the  Jews  by 
Antiochus.  After  the  failure  of  his  Egyptian 
campaign  he  vented  his  disappointment  and 
anger  on  the  Jews,  who  resisted  his  attempts 
to  introduce  heathen  worship  among  them 
(1  Mac  129-64).  In  particular  he  abolished  the 
Temple  sacrifices  (1  Mac  1*5),  and  on  the 
15th  of  Chisleu  (December),  168  B.C.,  he  caused 
a  small  heathen  altar   to   be  set  up  on  the 


great  altar  of  burnt  offering  (IMacl^'*). 
This  altar  was  used  for  sacrifice  on  the  25th 
of  the  same  month  (1  Mac  1^9).  The  severest 
measures  were  taken  against  those  who 
adhered  to  the  practices  of  the  Jewish  religion. 
30.  Intelligence  with]  RV  '  regard  unto.' 
Antiochus  favoured  the  apostate  Jews  who 
supported  his  policy:  see  927.  31.  See  S^i'^^ 
927.  32.  The  people,  etc.]  referring  to  the 
heroic  resistance  of  the  Jews,  even  to  death 
(1  Mac  162-64).  33.  Understand]  RV  'be 
wise.'     Similarly  in  v.  35  :    see  123'io. 

34.  A  little  help]  the  Maccabsean  revolt 
(1  Mac  2-4).  Many  ..  flatteries]  The  strict 
Jewish  party  had  insincere  adherents  of  its 
own.  35.  The  martyrs  included  leaders 
whose  death  tested  and  developed  the  faithful- 
ness of  their  followers.  The  time  of  the  end] 
see  817,19  926. 

36-39.  The  blasphemous  pride  of  Antiochus. 
36.  According  to  his  will]  like  Alexander 
the  Great  (8-*  11^)  and  Antiochus  the  Great 
(1116).  And  magnify  himself,  etc.]  Antiochus 
IV  called  himself  on  his  coins  Bcmleus  Antio- 
chus TTieas  Epiphauefi  ('  King  Antiochus,  God 
Manifest').  The  indignation]  of  God  against 
Israel  :  see  8  19.  That  that  (RV  '  which  ')  is 
determined]  see  927.  37.  The  God  (RV 
'  gods ')  of  his  fathers]  All  the  Greek  kings  of 
Syria  were  heathens,  but  Antiochus  honoured 
the  Greek  Zeus  (Jupiter)  more  than  the 
Syrian  deities  of  his  forefathers.  The  desire 
of  women]  probably  the  Syrian  god  Thammuz, 
who  was  specially  worshipped  by  women 
(Ezk8i4)  38.  In  his  estate  (RV  'place')] 
instead  of  Thammuz.  The  God  (RV  'god')  of 
forces  (RV  '  fortresses ')]  probably  Zeus 
(Jupiter),  to  whom  Antiochus  built  a  temple  at 
Daphne  near  Antioch.  39.  Whom  he  shall 
acknowledge,  etc.]  RV  'Whosoever  acknow- 
ledgeth  him  he  will  increase.'  Gain]  RV  '  a 
price.'     Offices  were  disposed  of  for  bribery. 

40-43.  A  final  Egyptian  campaign  of  Antio- 
chus. He  invades  Egypt  with  a  great  army 
and  navy.  Palestine  is  overrun  and  many 
countries  are  overthrown,  but  Edom,  Moab, 
and  Ammon  escape.  The  treasures  of  Egypt 
are  seized,  and  the  conquest  extends  west- 
wards to  Libya  and  southwards  to  Ethiopia. 
Nothing  is  known  of  this  expedition  from 
contemporary  historians. 

40.  At  the  time  of  the  end]  This  expedition 
introduces  the  historical  crisis  which  terminates 
Daniel's  prospect  of  the  future. 

44,  45.  The  sudden  end  of  Antiochus.  He 
is  recalled  from  Egypt  by  tidings  of  trouble 
in  his  Asiatic  dominions,  returns  in  anger  and 
encamps  between  the  Mediterranean  and  Jeru- 
salem, and  perishes  helplessly.  The  death  of 
Antiochus  actually  took  place  at  Tabse  in 
Persia  (164  B.C.).  The  vague  account  of  his 
end  is  in  striking  contrast  with  the  minute 


543 


11.45 


DANIEL— HOSEA 


mxRO. 


historical  description  of  the  rest  of  his  reign, 
and  suggests  that  the  author  is  here  writing  of 
the  future  and  not  of  the  past.  For  the  bear- 
ing of  this  on  the  date  of  the  book  see  Intro. 

45.  Seas  in]  RV  '  sea  and.' 

C.  12.  1-4.  These  vv.  describe  the  final  tribu- 
lation of  Israel  which  follows  the  death  of  Antio- 
chus  Epiphanes,  the  deliverance  of  the  faithful 
Jews,  the  subsequent  resurrection  of  the  dead, 
both  good  and  evil,  and  the  glorious  reward  of 
the  righteous,  especially  of  their  eminent 
leaders.  The  last-mentioned  ideals  are  part 
of  the  Christian  faith,  but,  in  accordance  with 
the  limited  view  of  all  OT.  prophecy,  they 
are  presented  in  connexion  with  the  Jewish 
race,  and  without  reference  to  their  distance 
from  the  prophet's  horizon. 

1.  Michael]  see  on  10 1^.  His  intervention 
at  this  point  indicates  a  special  crisis  in  the 
fortunes  of  the  Jews.     The  book]  cp.  7 10. 

2.  Many]  The  resurrection  contemplated 
is  not  universal,  though  it  will  include  both 
the  righteous  and  the  wicked.  3.  They  that 
be  wise]  see  1 1  ^3. 35.  4.  Knowledge]  better, 
with  LXX,  '  evils.'     The  last  half  of  the  v. 


sums  up  the  confusions  and  calamities  of  the 
long  period  which  has  been  described,  between 
Daniel's  days  and  the  '  time  of  the  end.' 

(c)  Concluding  Explanations  (125-13) 

The  angel  who  has  spoken  throughout  the 
vision  has  now  two  companions,  one  on  either 
side  of  the  river.  In  reply  to  one  of  these  he 
states  that  'a  time,  times,  and  an  half  shall 
elapse  before  the  end  to  which  the  vision 
points.  In  answer  to  Daniel  he  explains  that 
from  the  taking  away  of  the  daily  sacrifice 
and  the  setting  up  of  the  abomination  of 
desolation  1,290  days  are  first  to  be  reckoned, 
and  then  45  days  more,  making  in  all  1,385 
days.  The  1,290  days  seem  to  correspond  to 
the  general  distress  under  Antiochus  Epiph- 
anes, and  the  45  days  to  the  further  period  of 
tribulation  spoken  of  in  v.  1.  As  the  author 
is  here  writing  of  the  actual  future  no  exact 
correspondence  of  these  numbers  with  histori- 
cal dates  is  to  be  looked  for. 

9.  repeats  v.  4,  and  10.  repeats  1135. 

10.  The  wise]  RV  '  they  that  be  wise,'  as  in 
1133,35  123.     II.  See  811.13  927  1131, 


HOSEA 


INTRODUCTION 


I.  The  Man  and  his  Message.  The  book 
of  Hosea  is  for  several  reasons  one  of  excep- 
tional interest.  With  that  of  Amos,  his  older 
contemporary,  it  marks  the  beginning  of  liter- 
ary, as  distinct  from  purely  oral,  prophecy. 
By  this  is  not  meant  that  Hosea  was  a  com- 
poser in  the  sense  that  the  word  would  be 
applied  to  a  Macaulay  or  a  Bishop  Butler ; 
but  that  his  discourses,  some  or  all  of  them  at 
first  delivered  orally,  were  afterwards  written 
down  in  a  collected  form,  together  with  such 
incidents  of  his  life  as  had  a  direct  bearing 
upon  his  teaching.  This  fact  is  of  great  im- 
portance. We  know  that  Elijah  and  Elisha 
exercised  a  great  influence  upon  the  religious 
history  of  their  time ;  but  we  can  only  to  a 
small  extent  gauge  that  influence,  because  we 
can  form  only  a  crude  notion  of  what  their 
teaching  was  really  like.  It  is  their  acts, 
rather  than  their  words,  which  claim  the 
reader's  interest.  With  Hosea  it  is  very 
different.  It  is  impossible  not  to  see  that  he 
was  a  living  force  ;  and  if  his  actual  influence 
was  not  great,  that  was  due  to  no  weakness 
or  omission  on  his  part,  but  to  the  fatuity  and 
moral  degradation  of  the  people. 


Like  Amos  Hosea  was  a  prophet  to  the 
northern  kingdom,  but  unlike  him  he  was  also 
a  prophet  of  the  north.  His  sympathy  was 
unquestionably  with  Israel  :  the  fortunes  of 
Judah  have  only  a  subordinate  interest  for 
him.  His  mission  was  to  check,  if  possible, 
the  growing  corruption  of  morals,  religion, 
and  politics  ;  and  to  rouse  the  nation  to 
repentance,  in  order  to  ward  off  the  impending 
catastrophe.  The  nation  had  acquired  great 
prosperity  and  wealth  under  Jeroboam  II ; 
but  these,  without  moral  character  and  re- 
ligious purity,  only  tended  to  disruption  and 
decline. 

What  gives  quite  a  unique  and  pathetic 
interest  to  the  book  is  the  personal  history  of 
the  prophet,  and  its  influence  on  the  form 
which  his  early  and,  to  some  extent,  all  his 
teaching  took.  Other  prophets  performed 
various  symbolical  acts  to  explain  or  enforce 
their  teaching  (see  e.g.  Isa  20  2. 3  Jer  1 3 1  ^-  Ezk  4), 
but  Hosea's  domestic  life  was  itself  an  acted 
parable.  Sweet  and  noble  as  that  life  was,  its 
importance,  as  the  prophet  understood  it,  lay 
not  in  itself,  but  in  the  religious  truth  which 
it  symbolically  expressed.     In  early   life  he 


544 


INTRO. 


HOSEA 


INTRO. 


married  a  woman  who  proved  a  faithless  wife, 
and  he  seems  to  have  made  many  fruitless 
efforts  to  reclaim  her  (12,3). 

After  bearing  him  three  children,  to  whom 
he  gave  symbolic  names,  she  deserted  him  for 
her  lovers  (22).  So  forbearing  was  he,  how- 
ever, that  he  redeemed  her  for  the  price  of  a 
slave  (3 1),  and  tried  to  win  her  back  to  purity 
and  love  by  gentle  restraint  (3  3). 

As  Hosea  looked  abroad  on  the  idolatry  and 
wickedness  of  his  time,  he  realised  that  '  the 
state  was  the  individual  writ  large,'  and  that 
here  was  being  repeated  on  a  larger  scale  his 
own  domestic  tragedy.  In  Gomer's  unfaithful- 
ness to  him,  he  saw  a  parable  of  Israel's  un- 
faithfulness to  God  ;  in  his  own  love  and 
tenderness,  he  saw  the  reflection  of  God's  love 
to  Israel  ;  and  in  his  own  forgiveness  and 
continued  efforts  for  his  wife's  salvation,  he 
saw  a  parallel  to  Jehovah's  loving-kindness 
and  tender  mercy  towards  the  faithless  nation 
(33-5).  Israel,  the  paramour  of  heathen  gods, 
had  been  wooed  and  wedded  by  Jehovah,  but 
had  proved  faithless,  going  back  again  to  idols, 
and  coquetting  with  foreign  powers.  But 
ever  and  again,  and  now  most  of  all,  Jehovah 
was  seeking  to  win  the  nation  back  ;  even 
though,  as  with  Gomer,  a  painful  discipline 
might  be  necessary  (4i-4). 

Tenderness  may,  in  fact,  be  described  as  the 
keynote  of  Hosea's  prophecy.  It  was  a  neces- 
sary attribute  of  God,  without  which  He  would 
not  be  true  to  Himself.  Those  who  imagine 
that  the  God  of  the  Old  Testament  is  only  a 
God  of  justice  and  wrath  might  well  study 
this  book  attentively. 

Though  we  find  no  such  definite  Messianic 
pictures  as  those  of  Isaiah,  more  than  once  the 
prophet  foretells  the  restoration  of  Israel  from 
captivity,  the  union  of  Israel  and  Judah  in 
one  kingdom  under  a  Davidic  king,  and  the 
establishment  of  a  purer  worship  and  a  fuller 
knowledge  of  God,  as  constituting  a  glorious 
hope.  This  hope  appears  sometimes  as  immi- 
nent, as  succeeding  a  short  period  of  captivity, 
or  even  as  an  alternative  to  it  ;  sometimes  as 
belonging  to  a  far-off,  or  possibly  ideal,  future  : 
see  especially  PO-H  3  5  6  i-s  14  4-8.  St.  Paul 
explains  some  of  Hosea's  prophecies  as  ful- 
filled in  the  Christian  church  :  see  Ro925, 26 
1  Cor  15  55. 

The  style  of  the  book  is  very  terse  and 
difficult,  and  marked  by  rapid  changes  of 
thought  and  feeling.  In  some  cases  it  may  be 
conjectured  that  we  have  before  us  fragments 
of  teaching,  rather  than  complete  discourses. 
In  many  verses  the  meaning  is  so  obscure 
that  the  explanations  offered  must  be  regarded 
as  far  from  certain.  In  some  few  no  really 
satisfactory  explanation  has  been  yet  given,  and 
that  partly  because  our  knowledge  of  many  of 
the  events  alluded  to  is  very  meagre. 


35 


645 


2.  The  Historical  Situation.  Hosea  lived 
and  prophesied  in  the  last  period  of  the 
northern  kingdom  of  Israel,  and  probably 
witnessed,  perhaps  even  shared,  the  captivity. 
His  work  began  in  the  closing  years  of  Jero- 
boam II  (782-741),  and  was  continued  under 
his  successors  :  see  1 1.  In  Jeroboam's  hands 
the  government  was  firm  and  stable,  and  the 
northern  kingdom  extended  its  boundaries  as 
far  as  the  borders  of  Hamath  (2  K 14  25)  on  the 
north,  and  to  the  Dead  Sea  and  '  the  brook  of 
the  wilderness'  (AmG^^)  on  the  south.  The 
death  of  Jeroboam  was  followed  by  a  period 
of  anarchy  and  terror,  which  was  only  ended 
by  the  Assyrian  captivity.  Zechariah,  the 
son  of  Jeroboam,  reigned  for  only  six  months, 
when  his  career  was  closed  by  assassination  at 
the  hands  of  Shallum,  an  adventurer,  who 
mounted  the  throne  only  to  be  slain  and 
succeeded  a  month  later  by  Menahem,  the 
general  commanding  the  troops  at  Tirzah 
(2  K 1 5 10-14  Hos  7  3-T).  In  order  to  strengthen 
ids  position,  Menahem  seems  to  have  asked 
assistance  from  Tiglath-pileser  III,  king  of 
Assyria  (the  Pul  of  2K1519),  who  took 
advantage  of  the  weakness  of  the  king's 
position  to  claim  a  tribute.  Menahem's  reign 
extended  only  over  four  or  five  years.  He 
was  succeeded  by  his  son  Pekahiah  (2  K  15^3), 
who  reigned  two  years  when  Pekah,  one  of 
his  generals,  murdered  him  in  his  palace  and 
seized  the  throne.  Pekah  was  probably  the 
leader  of  the  party  in  the  state  that  was 
opposed  to  Menahem's  alliance  with  Assyria, 
and  preferred  to  seek  the  aid  of  Assyria's 
rival  Egypt  (Hos7ii).  In  735  Pekah  joined 
with  Rezin  of  Damascus  in  an  expedition 
against  Ahaz,  king  of  Judah  (2K165  Isa7i-9). 
Ahaz  invoked  Assyrian  aid,  and  Tiglath- 
pileser  came  to  his  assistance,  ravaging  Galilee 
and  Gilead  (2  K 1529),  and  taking  the  inhabit- 
ants into  captivity.  Pekah,  who  had  reigned 
for  about  three  years,  fell  a  victim  to  a  con- 
spiracy headed  by  Hoshea,  whom  the  Assyrian 
ruler  recognised  as  king.  Hoshea  ruled  quietly 
for  nine  years  (731-722)  ;  but,  on  the  death  of 
Tiglath-pileser,  he  entered  into  a  conspiracy 
with  Seve  or  So,  king  of  Egypt,  and  ceased 
his  tribute  to  Assyria.  Shalmaneser,  the  new 
king  of  Assyria,  thereupon  invaded  his  terri- 
tory, and  laid  siege  to  Samaria,  which  fell  to 
his  successor  Sargon  (722),  when  the  kingdom 
of  Israel  came  to  an  end. 

3.  Politics  and  Religion.  There  seem  to 
have  been  two  political  parties  in  the  kingdom 
of  Israel  in  the  latter  years  of  the  nation,  just 
as  there  were  in  the  kingdom  of  Judah,  one 
of  which  favoured  alliance  with  Assyria,  the 
other  alliance  with  Egypt  and  resistance  to 
Assyria  (Hos7ii).  Sometimes  one  of  these 
was  in  the  ascendant  and  sometimes  the  other, 
but  the  prophets  looked  upon  the  policies  of 


INTRO, 


HOSEA 


1.4 


both  parties  as  unfaithfulness  to  God  (HosS'^). 
Isaiah  told  the  people  of  Judah  that  their  true 
policy  was  to  trust  in  Jehovah,  and  not 
entangle  themselves  in  foreign  bonds.  The 
prophets  of  Israel  took  up  a  similar  attitude,  and 
maintained  that  every  movement  after  outside 
help  was  a  movement  away  from  God,  who 
would  watch  over  them  and  preserve  them,  if 
they  repented  and  put  their  trust  in  Him. 

The  religious  condition  was  also  extremely 
corrupt.     Worship  was  offered  to  Jehovah  at 
many  high  places  throughout  the  land.     These 
were  probably  in  many  cases  the  old  Canaanite 
shrines,  and  it  was  but  natural  that  when  the 
Israelites  first  came  into  possession  of  the  land  \f, 
they  should  worship  Jehovah  at   the    places   . 
where    the   Canaanites  had  worshipped  their    . 
gods.      In    Hosea's   day    Jehovah    was    wor-    : 
shipped  at  these  high  places.     He  was  symbol- 
ised   by    the   figure    of    a   bull — the    natural 


men  of  no  principle  (4  6)  ;  they  let  the  people 
destroy  themselves  for  lack  of  teaching  (4  6)  ; 
they  rejoiced  at  the  sin  of  the  people,  because 
they  benefited  by  their  sin-offerings  (48)  ;  and 
they  provided  temptations  to  induce  them  to 
evil  (5^).  And  so  it  came  to  pass,  as  the  pro- 
verb has  it, '  like  people,  like  priest '  (4  9).  The 
worshippers  were  only  too  ready  to  abandon 
themselves  to  the  sensual  rites  of  debasing  wor- 
ship, and  thus  degradation  and  decay  spread 
through  the  nation.  '  The  heathenish,  secular 
worship  and  heathen  immorality  overpowered 
it,  and  brought  about  the  premature  dissolution 
of  the  state.' 

4.  Contents.     The  book  falls  into  two  parts. 

1.  Chs.  1-3  describe  in  different  ways  and  at 
different  stages  the  domestic  tragedy  of  Hosea's 
life  and  its  symbolical  interpretation. 

2.  Chs.  4-14  contain  separate  prophecies 
dealing  with  Israel's  moral,  religious,  and  poll- 


1 


symbol  to  an  agricultural  people  of  life  and  ;  tical  faults,  the  impending  calamity,  and  the 
power.  Jeroboam  I  set  up  two  such  symbols,  j  possibility  of  averting  it  by  repentance  or  re- 
one  at  Bethel  and  one  at  Dan,  where  he  \  covering  from  it  after  punishment  has  done  its 
established   the   northern   kingdom  ;    and    in    'work. 


all  probability  similar  symbols  were  erected  at 
other  holy  places  :  cp.  Am4'i  5^  Hos4i5  510-15 
1211.  The  temptation  to  combine  the  worship 
of  Jehovah  with  elements  borrowed  from  the 
worship  of  the  Canaanite  nature-gods  was  too 
strong  for  the  Israelites,  who  had  adopted 
many  of  the  old  religious  festivals  in  celebra- 
tion of  the  agricultural  seasons. 

Their  familiarity  with  the  worship  of  the 
Canaanite  local  deities  or  Baalim  (Hos2i7) 
made  the  lapse  into  idolatry  easy  for  them, 
especially  as  the  Israelites  were  in  the  habit 
of  addressing  Jehovah  as  Baali  (my  Lord) 
(216),  a  title  innocent  and  proper  enough  in 
itself,  but  improper  and  dangerous  in  view  of 
its  heathen  application.  It  was  no  great  step 
from  worshipping  Jehovah  symbolised  by  a 
bull  to  worshipping  the  bull-image  as  a  symbol 
of  the  local  Baal  :  consequently  they  came  to 
identify  Jehovah  with  the  local  deity,  and 
assimilated  the  worship  of  God  to  the  wor- 
ship of  the  Baalim  in  such  a  way  that  the 
former  was  practically  lost  sight  of,  and  they 
became  to  all  intents  and  purposes  idolaters 
(2  5).  '  For  they  served  idols,  whereof  the 
Lord  said  unto  them.  Ye  shall  not  do  this 
thing'  (2 K 17 12).  This  worship  of  the  bull- 
images  (or  '  calves,'  as  AV  renders)  is  the 
idolatry  which  Hosea  so  vehemently  denounces 
(412,17  85  910101.2  112  131,2,8). 

The  religious  condition  of  the  people  was 
reflected  in  their  moral  state.  The  sanctuaries 
were  scenes  not  only  of  idolatry,  but  of  gross 
immorality.  The  whoredom  and  adultery  of 
which  Hosea  speaks  (4io-i5  5 3' 4,  etc.)  are  not 
only  figurative  of  the  departure  of  Israel  from 
the  service  of  God  ;  they  are  also  descriptive 
of  actual  moral  degradation.    The  priests  were 


The  first  part  belongs  to  the  time  of  Jero- 
boam II  (see  1 1),  when  the  judgment  had  not 
yet  overtaken  the  dynasty  of  Jehu  (1*)  ;  the 
second,  for  the  most  part  at  least,  to  that  of 
his  immediate  successors,  but  especially  Mena- 
hemi.  There  are  passages  which  imply  a  change 
of  dynasty  effected  by  violence  (cp.  8  "*  and  7  ^-7), 
a  state  of  general  disorder  such  as  is  naturally 
associated  with  a  weak  government  (4 10. 18  6  8-10, 
etc.)  and  the  heavy  taxation  exacted  under 
Menahem  (79-11  gio). 

CHAPTERS  1-21 
Hosea's  Marriage  and  its  Lessons 
I.  A  general  heading.  2-9.  The  prophet's 
marriage  with  Gomer,  the  birth  of  her  three 
children,  and  the  symbolical  meaning  attached 
to  them.  lO-C.  2I.  The  future  material  and 
religious  prosperity  of  the  people. 

1.  A  general  heading,  perhaps  the  work  of 
a  late  Judgean  editor.  Chs.  1-3  probably  be- 
long to  the  time  of  Jeroboam  II  ;  but  it  is 
extremely  improbable  that  any  of  the  prophe- 
cies belong  to  so  late  a  date  as  the  days  of 
Hezekiah,  when  the  punishment  foretold  at  the 
hands  of  Tiglath-pileser  (Pul)  had  already  been 
partially  fulfilled  on  Israel  (2  K 1529).  That 
Hosea  wrote  the  book  is  clear  from  31. 

2.  The  beginning  .  .  LORD]  RV  '  When  the 
Lord  spake  at  the  first  by  Hosea.'  A  wife  of 
•whoredoms]  Hosea  is  probably  speaking  in  the 
light  of  his  later  experiences.  His  wife  was 
probably  innocent  of  this  evil  when  he  married 
her — or  if  not  the  prophet  was  ignorant  of 
her  true  character. 

4.  For  the  giving  of  names  for  a  prophetic 
purpose  cp.  Isa73-i4  81-4.  The  name  Jezreel 
('  God  will  sow ')  signified,  (1)  the  town  which 


546 


1.6 


HOSEA 


2.  10 


was  the  capital  of  Israel  during  Jehu's  dynasty, 
and  the  scene  of  the  murders  by  which  he 
established  his  rule  (2X9)  ;  (2)  the  resowing 
of  the  restored  Israel  (v.  11).  The  name  was 
given  to  the  child  as  a  reminder  of  the  punish- 
ment due  for  the  massacre.  I  will  avenge  the 
blood]  This  prophecy  was  fulfilled  by  the  over- 
throw of  the  ruling  dynasty  when  Jeroboam's 
son,  Zechariah,  had  reigned  six  months  :  see 
2  K 15 10^  and  cp.Am?^.  Hosea  looks  at  Jehu's 
murders  from  a  different  point  of  view  from 
that  of  Elisha  and  the  editors  of  the  book  of 
Kings:  see  especially  2  K 10  ^o.  They  regarded 
chiefly  his  outward  religious  policy  and  his  pro- 
bably genuine  detestation  of  Baal  -  worship. 
Hosea  sees  mainly  the  motives  of  personal 
ambition  and  lust  of  cruelty  which  underlay  his 
actions.  Time  had  shown  that  neither  Jehu  nor 
his  descendants  had  justified  his  zeal  by  any 
high  religious  principle.  Will  cause  to  cease] 
This  and  v.  5  extend  the  prophecy  to  the  final 
destruction  of  the  kingdom  at  the  hands  of  the 
Assyrians  :  see  2  K 17  6.  The  valley  of  Jezreel 
was  the  battlefield  of  Palestine,  and  nothing 
would  seem  more  probable  to  the  prophet  than 
that  the  final  overthrow  would  take  place  there. 
6.  Lo-ruhamah]  i.e.  '  not  pitied.'  But .  . 
away]  RV  '  that  I  should  in  any  wise  pardon 
them.'  7.  The  verdict  on  the  kingdom  of 
Judah  is  in  the  earlier  portions  of  the  book 
more  favourable  than  in  the  later  :  cp.  S^^'i*, 
etc.  This  prophecy  was  fulfilled  by  the  de- 
struction of  Sennacherib's  army  (2X19^^). 

9.  Lo-ammi]  i.e.  '  not  my  people.'  By  their 
sin  and  perfidy  Israel  had  ceased  to  act  as  God's 
people.  They  had  refused  the  responsibilities 
of  their  calling,  and  could  not  expect  its  privi- 
leges. 

10.  Here,  as  elsewhere,  Hosea  cannot  bear 
to  dwell  upon  God's  punishments  without 
looking  beyond  them  to  His  greater  mercies. 
Here  he  evidently  contemplates  a  restored 
people,  fulfilling  the  promise  of  earthly  great- 
ness made  to  Abraham  (Gn32i2),  and  brought 
into  even  closer  relation  to  God,  that  of  son- 
ship  :  cp.  Ro926.  Living  God]  i.e.  God 
manifesting  His  power  in  action.  11.  As 
with  many  other  prophecies,  the  vision  of  the 
future  includes  the  union  once  more  of  Israel 
and  Judah  in  one  people  (cp.  Isall^^  Ezk 
371^),  a  prophecy  unfulfilled  except  so  far  as 
the  church  is  symbolised  by  the  whole  of 
Israel.  The  day  of  Jezreel]  The  union  of 
Israel  and  Judah  is  to  be  marked  by  a  pros- 
perity which  shall  take  away  the  reproach  from 
Jezreel  (see  on  v.  4).  This  is  more  fully 
explained  in  2^3. 

C.  2.  I.  Ammi .  .  Ruhamah]  This  v.  is 
closely  connected  with  1 1*^-  n,  and  must  be 
read  along  with  them.  As  Jezreel  is  to 
become  a  name  of  honour  in  the  predicted 
future,  so  also  the  old  names  of  the  other  two 


children  will  have  become  quite  inappropriate. 
The  not  will  have  to  be  omitted,  and  they  will 
become  '  My  people,'  '  Pitied.' 

CHAPTER  2^23 

The  Discipline  and  Restoration  of 
Faithless  Israel  ■ 

The  unfaithful  conduct  of  Gomer  and  the 
prophet's  gentle  treatment  of  her  are  regarded 
as  an  analogue  of  the  nation's  faithlessness 
and  God's  gentle  correction,  a  proof  of  the 
love  which  will  triumph  in  the  end.  But  the 
acted  parable  and  its  interpretation  are  so 
blended  that  they  cannot  always  be  separated  ; 
and  frequently  the  prophet's  personal  experi- 
ence is  overshadowed  by  the  larger  thought  of 
God's  dealings  with  His  people. 

2.  Plead]  addressed  to  Gomer's  sons.  The 
people  Israel  in  this  acted  allegory  are  some- 
times the  sons,  as  in  2^,  but  more  generally 
the  wife.  When  as  here  distinguished  we 
may  suppose  that  the  prophet  is  appealing  to 
those  willing  to  hear  to  remonstrate  with  the 
faithless  majority.  There  is  a  somewhat 
similar  mixture  of  figure  in  Isa62^.  She  is 
not  my  wife]  The  people  by  their  idolatry 
had  put  themselves  into  a  false  relation  with 
Jehovah.  He  was  no  longer  their  God,  nor 
they  His  people  :  cp.  1 9. 

3,  4.  As  a  punishment  for  her  faithlessness, 
the  country  would  be  made  desolate  by  an 
invading  enemy,  and  the  inhabitants  slain  with 
the  sword.     So  would  she  be  put  to  shame. 

Children  of  whoredoms]  By  their  idolatries 
the  people  had  proved  themselves  to  be 
children  of  other  gods,  the  lovers  of  v.  5. 

5.  They  worshipped  the  gods  of  the  land — 
the  local  deities  who  were  supposed  to  give 
abundant  crops  if  propitiated.  See  Intro. 
They  did  not  ascribe  the  fertility  of  the  land 
to  Jehovah,  but  to  the  local  Baalim,  who  were 
personifications  of  the  reproductive  powers  of 
nature,  and  in  whose  worship  they  had  practi- 
cally merged  the  worship  of  Jehovah. 

6,  7.  Through  the  disasters  brought  by  a 
foreign  enemy,  including  the  siege  of  their 
cities,  the  people  would  discover  the  impotence 
of  their  idols,  and  seek  Jehovah  in  earnest  : 
cp.  143,  etc.  Make  a  wall]  RV  'make  a 
fence  against  her.'    7.  Lovers]  i.e.  the  Baalim. 

8.  They  prepared  for  Baal]  RM  '  made  into 
the  image  of  Baal.'  How  absurd  and  how 
insulting  to  use  God's  gift  in  this  way  ! 

9.  Will  I  .  .  take  away]  RV  '  will  I  take 
back.'  In  the  time  thereof]  i.e.  when  it  should 
be  ripe,  the  crop  would  fail.  God  would  thus 
punish  them  for  the  abuse  of  His  gift. 

ID.  Her  lovers]  The  idols  would  be  ashamed, 
unable  to  help  their  devotees,  when  the  land 
was  laid  waste.  11.  Jehovah  would  put  an 
end  to  her  religious  feasts  of  all  kinds.  New 
moons  and  sabbaths  were  the  most  distinctive 


647 


2.  12 


HOSEA 


3.4 


feasts  in  connexion  with  the  worship  of  Jehovah 
in  theN.  (1S205  2K423). 

12.  Rewards]  RV  'hire':  the  bribe  for 
which  Israel  had  worshipped  the  idols  (lovers) 
under  the  mistaken  belief  that  they  gave 
them  these  things  :  see  on  v.  5. 

13.  Baalim]  RV  '  the  Baalim,'  i.e.  the  images 
of  Baal  :  cp.  v.  8.  The  allusion  here  is  to 
heathen  or  heathenish  festivals  looked  upon 
as  acts  of  faithlessness  to  Jehovah.  They  are 
spoken  of  as  past  in  relation  to  the  future 
judgment  which  Hosea  has  in  mind,  or  because 
idolatry  had  from  the  first  been  the  besetting 
sin  of  the  northern  kingdom. 

14.  Therefore,  etc.]  '  This  being  her  miser- 
able condition,  I  will  entice  her  to  repent  by 
gentle  discipline.'  The  key  to  such  expres- 
sions lies  in  the  tenderness  felt  by  Hosea  for 
his  sinning  wife  (see  Intro.).  The  wilderness] 
either  the  land  of  captivity  in  which  she  realises 
her  sin  and  turns  to  God,  or  the  land  wasted 
by  the  enemy.  Men  allure  to  destruction  : 
God  allures  to  punishment,  to  make  the  out- 
pouring of  love  possible.  Comfortably]  Heb. 
'to  her  heart,'  as  in  Isa40i,  etc.  15.  I  will 
give]  The  vineyards  destroyed  by  the  enemy 
(v.  12)  would  be  restored.  Achor]  i.e.  trouble. 
Achor  was  the  valley  where  Achan  was  stoned 
for  his  sin  (Josh  7  26).  It  was  on  this  account 
called  the  valley  of  Achor,  or  trouble.  What 
is  meant  by  its  use  here  is  that,  while  the 
Israelites  would  find  that  as  of  old  sin  would 
be  followed  by  punishment,  the  punishment 
was  meant  to  purify  and  discipline,  and  the 
'  trouble '  was  thus  the  '  door  of  hope.' 
Though  Israel  had  been  again  unfaithful, 
God  was  still  '  plenteous  in  mercy.'  Sing] 
RV  '  make  answer,'  i.e.  listen  to  the  call  of 
God.  16.  Ishi .  .  Baali]  Both  words  were 
used  by  a  wife  to  her  husband.  The  first, 
'  my  man,'  implied  a  relation  of  intimacy  :  the 
second,  '  my  lord,'  that  of  servitude,  or  at 
least  ownership.  But  the  passage  seems  to 
imply  that  Baal,  a  common  name  for  all 
heathen  gods,  had  in  common  practice  been 
used  also  of  Jehovah.  This  would  account 
for  its  appearing  in  several  place-names,  such 
as  Baal-Hamon,  Baal-Shalisha.  17.  Baalim] 
RV  '  the  Baalim.'  "Whether  they  represented 
Jehovah  or  heathen  gods,  the  names  with 
their  debasing  associations  would  be  utterly 
discarded. 

18.  Make  a  covenant]  Jehovah  is  here  re- 
presented poetically  as  making  an  agreement 
with,  or  laying  a  command  upon,  noxious 
animals,  that  they  will  not,  it  may  be  supposed, 
hurt  either  man  or  the  fruits  of  his  labours  : 
cp.  Isall9.  Break  the  bow,  etc.]  destroy  the 
weapons  of  warfare  no  longer  needed  in  a 
land  of  security  :  cp.  IsaO^  (R^- 

19,  20.  The  idols  had  hired  Israel's  love 
with   gifts   of   worldly  prosperity,   and   even 


these  they  could  not  really  give  (v.  12).  Je- 
hovah would  woo  Israel  in  the  first  place  with 
much  higher  gifts,  righteousness,  judgment,  etc. 

21,  22,  I  will  hear,  etc.]  The  natural  order 
of  thought  is  reversed,  because  Jehovah 
(through  the  prophet)  is  speaking  of  His  work. 
The  whole  thought  is  highly  poetical.  Jezreel 
('  God-soweth,'  used  for  Israel,  for  the  sake  of 
the  play  on  the  word)  cries  for  the  com  and 
wine  and  oil.  These  cry  to  the  earth  to  pro- 
duce them.  The  earth  in  its  turn  cries  to  the 
heaven  for  rain,  and  the  rain  cries  to  Jehovah 
to  send  it.  Jehovah  hears  the  cry,  and  so  the 
heart's  desire  of  the  people  is  granted,  even 
without  their  expressly  asking  Jehovah  for  it. 

23.  I  will  sowr]  With  reference  to  the  name 
Jezreel  see  on  l^.  Jehovah  promises  the  re- 
newed increase  of  the  population  :  cp.  Jer31 27. 

I  •will  have  mercy]  a  repetition  of  the  pro- 
mises of  1 10  2 1. 

CHAPTER   3 

The  Attempts  to  reclaim  the  ERRiNa 
Wife 

In  an  episode  in  the  life  of  Hosea  and  his 
relations  with  Gomer  (cp.  2^4)  the  prophet 
finds  a  parable  of  Jehovah's  punishment  of 
Israel.  Having  bought  back  his  eiTing  wife, 
as  though  she  were  a  slave,  he  subjects  her  to 
gentle  restraint,  depriving  her  for  a  time  of 
conjugal  rights,  in  hope  of  securing  her  love 
(1-3).  So  Israel,  deprived  in  exile  of  forms 
of  government  and  of  outward  worship,  would 
be  ready  to  receive  her  true  king  and  spouse 
(4,  5). 

I.  Her  friend]  rather,  'neighbour,'  i.e.  a 
guilty  lover.  To  refer  it  to  Hosea  involves  a 
clumsy  tautology.  Yet,  etc.]  RV  '  and  an 
adulteress,  even  as  the  Lord  loveth.'  The 
love  of  the  prophet  for  his  adulterous  wife, 
here  as  before  spoken  of  as  a  direct  inspiration 
of  God,  is  a  symbol  of  the  love  of  Jehovah 
for  Israel,  who  nevertheless  coquets  with  idols. 

Flagons  of  ^wine]  RV  '  cakes  of  raisins,' 
such  as  were  offered  to  idols.  2.  Bought  her] 
She  appears  to  have  become  the  voluntary  slave- 
concubine  of  her  paramour.  Fifteen  . .  silver] 
presumably  the  ordinary  price  for  a  female 
slave.     Joseph  was  sold  for  twenty  (GnST^s). 

3.  For  me]  i.e.  as  my  property.  For  aw- 
other  man]  RV  '  any  man's  wife.'  For  awhile 
Gomer  was  to  live  as  though  unmarried. 

4.  Gomer's  isolation  is  the  symbol  of  that  of 
exiled  Israel,  deprived  of  political  organisation 
and  religious  services.  Sacrifice,  etc.]  cp.  2 11. 
All  forms  of  religious  symbolism  are  included 
in  this  V.  Image]  RV  '  pillar.'  A  religious 
symbol,  probably  borrowed  from  the  Canaan- 
ites.  Ephod]  The  word  is  most  frequently 
used  of  the  high  priest's  dress,  but  in  JgS^'i' 
of  a  golden  or  gold-plated  image  set  up  by 
Gideon,    and   that   would   appear   to   be  the 


548 


8.5 


HOSEA 


4.  19 


meaning  here.  Teraphim]  small  household 
images,  probably  something  like  Roman  Lares  : 
see  GnSl^'**-  Jerl?^,  etc.  Their  use  was 
probably  general  in  early  times.  Even  David 
did  not  discard  them  in  his  early  life  (1  S  19 1^^-), 
and  they  were  in  use  at  the  time  of  Josiah's 
reformation  in  Judah  (2K23^^).  5.  Return] 
often  used  of  a  new  line  of  action  or  change  of 
life:  cp.  14 7.  David  their  king]  The  idola- 
trous worship  of  Israel  was  closely  connected 
with  their  political  schism:  see  IK  12 27-29 
Hosea  contemplates  once  more  a  united  king- 
dom under  the  Davidic  monarchy.  It  is  quite 
possible,  however,  that  by  David  is  here  meant 
the  Messiah  ;  cp.  JerBO^  Ezk3424  3724.  in  the 
latter  days]  lit.  '  In  the  after  part  of  the  days,' 
i.e.  at  the  end  of  time,  used  of  the  Messianic 
age  :  cp.  Isa22  Mic4i. 

CHAPTER  4 
Condemnation  of  the  Priesthood 

An  arraignment  against  Israel  as  a  whole, 
because  of  all  manner  of  wickedness  against 
God  and  man.  Prophet  and  priest,  who  ought 
to  have  taught  them  better,  are  only  too  like 
them  in  character,  and  must  share  their  doom. 
In  vv.  15-17  there  is  an  appeal  to  Judah  not 
to  follow  the  idolatrous  practices  of  Israel. 

I.  Controversy]  i.e.  a  lawsuit  :  cp. 
Isa3i3,u.  2.  By  swearing]  RV  'There  is 
nought  but  swearing.'  Break  out]  commit 
acts  of  violence.  Blood  toucheth  blood]  The 
whole  land  is  covered  with  the  blood  of  the 
murdered,  a  strong  expression  to  denote  the 
frequency  of  murder:  cp.  Isa28S.  3.  The 
whole  land  (with  its  animal  and  vegetable  life) 
is  polluted  by  their  sin,  and  must  share  their  pun- 
ishment :  cp.  Jer423,  etc.  4.  Thy  people,  etc.] 
The  reading  here  seems  corrupt.  We  should 
probably  read,  '  thy  people  are  as  they  that 
strive  with  Me.  0  priest,  thou  shalt  stumble,' 
etc.,  vv.  5,  6  being  addressed  to  the  priest. 

5.  The  prophet]  i.e.  the  class  of  prophets 
who  said  what  they  knew  would  please  their 
hearers  :  cp.  IK 22 11.12  Isa30io  JerS^i. 

Mother]   i.e.  the  nation:  see  on  2 2. 

6.  Lack  of  knowledge]  The  priests  should 
have  instructed  the  people  in  God's  law  (i.e. 
His  moral  teaching),  and  were  therefore  re- 
sponsible for  their  ignorance.  Instead  of  that 
they  had  wilfully  refused  even  to  learn  them- 
selves. Thy  children]  i.e.  the  whole  body  of 
priests,  who  only  sinned  worse  as  they  in- 
creased in  number.  8.  They  eat  up]  RV 
'  they  feed  on.'  The  priests  enriched  them- 
selves with  the  sin-offerings,  and  with  this 
aim  encouraged  instead  of  checking  sin  :  cp. 
Ezk34.  Set  their  heart]  i.e.  took  delight  in, 
because  it  paid  so  well.  9.  Like .  .  priest] 
Priest  and  people  had  sinned  alike,  and  would 
be  punished  alike.  10.  Eat .  .  enough,  etc.] 
Greed  and  lust  were  both  violations  of  God's 


natural  laws,  and  would  therefore  have  an  un- 
natural result.  II.  Heart]  here  probably  as 
the  seat  of  '  the  understanding  '  (RV). 

12.  Cp.  Jerll27.  Idols  were  frequently 
made  out  of  stumps  and  stems  of  trees,  and 
were  not  only  worshipped,  but  sometimes  used 
for  oracular  purposes.  Such  a  thing  proved 
how  senseless  the  people  had  become. 

Whoredom  is  here  faithlessness  to  Jehovah  ; 
but  as  such  rites  as  those  referred  to  were 
characterised  by  gross  licentiousness,  the  meta- 
phor is  especially  appropriate.  13.  The  sum- 
mits of  hills  were  the  most  frequent  situations 
for  sanctuaries  in  primitive  times  ;  hence  the 
'  high  places.'  Elms]  RV  '  terebinths.'  Trees 
were  often  connected  with  sacred  rites  :  cp. 
Isal29  575  Therefore]  Such  faithlessness 
towards  Jehovah  would  be  punished  by  the 
faithlessness  of  their  daughters.  14.  I  will 
not  punish]  They  have  no  right  to  ask  Jeho- 
vah to  punish  sins  in  their  daughters  or  their 
brides,  which  in  another  form  they  commit 
.  themselves  in  their  impure  rites. 

15.  Let .  .  offend]  Hosea  appeals  to  Judah 
not  to  imitate  Israel's  sins.  Gilgal  (that  of 
Benjamin:  cp.  ISIB^*-)  and  Bethel  (' house 
of  God,' here  contemptuously  called  Beth-aven, 
'  house  of  vanity,'  i.e.  idolatry)  were  two  of  the 
most  important  Israelitish  sanctuaries :  see  Am 
4  4. 5.  The  latter  had  been  a  sanctuary  since  the 
days  of  Jacob  (Gn2822  351-8  Jg212).  Nor 
swear  .  .  liveth]  Hosea  is  here  condemning  the 
use  of  Jehovah's  name  in  oaths,  because  that 
name  has  been  so  profaned  by  its  association 
with  idolatrous  symbols.  16.  Slideth  back.  . 
heifer]  RV  '  hath  behaved  himself  stubbornly 
like  a  stubborn  heifer,'  as  yet  not  fully  trained 
to  bear  the  yoke,  which  jibs  instead  of  going 
obediently  forward.  Now  the  LORD  will  feed 
them,  etc.]  better,  'now  would  the  Lord  feed 
them,'  etc.  He  would  gladly  have  treated 
them  as  docile  lambs,  not  as  stubborn  heifers. 
Others  understand  it  as  an  exclamation  :  '  Israel 
is  stubborn  and  self-willed.  How  then  can  the 
Lord  feed  them  as  a  lamb  in  a  wide  pasture  ! ' 

A  large  place]  always  in  Scripture  used  as  a 
symbol  of  safety  (Ps  1 8 19  11 8  &).  1 7.  Ephraim] 
i.e.  Israel.  Let  him  alone]  a  general  exhort- 
ation to  any  who  might  seek  to  meddle  with 
idolatrous  Israel. 

18.  Their  drink  is  sour]  RM  'their  carouse 
is  over.'  Hosea  is  referring  to  some  idolatrous 
festival.  With  shame  .  .  Give  ye]  RV  '  dearly 
love  shame,'  with  reference  probably  to  licen- 
tious practices  connected  with  idolatrous 
feasts. 

19.  Wings]  RM  'skirts':  a  curious  meta- 
phor to  express  the  completeness  of  their 
punishment.  They  would  be  carried  off  without 
reprieve  by  the  wind  of  judgment.  They  .  . 
sacrifices]  RM  '  Their  altars  shall  be  put  to 
shame,'  i.e.  by  being  destroyed. 


549 


5.1 


HOSEA 


6.  5 


CHAPTER  5 
Predictions  of  Punishment 

The  priests,  the  people,  and  the  royal 
dynasty  have  alike  sinned,  and  will  alike  be 
punished.  Their  coquetting  with  Assyria  will 
prove  utterly  futile.  Judah  has  also  sinned, 
and  will  receive  their  punishment.  But  there 
is  ever  yet  hope  in  the  futiu-e,  if  they  will  but 
repent. 

I.  Toward  you]  RV  '  unto  you.'  Judgment 
belongs  to  you  by  right,  and  having  abused  your 
privilege  you  deserve  greater  punishment. 

Mizpah  and  Tabor  are  both  spoken  of  as 
ancient  sanctuaries  :  cp  Jg  2 1  !>  ^  1  S  7  ^-'^'^,  and 
see  on  4i3.  The  assemblies  for  religious  and 
political  purposes  had  been  made  occasions 
for  robbing  the  people  by  unjust  judgments 
and  perhaps  by  extortionate  demands  for  sacri- 
fices :  see  on  4  8.  2.  Are  profound  .  .  slaughter] 
lit.  'have  gone  deep  to  slaughter,'  i.e.  have 
committed  horrible  slaughter.  It  refers  prob- 
ably to  the  violence  of  political  factions :  cp.  7  ^. 

Though  I  have  heeii]  RV  '  but  I  am.'  Their 
violence  will  not  escape  punishment.  Them 
all]  priests,  people,  and  rulers  (v.  1). 

3.  I  know .  .  from  me]  Israel  and  Ephraim 
are  in  this  book  synonymous.  The  people  had 
corrupted  themselves  by  sins  of  impurity,  but 
Jehovah  had  seen  it  and  would  punish  :  cp. 
Ps  10 14.  4.  They  .  .  doings]  RV  '  Their  doings 
will  not  suffer  them.'  To  repent  would  mean 
to  give  up  their  cherished  vices.  5.  The 
pride .  .  face]  Worse  still  ;  they  were  actually 
proud  of  themselves  and  their  doings.  Their 
vaunting  of  their  wickedness  was  its  most 
obvious  proof.  6.  The  time  would  come  when 
they  would  in  vain  offer  sacrifices  to  Jehovah. 

7.  Strange  children]  Some  see  here  an  allu- 
sion to  intermarriage  with  the  Canaanites :  cp. 
Ezr  9, 10.  But  it  may  be  merely  metaphorical. 
The  result  of  their  faithless  union  with 
heathen  gods  was  a  race  of  people  who  were 
not  true  Israelites,  acknowledged  and  loved  of 
Jehovah.  A  month]  RV  '  the  new-moon.'  The 
prof  anation  of  their  festivals  would  be  punished 
by  the  enemy  destroying  them  and  their  land. 

Portions]  RV  '  fields.' 

8.  With  this  begins  what  is  probably  a  new 
prophecy.  Hosea  ironically  bids  the  herald  call 
the  people  to  arms  to  defend  themselves  against 
an  invading  foe.  Gibeah  ('  a  hill ')  and  Ramah 
('  a  high  place  ')  would  both  be  suitable  spots 
for  sounding  an  alarm.  Beth-aven]  see  on  4 1^. 
After  thee  .  .  Benjamin]  RV  '  behind  thee,'  etc. 
From  Jg  514  it  is  supposed  that  this  was  the 
battle  cry  of  the  Benjamites,  used  by  the 
soldiers  in  following  their  leaders.  It  would 
have  been  a  summons  to  the  Benjamites  to 
battle.  9.  But  such  preparations  would  be 
quite  useless.   The  judgment  was  surely  coming. 

10.  The  princes  .  .  bound  (RV  'landmark ')] 


They  had  abused  their  power  to  oppress  and 
rob  the  people.  The  prophet  here  includes 
Judah  in  his  denunciations  and  threats  of 
consequent  punishment.  The  Assyrians  who 
demolished  the  northern  kingdom  crippled 
Judah  in  the  days  of  Hezekiah.  The  deliver- 
ance of  Judah,  temporary  as  it  in  fact  proved, 
was  a  later  revelation  of  prophecy.  1 1 .  Broken 
in  judgment]  i.e.  defeated  in  his  suit  and  con- 
demned. After  the  commandment]  RM  '  after 
vanity,'  i.e.  idolatry. 

13.  Assyrian.  .  Jareb]  cp.  10  6.  This  refers 
probably  to  Menahem  paying  voluntary  tribute 
to  Tiglath-pileser  (Pul,  2K1519).  The  name 
Jareb  ('  adversary ')  is  coined  by  Hosea  to 
point  out  the  absurdity  of  their  seeking  help 
from  such  a  source.  In  the  words,  when 
Judah  mir  his  wound,  Hosea  seems  to  hint  at 
a  similar  policy  on  the  part  of  Judah,  which 
was  afterwards  pursued  by  both  Ahaz  and 
Hezekiah  (2  K  167,8  1814-16).  14.  See  on 
v.  10.  15.  The  prophet  still  hopes  that  these 
calamities  will  produce  repentance  and  the 
remission  of  the  full  calamity.  Meanwhile 
Jehovah  will  leave  them  to  the  discipline  of 
His  punishment. 

CHAPTER  6 

The  Shallowness  of  Israel's  Repentance 
Hosea  now  represents  the  people  as  coun- 
selling one  another  to  repentance  in  presence 
of  the  impending  danger  ;  and  goes  on  to  point 
out  the  futility  of  a  hurried  repentance,  and 
the  greatness  of  their  sin. 

2.  After  two  days]  This  is  probably  a  pro- 
verbial expression  for  a  very  short  time. 

3.  Then  .  .  know,  etc.]  RV  '  And  let  us 
know,  let  us  follow  on.'  His  going  forth] 
Just  as  the  morning  will  dawn  after  the  darkest 
night,  so  God  will  arise  bringing  brightness  and 
hope.  As  the  rain]  The  land  of  Palestine 
was  absolutely  dependent  on  its  winter  rains  : 
the  former  rain  beginning  about  the  end  of 
October  with  fair  intervals  which  permitted 
the  seed  to  be  sown,  becoming  heavier  about 
the  end  of  December  and  continuing  at  inter- 
vals during  the  winter  ;  the  latter  rain  coming 
in  showers  in  March  and  April  refreshing  the 
ripening  crops. 

4.  The  thought  of  the  possible  future  stands 
in  deep  contrast  to  the  gloomy  present,  and 
the  note  of  joy  passes  into  a  note  of  wailing. 

Morning  cloud]  As  the  morning  cloud  and 
the  dew  rapidly  disappear,  so  the  efforts  of 
Israel  after  real  goodness  (especially  '  kind- 
ness,' RM)  lack  endurance.  5.  Hewed .  . 
slain  them]  The  prophets  are  here  spoken  of 
as  themselves  doing  what  their  language 
threatened.  Thy  judgments .  .  forth]  It  is 
better  to  read  with  LXX,  '  My  judgment  goeth 
forth  as  the  light.'  The  reference  is  to  the 
clear  manifestation  of  the  judgment. 


550 


6.  6 


ROSEA 


7.  11 


6.  God  cared  more  for  goodness  and  piety 
— the  knowledge  and  doing  of  His  will — than 
for  formal  offerings  and  sacrifice,  and  nothing 
at  all  for  religious  observances  that  were  in- 
sincere and  corrupt:  cp.  Isali3-i5  1S1522_ 
Our  Lord  twice  quotes  the  first  clause  in 
justification  of  doing  good  on  the  sabbath 
day:  cp.  Mt9i3  127.  7.  Like  men]  RV 
'  like  Adam.'  In  regarding  mere  sacrifice  as  a 
substitute  for  goodness  which  God  had  made 
the  condition  of  His  covenant  they  had  broken 
it  as  much  as  Adam  had  done  by  his  disobedi- 
ence :  cp.  Gn2i6,i7  Ex  20  21-24 11.  There]  in 
the  land  given  them  on  condition  of  a  good 
and  holy  life. 

8.  Gilead]  cp.  12 11.  Probably  Ramoth- 
Gilead.  Being  a  city  of  refuge  it  was  doubt- 
less the  place  of  an  early  sanctuary.  But 
holy  cities  were  now  become  notorious  for 
their  wickedness.  9.  In  the  way  by  consent] 
RV  '  in  the  way  toward  Shechem.'  At 
Shechem  also,  as  we  know  from  Josh  24 1, 
there  was  an  ancient  sanctuary.  In  the  time 
of  Jeroboam  I  it  was  the  capital  of  the 
northern  kingdom.  Hosea  here  appears  to 
refer  to  some  definite  act  of  robbery  and 
murder  in  which  some  priests  were  actually 
implicated.  11.  He  hath  set]  RV  'there  is 
appointed.'  When  I  returned]  RV  '  when  I 
bring  again.'  This  v.  is  often  understood  of 
the  harvest  of  judgment  (cp.  Joel  3 1^),  but  the 
phrase  '  to  turn,  or  bring  again,  a  nation's 
captivity,'  means  its  restoration.  The  words, 
however,  should  probably  be  taken  with  what 
follows. 

CHAPTER  7 
Corruption  of  the  Court 

In  this  c.  the  tone  again  becomes  despondent. 
How  can  Israel  be  saved  when  her  iniquity  is 
so  deep,  so  glaring,  so  obstinate  ?  Samaria  is 
especially  instanced  as  the  centre  of  a  wicked 
and  corrupt  government  sustained  by  a  lawless 
people  and  false  teachers.  Hosea  dwells 
chiefly  on  some  plot  which  ended  in  regicide 
and  the  reliance  on  foreign  powers  which 
meant  want  of  faith  in  God. 

2.  They  fail  to  realise  how  patent  in  God's 
sight  their  iniquity  is,  while  they  attempt  to 
combine  a  profession  of  religion  with  sins  of 
the  worst  type.  Now  they  are  '  holden  with 
the  cords  of  their  sins  '  (Prov  5  ^2).  3.  They 
induced  their  rulers  not  only  to  connive  at, 
but  to  take  part  with  delight  in  their  wicked 
practices.  4.  The  fire  of  lust  is  likened  to  a 
baker's  oven.  But  the  simile  seems  also  to 
include  the  passion  of  anger  which  worked  in 
the  heart  and  produced  acts  of  violence,  such 
as  regicide. 

5-7.  A  scene  from  the  palace.  The  king 
carouses  with  his  courtiers,  who  have  formed 
a  plot  against  him,  and  wait  the  fitting  moment 


551 


to  rise  and  put  him  to  death.  It  would  appear 
that  Hosea  has  in  his  mind  the  assassination 
of  a  king  at  a  feast,  or  just  after  a  feast, 
in  the  early  morning.  The  case  is  perhaps 
that  of  Zechariah,  son  of  Jeroboam  II  (see 
Intro.). 

5.  The  day .  .  king]  some  royal  feast,  pro- 
bably the  king's  birthday.  Have  .  .  wine]  RV 
'  made  themselves  sick  with  the  heat  of  wine.' 
By  their  drunken  carouse  they  heaped  up  fuel 
on  the  fire  of  their  malicious  hate.  He 
stretched  out]  i.e.  in  hospitality.  The  hand 
is  stretched  out  by  the  host  to  offer  the  cup 
to  his  guests.  Scomers]  those  who  in  their 
heart  despise  the  king  and  are  ever  plot- 
ting his  death.  6.  Their  baker]  Perhaps  we 
should  follow  the  LXX,  etc.,  and  read,  '  their 
anger.'  Their  anger  sleeping  would  mean 
that  they  manage  to  control  it,  until  it  can 
work  with  effect.  If  we  keep  the  reading 
'  baker,'  it  will  mean  that  just  as  the  baker 
sleeps  when  once  he  has  made  up  his  fire  and 
heated  his  oven  ready  for  use  in  the  morning, 
so  they  wait  for  the  morning  to  execute  their 
purpose. 

7.  Judges  .  .  kings]  whatever  definite  event 
the  prophet  has  in  his  mind  this  describes  the 
general  character  of  the  northern  kingdom, 
a  restless  disloyalty  to  kings  and  rulers.  The 
only  dynasties  of  any  duration  were  those  of 
Omri  and  Jehu.  None  .  .  calleth  unto  me] 
Irreligion  lay  at  the  root  of  this  constant 
disloyalty. 

8.  Ephraim,  he  hath  mixed  himself  among 
the  people]  RV  '  the  peoples '  or  nations. 
Another  fault,  and  another  evidence  of  a 
want  of  patriotism,  the  tendency  to  court 
foreign  alliances  and  foreign  influences,  such 
as  was  seen  in  the  policy  of  Menahem  with 
reference  to  Tiglath-pileser  (2  K 1519).  A 
cake  not  turned]  which  is  therefore  burnt 
on  one  side,  and  half  raw  on  the  other, 
and  so  spoilt.  9.  Strangers .  .  strength]  the 
natural  consequence  of  seeking  help  from  a 
foreign  alliance,  which  meant  the  exaction 
of  what  was  practically  tribute,  and  conse- 
quently heavy  taxation  (2K1520).  Israel  did 
not  realise  that  these  signified  the  beginning  of 
national  decrepitude,  just  as  grey  hairs  here 
and  there  are  the  first  signs  of  old  age. 

10.  The  pride  .  .  face]  see  on  5^.  He  is  so 
besotted  with  pride  that  he  recognises  neither 
the  evil  itself  nor  its  true  remedy. 

11.  A  silly  dove]  As  the  dove  flies  helplessly 
one  way  and  another,  so  Israel  turns  to  one 
power  after  another,  only  eventually  to  make 
enemies  of  both.  The  only  recorded  alliance 
with  Egypt  was  that  of  Hoshea  (2  K  17-1);  but 
it  was  a  common  policy  of  Judah,  and  is 
frequently  condemned  by  the  prophets.  There 
was  a  natural  temptation  to  play  off  Egypt 
against  Assyria,  and  such  an  alliance  may  have 


7.  12 


HOSEA 


9.3 


been  already  projected  by  those  opposed  to 
Menahem's  action.  Heart]  RV  '  understand- 
ing,' as  in  411.  12.  They  shall  go]  i.e.  for 
help.  This  courting  of  alliances  will  inevita- 
bly, by  God's  providence,  end  in  their  destruc- 
tion. The  metaphor  of  the  dove  suggests 
that  of  the  fowler.  Jehovah  will  through  their 
own  folly  lure  them  to  their  ruin.  As  their 
congregation  hath  heard]  Hosea  had  warned 
them  beforehand  of  what  was  to  befall. 

14.  Howled .  .  beds]  Their  prayers  do  not 
proceed  from  any  reverential  fear  of  God. 
They  are  like  the  howling  of  an  animal  from 
pain.  They  cry  out  because  they  are  in 
trouble,  but  their  prayers  are  for  material 
blessings,  and  they  are  still  rebellious  at  heart: 
cp.  Job  35  9 ^  They  assemble  themselves]  i.e. 
meet  in  religious  exercises,  but  RM  has  '  cut 
themselves,'  referring  to  heathen  practices 
in  time  of  tribulation:  cp.  IK  18^^. 

15.  Bound]  RV  '  taught,'  by  chastisement. 

16.  They  return,  etc.]  Their  turning  is  ever 
farther  away  from  God.  Their  princes  shall 
fall]  As  a  punishment  for  their  insolence  they 
would  perish  amidst  the  derision  of  the  very 
people  whose  aid  they  had  sought:  see  v.  11. 

CHAPTER  8 
The  long-merited  Retribution 
The  enemy  is  coming  immediately  to  destroy 
their  temples  and  palaces  and  desolate  the 
land,  and  as  a  punishment  for  their  idolatry 
and  disloyalty  to  God.  In  vain  will  they 
appeal  to  Jehovah. 

1.  RM  '  The  trumpet  to  thy  mouth  !  As 
an  eagle  against  the  house  of  the  Lord.' 

2.  RY  '  They  shall  cry  unto  me.  My  God, 
we  Israel  know  thee.'  They  use  the  name 
Israel  with  its  sacred  associations,  as  an  in- 
ducement to  God  to  help  them.  3.  Israel] 
Hosea  answers  their  appeal  by  saying  that  the 
name  is  worthless  without  the  character  which 
God  requires.  4.  In  the  constant  changes  of 
dynasty  there  was  no  thought  for  the  religious 
character  of  the  king,  nor  counsel  asked  of 
God's  prophets.  Revolution  and  idolatry  had 
all  along  been  the  besetting  sin  of  Israel. 

That .  .  off]  Had  self-destruction  been  their 
object,  they  could  not  have  achieved  it  more 
effectually. 

5.  Thy  calf .  .  off]  RV  '  He  hath  cast  off  thy 
calf,  O  Samaria  '  ;  meaning  that  the  calf  would 
be  taken  off  by  the  enemy,  Samaria,  the  capi- 
tal, being  put  for  the  whole  people.  The 
allusion  is,  of  course,  to  the  golden  bull  at 
Bethel,  under  which  symbol  they  worshipped 
God.  6.  From  Israel]  The  idol  was  the  mere 
creation  of  Israel.  Therefore  .  .  God]  RV '  and 
it  is  no  God.'  It  has  no  real  existence  :  cp. 
1  Cor 8 4.  7.  The  wind]  i.e.  idolatry.  It.. 
stalk]  RV  '  he  hath  no  standing  com,'  as  the 
result   of  his  sowing.     The  bud]  RV   'The 


blade.'  If  so  be  .  .  up]  Again  Hosea  formally 
modifies  his  previous  statement,  only  to  hint 
more  plainly  at  the  fate  of  the  nation. 

8,  9.  The  condition  of  Israel  in  the  land  of 
captivity  is  here  described.  A  vessel  wherein 
is  no  pleasure]  i.e.  a  cheap  and  worthless  piece 
of  pottery.  9.  Hired  lovers]  with  reference 
to  the  tribute  paid  to  Tiglath-pileser  by  Mena- 
hem  (cp.  7  -'-ii),  and  the  attempts  made  by  others 
to  coquet  with  Egypt.  10.  This  courting  of 
foreign  princes  will  be  of  no  avail.  Very  soon 
the  people  will  be  gathered  for  judgment  by 
God  and  taken  into  a  strange  land. 

They  shall .  .  little]  They  already  begin  to 
feel  the  oppressive  tribute  exacted  by  Tiglath- 
pileser  :  see  on  T^-^i.  King  of  princes]  perhaps 
with  reference  to  the  many  small  dependencies 
under  the  Assyrian  sway  :  cp.  Isa  10  §.  1 1.  The 
multiplication  of  altars  and  sacrifices  only  led 
to  increased  wickedness. 

12.  I  have  written  .  .  law]  RV  '  Though  I 
write  for  him  my  law  in  ten  thousand  jjrecejjts.' 
It  mattered  not  how  emphatically  God's  teach- 
ing should  be  made  known  to  Israel ;  they  would 
ignore  it.  13.  The  sacrifices  to  Jehovah  are  a 
merely  formal  act,  only  killing  and  eating.  Such 
sacrifices  without  repentance  are  not  acceptable 
to  Him,  and  will  not  induce  Him  to  forget 
or  overlook  their  sins  :  cp.  Isa  1 1^.  They .  . 
Egypt]  The  prophet  in  God's  name  here 
thi'eatens  to  undo  the  greatest  act  that  God 
had  ever  done  for  His  people  :  cp.  7 1^.  Hosea 
evidently  contemplated  the  possibility  of  the 
punishment  which  he  foresaw  coming  from 
Egypt.  More  frequently  he  speaks  of  Assyria 
as  the  instrument  of  God's  vengeance. 

14.  Temples]  RV 'palaces.'  The  building 
of  fenced  cities  by  Israel  and  Judah  implied  a 
want  of  faith  in  God's  power  to  save. 

CHAPTER  9 
Exile  is  at  hand 

This  prophecy  appears  to  have  been  written 
in  a  time  of  rejoicing  over  a  good  harvest  and 
vintage.  Israel  need  not  rejoice,  saj^s  the 
prophet,  with  the  wild  joy  of  the  heathen. 
Their  praises  to  the  local  Baals  are  insults  to 
Jehovah,  whom  they  have  denied.  Their  re- 
joicing will  end  in  disaster,  culminating  in 
captivity  either  in  Egypt  or  Assyria. 

I,  2.  People]  RV  '  peoples,'  i.e.  the  heathen 
nations  around.  The  allusion  is  probably  to  the 
orgies  of  the  heathen  festival.  The  sins  of  the 
people  called  rather  for  sorrow  and  contrition. 

Reward]  RV  '  hire,'  the  bounteous  crops 
being  regarded  as  due  to  the  favom-  of  the  idols 
in  return  for  Israel's  worship.  As  a  punish- 
ment the  corn  and  wine  would  fail.  3.  See 
on  8 13.  Egypt  and  Assyria  were  the  nations 
which  assailed  them  on  either  side.  By  one 
of  them  they  would  be  taken  captive.  '  Un- 
clean food '  (RV),  in  contrast  to  the  fertile 


552 


9.4 


HOSEA 


10.  8 


products  of   their   own   land:  cp.  2K182"-3i 
Ezk4i-2.i3. 

4.  Bread  of  mourners]  Instead  of  being 
joyous  festivals  they  would  be  like  funeral 
feasts.  For  their  bread,  etc.]  RV  '  for  their 
bread  shall  be  for  their  appetite  :  it  shall 
not  come,'  etc.  A  further  step  in  their  misery. 
They  would  only  have  enough  bread  to  satisfy 
the  pangs  of  hunger,  and  have  none  left  to 
offer  to  God.  The  reference  here  appears  to 
be  to  the  horrors  of  a  siege.  5.  The  feast 
days  come,  but  no  one  is  ready  or  able  to 
observe  them.  Their  only  concern  is  to  escape 
destruction.  6.  Egypt .  .  up]  Their  efforts  to 
escape  are  useless.  They  would  be  captured  and 
brought  to  Egypt,  with  only  death  and  burial 
to  look  forward  to  :  see  on  8 1^.  The  pleasant 
.  .  silver]  RV  '  their  pleasant  things  of  silver.' 
"While  they  die  in  captivity,  all  their  treasures 
are  laid  waste  and  overgrown  with  weeds  :  cp. 
Isa34i3.     Tabernacles]  RV  'tents.' 

7.  Israel  shall  know.  .  it]  The  people  have 
refused  to  believe  the  prophet's  threats  ;  they 
would  realise  the  truth  very  soon,  when  the 
calamities  came  upon  them.  The  prophet  /.s'  a 
fool]  The  meaning  is  doubtful.  Some  inter- 
pret thus  :  '  Into  such  excesses  have  they 
fallen  that  their  prophets  have  gone  mad,  so 
that  they  utter  no  clear  message,  but  only  the 
incoherent  muttering  of  frenzy.'  In  this  case- 
the  prophet  would  refer  to  the  false  prophets. 
Or  it  may  mean  that  their  iniquity  and  enmity 
had  hitherto  made  them  ignorant  of  the  real 
character  of  the  true  prophet,  who  appeared 
to  them  a  mad  fool.  The  spiritual  man]  lit. 
'  the  man  of  the  spirit,'  an  unusual  synonym  for 
prophet.  8.  The  watchman]  '  Watchman  '  is 
similarly  used  metaphorically  of  a  prophet  in 
Isa21'5>ii.     The  meaning  is  very  uncertain. 

Was  with  my  God]  perhaps,  '  is  with  my 
God,'  i.e.  is  in  the  keeping  of  my  God.  A 
snare  of  a  fowler  .  .  ways]  Wherever  he  goes 
he  is  in  danger  of  being  trapped.  Hatred  in  .  . 
God]  The  enmity  of  the  people  dogs  him  in 
his  most  sacred  duties. 

9.  Gibeah]  The  reference  is  to  the  glaring  sin 
of  the  Gibeonites  described  in  Jgl9  :  cp.  10  9. 

10.  Grapes  in  the  wilderness]  the  last  place 
to  find  grapes.  But  God  had  found  these  poor 
tribes  in  the  wilderness,  and  made  them  His 
people.  Time]  RV  '  season.'  The  first  ripe 
fruit  is  eaten  with  peculiar  relish,  all  the 
more  so  if  it  be  the  first  crop  of  the  figs  : 
cp.  Isa  28'*.  Israel  was  the  first  nation  which 
God  had  chosen.  Baal-peor]  see  Nu25. 
God's  love  even  at  the  beginning  did  not 
hinder  them  from  acts  of  idolatry  and  gross 
impurity.  Separated  .  .  shame]  RV  '  conse- 
crated themselves  unto  the  shameful  thing,' i.e. 
the  idol  and  the  licentiousness  which  its  wor- 
ship involved. 

11-13.  The   prophet   threatens  them  with 


barrenness  as  the  punishment  for  immorality  : 
cp.  4 10.  Even  if  children  should  be  born,  they 
would  fall  by  the  sword  of  the  enemy.  13.  As 
I  saw  Tyrus]  i.e.  like  Tyre.  Pleasant  place] 
perhaps  fold,  as  in  Jer2;33,  the  reference  being 
to  security  rather  than  natural  beauty. 

14.  The  prophet  here  appeals  to  God's  justice 
to  carry  out  the  pimishment  foretold.  The 
prophet  has  his  moods  ;  at  one  time  an  earnest 
hope  for  the  nation's  repentance,  at  another 
a  disgust  at  their  hopeless  irreligion  and  immo- 
ralities. Even  here  the  language  implies  a 
struggle  of  different  feelings.  He  seems  to 
begin  with  a  prayer  and  to  end  with  some- 
thing like  a  curse.  15.  Gilgal]  cp.  415.  Gilgal 
was  the  home  of  idolatry  and  its  accompanying 
iniquity.  There  Israel  called  forth  the  wrath 
of  God.  Mine  house]  These  words  show  that 
the  worship  at  Gilgal  was  at  least  in  theory 
paid  to  Jehovah. 

CHAPTER    10 

Denunciations  and  Entreaties 
This  prophecy  appears  to  have  been  uttered 
at  a  later  date  than  the  last.  There  is  no 
longer  any  mention  of  Egypt,  but  the  calamity 
from  Assyria  seems  imminent.  Again  Hosea 
urges  them  to  repent  while  there  is  time,  and 
again  gives  way  to  despair. 

1.  Empty]  RV  '  luxuriant,'  with  reference 
to  the  prosperity  of  Israel.  The  more  he 
prospered,  the  more  he  multiplied  his  heathen- 
ish altars  and  symbols.  Fruit  unto  himself] 
RV  '  his  fruit.'  Images]  RV  '  pillars  '  :  see 
on  34. 

2.  Their . .  divided]  It  is  no  simple  worship  of 
Jehovah,  but  a  confused  heathenish  worship, 
which  God  will  altogether  destroy  :  see  Intro. 

3.  What .  .  us]  R V  '  and  the  king,  what  car 
he  do  for  us  '?  '  They  have  no  king,  because 
they  have  not  submitted  themselves  to  theh' 
natural  king,  Jehovah  ;  and  they  realise  too 
late  the  impotence  of  hira  who  is  a  king  only 
in  name  (i.e.  probably  Hoshea).  4.  They .  . 
covenant]  They  have  spoken  words,  i.e.  mere 
words  not  followed  by  deeds,  and  sworn  falsely 
to  agreements  which  they  have  not  kept.  The 
reference  is  probably  to  their  commercial  deal- 
ings with  each  other  as  in  4  2.  Hemlock .  . 
field]  Judgment  will  come  upon  them  like  the 
rank  gi'owth  of  a  noxious  weed.  5.  Samaria] 
as  in  8 -5  f-,  for  the  whole  people.  Calves  of  Beth- 
aven]  see  on  4 1^.  They  will  be  terribly  afraid 
lest  their  God  be  taken  away.  Priests  and 
people  alike  will  mourn  for  son-ow.  6.  King 
Jareb]  see  on  5 1^.  There  is  a  fine  touch  of  irony 
in  the  suggestion  that  a  god  is  sent  off  as  a 
present  to  a  king.  7.  Samaria  is  doomed,  and 
her  king  disappears,  like  a  foam-bubble  bursting 
on  the  water.  8.  A  picture  of  the  desolation 
and  terror  following  invasion.  Aven]  for  Beth- 
aven  :  see  on  4  is.    They  .  .  us]  In  their  despair 


653 


10.9 


HOSEA 


11.  10 


they  would  welcome  the  most  violent  death. 
The  words  are  quoted  by  our  Lord  in  His  pro- 
phecy of  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  (Lk 
2330):  see  also  Rev  6 1^. 

9.  From  the  days]  RM  '  more  than  in  the 
days.'  Gibeah]  see  on  'J  9  The  battle]  RY 
'  that  the  battle.'  Hosea  finds  a  parallel  be- 
tween the  battle  of  vengeance  against  the  Ben- 
jamites  in  Gibeah  ( Jg  20)  and  the  judgment  that 
is  coming  against  Israel.  They  remain  impeni- 
tent, hoping  that  a  similar  calamity  may  not 
overtake  them.  10.  /?..  should]  RV  'when 
it  is  my  desire,  I  will,'  etc.  There  may  be 
some  delay,  but,  when  God  wills,  the  punish- 
ment must  come.  When . .  furrows]  RV  '  when 
they  are  bound  '  (RM  '  yoked  ')  '  to  their  two 
transgressions,'  usually  explained  of  the  two 
'  calves.'  For  a  somewhat  similar  figure  cp 
Isa5i8.  But  translation  and  interpretation 
are  both  very  uncertain. 

11.  See  on  5 3.  Ephi-aim  is  like  a  heifer  ac- 
customed only  to  the  light  work  of  threshing ; 
but  both  she  and  Judah  must  now  bear  the 
yoke  of  a  foreign  oppressor.  I  passed  .  .  neck] 
a  rather  curious  but  forcible  way  of  saying,  '  I 
have  put  the  yoke  upon  her  neck.'  It  is  an 
instance  of  the  prophetic  past,  describing  as 
done  an  event  only  determined  by  God.  The 
images  which  follow  express  the  same  general 
thought,  the  dominion  of  a  foreign  power. 

Jacob]  instead  of  Israel  or  Ephraim. 

12,  13.  The  metaphor  of  ploughing  leads  to 
that  of  sowing  and  reaping.  Hosea  uses  it  to 
make  another  appeal  for  repentance.  In  the 
past  they  had  devoted  themselves  to  iniquity, 
and  were  beginning  to  reap  the  consequences. 
Let  them  now  devote  themselves  to  righteous- 
ness, and  they  will  receive  mercy.  Rain  righ- 
teousness] RM  '  teach  you  righteousness.' 

Trust .  .  way]  i.e.  you  chose  your  own  path 
instead  of  allowing  yourselves  to  be  directed 
by  God.  Another  reading  is,  'in  thy  chariots,' 
which  is  a  better  parallel  to  the  next  clause. 

14.  Among]  RM  '  against.'  Their  confidence 
would  be  found  misplaced.  The  fortresses 
manned  by  their  mighty  men  would  be  destroyed 
by  the  enemy.  Shalman  .  .  battle]  Nothing  is 
known  of  this  event,  and  neither  the  man  nor 
the  place  can  be  identified  with  certainty  ;  but 
the  sack  of  Beth-Jirbel  had  evidently  created  a 
terrible  impression  of  the  horrors  of  war. 

15.  So  shall  Beth-el  do]  RM  '  so  shall  it  be 
done,  unto  you  at  Beth-el.' 

CHAPTER  111-11 
The  Ingratitude  of  Israel 
Jehovah  had  been  like  a  tender  father  and  a 
kind  master  to  Israel  from  the  first,  yet  had 
they  ever  rejected  Him  and  turned  to  idols. 
He  cannot  bear  the  thought  of  punishing  them, 
but  punish  them  He  must.  Yet  punishment 
will  be  tempered  with  mercy,  and  lead  at  last  to 


repentance  and  deliverance.  The  tenderness  of 
the  whole  passage  and  the  changing  phases  of 
feeling  are  very  characteristic. 

I.  The  allusion,  of  course,  is  to  the  deliver- 
ance out  of  the  bondage  of  Egypt,  a  proof  of 
God's  fatherly  love  to  Israel.  St.  Matthew 
refers  the  last  clause  to  the  recall  of  the  Infant 
Jesus  from  Egypt  :  see  on  Mt2i5.  2.  As 
them]  An  interesting  example  of  the  terse  style 
of  Hosea.  It  is  God  who  calls,  but  He  calls 
by  the  instrumentality  of  others,  Moses  and 
the  prophets.  The  call  is  the  call  out  of  bond- 
age to  the  service  of  God.  3.  I]  RV  '  Yet  I.' 
Jehovah  is  here  compared  to  a  father  teaching 
his  child  to  walk,  and  carrying  it  when  tired. 

Taking  .  .  arms]  RM  '  He  took  them,'  etc. 
The  prophet  sometimes  speaks  as  the  mouth- 
piece of  God  in  the  first  person  ;  less  frequently 
he  speaks  of  God  in  the  third.  4.  Cords .  . 
man]  not  with  cords  used  in  drawing  a  beast 
which  is  being  broken  in,  but  something  more 
gentle,  the  kindly  discipline  needful  for  win- 
ning a  man's  allegiance.  And  I  was  .  .  unto 
them]  In  the  evening,  when  work  is  over,  the 
kind  master  takes  off  the  yoke,  gently  passing 
it  over  the  animal's  face,  and  then  gives  it  food. 

5.  Kindness  has  failed  to  lead  them  to  re- 
pentance ;  therefore  they  must  be  purified  by 
punishment.  Not  to  Egypt,  however,  shall  they 
•  go,  but  the  Assyrians  shall  conquer  and  carry 
them  away.  Not . .  into .  .  Egypt]  In  8 1^  9  "^  the 
prophet  spoke  of  Egypt  as  a  possible  place  of 
captivity  ;  but  now,  at  this  later  date,  it  was 
evident  that  Assyria  was  to  be  the  instrument 
of  God's  vengeance  6.  The  mention  of 
apostasy  produces  a  severer  tone  of  thi-eaten- 
ing.  Abide  on]  RV  '  fall  upon.'  His  branches] 
RV  '  his  bars,'  i.e.  his  defences,  meaning  either 
his  strong  cities  or  his  nobles,  on  whom  he  de- 
pended for  safety.  But  their  evil  counsellors  (if 
we  take  it  in  the  latter  sense)  would  prove  their 
ruin.  7.  Though  .. /;/«<]  Though  they  form- 
ally called  on  God,  they  do  not  really  exalt 
Him  in  their  hearts. 

8.  Hosea's  feeling  again  turns  to  tenderness. 
How  can  the  loving  Father  bear  to  chastise 
His  people  as  they  deserve  !  Admah . .  Zeboim] 
with  reference  to  the  destruction  of  the  cities 
of  the  plain  :  cp.  Dt  29  -^.  My  repentings]  RV 
'  my  compassions.'  9.  Jehovah's  feelings  grow 
stronger  still.  He  will  not  punish  His  people. 
I  am  God]  therefore  more  long-suffering 
and  less  vindictive  than  man  :  cp.  Ps  130'*  and 
Collect,  '  Who  declarest  Thy  almighty  power 
most  chiefly  in  showing  mercy  and  pity.'  Enter 
into  the  city]  RM  'come  in  wrath.'  10.  Hosea 
is  confident  that  the  people  will  make  them- 
selves deserving  of  Jehovah's  love  and  follow 
Him.  Roar  .  .  lion]  In  Am  3  ^  the  same  figure 
is  used  of  God's  threatening  through  the  pro- 
phet. Here  it  is  used  of  His  calling  for  His 
people  out  of  captivity,  the  point  of  comparison 


654 


11. 11 


HOSEA 


13.1 


being  the  earnest  longing  on  God's  part,  rever- 
ential awe  on  man's.  Shall  tremble]  RV  '  shall 
come  trembling.'  West]  i.e.  Egypt,  as  distinctly 
stated  in  the  next  V.  ii.  They  ..  Egypt]  Taken 
literallj',  it  is  in  contradiction  to  v.  5  ;  taken 
together,  they  may  be  paraphrased  thus  :  They 
shall  not  go  into  Egypt ;  and  even  should  they 
go,  thence  will  I  bring  them — a  form  of  thought 
similar  to  that  in  O^i-i^^  etc.  Dove]  The 
timidity  of  the  dove  is  what  is  probably  thought 
of.     For  another  use  of  the  simile  see  7^^. 

CHAPTERS  1112-1214 
A  Reproof  ov  Commercial  Dishonesty 

The  Hebrew  text  divides  the  c.  more  cor- 
rectly at  this  V.  The  prophet  returns  to  the 
subject  of  the  unfaithfulness  both  of  Israel 
and  of  Judah.  They  have  sought  help  where 
it  was  not  to  be  found,  and  neglected  God,  the 
only  source  of  help,  in  forgetfulness  of  the  ex- 
ample of  their  ancestor  Jacob. 

12.  Judah . .  saints]  RM  better, '  and  Judah 
is  yet  unstedfast  with  God,  and  with  the  Holy 
One  who  is  faithful.' 

C.  12.  I.  Ephraim  .  .  east  wind]  an  attack  on 
Israel's  foreign  policy  and  cunning  commercial 
dealings  with  foreign  powers.  The  vnnd 
stands  for  what  is  useless  and  unsatisfying. 
The  east  wind  was  noted  for  its  violence  and 
destructiveness  :  cp.  Ps48''.  They  seek  eagerly 
to  obtain  what  in  the  end  will  destroy  them. 

Oil .  .  Egypt]  Oil  was  one  of  the  richest 
products  of  Palestine  :  see  Dt8S  2  K 18  32. 

2.  Jacob]  as  before  used  to  introduce  the 
personal  history  of  the  Patriarch,  from  which 
Hosea  seeks  to  draw  an  analogous  lesson  for  the 
people.  Jacob  had  begun  life  by  cunningly  sup- 
planting his  brother,  but  afterwards  had  made 
a  covenant  with  God.  Israel  is  now  exhorted 
to  do  likewise.  3.  By  his  strength]  RV  '  in 
his  manhood.'  It  refers  to  Jacob's  wrestling 
with  the  angel  at  Penuel(Gn  32  24-30).     4.   He 

wept]  Not  mentioned  in  Gn32  25.  He  found 
him]  the  subject  is  Jehovah.  In  Beth-el]  The 
reference  is  probably  to  Jacob's  dream  (Gn 
28  10-22).  With  us]  Hosea  here  regards  God's 
promises  to  Jacob  as  made  to  the  people  Israel, 
whom  in  fact  they  chiefly  concerned.  5.  Lit. 
'  And  Jehovah  is  the  God  of  armies.  Jehovah 
is  His  memorial.'  The  thoughts  emphasised 
are,  (1)  the  protective  power  of  God  ;  (2)  His 
faithfulness.  Hosea  has  probably  in  his  mind 
Ex  31^.  Jehovah  was  the  God  of  the  Patri- 
archs, who  would  keep  the  promises  which  He 
had  made  to  them.  Memorial]  that  by  which 
a  person  is  known,  his  name  :  see  Ex3is. 

7-14.  Israel,  too,  is  unjust  and  unmerciful. 
In  the  pursuit  of  gain  they  are  no  better 
than  the  heathen,  though  they  pride  them- 
selves on  their  honesty.  Jehovah  has  long 
warned  them  :  now  He  will  punish  them : 
their  sanctuaries  will  be  utterly  destroyed. 


555 


7.  He  is  a  merchant]  RM  'as  for  Canaan 
the  balances,'  etc.  Balances  of  deceit]  cp. 
Am  8  5.  8.  And  Ephraim]  The  Israelites  had 
only  too  readily  learnt  the  tricks  of  cheating 
from  the  Canaanites.  Yet]  RV  '  surely.'  It 
is  the  natural  consequence  of  his  unjust  deal- 
ing. In  all . .  sin]  Israel  is  nevertheless  per- 
fectly self-satisfied  and  has  no  pangs  of  con- 
science. 9.  And]  RV  '  But.'  In  spite  of  all 
this  I  will  not  leave  you  to  your  evil  ways. 

Tabernacles]  RV  'tents.'  Israel  had  learned 
nothing  since  the  days  in  the  wilderness.  In 
rehgion  and  morality  they  were  still  like  those 
who  came  out  of  Egypt.  Therefore  they 
would  have  to  go  back  to  captivity  and  begin 
their  discipline  anew.  Solemn  feast]  i.e.  the 
Feast  of  booths  (Tabernacles).  10.  The 
moral  degi-adation  of  the  people  was  not  from 
want  of  warning.  Visions  and  similitudes] 
two  of  the  commonest  modes  of  prophetic 
utterance.  We  have  instances  of  the  first  in 
the  vision  of  Micaiah  (IK 22 19-22),  the  basket 
of  summer  fruit  (Am8i),  etc.  ;  of  the  latter 
in  the  simile  of  the  baker  in  Hos7.  A  defi- 
nitely acted  parable  became  a  conamon  feature 
of  later  prophecy,  e.g.  Ezk4. 

II.  Gilead  .  .  Gilgal]  both  sanctuaries  :  see 
415  68.  Is  there  iniquity,  etc.]  RV  'Is  Gilead 
iniquity  ?  '  The  question  is  only  a  rhetorical 
way  of  stating  an  astounding  fact.  12.  The 
idolatry  of  Israel  implies  a  forgetfulness  of  God, 
by  whose  providence  Jacob  was  rescued  from 
servitude.  The  reference  is  to  Jacob's  servi- 
tude under  Laban  in  order  to  win  Rachel 
(Gn29,  30).  13.  The  rescue  of  Jacob  was  re- 
peated in  the  deliverance  of  Israel  out  of 
Egypt  by  Moses,  and  their  preservation  in  the 
wilderness.  Moses,  as  Israel's  first  inspired 
teacher,  was  their  first  prophet  :  cp.  Dtl8i5f- 
3410.  14.  Ephraim  ..  bitterly]  In  spite  of  all 
this  kindness  Ephraim  had  provoked  God  to 
great  anger.  His  blood]  plural,  meaning 
'bloodshed.'  The  blood  which  he  has  shed 
shall  not  be  wiped  off,  but  remain  in  God's  eye, 
a  witness  of  his  crime.  For  a  somewhat  similar 
idea  cp.  Gn4io.  His  reproach]  God  will 
punish  him  for  his  reproach,  i.e.  for  his  scorn- 
ful contempt  of  God:    cp.  2KI94,  22. 

CHAPTER   13 
Israel's  Idolatry  axd  its  Consequences 

The  main  thought  of  this  c,  which  is  a 
continuation  of  the  last  (cp.  12  ^  13  4),  is  the 
folly  of  Israel  incurring  the  enmity  of  God, 
who  had  shown  Himself  such  a  loving  friend, 
but  might  become  so  terrible  an  enemy.  The 
sudden  change  of  tone  in  v.  14  is  highly 
characteristic. 

I.  When  .  .  trembling]  RV  'When  Ephraim 
spake,  there  was  trembling.'  Ephraim  was  a 
strong  and  powerful  tribe,  which  could  com- 
mand obedience,  as  especially  in  the  days  of 


vs.  2 


HOSEA 


14.  9 


Joshua.     He  died]  Baal-worship  was  the  cause 
of  the  national  decay  and  its  final  doom. 

2.  Kiss]  as  an  act  of  worship.  For  men 
that  sacrifice  RM  has  '  sacrificers  of  men. ' 
Murder  is  combined  with  sacrifice :  cp.  Isa 
115.  4.  Yet .  .  Egypt]  see  on  12 «.  5,  6.  I .  . 
thee]  In  the  wilderness  Jehovah  became  their 
friend.  He  knew  them,  and  bade  them  know 
Him.  But  when  they  prospered  in  a  land  of 
fertility,  they  became  proud  and  forgot  Him. 

10.  I  .  .  kmg]  E.V  '  Where  now  is  thy  king  ? ' 
What  use  would  the  king  and  princes  whom 
they  had  so  clamoured  for  be  in  their  trouble  ? 

11.  I  .  .  anger]  This  has  often  been  referred 
to  Saul,  but  the  Hebrew  tenses  suggest  re- 
peated action,  and  the  allusion  may,  therefore, 
be  to  the  frequent  changes  of  dynasty  in  the 
northern  kingdom.  12.  Hid]  RV  '  laid  up  in 
store.'  The  sin  of  Israel  is  kept  stored  in 
Grod's  remembrance,  and  will  surely  bring 
about  its  own  punishment.  13.  He  is  an  un- 
•wise  son,  etc.]  Ephraim  is  like  a  foolish  child 
that  delays  his  own  birth  by  staying  in  the 
passage  from  the  womb.  In  other  words,  he 
has  not  the  wisdom  to  rouse  himself  in  this 
gi'eat  crisis. 

14.  With  a  startling  transition  of  thought, 
Hosea  contemplates  the  power  of  Jehovah  to 
save,  even  from  death  itself:  cp.  Isa  26^9.  If 
it  is  too  much  to  regard  it  as  a  definite  pro- 
phecy of  the  resurrection,  it  is  at  least  an  ex- 
ample of  faith  in  the  unbounded  mercies  of 
God,  and  His  power  to  trample  even  upon 
death  and  Hades. 

O  death  .  .  destruction]  RV  '  0  death,  where 
are  thy  plagues?  0  grave'  (RM  '  Sheol'), 
'where  is  thy  destruction?'  Cp.  v.  10,  where 
the  same  negative  answer  to  the  rhetorical 
question  is  intended.  See  1  Cor  15  5^,  where 
St.  Paul,  quoting  freely  from  LXX,  gives  a 
better  rendering  than  AV.  Sheol  is  the  place 
of  departed  spirits.  Hades,  as  in  Isa  14°,  etc. 

Repentance .  .  eyes]  i.e.  I  will  not  relent  in 
my  purpose. 

15.  Suddenly  again  the  hope  vanishes.  Eph- 
raim in  his  prosperity  is  compared  to  a  fertile 
country  suddenly  dried  up  by  the  east  wind 
from  the  desert,  and  the  failure  of  water. 

Wind .  .  Lord]  RV  '  breath  of  the  Lord,' 
the  wind  being  poetically  conceived  of  as 
God's  breath,  just  as  the  thunder  was   His 


voice  :  cp.  Gn  1 2.     He  shall  spoil]  i.e.  the  east 
wind,  or  rather  the  enemy  whom  it  typifies. 

16.  Shall  become  desolate]  RV  '  shall  bear 
her  guilt,'  i.e.  be  punished  for  her  sin.  Their 
.  .  up]  Ephraim  would  have  to  bear  the  cruelties 
inflicted  by  a  merciless  foe  in  a  barbarous  age. 

CHAPTER   14 

Israel  will  surely  repent  and  be 
forgiven 

Hosea  makes  a  touching  final  appeal  for  re- 
pentance. He  assures  Israel  of  God's  mercy, 
and  closes  with  a  description  of  the  blessings 
that  will  follow  the  renewal  of  His  favour. 

2.  Take  .  .  words]  go  to  Him,  prepared  to 
confess  your  sins.  Receive  us  graciously]  RV 
'  accept  that  which  is  good,'  i.e.  what  is  good 
in  us,  in  contrast  to  the  iniquity  which  God  is 
asked  to  take  awa3^  Render]  i.e.  offer.  The 
calves  .  .  lips]  better,  '  om-  lips  as  bullocks  ' — 
that  sacrifice  of  penitence  which  is  outwardly 
expressed  not  in  the  sacrifice  of  animals,  but 
in  confession  of  sin:  cp.  PsSl^'i'.  3.  Israel 
would  no  longer  depend  upon  the  help  either 
of  foreign  powers  or  of  the  idols,  but  trust  in 
Jehovah,  the  helper  of  the  fa,therless. 

5.  Dew]  a  frequent  metaphor  to  express 
spiritual  blessing  :  cp.  Dt32  2.  The  paucity  of 
rain  made  the  land  dependent  on  frequent  and 
heavy  dews  :  cp.  IKIT^.  Grow]  RV  'blos- 
som.' 6.  Olive]  the  emblem  of  fatness  and 
fertility. 

8.  This  V.  passes  into  a  sort  of  dialogue 
between  Ephraim  and  God.     Thus  : 

Ephraim.  What  have  I  to  do  any  more  with 
idols  ?  i.e.  I  will  in  future  have  nothing  more 
to  do  with  them. 

Jehovah.  (RV)  '  I  have  answered,  and  will 
regard  him,'  i.e.  I  have  heard  his  prayer,  and 
will  answer  it. 

Ephraim.  I  am  like  a  green  fir  tree]  I  am 
strong  and  prosperous. 

Jehovah.  From  me  is  thy  fruit  found,  i.e. 
do  not  in  prosperity  once  more  forget  that  it 
comes  from  Me  :  cp.  Jnl5'*. 

9.  A  general  reflection  on  the  teaching  of 
the  book,  which  cannot  be  understood  except 
by  the  wise  and  prudent,  but  in  the  end  will 
be  found  to  be  true  wisdom:  cp.  PslO?'*^. 
This  epilogue  may  have  been  added  at  a 
later  date,  to  point  the  moral  of  the  whole  book. 


556 


JOEL 


INTRODUCTION 


1.  Author.  Nothing  is  mentioned  concern- 
ing the  personality  of  the  prophet  Joel  beyond 
the  name  of  his  father,  Pethuel  (1 1)  ;  but  he 
clearly  lived  in  Jerusalem,  since  the  Temple 
appears  ever  present  before  him  (19>i3,  u,  16 
21''),  and  the  sound  of  alarm  is  given  from 
Zion  (2 1),  and  the  people  are  summoned  thither 
for  a  solemn  assembly  (2 1').  He  also  does  not 
notice  the  northern  kingdom,  but  speaks  of 
Judah  and  Jerusalem  having  suffered  from 
their  enemies  (Si'*^),  and  promises  to  them  a 
recompense  (SS'i'^-'-O). 

2.  Date.  The  date  of  the  book  of  Joel  is 
determined  alone  by  internal  evidence.  A 
terminus  a  quo  is  fixed  by  the  dispersion  and 
wrongs  mentioned  in  d>'^-^.  Many  have  seen 
in  these  a  reference  to  the  sacking  of  Jeru- 
salem during  the  reign  of  Jehoram  (about  850 
B.C.)  by  the  Philistines  and  Arabians,  recorded 
in  2Ch21i6f.  In  that  case  the  book  would 
probably  be  one  of  the  earliest  of  the  pro- 
phetic writings,  a  formerly  prevalent  view, 
suggested  by  its  position  in  the  Canon  after 
Hosea.  Agreeable  to  this  early  date  have 
been  pointed  out,  (1)  that  the  condemnation 
of  Egypt  and  Edom  for  having  shed  innocent 
blood  (319)  may  refer  to  the  invasion  of  Shi- 
shak  dm-ing  the  reign  of  Rehoboam  (1 K 1425), 
and  to  the  revolt  of  Edom  under  Jehoram 
(2K820)  ;  (2)  that  the  mention  of  the  valley 
of  Jehoshaphat  preserves  a  lively  recollection 
of  that  king's  victory  at  the  valley  of  Bera- 
chah  (2Ch2026);  (3)  that  the  simplicity  of 
the  teaching  of  Joel  indicates  an  early  period 
of  written  prophecy  ;  (4)  especially  as  fixing 
the  date  of  his  book  in  the  early  part  of  the 
reign  of  Joash  (837-801  B.C.),  that  it  is 
silent  concerning  the  king — then  in  his  min- 
ority ;  (5)  that  idolatry  and  Baal  worship  are 
not  mentioned,  since  they  did  not  flourish  when 
the  king  was  under  the  infliience  of  Jehoiada 
the  priest  (2K122  2Ch24i'f-)  ;  (6)  that  the 
priests  and  the  worship  of  Jehovah  are  made 
prominent  (1^^  21'),  something  also  to  be  ex- 
pected at  the  same  time  through  the  influence 
of  Jehoiada  ;  and,  finally,  (7)  that  the  failure 
to  mention  the  Syrians,  Assyrians,  or  Chal- 
deans as  enemies  of  Judah,  is  also  agreeable 
to  this  date,  since  only  late  in  the  reign  of 
Joash  did  the  Syrians,  through  Hazael,  tkreaten 
Judah(2K12i7f.). 

But,  in  spite  of  this  apparent  accumulation 
of  evidence,  it  is  doubtful  whether  the  dis- 


persion and  wrongs  of  S^-^,  where  the  parti- 
tion of  the  land  is  definitely  stated  (3  2), 
can  refer  to  any  other  event  than  the  Chal- 
dean conquest  of  Judah,  and  the  following 
considerations  also  are  in  favour  of  a  post- 
exilic  date.  (1)  The  words  of  Joel  stand  in 
strong  contrast  to  those  of  the  early  prophets, 
Amos,  Hosea,  Isaiah,  Micah,  and  Jeremiah, 
who  emphasised  the  defection  of  Israel  from 
Jehovah  through  deeds  of  violence  and  op- 
pression, political  alliances  and  idolatry,  and 
based  almost  wholly  upon  these  their  calls  for 
repentance  or  forebodings  of  divine  judgment. 
But  these  features  are  entirely  wanting  in  the 
book  of  Joel.  Human  agencies,  also,  are  not 
found  as  instruments  of  divine  judgments,  as 
in  the  earlier  prophets,  except  in  the  slightest 
degree,  but  supernatural  manifestations  take 
their  place,  and  thus  the  book  is  of  the  nature 
of  an  apocalypse,  a  kind  of  writing  prevalent 
from  the  captivity  and  onward.  One  feature 
of  the  apocalyptic  literature  is  the  use  made 
of  parallels  from  earlier  writings,  and  these 
are  frequent  in  the  book  of  Joel.  (2)  The 
stress  laid  upon  sacrifices  and  the  prominence 
given  to  the  priests  (19>13,  21")  reflect  a  highly 
developed  ecclesiastical  community,  which  the 
Jews  became  after  the  exile.  (3)  The  mention 
of  the  Grecians  in  connexion  with  the  slave  trade 
(3*5)  points  strongly  to  the  post-exilic  period 
when  Syrian  slaves  were  in  request  in  Greece. 
(4)  The  silence  concerning  the  northern  king- 
dom and  the  Syrians,  Assyrians  and  Chaldeans, 
and  a  king  in  Judah,  already  mentioned,  favour 
a  post-exilic  date.  (5)  The  references  to 
Edom  and  Egypt  can. also  readily  be  explained 
from  the  post-exilic  point  of  view,  since  bitter 
feeling  then  continued  toward  Edom,  and 
Egypt  might  be  mentioned  typically  :  see  3 1^. 
And,  finally,  (G)  the  language  favours  a  post- 
exilic  writer.  Hence  the  more  prevailing  view 
among  scholars  now  is  that  the  book  of  Joel 
belongs  to  the  post-exilic  period,  and  was 
wi-itten  circ.  500  B.C.,  though  possibly  con- 
siderably later. 

3.  Subject  and  Occasion.  The  general 
subject  of  Joel  is  divine  judgment,  or  the 
Day  of  Jehovah.  This  is  depicted  in  1-217 
under  the  form  of  a  locust  plague,  which 
undoubtedly  was  the  occasion  of  the  prophecy. 
So  vivid  is  the  description  of  the  locusts, 
especially  under  the  figure  of  an  army  (2'5-ii), 
that  some  have  supposed  the  language  figurative 


567 


INTRO. 


JOEL 


1.8 


and  have  taken  the  account  as  presaging  a 
future  invasion  or  experience  of  Israel  after 
the  analogy  of  that  of  the  hosts  of  Gog  and 
Magog  described  in  Ezk  38,  39.  But  the 
prophet  is  rather  speaking  of  literal  locusts, 
addressing  his  contemporaries  in  view  of 
present  distress.  His  description  of  the  ad- 
vent of  these  insects  as  a  Day  of  Jehovah  and 
as  a  destruction  from  the  Almighty  (1 1^)  with 
terrifying  natural  phenomena  (2  ^O)  is  none  too 
strong  to  express  the  feeling  awakened  by  the 
presence  of  real  locusts.  The  fearfulness  of 
their  devastations  has  been  attested  again  and 
again  by  travellers  and  scientific  observers. 
Locusts  darken  the  sky,  their  sound  is  like 
that  of  a  rushing  wind  or  falling  water  ;  no- 
thing can  break  their  ranks  or  turn  them  back ; 
neither  fire  nor  water  as  ordinarily  applied 
stays  their  progi-ess  ;  they  devour  all  vegeta- 
tion ;  they  penetrate  into  houses  ;  and  finally, 
when  their  work  is  accomplished,  driven  by 
the  wind  into  the  sea  their  dead  bodies  have 
been  cast  up  in  heaps  to  putrefy  the  atmo- 
sphere and  produce  disease.  Thus  the  inter- 
pretation that  finds  literal  locusts  is  justified, 
and  yet,  doubtless,  in  the  prophet's  mind  the 
scourge  itself  was  a  figure  of  a  great  and  final 
day  of  judgment,  and  that  thought  intensified 
his  language  and  made  it  somewhat  ideal. 

After  a  two-fold  description  of  this  day  of 
judgment  through  locusts,  with  calls  for  fast- 
ing and  prayer  (12-217),  it  is  said,  'Jehovah 
had  pity  on  his  people '  (2 1^  RV),  implying 
that  the  people  had  fasted  and  prayed  and 
that  their  intercession  had  availed.  Then  the 
promises  are  given  of  the  removal  of  the 
locusts  and  the  restoration  of  the  fruitfulness 
of  the  land  (219-27),  and  of  the  bestowal  of  the 
divine  spirit  of  knowledge  (228-32)_  in  con- 
nexion with  this  latter  promise  a  glimpse  of 
the  already  suggested  terrible  day  of  final 
judgment  is  given  (230-32),  and  this  becomes  the 
direct  theme  of  the  remainder  of  the  book  in 
two  different  forms :  first,  a  judgment  re- 
stricted to  the  immediate  neighbours  of  Israel 
(3 1-8)  ;  and  then,  secondly,  one  embracing  all 
nations  (39-21). 

4.  Teaching.  The  book  of  Joel  addresses 
the  Christian  Church  under  visitations  of  evil 
with  a  call  for  humility  and  intercession  both 
through  outward  form  and  ceremony  and 
through  the  inward  motions  of  the  heart,  with 
the  assurance  that  God  hears  and  answers 
prayer,  turning  the  day  of  calamity  into  one 
of  prosperity.  It  heralds  Jehovah  as  the 
judge  of  all  mankind  to  right  wrongs,  giving 
temporal  and  spiritual  blessings  unto  His 
faithful  people  without  distinction,  and  punish- 
ing evildoers.  Thus  it  appeals  to  our  innate 
sense  of  justice  and  becomes  a  source  of  hope 
and  strength  when  the  righteous  are  tried.  A 
final  blissful  salvation  is  assured  to  the  people 


of  God.  But,  at  the  same  time,  the  book  has 
limitations  in  fostering  a  spirit  of  retaliation 
(38),  in  presenting  no  salvation  for  the 
heathen  (cp.  in  contrast  Isa  22-4  19 18-25)^  and, 
while  doubtless  the  assumption  is  that  the 
saved  Israelites  are  righteous  and  the  other 
nations  are  wicked,  yet  the  distinction  between 
the  saved  and  unsaved  is  racial  rather  than 
spiritual  and  moral,  and  the  narrow  feeling  of 
the  Jews,  which  the  book  of  Jonah  was  written 
to  counteract,  is  reflected,  and  its  universal 
judgment  scene  (39-21)  needs  to  be  supple- 
mented by  that  of  Mt  25  31-46,  even  as  its 
promise  of  the  outpouring  of  the  Spirit  (228f,) 
finds  fulfilment  in  spiritual  gifts  to  the  Church 
which  are  far  wider  than  those  of  the  single 
day  of  Pentecost  (Ac2i4f-)- 

CHAPTER  1 

The  Coming  of  the  Locusts  a  Harbinger 
OF  THE  Day  of  the  Lord 

After  the  title  (v.  1),  the  prophet  announces  an 
miheard  of  and  long' to  be  remembered  ruin, 
wrought  by  locusts  (vv.  2-4),  and  summons  the 
users  of  wine  to  bewail  the  destruction  of 
vineyards  (vv.  5-7).  He  calls  for  lamentation, 
like  that  of  a  widowed  bride,  over  the  loss  of 
sacrificial  ofiierings,  and  wasted  fields  and 
orchards  (vv.  8-12).  He  commands  the 
priests  to  lament  and  to  appoint  a  fast  and  a 
meeting  for  prayer  (vv.  13,  14),  and  then  he 
vividly  describes  the  failm-e  of  crops  and 
distress  of  cattle  (vv.  16-20). 

I.  Joel]  see  Intro.  Pethuel]  entirely  un- 
known. 

4.  The  palmerworm,  cankerworm,  caterpiller, 
and  locust,  are  not  different  insects,  but  in  the 
original  foiu*  different  names  of  the  locust, 
possibly  representing  it  in  different  stages  of 
growth';  yet  here  in  a  climactic  description,  i.e. 
'  swarm  upon  swarm.'  The  use  of  synonyms  for 
a  common  object  is  characteristic  of  Hebrew. 

5.  New  wine]  RV  '  sweet  wine,'  primarily 
the  freshly  pressed  juice  of  the  grape  or  other 
fruit.  6.  A  nation]  figurative  of  the  locusts  : 
cp.  similar  figure  for  ants  and  conies  in 
Prov3025f.  My  land]  i.e.  of  Jehovah  since 
the  prophet  gives  His  message.  The  teeth  of 
a  lion]  in  destructiveness.  The  cheek  teeth] 
RV  '  The  jaw  teeth.'  The  lion  was  common 
in    ancient  Palestine. 

7.  Locusts  consume  not  only  plants  and 
vegetables,  but  also  small  branches  and  tender 
bark,  thus  exposing  the  white  wood.  Cast  it 
away]  i.e.  the  unedible  fragments  of  bark  and 
wood  which  fall  to  the  ground. 

8.  A  general  address  to  the  people.  The 
simile  may  contain  an  underlying  reference  to 
the  abandonment  of  the  people  by  Jehovah, 
since  the  union  between  them  was  often 
typified  by  the  marriage  relation,  and  the 
disaster   of    the   locust   plague   implied   that 


558 


1.  9 


JOEL 


2.  16 


Jehovah  had  forsaken  the  land.  g.  The  meat 
offering  (RV  '  meal  offering  ')  and  the  drink 
offering]  Two  daily  offerings  which  went  with 
the  morning  and  evening  sacrifice  of  a  lamb, 
the  one  consisting  of  fine  flour  mingled  with 
oil  and  the  other  of  a  libation  of  wine  :  cp. 
Ex  29  38-42  Nu28i-8  Lv2i-i*5.  Is  cut  off]  i.e. 
cannot  be  provided.  lo.  The  land  mourneth] 
Nature  is  represented  in  the  OT.  with  the 
same  feelings  as  those  of  man.  Cp.  for 
mourning  Isa339  Jerl 2^,11  2310  Ami 2. 

Corn,  •wine,  and  oil,  the  thi-ee  principal 
products  of  the  soil  of  Palestine,  frequently 
mentioned  together  as  from  Jehovah  (2 1" 
Dt7i3  1114  28^1  Jer31i2  Hos28.28).  The 
corn  (AE.V  '  grain  ')  was  principally  wheat, 
barley,  and  spelt  or  vetch.  Rye  and  oats 
were  not  grown.  The  oil  was  that  of  the 
olive.  II.  Be  ye  ashamed,  etc.]  RM  'The 
husbandmen  are  ashamed,  the  vinedressers 
howl.'  12.  Palm  tree]  Symbol  of  glory  or 
beauty  (Ps92i2  SongT^f-  JerlO^),  but  here 
mentioned  as  a  fruit  tree.  Its  dates  are  very 
valuable.  The  apple]  sometimes  rendered 
'  apricot,'  although  apples  are  found  in  Palestine : 
cp.  Prov25ii  Song  2  3, 5  79.  13.  Gird  your- 
selves] i.e.  with  sackcloth  :  cp.  Isa32  n.  Lie  all 
night]  cp.  David  (2 S 1216),  Ahab  (IK 21 27). 
Nothing  was  more  terrible  to  the  Jewish  mind 
than  the  failure  of  the  daily  sacrifice. 

14.  Sanctify .  .  a  fast]  i.e.  keep  a  holy  fast 
unto  Jehovah.  As  feasting  is  a  natural 
expression  of  joy  so  fasting  is  of  grief,  and 
fasts  were  observed  in  times  of  distress  along 
with  confession  of  sin  and  prayer  for  divine 
favour(Jg2026  1S762S12i6iK2127Ps69iOf- 
EzrlOe  Neh9i  Jon  3  5-9  Dan  9  3),  and  entered 
also  regularly  into  the  Jewish  calendar 
(Lvl629  Zech73,6  gio).  Gather  the  elders, 
etc.]  better,  '  Gather,  0  elders,  all  the  inhabit- 
ants,' or  omit  '  elders.' 

15.  The  day  of  the  Lord]  early  in  popular 
thought  a  time  when  Jehovah  granted  victory 
unto  Israel  (Am  5^8),  but  in  prophetic  discourse 
a  time  of  signal  divine  manifestation  in 
judgment  (as  here  in  the  locust  plague,  2i'ii, 
cp.  Isa2i2  13*3  Am 5 18  Zephl^.u  Mai 45),  and 
especially  in  connexion  with  the  final  consum- 
mation of  Jehovah's  plan  for  Israel,  and  thus 
a  day  of  salvation  (23if.  31**-  Mai  4  5  f.). 

16.  Meat]  i.e.  food.  Many  of  the  celebra- 
tions at  the  Temple  were  occasions  of  rejoicing 
over  abundant  harvests  and  the  like  (Dtl6i*^*- 
13-15  126,7  26i*-i0f-)  17.  RM  'The  seeds 
shrivel,'  from  the  drought,  which  seems  to  have 
accompanied  the  locust  plague.  19.  Fire .  . 
flame]  figurative  of  the  drought. 

CHAPTER   2 

Repentance  followed  by  Restoration 
Yv.    1-17   are   another    description   of    the 
locust  plague.     An  alarm  is  sounded  as  though 


the  Day  of  Jehovah  had  come  (vv.  1-3).  The 
advance  of  the  locusts  into  the  city  is  described 
under  the  figure  of  an  invading  army  (vv.  4-1 1). 
A  message  to  the  penitent  is  given  from  Je- 
hovah (vv.  12-14),  and  a  call  is  issued  for  a 
fast  of  supplication  (vv.  15-17).  Then  follow 
the  announcements  that  Jehovah  has  had  pity 
on  His  people,  and  that  He  will  remove  the 
locusts  (vv.  18-20),  and  restore  abundantly  the 
prosperity  of  the  land  (vv.  21-27),  and  after- 
ward pour  out  His  spirit  and  gi-ant  deliverance 
in  His  great  day  (vv.  28-32). 

I.  The  blown  trumpet  was  a  signal  of  dan- 
ger ( Jer  6 1  Ezk  33  3  f  Am  3  6).  Day  of  the  LORD] 
cp.  115.  2.  Darkness,  etc.]  caused  either  by 
the  clouds  of  locusts,  or  a  figure  of  calamity  : 
cp.  Am  5 18  Zephis. 

3.  The  devastation  wrought  by  the  locusts 
was  as  though  the  country  had  been  swept  by 
afire.  Garden  of  Eden]  6n28f. ;  called  also 
'garden  of  Jehovah,'  Gnl3iO:  cp.  Ezk28i3 
3636.  4,  The  head  of  a  locust  resembles 
somewhat  that  of  a  horse,  hence  the  German 
name  heupferd  and  Italian  carallctta.  So  shall 
they  run]  RV  '  so  do  they  run.'  The  descrip- 
tion in  this  and  the  following  vv.  is  not  of  a 
future  but  a  present  catastrophe,  hence  the 
verbs  are  to  be  rendered  in  the  present,  as  in 
RY.  5.  Shall  they  leap]  RY  '  do  they  leap.' 
The  rustling  noise  of  locusts  has  been  likened 
by  travellers  to  the  sounds  '  of  the  dashing  of 
waters  by  the  mill  wheel,'  and  '  of  a  great 
cataract,'  and  their  feeding  to  the  noise  '  of 
the  crackling  of  a  prairie  fire.'  6.  RY  'At 
their  presence  the  peoples  are  in  anguish  :  all 
faces  are  waxed  pale.'  7.  RY  '  They  run  . . 
they  climb  . .  they  march  . .  they  break  not.' 

8.  RY  '  Neither  doth  one  thrust  another  ; 
they  march  every  one  in  his  path  :  and  they 
burst  through  the  weapons,  and  break  not  off 
their  course.''  Thus  compact  is  the  march  of 
locusts.  No  weapons  avail  to  stem  their  ap- 
proach. 9.  RY  '  They  leap  upon  the  city  ;  they 
run  upon  the  wall ;  they  climb  up  into  the  houses ; 
they  enter.'  10.  '  The  earth  quaketh  .  .  heavens 
tremble  .  .  are  darkened  . .  stars  withdraw.'  The 
advent  of  the  locusts  is  idealised  as  though 
with  them  came  also  the  earthquake  and 
the  eclipse.  The  Hebrews  conceived  of  the 
heavens  as  solid,  and  hence  spoke  of  their 
trembling.  11.  RY  '  uttereth.'  The  voice  of 
Jehovah  is  thunder  (Ps  29),  hence  the  thought 
is  that  of  a  great  storm  accompanying  the 
locusts. 

12.  With  all  your  heart]  cp  Dt65.  13.  Rend 
your  heart]  even  as  the  Psalmist  speaks  of  a 
broken  heart  (Ps51i7).  14.  The  divine  will 
is  neither  arbitrary  nor  fixed,  but  is  deeply 
affected  by  human  intercessions  and  conditions, 
and  hence  a  purpose  of  destruction  may  be 
changed  (Jer  18 18  42 10  Am  7  3, 6).  15.  Cp.v.  1,1 14. 

16.  Closet]    The  same,   of   com-se,   as   the 


559 


2.  17 


JOEL 


chamber  of  the  bridegroom.  The  Heb.  word 
means  'canopy'  or  'pavilion,'  and  its  usage 
comes  from  the  primitive  nuptial  tent  provided 
for  the  wedded  pair.  17.  The  porch  of  the 
Temple,  in  front  of  which  stood  the  altar  in 
the  court  of  the  priests.  That  the  heathen, 
etc.]  RM  '  that  the  nations  should  use  a  by- 
word against  them,'  i.e.  that  they  should  become 
a  byword  through  their  wretched  abandon- 
ment by  God.  RV  among  the  peoples.'  On 
the  taunt,  cp.  Ps42io  79 10  H  5  2.  18.  ARV 
'  Then  was  Jehovah  jealous  for  his  land  and 
had  pity  on  his  people.'  It  is  implied  that  the 
fast  and  solemn  assembly  were  held,  and  that 
Jehovah  responded  to  the  cry  of  His  people 
with  the  promises  of  vv.  19-32.  19.  RV  '  and 
the  Lord  answered  and  said  unto  his  people.' 

20.  The  northern  nr/H^/]  or,  '  the  northerner,' 
i.e.  the  locusts,  which  might  possibly  have 
come  from  the  N.,  although  usually  in  Pales- 
tine from  the  S.  or  SE.  Probably  they  are 
idealised  as  typical  of  the  enemies  of  Israel, 
who  are  frequently  spoken  of  as  coming  from 
the  N.  (Jerlii  46  10 22  Ezk .386,15  392).  Land 
barren  and  desolate]  the  deserts  S.  and  SE.  of 
Judah.  With  his  face]  RV  '  his  forepart.'  The 
east  sea]  i.e.  the  Dead  Sea.  The  utmost  sea] 
RV  '  the  western  sea,'  i.e.  the  Mediterranean. 

And  his  stink,  etc.]  See  Intro.  Hath  done, 
etc.]  i.e.  in  destruction.  The  same  phrase  is 
used  of  the  beneficent  acts  of  Jehovah  in  v.  2 1 . 

21.  Introduces  the  promise  of  renewed  pros- 
perity. 22.  Be  not  afraid]  of  famine.  Do 
spring]  i.e.  are  renewed  with  fresh  grass :  cp. 
17, 12,  I8f^  where  the  desolation  is  described. 

23.   Moderately]  RV  '  in  just  measure.' 

The  former  .  .  and  the  latter  rain]  the  rains  at 
seedtime  in  early  winter  and  before  the  harvest 
in  early  spring.  In  the  first  ntonlK]  RM  '  at 
(=  as  at)  the  first,'  i.e.  before  the  calamity  of 
drought  and  locusts.     25.   Cp.  1  *  2  n. 

26.  And  my  people,  etc.]  probably  by  copy- 
ist error  from  next  v.  27.  The  rain  and 
the  harvests  are  evidences  of  Jehovah's  pre- 
sence. Israel]  the  Jewish  community  so 
called  after  the  exile.  None  else]  an  assertion  of 
monotheism :  cp.  Dt  4  35, 39  1  K  8  60  Isa  45  5, 6,  I8. 

And  my  people,  etc.]  The  glorious  climax. 
Under  the  figure  of  the  locust  plague  and  th6 
promised  years  of  plenty,  the  prophet  saw 
the  final  judgment  and  felicity  of  Israel,  and 
thus  he  is  naturally  led  to  the  thought  of 
vv.  28-32. 

28.  Afterward]  The  prophets  saw  the  fu- 
ture purposes  of  God  realised  one  after  the 
other  without  fixed  intervals  of  time.  Material 
blessings  imply  spiritual  ones  :  both  nature 
and  man  are  to  be  renewed.  My  spirit]  of 
knowledge  or  divine  revelation,  since  it  results 
in  prophecy,  dreams,  and  visions  :  a  spirit  of 
obedience  is  presupposed:  cp.  Jer247  Sl^^f. 
3229   Ezklli9   3627   3929  Isa 32 15   443.      All 


flesh]  all  classes  of  society,  as  the  context 
shows.  Your  daughters]  Women  frequently 
had  the  prophetic  gift  in  Israel.  Under 
prophecy  we  may  understand  an  utter- 
ance, through  divine  ecstasy  or  compulsion 
(lS10iOf-Am3SIsa8ii  Jerl7f  209).  Dreams, 
although  belittled  by  Jeremiah  (2328),  and 
visions  were  frequent  means  of  divine  revela- 
tion: cp.  Dreams,  Gn203  28 12  37  5,9;  Visions, 
IsaGi  Am7i>4>7  8i.JerliiEzklif-,etc.  Since 
young  men  are  di-eamers  and  old  men  seers,  it 
may  be  implied  that  youth  shall  have  the 
knowledge  of  age  and  age  the  enthusiasm  of 
youth.  29.  All  persons,  even  menials,  receive 
the  spirit.  30.  Great  events,  according  to 
the  thought  of  the  ancient  world,  were 
accompanied  with  striking  historical  and  na- 
tural phenomena ;  hence  the  great  Day  of 
Jehovah,  which  involved  the  destruction  of 
His  enemies  and  the  redemption  of  His  people, 
would  be  heralded  with  wonders.  Blood,  and 
fire,  and  pillars  of  smoke]  indications  of  war- 
fare are  the  wonders  in  the  earth.  31.  Eclipses 
are  the  wonders  in  the  heavens  :  cp.  Am  8  9 
Isa  13 10  Ezk327  Mt2429  Lk21ioi.  32.  RV 
'  In  Jerusalem  shall  be  those  that  escape  as 
Jehovah  hath  said,  and  among  the  remnant 
those  whom  Jehovah  doth  call.'  In  the  gene- 
ral destruction  the  condition  of  escape  is 
calling  on  Jehovah,  and  the  saved  remnant  of 
Israel  is  at  Jerusalem,  and  among  them  are 
those  whom  Jehovah  has  called  from  else- 
where, i.e.  the  Jews  of  the  dispersion:  cp.  Isa 
27i2f.  6619.  Vv.  28-32  are  applied  in  Ac2i6f. 
to  the  day  of  Pentecost.  This  application 
shows  that  this  OT.  prophecy  is  fulfilled  in 
facts  of  divine  manifestations  rather  than  in 
an  identity  of  form. 

CHAPTER  3 

The  Judgment  of  the  Heathen  and 
THE  Gloky  of  Israel 

A  general  judgment  of  all  nations,  for  their 
mistreatment  of  Israel,  is  announced  in  the 
valley  of  Jehoshaphat  (vv.  1-4).  Tyre,  Zidon, 
and  Philistia,  immediate  neighbours  of  Israel, 
are  arraigned  for  robbery  and  slave  trade,  and 
sentenced  according  to  the  lex  talionis  (vv.  5-8). 
All  nations  are  then  summoned  as  though  to  a 
tryst  of  arms  before  Jehovah  (vv.  9-13),  whose 
terrible  Day  is  described  (vv.  14-17),  ending 
with  the  blessing  of  Judah  through  the  fertility 
of  its  land,  and  with  the  doom  of  desolation 
for  Egypt  and  Edom  (vv.  18-21). 

1.  In  those  days,  etc.]  i.e.  the  period  of 
the  Day  of  Jehovah  just  mentioned.  Bring 
again  the  captivity]  restore  the  prosperity,  a 
technical  phrase  for  an  epoch-making  change : 
cp.  Am  9  i-i  Ps  1 4  7  Job  42 10  Ezk  1 6  53. 

2.  Valley  of  Jehoshaphat]  an  ideal  valley  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  Jerusalem,  called  Jeho- 
shaphat   from   the    meaning    of    the  name, 


660 


3.  3 


JOEL 


3.  21 


'  Jehovah  judges.'  This  prophecy  probably- 
occasioned  the  name  (not  traced  earlier  than 
300  A.D.)  of  the  modern  valley  of  Jehoshaphat, 
S.  of  Jerusalem.  3.  Captives  of  ancient  war- 
fare were  distributed  by  lot  (Obad  11  NahB^^) 
and  bartered  in  connexion  with  carousals. 

4.  Coasts  of  Palestine]  RV  '  regions  of 
Philistia  ?  '  The  question  implies  a  protest 
against  punishment  by  Tyre,  etc.  Will  ye 
render,  etc.]  RM  '  Will  ye  repay  a  deed  of  mine, 
or  will  ye  do  aught  unto  me  ?  swiftly,'  etc. 
Do  you  think  to  repay  me  a  wrong  which  I 
have  done  jo\i  ?  or  will  you  wrong  me  ?  In 
either  case  vengeance  will  be  speedily  executed 
upon  you. 

5.  My  silver,  etc.]  "not  necessarily  from  the 
Temple,  but  the  property  of  the  people  was 
reckoned  as  Jehovah's.  Temples]  i.e.  palaces, 
the  dwellings  of  the  rich.  6.  The  Phoenicians 
(Tyre  and  Zidon)  were  famous  as  slave  traders 
(Ezk  27 13  Am  1 9).  Grecians]  Heb  Jenuihn,  i.e. 
'  lonians,'  the  name  by  which  the  Greeks  were 
commonly  known  amongst  the  Hebrews  :  cp. 
Gnl02-t  Ezk 27 13  IsaGGi^  Zech9i3.  That 
ye  might,  etc.]  and  thus  increase  your  gain  ; 
since  the  further  a  slave  from  home,  the  greater 
his  value,  owing  to  his  less  opportunity  to  escape. 
Vv.  5,  6  do  not  necessarily  refer  directly  to  any 
specific  events,  but  to  a  long  course  of  conduct 
whereby  these  peoples  profited  by  every  disaster 
that  befell  Judah.  7,  8.  The  captives  are  to 
be  returned  ;  the  enemies  in  turn  are  to  be 
taken  captive  and  sold  by  the  Jews  to  the  far 
distant  Sabeans  in  Arabia,  a  people  famous 
for  traffic  in  spices  and  gold  (Isa60*5  JerG^o 
Ezk  27  "2  Job  (5 1^)  :  cp.  for  story  of  their  queen 
IK  10. 

9.  The  theme  of  the  general  judgment  an- 
nounced in  vv.  1 ,  2  is  resumed.  Heralds  are  to 
summon  the  nations  as  though  to  a  trial  of  arms 
with  the  hosts  of  Jehovah  (vv.  9-11).  Gentiles] 
RV  'nations.'  Prepare]  RM' sanctify'  with 
sacrifices  or  other  religious  ceremonies  (1  S7S*• 
Jer64  Mic3^).  ID.  Instruments  of  peace  are 
to  be  made  those  of  war,  the  reverse  of  the 
promise  of  Isa  2  4  Mic  4  3.  11.  Assemble  your- 
selves] RV  '  Haste  ye.'  Jehovah  also  is  to  bring 
His  heavenly  hosts  (Ps68i7  103 20  Zechl45). 

12.  Jehovah  now  speaks  announcing  His 
advent  for  judgment.  According  to  the  NT. 
the  advent  of  Jehovah  is  fulfilled  in  the  first 
and  second  advents  of  Christ  :  cp.  Mt253i*-, 
and   see    below.     13.   The    heavenly   host   is 


addressed.  The  harvest,  ordinary  symbol  of 
joy  and  bounty  (Ps  4  'i'),  is  here  one  of  terror 
(Isa63if-  Rev  14 15)  :  cp.  also  Mt  13  30,39. 

14.  The  valley  of  decision]  determination, 
judgment:  the  valley  of  Jehoshaphat  (vv.  2, 12). 

15.  Cp.  210,31.  16.  Roar]  suggests  the 
lion.  His  voice]  the  thunder  :  cp.  Ps29.  The 
figure  is  of  a  great  tempest  with  the  cry  of  the 
beast  and  thunder  combined.     Shake]  cp.  2 10. 

The  hope  .  .  the  strength]  RV  '  a  refuge  .  . 
a  stronghold':  cp.  Psl4«  271  31*  432  46i. 
The  very  sounds  announcing  the  doom  of  the 
nations  will  herald  a  place  of  safety  for  Israel. 

17.  The  prophet  knew  of  no  heavenly  Jeru- 
salem, and  he  thought  of  the  final  consummation 
cf  the  people  of  God  in  Palestine.  Holy]  in- 
violable. No  enemy  should  again  pass  through 
Jerusalem. 

18.  Judah  shall  be  wonderfully  productive  : 
cp.  Am  9 13.  The  perennial  spring  of  the 
Temple  mountain,  which  Isaiah  (S^)  and  the 
author  of  Ps4G  had  mentioned  as  a  symbol  of 
Jehovah's  presence,  Joel  saw,  after  the  manner 
of  Ezekiel  (47 1  *•),  issuing  as  a  stream  to  water 
the  dry  and  desert  portion  of  the  land  symbol- 
ised under  the  valley  of  Shittim,  or,  RM, 
'  Acacias '  (which  is  the  meaning  of  Shittim), 
since  the  acacia  grows  in  very  dry  places.  A 
Shittim  E.  of  the  Jordan  is  mentioned  (Nu25i 
33  •i^  Josh  21),  but  it  is  not  probably  referred 
to  here.  19.  As  a  foil  to  the  fertility  of  Judah 
is  the  desolation  of  Egypt  and  Edom,  probably 
mentioned  as  typical  examples  of  the  countries 
hostile  to  Judah,  and  from  which  Israel  had  suf- 
fered the  cruelties  of  warfare  and  massacre  from 
the  outset  of  their  history.  Edom,  after  the  exile, 
was  the  object  of  bitter  feeling  for  recent  hos- 
tilities. Egypt,  it  may  have  been  thought,  had 
never  adequately  suffered  for  its  treatment  of 
Israel  when  in  bondage,  since  it  had  escaped 
the  overthrows  of  Assyria  and  Chaldea. 

20.  In  their  felicity,  as  described  in  vv.  17  f. 

21.  For  I  will  cleanse,  etc.]  Either  the  city 
will  be  cleansed  from  all  bloodguiltiness,  cp. 
Ezk  22  3  f-  Isa4'i  Mai  3  3  ;  or,  more  probably,  we 
must  render,  with  RM,  '  and  I  will  hold  as 
innocent  their  blood  which  I  have  not  held  as 
innocent,'  i.e.  the  blood  of  Israel  will  be  held 
to  have  been  shed  innocently,  and  hence  will 
be  avenged  upon  their  enemies.  The  guarantee 
is,  For  the  LORD  dwelleth  in  Zion  :  cp.  v.  17. 
'  Joel,  in  his  little  book,  passes  from  the  City 
of  Destruction  to  the  City  Celestial.' 


36 


561 


AMOS 


INTRODUCTION 


1.  The  Man.  We  have  but  one  trustworthy 
source  of  information  concerning  Amos,  viz. 
the  book  which  bears  his  name.  Happily  it  is 
so  written  as  to  convey  a  sufficiently  full  and 
clear  impression  of  the  man  and  his  career. 
He  was  born  in  the  land  of  Judah,  of  unnamed 
and  unimportant  parents,  during  the  first  half 
of  the  8th  cent.  B.C.  His  possessions  consisted 
of  a  few  sycomore  trees,  and  a  small  flock  of 
sheep  which  belonged  to  a  peculiar  breed,  ugly 
and  short-footed,  but  valuable  for  the  excel- 
lence of  their  wool.  These  he  pastured  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Tekoa,  in  the  wilderness 
of  Judah.  Although  his  means  were  but 
meagre,  his  position  was  independent,  and 
when  he  wished  to  leave  his  flock  he  was 
able  to  do  so,  entrusting  them  perhaps  to  some 
lad,  like  that  son  of  Jesse  who  in  the  same 
neighbourhood  had  followed  the  ewes  gi-eat 
with  young. 

2.  His  Call.  Three  causes  combined  to  turn 
the  shepherd  into  a  prophet.  First,  his  know- 
ledge of  the  deplorable  state  of  affairs  in  the 
northern  kingdom.  The  victories  won  by 
Jeroboam  II  (2K  14)  had  brought  wealth  and 
power  to  the  ruling  classes  in  Israel.  But 
luxury,  impurity  and  intemperance  were  rife 
amongst  them  (2  ".  ^  6  4-6).  And  as  to  the  poor, 
their  case  could  hardly  have  been  worse.  They 
groaned  under  the  most  oppressive  exactions  ; 
they  were  totally  unable  to  get  justice  ;  they 
were  treated  as  chattels,  not  as  men  (8*-6). 
And  the  warnings  sent  by  Providence — drought, 
locusts,  famine,  pestilence — were  not  under- 
stood by  the  well-to-do  oppressors  of  the  poor 
(4(3f.^_  There  is  nothing  to  wonder  at  in  the 
fact  that  Amos,  a  subject  of  Uzziah  of  Judah, 
knew  all  this.  And  the  shepherd's  soul  was 
stirred  with  deep  indignation,  like  Nehemiah's 
at  a  later  day  (Neh  5).  Secondly,  he  had  heard 
of  the  campaigns  against  Western  nations, 
waged  by  the  great  kings  of  Assyria  ;  he  could 
not  help  foreboding  that  God  would  use  this 
mighty  instrument  for  chastising  the  crying 
sins  of  Israel  (5  ^'^  6).  Thirdly,  and  most  im- 
portant of  all,  God's  spirit  communed  with  him 
and  impelled  him  to  speak.  Amos  was  as  con- 
scious of  a  direct  call  from  heaven  as  St.  Paul 
was  (7 1-5  Gal  1 1).  He  knew  himself  to  be  in 
possession  of  the  divine  counsel  ;  he  could  not 
refuse  to  declare  it  (3^). 

3.  The  Prophet's  Work.  It  is  impossible 
to  state  precisely  when  the  call  came.     If  we 


could  determine  the  date  of  the  earthquake 
(11  Zechl4  5).  there  would  be  no  difficulty. 
We  must  be  content  to  know  that  it  lay  within 
the  period  when  Jeroboam  II  and  Uzziah 
occupied  contemporaneously  the  thrones  of 
Israel  and  Judah,  about  775-750  B.C.  It  was 
at  Bethel,  the  religious  centre  of  the  former 
kingdom,  that  his  voice  was  heard.  But  Ama- 
ziah,  chief  priest  of  that  famous  sanctuary, 
soon  intervened,  sending  a  message  to  the  king 
to  accuse  the  uncourtly  prophet  of  treason,  and 
trying  meanwhile  to  frighten  away  the  preacher 
(Am  7 10-17^.  Jeroboam  does  not  seem  to  have 
taken  any  notice.  Probably  he  cared  as  little 
for  Amos  as  Leo  X  did  for  Martin  Luther. 
And  the  prophet  was  not  to  be  frightened. 
He  explained  his  position,  completed  his  mes- 
sage, turned  upon  the  worldly-minded  priest 
with  a  threat  of  divine  retribution,  and  then 
withdrew  unmolested.  An  unreliable  Christian 
tradition  of  the  6th  cent,  asserts  that  Amaziah's 
son  struck  him  on  the  forehead  with  a  club, 
and  that  he  died  from  the  effects  of  the  blow 
soon  after  reaching  home. 

4.  The  Book.  One  thing  is  certain.  On 
his  return  to  Judah  he  reduced  to  writing  the 
substance  of  his  speeches  at  Bethel ;  not,  indeed, 
giving  us  a  verbatim  report  of  each  several 
address,  not  indicating  precisely  where  one 
ends  and  another  begins,  but  furnishing,  rather, 
copious  notes  of  these  weighty  discourses. 
And  the  exclamation,  '  Oracle  of  Jehovah ' 
(see  on  21*'),  is  the  Nota  Bene  of  the  writer, 
calling  attention  to  peculiarly  grave  words. 
Besides  writing  out  his  message  he  added  to  it. 
He  had  preached  against  the  crimes  of  Israel  ; 
he  writes  of  the  sins  and  punishments  of  sur- 
rounding nations  (1^-2  it"). 

Remembering  that  the  book  of  Amos  is  in 
all  probability  the  earliest  of  the  prophetic 
writings,  it  helps  our  comprehension  of  him 
and  his  successors  to  keep  four  points  in 
view. 

(a)  His  Idea  of  God.  His  faith  in  the  Unity 
of  God  was  not  won  by  reasoning.  He  had  a 
deep  sense  of  the  nearness,  greatness,  righteous- 
ness of  One  Holy  Being  ;  there  was  no  room 
for  another.  The  One  God  is  all-powerful  in 
Heaven  and  Hades,  Carmel  and  the  depths  of 
the  sea,  Caphtor  and  Kir,  Edom  and  Tyre. 
His  mightiness  appears  in  the  control  of  human 
history,  especially  in  His  direction  of  the  for- 
tunes of  Israel.     It  directs  all  that  happens  ; 


562 


INTRO. 


AMOS 


INTRO. 


there  is  no  such  thing  as  chance  ;  calamity, 
equally  with  prosperity,  is  of  His  ordering. 
This  implies  dominion  over  Nature  ;  drought, 
dearth,  mildew,  pestilence,  locusts  obey  His 
orders.  He  is  not  a  mere  Power,  however 
great  ;  but  a  distinctly  Personal  Being,  who 
can  be  spoken  of  as  rising  up  against  the  wicked, 
sword  in  hand,  or  as  moved  by  pity  to  change 
His  purpose. 

(h)  The  Relation  between  Jehovah  and  His 
People.  In  common  with  all  other  Hebrews, 
the  prophets  believed  that  Jehovah  was  in  a 
peculiar  sense  their  God.  But  in  their  eyes 
the  bond  was  a  natural  and  indissoluble  one,  so 
that  if  they  paid  His  dues  in  the  form  of  sacri- 
fices. He  was  under  an  obligation  to  protect  and 
bless  them.  Amos,  on  the  contrary,  insisted 
that  the  tie  was  a  moral  one,  inevitably  dis- 
solved by  unrighteousness  (3^  9'^).  Here  his 
splendid  originality  comes  out.  Ceremonial 
worship  has  no  intrinsic  value  (4^5  ^i).  Justice 
and  righteousness  fonn  the  true  service  of 
God  (5  2'^)  :  if  His  worshippers  are  immoral 
and  oppressive.  He  shrinks  from  contact  with 
ihem  as  a  defilement  (2'^);  inhumanity  and 
unbrotherliness  are  hateful  to  Him,  whether 
displayed  by  heathen  or  Hebrew  (chs.  1,  2). 
To  Amos,  Jehovah  is  above  all  else  the  God 
of  Righteousness. 

(c)  The  Coming  Judgment.  This  is  the  first 
Scriptm-e  in  which  '  the  Day  of  Jehovah '  is 
mentioned.  Not  but  what  it  had  already  be- 
come a  current  phrase.  The  Israelites  thought 
that  when  the  Lord  should  arise  in  judgment 
it  would  be  to  their  advantage — their  sufferings 
would  terminate,  their  dominion  would  be  ex- 
tended. Now  they  were  told  that  this  '  Day ' 
would  be  one  of  judgment  upon  themselves, 
and  that  its  advent  was  nigh  (5 1^,  19).  Repent- 
ance would  have  averted  destruction,  but  they 
have  put  it  off  too  long. 

(d)  The  Picture  of  a  Happier  Future  (98-15). 
This  is  quite  unlike  the  general  tenor  of  the 
prophecy.  Israel  has  been  the  almost  exclu- 
sive subject  of  the  prophet's  thought.  Here 
Judah  comes  into  the  foreground,  or,  if  Israel 
is  in  view,  it  is  only  as  reunited  to  Judah. 
The  Davidic  kingdom  is  to  be  restored,  but  no 
stress  is  laid  on  the  person  or  the  character 
of  the  monarch.  The  ancient  bounds  of  the 
empire  will  be  reestablished,  Edom  and  other 
foreigners  being  leduced  to  subjection.  The 
restored  exiles  rebuild  the  wasted  cities.  Agri- 
culture and  kindred  pursuits  flourish  to  a 
miraculous  degree  on  an  extraordinarily  fertile 
soil.  And  the  people  will  never  be  dispossessed 
from  this  earthly  paradise.  Whether  this 
appendix  was  added  by  Amos  himself  or  by  a 
later  patriot  need  not  be  discussed  here. 

'  The  style  is  the  man.'  It  is  so  in  this 
case.  When  the  shepherd  from  the  south  of 
Judah  interfered   in  the  social  and  religious 


life  of  Israel,  he  displayed  extreme  boldness. 
His  style  is  a  bold  one.  His  language  is  clear, 
vigorous,  direct.  The  imagery,  as  might  have 
been  expected,  is  drawn  from  rural  affairs — 
threshing-sledges,  wagons,  harvests,  cattle, 
birds,  lions,  fishing.  But  the  Oriental  shep- 
herd, though  he  be  not  familiar  with  books,  is 
not  necessarily  uncultivated.  The  poetic  struc- 
ture of  c.  4  is  quite  perfect  :  the  refrain,  '  Yet 
have  ye  not  returned  unto  me,  saith  Jehovah ' 
(46,8,9,10,11)^  is  used  with  great  effect  ;  the 
technical  arrangement  of  the  dirge  is  perfectly 
understood  (5  ^^  8 1*^),  and  Amos  knows  how  to 
work  up  to  a  climax. 

5.  Contents.    We  have  already  shown  what 
is  the  substance  of  the  prophet's  teaching,  but  it 
will  interest  some  readers  if  we  roughly  trace 
the  order  of  his  ideas  as  they  appear  in  the 
book.     It  opens  with  a  denunciation   of  the 
cruel  wrongs  done  by  the  surrounding  nations 
to  each  other  and  to  Israel.    All  of  these  shall 
have  their  due  recompense  of  reward  (13-2^). 
Judah' s  turn  comes  next  :  her  offence  is  more 
directly  against  God,  but  her  punishment  is 
no  less  certain  (2*- 5).     When  Israel  is  reached, 
the  note  is  struck  which  resounds  all  through 
the  book :  it  is  the   oppression  of   the   poor, 
unchastity,  a  wrong  idea  of  the  character  and 
requirements    of    Jehovah    which   will    bring 
down  chastisement  (20"S).     These  sins  are  due 
to   ingratitude   for    God's    mercies,    and    are 
aggravated  by  attempts  to  silence  the  voice  of 
truth.     They  will  bring  on  an  attack  and  utter 
defeat  at  the  hands  of  an  enemy  (29-i'5).     The 
next  section  teaches  that  the  closeness  of  the 
relation   between    Jehovah   and   Israel   itself 
involves  the  punishment  of  the  people  (S^-^). 
The   neighbouring  nations  are   summoned  to 
witness  the  oppressions  which  are  going  on  : 
the  doom  of  palaces  and  altars  is  pronounced 
(39-15).      The    rich  women    are    rebuked   and 
threatened  (4 1-3)  ;  the  futility  of  superstitious 
worship  is  proclaimed  (44'5)  ;   the  failure  of 
God's   attempt    to  reform  Israel   is  bewailed 
(4  6-12).    A  bitter  lament  over  Israel  is  followed 
by  some  account  of  the  injustice  practised  by 
the  powerful  ;  then  the  fond  hopes  cherished 
respecting  the  '  Day  of  the  Lord '  are  shattered, 
and  the  elaborate    ritual   with  which  it  was 
sought  to  please  Him  is  sternly  rejected  (c.  5). 
The  luxury  of  the  higher  classes  is  the  main 
theme  of  the  next  address,  which  ends  with  an 
intimation  of  Assyrian  invasion  (c.  6).      Three 
visions  set  forth  in  pictorial  form  the  speedy 
end  of  the  nation  (7 1-^).     Amaziah,  the  priest 
of  Bethel,  attempts  to  drive  Amos  out  of  the 
country  (7  i^-i^).     Another  vision  is  described, 
and   the    common    theme    of    dishonesty  and 
injustice  is  again  taken  up  :  from  the  penalty 
thus   provoked  there  will   be   no  deliverance 
either  in  man  or  God  (c.  8).    None  shall  escape 
(91-").     Jehovah  repudiates  a  special  interest 


563 


1. 1 


AMOS 


2.1 


in  Israel  (9  '^).  The  final  paragraph  rejoices  in 
the  hope  of  a  happier  future,  a  restoration  of 
the  kingdom  in  the  line  of  David,  a  fertile 
land,  an  undisturbed  secmity  of  tenure  (9ii-^5). 

CHAPTERS   1-25 

The  Sins  of  Israel's  Neighbours  and  the 

Punishments  which  should  follow 

1.  We  may  paraphrase  the  main  part  of  the 
sentence  thus  :  '  The  words  of  Amos,  de- 
scribing what  he  saw  in  prophetic  vision.' 

Herdmen]  or  rather,  '  keepers  of  a  peculiar 
breed  of  sheep  called  iiaqad.'  There  must 
have  been  a  number  of  these  sheepowners  in 
and  near  Tekoa.  Mesha,  king  of  Moab,  is 
called  by  the  same  name  noqed  (2  K  3  *),  where 
our  English  Bible  uses  the  word  '  sheep- 
master.'  Tekoa]  5  m.  S.  of  Bethlehem,  on  a 
hill  2,788  ft.  high,  was  at  the  border  of  the 
' wilderness  of  Tekoa'  (2Ch2020  lMacl933), 
which  was  fit  only  for  pasturage  and  largely 
used  for  this.  Palestine  has  always  been 
subject  to  earthquakes,  but  the  one  here 
referred  to.  which  occiirred  in  the  reign  of 
Uzziah  (Zechl45),  seems  to  have  been  of 
exceptional  violence.  The  language  of  many 
passages  in  the  poetical  and  prophetical  books 
is  derived  from  the  alarming  movements  of 
the  earth-shaken  ground  (Ps  46  2, 6  602  Isa24i9, 

etc.). 

2.  The  threatening  character  of  this  v. 
gives  notice  beforehand  of  the  tone  of  the 
whole  prophecy.  Zion  and  Jerusalem  are 
God's  abode,  from  which  His  voice  is  heard 
like  a  lion's  roar.  The  burning  wind  is  His 
voice.  A  modern  traveller  speaks  of  the 
simoom  '  caressing  you  like  a  lion  with  flaming 
breath.'  Habitations]  RV  '  pastm-es,'  i.e.  the 
sheep,  which  mourn  because  the  grass  is 
parched  ( Joell is. 20 Isa 3 26).  The  summit  of 
Carmel  is  usually  wet  with  heavy  dews  ;  even 
it  becomes  withered. 

3.  Amos  was  sent  to  preach  to  Israel,  but 
he  here  (13-25)  prefixes  to  his  records  of  that 
preaching  a  section  which  shows  that  Je- 
hovah is  the  Guardian  of  Righteousness,  the 
Avenger  of  wrong  and  cruelty,  amongst  all 
the  neighbouring  races  as  well,  Syria,  Philistia, 
Tyre,  Edom,  Ammon,  Moab. 

For]  i.e.  because  of.  Three  transgressions  .  . 
and . .  four]  an  indefinite  and  considerable  num- 
ber (.Job  5 19).  For  the  attacks  made  by  Da- 
mascus see  2K812  1032  1322.  Gilead,  being  the 
nearest  Israelite  district,  bore  the  first  brunt. 
The  threshing-sledge,  a  thick  wooden  board 
with  pointed  pieces  of  iron  or  of  basalt  on  the 
under  side,  and  a  heavy  weight  or  a  di'iver 
above,  is  the  figure  for  the  harshest  severity. 

5.  The  bar  is  that  by  which  the  city  gate 
was  secured.  The  plain  (RV '  valley ')  of  Aven] 
the  plain  of  Coele- Syria,  in  which  Heliopolis 
(since  called  Baalbek),  the  great  seat  of  sun- 


worship,  was  situated.  Beth-Eden  (the  house 
of  Eden)  was  in  Syria,  but  its  precise  locality 
is  uncertain,  and  we  can  only  say  of  Kir  that 
it  must  have  been  not  far  from  Elam  in  the 
distant  east  (Isa  226):  cp.  2  K 1 6  9  Am  9  7. 

6-8.  During  the  troubles  with  Syria  the 
Philistines  doubtless  made  raids,  carrying  ofi: 
the  whole  captivity,  i.e.  the  whole  of  the  popu- 
lation of  the  district,  at  one  swoop.  The  cap- 
tives were  sold  to  their  bitterest  enemies,  the 
Edomites.  Gaza]  richest  and  strongest  city 
of  Philistia,  on  the  caravan  route  to  Petra,  the 
capital  of  Edom.  The  expression  the  remnant 
of  the  Philistines  indicates  that  a  portion  of 
them  had  already  been  destroyed.  In  2  Ch  26  ^ 
Uzziah's  victories  over  them  are  enumerated. 

9,  10.  Tyre  became  the  leading  city  in 
Phoenicia  about  900  B.C.  The  Phoenicians 
were  the  great  slave-dealers  of  antiquity  :  see 
1  Mac  3  41  2  Mac  8  25.  The  '  covenant  of  breth- 
ren '  (RM),  or  brotherly  covenant  (AV), 
is  the  friendly  agreement  which  always  sub- 
sisted between  Tyre  and  the  Hebrews  (2  SSH 
1  K  5 1  9 11'  14,  etc.),  and  doubtless  had  occasion- 
ally been  cemented  by  formal  treaty.  We 
never  read  of  wars  waged  by  the  Israelites 
against  Tp-e  or  Sidon. 

11.  12.  Edom's  crimes  were  hostility  against 
a  kindi-ed  nation,  his  brother  (Mai  1 2)  ;  the 
casting  off  all  pity,  or,  as  RM  has  it,  '  the  cor- 
rupting his  compassions'  (cp.  Ezk28i'''),  i.e. 
the  doing  violence  to  his  own  better,  kinder 
nature  ;  the  tearing  his  prey  continually,  like 
an  infuriated  beast  (1  K  1328  Job  169)  ;  the  in- 
satiableness  of  his  revenge.  We  know  that  in 
later  times  Israel  had  no  more  relentless  foe 
(Obad  10-14  Psl37'). 

12.  Teman  was  the  name  of  a  city  and  dis- 
trict of  Edom,  15  m.  from  Petra.  The  ruins 
of  Bozrah  are  4  m.  SE.  of  the  Dead  Sea. 

13.  Jgll  and  Jer49i  show  how  eager  the 
Ammonites  were  to  '  enlarge  their  border.' 
Such  barbarities  as  are  here  mentioned  were 
quite  common  in  Oriental  warfare  (2K812 
H0SI41),  but  the  OT.  seems  to  represent  the 
Ammonites  in  a  peculiarly  unfavourable  light 
(1  S 11 2  2  S 1 0).  14.  Rabbah]  on  the  banks  of 
the  Upper  Jabbok  (2  S  1 1, 12).  The  shouting 
means  the  war-cry.  15.  Some  of  the  ancient 
translations,  with  which  Jer493  (see  RV) 
agrees,  understand  this  v.  as  referring,  not  to 
the  king,  but  to  the  Ammonite  god  Malcam, 
with  his  priests  and  his  princes.  This  involves 
no  alteration  in  the  consonants  of  the  principal 
word,  which  in  either  case  is  Malccuii. 

C.  2.  1-3.  .Jehovah  will  punish  the  wrongs 
which  these  petty  nations  do  each  other,  as 
well  as  their  outrages  upon  Israel. 

I.  Burning  the  king's  bones  into  lime  was 
a  gross  indig-nity  (Josh  7  25  2  K  23 16,  is).  Their 
thorough  destruction  prevented  the  man's  being 
'  gathered  to  his  fathers.'    And  there  may  have 


564 


2.  3 


AMOS 


3.3 


been  a  belief  that  the  spirit  suffered  when  the 
corpse  was  abused  (Job  1422  Isa662i).  Jewish 
tradition  looked  on  this  cremation  as  an  act  of 
vengeance  for  the  part  taken  by  Edom  in  the 
campaign  described  2K3.  Kirioth]  KV  'Ke- 
rioth.'  Perhaps  to  be  identified  with  Ar,  the 
capital  of  Moab  :  when  one  of  these  is  named 
the  other  is  omitted.  It  is  mentioned  in  the 
famous  inscription  of  Mesha,  who  was  king  of 
Moab  in  Ahab's  time,  and  seems  to  have  been  a 
sanctuary.  His  words  are,  '  before  Chemosh  in 
Keriyyoth.'  3. Judge, sceptre-holder (1 5-8),king 
(1 15),  are  all  practically  identical  in  meaning. 
4,  5.  The  surrounding  nations  are  charged 
with  violations  of  the  law  written  in  the  heart, 
Judah  with  offences  against  a  law  set  forth  in 
positive  commandments.  Their  lies]  the  un 
real,  imaginary  deities,  the  Baalim  and  Ash- 
taroth,  who  have  no  existence  save  in  the 
mind  of  the  worshipper,  and  therefore  are 
sure  to  disappoint  his  hopes. 

CHAPTER  26-16 
Israel's  Sins  and  Ingratitude 
6-8.  Israel  is  now  threatened  in  the  same 
form  as  the  rest,  but  vv.  6-16  were  not  spoken 
by  Amos  at  Bethel  ;  they  form  the  conclusion 
of  the  preface  which  he  wrote  after  his  return 
home. 

6.  The  unrighteous  judges  condemn  the  in- 
nocent for  the  sake  of  a  bribe.  A  pair  of  shoes 
would  have  been  too  paltry  a  present,  but  for 
the  fact  that  the  shoe  was  a  symbol  of  property 
(Ruth  4  7  PsGOi'J).  To  hand  over  the  shoes 
was  equivalent  to  our  delivery  of  title-deeds. 

7.  They  begrudge  the  very  dust,  a  sign  of 
mourning,  which  a  poor  man  has  sprinkled  on 
his  head :  they  hinder  the  man  who  is  in  a 
lowly  position  from  attaining  his  modest  pur- 
pose. To  profane  .  .  name]  The  religion  of 
many  of  the  nations  of  antiquity  sanctioned 
unchastity  and  even  adopted  it  as  part  of  the 
worship  of  the  gods,  but  if  Jehovah's  wor- 
shippers are  morally  unclean  they  pollute  His 
Holy  Name.  8.  The  poor  in  the  East  sleep 
in  their  day-clothes.  Garments  taken  in  pledge 
should  therefore  be -restored  ere  nightfall  (Ex 
22  25  Dt24 12)  ;  but  these  creditors,  undeterred 
by  their  supposed  nearness  to  their  god,  ireat 
the  needy  man's  clothes  as  if  they  belonged  to 
themselves.  Possibly,  however,  Amos  wrote, 
'And  they  stretch  out  beside  every  altar 
clothes  taken  in  pledge,'  meaning  that  they 
hung  them  up  as  a  votive  offering  in  honour 
of  their  god. 

They  drink  the  wine  of  the  condemned  hi  the 
house  of  their  god]  that  is  to  say,  at  their  sac- 
rificial banquets  they  drank  wine  obtained  by 
unjust  fines,  and  whilst  they  imagined  them- 
selves to  be  worshipping  the  God  of  Israel  He 
disclaimed  them  :  they  were  really  worshipping 
an  idol  of  their  own  imagination. 


9-16.   The  ingratitude  thus  evinced  and  the 
judgment  which  it  provokes. 

9.  We  may  exhibit  the  emphasis  designed 
by  Amos  by  rendering  thus  :  '  Yet  it  was  / 
who  destroyed  .  .  and  it  was  /  who  brought 
you  up,'  etc.  The  Amorite  here  is  a  name  for 
all  the  earlier  inhabitants  of  the  Holy  Land. 
Instead  of  fruit  from  above,  etc.,  we  say  '  root 
and  branch.'  But  the  Canaanites  were  not 
utterly  extirpated  (Josh  1313  16 10  Jg  119-36 
2S5'').  II.  'The  accounts  we  have  of  Samuel, 
Elijah,  Elisha,  and  the  '  schools  of  the  pro- 
phets,' show  that  prophets,  declaring  God's 
will  by  word  of  mouth,  had  been  more  numer- 
ous in  the  northern  than  in  the  southern 
kingdom.  The  'Nazirites'  (RV)  showed  their 
obedience  to  His  will  by  self-control,  austeri- 
ties, renunciations  of  pleasant  things  (Nu6). 
God's  most  precious  gift  to  His  people  con- 
sisted in  true  men,  and,  above  all,  in  inspired 
prophets.  12.  It  was  exceedingly  base  to 
tempt  the  Nazirite  to  break  his  vow.  For 
the  silencing  of  the  prophets  see  IK 22  Isa 
3010,11  Mic  2  6, 11. 

13.  The  V.  may  be  understood  in  two  ways. 
First,  as  in  AV,  which  represents  Israel  as  a 
burden  on  God  (Isa  1  i-i  7 13  etc.).  Secondly, 
and  better,  as  in  RV,  'Behold,  I  will  press 
you  in  your  place,  as  a  cart  presseth  that  is 
full  of  sheaves.'  As  the  gi-ound  reels  under 
the  loaded  wagon  so  shall  they  under  God's 
heavy  hand  (Ps324  Job  33  2).  16.  The  stress 
lies  on  the  word  naked.  In  headlong  flight 
the  long,  outer  garment  would  be  cast  away  as 
a  hindrance. 

Here,  and  at  3i3,i5  43,5,6,8,9,10,11  58  gn  97, 
8>i2, 13^  the  expression  rendered  saith  the 
Lord  is  a  kind  of  exclamation,  thrown  in 
parenthetically  to  call  attention  to  the  gravity 
of  what  is  said.  Utterance  of  Jehovah  !  the 
prophet  cries. 

CHAPTER   3 

The  First  Address 
1-8.  A  call  to  attention.      9,  10.   The  op- 
pressions practised  by  the  powerful.      Ii-i5- 
The    disasters    which  should  overtake    them, 
their  sanctuary  and  their  palaces. 

1.  '  Race  '  would  be  a  more  correct  word 
than  family.  Judah  is  included  in  the  appeal, 
but  immediately  drops  out  of  sight  again. 

2.  In  the  Bible  to  know  frequently  means 
to  care  for,  to  be  deeply  interested  in  (GnlSi^ 
H0SI35  Nahl7  Job 22 13  Psl6  73 n  Prov2io 
Gal  4  9):  at  Jerl^  and  here  it  has  the  allied 
sense  '  to  choose.'  Jehovah  chose  Israel  alone 
to  be  His  people.  And  they  argued  as  Dr. 
Arnold  did  when  he  was  a  child  :  '  I  could, 
not  make  out  how,  if  my  mother  loved  me 
more  than  strange  children,  she  should  find 
fault  with  me  and  not  with  them.' 

3.  Be  agreed]  RY  '  have  agreed,'  have  made 


565 


3.  4 


AMOS 


4.  4 


an  appointment.  If  two  people  were  seen 
walking  together  in  the  desolate  regions  with 
which  Amos  was  familiar  it  might  be  assumed 
that  they  had  not  met  by  chance.  Nothing 
happens  by  chance.  There  is  a  reason  and 
cause  for  Israel's  calamities.  4.  '  Thicket '  is 
preferable  to  forest  :  wild  and  broken  country 
is  in  view.  Amos  intimates  that  a  prophet's 
threats  are  not  idle  sound,  any  more  than  a 
lion's  roar  is.  5.  Shall  o)ie  take  up  a  snare 
from  the  earth?  etc.]  RV  '  Shall  a  snare  spring 
up  from  the  ground  ? '  etc.  The  snare  is  the 
bird-trap  as  a  whole  :  the  gin  (the  word  is  a 
contraction  of  '  engine  ')  is  the  mechanism  by 
which  the  trap  acts.  But  the  trap  does  not 
go  off  till  the  bird  starts  it.  The  thought  is 
that  when  the  time  of  misfortune  arrives 
Israel  will  be  caught  in  it  as  the  bird  in  the 
trap.  6.  Israel  cannot  plead  lack  of  warning 
(EzkSS'i'S).  All  things  are  ordered  by  G-od, 
and  therefore  His  prophets  are  able  to  give 
such  warning.     Evil  here  means  disaster. 

7,  His  secret  is  the  purpose  He  has  formed : 
cp.  GnlS^".  8.  Luther  said,  at  the  Diet  of 
Worms :  '  Here  I  stand  :  I  can  do  no  other.' 

9.  In  the  palaces]  RM  '  upon  '  ;  the  procla- 
mation is  made  from  the  flat  roof  :  cp.  Lk  123. 
Those  who  dwell  in  palaces  are  to  be  judged 
by  their  peers.  Possibly  Amos  wrote,  '  Asshur 
and  Egypt,'  the  two  great  nations,  Assyria 
and  Egypt,  the  hammer  and  anvil,  between 
which  Israel  lay.  The  mountain  of  Samaria 
(the  capital  of  Israel)  is  surrounded  by  loftier 
ones,  on  which  the  spectators  are  supposed  to 
stand.     The  oppressed]  RV  '  oppressions.' 

10.  They  have  lost  the  power  to  do  equity. 
Their  eyes  gloat  over  treasures  of  gold  and 
silver  in  their  palaces :  a  prophet's  eye  sees 
only  stores  of  violence  and  robbery  (Ro25 
Jas5i-4). 

12.  Even  the  wealthiest  will  escape  with 
nothing  but  bare  life.  '  They  sit  in  Samaria 
in  the  corner  of  a  couch,  and  on  the  silken 
cushions  of  a  bed '  (RV).  These  cushions 
formed  the  divan,  which  is  often  the  sole 
article  of  furniture  in  an  Oriental  reception 
room  :  the  corner  seat  is  the  place  of  honour. 
The  shepherd  prophet  loathed  these  modern 
luxuries. 

14.  Beth-el  had  been  a  sanctuary  prior  to 
the  Israelite  occupation  of  the  land.  In  the 
days  of  Amos  it  was  the  undisputed  religious 
capital  of  the  northern  kingdom  (713),  -whose 
subjects  gathered  there  for  seasons  of  special 
worship  (41).  No  doubt  the  sacred  pillar  and 
post  which  we  read  of  so  often  in  connexion 
with  the  high  places  stood  near  the  altar. 
The  idol  to  which  devotion  was  paid  as  the 
representative  of  Jehovah  was  the  golden  calf 
set  up  by  Jeroboam  I  (IK  1229).  Burnt 
offerings,  thank  offerings  and  meal  offerings 
were  presented  on  the  altars  (5^2),  and  the 


service  was  made  more  attractive  by  singing 
and  the  music  of  the  viol.  But  all  this  was 
vitiated  by  two  faults.  First,  the  god  whom 
the  worshippers  adored  was  not  the  Holy  One 
who  alone  is  worthy,  but  a  mere  nature-god, 
dispenser  of  corn  and  wine  and  oil,  of  water, 
flax  and  wool  (Hos  2  ^  9 1).  And,  secondly,  the 
worship  was  not  of  a  kind  to  make  men  better, 
it  was  closely  associated  with  immorality  and 
with  luxurious  eating  and  drinking  (Am 2.''>^)\ 
it  did  not  promote  either  justice  or  generosity 
to  others  (Am2S  524).  xhe  horns  were  the 
most  sacred  part  of  the  altar :  to  cut  them  off 
was  to  desecrate  it  thoroughly. 

15.  Winter  and  summer  house  were  in  some 
cases  distinct  buildings,  but  in  others  were 
parts  of  the  same  structure  differently  situated 
(Jg320  Jer322).  The  houses  of  ivory  remind 
us  of  Nero's  '  Golden  House  '  at  Rome  :  '  The 
interior  was  decorated  in  the  most  lavish  way, 
with  gold,  precious  stones  and  ivory.  .  .  The 
supper  rooms  had  panelled  ceilings,  overlaid 
with  ivory.'  It  was  a  valuable  commodity. 
Sennacherib,  on  one  of  the  inscriptions  which 
have  come  down  to  us,  states  that  Hezekiah 
gave  him  '  a  couch  of  ivory,  thrones  of  ivory, 
an  elephant's  tusk.' 

CHAPTER   4 

The  Second  Address 

1-3.  The  heartless  luxury  of  the  rich 
women.  4,  5.  The  elaborate  sacrifices  and 
pilgrimages.  6-12.  The  failure  of  God's 
chastisements  to  produce  amendment. 

I.  These  pampered  women  are  compared  to 
cows  grown  fat  through  feeding  in  the  rich 
pastures  of  Bashan  (Nu32i-5  Dt32i4  Mic7i4). 

Masters]  RV  'lords,'  i.e.  husbands  (IPet 
3*5).     2.   He]   RV  'they,'  i.e.  the  conquerors. 

Your  posterity]  RV  '  your  residue.'  Those 
farthest  removed  from  danger  will  be  dragged 
out  of  their  retreats  like  fish  from  the  water. 

3.  Like  excited  cattle  each  woman  would 
make  for  the  nearest  breach  in  the  city  wall 
and  endeavour  to  escape  through  it.  The 
second  half  of  the  v.  is  corrupt.  Possibly  it 
may  have  run  :  '  And  ye  shall  be  cast  out  of 
your  palaces  '  (Mic  2  9). 

4.  This  V.  shows  that  the  pilgrimage  to  a  holy 
place  was  then,  as  it  has  been  in  almost  all 
times  and  lands,  one  of  the  popular  forms  of 
devotion.  The  pious  Jew  delighted  in  the 
annual  visit  to  Jerusalem  for  the  Feasts  of 
Passover  or  of  Tabernacles.  Jeroboam  I  set 
apart  Bethel  and  Dan  as  the  two  sanctuaries 
to  be  visited  by  his  subjects  (IK  1229-32)  for 
the  same  purpose.  Other  places  were  vene- 
rated in  like  fashion.  Amos  mentions  Beer- 
sheba  (8^4)  and  Gilgal.  The  latter  place, 
which  was  situated  between  Jericho  and  the 
Jordan,  derived  its  name,  '  a  circle,'  from  the 
circle  of  sacred  stones  which  existed  there  from 


566 


4.  5 


AMOS 


5.  11 


time  immemorial.  Josh  4  and  5  speak  of  it  as  the 
site  of  the  first  camp  of  the  Hebrews  in  west- 
ern Palestine  and  the  scene  of  the  circumcision 
of  the  great  mass  of  the  people. 

The  prophet  asserts  that  these  journeys  to 
the  holy  places,  for  the  purpose  of  worship, 
failed  to  win  the  favour  of  God  :  the  more 
zealously  they  were  engaged  in  the  greater  the 
guilt  of  the  pilgrims.  The  reason  was  that 
men  substituted  such  devotions  in  place  of 
good  morals.  There  is  an  Arabic  proverb 
concerning  the  ceremonies  performed  by  pil- 
grims to  Mecca  :  '  Circumambulate,  and  run, 
and  commit  the  seven  deadly  sins  ! '  Another 
plays  thus  on  words  :  Al-hardmfil  Haramayn  = 
'  Unholiness  dwelleth  in  the  two  holy  cities.' 

Every  morning' .  .  after  three  years]  '  in  the 
morning  .  .  on  the  third  day,'  seems  preferable. 
On  the  morning  after  arrival  the  pilgrims 
brought  an  oblation  :  on  the  next  day — the 
third,  according  to  Heb.  reckoning — they  paid 
the  tithes.  In  the  great  Mohammedan  pilgrim- 
age to  Mecca  the  observances  due  on  each  day 
are  strictly  defined.  5.  According  to  the  Levi- 
tical  legislation  leaven  might  not  be  burned  as 
part  of  a  sacrifice  (Ex  23  ^^  Lv  2  ^2)  ;  but  even 
in  those  laws  there  are  trcces  of  some  degree 
of  freedom  (Lv  7 1^  23 1^).  And  in  northern 
Israel  it  would  seem  that  leavened  cakes  were 
consumed  on  the  altar  as  a  praise  or  thank 
offering.  This  liketh  you]  i.e.  this  is  what 
you  like. 

6.  Doughty  speaks  of  an  Arab  who  '  would 
often  show  that  he  had  nothing  left  to  eat .  . 
in  crackling  the  thumb  nail  from  the  backward 
upon  the  upper  front  teeth.'  Yet  have  ye  not 
returned  unto  me]  a  pathetic  refrain,  express- 
ing His  disappointment  and  His  appealing  love. 
All  warnings  have  been  in  vain.  7.  In  the 
plains  harvest  comes  at  the  end  of  April  ;  a 
month  later  in  the  hills.  Heavy  rains  are 
necessary  from  Nov.  to  Jan.  to  soften  the 
ground  sufficiently  for  ploughing  and  sowing. 

One  piece  was  rained  upon,  etc.]  cp.  Gideon's 
fleece  ( Jg  6  ^ "-lO).    8.  Cities]  i.e.  the  inhabitants. 

9.  Blasting]  the  effect  produced  on  grain  by 
the  burning  wind  from  the  desert  (Gn416). 

Palmerworm]  or  locust.  10.  After  the  man- 
ner of  Eg^pt]  '  Life  and  death  march  in 
"double  companies"  through  Egypt.  All  epi- 
demics revel  here.'  2X137  is  an  illustration 
of  the  loss  of  horses.  We  are  to  think  of  the 
people  as  shut  up  in  a  fetid  camp,  with  decay- 
ing bodies  of  men  and  horses,  and  all  the 
other  foul  odours  of  the  East.  11.  The  over- 
throw of  these  cities  had  become  a  type  of 
utter  destruction  (Dt  29  23  Isa  1  7, 8  1 3 19  jgr  49 18 
5Q40)  The  brand  plucked  out  of  the  burning  is 
a  figure  for  grievous  damage. 

12.  Thus]  but  we  are  not  told  how.  Im- 
agination is  to  fill  up  the  blank,  and  the  par- 
tial overthrow  already  inflicted  is  enough  to 


indicate  what  the  final  and  total  ruin  will  be. 
They  must  meet  God  as  a  foe  (Josh  5 1^). 

13.  This  verse,  5  8' ''j  and  9  "^i  were  probably 
written  on  the  margin  by  an  admirer  of  Job 
94-io_  His  thought]  i.e.  the  determination 
He  has  arrived  at.  He  darkens  the  heavens 
with  storms  and  eclipses.  He  marches  majes- 
tically over  the  mountains  in  clouds  and 
thunder  (Dt  33 13  Micl3  Hab3i9  Job98). 

CHAPTER  5 
The  Third  Address 
1-6.  A  lament,  a  warning,  and  an  invitation. 
7,  10-20.  Denunciation  of  injustice  and  op- 
pression, with  threats  of  pestilence  and  judg- 
ment. 21-27.  -^  repudiation  of  their  attesnpt 
to  please  God  by  mere  ritual. 

I,  2.  Lamentation]  a  technical  term  for 
mournful  poetry  consisting  of  short  lines  of 
unequal  length  :  here,  for  instance  (v.  2),  the 
dirge  consists  of  four  lines,  the  first  and  third 
having  three  accents,  the  second  and  fourth 
two.  Virgin]  because,  though  often  defeated, 
Israel  had  not  yet  been  thoroughly  conquered. 

5.  Pass  not  to  Beer-sheba]  People  living 
in  the  northern  kingdom  would  have  to  'pass,' 
to  cross  over,  the  territory  of  Judah  to  reach 
the  famous  sanctuary  in  the  extreme  S.  of 
the  land.  In  the  reference  to  Gilgal  there  is 
one  of  those  plays  on  sound  which  are  so 
common  in  impassioned  speech  :  '  Hag-Gilgal 
galoh  yigleh.'  And  in  that  to  Beth-el  a  play 
on  ideas  :  Bethel  ('  House  of  God ')  shall  be- 
come Aven  ('  Nothing ').  Hosea  actually  calls 
it  Beth  Aven,  'House of  Nothing'  (41558  10 5)^ 
and  also  Aven  (10^).  Bethel  is  now  called 
Beit-in.  6.  The  better  reading  would  be  : 
'Lest  he  send  forth  fire'  (cp.  14,7, 10, 12  22,5) 
'  upon  the  house  of  Joseph  and  there  be  none 
to  quench  it  for  Bethel.'  Israel  is  entitled 
the  house  of  Joseph,  because  Ephraim,  the  de- 
scendant of  Joseph,  is  the  chief  tribe  in  the 
northern  kingdom. 

7.  Instead  of  justice  there  is  injustice,  bitter 
as  wormwood. 

8,  9.  Cp.  413,  and  see  Job  3831  Isa  13 10 
25 '^.12.  8.  The  seven  stars]  RV  '  the  Pleiades,' 
lit.  '  the  heap.'  The  shadow  of  death]  RM 
'  deep  darkness,'  is  better. 

ID.  The  subject  of  v.  7  is  now  resumed  : 
they  who  turn  justice  into  wormwood,  etc., 
hate  in  the  gate  the  man  who  reproves  injustice. 
The  gate  is  the  broad,  open  space  before  the 
city  wall,  where  all  business  is  discussed  and 
justice  is  supposed  to  be  administered  :  cp.  v.  12. 

I I .  Burdens  of  wheat]  R V  '  exactions  of 
wheat.'  These  remind  us  of  the  way  in  which 
the  French  nobility  used  to  '  grind  down  the 
peasantry  to  the  utmost  farthing  to  extort 
money  to  spend  in  debauchery  and  riot  in 
Paris':  cp.  also  2S123.  Houses  of  hewn 
stone  were  a  mark  of  great  wealth  (Isa  9  lO). 


567 


5.  12 


AMOS 


6.  10 


12.  RV  '  For  I  know  how  manifold  are  your 
transgressions  and  how  mighty  are  your  sins  ; 
ye  that  afflict  the  just,  that  take  a  bribe,  and 
that  turn  aside  the  needy,'  etc.  Bribe]  The 
word  means  'ransom'  (see  Ex2130Nu253i 
Prov635)  ;  on  many  occasions  it  would  defeat 
the  ends  of  justice  if  a  ransom  was  accepted. 

13.  What  is  the  use  of  talking?  As  a 
modern  writer  says  : 

'  For  what  avail'd  it,  all  the  noise 
And  outcry  of  the  former  men  ? ' 

14.  As  ye  have  spoken]  EV  'as  ye  say,' 
i.e.  as  ye  say  He  is,  as  ye  flatter  yourselves  He 
is.  15.  The  remnant]  At  best  a  mere  fraction 
will  escape.  16,  17.  Streets]  RY  '  broad 
ways '  :  what  we  call  squares  and  open  spaces. 
The  wailing  is  the  tremulous,  high-pitched 
lament  for  the  dead.  The  most  necessary 
occupations  are  suspended  because  of  the  great 
number  of  deaths.  Where  the  merry  shout  of 
the  grape-gatherers  had  been  common,  sounds 
of  woe  may  now  be  heard.  The  skilful  of 
lamentation  are  the  professional  mourners 
(Mtg23  .  cp.  2 S3 31  Jer345  Ezk26i7  2732). 

I  will  pass  through,  etc.]  as  the  destroying 
angel  passed  through  Egypt  (Ex  1 2). 

18-20.  Day  of  the  LORD]  see  Intro.,  and  cp. 
Isa530  8^2  Joel  2  2  Obad  v.  15. 

21.  Festivals  such  as  Tabernacles  (1 K 1233) 
are  meant.  I  will  not  smell]  RV  '  I  will  take 
no  delight.'  The  original  words  refer  to  the 
smelling  the  pleasant  odour  of  the  sacrifice 
(Gn82i  Lv263i).  22.  The  burnt  offering  was 
the  costliest  of  sacrifices,  and  in  early  times  was 
not  often  presented  by  private  individuals. 

Meat  offerings]  R V  '  meal  offerings ' :  flour, 
or  flour  mingled  with  salt,  oil,  and  incense. 

Peace  offerings]  The  '  thank  offerings '  of 
RM  is  better.  These  were  partly  eaten  by  the 
worshippers.  Fat  beasts  were,  of  course,  a 
costly  sacrifice.  23,  24.  Vocal  and  instrumental 
music  was  employed  in  the  Temple  service  at 
Bethel,  but  was  utterly  distasteful  to  God 
because  of  the  unrighteousness  of  the  singers 
and  the  people  generally  :  cp.  Isa  1 13  Ezk26  ^3. 

Viols]  a  kind  of  lute  or  guitar,  with  ten  or 
twelve  strings  and  a  sounding-board.  Mighty 
stream]  RM  '  ever-flowing.' 

25.  Have  ye  offered  ?]  RV  '  Did  ye  bring  ?  ' 
The  answer  is  '  No.'  So  far  is  God  from  being 
influenced  by  sacrifices  that  all  the  time  when 
His  Providential  care  over  them  was  most 
marked  they  were  in  the  habit  of  presenting 
Him  no  oblations  at  all:  cp.  JoshS^^^  ISI.522 
Jer722,23_  26,  27.  Render,  '  And  ye  shall  take 
up  Sikkufh  your  king,  and  Kevjdti  jovlV  images, 
the  star  of  your  god  which  ye  made  for  your- 
selves. And  I  will  cause,'  etc.  Kcvd/i  is  the 
name  of  one  of  the  Babylonian  planetary 
deities  who  has  been  variously  identified  with 
Saturn  or  Mars.  Another  title  of  the  same 
god,  Tsalme,  is  probably  concealed  under  the 


words  rendered  '  your  images.'  It  is  at  present 
uncertain  who  is  meant  by  SikJcuth.  The 
idolaters  will  have  to  carry  their  idols  into 
exile,  beyond  Damascus,  i.e.  into  Assyria, 
which  is  thus  vaguely  indicated. 

CHAPTER  6 

The  Fourth  Address 
1-3.  False  security  of   Judah  and   Israel. 
4-6.   Carelessness  and   luxury.     7-1 1.   Capti- 
vity, siege,  death,  ruin.     12,  13.  Preposterous 
errors.     14.   The  coming  of  the  avenger. 

I,  2.  Render, '  Woe  to  the  easy-going  in  Zion 
and  to  the  secure  in  the  mountain  of  Samaria  ! 
Make  the  round  of  the  foremost  nations  and 
come  to  them,  O  house  of  Israel.  Pass  over 
to  Calneh  and  see,  and  from  thence  go  to 
Hamath  Rabbah  :  then,  etc.  Are  you  better 
than  these  kingdoms  ?  or  is  your  border,'  etc., 
that  you  should  be  so  favoured.  The  site  of 
Calneh  is  uncertain.  Hamath  is  the  well- 
known  city  on  the  Orontes.  3.  They  refused 
to  think  of  the  coming  retribution  ;  they  en- 
throned violence  in  their  midst. 

4.  Reclining  at  meals  was  a  custom  intro- 
duced from  the  farther  East :  contrast  1  S  20  2-4. 
The  grandees  now  •  stretched  themselves,'  etc.  : 
cp.  Spenser's  '  Poured  out  in  loosnesse  on  the 
grassy  ground  '  ;  luxury  and  idleness  are  im- 
plied. Eat  the  lambs,  etc.]  To  a  frugal  shep- 
herd the  feeding  up  of  beasts  for  food  seemed 
shameful  extravagance  :  '  Seldom  the  nomads 
eat  other  flesh  than  the  meat  of  their  sacrifices  ; 
but  it  be  some  beast  that  will  not  thrive,  or  is 
likely  to  die  on  their  hands  '  (Doughty). 

5.  Chant]  RV  '  sing  idle  songs '  is  an  im- 
provement.    The  musicians  were  lazy  triflers. 

Invent  to  themselves,  etc.]  In  the  psalm 
which  closes  the  Greek  Psalter,  David  is  made 
to  assert  :  '  My  hands  fashioned  an  instrument, 
and  my  fingers  fitted  together  a  psaltery  '  :  see 
also  2  Ch 29  26, 27.  6.  The  goblet  is  not  enough, 
they  must  have  bowls  to  drink  out  of,  bowls 
of  costly  material  such  as  were  generally  used 
in  divine  service  (ZechQi^  14  20).  The  threat- 
ened ruin  of  the  nation  did  not  move  these 
unpatriotic  feasters  to  dispense  with  costly 
unguents,  as  men  in  trouble  were  usually  ready 
to  do  (2  S 14  2). 

7.  First  in  sin,  first  in  punishment.  The 
banquet,  etc.]  RV  '  The  revelry  of  them  that 
stretched  themselves  shall  pass  away.'  A  play 
on  sounds  :  Sar  mirzach  seruchim.  8.  Excel- 
lency] i.e.  the  excellent  things  of  which  the 
nation  was  proud.  9.  The  city  is  besieged, 
and  if  there  is  a  house  in  which  the  pestilence 
has  left  ten  men  alive  their  turn  shall  come. 

10.  And  a  man's  uncle,  etc.]  RV  is  a  little 
different :  'And  when  a  man's  uncle'  (RM  'kins- 
man ')  '  shall  take  him  up,  even  he  that  burneth 
him,  to  bring  out  the  bones  out  of  the  house,  and 
shall  say  unto  him  that  is  in  the  innermost  parts 


568 


6.  12 


AMOS 


7.  4 


of  the  house,  Is  there  yet  any  with  thee  ?  and  he 
shall  say,  No  ;  then,'  etc.  Taking  this  difficult 
V.  as  it  here  stands,  we  must  remember  that  it 
was  the  duty  of  the  next  of  kin  to  see  to  the 
disposal  of  the  body,  and  that,  whilst  interment 
was  the  almost  universal  rule,  cremation  might 
be  resorted  to  in  special  circumstances  (1  S31 12). 
The  plague -stricken  man  in  the  inner  rooms  of 
the  house  must  not  defile  the  Lord's  name  by 
uttering  it  in  the  immediate  presence  of  death, 
as  a  Mohammedan  may  not  say  his  prayers  in 
an  unclean  spot.  A  simpler  form  of  the  v., 
suggested  in  part  by  LXX,  would  be  :  '  A  rem- 
nant shall  be  left'  (in  the  plague-swept  house), 
'  and  when  men  break  through  to  bring  out  the 
bones  from  the  house  it  shall  be  said  to  him 
who  is  in  the  recesses  of  the  house,  Is  there 
yet  any  with  thee  ?  and  he  shall  say,  None.' 

12.  Read,  '  Shall  horses  run  upon  the  cliff  ? 
Will  a  man  plough  the  sea  with  oxen  ?  '  No  ! 
but  in  moral  and  religious  matters  they  will 
do  things  as  absurd  as  these.  13.  No  altera- 
tion of  the  original  is  required  to  obtain  the 
following  :  '  Ye  which  rejoice  in  Lo-Debar, 
which  say.  Have  we  not  taken  for  us  Karnaim 
by  our  own  strength  ? '  For  Lo-Debar  see 
2S94  1727,  and  for  Karnaim  GnU^  Dtl* 
Josh  2 127  1  Mac  5  26  :  both  towns  lay  E.  of  the 
Jordan  and  may  have  been  taken  by  Jero- 
boam II. 

A  great  change  had  come  over  the  fortunes 
of  Israel  during  the  reigns  of  Joash  of  Israel 
and  his  son,  Jeroboam  II.  Israel  had  been 
reduced  to  a  very  low  ebb  in  the  time  of 
Jehoahaz  by  the  repeated  and  successful  assaults 
of  the  Syi-ians  (2 K  137,22).  with  the  advent 
of  Joash  all  this  was  altered.  He  recovered 
ten  cities  which  Hazael  had  taken,  and  gained 
three  victories  (2  K  1325).  Jeroboam  II  carried 
these  successes  still  further.  '  He  restored  the 
border  of  Israel  from  the  entering  in  of  Hamath 
unto  the  sea  of  the  Ai-abah '  (RV)  and  appears 
to  have  been  uniformly  victorious.  This  was 
largely  due  to  the  fact  that  he  never  came 
into  collision  with  Assyria,  whereas  the  power 
of  Syria  had  been  greatly  reduced  by  the  cam- 
paigns of  Shalmaneser  III  and  Assurdan. 

Such  a  collision  was,  however,  inevitable 
(v.  14).  The  earliest  contact  between  Israel 
and  Assyria  of  which  we  have  any  record  was 
when  Ahab,  as  an  ally  of  Hadadezer  of  Damas- 
cus, shared  in  the  disastrous  defeat  inflicted  on 
the  Syrian  king  by  Shalmaneser  II  at  the  battle 
of  Karkar,  854  B.C.  On  the  famous  obelisk  of 
black  basalt,  now  in  the  British  Museum,  am- 
bassadors from  Jehu  are  represented  bringing 
tribute  to  the  same  Assyrian  monarch  at 
Hamath,  842  B.C.  Tiglath-pileser  III,  called  in 
the  Bible '  Pul,'  marched  against  Northern  Syria 
in  738  B.C.  and  Menahem  gave  the  king  a 
thousand  talents  of  silver, '  that  his  hand  might 
be  with  him  to  confirm  the  kingdom  in  his  hand ' 


(2  K 1519).  In  732  B.C.  Tiglath-pileser  HI  in- 
vaded Israel,  took  a  number  of  towns,  including 
the  whole  district  of  Naphtali  (2K1529),  and 
compelled  Pekah,  king  of  Israel,  to  pay  a  con- 
siderable tribute.  The  kingdom  of  Israel  was 
destroyed  in  the  year  722  B.C.,  when  Samaria 
was  taken  by  Sargon  in  the  first  month  of  his 
reign,  after  a  siege  which  was  begun  by  his 
predecessor,  Shalmaneser  IV,  and  had  lasted 
three  years. 

14.  The  entering  in  of  Hemath]  the  ideal 
northern  boundary  of  the  Holy  Land  (Nul32i 
2  K 1 4  25-28)  .  it  ig  the  great  depression  between 
the  N.  end  of  Lebanon  and  the  Nusariyeh 
mountains.  The  river  of  the  wilderness]  RV 
'  the  brook  of  the  Arabah,'  the  Wadi-el-Ahsih, 
the  southern  boundary. 

CHAPTER  7 

Three  Visions  and  an  Interruption 

1-9.  The  visions.     10-17.  The  interruption. 

There  are  two  senses  in  which  the  word 
'  Vision '  may  be  used  of  one  of  the  forms  of 
Hebrew  prophecy.  In  the  first  sense  a  state 
of  mind  closely  akin  to  that  of  a  dreamer  is 
intended  :  '  I  the  Lord  will  make  myself 
known  unto  him  in  a  vision,  I  will  speak  with 
him  in  a  dream  '  (Nu  126).  The  prophet  faUs 
into  a  kind  of  ecstasy,  and  has  no  control  over 
the  pictures  which  pass  before  his  mind. 
Every  one  will  remember  the  language  ascribed 
to  Balaam  :  '  He  saith  .  .  which  seeth  the  vision 
of  the  Almighty,  falling  down,  and  having  his 
eyes  open  '  (Nu  24  *.  I6).  in  the  second  sense  of 
the  word  it  is  meant  that  the  subject-matter 
of  the  preaching  was  divinely  inspired,  but  the 
prophet's  own  mind  and  will  played  an  im- 
portant part  in  throwing  this  matter  into  the 
form  of  a  picture.  The  visions  of  Amos  be- 
long to  the  latter  class.  God's  Spirit  made  the 
coming  destruction  of  Israel  certain  to  this 
man.  Amos  drew,  and  then  explained,  the  pic- 
tures which  were  emblems  of  that  destruction, 
the  locusts,  the  devouring  flame,  the  measure- 
ment with  a  plumb-line,  the  basket  of  summer 
fruit,  the  fall  of  temple  and  column. 

I.  Grasshoppers]  RV  '  Locusts.'  The  latter 
growth  may  possibly  mean  the  grass  which 
springs  in  Palestine  after  the  late  rains  in 
March-April.  We  cannot  be  quite  certain 
whether  the  king's  mowings  or  '  shearings '  are 
here  mentioned.  Sheep-shearing  in  N.  Palestine 
takes  place  about  April.  The  king's  mowings 
would  be  a  portion  of  the  crops  taken  to  feed 
his  horses.  2.  Render,  '  And  as  they  were 
about  to  make  an  end  of  eating  .  .  Who  shall 
raise  up  Jacob  ? '  The  question  is  equivalent 
to  an  exclamation  :  '  Oh  that  Jacob  might  be 
raised  up ! ' 

4.  He  would  not  conduct  His  controversy 
with  words,  but  with  a  consuming  fire  (Isa  66 1"). 

The  great  deep]  the  abyss  on  which  the  earth 


669 


7. 


AMOS 


8.14 


was  supposed  to  rest  (GnT^i  Ps242).  A  part] 
RV  '  the  land,'  the  portion  appointed  to  Israel : 
this,  also,  the  fire  was  about  to  consume. 

7,  8.  Upon  a  wall]  RV '  beside  a  wall.'  The 
testing  of  the  wall  is  a  symbol  of  the  searching 
investigation  into  the  people's  conduct,  which 
would  be  followed  by  a  strictly  just  recom- 
pense (2S82  2K2113  Isa34ii  Jerlii.i2 
Lam  2  8).  g.  The  high  places  of  Isaac]  i.e. 
Beer-sheba  (5^),  which  was  especially  asso- 
ciated with  Isaac  (Gn27  23  28  lO). 

10,  II.  Amaziah,  being  a  royal  official,  inter- 
venes as  soon  as  the  king's  name  is  brought  in 
(v.  9).  He  sends  a  message  to  Jeroboam  II  at 
Samaria  (2  K 1423),  charging  the  prophet  with 
stirring  up  sedition  at  the  very  centre  of  the 
national  life.  And  he  exaggerates.  Amos  had 
not  said  that  the  king  himself  should  be 
killed.  12,13.  How  contemptuous  Amaziah  is  ! 
His  words  literally  are :  '  Seer,  go,  flee  thee 
away,' etc.  There  is  a  proverbial  saying,  'Eat 
your  pudding,  slave,  and  hold  your  tongue.' 

The  king's  chapel]  RV  '  The  king's  sanc- 
tuary' :  his  '  Chapel  Royal.'  The  king's  court] 
RV  '  a  royal  house ' :  one  of  his  residences 
(Dan  4  30). 

14.  "We  catch  the  emphasis  if  we  render : 
'  No  prophet  am  I,  and  no  son  of  a  prophet 
am  I.'  "The  latter  expression  may  mean  that 
he  had  not  been  trained  in  one  of  the  schools 
for  prophets  (IS  19 2-1  2K438  91),  but  it  is 
better  to  understand  it  as  referring  to  the 
Oriental  custom  of  the  son  following  his  father's 
occupation.  A  gatherer  of  sycomore  fruit]  RV 
'  A  dresser  of  sycomore  trees.'  The  sycomore 
fig  required  pinching  or  scraping  to  bring  it 
to  ripeness.  It  was  not  thought  much  of  in 
Palestine.  15.  Cp.  2S78  IK  1919  Ps 78™. 71 
Gal  11.  16.  Thou  sayest]  in  opposition  to 
what  the  LORD  said  (v.  17).  Drop  not  thy 
word]  don't  let  it  drip,  drip,  drip,  in  imbecile 
and  wearisome  fashion  (Mic26, n  Ezk212, 7). 

17.  An  harlot]  violated  by  the  victorious 
soldiers.  The  greatest  disaster  that  can  befall 
an  Eastern  is  to  leave  no  son  to  continue  his 
name.  The  ample  domain  of  the  wealthy 
priest  would  be  divided  into  small  properties 
for  the  new  settlers  ( Jer  6  2  Mic  2  *).  A  polluted 
land]  or, '  a  land  that  is  unclean '  (RV),  is  one 
where  Jehovah,  not  being  its  recognised  lord, 
could  not  be  legitimately  worshipped  (1  S2619 
2K517  Hos93-5  Ezk4i3). 

CHAPTER  8 
The  Vision  of  the  Ripe  Fruit,  followed 
BY  A  Fifth  Address 
1-3.  The  vision.  4-14.  The  address,  de- 
nouncing dishonest  traders  (vv.4-6),  threatening 
earthquakes,  eclipse,  mourning,  a  painful  sense 
of  abandonment  by  God,  an  utter  destruction 
of  the  superstitious  (vv.  7-14). 

1-3.  Notwithstanding   the   interference   of 


Amaziah,  the  prophet  finishes  the  recital  of 
his  visions. 

I,  2.  Another  play  on  words — qayits  is  the 
word  for  ripe  fruit,  and  qets  for  end.  We  might 
represent  it  by,  '  A  basket  of  ripe  fruit.  My 
people  are  ripe  for  judgment.'  3.  The  literal 
translation  of  this  picturesque  v.  is,  '  And  the 
songs  of  the  Temple  shall  howl  in  that  day — 
utterance  of  the  Lord  Jehovah  !  Many  the 
corpses  !  In  every  place  they  cast  forth  ! 
Hush  ! '  Temple]  RM  'palace.'  The  building 
is  regarded  as  the  palace  of  the  Great  King  ; 
the  word  came  to  the  Hebrews  from  Babylonia, 
and  literally  signifies  '  Great  House.'  The  pesti- 
lence is  so  fatal  that  men  have  no  time  either 
to  burn  or  bury  the  dead,  and  no  inclination  to 
talk. 

4.  To  make  the  poor  of  the  land  to  fail]  i.e. 
to  exterminate  those  who  are  in  lowly  circum- 
stances. '  They  make  a  solitude  and  call  it 
peace.'  5.  The  new  moon  was  originally  a  more 
important  festival  than  the  sabbath.  For  points 
in  its  observance  see  1 S  20  ^  2  K  4  23  Isa  1 13 
Hos  2 13,  and  cp.  the  Levitical  ritual  in  Nu  28  n. 

The  ephah]  the  measure  by  which  they  sold, 
was  fraudulently  small ;  the  weight  by  which 
they  tested  the  money  paid  them  was  as  dis- 
honestly great.  Money  was  not  coined,  but 
was  weighed  on  every  business  occasion  (Gn 
2.3 16).  The  ephah  contained  about  65  Imp.  pts. ; 
the  shekel  of  252  grs.would  be  worth  about  £2 1  s. 
of  our  money. 

7.  Jehovah  Himself  is  the  Excellency,  the 
Pride  and  Boast  of  His  people. 

8.  The  movements  of  the  land  shaken  by 
the  earthquake,  or  whatever  other  calamity 
was  divinely  inflicted,  are  compared  to  those 
of  the  Nile  :  '  Yea,  it  shall  rise  up  wholly  like 
the  River  ;  and  it  shall  be  troubled  and  sink 
again,  like  the  River  of  Egypt'  (RV).  The 
word  for  '  river '  is  regularly  employed  of  the 
Nile. 

9.  The  eclipse  of  June  15th,  763  B.C.,  may 
have  impressed  his  imagination  powerfully. 

10.  Feasts]  religious,  not  secular.  The 
cloth  of  camel's  or  goat's  hair  was  bound  round 
the  loins  with  a  cord.  Shaving  the  head  was 
a  sign  of  mourning  (Lv  21  ^  Isa  4  24  22 12).  This 
day  would  end  as  badly  as  it  began. 

II.  The  word  which  they  craved  was  not  one 
of  spiritual  instruction,  but  of  guidance  out  of 
trouble  :  cp.  1  S3i.  12.  From  sea  to  sea]  i.e. 
from  the  Mediterranean  to  the  Dead  Sea. 

14.  The  sin,  or,  rather,  the '  guilt '  of  Samaria, 
is  the  idolatrous  object  worshipped  by  the  Sa- 
maritans, either  the  calf  at  Bethel  ( 1 K 1 2  29  Hos 
815  105)^  or  the  Asherah  at  Samaria  (2K136). 

The  manner]  RV  '  the  way  of  Beer-sheba ' 
may  perhaps  mean  the  pilgrimage  thither.  Mo- 
hammedans swear  by  the  pilgrimage  to  Mecca. 
But  Amos  not  improbably  wrote,  '  By  the  life 
of  the  deity  of  Beer-sheba.' 


670 


9.1 


AMOS— OBADIAH 


INTRO. 


CHAPTER  9 

The  Concluding  Vision  and  a  Discourse. 
Comfortable  Words 

I.  The  vision.  2-10.  The  discourse,  de- 
claring that  none  shall  evade  God's  judgments 
(vv.  2-6)  ;  that  Israel  stands  in  no  peculiar 
relationship  to  Jehovah  (v.  7)  ;  that  all  the 
sinners  amongst  them  shall  perish  (v v. 8-10). 
11-15.  Comfortable  words,  predicting  the 
restoration  of  the  Davidic  kingdom  in  all  its 
former  extent  (vv.  11,  12)  ;  the  exuberant  fer- 
tility of  the  land  (v.  13)  ;  the  complete  and 
final  establishment  of  the  nation  on  it  (v.  15). 

1.  Read,  '  I  saw  Jehovah  standing  beside  the 
altar  ;  and  he  said,  "  Smite  the  capitals  of  the 
pillars,  so  that  the  thresholds  may  shake,  and 
break  them  in  pieces  on  the  head  of  all  of 
them  .  .  there  shall  not  one  of  them  flee  away, 
and  there  shall  not  one  of  them  escape."  '  The 
altar  is  that  at  Bethel,  the  chief  sanctuary  of 
the  kingdom  (IK  1233  Am 7 13)  ;  assembled 
there  for  worship,  the  great  mass  of  the  people 
meet  with  destruction,  like  the  Philistines  in 
the  house  of  their  god  (Jg  16  -'9. 30).  The  blow 
from  heaven  shakes  the  building  throughout, 
and  its  loftier  parts  come  crashing  down  on  the 
worshippers. 

2,  Hell]  Heb.  Sheol,  the  abode  of  the  de- 
parted. 3.  Carmel's  lofty,  rough,  wooded 
summit  would  be  an  ideal  place  to  hide  in. 
Fugitives  had  the  right  of  asylum  on  this 
sacred  mountain.  The  reference  to  the  ser- 
pent reminds  us  of  the  Babylonian  myth  in 
which  the  dragon  of  chaos  is  vanquished  by 
Merodach  :  cp.  also  Isa  51 9  Ps  74 13.  5,  6.  This 
may  have  been  a  note  written  on  the  margin, 
suggested  by  58  88.  6.  RV  'It  is  He  that 
buildeth  His  chambers  in  the  heaven,  and 
hath  founded  His  vault  upon  the  earth.'  The 
vault  of  the  sky  appears  to  rest  on  the 
ground. 

7.  At  3  2  Amos  admits  that  there  is  a  special 


bond  between  Israel  and  the  Lord  ;  here,  with 
splendid  boldness,  he  repudiates  it.  Their 
conduct  has  dissolved  the  connexion.  Not 
only  so  :  Providence  has  guided  other  races 
as  well  as  the  Hebrews  :  cp.  Mt39  Jn833  Ac 
1726).  The  Ethiopians  inhabited  that  part  of 
the  Nile  Valley  which  stretches  fi-om  Assouan 
southwards.  Caphtor]  probably  the  island  of 
Crete  (cp.  Ezk25i'');  but  some  authorities 
identify  it  with  the  coast  of  the  Egyptian 
Delta. 

8-10.  The  qualifications  at  the  end  of  vv. 
8,  9  rob  the  threat  of  much  of  its  force,  and 
are  not  quite  in  the  manner  of  Amos.  At  all 
events,  we  have  three  stem  messages  here  : 
the  kingdom  is  to  be  utterly  destroyed,  the 
people  are  to  be  wanderers  amongst  all  nations, 
the  sword  is  to  slay  all  the  sinners. 

II.  The  dominion  exercised  by  David's  de- 
scendants is  spoken  of  as  the  tabernacle  of 
David,  and  is  figured  as  a  small,  dilapidated 
house,  part  of  which  has  fallen  in,  the  rest 
being  full  of  gaps:  cp.  IK  12 16  Ezk34'A24 
3724.  12.  The  remnajit  of  Edom  is  an  expres- 
sion which  implies  that  this  people  has  been 
much  weakened  ;  the  victories  of  Amaziah 
greatly  reduced  its  power  (2  K 147-22).  Over 
other  nations,  also,  Jehovah's  name  had  been 
proclaimed  as  victor  and  owner  :  cp.  Dt28io 
2  S 1 2  28  Isa  63 19  2  Ch  6  33.  13.  Vintage  comes  in 
the  dry  months  of  autumn,  and  is  soon  over.  In 
the  happy  future  the  grapes  will  be  so  plentiful 
that  this  work  will  last  till  the  rainy  season, 
when  the  grain  is  sown.  Sweet  wine]  the 
newly  expressed  juice  of  the  grape.  14.  To 
bring  again  the  captivity  is  an  expression  which 
does  not  necessarily  imply  exile.  It  often 
means  a  favourable  change  in  one's  fortunes. 
But  the  mention  of  the  waste  cities,  and  the 
land  gone  out  of  cultivation,  agrees  with  the 
idea  of  a  real  captivity,  and  the  promise  in 
the  closing  v.  suggests  that  Israel  had  been 
'  plucked  up  out  of  their  land.' 


OBADIAH 


INTRODUCTION 


I.  Contents.  The  book  of  Obadiah,  as  the 
title  in  v.  1  states,  is  a  prophecy  against  Edom. 
The  main  divisions  are  as  follows  : — Vv.  1-9, 
Edom  is  about  to  be  driven  out  of  its  land  by 
a  confederacy  of  nations  ;  vv.  10-14,  this  is  in 
punishment  for  its  participation  in  the  capture 
of  Jerusalem  ;  vv.  15,  16,  a  day  of  judgment  is 
coming  upon  all  nations  ;  vv.  17-21,  in  that 


671 


day  Judah  and  Israel  shall  escape,  and  shall 
regain  the  lands  that  the  Edomites  and  other 
enemies  have  taken  from  them. 

2.  Composition.  All  criticism  of  this  book 
must  set  out  from  the  remarkable  correspond- 
ence between  it  and  parts  of  Jer49.  The 
parallelism  is  as  follows  : — Obad  1^  =  Jer  7"^, 
Obad  1>>2  =  Jer  14,  15,  Obad 3,  4  =  Jerl6,  Obad 


INTRO. 


OBADIAH 


5'^  =  Je^9^  Obad  5^  =  Jer9%  Obad  6  =  JerlO, 
ObadS  resembles  Jer?''  slightly,  Obad  9  re- 
sembles Jer22  slightly. 

(a)  The  theory  that  this  parallelism  is  due  to 
quotation  of  Obadiah  by  Jeremiah  is  open  to 
a  number  of  formidable  objections.  (1)  Obad 
10-14  seems  to  refer  to  the  capture  of  Jerusa- 
lem by  Nebuchadrezzar  in  586  B.C.,  but  Jer49 
is  commonly  supposed  to  have  been  composed 
immediately  after  the  battle  of  Carchemish  in 
605  B.C.  In  that  case  Jeremiah  wrote  before 
Obadiah,  and  therefore  cannot  have  quoted  him. 
The  words  of  Obadiah  cannot  be  referred  to  the 
capture  of  Jerusalem  by  Shishak  (lK14'-5-28), 
nor  by  the  Philistines  and  Arabians  (2  Ch  2 1 1<5  f.)^ 
nor  by  Israel  (2  K 1413*.),  for  in  none  of  these 
cases  is  there  any  record  of  a  participation 
of  Edomites.  The  pre-exilic  prophets  never 
accuse  the  Edomites  of  assisting  in  the  sack  of 
Jerusalem:  cp.  Amos  19-12  Jer 9^6  2521  497 ^ 
Only  in  the  post-exilic  prophets  is  this  charged: 
cp.  Ezk35  Psl37  Lam  421*.  it  seems  im- 
possible, therefore,  to  refer  Obad  10-14  to 
anything  else  than  the  capture  of  Jerusalem 
by  Nebuchadrezzar.  (2)  Obad  7  states  that 
the  allies  "of  Edom  have  expelled  him  from 
his  land.  This  event  is  anticipated  in  Ezk 
2510,12,14^  and  it  is  an  accomplished  fact  in 
Mai  1 3.  There  is  no  event  before  the  exile 
to  which  these  words  can  be  referred  ;  con- 
sequently Obadiah  cannot  be  earlier  than 
Jeremiah.  The  view  that  Jer49  is  a  late  post- 
exilic  interpolation  in  the  book  of  Jeremiah  is 
inconsistent  with  the  fact  that  Obad  7, 10-14  and 
all  other  allusions  to  late  events  in  the  book  of 
Obadiah  are  absent  from  the  parallel  in  Jer49. 
(b)  The  reading  of  Jer49is'^  is  preferable  to 
Obad  2.  Jer499  lacks  the  clumsy  addition 
found  in  Obad  5.  Jer49io  is  a  more  natural 
sequel  to  Obad  5  than  is  Obad  6.  These  facts 
indicate  that  in  several  particulars  the  text  of 
Jer49  is  more  primitive  than  that  of  Obadiah. 

(d)  The  theory  that  Jeremiah  is  quoted  by 
Obadiah  is  also  untenable.  (1)  Because  the 
order  of  the  vv.  is  more  primitive  in  Obadiah 
than  in  Jeremiah.  Obadl  is  evidently  the 
beginning  of  the  oracle,  and  this  is  logically 
followed  by  vv.  3-6,  8,  9.  The  different  order 
of  the  vv.  in  Jer49  is  unnatural  and  cannot  be 
primitive.  (2)  The  text  of  Obad  1,3,5,8  is 
more  primitive  than  the  parallel  vv.  in  Jere- 
miah. (3)  The  form  of  the  prophecy  in  Obadiah 
is  much  briefer  than  that  in  Jeremiah,  and  is 
therefore  probably  more  primitive.  Moreover, 
the  vv.  in  Jer  49  that  are  not  found  in  Obadiah 
show  the  characteristic  language  of  Jeremiah. 

(c)  In  view  of  these  facts  the  only  possible 
theory  of  the  relation  of  Obadiah  to  Jer  49  is 
that  both  prophets  quote  a  third  earlier  prophet. 
The  vv.  that  are  found  both  in  Jeremiah  and 
Obad  1-6,  8,  9,  are  the  only  ones  that  can  be 
ascribed  with  certainty  to  the  older  prophecy. 


3.  Date.  How  long  before  Jeremiah  the 
prophet  lived  who  wrote  Obad  1-6, 8,  9  and  the 
parallels  in  Jeremiah  can  only  be  conjectured. 
Some  regard  him  as  a  contemporary  of  leaiah, 
and  refer  the  disaster  threatened  in  these  vv. 
to  the  humiliation  of  Edom  by  Amaziah 
(2  K 14  7).  It  seems,  however,  that  the  enemies 
of  Edom  in  this  passage  are  not  Israelites  but 
Gentiles,  and  it  is  perhaps  better  to  understand 
the  danger  as  the  Arabian  invasion  mentioned 
in  2Ch26'''.  The  same  disaster  apparently 
threatened  Moab  according  to  Isa  15-1612. 
The  second  half  of  the  book  of  Obadiah 
(vv.  10-21)  was  wi-itten  during  the  exile, 
while  the  memory  of  Edom's  wrong  was  still 
fresh. 

4.  Value.  The  purpose  of  the  book  of 
Obadiah  is  to  express  Judah's  hatred  of 
Edom  and  its  confidence  that  Edom  will 
ultimately  be  destroyed.  This  conviction  rests 
upon  a  recognition  of  the  fundamental  differ- 
ence between  the  national  characters  of  the 
two  nations.  The  Edomites  were  famous  for 
their  secular  wisdom,  but  no  allusion  to  their 
religion  is  ever  made  in  the  OT.  Esau  figures 
in  Hebrew  tradition  as  a  profane  person, 
destitute  of  spiritual  instincts.  The  confidence 
that  Edom  shall  not  ultimately  triumph  over 
Israel  is,  therefore,  no  mere  expression  of 
Jewish  patriotism,  but  is  a  spiritual  conviction 
that  the  religion  of  Jehovah  cannot  be  extin- 
guished by  the  forces  of  evil.  As  an  expression 
of  this  conviction  the  book  of  Obadiah  has 
permanent  value. 

1-9.  The  question  has  been  much  discussed 
whether  vv.  1-9  are  prediction  or  description. 
V.  7  is  clearly  description,  and  on  the  strength 
of  this  some  seek  to  explain  the  whole  passage 
as  descriptive  ;  but,  as  we  have  just  seen,  v.  7 
is  not  found  in  Jer  49,  and  is,  therefore,  no 
part  of  the  old  prophecy  that  Obadiah  quotes. 
It  is  to  be  attached  to  v.  10,  and  is  part  of 
Obadiah's  addition  to  the  original  oracle. 
Apart  from  this  v.  there  is  no  reason  for 
regarding  vv.  1-6,  8,  9  as  predictive.  The 
expression  '  we  have  heard '  (v.  1^)  does  not 
indicate  that  the  disaster  of  Edom  is  past,  but 
only  that  the  news  that  it  is  impending  has 
just  reached  the  speakers.  '  I  have  made '  (v.  2) 
also  does  not  indicate  that  the  disaster  is 
accomplished,  but  merely  that  it  is  determined 
in  the  divine  purpose.  V.  3  clearly  implies 
that  Edom  it  still  dwelling  in  his  rocky  strong- 
holds, and  does  not  believe  that  he  can  ever  be 
expelled  from  them,  and  in  v.  4  the  words  '  I 
will  bring  thee  down  from  thence  '  show  that 
the  catastrophe  still  lies  in  the  future.  To 
understand  these  words  as  a  purpose  of  God 
uttered  in  the  past  is  very  unnatural.  Accord- 
ingly, we  conclude  that  the  ruin  of  Edom 
predicted  in  vv.  1-6,  8,  9  lies  in  the  future, 


572 


OBADIAH 


10 


but  that  knowledge  that  it  is  impending  has 
already  reached  Israel. 

1.  Vision  of  Obadiah]  A  title  added  by  the 
collector  of  the  Minor  Prophets.  Who 
Obadiah  was  is  unknown.  The  name  means 
'  Servant  of  Jehovah.'  Thus  saith  the  Lord 
God  concerning  Edom]  a  remark  by  the  author 
of  Obad7,  10-21  designed  to  introduce  his 
quotation  from  the  older  prophet.  We  have 
heard]  a  better  reading  than  '  I  have  heard  ' 
(Jer49i'*).  This  sentence  is  not  a  natural 
continuation  of  the  introductory  formula  in 
V.  P,  and  it  shows  that  the  passage  quoted  was 
not  originally  an  oracle  spoken  by  the  Lord, 
but  a  report  heard  by  the  Israelites.  Rumour] 
a  correct  translation  of  the  original.  This 
word  is  never  used  in  the  sense  of  '  oracle.' 
This  meaning  is  rendered  certain  by  the  paral- 
lelism of  the  next  clause,  an  ambassador  is 
sent  among  the  heathen.  The  added  words, 
from  the  Lord,  do  not  indicate  that  the 
'  rumour  '  is  an  utterance  of  the  Lord,  but 
only  that  the  coming  disaster  is  caused  by 
Him.  The  '  rumour '  is  news  of  the  impend- 
ing attack  of  the  nations  upon  Edom.  In  v.  I'' 
the  language  of  Obad.  is  more  original  than  that 
of  its  parallel  Jer49i'*.  Heathen]  better,  RV 
'  nations.'  The  allusion  is  probably  to  Arabian 
tribes  that  menaced  Palestine  in  the  time  of 
Uzziah  (2Ch26''').  The  names  of  the  kings 
of  Edom  in  the  Assyrian  inscriptions  in  com- 
parison with  the  list  of  Gn363i-3^  show  that 
a  new  Arabian  population  entered  the  land  of 
Edom  by  the  middle  of  the  8th  cent.  B.C. 
To  this  impending  migration  the  author  of 
this  ancient  prophecy  probably  refers. 

2.  Behold,  I  have  made  thee  small]  does  not 
refer  to  an  accomplished  overthrow  of  Edom, 
since  in  v.  P  the  nations  are  summoned  to  come 
against  him,  and  since  in  vv.  3,  4  he  still  feels 
secure  in  his  strongholds  ;  but  it  refers  to  a 
divine  determination  already  made.  The 
parallel  in  Jer49^^  omits  'thou,'  thus  making 
it  more  clear  that  the  whole  v.  refers  to  the 
divine  purpose.  Small  and  despised  refer  to 
the  condition  in  which  Edom  will  be  left  after 
the  conquest  by  the  nations.  The  word  greatly 
is  a  textual  corruption  of  '  among  men  '  that 
is  preserved  in  Jer49i^. 

3.  The  confidence  of  Edom  that  he  cannot 
be  dislodged  from  his  rock-dwellings  and 
fortresses.  The  land  of  Edom  was  full  of 
caves,  artificially  enlarged  and  fortified,  whose 
remains  are  still  to  be  seen  in  great  numbers 
at  Petra  and  elsewhere  throughout  the  land. 

4.  The  divine  determination  to  dislodge 
Edom  from  his  land  in  spite  of  the  inaccessi- 
bility of  his  strongholds. 

5.  States  that  even  thieves  leave  something 
behind  them,  and  that  grape-gatherers  leave  a 
few  grapes.  The  thought  is  the  contrast  in 
the    condition   of   Edom    after    it    has    been 


invaded.  The  nomads  of  the  desert  will  leave 
nothing  behind  when  once  they  have  overrun 
the  land.  In  Obad.  the  thought  is  expressed 
in  the  form  of  a  question  expecting  an  affirma- 
tive answer,  but  in  Jer499'^'"  it  is  expressed 
as  an  affirmative  statement.  The  form  in  Obad. 
is  obviously  the  more  poetic  and  original. 
The  words  '  how  art  thou  cut  off  '  are  not 
found  in  the  parallel  in  Jer.,  and  are  a  weak 
addition  made  by  the  writer  of  the  second 
half  of  the  book  or  by  a  later  scribe. 

6.  Things]  RV  '  treasures.'  After  v.  5  we 
naturally  expect  a  statement  of  the  contrast 
between  the  treatment  of  Edom  and  the 
conduct  of  thieves  and  grape-gatherers  in 
leaving  a  remnant,  but  this  is  not  found  in  the 
V.  This  leads  some  to  reject  it  as  a  gloss  and 
to  regard  v.  7  as  the  original  continuation  of 
V.  5  ;  but,  as  we  have  seen,  v.  7  is  not  found 
in  Jer  49  and  refers  to  an  event  after  the  fall 
of  Jerusalem,  so  that  it  is  unquestionably  an 
addition  made  by  the  writer  of  the  second 
half  of  the  book.  The  best  solution  of  the 
difficulty  is  to  regard  Jer  49 10,  which  is  parallel 
to  V.  6,  as  the  original  continuation  of  v.  5. 
This  v.  is  much  more  perfect  than  the  parallel 
in  Obad.,  and  contains  a  statement  of  the 
complete  destruction  of  Edom  that  the  context 
requires.  Obad  6  is  apparently  merely  a 
broken-down  form  of  the  text  in  Jer  49 10. 

7.  Brought  thee]  RM  'driven  thee  out.' 
The  V.  refers  to  the  complete  expulsion  of 
Edom  from  his  territory  by  the  Nabatsean 
Ai-abs  at  some  time  during  the  exile  of  Israel. 
The  event  is  spoken  of  in  the  past  tense,  and 
shows  that  the  writer  lived  after  the  fall  of 
Jerusalem.  This  v.  is  not  found  in  Jer  49 
and  must  come  from  the  hand  of  the  author  of 
Obad  10-21.  It  joins  on  naturally  to  v.  10. 
The  word  translated  in  AV  '  they  that  eat  thy 
bread '  is  omitted  by  LXX.  It  is  a  dittograph 
of  the  last  letters  of  the  preceding  word. 

8.  9.  Some  reject  these  vv.  as  glosses  be- 
cause the  verbs  are  in  the  future,  instead  of 
the  past  tense,  as  in  v.  7  ;  but,  as  we  have  seen, 
V.  7  is  not  part  of  the  original  prophecy,  and 
vv.  1-6  regard  the  fall  of  Edom  as  still  future. 
These  vv.  join  on  logically  to  v.  6.  Jer 
49rb,22  contain  slight  resemblances  to  these 
vv.  The  text  of  Obad.  appears  to  be  more 
original  on  account  of  the  use  of  the  first 
person  and  the  expression  '  saith  the  Lord.' 
The  worldly  wisdom  of  the  Edomites  was 
proverbial  among  the  Hebrews:  cp.  Jer 49 7. 

10-14.  The  vv.  describe  the  co-operation 
of  the  Edomites  in  Nebuchadrezzar's  destruc- 
tion of  Jerusalem  and  state  that  the  foregoing 
prediction  of  destruction  is  due  to  this  un- 
brotherly  conduct.  These  vv.  together  with 
V.  7  and  vv.  15-21  come  from  the  hand  of 
the  later  writer.  It  is  clear  that  he  is  ignor- 
ant  of    the   original  meaning  of  the  ancient 


673 


10 


OBADIAH 


21 


prophecy  in  vv.  1-6  and  8,  9,  and  regards  it  as 
a  still  unfulfilled  prediction  of  the  destruction 
of  Edom.  The  last  word  of  v.  9  is  to  be 
attached  to  the  beginning  of  v.  10,  translating 
'  because  of  the  slaughter,  because  of  the 
violence.' 

10.  The  imperfects  in  Hebrew  describe 
the  present  condition  of  Edom,  and  should  be 
rendered  '  shame  covers  thee,  thou  art  cut  off 
for  ever.'  The  allusion  is  the  same  as  in  v.  7 
to  the  recent  Nabatsean  migration  through 
which  Edom  has  been  dispossessed. 

11.  This  is  a  clear  reference  to  the  de- 
struction of  Jerusalem  by  Nebuchadrezzar. 
The  Edomites  are  blamed  for  assisting  in  the 
work  of  destruction.  The  past  tenses  show 
that  we  are  dealing  with  description,  not  with 
prediction.  Thou  stoodest  on  the  other  side, 
in  a  hostile  sense  (EM  '  aloof ')  as  in  Ps38  ii. 

Forces]  RV  '  substance,'  i.e.  wealth. 

12-14.  These  vv.  describe  poetically  in  the 
form  of  a  warning  what  Edom  has  actually 
done.  12.  Looked  on,  with  the  sense  of  gloat- 
iBg  over  misfortune  as  in  MicT^o^.  The  day 
is  evidently  the  day  of  the  fall  of  Jerusalem. 
The  details  of  the  hostility  of  Edom  sup- 
plied by  this  V.  are  the  same  that  are  empha- 
sised in  Ezk,  Lam,  Pss,  and  other  writings  of 
the  post-exilic  period.  This  v.  is  partly  iden- 
tical with  V.  14,  and  belongs  logically  after  13. 
It  is,  therefore,  open  to  suspicion  of  being  an 
editorial  insertion.  14.  The  word  translated 
crossway  by  RV  and  AV  is  of  unknown 
meaning.     In  LXX  '  a  moimtain  pass.' 

15,  16.  These  vv.  describe  an  impending 
day  of  judgment  upon  all  the  heathen.  The 
expression  day  of  the  LORD  is  the  technical 
term  used  by  all  the  prophets  for  a  turning- 
point  in  history  when  the  new  era  of 
blessing  for  Israel  shall  be  inaugurated.  In 
the  older  prophets  this  day  is  ushered  in  by 
the  assault  of  Assyria,  Babylon,  or  one  of  the 
other  foreign  nations,  upon  Israel.  In  Ezk 
and  the  prophets  that  follow  him  it  is  a  day 
of  judgment  upon  the  heathen.  This  is 
the  conception  of  this  passage  and  shows  that 
'  it  cannot  be  earlier  than  Ezk.  In  v.  15^  Edom 
is  addressed  in  the  second  person  singular,  as 
in  the  preceding  vv.,  and  is  told  that  he  shall 
be  included  in  the  general  catastrophe  of  the 
nations.  V.  16  is  not  to  be  understood  of  the 
Edomites,  as  is  generally  done,  since  the 
address  is  in  the  second  person  plm-al,  and 
since  the  Edomites  are  included  in  all  the 
heathen  of  the  preceding  v.  The  Jews  are 
addressed  '  who  have  drunk  of  the  cup  of  the 
wrath  of  Jehovah,'  and  they  are  told  that  all 
the  heathen  shall  be  forced  to  drink  the  cup 
that  they  have  drunk  of.  Instead  of  swallow 
down,  a  slight   textual  emendation  will   give 


'  stagger,'  which  is  more  consistent  with  the 
context. 

17-21.  These  vv.  describe  the  happy  destiny 
of  Israel.  17.  Deliverance]  RY  '  those  that 
escape,'  i.e.  in  the  coming  day  of  judgment,  and 
regain  the  land  that  they  have  lost  at  the  time 
of  the  exile.  This  suggests  that  they  are 
still  in  captivity.  18.  Jacob  is  a  designation 
of  the  kingdom  of  Judah,  Joseph  is  a  desig- 
nation of  the  kingdom  of  Israel.  Israel  had 
certainly  not  returned  at  the  time  when  this 
prophecy  was  written,  and  there  is  no  more 
reason  to  think  that  Judah  had  returned.  The 
thought  of  the  reunion  of  the  divided  king- 
doms of  Judah  and  Israel  is  common  in  the 
prophets  from  the  days  of  Amos  onward. 
The  closing  words  of  the  v.,  for  the  LORD  hath 
spoken  it,  seem  to  be  a  reference  to  the  ancient 
prophecy  in  vv.  1-6,  8,  9,  which  the  author 
regards  as  still  unfulfilled. 

The  text  of  vv.  19,  20  is  very  corrupt,  and 
neither  the  AV  nor  the  RV  gives  a  satisfactory 
sense.  The  LXX  allows  us  to  restore  the 
text  and  translate  as  follows  : 

'  The  Negeb  (i.e.  south  Judah)  shall  possess 
Mount  Esau  (i.e.  Edom),  and  the  Shephelah 
(i.e.  the  inhabitants  of  the  maritime  plain  of 
Judah)  shall  possess  the  Philistines,  and  the 
Mountain  (i.e.  the  people  of  the  mountain 
district  of  Judah)  shall  possess  Ephraim  and 
the  open  country  of  Samaria,  and  Benjamin 
shall  possess  Gilead.  And  the  exiles  of  this 
host  of  the  sons  of  Israel  shall  possess  the 
land  of  the  Canaanites  unto  Sarephath,  and 
the  exiles  of  Jerusalem  who  are  in  Sepharad 
shall  inherit  the  cities  of  the  Negeb  (i.e.  south 
Judah).' 

20.  Sepharad  was  probably  the  name  of  a 
district  in  the  north  of  Asia  Minor. 

The  historical  situation  here  assumed  is  that 
Edom  has  been  expelled  from  its  own  land, 
and  has  occupied  the  S.  of  Judah  left  vacant 
by  the  captivity.  The  maritime  plain  has  been 
seized  by  the  Philistines,  the  Samaritans  have 
occupied  the  land  of  Judah,  and  the  Arabs 
from  E.  of  the  Jordan  have  seized  the  territory 
of  Benjamin.  This  condition  of  things  shall 
be  reversed  in  the  good  time  coming.  The 
invaders  shall  be  expelled  from  the  lands  that 
they  have  unjustly  seized,  and  the  tribes  of 
Israel  shall  occupy  their  ancient  territory. 

21.  This  V.  describes  the  glory  of  Israel  after 
Edom  and  all  the  other  nations  have  fallen. 
Saviours  refers  to  the  monarchs  that  are  to  be 
raised  up  to  rule  the  restored  nation.  The 
closing  words,  the  kingdom  shall  be  the  LORD'S, 
show  that  the  author's  confidence  of  the  fall 
of  Edom  and  the  triumph  of  Israel  is  based 
upon  the  conviction  that  the  religion  of  Israel 
cannot  perish. 


574 


JONAH 


INTRODUCTION 


1.  The  Book  and  its  Hero.  This  little  book 
stands  alone  amongst  the  writings  of  the 
prophets  with  which  it  is  grouped.  It  does 
not  contain  any  prophecies,  except  the  mes- 
sage of  Jonah  to  the  Ninevites,  yet  it  is  placed 
with  the  books  of  Amos  and  Micah,  which 
contain  hardly  anything  else.  It  is  written  in 
prose,  except  the  Psalm  in  c.  2,  and  appears 
at  first  sight  to  be  a  simple  narrative  of  fact, 
yet  it  is  separated  from  both  the  groups  of 
books  to  which  the  histories  of  the  OT.,  Samuel 
and  Kings,  Chronicles  and  Ezra,  belong. 

The  hero  of  the  story  lived  in  the  reign  of 
Jeroboam  II,  king  of  Israel,  in  whose  time 
Amos's  work  was  accomplished.  According 
to  2  K  1425,  he  prophesied  the  recovery  from 
Syria  of  the  lost  border  possessions  of  Israel. 
That  fixes  the  date  of  his  activity,  as  there 
recorded,  in  the  first  half  of  the  8th  cent.  fe.c. 
He  is  said  to  have  belonged  to  Gath-hepher, 
a  town  of  Zebulon,  and  his  grave  is  still  shovrai 
in  the  vicinity  of  Nazareth. 

2.  The  Author  of  the  Book.  But  the  author 
of  the  book  before  us  cannot  have  been  the 
hero  of  the  story.  That  is  proved,  (1)  by  3  3. 
'  Nineveh  was  an  exceeding  great  city.'  The 
Hebrew  makes  it  plain  that  the  writer  is  look- 
ing back  on  a  time  already  past,  writing  to  those 
who  are  no  longer  familiar  with  the  greatness  of 
Nineveh.  But  as  Nineveh  was  the  metropolis 
of  the  world  till  its  fall  in  607  B.C.,  this  book 
must  have  been  wi-itten  after  that  date.  Fur- 
ther, no  writer  of  the  time  when  Assyria  was 
the  greatest  of  the  world-powers  would  have 
described  its  ruler  as  '  the  king  of  Nineveh,' 
any  more  than  Napoleon  at  the  height  of  his 
power  could  have  been  called  king  of  Paris. 
(2)  As  is  shown  in  the  notes,  the  Psalm  in  c.  2 
is  full  of  allusions  to  various  Psalms.  Most  of 
these  are  certainly  later  than  the  8th  cent.  (3) 
The  language  of  the  book  contains  words 
and  phrases  which  were  unknown  before  the 
captivity.  Hence  it  is  generally  agreed  that 
the  book  was  not  written  earlier  than  the  5th 
or  4th  cent.  B.C.,  in  the  period  following  the 
reforms  of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah,  three  centm-ies 
after  Jonah's  day. 

3.  Character  of  the  Book.  Many  Christian 
and  Jewish  expositors  formerly  considered  the 
whole  book  a  literal  narrative  of  actual  facts. 
At  the  present  time  nearly  all  scholars  judge 
it  to  be  an  OT.  parable,  or  instructive  story, 
made  to  convey  in  pictorial  form  great  spiritual 


truths.  Against  the  strictly  historical  view  of 
the  book  may  be  urged,  (1)  the  complete 
silence  both  of  the  OT.  and  of  other  history 
as  to  any  such  conversion  of  the  Ninevites  as 
that  described  in  c.  3.  On  the  contrary,  they 
are  uniformly  described  as  idolaters,  and 
threatened  with  the  direst  punishment :  cp. 
especially  the  whole  prophecy  of  Nahum,  or 
Isaiah,  chs.  10,  37,  etc.  (2)  The  book  breaks 
off  most  abruptly,  giving  no  account  at  all  of  the 
future  fortunes  either  of  Jonah  or  of  the  re- 
pentant people.  From  the  literary  point  of 
view  this  is  one  of  the  beauties  of  the  book 
(see  on  4  ii),  but  it  seems  to  show  that  the 
design  of  the  writer  was  not  the  writing  of 
history.  (3)  To  many  readers  the  whole  book 
suggests  inevitably  that  we  are  in  the  world  of 
parable,  as  surely  as  does  the  '  Pilgrim's  Pro- 
gress '  or  the  '  Holy  War.' 

A  modern  reader  may  find  difficulty  in 
understanding  how  in  such  a  parable  an  in- 
cident like  that  of  the  great  fish  could  be 
introduced  ;  to  him  its  very  strangeness  might 
suggest  that  it  was  not  mere  invention.  But 
to  a  Jew  of  the  4th  or  5th  cent,  no  such 
difficulty  would  appear.  In  Jer513*-**  (the 
whole  passage  should  be  carefully  considered) 
the  Babylonian  captivity  had  already  been 
compared  to  the  swallowing  of  the  nation  by 
a  huge  dragon,  and  the  deliverance  from  the 
exile  to  being  cast  out  alive  from  the  devour- 
er's  maw.  Other  OT.  passages,  such  as  Job 
7 12  26 12  (BY)  Ps  74 13,  show  how  familiar  was 
the  thought  and  the  dread  of  the  monsters 
of  the  deep.  To  represent  a  great  disaster 
occurring  to  a  man  who  ran  away  from  duty 
by  such  an  image,  was  as  natural  as  was  the 
picture  of  the  Slough  of  Despond  to  a  man 
who  lived  in  a  marshy  and  ill-drained  locality. 
Against  this  view  devout  Christian  thinkers 
used  to  urge  the  references  of  our  Lord  in 
Mt  12 39-41  164  Lkll  29,30^  ^hich  they  supposed 
compelled  us  to  accept  the  narrative  as  his- 
torical. It  must  be  carefully  observed  that 
those  who  hold  the  position  advocated  here, 
do  not  challenge  the  authority  of  our  Lord, 
but  only  the  justness  of  this  method  of  in- 
terpreting His  words.  It  may  fairly  be  said 
that  He  is  using  an  illustration  which  is  equally 
forcible  whether  it  is  drawn  from  fact  or  from 
poetry.  Just  as  we  refer  to  the  Prodigal  Son, 
or  the  Good  Samaritan,  in  precisely  the  same 
terms   we  should  use  were  their  adventures 


575 


INTRO. 


JONAH 


1.3 


historical  facts,  so  may  Christ  have  done  here. 
On  the  whole,  then,  we  conclude  with  confidence 
that  though  it  is  possible  that  a  historical 
tradition  of  the  mission  of  Jonah  to  Nineveh 
suggested  the  writing  of  the  book,  its  author 
has  freely  worked  on  this  material,  and  has 
subordinated  everything  to  the  conveying  of 
spiritual  truths.  So  in  the  parable  of  the 
pounds  (Lk  19 11-27),  our  Lord  starts  from  the 
well-known  incidents  of  the  visits  of  Herod 
the  Great  and  Archelaus  to  Rome,  '  to  receive 
a  kingdom,'  and  from  that  point  develops  the 
story  with  its  urgent  lessons.  So  in  his  his- 
torical plays  Shakespeare  uses  the  old  Chron- 
iclers. But  the  historical  parts  of  Macbeth 
or  Richard  the  Second  are  of  little  interest  to 
us,  compared  with  the  analysis  of  motive  and 
the  insight  into  character  that  are  of  such 
abiding  value.  It  is  of  great  interest  to  ob- 
serve that  in  the  OT.  as  in  the  NT.  the  natural 
human  love  for  a  story  is  so  often  appealed  to, 
so  that  '  truth  embodied  in  a  tale  may  enter 
in  at  lowly  doors.' 

4.  Aim  and  Teaching  of  the  Book.  The 
one  pervading  aim  of  the  book  is  to  exhibit 
the  true  relationship  between  man  and  God, 
only  realised  by  understanding  what  men  are, 
and  what  God  is.  In  opposition  to  the  teach- 
ing of  later  Judaism,  with  its  bitter  contempt 
and  hatred  of  the  heathen  world,  and  its  belief 
that  God  regarded  it  in  the  same  way,  the 
author  is  eager  to  show  how  kindness  of 
heart  and  readhiess  to  repent  of  sin  may  be 
found  everywhere  amongst  men,  and  are  always 
acceptable  to  God.  So  in  the  story  of  the 
voyage  the  heathen  sailors  shrink  from  the 
thought  of  violent  or  unjust  dealings  with 
Jonah,  and  both  they  and  the  people  of 
Nineveh  reverently  own  the  power  of  Jehovah, 
so  soon  as  His  claims  are  put  before  them. 
"With  this  may  be  compared  our  Lord's  words 
in  Mt  11 20-24  Lk  11 31, 32^  and  His  choice  of  the 
Good  Samaritan  as  the  type  of  brotherly 
kindness,  in  contrast  with  the  priest  and  the 
Levite. 

From  such  teaching  about  mankind  follows 
naturally  the  teaching  about  God.  He  is  re- 
vealed as  full  of  infinite  compassion,  looking  piti- 
fully upon  the  thousands  of  innocent  little 
children  and  helpless  cattle  in  the  great  city, 
swift  to  hear  and  receiVe  the  cry  of  penitence. 
It  is  in  accordance  with  this  general  view  that 
God's  individual  dealings  with  His  disobedient 
servant  are  set  forth.  He  may  punish,  but  is 
always  at  hand  to  deliver.  He  is  willing  to 
reason  with  His  messengers  as  He  does  with 
Jonah  in  c.  4.  Again,  we  compare  our  Lord's 
picture  of  the  pleading  of  the  father  with  the 
elder  brother  (Lk  15  28-32). 

One  other  truth  is  brought  out  with  great 
beauty  in  c.  4,  where  Jonah's  pity  for  the 
gourd   is   made   an  image  of  God's  pity  for 


Nineveh.  "We  are  taught  that  man  may  trust 
his  nobler  instincts  as  being  true  revelations  of 
God,  and  from  his  own  compassion  argue  up- 
wards to  find  such  qualities  in  perfection  there. 

'  Though  He  is  so  bright,  and  we  so  dim, 

We  are  made  in  His  image  to  witness  Him.' 

Nowhere  else  in  the  OT.  is  there  so  close 
an  approximation  to  the  great  saying  of  IJn  4  '^^ 
\J  For  love  is  of  God,  and  every  one  that  loveth 
is  begotten  of  God  and  knoweth  God.' 

"We  see,  then,  that  in  this  little  book  of  48 
vv.  we  reach  the  high-water  mark  of  OT.  teach- 
ing. It  is  of  priceless  value,  and  will  remain 
so  as  long  as  men  need  to  learn  what  God 
thinks  of  the  teeming  masses  in  the  world's 
gi-eat  cities,  what  we  ought  to  think  of  them, 
and  how  God  judges  us  by  our  judgment  of 
them. 

5.  It  should  be  noted  that  many  scholars 
give  a  more  particular  application  to  the  story 
than  has  just  been  set  forth.  To  them  it  is  an 
allegory,  teaching  the  meaning  of  the  history 
of  the  nation.  Jonah  stands  for  Israel,  in- 
tended from  the  first  by  God  to  be  the  mis- 
sionary people  to  the  rest  of  mankind,  but 
refusing  to  recognise  its  destiny.  The  swal- 
lowing by  the  fish  represents  the  captivity, 
the  deliverance  the  return  from  exile.  Read 
thus,  the  book  is  at  once  a  reproof  and  an 
appeal  to  those  who,  like  the  community  in 
Jerusalem,  even  after  their  marvellous  restor- 
ation, were  still  narrow  and  bigoted,  hating 
the  nations  round  them,  not  able  even  yet  to 
understand  the  breadth  of  God's  love.  '  "Who 
is  blind,  but  my  servant,  or  deaf  as  my 
messenger  that  I  send  ?  ' 

It  is  claimed  that  this  permits  a  closer  ap- 
plication of  the  vv.  quoted  from  Jer51. 
Against  this,  however,  must  be  set  the  sig- 
nificant fact  that  the  rest  of  that  passage 
breathes  the  old  bitter  spirit  of  hatred  against 
the  heathen  world.  Further,  the  perfection 
of  the  allegory  is  certainly  spoilt  if  both  the 
great  fish  and  the  great  city  have  to  represent, 
in  different  connexions,  the  same  thing. 

Doubtless  national  implications  are  not  ex- 
cluded. But  one  is  disposed  to  think  that  the 
real  appeal  of  the  book  is  to  the  common  con- 
science of  the  people,  perhaps  also  to  some 
who  claimed  to  be  prophets,  but  could  do 
nothing  but  repeat  the  harsh  and  cruel  denun- 
ciations of  days  that  ought  to  have  been  left 
behind  for  ever. 

CHAPTER  1 

The  Disobedience  of  Jonah 
2.  Nineveh]  the  world-  famous  capital  of 
Assyria,  on  the  Tigris.  For  its  wickedness 
cp.  Nah3.  3.  Jonah  seeks  to  escape  from  the 
unwelcome  task,  both  because  he  hates  the 
Ninevites,  and  because  he  fears  that,  after  all, 
God  may  spare  them.     Tarshish]  Tartessus, 


576 


1.  5 


JONAH 


4.6 


in  SW.  Spain,  probably  an  old  Phoenician 
colony.  It  would  be  in  the  opposite  direction 
to  Nineveh.  Joppa]  Jalt'a,  the  only  port  of 
any  size  on  the  Palestinian  coast.  5.  The 
ship's  crew  is  composed  of  a  blend  of  nation- 
alities. Each  man  appeals  to  his  own  god. 
Jonah,  however,  declares  his  God  to  be  the 
Creator  of  all  things  (v.  9).  For  the  story  of 
the  sleeper  in  the  storm  cp.  Mk4.  '  Jonah 
was  peaceful  because  he  thought  he  was  far 
from  God's  hand,  Jesus  was  confident  because 
He  knew  He  was  hidden  in  God's  hand ' 
(Marti).  6.  The  captain  thinks  that  the 
deity  of  their  passenger  might  deliver  them. 

II.  Wrought,  and  was  tempestuous]  RV 
'grew  more  and  more  tempestuous.' 

14-16.  The  natural  piety  of  the  heathen 
sailors  is  strikingly  shown.  Compelled  to  be- 
lieve, by  the  rising  of  the  storm,  the  impos- 
sibility of  reaching  land,  and  the  falling  of  the 
lot,  that  Jonah  is  guilty,  they  make  a  last 
appeal  to  be  held  innocent  if  a  mistake  has 
been  made.  Then,  convinced  of  the  power 
of  Jehovah,  they  at  once  offer  sacrifices  on  the 
deck,  and  vow  further  offerings  if  they  arrive 
safely  from  their  voyage.  For  the  vow  cp. 
Gn2820  ISlii,  etc. 

17.  A  great  fish]  Nothing  is  said  of  the 
species  of  the  fish  ;  either  a  giant  shark  or  a 
cachalot  whale  could  swallow  a  man.  But  the 
Intro,  shows  that  it  is  needless  to  argue  whether 
the  miracle  of  Jonah's  remaining  alive  has  ever 
been  paralleled.  We  have  given  reasons  for 
our  view  that  the  author  never  meant  or  ex- 
pected his  story  to  be  regarded  as  anything 
but  a  parable.  If  that  is  so,  it  is  useless  for 
us  to  bring  in  a  difficulty  which  never  even 
occurred  to  him. 

CHAPTER  2 

His  Prayer  of  Thanksgiving 
This  beautiful  song  of  deliverance  shows 
clearly  the  familiarity  of  the  writer  with  earlier 
Psalms.  It  reflects  very  plainly  the  horror 
inspired  by  the  sea  in  the  minds  of  an  inland 
people.  It  is  not  necessary,  on  the  interpreta- 
tion adopted,  to  argue  whether  or  not  it  is 
suitable  to  Jonah's  position.  Advocates  of 
the  national  view  of  the  book  think  it  specially 
suitable  to  describe  the  sorrows  of  the  people 
when  drowning  in  the  deep  gulf  of  exile.  If 
so,  the  references  to  '  thy  holy  temple '  are  not 
happy.  On  the  whole,  a  personal  application 
suits  best  the  quotations  from  the  Psalms, 
especially  v.  4  =  Ps312^  v.  9  =  42  *  501*. 

2.  Out  of  the  belly  of  hell]  hell  =  Sheol,  the 
realm  of  the  dead,  thought  of  here  as  a 
devouring  monster.  The  phrase  is  purely 
pictorial :  cp.  '  from  the  jaws  of  death.' 

3.  Both  parts  of  this  v.  are  echoes  from  Pss 
886,7  427.  4.  Cp.  Ps3122.  Toward  thy  holy 
temple]  cp.  IKS^s-ss^  and  for  the  longing  for 


the  Temple  Ps84,  etc.  5.  Even  to  the  soul] 
cp.  Ps69i.  The  meaning  is  that  the  waters 
so  press  in  that  life  itself  is  threatened.  The 
weeds]  Floating  sea- weed  entangles  him  as  he 
sinks.  6.  The  bottoms  of  the  mountains] 
their  roots  or  foundations  lying  deep  in  the 
heart  of  the  sea  :  cp.  Milton,  'Hymn  on  the 
Nativity  ' :  '  While  the  Creator  gi-eat .  .  Cast 
the  dark  foundations  deep.'  Wax  about]  RV 
'closed  upon.'  The  thought  is  that  as  he 
sinks  he  goes  far  from  the  earth,  the  home  of 
the  living,  and  its  doors  are  closed  and  barred 
against  him  for  ever.  No  return  to  the  light 
and  sunshine  seems  possible.  Corruption]  RV 
'  the  pit,'  i.e.  of  Sheol,  as  in  v.  2.  7.  Cp.  P.ss 
1075  1423mg.  186.  8.  Lying  vanities]  cp. 
Dt  32  21  =  idol  gods.  '  Vanity,'  lit.  '  a  breath,' 
means  something  evanescent  and  worthless. 

Their  own  mercy]  This  is  used  as  a  name 
for  Jehovah.  In  Psl442  the  same  word  is 
rendered  'my  goodness,'  RV  'loving-kindness.' 
It  is  here  a  pregnant  use  describing  Jehovah 
as  the  sum  and  source  of  mercy.  9.  Cp.  Pss 
424  5014-23.     For  vowed  cp.  also  1 16. 

CHAPTER  3 

Repentance  and  Pardon  of  the 

NiNEVITES 

3.  An  exceeding  great  city]  lit.  '  great  unto 
God,'  i.e.  regarded  as  gi-eat  by  God:  cp.  Gn  10 1. 

Of  three  days'  journey]  i.e.  in  breadth. 

8.  Even  the  cattle  join  in  the  mourning. 
Neglected  by  their  owners,  they  fill  the  air 
with  their  groanings.  Cp.  Joel  1 20^  '  The 
beasts  of  the  field  pant  unto  thee,'  and  for  an 
interesting  parallel,  Judith  49-15.  The  Per- 
sians are  said,  by  Herodotus,  to  have  clipped 
the  hair  of  the  horses  and  baggage  animals 
that  they  might  seem  to  share  in  the  mourning 
for  a  general.  10.  For  the  term  '  repentance  ' 
=  ' change  of  purpose,'  as  applied  to  God,  cp. 
JerlS^,  and  for  the  action  Ex32i4. 

CHAPTER  4 
Jonah's  Jealousy  contrasted  with  Jeho- 
vah's Compassion 
I.  Jonah's  anger  has  a  double  cause, 
wounded  pride  that  his  words  are  proved 
false,  and  indignation  that  the  God  of  Israel 
should  pity  heathen,  only  fit  to  be  fuel  for 
fire.  3.  A  striking  parallel  to  the  dejection 
and  disappointment  of  Elijah  (IK  19). 

4.  Doest  thou  well  to  be  angry  ?]  RM  '  Art 
thou  greatly  angry  ?  '  A  kindly  remonstrance 
to  awake  better  feelings.  Jonah  makes  no 
reply  yet,  but  goes  and  sits  in  his  booth  to 
watch  whether,  after  all,  God  will  not  change 
His  mind  again.  5.  The  booth,  like  those 
used  at  the  Feast  of  Booths,  or  Tabernacles, 
would  be  a  rough  structure  made  of  poles  and 
leaves.  6.  Gourd]  most  likely  the  bottle- 
gourd,  often  planted  to  grow  over  trellis-work, 


37 


577 


4.8 


JONAH— MICAH 


rNTRO. 


whose  broad  leaves  would  form  a  good  protec- 
tion against  the  sun.  8.  Vehement]  RV 
'  sultry'  =  the  sirocco.  9.  See  on  v.  4.  Jonah 
transfers  his  pity  for  himself,  as  an  ill-used 
prophet,  to  the  gourd  which  likewise  has  been 
hardly  treated.  A  wonderfully  true  touch  of 
human  nature. 

10.  The  argument  is  very  fine.  Jonah's 
feeling  of  pity  for  the  gourd  is  just  enough,  a 
withered  tree  is  always  a  sad  sight.  Yet  on 
this  gourd,  '  child  of  a  night'  (so  the  Heb.),  he 
had  spent  neither  labour  nor  strength.     How 


much  more  should  God,  of  whose  goodness 
man's  highest  virtue  is  but  the  faintest  shadow, 
pity  and  spare  the  helpless  and  ignorant  works 
of  His  own  hands,  who  now  fill  the  streets  of 
Nineveh  with  pathetic  appeals  for  forgiveness  ! 
II.  That  cannot  discern]  i.e.  little  childi-en. 
There  is  no  finer  close  in  literature  than  this 
ending.  The  divine  question,  '  Shall  not  I 
have  pity  ?  '  remains  unanswered.  Its  echoes 
are  heard  still  in  every  crowded  haunt  of  men. 
Above  the  stir  and  din  and  wickedness  the 
Infinite  Compassion  is  still  brooding. 


MICAH 


INTRODUCTION 


1.  Date  and  Period.  Micah  the  prophet  was 
a  younger  contemporary  of  Isaiah.  His  work 
began,  according  to  1^,  in  the  days  of  Jotham, 
and  may  have  lasted  right  through  the  reign 
of  Hezekiah  (726-697  B.C.),  into  the  time  of 
Manasseh  his  successor.  This  date  is  con- 
firmed by  the  historical  reference  in  Jer  '26 17-19^ 
where  the  prophecy  of  3  ^'^  is  quoted  in  defence 
of  Jeremiah,  and  is  said  to  have  been  spoken 
in  the  days  of  Hezekiah  (see  notes).  The 
period  of  Hezekiah  was  marked  by  great  out- 
ward changes.  Northern  Israel  was  finally 
overthrown  when  Samaria  was  captured  by 
Sargon  of  Assyria.  During  Sargon's  reign  and 
the  early  part  of  that  of  Sennacherib  his  suc- 
cessor (705-680  B.C.)  Judahalso  was  constantly 
threatened  by  Assyria.  Then  came  the  great 
deliverance  of  Jerusalem  (701),  which  formed 
the  crowning  triumph  of  Isaiah's  life  (see  notes 
in  loco).  Micah  must  have  lived  through  this, 
if,  as  seems  probable,  the  last  two  chapters  of 
the  book  come  from  him. 

As  it  stands,  the  book  consists  of  a  number 
of  short  oracles  which  were  uttered  separately 
and  brought  together  later.  Unless  the  reader 
remembers  this,  he  will  be  bewildered  by  the 
abrupt  transitions.  There  are  two  main  divi- 
sions, widely  separated  in  time.  The  earlier, 
chs.  1-5,  belong  to  the  period  of  Jotham  and 
Hezekiah  ;  the  later,  chs.  6,  7,  probably  to  that 
of  Manasseh. 

2.  Social  Condition  of  Judah.  The  inward 
changes  in  the  social  conditions  of  the  people 
of  Judah  during  this  period  were  as  great  as 
the  outward.  Judah  had  been  forced  out  of 
its  isolation.  Trade  relations  had  sprung  up 
with  the  neighbouring  peoples.  The  best  in- 
telligence and  energy  left  the  country  for  the 
capital,  where  the  opportunities  of  advancement 


were  greatest.  Increased  trade  made  the  rich 
and  clever  richer,  the  poor  relatively  poorer. 
Power  became  centralised  in  Jerusalem.  It 
was  the  seat  of  the  Temple ,  which  had  won  a  new 
importance  through  Hezekiah's  reforms,  the 
heart  of  the  national  defence  against  Assyria, 
and  the  chief  centre  of  the  new  wealth.  The 
country  districts  and  the  city  had  lost  touch 
with  each  other.  Besides,  whether  Judah 
succeeded  in  maintaining  a  precarious  inde- 
pendence, or  became  a  vassal  state  to  Assyria, 
its  condition  under  Hezekiah  required  money, 
either  to  pay  tribute  or  maintain  its  fortresses 
and  army  ;  and  these  charges  fell  specially  on 
the  peasantry. 

3.  Personality  and  Teaching  of  Micah.  His 
Relation  to  Isaiah.  Micah  belonged  to  the 
country.  He  was  a  native  of  Moresheth-gath, 
a  village  among  the  low  hills  between  the 
highlands  of  Judah  and  the  Philistine  plain. 
Prophesying  at  the  same  time  as  Isaiah,  he 
speaks  from  a  different  standpoint.  Isaiah 
was  one  of  the  ruling  class  in  the  capital  : 
Micah  was  one  of  the  oppressed  peasantry. 
The  vices  of  the  city  he  selects  are  almost  the 
same  as  Isaiah  scourges,  avarice  (2  2),  oppres- 
sion of  the  poor  (2  9),  and  luxury  (2ii).  But 
Micah  is  specially  severe  on  the  religious 
leaders  (S^-n).  Evidently,  when  Hezekiah 
made  the  Temple  the  centre  of  the  national 
religion,  he  unintentionally  made  the  religious 
teachers  more  dependent  on  the  ruling  class. 

Isaiah  preached,  however,  the  security  of 
Jerusalem.  God  will  intervene  to  deliver  His 
city  from  Ass^Tia.  Micah  found  men  mis- 
understanding this  promise,  and  believing  that 
God  would  not  destroy  city  and  Temple,  no 
matter  what  they  did.  He  told  them  the  only 
reason  why  the  city  was  to  be  preserved  was 


578 


INTRO. 


MICAH 


1.5 


that  it  might  become  the  centre  of  a  better 
morality  and  a  purer  faith.  Samaria  and 
Jerusalem,  the  centres  of  the  nation,  ought 
to  be  the  centres  of  justice  and  true  religion. 
Instead  they  were  the  centres  of  irreligion 
(16  21-11  31-10),  Therefore  Samaria  has  fallen 
(1 6)  and  Jerusalem  shall  fall  (3 1^). 

But  this  does  not  mean  that  Judah  shall 
pass  away.  Judah's  mission  does  not  depend, 
like  that  of  Assyria,  on  money  and  arms. 
There  was  a  time  when  Jerusalem  was  a  mere 
hill  fort,  when  the  '  glory  of  Israel '  could 
house  in  the  cave  of  AduUam  (l^'^),  when 
Bethlehem,  an  open  village,  was  a  king's  birth- 
place. This  *  former  kingdom '  could  not 
compete  with  the  other  nations  in  chariots, 
fortresses,  and  a  wealthy  capital,  but  it  was 
rich  in  a  great  ideal,  the  ideal  of  a  king  who 
shepherded  his  people,  and  received  their 
willing  obedience.  Though  this  time  should 
come  back,  and  the  pomp  of  the  capital  dis- 
appear, the  result  will  be  to  show  the  nation 
their  true  mission  of  teaching  religion  to  the 
world  (4 ''■10  510-15).  God  is  not  casting  away 
His  people,  though  He  destroy  Jerusalem. 
There  shall  arise  One  from  the  old  stock  to 
represent  the  divine  ideal.  Messiah  cannot 
arise  in  the  soil  of  Jerusalem,  full  of  vulgar 
ideals  of  vain  glory,  but  in  Bethlehem,  where 
power  is  turned  to  unselfish  uses  and  the 
eternal  because  divine  hopes  can  be  cherished 
(52-5). 

Then  Israel  will  have  a  mission  to  the  world. 
So  long  as  she  tries  to  compete  with  it  in 
chariots  (5io-i5),  she  is  doomed  to  failure,  and 
has  nothing  which  Assyria  cannot  give  better. 
But,  when  she  stands  for  true  religion,  she 
offers  what  the  world  needs,  and  becomes  the 
source  of  Messiah  and  the  world's  light  (4 1-^). 

It  should  be  added  that  Micah  seems  to  vary 
in  his  prophecy  of  the  result  of  Israel's  mission. 
This  is  due,  (a)  to  the  idea  he  has  of  true  reli- 
gion, as  no  mere  observance  of  a  ritual,  but  as 
implying  a  moral  claim  (6  5-8),  in  this  showing 
a  striking  resemblance  to  the  strong  ethical 
teaching  of  Amos  ;  (b)  to  his  view  of  the  nations 
as  free  agents,  who  determine  their  own  atti- 
tude to  religion.  Hence  he  now  sees  the 
peoples  joyously  accepting  Israel's  God,  and 
sharing  in  Israel's  peace  and  blessedness  (4 1-5)  ; 
again  he  sees  them  pursuing  their  own  ideals 
and  coming  to  ruin  (4ii-i3).  But,  because  these 
truths  are  divine,  they  cannot  fail  of  their 
effect,  either  in  curse  or  in  blessing  (5^-9). 

4.  Micah's  Later  Ministry.  Chs.  6,  7  date 
from  the  time  of  Manasseh  (G90-641  B.C.),  but 
the  exact  dates  are  very  uncertain  (cp.  2K21). 
Sennacherib  retreated  from  Jerusalem,  but 
Esarhaddon  —  his  successor — returned,  sub- 
dued Phoenicia  in  678,  Tyre  in  fi71,  and  made 
Judah  tributary  in  676.  The  old  miserj^  and 
uncertainty   continued   in    Jerusalem,      Men 


turned  against  the  faith  which  seemed  to  have 
promised  more  than  it  could  give.  There  was 
a  reaction  against  Hezekiah's  reforms.  Men 
were  not  irreligious,  only  they  doubted  the 
supremacy  of  Jehovah.  Their  nation's  impo- 
tence against  Assyria  seemed  to  prove  the 
existence  of  other  gods,  whom  it  were  wise  also 
to  propitiate  (6  i*^).  Their  worship  of  Jehovah 
took  on  darker  elements.  They  construed 
their  misfortunes  as  the  evidence  of  His  anger, 
and,  like  their  heathen  neighbours,  offered 
their  children  to  propitiate  this  anger  (6''), 
The  gloomy  terror  led  them  to  persecute  those 
who  worshipped  Jehovah  only  (7  2).  Against 
this  Micah  raised  his  noble  and  simple  defini- 
tion of  true  religion  (6^).  He  rebuked  anew 
their  inhumanity  to  one  another  (6  9-1°  7  3-^). 
He  insisted  on  the  historic  facts  which  proved 
the  grace  of  God  (6i-5). 

The  prophet  speaks,  however,  like  a  man 
who  is  almost  alone  in  his  faith  in  Jehovah's 
supremacy.  The  basis  on  which  a  new  Israel 
can  be  built  is  almost  gone  (7 1-6),  since  the 
faithful  are  so  few  and  dispirited.  But  Micah 
rallies  on  his  trast  in  God.  God's  purpose  for 
and  through  Israel  cannot  fail  (7  ^-i^).  And  the 
prophecy  closes  with  praj'er  and  a  confident 
doxology.  Though  he  has  none  save  God,  he 
will  lean  the  more  on  God  (7 1-1-20), 

CHAPTEE  1 

Judgment  on  Samaria  and  Judah 
Sargon  destroyed  Samaria,  the  capital  of 
North  Israel,  722  or  721.  Micah,  about  720  B.C., 
declaring  (v.  6)  that  Samaria's  fall  has  been 
due  to  its  sin,  announces  a  like  fate  for  Jeru- 
salem, guilty  of  a  like  sin  (v.  9).  To  the 
prophet  this  ruin  of  the  people  is  not  like  that 
of  the  other  nations  Assyria  has  destroyed. 
Since  God  is  manifesting  Himself  in  it,  Micah 
summons  the  nations  to  witness  the  event 
(vv.  2-4).  The  scourge  will  fall  most  heavily 
on  the  capitals,  because  the  sin  of  the  people 
has  centred  there  (v.  5). 

Micah  sees  the  route  of  the  invaders  through 
Philistia  and  SW.  Judah,  and  as  he  was  a  native 
of  the  district,  he  laments  the  fate  of  the  vil- 
lages he  has  known  (vv.  10-16).  Sargon  may 
have  marched  along  this  route  to  attack  Egypt 
at  Raphia,  720  or  719  B.C. 

1.  Micah]  A  shortened  form  of  Micaiah, 
'  who  is  like  Jehovah.'  Morasthite]  native  of 
Moresheth-gath  :  cp.  v.  14.  Which  he  saw] 
The  revelation  was  made  to  his  inward  eye  : 
cp.  1S9S>. 

2.  All  ye  people]  RV  '  ye  peoples,  all  of 
you.'  His  holy  temple]  i.e.  heaven,  as  in  Hab 
2  20  Is;i  63 15.  Israel's  ruin  is  to  be  an  object- 
lesson  to  the  nations.  4.  God's  judgments  in 
figures  taken  from  earthquake,  storm,  and 
lightning.  5.  The  first  Jacob  must  mean  the 
whole  nation,  the  second  the  ten  tribes.    High 


579 


1.6 


MICAH 


2.  5 


places  of  Judah]  LXX  and  Syr.  read,  '  sin  of 
the  house  of  Judah.'  The  capitals,  Samaria 
and  Jerusalem,  were  the  centres  of  moral  and 
religious  corruption.  6,  7.  The  verbs  should 
be  read  as  presents,  '  I  am  making,'  etc. 

6.  Plantings  of  a  vineyard]  Samaria  is  to 
become  heaps  of  stones,  like  the  stoneheaps 
over  which  vines  were  trained.  Into  the  valley] 
Samaria  stood  on  a  hill  (IK  1624). 

7.  The  hires  thereof]  the  offerings  at  the  idol 
shrines.  For  she  gathered,  etc.]  The  wealth  of 
the  offerings  and  plating  on  the  idols,  part  of 
which  has  been  gathered  through  the  unchaste- 
ness  of  their  women  at  the  idol  shrines  (cp. 
Dt  23 1' '^S),  will  be  can-ied  to  foreign  lands,  and 
dedicated  to  similar  idolatries  and  similar  foul 
rites. 

8.  Stripped  and  naked]  i.e.  without  the  outer 
garment  (cp.  1  S  19^-^)  ;  here  used  as  a  sign  of 
mourning.  Dragons]  RV 'jackals.'  Owls]  RV 
'  ostriches.'  As  a  patriot  Micah  laments  the 
calamities  he  predicts.  9.  He  is  come]  RV  '  it ' 
(i.e.  the  wound) '  reacheth.'  The  gate  was  the 
seat  of  the  old  men,  the  scene  of  justice. 
Jerusalem  is  called  the  gate  of  the  people,  as 
the  centre  of  its  wisdom  and  justice. 

ID- 1 6.  The  vv.  contain  a  series  of  word- 
plays on  the  names  of  villages  in  SW.  Judah. 
The  text  is  often  obscure,  and  the  point  of 
some  of  the  references  depends  on  local 
allusions  which  we  have  lost.  The  district  may 
have  suffered  when  Sargon  marched  by  this 
route  to  attack  Egypt  at  Raphia,  and  when  he 
captured  Ashdod  in  711  B.C. 

10.  At  Gath]  cp.  2S120.  In  both  cases  the 
meaning  is,  '  Let  us  in  our  defeat  be  spared 
the  malicious  glee  of  our  foes.'  There  is  a 
word-play  in  the  Hebrew  here  which  may  be 
imitated  by  saying,  '  Tell  it  not  in  Tell-Town.' 
The  Heb.  for  'tell'  and  for  'Gath'  being 
somewhat  similar  in  sound.  Weep  ye  not  at 
all]  read,  '  in  Akko  (or  Bokim)  weep  ye 
not.'  '  Bokim  '  means  '  weeping.'  House  of 
Aphrah]  or,  Beth  le  Aphrah,  Aphrah  and 
dust  (Heb.  ajyhar)  are  very  similar.  '  In 
House  of  Dust,  roll  thyself  in  dust.' 

11.  Saphir]  '  beauty-town  '  with  its  beauty 
shamed.  Zaanan]  in  sound  like  the  Heb.  for 
'  outgoing.'  The  town  of  outgoings  shall 
be  straitly  shut  up.  In  the  mourning,  etc.] 
RV  '  the  wailing  of  Beth-ezel  shall  take  from 
you  the  staj'  thereof.'  Beth-ezel  may  mean 
'  the  house  of  stay.'  Beth-ezel  sholl  be  so 
busy  lamenting  its  own  fate  that  it  cannot 
support  any  one.  I2.  For  the  inhabitant,  etc.] 
RM  '  for  the  inhabitant  of  Maroth  is  in  travail 
(labour)  for  good,  because  evil  is  come  down.' 
This  fresh  bitterness  gives  a  new  justification 
to  the  name  of  Maroth  = '  bitternesses  '  Avhen 
good  was  so  much  desired.  13.  Bind  the 
chariot  to  the  swift  beast]  i  e.  '  you  shril  need 
your  swiftest  beasts  for  your  flight.'     Lachish 


suggested  by  similarity  of  sound,  the  Heb. 
7-eckenh,  i.e.  '  swift  beast.'  We  have  not  the 
key  to  the  allusion  in  the  end  of  this  verse. 
It  may  mean  that  Israel's  idolatry  made  its 
first  entry  into  Judah  through  Lachish. 

14.  Presents]  RV  '  a  parting  gift,'  the 
marriage  portion  ef  a  bride :  cp.  1 K  9  ^^. 
Judah  shall  be  obliged  to  relinquish  Moresheth- 
gath  ('  the  possession  of  Gath '),  once  her 
possession,  to  the  conqueror.  The  houses  of 
Achzib]  shall  be  achzab,  '  deceitful,'  i.e.  the 
kings  of  Judah  shall  no  longer  be  able  to 
rely  on  their  support.  15.  Mareshah]  which 
may  mean  possession.  '  I  will  bring  to 
the  possession  a  new  possessor,'  i.e.  the  king 
of  Assyria.  He  shall  come,  etc.]  read,  '  the 
glory  of  Israel  shall  come  even  unto  Adullam.' 
David,  the  glory  of  Israel,  had  already  found 
shelter  there  (1  S22i).  If  those  who  are  the 
glory  of  Israel  return  thither  for  refuge,  it 
may  be  to  rise  with  new  vigour  as  David  did. 
The  threat  is  also  a  promise.  16.  Make  thee 
bald]  artificial  baldness  was  a  sign  of  mourn- 
ing (Lv  19  27  Dt  14 1).  Eagle]  probably  gi-iffon 
vulture.  Judah  is  here  addressed  as  a  woman 
mourning  over  the  loss  of  her  children. 

CHAPTER  2 

The  Sins  that  bring  Ruin 
Chs.  2  and  3,  as  dealing  with  the  same  sub- 
ject, ^ould  be  read  together. 

Micah  now  enumerates  the  sins  which 
must  bring  punishment  on  Judah.  He  in- 
veighs bitterly  against  the  rapacity  of  the 
rich  towards  their  poorer  neighbours.  The 
leaders  in  the  capital,  judges,  prophets,  and 
priests  alike  are  destitute  of  the  religion 
which  makes  a  man  interpret  his  power  as  a 
means  of  helping  men  and  so  glorifying  God. 
Instead  they  regard  it  as  a  means  to  win  money 
and  position  to  themselves.  The  national 
institutions  have  been  degraded  into  a  means 
by  which  selfish  men  aggrandise  themselves 
(2 1, 2, 8, 9  3 1-5, 9, 10).  Therefore  these  shall  not 
continue  (23-5),  and  even  Jerusalem  shall  be 
plowed  as  a  field  (3 12).  The  leaders  reproach 
Micah  as  no  patriot  since  he  utters  such 
things  against  his  people,  and  no  prophet  since 
he  forgets  that  God  must  save  His  chosen 
nation  (2<'.7).  Micah  replies  that  God  will 
keep  His  nation,  but  that  Jerusalem  is  not 
essential  to  God's  purpose.  When  the  capital 
is  ruined,  the  nation  may  only  be  made  more 
fit  to  fulfil  its  true  ends  in  the  world  (2 12, 13). 

2.  Cp.  IK  21  for  the  Israelite's  attachment  to 
his  heritage.  3.  This  family]  cp.  '  The  whole 
family  which  I  brought  up  out  of  the  land  of 
I^gypt '  (-^ni  3 1).  I  devise]  as  contrasted  with 
their  devising  (v.  1).  4.  Turning  away]  RV 
'  to  the  rebellious,'  i.e.  God  divides  the  ill- 
gotten  fields  to  heathen  and  idolaters.  5.  This 
may  mean  that  the  oppressor  nobles  shall  have 


580 


2.  6 


MICAH 


4. 


none  to  cast  the  measuring  line  on  an  allot- 
ment, when  the  periodical  redistribution  of 
the  land  took  place,  and  some  respect  was  had 
to  old  family  rights.      Then-  line  is  to  fail. 

The  text  of  vv.  4  and  5  is  uncertain,  but  the 
sense  is  clear.  It  shall  be  rendered  to  them 
as  they  have  rendered  to  others. 

6.  Cp.  Isa309-ii.  Translate:  'prattle  not, 
thus  they  (the  nobles)  prattle.  They  (the 
prophets)  should  not  prattle  of  these  things  ; 
■their  scoldings  are  unceasing.'  The  nobles 
turn  on  Micah.  Prophets  have  no  right  to 
meddle  with  social  and  political  questions,  but 
should  leave  them  to  men  whose  business  it  is 
to  deal  with  them.  "We  are  weary  of  this 
eternal  scolding.  7.  The  first  part  of  the 
V.  probably  continues  the  speech  of  the  nobles : 
'  Shall  it  be  said,  O  house  of  Jacob,  is  the 
spirit  of  the  Lord  straitened  ?  are  these 
His  doings  ? '  Can  we,  a  nation  whom  God 
called  the  house  of  Jacob,  endure  to  hear  a 
prophet  foretell  its  ruin  ?  Micah  replies 
abruptly,  '  Your  sins  are  blinding  you.  My 
words  are  good  to  men  who  bring  a  conscience 
to  their  appreciation.' 

8.  Even]  RV  'but.'  With  the  garment] 
RV  '  from  off  the  garment.'  The  robe  is  a 
mantle,  the  garment  what  is  usually  called 
the  upper  garment.  Men  averse  from  war] 
quiet,  peaceful  people.  Micah  seems  to  refer 
to  some  merciless  treatment  meted  out  by 
creditors  to  their  debtors:  cp.  Ex 22 26, 27. 

9.  My  glory]  i.e.  their  inheritance  in  the 
holy  land.  The  prophet  implies  that  women 
and  children  are  being  sold  into  foreign  cap- 
tivity. 10.  Because  it  is  polluted,  etc.]  better, 
'  because  of  uncleanness  ye  shall  be  destroyed 
with  a  sore  destruction.'  They  shall  be  driven 
from  the  land  from  which  they  have  driven 
others.  Their  guilt  makes  the  land  no  resting- 
place  for  them.  1 1 .  In  the  spirit  and  falsehood] 
better,  '  after  wind  and  lies.'  What  promises 
material  benefits  alone  appeals  to  them. 

12,  13.  An  oracle  of  restoration,  which  has 
been  inserted  between  the  two  denunciations, 
when  the  separate  oracles  were  collected  in 
writing.  Micah  promises  restoration,  when 
the  judgment  has  done  its  work.  The  ex- 
pulsion from  the  land  (v.  10)  shall  not  be 
permanent.  12.  The  sheep  of  Bozrah,  etc.] 
better,  '  as  sheep  into  a  fold,  as  a  flock  into  the 
midst  of  the  pasture.'  The  great  noise  is 
the  noise  of  the  joy  at  return.  13.  Read 
the  verbs  throughout  as  perfect.  The  writer 
speaks  as  though  what  he  promises  had  already 
taken  place.  The  breaker]  or,  '  deliverer ' : 
they  have  been  shut  up  as  in  a  prison.  One 
will  come  to  open  their  way. 

CHAPTER  3 
Wickedness  in  High  Places 
Micah  returns  to  his  indictment  against  the 


people's  leaders.  Their  power  was  given  for 
the  sake  of  justice,  and  they  have  abused  it  for 
extortion  (vv.  1-3).  Their  time  shall  be  short 
(v.  4).  The  prophets  have  abused  their  trust 
in  order,  by  flattery  of  the  rich,  to  make  a 
good  living  for  themselves.  To  them  Micah 
prophesies  judicial  darkness  (vv.  5-7).  He  de- 
clares his  own  ideal  of  the  prophetic  office 
(v.  8).  Finally,  he  accuses  all  the  leaders  of  the 
nation  of  having  followed  their  own  appetites 
and  trusted  in  their  being  necessary  to  God. 
God  will  prove  by  the  ruin  of  Jerusalem 
that  He  loves  righteousness  more  than  Jeru- 
salem (vv.  9-12). 

I.  Is  it  not  for  you,  etc.]  i.e.  is  it  not  the 
reason  for  your  holding  power,  to  declare 
right  to  the  people  ?  2.  From  off  them]  i.e. 
the  common  people.  4.  When  God  comes  to 
judgment,  they  will  find  no  mercy.  5.  That 
bite  -with  their  teeth,  and  cry.  Peace]  i.e.  any 
one  who  fills  the  prophet's  mouth  secures  his 
silence  about  his  patron's  sins.  6.  Judicial 
darkness  shall  fall  on  these  prophets.  When 
men  play  fast  and  loose  with  principle  for  the 
sake  of  money,  they  lose  all  sense  of  principle. 
Right  and  duty  become  empty  words. 

7.  Cover  their  lips]  a  sign  of  mourning  : 
cp.  Lvl3«Ezk24i7,22. 

8.  Micah's  ideal  of  the  prophet's  function,  viz. 
to  call  sin  by  its  right  name.  10.  i.e.  they  make 
the  common  people  sweat  blood  to  build  their 
mansions  in  the  capital.  11.  Zs-  not  the  LORD 
among  us?]  the  same  mechanical  faith  in  the 
presence  of  the  Temple  as  in  Jer?*:  cp.  1  84^. 

12.  Cp.  Jer  26 17-19.  The  people  of  Jere- 
miah's time,  angered  by  his  prophecies  of  dis- 
aster, wished  to  put  him  to  death.  Some  of 
the  elders  reminded  them  that,  when  Micah 
denounced  a  like  judgment,  Hezekiah,  instead 
of  killing  him,  repented  at  his  words,  and  so 
averted  the  disaster.  This  implies  that  the 
religious  minds  of  that  time  recognised  how 
true  prophecy  is  always  conditional,  and  how 
the  fulfilment  of  its  predictions  is  conditional 
on  the  attitude  men  take  to  them.  High  places 
of  the  forest]  better,  '  heights  in  a  wood.'  The 
slopes  of  the  ravines  shall  be  overgrown  with 
brushwood,  out  of  which  the  bare  scalp  of  the 
Temple-hill  will  rise. 

CHAPTERS  4,  5 
Bright  Visions  of  the  Future 
Micah's  view  of  Israel's  future,  especially  in 
relation  to  the  nations.  He  believes  that  God 
chose  Israel  to  maintain  and  teach  true  religion, 
and  that  in  this  lies  Israel's  greatness.  The 
people  have  forgotten  this  and  have  tried  to 
emulate  the  other  nations  in  wealth  and  pride 
and  armed  strength.  Such  a  contest  was  hope- 
less, and  God  will  prove  its  hopelessness  by 
bringing  ruin  on  Jerusalem,  where  these  pomps 
were   gathered.      But,  when  the  chastisement 


681 


4.  1 


MICAH 


5.1 


has  done  its  work,  the  nation  will  return  to  its 
divinely-given  task.  It  will  have  a  mission  to 
the  nations. 

The  chs.  appear  to  contradict  each  other  as 
to  the  result  on  the  nations'  fate.  This  is  be- 
cause Micah  regards  the  peoples  as  free  agents, 
and  the  religion  Israel  teaches  as  no  mere  cere- 
monial observances.  The  nations  may  recog- 
nise Israel's  message,  and,  submitting  to  God's 
will,  receive  the  blessing  He  gives  (4 1-5).  They 
may  refuse  it.  But,  if  they  obstinately  oppose 
it,  they  shall  be  overthrown  (41113).  For, 
since  the  truths  Israel  represents  are  divine  in 
their  origin,  these  must  be  a  blessing  or  a 
curse,  according  as  men  accept  or  refuse  them 
(5T-9). 

CHAPTER  4 

ZiON  THE  Spiritual  Centre  of  the 
Earth 

i-io.  Here  purified  Israel  is  the  light  to 
the  nations,  which  joyously  acknowledge  the 
supremacy  of  its  God.  The  Temple  shall  be 
glorified,  because  known  as  the  source  of  a 
help  which  all  men  need.  When  men  grow 
eager  for  this,  their  wars  shall  cease  (vv.  1-4). 
Because  Israel  is  holding  its  faith  as  a  trust 
for  all  men,  Micah  bids  his  people  hold  it  more 
resolutely  (v.  .5).  Though  their  very  national 
existence  is  threatened  (vv.  9,  10),  let  them  not 
despair,  God  can  restore  them.  Their  being 
driven  out  of  their  own  land  may  be  His  means 
for  making  them  see  themselves  as  bearers  of 
His  religion  (vv.  6-8,10).  The  oracle  may  have 
been  uttered  when  Sennacherib  was  threatening 
Judah,  701. 

1-3.  Cp.  Isa22-4.  The  great  Messianic  pro- 
phecy of  the  OT.  which  has  been  fulfilled  since 
Jesus  Christ  of  the  stem  of  Jesse  became  the 
Light  of  the  world.  Some  think  that  this 
locua  cla-vfticus  of  Messianic  prophecy  was  taken 
by  both  Micah  and  Isaiah  from  an  older  pro- 
phet. Professor  Cheyne  thinks  that  it  is  a 
post-exilic  utterance,  and  was  inserted  by 
compilers  or  editors  into  the  works  of  these 
prophets. 

I.  In  the  top]  RM  'at  the  head.'  The 
kingdom  of  God  will  be  supreme.  People] 
RV  '  peoples  ' :  Micah  means  the  heathen  na- 
tions. 3.  Judge  among]  RV  '  between.'  God 
shall  be  the  arbiter  of  their  quarrels,  and  so 
war  will  cease.  The  nations  shall  be  more  eager 
for  justice  than  aggrandisement.  4.  This  v. 
is  not  in  Isaiah.  Isaiah  belonged  to  the  city, 
Micah  to  the  country. 

5.  Translate  :  '  because  all  the  peoples  walk, 
every  one  in  the  name  of  his  god,  let  us 
(or,  we  will)  walk  in  the  name  of  the  Lord.' 
Micah  drops  back  into  the  present.  Since 
Israel's  faith  is  to  enlighten  the  world,  let 
them  be  the  more  diligent  to  keep  the  faith. 

6.  In  that  day]  the  latter  days  of  v.  1. 


7.  Here  and  in  2 12  Micah  expects  the  return 
from  the  Assyrian  captivity,  not  of  all  Israel, 
but  of  the  renmant  who,  remaining  faithful  to 
their  religion,  shall  become  the  stock  from 
which  the  Messianic  futm'e  will  spring:  cp. 
IsaGis  I020f.  iiiif.  2413.  8.  Tower  of  the 
flock,  etc.]  i.e.  Jerusalem.  Unto  thee,  etc.] 
RV  '  unto  thee  shall  it  come  ;  yea,  the  former 
dominion  shall  come,  the  kingdom  of  the 
daughter  of  Jerusalem.'  When  the  people 
have  repented  of  the  sins  which  brought  then* 
ruin,  God  will  restore  them  as  wide  a  dominion 
as  in  the  days  of  David. 

9.  The  captivity  which  seems  to  destroy  the 
kingdom  with  its  king  and  counsellors  will  be 
the  birthpangs  of  a  better  state.  10.  Probably 
Thou  shalt  go  eren  to  Babylon  was  added  to 
explain  the  prophet's  meaning,  by  one  who 
saw  the  Babylonian  exile.  Essentially  he  was 
right.  But  the  enemy  in  Micah's  time  was, 
not  Babylon,  but  Assyi'ia.  And  what  Micah 
means  is  that  his  people  shall  be  cast  out  of 
Jerusalem,  and,  when  they  are  compelled  to 
dwell  in  the  field,  i.e.  without  a  capital  and  a 
court,  they  shall  learn  that  God's  ideal  of  a 
kingdom  can  be  realised  without  these. 

1 1-13.  But  Assyria  is  about  to  besiege  Jeru- 
salem :  cp.  Isa36.  Their  aim  is  to  destroy 
Jerusalem  (v.  11).  But  they  are  only  the  in- 
struments in  God's  hand  (v.  12).  Their  proud 
self-confidence  shall  bring  them  to  shame  be- 
fore Israel  (v.  1.3). 

11.  Many  nations]  the  polyglot  hordes  of 
Assyria  :  cp.  Isa33  3. 

12.  He  shall  gather]  RV '  He  hath  gathered.' 
God  has  brought  them  to  their  ruin.  13.  Hoofs] 
oxen  were  used  to  tread  out  corn  (Dt25^).  I 
will  consecrate]  RV  '  thou  shalt  devote  '  :  cp. 
Lv272S. 

The  nations,  which  try  to  destroy  Israel, 
shall  be  destroyed  by  Israel  in  the  interest  of 
the  truth  Israel  represents. 

CHAPTER   5 
The  Birth  of  the  Messiah 

i-S*.  Jerusalem  is  besieged,  its  ruler  in- 
sulted by  the  invader  (v.  1).  Micah  proclaims 
not  only  deliverance,  but  a  deliverer.  He  will 
arise  from  Bethlehem,  David's  birthplace  (v.  2). 
God  raised  up  thence  a  ruler  who  shepherded 
his  people  instead  of  fleecing  them,  and  who 
represented  God's  eternal  ideal  of  a  ruler,  not 
his  own  interests.  He  will  send  us  in  our 
new  need  another  like  the  first.  And  this 
man  shall  be  our  peace  (v.  5).  It  is  Micah's 
prophecy  of  Messiah.  Jesus  Christ  has  taken 
away  its  temporary  and  local  allusions,  and 
made  it  gi'eater  than  Micah  knew. 

I.  Now  gather  thyself]  better,  '  now  thou 
mayest  gather  t'nyself  in  troops,  thou  daughter 
of  troops.'  The  reference  is  to  Assyria.  Mi- 
cah sees  the  armies  gather  against  Jerusalem, 

82 


5.2 


MICAH 


6.  5 


and  foresees  the  possible  overthrow  of  the 
dynasty  (the  judge  of  Israel).  But  Judah's 
future  does  not  depend  on  Jerusalem.  God 
can  raise  up  from  a  village  a  deliverer. 

2.  Thousands]  or,  families  :  cp.  Nul^^  104 
Josh  22 14,  ^1.  Several  such  families  made  up  a 
tribe.  Unto  me]  or,  'forme,'  i.e.  to  fulfil  my 
will.  The  true  ruler  represents  God's  will  in 
Israel.  Since  God's  will  has  been  the  same 
from  everlasting  and  must  be  manifested,  the 
goings  forth  of  one  who  lives  to  manifest  it 
are  equally  from  everlasting.  When  Israel's 
rulers  fail  Him,  He  raises  up  another.  Beth- 
lehem] cp.  115410.  When  Saul  failed  Him, 
God  chose  David  from  following  the  sheep, 
and  set  him  to  shepherd  Israel.  When  the 
rulers  of  Jerusalem  have  failed  Him,  God  will 
raise  up  even  an  obscure  villager  to  represent 
His  ideal  of  righteous  government. 

3.  Will  he  give  them  up]  better,  '  He  is 
giving  them  up.'  She  which  travaileth,  etc.] 
the  reference  is  to  Isaiah's  prophecy  of  Im- 
manuel  (Isa7i4).  Then  the  remnant,  etc.] 
better,  '  and  until  the  remnant  of  His,  i.e. 
Messiah's  brethren  shall  return  unto  the  chil- 
dren of  Israel.' 

As  Messiah  was  to  arise  from  Judah,  this 
means  '  until  the  tribes  are  reunited.'  The 
reference  is  to  Isaiah's  name  for  his  son,  Shear- 
jashub,  '  a  remnant  shall  return '  (Isa  7  '^).  Pro- 
bably the  V.  is  a  gloss  from  the  exile  :  cp.  4 10. 
Some  one  explained  that  Micah's  promise  of  a 
deliverer  from  Bethlehem  was  delayed,  and 
God  was  still  giving  His  people  to  captivity, 
until  Isaiah's  prophecies  had  been  fulfilled. 

4.  Feed]  not  himself,  but  his  flock.  The 
figure  of  the  shepherd-king  is  continued. 

5.  Connect  the  first  clause  with  the  preced- 
ing, and  put  a  full  stop  after  peace. 

5,  6.  The  power  of  Assyria,  which  rests  on 
brute  force  and  has  no  sympathy  with  the  mis- 
sion of  Israel,  can  only  last  till  God  raises  up 
a  stronger  than  itself.  It  fell,  as  a  matter  of 
fact,  before  Babylon. 

5.  Eight  principal  men]  Seven  was  suffi- 
ciency, eight  is  super-abundance.  '  We  shall 
not  M'^ant  for  leaders.'  6.  Land  of  Nimrod] 
cp.  GnlOii. 

7-9.  Israel's  dual  mission.  Its  message  has 
been  trusted  to  it  by  God,  and  cannot  remain 
without  effect.  To  those  who  receive  this 
truth  gladly,  it  will  come  like  refreshing  dew. 
To  those  who  oppose  it,  it  will  come  like  a 
ravening  beast. 

7.  People]  RV  '  peoples.'  The  influence  of 
Messiah  is  not  to  be  confined  to  Israel.  Tar- 
rieth  not  for  man]  the  mysterious  dewfall,  in- 
explicable by  man,  is  meant.  9.  Better  read 
as  a  prayer  :  '  let  thine  hand  be  lifted  up  upon 
thuie  adversaries,  and  let  all  thine  enemies 
be  cut  off.' 

10-15.     Since  war  and  pomp  have  driven 


any  higher  national  ideal  from  their  minds, 
God  will  strip  them  of  the  things  in  which 
they  have  trusted.  Micah  puts  chariots  and 
idols  on  the  same  level  and  under  the  same 
condemnation. 

II.  As  the  centres  of  the  oppression  de- 
scribed inchs.  2,  3.  13.  Standing  images]  the 
stone  pillars  of  Lv26i  Isa  11)19,  etc. 

14.  Groves]  R V  ' asherim  '  :  cp.  Jg. Si's" :  em- 
blems of  idol-worship.  15.  Such  as  they  have 
not  heard]  RV  '  which  hearkened  not.'  God 
will  judge  the  nations  according  to  their  atti- 
tude to  Messiah  and  Israel's  faith. 

CHAPTERS  6,  7 
God's  great  Controversy  with  Israel 
Note  the  change  in  the  prophet's  attitude. 
He  speaks  no  longer  to  a  united  nation,  but  to 
parties.  Now  he  speaks  to  a  party,  pious  but 
discouraged  (6  i-S)  ;  again,  he  testifies  against 
men  who  have  turned  their  backs  on  the  Law 
(69-i'5).  Persecution  for  religion's  sake  has 
appeared,  and  taught  men  to  distrust  each 
other  (7  2-6).  Probably  the  chs.  date  from  the 
time  of  Manasseh.  Sennacherib  recoiled  baffled 
from  Jerusalem,  but  Assyria  was  not  exhausted. 
Esarhaddon  succeeded  in  making  Manasseh 
tributary  in  676  B.C.  Their  religion  had  not 
brought  Judah  all  the  relief  men  expected. 
The  heathen  elements  in  the  nation,  repressed 
by  Isaiah's  and  Hezekiah's  influence,  reasserted 
themselves.  A  reaction  set  in  and  found  a 
leader  in  Manasseh  :  cp.  2K21.  Especially 
men  remembered  that  in  his  reign  persecution 
for  religion's  sake  was  practised  :  cp.  2K21 1<>. 

CHAPTER  6 

God's  arraignment  of  His  people 
1-8.  Micah's  message  to  the  discouraged 
believers.  They  have  lost  heart  because 
of  the  apparent  contradiction  between  the 
promises  of  their  prophets  and  the  hard  facts 
of  their  history.  They  have  lost  faith  in  God's 
grace,  and  are  trying  to  propitiate  His  favour 
by  such  sacrifices  as  the  heathen  offered  to 
their  gods.  Micah  appeals  to  nature,  to 
history,  and  to  the  reasonable  service  God 
requires.  He  calls  on  the  hills  to  witness 
what  God  has  done  (vv.  1.  2).  He  appeals  to 
the  great  deeds  of  God's  redemption  for  His 
people  (vv.  3-5).  He  insists  on  the  simpli- 
cities of  God's  requirements  (vv.  6-8). 

2.  Strong]  RV 'enduring.'  The  mountains 
have  outlived  so  many  generations  of  dis- 
obedience and  unwearied  mercy  :  cp.  Isa  1  2. 

3.  Wearied]  God's  demands  are  so  simple 
(v.  8).  5.  From  Shittim  unto  Gilgal,  etc.] 
RV  '  Remember  from  Shittim  unto  Gilgal, 
that  ye  may  know  the  righteous  acts  of  the 
Lord.'  Shittim  was  the  last  station  of  the 
desert-wanderings,  Gilgal  the  first  in  Palestine 
itself.     The   prophet   reminds  them  how  in 


583 


6.  6 


MICAH 


7.18 


their  national  history   God   has   proved  His 

compassion. 

6.  7.  The  people  are  represented  as  asking 
what  more  God  requires  from  them.  6.  Calves 
of  a  year  old]  a  choice  gift :  cp.  Lv  9  ^. 

7.  Human  sacrifice  was  practised  (2  K  21*5 
Jer  7  31  9  ^),  especially  in  times  of  great  national 
danger  (2  K  3  27). 

8.  Micah  brings  forward  to  a  generation 
which  is  seeking  fantastic  ways  of  propitiating 
its  God,  the  grave  and  tender  simplicities  of 
His  requirements.  He  does  not  want  their 
wine  and  oil  and  children  :  He  wants  their 
obedience.  The  other  things  are  only  valuable 
to  Him  as  the  evidence  of  their  willing  obe- 
dience. Compare  how,  when  Abraham  has 
shown  himself  willing  to  surrender  his  son, 
Isaac  is  not  required  from  him. 

9.  The  text  is  uncertain  but  the  sense  is 
clear.  '  "When  God  speaks  in  warning,  it  is 
the  part  of  a  wise  man  to  fear  (RM)  and  to 
seek  to  discover  the  reason  why  God  uplifts 
His  rod.'  The  reasons  in  this  case  follow  in 
the  succeeding  questions.  10.  The  scant 
measure]  cp.  Dt24ii^-  Am 8  5.  11.  Shall  I 
count  them  pure]  RV  '  shall  I  be  pure,'  i.e.  can 
any  man  be  pure  ?  13.  RY  '  Therefore  I  also 
have  smitten  thee  with  a  grievous  wound.' 

14.  Thy  casting  down,  etc.]  RM  '  thy 
emptiness  shall  be  in  the  midst  of  thee,'  i.e. 
thy  famine  shall  continue,  because  thou  shalt 
have  food  but  not  sufficient.  Thou  shalt  take 
hold,  etc.]  RV  '  thou  shalt  remove  but  shalt 
not  carry  away  safe,'  i.e.  thou  shalt  fail  in  the 
efEort  to  remove  thy  people  from  the  enemy's 
power.  15.  Sweet  wine]  RV  '  vintage.' 
'  Thou  shalt  tread  the  grapes,  but  shalt  not 
drink  the  wine  made  from  them.' 

16.  The  statutes  of  Omri  and  the  works  of 
Ahab's  house  are  the  worship  of  Baal :  cp. 
IK  1631-33.  Manasseh  has  gone  back  to  the 
sins  of  the  northern  kingdom,  though  its  fate 
might  have  warned  him  :  cp.  2  K  2113.  The 
reproach  of  my  people]  better,  with  LXX,  '  the 
reproach  of  the  Gentiles,'  which  Ahab's  house, 
through  the  captivity  which  was  the  punish- 
ment for  its  idolatry,  is  bearing. 

CHAPTER  7 
Confession  and  Contrition  bring  back 
Hope 
1-6.  Jerusalem    laments   her   estate.     The 
righteous  among  her  children  are  taken  from 
her  by  violence  (vv.  1,  2).     The  rulers  misuse 
their  position  for  their  selfish  ends  (vv.  3,  4). 
Worst  of  all,  the  trust  of  a  man  in  his  neigh- 
bour's honour,  which  makes  the  cement  of  all 
society,  is  gone.     Even  the  ties  of  nature  are 
disowned  (vv.  .5,  fi). 

I.   Desired  the  firstripe  fruit]  RV  '  desireth 


the  firstripe  fig,'  which,  now  the  harvest  is  past, 
is  gone.  The  righteous  (the  early  figs)  have 
been  gleaned  out  of  the  city.  2.  Cp.  Isa57i. 
Both  passages  speak  of  a  scourge  which  has 
specially  fallen  on  the  righteous,  and  so  point 
to  a  period  of  persecution.  3.  The  probable 
sense  is :  '  their  hands  are  busy  in  evil,  the 
prince  asks  the  judge  to  do  some  knavery,  the 
judge  is  ready  to  do  it  at  a  price,  the  great 
man  needs  but  utter  his  bad  desire  to  find 
ready  instruments  :  so  they  weave  together  a 
web  of  fraud  and  violence.'  4.  The  day  of 
thy  watchmen  and  thy  visitation]  the  day  of 
God's  visitation  foretold  by  the  prophets  :  cp. 
Isa  2 1 1^.  It  will  confound  such  men,  since  its 
principles  are  the  opposite  of  theirs.  5.  Guide] 
RM  '  familiar  friend.'  6.  The  final  proof  of 
social  corruption  is  the  death  of  men's  trust  in 
each  other.  See  our  Lord's  adoption  of  these 
words  (Mtl036). 

7-20.  Everything  seems  lost  but  God : 
therefore  Micah  looks  more  to  God  (vv.  7,  8). 
His  chastisements  are  tolerable,  because  they 
have  meaning  (v.  9).  Their  end  will  be  that 
through  her  sufferings  Israel  shall  rise  glorious 
and  purified  (vv.  10-13).  God  who  called 
them  will  restore  them  and  work  through 
them  (vv.  14-17).  Micah  closes  with  a  dox- 
ology.  Even  Israel's  sin  cannot  weary  God's 
faithfulness  and  compassion  (vv.  18-20). 

7.  Therefore]  RV 'but  as  for  me.'  In  such 
evil  days  the  true  man  finds  refuge  in  God. 

8.  When  I  fall]  calamity,  not  sin,  is  meant. 
II.   Decree]   RM  'boundary,'  i.e.  when  God 

restores  the  nation  and  permits  the  walls  to  be 
rebuilt,  He  will  give  ample  room :  cp.  Isa 
33i7rm.  12.  E,Y  'In  that  day  shall  they 
come  unto  thee,  from  Assyria  and  the  cities  of 
Egypt,  and  from  Egypt  even  to  the  River,'  i.e. 
Euphrates.  From  sea  to  sea  is  not  meant  of 
any  specific  sea :  rather  the  exiles  from  West 
to  East  and  from  East  to  West  shall  return 
home.  13.  The  land]  Canaan.  Before  this 
return  must  come  chastisement. 

14.  The  prophet  passes  abruptly  to  prayer. 
Solitarily]   Israel  was  always  separated  from 

the  nations  as  the  flock  of  God  :  cp.  Nu23^. 

Carmel .  .  Bashan  .  .  Gilead]  perhaps  chosen 
because  they  were  districts  devoted  to  pasture, 
as  contrasted  with  the  cities  and  their  vices. 

15.  According  to]  RV  '  as  in  the  days  of.' 
God  in  answer  points  back  to  His  past  mercy. 

16.  Confounded]  RV  'ashamed'  to  see  how 
impotent  is  their  might.  17.  RV  '  they  shall 
come  trembling  out  of  their  close  places ' 
(their  useless  fortresses)  ;  '  they  shall  come 
with  fear  unto  the  Lord  our  God.'  18.  Who 
?«,  etc.]  Micah's  name  means  '  Who  is  like  the 
Lord  ?  '  The  prophet  concludes  with  an  out- 
burst of  praise. 


584 


NAHUM 


INTRODUCTION 


1.  The  Man.  All  that  we  can  learn  con- 
cerning the  prophet  must  be  gathered  from 
the  brief  superscription  and  from  the  contents 
of  this  small  book ;  the  traditions  relating  to 
his  dwelling-place  are  late,  uncertain,  and  con- 
tradictory. The  name  Nahum  (probably  = 
'  Comforter,'  same  root  as  in  3 '')  occurs  only 
twice  in  the  Bible,  here  and  in  Lk  3  25.  '  El- 
koshite '  means  belonging  to  Elkosh  (cp.  Mic  1^), 
but  the  identification  of  the  place  is  quite  un- 
certain. The  suggestion  that  Nahum  was  an 
Israelite,  dwelling  near  Nineveh,  a  descendant 
of  one  of  the  families  that  had  been  carried  off 
to  that  region  by  the  Assyrians,  is  interesting 
but  unreliable.  The  same  may  be  said  of  the 
attempts  to  find  a  home  for  the  prophet  in 
Galilee.  Although  the  writer  is  wholly  con- 
cerned with  the  fate  of  Nineveh  and  the  idea 
of  Jehovah  as  an  avenger  upon  the  outside 
oppressor,  it  is  still  probable  from  the  subject 
of  the  book  and  the  sympathies  of  the  prophet 
that  he  was  a  resident  of  Judaea. 

2.  The  Date.  The  superscription  gives  us 
no  help,  and  the  date  must  be  inferred  from 
the  contents  of  chs.  1  and  2.  Here  we  have 
two  fixed  points,  the  destruction  of  No-Amon 
(Thebes)  about  6G4  B.C.  by  Assurbanipal,  king 
of  Assyria  (3^),  and  the  fall  of  Nineveh 
about  606  B.C.  The  capture  of  No-Amon 
lies  behind  the  prophet,  how  far  we  cannot 
tell,  while  the  destruction  of  Nineveh,  or  some 
great  disaster  to  that  city,  was  immediately  in 
front  of  him.  It  is  likely  that  the  fall  of  the 
Egyptian  fortress  would  long  be  remembered 
by  the  Jews,  as  many  of  them  looked  to  that 
nation  for  help  against  Assyria.  In  that  case, 
Assyria  was  the  conqueror  :  and  the  prophet 
saw  in  the  disaster  to  Egypt  the  hand  of  the 
same  living  God,  the  God  of  Judah  and  the 
world,  who  was  now  about  to  mete  out  to  the 
proud  conqueror  a  similar  fate.  Hence  it  seems 
probable  that  these  strong,  stirring  words  were 
uttered  not  long  before  the  final  struggle  which 
transferred  the  supremacy  from  Nineveh  to 
Babylon. 

3.  Historical  Situation.  This  was  an  im- 
portant period  in  the  small  kingdom  of  Judah. 
It  was  the  period  before  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem  ;  the  Babylonian  empire  which  be- 
came supreme  for  a  while  after  the  fall  of 
Nineveh  was  destined  to  crush  the  kingdom  of 
Judah  and  carry  the  people  into  captivity,  but 
this  lies  beyond  the  ken  of  our  prophet.    It  is 


probable  that  in  his  day  Josiah,  the  good  king, 
had  attempted  a  religious  reformation,  and  that 
Jeremiah  was  calling  the  people  to  a  deeper 
life  and  a  more  spiritual  service.  But  there  is 
no  echo  of  this  in  the  book  ;  its  patriotic  pas- 
sion, its  cry  for  vengeance,  is  all  concentrated 
on  the  one  hateful  oppressor. 

4.  The  Book.  Though  the  book  is  small  it 
has  been  subjected  to  keen  investigation,  and 
the  text  has  given  rise  to  much  critical  discus- 
sion. The  attempts  at  detailed  analysis  can- 
not be  considered  here.  Many  scholars  regard 
1  2-15  2  2  as  an  eschatological  psalm  from  later 
Judaism,  describing  Jehovah's  judgment  upon 
oppressors,  and  giving  promise  of  salvation  to 
Judah.  Those  who  take  this  view  have  worked 
over  this  c.  and  discovered  in  it  an  alphabetic 
poem,  but  as  a  matter  of  fact,  in  the  present 
state  of  the  text,  this  alphabetic  arrangement 
can  only  be  discovered  at  the  beginning.  How- 
ever, there  is  one  thing  clear,  the  c.  is  of  similar 
spirit  to  the  rest  of  the  book ;  it  gives  a 
graphic  poetic  description  of  the  coming  of 
Jehovah  to  judgment,  while  the  other  part  pic- 
tures in  forcible  language,  a  particular  instance 
of  such  judgment,  in  the  case  of  Nineveh.  In 
chs.  2  and  3  there  is  a  vivid  description  of  the 
siege  and  a  passionate  denunciation  of  the 
blood-stained  city. 

5.  The  Spiritual  Significance  of  Nahum. 
This  short  prophecy  may  be  looked  upon  as  one 
permanent  expression  of  the  cry  of  humanity 
for  justice.  It  is  not  mere  Hebrew  patriotism 
that  expresses  itself  here,  though  that  gives 
form  and  colour  to  the  message  ;  this  sharp 
cry  might  have  come  from  any  of  the  small 
nations  of  Palestine  and  Syria  that  had  been 
trampled  underfoot  by  the  ruthless  armies  of 
Assyria.  It  is  the  cry  of  outraged  human 
nature  in  the  face  of  brutal  oppression ;  it 
is  a  cry  that  God  will  not  allow  violence  to 
rule  unchecked,  that  He  will  not  look  calmly 
on  when  the  earth  is  drenched  with  in- 
nocent blood.  If  the  answer  to  the  pathetic 
cry  of  the  saints  '  Lord,  how  long  ?  '  could 
be  '  for  ever,'  then  faith  would  be  driven 
to  despair,  both  piety  and  patriotism  would 
wither  at  the  roots.  The  preacher  to-day  may 
need  to  warn  the  people  against  a  spurious 
patriotism,  a  patriotism  which  counts  only 
material  success  and  selfish  glory,  but  behind 
all  this  preaching  there  must  lie  the  great  be- 
lief which  Nahum  grasped  with  such  intensity, 


585 


INTRO. 


NAHUM 


2.  5 


that  God  does  arise  and  come  to  judgment, 
that  He  does  vindicate  the  struggling  few  who 
love  truth  and  righteousness  ;  that  with  all  our 
lofty  Christian  sentiment  we  must  sometimes 
stand  face  to  face  with  the  sterner  majesty  of 
the  law,  and  prepare  to  meet  the  God  who 
comes  in  the  terror  of  judgment. 

CHAPTER    1 

God's    Yengeance    on   His   People's 
Enemies.     Deliverance  for  Judah 

I,  2.  Superscription:  'Oracle  concerning 
Nineveh.  The  book  of  the  vision  or  prophesy- 
ing of  Nahum  the  Elkoshite.'  A  theological 
introduction  describing  a  theophany  or  a 
coming  of  Jehovah  to  judgment.  Cp.  the 
brief  statements  in  a  similar  spirit,  Ami 2 
Micl3.4.  The  whole  should  be  printed  as 
verse  : 

A  jealous  and  avenging  God  is  Jehovah  ; 

Jehovah  is  avenging  and  wrathful  ; 

Jehovah  taketh  vengeance  on  His  adversaries,         ^^^  ^^^  abiding  truth  ;  behind  it  there  lies 

And  He  reserveth  wrath  for  His  enemies.         ^  j^^^^  ^^^^^  ^^  ^^^  ^^^^  meaning  of  history 

3-6.  The  prophet  sketches  the  character  of     and  a  righteous  order  of  the  world. 

Jehovah  in  terms  suitable  to  his  general  theme  ; 

it   is   the    vengeance    of    God   upon   Israel's 


makes  a  full  end  of  them  for  ever.'  You  can- 
not easily  set  fire  to  the  damp,  closely  packed 
thorns,  but  the  fire  of  His  vengeance  will  bum 
them  up  as  dry  stubble. 

13-15.  These  vv.,  along  with  22,  must  be 
grouped  together.  Read  the  last  of  these  four 
vv.,  as  in  RV,  'For  Jehovah  bringeth  again 
the  excellency  of  Jacob,'  etc.  In  these  four 
vv.  we  have  evidently  an  address  to  Judah  ; 
she  is  called  upon  to  rejoice  over  her  ancient 
foe,  to  keep  the  feasts  and  carry  out  the  vows 
made  in  the  days  of  sorrowful  oppression  : 
cp.  Isa527.  V.  14  is  a  denunciation  of  the 
Assyrian. 

The  whole  c.  is  diificult  from  the  linguistic 
point  of  view ;  the  technical  problems  have  called 
forth  much  ingenuity,  but  the  main  outline  is 
clear.  Jehovah  is  coming  to  judgment  ;  this 
coming  means  a  day  of  terror  and  darkness  for 
the  proud  oppressors,  but  the  lowly  believers 
shall  find  new  hope.  When  freed  from  narrow 
patriotism  and  sectarian  bitterness   this  is  a 


enemies,  who  are  also  His  enemies,  that  we 
are  here  invited  to  consider  :  cp.  Ex  20  ^  34 1^ 
Dt424f.  Note  the  terrible  manner  of  His 
appearance  when  He  comes  to  judgment. 

3,  He  is  slow  to  anger,  and  great  in  power, 
yet  He  will  not  absolve  the  guilty,  etc. 

The  Lord  hath  his  way]  '  The  meaning  is 
not  so  much  that  Jehovah  uses  the  whirlwind 
and  storm  as  the  vehicle  of  His  movement  as 
that  these  commotions  and  terrors  in  nature  are 
created  by  His  presence.  The  splendid  words 
clouds  are  the  dust  of  his  feet,  like  the  others, 
"  the  earth  is  His  footstool,"  need  to  be  con- 
ceived not  explained  '  (A.  B.  Davidson).  The 
doings  of  God  in  history  (Psll4)  and  His 
appearances  in  nature's  most  awful  moods  are 
mingled  in  this  sublime  description  of  His 
irresistible  strength  and  impetuous  fury. 

7-15.  Jehovah  will  completely  destroy  the 
enemies  of  His  people. 

7.  Read,  'Jehovah  is  good  towards  those 
who  hope  in  Him.  A  stronghold  in  the  time 
of  need.'  An  everlasting  truth,  but  particu- 
larly appropriate  in  times  of  great  shaking  : 
cp.  Pss253  379.  In  the  following  vv.  the  text 
is  difficult  ;  if  we  follow  AV  we  must  find  a 
reference  to  Nineveh.  8.  The  place  thereof] 
If  this  poem  is  an  original  part  of  the  book 
we  expect  such  references,  though  it  comes 
abruptly  here  :  cp.  v.  14.  On  this  view,  the 
line  of  thought  is  the  opposition  of  Jehovah 
to  the  proud  oppressor  and  his  favour  towards 
judgment,  with  emphasis  laid  on  the  radical 
nature  of  the  judgment.  9.  lO-  '  Not  twice 
does  He  take  vengeance  on  His  enemies  ;  He 


m    pieces   is  come  up 


CHAPTER   2 

Attack  and  Conquest  of  Nineveh 
I.  Description  of   the    attack   begins,   and 
Nineveh  is  called  upon  to  face  the  invader. 

'  He    that    breaketh 

against  thee  ; 
Guard  the  watch,  look  out  upon  the  way. 
Gird   up   the    loins,    gather    together    thy 

strength.' 

Y.  2  seems  misplaced,  as  it  interrupts  the 
sense.     It  should  perhaps  come  after  1  ^^. 

3-10.  Poetic  picture  of  the  sack  of  the 
city.  It  dwells  upon,  (1)  The  approach  of 
the  hostile  army  in  brilliant,  terrible  splendour, 
with  flashing  shields,  furious  horses  and  onrush 
of  chariots.  The  general  impression  is  vivid, 
though  some  of  the  details  have  become 
indistinct.  (3.  Shall  be  with  flaming  torches] 
RY  '  flash  with  steel.'  Fir  trees]  RY  '  spears.') 
(2)  The  attack  upon  the  city.  Here  again 
individual  features  are  uncertain  :  e.g.  we  are 
not  sure  whether  v.  5  refers  to  the  besiegers  or 
the  besieged.  Recount  his  worthies]  i.e.  call  up 
his  bravest  warriors.  Defence]  (R  Y '  mantelet ') 
is  a  word  difficult  of  interpretation  ;  it  may 
refer  to  the  movable  roof  which  protected  the 
battering-ram.  It  is  not  easy  to  give  a  precise 
explanation  of  the  phrase,  '  The  gates  of  the 
river  are  opened,'  but  it  is  clear  that  the  great 
city  is  attacked  and  its  inhabitants  thrown  into 
confusion.  The  actual  siege  was  spread  over 
a  long  period  :  here  it  is  sketched  with  a  few 
sharp  strokes  and  represented  in  a  few  memor- 
able scenes.  (3)  The  carrying  away  captive 
of   the  queen  and  her  maidens  ;   the  flight  of 


586 


2.7 


NAHUM— HABAKKUK 


INTRO. 


the  people  and  the  spoiling  of  the  city,  (a) 
Huzzab  is  obscure  ;  we  must  take  it  to  mean 
the  queen  of  the  city,  or  amend  the  text. 
RM  has  '  It  is  decreed  :  she  is  uncovered,'  etc. 
Tabering]  i.e.  beating,  lit.  '  drumming.'  A 
taber  was  a  small  drum,  (b)  8.  The  phrase 
translated  of  old  is  very  awkward  in  the 
original.  It  may  have  arisen  through  ditto^ 
graphy  ;  in  that  case  we  interpret  '  Nineveh  is 
like  a  pool  of  water,'  whose  waters  rush  away 
where  the  dam  is  broken  down  :  thus  do 
the  inhabitants  of  the  conquered  city  flee 
away. 

9,  10.  Then  all  its  rich  treasures  and  its 
magnificent  adornments  are  given  to  the  spoil. 
All  who  had  any  hope  or  interest  in  the 
doomed  city  are  confounded  and  put  to  shame. 

II.  The  prophet  exults  over  the  downfall 
of  Nineveh.  In  this  stern  ironical  question 
the  prophet  implies  that  Nineveh  has  vanished 
completely  ;  it  is  vain  to  seek  for  it.  Thus 
does  he  express  his  full  confidence  in  its  utter 
destruction.  12.  This  destruction  is  justified 
by  pointing  to  the  selfish,  cruel  career  of  the 
Assyrian  empire.  13.  An  oracle  of  Jehovah 
containing  a  strong  assurance  of  the  judgment 
that  is  due  and  cannot  be  escaped. 

CHAPTER  3 

The  Doom  of  Nineveh 
1-7.  Another  threat  against  Nineveh,  show- 
ing that  disaster  has  come  upon  her  on  account 
of  her  sins.  The  keynote  of  the  whole  c.  is 
the  fierce  cry,  Woe  to  the  bloody  city  !  it  /.s  all 
full  of  lies,  etc.  In  ancient  states  the  capital 
was  virtually  the  kingdom,  and  to  Nineveh  are 
here  ascribed  all  the  characteristics  of  the 
Assyrian  monarchy.    The  cruelties  perpetrated 


by  the  Assyrians  were  shocking.  Captive 
princes  who  had  offered  resistance  in  defence  of 
their  country  were  shut  up  in  cages  and  exposed 
to  the  gaze  of  the  populace  ;  the  heads  of  those 
already  executed  were  hung  round  the  necks 
of  those  still  living,  and  others  were  flayed 
alive.  The  Assyrians  appear  to  have  been  the 
most  ruthless  people  of  antiquity  (see  Camb. 
Bible).  2,  3.  Picture  of  the  attack  made  by 
the  enemy's  cavalry  and  chariots,  these  instru- 
ments of  the  divine  vengeance.  4-7.  The 
reason  for  this  doom,  the  evil  influence  which 
this  great  empire  has  exerted  among  the  na- 
tions. Jehovah  assumes  responsibility  for  the 
execution  of  this  judgment  ;  He  will  carry  it 
out  to  the  last  extremity.  8-10.  Nations  and 
cities  quite  as  proud  and  strong  have  fallen 
when  the  hour  of  divine  judgment  has  sounded. 

Populous  No]  RV  '  No-Amon,'  i.e.  Thebes. 
See  Intro.  Rivers]  RM  'canals.'  The  sea] 
i.e.  the  Nile.  Her  wall,  etc.]  The  Nile  was 
her  protection.  All  the  provinces  of  Egypt 
helped  her  (v.  9).  11.  Strength]  RV  'a 
stronghold.'  12-15.  The  outer  defences  have 
fallen  ;  it  is  the  beginning  of  the  end.  14.  Go 
into  clay,  etc.]  make  bricks  to  strengthen  the 
walls.  15-17.  Cankerworm  .  .  grasshopper] 
species  of  locusts. 

16-19.  Prosperity  and  pride  have  been  '  the 
cankerworm  that  spoileth,'  so  that  in  the  gi-eat 
crisis  there  is  no  power  of  resistance  ;  it  is  a 
mortal  wound. 

18.  Thy  shepherds  slumber]  Thy  great  rulers 
have  passed  away.  Thy  nobles,  etc.]  RV  '  thy 
worthies  are  at  rest.' 

19.  No  healing  of  thy  bruise]  RV  '  No 
assuaging  of  thy  hurt.'  Bruit  of  thee]  i.e.  the 
report  of  thy  downfall. 


HABAKKUK 


INTRODUCTION 


I.  Author.  Nothing  whatever  is  known  of 
Habakkuk  other  than  what  may  be  inferred 
from  his  book.  The  inference,  based  on  the 
subscription  '  on  my  stringed  instruments ' 
(31^),  that  he  was  a  singer  or  player  in  the 
Temple  choir  is  altogether  precarious,  if  not 
untenable  ;  partly  because  there  is  no  certainty 
that  this  c.  is  Habakkuk's  own  (see  on  3^'^)  ; 
partly  because  the  text  is  probably  faulty,  the 
true  reading  being  simply  '  on  stringed  instru- 
ments '  ;  and  still  more,  because  this  suljscrip- 
tion  is  in  all  probability  no  part  of  the  original 
poem  which  forms  c.  3.     All  that  we  know  of 


the  person  of  Habakkuk  is  that  he  was  a  great 
prophet  who  has  left  us  one  of  the  noblest 
and  most  penetrating  words  in  the  history  of 
religion  (2*''). 

2.  Summary  of  Contents.  (1 1^)  The  prophet 
begins  with  a  complaint  to  Jehovah  touching 
the  prevalent  violence,  oppression,  and  perver- 
sion of  the  law.  '  How  long,'  he  cries,  '  and 
why  ?'  For  answer  (l-^-ii)  comes  the  divine 
word  that  the  Chaldeans  are  to  be  raised  up  in 
chastisement,  and  the  work  which  they  will  do 
is  such  as  to  be  almost  incredible.  Then  fol- 
lows a  graphic  description  of    their  terrible 


687 


INTEO. 


HABAKKUK 


INTRO. 


army,  with  their  swift  horses,  their  keen 
cavalry,  their  cruel  and  brazen  faces.  They 
laugh  at  all  authority,  and  at  every  attempt  to 
stop  their  advance.  They  worship  might,  not 
right.  But  in  the  next  section  (112-17)  the 
prophet's  attitude  towards  this  people  (if  it  is 
the  same  people  as  in  v v.  5-11)  has  changed .  He 
shudders  at  their  impiety,  and  is  confounded  by 
it.  They  have  overstepped  the  limits  of  their 
commission  ;  how  can  Jehovah  reconcile  with 
His  own  holiness  and  purity  the  barbarities 
perpetrated  by  the  conqueror  ? 

(21-4)  The  divine  answer  to  the  prophet's 
perplexity  comes  when  he  climbs  his  tower 
(the  tower  of  faith)  and  looks  abroad.  The 
answer  is  that  the  proud  shall  perish  and  the 
righteous  shall  ultimately  live.  It  may  not  be 
obvious  now  :  the  visible  solution  may  tarry  a 
long  time  ;  but  faith  sees  it  already.  '  The 
just  shall  live  by  his  faithfulness.'  The  next 
section  (2  5-20)  consists  of  five  '  woes,'  which 
elaborate  the  thought  of  2^^ — the  sure  de- 
struction of  the  proud.  Woes  are  denounced 
upon  the  cruel  rapacity  of  the  conquerors, 
the  unjust  accumulations  of  treasure,  the  pas- 
sion for  building,  the  unfeeling  treatment  of 
the  land,  beasts,  and  people,  and  finally  the 
idolatry.  In  contrast  to  the  impotent  gods 
worshipped  by  the  oppressor,  is  the  gi-eat 
Jehovah  whose  Temple  is  in  the  heavens,  and 
before  whom  all  the  earth  must  be  silent  (2  -O). 
He  comes,  and  His  coming  is  described  in  c.  3 
in  rich  and  varied  imagery  ;  and  this  '  prayer  ' 
concludes  with  the  expression  of  unbounded 
confidence  and  joy  in  Jehovah,  even  when  all 
visible  signs  of  His  love  may  fail. 

3.  Occasion  calling  forth  the  Prophecy.  The 
prophecy  of  Habakkuk  may  be  dated  approxi- 
mately about  the  year  600  B.C.  The  last 
twenty-five  years  had  been  a  time  of  great 
significance  for  Western  Asia  in  general  and 
for  Judah  in  particular.  At  the  beginning  of 
that  period  Assyria  had  been  the  great  world 
power  ;  but  from  the  year  625  B.C.,  when 
Nabopolassar  succeeded  in  establishing  an  in- 
dependent Babylonian  monarchy,  the  Assyrian 
empire  had  rapidly  declined,  till  at  length,  in 
607  B.C.,  Nineveh,  the  capital,  was  taken,  and 
by  the  battle  of  Carchemish,  in  which  Egypt, 
the  great  competing  power  in  the  West,  was 
defeated,  Babylonian  supremacy  was  assured. 
Judah  naturally  became  a  vassal  of  Babylon, 
and  about  the  year  601-600  was  invaded  be- 
cause of  the  rebellion  of  king  Jehoiakim. 

Within  Judah  herself,  much  that  was  of 
first-rate  importance  both  for  history  and  reli- 
gion had  happened.  Zephaniah  and  Nahum 
had  prophesied,  and  Jeremiah  was  in  the 
middle  of  his  gi'eat  career.  In  621  B.C.,  on 
the  basis  of  the  newly-discovered  book  of 
Deuteronomy,  king  Josiah  had  inaugurated  a 
reformation  which  had  raised  the  hopes  of  good 


men  ;  but  its  influence,  as  we  learn  from  Jere- 
miah, had  been,  upon  the  whole,  but  brief  and 
shallow.  The  death  of  Josiah  upon  the  battle- 
field in  608  B.C.  aggravated  a  situation  already 
difficult  enough.  His  son  Jehoahaz,  who  reigned 
but  three  months,  was  succeeded  by  Jehoiakim, 
a  man  of  extravagant  tastes  and  contemptible 
character — the  very  last  man  to  guide  the  state 
through  the  perplexities  and  perils  of  the  time. 

It  was  in  his  reign,  apparently,  that  Habakkuk 
delivered  his  message.  Through  his  words  we 
can  clearly  read  the  prevalent  disregard  of  law 
and  order,  and  the  abounding  political  confu- 
sion and  religious  perplexity  occasioned  by  the 
supremacy  of  the  Chaldeans.  The  precise 
interpretation  and  occasion  of  the  book,  how- 
ever, are  unusually  hard  to  determine.  We 
shall  very  briefly  indicate  the  difficulties  and 
the  solution  which  seems  the  most  probable. 
In  11-4  it  is  not  clear  who  the  oppressors  are, 
whether  foreigners  or  the  ruling  classes  within 
Judah  itself.  As  in  l^-n,  the  Chaldeans  (i.e. 
the  Babylonians)  appear  to  be  raised  up  to 
chastise  them,  it  is  more  natural  to  suppose  that 
the  oppressors  are  natives  of  Judah.  But  in 
1 12-17  the  Chaldeans  themselves  seem  to  be  the 
oppressors — though  this  is  not  expressly  said — 
as  they  are  described  in  terms  very  similar  to 
the  description  in  1  ^'^^  ;  and  they  bring  fresh 
perplexity  to  the  prophet  by  '  swallowing  up 
the  man  that  is  more  righteous  than  '  they 
(v.  13).  The  '  righteous '  would  in  this  case  be 
Judah,  and  that  description  of  Judah,  coming 
after  such  a  picture  of  anarchy  as  we  have  in 
1  !■■*,  would  be  somewhat  strange. 

The  difficulties  may  be  partly  met  by  assum- 
ing that  the  various  sections  were  written  at 
different  times,  1 12-17^  i^  which  Judah  is  rela- 
tively righteous  in  comj^arison  with  the  Chal- 
deans, being  later  than  1'^"^.  The  only  real 
clue  to  the  historical  occasion  of  the  prophecy 
is  the  mention  of  the  Chaldeans  in  1  s-^.  Their 
appearance  and  their  military  methods  are 
apparently  well  known,  and  this  circumstance 
implies  a  date  shortly  before,  or  more  probably 
shortly  after,  the  great  battle  of  Carchemish 
in  605  B.C.,  in  which  the  Babylonian  army 
under  Nebuchadi-ezzar  defeated  the  Egyptians, 
and  established  a  supremacy,  which  lasted 
about  seventy  years,  over  Western  Asia.  The 
prophet  welcomes  the  advent  of  the  Chaldeans 
(vv.  5-11)  as  the  divinely-appointed  scourge 
of  the  evils  among  Jehovah's  people  in  Judah 
(1  l-'i) ;  but  this  solution  only  heightens  the 
horror  of  his  problem,  as  he  becomes  better 
acquainted  with  the  cruel  and  aggressive  pride 
of  the  Chaldeans  (1 12-1") ;  and  he  must  find  a 
deeper  solution.  He  finds  it  finally,  upon  his 
watchtower,  in  the  assurance  that  somehow, 
despite  all  seeming,  the  purpose  of  God  is 
hasting  on  to  its  fulfilment,  and  that  the  moral 
constitution  of  the  world  is  such  as  to  spell 


588 


INTRO. 


HABAKKUK 


2.  3 


the  ultimate  ruin  of  cruelty  and  pride,  and  the 
ultimate  triumph  of  righteousness  (2 1-^).  His 
faith  was  historically  justified  by  the  fall  of 
the  Babylonian  empire  in  538  B.C. 

4.  Religious  Ideas  of  the  Book.  The  domi- 
nant ideas  of  the  book  shine  most  clearly  out 
of  the  great  vision  which  Habakkuk  saw  from 
his  watchtower  ('2i-*).  Briefly,  they  are  Pa- 
tience and  Faith  (23''*).  The  prophet  had 
expected  an  adequate  solution  to  his  doubts 
to  arrive  in  his  own  day  (cp.  1 5,  'in  your 
days  ') ;  and  he  welcomes  the  Chaldeans  as 
divine  avengers  of  sin.  But  Habakkuk  is  an 
independent  and  progressive  thinker,  and  the 
more  he  watches  the  Chaldeans,  the  more  he 
feels  sure  that  the  solution  they  bring  is  utterly 
inadequate.  Then  he  lifts  his  sorrowful  heart 
to  God,  and  he  is  soothed  and  strengthened  by 
a  larger  vision  of  the  divine  purpose  and  its 
inevitable  triumph.  He  does  not  now"  know,  as 
once  he  thought  he  did,  by  what  human  and 
historical  means  that  triumph  is  to  be  secured  ; 
but  he  knowfe  that  it  is  certain.  '  It  is  sure  to 
come,  it  will  not  lag  behind.'  That  is  faith, 
and  the  obverse  of  faith  is  patience.  It  is  so 
sure  that  he  can  afford  to  '  wait  for  it,  though 
it  tarry,'  and  though  it  come  not  in  his  own 
day.  It  is  '  trust '  in  God  that  will  carry  the 
'  righteous '  across  his  doubts  and  fears,  and 
sustain  his  '  life  '  even  when  he  seems  to  per-, 
ish  (2  "t).  '  The  righteous  shall  live  by  his 
faithfulness.'  This  is  also  the  great  lesson  of 
the  closing  vv.  of  c.  3,  that  God  may  be  trusted, 
even  when  all  visible  signs  of  His  presence 
fail  ;  and  this  trust  is  not  resignation,  but  joy 
unspeakable  (S^'^-i^). 

CHAPTER   1 

The  Prophet's  Burden.     The  Answer 

or  Jehovah 

1.  Burden]  RM  '  oracle  ' :  see  on  IsalS^. 

2,  3.  How  long  ?  .  .  Why  ?]  Even  a  prophet 
(v.  1)  can  ask  such  questions.  He  never 
denies  the  existence  of  God,  but  he  cannot 
understand  His  seeming  failure  to  interpose 
in  human  affairs.  In  the  end,  however,  the 
despondency  merges  into  a  faith  which  can 
believe  where  it  cannot  see  (2^  S^^f.). 

5.  Behold  ye  among  the  heathen]  For  this 
we  ought  to  read,  '  Behold,  ye  treacherous ' 
(as  in  the  quotation  in  AclS*^,  'ye  despisers'). 
The  despisers  are  those  in  1  ^-^  who  trample 
upon  moral  and  social  law,  thinking  Jehovah 
will  never  intervene.  In  your  days]  The 
profounder  solution  in  2^  contemplates  the 
possibility  of  a  long  postponement  of  the 
issue.  6.  The  Chaldeans]  possibly  written 
after  the  battle  of  Carchemish,  in  605  B.C., 
with  reference  to  Nebuchadrezzar  and  his 
army,  so  graphically  described  in  vv.  fi-lO. 

7.  The  last  clause  means  that  the  Chaldean 
recognises  no  master  or  judge  :  he  is  a  law  to 


himself.  9.  RM  '  Their  faces  are  set  eagerly 
forwards,  and  they  gather  captives  as  the 
sand.'  10.  They  shall  heap  dust]  i.e.  they 
shall  throw  up  an  enlargement  of  earth,  to 
take  the  fortress.  11.  The  correct  transla- 
tion should  probably  be  :  Then  he  sweeps  by 
as  a  wind,  and  passes  on  and  makes  his  might 
his  God — ^an  admirable  climax  to  the  descrip- 
tion of  the  Chaldeans. 
12-17.   -^  new  riddle. 

12.  Habakkuk's  faith  is  staggered  by  the 
conduct  of  the  Chaldeans.  He  had  welcomed 
them  as  ministers  of  the  divine  judgment,  and 
lo  !  they  had  shown  themselves  to  be  cruel 
and  haughty,  working  out  not  God's  will,  but 
their  own.  How  was  this  consistent  with  the 
holiness  of  God  ? 

13.  The  cry  of  a  perplexed  heart :  Thou 
art  too  pure  to  look  upon  evil,  why  then  dost 
Thou  look  upon  it  ?  God  looks  on  in  silence  : 
He  does  nothing,  says  nothing  !  The  wicked 
(i.e.  the  Chaldean)  swallows  up  one  who  is 
more  righteous  than  himself  (i.e.  Judah). 

14.  And  makest]  probably  this  should  be 
'and  makes.'  It  is,  as  vv.  15,  16  show,  the 
Chaldean  who  makes  men  like  fish,  sweeping 
them  into  his  net.  16.  He  sacrifices  to  his 
net]  i.e.  to  his  weapons  of  destruction,  as  to  a 
god  :  for  was  not  might  his  god?  cp.  v.  11. 

17.  This  V.  should  probably  read,  '  Will  he 
draw  the  sword  for  ever,  slaying  nations 
mercilessly  evermore  ? ' 

CHAPTER  2 
Faith    Triumphant 
1-4.   The  view  from  the  watchtower. 

1.  The  prophet  climbs  his  tower,  for  he 
must  reach  a  vantage  point,  if  he  is  to  con- 
template with  real  understanding  and  insight 
the  confusion  about  his  feet,  i.e.  occasioned  by 
Chaldean  aggressiveness  and  indifference  to 
right.  The  towei-  is  not,  of  course,  a  literal 
tower — some  high  and  lonely  place  to  which 
the  prophet  may  retire  ;  it  simply  suggests  the 
inner  light  of  revelation,  by  the  aid  of  which 
he  contemplates  the  perplexing  situation.  The 
last  clause  should  read,  '  and  what  answer  He 
will  make  to  my  complaint.' 

2.  The  answer  which  he  expects  is  given, 
and  he  is  instructed  to  write  it  down  on  tablets, 
because  it  is  of  permanent  value,  and  to  write 
it  plainly  so  that  any  one  might  be  able  to  read 
it  fluently.  Run]  i.e.  in  his  reading,  read 
easily. 

3.  The  ultimate  moral  issue  is  clear,  though 
it  may  be  far  away.  If  it  is  slow,  it  is  sure. 
It  may  not  come  '  in  your  days  '  (1  5),  but  '  it  is 
sure  to  come,  it  will  not  be  late  :  and  if  it 
tarry,  wait  for  it,'  for  in  'your  patience  ye  shall 
win  your  souls.'  When  the  kingdom  will  come 
is  not  clear,  but  come  it  will  ;  for  some  day 
'  the  earth  shall  be  filled  with  the  knowledge  of 


589 


2.  4 


HABAKKUK 


S. 


the  glory  of  Jehovah,  as  the  waters  cover  the 
sea'  (214).  That  is  the  inevitable  goal  of 
history. 

4.  The  first  few  words  of  this  vision,  which 
is  regarded  as  so  important  and  reassuring,  are 
very  obscure,  but  the  two  clauses  of  the  v. 
appear  to  contrast  the  destinies  of  the  good 
and  the  bad  respectively  ;  and  the  meaning 
probably  is,  '  As  for  the  wicked,  his  soul  is  not 
straight,  or  is  faint  and  feeble,  within  him,' 
that  is,  is  doomed  to  death  ;  '  but  the  righteous 
shall  live  by  his  fidelity,'  i.e.  his  faithfulness, 
his  firm  trust  of  Jehovah.  In  the  long  march 
of  history,  the  nations  of  men  that  trust  in 
their  power  and  resources  and  defy  morality, 
are  doomed,  they  do  not  live.  It  is  the  right- 
eous that  live,  those  who  regard  right  and  Grod. 
However  much  they  suffer,  and  even  when 
they  seem  to  die,  they  live  ;  and  they  live  by 
their  faithfulness,  i.e.  by  leaning  firmly  upon 
the  G-od  who  lives  for  ever,  and  whose  life  is 
a  guarantee  of  theirs.  This  in  one  of  the  pro- 
foundest  utterances  of  the  Old  Testament. 

5-20.  Woe  to  the  oppressor. 

This  section  is  an  expansion  of  2'^^  :  it  de- 
scribes the  oppressor — no  doubt  the  Chaldean 
— and  thereby  justifies  the  doom  pronounced 
upon  him.  The  section  takes  the  form  of  a 
series  of  woes,  dramatically  pronounced  by  the 
nations  which  the  Chaldeans  had  crushed. 

5-8,  Woe  unto  the  lust  of  conquest !  V.  5, 
which  has  nothing  to  do  with  wine,  should 
probably  read,  '  Woe  to  the  proud  and  the 
faithless,  the  haughty  man  who  is  never  satisfied.' 

6,  7.  Woe  to  him  who  takes  upon  himself  a 
heavy  burden  of  debt — referring  to  the  pro- 
perty of  which  the  Chaldeans  had  plundered 
the  nations.  Instead  of  heavy  '  pledges  '  (R  V), 
AV  (by  dividing  the  single  Heb.  word  into 
two)  reads  thick  clay.  Doubtless  both  senses 
are  intended  :  the  Hebrews  were  fond  of  such 
plays  upon  words.  Suddenly  will  thy  creditors 
arise.  The  '  biters '  are  the  creditors  (the  words 
are  alike  in  the  Hebrew),  and  the  Chaldeans 
will  in  their  turn  be  bitten,  i.e.  they  will  be 
punished  in  kind  ;  the  plunderers  will  be 
themsel ves plundered (vv.  7,8).  8.  Oftheland, 
of  the  city,  etc.]  RV  '  done  to  the  land,  to  the 
city,'  etc.     The  city]  perhaps  Jerusalem. 

9-1 1.  The  third  woe.  9.  RV  '  Woe  to  him 
that  getteth  an  evil  gain  for  his  house.'  The 
plunder  was  stored  for  security  in  great  high 
buildings ,  but  the  very  stone  and  timber  cried 
out  against  the  rapacity  which  had  accumulated 
it.  Their  silent  tongues  were  eloquent  ;  ac- 
cusing voices  were  everywhere.  Considering 
the  range  of  v.  10,  however,  it  is  possible,  if 
not  probable,  that  the  whole  passage  has  a 
larger  meaning  :  for  in  v.  10  it  seems  best  to 
interpret  the  house  not  as  a  literal  house,  but 
— as  often  in  Hebrew — -of  the  dynasty.  In 
that  case,  the  ruin  of  the  Chaldean  dynasty  is 


predicted  as  the  consequence  of  their  cruel  and 
unscrupulous  ambitions.  10.  Consulted]  i.e. 
contrived  :  cp.  MicG^. 

12-14.  The  fourth  woe.  Every  fabric  reared 
upon  iniquity  is  doomed  to  destruction.  The 
triumph  of  the  kingdom  of  God,  and  of  that 
alone,  is  sure.  The  world-conqueror  is  not 
Nebuchadrezzar,  but  Jehovah.  13.  The  people  || 
shall  labour  in  the  very  fire]  RV  '  The  peoples 
labour  for  the  fire  '  :  i.e.  their  cities,  built  with  j 
blood,  will  be  consigned  to  the  flames.  The 
parallel  clause  (v.  13^)  shows  that  the  meaning 
is,  their  eiforts  are  spent  in  vain. 

15-17.  The  fifth  woe.  The  references  in 
vv.  15,  16  to  intoxication  must,  as  v.  17  shows, 
be  taken  figuratively.  The  meaning  is  that 
the  Chaldeans  have  dealt  with  other  nations  in 
a  spirit  of  contemptuous  cruelty,  depriving 
them  of  their  strength,  and  doing  with  them 
what  they  would.  They  will,  therefore,  be 
punished,  as  before,  in  kind,  being  compelled 
by  Jehovah  to  drink  the  cup  they  had  held  to 
the  lips  of  others.  A  specimen  of  their  high- 
handedness is  given  in  v.  17  :  they  had  robbed 
the  land  and  the  beasts  of  their  rights — for 
they,  too,  have  rights — by  destroying  the 
cedars  of  Lebanon  to  secure  material  for  their 
own  palatial  buildings. 

18.  19.  The  sixth  woe.  The  real  explana- 
tion of  the  immorality  of  the  Chaldeans  is  to 
be  found  in  their  foolish  conception  of  God 
(cp.  1 11).  They  worshipped  idols,  gorgeous 
indeed,  but  stupid,  impotent,  dumb,  and  lifeless. 

19.  Arise,  it  shall  teach  !]  RV  '  Arise  !  Shall 
this  teach  V '  The  parallelism  shows  that  Arise 
corresponds  to  Awake,  and  that,  therefore, 
with  the  next  words  a  new  sentence  begins. 
It  is  best  to  read  this  sentence  interrogatively 
as  RV,  '  Shall  this  teach  '?  '  '  This  '—pointing 
with  scorn  to  the  motionless  image — '  what 
power  has  this  to  give  the  needed  instruction 
or  help  ?  ' 

20.  What  a  contrast  to  these  idols  is  the 
majestic  God  of  Israel,  the  God  of  all  the 
earth,  whose  Temple  is  in  the  heavens  !  He 
is  about  to  appear  (c.  3)  ;  hush  !  before  Him, 
all  the  earth. 

CHAPTER  3 
Jehovah  comes  to  Judgment 
This  is  one  of  the  most  brilliant  poems  in 
the  OT.  It  was  written  by  a  man  of  imagin- 
ation as  well  as  of  faith.  It  is  not  quite  cer- 
tain whether  3  ^-is  are  intended  to  refer  to  a 
past  or  future  manifestation  of  Jehovah  :  in 
any  case,  there  is  the  hope,  or  rather  prayer, 
that  history  may  repeat  itself  (v.  2).  The 
poem  rests  upon  older  theophanies  :  cp.  Jg5 
Dt33.  Long  ago  at  the  exodus  Jehovah  had 
shown  His  power  to  interpose  in  history  against 
all  hope.  He  had  come  in  the  terrors  of  jiidg- 
ment  and  taken  vengeance  on  the  enemies  of 


590 


3.  1 


HABAKKUK 


3.  17 


Israel  :  and  what  he  did  then,  the  Psalmist 
prays  that  He  will  do  again.  The  power  which 
He  revealed  on  Israel's  behalf  at  the  dawn  of 
her  history,  He  can  make  known  again  in  the 
midst  of  the  years. 

I.  Upon  Shigionoth]  RV  'Set  to  Shigionoth.' 
This  very  obscure  phrase  (cp.  Ps  7)  has  been 
supposed  to  mean  '  in  a  wandering,  ecstatic 
manner,'  implying  that  the  poem  that  follows 
is  a  sort  of  dithyramb.  Probably,  as  the  LXX 
suggests,  the  original  word  simply  meant,  '  to 
the  accompaniment  of  stringed  instruments.' 

3.  The  storm  which  accompanies  Jehovah's 
coming  begins  in  Sinai,  His  ancient  home,  and 
sweeps  northward.  Teman]  a  district  in  the 
NW.  of  Edom.  Paran]  the  mountain  range 
between  Sinai  and  Seir.  4.  Horns  coming  out 
of  his  hand]  RV  '  Rays  coming  forth  from  his 
hand.'  This  clause  some  take  with  the  next 
one,  so  that  the  meaning  would  be  '  the  rays 
at  His  side  He  makes  the  veil  of  His  power,' 
that  is,  the  brightness  is  so  blinding  that  His 
real  and  essential  majesty  cannot  be  seen. 

5-8.  Accompanied  by  His  dread  attendants. 
He  takes  His  stand  upon  the  earth,  which  reels 
and  rocks  beneath  Him,  and  the  nomad  tribes 
are  in  terror.  5.  Burning  coals]  RV  '  fiery 
bolts.'  7.  Cushan]  Some  identify  this  with 
Cush,  i.e.  Ethiopia.  The  parallelism  suggests, 
however,  that  it  may  indicate  some  district  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  Sinai. 

8-1 1.  Wherefore  such  wrath  ?  Why  did 
Jehovah  so  confound  the  sea — perhaps  the 
Red  Sea  —  by  means  of  His  storm  ?  9^  *> 
probably  ought  to  read,  '  Thou  didsj;  bare  Thy 
bow,  and  fill  Thy  quiver  with  shafts  ' — an 
allusion  to  the  thunder  and  the  lightning. 
Fear  kept  sun  and  moon  from  shining  (v.  11). 

12-15.  It  is  to  save  His  people  that  He 
comes.  IS**.  Thou  woundedst  the  head  out 
of  the  house  of  the  wicked,  by  discovering 
(RV  laying  bare')  the  foundation  unto  the  neck. 
There  seems  to  be  here  a  confusion  of  meta- 
phor— '  foundation  '  suggesting  a  building  and 
'  neck '  a  man.  The  situation  may  be  par- 
tially saved  by  reading  '  rock '  instead  of 
'  neck '  ;  but  even  so,  it  is  not  quite  clear 
whether  head  in  the  first  clause  refers  to  a 
building,  as  the  second  clause  suggests,  or  to  a 
man,  as  the  same  word  is  used  unambiguously 
of  a  man  in  the  very  next  v.  (14^  ).  In  any 
case,  the  reference  appears  to  be  to  the  over- 
throw of  Pharaoh. 


I4^  Probably  we  should  read,  '  Thou  didst 
pierce  with  Thy  staves  the  head  of  his  warriors.' 
In  the  next  line  the  word  me  shows  that  the 
description  is  passing  into  the  present  :  they 
come  storming  on  to  scatter  me. 

16-19.  The  triumph  of  faith.  It  is  difficult, 
if  not  impossible,  to  translate  v.  16  ;  pro- 
visionally we  may  accept  the  following,  '  I  will 
wait  for  the  day  of  distress  which  cometh  over 
the  people  that  distresses  us.'  But  the  v.  seems 
to  indicate  the  terror  with  which  the  Psalmist 
(or  prophet)  listens  to  the  dying  notes  of  the 
storm.  He  had  prayed  for  God  to  reveal 
Himself  :  and  He  had  come  in  His  terrible 
majesty — come,  however,  to  save  :  and  though 
the  poet  trembles,  his  faith  is  radiant  and 
glad. 

17.  The  connexion  between  this  v.  and  the 
previous  part  of  the  poem  is  no  doubt  such  as 
has  just  been  suggested  ;  but  it  may  be  doubted 
whether  it  is  an  integi-al  part  of  the  original 
poem.  With  its  flocks  and  fields  and  trees,  it 
seems  to  presuppose  a  different  situation  from 
vv.  2-16  ;  but,  however  that  may  be,  the  v., 
together  with  vv.  18,  19,  expresses  the  same 
kind  of  faith  as  that  of  the  poem,  and  indeed 
of  the  book  at  large,  a  faith  which  is  inde- 
pendent of  material  evidences  and  supports 
(2  3, 4),  It  teaches  that  God  is  better  than  His 
gifts,  and  that  the  possession  of  Him,  even 
without  them,  makes  the  heart  strong  and 
glad.  In  its  independence  of  things  material, 
the  OT.  never  uttered  a  grander  or  more 
emancipating  word  than  these  concluding  vv. 
of  Habakkuk. 

It  is  not  certain  that  this  poem  was  com- 
posed by  the  prophet.  The  title  and  musical 
directions  seem  to  indicate  that  it  was  taken 
from  a  collection  of  Psalms  :  there  are  no 
references  in  it  to  the  special  circumstances  of 
the  age  in  which  Habakkuk  lived  :  while  in 
vv.  14,  18,  19  the  community  rather  than  an 
individual  is  the  speaker.  The  conclusion 
suggested  by  these  features  is  that  this  poem 
belongs  to  a  later  date  :  it  may  be  a  Psalm 
composed  for  the  post-exilic  church  in  a  time 
of  distress.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  the  as- 
cription of  it  to  Habakkuk  is  confii-med  by  the 
fact  that  it  is  wholly  in  conformity  with  his 
spirit  in  the  other  chs.  of  this  book  :  and  it  is 
appropriately  placed  in  its  present  position,  as 
it  shares  with  the  prophecy  a  pure  faith  in 
God  and  in  the  certainty  of  His  coming. 


591 


ZEPHANIAH 


INTRODUCTION 


1 


1.  The  Prophet  and  his  Message,  Zepha- 
niah,  like  his  young  contemporary,  Jeremiah, 
was  one  of  the  fii-st  to  break  the  long  silence 
of  more  than  half-a-century  which  followed 
the  death  of  the  great  Isaiah.  During  the 
reactionary  reign  of  Manasseh  the  Canaanitish 
Baal  cults  and  the  Assyrian  star-worship  and 
the  other  heathen  institutions,  to  which  the 
prophet  alludas  in  his  opening  words,  had  been 
tolerated  without  rebuke  in  Jerusalem  and 
Judah  (2K212-'^).  King  and  people  had  re- 
pudiated the  teachings  of  the  earlier  prophets 
and  reverted  to  the  old  heathenism,  or  else 
adopted  the  religion  and  customs  of  their 
Assyrian  conquerors,  although  they  still,  as  a 
nation,  continued  to  worship  the  Jehovah  of 
their  popular  belief. 

At  last,  however,  the  Assyi^ian  empire,  which 
for  centuries  had  stood  as  the  embodiment  of 
heathen  might,  began  to  show  unmistakable 
signs  of  weakness  and  disintegration.  The 
more  thoughtful  in  Judah  also  commenced  to 
weary  of  the  crimes  and  excesses  which  fol- 
lowed in  the  train  of  popular  idolatry.  Prob- 
ably a  small  group  of  disciples  had  never 
ceased  to  cherish  in  secret  the  noble  ideals  and 
principles  of  the  earlier  prophets,  and  to  work 
for  their  ultimate  acceptance  by  the  nation. 
When  Isaiah  recognised  that  his  teachings 
were  rejected  by  the  princes  and  people,  he 
had  turned  with  confidence  to  his  disciples  and 
expressed  the  hope  that  they  would  treasure 
up  his  doctrine  (IsaSi*^^).  This  expectation 
was  fully  realised,  and  the  eternal  principle 
illustrated  that  truth,  clearly  and  courageously 
proclaimed,  can  never  be  permanently  put 
down,  but  will  in  time  surely  become  a  power- 
ful factor  in  the  life  of  mankind. 

Silenced  in  public,  the  followers  of  the  true 
prophets  appear  to  have  devoted  themselves  to 
revising  the  primitive  laws  of  their  race,  incor- 
porating the  lofty  principles  laid  down  by  Amos 
and  Hosea  and  Isaiah,  and  adapting  them  to  the 
new  conditions  presented  by  the  reign  of  Manas- 
,■  seh.  Many  hold  that  in  the  book  of  Deuter- 
•onomy,  which  is  a  prophetic  reformulation  of 
the  laws  of  Moses,  designed  to  meet  the  needs 
of  a  new  age,  we  have  the  supreme  product 
of  their  activity.  Later  this  became  the  basis 
of  Josiah's  great  reformation  in  621  B.C. 

Before  there  could  be  any  effective  reform, 
it  was  necessary  to  educate  the  people  and  to 
secure  the  support  of  Judah's  rulers.     It  is  a 


surprising  fact  that  Josiah,  the  son  of  Amon, 
and  grandson  of  the  reactionary  Manasseh, 
should  later  become  the  leader  in  the  great 
prophetic  reformation.  The  records  are  silent, 
but  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  boy  king, 
who  was  raised  to  the  throne  at  the  age  of 
eight,  early  came  under  the  influence  of  the 
prophetic  party.  The  indications  point  strongly 
to  Zephaniah  as  the  one  who  was  most  promin- 
ent in  exerting  that  influence,  for  the  super- 
scription affixed  to  his  prophecy  traces  his 
ancestry  back  for  four  generations  to  Hezekiah, 
who  was  in  all  probability  the  king  under  whom 
Isaiah  prophesied.  If  so,  Zephaniah  himself 
belonged  to  the  royal  line.  This  inference  is 
confirmed  by  the  boldness  and  assurance  with 
which  he  proclaims  the  guilt  of  the  princes  and 
members  of  the  royal  family  (1 8).  It  is  also 
significant  that  he  says  nothing  about  the  sins 
of  the  king  himself,  but  rather  places  all  the 
responsibility  upon  his  advisers  (1  9).  The  most 
satisfactory  explanation  of  the  omission  is  that 
Josiah  was  still  a  young  man,  and  already 
known  to  be  amenable  to  the  counsel  of  true 
prophets  like  Zephaniah.  If  these  inferences 
be  correct,  the  prophet  commands  our  interest, 
because  he  stood  very  near  both  by  birth  and 
influence  to  the  great  reformer-king,  and  be- 
cause he  was  the  pioneer  in  the  religious  move- 
ment which  culminated  in  621  B.C.  Like 
Josiah  and  his  prophetic  colleague,  Jeremiah, 
who  calls  himself  a  boy  ( Jer  1 "),  Zephaniah  was 
probably  still  a  young  man  when  he  first  raised 
his  voice  in  public.  Youthful  courage  and  un- 
daunted zeal  for  righteousness  ring  through  his 
brief  prophecy.  With  the  eye  of  faith  he  sees 
the  speedy  passing  of  the  heathen  practices, 
which  for  half-a-century  had  stood  in  the  way 
of  the  general  adoption  of  the  noble  ideals 
proclaimed  by  Hosea  and  Isaiah. 

2.  Occasion.  The  immediate  occasion  of  his 
preaching  appears  to  have  been  the  advance  of 
an  enemy  which  threatened  Judah  and  its  neigh- 
bours with  sudden  and  complete  destruction. 
Evidently  the  dreaded  foe  is  not  their  old 
masters,  the  Assyrians,  nor  their  allies,  the 
Egyptians,  but  the  barbarous  Scythians,  who 
had  already  disturbed  the  politics  of  south- 
western Asia :  cp.  Herod,  i.  105,Ezk388.  i".  A 
detachment  of  these  ruthless  foes,  who  wor- 
shipped their  swords  and  gloried  only  in  murder 
and  plunder,  was  evidently  already  sweeping 
down  the  eastern  shore  of  the  Mediterranean. 


392 


INTRO. 


ZEPHANIAH 


1.3 


The  prophet  had  his  text,  and  his  audience 
good  reason  to  listen.  Their  old  complacency 
was  shaken.  The  awakened  national  con- 
science found  expression  on  the  lips  of  the 
royal  prophet.  Rising  above  the  terror  of  the 
moment,  he  announced  that  these  pitiless  de- 
stroyers were  Jehovah's  instrument  of  punish- 
ment, and  the  catastrophe  that  thi-eatened  His 
day  of  judgment.  The  horror  and  mystery 
that  were  inspired  by  the  Scythians  colour  the 
prophet's  picture  of  that  day.  It  explains  why 
the  mediaeval  church  and  Thomas  of  Celano,  in 
his  Dies  Irce,  Dies  Ilia.,  drew  from  Zephaniah 
the  imagery  of  the  last  great  Judgment  Day. 
It  was  the  influence  of  this  same  powerful  pro- 
phecy that  doubtless  led  the  early  Jewish  and 
Christian  writers  to  transform  the  original 
conception  of  the  Day  of  Jehovah  as  a  gi'adual 
process,  working  out  in  the  life  of  nations,  into 
the  dramatic  picture  of  one  definite  judgment 
scene,  projected  into  the  distant  future. 

3.  Teaching.  Zephaniah,  like  all  the  true 
prophets,  aimed  to  arouse  the  moral  sense  of 
his  contemporaries,  and  thus  to  render  un- 
necessary the  fulfilment  of  his  grim  predictions. 
Unlike  most  of  his  colleagues,  he  soon  saw  the 
fruits  of  his  efforts  ;  and  yet  through  all  his 
utterances  rings  the  knell  of  seemingly  irre- 
vocable doom.  In  its  original  form  it  is  the 
most  uncompromising  of  all  the  OT.  prophecies. 
Like  the  passages  from  the  Deuteronomic  school 
of  writers,  who,  in  their  version  of  the  con- 
quest, picture  the  wholesale  slaughter  of  the 
heathen,  it  reveals  the  intense  moral  earnestness 
and  zeal  of  the  reformers  who  rallied  about  the 
young  Josiah.  As  a  chapter  in  the  religious 
history  of  Judah,  the  prophecy  is  of  great 
value. 

Fortunately,  it  is  also  possible  to  date  it 
with  unusual  exactness.  It  was  probably  de- 
livered only  a  few  days  before  the  Scythian 
hordes,  in  626  B.C.,  swept  down  the  Mediter- 
ranean coast  plain,  devastating  the  Philistine 
cities.  There  is  no  evidence  that  they  under- 
took the  more  difficult  and  less  promising  task 
of  invading  Judah  itself  ;  but  a  deep  impres- 
sion had  been  made  upon  the  popular  con- 
sciousness, and  Zephaniah's  stern  message  of 
warning  remained  to  remind  Judahites  of  the 
doom  that  had  impended. 

4.  Contents.  The  book  of  Zephaniah  con- 
tains two  distinct  themes  :  the  one  (1  --313)  ig 
that  of  universal  judgment  upon  guilty  Judah 
(c.  1)  ;  upon  her  neighbours  the  Philistines,  the 
Moabites,  and  the  Ammonites  ;  upon  her  allies, 
the  Ethiopians,  and  upon  her  old  oppressors 
the  Assyrians  (c.  2)  ;  and  upon  Jerusalem's 
corrupt  rulers  (Si^i^).  The  last  judgment  is  re- 
presented as  culminating  in  the  purification  of 
the  surviving  remnant.  This  introduces  the 
second  theme,  which  is  the  song  of  rejoicing 
over  redeemed  and  restored  Zion  (3 14-20).    Thus 


38 


the  book  in  its  present  form  is  a  complete  liter- 
ary unit  with  its  cycle  of  judgment,  purification, 
redemption,  and  restoration.  In  striking  con- 
trast to  the  dark  thunderclouds  of  Jehovah's 
wrath  with  which  it  opens  is  the  brilliant  sun- 
shine of  divine  forgiveness  and  favour  with 
which  the  book  closes.  This  completeness  is, 
however,  probably  due  to  a  later  prophet  who 
appreciated  both  sides  of  the  divine  character. 
The  original  prophecy  appears  to  have  begun 
and  ended  with  the  same  solemn  message  of 
warning,  and  to  have  included  simply  1  2-2  2, 
4-7b,  12-15  3 1-7  11-13.  The  rest  assumes  the  point 
of  view  and  very  different  conditions  of  the 
Babylonian  exile,  and  voices  the  hopes  of  re- 
storation which  kept  alive  the  faith  of  the 
scattered  remnants  of  the  Jewish  race.  Its 
language  and  vocabulary  are  also  those  of  the 
later  age.  Like  many  other  books  of  the  OT. 
the  prophecy  of  Zephaniah  reflects  the  exceed- 
ingly diverse  and  yet  significant  religious  ex- 
periences which  came  to  the  Israelitish  race  at 
various  periods  in  their  history.  Each  section, 
studied  in  the  light  of  its  historical  setting, 
reveals  certain  important  aspects  of  the  divine 
character  and  purpose. 

In  the  older  portion  of  the  prophecy  the  in- 
fluence of  Isaiah's  brilliant  figures  of  speech, 
as  well  as  ideas,  can  frequently  be  recognised. 
Through  Zephaniah  the  message  of  the  great 
prophet  again  found  fervent  expression.  The 
language  is  highly  poetical.  In  several  sec- 
tions, especially  those  which  predict  the  pun- 
ishment and  ruin  of  Jjidah,  Moab,  Ammon, 
Ethiopia,  and  Assyria,  the  lamentation  metre, 
a  line  with  three  followed  by  a  line  with  two 
beats,  appears.  Unfortunately  the  text  of  the 
first  part  of  the  prophecy  has  suffered  con- 
siderably in  transmission.  In  some  cases  the 
Gk.  versions  facilitate  the  restoration  of  the 
original. 

CHAPTER    1 

The  Day  of  Jehovah  a  Day  op  Judg- 
ment  FOR  GUILTY  JuDAH 

The  prophecy  opens  with  the  declaration  of 
universal  destruction  for  all  living  things.  In 
this  way  the  prophet  impresses  upon  his  hearers 
the  completeness  and  appalling  nature  of  the 
impending  judgment.  In  the  succeeding  vv. 
he  defines  in  detail  the  character  of  the  punish- 
ment and  the  guilty  classes  in  Judah  upon 
which  it  will  especially  fall.  It  is  in  keeping 
with  the  genius  of  the  Semitic  mind  thus  to 
pass  from  the  general  to  the  specific.  The 
Hebrews,  for  example,  began  with  God  and 
then  turned  to  note  the  evidence  of  His  work 
in  history  and  nature  ;  while  the  Aryan 
mind  first  gathered  the  evidence  from  life  and 
a  study  of  the  universe,  and  then  from  these 
ultimately  rose  to  the  conception  of  a  deity. 

3.   Stumblingblocks]   or,  slightly  correcting 


593 


1.  4 


ZEPHANIAH 


2.15 


the  text  to  bring  it  into  harmony  with  the 
rest  of  the  v.,  '  I  will  destroy  the  wicked.' 

4.  I  will  also  stretch  out  mine  hand]  cp.  the 
similar  powerful  refrain  in  Isa  5^6  912,17,21. 
All  traces  of  Baalism,  together  with  the  '  Che- 
marim  '  (RV).  the  black-robed  priests  of  Baal 
are  first  to  be  destroyed,  as  well  as  the  wicked 
priests  of  Jehovah,  who  degraded  His  worship. 

5,  6.  The  sweeping  judgment  and  refor- 
mation will  also  affect  those  who  follow  the 
example  of  their  Assyrian  masters  and  worship 
the  stars  upon  the  housetops  (cp.  2  K  23  5, 12 
Ezk8i*5),  those  who  bow  down  before  the 
moon  (Heb.  Jehovah,  but  cp.  Jer82  Dtl73,  and 
the  parallelism),  those  who  swear  fealty  to  the 
Ammonite  god,  Milcom,  and  all  those  apostates 
who  have  ceased  to  worship  Jehovah. 

7.  Jehovah's  Day  is  here  conceived  of  as  a 
day  of  judgment,  as  in  Am  5^8,  and  is  likened 
to  a  gi-eat  sacrificial  feast :  cp.  1  SO^^,  and  the 
guests  are  Judah's  enemies :  cp.  for  the  same 
figure  of  speech,  IsalS^. 

8.  The  chief  crime  of  the  princes  in  the 
prophet's  eyes  is  the  introduction  of  foreign 
customs  :  see  l8a2'5-8. 

9.  Leap  on  the  threshold]  Evidently  here 
also  the  crime  is  that  of  the  members  of  the 
court,  perhaps  a  foreign  religious  custom  :  cp. 
1  S  5  5.  But  as  there  is  no  reference  to  religious 
customs  in  the  context,  the  words  may  simply 
refer  to  the  retainers  of  the  king,  who  were  in 
constant  attendance  at  his  doors,  and  who  used 
their  influence  to  enrich  themselves  at  the 
cost  of  others.  Fill  their  masters'  houses  (Heb. 
'  house  ')  with  violence  and  deceit]  i.e.  by  their 
acts  of  oppression  and  injustice. 

10.  The  reference  is  to  the  advance  of  the 
enemy  against  Jerusalem  from  the  N.  The  fish 
gate  was  at  the  northern  end  of  the  Tyropoean 
valley  (cp.  Neh.S^  1239),  and  opened  into  the 
second  or  new  quarter  :  cp.  2  K  22 1^  R V. 

11.  Maktesh]  or,  'the  mortar'  :  the  local 
designation  of  the  merchants'  quarter,  which 
probably  lay  in  the  Tyropoean  valley,  "W.  of 
the  Temple  area. 

12.  Search  . .  with  candles]  i.e.  thoroughly,  as 
was  required  in  the  poorly- lighted  houses  of 
Palestine  :  cp.  LklS^.  Settled  on  their  lees] 
i.e.  have  received  no  infusion  of  new  and  noble 
teachings,  but  retain  the  old  fallacies  :  cp.  Jer 
4811,12.  13.  Cp.  Am5ii  Mic6i5.  14.15.  Je- 
hovah's judgment  day  is  compared  -with  a 
fierce  tempest  rapidly  advancing  toward  Judah. 
The  figure  was  suggested  by  the  swift  approach 
of  the  hordes  of  Scythian  invaders. 

CHAPTER  2 

Jehovah's  impending  Judgment  upon 
Judah's  Neighbours  and  Foes 

The  universal  note  which  is  struck  in  1 2, 3 
is  now  further  amplified.  Jehovah's  agents  of 
punishment,  the  Scythians,  shall  carry  desola- 


tion along  the  Philistine  plain  to  Egypt  (as 
they  actually  did),  and  to  the  nations  E.  of 
the  Jordan  and  Dead  Sea,  and  even  to  distant 
Assyria,  which  in  606  B.C.  fell  before  them. 

1-3.  Exhortation  to  repentance.  The  Heb. 
text  is  exceedingly  doubtful.  It  is  also  not 
clear  whether  or  not  vv.  1-3  should  go  with 
the  preceding  or  following  section.  If  the 
latter,  Philistia  is  the  nation  addressed  :  RV 
'  O  nation  that  hath  no  shame.'  2.  Before  the 
day,  etc.]  The  parallelism  suggests  that  the 
original  read,  '  before  you  become  like  the 
passing  chaff.'  3.  The  earnest  exhortation  in 
this  V.  must  primarily  have  been  addressed  to 
the  people  of  Judah,  whether  it  comes  from 
Zephaniah  or  from  a  later  editor  of  his  prophecy. 
In  doing  the  will  and  winning  the  favour  of 
God  is  man's  only  sure  way  of  escape  from  all 
the  dangers  of  life. 

4.  As  in  Am  1  ^-^  their  chief  cities  represent 
the  Philistines  as  a  whole.  Each  name  sug- 
gests the  fate  awaiting  it.  To  reproduce  the 
assonance  in  exact  English  is  impossible  : 
'  Gaza  shall  be  a  ghastly  ruin  ;  Ashkelon  a 
deserted  ash-heap.'  The  measure  is  elegiac,  so 
that  the  literary  form  powerfully  aided  in  con- 
veying the  prophet's  message.  5.  Cherethites] 
a  synonym  of  Philistines,  as  in  IS  30 1**  Ezk 
25 1*5.  6,  7.  The  Philistine  coast  plain  shall  be 
desolate  and  given  up  to  shepherds  and  their 
flocks. 

8.  The  nations  of  Moab  and  Ammon  were 
hereditary  enemies  of  the  Israelites  whom  they 
treated  with  contempt  on  every  possible  occa- 
sion. Their  hatred  was  returned  by  Israel, 
whose  attitude  is  well  expressed  in  their  ac- 
cepted view  of  the  origin  of  these  nations 
(Gn  11)30-38).  The  reproach  of  Moab,  and  the 
revilings  of.  .  Ammon  were  the  taunts  and 
curses  they  had  uttered  from  time  to  time,  es- 
pecially when  Israel  was  in  danger  from  other 
foes  :  cp.  Isa  1 6  6  Jer  48  26, 27, 29, 30, 42.  Cp.  also  for 
the  same  attitude  at  a  later  date  Ezk  25  i^ii.  11. 
Famish]  i.e. '  starve '  ;  hence  it  means  '  weaken,' 
'  cause  to  fail.'  12.  Ethiopians]  lit. '  Cushites,' 
i.e.  the  Egyptians  who  at  this  time  were  ruled 
by  Ethiopian  rulers.  Ethiopia  was  the  part  of 
Egypt  S.  of  the  first  cataract  of  the  Nile. 

13-15.  Assyria  with  its  capital  city,  Nineveh, 
will  also  be  destroyed.  The  cormorant  and 
the  bittern]  RV  '  the  pelican  and  the  porcupine ' 
(i.e.  the  hedgehog),  both  of  them  being  signs 
of  desolation,  as  they  avoid  the  presence  of 
man:  cp.  Isa34ii.  Upper  lintels]  RV  'chapi- 
ters,' i.e.  the  capitals  of  the  pillars,  now  lying 
with  the  other  stones  in  heaps  on  the  ground 
as  they  have  fallen.  Their  voice  shall  sing] 
better,  '  the  little  owl  shall  sing,'  as  many 
scholars  read.  For  desolation  read  '  the 
raven.' 

For  he  shall  uncover]  RV  '  for  he  hath  laid 
bare.' 


594 


3.  1 


ZEPHANIAH— HAGGAI 


INTRO. 


CHAPTER  3 

The  Judgment  upon  the  Evil  Rulers  op 
Jerusalem,  and  its  ultimate  Purifi- 
cation AND  Restoration 

Like  Amos  and  Micah,  the  prophet  sternly 
denounces  the  crimes  of  the  ruling  classes  in 
Jerusalem,  points  out  their  ingratitude  to  Je- 
hovah, and  announces  the  doom  that  is  in- 
evitable. The  gloom  of  the  opening  vv.  is 
dispelled,  however,  by  the  hopes  of  restoration 
which  appear  to  reflect  a  later  age.  Vv.  9,  10, 
14-20  have  the  exultant  ring  of  Isa  40-55. 

I.  Her  that  is  filthy  and  polluted]  evidently 
Jerusalem.  The  cause  is  the  crimes  of  her 
civil  and  religious  leaders.  3.  They  gnaw  not 
the  bones  till  the  morrow]  LXX  is  more  in 
accord  with  the  context  and  the  habits  of  wolves, 
'  they  leave  nothing  over  till  morning.' 

6.  Towers]  i.e.  the  fortified  towers  at  the 


corners  of  the  walls.  7.  So  their  dwelling  .  . 
punished  them]  LXX  renders,  '  And  nothing 
that  I  have  enjoined  her  will  be  cut  oflf  from 
her  sight.' 

9.  Purelanguage]  cp.Isa65Hos2i6,i7.  They 
will  no  moi'e  call  upon  the  names  of  the  heathen 
gods:  cp.  15.  10.  RM  reads,  'From  beyond 
the  rivers  of  Ethiopia  shall  they  bring  my 
suppliants,  even  the  daughter  of  my  dispersed, 
for  an  oifering  unto  me.' 

14-20.  A  Messianic  hymn,  in  which  not  the 
Messiah  but  Jehovah  Himself  is  the  promised 
King  and  Deliverer  (vv.  17,  18).  I8^  RM 
'  which  hast   borne  the  burden  of   reproach.' 

19.  Her  that  halteth,  and  .  .  was  driven  out] 
i.e.  the  exiled  Jewish  race  :  cp.  Mic4'J>"  Jer33^ 
Isa  42  7. 

20.  When  I  bring  again  (RV)  your  captivity] 
i.e.  when  I  restore  yom-  captives:  cp.  Ps53^ 
126i>2. 


HAGGAI 


INTRODUCTION 


1.  The  Prophet.  Yery  little  is  known  con- 
cerning Haggai.  He  was  a  contemporary 
(EzrGi^)  and  colleague  of  Zechariah.  His 
reference  to  the  first  Temple  (23)  has  been 
made  the  basis  for  a  not  improbable  inference 
that  he  was  a  very  old  man  at  the  time  of  his 
public  prophesying,  one  who  had  outlasted 
the  Babylonian  exile.  But,  like  many  others 
through  whom  God  has  spoken,  we  know 
Haggai  only  through  the  messages  he  delivered. 

2.  The  Date  of  the  Prophecies.  The  book 
of  Haggai  is  one  of  the  few  sections  of  Scrip- 
ture which  can  be  dated  with  gi-eat  accuracy. 
Its  messages  were  delivered  in  the  course  of 
four  months,  during  the  second  year  of  the 
reign  of  Darius  Hystaspes,  520  B.C.,  nineteen 
years  after  Cyrus  had  proclaimed  the  freedom 
of  the  Jewish  exiles  to  retui'u  to  their  homes 
in  Palestine.  On  at  least  five  occasions  dur- 
ing this  short  period,  the  prophet  appealed 
to  the  people  on  behalf  of  what  seemed  to  him 
fco  be  the  great  and  immediate  need  of  the 
day.  He  was  determined  to  carry  it  to  com- 
pletion. 

3.  The  occasion  of  writing.  The  prophet 
had  before  him  a  very  practical  aim,  the 
awakening  of  a  popular  enthusiasm  among  his 
fellow-countrymen  for  erecting  or  completing 
the  second  Temple.  According  to  Ezra  (chs. 
1-6)  there  had  been  an  immediate  return  of 
exiles  from  Babylonia  to  Judah  after  the  per- 


595 


missive  decree  of  Cyrus  in  538  B.C.  These 
exiles  had  promptly  begun  to  build  a  new 
Temple  on  the  hallowed  site  of  the  old  one,  now 
in  ruins.  They  had  been  checked  by  Samari- 
tan opposition,  and  for  sixteen  years  the  work 
of  rebuilding  had  been  neglected.  At  best 
the  work  accomplished  had  been  slight,  and, 
as  a  whole,  was  still  to  be  achieved. 

The  prophet  clearly  addresses  a  people  who 
need  to  be  roused  into  activity.  The  hopes 
created  by  the  generosity  and  friendliness  of 
Cyrus  had  been  crushed  by  the  pressure  of 
Samaritan  jealousy  in  Palestine,  and  by  the 
neglect  of  the  successor  of  Cyrus.  They  had 
experienced  a  series  of  barren  seasons,  and 
were  desperately  poor.  As  a  community  they 
had  lost  heart,  and  needed  some  impelling 
power  to  give  them  renewed  enthusiasm  and 
hopefulness. 

The  voice  of  Haggai  was  uplifted  at  just 
the  right  moment.  Whether  old  or  young, 
whether  he  had  bided  his  time  all  these  years, 
or  was  seized  by  his  first  inspiration  for  leader- 
ship, he  was  the  man  of  the  hour.  He  saw  in 
a  political  crisis  his  people's  opportunity  to  go 
forward  with  the  enterprise  which  would  be  of 
supreme  spiritual  significance  for  them,  the 
building  of  the  Temple. 

The  political  crisis  of  which  he  took  such 
instant  advantage  was  the  assumption  of  the 
throne  of  Persia  by  Darius  Hystaspes,  or  Dai'ius 


INTRO. 


HAGGAI 


the  Great.  Darius  had  no  indisputable  claim 
to  the  throne  ;  and  found  himself  at  the  outset 
compelled  to  exhibit  his  ability  to  subdue  and 
rule  the  far-reaching  provinces  of  his  empire. 
The  outcome  was  for  some  time  in  doubt. 
There  was  a  '  shaking  of  the  nations  '  on  every 
side,  and  meanwhile  the  loyal  peoples  of  Syria 
were  left  very  much  to  their  own  devices.  It  was 
a  crisis  which  seemed  likely  to  become  an  op- 
portunity. Darius  was  likely  to  prove  a  friend 
to  the  returned  exiles,  and  to  secure  their 
friendship  by  withdrawing  the  prohibition  of 
the  work  issued  by  his  predecessor  (Ezr4^!  ^■i), 
and  Haggai  seized  the  opportunity  to  rouse 
the  dormant  energies  and  ambitions  of  the 
people. 

4.  The  Prophecies.  The  book  of  Haggai 
contains  four  exhortations  by  the  prophet. 
Three  of  these  relate  directly  to  the  building 
of  the  Temple,  and  the  last  of  all  concerns 
Zerubbabel,  the  governor.  These  messages 
are  direct  and  practical.  They  sound  a  fine 
ethical  note,  recalling  the  people  to  their 
manifest  and  immediate  duty  toward  God. 
The  first  section  (c.  1)  is  a  summons  to  build 
the  house  of  God,  and  its  sequel  ;  the  second 
(2  1-9),  an  encouraging  word ;  the  third  (2  lO-i?)^ 
an  acted  parable  of  explanation  ;  and  the 
fourth  (220-23j^  a  prediction  regarding  Zerub- 
babel. There  is  a  unity  of  meaning  from  the 
beginning  to  the  end,  in  harmony  with  the 
claims  of  the  book  that  it  represents  the 
utterances  of  a  brief  period. 

5.  Characteristic  Features  of  the  Book. 
There  is  much  vigour  and  individuality  in 
Haggai's  addresses.  His  words  are  those  of  a 
leader  who  perceives  a  great  opportunity  and 
seeks  to  meet  it.  He  does  not  enlarge  our  in- 
heritance of  truth,  nor  give  us  new  visions  of 
God  in  His  universe.  He  rather  rendered  a 
special  service  to  his  people  at  a  time  of  need. 
He  aroused  them  to  their  duty,  dispelled  their 
faintheartedness,  sustained  their  flagging  ener- 
gies, gave  the  achievement  its  true  significance 
as  the  next  step  which  God  called  upon  them 
to  take,  and  kept  alive  their  loyalty  to  the 
great  hopes  which  his  famous  predecessors  had 
kindled  in  their  hearts.  Altogether  Haggai 
was  an  important  link  in  the  prophetic  suc- 
cession. He  just  precedes  Zechariah,  whose 
first  preserved  prophecy  (Zechli-^)  belongs 
chronologically  to  the  time  between  the  utter- 
ance of  Haggai  in  2i-9  and  that  in  2io-i9. 

That  the  prophet's  style  differs  from  that 
of  Isaiah  or  Jeremiah  is  not  strange.  His 
style  fits  the  situation.  A  plain,  insistent 
message  of  practical  duty  was  what  was  needed. 
Spiritual  life,  hope  for  the  future,  loyalty  to 
God  and  to  national  traditions — all  these  su- 
preme aims  waited  on  the  erection  of  the 
Temple.  That  Haggai  saw  this  was  an  un- 
doubted proof  of  his  prophetic  quality. 


CHAPTER   1 


A   Call  to  begin   Building  the  Temple 

i-ii.  Haggai  repeatedly  urges  the  leaders 
of  Judah  and  the  people  to  bend  their  energies 
to  the  rebuilding  of  the  ruined  Temple 
(August,  520  B.C.). 

1.  Darius  the  king]  This  was  unquestionably 
Hystaspes,  who  was  raised  to  the  Persian  throne 
after  the  death  of  the  impostor,  Smerdis. 

Sixth  month]  the  6th  of  the  Jewish  year, 
i.e.  the  month  Elul  (August-September). 

Zerubbabel]  A  prince  of  the  royal  line  of 
Judah,  and  the  accepted  civil  leader  of  the 
people,  just  as  Joshua  was  the  religious  leader. 
He  ruled  Judah  as  a  Persian  province. 

2.  This  people]  Haggai,  like  other  prophets, 
did  not  need  to  create  a  sense  of  wrongdoing, 
but  only  to  awaken  conscience.  He  challenged 
their  idle  excuses.  The  time  is  not  come] 
Evidently  this  was  no  sincere  desire  to  await 
some  specified  date,  but  a  wilful  delaying  of 
duty.  In  the  interests  of  religion  it  demanded 
attention.  4.  Time  for  you,  O  ye]  lit.  '  for 
you,  you,'  the  repeated  pronoun  being  very 
emphatic,  so  as  to  make  a  sharp  contrast  be- 
tween them  and  the  God  they  dishonoured. 

Cieled  houses]  houses  panelled  with  costly 
cedar  planks.  They  could  seem  to  afford 
luxuries  for  themselves,  but  were  indifferent 
to  the  ruined  state  of  the  Temple. 

5.  Consider  your  ways]  lit.  '  Set  your  heart 
on  your  ways,'  i.e.  consider  thoughtfully  the 
situation  in  which  you  find  yourselves.  An 
appeal  made  four  times  by  the  prophet.  6.  Ye 
eat,  but  ye  have  not  enough]  lit.  '  but  not  to 
satisfy.'  This  v.  formulates  a  series  of  vigor- 
ous comparisons,  indicating  that  their  labour 
had  been  ill  rewarded.  They  had  experienced 
failures  of  crops,  continuous  poverty,  and 
lessening  of  physical  vigour.  Bag  with  holes] 
No  one  gets  ahead,  but  seems  to  lose  his  money 
as  fast  as  he  accumulates  it.  A  vi-\id  picture 
of  alluring  hopes  and  baffling  disappointments. 

8.  Go  up  to  the  mountain]  They  were  to 
act  at  once.  The  prophet  was  in  earnest. 
The  mountain  would  be  '  the  hill-country  of 
Judah,'  the  mountainous  neighbom-hood. 
Compare  Neh28  and  S^^.  Bring  wood]  i.e. 
timber  suitable  for  building.  The  house]  the 
Temple  of  Jehovah,  which  had  been  lying  in 
ruins  since  being  destroyed  at  the  command 
of  Nebuchadi-ezzar  (2K259).  And  I  will  be 
glorified]  better,  '  and  that  I  may  display  my 
glory.'  Here  the  prophetfirst  interprets  these 
calamities  as  being  due  to  God's  anger  at  their 
selfishness.  The  two  following  vv.  emphasise 
this  explanation.  The  people  were  zealous 
enough  over  their  own  affairs,  but  wholly 
neglectful  of  their  obligations  to  God. 

12-15.  The  leaders  and  people,  their  con- 
sciences  awakened,    encouraged    by    Haggai, 


596 


1.  12 


HAGGAI 


2.  13 


begin  work  upon  the  Temple  (September,  520 

B.C.)- 

12.  The  remnant  of  the  people]  i.e.  the  rest 
of  the  people  ;  those  who  had  returned  from 
Babylon  were  but  a  fraction  of  the  once 
numerous  nation.  Did  fear]  It  was  a  real 
religious  change  that  came  over  them.  They 
obeyed,  not  because  of  terror,  but  from  a  new 
sense  of  reverence  for  God.  13.  The  LORD'S 
messenger]  This  v.  is  rejected  by  many 
scholars  as  superfluous.  They  also  question 
this  title  as  needless.  It  is  the  only  instance 
in  Scripture  where  a  prophet  uses  such  a  title 
concerning  himself.  Nevertheless,  it  is  not 
incongruous.  I  am  with  you]  This  encour- 
aging word  assured  the  people  that  they  were 
acting  as  God  would  have  them  do.  14.  Stirred 
up  the  spirit]  The  first  result  of  Haggai's  un- 
sparing sermon  was  a  spiritual  change  in  the 
hearts  of  his  hearers.  A  zealous  purpose  was 
once  more  kindled.  The  second  result  was 
practical.  Within  three  weeks  from  the  date 
of  his  first  appeal  the  work  upon  the  Temple 
had  begun,  with  unanimity  and  heartiness. 
What  more  searching  test  could  a  preacher 
have  or  what  more  convincing  proof  of  his 
power  ? 

CHAPTER  2 

Words  of  Encouragement.     The   Glory 
OF  THE  Second  Temple 

1-9.  An  encouraging  message  in  counter- 
action of  disparaging  comments  upon  the 
Temple  structure,  setting  forth  the  significance 
and  glory  of  the  new  Temple. 

I.  Seventh  month']  i.e.  Tishri,  September- 
October.  This  message  was  delivered  just 
four  weeks  after  the  beginning  of  the  work. 
So  heartily  had  every  one  united  in  it  that  the 
general  outline  and  character  of  the  new 
edifice  had  become  apparent.  The  Feast  of 
Tabernacles  was  in  progress.  Haggai  spoke 
to  the  people  on  'the  last  day  of  this  feast, 
when  all  were  gathered  in  one  great  assembly. 

3.  Who  /.s  left  among  you]  More  tha,n  66 
years  had  passed  since  the  destruction  of  the 
first  Temple,  but  it  was  quite  possible  that 
there  were  some  who  could  describe  that 
glorious  structure  as  they  had  known  it. 
These  elders  referred  to  the  newer  Temple 
with  disparagement,  to  the  dejection  and 
dismay  of  the  people.  Gold  and  silver  and 
rare  woods  made  Solomon's  Temple  splendid  ; 
the  edifice  now  rising  was  of  rough  stone. 
No  wonder  the  elders  became  reminiscent. 

First]  better,  '  former.'  4.  Be  strong-]  or, 
'have  courage.'  Artd  work]  keep  at  your 
task  :  cp.  David's  words  to  Solomon,  1  Cli2820. 

5.  My  spirit  remaineth]  RM  '  abideth,'  is 
standing  in  your  presence.  What  a  basis  for 
continuing  courage  !  cp.  Zech4*'.  Jehovah 
was  in  their  midst,  as  He  had  always  been  in 


times  of  need.  Moreover,  they  would  soon 
have  adequate  proof  of  His  presence.  6.  Yet 
once,  it  /.s  a  little  while]  This  is  literal,  but  it 
evidently  means  '  But  a  little  while.'  It 
seems  to  refer  to  the  shaking,  which  might  be 
soon  expected. 

7.  Shake  all  nations]  This  clearly  refers  to 
political  overturnings.  The  prophet  expected 
that  the  great  empire,  all  aflame  with  rebellion, 
would  be  broken  up,  and  that  the  Jewish  com- 
munity would  have  its  coveted  opportunity. 
His  language,  probably  figurative,  implies  cor- 
responding convulsions  of  nature.  The  general 
idea  is  that  God  will  soon  take  hold  of  the 
situation  and  deal  with  it.  The  desire  of  all 
nations  shall  come]  Through  Jerome  and  the 
Vulgate  the  old  Rabbinical  Messianic  interpre- 
tation of  this  phrase  was  given  to  the  Christian 
church,  as  if  it  referred  directly  to  Chri.st,  but 
the  verb  '  shall  come  '  is  a  plural.  More  likely 
the  meaning  in  Haggai's  mind  was  (as  RV), 
'  And  the  desirable  things  of  all  nations  shall 
come.'  These  were  under  Jehovah's  control. 
As  the  nations  came  to  know  Him  and  to  render 
obedience,  they  would  bi4ng  with  joy  to  His 
Temple  their  choicest  gifts.  With  glory]  The 
Temple  then  would  seem  glorious  enough. 

9.  The  glory  of  this  latter  house]  RV  '  The 
latter  glory  of  this  house  .  .  than  the  former,' 
a  prediction  involving  courage  and  foresight. 
It  was  spoken  to  a  community  politically  in- 
significant, without  resom-ces,  tributary  to  the 
powerful  monarch  of  Persia,  engaged  in  erect- 
ing a  simple  building  for  religious  purposes. 
It  was  a.  triumph  of  religious  idealism.  As  a 
permanent  promise  it  beautifully  phrases  the 
assurance  of  the  supremacy  of  Christ  and  the 
church  in  the  world.  Will  I  give  peace]  Where 
God  is  established,  there  is  a  peace  which  cannot 
be  disturbed  (Jnl623). 

10-19.  A  symbolical  message  emphasising 
the  significance  of  the  long-continued  neglect 
of  God  by  the  community  and  promising  bless- 
ings for  obedience. 

10.  Ninth  montli]  i.e.  Chislev,  or  Nov.-Dec. 
The  work  on  the  Temple  had  now  been  under 
way  for  three  months,  ii.  Ask  now  the 
priests  .  .  the  law]  better,  '  ask  of  the  priests  a 
thorah,'  or  deliverance.  In  the  absence  of  a 
definite  statement  in  the  written  Law  covering 
a  case  it  was  the  custom  to  submit  a  question 
of  usage  to  the  priests  (Dt  17  s-i3).  Their  reply 
was  a  '  thorah  '  or  law.  The  passage  in  the 
written  Law  most  resembling  the  judgment 
here  rendered  is  Lv62'''28  12.  Holy  flesh] 
flesh  that  has  been  offered  in  sacrifice  and  is 
being  taken  home  to  be  consumed.  Shall  it  be 
holy  ?]  i.e.  is  the  garment  in  which  such  holy 
food  is  being  carried  capable  of  giving  holiness 
to  other  food  ?  The  priests  replied  that  holi- 
ness could  not  be  communicated  in  that  way. 

13.   Unclean  by  a  dead  body]   A  corpse  was 


597 


2.  14 


HAGGAI— ZECHARIAH 


INTRO. 


regarded  as  making  every  one  who  came  in 
contact  with  it  ceremonially  unclean.  The 
priests  declared  that  this  pollution  would 
extend  to  whatever  these  infected  persons 
touched.  Uncleanness,  then,  could  be  pro- 
pagated readily  ;  holiness  could  not. 

14.  That  which  they  offer  there]  An  effective 
application  of  these  decisions  to  the  situation. 
The  restoration  of  the  ritual  service,  as  de- 
scribed in  Ezr3,  was  good  in  its  way  but 
insufficient  to  make  them  holy  as  a  people, 
while  their  actual  neglect  of  the  Temple  was 
enough  to  pollute  everything  they  did.  In 
God's  sight  they  could  only  be  regarded  as 
unclean  and  worthy  of  punishment. 

15.  From  this  day  and  upward]  better,  'and 
onward.'  He  then  bids  them  think  of  their 
past  sufferings  and  resumes  the  thought  here 
begun  in  v.  18.  There  should  be  a  full  stop 
after  upward.  From  before,  etc.]  A  better 
translation  is  that  of  Nowack,  '  Before  a  stone 
was  laid  upon  a  stone  in  the  Temple  of  the 
Lord,  how  did  ye  fare  ?  When  one  came  to  a 
heap  of  twenty,'  etc.  16.  Twenty  measures] 
Realisations  were  but  half  the  expectations. 
Pressfat]  winevat.  Fifty  vessels']  rather, '  mea- 
sures.'     18.   And  upward]  better,  '  onwards.' 

The  day  that  the  foundation  of  the  LORD'S 
temple  was  laid]  Probably  the  day  on  which 
he  was  speaking.  Haggai  refers  to  their 
bitter  experience  up  to  the  day  of  active 
work. 


19,  Is  the  seed  yet  in  the  barn  ?]  Evi- 
dently he  means  to  draw  out  a  negative  reply. 
Yet  his  word  is  encouraging.  God  is  going  to 
bless  them.  It  takes  time  to  recover  from  the 
ill  effects  of  selfishness,  but  a  brighter  future 
was  before  them. 

20-23.  ^1^  inspiring  declaration  to  Zerub- 
babel  that  in  him  rested  the  ancient  hopes  of 
Israel. 

20.  Four  and  twentieth  day]  the  same  great 
festal  day.  22.  The  throne  of  kingdoms] 
LXX  '  thrones.'  Haggai  looked  forward 
to  a  disruption  of  the  great  Persian  empire 
into  its  tributary  nations  and  to  struggles 
between  them,  which  would  give  Israel  its 
opportunity.  23.  In  that  day]  The  day  of 
general  political  convulsion,  would  be  the  day 
of  Messianic  advance,  and  of  the  establishment 
of  Jehovah's  kingdom.  The  forwarding  of 
Israel's  spiritual  hopes  seemed  to  Haggai,  as 
to  earlier  prophets,  to  necessitate  the  opening 
of  political  freedom.  Make  thee  as  a  signet] 
the  sign  of  authority.  So  far  as  we  know 
Zerubbabel  never  exercised  any  real,  inde- 
pendent power.  He  served,  however,  to  em- 
body and  keep  alive  the  Hope  which  gave 
permanence  and  power  to  Israel's  ideals. 

Haggai  contributed  but  little  to  the  volume 
of  prophecy,  but  that  little  was  of  great  value. 
At  a  critical  moment  in  Israel's  history  he  said 
the  timely,  vigorous,  ethical  word,  and  put 
into  apprehensible  form  the  great  ideal. 


ZECHARIAH 


INTRODUCTION 


I.  Historical  Background.  Zechariah  was 
the  grandson  of  Iddo,  who  is  mentioned  in 
Nehl24,i6  as  the  head  of  one  of  the  priestly 
families  that  returned  from  the  exile.  The 
Jews  had  been  carried  captive  to  Babylon  in 
597  and  586  B.C.  ;  but  Cyrus  the  Great,  soon 
after  the  capture  of  Babylon  in  538,  promul- 
gated a  decree  permitting  them  to  return  to 
their  native  land  and  restore  Jerusalem,  under 
the  governorship  of  Sheshbazzar  (called  also 
Sanabassar),  probably  a  prince  of  their  own 
royal  line  (Ezrli-n  2  Ch  3(5  22, 23  Isa4428  4513). 
It  is  uncertain  how  many  of  the  Jews  took 
advantage  of  the  liberty  granted  them,  as  the 
numbers  given  in  the  book  of  Ezra  may  be 
taken  from  a  census  of  Judsea  made  at  some 
time  subsequent  to  the  return.  Certainly  the 
returned  exiles  included  some  of  the  best 
Jewish  families,  and  among  them  Zechariah, 


then   only  a  boy,  probably  accompanied  his 
grandfather. 

The  religious  and  patriotic  spirit  of  the 
exiles  had  been  stirred  by  Ezekiel  (1117-20 
1660-63  3411-31  3622-38  3721-28)  and  by  such 
writings  as  Isa4820  498-1^  52  M2,  etc.  ;  but  in 
the  difficulties  of  the  retvu-n,  and  the  weary 
task  of  rebuilding  their  ruined  homes,  their 
enthusiasm  soon  died  away.  Their  efforts  were 
watched  and  hindered  by  enemies  (Ezr45'*'), 
who  tried  to  prejudice  them  at  the  Court  of 
Babylon  by  reporting  that  they  were  plotting 
to  obtain  political  freedom  (Ezr  49-16).  The 
years  slipped  past.  Cyrus,  the  Jews'  best 
friend,  died  in  529  B.C.  His  son  Cambyses, 
who  succeeded  him,  did  nothing  to  help  them  ; 
and  when  Darius,  his  successor,  ascended  the 
throne'  in  521,  the  Jews  at  Jerusalem  had 
altogether  lost  heart.     Thi'ough  the  misrepre- 


598 


INTRO. 


ZECHARIAH 


INTRO. 


sentations  of  their  enemies  they  had  been 
forbidden  to  rebuild  the  city  walls.  Their 
Temple,  which  had  been  burned  in  58G  by  the 
Assyrian  general,  still  lay  a  blackened  ruin 
(although  some  maintain  that  the  foundation- 
stone  was  laid  as  early  as  537)  ;  nor  did  they 
see  how  it  could  be  restored.  At  this  critical 
moment  Grod  sent  them  a  message  which  mar- 
vellously encouraged  and  uplifted  them.  The 
prophets  Haggai  andZechariah  were  the  bearers 
of  this  message. 

These  two  prophets  were  contemporaries, 
and  their  prophecies  were  delivered  almost 
simultaneously.  They  are  mentioned  together 
in  Ezr6^  61"*,  as  having  been  raised  up  by  God 
to  encourage  the  Jews  to  rebuild  the  Temple. 
Haggai  appeared  first,  and  in  August  520  B.C. 
charged  the  Jews  with  neglecting  the  building 
of  Grod's  House  :  cp.  Hagl.  This  appeal  had 
immediate  results.  Within  a  month  the  foun- 
dation of  the  Temple  was  laid.  Soon  after, 
Zechariah  uttered  his  first  prophecy  (Zech  1 1-'^). 
Towards  the  close  of  the  year  520,  Haggai  in 
two  oracles  finished  his  recorded  prophecies  ; 
and  early  in  521  Zechariah  delivered  the  famous 
series,  comprising  eight  symbolical  visions, 
which  appears  in  Zech  1  ''-6  ^,  with  an  appendix, 
(]9-i5_  Two  years  afterwards  chs.  7,  8  were 
spoken  in  response  to  an  enquiry  by  the  men 
of  Bethel,  or  perhaps  a  deputation  from  Baby- 
lon, as  to  the  observance  of  a  fast  ;  and  these 
are  now  regarded  in  most  quarters  as  complet- 
ing the  prophecies  of  Zechariah,  as  chs.  9-14 
can  hardly  be  ascribed  to  him. 

2.  Zechariah's  Method.  Haggai  was  a  lay- 
man, Zechariah  was  of  priestly  descent.  These 
facts,  to  a  certain  extent,  explain  the  different 
methods  of  the  two.  Haggai  is  practical,  plain, 
clear,  in  unfolding  his  message  :  Zechariah  is 
equally  practical,  but  his  method  is  not  so 
plain.  He  clothes  his  message  in  the  language 
of  symbol.  It  is  true  that  in  the  opening 
passage  (Zech  1 1-^)  his  language  is  simple  and 
direct.  He  brings  before  his  hearers  the  prac- 
tical teaching  of  the  earlier  prophets,  especially 
of  Amos  and  Micah,  and  urges  his  own  genera- 
tion not  to  repeat  the  mistakes  of  their  fathers. 
But  from  1 '''  to  6  ^  he  unfolds  his  message  in 
a  series  of  visions,  the  rich  imagery  of  which 
would  make  a  powerful  appeal  to  the  Oriental 
mind.  This  change  from  the  direct  method 
(the  '  Thus  saith  the  Lord ')  of  the  earlier 
prophets  is  characteristic  of  most  of  the  post- 
exilic  prophecies.  From  the  time  of  Ezekiel 
onwards  to  the  2nd  cent,  of  the  Christian 
era,  the  symbolic  method  of  writing  occupied 
a  leading  place  in  Jewish  religious  literature 
The  residence  in  Babylon  would  be  responsible 
to  some  extent  for  the  rise  of  this  kind  of 
prophecy.  There  the  exiles  would  be  sub- 
jected to  the  influences  of  a  highly-developed 
art  ;  and  theii"  situation  was  such  as  naturally 


599 


to  induce  a  visional  or  symbolic  style  of 
thought.  To  some  extent  also  the  change  may 
be  ascribed  to  the  fact  that  Ezekiel,  who  ini- 
tiated it,  and  Zechariah,  who  followed  success- 
fully in  his  steps,  were  priests,  accustomed  to 
read  divine  messages  through  the  symbols  of 
religious  ritual.  In  any  case,  the  method  was 
abundantly  justified  by  its  results.  Their 
symbolic  messages  touched  the  imagination  of 
their  hearers  in  much  the  same  way  as  the 
parables  of  our  Lord,  in  a  later  age,  appealed 
to  the  Galilean  multitudes.  Zechariah's  imme- 
diate aim  was  to  raise  the  drooping  spirits  of 
his  countrymen,  and  encourage  them  to  pro- 
ceed at  once  with  the  rebuilding  of  the  Temple. 
In  this  he  was  entirely  successful,  the  Temple 
being  completed  and  dedicated  in  51 G  B.C. 

3.  Zechariah's  Teaching.  In  chs.  1-8, 
which  are  all  that  can  with  confidence  be 
ascribed  to  Zechariah,  the  Messianic  ideas  are 
local  and  national  for  the  most  part.  Sin  is  to 
be  eradicated  (5i-ii),  the  priesthood  purified 
(31-s),  Jerusalem  made  glorious  (2i-i2),  and  a 
prince  of  the  house  of  David  (probably  Zerub- 
babel)  set  up  as  ruler  (S^-iO).  These  thoughts 
are  repeated  and  i-e-enforced  in  the  appendix 
to  the  series  of  visions  (G^-is).  The  idea  that 
God  dwells  far  away,  and  sends  messages  by 
angels,  etc.,  appears  in  l^-iMi,  etc.  This  is 
generally  regarded  as  a  feature  of  later  Juda- 
ism, influenced  by  contact  with  Persia  ;  though, 
in  view  of  recent  discoveries,  it  is  now  ad- 
mitted that  points  of  resemblance  between  the 
religion  of  Assyria  and  the  religion  of  Israel 
existed  from  the  beginning.  In  3i'2  ]§  the 
first  mention  of  Satan  in  Hebrew  literature. 
The  idea  is  more  fully  developed  in  the  (later) 
book  of  Job.  The  personification  of  wicked- 
ness (5  ^-11)  as  a  woman  is  a  peculiar  feature  of 
Zechariah,  and  indicates  that  tendency  to  regard 
evil  as  an  independent  power  warring  against 
the  power  of  good,  which  characterises  the 
religion  of  Persia. 

Zechariah  is  a  prophet  not  only  to  his  own 
time,  but  to  every  age.  He  teaches  that  repent- 
ance— '  heart  sorrow  and  a  clear  life  ensuing  ' 
— is  the  first  duty  of  a  nation.  He  finds  in  the 
past  guidance  for  men  in  the  present,  and 
seeks  to  impress  upon  them  that  '  the  fear  of 
the  Lord  is  the  beginning  of  wisdom.'  Like 
all  the  prophets  he  is  a  patriot,  anxious  for  the 
welfare  and  prosperity  of  his  nation,  but  sure 
that  only  'righteousness  exalteth  a  nation,' 
and  that  God  will  dwell  only  with  those  who 
are  willing  to  do  His  will.  He  sees  that  out- 
ward advantages  are  of  no  avail  without  the 
purified  heart,  and  that  there  can  be  no  real 
happiness  until  sin  is  removed  from  the 
national  life.  He  realises  too  that  the  forms 
of  religion  are  useless  without  the  spirit,  and 
proclaims  that  'to  obey  is  better  than  to 
sacrifice,'  and  that  fasting  is  no  substitute  for 


INTRO. 


ZECHARIAH 


rNTRO. 


truth  and  justice.  Also  he  showed  that  Israel's 
priesthood,  imperfect  though  it  was,  repre- 
sented an  ideal  of  holiness,  and  had  its  place 
in  preparing  the  way  for  the  ideal  Priest — the 
Messiah. 

4.  Origin  and  Teaching  of  chs.  9-14.  When 
we  pass  from  c.  8  to  c.  9  we  come  into  a  differ- 
ent atmosphere.  In  chs.  1-8  the  situation  is 
quite  clear — dates  are  given,  practical  diffi- 
culties are  discussed,  well-known  leaders  are 
mentioned  by  name,  and  the  people  are  en- 
gaged in  a  specific  work,  to  which  Zechariah 
encourages  them.  In  chs.  9-14  all  these 
guiding  lines  have  disappeared.  There  is  no 
mention  of  temple-building,  or  of  Joshua  or 
Zerubbabel,  or  even  of  Babylon  :  instead,  we 
find  cities  and  countries  not  mentioned  hitherto 
— Hamath,  Damascus,  Egypt,  Greece.  In  1  ^ 
we  read,  '  all  the  earth  sitteth  still  and  is  at 
rest'  ;  but  in  chs.  9-14  there  is  war,  destruc- 
tion, trouble,  mourning.  In  chs.  1-8  there  is 
a  series  of  well-arranged  oracles,  with  dates, 
and  for  the  most  part  the  same  superscription, 
'  I  lifted  up  mine  eyes  ' :  in  chs.  9-14  the  very 
period  is  a  subject  of  conjecture,  the  various 
oracles  are  difficult  to  disentangle,  and  both 
thought  and  style  are  much  changed.  These 
are  some  of  the  reasons  why  most  modern 
scholars  agree  that  chs.  9-14  were  not  written 
by  Zechariah.  Who  the  real  author  was,  and 
what  were  the  date  and  purpose  of  his  writing, 
it  is  not  so  easy  to  determine.  According  to 
one  view,  chs.  9-14  are  composed  of  two  dis- 
tinct prophecies— (a)  9-11,  137-9;  (b)  12-14 
(with  the  exception  of  13 '^■9).  (a)  is  considered 
a  very  early  prophecy,  written  in  the  time  of 
Amos  or  Hosea  about  the  year  740  B.C.,  on  the 
following  amongst  other  grounds  :  (1)  Ephraim 
is  mentioned  (for  Israel)  with  Judah  (9  io-i3 
10  6''''),  which  is  hardly  likely  to  have  been  the 
case  after  the  northern  kingdom  came  to  an 
end  in  722  ;  (2)  Assyria  occurs  along  with 
Egypt  as  a  world-power  (IQiO'ii),  whereas, 
long  before  the  time  of  Zechariah,  the  empire 
of  Assyria  had  passed  away  ;  and  (3)  the  three 
shepherds  (c.  11)  seem  to  represent  Zechariah, 
Shallum,  and  a  third  person  now  unknown — 
kings  of  Israel  who  died  a  violent  death. 

These  reasons,  however,  are  not  conclusive. 
Ephraim  may  be  explained  as  referring  to  the 
exiles  of  the  northern  kingdom  ;  and  Assyria 
seems  to  have  continued  in  use  as  a  territorial 
name  to  designate  the  rulers  of  that  country, 
whether  Persian,  Greek,  or  Seleucid.  With 
regard  to  the  three  shepherds  of  c.  11,  the 
application  to  Zechariah,  Shallum,  and  an  un- 
named king  is  mere  conjecture. 

In  the  same  way,  (bj  (chs.  12-14)  is  dated 
in  the  pre-exilic  age.  The  attacks  on  idolatry 
and  prophesying  (132.3)  are  thought  to  be 
consistent  with  the  religious  decay  of  the  7th 
cent.    B.C.,    while   the    mourning   (12  lo-^*)   is 


referred  to  the  death  of  Josiah  at  Megiddo 
in  G08  B.C.  Neither  here,  however,  nor  in 
(a),  is  there  anything  which  corresponds  with 
the  style  of  such  pre-exilic  writers  as  Amos 
and  Hosea.  The  prophetic  ideals  embodied 
in  chs.  9-14,  and  especially  the  visions  of  the 
last  things  (9i*-i'3  141-1^,  etc.),  are  consistent 
only  with  that  well-known  phase  of  Jewish 
thought  which  had  its  beginning  not  earlier 
than  the  time  of  Ezekiel.  Nor  is  it  likely 
that  any  pre-exilic  writer  would  picture  a 
state  of  things  such  as  we  find  in  IS^-f^, 
where  prophecy  is  utterly  discredited  and 
abandoned.  Apparently  also  there  is  no  king 
even  in  Jerusalem  :  the  king  is  yet  to  come 
(9  9).  Besides,  the  reference  to  Greece  (9^'^), 
as  a  world-power  over  which  Zion  must  win 
the  victory,  seems  incomprehensible  at  any 
pre-exilic  date. 

Some  writers  find  in  chs.  9-11  a  reference 
to  the  invasion  of  Asia  by  Alexander  the 
Great  in  334  B.C.,  and  date  this  portion  of  the 
book  accordingly  ;  but  the  most  recent  tend- 
ency is  to  assign  the  whole  of  the  prophecies 
in  chs.  9-14  to  the  2nd  cent.  B.C.  According 
to  this  view  chs.  9-11,  13"-9  and  12-14  are  two 
groups,  each  falling  into  two  parts.  The  first 
two  are  91-113,  and  114-iT_i37-9^  written  in 
the  first  quarter  of  the  2nd  cent.  The  Greeks 
(9  13)  are  the  world-power  against  which  Juda- 
ism must  strive  for  supremacy.  Assyria  is  the 
Seleucid  kingdom  founded  in  312  B.C.  by 
Seleucus,  a  general  of  Alexander  the  Great. 
It  included  at  first  nearly  the  whole  of  Syria 
and  Babylonia — certainly  all  the  places  men- 
tioned in  9I'-.  When  Antiochus  the  Great, 
one  of  the  Seleucid  kings,  came  to  the  throne 
in  223  B.C.,  Palestine  was  under  the  rule  of 
the  Ptolemies,  kings  of  Egypt.  In  198, 
however,  Antiochus  defeated  the  Egyptians, 
and  Palestine  passed  into  his  hands.  Hence 
the  preeminence  given  to  Assyria  (10  n). 
Hence  also  the  sheep  are  the  Jews  whose 
'  possessors  '  (the  Seleucid  sovereigns)  '  slay 
them  '(115).  '  Their  own  shepherds  '  (115) 
may  be  the  high  priests  and  ethnarchs  (in 
Jerusalem)  of  foreign  sympathies,  who  '  pity 
them  not.'  In  that  age  there  was  much  in- 
trigue and  unrest  in  Palestine — murder  and 
outrage  even  in  high  places  were  not  uncom- 
mon ;  so  that  the  cuttiYig  off  of  three  shepherds 
in  one  month  would  be  no  unlikely  event. 

In  like  manner  chs.  12-14  are  regarded  as 
consisting  of  two  prophecies  (12.  131-''  ^^d  14), 
both  belonging  to  the  Maccab^an  age.  They 
may  have  been  written  soon  after  the  accession 
of  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  175  B.C.  The  con- 
trast of  Judffia  with  Jerusalem  (12  5),  and  the 
fact  that  help  to  the  city  comes  from  the 
country  (12*5),  are  a  likely  reflexion  of  the 
situation  in  that  age  (see  Jos.  '  Ant.  '  bk.  1 2). 
On  the  whole,  it  can  hardly  be  said  that  modern 


600 


INTRO. 


ZECHARIAH 


1.  14 


scholarship  has  reached  a  decisive  conclusion 
on  this  part  of  Zechariah,  though  the  view  that 
assigns  it  to  a  late  post-exilic  age  seems  most 
in  accord  with  the  facts  of  the  case. 

5.  General  Characteristics.  These  chs.  (9-14) 
witness,  on  the  one  hand,  to  a  wider  contact  with 
the  outside  heathen  world  (91-"  10 1^  9^^,  etc.), 
which  tends  to  universalism  (9^  14  9),  and,  on 
the  other  hand,  to  an  intensely  narrow  patriot- 
ism, whose  ideals  can  only  be  fulfilled  by  the 
direct  interposition  of  Grod  (1 2  3>  6, ",  9)  Besides, 
we  find  in  them  the  most  primitive  Messianic 
hopes — judgment  of  the  nations  (9^-"^  143>12^ 
etc.),  advent  of  Messiah  (9  9),  deliverance  (9  ii>  12 
1010),  conflict  with  the  heathen  (98.15  143,4), 
final  victory  over,  and  conversion  of  the  heathen 
(14 13-17),  ceremonial  purity  (14  ^o,  21),  and  God's 
reign  of  peace  (145,9).  Only  the  true  Messiah, 
our  Lord  and  Saviour  Jesus  Christ,  could  have 
sifted  these  elements,  and  brought  them  into 
harmony  with  His  great  work. 

6.  Contentsof  chs.  9-14.  9I-113.  God  will 
visit  the  nations  in  judgment  and  His  people 
in  mercy.  Judah  and  Ephraim  will  be  restored, 
and  Assyria  and  Egypt  discomfited.  1 1  *-! ^  and 
1 2  7-9  The  parable  of  the  good  shepherds  and 
the  foolish  shepherd.  I2i-I3*5.  The  deliver- 
ance and  the  coming  glory  of  Jerusalem.  14.  The 
destruction  of  the  enemies  of  Jerusalem,  and 
her  exaltation  as  the  centre  of  worship  for  the 
world. 

CHAPTER  1 

Lessons  from  the  _Past.  The  First  and 
Second  Visions 

1-6.  The  Prophet's  message.  He  calls  the 
people  to  repentance.  8-17.  The  First  Vision : 
The  Divine  Messengers  ever  watching  over  the 
affairs  of  the  nations.  18-21.  The  Second 
Vision  :  Hostile  nations  subdued  by  divinely- 
appointed  agents. 

I.  The  eighth  month]  the  month  Bui  (see 
1 K  6  38),  corresponding  to  part  of  October- 
November.  The  second  year  of  Darius]  i.e. 
520  B.C.  This  was  the  first  Darius,  son  of 
Hystaspes,  who  had  just  succeeded  to  the  Per- 
sian throne.  Babylonia  formed  part  of  his 
dominions.  He  found  the  old  decree  of  Cyrus 
in  the  archives  of  Babylon,  permitting  the 
Jews  to  return  and  build  the  Second  Temple, 
and  renewed  it  (EzrGi).  The  son  of  Iddo  the 
prophet]  There  should  be  a  comma  after  Iddo. 
Zechariah  was  the  prophet. 

2-6.  The  people^  are  warned  to  repent  by 
the  fate  of  their  fathers,  who  suffered  exile 
because  they  refused  to  listen  to  God's  word 
by  the  earlier  prophets. 

3.  Unto  them]  i.e.  the  people.  The  LORD 
of  hosts]  a  frequent  phrase  in  Zechariah. 
Probably  the  original  idea  was  of  Jehovah  as 
the  leader  of  Israel's  armies,  then  of  sun,  moon, 
and  stars,  the  hosts  of  heaven,  then  of  angelic 


hosts.  The  title  expresses  God's  supreme  power 
and  majesty.  4.  Zechariah  evidently  knows  the 
works  of  the  earlier  prophets :  cp.  Amos^jas.sv'rti, 
Jer265  3515,  etc.  5,  6.  Prophets  and  people 
alike  die,  but  the  Word  of  God  lives  anew  in 
every  generation,  and  from  the  experience  of 
the  past  appeals  to  men  to  shun  those  errors 
of  their  fathers  which  brought  such  dire 
punishment.     Take  hold  of]  RV  '  overtake.' 

8-17.  The  First  Vision  :  The  horseman 
among  the  myrtles.  The  seven  visions  have 
one  date,  viz.  the  twenty-fourth  day  of  the 
month  Sebat,  RV  '  Shebat '  (the  name  is 
Babylonish),  i.e.  part  of  January  and  February, 
519  B.C.  The  occasion  of  the  visions  is  the 
growing  impatience  of  the  returned  exiles. 
They  could  perceive  no  sign  of  God's  pre- 
sence, or  of  His  interest  in  their  labours  and 
difficulties.  Haggai  had  assured  them  that  in 
'  a  little  while  '  God  would  '  shake  the  king- 
doms '  and  fill  His  house  with  glory  (2  '^'> ''). 
But  time  passed  and  there  was  no  sign  of 
this.  The  people  began  to  lose  faith  in  God. 
These  visions  of  Zechariah  thus  came  at  a 
most  important  crisis.  To  his  countrymen 
they  were  a  bright  panorama  of  hope,  reveal- 
ing the  marvellous  providence  of  God,  and 
His  love  for  His  peojile. 

The  first  vision  assures  them  that  God 
knows  every  detail  of  their  circumstances. 
His  messengers  are  ever  on  the  alert,  bringing 
tidings  to  their  King  from  all  parts  of  the  earth. 

8.  Myrtle  trees]  rare  in  Palestine  to-day, 
but  once  common  around  Jerusalem  :  cp.  Neh 
8 15.  They  have  no  special  significance  in  the 
vision.  Bottom]  RM  'shady  place.'  Red 
horses,  speckled,  and  white]  RV  horses,  'red, 
sorrel,  and  white.'  Some  take  the  colours  to 
indicate  various  countries  whence  the  messen- 
ger came,  but  this  is  unlikely.  9.  O  my  lord] 
addressing  the  angel  of  the  Lord,  who  has 
not  yet  been  mentioned.  10.  The  figure  is 
military  and  suggests  horsemen  hovering  on 
the  flanks  of  an  army — the  scouts  of  God's 
great  host. 

11.  At  rest]  probably  a  lull  in  the  wars  of 
Darius,  and  so  all  the  more  remarkable. 

12.  One  angel  speaks  from  among  the 
myrtle  trees,  another  from  beside  the  prophet. 
The  second  asks  why  in  this  universal  peace 
Jerusalem  alone  is  unvisited  of  God.  To  the 
nations  He  sends  peace  as  a  sign,  to  Jerusalem 
He  seems  to  give  no  sign.  Threescore  and 
ten  years]  in  round  numbers:  cp.  Jer25ii 
2910.  The  first  captivity  took  place  in  597 
B.C.  ;  the  final  destruction  of  Jerusalem  in 
586  ;  Cyrus'  decree  for  return  in  537  ;  this 
prophecy  in  519.  14,  15.  Outward  condition 
may  be  no  indication  of  God's  favour.  Though 
the  nations  are  at  rest,  God  is  angry  with  them. 
They  have  exceeded  their  commission  in  pun- 
ishing Judah  so  severely.     Though  Jerusalem 


601 


1.16 


ZECHARIAH 


3. 


is  troubled,  yet  God  is  returning  with  mercies 
for  her.  i6.  A  line]  the  measuring  line  which 
the  builders  would  use  in  restoring  her  ruined 
streets.  17.  Shall  yet  be  spread  abroad]  better, 
'  shall  yet  overflow  with  prosperity '  (RM),  i.e. 
the  cities  of  Judah  :  see  v.  12.  Zion]  a 
synonym  for  Jerusalem ;  properly  the  higher  of 
the  two  spurs  on  which  Jerusalem  was  built. 

18-21.  The  Second  Vision  :  The  four 
horns  and  the  four  smiths.  This  vision  forms 
a  fitting  supplement  to  the  first,  and  describes 
the  destruction  of  those  enemies  of  Israel 
(the  four  horns)  who,  having  been  too  zealous 
in  punishing  her  for  her  sins,  are  now  them- 
selves worthy  of  punishment. 

18.  Four  horns]  Vain  efforts  have  been 
made  to  identify  these  with  four  nations  or 
races,  who  at  one  time  or  another  were  Israel's 
oppressors,  e.g.  Egypt,  Assjria,  Babylon, 
Persia.  A  more  likely  suggestion  is  that '  four ' 
may  indicate  the  whole  of  Israel'^  enemies 
from  the  four  quarters  of  the  globe.  But 
even  this  seems  arbitrary.  On  '  horns,'  as  a 
symbol  of  military  power,  see  1  K  22 11. 

20.  Four  carpenters  (R  V '  smiths ')]  lit. '  work- 
ers'  (sc.  in  iron),  as  in  Isa44i2.  Probably  one 
to  deal  with  each  horn.  The  language  is 
symbolic,  and  does  not  necessarily  imply  the 
sending  of  four  deliverers.  21.  No  man  did 
lift  up  his  head]  In  the  events  culminating 
in  the  captivity,  the  people  were  utterly 
crushed.  Fray]  an  obsolete  word  meaning 
'  terrify ' :  cp.  Dt  28  '^^.  The  root  is  seen  in 
'  afraid,'  i.e.  affrayed.  But  the  reading  in 
LXX  suggests  a  Hebrew  word  meaning  '  file 
down,'  which  certainly  gives  a  better  sense  to 
the  whole  passage.     Cast  out]  RV  '  cast  down.' 

Gentiles]  RV '  nations,'  and  so  throughout. 

The  imagery  of  this  vision  is  somewhat 
difficult,  but  the  meaning  is  quite  plain,  viz. 
the  judgment  of  those  nations  who  had 
harried  God's  people. 

CHAPTER  2 
The  Third  Vision 

1-5.  A  young  man  with  a  measuring  line 
goes  forth  to  measure  Jerusalem  preparatory 
to  rebuilding  the  walls.  But  an  angel  is 
sent  to  stop  him.  The  population  will  so 
increase  as  to  exceed  all  human  expectations, 
and  God  will  be  the  city's  best  defence. 
6-9.  The  Jews  are  summoned  to  leave 
Babylon,  for  judgment  is  to  fall  upon  that 
city.  10-12.  God's  gracious  promise  to  dwell 
in  Jerusalem,  to  which  the  nations  will 
come. 

I.  A  man  with  a  measuring  line]  The  vision 
is  probably  connected  with  what,  at  the  time, 
was  really  under  discussion,  viz.  the  rebuild- 
ing of  the  walls.  The  Jews  felt  that  they 
were  few  in  number,  and  without  proper  de- 
fences.    3,   4.   The  interpreting  angel  stands 


near  the  prophet.  He  goes  forth  to  meet 
another  angel,  who  asks  him  to  stop  this  young 
man  in  a  useless  task.  The  city  is  destined  to 
have  an  overflowing  population.  No  walls 
will  be  able  to  contain  it.  It  will  stretch  forth 
its  houses  far  out  into  the  surrounding  country 
and  seem,  not  like  a  walled  cily,  but  like  a 
series  of  country  towns  packed  together. 

5.  In  addition  to  this  reason,  the  prophet  has 
no  faith  in  warlike  fortifications  (cp.  the  sub- 
sequent disastrous  sieges  of  Jerusalem  by  the 
Syrians  and  Romans  :  Jos.  '  Wars  of  Jews,' 
1.  6,  etc.).  God  is  her  best  protection.  A 
•wall  of  fire]  a  figure  suggested  by  the  watch- 
fires,  built  round  a  desert  caravan  when  camp- 
ing at  night,  to  scare  away  wild  beasts :  cp. 
IS  25 16. 

6-13.  This  section  forms  a  poetical  pro- 
phecy, addressed  to  the  Jews  still  remaining  in 
Babylon. 

6.  Land  of  the  north]  Babylon.  Spread] 
scattered  in  exile.  7.  Deliver  thyself,  O 
Zion]  better,  '  Ho,  escape  to  Zion.'  8.  After 
the  glory]  better,  '  after  glory,'  i.e.  to  win 
glory,  by  bringing  judgment  on  the  Babyloni- 
ans who  spoiled  Israel.  Me]  the  angel  is  still 
speaking.  Apple  of  his  eye]  here  lit.  '  the 
door  of  his  eye ' ;  elsewhere,  '  the  daughter,'  i.e. 
the  pupil  of  the  eye,  which,  from  its  position, 
importance,  and  surroundings,  is  used  as  an 
emblem  of  what  is  exceedingly  precious :  cp. 
Dt32io  Psiys,  etc.  10.  This  prophecy  was 
fulfilled  when  the  Temple  was  completed  and 
consecrated  by  Zerubbabel  in  516   B.C. 

II.  Many  nations  shall  be  joined  to  the 
Lord]  better,  '  shall  join  themselves.'  This 
was  fulfilled  after  the  coming  of  Jesus  Christ, 
who  also  fulfilled  the  words,  '  I  will  dwell  in 
the  midst  of  thee.'  12.  His  portion  in  the 
holy  land]  better,  'his  portion  shall  be  upon 
holy  ground,'  i.e.  in  Zion.  13.  Be  silent]  lit. 
'  hush  ! '  cp.  Hab  2  20.  Is  raised  up]  better, 
'hath  roused  himself — said  of  God  when  He 
is  about  to  execute  some  great  purpose.  His 
holy  habitation]  i.e.  heaven. 

CHAPTER  3 

The  Fourth  Vision 

Joshua,  better  known  imder  the  later  form 
Jeshua(Ezr22  32  ]Srehl2 '.  s.io,  etc.),  was  the 
son  of  Jehozadak,  a  member  of  the  priestly 
order.  He  returned  with  the  Jews  from  exile, 
and  was  prominently  associated  with  Zerubba- 
bel in  the  erection  of  the  Second  Temple. 
In  1  Esdras  and  Ecclus.  the  name  appears 
simply  as  '  Jesus.' 

1-7.  Joshua,  the  high  priest,  is  seen  in  a 
vision  standing  before  the  angel  of  God,  ac- 
cused by  the  adversary  of  being  unworthy,  as 
the  sinful  representative  of  a  sinful  nation,  to 
stand  before  God  in  the  holy  office  of  high 
priest.     He  is,  however,   acquitted,  pm'ified, 


602 


a  1 


ZECHiXRIAH 


4.6. 


and  given  charge  of  the  Temple.     8-10.   The 
promise  of  Messiah  and  of  peace. 
I.   And  he]  the  interpreting  angel. 

Satan]  The  word  in  the  original  Hebrew 
has  the  definite  article,  and  is  thus  correctly 
rendered  by  RM  '  The  Adversary.'  In  OT. 
it  is  used  first  of  a  human  adversary:  see 
IS294  IKlli-i.  Compare  also  the  angel  who 
appears  'as  an  adversary'  to  Balaam  (Nu  22  3-). 
Then,  in  Zechariah  and  Job,  it  is  used  pre- 
sumably of  an  angel,  who  is  permitted  to 
accuse  men  in  God's  presence.  How  far  this 
'  adversary  '  is  sanctioned  by  God,  or  works  in 
God's  service  as  one  jealous  for  the  right,  it 
is  difficult  to  say.  In  this  c.  he  is  reproved  by 
God  Himself  for  showing  himself  too  eager 
to  emphasise  the  sinful  nature  of  Joshua,  the 
high  priest  and  representative  of  the  nation. 
In  lCh21i  the  word  'Satan'  appears  as  a 
proper  name,  and  he  is  represented  as  the 
Tempter,  cunning,  malicious,  and  opposed  to 
God. 

In  this  passage  of  Zechariah  the  motive  we 
assign  to  Satan  is  not  of  much  importance. 
This  is  a  vision.  Its  purpose  is  to  encourage 
the  desponding  Jews.  How  could  they  build 
and  consecrate  the  Temple  of  God  ?  So 
feeble  and  sinful  they  seemed  to  themselves  ; 
even  their  best  men  were  polluted:  cp.  Ezk 
22  26,  j^y  this  vision  the  prophet  assures 
them  that  their  sin  is  removed,  and  that 
Joshua's  priesthood  is  recognised. 

At  his  right  hand]  the  position  of  a  plaint- 
iif  in  Jewish  law  courts:  see  Psl09'5.  To 
resist  him]  E,V  '  to  be  his  adversary,'  or  ac- 
cuser— the  same  word  as  in  Hebrew  expresses 
the  noun  '  Satan.' 

2.  Satan  is  reproved.  He  would  induce 
God  to  cast  oif  His  people.  A  brand  plucked 
out  of  the  fire]  i.e.  something  precious  rescued 
from  destruction  :  cp.  Am4ii.  Joshua  is  the 
representative  of  the  people  who  have  just 
been  rescued  from  exile.  3.  Filthy  garments] 
symbolical  of  sin  and  unfitness  for  the  pure 
service  of  God.  Probably  the  sin  here  signi- 
fied was  the  nation's  past  idolatry  and  neglect 
of  the  worship  of  God.  4.  God  (and  He  alone 
can)  changes  all  this.  Israel's  sin  is  taken 
away  :  her  negligence  changed  to  glorious 
servir;e.  5.  I  said]  Here  the  prophet  himself 
seems  to  intervene  in  the  vision.  But  a  more 
probable  reading  is  *  he  said.'  A  fair  mitre] 
lit.  '  a  clean  turban'  The  root  of  the  word 
indicates  that  it  was  made  of  a  long  piece  of 
fine  linen  wound  round  and  round  :  see  Ex  28  ^'^. 

7.  God's  solemn  charge  to  Joshua.  Judge 
my  house]  i.e.  regulate  the  Temple  and  its 
services.  Places  to  Awalk]  E,V  '  a  place  of  ac- 
cess,' probably  to  intercede  with  God  for  the 
people :  Joshua  is  to  have  the  right  of  oitrie 
at  the  heavenly  court.  Among  these  that 
stand  by]  the  attendant  angels. 


8.  A  great  Messianic  promise.  Joshua  and 
his  fellow-priests  are  a  sign  of  God's  favour, 
which  will  culminate  in  the  appearance  of  the 
Branch  or  Sprout,  i.e.  the  Messiah  King.  So 
also  on  the  stone  (v.  9)  with  its  seven  eyes  or 
facets — the  stone  prepared  to  be  the  head- 
stone of  the  Temple — God  will  engrave  the 
name  of  His  Messiah,  as  a  token  of  national 
sin  forgiven.  Men  wondered  at]  men  of  omen  : 
or  perhaps  the  meaning  is  that  being  priests 
they  could  interpret  symbols  or  omens ;  con- 
sequently they  would  know  what  the  Branch 
signified.  Branch]  better, 'Sprout.'  The  word 
has  no  article  in  Heb.  It  was  well  known  as  a 
symbol  of  the  Messiah:  cp. Isa4"lli  Jer2.S5 
331^.  The  new  sprout  was  to  grow  from  the 
nearly  dead  (extinct)  stem  of  David.  9.  Seven 
eyes]  symbolising  God's  watchful  care  over  His 
people  (see  4^0),  guarding  them  against  their 
enemies.  10.  In  that  day]  perhaps  the  day  of 
dedicating  the  new  Temple.  Then  shall  there 
be  peace  and  prosperity.     Call]  invite. 

CHAPTER  4 

The  Fifth  Vision 

The  prophet's  thoughts  now  turn  to  the 
civil  ruler  Zerubbabel.  The  purpose  of  the 
fifth  vision  is  to  encourage  him  in  the  difficult 
task  of  rebuilding  the  Temple. 

1-5,  11-14.  The  golden  candlestick  (i.e.  the 
returned  exiles)  receives  its  supply  of  oil  (i.e. 
the  divine  grace)  through  two  channels  ('  pipes,' 
V.  12),  viz.  the  spiritual  and  the  temporal 
leaders,  Joshua  and  Zerubbabel,  through  whose 
united  elf  orts  the  prosperity  of  the  nation  would 
be  accomplished.  These  are  the  two  olive  trees. 
6-10  is  an  encouraging  address  to  Zerubbabel ; 
weak  though  he  is,  yet  by  the  help  of  God's 
Holy  Spirit  he  will  finish  the  great  work. 

I.  And  waked  me]  The  visions  evidently 
occurred  in  the  night,  but  so  vivid  were  they 
that  Zechariah  seemed  to  awake.  2.  A  candle- 
stick all  of  gold]  In  the  first  Temple  ten 
candles  gave  light  (IK 7 -19,  but  see  Ex 2531). 

Bowl]  holding  the  main  supply  of  oil.  From 
it  a  pipe  flowed  to  each  lamp.  RV  reads,  '  seven 
pipes  to  each  of  the  lamps,'  but  LXX  and 
Vulgate  reading,  followed  in  AV,  is  probably 
correct.  3.  The  lamps  are  supplied  from  a 
perennial  and  inexhaustible  source,  viz.  two 
olive  trees. 

6.  Zerubbabel]  son  of  Shealtiel,  but  called  in 
1  Ch3 19  son  of  Pedaiah,  was  governor  ('  pehah,' 
as  Haggai  calls  him)  of  Judah  in  the  time  of 
Haggai  and  Zechariah.  Shealtiel  was  a  son  of 
Jehoiachin,  king  of  Judah,  so  that  Zerubbabel 
was  of  royal  blood.  He  returned  from  exile, 
probably  in  538  B.C.,  along  with  his  uncle 
Sheshbazzar,  who  was  the  first  governor  of 
Judah  after  the  return.  He  probably  suc- 
ceeded his  uncle  as  governor  some  time  in 
522-520  B.C.     He  is  recognised  by  Zechariah 


603 


4.6 


ZECHARIAH 


as  the  civil  head  of  Jerusalem,  and  as  such  is 
encouraged  to  proceed  with  the  work  of  re- 
building the  Temple.  Of  his  ultimate  fate 
nothing  is  known. 

6.  It  is  clear  that  v.  6  does  not  give  the 
answer  to  the  question  asked  in  v.  4  ;  conse- 
quently most  modern  scholars  place  the  section 
101^-14  after  6*,  thus  :  '  Then  he  answered  and 
spoke  unto  me  saying,  Those  seven,  they  are 
the  .eyes,'  etc.  This  makes  a  most  excellent 
connexion.  The  seven  lamps  are  symbols  of 
the  eyes  of  the  Lord  watching  continually. 
And  the  question  concerning  the  two  olive 
trees  follows  naturally. 

12.  The  V.  seems  to  be  simply  an  unneces- 
sary repetition  of  v.  11,  and  modern  scholars 
omit  it.  14.  The  two  anointed  ones]  lit. 'two 
sons  of  oil.'  These  are  Joshua  and  Zerubbabel, 
priest  and  king,  both  anointed,  both  receiving 
all  their  grace  and  power  from  God. 

6b_io^.  These  vv.  come  naturally  at  the 
end  of  the  completed  vision  :  so  scholars  place 
the  section  after  v.  14,  and  read  :  '  This  is  the 
word  of  the  Lord  unto  Zerubbabel,  saying. 
Not  by  might,  nor  by  power,  but  by  my  Spirit, 
saith  the  Lord  of  hosts,'  etc.  God's  Spirit  is 
sufficient ;  obstacles  apparently  insurmountable 
will  disappear.  Zerubbabel  will  bring  forth 
the  copestone,  and  complete  the  Temple  amid 
joyful  acclamations.  7.  Grace  unto  it]  i.e.  May 
God  bless  it.  10*.  Scornful  doubters  shall,  by 
this  success,  be  put  to  shame.  They  shall  see 
Zerubbabel  moving  the  plumb-line  to  test  the 
completed  walls. 

CHAPTER  5 

The  Sixth  and  Seventh  Visions 
1-4.  A  flying  roll  inscribed  with  curses  comes 
down  upon  the  earth.  The  previous  visions 
had  promised  many  blessings  to  the  people  ; 
and  the  sixth  and  seventh  teach  that  wicked- 
ness will  be  removed  from  the  land  ;  for  if 
evil  still  remained,  the  blessings  would  be 
worthless.  The  first  part  of  this  process  con- 
sists in  the  punishment  of  evildoers.  The 
flying  roll  signifies  the  sin  of  the  evildoer 
coming  home  to  roost. 

5-1 1.  The  Seventh  Yision  :  A  woman 
(typifying  the  besetting  sins  of  Israel)  is  shut 
up  in  an  ephah-measure,  and  carried  off  to  the 
land  of  Shinar,  the  detested  and  sinful  place, 
where  she  finds  a  fitting  abode. 

1.  A  flying  roll]  Rolls  were  of  skin  or 
parchment,  on  which  all  writing  was  inscribed. 
The  document  was  rolled  up  much  in  the  same 
way  as  a  wall-map  is  rolled  now.  This  roll 
was  evidently  unfolded,  flying  like  a  bird  of 
prey,  and  seemed  of  enormous  size  (v.  2). 

2.  He]  the  attendant  angel  who  is  God's 
immediate  messenger  to  Zechariah.  Twenty 
cubits]  over  30  ft. 

3.  Earth]  RV  'land,'  i.e.  Palestine.      For 


every  one  that  stealeth,  etc.]  better,  per- 
haps, '  for  every  thief  shall  be  swept  away 
from  hence.'  But  the  expressions  are  difficult. 
The  exact  meaning  of  the  phrase  '  on  the  one 
side  according  to  it  ..  on  the  other  side  accord- 
ing to  it '  (RV)  is  most  obscure.  LXX  ren- 
ders, '  For  every  thief  shall  suffer  death.' 
Some  scholars  refer  the  phrases  to  the  roll, 
which  does  not  seem  likely.  Others,  by  a 
veiy  slight  change  in  the  Heb.,  render,  '  For 
every  thief  has  been  too  long  unpunished,  and 
every  (false)  swearer  has  been  too  long  un- 
punished.' It  is  probable  that  there  is  a 
reference  to  certain  people  who  did  not  sub- 
scribe to  the  rebuilding  of  the  Temple,  swear- 
ing (falsely)  that  they  had  no  money. 

4.  Shall  remain]  RV  '  shall  abide,'  but 
better,  '  shall  roost.'  The  idea  is  still  of  this 
roll  as  a  huge  bird  of  prey,  descending  upon 
the  home  of  the  evildoer  and  utterly  consum- 
ing it.  Zechariah's  aim  is  still  to  encourage 
his  desponding  countrymen.  Never  again  will 
the  nation,  as  a  whole,  suffer  for  sin  ;  only 
the  sinner  and  his  house  shall  perish. 

6.  Ephah]  the  greatest  measure  among  the 
Jews,  a  round  vessel  holding  about  7  gals. 
This  vision  describes  the  fulfilment  of  the 
promise  given  in  3^.  Resemblance]  A  very 
slight  change  of  one  Heb.  letter  gives  the 
reading,  '  This  is  their  transgression  in  all 
the  land.'  This  makes  much  better  sense. 
The  prophet  is  referring  to  the  deep  con- 
sciousness of  sin  which  weighs  upon  the 
people  from  the  high  priest  downward. 

7.  A  talent  of  lead]  lit.  '  a  circle  or  round 
piece  of  lead,'  the  heaA-y  lid  of  the  ephah. 
The  later  use  of  the  word  is  '  talent,'  a  Jewish 
weight  somewhat  over  1  cwt.  When  the  lid 
was  lifted,  the  woman  was  disclosed  in  the 
ephah.  8.  Cast  it  into]  RV,  '  cast  her  down 
into.'  The  woman,  typifying  the  sin  of  the 
nation,  is  thrust  down  into  the  ephah  and 
covered  with  the  lid.  9.  The  vnnd  was  in 
their  wrings]  bore  them  along  like  long-winged 
birds  ('  storks  ')  on  a  windy  day. 

II.  Shinar]  i.e.  Babylonia  :  see  GnlO^o 
ll^Isallii.  Here  regarded  as  the  counter- 
part of  Zion  and  the  proper  home  of  all  that 
is  evil,  especially  of  sins  such  as  fraud  and 
false  swearing.  The  vision  is  remarkable. 
God  not  only  forgives  the  sins  of  His  people,  but 
carries  them  altogether  away  from  their  land, 
that  they  may  deceive  them  no  more.  Sin  is 
typified  by  the  figm-e  of  a  woman  ;  but  it  is 
worthy  of  note  that  it  is  through  women  that 
the  land  is  purified  from  its  sin. 

CHAPTER   6 
The  EiCxHth  Vision.     The  Symuolic 

Crowning 
1-8.    Four     war-chariots,     with     variously 
coloured   horses,  go   forth  to  execute  God's 


604 


6.1 


ZECHARIAH 


7. 


judgments  against  the  enemies  of  oppressed     (1)  '  brought  peace  to,'  or  (2)  '  sated  my  fury 

by  stirring  up  trouble  in.'  The  historical 
situation  supports  the  second  interpretation. 
Even  while  Cambyses  was  yet  alive  (in  522  B.C.) 
the  magician  Gavitama,  who  pretended  to  be 
Smerdis,  the  brother  of  Cambyses,  had  been 
proclaimed  king.  Cambyses  died  of  an  acci- 
dental wound  on  his  way  to  fight  Gautama. 
The  latter  was  in  turn  slain  by  Darius,  who 
ascended  the  Persian  throne  in  521.  Im- 
mediately revolts  broke  out  in  all  parts  of  the 
empire,  which  were  not  subdued  finally  till  514. 
9-15.  A  party  of  Jews  had  just  come  from 
Babylon.  Zechariah  is  instructed  to  take  part 
of  the  silver  and  gold  which  they  have  brought 
for  the  Temple,  and  to  make  a  set  of  circlets 
for  Joshua,  the  high  priest.  Thus  he  will 
more  fully  be  a  type  of  One  to  come,  who  is 
both  Priest  and  King  to  His  people. 

11.  Then  take  silver]  RV  '  yea,  take  of  them 
silver.'     Crowns]  some  read  'a  crown.' 

12.  13.  These  vv.  are  somewhat  difficult. 
The  simplest  way  out  of  the  difficulty  is  to 
suppose  that,  after  the  word  head  in  v.  11, 
the  words  '  of  Zerubbabel  and '  have  accident- 
ally fallen  out.  This  explains  the  use  of  the 
plural  'crowns'  in  vv.  11,  14,  but  it  does  not 
explain  why  only  one  of  these  rulers  is  ad- 
dressed in  vv.  12,  13.  Many  scholars  hold 
that  the  crown  is  really  for  Zerubbabel,  the 
civil  ruler,  whose  name,  for  political  reasons, 
has  been  suppressed,  and  that  vv.  12,  13  refer 
to  him,  as  fulfilling  the  prophecy  of  the 
Branch  (see  IsalP)  and  completing  the 
Temple.  However  this  may  be.  the  ultimate 
fulfilment  of  the  prophecy  is  in  Him,  through 
whom  we  have  the  far  more  glorious  Temple, 
'  not  made  with  hands,  eternal  in  the  heavens.' 

13.  And  he  shall  be  a  priest]  RM  '  there 
shall  be  a  priest.'  If  the  preceding  clauses 
refer  to  Zerubbabel,  this  would  refer  to 
Joshua.  We  should  then  have  a  clear  meaning 
for  the  following  sentence,  '  and  the  counsel 


Israel  in  different  parts  of  the  earth.  Two, 
in  particular,  go  northwards,  to  '  quiet  His 
spirit '  (i.e.  to  satisfy  His  anger)  upon  Babylon. 
9-15.  Zechariah  is  commanded  to  take  gold 
and  silver  from  the  Temple  offerings,  and 
make  a  crown  for  Joshua  the  high  priest.  At 
the  same  time,  the  Messiah  ('  Branch ')  is 
again  promised.  Under  Him  the  Temple  will 
be  completed  with  the  help  of  people  from 
afar,  probably  returned  exiles. 

I.  It  is  noteworthy  that  the  first  vision 
showed  Grod's  universal  providence  in  mercy 
(messengers  coming  from  all  parts  of  the  earth), 
the  last  vision  reveals  God's  universal  provi- 
dence in  judgment  (war  chariots  going  forth 
in  all  directions).  And  I  turned,  and  lifted] 
RV  '  Then  again  I  lifted'  In  Heb.  to  '  turn  ' 
and  do  something  is  to  do  it '  again.'  Chariots] 
used  for  military  purposes,  and  also  on  state 
occasions,  therefore  symbolical  of  power  and 
majesty.  They  are  four  because  they  go  to 
the  four  quarters  of  the  earth. 

3.  Grisled  and  bay]  lit.  '  spotted,  vigorous.' 
It  is  difficult  to  explain  the  two  adjectives. 
The  first  etymologically  means  '  spotted  as 
with  a  hailstorm  '  ;  and  those  who  see  a  signi- 
ficance in  the  colour's  of  the  horses  connect 
hail  with  the  judgment  which  the  fourth 
chariot  carries  :  cp.  Rev  8"  IG^i.  The  second 
adjective  has,  in  reality,  no  reference  to  colour 
(see  RM),  and  some  scholars  omit  it.  Grisled] 
=  'grizzled,'  'grey.' 

5.  The  four  spirits  of  the  heavens]  RV 
'  winds  '  (the  word  for  '  wind  '  in  Heb.  means 
also  '  spirit,'  i.e.  breath)  ;  but  would  the 
prophet  speak  of  winds  '  standing  before  the 
Lord '  ?  The  addition  of  a  single  letter  in 
the  Heb.  gives  the  following  reading  :  '  These 
(i.e.  the  chariots  and  horses)  go  forth  to  the 
four  winds  of  heaven  after  they  have  pre- 
sented themselves  before  the  Lord.'  6.  North 
country]   Babylonia.     South  country]   Egypt 


Egypt,  like  Babylon,  was  at  this  time  part  of     of  peace  shall  be  between  them  both,'  i.e.  these 


the  Persian  empire,  Cambyses  having  overcome 
the  Egyptians  in  the  battle  of  Pelusium  in 
527  B.C.  Two  of  the  chariots  go  north,  a 
double  doom  on  Babylon.  But  some  scholars 
consider  that  the  Heb.  words  for  '  behind 
them '  (RV  '  after  them ')  are  a  corruption 
for  words  meaning  '  to  the  east.' 

7.  Through  the  earth]  as  a  reserve  force  to 
go  wherever  they  may  be  required,  but  some 
scholars  read  'to  the  west.'  Bay]  or  'strong.' 
Some  read  '  red,'  see  RM. 

The  reading  of  the  vision  is  somewhat  com- 
plicated, but  its  meaning  is  clear.  Jehovah 
will  defend  Judah  against  her  enemies,  and 
especially  He  will  deprive  Babylon  of  the 
power  to  do  her  harm. 

8.  Quieted  my  spirit  in]  lit.  '  caused  my 
spirit  to  rest  in.'     The  meaning  may  be  either. 


two  (Joshua  and  Zerubbabel)  would  rule  to- 
gether in  harmony.  Thus  these  vv.  give  the 
same  thought  as  the  vision  of  the  golden  candle- 
stick. 14.  The  crowns  (RV  '  crown  ')  are 
to  be  laid  up  in  the  Temple,  as  a  memorial  of 
the  generosity  of  the  deputation  which  brought 
the  silver  and  gold.  Helem  should  probably 
be  '  Heldai ' ;  Hen  seems  to  be  a  corruption 
of  '  Josiah':  see  v.  10.  15.  As  a  sign  of  the 
fulfilment  of  Zechariah's  word,  more  people 
will  come  (from  Babylon)  to  assist  in  com- 
pleting the  Temple.  And  this  shall  come  to 
pass,  if]  better,  '  and  it  shall  come  to  pass  that 
if.'     The  V.  breaks  off  unfinished. 

CHAPTER  7 
Warxixgs  fro.m  the  Past 
Chs.  7  and  8  go  together,  and  were  spoken 


605 


7.1 


ZECHARIAH 


8.16 


on  a  date  (fourth  day  of  the  ninth  month  in 
the  fourth  year  of  Darius)  two  years  later  than 
the  series  of  visions  described  above,  viz.  in 
518  B.C.  (On  contemporary  events  see  on 
6  ^.)  They  are  Zechariah's  answer  to  a  question 
put  to  him  by  certain  visitors  to  Jerusalem, 
who  asked  whether  the  fast  observed  by  the 
Jews  in  the  fifth  month,  in  memory  of  the 
destruction  of  .Jerusalem  by  Nebuchadnezzar, 
should  still  be  kept.  Zechariah  says,  '  No  ; 
God  demands  not  fasts,  but  observance  of 
moral  laws,  by  neglecting  which  your  fore- 
fathers suffered  punishment.'  C.  8.  God  has 
assuredly  come  to  dwell  with  His  people. 
The  Messianic  age  is  at  hand.  Fast  days  will 
soon  become  joyful  feast  days  ;  and  even  the 
heathen  will  desire  to  worship  with  the  Jews. 

I.  In  the  fourth  year  of  king  Darius]  518 
B.C.  Chisleu]  or  '  Chislev,'  corresponds  very 
nearly  to  December.  2.  When  they  had  sent 
unto  the  house  of  God  Sherezer]  RV  '  now 
theji  of  Beth-el  had  sent  Sherezer.'  The  v. 
is  difficult.  Some  scholars  suggest  the  trans- 
lation :  '  Now  Bethel,  Sharezer,  and  Regem- 
melech  .  .  had  sent '  ;  or,  '  Now  Bel-Sharezer 
sent  Regem-melech  .  .  and  his  men.'  This 
latter  is  the  reading  favoured  by  those  M'ho 
think  the  deputation  came  from  Babylon. 
But  from  what  follows  it  is  evident  that  the 
deputation  was  a  local  one — from  Bethel 
rather  than  from  Babylon.  To  pray  before  the 
Lord]  RV  '  to  entreat  the  favour  of  God.' 

3.  Separating  myself]  The  word  is  the  root 
whence  the  term  '  Nazirite  '  is  derived.  The 
fast  involved  abstinence  from  other  things  be- 
sides food  and  drink:  see  Lv  16 2^' ^1. 

5.  Fifth  and  seventh  montK\  The  fasts  were 
four  (see  8  ^9),  viz.  in  the  fourth  month  com- 
memorating the  fall  of  Jerusalem  (JerSO^ 
52*'''''),  in  the  seventh  month  for  the  murder 
of  Gedaliah  (2  K  25  25),  in  the  tenth  month  for 
the  commencement  of  the  siege  of  Jerusalem 
(Jer39i),  and  specially  in  the  fifth  month 
when  the  Temple  was  burned  (Jer52i2-U)_ 
But  these  fasts  seemed  now  out  of  place. 
The  form  remained,  but  the  spirit  was  gone. 

7.  Rather  than  lay  stress  on  these  mechan- 
ical devices  of  religious  faith,  they  should 
study  the  words  spoken  by  the  old  prophets, 
such  as  Amos  and  Hosea,  before  the  exile, 
before  the  south  land  was  denuded  of  its 
inhabitants.  8.  Most  scholars  omit  v.  8  :  the 
sense  is  preserved.  V.  9  tells  us  what  the 
former  prophets  said.  9,  10.  Cp.  HosG^"  Isa 
li6-20Mic66-8jer52i-23. 

11.  Pulled  away  the  shoulder]  like  an 
obstinate  man  refusing  to  listen  to  good  advice, 
turning  away  quickly  when  a  hand  is  laid  upon 
his  shoulder  :  cp.  '  to  give  the  cold  shoulder.' 

12.  Hath  sent]  better,  'had  sent.' 

14.  The  prophet  wishes  to  emphasise  the 
truth,  that  to  obey  God's  word  is  the  supreme 


demand  of  religious  life  :  cp.  IS  15 22.  The 
rejection  of  God's  message  in  days  gone  by 
brought  desolation  and  e.xile.  The  true  fast 
is  to  abstain  from  sin,  and  to  listen  to  the 
voice  of  God. 

CHAPTER   8 
Reitekatiox  of  God's  Promises  concern- 
ing  Jerusalem 

The  whole  c.  is  made  up  of  ten  -short  oracles 
each  introduced  by  the  formula,  '  Thus  saith 
the  Lord  of  hosts '  (except  v.  3).  God  has 
come  to  dwell  with  His  people.  Happiness 
and  prosperity  are  in  store  for  Jerusalem  if  it 
will  do  His  will.  All  nations  will  seek  to  join 
in  worshipping  God  in  Jerusalem. 

I.  Again]  RV  '  and  '  :  there  is  no  break  in 
thought  between  the  two  chs.  2.  I  was  jealous] 
better,  '  I  am  jealous.'  The  word  indicates 
strong  emotion  either  for  or  against  some 
object.  In  this  case  the  context  shows  it  is  on 
behalf  of  Zion  :  '  I  burn  with  zeal  for  the 
cause  of  Zion.'  3.  A  city  of  truth]  RV  '  The 
city  of  truth,'  i.e.  the  faithful  city  :    cp.  Isa  1 26. 

4,  5.  A  beautiful  picture  of  a  peaceful  time. 
Amid  so  many  wars  and  privations,  old  men 
and  chikh-en  had  been  comparatively  rare  in 
the  ranks  of  the  returned  exiles,  and  even  in 
the  homes  of  Judsea.  6.  If  it  be]  Although  it 
may  seem  incredible  to  the  people,  it  is  not 
impossible  to  God  :  cp.  Pss  11823  1261.2. 

8.  '  They  shall  be  to  me  for  a  people  '  :  cp. 
Hos  2  23. 

9.  Prophets]  i.e.  Haggai  and  Zechariah,  and 
perhaps  others  now  unknown.  The  wording 
of  the  V.  is  difficult.  What  the  prophets  had 
said  is  given  at  the  end,  viz.  '  The  Temple 
must  be  rebuilt.'  The  rebuilding  of  the 
Temple  has  progressed  steadily  in  the  two 
years.  The  prophet  encourages  the  workers 
to  go  on  :  cp.  Hag2i5-i9.  10,  11.  The  strife 
and  poverty  of  the  early  daj^s,  when  the  build- 
ing of  the  Temple  was  neglected,  are  contrasted 
with  the  peace  and  prosperitj'^  that  are  to 
come.  ID.  Hire]  i.e.  Avages.  The  affliction] 
RV  '  the  adversary,'  probably  the  Samaritans 
and  Ammonites,  who  plundered  the  helpless 
Jews  :  cp.  Ezr822.  12.  Nature  also  will 
contribute  to  the  glory  of  the  Messianic  age — 
a  frequent  feature  of  Messianic  prophecy  :  cp. 
Isa35i  5512,13.  The  seed  shall  he  prosperous] 
RV  '  there  shall  be  the  seed  of  peace.' 

13.  A  curse  among  the  heathen]  a  subject 
of  reproach,  something  of  which  they  spoke 
evil  :  see  Jer249.  14,  15.  God's  promises  of 
punishment  were  fulfilled  ;  so  surely  also  will 
be  His  promises  of  blessing. 

16,  19.  In  these  vv.  the  prophet  once  more 
answers  the  question  conceriiing  fasts.  '  Let 
them  alone,'  he  says,  '  and  follow  the  principles 
of  truth  and  righteousness,  and  God  shall  turn 
your  fast-days  into  feast-days.'     16.  In  your 


606 


8.  20 


ZECHARIAH 


9.  13 


gates]  The  gate  was  the  market-place  where 
all  business  transactions  took  place :  see 
Ruth 4 111.  Execute  the  judgment  of  truth 
and  peace]  be  fair-minded  and  peaceable. 

20,  23.  The  gathering  in  of  the  nations  was 
never  adequately  fulfilled  in  regard  to  Jei-usa- 
lem  or  the  Temple  then  approaching  comple- 
tion ;  but  the  prophecy  foretells  most  strikingly 
the  success  of  the  kingdom  of  Christ.  It  was 
the  dream  of  all  Hebrew  prophecy  :  op. 
Mic42  Isa23. 

23.  Ten  men]  used  for  a  large  number  :  cp. 
Gn3l7  Lv262'5  Neh  i^'l  Take  hold  of  the 
skirt]  the  involuntary  action  of  one  who  wishes 
to  be  listened  to:  cp.  IS  1527  Isa4i.  How 
earnestly  have  men  sought  salvation  !  They 
find  it  in  Him — a  member  of  the  Jewish  race — 
who  is  the  Saviour  of  the  world. 

CHAPTER  9 
Judgments  on  the  Nations.  The  Prince 
OP  Peace 
1-8.  A  judgment  is  about  to  fall  on  Damas- 
cus, Hamath,  Tyre,  Sidon,  and  the  cities  of 
the  Philistines.  A  remnant  from  Philistia 
will  acknowledge  God.  God  will  encamp 
around  His  sanctuary.  9,  10.  The  coming  of 
Messiah  and  His  kingdom  of  peace.  11-17. 
Hope  for  Israel.  God  will  enable  her  to  con- 
tend successfully  with  Greece.  He  will  aid 
and  bless  her. 

1.  Burden]  oracle,  or  prophecy :  see  Jer 
2333-w.     In  the  land]  RV  '  upon  the  land.' 

Hadrach]  not  mentioned  elsewhere  in  the 
Bible.  On  the  Assyi'ian  tablets  it  is  asso- 
ciated with  Damascus,  and  must  have  been 
somewhere  in  that  quarter,  in  the  valley  of 
the  Orontes.  The  various  places  mentioned 
follow  the  course  pursued  by  Alexander  the 
Great  in  his  campaign  in  332  B.C.,  viz.  through 
Syria,  Phoenicia,  and  Philistia.  The  rest 
thereof]  RV  '  its  '  (the  prophecy's)  '  resting- 
place.'  When  the  eyes  of  man,  etc.]  better, 
'  for  the  Lord  hath  an  eye  upon  man  (i.e.  the 
heathen)  and  all  the  tribes  of  Israel.'  If  the 
prophecy  belongs  to  the  beginning  of  the 
2nd  cent.  B.C.  (see  Intro.),  then  the  reference 
is  to  the  kingdom  of  the  Seleucidse,  in  whose 
territories  lay  all  the  places  mentioned. 

2.  Hamath]  a  city  in  the  valley  of  the  Orontes, 
in  Upper  Syria.  It  was  renamed  Epiphaneia  by 
Antiochus  Epiphanes.  Shall  border  thereby] 
RV  'which  bordereth thereon.'  Tyre  (Tyrus) 
and  Sidon  were  famous  cites  on  the  coast  of 
Syria,  inhabited  by  the  Phoenicians,  who  were 
renowned,  like  their  descendants  the  Car- 
thaginians, for  their  cunning.  Though  it  be 
very  -wise]  RV  '  she  is  very  wise.'  This  false 
wisdom  of  the  world  God  will  visit  in  judg- 
ment. 4.  In  the  sea]  i.e  destroy  her  com- 
merce. 5.  Ashkelon,  etc.]  cities  of  the  Philis- 
tines.    After  taking  Tyre,  Alexander  marched 


607 


down  the  coast  to  these  cities.  He  captured 
Gaza  after  a  two  months'  siege.  For  her  ex- 
pectation shall  be  ashamed]  i.e.  her  pride  will 
be  humbled. 

6.  A  bastard]  probably  a  son  of  a  mixed 
race.  The  idea  evidently  is  that  the  city 
would  be  depopulated  by  war,  and  aliens  would 
be  installed  by  the  conquerors.  7.  This  mixed 
race  will  be  purified  from  their  idolatry.  The 
second  half  of  this  v.  might  be  rendered  as 
follows  :  '  But  there  shall  be  a  remnant  (i.e. 
of  the  Philistines)  for  our  God,  and  one  shall 
be  as  a  chief  in  Judah,  and  Eki-on  (shall  be)  as 
a  Jebusite.'  Jebusite]  The  Jebusites  were  the 
ancient  inhabitants  of  Jerusalem.  The  word 
is  used  for  '  a  native  of  Jerusalem.'  8.  Be- 
cause of  the  army]  RM  '  for  a  guard  or  gar- 
rison.' Because  of  him,  etc.]  RV  '  that  none 
pass  through  or  return.'  Oppressor]  better, 
perhaps,  '  invader  '  ;  the  reference  is  either  to 
Alexander  or  some  similar  conqueror.  Have 
I  seen  with  mine  eyes]  viz.  the  iniquity  of  the 
oppressing  heathen. 

9.  The  advent  of  the  Prince  of  Peace,  a 
striking  contrast  to  a  ravaging  warrior  like 
Alexander  the  Great,  who  visited  the  sur- 
rounding nations  with  fire  and  sword.  Just, 
and  having  salvation]  better,  '  (declared  to  be) 
righteous  and  victorious.'  Riding  upon  an 
ass]  the  symbol,  not  of  lowliness,  but  of  peace, 
as  the  horse  was  of  war  :  cp.  Mt21,  etc. 

10.  The  chariot  .  .  the  horse  . .  the  battle 
bow]  These  too-familiar  objects  will  have  no 
place  in  Messiah's  kingdom.  He  shall  speak 
peace  unto  the  nations.  From  sea  eve»  to 
sea]  from  the  Dead  Sea  to  the  Mediterranean. 

From  the  river]   the  Euphrates. 

11.  To  the  Jews  in  exile  specially  does  the 
message  of  peace  come.  By  that  well-known 
relationship  (covenant)  with  God,  sealed  by 
the  blood  of  sacrifices,  making  them  His  own 
adopted  people,  He  will  restore  them  all  to 
their  own  city  (Jerusalem).  By  the  blood  of 
thy  covenant]  the  blood  sprinkled  in  the  sacri- 
fices whereby  the  covenant  was  ratified  :  cp. 
Ex  24  8.      Pit]  an  empty  cistern  :  cp.  Gn  3722. 

12.  Strong  hold]  probably  Jerusalem. 
Prisoners  of  hope]   i.e.   the  Jews,  who    by 

their  covenant  with  God  had  a  sure  hope  of 
deliverance.  Double]  cp.  Isa  61  ^  ;  evidently  a 
reference  to  restoration  from  exile. 

13.  The  prophet  again  plunges  into  a  vision 
of  war.  The  vision  is  figurative  ;  God  is  to 
use  Judah  as  a  bow,  and  fit  Ephraim  as  an 
arrow  to  the  bow.  Some  who  assign  this  pro- 
phecy to  an  early  date  believe  that  the  words 
against  thy  sons,  O  Greece,  may  be  a  gloss  of 
a  later  scribe. 

Greece]  Heb.  Javan,  so  called  from  Javan, 
a  son  of  Japheth,  the  supposed  ancestor  of  the 
Europeans  :  cp.  Gn  10  2>  -i.  According  to  Sayce, 
the  word  'Javan'  (to  indicate  'Greeks')  ia 


9.14 


ZECHARIAH 


11. 


found  in  various  forms  on  the  monuments 
both  of  Egypt  and  Assyria  from  a  very  early 
date,  and  is  the  same  word  as  '  Ionian '  (laov). 
The  thought  of  Greece  as  a  power  hostile  to 
Judaism  would  hardly  be  possible  prior  to  the 
Macedonian  invasion  of  Alexander  in  the 
4th  cent.  B.C.  From  that  age  onward,  even  in 
Jerusalem  itself,  the  great  struggle  went  on 
between  Judaism  and  the  invading  influence 
of  Greek  culture.  This  struggle  was  specially 
keen,  at  the  beginning  of  the  2nd  cent.  B.C. 
From  a  Jewish  standpoint  the  Maccabsean  wars 
were  really  between  Jews  and  Greeks  :  cp. 
Jer5120. 

14,  15.  And  subdue  with  sling  stones]  RV 
'  and  shall  tread  down  the  sling  stones '  ;  but 
the  text  is  obscure.  It  is  a  vision  of  war  as  a 
storm  in  which  God  is  the  moving  Power  : 
cp.  Hab3  Ps29.  15^  By  a  slight  change  in 
the  Heb.  text  we  might  render,  'And  they 
shall  drink  blood  like  wine,  and  they  shall  be 
filled  (with  it)  like  bowls,  and  as  the  corners 
of  the  altar  (are  filled  with  the  blood  of  the 
sacrifices).'  16,  17.  God  will  save  Israel  in 
honour  and  prosperity.  His  goodness]  RM 
'  prosperity.'  The  pronoun  is  uncertain,  but 
the  reference  is  to  Israel. 

CHAPTER  10 

Restokation  of  God's  People 
I,  2.  A  warning  to  trust  in  God  and  not  in 
sorcerers.  3-7.  The  Lord  will  cast  out  the 
evil  guides  of  the  people,  and  under  new  leaders 
Ephraim  and  Judah  will  be  victorious.  8-12. 
Ephraim  will  be  gathered,  but  Egypt  and 
Assyria  will  be  humbled. 

1.  The  connexion  with  9i7  is  very  slight, 
fertility  demanding  the  necessary  rain.  Some 
believe  that  the  passage  is  entirely  indepen- 
dent. The  time  of  the  latter  rain]  The  early 
rain  was  in  October,  when  the  gi-ound  would 
be  broken  up  for  sowing  ;  the  latter  rain  was 
in  Feb. -March,  after  the  crops  had  sprung  up, 
and  was  necessary  for  an  abundant  harvest. 
Even  in  the  season  it  is  wise  to  ask  God  for 
rain.     Bright  clouds]   RV  '  lightnings.' 

2.  Idols]  '  teraphim,'  household  images,  pro- 
bably in  human  form  :  cp.  1  S 13 1^.  They  were 
used  for  purposes  of  divination,  and  were  pro- 
bably connected  originally  with  ancestor  wor- 
ship. They  went  their  way]  RV  '  they '  (i.e. 
the  people)  '  go  their  way,'  as  sheep  when  the 
pasture  fails  in  one  place  go  on  to  another. 

3-12.  The  whole  passage  is  difficult.  A  good 
conjecture  summarises  it  as  follows  :  God  will 
visit  Judah,  in  whom  will  arise  brave  and  wise 
leaders.  By  their  means  the  lost  Ten  Tribes 
(Joseph .  .  Ephraim,  vv.  6,  7),  who  are  still  in 
exile,  will  have  a  glorious  restoration  to  Gilead 
and  Lebanon. 

3.  Shepherds]  probably  religious  teachers 
axe    here    meant  :  see  Intro.     Punished    the 


goats]  RV  '  will  punish  the  he-goats,'  i.e.  the 
false  guides  of  the  people  :  cp.  Jer50^.  Hath 
made]  RV  '  shall  make.'  Evidently  the  word 
shepherd,  closing  v.  2,  suggests  an  attack  on 
the  worthless  shepherds,  religious  teachers, 
perhaps,  of  foreign  extraction  or  of  foreign 
sympathies.  The  he-goats  may  be  ethnarchs 
or  civil  rulers  in  Jerusalem.  4.  Out  of  him] 
better,  '  from  him,'  i.e.  from  Judah.  Came] 
better,  '  shall  come.'  Corner]  i.e.  corner- 
stone. Nail]  rather,  '  tent-peg '  :  something 
that  will  hold  firm.  Oppressor]  RV  '  ruler,' 
i.e.  one  who  keeps  guard  over  workmen. 

6.  House  of  Joseph]  i.e.  Israel,  as  repre- 
sented by  Ephraim  and  Manasseh,  the  two 
leading  tribes.  Bring  them  again]  may  refer 
to  the  many  Israelites  in  exile  in  Egypt  (v.  10) 
and  elsewhere. 

8.  I  will  hiss  for  them]  i.e.  whistle  to 
attract  them  :  cp.  IsaS^^^.  God  will  bring 
back  Israel  to  their  own  land.  9.  I  will  sow 
them]  As  it  stands  this  seems  to  contradict 
what  follows  as  well  as  what  goes  before. 
With  a  slight  change  of  Heb.  it  is  possible 
to  render :  '  I  scattered  them  among  the 
nations,  but  in  far  countries  they  remember 
me.  And  they  will  bring  up  their  children 
and  come  back.'  10.  Assyria]  Asshur  might 
here  be  used  of  the  Seleucid  dominions  in 
Syria  and  Persia  ;  see  Intro.  11.  He]  i.e. 
Israel.  There  will  be  a  new  exodus  for  God's 
people.  Sea  with  affliction]  better,  perhaps, 
'  the  narrow  sea,'  i.e.  the  arm  of  the  Red  Sea 
through  which,  once  before,  they  passed.  The 
river]  i.e.  Nile.  Assyria  and  Egypt  are  chosen 
as  representing  the  great  world  forces  which 
harassed  God's  people.  12.  Them]  i.e.  Israel, 
to  whose  glorious  restoration  the  thoughts  of 
the  prophet  retiu-n.  Shall  walk  up  and  down 
in  his  (i.e.  the  Lord's)  name]  LXX  renders, 
'  In  His  name  shall  they  boast  themselves.' 

CHAPTER    11 
The  Parable  of  the  Shepherds 

The  perplexing  nature  of  the  prophecies 
in  this  c.  renders  exposition  difficult,  especially 
as  we  cannot  be  sure  of  the  circumstances. 
Apparently,  however,  the  passage  deals  with 
misrule  in  Jerusalem,  either  of  worthless  high 
priests,  or  of  cruel  foreign  rulers,  or  of  both, 
who  are  spoken  of  as  shepherds  :  see  Intro. 

1-3.  Another  storm  of  war  bursts  appar- 
ently over  northern  Israel.  4-14.  The 
people  reject  their  good  ruler,  and  the  prophet 
acts  the  part  of  a  good  shepherd  tending  the 
flock  and  defending  it,  but  is  held  in  contempt 
by  the  people.  15-17.  The  prophet  at  God's 
command  assumes  the  garb  and  insignia  of  a 
worthless  shepherd,  to  signify  that  God  will 
give  them  into  the  hand  of  a  cruel  and  care- 
less ruler.  To  this  most  scholars  add,  as  a 
continuation,  1 3  '^■^.    The  bad  ruler  will  speedily 


608 


11. 1 


ZECHARIAH 


12.2 


perish.  Two-thirds  of  the  people  will  die, 
but  a  remnant  will  be  saved. 

I.  Open  thy  doors,  O  Lebanon]  Make  way 
for  the  invaders.  2.  Forest  of  the  vintage] 
better,  'the  impenetrable  forest.'  Mighty]  RV 
'  goodly  ones,'  i.e.  nobles  ;  but  the  phrase  is 
doubtful  and  spoils  the  whole  thought  of  the 
passage.  Some  omit  it.  3.  The  pride  of 
Jordan]  the  rank  undergrowth  where  lions  had 
their  home  :  cp.  Jer  49 1^,  where  '  swelling  ' 
is  really  '  thickets. ' 

4.  Flock  of  the  slaughter]  E,V  '  flock  of 
slaughter.'  i.e.  destined  or  reared  for  slaughter. 
This  might  point  to  the  cruel  oppressions  and 
martyrdoms  in  the  times  of  the  Maccabees. 

5,6.  According  to  some  views  the  possessors 
(RM  '  buyers  ')  are  those  ethnarchs  and  high 
priests  in  Jerusalem  who  were  merely  puppets 
of  the  Seleucid  sovereigns.  The  latter  farmed 
out  the  high  offices  to  the  highest  bidder,  who 
in  turn  oppressed  the  people  by  fraud  and 
extortion. 

7.  The  prophet  takes  up  the  office  of  shep- 
herd (cp.  Jer  25^  Ezk3,  4),  but  finds  his  task 
too  difficult.  He  pities  the  poor  oppressed 
people,  but  feels,  at  the  same  time,  that  they 
are  so  ignorant  of  their  own  good  as  to  be 
unable  to  appreciate  a  beneficent  ruler.  But 
see  12-1.  Beauty]  better,  '  P'avour,' a  symbol 
of  Grod's  protecting  care.  Bands]  i.e.  'unity,' 
a  symbol  of  His  desire  to  make  peace  among 
the  people.  8.  This  is  an  allusion  to  some 
event  of  the  time,  of  which  nothing  is  now 
known.  9.  The  good  shepherd  leaves  the 
flock.  According  to  a  recent  view  the  good 
shepherd,  who  in  despair  abandoned  the  flock, 
was  Hyrcanus,  the  son  of  Joseph  (see  Jos. 
'Ant.'  12.  4),  who  may  have  been  paid  to  leave 
Jerusalem  (vv.  12,  13),  but  at  a  price  so  small 
that  he  threw  it  into  the  treasury  in  disgust. 

10.  The  prophet  declares  that  God  has 
broken  His  covenant  of  mercy  with  Israel. 

People]  better,  'nation,'  i.e.  Israel  regarded 
as  tribes.  11.  The  poor  of  the  flock]  those 
wretched  ones  whom  the  prophet  had  been 
trying  specially  to  instruct  and  help.  But 
perhaps  we  should  read,  '  the  dealers  in  the 
sheep.' 

12.  The  prophet,  personating  a  hired  shep- 
herd, asks  for  his  wages,  in  order  to  see  what 
value  they  put  upon  his  services.  His  hearers 
insult  him  by  offering  him  the  price  of  a  slave 
(Ex  21 3-).  13.  Unto  the  potter]  better,  'into 
the  treasury '  (see  RM),  by  the  change  of  one 
letter  in  the  Heb.  A  goodly  price  that  I  was 
prised  at  of  them]  a  sarcastic  pai'enthesis.  St. 
Matthew  applies  the  incident  to  the  case  of 
Judas  Iscariot  (see  Mt27''),  but  refers  it  to 
Jeremiah.  14.  The  last  hope  of  uniting  broken 
and  distracted  Israel  vanishes.  The  prophet 
abandons  his  tnsk  in  despair. 

15.  Instead  he  will  peisonate  a  worthless 


ruler  who  will  tear  and  destroy  the  sheep. 
According  to  some  this  worthless  shepherd  was 
Menelaus,  a  high  priest  whose  rivalry  with 
Jason,  also  a  claimant  for  the  priesthood, 
brought  about  the  gi'eat  oppression  of  the 
Jews  by  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  171  B.C.  In 
that  case  the  good  shepherd  in  13"^ -^  may  refer 
in  the  first  instance  to  Jason,  who  represented 
the  patriotic,  as  Menelaus  represented  the 
foreign,  party.  Jason,  however,  was  in  sym- 
pathy with  foreign  fashions,  and  he  ultimately 
died  in  exile.  On  the  other  hand,  Hyrcanus 
may  be  intended.  16.  Claws]  RV  '  hoofs.' 
The  idea  is  the  cracking  of  the  hoofs  of  the 
sheep  by  being  overdriven.  17.  Idol]  RV 
'worthless.'  The  word  is  used  of  idols,  be- 
cause of  their  worthlessness  :  cp.  JnlO^-'i^. 

C.  13.  7-9.  My  fellow]  one  who  has  the  same 
interests.  Smite  the  shepherd]  cp.  1K2217, 
and  the  most  fitting  application  of  the  words 
to  om-  Lord  (Mt263i).  The  whole  section 
(chs.  11,  13'^"^)  would  most  fittingly  apply  to 
the  year  171  B.C.,  when  Menelaus,  with  the 
aid  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  king  of  Syria, 
usurped  the  high  priesthood  in  Jerusalem  and 
Jason  was  expelled.  Feuds  and  bloodshed 
followed,  culminating  in  a  terrible  massacre, 
and  the  dsportation  of  thousands  of  Jews  by 
Antiochus.     The  third]  i.e.  a  remnant. 

CHAPTER  12 

The  Deliverance  of  Jerusalem 

Many  scholars  believe  that  in  chs.  12-14 
(omitting  13  "-9)  we  have  a  third  separate  pro- 
phecy, the  oldest  in  the  book  of  Zechariah, 
written  subsequent  to  the  death  of  king  Josiah, 
G09  B.C.  (cp.  the  mourning  in  the  valley  of 
Megiddon,  12  H),  but  prior  to  the  fall  of  the 
kingdom  of  Judah,  586  B.C.  For  this  view 
there  are  some  strong  arguments — («)  frequent 
references  to  the  House  of  David  (127.8,10,12 
13 1)  ;  (b)  Judah  and  Jerusalem  represent  the 
whole  nation;  (c)  idolatry  is  rampant  (13^); 
(d)  prophets  are  in  evil  repute  (13 --"^ ;  cp.  Jer 
239-^0).  (e)  Jerusalem  is  besieged  (12^  142; 
cp.  2  K  24 10  25 1). 

Others  produce  arguments,  perhaps  more 
conclusive,  in  favour  of  a  much  later  date. 
On  the  applicability  of  the  chs.  to  the  times 
of  the  Maccabees  see  Intro. 

1-9.  The  natives  gather  to  the  siege  of 
Jerusalem,  but  are  miraculously  smitten  by 
the  Lord,  who  comes  to  her  help.  Judah, 
at  first  taking  part  with  the  nations,  per- 
ceives that  God  is  fighting  for  Jerusalem, 
takes  the  side  of  the  latter,  and  shares  her 
salvation.      10-14.   A  national  mourning. 

I.  Burden]  see  9^.  God's  omnipotence  is 
the  guarantee  that  this  prophecy  will  be 
fulfilled.  2.  Trembling]  RV  '  reeling.'  The 
nations   assailing    Jerusalem    would    stagger 


39 


609 


12.  3 


ZECHARIAH 


14^ 


like  a  drunken  man.  The  figure  is  common : 
cp.  Isaoli"  2-4-0  Jer51  "■.  Against  J udah  and 
against  Jerusalem]  This  does  not  make  sense; 
and  most  scholars,  omitting  two  letters,  render, 
'  Even  Judah  shall  beat  the  siege  of  Jerusalem.' 
But,  as  no  time  is  known  when  Judah  was 
actively  opposed  to  Jerusalem,  it  is  simpler  to 
read:  '  And  there  shall  be  a  siege  against  Jeru- 
salem.' 3.  Those  nations  that  take  in  hand 
to  capture  and  rule  Jerusalem  will  find  it 
difificult.  Probably  the  idea  is  that  of  raising 
and  carrying  a  boulder  that  is  too  heavy 
for  a  man's  strength.  4.  Every  horse  of  the 
people]  RV  '  peoples,'  i.e.  nations  attacking 
Jerusalem.  The  eyes  of  the  Lord  will  be 
opened  to  look  favourably  upon  His  people, 
but  their  enemies  will  be  blinded. 

5,  6.  The  mutual  reliance  and  helpfulness 
of  Judah  and  Jerusalem.  The  victory  is  to 
be  with  Jerusalem,  so  that  Judah  may  not 
boast  over  Jerusalem.  The  contrast  between 
these  two  points  to  a  post-exilic  date,  when 
the  social  and  economic  ideals  of  the  city  dif- 
fered from  those  of  the  peasant  population. 

Jerusalem  shall  be  inhabited  again]  100,000 
Jews  were  deported  from  Jerusalem  by 
Ptolemy,  king  of  Egypt,  in  321  B.C.  ;  80,000 
were  either  killed  or  carried  away  captive  by 
Antiochus  in  167  B.C.  6,  7.  These  vv.  would 
refer  more  fittingly  to  the  latter  period,  and 
the  subsequent  uprising  of  the  Maccabees  :  cp. 
IMac.  On  the  Maccabsan  revolt  and  the 
causes  which  led  to  it  see  Jos.  '  Ant.'  12.  5,  6, 
and  1  Mac.  Judas  Maccabeus  drove  the  Syri- 
ans from  the  surrounding  country  of  Judah 
before  attempting  to  relieve  Jerusalem. 

8.  The  angel  of  the  LORD]  that  led  Israel 
in  the  wilderness  :  cp.  Ex  23  20. 

ID.  Even  repentance  comes  of  the  grace  of 
God.  Upon  me]  better,  '  unto  me.'  The 
text  is  obscure.  Some  read  '  him,'  when  the 
reference  would  be  to  some  unknown  martyr 
in  the  cause  of  Jerusalem.  11.  The  mourning 
is  likened  to  some  gi-eat  national  lamentation. 
Some  connect  it  with  the  worship  of  Adonis 
(Tammuz,  EzkB^^),  taking  Hadadrimmon  as 
one  of  the  titles  of  Adonis.  Others  refer  it 
to  a  mourning  over  Ramman,  the  Assyrian 
thunder  god  ;  others  ascribe  the  mourning  to 
the  sacrifice  of  children  to  this  god;  and  many 
take  it  as  the  mourning  at  the  death  of  Josiah, 
who  was  slain  at  Megiddo  in  the  plain  of 
Esdraelon.  In  any  case,  the  ultimate  applica- 
tion of  the  prophecy  to  the  sufeerings  and 
death  of  Christ  is  most  appropriate. 

Megiddon]  Elsewhere  Megiddo — in  central 
Palestine,  the  battlefield  of  Israel.  Here 
fought  Barak,  Joshua,  Saul,  and  Josiah  ;  here 
the  Jews  beheved  would  be  the  final  battle- 
field of  the  nations— the  Har-Magedon  of 
Rev  1616.  Such  a  place  where  so  many  had 
been  slain  might  well  be  a  place  of  mourning. 


12-14.  Every  family  apart]  indicating  the 
deep  personal  significance  of  the  mourning. 
Such  had  doubtless  been  the  moui'ning  for 
Josiah,  whose  death  was  one  of  the  greatest 
calamities  that  could  have  befallen  the  Jewish 
nation.  The  depth  and  reality  of  the  mourning 
is  shown  by  the  singling  out  of  certain  leading 
families.  Nathan]  a  son  of  David  and  Bath- 
sheba.  Levi]  a  son  of  Jacob,  and  progenitor 
of  the  priestly  tribe  which  bears  his  name. 

Shimei]  son  of  Gershon  (Ex6i^  Nu  3ii). 
LXX  reads,  '  the  family  of  Simeon.' 

CHAPTER    13 

Purification  of  Jerusalem 

Important  results  follow  this  great  act  of 
national  sorrow,  i.  The  land  is  purged  of 
sin  ;  2^,  of  idols  ;  2''-6,  of  prophets,  who  as 
a  class  have  fallen  into  disrepute,  and  who 
henceforth  will  be  ashamed  of  their  office. 

I.  The  idea  of  water  as  a  symbol  of  spiritual 
cleansing  was  familiar  in  Jewish  thought :  cp. 
Ezk3G-5  471.  The  Messianic  reference  is  ob- 
vious. 2.  Idols]  Idolatry  was  never  rampant 
in  Israel  after  the  exile.  Those  who  maintain 
a  post-exilic  date  for  this  prophecy  refer  to 
the  Maccabaean  age,  when  Greek  customs  and 
Greek  idolatry  were  common  even  in  Jerusalem 
(1  Mac  1 5'i).  The  unclean  spirit]  which  led  men 
to  sin.  3.  The  office  of  prophet  will  be  so 
hateful  as  to  be  a  dangerous  occupation.  Pro- 
phecy had  become  utterly  distrusted,  because  it 
had  been  degraded  by  men  who  spoke  smooth 
things  rather  than  truth. 

4.  Rough  garment]  R V  '  hairy  mantle,' 
either  an  untanned  sheep-skin,  or  a  cloak  of 
camel's  hair,  such  as  the  Baptist  wore.  5.  Man 
taught  me  to  keep  cattle]  better,  with  slight 
change  in  the  Heb.,  '  the  ground  has  been  my 
possession.'  I  am  so  occupied  with  manual 
labour,  I  do  not  cultivate  prophecy  :  cp.  Am 
7 1*.  6.  In  thine  hands]  Heb.  '  between  thine 
hands,'  probably  referring  to  self-mutilation 
practised  in  idolatrous  rites  :  cp.  Jer483^ 
1 K 1 8  2S.  These  wounds,  says  the  accused 
person.  I  received  when  frolicking  with  my 
companions. 

On  vv.  7-9  see  at  the  end  of  c.  11. 


CHAPTER  14 
The  Judgment  of  the  Heathen.    Exalt- 
ation OF  Jerusalem 

This  c.  has  the  appearance  of  a  late  work. 
It  has  all  the  general  characteristics  of  the 
style  of  literature  known  to  students  in  the 
book  of  Enoch,  and  popular  in  the  Jewish 
church  about  the  beginning  of  the  Christian 
era.  The  terrible  punishment  of  the  heathen 
(v.  12),  and  the  ceremonial  purity  of  Jerusalem 
(vv.  20,  21),  are  typical  of  the  narrower  phases 
of  late  Judaism. 

I,  2.  Jerusalem  again  assaulted  and  taken. 


610 


U.  1 


ZECHARIAH 


14.  21 


3-7.  The  Lord  descends  to  the  help  of  Jeru- 
salem, and  strange  phenomena  follow.  8-21. 
Then  comes  the  Messianic  age  ;  the  face  of 
natm-e  is  changed  ;  the  heathen  are  subdued  ; 
Jerusalem,  restored,  becomes  the  centre  of 
woiship,  and  all  therein  are  consecrated  to  the 
Lord. 

I.  Lo  !  a  day  is  coming  by  the  instrumentality 
of  the  Lord,  i.e.  ajudgment  day.  Thy  spoil]  The 
city  is  taken  and  sacked.  2.  Cp.  Josh  3  2.  3.  Shall 
the  Lord  go  forth]  An  apocalyptic  vision, 
common  to  later  Jewish  literature.  4.  An 
earthquake  heralds  the  presence  of  the  Lord, 
cleaving  the  Mount  of  Olives  in  two  parts  : 
cp.  Isa296  Ezk38i9.30.  5.  To  the  valley  of 
the  mountains]  RV  '  by  the  valley  of  mj^ 
mountains.'  This  text  is  obscure.  Would 
they  flee  if  God  came  to  help  them  ?  Azal] 
B.V  '  Azel,'  has  been  identified  with  Beth-ezel 
(Mic  1 11),  but  this  is  doubtful.  Others  make 
the  word  an  adverb,  '  very  near.'  The  earth- 
quake] not  mentioned  in  the  historical  books, 
but  in  Ami  1.  Josephus  describes  some  of  its 
results  ('  Ant.'  9.  10.  4).  6.  The  light  shall 
not  be  clear,  nor  dark]  i.e.  a  murky  day.  Cp. 
the  effect  of  modern  volcanic  eruptions. 
Others  render,  '  in  that  day  there  shall  be 
neither  heat  nor  cold  nor  frost.'  7.  One  day] 
i.e.  a  unique  day.  At  evening  time]  When 
one  would  expect  the  deep  darkness  to  settle 
down,  it  will  grow  clear.  The  calamities  will 
have  an  end. 

8.  Now  begin  the  blessings  of  the  Messianic 
kingdom.  Living  ■waters]  flowing  perennially, 
an  inestimable  blessing  in  parched  Eastern 
lands  :  cp.  IsaSo"  E.ev22i.  Former.  .  hinder] 
RV '  eastern  .  .  western,'  i.e.  Dead  Sea  .  .  Medi- 
terranean. 9.  The  universality  of  Messiah's 
kingdom  :  '  the  Lord  shall  be  one,  and  his 
name  one  '  (B.V).  10.  As  a  plain]  RV  '  as  the 
Arabah,'  i.e.  the  gi-eat  plain  which  stretched 
from  the  borders  of  Palestine  to  the  Red 
Sea. 

Geba]  marked  the  limit  of  northern  Judah 
(2K23S).  Rimmon]  a  city  in  the  extreme  S. 
on  the  borders  of  Edom.  And  it]  RV  '  and 
she,'  i.e.  Jerusalem.  Inhabited]  RV  '  shall 
dwell.'  The  idea  is  that  even  the  surrounding 
country  would  be  depressed  in  order  that 
Jerusalem  might  be  more  conspicuous.  Ben- 
jamin's gate]  on  the  NW.  of  the  city  The 
first  gate  (some  render  the  '  oldest '  gate)  and 


the  corner  gate  were  probably  in  the  E.  The 
tower  of  Hananeel]  RV  '  Hananel,'  was  part  of 
the  Temple  castle  in  the  extreme  NE.  The 
site  of  the  king's  winepresses  is  unknown. 

11.  Utter  destruction]  RV  ^  curse,'  or  '  ban.' 
Jerusalem  had  hitherto  seemed  under  a  curse. 
Now  all  this  would  pass  away. 

12.  The  ban  in  most  awful  form  would  turn 
rather  upon  the  nations  who  assail  Jerusalem. 
Such  hatred  of  the  heathen  is  characteristic  of 
Jewish  apocalypse,  and  arose  in  great  measure 
from  the  cruelties  and  indignities  suffered  by 
the  Jews  in  post-exilic  times.  13,  14.  A 
panic  will  fall  on  the  enemies  of  Jerusalem, 
and  all  their  spoil  will  be  left  a  prey  to  the 
Jews.  But  many  think  that  these  two  vv. 
should  stand  nearer  the  beginning  of  the  c. 
If  we  take  v.  15  after  v.  12  a  much  better 
sense  is  secured. 

16.  Some  take  this  v.  as  pointing  to  a  late 
date,  when  the  Jews  of  the  dispersion  went  up 
to  the  feasts  :  cp.  the  Pilgrim  Psalms,  espe- 
cially Ps  122.  The  feast  of  tabernacles]  was 
especially  a  thanksgiving  for  the  harvest.  So 
the  nations  which  do  not  keep  that  feast  at 
Jerusalem  will  be  punished  by  lack  of  rain 
(v.  17),  and  consequent  failure  of  harvest. 

18.  That  have  no  rai>i'\  RV  'neither  shall 
iti  be  upon  them.'  Both  phrases  are  unintel- 
ligible. They  are  due  to  an  attempt  to 
account  for  the  word  not,  which  is  omitted  in 
LXX.  Omitting  it  the  v.  runs  simply  :  '  and 
if  the  family  of  Egypt  go  not  up  and  come 
not,  on  them  shall  be  the  plague,'  etc.  Egypt 
is  not  dependent  on  rain.  Her  punishment 
will  therefore  be  plague. 

20.  Bells]  here  only  in  OT.  HOLINESS] 
RV  >  HOLY.'  Pots]  This  seems  to  refer  to 
the  ash-pans  used  for  receiving  the  ashes  ofE 
the  altar:  cp.  Ex 27 3  38 3  lK7-io.'i5.  These 
will  be  as  holy  as  the  bowls,  probably  the 
golden  basins  used  to  hold  the  sacred  blood 
of  the  sacrifices  in  the  Temple  :  cp.  Neh  7  ™ 
1K750  Jer52i9.  21.  Everything  in  Jerusalem 
will  be  specially  consecrated  to  the  Lord. 
The  idea  of  ceremonial  and  outward  holiness 
is  usually  considered  a  feature  of  later  Judaism. 
On  the  abuse  of  this  idea,  cp.  Mt23-5. 

The  Canaanite]  RV  'a  Canaanite,'  RM 
'  trafficker,'  i.e.  any  person  who  is  there 
simply  to  make  money  by  trading  rather 
than  to  worship  :  cp.  Mt  21 12-14, 


611 


MALACHI 


INTRODUCTION 


1.  Author.  Of  the  author  of  this  book  nothing 
is  known  apart  from  the  book  itself.  Even  the 
name  '  Malachi '  is  not  in  reality  a  proper  name 
at  all,  but  a  common  noun  with  the  possessive 
pronoun  of  the  first  pers.  sing,  appended,  sig- 
nifying '  My  Messenger.'  It  has  indeed  been 
supposed  that  the  word  is  a  contraction  of 
Malach/jah  ('Messenger  of  Jehovah'),  but 
it  is  improbable  that  any  man  ever  bore  such 
a  name.  The  oldest  Jewish  tradition,  though 
without  adequate  reason,  identifies  the  author 
of  this  book  with  'Ezra  the  Scribe,'  understand- 
ing the  word  '  Malachi  '  as  an  honourable  title 
conferred  by  Jehovah  upon  His  prophet :  cp. 
Hag  113  Mai  9  7. 

The  headings  of  the  various  sections  of  the 
prophetical  books  generally  bear  evidence  of 
being  the  work  of  later  editors,  and  it  is  pro- 
bable that  Mai  1 1  is  from  the  same  hand  as 
Zech  9 1  121.  Since  the  most  striking  pro- 
phecy in  this  book  is  that  in  3  i  (cp.  Mt  1 1  ^^ 
Mk  1  -  Lk  1  "6)^  it  is  not  improbable  that  the 
book,  being  anonymous,  came  to  be  known  as 
'  The  prophecy  of  "  My  Messenger  "  (Malachi),' 
whence  the  idea  arose  that  '  Malachi '  was  a 
proper  name. 

2.  Date.  The  date  of  this  book  may  be 
partly  inferi'ed  from  the  fact  that  the  head  of 
the  Jewish  state  is  termed  '  governor '  (1^,  cp. 
Hag  1 1  Neh  2 ".  9),  the  title  '  King  '  being  used 
of  Jehovah  (1 1^)^  as  in  the  post-exilic  Psalms. 
The  only  political  event  referred  to  is  the 
devastation  of  Edom,  the  enemy  of  Israel 
(1^>*),  which  is  adduced  as  a  proof  of  Jeho- 
vah's love  for  His  people.  There  is  reason  to 
suppose  that  '  the  day  of  Jerusalem  '  (Ps  1 37 '') 
is  not  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  Nebu- 
chadnezzar, but  the  disaster  referred  to  in 
Neh  1 3,  when,  the  jealousy  of  the  neighbour- 
ing peoples  having  been  aroused  by  an  attempt 
to  rebuild  the  walls  of  Jerusalem,  an  attack 
had  been  made  on  the  city  (Ezr423)^  in  which 
the  Edomites  had  particularly  displayed  their 
animosity.  Malachi  (as  we  may  call  the  pro- 
phet) would  thus  be  a  contemporary  of  Nehe- 
miah's,  an  inference  which  is  confirmed  by 
the  substance  of  his  book,  which  is  directed 
against  the  same  evils  that  Nehemiah  tried  to 
reform. 

It  is  probable  that  the  law-book  of  Malachi 
comprised  only  Deuteronomy  and  the  com- 
bined work  of  the  Jehovist  and  Elohist,  the 
Priestly  Code  having  not  yet  been  published 


in  Palestine.  From  this  it  may  be  inferred 
that  Malachi  prophesied  before  the  second 
visit  of  Nehemiah  in  433  B.C.  In  this  case 
the  general  depression  which  he  represents 
as  due  to  the  apparent  failure  of  Jehovah  to 
vindicate  the  right  may  be  easily  accounted 
for  by  the  disappointment  which  the  godly 
in  Jerusalem  experienced  when  the  first 
reforms  of  Nehemiah  and  Ezra  proved 
abortive. 

3.  Form  and  Style.  Although  the  book  of 
Malachi  evidently  had  originally  a  literary 
form,  it  is,  to  Western  ideas  at  least,  faulty 
in  arrangement,  and  it  has  not  improbably 
suffered  somewhat  in  transmission.  The  pro- 
phet seems  to  state  ideas  as  they  occur  to  him, 
paying  little  or  no  attention  to  their  logical 
sequence.  Thus  we  should  have  expected 
that  the  section  3~-^'^  would  follow  1 1*^,  while 
313-43  is  parallel  to  2i"-3«.  In  its  style  the 
book  is  peculiar.  It  is  more  argunientative 
than  any  other  book  of  the  OT.,  the  argu- 
ments being  developed  by  a  series  of  imaginary 
objections  brought  against  the  prophet's  as- 
sertion. 

4.  Readers.  The  people  addressed  through- 
out the  book  are  professedly  religious  people, 
who,  it  would  seem,  are  divided  into  two 
classes  :  (1)  the  sincerely  religious,  who  have 
lost  heart  through  the  prevailing  wickedness, 
and  are  beginning  to  question  Jehovah's  good- 
ness ;  (2)  the  worldly  and  covetous,  who  are 
religious  only  in  name. 

5.  Contents.  The  argument  of  the  book 
may  be  briefly  stated  as  follows  :  Jehovah,  in 
punishing  the  malicious  enemy  of  Israel,  has 
vindicated  His  claim  to  be  the  lover  of  Israel 
(12-5)  .  but  He  is  not  treated  by  Israel  with 
the  respect  due  either  to  a  father  or  to  a 
master  (1  <5).  In  particular,  the  priests  per- 
form their  ministrations  with  slovenly  indif- 
ference ;  the  victims  offered  are  a  disgrace  to 
the  altar  ;  and  it  would  be  better  to  omit  the 
sacrifices  altogether  (1  "^'i^)  ;  Jehovah  does  not 
need  the  ministrations  of  Israel,  for  even 
among  the  Gentiles  throughout  the  world  He 
has  those  who  serve  Him  (l-^i)  ;  let  it  be  re- 
cognised that  Jehovah  is  a  great  King,  and 
will  not  accept  a  paltry  ofl:'ering  (1 1^-14)  ;  the 
priests  must  repent,  or  punishment  will  over- 
take them  (2 1-3)  ;  Jehovah  has  made  a  cove- 
nant with  Levi,  and  appointed  him  His  mes- 
senger   to  the  people  (2  ^■'^) ;    but   Levi    has 


G12 


INTRO. 


MALACHI 


1.11 


abused  his  privilege,  and  distorted  Jehovah's 
teaching,  and  lost  the  respect  of  the  people 
(2^''^)  ;  the  laity,  too,  have  sinned  in  that  they 
show  lack  of  brotherly  love  (2iO),  and  are 
contaminated  by  the  heathen  (2  ii),  for  which 
sin  they  will  be  punished  (2  ^'^)  ;  their  prayers 
are  vain,  for  they  come  to  the  altar  with  the 
sin  of  divorce  upon  them  (213-16)  -  Jehovah 
has,  moreover,  been  wronged  by  the  people's 
lack  of  faith  (2 17)  ;  He  has  not  forgotten,  and 
will  come  as  the  prophets  have  said  (S^)  ;  but 
the  day  of  His  coming  will  be  a  time  of  crisis, 
and  will  overwhelm  the  sinners  (3 '^-S)  ;  let  the 
people  show  their  repentance  by  the  payment 
of  their  tithes,  and  they  will  at  once  find  a 
blessing  (S'''"^^)  ;  Jehovah  has'  been  charged 
with  faithlessness,  but  He  has  not  forgotten, 
and  His  Day  will  make  manifest  the  difference 
between  those  who  obey  Him  and  those  who 
disregard  Him  (3^2-42),  when  the  former 
shall  triumph  over  the  latter  (4  3)  ;  let  the 
Law  of  Moses  be  had  in  remembrance  (44),  and 
let  heed  be  given  to  the  prophet  who  will 
come  in  this  crisis  as  Elijah  came  of  old  (4  5)  ; 
thus  will  the  divisions  which  now  break  up 
families  be  healed,  otherwise  a  curse  will 
come  upon  the  land  (4^). 

6.  Teaching'.  There  is  no  Messianic  prophecy 
in  Malachi  in  the  ordinarj^  meaning  of  the  word. 
Malachi  does  not  look  for  a  king  upon  the 
throne  of  David  to  deliver  Israel,  but  for  the 
restoration  of  that  communion  with  Jehovah 
which  existed  when  Jehovah  led  His  people 
in  a  pillar  of  cloud  by  day  and  of  fire  by 
night. 

In  his  theology  Malachi  is  one  of  the  most 
advanced  thinkers  of  the  OT.,  albeit  he  does 
not  entirely  free  himself  from  OT.  limitations. 
He  not  only  recognises  Jehovah  as  universal 
God,  but  recognises  that  the  worship  which 
the  heathen  perform,  so  far  as  it  is  sincere,  is 
the  worship  of  Jehovah.  He  lays  stress  also 
upon  personal  religion,  and  represents  Jehovah 
not  only  as  Father  of  the  nation  (2^0)^  but 
as  showing  in  a  special  sense  a  fatherlj'-  care  of 
the  righteous  (31'').  He  is  convinced  that 
'  God  is  His  own  Interpreter,  and  He  will  make 
it  plain.'  He  develops  the  teaching  of  Deuter- 
onomy in  a  striking  way,  dwelling  upon  the 
necessity  alike  of  the  written  Scripture  and 
the  spoken  word,  taking  Moses  as  typical  of 
the  one,  and  Elijah  of  the  other. 

It  is  characteristic  of  Malachi's  teaching  as 
a  whole,  that  it  lays  stress  on  the  weightier 
matters  of  the  law,  judgment  and  mercy  and 
faith,  coupled  with  due  reverence  and  devotion 
in  the  external  expression  of  religion.  It 
finds  therefore  its  fulfilment,  its  completion, 
in  the  teaching  of  the  greatest  Prophet  since 
the  world  began,  who  said,  '  These  ought  ye 
to  have  done,  and  not  to  leave  the  other 
undone.' 


CHAPTER  1 

Jehovah's  Love  and  His  People's 
Ingratitude 

I.  Burden]  RM  '  oracle  '  ;  properly,  '  that 
which  is  lifted  up,'  hence  in  this  connexion 
'  utterance  '  ;  but  with  play  on  other  meaning 
'  burden  '  in  Jer2333  (RM).  2.  Wherein  hast 
thou  loved  us  ?]  i.e.  '  Wherein  hast  thuu  shewn 
thy  love  '? '  So  in  v.  3,  I  hated  Esau  means 
'  I  have  shewn  myself  hostile  to  Esau.'  '  Esau  ' 
and  '  Jacob '  here  stand  for  the  nations  Edom 
and  Israel,  not  for  the  patriarchs.  3.  The 
desolation  of  Edom  here  referred  to  had  been 
already  adduced  by  an  unknown  prophet 
(Isa  63)  as  a  proof  of  Jehovah's  care  for  Israel. 
Edom  was  devastated  by  an  invasion  of  Arabs 
who  for  more  than  a  century  had  been  pressing 
into  Palestine  :  cp.  Ezk25'i'^'io.  Dragons] 
RV  'jackals.'  4.  We  are  impoverished]  RV 
'  we  are  beaten  down.'  The  text  is  somewhat 
uncertain  :  cp.  Isa9io.  Thus  saith  the  LORD] 
In  Heb.  '  to  think  '  is  often  represented  by  the 
verb  '  to  say.'  A  Hebrew  does  not  hesitate  to 
represent  what  he  believes  to  be  true,  and 
therefore  the  '  thought '  of  Jehovah,  as  '  spoken  ' 
by  Jehovah.  In  such  a  phrase  there  is  no 
idea  of  a  revelation  by  vision.  5.  The  LORD 
will  be  (RV  '  be ')  magnified]  The  Heb.  may 
express  either  a  prayer,  as  in  Ps  40  ^^,  or  a  state- 
ment. Here  the  meaning  is  probably  that 
Jehovah  habitually  manifests  His  greatness. 

From  (more  literally  '  above  ')  the  border] 
Jehovah's  activitj^  is  not  confined  to  Jerusalem. 

6.  The  priests  especially  stand  to  Jehovah 
in  the  relation  of  sons  and  servants. 

7.  Polluted]  i.e.  not  actually  unclean,  but 
worthless,  common  :  cp.  Ezr2'J2.  Bread]  sacri- 
ficial ofi:erings  generally:  cp.  Lv21  6.  Table] 
the  altar,  not  merely  the  table  of  shewbread. 

8.  Cp.  Dtlo-^i  171  Lv2220f.  Blind  .  .  lame 
.  .  sick]  i.e.  animals  unlawful  for  sacrifice. 

It  /s  not  evil  ?]  RV  '  it  is  no  evil  !  ' 
Governor]  Heb.  Pehd.  The  term  is  applied 
to  Zerubbabel  (Hag  1 1>  i^).  It  is  impossible  to 
say  whether  Malachi  has  a  Jewish  or  Persian 
governor  in  view.  Accept  thy  person]  more 
correctly,  '  favour  thee.'  9.  This  hath  been, 
etc.]  Translate  the  latter  part  of  this  verse 
partly  corrected  from  LXX  :  '  When  this  hath 
been  done  by  you,  shall  I  accept,'  etc. 

10.  RV  '  Oh  that  there  were  one  among  you 
that  would  shut  the  doors,  that  ye  might  not 
kindle  fire  on  mine  altar  in  vain  !  '  i.e.  Sacri- 
fices so  offered  are  worthless  ;  better  to  let 
the  altar  fire  go  out  and  abstain  from  sacrifice. 

II.  Shall  be  (RV  '  is')  great]  Jehovah  does 
not  need  the  worthless  worship  of  lip-serving 
Jews,  for  even  among  the  Gentiles,  who  are 
accounted  heathen,  He  lias  those  who  worship 
Him  :  cp.  Acl()3-t,3.5_  Incense  shall  be  (RV 
'  is  ')  offered]  The  sacrifices  of  the  Gentiles, 


613 


1.  14 


MALACHI 


2™, 


when  offered  with  sincere  devotion,  are  offered 
to  Jehovah's  'name':  cp.  Ac  17 23.  14.  Cp. 
Lv 22 19. 20.  The  title  'King'  is  applied  to 
Jehovah  in  post-exilic  writings  composed  when 
the  Jews  had  not  an  earthly  king. 

Dreadful]  RV  '  terrible '  ;  better,  '  had  in 
reverence.' 

CHAPTER  2 

The  Degeneracy  of  the  Priesthood 

I.  A  reminder  to  the  priests  that  they  are 
to  blame  for  the  laxity  denounced  in  1 13, 14_ 
They  are  responsible  for  the  offering  of  fit 
victims,  which  in  some  cases  it  was  their  duty 
to  provide. 

3.  I  will  corrupt  your  seed]  RV  '  I  will 
rebuke  the  seed  for  your  sake  '  ;  but  the 
threat  of  a  curse  on  the  crops  does  not  appear 
to  be  specially  applicable  to  the  priests.  A 
very  slight  change  in  the  Heb.  which  has  been 
suggested,  gives  the  admirable  sense,  '  I  will 
cut  off  your  arm'  (cp.  1S231);  i.e.  I  will 
make  you  powerless  :  cp.  Ps37i''. 

The  dung  of  your  solemn  feasts  (RV  '  sacri- 
fices ')]  the  offal  of  the  animals  slain  for 
sacrifices,  which  at  the  three  great  feasts  of 
the  year  would  be  very  numerous,  and  a  source 
of  great  gain  to  the  priests. 

The  words  rendered  upon  your  faces  do 
not  necessarily  mean  more  than  '  in  your 
presence.'  To  scatter  offal  and  filth  in  a 
person's  presence  would  be  an  insult  to  him  : 
cp.  Dt23i'^.  Malachi  seems  to  mean  that  the 
fastidious  priests,  who  now  hold  aloof  while 
the  Temple  servants  clear  away  the  offal 
of  the  sacrifices,  will  no  longer  meet  with 
outward  respect  from  the  people  who  even 
now  despise  them  (2*^),  and  who  will  treat 
them  with  less  reverence  than  the  humblest 
of  Temple  servants.  The  last  words  of  the 
V.  are  obscure  and  possibly  corrupt.  They 
perhaps  mean,  '  You  shall  be  taken  away 
from  your  place  of  honour  in  the  Temple  to 
the  place  where  the  offal  is  taken.' 

4.  Cp.  V.  1.  This  charge  is  given  to  the 
priests  that  they  may  repent,  and  that  so  the 
covenant  with  Levi  may  be  confirmed  to  them. 

5.  Lit.  '  My  covenant  was  with  him  ;  the 
life  and  the  peace  I  gave  unto  him  ;  fear  and 
he  feared  me.'  6.  Cp.  the  ideal  priesthood 
described  in  Dt  338-11.  7.  To  Malachi,  as  to 
Haggai  (2  H),  the  law  is  not  yet  completely 
crystallised  into  a  book,  but  means  the  priests' 
decisions  on  points  submitted  to  them.  Mes- 
senger] cp.  Hag  113.  8.  Ye  have  caused 
many  to  stumble]  i.e.  by  giving  unjust  decisions 
the  priests  have  brought  many  to  ruin.  With 
the  charge  of  partiality  in  v.  9  contrast  the 
ideal  of  Dt  33  0,  where  it  is  represented  as  a 
priest's  duty  to  give  his  decisions  without  re- 
gard to  his  nearest  relatives  :  cp.  Mt  10  37. 

9.  Cp.  the  whole  section,  1 S  2  28-36^  which 
was  probably  written  about  this  period. 


10.  Malachi  seems  to  have  in  view  mainly 
such  evils  as  are  described  in  Neh  5.  His 
argument  here  seems  somewhat  inconsistent 
with  his  argument  in  l^*-,  since  one  God  had 
created  both  Esau  and  Jacob  ;  but  it  is  an  in- 
consistency natural  enough  in  the  as  yet  unde- 
veloped teaching.  A  man  must  learn  to  love 
his  brother  before  he  can  love  his  enemy. 

11.  The  mention  of  Israel  is  quite  out  of  j 
place  in  this  v.  The  word  has  probably  arisen 
by  a  scribe's  blunder  from  Jerusalem,  which 
it  somewhat  resembles  in  Hebrew.  The 
daughter  of  a  strange  god  must  mean  either  a 
foreign  nation  with  which  Judah  has  entered 
into  some  compact,  whether  political  or  religi- 
ous (by  which  some  alliance  or  understanding 
with  the  Samaritans  might  be  intended)  ;  or 
the  text  must  be  corrected  by  the  insertion 
of  one  letter,  so  that  for  '  daughter '  we  should 
read  '  daughters.'  In  either  case  Malachi 
denounces  the  tendency  of  his  people  to  fuse 
with  the  neighbouring  nations.  12.  The  master 
and  the  scholar]  RV  '  him  that  waketh  and 
him  that  answereth.'  A  very  slight  change  in 
the  Hebrew  gives  the  better  antithesis,  '  plain- 
tiff and  defendant ;  '  two  opposites  being 
frequently  used  in  Hebrew  to  denote  all.  Cp. 
'going  out  and  coming  in,'  etc.  Tabernacles] 
better,  '  homes.'  13.  Insomuch  that  he  regard- 
eth]  better,  '  because  he  regardeth.'  The 
people  are  regarded  as  covering  the  altar  with 
their  tears  in  the  intensity  of  their  desire  for 
the  favours  He  is  Mdthholding. 

14.  The  wife  of  thy  youth]  i.e.  the  wife 
married  in  youth.  The  evil  here  denounced 
is  the  divorce  of  an  old  wife  in  favour  of  a 
younger  woman.  The  wife  of  thy  covenant] 
The  thought  that  there  is  a  solemn  compact 
between  husband  and  wife  is  stated  definitely 
here  only  in  the  OT.;  but  it  is  the  natural 
inference  from  the  representation  of  Israel  as 
Jehovah's  wife,  for  though  Israel  was  false  to 
Jehovah,  He  remained  faithful.  15.  The 
text,  as  it  stands,  is  unintelligible.  A  simple 
correction  has  been  suggested,  which  gives  the 
following  sense :  '  Did  not  one  (God)  make 
and  continue  life  to  us  ?  And  what  does  the 
one  (God)  seek  ?  A  sacred  seed.  Therefore 
take  heed  to  your  life,  and  deal  not  treacher- 
ously against  the  wife  of  thy  youth ' :  i.e. 
One  God  (cp.  2  lO)  has  created  a  life  to  which 
He  has  given  continuance  through  marriage. 
The  object  of  marriage — God's  object  in  its 
institution — is  to  obtain  children,  '  seed  of 
God.'  When  children  are  born,  the  object  of 
marriage  is  attained.  Therefore  let  not  a 
man  put  away  his  wife,  because  she  has  grown 
old  and  lost  her  attraction.  16.  Putting  away] 
i.e.  divorce.  Covereth  violence  with  his  gar- 
ment] The  reference  is  probably  to  the  ill- 
treatment  of  the  wife  ;  but  the  Hebrew  is 
obscure. 


614 


2.  17 


MALACHI 


4.  6 


17.  An  address  to  those  who  are  losing 
faith  through  their  inability  to  solve  the  riddle 
of  the  prosperity  of  the  ungodly :  cp.  Pss  37,  73. 

CHAPTER  3 

The  Speedy  Judgment 

I.  This  V.  is  closely  connected  with  the 
preceding.  It  is  the  answer  to  the  question, 
'  Where  is  the  God  of  judgment  ? '  The 
messenger  is  evidently  a  prophet  or  a  suc- 
cession of  prophets:  cp.  Dtl89"22.  The 
phrase  he  shall  prepare  the  way  before  me  is 
probably  borrowed  from  Isa-lO^"^,  where  the 
thought  is  that  a  highway  must  be  prepared 
on  which  '  the  Glory  of  the  Lord '  may  lead 
Israel  to  the  land  of  Canaan.  Zechariah  (8  ^) 
had  promised  that  Jehovah  would  come  to 
His  Temple.  The  promise  in  Malachi's  days 
had  not  yet  been  fulfilled,  but  Jehovah  would 
'  hasten  it  in  its  time.'  2.  Malachi  shows 
himself  here  a  true  son  of  the  older  prophets. 
Jehovah  cannot  ignore  sin  ;  the  day  of  his 
coming  must  therefore  be  a  day  of  judgment : 
cp.  Am  5 18-20  Isa  33 14-16.  3.  He  shall  purify 
the  sons  of  Levi]  The  judgment  will  begin  at 
the  house  of  God.  4.  Malachi,  like  other  late 
OT.    writers,   here    idealises  the  past :   cp.   2  5 

1K420,21. 

6.  I  change  not]  better,  '  I  have  not 
changed.'  The  therefore  in  the  following 
clause  is  wrong  :  the  Heb.  has  '  but  you '  (em- 
phatic) '  are  not  consumed.'  As  this  yields  no 
antithesis,  it  is  not  improbable  that  there  is  a 
corruption  in  the  text.  The  argument  seems 
to  be,  '  I  have  not  changed,  but  you  have  not 
kept  your  part  of  the  covenant  ;  you  have 
not  performed  my  words.'     7.   Cp.  Zechl^f- 

9.   Cp.  Nehl3io*. 

II.  The  devourer]  i.e.  locusts:  cp.  Joell^ 
Am  4  2. 

13.  The  godly  are  here  addressed,  and  in 
their  lack  of  faith  are  reminded  that  '  the  Lord 
is  mindful  of  His  own.'  14.  Cp.  Ps73i3 
Isa583.  16.  The  change  from  direct  address 
to  narrative  utterly  spoils  the  connexion. 
LXX  gives,  '  This '  (i.e.  the  complaint  of  vv. 
14,  15)  'have  they  spoken  who  fear  the  Lord  ; 
and  the  Lord  hath  hearkened,  and  heard  it, 
and  a  book  of  remembrance  hath  been  written 
before  Him  concerning  those  that  fear  the 
Lord,'  etc. 

17.  In  that  day  when  I  makeup  my  jewels] 
R  V  '  in  the  day  that  I  do  make,  even  a  peculiar 
treasure '  :  better,  '  in  the  day  that  I  shew 
myself  active'  (so  in  4 3),  'even  a  peculiar 
possession.'  For  the  last  words  cp.  Dt7'^ 
142  2618. 

18.  Malachi  here  treats  the  prosperity  of 
the  ungodly  with  more  freedom  than  some  of 
the  OT.  writers.     He  does   not    deny  it,  nor 


does  he  affirm  that  it  is  illusory  or  transitory, 
but  that  it  cannot  abide  the  crisis  of  '  the  Day 
of  the  Lord.'  Ye]  the  miirmurers ;  those 
who  were  disturbed  by  the  prosperity  of  the 
wicked  (2 17). 

CHAPTER   4 

The  New  Elijah 

1.  The  comparison  is  to  an  oven  heated 
by  a  fire  lighted  within  it  :  cp.  MtG^o.  This 
passage  is  closely  connected  with  the  preced- 
ing.    Stubble]  rather,  '  straw.' 

2.  '  The  day  of  the  Lord  is  darkness  and 
not  light '  (Am  5  20),  but  when  the  night  of 
judgment  is  over,  day  dawns  for  the  righteous. 

The  Sun  of  righteousness]  '  Righteousness  ' 
is  here  almost  equivalent  to  '  blessing,'  as  in 
Ps245. 

With  healing  in  his  wings]  Since  the  dawn 
spreads  with  rapidity  from  the  E.  over  the 
world  (Job  38 12-14),  it  is  said  poetically  to  have 
wings  (Psl399).  With  the  dawn  of  the  new 
era  there  will  be  healing.  It  will  be  a  '  time 
of  restoration  of  all  things.'  Grow^  up  (RV 
'  gambol  ')  as  calves  of  the  stall]  better,  'tram- 
ple down  like  stall-fed  oxen,'  i.e.  the  most 
heavily  treading  animals  with  which  Malachi 
was  acquainted.  3.  The  men  of  Malachi's 
generation  have  not  yet  been  taught  to  pray 
for  those  that  despitefully  use  them  and  per- 
secute them.  They  shall  be  ashes]  i.e.  the 
righteous  shall  trample  on  the  ungodly  as  on 
the  ash-heaps  outside  their  homes. 

5.  The  history  of  Israel  has  already,  to  a 
great  extent,  become  Scripture,  and  Elijah 
is  a  type  for  all  time.  Malachi's  meaning 
would  be  clearer  if  we  were  to  translate,  with 
a  slight  concession  to  English  idiom,  '  I  will 
send  you  a  prophet  Elijah  ' :  cp.  '  a  Daniel  come 
to  judgment.'  It  is  in  this  sense  that  our 
Lord  understood  it  :  cp.  Mtlli'i  I711.12,  and 
also  Lk  1 1'i'.  The  fact  that  our  Lord  declared 
John  the  Baptist  to  be  a  fulfilment  of  this 
prophecy  would  alone  be  sufficient  to  entitle 
Malachi  to  a  place  among  the  goodly  fellow- 
ship of  the  prophets.  But  Malachi's  claim  to 
Christian  reverence  is  not  exhausted  by  this 
one  fulfilment  of  his  words.  Though  John 
the  Baptist  was  the  last  and  greatest  Elijah 
before  that  great  '  Day  of  the  Lord,'  when 
'  the  Word  was  made  flesh,'  there  had  been 
other  fulfilments  of  Malachi's  words  before 
his  time,  as  there  have  been  since.  Whenever 
'  the  old  order  changes,  giving  place  to  new,' 
God  sends  the  world  an  Elijah.  The  Old 
Testament  is  not  made  obsolete  by  the  New, 
for  the  gospel  is  the  continuation  and  ^the 
interpretation  of  prophecy. 

6.  A  time  of  reform  is  a  time  of  dissension: 
cp.  Lkl2-5i-53.  The  dissensions  can  only  be 
healed  by  giving  heed  to  God's  teaching. 


615 


ST.  MATTHEW 


INTRODUCTION 


1.  The  word  Gospel.  '  Gospel '  (lit.  '  God 
story,'  i.e.  story  about  God)  is  the  usual  English 
translation  of  euaggeUon^  lit.  '  good  tidings,' 
which  in  the  NT.  always  means  the  good 
tidings  of  salvation  as  preached  by  our  Lord 
Himself  (Mt423  93^),  or  by  the  apostles  and 
other  Christian  teachers  (e.g.  241-*  26^3  Ac  15 '^i 
also  Ro  2 1*5,  where  '  my  gospel '  means  '  the 
gospel  message  as  preached  by  me ').  Not  till 
the  2nd  cent.,  apparently,  did  it  come  to  mean 
a  written  biography  of  Christ,  though  the  way 
for  this  use  had  already  been  prepared  by  the 
title  of  St.  Mark's  Gospel,  '  The  beginning 
of  the  Gospel  of  Jesus  Christ  [the  Son  of 
God]  '  (Mk  1 1). 

2.  The  Gospels  in  general.  Only  four 
Gospels  having  any  claim  to  historical  authority 
have  been  transmitted  to  us,  those  of  SS.  Mat- 
thew, Mark,  Luke,  and  John.  There  were  nu- 
merous earlier  ones  (Lk  1 1)  of  which  our  evan- 
gelists have  made  full  use,  but  the  appearance 
of  their  far  superior  narratives  rendered  the 
earlier  efforts  comparatively  useless,  and  they 
soon  ceased  to  be  copied.  All  that  is  known 
or  can  be  probably  conjectured  about  them  is 
stated  in  the  special  article,  '  The  Synoptic 
Problem.'  Numerous  Gospels,  generally  called 
'  apocryphal,'  were  written  later  than  the 
canonical  foru",  but  of  these  even  the  earliest, 
such  as  '  the  Gospel  according  to  the  Hebrews' 
(circ.  100  A.D.),  and  '  the  Gospel  of  Peter '  (circ. 
100-150  A.D.),  are  so  obviously  contaminated 
by  fiction,  that  it  is  impossible  to  feel  sure 
that  any  of  the  facts  or  sayings  therein  re- 
corded (except  those  borrowed  from  our 
Gospels)  are  authentic. 

The  first  three  canonical  Gospels  (Mt,  Mk, 
Lk)  are  generally  called  '  synoptic,'  and  their 
authors  '  synoptists,'  because  they  all  present 
the  same  general  view  of  our  Lord's  ministry. 
For  the  most  part  they  record  the  same  inci- 
dents, in  the  same  order,  in  the  same  (or 
closely  similar)  words,  and  from  the  same 
point  of  view.  To  all  of  them  Jesus  is  the 
promised  Messiah  of  the  Jews,  and  also  the 
Saviour  and  Redeemer  of  all  mankind  ;  He  is 
true  man,  but  He  is  also  the  superhuman  Son 
of  God,  who  perfectly  knows  and  reveals  the 
Father,  who  atones  for  sin  by  His  death,  and 
by  His  resurrection  is  exalted  to  almighty 
power  over  the  universe.  But  the  main 
interest  of  the  writers  is  biographical,  not 
theological.     Their  aim  is  to  place  before  the 


reader  a  vivid  picture  of  the  historical  Jesus 
of  Nazareth  '  in  fashion  as  He  lived,'  going 
about  doing  good,  teaching,  healing,  comfort- 
ing, advising,  guiding,  rebuking,  blessing,  and 
drawing  all  men  to  Himself  by  the  strong 
cords  of  admiration  and  love.  Special  objects 
in  writing  each  evangelist  doubtless  had.  St. 
Matthew,  writing  for  the  Jews,  though  not 
perhaps  exclusively  for  them,  presents  our 
Lord's  claims  to  the  throne  of  David,  and 
expounds  fully  His  attitude  towards  the  Law  ; 
St.  Mark,  writing  for  the  Romans,  carefully 
explains  for  their  benefit  the  Jewish  customs 
and  observances  which  were  so  unintelligible 
to  Gentiles  ;  St.  Luke,  writing  as  St.  Paul's 
interpreter,  desires  particularly  to  make  it 
plain  that  in  Christ  there  is  neither  Jew  nor 
Greek,  bond  nor  free,  male  nor  female,  that 
the  poorest  and  humblest  most  easily  enter 
God's  kingdom,  that  the  good  Creator  desires 
to  save  every  soul  which  He  has  made,  and 
that  accordingly  there  is  hope  for  the  most 
careless  of  prodigals  and  the  most  abandoned 
of  sinners.  But  the  main  aim  of  each 
synoptic  writer  is  just  the  simple  one  of 
placing  before  the  reader  vividly  the  gracious 
personality  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  letting  it  make 
its  own  appeal  to  the  heart  and  understanding. 
The  aim  of  the  fourth  evangelist  is  different. 
Writing  after  the  rise  of  heresy,  he  aims 
definitely  at  establishing  the  true  doctrine  of 
the  person  of  Christ.  Sayings  and  incidents 
are  selected  not  for  their  biographical  interest, 
but  for  their  doctrinal  importance  as  illustrat- 
ing various  aspects  of  the  Incarnation  of  the 
Divine  Son  of  God.  The  Gospel  is,  in  fact, 
a  sermon  on  the  text '  And  the  Word  was  made 
flesh,  and  dwelt  among  us  '  (Jn  1 1^).  Unlike 
the  synoptists  St.  John  is  an  allegorist,  and 
expects  the  reader  to  detect  a  hidden  spiritual 
meaning  beneath  the  letter  of  his  narrative. 
Assuming  the  synoptists  to  be  well  known,  he 
omits  for  the  most  part  the  events  and  sayings 
which  they  record,  and  thus  his  Gospel  forms 
a  supplement — and  one  of  priceless  worth — to 
the  synoptic  record.  Taken  all  together,  the 
four  Gospels  give  an  adequate  and  harmonious 
picture  of  the  God-Man,  the  synoptists  de- 
lineating mainly  His  Humanity,  and  St.  John 
His  Deity.  As  an  old  writer  (St.  Irenseus,  177 
A.D.)  well  says  :  '  The  Word,  who  was  mani- 
fested to  men,  has  given  us  the  gospel  under 
four  aspects,  but  bound  together  by  one  Spu-it.' 


617 


INTRO. 


ST.  MATTHEW 


INTRO. 


3.  Life  of  St,  Matthew.  St.  Matthew,  the 
reputed  author  of  the  first  Gospel,  was  a  cus- 
toms house  officer.  His  business  was  to  collect 
the  tolls  levied  on  the  merchandise  that  passed 
through  the  dominions  of  Herod  Antipas, 
tetrarch  of  Galilee  and  Perea.  He  was  sta- 
tioned at  Capernaum,  on  an  important  caravan 
route  leading  to  Damascus.  Though  probably 
not  in  the  employ  of  the  hated  Romans,  but 
of  Herod  Antipas,  he  belonged  to  a  despised 
class.  '  Publicans,'  that  is,  collectors  of  taxes  or 
tolls,  were  ostracised  socially,  and  though  not 
exactly  excommunicated  by  the  synagogue,  were 
treated  as  '  sinners,'  i.e.  abandoned  and  irre- 
ligious persons.  It  required  no  small  courage 
on  the  part  of  the  new  Teacher  to  choose  as 
one  of  His  inner  circle  of  disciples  a  despised 
publican.  Our  Lord's  object  was  probably 
to  obtain  influence  among  the  class  of  religious 
and  social  outcasts.  The  call  of  Matthew  was 
fully  justified  by  its  results.  It  brought  Jesus 
into  direct  and  fruitful  contact  with  a  class 
of  persons  for  whose  spiritual  welfare  none 
of  the  orthodox  religious  authorities  had  the 
least  concern.  The  feast  which  St.  Matthew 
made  to  celebrate  his  call  was  attended  by  a 
great  multitude  of  publicans  and  sinners,  and 
gave  Jesus  an  opportunity  of  speaking  to  them 
of  the  things  pertaining  to  the  kingdom  of 
God(Lk529f.). 

St.  Matthew's  profession  was  a  compara- 
tively lucrative  one  (cp.  Lkl92),  so  that  it  cost 
him  something  to  '  forsake  all '  and  follow 
Jesus  (Lko^S).  When  the  call  took  place, 
he  had  probably  been  a  disciple  for  some  time, 
as  was  the  case  with  the  other  apostles.  His 
original  name  was  Levi,  and  to  this,  on  the 
occasion  of  his  call,  was  added  the  surname 
Matthew,  i.e.  '  gift  of  God,'  by  which  he  was 
generally  known  in  Christian  circles  :  cp.  Mk  2  ^^ 
andLk52T  withMt99. 

According  to  the  oldest  traditions,  he  preached 
for  fifteen  years  in  .Judaea  and  then  visited 
Ethiopia,  Persia,  Media,  and  Parthia.  His 
death  seems  to  have  been  natural,  though  later 
authorities  make  him  a  martyr.  He  is  com- 
memorated by  the  church  on  Sept.  21st. 

4.  Composition  and  Authorship  of  the  Gospel. 
The  first  Gospel,  though  compiled  from  various 
sources,  is  a  literary  unity,  the  work  of  a  single 
writer.  This  is  shown  by  the  occurrence  of 
various  characteristic  phrases,  not  in  certain 
sections  only,  but  throughout  the  work.  Thus 
the  phrase  '  the  kingdom  of  heaven,'  which  is 
found  in  St.  Matthew  alone,  occurs  14  times  in 
sections  which  are  peculiar  to  St.  Matthew, 
and  18  times  in  sections  which  are  common  to 
him  and  St.  Luke  or  St.  Mark.  Also  the 
peculiar  phrase  '  that  it  might  be  fulfilled 
which  was  spoken  by  the  prophet,'  which 
occurs  nowhere  else  in  the  NT.,  occurs  in 
nearly    every   part   of   the   first  Gospel  :  see 


122  215,17,23  414  817  1217  1335  214^  [2656]    [27  9] 

[27  ^5] .  It  is  plain,  therefore,  that  the  same 
compiler  has  worked  over  the  whole  of  the 
book,  and  given  it  such  unity  as  it  possesses. 

The  author's  sources  were  somewhat  numer- 
ous, and  several  of  them  can  still  be  clearly 
distinguished.  His  principal  authority  for 
narrative  was  St.  Mark's  Gospel,  which  he  pro- 
bably possessed  in  its  complete  form,  in  which 
it  contained  an  account  of  an  appearance  of 
the  risen  Lord  in  Galilee:  see  MklG^.  He 
evidently  wrote  with  this  Gospel  before  him, 
making  it  the  basis  of  his  work,  and  inserting 
his  additional  matter,  gained  from  other 
sources,  at  appropriate  intervals,  but  very  sel- 
dom departing  from  its  order.  In  transcrib- 
ing St.  Mark,  he  reproduced  his  words  with 
considerable  exactness,  but  usually  abridged 
them,  generally  only  slightly,  but  sometimes 
very  considerably.  For  example,  St.  Mark's 
account  of  the  Gadarene  demoniac  runs  to 
20  vv.,  while  St.  Matthew's  has  only  7  vv.  He 
seldom  adds  anything  of  importance  to  St. 
Mark's  narrative.  The  chief  exceptions  are 
the  account  of  the  Temptation,  where  he  adds 
important  details  from  another  source  (4i-ii), 
that  of  the  walking  on  the  sea,  where  he  adds 
the  incident  of  Peter  descending  from  the 
ship  (li'^'^-'^^),  and  that  of  the  confession  of 
Peter  at  C^sarea  Philippi,  which  is  described 
much  more  fully  (16i3f.).  Altogether,  St. 
Matthew  has  about  470  vv.  out  of  a  total  of 
1,068  vv.  parallel  to  St.  Mark,  that  is,  he  bor- 
rows nearly  half  his  Gospel  from  St.  Mark. 

Another  source  (or  sources)  is  indicated  by 
the  large  amount  of  matter  which  St.  Matthew 
has  in  common  with  St.  Luke.  A  complete 
list  of  these  correspondences,  amounting  in  all 
to  about  200  vv.,  or  nearly  one-fifth  of  the 
Gospel,  has  already  been  given  (see  art.  '  The 
Synoptic  Problem '),  and  the  reader  is  requested 
to  refer  to  it.  He  will  find  that  in  at  least 
two-thirds  of  the  cases,  the  subject-matter 
(which  consists  mainly  of  discourses  and  say- 
ings) has  been  placed  differently  by  the  two 
evangelists,  and  that  the  variations  of  phrase- 
ology are  also  very  considerable.  This  sug- 
gests that  not  more  than  one-third  (if  so  much) 
of  the  correspondences  between  St.  Matthew 
and  St.  Luke  are  due  to  the  use  of  a  common 
document,  and  that,  for  the  most  part,  they 
used  different  sources.  Our  evangelist's  main 
source  for  discourses  seems  to  have  been  a 
document  (called  '  the  Logia ')  in  which  our 
Lord's  sayings  were  collected  in  masses  ac- 
cording to  subject-matter  ;  but  the  sources  of 
the  discourses  in  St.  Luke  seem  to  have  been 
documents  in  which  our  Lord's  sayings  were 
preserved  in  their  proper  historical  con- 
nexion. There  is  no  sufficient  evidence  to  show 
that  our  evangelist  grouped  together  in  his 
Gospel  sayings  that  were  separate  in  his  sources, 


618 


ST.  MATTHEW 


INTRO. 

but  rather  the  contrary,  for  he  several  times 
expresses  his  conviction  that  the  great  groups 
of  sayings,  which  St.  Luke  separates,  were 
delivered  at  one  time  and  place,  and  this  he 
would  hardly  have  done  if  his  sources  had  re- 
corded them  in  widely-separated  contexts :  see 
especially  72s  11 1  1353  19 1  261. 

A  third  group  of  sources  is  indicated  by  the 
matter  peculiar  to  St.  Matthew.    This  amounts 
to  about  400  vv.,  and  consists  of  the  following 
sections  : — 
1 1-17.        Genealogy  of  Jesus. 
1 18-25.       The  Nativity. 
2  i-is.         The  Magi ;    the   massacre    of    the 

Innocents. 
219-23.       Flight  into  Egypt. 
3^,15.       St.  John's  scruple  about  baptising 

Jesus. 
4 12-1*^.       Isaiah's  prophecy  fulfilled  (Isa  9 1>  2). 
423,24.       Tours  in  Galilee. 
5,  6,  7.     Much  of  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount. 
9  27.  The  two  blind  men. 

10.  About  8    vv.  of  the  charge  to  the 

Twelve. 
11 28-30.       '  Come  unto  me,  all  ye  that  labour.' 
125.  The    priests   profane    the    sabbath 

and  are  blaiueless. 
1217-23.       Isaiah  42 1  fulfilled. 
1236,37.       Every  idle  word. 

1 3 14. 15.  Fulfilment  of  Isa  6  9. 
1324-30.  Parable  of  the  tares. 
1335.  Fulfilment  of  Ps 78 2. 

1336-43.       Interpretation    of    the    parable  of 

the  tares. 
13  «.  Parable  of  the  hid  treasure. 

1345,46.       Parable  of  the  pearl-merchant. 
1347-51.        Parable  of  the  net. 
13  52, 53.       '  Evei-y  scribe  which  is  instructed.' 
1428-33.       Peter  walks  on  the  waves. 
1512-15        'Every  plant  which    my  heavenly 

(in  part).      Father.' 
1523-25.        'lam  not  sent  but  unto  the  lost 

sheep.' 
1528-31.        Many  are  healed. 
Igii,i2.       The  leaven  of  the   Pharisees   and 

Sadducees  (but  cp.  Mk8i5). 
1017-19.        '  Blessed  art  thou,  Simon  Barjona.' 
17  24-27.        The  stater  found  in  the  fish's  mouth. 
134,7,10,11,14.  Sayings  about  children. 
1815-20.        '  If  thy  brother  shall  trespass.' 
1821-35.       'Lord,  how  oft  shall  my  brother 

sin  against  me  ?  ' 
1910-12.       Celibacy     for     the     kingdom     of 

heaven's  sake. 
20 1-1*5.         Parable  of  labourers  in  the  vineyard. 
2 1 4, 5.         Fulfilment  of  Isa  62  n  Zech  9  ». 
2110,11.       Astonishment  of  Jerusalem  at  the 

triumphal  entry. 
211^.  The  blind  and  lame  healed  in  the 

Temple. 

2115.16.  The  children  cry  '  Hosanna'  in  the 


INTRO. 


Temple. 


2128-82.       Parable  of  the  two  sons. 

2143.  'The    kingdom   of    God    shall    be 

taken  from  you.' 
22 1-14.         Parable  of  the  marriage  of  the  king's 

son  (the  wedding  garment). 
23 1-5,  8-10,    Woes  pronounced   on   scribes  and 
14-22, 24-33.      Pharisees. 

2411.  '  Many  false  prophets  shall  rise.' 

2412.  '  The  love  of  many  shall  wax  cold.' 
2430.           The   sign  of   the  Son  of   Man  in 

heaven. 
251-13.         Parable  of  the  ten  virgins. 
2514-30.        Parable  of  the  talents  (yet  cp.  St. 

Luke's    parable  of  the  pounds, 

Lk  19 12-27). 
2531-46.        Parable  of  the  sheep  and  the  goats. 
2625.  Judas  asks,  '  Master,  is  it  I  ?  ' 

2652.  '  Put  up  again  thy  sword.' 

26  53, 54.       '  Thinkest  thou  that  I  cannot  now 

pray  to  my  Father  ?  ' 
273-10.         Remorse,    suicide,    and    burial    of 

Judas. 
2719.  Pilate's  wife. 

2724,25.       Pilate  washes  his  hands. 
2751-53.        Earthquake,  opening  of  tombs,  and 

resurrection  of  saints. 

27  62-66.        The  tomb  sealed,  and  a  watch  set. 
282-4.  A    great    earthquake.      An     angel 

bright  as  lightning   rolls    away 
the  stone,  and  terrifies  the  guards. 

28  9-10.        Jesus  appears  to  the  women. 
2811-15.        The    guards   report    to  the    chief 

priests,    who     spread     a    false 

report. 
2816-20.        Appearance    on     a     mountain    in 

Galilee. 
Of  this  peculiar  matter  we  may  assign  to  the 
'  logia '  most  of  the  discourses  and  sayings, 
which  include  parts  of  the  Sermon  on  the 
Mount,  of  the  charge  to  the  Twelve,  of  the 
denunciations  of  the  Pharisees  ;  also  the 
parables  of  the  tares,  the  hid  treasure,  the 
pearl-merchant,  the  net,  the  labourers  in  the 
vineyard,  the  two  sons,  the  wedding  garment, 
the  ten  virgins,  the  talents,  and  the  sheep  and 
the  goats.  Certain  incidents  similar  in  charac- 
ter to  the  common  synoptic  tradition,  such  as 
the  Baptist's  scruple  (3  14),  the  tours  in  Galilee 
(423),  the  healing  of  the  two  blind  men  (92T), 
the  healing  of  the  blind  and  lame  in  the  Temple 
(21 14),  the  children's  cry  of  Hosanna  (21 15),  the 
question  of  Judas  (26  2a),  the  remorse  of  Judas 
(273),  perhaps  also  the  appearance  to  the 
women  (28-^),  and  to  the  eleven  in  Galilee 
(28 1''')-  seem  to  point  to  the  use  of  an  authentic 
narrative  source  somewhat  resembling  St. 
Mark's  Gospel.  Very  little  of  the  Gospel 
seems  due  to  oral,  as  distinguished  from 
written,  tradition — perhaps  only  the  Nativity 
(which  is  confirmed  in  its  essential  features 
by  the  independent  narrative  of  St.  Luke), 
the  visit   of   the   Magi  (which  fits  well  into 


619 


INTRO. 


ST.  .AlATTHEW 


INTRO. 


secular  history,  and  is  thoroughly  credible),  the 
incident  of  the  temple-tribute,  and  certain 
details  in  the  narra,tive  of  the  resurrection, 
such  as  the  resurrection  of  the  saints,  and  the 
setting  of  a  watch.  On  these  the  notes  should 
be  consulted. 

From  what  has  been  said,  it  will  be  evident 
that  direct  authorship  of  this  Gospel  by  the 
apostle  Matthew  is  improbable.  If  St. 
Matthew  had  been  the  author,  he  would 
probably  have  given  his  own  account  of  the 
transactions,  and  not  have  laboriously  occupied 
himself  with  collecting  and  transcribing 
'  sources.'  At  the  same  time  a  connexion 
with  the  apostle  Matthew  is  probable.  The 
name  of  so  obscure  an  apostle  would  hardly 
have  been  connected  with  the  Gospel  without 
some  good  reason.  Ancient  tradition  (first  in 
Papias,  130  a.d.)  credits  St.  Matthew  with 
the  composition  of  a  book  of  '  logia '  or  '  oracles,' 
written  in  Hebrew  (Aramaic),  which  may  have 
been  a  brief  Gospel,  but  was  more  probably  a 
collection  of  discourses  classified  (as  we  have 
already  suggested)  according  to  subject-matter. 
Of  a  Greek  translation  of  these  '  logia '  our 
author  seems  to  have  made  such  liberal  use, 
that  he  acknowledged  his  obligations  to  the 
apostle  by  calling  his  work  '  according  to 
Matthew.'  St.  Matthew,  therefore,  is  respon- 
sible for  the  discourses,  but  probably  not  for 
the  history. 

The  author  was  undoubtedly  a  Jewish 
Christian,  familiar  with  Hebrew,  and  trained 
in  rabbinical  methods.  His  quotations  from 
the  OT.  (when  they  are  not  copied  from  St. 
Mark)  generally  follow  the  Hebrew  father 
than  the  Greek.  He  arranges  his  book  on  the 
arithmetical  principles  so  common  in  rabbini- 
cal writings,  and  shows  a  particular  fondness 
for  the  numbers  7,  5,  3,  10.  Thus  there  are 
seven  beatitudes,  seven  petitions  in  the  Lord's 
prayer  (not  five,  as  in  St.  Luke),  seven  woes 
denounced  against  the  Pharisees  ;  also  the 
names  in  the  genealogy  are  arranged  in  multiples 
of  seven  (7  x  2)  ;  there  are  five  chief  collections 
of  our  Lord's  discourses,  three  temptations, 
three  chief  duties  of  religion  (Gi-i*^),  three 
prayers  in  Gethsemane  ;  also  between  the  first 
and  second  discoiu-ses  of  Jesus  the  evangelist 
inserts  ten  miracles  (chs.  8,  9).  Seven  is,  of 
course,  the  number  of  the  sabbath  day,  five 
of  the  books  of  Moses,  three  of  the  priestly 
blessing,  and  ten  of  the  plagues  of  Egypt. 
The  author  also  shows  his  Jewish  predilections 
in  his  affectionate  references  to  Jerusalem  as 
'  the  holy  city,'  and  '  the  holy  place '  (45  2415 
27  53). 

5.  Date.  The  date  of  the  Gospel  is  rather 
before  than  after  70  a.d.  The  reason  for 
thinking  this  is  that  the  author  has  so 
arranged  our  Lord's  sayings  about  the  fall 
of  Jerusalem  and  His  Second  Advent  as  to 


leave  the  impression  that  these  events  would 
be  coincident.  Had  he  written  later,  he  would 
have  made  it  evident  that  they  would  be 
separated  by  an  interval,  as  St.  Luke  has 
actually  done  (see  Lk21-**,  and  contrast 
Mt  24 29. 30).  But  the  Gospel  cannot  have  been 
wi'itten  much  before  70,  because  it  uses  sources, 
some  of  which  are  probably  not  very  early,  and 
embodies  traditions  which  in  some  cases  are 
apparently  not  in  their  earliest  form. 

6.  General  Characteristics.  This  Gospel  is 
one  of  the  most  attractive  books  ever  written, 
and  in  modern  times  has  exercised  a  wide 
influence  even  beyond  the  pale  of  Christianity. 
One  of  the  most  influential  of  modern  Indian 
converts  was  brought  to  Christ  simply  by 
reading  it.  The  effect  of  the  book  is  partly 
due  to  its  excellent  arrangement.  The  author 
arranges  his  material  not,  like  St.  Luke, 
chronologically,  but  according  to  subject- 
matter.  Material  of  the  same  kind  is  collected 
into  great  masses,  which  being  read  uninter- 
ruptedly, produce  a  cumulative  impression 
upon  the  reader.  Good  instances  of  the 
author's  method  are  the  great  collection  of 
sayings  known  as  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount 
(5-7)  ;  the  great  gi'oup  of  miracles  intended  to 
illustrate  and  confirm  it  (8,  9)  ;  the  charge  to  the 
Twelve,  apparently  composed  of  sayings  deli- 
vered at  various  times  (10)  ;  the  cluster  of 
seven  parables  (13),  the  collection  of  denun- 
ciations of  the  Pharisees  (23),  and  the  sublime 
group  of  parables  illustrating  the  end  of  the 
world  (25).  The  great  glory  of  this  Gospel 
is  the  discourses.  These  are  from  the  pen  of 
the  apostle  Matthew  himself,  who  evidently 
had  a  special  gift  of  remembering  and  record- 
ing accurately  the  verj'  words  of  the  Master. 
In  almost  all  cases  where  there  is  any  differ- 
ence, St.  Matthew's  version  is  superior  to 
St.  Luke's.  This  is  specially  the  case  in  the 
Sermon  on  the  Mount.  In  no  Gospel,  not  even 
in  St.  Luke,  are  the  unapproachable  majesty 
and  splendour  of  Christ's  utterances  so  appar- 
ent. St.  Matthew's  Gospel  is  particularly 
helpful  in  its  treatment  of  OT.  prophecy, 
showing  how  completely  and  comprehensively 
Christ  fulfilled  the  ideals  and  aspirations  of  the 
OT.  saints.  Sometimes  his  exegesis,  following 
(like  St.  Paul's)  rabbinical  models,  is  of  a  kind 
more  calculated  to  appeal  to  his  original 
readers  than  to  us,  but,  after  making  all  deduc- 
tions, it  is  not  too  much  to  say,  that  of  all  the 
remains  of  Christian  antiquity  dealing  with 
the  subject  of  Messianic  prophecy,  St. 
Matthew's  Gospel  is  the  most  fruitful. 

We  have  now  to  speak  of  the  more  special 
peculiarities  of  St.  Matthew's  Gospel,  some 
of  which  are  very  definitely  marked. 

(1)  The  Gospel  is  predominantly  Jewish- 
Christian.  It  reflects  the  tone  of  the  church  of 
Jerusalem  before  it  was  fully  realised  that  the 


I 


620 


INTRO. 


ST.  MATTHEW 


INTRO. 


Ceremonial  Law  had  been  abolished.  Sayings 
are  reported  which  (literally  understood)  teach 
that  every  letter  of  the  Mosaic  Law  is  binding  in 
perpetuity  (5  ^^),  that  its  permission  to  divorce 
still  holds  good  (5^'^  19  9),  that  not  the  Levitical 
distinctions  of  meats,  but  only  the  Pharisaic 
glosses  thereon  have  been  abolished  (15  2'^),  and 
that  the  sabbath  day,  with  all  its  Mosaic 
restrictions,  will  permanently  be  observed  by 
Christians  (2420).  The  fii'st  place  in  the 
kingdom  of  God  seems  often  to  be  assigned  to 
the  Jews  (19  ^s),  the  G-entiles  being  obliged  to 
content  themselves  with  a  subordinate  position. 
Christ's  mission  is  apparently  restricted  to 
the  chosen  people  (15-^).  As  for  the  apostles, 
they  seem  expressly  forbidden  to  go  into  the 
way  of  the  G-entiles,  or  to  enter  into  any  city 
of  the  Samaritans  (10-5). 

But  though  the  writer's  sympathies  are 
predominantly  Jewish-Christian,  he  is  a  per- 
fectly honest  witness,  and  does  not  attempt 
to  suppress  facts  or  sayings  which  are  of  a 
broader  or  even  of  an  opposite  tendency.  He 
introduces  Gentiles  as  the  first  worshippers 
of  the  infant  Messiah  (2i).  He  records  the 
praise  of  the  Roman  centurion,  and  our  Lord's 
striking  words,  '  Many  shall  come  from  the 
east  and  the  west,  and  shall  sit  down  with 
Abraham  and  Isaac  and  Jacob  in  the  kingdom 
of  heaven '  (8 1^),  words  which  affirm  not  only 
the  admission  of  the  Gentiles  to  the  kingdom, 
but  their  admission  on  equal  terms.  Other 
instances  of  sayings  favourable  to  the  Gentiles 
are,  12  is,  21  (' ii^^  his  name  shall  the  Gentiles 
trust '),  1241  (the  men  of  Nineveh),  IS^s  ('  the 
field  is  the  world '),  13  47  (the  net  gathering  of 
every  kind),  15^0-39  (feeding  of  4,000  believing 
Gentiles),  24 14  (the  gospel  to  be  preached  in 
all  the  world  for  a  witness  unto  all  nations), 
2532  (Jews  and  Gentiles  on  an  equality  at  the 
judgment  day),  28 1'-'  (all  nations  to  be  baptised). 
St.  Matthew  even  records  such  anti-Jewish 
sayings  as,  '  the  children  of  the  kingdom  shall 
be  cast  into  outer  darkness '  (8 12),  and  '  the 
kingdom  of  God  shall  be  taken  from  you,  and 
given  to  a  nation  bringing  forth  the  fruits 
thereof  (21*3). 

That  the  evangelist  expected  to  have  Gentile 
as  well  as  Jewish  readers  is  shown  by  his 
occasional,  though  rare,  explanations  of  Jewish 
words  and  customs  (cp.  1 23  '  Emmanuel ' ;  27  46 
'  Eli,  Eli,'  etc.). 

(2)  In  accordance  with  the  Jewish- Christian 
character  of  this  Gospel,  the  apostle  Peter,  the 
acknowledged  head  of  '  the  circumcision,'  is 
brought  into  special  prominence.  St.  Matthew 
alone  records  the  remarkable  tradition  of  his 
attempt  to  walk  upon  the  water  (1428)^  and  the 
promise  that  upon  him,  as  upon  a  foundation, 
the  Christian  church  should  be  built,  and  that 
whatsoever  he  should  bind  on  earth  should  be 
bound  in  heaven. 


(3)  As  a  Jew,  the  author  is  particularly  in- 
terested in  the  correspondence  between  the 
two  testaments.  In  his  view  the  new  dis- 
pensation grows  out  of  the  old  by  a  process 
so  natural  and  inevitable,  that  it  can  hardly  be 
called  new.  The  Law,  the  Prophets,  and  the 
Psalms  are  not  abolished  ;  they  are  fulfilled  in 
Christ.  To  Him  alone  they  pointed,  in  Him 
alone  they  find  their  true  significance.  The 
germs  of  Christian  truth  were  planted  of  old 
by  inspired  men,  and  have  so  vitally  influenced 
the  subsequent  development  of  religion,  that 
the  author  can  even  speak  of  the  events  of 
Christ's  life  as  taking  place  to  fulfil  the  ancient 
prophecies.  Thus  Christ  is  born  of  a  virgin  at 
Bethlehem,  is  named  Jesus,  sojourns  in  Egypt, 
resides  at  Nazareth,  migrates  to  Capernaum, 
heals  the  sick,  speaks  in  parables,  enters  Jeru- 
salem riding  an  ass,  is  deserted  by  the  disciples, 
is  betraj^ed,  and  put  to  death,  '  that  it  might 
be  fulfilled  which  was  spoken  by  the  Lord 
through  the  prophet '  (so  with  slight  variations 
of  phrase  1 22  215.23  817  121^  1335  214  2654;  cp. 
25  1314,15  2G31  27  y).  This  conception  is  not 
found  in  the  other  synoptists,  except  perhaps 
in  one  or  two  isolated  phrases  (see,  e.g.  Lk 
24  26, 44)^  i)ut  it  is  familiar  to  the  fourth  evangel- 
ist, and  forms  an  important  point  of  contact 
between  the  first  and  fourth  Gospels  (see  Jn 
1239  1712  1924,3(5  209).  St.  Matthew  alludes 
to  no  less  than  65  OT.  passages,  of  which  43 
are  verbally  quoted.  St.  Luke's  allusions  to 
the  OT.  number  only  43,  and  of  these  only  19 
are  direct  quotations. 

(4)  As  a  predominantly  Judaic  work,  this 
Gospel  portrays  Jesus  as  the  Messiah  of  the  Jews. 
His  genealogy  is  traced  back  only  to  Abraham, 
and  not,  as  in  St.  Luke,  to  Adam.  Stress 
is  laid  upon  His  descent  from  David  (li,20 
927  1223  1522  2030,31  219,15  22  42, 43, 45)^  and  the 
genealogy  is  an  elaborate  attempt  to  prove 
His  right  to  David's  throne.  The  descent  is, 
of  course,  traced  through  the  legal  father 
Joseph  ('the  son  of  David,'  120)^  and  exhibits 
not  so  much  physical  descent,  as  the  legal 
transmission  of  the  right  to  occupy  the  throne, 
and  be  '  king  of  the  Jews  '  (2  2).  But  .Jesus 
also  satisfies  the  other  and  more  sublime  OT. 
anticipations  with  regard  to  the  Messiah.  His 
miraculous  conception  by  the  Holy  Ghost  of  a 
virgin  mother  is  evidence  that  He  is  in  a 
unique  sense  the  Son  of  God.  He  is,  in  fact, 
divine  (1127)^  and  consequently  may  rightly 
claim  the  title  '  Emmanuel,'  '  God  with  us.' 
He  is  the  supernatural  Son  of  man  whose 
coming  was  predicted  by  the  prophet  Daniel, 
and  at  the  end  of  the  world  will  sit  on  the 
throne  of  His  glory  to  judge  the  human  race 
(1627  2430  26  64,  etc.).  Hence  He  is  not  only 
David's  son,  but  David's  Lord  (2244). 

(5)  The  Messiah's  kingdom  is  the  most  fre- 
quent topic  in  this  Gospel.    Its  title  is  almost 


621 


INTRO. 


ST.  MATTHEW 


always  the  rabbinical  one,  '  the  kingdom  of  the 
heavens '  ;  hardly  ever,  as  in  the  other  synopt- 
ists,    'the    kingdom   of    God'   (only    in    1228 
2131,43)     The  rule  over  it  has  been  committed 
by  God  to  the  Messiah,  who  sits  on  the  throne 
of  it  as  King  (253^.40).     The  author  generally 
regards   this    kingdom    as    eschatological,   i.e. 
beginning  at  the  end  of  the  world,  which  he 
expected  would  happen  in  his  own  time  (2434). 
Then  there  would  be  a  'regeneration,'  i.e.  a 
transformation   or    new   birth    of   the   whole 
creation,  when  the  Son  of  man  would  sit  on 
the   tkrone    of    His   glory   and   the    apostles 
would  sit  upon   twelve   thi'ones  judging  (i.e. 
ruling)  the   twelve   tribes   of  Israel,  and  the 
righteous  would  shine  forth  as  the  sun  in  the 
kingdom  of  their  Father  (1928  13*3).     Other 
passages  illustrating  the  futurity  of  the  king- 
dom are  6io  72i  S^  1628  183  20i^-.2i  251-34 
26  29.    But  the  author's  conception  of  the  king- 
dom is  many-sided,  and  he  seems  often  to  re- 
gard it  (though  this  is  disputed)  as  something 
present,  like  '  eternal  life  '  in  St.  John.     Thus 
the   subjects   of    the    beatitudes   are    already 
within  the  kingdom  (53),  and  so  are  Christ's 
disciples  (ll^i),  even  young  children  (lOi'*), 
and  great  is  the  sin  of  those  who  hinder  others 
from   entering  (23^3).     Sometimes  the   king- 
dom means  the  spirit  of  Christ  working  secretly 
and  silently  in  the  world  like  the  leaven  (1333); 
sometimes  it  is  the  visible  Church  (16i8,i9), 
gathering  of  every  kind  like  a  net  (13'*'''),  and 
spreading  abroad  like  the  branches  of  a  mus- 
tard-tree (1331);    sometimes,  again,  it  is  the 
Christian's  secret  communion  with  God  through 
Christ,  as  symbolised  by  the  hid  treasure,  and 
the  pearl  of  great  price  (IS**'^^).     The  con- 
ception  is   a   broad    and    fluid    one,   and   the 
attempt  to  define  it  too  rigidly  and  exclusively 
is  probably  a  mistake. 

(6)  Another  feature  of  the  Gospel  is  its 
anti-Pharisaic  character.  The  pointed  con- 
demnations of  Pharisaism  in  the  Sermon  on 
the  Mount  (5  20  Gi-^'i'^)  are  peculiar  to  St. 
Matthew,  and  in  c.  23  he  has  35  vv.  of  denun- 
ciation as  against  3  vv.  in  Mk  and  3  vv.  in  Lk. 

(7)  An  apologetic  purpose  may  also  be 
detected.  The  author  refutes  the  Jewish 
calumny  that  the  disciples  stole  the  body  of 
Jesus  (28 15).  To  the  objection  to  our  Lord's 
Messiahship  based  on  His  Nazarene  origin  (see 
Jnl46  741,52  Mt25),  he  replies  that  His  birth 
took  place  at  Bethlehem,  in  strict  accordance 
with  Micah's  prophecy  (2i),  and  that  if  He 
afterwards  went  to  live  at  Nazareth,  this  was 
to  fulfil  another  prophecy  (223).  That  He 
ministered  in  Galilee  and  Capernaum  rather 
than  in  Judaea  was  not  a  real  difficulty,  for 
this  had  been  prophesied  by  Isaiah  (4i3).  To 
the  current  calumny  that  He  had  visited 
Egypt  to  take  lessons  from  a  conjurer  (see 
on  1222-3")^  the  author  replies  that  Jesus  was 


never  in  Egypt  except  once,  when  He  was  an 
infant,  and  that  this  visit  was  necessitated  by 
a  prophecy  of  Hosea  (2  is).  ^j 

7.   Analysis  of  the  Gospel.  ^H 

(a)  The  lineage  and  birth  of  the  Messianic 
king  (c.  1,2). 

(b)  His  solemn  anointing  to  His  Messianic 
office,  and  His  preliminary  temptation  by 
Satan  (3-4  n). 

(c)  The  proclamation  and  inauguration  of 
the  Messianic  kingdom  on  earth :  its  laws, 
principles,  and  officers  (412-13^2). 

{(i)  The  Messiah  and  His  kingdom  accepted 
and  rejected  (1353_ig20)  .  accepted  by  the  dis- 
ciples (14  33),  by  the  woman  of  Canaan  (1522), 
by  great  multitudes  (1530),  by  St.  Peter  (I6I6); 
rejected  by  the  Nazarenes  (13  5"),  by  the 
Pharisees  and  their  sympathisers  (15 12  16*). 

(e)  The  sufferings  and  death  of  the  Messiah 
announced  (1621-203-4). 

First  clear  announcement  (1621). 

Second  clear  announcement  (1722). 

Third  clear  announcement  (201''). 

(/)  The  Messiah  glorified  by  Death  and 
Resurrection  (chs.  21-28).  The  triumphal 
entry  (c.  21)  ;  final  denunciation  of  the  Phari- 
sees, Sadducees,  and  Scribes  (chs.  22,  23)  ; 
great  prophetic  discourses  (chs.  24,  25)  ;  be- 
trayal and  death  (chs.  26,  27) ;  the  resurrec- 
tion, and  the  exaltation  of  the  Messiah  to  the 
throne  of  the  universe  (c.  28). 

CHAPTER  1 
Genealogy  and  Birth  of  Jesus 
1-17.   Genealogy  of  Jesus:  cp.  Lk  3  23.     The 

two  genealogies  of  Jesus,  which  are  constructed 
on  quite  different  principles,  require  careful 
comparison  and  study,  if  their  purpose  and 
significance  are  to  be  understood.  In  both, 
the  descent  of  Jesus  is  traced  through  Joseph, 
not  Mary,  partly  because  the  claim  of  Jesus  to 
the  throne  of  David  could  only  be  established 
through  His  foster-father  Joseph  ;  partly 
because,  in  genealogies,  the  Jews  took  no 
account  of  female  descent.  The  genealogies 
are  not  inspired  documents.  They  are  the 
work  of  Jewish  pedigree-makers  who  did 
their  best  to  fill  the  gaps  of  records  which  were 
frequently  fragmentary.  They  are  inserted  by 
the  evangelists  as  honest  attempts  to  ascertain 
the  truth.  Their  accuracy  or  inaccuracy  does 
not  affect  the  main  point  at  issue,  our  Lord's 
descent,  through  His  legal  father  Joseph,  from 
David.  Joseph's  family  certainly  claimed  de- 
scent from  David,  and  even  the  enemies  of 
Jesus  admitted  the  claim  (see  92''  12  23  1522 
2030  219  2242  and  parallels).  As  Jewish 
families  were  particularly  tenacious  of  family 
traditions,  and  were  accustomed  to  preserve 
genealogical  records,  our  Lord's  Davidic  descent 
through  Joseph  may  be  regarded  as  established. 
His  Davidic  descent  through  Mary  is  more 


622 


1. 


ST.  MATTHEW 


1.3 


doubtful,  but,  on  the  whole,  probable.  Lk  1  ^^, 
taken  alone,  might  suggest  that  she  belonged  to 
the  tribe  of  Levi,  but  Lk  1  ^^  and  1  "^^  lose  much 
of  their  point,  unless  it  be  supposed  that  Mary 
herself  was  descended  from  David.  The  OT. 
prophecies  and  the  Apostolic  Church  regarded 
Christ  as  descended  from  David  according  to 
the  flesh  (Rol^  Psl32ii  Isalli  Jer235),  and 
if  Jesus  were  born  of  a  virgin.  His  actual 
descent  could  only  be  upon  the  mother's  side. 

Both  genealogies  reflect  current  rabbinical 
ideas  about  the  Messiah's  descent.  It  was  dis- 
puted, for  instance,  whether  He  would  be 
descended  from  David  through  Solomon,  or 
whether,  owing  to  the  curse  on  this  line 
(Jer2228  3630),  through  another  son,  Nathan 
(lCh35).  Accordingly  St.  Matthew's  gene- 
alogy traces  our  Lord's  descent  thi'ough 
Solomon,  St.  Luke's  through  Nathan.  Other 
rabbinical  features  are  the  omission  of  links  in 
the  genealogies,  especially  in  St.  Matthew,  and 
the  artificial  arrangement  of  the  names  in 
numerical  groups,  probably  as  an  aid  to  the 
memory.  St.  Luke's  source  probably  grouped 
the  names  in  multiples  of  ten  (20  generations 
from  David  to  the  captivity,  20  from  the 
captivity  to  Christ).  '  This  was  the  commonest 
method.  St.  Matthew  employs  multiples  of 
seven  (14  generations  from  Abraham  to  David, 
14  from  David  to  the  captivity,  14  from  the 
captivity  to  Christ).  St.  Matthew's  list  is  a 
genealogy  only  in  appearance.  It  is  really  an 
early  Jewish- Christian  attempt  to  construct  a 
list  of  successive  heirs  to  the  throne  of  David, 
and  so  to  exliibit  Joseph,  the  legal  father  of 
Jesus,  as  the  rightful  king  of  Israel.  Thus 
Shealtiel  (Salathiel),  v.  12,  was  not  the  actual 
son  of  Jechoniah,  who  was  childless  (Jer  22  28), 
but  the  next  heir  to  the  crown,  and  probably 
for  that  reason  adopted  by  Jechoniah  :  see 
lCh3i7.  According  to  St.  Luke,  Shealtiel's 
real  father  was  Neri. 

St.  Luke's  list,  on  the  other  hand,  aims  at 
being  a  true  genealogy,  and  that  not  of  Mary, 
as  a  few  authorities  still  maintain,  but  of 
Joseph  :  see  on  LkS'-^.  We  are  thus  faced 
with  the  serious  difficulty  that  Joseph's  father 
is  called  by  St.  Matthew  '  Jacob,'  and  by  St. 
Luke  '  Heli.'  Have  we  here  an  error  made  by 
one  or  both  evangelists  ?  It  is,  of  course, 
possible,  but  hardly  likely,  this  being  only  the 
second  step  of  the  genealogy.  Assuming  both 
genealogies  to  be  in  this  point  correct,  and 
taking  into  account  the  special  character  of 
St.  Matthew's  list,  the  statements  are  best 
harmonised  by  supposing  that  Jacob,  the  true 
heir  to  the  throne,  being,  like  Jechoniah,  child- 
less, adopted  the  next  male  heir  Heli,  who 
belonged  to  the  other  branch  of  the  family, 
that,  namely,  which  descended  from  Nathan. 
A  less  probable  supposition  is  that  Heli  and 
Jacob  were  brothers,  and  that,  one  of  them 


623 


dying  childless,  the  other  took  his  wife  and 
raised  up  seed  to  him  by  what  is  called  a 
Levirate  marriage  :  see  Dt255  Mt2223.  The 
point  in  favour  of  this  view  is  that  the  fathers 
of  Heli  and  Jacob,  Matthat  and  Matthan,  have 
nearly  the  same  name.  The  point  against  it  is 
that  Matthat  and  Matthan  have  different  fathers, 
and  so  were  different  persons,  unless  we  again 
make  use  of  the  expedient  of  a  Levirate 
marriage,  or  something  similar. 

I.  The  book  of  the  generation]  RM  '  of  the 
genealogy.'  The  phrase  is  from  GnS^,  and  is 
meant  as  a  title  not  of  the  whole  Gospel,  nor 
even  of  the  Nativity,  but  only  of  the  genealogy 
(l^-i'^),  which  the  evangelist  probably  did  not 
compose  himself  (though  this  is  possible),  but 
derived  from  an  earlier  source.  Of  Jesus 
Christ]  '  Jesus '  is  the  Gk.  form  of  the  Heb. 
'  Joshua,'  or  '  Jeshua,'  meaning  '  Jehovah  is 
salvation.'  '  Christ '  (Christo.^)  is  properly  the 
Gk.  equivalent  of  the  Aramaic  '  Messiah,'  lit. 
'  anointed  one,'  but  here  used  as  a  proper  name. 
The  use  of  '  Clirist '  as  a  proper  name  began 
soon  after  the  Ascension,  and  is  common  in  the 
Epistles.  In  the  Gospels  it  occurs  only  in 
Mt  1 1. 16. 17, 18  Mk  1 1  Jn  1 17  and  possibly  173. 
In  all  other  places  in  the  Gospels  it  should  be 
rendered  '  the  Christ,'  or  '  the  Messiah.'  The 
use  of  the  word  in  the  sense  of  '  the  Messiah ' 
is  unquestionably  the  earlier  one,  and  the 
fidelity  of  the  Gospels  in  preserving  it  is  no 
small  evidence  of  their  trustworthiness.  The 
son  of  David]  a  standing  title  of  the  Messiah 
among  the  rabbis.  E.g.  it  was  said,  '  The  son 
of  David  cometh  not  until  that  wicked  empire 
(Rome)  hath  extended  itself  over  the  whole 
earth.'  '  If  the  Israelites  shall  keep  the  sab- 
bath even  for  a  single  day  as  they  ought,  the 
son  of  David  will  come':  see  Psl32  Isa  111 
Jer  23^.  The  poverty  of  Joseph  and  Mary 
is  no  evidence  against  their  Davidic  descent. 
The  great  rabbi  Hillel,  another  descendant  of 
David,  was  even  poorer.  The  Davidic  descent 
of  our  Lord's  family  was  never  questioned  in 
His  lifetime  even  by  His  enemies,  and  was  so 
notorious  that  the  descendants  of  Jude,  the 
Lord's  brother,  incurred  the  jealousy  of  the 
tyrant  Domitian.  The  son  of  Abraham]  St. 
Matthew,  writing  primarily  for  Jews,  carries 
the  genealogy  to  Abraham  and  no  further. 
He  wishes  to  show  that  Jesus  is  the  Messiah 
of  the  Jews,  born  in  accordance  with  the 
promise  made  by  God  to  the  ancestor  of  the 
race  (Gnl23,  etc.).  St.  Luke,  writing  for 
Gentiles,  and  emphasising  St.  Paul's  principle 
that  in  Christ  there  is  neither  Jew  nor  Gentile, 
carries  the  genealogy  back  to  Adam. 

3.  Of  Thamar]  RV  '  Tamar.'  Contrary  to 
Jewish  custom  St.  Matthew  introduces  into  his 
genealogy  four  women,  Tamar,  Rahab,  Ruth, 
and  Bathsheba.  Of  these,  two  (Rahab  and 
Ruth)  were  Gentiles,  and  three  were  guilty  of 


1.  8 


ST.  MATTHEW 


1.  18 


gross  sins.  Their  insertion  is  intended  to 
teach  certain  spiritual  lessons  :  (1)  That  Gen- 
tiles as  well  as  Jews  have  their  rights  in  the 
Messiah,  seeing  that  two  of  His  ancestors  were 
of  G-entile  blood.  (2)  That  Jewish  Christians 
instead  of  regarding  Gentile  converts  with 
contempt,  should  be  proud  of  them,  as  their 
ancestors  were  of  Rahab  and  Ruth,  who,  on 
becoming  proselytes,  were  accounted  mothers 
in  Israel.  Of  Rahab  the  rabbis  said,  '  Ten 
priests,  who  were  also  prophets,  sprang  from 
her '  ;  and  of  Ruth,  '  It  is  spoken  in  prophecy 
that  the  six  most  righteous  men  of  the  whole 
world  will  spring  from  her,  David,  Daniel  and 
his  companions,  and  King  Messiah.'  (3)  That 
remission  of  sins,  complete  restoration  to  God's 
favour,  and  a  high  and  privileged  position  in 
the  kingdom  of  grace,  are  possible  for  the  worst 
offenders.  (4)  That  Christ  did  not  shrink 
from  the  closest  contact  with  sinful  humanity. 
He  touched  and  raised  the  very  nature  which 
had  fallen.  He  assumed  our  sin-stained  flesh, 
and  in  assuming  cleansed  it,  and  made  it  the 
instrument  of  human  redemption. 

8.  After  Joram  St.  Matthew  omits  three 
names,  Ahaziah,  Joash,  Amaziah  (see  1  Ch  3 1^'^^), 
some  think  on  account  of  their  descent  from 
the  idolatrous  Jezebel,  but  more  probably 
simply  to  reduce  the  number  of  generations 
to  fourteen,  ii.  After  Josias  St.  Matthew 
omits  Eliakim  (2K2334).  The  brethren  of 
Jechoniah  (Jehoiachin)  are  really  his  uncles, 
Jehoahaz  and  Zedekiah.  Zedekiah,  the  last 
king  of  Judah,  though  really  the  uncle  of 
Jehoiachin  (2K2417  Jer37i),  is  called  his 
'brother' even  in  OT.  (2 Ch 36 10).  12.  Jecho- 
niah (Jehoiachin)  was  probably  childless  (yet 
see  on  Jer  22  ^O)^  and  adopted  Salathiel  (Sheal- 
tiel)  as  his  heir  (see  1  Ch  3  ^'^).  Shealtiel  seems 
also  to  have  been  childless,  for  although  both 
here  and  in  EzrS^  Nehl2i  HagP,  etc.,  he  is 
said  to  have  had  a  son  Zorobabel  (Zerubbabel), 
this  Zerubbabel  seems  to  have  been  really  the 
son  of  Shealtiel's  brother  Pedaiah  (1  ChS^^), 
who  may  have  married  his  childless  brother's 
widow  according  to  the  Law. 

16.  Little  importance  attaches  to  the  read- 
ing of  the  Sinai-Syriac  version,  '  Joseph  begat 
Jesus,'  which  is  certainly  not  original,  lacking, 
as  it  does,  all  MS  authority,  and  contradict- 
ing the  plain  statements  of  the  evangelist 
(vv.18-25).  Probably  the  reading  comes  from  an 
Ebionite  version  of  this  Gospel.  The  Ebionites 
were  an  early  sect,  who,  while  admitting  our 
Lord's  Messiahship,  denied  His  divinity  and 
supernatural  birth.  Or  the  error  may  be  due 
to  the  mechanical  repetition  by  some  scribe  of 
the  word  '  begat,'  which  he  had  already  written 
thirty-eight  times. 

17.  As  there  are  only  thirteen  generations 
from  the  captivity  to  Christ,  probably  a  name 
has  dropped  out. 


18-25.  Circumstances  of  the  Conception  and 
Birth  of  Jesus:  cp.  Lk  12(5-56  21-20.  The  order 
of  events  is  (a)  Conception  of  John  by  Elisa- 
beth, Lk  1 21,  (b)  Annunciation  to  Mary  at 
Nazareth  six  months  afterwards,  Lkl26^  (c) 
Visit  of  Mary  to  Elisabeth  lasting  three  months, 
Lk  1 39,  (d)  Return  of  Mary  to  Nazareth,  Lk  1 56, 
(e)  Birth  of  John,  Lk  1  57,  (/)  Mary  is  found  to 
be  with  child,  Mt  1  is,  (g)  An  angel  appears  to 
Joseph,  Mtl20,  Qt)  Journey  to  Bethlehem. 
Lk  2*,  (/)  Birth  of  Jesus,  Mtl  2-5  Lk27. 

Significance  of  Christ's  Infancy.  At  first 
sight  it  seems  unworthy  of  the  Son  of  God  to 
be  conceived  and  born,  and  to  pass  through  the 
stages  of  human  growth.  But  in  truth  the 
interval  between  God  and  man  is  so  infinitely 
great,  that  the  minute  difference  between  in- 
fancy and  manhood  is  of  no  consequence.  The 
marvel  is  that  the  Son  of  God  should  consent  to 
become  man  at  all ;  it  is  no  additional  marvel 
that  He  should  become  an  infant.  If  it  was 
expedient  for  the  human  race  which  He  came 
to  redeem,  that  He  should  pass  through  all  the 
stages  of  a  truly  human  experience,  then  the 
same  infinite  loving  condescension  which  caused 
Him  to  become  man  would  cause  Him  to  be 
conceived  and  born.  It  "is  a  fact  admitted  by 
the  most  sceptical  that  the  human  birth  of 
Jesus  Christ  has  appealed  to  the  imagination  of 
mankind,  more  perhaps  than  any  other  event 
of  His  life,  and  has  produced  permanent  effects 
of  the  utmost  importance  (Lk  1 5i).  (a)  It  has 
abolished  the  once  common  crime  of  infanticide 
by  teaching  that  infant  life  is  sacred,  (b)  It 
has  raised  the  dignity  of  women,  and  produced 
in  men  the  feeling  of  chivalry  towards  them, 
which  is  essentially  Christian  and  was  unknown 
to  the  ancient  world,  (c)  It  has  sanctified 
motherhood  and  family  life,  (d)  It  has  placed 
chastity  both  in  men  and  women  in  the  fore- 
front of  Christian  virtues,  (e)  It  has  given  a 
new  importance  to  childhood,  so  that  kindness 
to  children  and  a  willingness  to  conform  to  the 
ideal  character  of  childhood,  are  marks  of  a 
true  Christian.  The  human  birth  of  Jesus  is 
thus  justified  both  by  its  resiilts  and  by  its 
adaptation  to  human  needs.  '  Jesus  Christ,' 
says  Irenseus,  '  came  to  save  all  by  means  of 
Himself.  He  therefore  passed  through  every 
age,  becoming  an  infant  for  infants,  a  child  for 
children,  a  youth  for  youths,  an  elderly  man 
for  elderly  men,  that  He  might  be  a  perfect 
Master  for  all.' 

The  Incarnation  and  the  Virgin  Birth.  A 
difficvUty  has  been  felt  in  our  days  in  accepting 
the  miracle  associated  with  the  conception  of 
our  Lord.  This  arises  chiefly  from  the  facts 
that  the  two  Gospels  which  record  it  differ  to 
some  extent  in  their  accounts,  and  that  the 
nature  of  the  miracle  itself  precludes  absolute 
demonstration. 

It  may  be  candidly  admitted  that  the  miracu- 


624 


1.  18 


ST.  MATTHEW 


1.  19 


lous  conception  of  Jesus  has  not  the  same 
evidence  for  it  as  the  other  miracles,  and  that 
if  it  were  affirmed  of  any  ordinary  man  it  could 
aot  be  believed.  But  Jesus  was  not  an  ordinary 
man.  He  was  one  who,  according  to  credible 
testimony,  worked  many  miracles,  including 
the  raising  of  the  dead,  and  concluded  an 
absolutely  unexampled  career  by  rising  from 
the  dead  and  ascending  into  heaven.  The 
miraculous  manner  in  which  Jesus  left  this 
earth  thus  removes  all  theoretical  difficulty 
from  the  miracle  by  which  He  is  said  to  have 
entered  it.  The  main  question  to  be  considered 
is :  Do  the  existing  narratives  show  signs  of 
having  proceeded  from  the  only  two  persons 
who  can  have  known  anything  about  the  matter, 
viz.  Joseph  and  Mary?  Certainly  they  do. 
St.  Matthew's  Gospel  regards  the  matter  en- 
tirely from  Joseph's  point  of  view.  It  is 
Joseph  who  discovers  the  condition  of  Mary 
(1  is)^  and  is  doubtful  what  course  to  pursue  (1 19). 
It  is  to  Joseph  that  the  angel  appears  to  an- 
nounce the  miraculous  conception  of  Jesus 
(1  20),  and  again  to  bid  him  flee  into  Egypt  (2 1^), 
and  to  return  (2 1^).  St.  Luke's  narrative,,  on 
the  other  hand,  reflects  entirely  the  point  of 
view  of  Mary.  It  is  to  Mary  that  Gabriel 
appears  (Lk  1  -'').  A  full  account  is  given  of  her 
visit  to  Elisabeth  (1  ^9).  The  mother's  memory 
appears  in  the  mention  of  the  swaddling  clothes 
and  of  the  manger  (2 '''),  and  in  the  words, '  But 
Mary  kept  all  these  sayings  and  pondered  them 
in  her  heart  '  (2 1^),  and  again,  '  Yea,  a  sword 
shall  pierce  through  thy  own  soul  also '  (2  35).  St. 
Luke's  account  is  much  fuller  than  St.  Mat- 
thew's, and  this  is  easily  accounted  for.  When 
St.  Luke  was  collecting  his  materials  in  Pales- 
tine, Mary  was  probably  still  alive,  whereas 
Joseph  (St.  Matthew's  authority)  had  long 
been  dead,  and  his  account  had  probably  passed 
through  several  hands  before  it  reached  the 
evangelist.  The  historical  character  of  both 
narratives  is  shown  by  their  freedom  from  the 
extravagant  features  which  mark  the  apocry- 
phal Gospels,  and  by  their  essential  agreement, 
in  spite  of  the  fact  that  they  are  absolutely 
independent.  It  is  true  that  St.  Matthew  seems 
to  represent  Bethlehem  rather  than  Nazareth 
as  the  original  home  of  Joseph  and  Mary, 
though  he  does  not  actually  say  so.  On  the 
other  hand,  St.  Luke  seems  ignorant  of  the 
flight  into  Egypt,  and  passes  straight  from  the 
presentation  in  the  Temple  to  the  return  to 
Nazareth.  But  these  are  only  instances  of  one 
imperfect  account  supplementing  another,  not 
of  radical  inconsistencies.  Both  accounts  agree 
as  to  the  two  main  points,  Christ's  birth  of  a 
virgin  and  His  birth  at  Bethlehem. 

Granting  the  fact  of  a  real  Incarnation, 
the  Virgin  Birth  would  seem  to  be  the  most 
reverent  and  fitting  way  of  bringing  it  about. 
Since  natural  generation  invariably  gives  rise 


40 


625 


to  a  new  person,  it  was  plainly  unsuitable  to 
the  case  of  Jesus,  at  whose  conception  no  new 
person  came  into  existence,  but  the  already 
existing  Son  of  God  entered  upon  a  new  human 
experience.  Moreover,  natural  generation  hav- 
ing been  generally  associated,  especially  by  the  I 
Jews,  with  sin,  it  was  not  desirable  that  I 
the  moral  miracle  of  a  sinless  human  nature  * 
should  be  marked  by  the  physical  miracle  of  a 
miraculous  conception.  The  last  appeal,  and 
perhaps  to  many  minds  the  only  possible  appeal, 
is  that  of  the  argument  derived  from  '  cause 
and  effect.'  Look  at  the  stupendous  fact — 
Jesus.  The  miracle  of  the  NT.,  the  miracle  of 
the  ages  is  not  the  Resurrection,  but  Jesus 
Himself.  The  phenomena  of  His  life  and 
character,  the  incomprehensibility  of  His  per- 
son, seem  to  demand  uniqueness  and  mystery 
in  His  birth.  To  abandon  the  Virgin  Birth 
because  of  the  difficulties  of  a  few  would  be  to 
throw  greater  difficulties  in  the  way  of  the  many. 
The  doctrine  has  always  been  regarded  as  an 
integi-al  part  of  the  faith.  It  appears  in  the 
earliest  form  of  the  Apostles'  Creed  (100  a.d.). 

1 8.  Was  espoused]  RV' had  been  betrothed.' 
Betrothal  was  almost  equivalent  to  marriage, 
and  could  not  be  broken  ofE  without  a  formal 
divorce  :  cp.  on  Jn  8  3  and  Dt  22  '^3, 24  She  was 
found]  viz.  by  her  husband.  Of  the  Holy 
Ghost]  Both  here  and  in  Lk  1 35  the  miracle  of 
the  conception  is  ascribed  emphatically  to  the 
'  Holy '  Spirit,  to  mark  the  fact  that  Jesus  was 
conceived  sinless,  and  in  a  manner  the  most 
sacred  imaginable.  '  The  Holy  Spirit  sancti- 
fied the  flesh  which  it  united  with  the  Word. 
Not  only  was  the  "new  departure  in  human 
life  "  which  began  with  the  birth  of  the  Second 
Adam  fitly  preceded  by  a  directly  creative  act, 
but  the  new  humanity  was  consecrated  at  the 
moment  of  its  conception  by  the  overshadowing 
of  the  Divine  Spirit '  (Swete).  The  expression 
'  Holy  Ghost '  is  especially  characteristic  of  the 
NT.,  where  it  occurs  over  80  times.  In  the 
Gk.  OT.  (LXX)  it  occurs  only  twice.  The 
Jews  did  not  regard  the  Spirit  as  personal, 
hence  Mary  must  have  understood  the  words 
of  the  angel, '  The  Holy  Ghost  shall  come  upon 
thee,'  as  identical  in  meaning  with, '  The  power 
of  the  Highest  shall  overshadow  thee.'  Not 
so  the  evangelists,  to  whom  'the  Holy  Ghost' 
had  become  practically  a  proper  name,  and  as 
such  was  used  without  the  article. 

19.  A  just  /na>i~\  i.e.  a  good  or  righteous 
man  :  here,  in  particular,  a  kind  or  humane 
man,  because  although  he  felt  bound  to  divorce 
her,  he  wished  to  do  so  as  privately  as  possible, 
and  without  assigning  any  reason.  A  Jewish 
husband  could  divorce  his  wife  if  she  did  not 
please  him,  simply  by  giving  her  a  bill  of  divorce 
in  the  presence  of  witnesses,  without  specifying 
the  true  cause.  The  legal  penalty  for  Mary's 
supposed  fault  was  stoning  (Jn  8  5). 


1.20 


ST.  MATTHEW 


2. 


20.  The  angel]  EV  '  an  angel.'  In  St.  Luke 
the  angel  who  appears  to  Zachariah  and  Mary 
is  named  (Lk  1 1-'' 2(5),  and  the  same  angel 
(Gabriel)  is  to  be  understood  here.  In  other 
passages  of  the  NT.  angels  appear  and  speak  : 
at  the  Resurrection,  MfiS^  ;  at  the  Ascension, 
Acl^i  ;  to  Peter  in  prison,  b^^  127  ;  to  Philip, 
8^6;  to  Cornelius,  103.  There  is  no  real 
reason  to  question  the  actual  existence  of 
angels.  Why  should  man  be  the  highest  being 
in  the  universe  ? 

21.  JESUS]  see  on  v.  1.  For  he  shall 
save]  more  exactly,  'for  it  is  He  that  shall 
save.'  '  Saving  from  sin '  includes  two  pro- 
cesses :  (1)  atonement  for  sin,  and  (2)  sancti- 
fication.  Both  are  works  of  Christ.  The 
natural  atonement  for  sin  is  penitence  ;  but 
inasmuch  as  human  penitence  is  imperfect,  and 
our  very  repentance  requires  to  be  repented 
of,  the  aid  of  a  Divine  Helper  is  required. 
Christ  bears  the  weight  of  our  sins,  sorrows 
for  them  with  a  sorrow  that  is  adequate,  and 
gives  us  grace  to  repent  of  them  in  a  manner 
acceptable  to  God.  As  we  live  the  life  of  faith 
in  Christ  our  penitence  continually  becomes 
deeper,  and  one  day  it  will  be  perfect,  and  God 
will  accept  it  as  adequate.  In  the  meantime 
God  pardons  us  by  anticipation.  Sanctification, 
i.e.  the  putting  away  of  sin  and  gi'owth  in  virtue 
and  holiness,  is  another  most  important  work 
of  redemption,  and  no  one  can  safely  assure 
himself  of  the  divine  pardon  unless  he  is  ad- 
vancing in  the  Christian  virtues.  The  faith 
which  does  not  manifest  itself  in  works  is  no 
true  faith  in  Christ.  His  people]  primarily, 
of  course,  the  Jews  ;  but  the  Gentiles  are  also 
Israel,  '  the  Israel  of  God '  (Gal  6 16). 

22.  That  it  might  be  fulfilled,  etc.]  It  is 
characteristic  of  St.  Matthew,  though  not,  of 
course,  peculiar  to  him,  to  regard  the  events 
of  Christ's  life  as  taking  place  in  order  to 
fulfil  God's  gracious  promises  in  the  OT.  made 
through  the  prophets.  This  particular  phrase 
occurs  10  times  in  St.  Matthew,  and  nowhere 
else  in  the  NT.  :  see  Intro. 

23.  Behold,  a  virgin]  RV  '  the  virgin  '  :  see 
on  Isa7i4.  It  does  not  appear  that  the  Jews 
regarded  the  passage  as  Messianic  ;  but  St. 
Matthew,  writing  for  Christians,  applies  it  to 
the  Messiah,  in  accordance  with  the  rabbinical 
maxim, '  All  the  prophets  prophesied  only  of  the 
days  of  the  Messiah.'  St.  Matthew  quotes  the 
passage  as  a  prophecy  not  of  the  Virgin  Birth, 
but  of  the  giving  to  our  Lord  of  a  name  ex- 
pressing His  divinity.  He  was  called  '  Jesus ' 
(i.e.  '  God  is  Salvation  ')  to  fulfil  the  prophecy 
which  assigned  to  Him  the  name  '  Emmanuel ' 
('  God  with  us  ').  There  is  no  indication  that 
the  evangelist,  who  was  acquainted  with 
Hebrew,  attached  importance  to  the  word 
'  virgin '  in  this  passage.  In  the  Heb.  it  is 
'almah,  i.e.  '  a  young  woman,'  not  necessarily  a 


virgin.  The  LXX,  however,  renders  it  par- 
fhenofi,  i.e.  '  virgin,'  and  hence  many  have 
incorrectly  supposed  that  Isaiah  prophesied 
the  Virgin  Birth. 

Emmanuel]  i.e.  '  God  with  us.'  This  is  a 
descriptive  title  rather  than  a  name.  It  was 
never  borne  by  our  Lord,  but  He  received  in- 
stead a  name  ('  Jesus ')  which  expressed  its 
meaning,  and  thus  the  prophecy  was  fulfilled. 
In  the  mind  of  Isaiah  the  title  Emmanuel 
indicated  that  the  bearer  of  it  would  deliver 
Israel  from  all  their  enemies.  In  the  mind  of 
the  evangelist,  who  believed  in  the  Incarnation 
(see  especially  271-'),  it  meant  that  in  Jesus 
God  assumed  human  nature  to  save  the  chil- 
dren of  men,  and  to  dwell  with  and  in  them 
for  ever  (2720).  25.  And  knew  her  not  till] 
Some  have  thought  that  the  evangelist  means 
to  imply  that  after  the  birth  of  Jesus,  Joseph 
and  Mary  lived  together  as  man  and  wife,  and 
that  children  were  born  to  them.  This  may 
have  been  the  case,  but  the  words  of  the 
evangelist  here  are  not  meant  to  imply  it. 
They  simply  affirm  in  the  strongest  manner 
that  Joseph  had  nothing  whatever  to  do  with 
the  conception  and  birth  of  Jesus,  and  are  not 
intended  to  give  information  as  to  what  hap- 
pened afterwards.  For  the  probable  relation- 
ship to  our  Lord  of  His  'brethren,'  see  on  12^0. 

Her  firstborn  son]  RV  '  a  son.'  '  Firstborn ' 
is  interpolated  from  Lk27,  q.v. 

CHAPTER  2 

The  Wise  Men 

I- 1 2.  The  star  in  the  east  and  the  visit  of 
the  Magi  (peculiar  to  St.  Matthew).  The 
incident  fits  well  into  secular  history.  About 
the  time  when  the  star  appeared  (7  or  6  B.C.), 
Herod  the  Great,  being  alarmed  by  a  prophecy 
that  the  royal  power  was  about  to  pass  away 
from  him  and  his  line,  put  the  authors  of  it  to 
death.  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  the  an- 
nouncement by  the  wise  men  that  Herod's 
supplanter  in  the  kingdom  had  actually  been 
born,  would  drive  him  to  violent  measures. 
The  slaughter  of  the  infants  by  Herod  seems 
confirmed  by  the  independent  account  of  the 
heathen  historian  Macrobius  (400  A.D.),  who 
says  that  when  news  was  brought  to  Augustus 
that  Herod  had  ordered  children  under  two 
years  old  in  Syria  to  be  slain,  and  that  among 
them  was  a  son  of  Herod,  the  emperor  re- 
marked, that  it  was  better  to  be  Herod's  pig 
{huii)  than  Herod's  son  {humi). 

That  the  Magi  should  be  familiar  with  and 
sympathise  with  Jewish  expectations  about 
the  Messiah,  is  not  a  difficulty.  Synagogues 
existed  throughout  the  East,  and  exercised  a 
wide  influence.  At  Damascus  nearly  all  the 
women  were  proselytes  (Jos.  '  Wars,'  ii.  20.  2  : 
cp.  also  23 15  Ac  2  9  1 .3  -ts,  etc.).  Belief  that  the 
appearance  of  the  Messiah  was  imminent — 


626 


2. 1 


ST.  MATTHEW 


16 


a  belief  widely  cherished  in  Jewish  circles, 
see  Lk  2  -5, 20, 3S — joined  to  belief  in  the  appear- 
ance of  signs  in  the  heavens  at  the  birth  of 
great  men,  would  sufficiently  account  for  the 
journey  of  these  astrologers,  even  if  they  were 
ignorant  of  the  more  definite  expectation, 
which,  according  to  Edersheim,  was  entertained 
at  this  time  by  the  Jews,  that  two  years  be- 
fore the  birth  of  the  Messiah  His  star  would 
appear  in  the  East.  The  existence  of  Mes- 
sianic expectations  throughout  the  East  at 
a  somewhat  later  period  is  expressly  affirmed 
not  only  by  Josephus,  but  also  by  the  heathen 
historians  Tacitus  and  Suetonius.  As  to  the 
nature  of  the  star,  the  most  probable  view  is 
Kepler's.  He  calculated  that  in  7  B.C.  there 
occurred  tlu-ee  times  a  most  remarkable  con- 
junction of  the  planets  Jupiter  and  Saturn  in 
the  constellation  Pisces,  which  was  next  year 
reinforced  by  Mars.  This  triple  conjiinction 
was  followed  by  the  appearance  of  a  remark- 
ably coloured  evanescent  star,  which  was  the 
true  star  of  the  Magi.  If  this  view  be  correct, 
our  Lord's  birth  occurred  about  6  B.C.  (i.e.  six 
years  before  the  vulgar  era  of  the  nativity), 
and  the  visit  of  the  Magi  followed  soon 
afterwards. 

The  spiritual  significance  of  the  story  lies 
on  the  surface.  Whereas  Herod  and  the  Jews 
were  ignorant  of  the  birth  of  the  Messiah 
among  tJiem,  and,  when  informed  of  it,  mani- 
fested the  most  malignant  hatred  against  Him, 
strangers  from  afar  knew  of  it  before  then, 
and  hastened  to  pay  Him  reverence.  The  in- 
cident is  thus  a  prophecy  of  the  history  of 
the  succeeding  centuries,  in  which  the  chosen 
people  have  persistently  rejected  the  Messiah, 
and  the  Grentiles  have  accepted  Him.  The 
incident  also  illustrates  the  true  relations  be- 
tween science  and  religion.  In  the  persons  of 
the  Magi,  science  paid  homage  to  religion.  The 
Magi  were  the  men  of  science  of  the  period, 
and  their  science  brought  them  to  Christ. 
And  so  it  is  now.  The  science  of  yesterday 
was  (according  to  not  a  few  of  its  exponents) 
hostile  to  faith,  proudly  boasting  that  it  could 
solve  the  mystery  of  the  universe.  The 
science  of  to-day  is  more  humble,  acknowledg- 
ing that  the  deepest  natural  knowledge  only 
touches  the  outer  fringe  of  things,  and  that 
so-called  scientific  '  explanations '  of  the  uni- 
verse are  not  explanations  at  all,  but  only 
descriptions.  Religion  and  science  move  on 
different  planes.  There  is  and  can  be  no  real 
antagonism  between  them,  and  their  natural 
relationship  is  one  of  mutual  respect,  and 
cordial  cooperation. 

I.  Bethlehem]  or  Ephrathah,  the  city  of 
David,  is  5  m.  S.  of  Jerusalem  :  see  Gn  35 1'^,  lo 
487  1  S164  2S232  23i'i-i6  iChllie.se  Ezr22i 
Neh726.  The  supposed  site  of  the  nativity 
is  a   rock-hewn   cave,    measuring   38   ft.    by 


11  ft.,  at  one  end  of  which  is  inscribed  'Hie 
de  virgine  Maria  Jesus  Christus  natus  est.' 
Above  it  stands  perhaps  the  oldest  Christian 
church  in  the  world,  the  basilica  built  by 
Helena,  mother  of  Constantine  the  Great, 
about  330  a.d.  Herod]  i.e.  Herod  the  Great, 
who  reigned  from  37  to  4  B.C.  As  Christ  was 
born  at  least  two  years  before  Herod's  death 
(see  21''),  the  date  of  the  nativity  cannot  be 
later  than  6  B.C.  See  art.  '  The  Dynasty  of 
the  Herods.'  Wise  men]  lit.  '  Magi,'  a  sacer- 
dotal class  among  the  Persians,  Babylonians, 
and  other  Eastern  nations,  who  occupied  them- 
selves with  a  knowledge  of  the  secrets  of 
nature,  divination,  astrology,  and  medicine. 
The  Babylonian  Magi  are  mentioned  in  Jer  39  ^. 
Daniel  was  made  chief  of  them  owing  to  his 
skill  in  interpreting  dreams  (Dan  2^^).  Here 
the  word  is  used  in  its  strict  meaning,  and  in  a 
good  sense.  Elsewhere  in  the  NT.  it  means  a 
juggler  or  cheat  (AclS*^'^).  Since  astronomy 
was  chiefly  practised  in  Babylonia,  and  Jewish 
influence  was  particularly  strong  there,  it  may 
be  conjectured  that  these  Magi  were  Baby- 
lonians. But  they  may  have  come  from  Arabia. 
There  is  no  warrant  for  the  tradition  that  they 
were  kings.  To  Jerusalem]  The  Magi  came 
because  they  expected  to  obtain  full  informa- 
tion at  the  capital.  2.  In  the  east]  better, 
'at  its  rising.'     Worship]   see  on  v.  11. 

3.  And  all  Jerusalem]  They  had  good  reason 
to  be  troubled.  Only  two  years  before,  in  a 
similar  fit  of  jealous  fear,  Herod  had  slaughtered 
all  the  leading  Pharisees  (Jos.  '  Antiq.'  17.  2). 

4.  Herod  summons  not  the  Sanhedrin, 
which  he  had  reduced  to  a  shadow,  having 
slain  its  members  wholesale,  but  a  national 
assembly  of  theologians  learned  in  the  Law. 

Chief  priests]  The  name  includes  the  high 
priest,  the  ex-high  priests,  and  members  of 
those  families  from  which  the  high  priest  was 
generally  chosen.  Scribes]  i.e.  professional 
students,  copiers,  and  expounders  of  the  Law 
of  Moses,  who  rose  into  prominence  after  the 
captivity  (Neh8i,  etc.),  and  were  enrolled  as 
members  of  the  Sanhedrin.  Called  also 
'  lawyers '  (Lk  1 0  ^s)  and  '  doctors  of  the  law  ' 
(Lk5i7).  Christ]  EV  'the  Christ,'  i.e.  the 
Messiah. 

5.  In  Bethlehem]   cp.  Jn7'i2. 

6.  See  Mic  5  2.  St.  Matthew  follows  neither 
the  Heb.  nor  the  Gk. ,  but  gives  a  free  paraphrase. 
He  '  reproduces  the  prophetic  utterance  of 
Micah,  exactly  as  such  quotations  were  popu- 
larly made  at  that  time.  Hebrew  being  a  dead 
language,  the  Holy  Scriptures  were  alwaj^s 
translated  (in  the  synagogue)  into  the  popular 
dialect  (Aramaic)  by  a  Methurgeman,  or  in- 
terpreter, and  these  interpretations,  or  Tar- 
gums,  were  neither  literal  versions  nor  yet 
paraphrases,  but  something  between  them,  a 
sort  of  interpreting  translation.    It  is  needless 


627 


2.9 


ST.  MATTHEW 


2.  22 


to  remark  that  the  NT.  writers  would  "  targum  " 
as  Christians'  (Edersheim  abridged). 

g.  The  star .  ,  went  before  them,  etc.]  a 
poetical  way  of  saying  that  the  star  guided 
the  wise  men  to  Jesus. 

11.  The  house]  There  is  no  mention  of  the 
stable  (Lk  2  7).  As  soon  as  the  enrolling  was 
at  an  end,  there  would  be  no  difficulty  in 
obtaining  accommodation.  Fell  down,  and 
■worshipped  him]  The  customary  method  of 
doing  homage  to  a  monarch.  But  in  their 
homage  was  mingled  something  also  of  re- 
ligious worship,  because  they  understood  at 
least  this,  that  the  Child  before  whom  they 
knelt  was  the  Messiah,  the  religious  head  of 
the  human  race,  standing  in  a  unique  relation 
to  Grod,  and  destined  to  establish  the  kingdom 
of  God  on  earth. 

Gifts]  It  was,  and  is,  the  Eastern  custom 
not  to  approach  monarchs  and  princes  without 
a  gift  :  Gn43ii  IS  1027  IKIO^.  The  Magi 
brought  to  Jesus  the  most  costly  products  of 
the  countries  in  which  they  lived,  as  if  to 
show  that  nothing  is  too  precious  to  be  used 
in  the  service  of  God.  It  is  a  mistake  to  think 
that  spiritual  worship  is  necessarily  a  bare 
worship,  or  that  religion  is  purest  when  it  is 
most  divorced  from  art.  Art  and  the  love  of 
beauty  are  among  God's  greatest  gifts  to  man, 
and  it  is  right  that  man  in  worshipping  should 
render  of  his  best  to  God.  The  mystical  in- 
terpretation of  the  gifts  (gold,  symbolising 
Christ's  Royalty  ;  frankincense,  or  incense,  His 
Divinity  ;  myrrh,  His  Passion,  cp.  JnlQ^^)  is 
questionable.  The  Magi  would  not  know  that 
He  was  actually  divine,  still  less  that  He  would 
suffer. 

12.  In  a  dream]  As  the  Magi  were  inter- 
preters of  dreams,  this  method  of  divine  reve- 
lation was  especially  appropriate.  It  is  part 
of  God's  loving  condescension  to  mankind  to 
make  His  revelations  to  different  ages,  races, 
and  individuals  by  those  channels  through 
which  they  are  accustomed  to  expect  them, 

13-15.  Flight  into  Egypt  (peculiar  to  St. 
Matthew).  Egypt  was  the  only  place  of  refuge 
easily  reached  from  Bethlehem.  It  was  out- 
side the  dominions  of  Herod,  under  Roman 
government,  and  contained  a  population  of  at 
least  a  million  Jews,  who  were  more  wealthy 
and  enlightened  than  those  of  Palestine.  It 
was  notorious  for  its  superstition  and  gross 
idolatry,  and  legend  has  represented  the  idols 
of  Egypt  as  falling  flat  on  their  faces  before 
the  Holy  Child. 

15.  Until  the  death  of  Herod]  Herod  died 
probably  4  B.C.,  possibly  3  B.C.,  so  that  the 
sojourn  in  Egypt  was  short,  perhaps  only  a  few 
months. 

Out  of  Egypt]  Hos 111.  it  is  impossible 
that  the  flight  into  Egypt  was  invented  to 
fulfil  this  prophecy,  which  in  Hosea  is  simply 


an  historical  allusion  to  the  deliverance  of 
Israel  from  Egypt.  My  son]  in  the  original 
passage  is  the  nation,  not  the  Messiah,  and  so  the 
LXX  understood  it.  St.  Matthew,  however, 
saw  in  the  history  of  Israel  a  typical  fore- 
shadowing of  the  life  of  our  Lord,  and  so,  in 
accordance  with  rabbinical  methods  of  in- 
terpretation, applied  it  to  Jesus.  Here  St. 
Matthew  quotes  directly  from  the  Heb.  The 
LXX  has  '  Out  of  Egypt  did  I  call  his  (Israel's) 
children.' 

16-18.  Massacre  of  the  Innocents  (pecu- 
liar to  St.  Matthew).  The  incident  is  fully  in 
accordance  with  what  is  known  of  Herod's 
character,  and  could  not  have  been  suggested 
by  the  prophecy  in  v.  18,  which  really  refers 
to  the  Babylonian  captivity.  It  is  a  true 
instinct,  born  of  the  new  significance  which 
Christianity  has  given  to  child-life,  which  has 
led  the  Church  to  enroll  the  Innocents  in  '  the 
noble  army  of  martyrs.'  and  to  commemorate 
them  in  the  Christmas  festival  (Dec.  28).  '  Not 
in  speaking,  but  in  dying,'  says  the  old  collect, 
'  did  they  confess  Christ.' 

16.  Ail  the  male  (RV)  children]  '  Considering 
the  population  of  Bethlehem,  their  number 
could  only  have  been  small — probably  twenty 
at  most.'  The  massacre  is  not  mentioned  by 
Josephus,  but  '  the  murder  of  a  few  infants  in 
an  insignificant  village  might  appear  scarcely 
worth  notice  in  a  reign  stained  by  so  much 
bloodshed.  Besides,  he  had  perhaps  a  special 
motive  for  this  silence.  Josephus  always 
carefully  suppresses,  so  far  as  possible,  all 
that  refers  to  the  Christ '  (Edersheim). 

18.  Was  .  .  avoice  heard]  JerSlis.  Rachel 
was  buried  at  Ramah  (cp.  Gn35i9  IS  10 2), 
and  when  Jerusalem  was  captured  by  Nebu- 
chadnezzar, trains  of  Jewish  captives  were  led 
by  her  tomb  on  their  way  to  exile.  Jeremiah 
poetically  represents  Rachel  as  coming  out  of 
her  tomb,  and  weeping  piteously  over  her 
dead  and  exiled  descendants,  and  St.  Matthew 
applies  the  prophecy  to  the  circumstances  of 
the  slaughter  of  the  Innocents. 

19-23.  Return  to  Palestine.  Settlement  at 
Nazareth.  It  is  implied  that  Joseph  had 
settled  at  Bethlehem  and  intended  to  remain 
there  as  the  most  suitable  place  for  bringing 
up  the  future  Messiah.  But  God  judged  that 
the  despised  Galilee  was  a  better  training- 
school  for  the  future  Saviour  of  the  world. 

22.  Archelaus]  see  art.  '  The  Dynasty  of 
the  Herods.'  Did  reign]  RV  '  was  reigning.' 
Properly  speaking  Archelaus  was  only  an 
'  ethnarch,'  but  ethnarclis  and  tetrarchs  were 
popularly  called  'kings.'  Augustus  had  pro- 
mised Archelaus  the  title  of  king,  if  he  should 
deserve  it  by  ruling  well.  Joseph  feared  to 
go  back  to  Judaea,  because  Archelaus  was  as 
suspicious  and  cruel  as  his  father.  The  plea- 
sure-loving Antipas  who  ruled  in  Galilee,  was 


628 


2.  23 


ST.  MATTHEW 


3.  2 


known  to  be  more  humane.  23.  Nazareth] 
or  Nazara,  was  a  town  of  lower  Galilee,  in  the 
tribe  of  Zebulon.  It  lay  in  a  lofty  valley 
among  the  limestone  hills  to  the  N.  of  the 
plain  of  Esdraelon,  or  Megiddo.  It  was 
quite  unimportant  (Jnl^e),  and  is  not  men- 
tioned in  OT.  or  Josephus. 

A  Nazarene]  A  thoroughly  Jewish  play 
upon  words.  In  the  OT.  and  in  Jewish 
writings  the  Messiah  is  often  called  Tseinach 
(Jer235),  or  Xefser  (Isalli),  i.e.  the  Branch, 
so  that  '  Jesus  the  Nazarene  '  would  sound 
very  much  like  '  Jesus  the  Branch,'  i.e.  the 
Messiah.  Edersheim  says,  '  We  admit  that 
this  is  a  Jewish  view,  but  then  this  Gospel 
is  the  Jewish  view  of  the  Jewish  Messiah.' 

CHAPTER  3 

Appearance  of  the  B.iptist.     Baptism  of 

Jesus 

1-12.  John  the  Baptist's  ministry.  The 
circumstances  of  John's  birth  are  detailed  in 
Lkl  (see  notes  there).  He  was  sanctified 
from  birth  to  be  the  forerunner  of  the  Messiah 
(Lk  1  is-i"'  "*'*-)i  ^^^^  received  a  special  revelation 
to  enable  him  to  recognise  the  Expected  One 
when  He  appeared  (Jn  1 33).  His  mother 
Elisabeth  was  a  cousin  of  the  Virgin,  and  he 
was  born  about  six  months  before  Jesus. 
Knowing  what  his  work  in  life  was  to  be,  he 
devoted  himself  from  his  earliest  years  to  a 
life  of  strict'  asceticism.  '  He  was  in  the 
deserts  till  the  day  of  his  showing  unto  Israel,' 
imitating  the  austerities  of  the  OT.  prophets, 
especially  Elijah,  whom  he  greatly  resembled. 
Some  earnest  Jews  seem  to  have  followed  his 
example,  and  adopted  the  hermit  life.  For 
instance,  one  of  the  instructors  of  Josephus,  a 
man  called  Banus,  '  lived  in  the  desert,  and 
had  no  other  food  than  that  which  grew  of  its 
own  accord,  and  bathed  himself  in  cold  water 
frequently  both  by  night  and  day.'  Josephus 
adopted  his  practices  and  stayed  with  him 
three  years.  The  ascetic  and  unsocial  life  of 
John  contrasted  strangely  with  the  genial  and 
social  habits  of  Jesus,  who  came  '  eating  and 
drinking,'  and  mingling  freely  with  people  of 
all  classes.  Yet  our  Lord  had  the  greatest 
esteem  for  John,  and  spoke  of  him  as  greater 
than  the  greatest  of  the  prophets  (1 1  "■!■'). 

The  public  appearance  of  the  Baptist  marked 
a  new  era.  He  came  forward  in  the  twofold 
capacity  of  a  prophet  and  the  forerunner  of 
the  Messiah.  As  prophecy  had  been  silent  for 
400  years,  and  all  patriotic  Jews  were  longing 
for  the  coming  of  the  Messiah  to  deliver  them 
from  the  Roman  yoke,  it  is  not  surprising  that 
he  was  welcomed  with  enthusiasm,  and  that 
those  who  ventured  to  doubt  his  mission  found 
it  expedient  to  dissemble  (2126).  He  might 
undoubtedly  have  claimed  the  allegiance  of 
Israel  as  their  promised  king  (Lk  3 1^),  but,  true 


to  his  mission,  he  declared  himself  only  the 
forerunner  of  that  greater  One,  whose  ministry 
was  about  to  begin.  The  testimony  of  John 
to  the  Messiahship  of  Jesus  is  undoubtedly  a 
historical  fact,  and  an  important  one.  To  it 
our  Lord  owed  His  first  and  most  capable 
followers  (Jnl^st)^  and  much  of  His  early 
success. 

The  teaching  of  John  was  confined  within 
the  limits  of  OT.  ideas,  and  his  aim  was  to 
make  his  converts  pious  Jews  of  the  orthodox 
type.  At  the  same  time,  his  views  were  of  a 
far  more  spiritual  kind  than  those  generally 
current.  In  his  teaching  he  laid  the  main 
stress  not  upon  the  ceremonial  law,  but  upon 
righteousness.  He  did  not  regard  the  Messiah's 
kingdom  as — in  its  main  aspect,  at  any  raie — 
a  temporal  monarchy.  It  was  a  kingdom  not 
of  this  world,  a  kingdom  of  righteousness. 
Not  descent  from  Abraham,  but  righteousness 
entitled  a  man  to  be  a  member  of  it.  Hence 
above  all  things  repentance  and  amendment  of 
life  were  necessary.  Those  who  repented  and 
received  the  Messiah,  would  be  admitted  into 
the  kingdom,  to  whatever  nation  they  might 
belong,  but  Israelites  who  refused  to  repent 
and  believe  would  be  rejected.  John  foresaw 
the  difficulties  with  which  Jesus  would  have 
to  contend,  and  even  predicted  for  Him  a 
death  like  his  own  (Jn  1 36  f-).  In  his  preaching 
John  appealed  largely  to  the  emotion  of  fear. 
He  declared  that  the  Messianic  age  would  be 
ushered  in  by  a  terrible  act  of  judgment.  The 
Messiah  would  hew  down  every  unfruitful 
tree  with  the  axe  of  retribution.  With  the  fan 
of  judgment  he  would  winnow  the  wheat, 
casting  the  useless  chafi:  into  unquenchable 
fire.  Let  hypocrites,  especially  Pharisees  and 
Sadducees,  beware,  for  only  by  true  repentance 
could  they  flee  from  the  wrath  to  come.  Let 
all  men  practise  charity,  sharing  their  goods 
with  their  neighbours.  Let  publicans  collect 
no  more  than  the  taxes  due.  Let  soldiers 
avoid  all  violence,  and  be  content  with  their 
wages.  So  and  so  only  could  they  enter  into 
the  kingdom  :  see  LkS^^-K  Josephus  alludes 
to  John,  but  in  a  brief  and  guarded  manner, 
as  '  a  good  man,  who  commanded  the  Jews  to 
exercise  virtue  both  as  to  righteousness  towards 
one  another,  and  piety  towards  God,  and  so  to 
come  to  baptism.' 

St.  Matthew  and  St.  Luke  both  supplement 
St.  Mark's  brief  account  of  John  from  other 
sources. 

1.  In  those  days]  i.e.  26  a.d.  The  wilder- 
ness of  Judaea]  a  desert  tract  about  10  m. 
wide  to  the  W.  of  the  Dead  Sea,  including 
also  the  W.  bank  of  the  Jordan  near  its  mouth. 
The  chief  towns  in  it  were  Engedi  and  Tekoa. 

2.  Repent  ye]  Repentance  is  not  mere 
sorrow  for  sin,  but  a  real  change  of  life.  It 
includes,    (1)   contrition,  i.e.  sorrow  for  sin, 


629 


3.  3 


ST.  MATTHEW 


3.7 


regarded  as  an  offence  against  God  ;  (2)  con- 
fession of  sin,  always  to  God,  and,  where  man 
has  been  injured,  also  to  man  ;  (3)  amendment 
of  life.  The  kingdom  of  heaven]  St.  Matthew 
nearly  always  employs  this  rabbinical  phrase 
instead  of  '  the  kingdom  of  God.'  '  Heaven  ' 
so  used  is  a  reverential  substitute  for  '  God.' 
'  The  kingdom  of  heaven '  is,  of  course,  the 
kingdom  of  Christ,  which  the  Baptist  certainly 
regarded  as  spiritual.  On  the  precise  meaning 
of  the  phrase  in  this  Gospel  see  the  Intro.,  also 
the  notes  on  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount  (chs. 
5-7),  and  on  the  parables. 

3.  For  this  is  he,  etc.]  words  of  the  evan- 
gelist, not  of  the  Baptist.  Isa402  is  quoted 
according  to  LXX.  In  Isaiah  the  words  are 
a  summons  to  make  level  the  roads  before 
Jehovah,  who  is  leading  home  His  people 
from  the  Babylonian  captivity.  St.  Matthew 
typically  applies  them  to  the  entry  of  Israel, 
after  their  long  period  of  waiting,  into  the 
Messianic  kingdom. 

4.  Camel's  hair]  i.e.  either  a  camel's  skin, 
or  cloth  woven  from  camel's  hair.  John's 
dress  was  a  protest  against  the  luxurious  robes 
of  soft  wool,  which  were  fashionable  at  the 
time.  Locusts]  They  are  still  eaten  in  the 
East,  especially  by  the  poor.  After  being 
thrown  into  boiling  water  their  wings  and  legs 
are  torn  off;  they  are  then  sprinkled  with  salt, 
and  either  boiled  or  roasted.  Sometimes  they 
are  fried  in  butter  or  oil.  Wild  honey]  still 
plentiful  in  the  wilderness,  where  it  flows 
from  combs  built  in  the  crevices  of  the  rocks. 
Certain  trees  also  exude  a  juice  called  tree- 
manna,  or  honey,  and  some  suppose  that  this 
is  meant. 

6.  Were  baptized]  The  Baptism  of  John 
was  specifically  a  baptism  of  repentance,  of 
which  public  confession  was  the  pledge  and 
evidence.  Its  significance  can  be  best  de- 
scribed in  the  words  of  Isaiah  :  '  Wash  you, 
make  you  clean ;  put  away  the  evil  of  your 
doings  from  before  mine  eyes ;  cease  to  do 
evil  ;  learn  to  do  well ;  seek  judgment '  (jus- 
tice), 'relieve  the  oppressed,  judge  the  father- 
less, plead  for  the  widow  '  (Isa  1  ^^  ;  cp.  Zech 
13 1).  It  has  points  of  contact  with  the  baptism 
of  proselytes  or  converts  from  heathenism. 
John  required  circumcised  Jews  of  the  seed 
of  Abraham  to  submit  to  his  baptism,  and 
thereby  to  declare  themselves  oxitside  the 
Messianic  kingdom,  and  unfit  to  enter  into 
it  without  a  moral  purification.  This  was 
distasteful  to  the  pride  of  the  Pharisees,  who 
took  offence  at  being  treated  as  proselytes 
(Lk730).  From  Jnl25  it  may  be  gathered 
that  there  was  a  general  expectation  that  the 
Messiah  and  those  closely  associated  with  Him 
would  baptise,  so  that  John's  action  was  in 
accordance  with  Jewish  ideas.  John's  Bap- 
tism differed  from  that  of  Jesus  in  being  of  a 


preparatory  character.  It  did  not  confer  the 
Spirit,  and  was  not  recognised  as  equivalent 
to  Christian  baptism  (Ac  18  25  193).  Con- 
fessing their  sins]  The  Gk.  word  generally, 
but  not  always,  means  a  public  confession, 
and  that  seems  to  be  the  sense  here.  For  an 
example  of  public  confession  and  repudiation 
of  past  sins  in  connexion  with  Christian  bap- 
tism, see  Ac  19  IS. 

7.  Pharisees  and  Sadducees]  The  Pharisees 
were  the  strictest,  the  most  active,  and  the  most 
influential  of  the  Jewish  parties  or  sects.  They 
were  zealously  attached  to  the  Law,  and  still 
more  to  '  the  traditions  of  the  elders.'  By  the 
length  of  their  prayers,  the  frequency  of  their 
fasts,  and  their  devotion  to  ceremonialism, 
they  sought  to  win  honour  with  men  and 
merit  with  God.  They  were  hostile  to  foreign 
rule,  intensely  national  and  patriotic  in  spirit, 
and  ready  to  suffer  persecution  even  unto 
death  for  their  religion.  They  believed  in 
angels  and  spirits  (also  in  revelations  made  by 
them),  in  eternal  retribution  in  the  next  world, 
and  in  the  resurrection  of  the  dead.  They 
also  cherished  with  especial  fervour  the  Mes- 
sianic hope.  They  were  closely  allied  with 
the  scriljes  or  lawyers,  with  whom  they  formed 
practically  one  party. 

The  views  of  the  Sadducees  were  in  most 
respects  the  opposite  of  those  of  the  Phari- 
sees. They  made  no  special  pretensions  to 
piety.  They  acknowledged  the  Law  of  Moses 
as  alone  authoritative,  and  rejected  the  tradi- 
tions of  the  elders.  They  were  hostile  to  the 
aspirations  of  the  national  party,  and  leaned 
for  support  on  Rome.  Sceptical,  or  semi- 
sceptical,  in  their  religious  views,  they  rejected 
the  popular  beliefs  in  angels  and  spirits,  in  a 
future  life,  and  in  the  resurrection  of  the 
dead.  They  were  a  worldly,  wealthy,  and 
selfishly  ambitious  party,  and  their  adherents 
were  chiefly  found  among  the  chief  priests. 
Their  opinions  were  so  unpopular,  that  they 
often  hesitated  to  express  them  publicly.  In 
the  Sanhedrin,  although  the  leading  Sadducees 
had  seats,  Pharisaic  views  were  decidedly  in 
the  ascendant. 

Come  to  his  baptism]  In  consequence  of 
John's  severe  denunciation  of  their  conduct, 
most  of  the  Pharisees  and  Sadducees  who  had 
come  for  baptism  departed  without  it :  see  Lk 
7  ^0.  Generation  (E, V  '  offspring ')  of  vipers] 
This  peculiar  term  of  condemnation  is  also 
applied  by  Christ  to  the  scribes  and  Pharisees 
(1234  2333).  Probably  the  allusion  is  to  their 
poisonous  opinions  and  corrupt  influence  : 
see  Ps584  Isa  1429.  Who  hath  vvarned  you] 
Are  you,  too,  conscious  of  your  danger  ?  To 
flee]  The  picture  is  that  of  vipers  fleeing 
before  the  flames  when  the  stubble  in  the 
fields  is  set  on  fire.  The  wrath  to  come]  the 
great  judgment  with  which  it  was  generally 


630 


3.  8 


ST.  MATTtlEW 


a  13 


believed  that  the  age  of  the  Messiah  would 
open.  The  Jews  regarded  it  mainly  as  a 
judgment  upon  the  Gentiles,  but  John  de- 
clared that  it  would  be  a  judgment  upon  every 
hypocritical  Jew. 

8.  Fruits  meet  for  repentance]  RV  '  fruit 
worthy  of  repentance.'  Fruit  is  a  frequent 
metaphor  for  works,  and  a  very  suitable  one. 
Fruit  is  not  loosely  attached  to  a  tree,  but  is 
part  of  it.  It  derives  its  character  from  the 
tree  on  which  it  grows.  So  a  man's  works, 
i.e.  his  words  and  actions,  are  part  of  him,  and 
express  his  true  character. 

9.  We  have  Abraham  to  (for)  ou7'  father] 
cp.  Jn8^3'^^'^^.  This  insolent  spirit  is  best 
illustrated  by  a  quotation  from  the  rabbis  : 
'  The  fire  of  hell  (Gehenna)  has  no  power  to 
consume  even  the  sinners  of  Israel,  but  they 
go  down  only  to  be  frightened  and  slightly 
singed  for  their  bad  actions.  Then  comes 
Abraham,  who  kept  all  the  precepts  of  the 
Law,  and  through  his  own  merit  brings  them 
up  again.'  Of  these  stones]  a  hint,  not  an 
express  statement  of  the  calling  of  the  Gentiles : 
cp.  Ro4  9«  Gal 4 28  Jn839.  10.  Ax]  a  fre- 
quent and  expressive  tvpe  of  imminent  judg- 
ment (7 19  Lk  1 3  7  :  cp."  Ro  11 17).  The  trees] 
i.e.  individual  Jews,  not  the  nation,  though,  as 
a  matter  of  fact,  judgment  overtook  the  nation 
also  for  its  rejection  of  Christ  :  cp.  7 19.  The 
fire]  see  on  v.  12. 

II,  12.  Here  is  emphatic  testimony  of  John 
to  the  Messiahship  of  Jesus.  Jesus  is  so  great 
that  John  is  unworthy  to  perform  for  Him 
the  function  of  the  meanest  slave.  Jesus  is 
the  dispenser  of  divine  sanctification  (the  Holy 
Ghost).  Jesus  is  the  absolute  judge  of  the 
human  race,  with  power  to  reward  the  good 
in  heaven  and  to  punish  the  guilty  in  hell 
(v.  12).  Nothing  of  importance  is  really  added 
to  this  testimony  in  the  Fourth  Gospel.  There, 
indeed,  the  Baptist  calls  Jesus  the  Lamb  of 
God  and  the  Son  of  God,  and  is  aware  of  His 
preexistence  ;  but  these  things  follow  natur- 
ally from  the  tremendous  prerogatives  which 
even  in  the  Synoptics  John  assigns  to  Him. 
If  it  be  remembered  that  the  synoptic  testi- 
mony is  given  before,  and  the  testimony  in  the 
Fourth  Gospel  after  Christ's  Baptism,  all  diffi- 
culty disappears  :  see  Jn  1  ^<  i^- 19  3  27_ 

II.  Whose  shoes,  etc.]  the  office  of  the 
meanest  slave.  '  A  slave  unlooses  his  master's 
shoe,  and  carries  it  after  him  ;  does  what  he 
needs  for  the  bath,  undresses,  washes,  anoints, 
rubs,  re-dresses  him,  and  puts  on  his  shoes.' 

With  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  with  fire]  St. 
Mark  omits  '  and  with  fire.'  John  says,  in 
effect,  '  I  can  bring  you  to  repentance,  but  no 
further.  My  baptism  gives  no  gi-ace.  It  only 
symbolises  the  greater  baptism  which  Jesus 
will  give.  His  baptism  will  give  you  "  the 
Holy  Ghost,"  i.e.  new  spiritual  life,  and  in- 


631 


ward  sanctification,  and  "  Fire,"  i.e.  holy  fervour 
and  zeal  in  God's  service  '  :  cp.  Ac  2  3.  John 
here  refers  directly  to  Christian  Baptism,  the 
spiritual  efficacy  of  which  he  contrasts  with 
the  inefficacy  of  his  own. 

12.  St.  Mark  omits  this  v.  Whose  fan  (or, 
'  shovel ')]  Jesus  holds  in  His  hand  the  winnow- 
ing fan  of  judgment,  for  He  is  the  judge  of 
quick  and  dead.  Here  John  passes  far  beyond 
Jewish  ideas  about  the  Messiah.  His  floor] 
RV  '  threshing-floor '  :  not  merely  Palestine, 
but  the  universe.  His  wheat]  i.e.  good  per- 
sons. The  garner]  hea\'en.  The  chaff]  the 
wicked.     Unquenchable  fire]  i.e.  Gehenna,  hell. 

13-17.  Baptism  of  Jesus  (Mkl^LkSai  Jn 
1 32).  The  Baptism  of  Jesus  has  more  than  one 
aspect  and  significance.  To  John  it  was  with 
its  miraculous  accompaniments  a  sign  that 
Jesus  was  the  promised  Messiah  and  the  Son 
of  God  (Jn  132-34).  To  Israel  it  was  'the 
showing  to  the  people'  of  the  promised 
monarch,  and  His  consecration  by  the  unction 
of  the  Holy  Spirit  to  the  threefold  office  of 
prophet,  priest,  and  king.  To  the  Christian 
Church  it  is  the  type  and  first  example  of  all 
true  baptism — the  baptism,  that  is,  of  water  and 
the  Spirit.  So  far  all  is  clear.  But  when  we 
come  to  speak  of  its  significance  to  Jesus  Him- 
self we  are  in  a  region  of  mystery,  and  both 
prudence  and  reverence  teach  us  not  to  dog- 
matise. Yet  we  may  venture  to  say  this,  that 
the  vision  at  the  Baptism  was  intended  primarily 
for  Jesus  Himself,  and  neither  for  John  nor  -J-^ 
for  the  multitudes  who  were  present.  It  was 
Jesus  to  whom  the  heavens  were  opened,  Jesus 
who  saw  the  Spirit  descending  as  a  dove,  and 
Jesus  to  whom  the  momentous  words  wei-e 
spoken,  '  This  is  My  beloved  Son,  in  whom  I 
am  well  pleased.'  This  is  expressly  testified 
by  St.  Matthew  and  St.  Mark,  and  is  not  con- 
tradicted by  St.  Luke  and  St.  John,  although 
the  last  states  what  St.  Luke  perhaps  also  im- 
plies in  the  words  '  in  a  bodily  form,'  that  the 
vision  was  also  intended  for  the  Baptist.  If 
we  take  the  most  natural  and  obvious  inter- 
pretation of  the  incident,  we  shall  hold  that 
our  Lord's  baptism  marked  the  point  in  His 
career  when  there  first  awoke  in  Him  the  com- 
plete consciousness  of  His  divine  sonship,  and 
of  all  the  tremendous  consequences  which  this 
unique  relationship  to  God  and  man  involved. 
There  must  have  been  a  time  when  this  con- 
sciousness first  became  fully  explicit.  He 
cannot  have  had  it  in  unconscious  infancy,  or 
as  a  young  child.  Even  as  a  boy  (we  are 
speaking,  of  course,  of  His  human  knowledge) 
He  cannot  have  possessed  it  complete.  He 
grew  in  knowledge  of  things  human  and  divine 
(Lk  2  40-52)^  and  one  of  the  things  in  knowledge 
of  which  He  grew  was  the  awful  mystery  of 
His  own  Divine-Human  Personality.  He 
must,  of  course,  have  been  always  conscious, 


a  14 


ST.  MATTHEW 


4. 


after  attaining  the  use  of  reason,  of  the  dif- 
ference between  Himself  and  other  men,  of 
the  unique  character  of  His  communion  with 
God,  and  of  tlie  greatness  of  the  mission  which 
lay  before  Him,  but  He  need  not  have  known 
all.  It  is  possible  that  full  self-knowledge 
might  have  hindered  rather  than  helped  Him 
during  the  thirty  years  of  obscurity  which 
preceded  His  public  ministry.  But  however 
that  may  be,  before  the  ministry  began  the 
veil  that  concealed  the  mystery  of  His  nature 
was  drawn  aside  by  an  inward  revelation,  and 
soon  the  outward  testimony  of  miracles  con- 
firmed what  the  inward  voice  had  declared. 

14.  I  have  need]  not  inconsistent  with 
Jn  1 33  ('I  knew  him  not ').  As  Jesus  ap- 
proaches, a  prophetic  presentiment  passes 
through  the  mind  of  John  that  this  is  the 
Messiah.  The  descent  of  the  Spirit  makes 
it  a  certainty.  It  is  possible,  even  likely, 
that  as  John  and  Jesus  were  cousins,  they 
were  already  acquainted,  although  John  '  knew 
him  not '  as  the  Messiah.  As  John's  baptism 
was  unto  remission  of  sins,  it  seemed  to  him 
strange  that  Jesus  should  have  consented  to 
such  a  baptism.  But,  though  sinless,  Jesus 
came  to  identify  himself  with  sinners.  He 
would  be  '  under  the  law  that  he  might  redeem 
those  that  were  under  the  law  '  (Gal  4  ^'  ^). 

15.  To  fulfil  all  righteousness]  i.e.  to  fulfil 
all  the  ordinances  of  the  old  covenant  among 
which  our  Lord  reckoned  John's  baptism. 

16.  17.  One  of  the  leading  Trinitarian  pas- 
sages in  the  NT.  The  voice  of  the  Father  is 
heard  proclaiming  the  essential  divinity  of 
the  Son,  and  upon  the  Son,  as  He  rises  from 
the  baptismal  waters,  the  Holy  Ghost,  the 
living  bond  of  love  and  unity  in  the  Godhead, 
descends.  The  appearance  of  the  Holy  Ghost 
in  the  form  of  a  dove  was  a  symbolical  vision, 
and,  as  spiritual  things  are  spiritually  discerned, 
the  vision  was  probably  seen  only  by  our  Lord 
and  the  Baptist.  The  dove  is  a  type  of  the 
Spirit,  because  of  its  innocence,  gentleness, 
and  affection  ;  cp.  10 1",  '  Be  ye  therefore  wise 
as  serpents,  and  harmless  as  doves.'  The  voice 
from  heaven  may  be  paralleled  by  the  voice 
at  Sinai  (Ex  20),  to  Nebuchadnezzar  (Dan43i), 
at  the  Transfiguration  (Mtl7^),  before  the 
Passion  (Jnl228),  to  St.  Paul  (Ac  9  4),  and 
to  St.  Peter  (Ac  11 T').  The  idea  that  a  revela- 
tion might  be  communicated  by  a  super- 
natural voice,  was  familiar  to  the  Jews  of  our 
Lord's  time.  The  rabbis  taught  that  after  the 
cessation  of  prophecy,  God  continued  to  make 
revelations  to  His  people  by  means  of  the 
Bath-kol,  or  heavenly  voice.  At  Jericho,  for 
example,  the  Bath-kol  declared  the  Rabbi 
Hillel  to  be  worthy  to  have  the  Spirit  of  God 
abide  upon  him,  and  at  Jamnia  decided  the 
dispute  between  the  schools  of  Hillel  and 
Shammai  in  favour  of  the  former. 


16.  And  he  saw]  i.e.  Jesus  saw,  though 
John  saw  it  also. 

17.  This  is]  This  represents  the  form  in 
which  the  Baptist  heard  the  words.  '  Thou  art ' 
(Mk,  Lk)  represent  the  form  in  which  Jesus 
heard  them.  My  beloved  Son]  cp.  17  5.  The 
highest  senSe  is  to  be  given  to  these  words. 
The  Father  bears  witness,  not  only  to  Christ's 
Messiahship,  but  to  His  eternal  and  divine  Son- 
ship,  in  virtue  of  wliich  He  is  from  all  eternity 
'  in  the  bosom  of  the  Father,'  loving  and  be- 
loved. In  whom  I  am  well  pleased]  cp.  Isa42 1 
Mtl2i8.  Lest  the  Baptism  of  Christ  should 
be  thought  to  indicate  that  He  was  a  sinner 
like  ourselves,  the  Father  was  pleased  to  pro- 
nounce Him  absolutely  sinless.  The  tense  of 
the  Gk.  is  difficult.  The  Revisers  (also  Plum- 
mer)  regard  it  as  a  timeless  aorist.  But  it 
may  be  an  ordinary  historical  aorist,  and  thus 
point  to  Christ's  preexistence — '  in  whom  I 
luas  well  pleased,'  viz.  before  the  Incarnation 
and  before  the  creation  of  the  world.  The 
words  are  also  a  message  full  of  grace  to  man- 
kind. As  the  Son  is  ever  well  pleasing  and 
acceptable  to  the  Father,  so  also  are  all  those 
who  are  found  in  Him. 

CHAPTER   4 

The  Temptation 
i-ii.  The  temptation  (Mkli2  Lk4i).  The 
narrative,  which  can  only  have  come  from  our 
Lord's  own  lips,  describes  an  actual  historical 
fact,  the  great  temptation  which  He  under- 
went at  the  very  beginning  of  His  ministry. 
He  was  tempted  at  other  times  (Lk4i3)^  per- 
haps at  all  times  (Heb  2  is)^  during  His  earthly 
life,  but  the  two  gi'eat  seasons  of  trial  were 
now,  and  immediately  before  the  Passion : 
Lk22'i2Mt2639.  Our  Lord  records  His  ex- 
perience in  symbolical  language  partly  because 
the  inward  operations  of  the  mind  could  hardly 
be  represented  to  men  of  that  age  except  as 
visible  transactions,  but  more  particularly  be- 
cause the  story  of  Adam's  temptation  in  GnS^ 
is  also  told  symbolically.  Jesus  here  appears 
as  the  second  Adam,  victorious  in  the  conflict 
in  which  the  first  Adam  failed.  He  wins  the 
victory  as  man,  not  as  God,  so  that  here  the 
human  race  in  the  person  of  its  Head  begins 
to  retrieve  its  defeat  and  to  bruise  the  Ser- 
pent's head,  receiving  thereby  an  assurance  of 
final  victory.  The  temptation  of  the  first 
Adam  took  place  in  a  garden,  i.e.  in  a  universe 
as  yet  unspoilt  by  sin.  The  temptation  of  the 
second  Adam  took  place  in  a  wilderness,  i.e.  in 
a  world  rendered  desolate  by  Adam's  fall,  and 
the  ultimate  effect  of  His  victory  will  be  to 
make  it  a  garden  again.  In  this  connexion 
should  be  taken  St.  Mark's  statement  that  '  He 
was  with  the  wild  beasts.'  The  wild  beasts 
did  not  hiu-t  Jesus,  because  He  regained  for 
man  the  empire  over  the  beasts  which  Adam 


632 


ST.  MATTHEW 


4.  2 


lost  :  '  The  wolf  also  shall  dwell  with  the 
lamb,  and  the  leopard  shall  lie  down  with  the 
kid. .  .  They  shall  not  hurt  nor  destroy  in  all 
my  holy  mountain '  (Isa  1 1  '^). 

The  details  of  thi*ee  temptations  are  re- 
corded: (a)  The  first  (vv.  3,  4)  was  a  tempta- 
tion to  abuse  His  miraculous  powers.  If,  as 
seems  probable,  Jesus  first  received  authority 
to  work  miracles  at  His  Baptism,  the  very 
freshness  and  greatness  of  the  gift  would  sug- 
gest to  the  devil  the  most  appropriate  form  of 
attack.  Jesus  was  hungry,  he  also  had  an 
unlimited  power  of  working  miracles.  Why 
should  He  remain  hungry,  when  He  had  the 
power  of  making  bread  ?  '  Why,'  suggested 
the  devil,  '  is  it  right  to  feed  others,  and  wrong 
to  feed  thyself  ?  If  thou  be  the  Son  of  God, 
command  that  these  stones  be  made  bread.' 
So  the  tempter  suggested,  but  Jesus  replied, 
'  Man  shall  not  live  by  bread  alone  but  by 
every  word  '  (i.e.  command)  '  that  proceedeth 
out  of  the  mouth  of  God.'  These  words,  taken 
from  DtS^,  refer  to  Israel  in  the  wilderness. 
There  they,  like  Jesus,  had  no  bread,  yet  they 
were  fed  by  the  word  of  God's  mouth,  for 
God  commanded  manna  to  fall  from  heaven. 
In  effect  Jesus  said  to  the  tempter,  '  It  is  true 
that  I  have  no  bread,  but,  since  I  am  here  by 
God's  command,  He  will  keep  me  alive  with- 
out bread.  He  has  but  to  utter  a  word,  and  I 
shall  be  providentially  fed,  as  the  Israelites 
were  of  old.'  If  it  be  asked  why  it  was  wrong 
for  Jesus  to  make  bread  for  His  own  use,  the 
answer  is  that  in  God's  working  in  the  world 
there  is  in  general  a  strict  economy  of  miracu- 
lous power.  In  the  life  of  Jesus  there  is  not 
a  single  example  of  a  miracle  worked  for  His 
own  advantage.  In  every  case  His  miraculous 
power  was  used  for  the  good  of  others,  to  re- 
move the  ravages  of  disease  and  sin,  and  to 
advance  the  kingdom  of  God,  and  foi-  these 
purposes  alone  was  it  entrusted  to  Him.  The 
devil's  suggestion  was,  therefore,  a  temptation 
to  disobedience,  like  that  of  our  first  parents. 
Satan  would  have  had  our  Lord  act  independ- 
entlJ^  setting  up  His  will  against  God's,  instead 
of  conforming  it  to  His  in  filial  obedience. 

(h)  The  next  temptation  (vv.  5-7)  was  more 
subtle.  The  devil  took  Him  in  spirit  to  the 
lofty  platform  (not  pinnacle)  overlooking  the 
courts  of  the  Temple,  from  which  a  great 
mviltitude  could  be  conveniently  addressed. 
It  was  from  this  platform  or  pulpit  that  James 
the  Lord's  brother  delivered  the  public  address 
which  was  the  immediate  occasion  of  His 
martyrdom  (Euseb.  2.  23).  Satan  suggested 
that  our  Lord  should  address  the  assembled 
multitudes  of  Israel  from  this  giddy  height, 
and  then  prove  His  Messianic  claims  beyond 
all    question   by  flying  through  the   air,    and 


descending  to  the  ground  unharmed.     Stripped 


of  its  symbolical  form,  this  was  a  temptation 


to  take  a  short  and  easy  road  to  recognition 
as  the  Messiah  by  giving  '  a  sign  from  heaven  ' 
which  even  the  most  incredulous  and  un- 
spiritual  would  be  compelled  to  accept.  This 
short  and  easy  method  Jesus  decisively  re- 
jected. He  determined  to  appeal  to  the 
spiritual  apprehension  of  mankind,  that  they 
might  believe  on  Him,  not  because  they  were 
astounded  by  His  miracles,  and  could  not  re- 
sist their  evidence,  but  because  they  were 
attracted  by  the  holiness  and  graciousness  of 
His  character,  by  the  loftiness  of  His  teach- 
ing, and  by  the  love  of  God  to  man  which 
was  manifested  in  all  His  words  and  actions. 
He  intended  His  miracles  to  be  secondary,  an 
aid  to  the  faith  of  those  who  on  other  grounds 
were  inclined  to  believe,  but  not  portents  to 
extort  the  adhesion  of  those  who  had  no  sjrm- 
pathy  with  Himself  or  His  aims. 

(c)  Then  the  devil  made  his  last  effort 
(vv.  8-10).  He  offered  Jesus  all  that  he  had, 
'  all  the  kingdoms  of  the  earth  and  the  glory 
of  them,'  if  He  would  but  worship  him,  i.e. 
acknowledge  his  usurped  authority,  and  do 
evil  that  good  might  come.  The  statement  of 
the  devil  that  all  the  kingdoms  of  the  earth 
are  at  his  disposal  is  a  difficult  one,  but  it  is  in 
harmony  with  the  NT.  view  that  wealth  and 
power  are  dangerous  snares,  which  are  better 
avoided,  and  that  religious  safety  lies  in 
poverty  and  obscurity.  It  also  harmonises 
with  the  familiar  experience  that  the  devil 
often  tempts  men  most  severely  by  making 
them  rich  and  great.  Yet  the  statement  is  an 
exaggeration.  The  devil's  power  to  dispose 
of  the  honour  and  glory  of  the  world  is  subject 
to  the  permission  and  overruling  providence 
of  God,  who  continually  brings  good  out  of 
evil.  Moreover,  since  the  Ascension  of  our 
Blessed  Lord,  the  devil's  power  over  the 
kingdoms  of  the  earth  has,  at  least  in  Christian 
lands,  been  greatly  reduced. 

1.  Of  the  spirit]  i.e.  of  the  Holy  Spirit. 
God  Himself  ordained  that  Jesus  should  be 
tempted  or  tried,  because  only  through  tempt- 
ation can  human  nature  attain  to  perfection. 
Even  the  angels  had  to  pass  through  a  similar 
trial.  Into  the  wilderness]  Since  Jesus  was 
'  retiu-ning '  towards  Galilee  (Lk),  the  tradi- 
tional scene  of  the  temptation.  Mount  Quaran- 
tania,  near  Jericho,  is  a  suitable  one.  The 
devil]  The  word'  literally  means  '  slanderer  ' 
or  '  accuser.'     See  special  note  below. 

2.  Fasted  forty  days]  It  was  God's  will 
that  before  beginning  His  work  Jesus  should 
retire  from  the  world  and  give  Himself 
entirely  to  fasting  and  prayer,  with  meditation 
upon  His  future  plan  of  action.  We  may 
suppose  that  He  was  so  absorbed  in  contem- 
plation of  His  Messianic  work,  that  He  was 
not  conscious  of  physical  need.  For  parallels 
see  Ex342S  1K198  Lkiso  Gallic. 


633 


4.3 


ST.  MATTHEW 


4.  18 


3.  If  tnou  be]  Probably  Satan  expressed 
doubt  in  order  to  tempt  Jesus  to  prove 
Himself  the  Son  of  God  by  a  miracle.  4.  See 
prefatory  remarks.  5.  The  holy  city]  This 
phrase,  peculiar  to  this  Gospel,  marks  a 
thoroughly  Jewish  aifection  for  Jerusalem : 
see  2753,  and  cp.  535.  a  (RV  '  the  ')  pinnacle] 
see  prefatory  remarks. 

6.  The  devil  is  a  good  theologian,  and  can 
quote  Scripture  to  his  purpose.  Here  he 
quotes  Ps91ll'i2,  omitting  one  line.  The 
general  nature  of  this  temptation  is  indicated 
in  prefatory  remarks.  It  was,  besides,  an 
incitement  to  tempt  God  presumptuously  by 
deliberately  incurring  unnecessary  danger. 

7.  See  I)t6i6.  Deuteronomy  was  one  of 
Jesus'  favourite  books.  8.  See  prefatory  re- 
marks. 10.  See  Dt6i3,  and  1020.  11.  Minis- 
tered unto  him]  i.e.  perhaps  with  spiritual 
refreshment.     Cp.  Lk2243. 

Note.  (1)  St.  Matthew  and  St.  Luke  for  the 
Temptation  have  access  to  some  other  authority 
than  St.  Mark,  who  is  here  very  brief.  The 
order  of  St.  Matthew  seems  superior  to  that 
of  St.  Luke.  (2)  If  the  Temptation  of  Jesus 
was  a  reality  (and  we  can  scarcely  doubt  that 
it  was),  the  Tempter  must  have  been  met 
and  conquered  by  Him  in  the  strength  of  His 
human  nature,  assisted  by  divine  grace.  As 
God,  He  could  not  be  tempted  at  all. 

12-17.  Beginning  of  the  Galilean  ministry 
(Mkli4,i5  Lk  4 1^.1''.  31).  It  might  be  thought 
from  the  synoptic  account  that  Jesus  began 
His  Galilean  ministry  immediately  after  His 
Baptism  and  Temptation.  But  from  the 
Fourth  Gospel  it  is  clear  that  this  was  not  so. 
Jesus  was  baptised  late  in  26  A.D.  He  then 
remained  for  a  time  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
the  Baptist,  five  of  whose  followers,  Andrew, 
John,  Philip,  Peter,  and  Bartholomew,  attached 
themselves  to  Him,  and  followed  Him  back  to 
Galilee.  Then  in  April  27  a.d.  He  went  up 
to  Jerusalem  to  keep  the  Passover  (the  first 
passover  of  the  ministry)  and  cleansed  the 
Temple  for  the  .first  time.  He  then  baptised 
in  the  country  districts  of  Juda3a  with  great 
success  (Jn  2,  3).  The  length  of  this  Judfean 
ministry  is  disputed.  Prof.  Sanday  thinks 
that  it  lasted  only  3  or  4  weeks,  but  most 
authorities  assign  to  it  8  months  :  see  on  Jn  4  35. 
The  Galilean  ministry  begins,  therefore,  either 
in  May,  27  a.d.,  or  more  probably  in  December 
of  the  same  year  :  see  Jn  119-445. 

12.  Departed  into  Galilee]  i.e.  from  Judeea, 
where  He  was  baptising  (JnS^S).  He  took 
the  route  through  Samaria  (Jn44),  staying  at 
Sychar  two  days  to  preach  to  the  Samaritans. 
Jesus  had  probably  intended  to  make  Jeru- 
salem and  Judaea  the  chief  scene  of  His 
ministry,  but  changed  His  policy  owing  to  the 
hostility  of  the  Pharisees  (Jn4i).  In  many 
respects   Galilee   was   better    suited    to    His 


634 


purpose  than  Judisa.  The  Galileans  were 
more  tolerant,  less  conservative,  and  less  under 
the  power  of  the  priests  and  Pharisees  than 
the  Judasans.  There  was  a  large  Gentile 
popidation  in  Galilee,  and  much  of  the  trade 
between  Egj^pt  and  Damascus  passed  through 
the  country.  The  people  were  more  industri- 
ous, prosperous,  and  enterprising  than  the 
Judseans,  who  were  jealous  of  them,  and 
affected  to  despise  them. 

13.  And  leaving  Nazareth]  He  went,  as  was 
natural,  first  to  Nazareth,  but  on  account  of 
His  unfavourable  reception  there  (Lk4i6)^ 
migrated  to  Capernaum,  which  is  on  the  NW. 
coast  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee.  Capernaum  is 
generally  identified  with  the  modern  Tell 
Hum.  It  is  in  the  tribe  of  Naphtali,  but  the 
borders  of  Zebulun  are  near.  Capernaum 
was  a  busy  place.  Two  caravan  routes  passed 
through  the  town.  It  had  a  custom-house, 
and  a  Roman  garrison. 

14.  The  quotation  (from  Isa9i)  is,  in  view 
of  Christ's  ministry  in  Galilee,  a  singularly  apt 
one,  even  according  to  modern  ideas.  Isaiah 
prophesies  that  the  northern  parts  of  Israel 
which  have  suffered  most  from  the  incursions 
of  the  Syrians  and  the  Assyrians  (2K16-9) 
will  be  the  first  to  be  restored  to  prosperity 
by  the  Messiah,  who  will  win  a  great  victory 
in  these  regions  over  the  enemies  of  Israel, 
and  establish  an  eternal  kingdom.  The  quota- 
tion is  made  from  memory,  and  reproduces 
the  original  somewhat  freely. 

15.  By  the  way  of  the  sea]  RV  'towards 
the  sea,'  i.e.  the  Sea  of  Galilee.  Beyond 
Jordan]  must  be  taken  to  mean  '  also  the 
district  beyond  Jordan.'  The  other  side  of 
the  lake  was  easily  reached  by  boat,  and  was 
more  than  once  visited  by  Jesus  (823  1413). 
The  district  S.  of  this,  E.  of  the  Jordan,  was 
called  Per^a.  and  was  the  scene  of  the  last 
stages  of  our  Lord's  ministry  (Jn  10  ^O).  Galilee 
of  the  Gentiles]  In  Isaiah  the  expression  means 
'  district  of  the  Gentiles,'  and  refers  not  to  the 
whole  of  Galilee,  but  to  its  northern  borders, 
which  were  largely  inhabited  by  Gentiles. 

16.  The  darkness  means  in  Isaiah  the 
despair  caused  by  the  ravages  of  the  Assyrians  ; 
in  St.  Matthew  the  spiritual  darkness  which 
.lesus  came  to  dispel.  17.  The  kingdom  of 
heaven]   see  on  3  2. 

18-22.  Call  of  Simon,  Andrew,  James,  and 
John  (Mk  1  it^ ;  cp.  Lk  5 1).  Simon,  Andrew,  and 
John  had  already  been  disciples  for  some 
time,  and  so  probably  had  James  :  see  Jn  1 35. 
The  call  was  therefore  not  so  sudden  and  un- 
expected as  it  appears  to  be  in  the  synoptic 
narrative.  In  LkS^  a  very  similar  call  is 
recorded  in  connexion  with  a  miraculous 
draught  of  fishes,  and  many  suppose  the  two 
incidents  to  be  the  same.  If  they  are  distinct, 
and  this  seems  the  preferable  view  (see  on  Lk 


4.  19 


ST.  MATTHEW 


4.  24 


6^),  the  order  of  events  is  as  follows.  Imme- 
diately after  His  migration  to  Capernaum 
Jesus  called  the  four  fishermen,  who  were 
already  disciples,  to  be  apostles.  They  did 
not,  however,  while  Jesus  remained  in  Caper- 
naum, entirely  leave  their  trade,  but  waited 
for  a  final  summons.  This  soon  came.  When 
about  to  leave  Capernaum  for  a  tour  thi'ough 
Galilee,  Jesus  appeared  to  them  again,  and 
after  working  a  symbolical  miracle  (LkS^), 
called  them  finally  to  accompany  Him.  He 
called  them  while  actually  at  their  work,  as 
He  called  Matthew  (9  9),  in  order  to  show  that 
no  idle  or  useless  person  can  be  a  Christian. 

19.  Fishers  of  men]  '  The  fisherman  Peter 
did  not  lay  aside  his  nets  but  changed  them ' 
(Aug.).  21.  According  to  Lk  the  four  fisher- 
men were  partners.  22.  St.  Mark  mentions 
that  there  were  hired  servants  in  Zebedee's 
boat,  which  indicates  that  the  family  was  not 
poor.  St.  John  was  known  to  the  high  priest, 
and  probably  had  a  house  in  Jerusalem 
(Jnl8i6  1927).  St.  Matthew  was  rich.  It 
cannot  be  shown  that  any  of  the  apostles  were 
specially  poor  or  of  a  mean  social  position. 
'  Unlearned  and  ignorant  men  '  (Ac  4 13)^  simply 
means  that  they  had  not  been  trained  in  the 
schools  of  the  rabbis.  Manual  labour  was 
honourable  among  the  Jews,  and  even  the 
sons  of  the  wealthy  were  taught  trades. 

23-25.  Journeys  of  Jesus  through  Galilee : 
preaching  and  healing  the  sick.  St.  Matthew 
interrupts  his  narrative  of  what  took  place  at 
Capernaum  to  give  a  general  sketch  of  the 
early  period  of  the  Galilean  ministry.  After 
the  sermon  on  the  mount  he  returns  to  what 
happened  at  Capernaum  (8 1). 

23.  All  Galilee]  A  preaching  expedition  of 
so  comprehensive  a  character  must  have  lasted 
several  months. 

In  their  synagogues]  Synagogues  had  their 
origin  during  the  captivity,  and  rapidly  became 
a  general  institution  after  the  return.  In  the 
time  of  Christ  there  was  a  synagogue  not  only 
in  every  town,  but  in  every  village  large  enough 
to  afford  a  congregation  of  ten  adult  men. 
The  synagogue  was  primarily  a  place  of 
worship,  but  it  was  also  a  centre  of  government, 
its  members  forming  a  local  self-governing 
body.  The  governing  body  of  a  synagogue 
were  called  'elders.'  At  their  head  was  a 
'  ruler  of  the  synagogue,'  who  maintained  order 
during  public  worship  (Lkl3i"^),  and  decided 
who  was  to  conduct  the  service  (Ac  13 1^).  The 
ruler  was  not  a  scribe,  but  ranked  immediately 
after  the  scribes.  Each  synagogue  had  an 
attendant  {Hazzan)  (Lk420).  He  was  a  scribe, 
but  ranked  lowest  in  the  scribal  body.  He 
had  charge  of  the  building,  gave  the  rolls  to  the 
readers,  called  upon  the  priests  to  pronounce 
the  benediction  at  the  proper  time,  and  also  on 
week-days  acted  as  schoolmaster.     It  was  he 


who  carried  out  the  judicial  sentences  of  the 
elders.  Many  synagogues  had  an  interpreter 
{jnethurgeman),  who,  after  the  Scripture  had 
been  read  in  Hebrew,  gave  the  Targum,  i.e. 
translated  it  into  Aramaic,  which  was  the 
vulgar  tongue. 

The  elders  of  the  sj'nagogue  were  the  rulers 
of  the  local  community  both  in  civil  and 
religious  matters.  They  had  power  to  excom- 
municate (Lk622),  and  to  scourge  (MtlO^'^) 
with  forty  stripes  save  one  (Dt253  2Cor  ll^^). 
Unlike  the  Temple-worship  the  worship  of  the 
synagogue  was  under  the  control  of  the  laity. 
A  priest  as  such  had  no  privilege  but  to  give 
the  blessing.  The  four  chief  parts  of  syna- 
gogue worship  were,  (1)  the  reading  of  the 
Law,  (2)  of  the  prophets,  (3)  the  sermon,  (4) 
the  prayers.  The  prayers  and  lessons  were 
read  and  the  sermon  delivered  by  members  of 
the  congregation  selected  by  the  ruler.  This 
will  explain  how  it  was  that  Jesus,  and  after- 
wards St.  Paul,  were  able  to  use  the  synagogues 
as  centres  for  diffusing  Christian  truth  :  cp. 
Lk4i6  Ac  1315.  On  week-days  the  synagogues 
were  used  as  schools  for  children. 

24.  All  Syria]  i.e.  the  Roman  province  of 
Syria.  Possessed  with  devils]  See  special  note 
below.  Lunatick]  (lit.  '  moonstruck ')  R  V 
'  epileptic'  Such,  suiferers  were  supposed  to 
be  influenced  by  changes  of  the  moon. 

He  healed  them]  Great  prominence  is  given 
in  the  Gospels  to  miracles  of  healing,  and  our 
Lord  plainly  regarded  practical  work  of  this 
kind  as  an  integral  part  of  His  work  of  salva- 
tion. Briefly  expressed,  the  teaching  of  the 
miracles  of  healing  is  as  follows  :  (1)  That  the 
preservation  of  life  and  health  by  all  the 
means  in  our  power  is  a  Christian  duty.  The 
Christian  will  seek  '  a  sound  mind  in  a  sound 
body  '  for  himself  and  for  others.  In  practice 
this  leads  to  the  establishment  of  hospitals, 
efficient  sanitation,  and  factory  legislation 
calculated  to  protect  life  and  limb  and  health. 
(2)  That  the  soul  can  often  be  reached  through 
the  body.  Christ  touched  the  souls  of  those 
whom  He  healed,  and  the  early  Church  made 
as  many  converts  by  its  works  of  mercy  as  by 
its  preaching.  Missionary  societies  are  well 
aware  of  this,  and  send  out  many  medical 
missionaries.  (3)  That  pain,  disease,  and  death 
are  no  part  of  God's  will  for  man.  Like  sin 
they  came  into  the  world  against  His  will,  and 
they  are  part  of  those  '  works  of  the  devil,' 
which  the  Son  of  God  was  manifested  to 
destroy.  God  permits  disease,  as  He  permits 
moral  evil,  He  even  overrules  it  for  good,  so 
that  sickness  may  become  a  visitation  from 
God  full  of  spiritual  blessings  ;  nevertheless, 
disease  is  no  part  of  His  original  plan  of 
creation,  it  is  not  natural  but  against  nature, 
and  it  can  have  no  part  in  the  perfected 
kingdom  of  God. 


635 


4.  25 


ST.  MATTHEW 


5. 


25.  Decapolis]  i.e.  '  ten  towns,'  a  region 
beyond  Jordan,  containing  originally  ten  allied 
or  federated  cities,  among  which  were  Gadara, 
Pella,  Gerasa,  and  Damascus.  It  was  part  of 
Persea,  and  its  inhabitants  were  mainly  Greeks. 

Note  on  Diabolical  Possession 

In  the  NT.  disease,  except  when  it  is  a  special 
visitation  from  God  (Hebl2*J),  is  regarded  as 
the  work  of  Satan  (Mt 9 32  12 22  Lklli*  13 lo 
AclO^s,  etc.).  In  particular,  nervous  diseases 
and  insanity  are  represented  as  due  to  diaboli- 
cal possession.  This  was  the  universal  belief 
of  the  time,  and  our  Lord,  in  using  language 
which  implies  it,  need  not  be  regarded  as 
teaching  dogmatically  that  there  is  such  a 
thing  as  possession.  There  were  strong  reasons 
why  He  should  seek  to  '  accommodate '  His 
language  to  the  popular  theory.  (1)  The  insane 
persons  whom  He  wished  to  heal,  were  firmly 
convinced  that  they  were  possessed  by  devils. 
This  was  the  form  assumed  by  the  insane 
delusion,  and  to  argue  against  it  was  useless. 
The  only  wise  course  was  to  assume  that  the 
unclean  spirit  was  there,  and  to  command  it  to 
come  forth.  (2)  It  was  our  Lord's  method  not 
rashly  or  unnecessarily  to  interfere  with  the 
settled  beliefs  of  His  time,  or  to  anticipate 
the  discoveries  of  modern  science.  The  belief 
in  demonic  possession,  though  probably  errone- 
ous, was  so  near  the  truth,  that  for  most 
purposes  of  practical  religion  it  might  be 
regarded  as  true.  He,  therefore,  did  not 
think  fit  to  distm-b  it.  Believing,  as  He  did, 
that  most  of  the  evil  in  the  universe,  including 
disease,  though  permitted  by  God,  is  the  work 
of  Satan,  He  tolerated  a  belief  which  had  the 
merit  of  emphasising  this  fundamental  truth, 
and  left  it  to  the  advance  of  knowledge  in  future 
ages  to  correct  the  extravagances  connected 
with  it.     See  also  on  Mt  8-*^*,  Mk  121-28. 

Note  on  Satan 

Although  from  the  earliest  times  the  Hebrews 
believed  in  various  kinds  of  evil  spirits,  it  was 
not  till  the  time  of  the  captivity  that  the  idea 
of  a  supreme  evil  spirit,  exercising  lordship 
over  all  orders  of  demons,  emerged  into 
prominence.  In  the  OT.  Satan  appears  only 
in  the  prologue  to  Job  (chs.  1,  2),  where  he 
ranks  with  the  angels  or  '  sons  of  God '  ;  in 
ZechS^,  where  he  is  the  adversary  of  Joshua 
the  high  priest;  and  in  lCh21i,  where  he 
tempts  David  to  number  Israel.  All  these 
passages  are  subsequent  to  the  captivity.  In 
the  NT.  Satan  is  a  much  more  prominent 
character.  His  influence  is  represented  as  all- 
pervading.  He  disposes  of  earthly  kingdoms 
as  he  wills.  He  has  an  organised  kingdom 
of  darkness  which  cannot  be  overthi'own  even 
by  the  Christ  without  a  fearful  struggle,  in 
which  the  conqueror  tastes  the  bitterness  of 


death.  Physical  evil  is  mainly  due  to  him,  for 
he  and  his  ministers  are  the  direct  authors  of 
pain,  sorrow,  disease,  and  death.  The  NT. 
writers  indeed  recognise  that  pain  and  disease 
are  sometimes  inflicted  by  God  Himself  for 
disciplinary  purposes,  but,  upon  the  whole, 
they  ascribe  the  universal  prevalence  of 
physical  evil  to  the  malignant  activity  of  Satan. 
The  moral  evil  of  the  world  is  also  ascribed  in 
the  main  to  him.  He  goes  about  the  world 
like  a  roaring  lion,  seeking  whom  he  may 
devour,  and  never  ceases  from  his  insidious 
attempts  to  detach  mankind  from  their  allegi- 
ance to  their  Creator. 

That  our  Lord  many  times  expressed  belief 
in  Satan  as  a  personal  being,  is  admitted  on  all 
hands.  The  only  question  is  whether  He  may 
not  in  this  matter  have  accommodated  his 
language  to  the  beliefs  of  His  contemporaries, 
or  perhaps  have  personified  evil  in  order  to 
express  more  vividly  its  pervasive  activity. 
Both  suppositions  are,  on  the  whole,  improb- 
able. The  allusions  to  Satan  and  his  angels 
as  persons  are  too  frequent  and  emphatic,  to 
make  it  easy  to  suppose  that  our  Lord  did  not 
believe  in  their  personality  ;  and,  moreover, 
belief  in  an  impersonal  devil  presents  greater 
difficulties  to  faith  than  belief  in  a  personal 
one.  That  evil  should  exist  at  all  in  a  world 
created  and  governed  by  a  good  and  all-power- 
ful Being,  is  a  serious  moral  and  intellectual 
difficulty.  But  that  difficulty  is  reduced  to  a 
minimum  if  we  suppose  that  it  is  due  to  the 
activity  of  a  hostile  personality.  Opposition 
to  God's  will  on  the  part  of  a  personal  self- 
determining  agent,  though  mysterious,  is  con- 
ceivable. Opposition  to  it  on  the  part  of  any 
impersonal  evil  influence  or  physical  force  is 
(to  most  modern  minds)  inconceivable. 

CHAPTER   5 

The  Sermon  on  the  Mount 
5I-729.  The  Sermon  on  the  Mount :  see  Lk 
(;20f^  This  sermon  is  so  similar  to  the  sermon 
reported  by  St.  Luke  (Lk620),  that  it  is  best 
to  regard  them  as  identically  the  same.  It  is 
true  that  it  has  been  plausibly  suggested  that 
our  Lord  during  His  preaching  tours  often 
repeated  nearly  the  same  sermon  to  different 
audiences,  and  that  St.  Matthew  has  given  us 
the  sermon  as  delivered  at  one  place  and  St. 
Luke  as  delivered  at  another,  but  the  resem- 
blances are  so  extremely  close,  and  the  diver- 
gencies for  the  most  part  so  naturally  accounted 
for,  that  to  regard  them  as  identical  is  more 
natm-al.  St.  Luke's  version  is  much  shorter 
than  St.  Matthew's  (30  vv.  against  107),  and 
it  contains  nothing  that  is  not  in  St.  Mat- 
thew except  the  four  woes  (Lk  6  24-26).  There 
are,  however,  striking  parallels  to  St.  Mat- 
thew's sermon  in  other  parts  of  St.  Luke's 
Gospel.    No  less  than  34  vv.  scattered  thi'ough 


636 


5. 


ST.  MATTHEW 


his  later  chs.  correspond  to  utterances  in 
St.  Matthew's  sermon,  so  that  altogether  the 
two  Gospels  contain  about  61  parallel  vv. 
The  natural  inference  from  this  is  that,  upon 
the  whole,  St.  Luke  gives  the  sermon  as  oiu- 
Lord  actually  delivered  it,  and  that  St.  Mat- 
thew (or,  rather,  his  authority)  has  inserted 
at  appropriate  places  in  the  sermon  other 
utterances  of  our  Lord  dealing  with  the  same 
or  similar  subjects.  In  a  literal  sense,  there- 
fore, St.  Luke's  report  is,  speaking  generally, 
the  more  trustworthy,  but  St.  Matthew's  is 
the  more  valuable  as  containing  numerous 
authoritative  explanations  of  its  meaning.  The 
discourse  was  probably  what  we  should  call 
an  ordination  sermon,  delivered,  as  St.  Luke 
states,  immediately  after  the  choice  of  the 
twelve  apostles  (LkG-O).  St.  Matthew,  how- 
ever, inserts  it  appropriately  enough  at  the 
beginning  of  the  Galilean  ministry,  in  order 
to  give  the  reader  a  general  idea  of  the  Master's 
teaching  at  this  period. 

The  great  interest  of  the  sermon  is  that  it 
is  a  more  or  less  full  revelation  of  Christ's 
own  character,  a  kind  of  autobiography.  Every 
syllable  of  it  He  had  ah'eady  written  dovim  in 
deeds  ;  He  had  only  to  translate  His  life  into 
language.  With  it  we  may  compare  the  won- 
derful self -revelation  in  Jn  17,  but  there  is 
an  important  difference.  There  we  have  His 
self -revelation  as  Son  of  God,  holding  com- 
munion with  the  Father  in  a  manner  im- 
possible to  us  ;  here  we  have  Him  pictured 
in  His  perfect  humanity  as  Son  of  man, 
offering  us  an  example,  to  which,  if  we  can- 
not in  this  life  completely  attain,  we  can  at 
least  approximate  through  union  with  Him. 
In  this  sermon  Christ  is  very  near  to  us.  The 
blessedness  which  He  offers  to  the  humble  and 
meek,  the  merciful,  the  pure  in  heart,  the 
peacemakers,  the  seekers  after  righteousness, 
and  the  persecuted  for  righteousness'  sake, 
He  first  experienced  Himself,  and  then  com- 
mended to  others.  And  the  powder  by  w^hich 
He  lived  this  life  is  the  very  power  by  which 
we  also  must  live  it — the  power  of  secret 
prayer  (G^f-).  St.  Luke  tells  us  that  the  night 
before  this  sermon  was  delivered  was  spent 
entirely  in  private  prayer  (LkG^^). 

The  sermon  is  very  important  for  a  right 
understanding  of  Christ's  conception  of  '  the 
kingdom.'  It  is  '  the  kingdom  of  the  heavens.' 
It  exists  most  perfectly  in  heaven  itself,  where 
angels  and  glorified  saints  live  the  ideal  life  of 
love  and  service,  finding  their  whole  pleasure 
m  doing  God's  T.'ill  and  imitating  His  adorable 
perfections.  This  blessed  life  of  sinless  per- 
fection Christ  brings  down  to  earth  in  His 
own  person,  and  makes  available  for  man. 
Every  baptised  Christian  is  taught  to  pray, 
'  Thy  kingdom  come,'  and  that  is  interpreted 
to  mean,  Let  Thy  will  be  done  by  men  on 


earth  as  it  is  done  by  angels  and\  saints  in 
heaven.  The  kingdom,  then,  is  |just  the 
heavenly  life  brought  down  to  eartl^,  and  its 
aim  and  standard  is  nothing  short  of  )the  per- 
fection of  God  Himself,  '  Be  ye  tjherefore 
perfect — especially  be  ye  perfect  in  love — 
even  as  your  Father  which  is  in  heaven  is  per- 
fect' (548).  Of  this  kingdom  God  the  Father 
is  King  (cp.  the  phrase  '  kmgdom  of  God,' 
used  by  the  other  evangelists,  and  the  ancient 
Doxology  to  the  Lord's  prayer),  but  Jesus 
Himself  exercises  the  immediate  sovereignty, 
being  the  Father's  full  representative  and  en- 
dowed with  all  His  powers.  He  is  expressly 
called  King  only  in  Mf2b^^-^'^,  but  His  regal 
authority  is  sufficiently  implied  in  the  Sermon 
on  the  Mount,  where  He  appears  in  the  char- 
acter of  a  divine  legislator  (.521*-),  as  the  judge 
of  quick  and  dead  (721-23)^  and  as  the  sole 
revealer  of  absolute  truth  (724-26). 

The  inward  and  spiritual  view  of  the  king- 
dom, which  is  prominent  in  the  Sermon  on  the 
Mount,  is  not  inconsistent  with  its  identifica- 
tion elsewhere  with  the  visible  Chui'ch  of 
Christ  (1618,19),  which  includes  both  worthy 
and  unworthy  members  (13  4").  Our  Lord 
identifies  His  Church  with  the  kingdom  of 
heaven  (16^8, 19),  because  it  is  the  divinely 
appointed  means  of  establishing  it.  To  it  is 
entrusted  the  awful  responsibility  of  implant- 
ing and  nom'ishing  the  spiritual  life  of  God's 
children.  As  to  unworthy  members  of  the 
Church,  although  they  are  '  in  '  the  kingdom, 
they  are  not  '  of '  it. 

The  profound  impression  which  the  Sermon 
made  at  the  time  has  been  surpassed  by  the  im- 
pression which  it  made  on  subsequent  genera- 
tions. The  Mount  of  Beatitudes  has  become  to 
all  the  chief  nations  of  the  world  what  Sinai 
was  to  Israel,  the  place  where  an  authoritative 
moral  code,  and  what  is  more  than  a  code,  an 
authoritative  moral  ideal,  was  promulgated. 
Not  even  the  most  sceptical  deny  that  it  shows 
originality  and  genius  of  the  highest  order,  and 
reveals  a  character  of  unequalled  moral  sub- 
limity. The  many  parallels  and  resemblances 
to  this  sermon  adduced  from  rabbinical  writings, 
some  of  which  are  quoted  in  the  commentary, 
rather  enhance  than  detract  from  its  unique 
character.  Its  use  of  current  rabbinical  phrase- 
ology only  throws  into  greater  prominence  its 
matchless  originality  and  independence.  But 
what  struck  the  hearers  even  more  than  its 
moral  splendour  and  originality,  was  the  tone 
of  authority  with  which  it  was  delivered  (7  29). 
Jesus  spoke,  not  as  a  scribe  dependent  on 
tradition,  nor  even  as  a  prophet  prefacing  His 
words  with  a  '  Thus  saith  the  Lord,'  but  as 
one  possessed  of  an  inherent  and  personal  claim 
upon  the  allegiance  and  obedience  of  His 
hearers.  In  His  own  name  and  by  His  own 
authority  He  revised  the  Decalogue  spoken  by 


637 


5.  1 


ST.  MATTHEW 


5.  1 


God  Himself  on  Sinai,  and  declared  Himself 
the  Lord  and  Judge  of  the  human  race,  before 
whom,  in  the  last  great  day,  every  child  of 
man  will  stand  suppliant-wise  to  receive  his 
eternal  recompense.  It  is  sometimes  said  that 
the  Sermon  on  the  Mount  contains  little 
Theology  and  no  Christology.  In  reality  it 
expresses  or  implies  every  claim  to  super- 
natural dignity  which  Jesus  ever  made  for 
Himself,  or  His  followers  have  ever  made  for 
Him. 

Analysis  of  the  Sermon. 

I.  The  Beatitudes.  What  kind  of  persons 
are  really  blessed  or  happy  (S^^i-). 

II.  The  relation  of  Christ's  disciples  to  the 
world  as  its  salt  and  light  (5 13-16). 

III.  The  relation  of  the  New  Teaching  to 
the  Law  and  the  prophets  as  their  fulfilment. 
It  repeals  ancient  ordinances  which  were  im- 
perfect and  transitory,  expands  the  moral  and 
spiritual  principles  of  the  OT.  to  their  full 
development,  and  in  so  doing  enables  Judaism 
to   become    the   religion  of   the   human   race 

(517-48). 

IV.  Practical  instructions  in  righteousness 
for  the  citizens  of  the  kingdom,  forming  a 
striking  contrast  to  the  ideas  of  righteousness 
current  among  the  Scribes  and  Pharisees.  Alms, 
prayer,  forgiveness,  fasting,  wealth,  freedom 
from  anxiety,  rash  judgments,  reserve  in  com- 
municating sacred  knowledge,  persistence  in 
prayer,  the  two  ways,  the  necessity  of  good 
works,  stability  of  character  (6  ^-7  27). 

I.  The  multitudes]  viz.  those  mentioned  in 
425.  A  (RV  '  the ')  mountain]  The  traditional 
site  is  the  Horns  of  HatMn,  or  Mount  of 
Beatitudes,  a  low,  square-shaped  hill  with  two 
summits,  about  7  m.  SW.  of  Capernaum.  St. 
Luke  says  that  the  sermon  (if  indeed  he  is 
speaking  of  the  same  one)  was  delivered  '  in 
the  plain '  (A"\'^,  or  '  on  a  level  place '  (RV). 
If  we  wish  to  harmonise,  we  can  say  that  '  the 
level  place  '  was  half-way  down  the  mountain. 

Was  set]  The  usual  attitude  of  Jewish 
rabbis  in  teaching,  indicating  authority.  So  in 
the  early  church  the  preacher  sat,  and  the  con- 
gregation (including  the  emperor)  stood.  His 
disciples]  i.e.  not  only  the  Twelve,  as  would 
be  the  probable  meaning  in  the  Fourth  Gospel, 


but  Christ's  followers  in  general.  The  Twelve 
had  already  been  chosen,  although  St.  Matthew 
places  the  event  later  (10  2-^),  and  this  sermon 
was  their  ordination  address  :  see  LkG^^. 

I-I2.  The  Beatitudes.  Properly  speaking, 
the  beatitudes  are  seven  in  number,  vv.  10,  11, 
12,  forming  an  appendix.  These  three  vv.  being 
counted  in,  the  number  of  beatitudes  is  raised, 
according  to  different  methods  of  division,  to 
eight,  or  nine,  or  ten,  the  last  corresponding 
to  the  number  of  the  ten  commandments.  St. 
Luke  has  only  four,  the  first,  fourth,  second 
and  eighth,  in  that  order.  As  recorded  in  St. 
Luke  the  beatitudes  are  more  paradoxical  and 
startling.  They  appear  to  bless  actual  poverty, 
hunger,  and  mom'ning,  and  are  followed  by 
four  woes  upon  the  wealthy  and  those  who 
receive  their  consolation  in  this  life.  In  form 
St.  Luke's  beatitudes  are  possibly  more  original 
than  St.  Matthew's — they  are  certainly  more 
difficult — but  the  sense  is  best  expressed  by 
St.  Matthew.  The  beatitudes  express,  (1)  the 
cjualifications  necessary  for  admission  into 
Christ's  kingdom  ;  (2)  the  blessedness  or  happi- 
ness of  those  who  possess  those  qualifications  ; 
(3)  in  St.  Luke  expressly,  and  in  St.  Matthew 
by  implication,  the  misery  of  those  who  do  not. 
Observe  that  the  qualifications  of  the  citizens 
of  the  kingdom  are  not  the  performance  of 
certain  legal  acts,  but  the  possession  of  a  certain 
character,  and  that  the  '  sanctions  '  or  promised 
rewards,  unlike  those  of  the  Decalogue,  are  of 
a  spiritual  nature.  The  beatitudes  must  have 
been  a  painful  disillusionment  to  those  who 
believed  that  the  coming  kingdom  of  the 
Messiah  would  be  a  temporal  empire  like  that 
of  Solomon,  only  differing  from  it  in  its 
universal  extension  and  unending  duration. 
The  virtues  here  regarded  as  essential,  humility, 
meekness,  poverty  of  spirit,  are  the  very  opposite 
of  those  ambitions,  self-assertive  qualities, 
which  the  carnal  multitude  admired.  We 
cannot  doubt  that  Jesus  intended  the  beatitudes, 
and  indeed  the  sermon  generally,  to  act  like 
Gideon's  test,  and  to  sift  out  those  who  had 
no  real  sympathy  with  His  aims.  Somewhat 
later  He  carried  the  sifting  process  still  further, 
and  some  who  had  stood  this  test, '  went  back, 
and  walked  no  more  with  Him '  (Jn  6  ^^). 


Scheme  of  the  Beatitudes  (after  'The  Teacher's  Commentary'): — 

I.  The  poor  in  spirit 
(From  this  fundamental  condition  the  other  virtues  mentioned  grow.) 

(The  inner  life  towards  God)  (Its  outward  manifestation  towards  man) 

II.  They  that  mourn  ....      answering  to     iii.  The  meek 

IV.  They  that  hunger  after 

righteousness      ....  „         „        V.  The  merciful 

VI.  The  pure  in  heart     ...  „        „     vii.  The  peacemakers 

(supplemental)  viii.  The  patient  in  persecutions 
638 


5.3 


ST.  MATTHEW 


6.4 


First  Beatitude 

3.  Blessed]  The  beatitude  type  of  utter- 
ance, like  the  parable,  is  not  without  example 
in  the  OT.  (Pssli  41 1  65^  845-7  89 is  119 1-2 
128i>2,  etc.),  but  Christ  has  made  both  types 
peculiarly  His  own.  Beatitudes  express  the 
essential  spirit  of  the  New  Covenant,  in  con- 
trast to  the  Old,  which  was  prodigal  of  de- 
nunciations (Dt  27,  28,  29,  etc.).  The  thunders 
of  Sinai  proclaiming  the  Decalogue  form  a 
striking  contrast  to  the  gentle  voice  of  the 
Son  of  man  on  the  Mount  of  Beatitudes  pro- 
claiming the  religion  of  love.  Blessedness  is 
higher  than  happiness.  Happniess  comes  from 
without,  and  is  dependent  on  circumstances ; 
blessedness  is  an  inward  fountain  of  joy  in  the 
soul  itself,  which  no  outward  circumstances 
can  seriously  affect.  Blessedness  consists  in 
standing  in  a  right  relation  to  God,  and  so 
realising  the  true  law  of  a  man's  being.  Ac- 
cording to  Christ,  the  blessed  life  can  be 
enjoyed  even  by  those  who  are  unhappy,  a 
paradox  which  the  ancient  world,  with  the 
exception  perhaps  of  the  Stoics,  did  not  under- 
stand. The  Greeks  thought  that  the  blessed 
life  was  possible  only  for  a  verj'  few.  It  was 
impossible  for  slaves,  for  the  diseased,  for  the 
poor,  and  for  those  who  die  young.  Christ 
taught  that  it  is  possible  for  all  mankind,  for 
the  meanest  slave,  and  the  most  wretched  in- 
valid, as  well  as  for  the  wealthy,  the  prosperous, 
and  the  gi-eat.  He  went  even  beyond  the 
Stoics.  They  taught  that  the  wise  man  is 
blessed.  Jesus  opened  the  blessed  life  to  the 
simple  and  uneducated. 

The  poor  in  spirit]  St.  Luke,  '  Blessed  are 
ye  poor.'  The  expression  is  difficult,  and  is 
interpreted  in  two  ways.  (1)  '  The  poor  in 
spirit '  are  those  who  feel  themselves  spiritu- 
ally poor,  and  in  need  of  all  things,  and  so 
approach  God  as  penitents  and  suppliants, 
beseeching  Him  to  supply  their  needs,  clothe 
their  nakedness,  and  enrich  their  poverty. 
Poverty  of  spirit  is  the  opposite  of  pride, 
self -righteousness,  and  self-conceit  ;  the  spirit 
of  the  publican  rather  than  of  the  Pharisee  ; 
the  spirit  of  those  who  wish  to  learn  rather 
than  to  teach,  to  obey  rather  than  to  command, 
and  are  willing  to  become  as  little  children 
in  order  to  enter  into  the  kingdom  of  heaven. 
(2)  Others,  following  St.  Luke's  version,  see 
in  the  saying  a  more  definite  reference  to 
actual  riches  and  poverty.  They  understand 
our  Lord  to  mean  that  a  Christian,  whether 
rich  or  poor,  must  have  the  spirit  of  poverty, 
i.e.  he  must  possess  his  wealth  as  if  he  pos- 
sessed it  not,  and  be  willing  to  resign  it  at  any 
moment  without  regret,  and  to  say  with  Job, 
'  The  Lord  gave,  and  the  Lord  hath  taken 
away  ;  blessed  be  the  name  of  the  Lord.' 
This  interpretation  makes  a  spirit  of  detach- 


ment from  the  world  and  all  its  allurements,  of 
which  wealth  is  for  most  men  the  chief,  the 
first  condition  of  the  blessed  life. 

For  theirs  is  the  kingdom  of  heaven]  not 
only  '  shall  be  theirs  hereafter,'  but  '  is  theirs 
now.'  The  kingdom  is  here  regarded,  like 
eternal  life  in  the  Fourth  Gospel,  as  a  present 
possession.  Usually  it  is  regarded  in  this 
Gospel  as  something  future,  manifested  only 
at  the  end  of  the  world.  On  '  the  kingdom ' 
see  prefatory  note  and  Intro. 

The  rabbinical  parallel  to  this  beatitude  is 
chiefly  interesting  by  way  of  contrast.  It 
runs,  '  Ever  be  more  and  more  lowly  in  spirit, 
since  the  expectancy  of  man  is  to  become  the 
food  of  worms.' 

Second  Beatitude 

4.  They  that  mourn]  St.  Luke  (following 
a  different  recension  of  the  Sayings)  has, 
'  Blessed  are  ye  that  weep  now,  for  ye  shall 
laugh.'  That  sorrow  of  the  acutest  kind  (and 
that  is  what  the  Gk.  indicates)  can  minister  to 
blessedness,  is  a  paradox  which  the  world  can- 
not understand,  but  which  is  profoundly  true 
in  the  experience  of  believers.  (1)  The  sor- 
rows that  God  sends  or  permits,  if  received 
with  humility  and  submission,  ever  refine  and 
ennoble  the  character,  and  elevate  it  into  closer 
union  with  the  Father  of  spirits.  Hence  the 
apostle  can  even  '  glory  in  tribulations  also  : 
knowing  that  tribulation  worketh  patience  ; 
and  patience,  experience  '  (i.e.  tried  and  proved 
character)  ;  '  and  experience,  hope  '  (Ro  5  3'*)  ; 
and  a  follower  of  his  can  write,  '  Now  no  chas- 
tening  for  the  present  seemeth  to  be  joyous,  but 
grievous  :  nevertheless  afterward  it  yieldeth 
the  peaceable  fruit  of  righteousness  unto  them 
that  have  been  exercised  thereby'  (Hebl2ii). 
(2)  Those  who  moiu-n  for  the  sorrows  of  others 
out  of  Christian  sympathy,  are  rewarded  by 
the  very  exercise  of  that  sweet  act  of  com- 
passion, and  find  many  comforters  in  their  own 
real  sorrows.  (3)  Those  who  mourn  for  sin 
with  a  godly  sorrow,  saying  with  the  publican, 
'  God  be  merciful  to  me  a  sinner,'  are  com- 
forted by  the  removal  of  the  burden  of  sin, 
and  the  forgiveness  of  its  guilt.  (4)  Those 
who  mourn  for  the  sins  of  others,  who  pray 
earnestly  for  their  conversion,  are  often  com- 
forted by  the  success  of  their  prayers. 

Comforted]  the  word  implies  strengthening 
as  well  as  consolation.  The  faculty  which  is 
exercised  by  the  true  mourner  is  strengthened 
by  use.  Those  who  bear  their  sorrows  patiently 
grow  in  patience  ;  those  who  sorrow  for  others 
grow  in  sympathy  ;  those  who  sorrow  for  their 
own  sin  deepen  their  penitence  ;  those  who 
intercede  for  the  sins  of  the  world  grow  in 
the  likeness  of  the  great  Sin-bearer  and 
'  Intercessor.  The  comfort  comes  from  the 
exercise  of  the  spiritual  faculty,  and  from  the 


639 


).  5 


ST.  MATTHEW 


5.  13 


consciousness  of  growing  more  like  God  ;  but 
there  is  also  that  final  comfort  in  the  world  to 
come,  when  '  God  shall  wipe  away  all  tears 
from  their  eyes  '  (Rev  7  '^'^). 

Third  Beatitude  (not  in  St.  Luke) 

5.  The  meek]  A  quotation  from  PsS?^^. 
The  '  earth '  is  not  only  the  new  earth  spoken  of 
2Pet  3 12  Rev  21i,  but  refers  also  to  the  present 
world.  The  words  are  a  prophecy  that  meek- 
ness will  prove  a  greater  power  in  the  world 
than  pride.  This  was  revolutionary  doctrine. 
Judaism  meant  pride  of  race  and  privilege  ; 
Rabbinism,  pride  of  learning  ;  Roman  im- 
perialism, pride  of  power  ;  Greek  cultm-e, 
either  pride  of  intellect  or  pride  of  external 
magnificence.  All  agreed  that  the  meek  man 
was  a  poor  creature,  and  the  worldly  world 
thinks  so  still.  Nevertheless,  meekness  is  in-e- 
sistibly  attractive,  and  exercises  a  wider  spirit- 
ual influence  than  any  other  type  of  character. 
'  He  hath  put  down  the  mighty  from  their  seat, 
and  hath  exalted  the  humble  and  meek.'  See 
further  on  18*. 

Meekness  is  a  virtue  which  can  be  exercised 
both  towards  God  and  towards  man  ;  and  in- 
asmuch as  it  involves  self-control,  it  is  not  a 
weak  but  an  heroic  quality.  '  He  that  is  slow 
to  anger  is  better  than  the  mighty  ;  and  he 
that  ruleth  his  spirit  than  he  that  taketh  a 
city  '  (ProvlG^-).  A  meek  man  is  one  who  is 
not  easily  provoked  or  irritated,  and  forbearing 
under  injury  or  annoyance. 

Fourth  Beatitude 

6.  That  hunger  and  thirst  after  righteous- 
ness] St.  Luke,  '  ye  that  hunger  now.'  Right- 
eousness here  is  goodness  or  Christian  per- 
fection in  its  widest  sense  :  cp.  v.  48  Ps42i'  2. 

Filled]  i.e.  shall  attain  completely  to  the 
character  at  which  they  aim. 

Fifth  Beatitude  (not  in  St.  Luke) 

7.  The  merciful]  Our  salvation  is  made 
dependent  upon  our  showing  mercy  to  every 
creature  that  can  feel.  Every  kind  of  cruel 
amusement,  or  cruel  punishment,  as  well  as 
every  wanton  act  of  cruelty,  is  strictly  for- 
bidden. It  should  be  remembered  that  cruel 
speeches  no  less  than  cruel  acts  are  forbidden 
by  this  commandment.  Words  can  lacerate 
more  deeply  than  stripes.  By  the  ancient 
Greeks  and  Romans  the  emotion  of  pity  was 
generally  regarded  as  a  fault,  or  at  least  as 
a  weakness.  The  Stoics  were  in  practice 
humane  men,  but  they  regarded  pity  in  the 
abstract  as  a  vice.  '  The  wise  man,'  they  said, 
'  succoiirs,  but  does  not  pity.' 

Sixth  Beatitude 

8.  The  pure  in  heart]  The  '  heart,'  both  in 
the  OT.  and  NT.,  stands  for  a  man's  inmost 


soul,  and  so  the  purity  here  required  is  not  the 
ceremonial  cleanness  of  the  Levitical  law,  nor 
even  the  blamelessness  of  outwardly  correct 
conduct,  but  complete  pm'ity  of  inward  thought 
and  desire.  A  thing  is  pure  when  it  contains 
no  admixture  of  other  substances.  Benevo- 
lence is  pure  when  it  contains  no  admixture  of 
self-seeking  ;  justice  is  pure  when  it  contains 
no  admixture  of  partiality  ;  love  is  pure  when 
it  contains  no  admixture  of  lust.  A  man's 
heart  is  pure  when  it  loves  only  the  good, 
when  all  its  motives  are  right,  and  when  all 
its  aspirations  are  after  the  noble  and  true. 
Purity  here  is  not  synonymous  with  chastity, 
but  includes  it.  See  God]  Just  as  the  liar  does 
not  understand  truthfulness,  and  does  not  re- 
cognise it  when  he  encounters  it,  so  the  unholy 
person  does  not  understand  sanctity,  and  can- 
not understand  the  all-holy  God.  But  those 
who  cleanse  their  hearts  understand  God  in 
proportion  to  their  purity,  and  one  day,  when 
they  are  cleansed  from  all  sin,  will  see  Him 
face  to  face  (Hebl2i4  lJn32,3  Rev 22 4). 

Seventh  Beatitude  (not  in  St.  Luke) 

9.  The  peacemakers]  Peacemakers  are,  (1) 
those  who  reconcile  men  at  variance,  whether 
individuals,  or  classes  of  men  (e.g.  employers 
and  employed),  or  nations  ;  (2)  those  who 
work  earnestly  to  prevent  disputes  arising  or 
to  settle  them  peaceably  (e.g.  by  arbitration)  ; 
(3)  those  who  strive  to  reconcile  men  to  God, 
and  so  to  bring  peace  to  their  souls.  They 
shall  be  called  the  children  (RV  '  sons  ')  of 
God]  Because  in  this  aspect  they  are  especially 
like  their  heavenly  Father,  who  has  sent  peace 
and  goodwill  down  to  earth  in  the  person  of 
His  dear  Son,  who  is  charged  with  a  message 
of  reconciliation. 

Eighth  Beatitude 

10.  Which  are  persecuted]  RV  'that  have 
been  persecuted.'  The  reference  is  not  to 
past  persecutions  of  OT.  saints,  but  to  those 
of  the  disciples,  which  Jesus  sees  to  be  in- 
evitable, and  graphically  represents  as  already 
begun. 

12.  The  prophets  which  were  before  you] 
By  ranking  His  disciples  with  the  OT.  pro- 
phets, Jesus  seems  to  imply  that  they  also  are 
prophets.  It  is  this  possession  of  prophetical 
gifts  by  the  first  disciples  which  justifies  the 
Church  in  regarding  the  NT.  as  the  inspired 
Word  of  God:  see  Acll27  131  153^  21io 
1  Cor  1 2  28  1 4 1  Eph  2  20   35411,  etc. 

13-16.  The  relation  of  Christ's  disciples  to 
the  w^orld.  Nothing  corresponding  to  this 
section  is  found  in  St.  Luke's  sermon,  but 
parallels  occur  in  Lk  1 4  S'i,  35  and  11 33.  The 
section  is  well  placed  by  St.  Matthew.  The 
connexion  of  thought  is  clear  and  natural. 
Having  spoken  of  their  persecutions,  Jesus 


640 


5.  13 


ST.  MATTHEW 


5.  18 


proceeds  to  encourage  His  disciples  by  speaking 
of  the  greatness  of  their  mission  in  the  world. 
They  are  to  be  the  salt  of  society.  Salt 
preserves  food  from  corruption,  and  seasons 
it,  making  it  wholesome  and  acceptable.  So 
the  disciples  are  to  purify  the  society  in  which 
they  move,  setting  a  good  example  and  counter- 
acting every  corrupt  tendency.  For  this  pur- 
pose their  Christianity  must  be  genuine.  Men 
must  feel  that  they  are  diiferent  from  the 
woi-ld,  and  have  a  savour  of  their  own.  The 
salt  which  has  lost  his  savour  is  the  Christian- 
ity which  is  only  worldliness  under  another 
name.  Again,  the  disciples  are  to  be  the  light 
of  the  world,  being  the  representatives  of  Him 
who  is  the  world's  true  Light  (Jn8i^).  They 
are  to  enlighten  it  as  its  teachers,  and  also  by 
the  examples  of  their  lives.  They  are  also  to 
be  as  a  city  set  on  a  hill,  which  cannot  be  hid. 
In  this  figure  they  are  contemplated  not  as 
individuals  but  as  a  visible  society,  or  Church. 
The  old  city  set  on  a  hill  was  Jerusalem 
(Ps482).  This  was  shortly  to  be  trodden 
under  the  foot  of  men  as  having  lost  its 
savour,  and  the  new  society  was  to  take  its 
place.  Christ  here  solemnly  warns  us  that 
the  standard  of  living  in  the  Church  must  be 
visibly  higher  than  the  standard  of  living  in 
the  world.  A  Church  which  tolerates  a  cor- 
rupt ministry,  or  laxity  of  life  among  its 
communicants,  is  not  bearing  its  witness 
before  the  world. 

13.  Wherewith,  etc.]  i.e.  either,  'Where- 
with shall  the  world  be  salted  ?  '  or  '  Where- 
with shall  the  salt '  (i.e.  the  disciples)  '  be 
salted?'  cp.  Mk950  LkUS*.  Salt  in  Pales- 
tine, being  gathered  in  an  impiu-e  state,  often 
undergoes  chemical  changes  by  which  its 
flavour  is  destroyed  while  its  appearance 
remains. 

15.  A  candle]  EV  'a  lamp':  see  Mk42i 
Lk8i6  1133.  A  bushel  (Lat.^  wofZms)]  ^^ 
'  the  bushel,'  i.e.  the  one  which  is  kept  in  the 
house  for  measuring  the  corn  or  meal  for  the 
daily  provision  of  bread.  The  viodius  here  is 
probably  the  Heb.  ^eah  =  \h  pecks. 

16.  Let  your  light]  This  is  not  inconsistent 
with  the  command  to  be  humble  and  to  do 
good  by  stealth,  especially  as  the  collective 
good  works  of  the  Christian  brotherhood  as  a 
whole  are  chiefly  spoken  of.  '  Our  light  is  to 
shine  forth  though  we  conceal  it,'  says  St. 
Hilary.  Origen  and  other  writers  testify  that 
the  good  works  of  Christians  did  more  to  con- 
vert the  world  than  miracles  or  preaching. 

17-20.  Christianity  as  the  fulfilment  of  the 
Law^and  the  Prophets.  This  section  is  especially 
appropriate  in  St.  Matthew's  Jewish  Gospel. 
St.  Luke's  sermon,  being  for  Gentile  readers, 
has  nothing  similar,  and  in  his  whole  Gospel 
there  is  only  one  parallel  v.  (LklG^").  In 
one  aspect  Christ's  attitude  to  the  Law  was 


conservative.      He   regarded    Christianity   as 
continuous  with,  and  in  a  true  sense  identical 
with,  the  religion  of  the  Law  and  the  Prophets. 
He  could  even  repeat  the  current  teaching  of 
the  rabbis  that  the  Law  was  eternal,  and  that 
not  a  jot  or  tittle  could  be  taken  from  it.     He 
severely   rebuked    such    of    His    disciples    as 
should  presume  to  despise  or  undervalue  the 
smallest  part  of  the  OT.     They  should  not  in- 
deed be  excluded  from  His  kingdom,  but  they 
should  be  the  least  in  it  (v.  1 9).     On  the  other 
hand.  He  made  it  clear  that  this  eternal  valid- 
ity did  not  belong  to  the  Law  as  Moses  left  it, 
but  to  the  Law  as  '  fulfilled,'  i.e.  developed,  or 
completed   by   Himself.      He  superseded  the 
Law  and  the  Prophets  by  fulfilling  them,  and 
He    fulfilled    them    in   all   their  parts.     The 
spiritual  and  moral  teaching  of  the  Law  and 
of  the  Prophets  He  freed  from  all  lower  ele- 
ments and  carried  forward  to  their  ideal  per- 
fection.     The  political  teaching  of  the  Law 
He  completed  by  laying  down  the  principles 
of  the  perfect  state.     Even   the    ceremonial 
law  He  fulfilled.     The  Law  of  Sacrifice  was 
fulfilled  in  His   sacrificial  death,   and  in  the 
spiritual  sacrifices  of  prayer  and   praise    and 
thanksgiving  in  which  His    precious  death  is 
pleaded.     Circumcision  became  '  the    circum- 
cision made  without  hands,'   i.e.  Holy  Bap- 
tism.   The  Passover  became  the  Lord's  Supper. 
The  sanctification  which  the  Law  gave  to  one 
day  in  seven,  was  extended  by  Christ  to  every 
day  in  the  week,  and  even  the  sabbath  itself 
was,  in  a  certain  sense,  perpetuated  and  con- 
tinued by  Him  as  the  Christian  '  Lord's  Day.' 
Even  such  minor  matters  as  ceremonial  ablu- 
tions and  the  distinction  of  meats  received  their 
due  fulfilment  when  Christ  made  possible  the 
inward  holiness  which  these  outward  observ- 
ances symbolised. 

Above  all,  the  prophets  were  fulfilled  by 
Christ  in  a  most  comprehensive  way.  He  was 
not  content  simply  to  carry  out  their  idea  of  the 
Messiah,  wonderful  as  it  was.  He  improved 
upon  it,  or,  in  His  own  words,  '  fulfilled  it.' 
No  careful  student  of  the  OT.  can  fail  to  see 
how  infinitely  the  actual  NT.  fulfilment  ex- 
ceeded the  expectation  of  even  the  most  en- 
lightened OT.  prophets.  This,  and  not  the 
mere  literal  fulfilment  of  their  predictions,  is 
what  Jesus  meant  by  '  fulfilling  the  prophets.' 

18.  One  jot  (Gk.  /o/rf)]  stands  for  Fof/,  the 
smallest  letter  in  the  Heb.  alphabet.  Tittle 
(lit.  '  little  horn ')]  is  one  of  those  minute  pro- 
jections by  which  otherwise  similar  Heb.  letters 
are  distinguished  :  cp.  LklG^'^.  The  rabbis 
taught,  '  Not  a  letter  shall  perish  from  the 
Law  for  ever.'  '  Everything  has  its  end  :  the 
heaven  and  the  earth  have  their  end  ;  there  is 
only  one  thing  excepted  which  has  no  end, 
and  that  is  the  Law.'  '  The  Law  shall  re- 
main eternally,  world  without  end.'     Christ 


41 


641 


5.  19 


ST.  MATTHEW 


5.31 


uses  the  rabbinical  language  in  a  new  meaning     think  that  the  word  here  (more)  is  not  Gk. 


of  His  own  (see  above). 

19.  A  warning  against  the  disparagement  of 
the  OT.,  now  so  common.  20.  The  sense  is, 
'  I  mention  doing  as  well  as  teaching,  for  un- 
less you  practise  what  you  preach,  you  will  be 
unable,  like  the  Scribes  and  Pharisees,  to  enter 
into  the  kingdom  of  heaven.' 

21-26.  Revision  of  the  Law  of  Murder  (not 
in  St.  Luke's  sermon,  but  a  parallel  to  vv.  25, 
26  occurs  in  Lk  1 2  ^^>  59).  Christ  now  shows  by 
a  few  illustrative  examples  how  the  Law  is  to 
be  understood  and  practised  by  His  disciples  ; 
in  other  words,  how  it  is  to  be  '  fulfilled.'  The 
old  law  punished  only  the  act  of  murder.  The 
Law  of  Christ  condemns  the  emotion  of  anger 
in  its  very  beginnings.  Unreasonable  anger 
is  declared  a  crime  in  itself,  to  be  punished  as 
such  by  the  local  tribunal  (the  judgment).  Its 
mildest  expression  in  word  (Raca)  is  to  be 
considered  a  capital  offence,  to  be  dealt  with 
by  the  supreme  Sanhedrin  (the  council).  Its 
more  abusive  expression  (thou  fool)  is  worthy 
of  hell-fire.  Murder  itself  is  not  mentioned 
as  being  an  impossible  act  for  a  disciple  of 
Christ.  The  language  is,  of  course,  rhetorical. 
Its  intention  is  to  mark  the  immense  gulf  that 
separates  the  morality  of  the  Law  from  the 
morality  of  the  Gospel. 

The  passage  is  interesting  as  being  the  first 
clear  reference  in  the  NT.  to  Christianity  as  a 
Church  or  Organised  Society.  The  Church  is 
spoken  of  under  Jewish  terms  ('  the  judgment,' 
'  the  council,'  '  the  gift  brought  to  the  altar '), 
but  a  Christian  sense  is  certainly  to  be  read 
into  them.  It  is  implied  that  the  Church  will 
exercise  moral  discipline  over  its  members,  and 
that  its  public  worship  will  be  in  a  certain 
sense  sacrificial  :  cp.  HeblS^o.  If  it  be  asked 
whether  the  graduated  punishments  mentioned 
are  temporal  or  eternal,  ecclesiastical  or  divine, 
the  answer  is  '  both'  ;  for,  according  to  Christ's 
promise,  the  discipline  of  the  Church  on  earth, 
when  rightly  exercised,  will  be  ratified  in 
heaven  (Mtl6i9  18 is  ;  cp.  Jn2023). 

21.  It  was  said  by  them  of  old  time]  RV  'to 
them  of  old  time.'  It  was  said  by  God  Him- 
self. Hence  Christ,  in  adding  to  it  by  His 
own  authority  ('  But  I  say  unto  you  '),  claims 
to  be  equal  to  God.  So  also  in  vv.  28,  32,  34, 
39,  43  :  see  Ex  2013.  The  judgment]  i.e.  the 
local  tribunals  of  seven  men  appointed  in  every 
village  (Dt  16 18  2 Chi 9 5,  Jos.  'Antiq.' 4.8. 14). 
They  appear  to  have  had  the  power  of  the 
sword.  22.  Brother]  either  a  fellow-Christian 
or  a  fellow-man.     Without  a  cause]  RV  omits. 

Raca  (Aramaic)]  i.e.  '  Empty-head '  :  cp. 
Jg94  1X3.  The  council]  i.e.  the  supreme  San- 
hedrin of  seventy-one  members  at  Jerusalem 
having  cognisance  of  the  most  serious  offences, 
such  as  blasphemy.  Thou  fool]  i.e.  '  thou 
wicked  and  godless  man'  :  see  Psl4i.     Some 


but  Heb.  (  =  moreh ,  rebel).  Hell  fire]  R V  '  the 
hell  of  fire, '  lit.'  the  Gehenna  of  fire. '  '  Gehenna,' 
i.e.  the  valley  of  Hinnom  (an  unknown  person), 
was  the  place  in  or  near  Jerusalem  where 
children  were  made  to  pass  through  the  fire  to 
Moloch,  and,  according  to  Jewish  tradition, 
where  the  bodies  of  criminals  were  burnt. 
Hence  Gehenna  became  a  synonym  for  hell, 
the  place  of  final  punishment. 

25.  Thine  adversary]  The  injured  brother 
of  V.  22  is  now  represented  under  the  figure  of 
a  creditor  who  has  power  to  bring  the  debtor 
before  the  judge,  and  to  cause  him  to  be  cast 
into  prison.  Prison]  i.e.  divine  punishment  in 
general,  whether  in  this  world  or  beyond  the 
grave  in  the  intermediate  state  (Hades),  from 
which  release  was  regarded  as  possible  (123^). 
Not,  however,  in  hell  (Gehenna),  from  which 
there  is  no  release  (18  S).  The  idea  is  that  God 
will  exact  the  full  penalty  for  all  offences 
against  the  law  of  love.  In  1  Pet  3 1^  '  prison ' 
refers  exclusively  to  punishment  in  the  inter- 
mediate state  :  cp.  Jude  v.  6.  26.  Farthing- (Lat. 
quadratisy]  about  half-a-farthing.  Lk  (12^9) 
has  lepton,  i.e.  about  a  quarter  of  a  farthing. 

27-30.  Revision  of  the  Law  of  Adultery. 
Jesus  expands  the  Mosaic  prohibition  of 
adultery  into  a  law  of  inward  purity  of  the 
strictest  kind,  and  gives  important  counsel  to 
the  tempted.  27.  By  them  of  old  time]  RV 
omits  :  see  Ex  201-*.  29-30.  This  saying  is 
found  in  Mk9^3,  but  in  a  less  natural  con- 
nexion. It  is  repeated  Mtl8S.  Its  meaning 
is  that  those  who  are  seriously  tempted  should 
discipline  themselves  with  the  gi'eatest  sever- 
ity, depriving  themselves  even  of  lawful 
pleasures.  Thus  certain  amusements  and 
certain  kinds  of  reading,  in  themselves  harm- 
less, are  to  some  occasions  of  sin.  Such 
persons  ought  to  avoid  them  altogether. 
Others  find  drink  such  a  temptation  that  they 
ought  to  be  teetotalers.  Others  find  friend- 
ships that  they  value  so  dangerous  that  they 
ought  to  give  them  up.  This  giving  up  of 
what  is  pleasant  and  lawful,  because  to  us  per- 
sonally it  is  a  spiritual  peril,  is  what  our  Lord 
means  by  plucking  out  the  right  eye  and  cut- 
ting off  the  right  hand.  Asceticism  of  this 
kind  is  different  from  the  asceticism  of  those 
Eastern  religions  which  regard  the  body  as 
evil.  Its  principle  is  that  it  is  better  to  live 
a  sinless  than  a  complete  life.  29.  Hell]  i.e. 
Gehenna,  the  place  of  final  pimishraent. 

31,  32.  Revision  of  the  Law  of  Divorce. 
Christ  restrained  the  excessive  licence  of 
divorce  which  existed  at  the  time,  and  declared 
marriage  to  be  (with  possibly  a  single  excep- 
tion) absolutely  indissoluble.  Since  St.  Mat- 
thew alone  mentions  the  exception,  and  all 
other  NT.  passages  speak  of  Christian  mar- 
riage as  absolutely  indissoluble  (MklO^  Lk 


642 


5.  31 


ST.  MATTHEW 


5.  42 


1618  Ro  7  3  1  Cor  7 10. 11),  it  is  maintained  by 
very  many,  probably  the  majority,  of  recent 
critics,  that  the  words  '  except  for  fornication  ' 
both  here  and  in  1 9  ^  are  an  interpolation,  in- 
troduced by  Jewish  Christians  to  modify  the 
excessi\e  strictness  of  the  original  utterance, 
and  that  Christ  Himself  forbade  divorce  alto- 
gether. On  the  principles  of  criticism  now 
generally  accepted,  this  view  is  highly  probable. 
If  we  accept  the  words  '  except  for  fornica- 
tion '  as  authentic,  it  is  best  to  understand 
them  as  meaning  '  except  for  adultery,'  and 
thus  to  bring  our  Lord's  teaching  into  line 
with  that  of  Shammai,  who,  in  opposition  to 
the  laxer  view  of  Hillel,  who  allowed  divorce 
for  any,  even  the  most  trivial  cause,  permitted 
it  only  for  adultery.  The  other  view  that 
'  fornication  '  here  means  prenuptial  sin,  for 
which,  when  discovered,  a  Jewish  husband  was 
allowed  to  repudiate  his  newly-married  bride 
(see  Dt22i3f-),  is  not  so  probable,  though  it 
is,  of  course,  possible.  The  question  of  re- 
marriage after  divorce  presents  considerable 
difficulty.  The  remarriage  of  the  guilty  party 
is  condemned  by  our  Lord  in  strong  terms  : 
'  "Whosoever  shall  marry  her  when  she  is  put 
away  '  (or,  '  whosoever  shall  marry  a  divorced 
woman  ')  '  committeth  adultery.'  Whether 
the  innocent  party  is  permitted  after  a 
divorce  to  marry  again  is  a  disputed  point 
among  Christians.  The  Eastern  Church  per- 
mits it  ;  the  Western  Church,  upon  the 
whole,  forbids  it.  The  stricter  rule,  though 
it  sometimes  inflicts  hardships  upon  indi- 
viduals, seems  the  more  desirable  from  the 
point  of  view  of  public  policy,  seeing  that  it 
best  maintains  the  stability  of  the  family,  the 
sanctity  and  indissolubility  of  marriage,  and 
the  possibility  of  repentance  and  reconciliation 
after  sin. 

31.  See  Dt24i,  andonMtl93f. 

32.  Shall  marry  her  that  is  divorced]  i.e.  for 
adultery  ;  or,  '  shall  marry  a  divorced  woman.' 

33-37.  Revision  of  the  Law  of  Oaths.  The 
prohibition  '  Swear  not  at  all '  is  to  be  taken 
in  irs  widest  sense,  and  not  simply  as  for- 
bidding the  common  oaths  of  conversation, 
Christ  looks  forward  to  a  time  when  truthful- 
ness will  be  so  binding  a  duty  that  oaths  will 
no  longer  be  necessary  even  in  courts  of 
justice.  This  is  one  of  those  ideal  commands 
which  cannot  be  fully  carried  out  in  the  pre- 
sent state  of  society.  Our  Lord  Himself  at 
His  trial  allowed  Himself  to  be  put  on  oath 
(2G'^3)  But  one  day  there  will  come  a  time 
when  a  man's  word  will  be  as  good  as  his  oath. 

33.  By  them]  RY  'to  them'  :  see  Nu.SO^ 
Dt 2:5-1,  etc. 

34.  Oaths  that  did  not  expressly  invoke 
the  name  of  God  were  considered  less  binding 
than  those  that  did.     Jesus  cuts  at  the  root 

'  of  the  practice  by  showing  that  the  oaths  '  by 


heaven,'  etc.,  were  really  in  essence,  if  not  in 
form,  oaths  by  God. 

37.  Quoted  by  St.  James  (5 12).  Of  evil] 
RV  '  of  the  evil  one,'  i.e.  the  devil  :  cp.  6i3. 

38-42.  Abolition  of  the  Law  of  Retaliation  : 
cp.  LikG"^'^^.  It  is  a  difficulty  to  some  that 
God  should  ever  have  sanctioned  the  barbarous 
principle  of  '  an  eye  for  an  eye  and  a  tooth  for 
a  tooth  '  (Ex  2 12^).  They  do  not  reflect  that 
in  its  own  age  this  principle  represented  a  far- 
reaching  moral  reform.  The  thirst  for  venge- 
ance is  not  naturally  satisfied  with  an  eye  for 
an  eye  ;  it  goes  on  to  demand  a  life.  Hence 
when  Moses  allowed  the  injured  man  to  exact 
an  eye  and  no  more,  he  was  imposing  a  salutary 
check  on  private  vengeance.  Our  Lord  goes 
further,  and  forbids  private  vengeance  alto- 
gether. It  is  true  that  vengeance  contains  a 
good  element,  viz.  righteous  anger  against 
wrong,  but  this  is  so  bound  up  with  personal 
vindictiveness,  and  so  certain,  if  gi^atified,  to 
let  loose  a  man's  worst  passions,  that  our  Lord 
forbids  it  altogether.  Christians  are  not  to 
resent  injuries,  they  are  not  to  attempt  to 
retaliate,  they  are,  in  our  Lord's  figurative 
language,  to  turn  the  cheek  to  the  smiter. 
Does  this  forbid  us  on  fitting  occasions  to 
expostulate  with  a  wrong-doer,  or  to  bring 
him  to  punishment  ?  By  no  means.  There 
are  occasions  when  in  the  interests  of  society, 
and  in  the  interest  of  the  criminal  himself,  it 
is  necessary  to  resist  evil  and  to  bring  the 
wrong-doer  to  justice.  Our  Lord  elsewhere 
fully  recognises  this  (181^). 

38.  See  Ex  2 1 24  Lv  24  20  Dt  19  21.  39.  Resist 
not  evil]  RV  '  Resist  not  him  that  is  evil,' 
i.e.  the  person  that  would  injm'e  you.  Right 
cheek]  This  is  only  a  figurative  illustration 
of  the  general  principle  :  cp.  vv.  40,  41,  42. 

40.  Thy  coat  (Gk.  chifo/i)']  'Vest'  or 
'  shirt '  would  be  better.  The  cloke  {h  i ma- 
fia//) is  the  outer  garment,  used  also  as  a 
covering  by  night  :  see  on  Jul 9 23. 

41.  Shall  compel]  RM  'impress.'  When 
Roman  troops  passed  through  a  district,  the 
inhabitants  were  compelled  to  carry  their 
baggage.  This  compulsory  transport  was  a 
recognised  form  of  taxation,  and  is  probably 
what  is  alluded  to  here.  Translated  into 
modern  language,  the  saying  means  that 
Christians  ought  to  pay  their  taxes  and  under- 
take other  public  burdens  cheerfully  and 
willingly.  The  word  translated  '  compel '  is 
Persian,  and  had  reference  originally  to  the 
royal  couriers  of  the  Persian  empire,  who  had 
power  to  impress  men  and  beasts  for  the 
king's  service.  In  Mt2732  it  is  used  of  Simon 
of  Syrene,  who  was  compelled  to  bear  our 
Lord's  cross. 

42.  Give  to  him,  etc.]  Not  an  exhortation  to 
indiscriminate  cliarity,  but  to  that  brotherly 
love    which    Chi'istians    ought    to    feel    even 


643 


5.  43 


ST.  MATTHEW 


6.5 


towards  the  improvident  and  wicked.  It  is 
right  to  give  to  him  that  asks,  but  not  always 
right  to  give  him  what  he  asks.  The  best 
form  of  giving  or  lending  is  that  which  helps 
people  to  help  themselves. 

43-48.  Hatred  of  enemies  forbidden,  love 
enjoined  (Lk  6  27-36).  The  maxim  '  Thou  shalt 
love  thy  neighbour'  is  found  in  Lvl9^^. 
The  words  '  Thou  shalt  hate  thine  enemy  ' 
are  nowhere  found  in  the  Pentateuch,  which 
indeed  contains  isolated  texts  of  an  opposite 
tendency,  e.g.  Ex23'^.  Nevertheless,  our 
Lord's  words  are  a  fair  general  descrip- 
tion of  a  code  which  allowed  the  law  of 
retaliation,  and  preserved  the  rights  of  the 
avenger  of  blood.  Even  in  the  Psalms, 
which  represent  a  later  revelation,  personal 
hatred  for  enemies  is  openly  expressed  (e.g. 
Psl09).  The  law  of  love  here  proclaimed  by 
our  Lord  in  its  most  comprehensive  sense  is 
the  most  characteristic  feature  of  Christian 
morality.  In  the  NT.  God  is  revealed  as 
Love,  as  a  Father  who  loves  his  children  with 
impartial  aifection.  And  as  His  supreme 
perfection  consists  in  Love,  so  those  who 
would  be  perfect  must  love  their  fellow-men, 
even  their  enemies,  as  He  loves  them  (v.  4,5). 

44.  Love  your  enemies]  The  word  for 
'  love  '  is  carefully  chosen.  It  is  not  demanded 
that  we  should  love  our  enemies  with  a  natural 
and  spontaneous  affection  (philehi),  but  with 
the  supernatural  Christian  love  that  comes  by 
grace  (agapan).  Pray  for  them,  etc.]  Jesus 
fulfilled  His  own  injunction  when  He  prayed 
for  those  who  crucified  Him  (Lk2334)  ;  see 
also  Ac  7  60  1  Cor  6 12. 

46-48.  '  The  love  Christ  enjoins  is  not  to 
be  confused  with  the  good  feeling  and  even 
affection  that  may  exist  between  members  of  the 
same  class,  the  love  that  is  found  even  among 
despised  tax-gatherers.  But  "  ye  shall  be  per- 
fect "  in  the  obligation  of  universal  love.' 

46.  Publicans]  In  classical  literature  '  pub- 
licans '  are  wealthy  Romans  who  bought 
from  the  Roman  government  the  right  of 
collecting  the  taxes  in  a  certain  district. 
The  publicans  of  the  NT.  are  the  actual 
tax-collectors.  In  NT.  times  only  duties  on 
exports,  not  direct  taxes,  were  collected  by 
publicans.  Publicans  bore  a  bad  reputation 
among  the  Jews,  partly  for  their  dishonesty 
and  extortion,  and  partly  for  their  unpatriotic 
conduct  in  collecting  taxes  for  a  foreign 
power.  The  rabbis  ranked  publicans  with  cut- 
throats and  robbers.  48.  Perfect]  Glorious 
words  !  The  perfection  spoken  of  is  the  per- 
fection of  Love,  the  supreme  virtue  both  of 
God  and  man  (1  Cor  13 13  1  Jn4i6). 

CHAPTER  6 

The  Sermon  on  the  Mount  (continued) 
I.  God's  approval,  not  man's,  to  be  sought 


in  all  our  actions.  Jesus  does  not  say  that  we 
are  to  do  good  expecting  no  reward  of  any 
kind,  but  that  we  are  to  look  for  our  reward  to 
God  alone  :  see  on  v.  4.  That  ye  do  not  your 
alms]  RV  '  your  righteousness.'  The  same 
Heb.  word  (faedakah)  means  both  righteousness 
in  general  and  almsgiving  in  particular.  Our 
Lord  probably  used  it  in  the  former  sense  in 
V.  1,  and  in  the  latter  sense  in  v.  2  ;  hence  the 
evangelist  translates  it  differently. 

2-4.   Ostentation  in  almsgiving  reproved. 

2.  A  trumpet]  There  was  a  trumpet  in  every 
synagogue,  which  was  sounded  on  various  occa- 
sions (e.g.  at  the  beginning  of  the  sabbath  and 
at  excommunications),  not,  however,  so  far  as 
we  know,  at  the  collection  of  alms.  The  ex- 
pression is,  therefore,  probably  a  metaphor  for 
'  ostentation.'  Hypocrites]  In  classical  Gk.  the 
word  means '  an  actor.'  In  the  Bible  it  generally 
means  one  who  acts  a  false  part  in  life,  i.e.  one 
who  pretends  to  be  religious  and  is  not,  as  here. 
But  sometimes  it  simply  means  a  wicked  person 
without  any  idea  of  hypocrisy,  e.g.  24^1,  and 
several  times  in  OT.,  e.g.  Jo 0  34  30.  in  the 
synagogues  and  in  the  streets]  In  a  Jewish  com- 
munity alms  were  given  publicly  in  three  ways. 
(1)  Every  day  three  men  went  round  with  a 
basket  collecting  alms  for  '  the  poor  of  the 
world,'  i.e.  Jews  and  Gentiles  alike.  (2)  Two 
synagogue  officials  went  from  house  to  house 
collecting  alms  for  '  the  poor  man's  chest.' 
This  was  for  Jews  alone.  (3)  On  the  sabbath 
day  alms  were  collected  in  the  synagogue  itself  : 
cp.  1  Cor  162.  The  abuse  which  our  Lord  here 
attacks  is  probably  that  of  publishing  the 
amounts  given,  which  would  naturally  lead  to 
ostentatious  rivalry.  They  have  their  reward] 
in  the  praise  of  men. 

3.  Let  not  thy  left  hand]  A  metaphor  for 
secrecy.  Yet  alms  need  not  on  all  occasions 
be  secret  (cp.  5 1",  '  Let  your  light  so  shine 
before  men,'  etc.),  provided  that  ostentation  be 
avoided.  The  best  Jewish  thought  strongly 
approved  of  alms  done  in  secret.  In  the 
Temple  was  '  the  treasury  of  the  silent '  for 
the  support  of  poor  children,  to  which  religious 
men  brought  their  alms  in  silence  and  privacy, 
and  it  was  strikingly  said  by  one  of  the  rabbis 
that  '  he  that  doeth  alms  in  secret  is  greater 
than  our  master  Moses  himself.'  4.  Reward 
thee  openly]  RV  omits  openly.  The  reward 
will  take  place  at  the  Day  of  Judgment,  when 
the  secrets  of  all  hearts  shall  be  disclosed. 
Yet  even  in  this  life  there  is  the  reward  of  a 
good  conscience,  and  of  God's  approval. 

5-15.  Maxims  for  prayer,  and  the  Lord's 
Prayer.  Perhaps  the  most  significant  v.  of  this 
section  is  v.  8,  '  Your  Father  knoweth  what 
things  ye  have  need  of,  before  ye  ask  him.' 
Christians,  therefore,  are  not  to  pray  mainly 
with  the  object  of  bringing  their  needs  before 
God  who  knows  them   already,  but  because 


644 


6.5 


ST.  MATl^HEW 


6.9 


they  love  Him  and  delight  to  be  in  His  pre- 
sence, and  to  open  their  hearts  to  Him,  and  to 
receive  from  Him  those  holy  inspirations  and 
aspirations  which  He  gives  to  those  who  pray 
aright.  Those  who  thus  understand  what 
prayer  is,  will  not  pray  like  the  hypocrites 
(v.  5),  or  like  the  heathen  (v.  7).  They  will 
pray  in  secret,  as  well  as  in  public,  from  the 
mere  delight  of  praying.  The  section  con- 
cludes with  the  Lord's  Prayer,  which  is  given 
is  the  perfect  model  of  all  prayer. 

5.  To  pray  standing]  Standing  was  the  usual 
Jewish  attitude  in  prayer,  as  kneeling  is  with 
us.  In  prayer  a  Jew  usually  (1)  stood,  (2) 
turned  towards  Jerusalem,  (3)  •  covered  his 
head,  (4)  fixed  his  eyes  downwards.  The 
ancient  Church  prayed  standing  on  Sundays 
and  festivals,  but  kneeling  on  fast-days,  and 
the  Eastern  Church  still  observes  this  rule. 

In  the  synagogues  and  in  the  corners  of  the 
streets]  During  the  synagogue  services  those 
who  wished  to  be  thought  devout  did  not 
follow  the  public  prayers,  but  said  private 
self-righteous  prayers  of  their  own,  loud 
enough  to  be  heard  and  to  attract  the  attention 
of  the  congregation.  In  the  streets  the  same 
people  would  sometimes  stand  for  three  hours 
at  a  time  in  the  attitude  of  prayer.  The 
prayers  of  the  phylacteries  (see  on  Mt235) 
were  required  to  be  said  at  a  fixed  time  with 
great  parade  and  ceremony.  When  the  time 
came,  the  workman  put  down  his  tools,  the 
rider  descended  from  his  ass,  the  teacher  sus- 
pended his  lecture,  to  say  them.  The  ostenta- 
tious were  careful  to  be  overtaken  by  the 
prayer-hour  in  a  public  place,  and  to  remain 
longer  praying  than  any  one  else. 

6.  Into  thy  closet]  RV  '  into  thine  inner 
chamber':  cp.  Isa2620  2K433.  There  is  no 
disparagement  here  of  public  worship,  which 
our  Lord  elsewhere  emphatically  commends 
by  precept  and  practice.  But  private  prayer 
affords  a  test  of  sincerity  which  public  worship 
does  not.  Shall  reward  thee  openly]  RV 
'  shall  recompense  thee.' 

7.  Use  not  vain  repetitions]  Our  Lord  re- 
proves not  repetitions,  but  vain  repetitions. 
In  the  agony  in  the  garden  He  Himself  prayed 
three  times  in  the  same  words.  Yain  repeti- 
tion reaches  its  culminating  point  in  Thibet, 
where  there  are  mechanical  prayer-wheels 
worked  by  the  wind  to  spread  out  written 
petitions  before  the  Almighty.  Grood  examples 
of  heathen  repetitions  are  found  in  1  K  1 8  ^6 
and  in  Ac  1 9  34.  The  idea  that  prayers  prevail  by 
their  number  rather  than  by  their  earnestness  is 
pagan,  and  whenever  it  appears  in  Christianity 
is  a  corruption. 

8.  Prayer  is  not  to  inform  God  of  our  needs, 
as  the  heathen  think,  but  that  we  may  have 
conscious  communion  with  Him  as  His  children. 

9.  After  this  manner  therefore  pray  ye]  Our 


645 


Lord  is  not  giving  simply  an  illustration  of  the 
manner  in  which  Christians  ought  to  pray,  but 
a  set  form  of  words  to  be  learnt  by  heart  and 
habitually  used.  This  is  clear  from  Lkll^, 
'  Lord,  teach  us  to  pray,  as  John  also  taught 
his  disciples.'  Every  Jew  was  required  to  re- 
cite daily  eighteen  set  prayers  of  considerable 
length,  or,  if  hindered  by  press  of  business, 
a  summary  of  them.  The  rabbis  also  taught 
their  pupils  an  additional  form  of  prayer  com- 
posed by  themselves,  to  be  added  to  these 
eighteen  prayers.  Our  Lord's  disciples  would 
therefore  understand  that  they  were  to  recite 
the  Lord's  Prayer  every  day  at  the  end  of  their 
ordinary  prayers.  That  this  was  done  there 
can  be  little  doubt,  for  '  The  Teaching  of  the 
Twelve  Apostles,'  which  probably  dates  from 
the  1st  cent,  a.d.,  directs  the  Lord's  Prayer  to 
be  said  three  times  a  day  by  all  Christians. 

Our  Lord's  followers  would  further  regard 
the  prayer  as  a  badge  of  discipleship,  something 
intended  to  distinguish  the  disciples  of  Jesus 
from  all  other  men.  For  this  reason  among 
others  it  has  always  been  regarded  as  the 
prayer  of  the  Church,  not  of  the  world.  So 
jealously  was  its  secrecy  guarded  in  early  times, 
that,  like  the  Creed,  it  was  only  taught  to 
catechumens  just  before  their  baptism,  and 
was  never  used  in  those  portions  of  public 
worship  to  which  the  heathen  were  admitted. 
It  was  always  used  at  Holy  Communion,  where 
it  formed  the  conclusion  of  the  canon  or  prayer 
of  consecration. 

The  Doxology  ('  for  thine  is  the  kingdom,' 
etc.),  which  is  based  on  Jewish  models,  is  no 
original  part  of  the  prayer.  It  was  added  as 
early  as  the  1st  cent,  in  the  Public  Liturgy,  and 
thence  passed  into  the  text  of  St.  Matthew's 
Gospel,  where  it  is  found  in  many  MSS. 

The  prayer  is  given  by  St.  Luke  (1 1  2-4)  in  a 
shorter  form  (the  petitions  '  thy  will  be  done  ' 
and  '  deliver  us  from  evil '  being  omitted,  see 
RV)  and  in  a  different  historical  connexion. 
Many  account  for  this  by  supposing  that  the 
prayer  was  given  twice,  once  complete  and  once 
abridged,  but  it  is  more  probable  that  it  was 
given  only  once,  viz.  on  the  occasion  mentioned 
by  St.  Luke,  and  that  St.  Matthew  has  pur- 
posely placed  it  earlier,  inserting  it  in  our 
Lord's  first  recorded  sermon  in  order  to  set 
before  the  reader  at  once  a  comprehensive  view 
of  His  teaching  about  prayer.  As  to  the  form 
of  the  prayer,  St.  Matthew's  version  is,  without 
doubt,  to  be  preferred.  It  is  not  only  fuller, 
but  contains  distinct  marks  of  greater  closeness 
to  the  original  Aramaic. 

The  originality  of  the  Lord's  Prayer  has 
sometimes  been  called  in  question,  but  without 
reason.  The  parallels  adduced  from  rabbinical 
prayers  are  for  the  most  part  superficial,  and 
prove  no  more  than  that  our  Lord  availed 
Himself  of  current  Jewish  forms  of  expression. 


6.9 


ST.  MATTHEW 


6.  10 


The  Lord's  Prayer  is  generally  divided  into 
seven  petitions,  by  some,  however,  into  only 
six,  the  last  two  being  reckoned  as  one.  It 
falls  into  two  distinct  portions.  The  first  por- 
tion, i.e.  the  first  three  petitions,  is  concerned 
chiefly  with  the  glory  of  God  ;  the  second 
portion,  i.e.  the  four  latter  petitions,  with  our 
own  needs.  Even  those  needs  are  mainly  of 
a  spiritual  character.  Bodily  wants  are  men- 
tioned in  only  one  petition,  and  even  that  has 
been  generally  interpreted  of  spiritual  as  well 
as  bodily  needs. 

9.  Our  Father  which  art  in  heaven]  Christians 
are  taught  to  say  '  Our  Father '  not '  My  Father ' 
because  they  are  brethren,  and  may  not  self- 
ishly pray  for  themselves  without  praying  for 
others.  Every  time  they  use  this  prayer  they 
are  reminded  that  they  are  a  brotherhood,  a 
society,  a  Holy  Church,  a  family,  of  which  the 
members  are  mutually  responsible  for  one 
another's  welfare,  and  cannot  say,  as  Cain, 
'  Am  I  my  brother's  keeper  ?  '  This  was  also, 
though  in  a  lower  way,  a  principle  of  Judaism. 
The  rabbis  said,  '  He  that  prays  ought  always, 
when  he  prays,  to  join  with  the  Church '  (i.e. 
to  say  'we'  instead  of  'I').  God  is  never 
addressed  as  Father  in  the  OT.,  and  references 
to  His  Fatherhood  are  rare.  Where  they  occur 
(Dt326  Isa63i<5,  etc.)  He  is  spoken  of  as  the 
Father  of  the  nation,  not  of  individual  men. 
In  the  Apocrypha  individuals  begin  to  speak  of 
God  as  their  Father  (Wisd 2 16  143  Ecclus 23 1. * 
5110),  and  'Our  Father'  becomes  a  fairly 
common  form  of  address  in  later  rabbinical 
prayers.  Jesus  first  made  the  fatherhood  of 
God  the  basis  of  religion,  and  gave  it  its  full 
meaning.  Since  the  Lord's  Prayer  is  a  dis- 
tinctively Christian  prayer,  the  prayer  of  the 
Church,  not  of  humanity,  '  Our  Father '  must 
be  understood  in  its  full  Christian  sense.  In  a 
certain  sense  God  is  the  Father  of  all  men. 
He  is  their  Father  because  He  created  them, 
and  because,  in  spite  of  sin,  they  are  spiritually 
like  Him,  being  made  in  His  image.  But  He 
is  the  Father  of  Christians  in  an  altogether 
new  sense.  They  are  His  sons  by  adoption, 
reconciled  to  Him  by  the  death  of  Christ  ; 
and,  as  a  continual  testimony  that  they  are 
sons.  He  sends  forth  the  Spirit  of  His  Son  into 
their  hearts,  crying,  '  Abba,'  i.e.  '  Father.' 
Hence  none  but  a  Christian,  i.e.  one  who  by 
baptism  '  has  put  on  Christ,'  and  become  '  a 
member  of  Christ,  the  child  of  God  and  an 
inheritor  of  the  kingdom  of  heaven,'  can 
rightly  use  the  Lord's  Prayer. 

Which  art  in  heaven]  lit.  '  in  the  heavens.' 
We  are  reminded  that  He  who  is  called  Father 
on  earth,  is  also  called  Father  in  the  heavens, 
by  the  hosts  of  angels  who  worship  before  His 
throne,  and  by  the  spirits  of  just  men  made 
perfect.  Heaven  is  generally  plural  in  NT. 
(as  always  in  OT.)  to  indicate  that  there  are 


various  states  of  glory  and  blessedness  assigned 
to  different  persons  or  to  different  celestial 
natures.  The  expression  '  Our  Father  which 
art  in  heaven '  is  found  in  Jewish  prayers. 

Hallowed  be  thy  name]  i.e.  let  Thy  Name  be 
regarded  as  holy  by  all  creatures  both  in  heaven 
and  earth.  God's  name  is  His  revealed  nature, 
i.e.  practically  God  Himself.  Observe  that 
the  glory  of  God,  not  human  needs,  is  here 
put  first.  '  Hallowed  be  Thy  Name '  is  a  prayer 
that  God  may  be  rightly  worshipped,  and  its 
utterance  is  in  itself  an  act  of  worship. 

The  prayer  begins  with  worship,  because 
worship  is  the  highest  spiritual  activity  of  man. 
It  is  higher  than  petition.  An  unspiritual  man 
can  ask  for  benefits,  but  no  one  can  worship 
who  does  not  in  his  inmost  soul  apprehend 
what  God  is.  To  worship  is  to  give  God  His 
due,  to  be  penetrated  with  a  sense  of  His 
perfections.  His  infinity,  His  majesty,  His 
holiness.  His  love,  and  to  prostrate  body  and 
soul  before  Him.  In  the  worship  of  God  is 
included  also  due  reverence  towards  all  that 
is  God's,  or  comes  from  God.  We  '  hallow  His 
Name,'  when  we  reverence  His  holy  Word,  His 
day.  His  Sacraments,  His  Church,  His  ministers, 
His  saints,  and  the  revelation  which  He  makes 
to  us  outwardly  through  nature,  and  inwardly 
in  our  own  souls  through  the  voice  of  reason 
and  conscience. 

10.  Thy  kingdom  come]  A  glorious  prayer 
of  infinite  scope,  known  also,  yet  not  in  its  full 
sense,  to  the  Jews,  who  held  it  for  a  maxim 
that  '  That  prayer,  wherein  is  not  mentioned 
the  kingdom  of  God  is  no  prayer  at  all.'  '  Thy 
kingdom  come '  means.  May  justice  triumph 
over  injustice,  truth  over  error,  kindness  over 
cruelty,  purity  over  lust,  peace  over  enmity. 
It  is  a  prayer  for  the  peace  and  unity  of  the 
Church,  for  the  growth  in  grace  of  its  members, 
and  for  the  conversion  of  the  world.  But 
chiefly  it  is  a  prayer  '  that  it  may  please  Thee, 
of  Thy  gracious  goodness,  shortly  to  accomplish 
the  number  of  Thine  elect,  and  to  hasten  Thy 
kingdom  ;  that  we,  with  all  those  who  are 
departed  in  the  true  faith  of  Thy  holy  Name, 
may  have  our  perfect  consummation  and  bliss, 
both  in  body  and  soul,  in  Thy  eternal  and 
everlasting  glory.' 

Thy  will  be  done  in  earth,  as  it  is  in  heaven] 
RY  '  as  in  heaven  so  on  earth.'  (Lk  in  RV 
omits  the  whole  petition.)  The  nearest  Jewish 
parallel  is,  '  Do  Thy  will  in  heaven,  and  give 
quietness  of  spirit  to  those  who  dwell  beneath.' 
'  Thy  will  be  done '  is  a  prayer  for  grace  to 
conform  our  wills  to  the  will  of  God,  and  for 
diligence  to  carry  out  that  will  in  action.  It 
is  also  a  prayer  for  the  grace  of  patience. 
Sometimes  God  wills  that  we  should  suffer 
pain  and  sorrow,  therefore  we  pray  that  we 
may  suffer  patiently.  In  the  words  '  as  in 
heaven  so  on  earth,'  our  Lord  sets  before  us 


646 


6.  11 


ST.  MATTHEW 


6.  16 


the  example  of  the  holy  angels,  who  in  heaven 
do  God's  will  perfectly. 

11.  Give  us  this  day  our  daily  bread]  We 
are  not  taught  to  pray  for  bread  for  many  days, 
but  for  one  day,  God  thereby  reminding  us 
of  our  continual  dependence  upon  Him.  Nor 
are  we  taught  to  pray  for  luxuries,  but  for 
bread,  i.e.  for  necessary  food,  shelter,  clothing, 
and  health.  We  pray  also  for  bread  for  our 
souls,  i.e.  the  grace  to  confess  our  sins  and  to 
receive  God's  pardon,  and  to  persevere,  and 
to  know  God.  But  chiefly  we  pray  that  we 
may  feed  daily  by  faith  on  Jesus  Christ,  who 
is  our  true  daily  bread,  and  may  be  worthy 
partakers  of  the  bread  of  blessing  which 
makes  us  one  with  Him,  and  Him  one  with 
us,  and  which  was  to  the  first  Christians  liter- 
ally their  daily  bread  (Ac  2^6). 

The  Gk.  word  here  translated  '  daily '  occurs 
nowhere  else  in  Gk.  literature,  and  its  mean- 
ing is  entirely  unknown.  The  most  likely 
meanings  are,  (1)  daily  bread,  (2)  to-morrow's 
bread,  (3)  heavenly  bread.  Probably  the 
second  is  the  true  one,  because  the  ancient 
Hebrew  gospel  of  the  Ebionites  so  understood 
it,  perhaps  preserving  the  original  Heb.  word 
used  by  Christ  {Mahar). 

12.  And  forgive  us  our  debts  as  we  forgive 
our  debtors]  E.V  '  as  we  also  have  forgiven  our 
debtors.'  No  one  who  has  not  forgiven  his 
enemies  can  pray  the  Lord's  Prayer,  which  is 
another  proof  that  it  is  meant  for  Christians 
alone.  To  forgive  one's  enemies  is  the  act  of 
a  Christian,  and  the  very  opposite  of  the  way 
of  the  world.  Even  for  Christians  it  is  so 
hard  that  our  Lord  thinks  it  needful  to  re- 
mind us  of  its  urgent  necessity  every  day 
when  we  say  our  pra,yers.  Unless  we  forgive, 
we  cannot  be  forgiven  ;  unless  we  put  away 
all  malice  and  bitterness  and  hatred  and  re- 
vengeful feeling  from  our  hearts,  we  are  yet 
in  our  sins.  Sin  is  here  called  a  debt,  i.e.  it 
is  regarded  as  '  an  act  by  which  we  have 
robbed  God  of  His  rights,  and  incurred  an 
obligation  or  debt  which  we  cannot  satisfy, 
and  in  regard  to  which  we  can  only  appeal  to 
the  divine  pity.'  For  debts  St.  Luke  substi- 
tutes '  sins.'  St.  Matthew's  expression,  being 
the  more  difficult,  is  the  nearer  to  the  original. 

This  petition,  occurring  as  it  does  in  a  prayer 
intended  for  Christians  only,  is  conclusive 
proof  that  our  Lord  did  not  expect  His  fol- 
lowers to  attain  sinless  perfection  in  this  life. 
The  belief  that  a  converted  Christian  lives  a 
perfectly  sinless  life,  is  directly  contrary  to 
the  NT.  :   see  1  Jn  1 «. 

13.  And  lead  (RY  '  bring')  us  not  into  tempt- 
ation] God  does  not  Himself  tempt  ( Jas  1  ^^), 
but  He  allows  us  to  be  tempted,  and  what 
God  permits  is  often  spoken  of  in  Scripture 
as  His  act.  The  temptations  here  spoken  of 
are  not  only  the  direct  assaults  of  the  evil 


one,  but  the  trials  and  sorrows  of  life  by 
which  our  souls  are  purified  and  refined,  as 
gold  and  silver  are  purged  from  their  dross  in 
a  furnace.  We  pray  here  that  we  may  not  be 
tempted  '  above  that  we  are  able,'  but  that 
with  the  temptation  God  may  also  make  '  a 
way  to  escape,'  that  we  may  be  able  to  bear  it 
(1  Cor  1013). 

But  deliver  us  from  evil]  RY  '  from  the  evil 
one  '  (omitted  by  Lk  in  RY).  This  is  a  prayer 
that  God  may  keep  us  '  from  all  sin  and  wick- 
edness, and  from  our  ghostly  enemy,  and  from 
everlasting  death.'  The  translation  '  evil  one  ' 
in  this  passage  is  adopted  by  nearly  all  modern 
commentators:  cp.  1319>38  JnlT^^  EphGi6 
2Th33  (RY),  especially  Ijn2i3,i4  312  518,19. 

For  thine  is  the  kingdom]  RY  rightly  omits 
the  Doxology,  which  is  a  liturgical  addition, 
dating,  however,  from  an  early  age,  for  it  is 
found  in '  The  Teaching  of  the  Twelve  Apostles ' 
(circ.  80-160  a.d.,  but  probably  before  100). 
It  is  Jewish  in  origin.  In  the  Temple  services 
the  people  did  not  respond  '  Amen '  to  the 
prayers  as  they  did  in  the  synagogues,  but 
'  Blessed  be  the  name  of  the  glory  of  His 
kingdom  for  ever.'  14,  15.  Repeated  in 
Mkll25:  cp.  Eph432  Col3i3.  One  of  the 
weightiest  precepts  and  warnings  of  the  Chris- 
tian religion,  and  one  of  the  most  neglected. 

16-18.  Precepts  for  private  fasts  (not  in  St. 
Luke).  Om-  Lord  says  nothing  of  public  fasts, 
because  when  every  one  else  is  fasting  there  is 
little  temptation  to  vainglory.  In  our  Lord's 
time  there  were  not  more  than  five  (or  six) 
public  fasts  (see  below),  but  the  strict  Jews, 
especially  the  Pharisees,  were  accustomed  to 
fast  also  on  Thursday  (the  day  when  Moses 
ascended  Mount  Sinai),  and  on  Monday  (the 
day  when  he  came  down)  :  see  Lk  18  ^'^  Yain- 
glorious  persons  fasted  more  frequently  even 
than  this,  and  were  careful  to  advertise  the 
fact.  A  faster  did  not  wash,  or  bathe,  or  anoint 
the  body,  or  shave  the  head,  or  wear  sandals, 
but  placed  ashes  on  his  head,  thereby  '  dis- 
figuring his  face.'  It  was  said  of  a  certain 
Rabbi  Joshua,  that  '  all  the  days  of  his  life 
his  face  was  black  by  reason  of  his  fastings.' 
Christians  are  directed  by  our  Lord  when  fast- 
ing privately,  to  conceal  the  fact,  lest  they 
should  be  guilty  of  ostentation.  This  com- 
mand does  not  apply  to  public  fasts  ordered  by 
lawful  authority.  On  such  occasions  Christians 
should  fast  publicly,  both  as  an  outward  ex- 
pression of  obedience,  and  for  the  encourage- 
ment of  others  who  are  afraid  of  ridicule.  All 
excessive  fasting  which  would  injure  the  body 
or  interfere  with  the  due  discharge  of  social 
duties  is  contrary  to  Christianity.  People  who 
are  strictly  abstemious  or  temperate  can  fast 
very  little  with  regard  to  the  quantity  of  food, 
but  it  is  open  to  them  to  fast  with  regard  to 
its  quality.     To  fast  is  also  to  abstain  from 


647 


6.  16 


ST.  MATTHEW 


6.  24 


usual  and  lawful  indulgences  and  amusements, 
so  far  as  can  be  done  in  charity  and  without 
attracting  undue  attention.  The  time  saved 
can  be  given  to  prayer,  meditation,  visiting 
the  sick,  etc.  Money  saved  by  fasting  should 
of  course  be  spent  in  charity.  The  object  of 
Christian  fasting  is,  (1)  to  subdue  the  flesh  to 
the  spirit,  and  (2)  to  fit  the  mind  for  devotion. 
A  fast  which  is  not  joined  with  prayer  and 
devotion  is  no  Christian  fast.  See  further 
9U-17  Acl32  1423  2Cor65  1127. 

What  fasts  were  observed  in  our  Lord's  time 
is  not  quite  certain.  Only  one  fast  (the  Day 
of  Atonement)  was  prescribed  in  the  Law. 
Dm-ing  the  exile  ai'ose  the  custom  of  observing 
four  yearly  fasts  to  commemorate  the  calamities 
of  Jerusalem.  That  of  the  fourth  month 
commemorated  the  capture  of  Jerusalem  (Jer 
52  6  f-),  that  of  the  fifth  the  destruction  of  the 
city  and  Temple  (Jer  52 12),  that  of  the  seventh 
the  murder  of  Gedaliah  (Jer  41 1),  that  of  the 
tenth  the  beginning  of  the  siege  (Jer  52  ■i). 
Of  much  later  origin  was  the  fast  on  the  13th  of 
Adar,  supposed  to  commemorate  the  advice  of 
Haman  to  massacre  the  Jews.  To  what  extent, 
if  at  all,  these  fasts  were  observed  in  Palestine 
in  our  Lord's  time,  is  a  disputed  question. 

1 6.  Disfigure  their  faces]  viz.  with  ashes,  or 
perhaps,  '  conceal  their  faces  with  a  veil ' :  see 
2S1530Esth6i2.  17.  Anoint]  This  may  mean 
'  Anoint  thy  head  as  for  a  banquet,'  but  anoint- 
ing was  a  common  practice  at  all  times. 

18.  Shall  reward  thee  openly]  RV  'shall 
recompense  thee.' 

19-34.  These  vv.  are  not  very  closely  con- 
nected, but  they  form  a  kind  of  unity,  and  are 
printed  as  a  single  paragraph  in  RV.  They 
deal  with  excessive  care  for  earthly  things  : 
(a)  wealth,  vv.  19-24 ;  (b)  food  and  raiment, 
vv.  25-34.  For  purposes  of  exposition  they 
maybe  conveniently  divided  into  three  sections. 

19-21.  The  earthly  treasure  and  the  heavenly 
treasure.  When  do  we  lay  up  '  treasure  in 
heaven  '  ?  Whenever  we  give  alms  (v.  2),  or 
pray  (v.  5),  or  fast  (v.  16),  to  please  God  rather 
than  man.  But  these  three  examples  are  only 
introduced  to  prepare  the  way  for  the  wider 
principle  that  in  every  action  of  our  lives,  and 
not  only  in  almsgiving,  prayer,  and  fasting,  it 
is  possible  to  lay  up  treasure  in  heaven.  Not 
only  by  the  right  use  of  wealth,  but  by  the 
right  use  of  any  faculty,  talent,  or  opportunity 
with  which  God  has  entrusted  us,  heavenly 
treasure  is  laid  up.  Even  when  we  are  doing 
nothing  actively  for  God,  but  are  only  patiently 
suffering  what  He  wills  that  we  should  bear, 
we  are  laying  up  treasure  in  heaven.  Every 
act,  however  small,  which  is  done  purely  for 
the  glory  of  God,  and  for  no  lower  motive,  will 
receive  its  reward. 

19.  Moth  and  rust]  Wealth  in  Eastern  lands 
is  largely  stored  and  hoarded.    Much  of  it  con- 


sists of  costly  changes  of  raiment,  which  are  liable 
to  the  attacks  of  moths.  Breakthrough]  lit. 'dig 
through,'  viz.  the  wall  of  the  house,  which  was 
often  only  built  of  clay.  21.  For  where  your 
treasure  is,  etc.]  see  Lkl23't.  The  heavenly 
treasure  is  the  approval  of  our  heavenly  Father, 
which  is  represented  as  wealth  stored  up  in 
heaven,  ready  to  be  enjoyed  hereafter.  The 
earthly  treasure  is  not  only  wealth  (though  that 
is  its  most  striking  exemplification),  but  every- 
thing lower  than  God  Himself  on  which  men 
set  their  hearts, — honour,  fame,  pleasure,  ease, 
power,  excitement,  luxury,  animal  enjoyment. 

22-24.  Singlemindedness  in  God's  service, 
and  how  it  is  to  be  attained  (Lk  11 34-36  i^iS). 
The  connexion  of  thought  is — How  can  we  be 
sure  that  we  are  laying  up  treasure  in  heaven, 
and  acting  simply  and  purely  for  the  glory  of 
God  ?  Oxir  Lord  replies  :  By  paying  attention 
to  our  consciences,  and  keeping  them  in  a 
healthy  state.  We  a;:'e  too  much  inclined  to 
believe  that  our  consciences  are  sure  to  lead  us 
right,  forgetting  that  the  conscience  itself  may 
be  darkened  by  sin.  Conscience  is  like  the  eye. 
When  the  eye  is  in  a  healthy  state  the  whole 
body  is  full  of  light  (v.  22).  Every  object  is 
seen  in  its  true  colours,  true  proportions,  and 
accurate  position.  But  if  there  is  a  cataract 
in  the  eye,  or  malformation  of  the  lens,  or 
colour-blindness,  then  the  whole  body  is  full 
of  darkness,  or  distorted  light  (v.  23).  So  it 
may  be  with  conscience,  and  therefore  we  are 
warned  against  blindly  trusting  our  consciences, 
which  may,  through  past  sin  or  from  lack  of 
moral  education,  be  seeing  things  in  a  false 
light,  or  may  even  be  thoroughly  corrupt,  giving 
us  moral  darkness  instead  of  light.  We  are  to 
put  our  consciences  to  school  with  Jesus  Christ, 
and  to  be  quite  sure  before  we  trust  them,  that 
they  give  the  same  moral  judgments  and  are 
as  sensitive  as  those  of  the  best  Christians. 
When  our  consciences  are  sound,  and  our  souls 
are  full  of  light,  we  shall  be  able  to  discern 
whether  we  are  serving  God  or  mammon.  If 
our  consciences  are  unsound,  we  may  go  on  serv- 
ing mammon  all  our  lives  without  knowing  it. 

22.  The  light]  RV  '  the  lamp.'  The  body] 
In  the  parable  the  '  body '  stands  for  the  soul 
of  man.     Thine  eye]  i.e.  thy  conscience. 

Single]  i.e.  seeing  things  in  their  true  light. 

24.  Two  masters]  It  is  a  common  idea  that 
virtue  shades  off  into  vice  by  imperceptible 
gradations,  and  that  the  majority  of  men  are 
neither  bad  nor  good.  Our  Lord  pronounces 
absolutely  that  in  the  last  resort  there  are  only 
two  classes  of  men,  those  who  are  serving  God, 
and  those  who  are  serving  the  world.  Mam- 
mon] RV  'mammon.'  Not  a  proper  name  as 
readers  of  Milton  would  naturally  suppose, 
but  an  Aramaic  word  for  '  riches  '  (Lk  16^- ^i). 
Here  it  stands  for  '  worldliness,'  which  finds 
its  chief  expression  in  the  love  of  money. 


648 


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ST.  MATTHEW 


7.6 


25-34.  The  Christian's  freedom  from  care 
and  anxiety  (Lkl2---3^).  The  worldly  man 
is  oppressed  with  care.  He  is  always  in  fear 
that  his  deep-laid  plans  for  the  future  will 
miscarry,  that  some  object  that  he  loves  will 
be  torn  from  his  grasp,  that  his  wealth  will 
vanish,  or  that  his  health  will  fail  so  that  he 
can  enjoy  life  no  longer.  The  actual  failure  of 
his  earthly  prospects  makes  him  the  most 
miserable  of  men,  for  those  prospects  were  his 
all,  and  however  little  he  may  confess  it  to 
himself,  he  in  truth  loves  nothing  else.  He 
seemed,  perhaps,  to  be  serving  God  much,  and 
mammon  a  little,  but  he  was  in  reality  serving 
mammon  with  undivided  devotion. 

The  Christian  also  pays  attention  to  worldly 
things.  He  is  diligent  in  his  trade  or  pro- 
fession. He  makes  all  reasonable  provision 
for  the  future.  Often  he  prospers  in  business 
just  because  he  is  a  Christian,  and  does  honest 
work  where  a  less  scrupulous  man  would  not. 
But  his  heart  is  not  set  on  these  things,  nor  is 
he  anxious  about  them.  He  does  his  best,  and 
leaves  the  issue  to  God  :  cp.  PsST^s.  Observe 
that  the  promise  of  sufficient  maintenance  is 
made  not  to  the  idle,  the  improvident,  and  the 
vicious,  but  to  the  righteous,  who  seek  first  the 
kingdom  of  God  and  His  righteousness  (v.  33). 
Those  who  do  this  can  never  be  idle  or  im- 
provident :  cp.  ITimS^. 

25.  Take  no  thought]  RV  'be  not  anxious': 
cp.  1  Pet  5 ''.  26.  They  sow  not]  God  provides 
for  the  birds  without  labour  on  their  part,  be- 
cause labour  is  not  natural  to  birds.  But 
labour  is^  natural  to  men,  therefore  God  pro- 
vides for  men  by  blessing  their  labour.  There 
is  a  close  rabbinical  parallel  to  this  saying  : 
'  Have  you  ever  seen  beast  or  fowl  that  had 
a  workshop  ?  and  yet  they  are  fed  without 
trouble  of  mind.' 

27.  By  taking  thought]  RV  '  by  being  an- 
xious.' One  cubit  unto  his  stature]  Since  no 
one  would  literally  desire  to  have  a  cubit  (a 
foot  and  a  half)  added  to  his  stature,  and  the 
word  translated  '  stature '  generally  means 
'  age '  (see  RM),  it  is  better  to  translate,  '  Which 
of  you  .  .  can  add  one  span  to  his  age  ?  ' 

28.  Take  ye  thought]  RV  '  are  ye  anxious.' 
30.   Into   the  oven]    Dried  gi-ass  is  used  in 

the  East  for  heating  the  baking  ovens,  which 
are  holes  in  the  gi'ound  rather  more  than  3  ft. 
deep  and  2|  ft.  wide,  shaped  like  a  jar.  The 
walls  are  cemented  to  resist  the  action  of  fire. 
Grass  is  burnt  in  the  ovens,  until  they  are 
thoroughly  hot.  Then  dough  rolled  out  into 
thin  sheets  is  spread  on  the  sides  of  the  oven, 
where  it  is  baked  in  a  few  minutes,  and  is 
taken  out  in  the  form  of  wafer-cakes. 

34.  Take  no  thought]  RV  '  Be  not  anxious.' 
Our  Lord  regarded  cheerfulness  and  joy,  and 
the  absence  of  care  and  anxiety,  as  the  mark 
of  a  true  Christian  who  puts  his  trust  in  God. 


Similarly  the  rabbis  said,   '  There  is  enough 
of  trouble  in  the  very  moment.' 

CHAPTER  7 

The  Sermon  on  the  Mount  (concluded) 
The  connexion  of  thought  in  this  c.  is  less 
close  than  in  the  earlier  part  of  the  sermon, 
and  the  whole  c.  bears  the  appearance  of  an 
appendix  of  miscellaneous  practical  maxims, 
many  of  which,  however,  may  have  really 
formed  part  of  the  sermon.  The  words  about 
rash  judgment,  and  about  a  tree  being  known 
by  its  fruit,  as  well  as  the  striking  conclusion, 
are  found  also  in  St.  Luke's  sermon. 

1-5.  On  the  habit  of  criticising  others  (Lk 
g37-42)_  gt.  Luke's  account  is  here  the  fuller, 
and  he  places  the  section  in  a  more  satisfac- 
tory relation  to  what  goes  before.  Our  Lord 
condemns  all  forms  of  censoriousness.  He 
calls  censorious  persons  hypocrites,  and  says 
that  they  are  worse  than  the  people  they 
criticise.  They  are  worse  because  they  lack 
love.  As  love  is  the  highest,  and  indeed  in 
the  last  resort  the  only  Christian  virtue,  so 
the  lack  of  it  absolutely  excludes  from  the 
kingdom  where  all  is  love.  Such  persons  are 
also  blind.  They  see  their  brother's  faults, 
but  have  no  eyes  for  his  virtues,  and  they 
neither  see  nor  wish  to  see  their  own  far 
greater  faults. 

1.  Judge  not]  cp.  Ro  2 1.  Unkind  and  frivol- 
ous criticism  is  what  is  meant.  Judgment  as 
a  serious  and  solemn  act  is  not  forbidden  by 
Christ.  It  is  indeed  often  the  Christian's 
duty  to  judge  and  severely  to  condemn  things 
which  the  world  never  thinks  of  judging  :  cp. 
1815  1  Cor  5 12  2  Tim  4  2. 

2.  With  -what  measure  ye  mete  (i.e.  '  mea- 
sure ')]  A  Jewish  proverb.  The  rabbis  said, 
'  In  the  measure  that  a  man  measure th,  others 
measure  to  him.' 

3.  Mote]  lit.  '  a  small  dry  twig  or  stalk.' 
Here  it  stands  for  a  relatively  small  fault. 

The  beam]  i.e.  the  great  roof-beam  of  a 
house,  something  a  thousand  times  larger  than 
the  eye  itself.  Here  it  stands  for  '  want  of 
love,'  the  most  monstrous,  under  Chi-ist's  law, 
of  all  vices.  Here  Christ  again  adopts  a  Jewish 
proverb.  It  is  said  that  when  one  Jewish 
judge  criticised  another  and  said,  '  Cast  out 
the  mote  out  of  thine  eye,'  the  other  replied, 
'  Cast  you  out  the  beam  out  of  your  own  eye.' 

6.  That  the  most  holy  things  ought  not  to 
be  offered  indiscriminately  to  all  persons.  The 
earliest  comment  on  this  v.  is  in  the  '  Teach- 
ing '  (Didache)  :  '  And  let  no  one  eat  or  drink 
of  your  Eucharist,  except  those  who  have  been 
baptised  in  the  name  of  the  Lord.  For  it  ia 
concerning  this  that  the  Lord  hath  said,  Give 
not  that  which  is  holy  unto  the  dogs.'  This 
correctly  apprehends  the  principle,  which  is, 
of  course,  capable  of  wider  application.    Gore 


649 


(.  5 


ST.  MATTHEW 


7.  13 


well  says,  '  We  are  not  to  shriek  the  highest 
truths  of  religion  at  a  street  comer.  We  are 
to  wait  till  people  show  a  desire  for  the 
deepest  things  before  we  ofEer  them  religion. 
Such  was  the  method  of  the  early  Chm-ch. 
It  went  out  into  the  world.  It  let  all  the 
world  see  the  beauty  of  its  life.  .  .  But  it  did 
not  teach  them  the  secrets  of  its  life — its 
Creed,  its  Eucharist,  its  Prayers — till  they 
were  ready  for  them,  and  showed  their  readi- 
ness at  least  by  enquiry.' 

6.  That  which  is  holy]  in  its  literal  sense 
the  flesh  of  the  sacrifices.  Metaphorically  it 
stands  for  all  that  is  most  holy  in  Christ's 
religion,  like  the  pearls  below.  Dogs  .  .  swine] 
i.e.  unclean  and  ferocious  persons.  They  will 
trample  on  (i.e.  revile  and  profane)  what  you 
offer  them,  and  assail  you  with  ridicule  and 
blasphemy.  While  they  are  in  this  frame  of 
mind,  nothing  can  be  done  with  them. 

7-1 1.  On  urgency  in  prayer,  and  how  God 
rewards  it  (Lkll^-i^).  God  always  answers 
urgent  prayer.  Every  asker  receives,  every 
seeker  finds.  Yet  not  every  asker  receives 
what  he  asks,  nor  every  seeker  finds  what  he 
seeks.  As  an  earthly  father  gives  good  gifts 
to  his  children,  so  God  gives  good  things  to 
those  that  ask  Him,  not  always  what  they 
ask,  for  they  often  ask  amiss,  but  something 
far  better,  even,  as  St.  Luke's  version  has  it, 
'  the  Holy  Spirit.'  Those  who  would  obtain 
exactly  what  they  ask,  must  conform  their 
wills  to  God's,  and  ask  for  things  which  they 
know  that  He  is  willing  to  grant.  St.  Luke 
connects  this  section  with  the  Lord's  Prayer, 
and  illustrates  it  further  by  the  parable  of 
the  Friend  at  Midnight.  The  connexion  in 
St.  Luke  is  much  more  natural  and  suitable. 

7,  Ask  .  .  seek  .  .  knock]  A  climax  of  in- 
creasing urgency.  We  are  to  wrestle  with 
God  in  prayer,  as  Jacob  wrestled  with  the 
angel  (perhaps  with  God  Himself),  and  said, 
'  I  will  not  let  thee  go,  except  thou  bless  me ' 
(Gn3226).  The  lesson  is,  'That  men  ought 
always  to  pray  and  not  to  faint'  (LklS^). 

9,  10.  Bread  .  .  stone  .  .  fish  .  .  serpent]  A 
stone  is  like  a  loaf,  and  a  serpent  is  like  a  fish, 
especially  some  fishes.  The  idea  is  that  God 
will  not  mock  an  earnest  suppliant,  by  appear- 
ing to  answer  his  prayer,  and  giving  him  some- 
thing which,  though  apparently  good,  is  really 
noxious.  II.  Being  evil]  Christ  took  no 
roseate  view  of  the  characters  of  men,  even 
after  their  profession  of  faith  in  Him. 

12.  THE  GOLDEN  RULE(Lk63i).  This 
v.  ought  to  form  a  distinct  paragraph.  Our  Lord 
looks  back  to  what  He  has  been  saying  in  c.  5 
about  the  fulfilling  of  the  Law,  and  sums  up 
His  teaching  on  the  whole  subject  with  this 
important  practical  maxim.  As  originally 
spoken,  it  probably  formed  part  of  our  Lord's 
utterances  upon  the  Law,  as  it  still  does  in  St. 


Luke,  who  brings  it  into  connexion  with  the 
command,  '  Love  your  enemies '  :  see  5  ^4. 
There  are  certain  parallels  to  this  saying. 
Once  a  would-be  proselyte  went  to  Rabbi 
Hillel  and  demanded  to  be  taught  the  whole 
Law  while  he  stood  upon  one  leg.  The  good 
rabbi  made  him  a  proselyte,  saying,  '  What  is 
hateful  to  thyself,  that  do  not  thou  to  another. 
This  is  the  whole  law,  the  rest  is  commentary. 
Go,  thou  art  perfect.'  The  pious  Tobias  thus 
instructs  his  son  Tobit  (Tob4i5),  'What  thou 
thyself  ha  test,  do  thou  to  no  man.'  The 
Chinese  sage  Confucius  is  reported  to  have 
said,  '  Do  not  to  others  what  you  would  not 
wish  done  to  yourself.'  All  these  are  noble 
sayings,  but  they  fall  far  short  of  Christ's 
golden  rule,  which  means,  '  Not  only  avoid 
injuring  your  neighbour,  but  do  him  all  the 
good  you  can.'  They  simply  forbid  injuries : 
Christ  commands  active  benevolence. 

A  saying  ascribed  to  the  Gk.  philosopher 
Aristotle  is  closer  in  form  to  the  Golden  Rule 
than  any  other,  but  it  applies  only  to  friends. 
Aristotle  was  once  asked  how  we  should  act 
towards  our  friends,  and  replied,  '  As  we 
would  that  they  should  act  towards  us.' 

12.  Therefore  all  things]  The  'therefore' 
looks  back  to  Christ's  teaching  about  the  Law. 
The  sense  is,  '  Because  ye  are  my  disciples, 
and  bound  to  understand  the  OT.  in  its  higher 
and  more  spiritual  sense,  therefore  do  unto 
others  all  that  you  would  they  should  do  unto 
you,  for  this  is  the  true  meaning  of  the  Law 
and  the  Prophets.' 

13,  14.  The  broad  w^ay  and  the  narrow^  w^ay 
(Lk  13  24-27).  Although  it  is  a  blessed  thing  to 
be  a  Christian,  it  is  not  easy.  The  Christian 
journeys  along  the  narrow  way  of  self-denial 
discipline  and  mortification,  perhaps  of  con- 
tempt and  persecution,  but  the  end  of  it  is 
life.  Much  easier  is  the  broad  way  of  self- 
indulgence,  avarice,  pride  and  ambition,  but 
the  end  of  it  is  death.  How  many  choose 
death,  rather  than  life  !  St.  Luke  speaks  only 
of  the  narrow  '  door,'  not  of  the  narrow  way, 
and  describes  the  terrible  condition  at  the  last 
day  of  those  who  have  not  entered  it.  There 
is  a  fine  heathen  parallel  in  the  allegory  called 
'  the  Tablet,'  by  Cebes,  a  disciple  of  Socrates : 
'  Seest  thou  not  a  certain  small  door,  and  a 
pathway  before  the  door,  in  no  way  crowded, 
for  only  a  very  few  travel  that  way,  since  it 
seems  to  lead  through  a  pathless,  rugged,  and 
stony  tract  ?  That  is  the  way  that  leadeth  to 
true  discipline.'  There  is  another  in  the 
philosopher  Maximus  of  Tyre  (1 50  B.C.) :  '  There 
are  many  deceitful  bypaths,  most  of  which 
lead  to  precipices  and  pits,  and  there  is  a 
single  narrow  straight  and  rugged  path,  and 
few  indeed  are  they  who  can  travel  by  it.' 

13.  The  strait  gate]  RV  '  the  narrow  gate.' 
St.  Matthew's   word   means   a   city   gate,  St. 


650 


7.  14 


ST.  MATTHEW 


7.  24 


Luke's  a  small  gate  or  door.  Even  city  gates 
are  exceedingly  narrow  in  the  East.  For 
vride  is  the  gate]  Several  modern  editors  omit 
the  words  '  is  the  gate.'  14.  Strait]  RV  '  nar- 
row.' Narrow]  RV  '  straitened.'  Few  there 
be  that  find  it]  lit.  '  few  be  they  who  are  find- 
ing it.'  In  St.  Luke  the  disciples  definitely 
ask,  '  Lord,  are  they  few  that  be  saved  ? '  but 
Jesus  avoids  a  direct  answer,  bidding  them 
look  to  themselves,  and  take  care  that  they 
themselves  enter  by  the  narrow  door.  So 
here  Jesus  does  not  solve  the  mystery  of  the 
ultimate  destiny  of  human  souls.  He  refuses 
to  say  what  proportion  of  mankind  will  be 
finally  lost  or  saved,  but  he  does  say  that  the 
majority  of  men  do  not,  in  this  world  at  least, 
choose  the  narrow  way  that  leads  to  life. 
Whether  after  this  life  God  will  interpose  to 
save  them  from  their  doom,  and  will  apply  to 
them  some  chastening  discipline  which  may 
bring  them  to  a  better  mind  is  not  revealed. 
It  may  be  so.  Holy  Scripture  contains  certain 
hints  in  this  direction  (IPetSi'-*  4  6),  but  no- 
where gives  any  clear  hope,  lest  men  should 
be  encouraged  to  neglect  their  opportunities 
of  repentance  in  this  life  :  see  on  1232. 

15-20.  How  to  detect  false  prophets  and 
hypocrites  in  general  (LkG'i^-*^^.  The  gift  of 
prophecy  was  widely  diffused  in  the  Apostolic 
Church,  so  that  the  warning  against  false 
prophets  was  needed,  but  the  word  is  intended 
to  include  hypocritical  Christian  teachers  of 
all  kinds.  How  can  they  be  known  ?  Not 
always  by  their  doctrine,  which,  when  it  suits 
their  purpose,  is  orthodox,  but  by  their  works, 
especially  by  their  covetousness,  which  is  the 
unfailing  characteristic  of  false  prophets. 

The  '  Didache  '  has  some  interesting  remarks 
about  the  false  prophets  of  the  sub-apostolic 
age.  '  Let  every  apostle  (itinerant  missionary) 
that  comes  to  you,  be  received  as  the  Lord. 
He  will  remain  one  day,  and  if  necessary,  two. 
If  he  remains  three  days,  he  is  a  false  prophet. 
And  when  the  apostle  goes  forth  from  you,  let 
him  receive  nothing  but  bread  for  his  day's 
journey.  If  he  asks  money,  he  is  a  false 
prophet.  .  .  A  prophet  who  in  the  Spirit  orders 
a  table  to  be  laid,  shall  not  eat  of  it  himself. 
If  he  does,  he  is  a  false  prophet.'  The  modern 
representative  of  the  false  prophet  is  the 
minister  or  teacher  who  works  for  hire  or 
popularity. 

15.  False  prophets]  Not  the  Pharisees,  but 
Christian  false  prophets  and  teachers,  as  is 
clear  from  v.  22  :  cp.  also  2411.24  iJn4i. 

Sheep's  clothing]  Not  the  official  rough  garb 
of  prophets,  as  in  Heb  1 1  3^,  but  the  disguise  of 
those  who  wish  to  pass  for  sheep,  i.e.  for 
Christians.  The  sheep's  clothing  is  the  hypo- 
critical professions  and  the  outwnrd  ordination 
of  the  false  teacher.  16.  Fruits]  Not  doctrines, 
but  works,   or  moral  character,  as  always  in 


NT.      17-19.    Our    Lord    echoes    and    rein- 
forces the  Baptist's  teaching  :  see  on  3i-i^. 

21-23.  The  punishment  of  false  prophets,  and 
of  all  hypocrites.  Our  Lord  carries  us  forward 
in  thought  to  the  day  of  judgment.  Even 
then  the  false  prophets  will  pretend  to  be 
sheep.  They  will  say,  '  Lord,  Lord,'  and 
plead  their  successful  ministerial  labours. 
But  our  Lord  will  say,  I  never  knew  you  : 
depart  from  me,  ye  that  work  iniquity. 

21.  Lord,  Lord]  During  His  earthly  ministry 
Jesus  was  generally  addi-essed  as  '  Rabbi,' 
Teacher.  Here  He  claims  the  higher  title  of 
'  Lord,'  but  in  what  sense  ?  Clearly  as  implying 
sovereignty  over  the  universe,  which  was  the 
sense  in  which  it  was  applied  to  Jesus  in  the 
Apostolic  Church  :  Act  1 0  36  1  Cor  12  3  Phil  2  n. 

Kingdom  of  heaven]  Here  used  of  the  final 
bliss  of  heaven.  He  that  doeth]  Everywhere 
in  NT.  it  is  said  that  men  will  be  judged 
according  to  their  works,  not  according  to 
their  faith  or  profession  (16^7  2535  Ro2'' 
1  Cor  3  8  2  Cor  5 10  lPetli7  Rev  2  23  2212,  etc.). 
If  faith  is  to  justify,  it  must  be  a  living  faith 
which  issues  in  good  works.  22.  Cast  out 
devils  .  .  wonderful  works]  There  is  no  reason 
to  suppose  that  this  claim  to  successful  minis- 
terial work  is  unfounded.  It  is  a  fact  that 
God  does  sometimes,  for  the  sake  of  the  flock, 
condescend  to  bless  the  work  of  evil  shepherds, 
whose  lives  are  not  openly  scandalous,  and  in 
general,  we  may  say  that  '  the  unworthiness 
of  the  ministers  hinders  not  the  effect  of  the 
sacraments.'  Of  course  the  best  and  truest 
work  cannot  be  done  by  such  men.  23.  I  never 
knew  you]  i.e.  as  true  disciples  :  cp.  Lkl327. 
The  divinity  of  Christ  appears  not  only  from 
His  office  of  judge,  but  from  His  power  to  read 
the  heart.  He  claims  that  the  most  secret 
thoughts  of  the  millions  of  the  human  race 
are  naked  and  open  before  Him,  and  this  is  in 
effect,  a  claim  to  be  divine. 

24-27.  The  true  foundation  for  all  permanent 
spiritual  building  (LkGi*'"'*'').  The  great  ser- 
mon concludes  with  a  parable.  Two  men 
built  houses  near  a  watercourse.  One  dug 
deep  and  reached  the  rock,  the  other  built 
upon  the  sand  (i.e.  the  alluvial  deposit  of  the 
watercourse).  In  the  winter  there  was  a 
flood,  and  the  house  built  on  the  sand  collapsed. 
The  rock  is  Christ's  own  person  and  teaching, 
the  only  foundation  for  stable,  spiritual  and 
social  building.  Whatever  is  built  upon  that 
rock,  lasts.  Personal  character  built  up  on 
Christ,  i.e.  on  faith  in  Him  and  loyal  obedience 
to  His  commands,  is  stable.  Men  can  count 
upon  it,  for  they  feel  its  strength  as  well  as 
its  gentleness.  Societies  or  states,  based  on 
the  supremacy  of  Christ's  moral  law,  last. 
They  have  in  them  the  elements  of  stability, 
prosperity,  and  progress.  The  Christian 
Church  itself  is  the  greatest  example  of  this 


661 


7.24 


ST.  MATTHEW 


8.5 


permanence  and  progress.  Established  origin- 
ally by  men  who  Jiad  dug  down  to  the  rock 
and  based  themselves  on  faith  in  Christ's 
divinity  and  absolute  self-surrender  to  His 
service  (see  IG^^),  it  became  a  spiritual 
fabric  which  has  outlasted  the  fall  of  empires, 
has  spread  to  the  most  distant  lands,  and  bids 
fair  to  fulfil  the  promise  of  its  Founder  that 
the  gates  of  hell  (i.e.  of  death  or  destruction) 
shall  not  prevail  against  it. 

24.  Death]  Again  the  stress  upon  '  doing '  : 
see  Jasl22.  25.  Floods]  There  are  hardly 
any  rivers  in  Palestine  except  the  Jordan,  but 
there  are  many  watercourses  or  winter- torrents 
(Heb.  nahal,  AV  '  brook,'  Arab.  vmdy).  These 
are  mostly  quite  dry  in  the  summer,  but  in  the 
winter  are  full  of  muddy  torrent-water,  which 
descends  with  great  violence,  and  often  over- 
flows its  banks:  cp.  Job6i5f.  The  foolish 
man  in  the  parable  had  built  his  house  either 
in  or  close  by  the  channel  of  one  of  these 
wadys,  without  thought  of  the  winter  rains. 

28,  29.   Effect  of  the  sermon. 

29.  Not  as  the  scribes]  EV  'not  as  their 
scribes '  :  see  prefatory  remarks  to  c.  5.  The 
scribe  relied  entirely  on  tradition.  Hence  he 
was  compared  to  a  cemented  cistern  which 
held  every  drop  of  water  put  into  it.  So 
enamoured  were  the  Jews  of  tradition,  that 
they  would  hear  nothing  else  even  from  a  man 
so  great  as  Hillel.  It  is  said  that  though  Hillel 
discoursed  of  a  matter  all  day  long,  yet  his 
hearers  received  not  his  doctrine,  till  at 
last  he  said,  '  So  I  heard  from  Shemaiah  and 
AbtaUon.' 

CHAPTER   8 
The  Leper  Cleansed.     The  Centurion's 

Servant  Healed.    Healing  of  Peter's 

"Wife's    Mother    and    many    others. 

Stilling  of  the  Tempest.    Healing  of 

THE  Gadarene  Demoniacs 
1-4.  Cleansing  of  the  leper  (Mk  1 40  Lk5 12). 
No  natural  explanation  of  this  miracle  is 
possible.  Leprosy  has  always  been,  and  is 
still,  one  of  the  most  intractable  diseases. 
Under  the  Mosiac  Law  lepers  were  regarded  as 
unclean  and  excluded  entirely  from  human 
society  :  see  Lv  13  and  14,  and  notes.  Con- 
sidered as  a  parable  this  miracle  represents  the 
cleansing  of  the  human  race  by  the  Redeemer 
from  the  leprosy  of  sin. 

I.  When  he  was  come  down]  Only  St. 
Matthew  mentions  the  historical  connexion  of 
this  miracle,  though  both  St.  Mark  and  St. 
Luke  agree  that  it  took  place  during  one  of 
the  early  preaching  tours  in  Galilee.  St. 
Luke  says  that  it  was  done  in  a  city.  The 
miracle  comes  appropriately  after  the  sermon. 
Having  said,  '  I  came  not  to  destroy  (the  Law),' 
He  now  says,  '  Offer  the  gift  that  Moses 
commanded.'     Having  taught  with  authority. 


He  now  heals  with  authority,  '  I  will,  be  thou 
clean.'  2.  Worshipped  him]  Lk  says,  'fell  on 
his  face.'  The  act  of  reverence  that  was  paid 
to  kings.  Perhaps  the  leper  already  regarded 
Jesus  as  the  Messiah,  the  rightful  king  of 
Israel.  He  certainly  had  full  faith  in  His 
miraculous  powers.  He  only  doubted  His 
willingness  ('  if  thou  wilt ')  to  heal  so  miserable 
an  outcast.  Often  men  find  it  easier  to  believe 
in  God's  power  than  in  His  mercy  and  love. 

Lord]  Here  a  title  of  human  respect,  as  in 
825i622Lk954  10i7,40iii^etc.  Make  me  clean] 
'  Cleanse  as  well  as  heal  me,'  because  leprosy 
was  a  Levitical  defilement.  3.  Touched  him] 
No  one  was  allowed  to  touch  or  even  to  salute 
a  leper.  If  he  even  put  his  head  into  a  place 
it  became  unclean.  No  less  a  distance  than  4 
cubits  (6  ft.)  had  to  be  kept  from  the  leper,  or 
if  the  wind  came  from  that  direction,  100 
cubits  were  scarcely  sufficient.  By  thus 
touching  the  leper,  Christ  also  showed  His 
superiority  to  the  Law  of  Moses.  So  far  from 
being  Himself  defiled,  His  touch  imparted 
cleansing. 

4.  See  thou  tell  no  man]  According  to  St. 
Mark  He  dismissed  the  man  abruptly,  almost 
violently,  with  an  urgent  command  to  be  silent. 
Only  one  explanation  of  this  is  at  all  probable. 
He  feared,  as  in  JnG^^,  that  the  people  would 
proclaim  Him  Messiah,  and  force  Him  to  be 
the  leader  of  a  revolution.  Offer  the  gift]  i.e. 
a  sacrifice  of  two  he-lambs  without  blemish, 
and  one  ewe-lamb  of  the  first  year  without 
blemish.  For  the  details  see  Lvl4.  For  a 
testimony  unto  them]  i.e.  a  proof  of  the  gen- 
uineness of  his  cure.  The  priests,  after 
examining  him,  could  not  refuse  his  gift,  and 
their  acceptance  of  it  would  be  valid  testimony 
that  he  had  really  been  cured  of  his  leprosy. 
In  face  of  the  injmiction  to  tell  no  man,  we 
cannot  imagine  that  Christ  intended  him  to 
notify  the  priests  of  the  manner  of  his  healing, 
and  so  challenge  them  to  examine  His  claims. 
The  man  seems,  however,  to  have  disobeyed 
the  injunction  (Mkl*^)^  so  that  this  miracle 
helped  to  arouse  the  opposition  which  Christ 
soon  afterwards  encountered  (93'ii'34). 

5-13.  Healing  of  the  centurion's  servant 
(Lk?!,  not,  however,  Jn4'i7,  q.  v.).  The  ac- 
counts in  St.  Matthew  and  St.  Luke  are 
partly  drawn  from  independent  sources,  which, 
though  agreeing  in  essentials,  differ  consider- 
ably in  details.  In  St.  Matthew  the  centurion 
himself  comes  to  Jesus.  In  St.  Luke  he  first 
sends  certain  Jewish  elders  to  plead  for  him, 
then  some  of  his  friends,  and  apparently  does 
not  see  Jesus  at  all.  St.  Luke's  narrative  is 
the  fuller  and  more  original.  The  discrepancy 
with  St.  Matthew  is  not  a  serious  one.  It  is 
quite  common  to  represent  a  person  as  doing 
himself  what  he  really  does  through  others. 
St.  Matthew  alone  records  Christ's  remarkable 


652 


8.  5 


ST.  MATTHEW 


8.19 


utterance  as  to  the  rejection  of  Israel  and  the 
call  of  the  Gentiles,  vv.  11,  12.  St.  Luke, 
however,  has  nearly  the  same  words  in  another 
connexion  (Lkl3^s^. 

5.  A  centurion]  A  Roman  legionary  officer 
commanding  a  century  (i.e.  from  50  to  100 
men,  the  hundredth  part  of  a  legion),  and  occu- 
pying the  social  position  of  a  modem  sergeant 
or  non-commissioned  officer.  Whether  this 
centurion  was  directly  under  Roman  authority, 
or  was  in  the  employ  of  Herod  Antipas,  in 
whose  kingdom  he  served,  is  •  not  certain. 
He  was  a  heathen,  and  though  favourably  im- 
pressed by  Judaism,  it  is  probable  from  the 
language  of  v.  8  that  he  was  not  a  proselyte. 
Several  centurions  appear  in  the  NT.,  all  in  a 
very  favourable  light :  27  ^4  Ac  10,  27,  and  28. 
'  Probably,'  says  Trench, '  in  the  general  wreck 
of  the  moral  institutions  of  the  heathen  world, 
the  Roman  army  was  one  of  the  few  in  which 
some  of  the  old  virtues  survived.'  The  troops 
of  Palestine  were  recruited  locally  from  the 
heathen  of  Samaria  and  Csesarea,  and  were 
auxiliaries.  The  legionary  soldiers  proper  were 
required  to  be  Roman  citizens.  The  centurion, 
being  an  officer,  was  probably  a  Roman.  Ac- 
cording to  St.  Luke,  he  did  not  venture  to 
come  himself,  but  sent  certain  Jewish  elders, 
who  said, '  He  is  worthy  that  thou  shouldest  do 
this  for  him,  for  he  loveth  our  nation,  and 
himself  bi;ilt  us  our  synagogue.' 

6.  My  servant]  The  expression  might  mean 
'  my  little  son,'  but  it  is  plain  from  St.  Luke 
that  it  was  a  favourite  slave  who  was  ill. 

8.  Lord,  I  am  not  worthy]  Both  the  cen- 
turion and  the  elders  judged  Jesus  by  Jewish 
standards.  That  Jesus  should  heal  a  Gentile 
at  all,  except  for  some  very  special  reason,  was 
thought  impossible.  Still  more  unlikely  was 
it  that  He  would  enter  a  Gentile  house,  which 
was  regarded  as  defiled,  and  defiling  those  who 
entered  it  (Jnl8-S).  Speak  the  word  only] 
lit.  '  speak  with  a  word.'  In  believing  that 
Jesus  could  heal  at  a  distance,  the  centurion 
showed  remarkable  faith.  Perhaps  his  faith 
was  assisted  by  the  similar  miracle  worked 
shortly  before  in  the  same  city  upon  the  son 
of  a  certain  '  nobleman  '  (Jn446). 

9.  For  I  am  a  man  under  authority]  The 
sense  is  :  I  am  myself  only  a  servant  of  others, 
and  yet  I  have  soldiers  under  me  whom  I  can 
send  where  I  please  to  carry  out  my  will. 
How  much  more  canst  Thou,  who  art  Lord  of 
the  powers  of  nature,  speak  the  word  and  be 
obeyed.  The  centurion  expresses  his  faith 
that  angels  and  spirits  and  diseases  are  as 
obedient  to  Jesus  as  his  soldiers  are  to  him. 

II.  Shall  sit  down  (lit.  'recline  at  table') 
VTith  Abraham,  and  Isaac,  and  Jacob]  The 
rabbis  taught  that  the  Messianic  age  would 
be  ushered  in  by  a  great  feast.  All  Israel,  with 
its  patriarchs,  prophets,  and  heroes,  would  be 


there.  The  Gentiles  would  be  excluded,  and 
would  have  the  mortification  of  seeing  all  the 
sumptuous  preparations.  Every  (clean)  animal 
that  exists,  and  many  that  do  not,  would  be 
eaten  at  that  feast,  e.g.  the  Leviathan,  Behe- 
moth, the  gigantic  bu-d  Bar  Jochani,  and  certain 
fabulous  fatted  geese.  The  wine  of  the  feast 
would  have  been  kept  in  the  grapes  from  the 
creation  of  the  world.  King  David  would 
return  thanks  according  to  PsllGi^.  Very 
startling,  therefore,  was  the  declaration  of  Jesus 
that  Gentiles  from  all  nations  would  be  ad- 
mitted to  this  Messianic  feast,  and  many  cir- 
cumcised Jews  ('  sons  of  the  kingdom ') 
excluded.  In  the  NT.,  the  figure  of  a  banquet 
or  marriage  feast  is  several  times  used  (as 
here)  to  represent  participation  in  Christ's 
Kingdom,  both  in  this  world  and  the  next  : 
see  222  2510  Revl9'i'.  The  present  passage 
is  a  double  prophecy  (inserted  most  suitably  in 
a  Gospel  meant  for  Jewish  readers),  (1)  of  the 
admission  of  the  Gentiles  on  equal  terms  with 
the  Jews  into  the  Christian  Church,  and  of 
the  exclusion  of  many  of  the  latter ;  (2)  of  the 
final  salvation  of  many  Gentiles,  and  of  the 
reprobation  of  merely  nominal  Jews. 

12.  The  children  (RV  'sons')  of  the  king- 
dom] i.e.  the  Jews.  Outer  darkness,  etc.]  a 
rhetorical  description  of  the  sorrow  and  dis- 
appointment of  those  who  are  excluded.  The 
gnashing  of  teeth  represents  anger  and  dis- 
appointment, not  torture  :  see  Ps  1 1 2 10  Ac  7  ^"i. 

14-17.  Healing  of  Peter's  mother-in-law^, 
and  of  many  sick  and  possessed  persons  (Mk  1 29 
Lk  4  38).  According  to  St.  Mark  and  St.  Luke 
these  miracles  took  place  on  the  sabbath,  after 
the  synagogue  service  at  which  Jesus  preached 
and  healed  a  demoniac. 

14.  Peter's  house]  Peter  was  a  married 
man  (1  Cor  9  5).  He  had  a  house  in  Caper- 
naum, which  he  shared  with  his  brother  An- 
drew, and  apparently  with  his  wife's  mother. 

15.  Ministered]  i.e.  '  waited  at  table.'  The 
fever  had  left  no  weakness  16.  Possessed] 
According  to  St.  Luke  the  devils  cried  out, 
'  Thou  art  the  Son  of  God,'  and  recognised 
Him  as  the  Christ.  17.  Isa53"*,  quoted  from 
the  Hebrew.  This  application  of  the  passage 
to  the  miracles  of  healing  does  not  conflict 
with  its  deeper  fulfilment  in  Chi-ist's  atoning 
work  on  the  Cross  (Jn  1 29  1  Pet  2  2-1). 

18-22.  Sayings  to  a  scribe  and  another  dis- 
ciple (Lk957).  St.  Luke  introduces  these  say- 
ings much  later  in  our  Lord's  ministry.  Both 
evangelists  apparently  bori'owed  from  a  com- 
mon soiirce,  which  did  not  specify  the  occasion 
of  the  utterances. 

19,  20.  The  offer  of  a  recognised  rabbi 
(scribe)  to  become  a  follower  of  Jesus  was 
an  attractive  one,  especially  as  no  influential 
person  had  yet  become  a  disciple.  Jesus, 
however,  did  not  hastily  accept  the  offer.     To 


653 


8.19 


ST.  MATTHEW 


8. 


test  the  sincerity  of  the  new  convert,  he  re- 
quired him  to  count  the  cost.  He  must  give 
up  all  to  follow  Chi'ist — home-comforts,  wealth, 
honour,  and  all  prospects  of  advancement. 
Like  his  Master,  he  must  have  no  place  to  lay 
his  head.  Probably  the  scribe,  like  the  rich 
young  ruler,  found  the  conditions  too  hard. 

19.  Master]  i.e.  Rabbi,  a  title  of  respect 
properly  belonging  only  to  scribes.  It  was 
sometimes  accorded  by  courtesy  to  our  Lord, 
as  here. 

20.  The  Son  of  man]  This  title  of  Christ 
is  found  only  in  the  Gospels  and  Ac  7  56,  and 
(except  in  Ac  7  5'^)  is  found  only  in  the  mouth 
of  our  Lord  Himself.  It  corresponds  in  Ara- 
maic, which  our  Lord  habitually  spoke,  either 
to  harnafiha,  which  may  mean  either  '  the  man,' 
or  (but  this  is  not  so  certain)  '  the  son  of  man,' 
or  else  to  Vreh  d'nasha,  which  means  definitely 
and  emphatically  '  the  son  of  man '  (lit.  '  his 
son,  that  of  man ').  That  our  Lord,  who  was 
probably  bilingual,  occasionally  used  the  Gk. 
title  as  found  in  the  Gospels,  is  also  very  pos- 
sible. The  title  was  used  by  our  Lord  through- 
out His  ministry,  and  not,  as  is  sometimes 
erroneously  supposed,  only  from  the  time  of 
St.  Peter's  confession  (1613).  This  fact  must 
be  taken  account  of  in  ascertaining  its  pro- 
bable meaning.  It  follows  from  this  that  it 
cannot  have  been,  as  is  sometimes  maintained, 
a  definite  and  well-understood  designation  of 
the  Messiah.  Our  Lord  concealed  His  Messiah- 
ship  from  the  multitude  until  the  close  of  His 
ministry,  and  did  not  expressly  reveal  it  even 
to  the  Twelve  until  the  confession  of  Peter. 
That  it  was  not  understood  by  the  multitudes 
to  be  a  Messianic  title  is  evident  from  Jn  1234. 

The  title  probably  designates  our  Lord  as 
the  ideal  or  representative  man,  '  the  man  in 
whom  human  natm*e  was  most  fully  and  deeply 
realised,  and  who  was  the  most  complete  ex- 
ponent of  its  capacities,  warm  and  broad  in. 
His  sympathies,  ready  to  minister  and  suffer 
for  others,  sharing  to  the  full  the  needs  and 
deprivations  which  are  the  common  lot  of 
humanity,  but  conscious  at  the  same  time  of 
the  dignity  and  greatness  of  human  nature, 
and  destined  ultimately  to  exalt  it  to  unex- 
ampled majesty  and  glory.'  At  the  close  of 
His  life  He  invested  it  with  a  more  definitely 
Messianic  meaning  by  identifying  Himself 
with  the  '  one  like  unto  a  son  of  man  '  of 
Dan  7 1^,  who  was  generally  understood  to  be 
the  Messiah  :  see  Mt2663,  64.  The  expression 
was  used  by  our  Lord  of  Himself  on  at  least 
forty  different  occasions,  and  in  very  diverse 
contexts.  Thus  he  uses  it  in  connexion  with 
His  authority  to  forgive  sins  (9''),  His  lord- 
ship over  the  sabbath  (12  8),  His  Second 
Advent  in  glory  (1023  IS^i  1627,28  1928 
24  27, 30, 37, 44  25  31  26  64),  His  familiar  intercourse 
with  men  in  daily  life  (1 1 19),  His  poverty  (8  20), 

654 


His  preaching  (1337),  His  sufferings  and  re- 
surrection (Mt  17  9, 12,  22  2018  2624  Mk83i), 
His  giving  His  life  as  a  ransom  (2028),  and 
His  seeking  and  saving  that  which  was  lost 
(Lkl9iO).  St.  Stephen  uses  it  of  our  Lord  as 
glorified  in  heaven.  The  title  occurs  twelve 
times  in  St.  John's  Gospel,  for  the  most  part 
in  passages  which  clearly  imply  His  divinity. 
The  Son  of  man  exists  in  heaven  before  His 
Incarnation,  and  descends  to  earth  to  become 
man  ( Jn  6  62)  ;  He  gives  His  flesh  and  blood  to 
believers  to  eat  and  drink,  who  are  thus  in- 
corporated with  Him  and  receive  eternal  life 
(Jn627f.)  ;  He  holds  unbroken  communion 
with  the  Father  during  His  earthly  life  ( Jn  1  ^i)  ; 
He  is  the  object  of  divine  and  saving  faith 
( Jn  3 15)  ;  His  death  on  the  cross  is  not  a  degra- 
dation but  a  glorification  (Jnl223  1331),  and 
He  ends  His  earthly  course  by  a  triumphant 
ascension  (Jn662). 

The  title  '  Son  of  man '  is  used  of  the  Mes- 
siah in  a  part  of  the  book  of  Enoch  (chs.  37-70), 
which  is  probably,  but  not  certainly,  pre- 
Christian.  It  is  just  possible  that  our  Lord 
may  have  derived  it  from  this  source.  But  in 
any  case  the  title  was  very  little  known,  and 
was  not  popularly  understood  to  mean  the 
Messiah.  Some  have  thought  that  the  source 
of  the  title  is  Ps8  (see  especially  v.  4). 

22.  Follow  me  ;  and  let  the  dead,  etc.]  This 
difficult  saying  is  variously  interpreted  :  (1) 
My  claim  comes  before  all  other  claims.  It  is 
better  that  the  dead  should  remain  unburied, 
than  that  thou  shouldest  delay  to  enter  upon 
the  solemn  ministry  to  which  I  have  called 
thee.  (N.B.  The  funeral  and  subsequent  mourn- 
ing would  cause  a  delay  of  several  weeks.) 
(2)  Let  the  dead  (i.e.  thy  unbelieving  relations 
who  are  spiritually  dead  through  lack  of  faith 
in  Me)  bury  thy  father  for  thee,  and  come 
thou,  follow  Me  at  once. 

The  man's  father  was  probably  either  dead 
or  at  the  point  of  death,  although  some  think 
that  he  was  only  aged,  and  that  the  disciple 
asked  to  remain  at  home  till  death  occurred, 
thus  indefinitely  postponing  his  obedience  to 
Christ's  call. 

23-27.  The  stilling-  of  the  tempest  (Mk  4  35 
Lk  8  22).  St.  Mark  and  St.  Luke  both  place  the 
incident  after  the  series  of  parables  which  St. 
Matthew  records  in  c.  13.  This  is  at  once  one 
of  the  best-attested  miracles,  and  one  of  the 
most  incomprehensible  to  those  who  desire  to 
limit  our  Lord's  miracles  to  those  of  healing. 
It  is  perhaps  possible  to  regard  the  cessation 
of  the  storm  as  a  fortunate  coincidence,  but  it 
is  certain  that  Jesus  Himself  did  not  take  this 
view  of  it.  He  rebuked  the  wind  and  sea, 
showing  that  He  regarded  Himself  as  the 
Lord  of  physical  nature  as  well  as  of  the 
spiritual  world.  By  stilling  the  storm  Christ 
showed  that,  behind  the  inexorable  and  awful 


8.  ^4 


ST.  MATTHEW 


8.  34 


manifestations  of  nature,  storm,  pestilence, 
volcanic  eruptions,  and  sudden  death,  which 
seem  to  treat  man's  sufferings  with  indiffer- 
ence, there  is  the  loving  hand  of  divine  provi- 
dence. In  the  last  resort  nature  is  subject  to 
God's  holy  and  righteous  will. 

The  miracle  is  also  a  parable,  setting  forth 
Christ  as  a  giver  of  peace  and  safety,  both  to 
individuals  and  to  His  Chm-ch.  St.  Augustine 
(400  A.D.)  says,  '  We  are  sailing  in  this  life  as 
through  a  sea,  and  the  wind  rises,  and  storms 
of  temptation  are  not  wanting.  Whence  is 
this,  save  because  Jesus  is  sleeping  in  thee,  i.e. 
thy  faith  in  Jesus  is  slumbering  in  thy  heart  ? 
Rouse  Him  and  say,  Master,  we  perish.  He 
will  awaken,  that  is,  thy  faith  will  retui'n  to 
thee,  and  the  danger  will  be  over.'  Tertullian 
(200  A.D.)  says,  '  But  that  little  ship  presented 
a  figure  of  the  Church,  in  that  she  is  disquieted 
in  the  sea,  i.e.  in  the  world,  by  the  waves,  i.e. 
by  persecutions  and  temptations,  the  Lord 
patiently  sleeping,  as  it  were  until  roused  at 
last  by  the  prayers  of  the  saints  He  checks  the 
world,  and  restores  tranquillity  to  His  own.' 

24.  Tempest]  lit.  '  shaking.'  The  word 
generally  means  '  earthquake.'  '  To  under- 
stand the  causes  of  these  sudden  and  violent 
tempests,  we  must  remember  that  the  lake  lies 
low,  six  hundred  feet  lower  than  the  Mediter- 
ranean Sea,  that  the  vast  and  naked  plateaus 
of  Jaulan  (the  district  E.  of  the  lake)  rise  to 
a  great  height,  spreading  backward  to  the 
wilds  of  Ham-an,  and  upwards  to  the  snowy 
Hermon  ;  that  the  watercourses  have  cut  out 
profound  ravines  and  wild  gorges,  converging 
to  the  head  of  the  lake,  and  that  these  act  like 
gigantic  funnels  to  draw  down  the  winds  from 
the  mountains '  (Thompson). 

27.  What  manner  of  man]  The  disciples 
already  begin  to  think  that  Jesus  is  more  than 
a  mere  man. 

28-34.  ^he  healing  of  the  Gadarene  de- 
moniacs (Mk5^  LkS-t^).  There  are  real  diffi- 
culties in  connexion  with  this  narrative,  but 
that  upon  which  Professor  Huxley  laid  so 
much  stress  in  his  controversy  with  Mr. 
Gladstone,  1889-91,  is  assuredly  the  least. 
Speaking  of  the  destruction  of  the  swine  he 
said,  '  Everything  that  I  know  of  law  and 
justice  convinces  me  that  the  wanton  destruc- 
tion of  other  people's  property  is  a  misdemean- 
our of  evil  example,'  as  if  He,  who  gives  life 
and  health  and  all  things  to  all  men,  cannot 
take  back  His  own  gifts  when  He  will.  More 
serious  is  the  difficulty  presented  by  the  trans- 
ference of  the  devils  from  the  men  into  the 
swine  (vv.  31,  32).  It  may,  perhaps,  be 
sufficient  to  remark  that  it  is  not  certain  that 
this  is  the  true  interpretation  of  the  incident. 
The  transference  itself  could  not  from  the 
nature  of  the  case  have  been  observed.  It 
was  an  inference  from  the  request  of  the  devils 


and  the  subsequent  behaviour  of  the  swine. 
The  word  Go  used  by  Jesus  may  mean  '  Go 
into  the  swine,'  but  it  may  also  mean  simply, 
'  Begone,'  without  implying  any  such  permis- 
sion. In  the  latter  case  the  destruction  of 
the  swine  may  have  been  a  natural  occm'rence. 
the  herd  taking  fright  at  the  paroxysms  and 
cries  of  the  demoniacs,  which  became  more 
violent  at  the  moment  of  their  recovery  :  cp. 
Mkl26  926  Lk942.  If  the  former  interpreta- 
tion is  correct,  Jesus  probably  destroyed  the 
swine  to  convince  the  insane  men  that  the 
devils  had  really  left  them.  The  healing  itself 
was  certainly  a  miracle  of  the  most  striking 
kind,  whether  the  men  be  regarded  as  really 
possessed  by  devils,  or  as  maniacs  under  that 
delusion.  St.  Matthew  in  recording  this  miracle 
made  use  of  another  source  besides  that  repre- 
sented by  St.  Mark  and  St.  Luke.  He  speaks 
of  two  demoniacs,  they  only  of  one. 

28.  The  country  of  the  Gergesenes  (RY 
'  Gadarenes  ')]  Gadara  was  an  important  Gen- 
tile town,  the  capital  of  Persea,  situated  at 
least  6  m.  from  the  lake  in  a  south-easterly 
direction,  and  separated  from  it  by  a  broad 
plain  and  the  gorge  of  the  river  Hieromax,  a 
tributary  of  the  Jordan.  St.  Matthew  men- 
tions Gadara  as  the  nearest  well-known  town. 
St.  Mark  and  St.  Luke  state  more  precisely 
that  the  incident  took  place  at  Gerasa,  to  be 
identified  with  the  ruins  of  Kersa  or  Gersa  on 
the  E.  side  of  the  lake.  There  are  ancient 
tombs  in  the  vicinity  of  this  place,  and  about 
1  m.  S.  of  it  is  a  steep,  even  slope,  which  may 
be  the  '  steep  place  '  by  which  the  swine  rushed 
down  into  the  sea.  There  was  another  Gerasa 
in  Persea,  but  it  was  fully  35  m.  from  the 
lake,  and  cannot  possibly  be  the  one  meant. 

Out  of  the  tombs]  Maniacs  are  still  to  be 
found  among  the  tombs  in  the  East.  War- 
burton  writes,  '  On  descending  from  these 
heights  (of  Lebanon),  I  found  myself  in  a 
cemetery.  The  silence  of  the  night  was  now 
broken  by  fierce  yells  and  bowlings,  which  I 
discovered  proceeded  from  a  naked  maniac, 
who  was  fighting  with  some  wild  dogs  for  a 
bone.  The  moment  he  perceived  me,  he  left 
his  canine  comrades,  and  bounding  along  with 
rapid  strides,  seized  my  horse's  bridle,  and 
almost  forced  him  backward  over  the  cliff.' 

29.  Thou  Son  of  God]  The  demons  similarly 
acknowledge  Jesus  in  MkS^^  Lk4-ii.  To 
torment  us  before  the  time]  viz.  of  the  Last 
Judgment,  when  the  demons  will  be  consigned 
to  hell.  The  demoniacs  identify  themselves 
with  the  demons  and  speak  in  their  names. 

31.  In  St.  Luke  the  demons  beg  not  to  be 
sent  into  the  '  abyss,'  i.e.  into  hell. 

34.  They  besought  him  that  he  would  depart] 
The  drowning  of  2,000  swine  represented  a 
considerable  monetary  loss,  and  they  feared 
further  losses  if  Jesus  remained  in  their  neigh- 


665 


9. 


ST.  MATTHEW 


9.6 


bourhood.  It  is  not  clear  whether  the  owners 
of  the  swine  were  Jews  or  Gentiles.  The 
population  of  Decapolis  was  mainly,  but  by  no 
means  exclusively,  Gentile.  If  the  owners 
were  Jews,  their  loss  might  be  regarded  as  a 
punishment  for  keeping  swine  contrary  to  the 
Law.  The  rabbis  said,  '  Cursed  be  he  who 
keeps  hogs,  and  cursed  be  he  who  teacheth  his 
son  the  wisdom  of  the  Greeks '  ;  and  again, '  It 
is  forbidden  to  trade  in  anything  that  is  un- 
clean.' '  Keeper  of  hogs '  was  a  Jewish  term 
of  abuse.  Coasts]  RV  '  borders.'  St.  Mark 
and  St.  Luke  add  that  our  Lord,  departing 
from  His  usual  custom,  bade  the  demoniac 
proclaim  his  cure  publicly.  As  the  population 
was  Gentile,  there  was  no  danger  of  a  Mes- 
sianic outbreak. 

We  have  adopted  the  now  widely-accepted 
view  (see  note  '  Possession  '  at  4  ^■^)^  that  the 
demoniacs  of  the  NT.  were  insane  persons 
under  the  delusion  that  they  were  possessed 
with  devils,  but  their  recognition  of  Jesus 
as  the  Son  of  God,  and  in  a  less  degree  the 
phenomenon  of  double  consciousness  exhi- 
bited in  this  and  other  instances,  are  plausible 
arguments  for  the  older  view  that  the  pos- 
session was  real :  see  on  MkS^^^o. 

CHAPTER  9 
The  Sick  of  the  Palsy.     Call  of  Mat- 
thew.    Raising  of  Jairtjs'  Daughter 

1-8.  The  paralytic  healed  and  his  sins 
forgiven  (Mk2i  LkS^^).  The  peculiarity  of 
this  miracle  is  that  it  was  worked  to  prove  a 
doctrine,  and  that  in  the  face  of  opposition. 
There  were  present  certain  scribes  and  Phari- 
sees, some  of  whom  had  doubtless  come  from 
Jerusalem  expressly  to  oppose  Jesus.  Jesus  at 
once  threw  them  a  challenge  by  saying  to  the 
man,  '  Son,  thy  sins  be  forgiven  thee.'  The 
scribes  understood  this  to  mean  that  He 
claimed  to  forgive  sins  as  God  only  can  do. 
Instead  of  repudiating  this  suggestion,  as  a 
mere  man  would  have  done,  Jesus  accepted  it, 
and  proceeded  to  prove  His  claim  by  a  mu'acle. 
'  Whether  is  easier,'  said  He,  '  to  say.  Thy  sins 
are  forgiven  ;  or  to  say.  Arise,  and  walk  ?  ' 
The  former,  of  course,  is  easier.  Any  im- 
postor can  say,  '  Thy  sins  are  forgiven,'  because 
it  is  impossible  for  men  to  know  whether  the 
words  have  taken  effect  or  not.  But  not 
every  one  can  say,  '  Arise,  and  walk,'  because 
if  such  words  are  spoken  without  authority, 
the  speaker  is  at  once  convicted  of  imposture. 

This  miracle,  like  the  resurrection,  may  be  re- 
garded as  a  vindication  by  God  Himself  of  the 
character  of  Jesus.  No  man  could  make  the 
claims  that  Jesus  did,  without  rendering  him- 
self liable  to  the  most  serious  imputations  upon 
his  character.  Either  He  was  the  Son  of 
God,  or,  as  the  scribes  rightly  said  from  their 
point  of  view,  a  blasphemer.     Hence  in  this 


miracle  Jesus  deliberately  appealed  to  the 
judgment  of  God,  and  God  by  working  the 
miracle  vindicated  the  character  of  Jesus. 

1.  His  own  city]  i.e.  Capernaum. 

2.  They  brought  to  him]  According  to  the 
fuller  accounts  in  St.  Mark  and  St.  Luke  the 
bed  of  the  paralytic  was  carried  by  four  men, 
who,  unable  to  approach  Jesus  for  the  crowd, 
ascended  to  the  roof  of  the  house  by  the  out- 
side stairs  with  which  most  Eastern  houses  are 
furnished,  and  making  a  hole  in  the  flat  roof 
('  the  tiling,'  Luke),  let  down  the  bed  by 
cords  in  front  of  Jesus,  who  was  addi-essing  a 
great  multitude.  Where  was  Jesus  at  the 
time  ?  Some  say  in  the  upper  chamber  of  the 
house,  but  this  would  hardly  have  held  so 
many.  More  satisfactory  is  the  suggestion  of 
Edersheim  that  Jesus  was  preaching  in  the 
covered  gallery  or  verandah  of  the  house,  and 
that  the  hole  was  made,  not  in  the  roof  of  the 
house,  but  in  the  roof  of  the  verandah.  The 
house  was  probably  Peter's,  and  one  of  con- 
siderable size,  as  befitted  a  man  of  some  means. 
It  was  built,  as  the  better  class  of  Eastern 
houses  generally  are,  like  an  English  college. 
A  single  gate  or  door  opened  into  a  large 
square  courtyard,  planted  with  trees.  Round 
it  were  the  various  apartments  of  the  house, 
opening  directly  into  the  courtyard.  There  was 
also  a  roofed  verandah  running  round  the  court. 
Jesus  was  sitting  in  the  verandah,  addressing 
the  crowds  that  filled  the  courtyard  and  the 
doorway  and  the  street  beyond,  when  the 
men  unroofed  the  verandah  from  above  and 
let  the  sick  man  down. 

2.  Son,  be  of  good  cheer]  Words  of  encour- 
agement and  comfort  to  the  man,  who,  we  may 
conclude,  knew  that  his  disease  was  the  result 
of  past  sin,  and  was  therefore  ashamed  of 
himself.  Not  only  drunkenness,  but  various 
other  sins  of  self-indulgence  produce  paralysis. 
Jesus,  who  knew  at  a  glance  the  whole  history 
of  the  case  (cp.  Jn  5 1*),  first  removed  the  sick 
man's  spiritual  trouble,  and  then  healed  him. 
The  absolution  was  given  for  the  man's  own 
sake,  but  it  was  also  a  challenge  to  the  Phari- 
sees, who  were  present  as  enemies.  Their 
hostility  had  been  roused  not  only  by  the 
cleansing  of  the  leper  (8  ^),  but  by  the  very 
similar  miracle  worked  shortly  before  at  Jeru- 
salem (Jn5'^),  in  connexion  with  which  also 
Jesus  had  incurred  the  charge  of  blasphemy 
('  He  called  God  His  own  father,  making  Him- 
self equal  with  God,'  JnS^^). 

6.  The  Son  of  man]  i.e.  the  Son  of  God  in 
the  humiliation  of  His  life  on  earth.  Hath 
power  (RM  '  authority ')  on  earth  to  forgive 
sins]  What  is  the  force  of  on  earth  ?  Bengel 
rightly  says,  '  This  speech  hints  at  His  celestial 
origin.'  Christ's  design  is  to  prove  that  His 
Incarnation  has  not  emptied  Him  of  His  divine 
prerogatives.     Though  humbled  on  earth,  the 


656 


9.8 


ST.  MATTHEW 


9.  14 


divine  power  of  pardon  was  still  His.     By  be- 
coming man  He  had  not  ceased  to  be  God. 

8.  Which  had  given  such  power  (RM  '  au- 
thority ')  unto  men]  The  saying  is  a  striking 
one.  Although  one  man  alone  had  exercised 
the  power,  the  people  rightly  perceived  that 
there  had  been  established  the  principle  that 
the  divine  forgiveness  can  be  committed  to 
man.  Christ  afterwards  gave  such  power  unto 
men  when  He  committed  to  His  Church  the 
power  to  forgive  sins  (Jn2023).  A  strong 
distinction  must,  however,  be  drawn  between 
Christ's  own  power  to  forgive,  which  is  orig- 
inal and  absolute,  and  the  ministerial  power 
of  absolution  which  is  delegated  and  con- 
ditional :  see  on  Jn2023. 

9-13.  Call  of  Matthew  (Mk 2 14  Lk527:  see 
Intro.).  The  call  of  a  publican  was  another 
challenge  to  the  Pharisaic  party.  Considering 
the  low  estimation  in  which  publicans  were 
held  (see  on  5^6),  it  was  an  act  of  extra- 
ordinary boldness,  and,  if  human  success  was 
aimed  at,  a  most  unwise  one.  But  Jesus  had 
a  mission  to  the  despised  and  outcast,  whom 
He  regarded  as  in  many  respects  nearer  the 
kingdom  of  God  than  the  respectable  Phari- 
sees. The  most  obvious  way  to  win  their 
confidence  and  to  acquire  influence  over  them, 
was  to  call  one  of  their  number  to  the  aposto- 
late.  He  did  so,  and  followed  up  the  step  by 
holding  a  great  feast,  at  which  He  and  His 
disciples  publicly  ate  and  drank  with  publicans 
and  sinners.  The  incident  has  a  double  signi- 
ficance. (1)  It  is  a  protest  by  Jesus  against 
the  practice  of  social  ostracism.  If  publicans 
are  treated  as  if  they  were  thieves,  they  are 
likely  to  become  so.  If  actors  are  regarded  as 
disreputable  people,  disreputable  they  will  be. 
But  if  men  are  treated  with  respect,  they  are 
thereby  taught  to  respect  themselves,  and  to  try 
to  deserve  the  good  opinion  of  others.  (2)  It 
is  an  intimation  that  the  Church  has  a  mission 
to  the  poor,  the  outcast,  and  the  criminal,  as 
well  as  to  the  respectable  classes.  Many  signs 
show  that  this  duty  is  now  much  more  appre- 
ciated than  it  was.  Parochial  missions  to  the 
poor,  street  preaching,  the  police-court  mission- 
aries, the  missions  in  prisons,  are  all  imitations 
of  our  Lord's  feast  to  publicans  and  sinners. 

9.  Matthew]  The  other  Gospels  call  him 
'  Levi.'  Matthew  ('  gift  of  .Jehovah  ')  was  the 
name  by  which  he  was  known  among  Chris- 
tians.    He  may  have  adopted  it  at  his  call. 

The  receipt  of  custom]  RV  '  the  place  of 
toll.'  Custom,  or  toll  (Gk.  telos),  was  a  tax 
levied  on  goods  imported  or  exported  from 
one  district  to  another,  as  distinguished  from 
tribute  (Gk.  cenmx^  or  2)horoK)^  an  annual  tax 
on  houses,  lands,  and  persons.  As  customs 
generally  went  to  the  native  government, 
Matthew  was  probably  in  the  employ  of  Herod 
Antipas,   not  of  the  Romans.     J.   Lightfoot 


42 


657 


thinks  that  the  toll  was  levied  on  vessels  ply- 
ing on  the  lake.  More  probably  it  was  levied 
on  the  caravans  trading  between  Egypt  and 
Damascus,  most  of  which  passed  through 
Capernaum.  Follow  me]  St.  Luke  says  that 
St.  Matthew  '  left  all '  and  followed  Jesus. 
Probably  he  had  been  a  disciple  for  some  time 
and  expected  the  call. 

10.  As  Jesus  sat  at  meat  (lit.  '  reclined  ')  in 
the  house]  From  St.  Matthew  and  St.  Mark 
it  might  be  supposed  that  the  meal  took  place 
in  the  house  of  Jesus,  i.e.  of  Peter  ;  but  it  is 
clear  from  St.  Luke  that  it  was  in  the  house 
of  Matthew,  who  made  a  great  feast  for  his 
Master.  This  feast  is  not  to  be  regarded  as  a 
mere  farewell  banquet  given  by  him  to  his  old 
associates,  but  as  part  of  a  definite  design  on 
the  part  of  Jesus  to  reach  the  despised  and 
outcast  classes.  There  being  so  great  a  multi- 
tude of  guests,  it  is  probable  that  the  feast 
was  held  not  in  the  upper-room,  but  in  the 
gi'eat  courtyard  of  the  house.  For  the  atti- 
tude of  sitting  (reclining)  at  meat,  see  on 
Lk738  Jnl323. 

11.  When  the  Pharisees  saw  /<]  The  Phari- 
sees were  not  invited,  but  they  walked  in  to 
see  what  was  happening.  In  the  East  a  ban- 
quet is  a  public  affair,  and  any  casual  wayfarer 
may  enter  as  a  spectator.  Why  eateth  your 
master  with  publicans  and  sinners .?]  The  Phari- 
sees spoke  to  the  disciples  to  seduce  them 
from  their  allegiance  to  their  Master.  Publi- 
cans were  social  outcasts,  and  religiously  half- 
excommunicate.  It  was  said, '  A  religious  man 
who  becomes  a  publican,  is  to  be  driven  out 
of  the  society  of  religion.'  '  It  is  not  law- 
ful to  use  the  riches  of  such  men,  of  whom 
it  is  presumed  that  all  their  wealth  was  gotten 
by  rapine,  and  that  all  their  business  was  the 
business  of  extortioners,  such  as  publicans  and 
robbers  are.'  Publicans  were  forbidden  to  be 
judges  or  to  give  evidence  :  see  on  5  '^^.  Some 
think  that  '  sinners '  is  a  mere  Pharisaic  term  of 
abuse  for  publicans. 

12.  They  that  be  whole,  i.e.  the  Pharisees, 
have  no  need  of  a  physician,  i.e.  of  Christ, 
but  they  that  are  sick,  i.e.  the  publicans  and 
sinners.  The  saying  is  spoken  in  irony,  for 
the  Pharisees,  wanting  charity,  wanted  a  phy- 
sician even  more  than  the  publicans. 

13.  I  will  have  mercy,  and  not  sacrifice]  i.e. 
I  would  rather  see  love  and  charity  towards 
fellowmen  than  ritual  observances.  Ritual 
without  love  is  an  abomination.  Quoted  from 
Hos66,  and  again  in  127.  Xhe  righteous]  i.e. 
those  who  think  themselves  such,  viz.  the 
Pharisees.  Ironically  spoken.  Of  course  Christ 
did  come  to  call  the  Pharisees,  but  they  re- 
fused to  be  called. 

14-17.  Controversy  vvnth  the  disciples  of 
John  and  with  the  Pharisees  on  fasting  (Mk 
218  Lk533).     Matthew's  feast  probably  took 


9.  14 


ST.  MATTHEW 


9.  18 


place  on  a  Monday  or  a  Thursday,  days  which 
were  observed  by  the  Pharisees  and  John's 
disciples  as  fasts :  see  Mk,  '  The  disciples  of 
John  and  the  Pharisees  were  fasting.'  The 
jealousy  of  the  disciples  of  John  had  showed 
itself  even  before  John  had  been  cast  into 
prison  (Jn  3  26).  Now  that  John  was  in  prison, 
they  readily  became  the  tools  of  the  Pharisees, 
who  instigated  them  to  come  forward  and  say, 
'  Why  do  we  and  the  Pharisees  fast  oft,  but  thy 
disciples  fast  not  ? '  The  question  had  two 
purposes.  (1)  It  was  intended  to  hold  up  to 
public  odium  the  laxity  of  the  religious  prac- 
tices of  Jesus  as  compared  with  the  strictness 
of  those  of  the  Pharisees  and  of  John.  (2)  It 
was  intended  to  produce  ^a  breach  between 
John  and  Jesus.  The  reputation  of  Jesus  had 
been  established  very  largely  by  the  witness 
which  John  had  borne  to  His  Messiahship.  If 
Jesus  could  be  induced  to  condemn  John  (and 
it  seemed  impossible  that  He  could  defend  His 
own  disciples  without  doing  so),  John  would 
perhaps  disown  Jesus,  whose  reputation  would 
thereby  be  seriously  diminished. 

Jesus  disappointed  them  by  an  answer  at 
least  as  diplomatic  as  the  famous  one  about  the 
tribute-money.  Addressing  the  disciples  of 
John,  He  reminded  them  that  then'  own  master 
had  called  Him  the  Bridegroom,  and  added  that 
at  a  wedding  not  even  the  Pharisees  woiild 
desire  the  guests  to  fast.  When  the  wedding- 
feast  was  over,  or  rather  when  the  bridegroom 
was  taken  from  them  by  a  violent  death,  they 
would  mourn  and  fast.  Then  in  three  parables 
(the  last  of  which  is  in  St.  Luke  only)  He  showed 
that  the  disciples  of  John  were  as  right  from 
their  point  of  view  as  His  own  disciples  were 
from  theirs.  In  the  first  parable  He  compared 
the  religious  practices  of  John  to  an  old  gar- 
ment, and  His  own  to  a  new  garment.  John, 
He  said,  was  not  so  foolish  as  to  tear  a  piece 
of  cloth  from  the  new  garment  of  Christianity 
in  order  to  patch  with  it  his  own  Jewish  gar- 
ment. He  could  not,  for  instance,  consistently 
borrow  from  Christ  the  dispensation  from  fast- 
ing, and  teach  it  to  his  disciples,  without  making 
a  complete  breach  in  his  system.  Let  the 
disciples  of  John  continue  to  fast  until  they 
came  to  Jesus,  when  they  would  adopt  different 
practices  altogether. 

Having  defended  John,  Jesus,  in  a  second 
parable,  defended  Himself.  John's  wine  was 
old,  and  was  contained  in  bottles  which  suited 
it.  His  own  was  new,  and  required  new  bottles. 
In  other  words,  the  two  different  types  of  piety 
required  different  outward  methods  of  expres- 
sion. John's  preparatory  ministry  of  repent- 
ance was  rv^htly  accompanied  by  fasting  and 
mourning,  but  r^iow  the  fulness  of  joy  was  come, 
the  time  of  fea:Uting  and  rejoicing  had  begun. 

In  a  third  p:4,rable,  given  only  by  St.  Luke, 
Jesus  again  defends  the  disciples  of   John. 


'  No  one,'  He  says,  '  having  drunk  old  wine, 
desires  new,  for  he  says,  The  old  is  good 
enough.'  In  other  words,  the  disciples  of 
John,  having  tasted  John's  wine  and  found  it 
to  be  good,  are  not  to  be  blamed  if  they  are 
not  over  anxious  to  taste  new  wine,  i.e.  to 
adopt  the  new  and  to  them  untried  practices 
of  Christ's  disciples  (LkS^^). 

14.  Fast  oft]  Some  ancient  authorities  omit 
'  oft.' 

15.  The  children  (EV  '  sons  ')  of  the  bride- 
chamber]  i.e.  the  friends  of  the  bridegroom, 
who,  amid  singing  and  playing  of  instruments, 
conducted  the  bride,  accompanied  by  her  com- 
panions, to  the  house  of  the  bridegroom  and  to 
the  bridechamber,  and  remained  to  take  part 
in  the  wedding- feast,  which  usually  lasted  seven 
days.  Here  the  '  sons  of  the  bridechamber ' 
are  the  disciples  of  Christ.  Christ  was  first 
called  the  Bridegroom  by  the  Baptist  himself 
(Jn329).  Shall  be  taken  from  them]  The  first 
prediction  in  St.  Matthew  of  the  Passion.  And 
then  shall  they  fast]  The  first  reference  is  to  the 
sorrow  of  Christ's  disciples  after  His  death. 
The  words,  however,  may  be  taken  to  suggest 
for  fasting  a  permanent  place  in  the  Chris- 
tian system  of  devotion,  but  a  less  prominent 
one  than  in  the  austere  system  of  John  and 
the  formal  self-righteous  one  of  Pharisaic 
Judaism  :  see  on  6^^. 

16.  A  piece  of  new  cloth]  lit.  '  undressed 
cloth.'  According  to  St.  Luke  the  piece  of 
new  cloth  is  taken  from  the  new  garment 
of  Christianity.  It  signifies  the  bright  and 
joyous  character  of  the  religion  of  Christ, 
which  cannot  be  successfully  grafted  upon  the 
austere  and  joyless  system  of  the  Baptist. 

Taketh  from  the  garment]  i.e.  parts,  or 
separates  itself  from  the  garment.  And  the 
rent  is  made  worse]  RV  '  a  worse  rent  is  made.' 

17.  Old  bottles]  The  most  usual  Eastern 
bottles  are  simply  goat-skins  drawn  off  the 
animal  entire.  The  neck  of  the  animal  forms 
the  neck  of  the  bottle.  Those  used  for  wine 
are  tanned  with  oak-bark  and  seasoned  in 
smoke,  which  gives  a  flavour  to  the  wine  that 
is  much  appreciated.  New  wine  is  liable  to  a 
certain  amount  of  after-fermentation,  so  that 
it  cannot  safely  be  stored  in  old  bottles.  Our 
Lord's  saying  about  the  old  and  the  new 
bottles  applies  properly  to  the  Baptist's  teach- 
ing, but  it  may  also  be  applied  to  Judaism  in 
general.  So  taken,  it  means  that  the  forms 
of  Judaism  are  inadequate  to  express  the 
spirit  of  Christianity,  and  that  those  who,  like 
the  Judaising  Christians  in  the  Acts,  try  to 
combine  the  Law  with  the  Gospel  and  to  en- 
force the  Mosaic  ritual,  are  trying  to  put  new 
wine  into  old  bottles. 

18-26.  The  raising  of  Jairus'  daughter,  and 
the  healing  of  the  woman  with  an  issue  of  blood 
(Mk5-'i  LkS^O).     The  most  important  point 


658 


9.  18 


ST.  MATTHEW 


9.27 


in  the  raising  of  Jairus'  daughter  is  the  reality 
of  the  death.  This  has  been  denied  on  account 
of  our  Lord's  words,  '  The  maid  is  not  dead, 
but  sleepeth.'  It  is  perfectly  true  that  the 
mourners  understood  them  in  this  sense,  '  for 
they  laughed  him  to  scorn,  knowing  that  she 
was  dead '  (Lk),  but  inasmuch  as  the  narra- 
tive comes  from  Peter  himself,  who  was 
present,  and  is  told  as  a  miracle,  it  must  be 
held  that  she  was  really  dead,  and  that  Jesus 
spoke  of  her  as  sleeping,  because  He  was  about 
to  wake  her.  He  used  the  same  words  of 
Lazarus,  and  on  that  occasion  explained  them 
(Jnllii). 

Some  who  are  able  to  credit  the  miracles  of 
healing,  find  difficulties  in  crediting  the  miracles 
of  resurrection.  There  is,  however,  no  more 
real  difficulty  in  believing  the  resurrection  of 
Jairus'  daughter  than  in  believing  that  of  Jesus 
Himself.  The  former  illustrates  the  latter, 
and  is  rendered  probable  by  it.  It  should  be 
observed  in  this  connexion,  (1)  That  miracles 
of  healing,  important  as  they  are  as  proofs  of 
God's  benevolence,  are  entirely  inadequate  to 
illustrate  the  cardinal  doctrine  of  a  future  life 
(2)  That  Jesus  Himself  regarded  raising  the 
dead  as  part  of  His  ordinary  ministerial  work 
(115  Lk7-2),  and,  according  to  St.  Matthew, 
delegated  the  power  to  the  Apostles  (10  s),  in 
accordance  with  which  St.  Peter  afterwards 
raised  Tabitha  (AcQ^O). 

Christ's  three  miracles  of  resurrection  form 
a  graduated  series.  In  the  case  of  Jairus' 
daughter  the  spirit  had  hardly  fled.  The 
widow's  son  (LkT^^)  had  been  dead  longer, 
but  not  more  than  twenty-four  hours.  Lazarus 
(Jnll)  had  been  dead  four  days,  and  decom- 
position had  probably  begun.  Yet  we  are  not 
to  suppose  that  one  miracle  was  more  difficult 
than  another  to  Him  who  is  the  Resurrection 
and  the  Life. 

The  healing  of  the  woman  with  the  issue 
is  an  example  of  the  way  in  which  Jesus 
accepted  imperfect  faith  in  order  to  render  it 
perfect.  The  woman  was  superstitious.  She 
thought  that  a  kind  of  magical  virtue  resided 
in  our  Lord's  body,  ready  to  flow  out  to  heal 
without  any  act  of  will  on  His  part,  or  any 
act  of  faith  on  hers.  All  that  she  had  to 
do  was  to  touch,  and  in  doing  so  she  was 
careful  to  touch  (v.  20)  that  portion  of 
His  garment  which  to  a  Jew  was  holiest,  viz. 
the  tassel,  which,  in  accordance  withNulS^'^, 
every  Jew  was  required  to  wear  on  the  four 
corners  of  his  cloak  to  remind  him  of  Jehovah's 
commands.  But  since  there  was  real  faith 
mingled  with  her  superstition,  Jesus  allowed 
her  to  be  healed,  only  calling  her  back  after- 
wards to  make  her  faith  perfect.  By  saying 
'  "Who  touched  me  V '  and  insisting  on  a  full 
confession,  He  made  it  clear  to  the  woman  and 
to  others  that  He  had  healed  her  by  His  own 


deliberate  act,  and  was  fully  aware  of  all  the 
circumstances  of  the  case.  By  saying  ♦  Thy 
faith  hath  saved  thee,'  He  reproved  her  super- 
stition. Not  the  touch,  nor  the  holy  tassel, 
nor  the  supposed  magic  virtue  had  healed  her, 
but  her  faith. 

1 8.  While  he  spake]  According  to  this 
Gospel  the  ruler  came  to  Jesus  as  He  was 
sitting  at  meat  with  Matthew  the  publican. 
The  other  Gospels  record  the  incident  imme- 
diately after  the  return  from  the  country  of 
the  Gadarenes  (Gerasenes). 

Is  even  now  dead]  According  to  the  fuller 
narrative  of  St.  Mark  and  St.  Luke,  Jairus 
says  that  his  daughter  is  at  the  point  of  death. 
Afterwards  a  messenger  arrives  announcing 
that  she  is  dead. 

20.  A  woman]  Eusebius  (Church  Historian, 
Bishop  of  Csesarea  in  the  4th  cent,  a.d.)  says 
that  she  was  a  heathen,  residing  at  Paneas 
(Csesarea  Philippi),  near  the  sources  of  the 
Jordan.  '  Her  house  is  shown  in  the  city, 
and  the  wonderful  monuments  of  our 
Saviour's  benefit  to  her  are  still  remaining. 
At  the  gates  of  her  house,  on  an  elevated 
stone,  stands  a  brazen  statue  of  a  woman  on 
her  bended  knee,  with  her  hands  stretched 
out  before  her  like  one  entreating.  Opposite 
to  this  is  another  statue  of  a  man,  erect,  of 
the  same  materials,  decently  clad  in  a  mantle, 
and  stretching  out  his  hand  to  the  woman. 
This  statue  they  said  was  a  likeness  of  Jesus 
Christ.'  It  may,  however,  have  been  a  statue 
of  ^sculapius,  the  god  of  healing,  who  was  in 
great  favour  at  the  beginning  of  the  Christian 
era.  Touched  the  hem  (RV  '  border,'  or, 
rather,  '  tassel ')  of  His  garment]  see  prefatory 
remarks  on  vv.  18-26. 

23.  According  to  St,  Mark  and  St.  Luke 
only  Peter,  James,  and  John,  and  the  parents 
witnessed  the  miracle.  The  minstrels]  RV 
'  the  flute-players.'  The  rabbis  said,  '  Even 
the  poorest  among  the  Israelites  (his  wife 
being  dead)  will  afford  her  two  flutes  (i.e.  two 
male  flute-players  to  play  at  the  funeral  pro- 
cession), and  one  woman  to  make  lamentation.' 
The  multitude  of  hired  mourners  marks  the 
wealth  and  position  of  Jairus.  25.  St.  Mark 
gives  our  Lord's  actual  Aramaic  words,  Talitha 
ciimi,  i.e.  '  Maid,  arise.'  26.  St.  Mark  and  St. 
Luke  add  that  our  Lord  commanded  the  parents 
to  be  silent  about  the  miracle.  Some  think 
that  this  was  only  a  warning  against  religious 
gossip.  More  probably,  since  the  house  was 
surrounded  by  an  excited  crowd.  His  design  was 
to  prevent  a  tumult. 

27-31.  Healing  of  two  blind  men  in  the 
house  (peculiar  to  St.  Matthew).  Blindness, 
chiefly  as  the  result  of  ophthalmia,  is  exceed- 
ingly common  in  the  East,  and  several  miracles 
of  restoring  sight  to  the  blind  are  recorded  in 
the  Gospels:    1222  2030  21iiJn9.      In  this 


659 


9.30 


ST.  MATTHEW 


10.2 


case  Christ  elicited  a  definite  act  of  faith  from 
the  men  before  healing  them.  The  act  of 
touching  their  eyes  was  probably  intended 
to  aid  their  faith.  Their  addressing  Him  as 
Son  of  David  need  not  imply  that  they 
believed  Him  to  be  the  Messiah.  30.  Straitly 
charged]  i.e.  sternly  (see  RV)  charged  them, 
because  He  foresaw  that  they  would  disobey  : 
cp.  Til'',  etc. 

32-34.  Healing  of  a  dumb  man  (Lk  11 1^). 
This  miracle  is  given  by  St.  Luke  in  another 
connexion,  and  is  there  followed  by  a  reply 
by  Jesus  to  the  criticisms  of  the  Pharisees. 

32.  A  dumb  man]  The  Gk.  word  may  either 
mean  deaf  or  dumb,  or  both.  33.  It  was 
never  so  seen]  Their  wonder  was  excited  not 
merely  by  this  miracle,  but  by  a  long  series 
of  miracles  worked  in  succession,  of  which 
this  was  the  last.  34.  The  prince  of  the  devils] 
St.  Luke  '  by  Beelzebub'  :  see  on  12^*. 

35-38.  Tours  of  Jesus  in  Galilee  (peculiar  to 
St.  Matthew,  but  cp.  Mk  6  •5, 34  Lk  1 0  2).  The 
early  tours  of  Jesus  in  Galilee  enabled  Him  to 
gain  a  comprehensive  view  of  the  actual  spirit- 
ual condition  of  the  people.  It  was  a  very 
unfavourable  one,  yet  He  was  not  moved  to 
anger,  but  to  pity,  for  the  fault  was  not  in  them, 
but  in  their  guides.  '  They  were  distressed 
and  scattered  as  sheep  not  having  a  shepherd.' 
True  they  had  the  scribes  and  Pharisees,  but 
these  were  no  true  shepherds,  but  blind  leaders 
of  the  blind.  Yet  the  situation  was  hopeful. 
The  people  had  received  Him  gladly,  and  were 
eager  to  be  taught.  '  The  harvest  truly  is 
plenteous,  but  the  labourers  are  few.'  What 
was  wanted  was  more  missionaries  to  assist 
Him  in  His  work.  Hence  the  mission  of  the 
Twelve. 

36.  Cp.  Mk634.  37,  38.  St.  Luke  intro- 
duces this  saying  in  connexion  with  the  mission 
of  the  Seventy  (LklO^). 

CHAPTER  10 

Mission  of  the  Twelve 
I.  Mission  of  the  Tvyelve  (Mk67  Lk9i). 
This  mission  was  intended  partly  to  prepare 
the  way  for  visits  from  Jesus  Himself,  and 
partly  to  train  the  apostles  for  their  future 
ministry.  He  sent  them  out  '  two  and  two ' 
(Mk),  for  the  sake  of  mutual  encouragement. 
That  is  the  true  method  of  undertaking  mission- 
ary work,  as  the  experience  of  St.  Paul  shows. 
The  apostles  were  to  preach  a  little,  but  not 
much,  since  they  were  beginners.  They  were 
to  prepare  the  way  for  Jesus,  saying,  '  The 
kingdom  of  heaven  is  at  hand.'  All  accounts 
agree  that  they  were  to  work  miracles  on  a 
great  scale  ('  power  over  all  the  devils,'  Lk  ; 
'to  heal  every  disease,  and  every  infirmity,' 
Mt).  They  healed  by  anointing  with  oil  (Mk)  : 
cp.  JasSi'*.  Their  power  extended  even  to 
cleansing  the  lepers  and  raising  the  dead  (Mt). 


This  mission  began  about  five  weeks  before  the 
second  Passover  of  the  ministry  (JnS"*),  and 
lasted  about  a  month.  Having  dismissed  the 
apostles,  Jesus  went  up  to  Jerusalem  to  keep 
the  feast  of  Jn5^,  probably  Purim.  at  the 
beginning  of  March.  He  then  rejoined  the 
Twelve  shortly  before  Passover  :  see  on  JnG^. 

2-4.  The  names  of  the  Twelve  (MkS^^ 
Lk6i2  Ac  113).  At  an  early  period  in  His 
Galilean  ministry,  Jesus  selected  Twelve  from 
among  the  disciples  already  called  (Mk,  Lk), 
after  spending  a  night  in  prayer  in  '  the  moun- 
tain '  (Lk),  as  befitted  so  solemn  and  important 
an  act.  The  '  Sermon  on  the  Mount '  consti- 
tuted their  ordination  address  (Lk).  St.  Mat- 
thew assumes  these  facts  to  be  known,  and 
introduces  the  Twelve  abruptly,  Nov7  the 
names  of  the  twelve  apostles  are  these,  without 
mentioning  how  they  were  called  together. 
The  chief  significance  of  the  appointment  of 
the  Twelve  is  that  it  indicates  the  design  of 
Jesus  to  provide  His  society  with  an  ordained 
ministry,  and  to  give  it  a  thoroughly  efficient 
organisation  to  cope  with  its  world-wide  mission. 
The  number  twelve  was  suggested  by  the 
number  of  the  Jewish  patriarchs.  The  apostles 
were  to  be  the  patriarchs  or  spiritual  ancestors 
of  the  new  Israel. 

The  names  of  the  apostles  are  always  given 
in  three  groups  of  four  names,  of  which  the 
leaders  (Peter,  Philip,  James  of  Alphseus)  are 
mentioned  first  in  all  the  lists.  The  names 
are  always  kept  in  their  own  groups,  but  vary 
in  order,  except  that  the  leader  is  always 
placed  first. 

2.  Apostles]  An  '  apostle  '  (lit.  '  one  sent ') 
is  more  than  a  messenger  ;  he  is  a  messenger 
who  represents  the  person  who  sends  him,  an 
'  ambassador '  (2  Cor  5  ^O).  The  name  is  here 
introduced  because  this  mission  was  the  first 
occasion  on  which  the  Twelve  began  to  act  as 
apostles  or  ambassadors  of  Jesus.  The  name, 
though  specially  applied  to  the  Twelve,  was 
extended  to  embrace  St.  Paul,  St.  Barnabas, 
and  other  apostolic  men  (Acl44'i4,  etc.). 

Apostle  is  used  without  technical  meaning 
Jnl3i6(RM)  2  Cor  8  23  (RM).  The  Jews  had 
'  apostles '  who  were  sent  abroad  from  Jeru- 
salem to  collect  the  Temple -money.  The 
Greek  Chm'ch  calls  missionaries  'apostles,'  and 
the  Nestorian  Christians  apply  the  same  term  to 
the  delegates  of  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury. 

Simon,  who  is  called  Peter]  in  Aramaic 
Kephas  (a  '  rock  '  or  '  stone  ').  He  received 
the  name  at  his  first  call  ( Jn  1 43).  The  career 
of  Peter  can  be  constructed  from  these  refer- 
ences :  Mt4is  81^  1428  1510  16I8  1622  171  1724 

1821  1927  2633,37,58,69  lj^%Vo,bl  22  §.61  2412 
Jnl43  668  136,24,.86  1810,16  202  21  2f-  Ac  1 13. 15 
214    31    48    53,10,29    814    932    105     112    123    157 

lCorli2  322  95  155GalliS27lPetli2Petli. 
He  had  Mark  for  his  '  interpreter  '  (1  PetSi^). 


660 


10.  3 


ST.  MATTHEW 


10.  13 


The  tradition  of  his  Roman  residence  and 
martyrdom,  though  highly  probable,  is  not  quite 
certain.  He  is  first  in  all  lists  of  the  apostles. 
For  his  position  in  the  Church,  see  on  Mt  1618. 
Andrew]  4i8  Mkli»  133  Jnl^i  G^  122^.  ^ 
James  the.  unn  of  Zebedee]  sometimes  called 
'the  great':  Mkli^Si^  1037  Lk5i  g^s  Acl2i. 
The  first  apostle  to  be  martyred. 

John]  421  171  Mkl29  O^s  1035  133  1433 
Lk228Jnl35  1323  1815  1926,35  202  217  Acli3 
31  413  814  Gal  2  9  Rev  11.  See  Intro,  to  St. 
John. 

3.  Philip]   Jnl44  65  1221  148. 
Bartholomew]  i.e.    Nathanael   of   Cana    of 

Galilee  :  see  Jnl45  212. 

Thomas]  see  Jn  1 1 16  1 4  5  20  24  2 1 2.  There 
is  a  tradition  that  his  real  name  was  '  Judas.' 

Matthew  the  publican]  see  Intro,  and  on 
9  f*.     St.  Mark  calls  him  '  Levi.' 

James  the  son  of  Alphaeus]  lit.  '  James  of 
Alphseus.'  Called  James  '  the  less,'  or  rather 
'the  little,'  MklS^o.  His  mother  was  named 
Mary.  He  is  not  to  be  identified  with  James 
the  Lord's  '  brother,'  who  became  head  of  the 
Church  of  Jerusalem,  nor  is  his  father  Alphteus 
with  Clopas  (Jnl925),  nor  His  mother  Mary 
with  the  Virgin's  sister  (Jnl925)  :  see  further 
on  12-K5-50  Jnl925. 

Lebbaeus,  whose  surname  was  Thaddaeus] 
He  is  the  same  as  the  'Judas  of  James' 
(Lk6i6),  and  the  '  Judas  not  Iscariot '  (Jn  1422). 
Thaddaeus  is  perhaps  a  form  of  '  Theudas,'  and 
is,  therefore,  Greek.  Lebbaeus  is  Aramaic,  but 
its  meaning  is  unknown.  Some  regard  it  is  a 
form  of  '  Levi.' 

Although  Westcott  and  Hort  reject  Lebbaeus 
from  the  text  of  this  passage,  it  is  supported 
by  excellent  authorities,  and  it  is  hard  to 
account  for  its  insertion,  if  it  is  not  genuine. 

4.  Simon  the  Canaanite]  RV  '  the  Cananaean,' 
RM  '  the  zealot.'  '  The  Zealots  were  a  sect 
founded  by  Judas  of  Gamala  (or  of  Galilee, 
Ac  5  37),  who  headed  the  opposition  to  the 
census  of  Quirinius  6  or  7  a.d.  They  bitterly 
resented  the  domination  of  Rome,  and  would 
fain  have  hastened  with  the  sword  the  fulfil- 
ment of  the  Messianic  hope.  During  the  great 
rebellion  and  the  siege  of  Jerusalem  their 
fanaticism  made  them  terrible  opponents,  not 
only  to  the  Romans,  but  to  other  factions 
among  their  own  countrymen  '  (HDB.). 

Judas  Iscariot]  Both  Judas  and  his  father 
Simon  were  called  Iscariot,  lit.  '  man  of 
Kerioth,'  because  they  were  natives  of  Kerioth, 
a  village  of  S.  Judah,  near  Hebron  (Jnl525)^ 
He  was  the  only  Judfean  apostle  :  see  26i4>25,47 
273  Lk223  Jn67i  12*  132,2<3,20  132  Aclit5,25. 

5-42.  Charge  to  the  Twelve  (Mk67  Lk9i : 
cp.  also  Lkl02,  charge  to  the  Seventy).  The 
first  eleven  vv.  of  this  great  charge  (vv.  5-15) 
represent  Christ's  words  actually  spoken  to 
the  Twelve  on  the  occasion  of  this  mission. 


The  rest  of  the  charge  (vv.  16-42),  with  the 
exception  of  the  last  three  vv.,  represents 
instructions  given  by  Christ  at  other  times  to 
His  apostles  with  reference  to  their  missionary 
work  after  His  ascension.  St.  Matthew  adds 
them  to  the  charge  in  accordance  with  his 
custom  of  grouping  our  Lord's  sayings  of  a 
similar  character  together.  Specially  to  be 
noticed  are,  (1)  the  limitation  of  the  mission  to 
Israel,  and  (2)  the  extraordinary  authority 
over  the  whole  human  race  which  Christ  claims 
for  Himself  throughout  the  charge. 

The  charge  to  the  Seventy  (Lkl02)  is  al- 
most the  same  as  the  charge  to  the  Twelve. 
Our  Lord  probably  repeated  to  the  Seventy 
much  of  what  He  had  said  to  the  Twelve,  be- 
cause their  missions  were  so  similar. 

5-15.  The  charge  delivered  on  the  occasion 
of  the  mission. 

5.  Way  of  the  Gentiles]  i.e.  a  road  which 
leads  to  a  Gentile  district  or  city.  The  restric- 
tion to  the  Jews  was  part  of  the  divine  purpose 
that  the  gospel  should  be  offered  to  the  Jew 
first,  and  afterwards  to  the  Gentile.  It  was 
also  a  condescension  to  the  inexperience  of  the 
apostles,  who  would  find  their  work  easier  ' 
among  Jews  than  among  hostile  Samaritans  or  ' 
contemptuous  Greeks.  Only  when  their  train- 
ing was  complete  could  they  hope  to  face  a 
hostile  world  with  success.  On  account  of  the 
ease  of  their  mission,  and  their  certainty  of  a 
warm  welcome,  they  were  to  take  no  money  or 
food,  or  any  staff  to  defend  themselves  with 
(vv.  9, 10).  Yet  if  they  were  accustomed  to  use 
a  staff  they  might  take  one  (Mk).  Afterwards, 
when  Christ  spoke  of  their  future  mission  to  an 
unbelieving  and  a  hostile  world,  He  said  exactly 
the  opposite  (Lk  2236). 

7.  They  were  also  to  preach  '  that  men 
should  repent'  (Mk).  8.  Raise  the  dead]  to  be 
taken  literally.  The  clause  is  accepted  by  all 
recent  editors.  It  is  omitted  by  a  few  MSS, 
perhaps  because  there  is  no  mention  of  raising 
the  dead  on  this  occasion.  For  the  fulfilment 
see  Ac  9  40  20 10.  Freely  ye  have  received  the 
gift  of  working  miracles,  freely  exercise  it. 

9.  Purses]  i.e. '  girdles,'  in  which  money  was 
carried.  10.  Scrip]  RV  '  wallet,'  i.e.  provision- 
basket.  Two  coats]  i.e.  two  shirts  or  under- 
garments. Shoes]  wei-e  forbidden  as  too  luxu- 
rious. The  apostles  were  to  wear  only  sandals. 
'  Shoes,'  said  Lightfoot,  '  were  of  more  delicate 
use.  A  shoe  was  of  softer  leather,  a  sandal  of 
harder.'  The  workman  is  worthy  of  his  meat] 
or, '  of  his  hire '  (Lk).  Our  Lord  lays  great  stress 
on  the  principle  that  the  clergy  are  to  be  sup- 
ported by  the  Church,  and  not  to  be  obliged  to 
work  at  a  secular  calling  :  see  1  Cor  9 14  1  Tim 
517,18. 

II.  Worthy]  of  the  honour  of  receiving 
you.  12.  Salute  it]  i.e.  by  saying  '  Peace  be 
to  this  house.'     13.  If  the  house  be  worthy] 


661 


10.  14 


ST.  MATTHEW 


10.  23 


or,  as  St.  Luke  expresses  it,  '  if  the  owner  be 
a  son  of  peace,'  i.e.  a  peaceful  man,  worthy  of 
the  blessing.  14.  Shake  off  the  dust]  The 
rabbis  taught  that  the  dust  of  heathen  lands 
defiled.  They  said,  '  The  dust  of  Syria  defiles, 
as  well  as  the  dust  of  other  heathen  countries.' 
The  act  of  the  apostles,  therefore,  signified 
that  the  city  that  rejected  them  was  no  better 
than  heathen  :  see  on  AclS^i.  15,  Why  was 
the  sin  of  Sodom  less  ?  Because  the  men 
of  Sodom  sinned  largely  in  ignorance,  but 
rejecters  of  the  gospel  sin  against  light. 

16-39.  Later  charges  of  Jesus,  referring  to 
work  after  the  Ascension.  Vv.  16-22  were 
probably  spoken  in  Holy  Week  :  see  Mkl39 
Lk21i--^. 

16.  As  sheep  (Lk  '  lambs ')  in  the  midst  of 
wolves]  This  can  only  refer  to  the  later  per- 
secutions of  the  apostles.  According  to  a  very 
early  writer,  Peter  proceeded  to  ask,  '  What, 
then,  if  the  wolves  rend  the  sheep  ?  '  Jesus 
replied  that  after  death  the  lambs  need  not 
fear  the  wolves,  for  the  wolves  have  no  power 
to  slay  the  soul.  Wise  as  serpents,  and  harm- 
less as  doves]  cp.  a  saying  of  the  rabbis, '  The 
holy  and  blessed  God  said  to  the  Israelites, 
Towards  Me  the  Israelites  are  uncorrupt  like 
the  doves,  but  towards  the  Gentiles  they  are 
as  cunning  as  serpents.'  Jesus  meant  that  the 
apostles  were  to  use  every  human  device  to 
protect  themselves  from  persecution,  as  St. 
Paul  did  when  he  pleaded  his  Roman  citizen- 
ship. 

17.  But  beware  of  men]  better,  '  beware  of 
the  men,'  viz.  those  wolves  of  whom  I  have 
been  speaking.  Councils]  i.e.  courts  of  justice 
generally.  Scourge  you  in  their  synagogues] 
A  synagogue  was  also  a  court  of  justice  in 
which  three  Jewish  elders  sat  to  judge  both 
secular  and  religious  cases.  '  Scourging,'  said 
the  rabbis,  '  was  by  the  bench  of  three  '  :  cp 
Ac22i9  2611  2Corll24.  Wetstein  quotes  an 
interesting  account  of  a  modern  Jewish  scourg- 
ing. It  was  done  publicly  in  the  synagogue  in 
the  presence  of  a  large  congregation  of  men 
and  women.  The  man  was  bared  to  the  waist. 
The  porter  tied  his  hands  to  a  pillar.  Then 
the  '  precentor '  approached,  and  scourged  him 
with  thirty-nine  strokes,  a  Psalm  being  sung 
during  the  ordeal. 

18.  Before  governors  and  kings]  '  Governors ' 
were  the  Roman  governors  of  the  provinces, 
viz.  propraetors,  proconsuls,  and  procurators: 
cp.  Paul  before  Felix  and  Festus  (Ac  24 1  256). 
'Kings'  were,  (1)  the  emperor,  who  was  gener- 
ally so  called  in  the  East  ;  (2)  subject  kings, 
tetrarchs,  and  ethnarchs,  such  as  the  Herods 
and  Aretas  ;  (3)  independent  kings,  as  of  the 
Parthians,  Arabians,  and  Indians. 

For  a  testimony  against  them]  RV  to  them,' 
i.e.  to  the  Jews.  The  meaning  is,  that  when 
the  Jews  should  deliver  up  the  apostles  to 


662 


governors  and  kings,  the  speeches  of  the 
apostles  in  their  own  defence  would  be  a 
powerful  testimony  of  the  truth  of  Chi-istianity 
both  to  Jews  and  Gentiles.  This  really  hap- 
pened. The  persecutions  greatly  contributed 
to  spread  the  gospel,  partly  by  the  publicity 
which  they  gave  to  it.  and  partly  thi-ough  the 
inspired  testimony  which  the  martyrs  gave  to 
Christ.  When  the  aged  Poly  carp  (1 60  A.D.)  was 
brought  before  the  Proconsul  in  the  amphi- 
theatre of  Smyrna  and  urged  to  revile  Christ. 
'  he  looked  with  a  grave  face  at  all  the  multitude 
of  lawless  heathen  in  the  arena  .  .  and  said, 
Eighty  and  six  years  have  I  served  Him,  and 
in  nothing  hath  He  wronged  me  ;  and  how  then 
can  I  blaspheme  my  King  that  saved  me  ? ' 
19,  20.  Cp.  Lkl2ii>i2  in  addition. 
19.  Take  no  thought]  RV  'be  not  anxious.' 
It  shall  be  given  you]  cp.  the  courage  of 
Peter  and  John  (Ac4i3)  before  the  Sanhedrin. 

21.  The  brother  shall  deliver  up,  etc.] 
Actual  examples  of  Christians  being  delivered 
up  by  their  nearest  relatives  are  found  in  the 
Martyrologies,  but  the  saying  is  to  be  taken 
more  generally  to  refer  to  the  rupture  of  all 
ties  of  kindred  and  affection  on  account  of  the 
gospel. 

22.  Hated  of  all  'men']  cp.  Tacitus  the 
Roman  historian:  '(Nero)  inflicted  the  most 
cruel  punishments  upon  a  sect  of  people  who 
were  holden  in  abhorrence  for  their  crimes, 
and  called  by  the  vulgar  "  Christians."  The 
founder  of  that  name  was  Christ,  who  suffered 
death  in  the  reign  of  Tiberius,  under  his  pro- 
curator Pontius  Pilate.  .  .  This  pernicious 
superstition,  thus  checked  for  a  while,  broke 
out  again  ;  and  spread  not  only  over  Judaea 
where  the  evil  originated,  but  through  Rome 
also,  whither  everything  bad  upon  earth  finds 
its  way  and  is  practised.  .  .  A  vast  multitude 
were  apprehended  who  were  convicted,  not  so 
much  of  the  crime  of  burning  Rome,  as  of 
hatred  to  mankind.  .  .  They  were  criminals, 
deserving  the  severest  punishments  ':  cp.  also 
Ac  7  54.  To  the  end]  viz.  of  the  trials  and 
persecutions. 

23.  Flee  ye  into  another]  The  apostles  are 
forbidden  to  court  martyrdom,  and  the  wisest 
leaders  of  the  later  Church,  e.g.  Polycarp  and 
Cyprian,  gave  the  same  advice.  It  was  often 
found  that  those  who  rushed  eagerly  forward 
to  claim  martyrdom  contrary  to  our  Lord's 
command,  were  denied  the  grace  to  attain  the 
martyr's  crown.  '  Flee  ye  into  another  '  (RY 
'  the  next '),  '  for  owing  to  the  time  wasted  in 
going  from  city  to  city  to  avoid  persecution, 
ye  shall  not  have  gone  over  the  cities  of  Israel, 
till  the  Son  of  man  be  come,  and  the  Jewish 
nation  and  dispensation  destroyed.'  The  mean- 
ing, as  interpreted  in  the  light  of  events,  is 
that  until  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  the 
Twelve  were  to  confine  themselves  mainly  to 


10.  24 


ST.  MATTHEW 


10.  42 


evangelising  the  Jews,  a  task  which  would 
even  then  be  incomplete,  owing  to  the  hin- 
drances which  would  arise. 

Our  Lord  here  referred  to  His  coming  to 
destroy  Jerusalem.  The  apostles  understood 
Him  to  refer  to  His  final  coming.  This  ac- 
counts for  the  general  expectation  of  the  early 
Christians  that  the  end  of  the  world  would 
come  in  the  lifetime  of  the  first  believers  (1  Th 
415):  see  on  Mt24  Mkl332. 

24.  The  disciple,  etc.]  A  favourite  saying 
of  Jesus  used  in  several  different  connexions. 
Here  it  means  that  the  apostles  are  not  to 
expect  better  treatment  than  their  Master.  In 
LkG-*o  it  means  that  the  disciples  of  blind 
spiritual  guides  are  as  blind  as  their  teachers. 
In  JnlSi*^  it  means  that  since  Jesus  washes 
other  men's  feet,  the  disciples  must  do  so  too. 
In  Jnl52P  it  means,  as  in  St.  Matthew,  that 
the  apostles  are  to  expect  the  same  perse- 
cutions which  have  befallen  their  Master. 

25.  Beelzebub]  cp.  12  2iJn  8^8. 5--2.  The  true 
form  here  is  Beelzehoul^  which  is  altered  from 
Baahebub  (2  K 1  2).  '  Baalzebub '  means  '  Lord 
of  flies,'  and  appears  in  OT.  as  a  god  of  Eki-on 
who  gave  oracles.  '  Beelzeboul  '  in  NT.  is 
the  devil.  The  NT.  form  perhaps  means 
'  master  of  the  house '  (of  the  demons).  J. 
Lightf  oot  regards  it  as  meaning  '  lord  of  dung ' : 
see  on  1222f. 

26-33.  These  vv.  are  found  in  quite  another 
connexion  in  Lkl22-9. 

26.  Fear  them  not  therefore]  for  the  whole 
effect  of  their  persecutions  will  be  to  publish 
abroad  the  gospel,  which  but  for  their  action 
would  have  remained  obscure  :  cp.  Mk422 
Lk8i7  122,3. 

27.  What  I  tell  you  in  darkness]  A  pro- 
phecy that  the  labours  of  the  apostles  will  be 
more  successful  than  those  of  Jesus  Himself. 

•He  taught  with  indifferent  success  in  the  ob- 
scurity of  an  insignificant  and  remote  province. 
They  will  teach  successfully  in  the  publicity 
of  the  great  cities  of  the  empire,  Antioch, 
Ephesus,  Corinth,  Alexandria,  Rome.  What 
ye  hear  in  the  ear]  In  the  Jewish  schools  the 
rabbi  sat  in  his  chair,  and  whispered  in  Hebrew 
into  the  ear  of  his  interpreter,  who  then  pro- 
claimed aloud  in  the  vulgar  tongue  what  the 
rabbi  had  said.  So  the  apostles  were  to  pro- 
claim to  the  wide  world  what  Christ  had 
whispered  to  them  in  the  retirement  of  Gali- 
lee. Upon  the  housetops]  Proclamations  are 
still  made  in  the  East  from  the  flat  roofs  of 
houses.  E.g.  the  sabbath  is  proclaimed  by  the 
'  attendant '  of  the  synagogue,  who  ascends  to 
a  lofty  housetop,  and  blows  there  three  times 
with  the  synagogue-trumpet. 

28.  Him  which  is  able]  i.e.  God,  not,  as  some 
strangely  take  it,  the  devil.  In  hell]  i.e. 
Gehenna,  the  place  of  final  punishment  :  see 
522. 


29.  Sparrows]  At  the  present  day,  in  the 
markets  of  Jerusalem  and  Jaffa,  long  strings 
of  little  birds,  sparrows  and  larks,  are  offered 
for  sale,  trussed  on  wooden  skewers.  Farthing] 
(Lat.  assariu^)  i.e.  about  a  farthing  and  a  third. 

32,  33.  The  sense  is  that  in  the  day  of 
judgment  men's  fate  will  depend  upon  their 
attitude  to  Christ,  and  upon  Christ's  attitude 
to  them,  another  proof  of  Christ's  divinity. 

34-36.  These  vv.  occur  in  a  somewhat  dif- 
ferent form  and  in  a  different  connexion, 
Lk  12  51-53. 

34.  Think  not,  etc.]  Christ  could  not  expect 
that  His  claim  to  absolute  dominion  over  the 
soul  of  man  and  all  human  institutions,  would 
be  accepted  without  a  bitter  struggle.  But 
knowing  such  a  struggle  to  be  necessary  for  the 
establishment  of  peace  with  God  and  of  per- 
manent peace  on  earth.  He  deliberately  willed 
it.  '  The  sword '  stands  for  persecution,  and  for 
all  kinds  of  social  and  domestic  dissensions. 

37.  He  that  loveth  father,  etc.]  This  explains 
the  stronger  expression  in  Lkl42<3  about 
'  hating '  father  and  mother.  Observe  here, 
again,  the  tremendous  stress  upon  personal 
loyalty  to  Christ.  38.  Taketh  not  his  cross]  i.e. 
he  that  is'  not  willing  to  follow  Me  to  martyr- 
dom is  not  worthy  of  Me.  The  '  cross  '  stands 
here,  not  for  trouble  in  general  (though  this 
is  included),  but  for  actual  crucifixion,  the 
most  painful  and  degrading  form  of  martyr- 
dom. The  condemned  criminal  was  forced  to 
'  take  '  or  carry  his  cross  to  the  place  of  execu- 
tion. Christ  here  indicates  that  He  knew 
beforehand  not  only  the  fact  of  His  death, 
but  its  manner.  39.  Cp.  Lkl733,  where  the 
context  is  different.  He  that  findeth  his 
life]  i.e.  saves  his  life  in  time  of  persecution 
by  denying  Me,  shall  lose  it  in  the  next  world. 
He  that  loseth  his  life,  i.e.  by  martyrdom,  for 
my  sake  shall  find  it  in  the  next  world,  i.e. 
shall  enjoy  immortal  life.  The  passage  may 
also  be  applied  to  self-denial  in  general,  by 
which  man  loses  his  life  of  self-centred  world- 
liness,  to  find  it  again  enlarged  and  purified. 

40-42.  These  vv.  form  the  conclusion  of 
the  charge  to  the  Twelve,  and  are  not  to 
be  referred  to  a  later  date.  In  St.  Luke  the 
substance  of  them  forms  the  conclusion  of  the 
charge  to  the  Seventy. 

40.  Cp.  LklOi*5.  He  that  receiveth  you] 
Those  who  receive  Christ's  representatives, 
the  apostles,  and  after  them  His  ministers 
(i.e.  those  who  believe  their  message  spoken 
in  His  name),  receive  Him,  and  with  Him  His 
Father.  41.  He  that  receiveth  a  prophet,  etc.] 
The  meaning  is  that  those  who  receive  the 
apostles,  because  they  recognise  them  to  be 
prophets  and  righteous  men  and  disciples,  will 
receive  the  same  reward  as  they,  eternal  life. 

In  the  name  of  a  prophet]  i.e.  simply  because 
he  is  a  prophet  (a  Hebraism).     42.  These  little 


663 


11. 1 


ST.  MATTHEW 


11.  n 


ones]  a  tender  name  for  the  apostles  them- 
selves. Even  those  who  only  help  on  their 
miission  by  offering  them  a  cup  of  cold  water 
as  they  journey,  will  be  rewarded  :  cp.  Mk 
O"*!.  Some  think  that  'little  ones'  was  a 
standing  title  for  pupils  of  the  rabbis,  but 
clear  proof  is  wanting. 

CHAPTER   11 

The  Disciples  of  the  Baptist 
I.  Tours  of  Jesus  after  dismissing  His 
apostles.  The  apostles  started  on  their  mis- 
sion about  five  weeks  before  the  second  Pass- 
over of  the  ministry  (28  a.d.)  and  were  away 
about  a  month.  Jesus  spent  the  interval  partly 
in  Galilee  and  partly  in  Jerusalem,  whither  he 
went  to  keep  the  Feast  of  Purim  at  the  be- 
ginning of  March  (Jn5i).  He  rejoined  the 
Twelve  shortly  before  the  Passover  (JnG"^), 
and  immediately  afterwards  fed  the  five  thou- 
sand (Mk  6^0  Lk  910).  St.  Matthew  does  not 
mention  the  return  of  the  Twelve,  nor  does 
he  adhere  to  the  chronological  order  of 
events. 

2-6.  Deputation  from  the  Baptist  (Lk  7 1^), 
John,  knowing  that  his  end  was  near,  and  that 
many  of  his  disciples  were  jealous  of  the  success 
of  the  new  teacher,  and  disbelieved  His  claims, 
sent  certain  of  them  to  Jesus,  that  by  seeing 
His  works  and  hearing  His  words  they  might 
be  convinced  of  His  Messiahship.  The  objec- 
tions which  the  disciples  of  John  brought 
against  Jesus  (besides  the  want  of  strictness 
in  His  life),  were  (1)  that  He  did  not  openly 
proclaim  Himself  the  Messiah,  (2)  that  He 
did  not  work  the  mighty  signs  and  wonders 
which  were  generally  expected  of  the  Messiah. 
The  importance  of  the  occasion,  and  the  ob- 
vious sincerity  of  the  enquirers,  induced  Jesus 
to  depart  somewhat  from  His  ordinary  policy 
of  reticence.  By  a  reference  to  IsaG^,  He 
declared  plainly  enough,  and  yet  not  too 
plainly,  that  He  was  the  Messiah,  He  worked 
a  number  of  miracles  in  their  presence  in 
proof  of  His  Messianic  claims  (LkT^i),  and 
finally  sent  them  back  to  John  with  a  message 
in  which  He  expressly  mentioned  His  miracles, 
and  promised  a  blessing  to  those  who  should 
attach  themselves  to  Him.  The  spectacle  of 
Christ's  miracles  must  have  been  particularly 
impressive  to  the  disciples  of  John,  who 
worked  no  miracles  (Jn  10^^). 

It  is  very  generally  held  by  recent  writers 
that  John  himself,  as  well  as  his  disciples,  was 
doubtful  about  our  Lord's  Messiahship.  This 
is  not  impossible.  The  ideals  of  Jesus  di- 
verged so  widely  from  those  of  John,  that  the 
Baptist,  hearing  of  them  only  by  report,  would 
have  a  difficulty  in  understanding  them.  We 
must  allow,  moreover,  for  the  depressing  effect 
of  a  long  and  rigorous  imprisonment.  On  the 
other  hand,  it  must  be  remembered  that  the 


NT.  always  represents  not  John  himself,  but 
his  disciples,  as  doubtful  about  the  claims  of 
Jesus,  and  that  Jesus  makes  this  deputation 
the  occasion  of  one  of  the  strongest  eulogies 
upon  John  that  the  NT.  contains. 

2.  Sent  two  of  his  disciples]  RV  '  sent  by 
his  disciples.'    Only  St.  Luke  gives  the  number. 

5.  See  IsaGli  and  35^.  The  dead  are 
raised  up]  This  implies  a  larger  number  of 
such  miracles  than  the  three  mentioned  in  the 
Gospels.  St.  Luke  appropriately  places  the 
deputation  immediately  after  the  raising  of 
the  widow's  son.  The  poor  have  the  gospel, 
etc.]  Some  translate  this  '  the  poor  preach,' 
as  if  Christ  alluded  to  the  poverty  of  the 
apostles.  6.  Blessed  is  he  who,  in  spite  of 
all  hindrances,  shall  find  himself  able  to  believe 
in  me  as  the  Messiah. 

7-19.  The  praise  of  John  the  Baptist  (Lk 
724).  Lest  the  purpose  of  the  question  of  John, 
'  Art  thou  he  that  should  come  ?  '  should  be 
misunderstood,  Jesus  hastens  to  assure  the 
people  that  John  is  no  reed  shaken  by  the  wind, 
who  does  not  know  his  own  mind,  but  a 
prophet,  and  more  than  a  prophet.  He  then 
deplores  the  blindness  of  '  this  generation,' 
i.e.  the  party  of  the  scribes  and  Pharisees, 
who  can  discern  the  greatness  neither  of  John 
nor  of  Himself.  8.  John  was  no  sycophant 
or  flatterer,  making  friends  with  the  great 
and  wealthy  for  the  sake  of  sharing  their 
luxury  and  ostentation.  9.  RV  '  But  where- 
fore went  ye  out  ?  To  see  a  prophet  ?'  More 
than  a  prophet]  John  was  more  than  a  prophet, 
(1)  because  of  his  personal  relation  to  Jesus 
as  His  Forerunner  ;  (2)  because  he  actually 
pointed  out  and  baptised  Jesus  ;  (3)  because 
his  teaching  was  a  nearer  approach  to  the 
teaching  of  Jesus  than  that  of  any  of  the 
prophets. 

ID.  Before  thy  face]  Li  the  original  of 
Mai  31,  from  which  these  words  are  taken, 
Jehovah  Himself  speaks  of  His  own  coming, 
'  Behold,  1  will  send  my  messenger,  and  he 
shall  prepare  the  way  before  me.'  All  the 
evangelists  change  this  into  an  address  of 
Jehovah  to  the  Messiah,  '  shall  prepare  thy 
way  before  thee'  (Mkl2  Lkl^e,  727)^  which 
shows  that  they  borrowed  it  not  directly  from 
Malachi,  but  from  some  common  source  in 
which  the  change  or  paraphrase  had  already 
been  made, 

11.  He  that  is  least]  Jesus  means  that 
the  meanest  and  least  endowed  Christian  is 
greater  in  privilege  than  the  gi-eatest  men  of 
the  Old  Dispensation.  The  Baptist,  though 
so  near  the  kingdom,  was  not  within  it. 

12,  13.  St.  Luke  introduces  these  vv.  in  a 
quite  different  connexion  :  see  LklG^^  (a 
rebuke  to  the  Pharisees).  12.  From  the  days 
of  John]  Jesus  gives  John  the  credit  for  the 
multitudes  of  repentant  sinners  who  are  now 


664 


11.  13 


ST.  MATTHEW 


11.27 


crowding  into  the  kingdom,  and  in  their  eager- 
ness to  enter  may  be  compared  to  soldiers 
attempting  to  storm  a  town.  13.  The  pre- 
paratory dispensatio,n  of  the  Law  and  the 
Prophets  lasted  till  John.  John  first  an- 
nounced the   kingdom  as  something  present. 

14.  Jesus  states,  as  again  in  17  ^^  (cp.  Lk  1 1'^), 
that  John  was  the  Elijah  whom  the  Jews 
expected  in  accordance  with  Mai  4^.  He 
hints  that  they  may  be  unwilling  to  believe  it, 
partly  because  of  the  position  in  which  John 
now  is,  but  more  particularly  because  they 
expected  a  personal  return  of  Elijah  himself, 
and  not  another  prophet  with  similar  authority : 
see  on  17 10. 

15.  He  that  hath  ears]  A  frequent  observa- 
tion of  Jesus,  indicating  that  only  those 
whose  hearts  are  prepared  can  receive  spiritual 
truth  (139  Lk88  Rev  2  7,  etc.). 

16-18.  Jesus  rebukes  'this  generation,'  i.e. 
the  Pharisees  and  scribes  (see  Lk),  who  are 
pleased  with  neither  John  nor  Himself,  by  com- 
paring them  to  children  in  the  streets  playing 
at  weddings  and  funerals,  and  falling  out  over 
their  play.  Like  the  children  the  Pharisees 
are  only  playing — playing  at  religion  with 
empty  ceremonies  which  no  earnest  man  can 
take  seriously.  Like  the  children  they  are 
also  peevish  and  irritable,  unable  to  agree 
as  to  what  they  really  do  want  from  a  re- 
ligious leader.  The  asceticism  of  John,  which 
corresponds  to  the  wailing  in  the  game,  did 
not  please  them,  nor  does  the  joyous,  full, 
human  life  of  Jesus,  which  corresponds  to 
the  piping  for  the  dance.  Since  they  are  not 
in  earnest  themselves,  nothing  that  is  really 
earnest  can  please  them. 

19.  But  wisdom  is  (or,  '  was  ')  justified  of  her 
children]  i.e.  the  superiority  of  the  religion  of 
the  Baptist  and  of  Jesus  is  proved  by  the  lives 
of  their  disciples,  which  show  more  signs  of 
genuine  piety  than  those  of  the  Pharisees. 
'  Wisdom  '  is  here  the  religion  of  John  and 
of  Christ.  '  Her  children  '  are  their  disciples, 
who  have  been  mentioned  (v.  12)  as  ci'owding 
into  the  Kingdom  of  Heaven,  while  the 
Pharisees  remained  outside.  (See  Lk.)  B,Y 
reads,  '  Wisdom  is  justified  by  her  works,'  but 
the  meaning  is  the  same.  '  Her  works  '  are 
the  holy  lives  of  Christ's  and  John's  disciples. 

20-24.  ^^^  woes  upon  Chorazin,  Bethsaida, 
and  Capernaum  (Lk  1 0 1-^ ;  cp.  Mt  10  i^).  These 
were  the  cities  in  which  '  most  of  His  mighty 
works  were  done,'  and  yet  nothing  is  said  in 
the  Gospels  of  any  ministry  at  Chorazin, 
and  of  Bethsaida  we  only  know  that  the  five 
thousand  were  fed  there.  Chorazin  lay  4  m. 
NE.  of  Capernaum,  inland,  but  not  far  from 
the  lake.  There  are  said  to  have  been  two 
Bethsaidas,  one  E.  of  Jordan  near  the  head 
of  the  lake,  where  the  five  thousand  were 
fed,    generally   called   Bethsaida    Julias,    the 


665 


other  near  Capernaum,  W.  of  the  lake.  The 
latter  is  mentioned  Mk6''5  (cp.  Jn  6^"),  and 
probably  in  Jn  1*^  1221. 

23.  And  thou,  Capernaum]  Jesus  adapts  to 
Capernaum  the  prophecy  of  Isaiah  (Isa  1413) 
upon  Babylon  and  its  king.  Shalt  be  brought 
down  to  hell]  (lit.  '  Hades  ').  In  themselves 
the  words  might  simply  mean  that  Capernaum 
shall  cease  to  be  a  city  and  become  desolate, 
as  it  is  at  present  ;  but  the  context  suggests 
that  the  condemnation  of  its  unbelieving  in- 
habitants in  the  Day  of  Judgment  is  also 
alluded  to.       24.  See  on  10i'5, 

25-30.  Christ's  relation  to  the  Father  and 
to  mankind  (LklO^i).  A  sublime  utterance, 
this  '  pearl  of  the  sayings  of  Jesus  '  (Keim), 
'one  of  the  purest  and  most  genuine,'  'one  of 
Johannean  splendour'  (Meyer),  'an  aerolite 
from  the  Johannean  heaven'  (Hase).  As  a 
rule  in  the  synoptists  the  relation  of  Jesus  to 
mankind  is  the  theme  of  the  discourses,  but 
here  the  divine  Sonship  of  Jesus  is  affirmed 
in  terms  which  cover  the  whole  doctrine  of 
the  Fourth  Gospel.  '  This  passage,'  says 
Prof.  Sanday,  '  is  one  of  the  best  authen- 
ticated in  the  Synoptic  Gospels.  It  is  .  .  part 
of  that  "  collection  of  discourses,"  in  all  prob- 
ability the  composition  of  the  apostle  St. 
Matthew,  which  many  critics  believe  to  be  the 
oldest  of  all  the  Evangelical  documents.  And 
yet  once  grant  the  authenticity  of  this  passage, 
and  there  is  nothing  in  the  Johannean 
Christology  that  it  does  not  cover.  Even  the 
doctrine  of  preexistence  seems  to  be  implicitly 
contained  in  it.' 

25.  At  that  time]  Since  St.  Luke  connects 
this  utterance  with  the  return  of  the  Seventy, 
which  he  alone  records,  it  is  probable  that 
St.  Matthew  intends  to  connect  it  with  the 
return  of  the  Twelve,  which,  however,  he  does 
not  mention.  Yet  he  implies  it,  for  at  the 
beginning  of  the  next  c.  the  Twelve  are  again 
introduced. 

Hast  hid  (RV  '  didst  hide  ')  these  things] 
Jesus  thanks  God  that  the  simple  gospel 
which  the  Twelve  have  preached  has  been  un- 
derstood and  gladly  received  by  the  simple  and 
unlearned  people  (babes)  of  the  villages  and 
towns  through  which  they  had  passed,  but  has 
been  misunderstood  and  rejected  by  the  '  wise 
and  prudent '  (R V  '  wise  and  understanding '), 
i.e.  by  the  scribes  and  Pharisees  who  think 
themselves  such.  Jesus  is  glad  that  the  scribes 
and  Pharisees  have  not  declared  themselves 
disciples.  He  does  not  wish  to  enrol  them 
among  His  followers  until  they  have  given  up 
their  arrogance,  and  become  as  babes. 

27.  All  things  are  (or  '  were,'  or  '  have 
been')  deUvered  unto  me  of  my  Father] 
Having  just  called  the  Father  '  Lord  of  heaven 
and  earth'  (v.  25),  He  now  declares  that  the 
same   authority   belongs  to  Himself,  because 


11.  28 


ST.  MATTHEW 


12.  3 


all  created  things  have  been  committed  to  Him 
by  God.  This  supreme  authority  over  the 
universe  which  was  committed  to  Him  at  the 
creation,  was  exercised  by  Him  in  some  degree 
even  during  the  humiliation  of  His  life  on  earth 
(JnS^olS^  17^),  and  was  fully  restored  at  His 
resurrection  (28 1'^)  with  all  the  glory  pertaining 
to  it.  Such  power  could  not  be  committed  to 
a  creature,  and  the  possession  of  it  by  Christ 
can  only  be  explained  by  assuming  that  He  is,  as 
the  Fourth  Gospel  and  the  Epistles  represent 
Him  as  being,  the  creator  and  sustainer  of  the 
universe. 

No  man  (RY  '  no  one ')  kno^veth  the 
Son,  but  (RY  '  save ')  the  Father]  lit.  '  fully 
knoweth.'  Men  can  know  other  men,  but  only 
God  Himself  can  know  Jesus.  •  None  but  the 
Almighty  Father  has  full,  entire  possession  of 
the  mystery  of  the  Person  and  Office  of  the 
Son  :  it  is  a  depth  hidden  from  all  being  but 
His,  whose  pm-poses  are  evolved  in  and  by  it ' 
(Alford). 

Harnack  in  his  '  What  is  Christianity  ? '  says : 
'  Here  two  observations  are  to  be  made  :  Jesus 
is  convinced  that  he  knows  God  in  a  way  in 
which  no  one  ever  knew  Him  before,  and  he 
knows  that  it  is  his  vocation  to  communicate 
this  knowledge  of  God  to  others  by  word 
and  by  deed — and  with  it  the  knowledge  that 
men  are  God's  children.' 

Neither  (fully)  knoweth  any  man  (RV 
'  any  one  ')  the  Father,  save  the  Son]  Not 
only  does  Jesus  alone  fully  know  the  Father, 
but  He  alone  can  reveal  Him  :  cp.  Jn  1 1^ 
646  1015. 

28-30.  Jesus  invites  to  Himself  all  who 
feel  the  burden  of  sin,  and  who  find  their 
lives  and  even  their  religion  a  toil  to  them. 
He  will  release  them  from  the  yoke  of  mechan- 
ical religion,  make  them  humble  and  meek 
like  Himself,  and  give  them  pardon  and 
peace. 

28.  Come  unto  me]  He  does  not  say  '  unto 
God,'  but  '  unto  Me,'  making  Himself  the  dis- 
penser of  grace  and  the  centre  of  Clii'istian 
devotion.  That  labour]  that  find  life  a  toil 
to  them.  Are  heavy  laden]  with  the  burden 
of  sin,  from  which  they  can  find  no  relief  in 
the  unspiritual  and  burdensome  ordinances  of 
Judaism  and  Pharisaism:  cp.  AclS^o  R0.32S  g-i 
Heb  7 1^.  I  will  give  you  rest]  Again  not '  God,' 
but  '  I '  will  give  you  rest — rest  in  this  world 
and  in  the  next — rest  that  comes  from  peace 
with  God  and  pardon  for  sin,  which  I  am 
empowered  to  give  (9"). 

29.  Take  my  yoke  upon  you]  My  yoke 
does  not  consist  of  a  multitude  of  burdensome 
ordinances  like  that  of  the  Law  and  of  the 
Pharisees.  It  can  hardly  be  called  a  yoke 
at  all,  it  is  so  light.  True,  there  are  certain 
ordinances  which  every  Christian  must  observe, 
but  they  are  few  and  simple.     The  essence  of 


My  religion  is  that  men  should  be  humble,  and 
meek  and  loving  and  tender-hearted  as  I  am,  '' 
not  hard  and  proud  like  the  Pharisees.  Prac- 
tise these  things,  and  you  will  find  your  lives 
easy,  your  religion  a  joy,  and  your  souls  at 
rest. 

The  '  Yoke  of  the  Law '  was  a  common  phrase 
among  the  rabbis  to  express  the  burdensome 
nature  of  its  ordmances  :  cp.  AclS^*'.  '  Why 
tempt  ye  God,  that  ye  should  put  a  yoke  upon 
the  neck  of  the  disciples,  which  neither  our 
fathers  nor  we  were  able  to  bear  ?  ' 

I  am  meek]  Jesus  says  this  while  making 
Himself  the  object  of  the  religious  devotion  of 
the  whole  human  race.  Obviously,  therefore, 
His  claim  to  be  meek  and  lowly  can  only  be 
justified,  if  He  be  truly  divine. 

CHAPTER  12 

Plucking  Corn  on  the  Sabbath.     Blas- 
phemy AGAINST   the   HolY   GhOST 

1-8.  Plucking  the  com  on  the  sabbath  (IMk 

223  LkG^).  This  c.  begins  the  period  of  active 
conflict  with  the  Pharisees.  It  is  characteristic 
of  the  pedantry  of  the  Pharisees  that  their 
opposition  turned  more  upon  minute  points  of 
legal  observance  than  upon  broad  principles. 
The  Fourth  Gospel  agrees  with  the  synoptists 
in  making  the  sabbath  controversy  of  leading 
importance  in  the  development  of  hostility  to 
Christ  ( Jn  5  ^  7  22  9 1^).  St.  Matthew's  account 
of  this  incident  is  the  fullest. 

I.  At  that  time]  RY  '  season.'  This  is  one  of 
the  few  events  that  can  be  accurately  dated. 
The  corn  is  in  the  ear,  but  not  yet  quite  ripe 
for  reaping.  The  time  is  therefore  about  May 
(perhaps  April),  and  St.  Matthew  is  therefore 
correct  in  placing  the  event  soon  after  the 
return  of  the  Twelve  at  Passover-time  :  see 
on  111' 25.  But  there  is  no  attempt  at  s^i-ict 
chronological  order ;  e.g.  all  the  synoptists 
place  this  event  before  the  feeding  of  the  five 
thousand,  which  really  preceded  it.  On  the 
sabbath  day]  Lk  '  on  the  second  sabl^ath  after 
the  first '  :  see  on  LkG^.  Were  an  hungered] 
Why  ?  Some  think  they  had  been  engaged 
with  Jesus  in  some  arduous  spiritual  labours. 
More  probably  they  were  coming  home  from 
a  long  synagogue  service  tired  ?„nd  hungry. 
Jewish  custom  allowed  no  food  whatever  to 
be  eaten  on  the  sabbath  (except  by  the  sick) 
until  after  morning  service.  2..  That  v^hich  is 
not  lawful]  Maimonides  says :  '  He  that  reaps  on 
the  sabbath,  though  never  so  little,  is  guilty. 
jAnd  to  pluck  the  ears  of  corn  is  a  kind  of 
reaping.' 

3.  Have  ye  not  read]  Jesus  might  have 
defended  His  disciples  on  purely  technical 
grounds,  maintaining  that  they  had  broken  not 
the  Law,  but  the  interpretation  which  certain 
rabbis  placed  upon  it.  But  instead  of  this. 
He  laid  down  the  principle  that  even  the  Divine 


666 


12.  5 


ST.  MATTHEW 


12.  22 


Law  itself,  so  far  as  it  is  purely  ceremonial,  is 
subservient  to  human  needs,  and  can  be  broken 
without  sin,  for  adequate  cause.  He  took  first 
the  case  of  David,  who  together  with  his  com- 
panions ate  the  shewbread.  David's  act,  which 
was  sanctioned  by  the  high  priest,  who  at  the 
time  was  the  authorised  interpreter  of  the  Law, 
involved  three  distinct  l)reaches  of  the  divine 
Law,  (1)  the  entering  into  the  holy  place,  (2) 
the  eating  of  the  shewbread,  (3)  the  breach  of 
the  sabbath,  for  such  the  day  seems  to  have 
been. 

Our  Lord's  statement  of  the  case  shows 
careful  study  of  the  OT.  narrative  (IS 211): 
e.g.  it  is  not  said  in  the  OT.  that  David  entered 
into  the  tabernacle,  but  it  is  inferred  from 
v.  7,  where  he  is  seen  by  Doeg,  who  was 
'  detained  before  the  Lord.'  It  is  not  said 
that  David's  attendants  ate  the  shewbread, 
but  it  is  inferred  from  v.  5.  Nor  is  it  said 
that  the  day  was  the  sabbath.  This  is  inferred 
from  it  being  the  day  for  the  changing  of  the 
loaves  (v.  6),  which  was  the  sabbath  (Lv24'^). 
As  to  the  name  of  the  high  priest  at  this  time 
(a  well-known  difficulty),  see  on  Mk2^6_ 

5.  Or  have  ye  not  read  ?]  see  Nu  28  ^.  They 
had  read  it,  but  not  understood  the  principle 
which  it  implied.  Our  Lord  alluded  to  a 
recognised  Jewish  practice.  The  rabbis  said, 
'  There  is  no  keeping  of  the  sabbath  in  the 
temple.'  '  The  servile  work  which  is  done  in 
the  holy  things  is  not  servile.'  6.  One  greater 
than  the  temple]  lit.  '  a  greater  tiling.'  He 
means  Himself.  If  the  servants  of  the  Temple, 
doing  the  Temple's  work,  may  break  the 
sabbath,  much  more  may  the  servants  of  Christ, 
who  is  greater  and  holier  than  the  Temple. 

7.  I  will  have  mercy]  HosG*^,  quoted  also 
Mt9i3.  Here  the  meaning  is  that  God  is 
satisfied  if  men  keep  the  sabbath  in  the  right 
spirit,  i.e.  as  a  day  of  holy  rest.  He  does  not 
demand  obedience  to  an  irksome  code  of  sab- 
bath observance.  '  The  sabbath  was  made  for 
man,  not  man  for  the  sabbath '  (Mk  2  -7).  8.  The 
authority  of  the  Son  of  man  (the  Messiah) 
extends  to  the  abrogation  of  the  whole  Law, 
and  therefore  of  the  Law  of  the  sabbath. 
Observe  that  Jesus  rests  the  final  vindication 
of  His  disciples  upon  His  own  inherent 
authority,  which  extends  to  the  abrogation 
even  of  the  divine  Law  :  cp.  5^1  9*5. 

Some  understand  the  '  son  of  man '  here  to 
be  not  Jesus,  but  a  personification  of  the 
human  race,  so  that  the  meaning  is,  '  The 
human  race  may  adapt  the  sabbath  day  to  its 
needs.'  This  sense  would  suit  the  context, 
but  it  lacks  authority,  there  being  no  clear  and 
unambiguous  passage  where  the  phrase  '  the 
son  of  man  '  means  anything  but  our  Lord. 

9-21.  Another  sabbath  controversy.  The 
man  with  the  withered  hand  ( Mk  ?>  1  Lk  (1  '5).  The 
sequence  is  the  same  in  all  the  evangelists. 


St.  Luke   mentions   that   this  took  place  on 
another  sabbath. 

10.  A  man]  In  the  so-called  Gospel  of  the 
Hebrews  (65-100  a.d.)  the  man  with  the 
withered  hand  is  described  as  a  mason,  who 
begged  help  from  Jesus,  saying,  '  I  was  a 
mason  earning  my  living  with  my  hands.  I 
pray  Thee,  Jesus,  restore  me  my  health,  that 
I  may  not  disgracefully  beg  my  bread.' 

Is  it  lawful]  Only  malice  could  call  healing 
by  a  word,  without  labour  or  medicine,  a 
breach  of  the  sabbath.  Even  the  use  of 
medical  assistance  v/as  not  forbidden  in  all 
cases  on  the  sabbath.  The  rabbis  said,  '  All 
danger  of  life  or  limb  abrogates  the  sabbath,' 
and  this  was  interpreted  to  mean  even  possible 
danger.  11.  If  it  fall  into  a  pit]  The  schools 
of  Hillel  and  Shammai  differed  on  this  point, 
but  it  is  clear  from  our  Lord's  way  of  referring 
to  the  practice  that  it  was  generally  allowed. 

12.  How  much  then]  a  striking  saying  on 
the  value  of  human  life  and  health.  The 
literal  meaning  does  not  exclude  the  more 
spiritual  interpretation  that  a  man  is  of  more 
value  than  a  sheep  as  possessing  an  immortal 
soul. 

14.  Held  a  council]  RV  'took  counsel.' 
St.  Mark  adds,   '  with  the  Herodians.' 

15-17.  Cp.  MkS"-!^,  where  a  fuller  account 
is  given.  St.  Mark  mentions  that  the  multi- 
tudes came  from  Idumjea,  and  from  beyond 
Jordan,  and  from  Tyre  and  Sidon.  This 
explains  the  references  to  the  Gentiles  (vv. 
18,  21),  who  were  probably  among  those  who 
were  healed.  16.  Charged  them]  In  St.  Mark 
He  charges  the  unclean  spirits.  The  design 
of  Jesus  was  to  repress  the  dangerous  popular 
enthusiasm  which  might  lead  to  an  outbreak. 

17.  Esaias]  i.e.  Isaiah.  The  quotation  is 
from  Isa  42 1-^.  It  is  a  free  translation  from 
the  Heb.,  with  occasional  correspondences 
with  the  LXX.  It  curiously  omits  the  words, 
'  He  shall  not  fail  nor  be  discouraged,  till  He 
have  set  judgment  in  the  earth,'  which  would 
have  been  very  applicable  to  our  Lord  in  con- 
nexion with  the  discouragements  which  had 
just  begun.  18.  My  servant]  i.e.  '  the  Messiah.' 
Jesus  is  so  called  frequently  in  the  Acts 
(Ac  3 13, 26  RY^  4  27,  SORY)^  also  in  the  'Didache.' 
He  is  hardly  ever  so  called  in  later  writings. 

19.  He  shall  not  court  popularity. 

20.  The  bruised  reed  and  the  smoking  flax 
(or,  rather,  '  dimly  burning  wick ')  in  this 
connexion  are  the  persons  weak  in  body  whom 
Jesus  healed,  and  those  weak  in  faith,  whose 
faith  He  strengthened.  The  idea  is  that  Jesus 
is  tender  and  loving,  not  harsh,  towards  human 
weakness.  Judgment  is  here  the  Christian 
religion. 

22-37.  The  Pharisees  accuse  Jesus  of  being 
in  league  with  Beelzebub  (i\rk3^-^  ;  cp.  Lk 
1117-23  Mt93^-^-t).     The  ridiculous  charge  of 


667 


12.  23 


ST.  MATTHEW 


12.  32 


the  Pharisees  is  strong  evidence  of  the  genuine- 
ness of  Christ's  miracles.  They  would  have 
denied  them  if  they  could  (see  Jn9iS)^  but 
this  was  impossible,  so  numerous  and  notorious 
were  they.  So  they  started  the  flimsy  theory 
that  Christ  was  in  league  with  the  devil,  not 
really  believing  it,  but  out  of  malice. 

The  later  Jews  said  that  Jesus  learnt  how 
to  work  His  miracles  from  an  Egyptian  juggler, 
and  the  heathen  Celsus  (170  a.d.)  repeated 
their  calumny  with  some  improvements  of  his 
own.  The  Jewish  Talmudists  said,  '  The  son 
of  the  adulteress '  (i.e.  of  the  Vu-gin  Mary) 
'  brought  magic  out  of  Egypt,  by  cuttings 
which  he  had  made  in  his  flesh.'  'Jesus 
practised  magic  and  deceived,  and  drove  Israel 
to  idolatry.'  It  is  interesting  to  notice  that 
Mahomet  indignantly  repudiated  these  Jewish 
calumnies. 

23.  The  Son  of  David]  the  popular  title  of 
the  Messiah:  927  1522  20^0  219  22^2  Jn7^2. 
See  on  Mt  1 1.     24.  By  Beelzebub]  see  on  1025. 

26.  Satan]  The  original  Heb.  word  of  which 
diabolos  ('  devil ')  is  the  Gk.  translation.  It 
means  '  accuser,'   '  calunuiiator,'  '  adversary.' 

27.  Your  children]  i.e.  '  your  disciples.' 
Famous  rabbis  and  their  disciples  professed 
to  cast  out  devils  by  magic  and  exorcism,  and 
their  success  was  attributed  to  the  power  of 
God.  Why  then,  asked  Jesus,  are  My  miracles, 
which  are  much  more  striking  than  theirs,  and 
are  not  worked  by  magic,  but  by  a  mere  word, 
not  regarded  as  coming  from  God,  and  why  do 
I  not  receive  from  you  the  same  honour  as 
your  own  exorcists  ?  Josephus  (born  37  A.D.) 
writes  :  '  I  have  seen  a  certain  man  of  my  own 
country,  whose  name  was  Eleazar,  releasing 
people  that  were  demoniacal  in  the  presence 
of  Vespasian  and  his  sons  and  his  captains. 
He  put  a  ring  to  the  nostrils  of  the  demoniac, 
and  drew  out  the  demon  through  his  nostrils 
.  .  making  mention  of  Solomon  and  reciting 
the  incantations  which  he  composed.'  See 
also  Acl9i3  Tob82. 

28.  By  the  Spirit  of  God]  Lk  1 1 20,  '  by  the 
finger  of  God.'  Then  the  kingdom  of  God  is 
come  unto  you]  This  is  shown  not  by  the  mere 
fact  of  Jesus  working  miracles  (the  exorcists 
were  supposed  to  work  them  too),  but  by  the 
extraordinary  character,  number,  and  variety 
of  His  miracles,  which  fully  fulfilled  what  the 
prophets  had  spoken  of  the  wonders  of  the 
Messianic  age  :  see  on  11 2-6. 

29.  The  argument  is,  '  No  man  can  carry 
away  the  furniture  from  a  strong  man's  house 
until  he  has  overpowered  and  bound  the  strong 
man.  So  I  could  not  remove  the  inferior 
devils  out  of  the  bodies  of  men,  unless  I  had 
first  conquered  and  bound  their  master,  Satan 
himself.' 

30.  He  that  is  not  with  me  is  against  me] 
Jesus  refers  to  the  Pharisees.     Since  they  do 


not  take  His  side  in  His  warfare  against  Satan, 
they  are  on  Satan's  side.  Since  they  do  not 
help  Him  to  gather  the  sheaves  of  the  spiritual 
harvest,  they  scatter  them  and  prevent  them 
from  being  gathered  into  God's  garner  :  see 
312. 

Some  think  that  '  he  that  is  not  with  me  ' 
and  '  that  gathereth  not  with  me  '  is  Satan. 
This  also  makes  good  sense. 

31.  The  blasphemy  against  the  Holy  Ghost 
(Mk  3  28-30  Lkl2i*J).  What  this  sin  was  is  not 
really  doubtful.  St.  Matthew  intimates  that 
the  Pharisees  had  come  very  near  to  commit- 
ting it.  St.  Mark  states  exactly  what  their 
sin  was.  It  lay  in  their  malignant  slander 
that  Jesus  was  possessed  by  an  unclean  spirit. 
They  regarded  the  spirit  of  holiness,  which 
showed  itself  in  the  acts  and  miracles  of  Jesus, 
as  diabolical.  They  called  good  evil  and  evil 
good,  having  become  like  Satan  himself,  dead 
to  every  impression  of  true  holiness,  and  un- 
able to  recognise  it  when  they  saw  it.  The 
sin  is  not  a  sin  against  the  Holy  Spirit  con- 
sidered as  a  divine  person,  but  against  the 
Spirit,  as  manifested  in  the  perfect  life  of 
Christ,  whose  acts  so  evidently  reflected  God's 
own  benevolence  and  holiness,  that  to  ascribe 
them  to  the  devil,  was  a  sin  of  the  most  deadly 
character.  This,  and  not  blasphemy  against 
Christ  in  general,  or  denial  of  His  claims,  or 
active  opposition  to  Him,  or  even  putting  Him 
to  death,  is  the  unpardonable  sin. 

It  is  a  significant  fact  that  even  the  most 
exacting  modern  critics  of  Christ  repudiate 
the  Pharisaic  position.  Men  like  Renan  and 
Strauss,  who  reject  His  divine  claims,  and  find 
many  faults  with  His  career,  yet  recognise 
Him  as  one  in  whom  the  Spirit  of  God  dwelt, 
and  as  one  of  the  greatest  religious  heroes  of 
mankind.  And  those  who  think  thus  are  not 
far  from  the  kingdom  of  God  :  cp.  Lkl2io  ; 
see  further  on  Heb  6*  1026  1  Jn5i6. 

32.  The  vjorld  to  come]  This  phrase  has 
two  meanings  among  the  Jews,  (1)  the  age  of 
the  Messiah  which  begins  with  the  resurrection 
of  the  dead,  (2)  the  state  of  souls  after  death. 
E.g.  they  say,  '  The  world  to  come  is,  when  a 
man  is  departed  out  of  this  world.'  The  second 
meaning  is  to  be  adopted.  Jesus  declares  the 
sin  against  the  Spirit  to  be  unpardonable  either 
before  or  after  death.  The  punishment  is 
eternal,  because,  as  St.  Mark  says,  the  sin  itself 
is  eternal,  a  token  of  a  nature  so  far  gone  in 
depravity  that  repentance  is  impossible,  and 
recovery  hopeless.  It  is  this  hardened  and 
vitiated  character,  not  the  isolated  sin,  that 
God  punishes. 

This  passage  has  fre^quently  been  regarded 
as  containing  a  hint  of  the  possibility  of  pardon 
beyond  the  gi-ave.  St.  Augustine  says,  '  For 
it  would  not  be  truly  affirmed  of  certain  per- 
sons that  they  are  not  pardoned  in  this  world 


668 


12.  33 


ST.  MATTHEW 


12.  40 


or  the  next,  unless  there  were  some  who 
though  not  pardoned  in  this,  yet  are  pardoned 
in  the  world  to  come.'  Plumptre  says,  '  If 
one  sin  only  is  thus  excluded  from  forgiveness 
in  that  "  coming  age,"  other  sins  cannot  stand 
on  the  same  level,  and  the  darkness  behind 
the  veil  is  lit  up  with  at  least  a  gleam  of  hope.' 
Stier  speaks  of  '  the  demonstrable  inference 
that  other  sins  are  forgiven  also  in  the  world 
to  come.'  Olshausen  infers  '  that  all  other 
sins  can  be  forgiven  in  the  world  to  come,  of 
course  under  the  general  presuppositions  of 
repentance  and  faith.' 

The  view  that  pardon  beyond  the  grave  is 
impossible,  is  learnedly  maintained  by  J. 
Lightfoot,  who  is  followed  by  A.  B.  Bruce. 
Many  commentators  leave  the  question  open, 
but  there  is  a  tendency  in  modem  times  to 
admit  the  possibility.  With  this  question  is 
closely  connected  that  of  prayer  for  the  dead. 
Both  the  belief  in  the  terminable  nature  of 
future  punishment  and  the  practice  of  prayer 
for  the  dead  were  familiar  to  our  Lord's 
contemporaries. 

33-36.  Cp.  Lk  643-45. 

33.  '  Pharisees,  be  logical.  You  say  that  to 
cast  out  devils  is  good,  but  that  I  who  do  it, 
am  corrupt.  That  is  as  if  you  said.  The  fruit 
of  this  tree  is  good,  but  the  tree  itself  is 
corrupt.  Make  up  your  minds  which  way  you 
will  have  it.  Either  say  that  My  works  are 
good,  and  therefore  that  I  am  good  also,  or 
else  that  My  works  are  corrupt,  and  that 
therefore  I  am  corrupt  also.  You  cannot 
separate  a  tree  from  its  fruit,  for  a  tree  is 
known  by  its  fruit.  Nor  can  you  separate  a 
man  from  his  works,  for  he  is  known  by  them.' 

34.  '  The  same  argument  applies  to  words. 
A  man  is  known  by  his  words.  "  Out  of  the 
abundance  of  the  heart  the  mouth  speaketh." 
Your  evil  and  venomous  words,  declaring  that 
I  have  an  evil  spirit,  and  work  My  miracles  by 
Beelzebub,  prove  you  to  be  really  the  "  off- 
spring of  vipers,"  as  John  has  already  rightly 
called  you  (3'^).  Such  men  as  you  cannot, 
even  if  you  would,  speak  good  words.' 

36.  Every  idle  word]  i.e.  every  idle  word 
that  expresses  the  true  inward  character  of 
the  man.  These  will  pronounce  judgment 
upon  him. 

38-45.  A  sign  demanded.  Astounding  im- 
pudence after  they  had  just  ascribed  His 
miracles  to  Beelzebub,  and  declared  Him 
possessed  with  an  unclean  spirit.  It  was  the 
practice  of  Jesus  to  work  signs  for  those  who 
sought  them  in  a  right  spirit.  He  worked 
many  for  the  disciples  of  John(114).  He 
raised  Lazarus  '  that  they  may  believe  that 
Thou  didst  send  Me  '  (Jn  1 1 42).  Signs,  how- 
ever, were  for  honest  enquirers,  not  for 
malignant  enemies  like  the  Pharisees.  More- 
over, the  sign  which  they  asked  was  not  of  the 


kind  which  Christ  was  willing  to  work.  They 
wanted  a  mere  portent  which  appealed  to 
the  sense  of  wonder,  and  had  no  spiritual  or 
moral  significance.  Such  signs  Jesus  always 
refused.  Yet  in  refusing.  He  promised  a 
future  sign  so  remarkable  as  to  startle  believers 
and  unbelievers  alike.  His  own  Resurrection. 

38.  Lklli«:  cp.  Mtl6i  MkSH.  A  sign] 
Lk  '  a  sign  from  heaven'  :  something  startling, 
unlike  the  healing  of  the  sick  to  which  they 
were  accustomed.  Let  Him  repeat  the  mira- 
cle of  Moses,  and  call  down  manna  from  the 
skies,  as  the  Messiah  was  expected  to  do 
(Jn630). 

39-42.   Lk  11 29-36. 

39.  Adulterous]  True  religion  was  repre- 
sented by  the  prophets  as  marriage  with  Jeho- 
vah, so  that  apostasy  from  Him  was  called 
adultery  or  fornication  (Isa  57  3,  etc.). 

The  sign  of  the  prophet  Jonas]  RV  'Jonah.' 
'  The  sign  of  the  prophet  Jonah,'  which  is 
mentioned  here  and  in  164  as  the  only 
sign  to  be  vouchsafed  to  unbelievers,  is  un- 
derstood by  some  to  be  our  Lord's  Resurrec- 
tion, and  by  others  His  preaching.  The 
question  turns  upon  the  authenticity  of  1240. 
If  this  is  authentic,  the  sign  is  certainly  the 
Resurrection  ;  if  it  is  not  authentic,  the  sign 
is  probably  our  Lord's  preaching,  which  is 
expressly  compared  to  Jonah's  preaching  to 
the  Ninevites  (1241  Lkll32).  The  question 
is  a  difficult  one.  Against  the  authenticity  of 
the  V.  may  be  pleaded  its  omission  by  St.  Luke 
and  the  nature  of  the  context,  which  speaks  of 
the  preaching  of  Solomon  and  Jonah.  In 
favour  of  the  authenticity  may  be  pleaded  the 
fact  that  the  v.  shows  clear  traces  of  an  Aramaic 
origin,  and  therefore  presumably  formed  part  of 
Matthew's  Hebrew  '  logia ' ;  also  that  it  contains 
an  historic  difficulty  (the  statement  that  our 
Lord's  body  lay  for  three  nights  in  the  grave) 
which  would  easily  account  for  its  omission 
by  St.  Luke.  The  present  writer  holds  1240 
to  be  an  authentic  part  of  the  Matthaean  '  logia,' 
and  therefore  '  the  sign  of  Jonah '  to  be  the 
Resurrection  :  cp.  27  •'S  Jn2i9. 

40.  Three  days  and  three  nights]  The  diffi- 
culty is  that  our  Lord  only  lay  in  the  grave  tivo 
nights.  The  expression  resembles  the  Jewish 
inclusive  way  of  reckoning  ('  on  the  third  day,' 
etc.),  but  goes  beyond  it.  The  most  plausible 
explanation  is  that  of  J.  Lightfoot.  He 
supposes  that  Jesus,  speaking  in  Aramaic,  said, 
'  The  son  of  man  shall  be  three  'omihs  in  the 
heart  of  the  earth.'  'Onah  meant  a  day  and 
a  night,  and  a  part  of  an  'tmah  was  reckoned  as 
a  whole,  so  that  the  Gk.  translator  not  quite 
accurately  rendered  the  expression,  '  three  days 
and  three  nights.'  The  heart  (i.e.  'centre') 
of  the  earth]  Not  the  grave,  which  is  on  the 
surface,  but  Hades,  which  popular  imagination 
placed  in  the  centre  of  the  earth. 


669 


12.  42 


ST.  MATTHEW 


12.  50 


Our  Lord's  use  of  the  story  of  Jonah  and 
the  whale,  to  illustrate  His  Resurrection,  need 
not  imply  that  He  regarded  it  as  literal  his- 
tory. The  book  of  Jonah  is  probably  a  sym- 
bolical or  allegorical  narrative  (see  Intro,  to 
Jonah).     42.  The  queen]  see  on  IKIO^. 

43-45.  The  return  of  the  unclean  spirit 
(Lkll2-t-26).  The  connexion  in  St.  Matthew 
is  preferable. 

The  expulsion  of  the  evil  spirit  represents 
the  submission  of  the  nation  to  the  baptism 
of  John,  which  was  a  baptism  of  repentance. 
The  sweeping  and  garnishing  of  the  house 
represents  the  superficial  but  fairly  general 
acceptance  of  Christ's  teaching  during  the 
early  part  of  His  ministry,  to  which  the  Gospels 
bear  witness.  The  return  of  the  evil  spirit 
with  seven  other  spirits  more  wicked  than 
himself  represents  the  obstinate  and  final 
rejection  of  Christ  by  the  nation,  which  was 
soon  to  follow,  and  of  which  the  blasphemy 
of  the  Pharisees  and  their  unbelieving  demand 
for  a  sign  were  already  an  earnest. 

According  to  the  primary  meaning  of  the 
parable,  the  possessed  man  represents  the 
Jewish  nation.  But  the  Christian  preacher 
is  quite  within  his  rights  when  he  proceeds  to 
apply  it  to  the  individual  soul,  and  to  urge  the 
necessity  of  full  and  complete  repentance,  the 
deceitf ulness  of  merely  formal  religion,  and  the 
danger  of  relapse.  The  details  of  the  habits 
of  demons  are  not  to  be  pressed.  Christ 
adopts  the  popular  phraseology  about  them  as 
part  of  the  machinery  of  the  parable,  without 
necessarily  endorsing  it  in  all  respects. 

43.  A  man]  i.e.  the  Jewish  nation. 

Dry  places]  or  deserts,  were  supposed  to 
be  the  favoui-ite  abode  of  demons  (TobS^ 
Baruch435  Isal32i  3414).  These  pictorial 
details  must  not  be  pressed  as  if  they  were 
dogmatic  statements. 

44.  My  house]  i.e.  the  man  himself  ;  here, 
the  nation.  Empty]  Though  the  evil  has 
been  temporarily  expelled,  nothing  good  has 
been  put  in  its  place,  so  that  the  demon  can 
return.  If  our  Lord  had  been  admitted,  the 
return  would  have  been  impossible.  The 
'  sweeping  '  and  '  garnishing  '  is  that  empty 
show  of  faith  and  repentance  and  good  works, 
which  only  invites  a  more  terrible  fall. 

45.  Seven]  Symbolical  for  completeness. 
As  many  as  the  house  will  hold.  Mary  of 
Magdala  had  seven  devils  (Mkl69  Lk82). 

46-50.  His  mother  and  brethren  (MkS^i 
Lk8i9).  Jesus  here,  as  on  other  occasions, 
declares  Himself  independent  of  family  ties, 
and  united  by  spiritual  kinship  to  all  who  do 
God's  will. 

The  Brethren  of  Jesus 

Our  Lord  had  four  '  brethren,'  James, 
Joseph  (Joses),  Simon,  Judas  ;    and  at  least 


three  sisters  (13  ^5)_  What  their  exact  relation- 
ship to  Him  was,  is  not  certain.  There  are 
three  main  views — (1)  that  of  St.  Jerome,  hence 
called  the  Hieronymian  view,  that  they  were 
our  Lord's  cousins,  being  sons  of  Mary  the 
Virgin's  sister  and  of  Clopas  (see  Jn  19  25  RV). 
Most  supporters  of  this  view  think  that  three 
of  the  brethren  were  apostles.  Jerome's 
theory,  until  recently  the  predominant  one  in 
England,  is  now  held  by  very  few.  (2)  The 
Epiphanian  view,  so  called  from  its  advocacy 
by  St.  Epiphanius,  that  they  were  sons  of 
Joseph  by  a  former  wife.  This  is  the  theory 
of  the  Eastern  Church,  and  has  been  learnedly 
supported  in  England  by  Lightfoot.  (3)  The 
Helvidian  view,  advocated  in  ancient  times  by 
Helvidius,  that  they  were  children  of  Joseph 
and  Mary  born  after  Jesus.  Prof.  Mayor  is 
the  chief  recent  exponent  of  this  view. 

The  arguments  for  the  last  two  views  are 
nearly  evenly  balanced,  and  it  is  difficult  to 
decide  which  is  right. 

The  following  points  seem  certain  from  the 
NT.  :— 

(1)  That  the  '  brethren  '  did  not  live  with 
'  Marj-  of  C'lopas,'  but  with  the  Virgin  Mary, 
and  were  regarded  as  members  of  her  family 
(1246  1,355  jn  2 12  73). 

(2)  That  they  were  jealous  of  Jesus,  and  up 
to  th-e  Eesuirection  disbelieved  His  claims 
(Mk32i  64  Jn75f,). 

(3)  And  that  consequently  none  of  the 
brethren  were  included  among  the  Twelve 
Apostles. 

(4)  That  they  were  converted  after  the 
Resurrection  by  the  appearance  to  James 
(1  Cor  15''),  and  henceforth  associated  them- 
selves with  the  disciples  (Ac  1 1^). 

The  chief  arguments  in  favour  of  the  Epi- 
phanian view  are  : — 

(1)  That  it  represents  the  most  ancient 
tradition,  being  already  current  in  Palestine  in 
the  2nd  century. 

(2)  That  if  the  Virgin  had  had  a  large 
family,  some  of  the  members  of  which,  like 
James  the  bishop  of  Jerusalem,  attained  to 
prominent  positions  in  the  Church,  the  (practi- 
cally) unanimous  tradition  that  she  remained 
always  a  virgin,  could  never  have  arisen. 

(3)  That  it  is  more  reverent  to  suppose  that 
our  Lord's  mother  never  had  any  other 
children. 

(4)  That  Lk  126-38  implies  that  ah-eady 
before  the  birth  of  Jesus,  she  had  devoted 
herself  (with  her  betrothed's  consent)  to  a  life 
of  virginity. 

(.5)  That  our  Lord  upon  the  cross  would 
not  have  committed  the  care  of  His  mother  to 
St.  John,  if  she  had  had  four  living  sons  to 
support  her. 

The  chief  arguments  in  favour  of  the 
Helvidian  view  are  : — 


670 


13. 


ST.  MATTHEW 


13.  3 


(1)  That  the  high  esteem  for  virginity 
generally  prevalent  in  the  early  Church  made 
Christians  unwilling  to  think  of  Mary  as  the 
mother  of  other  children,  and  consequently 
the  Epiphanian  theory  was  invented. 

(2)  That  Lk  2  ^  implies  that  Mary  had  other 
children. 

(3)  That  Mt  1 18-25  imply  that  the  connubial 
relations  of  Joseph  and  Mary  after  the  birth 
of  Jesus  were  of  the  usual  kind. 

(4)  That  '  brother,'  when  used  without 
further  explanation,  naturally  means  a  full 
brother,  and  not  a  half  brother,  or  foster  brother. 

In  the  opinion  of  the  present  writer  the 
arguments  for  the  Epiphanian  view  slightly 
preponderate. 

CHAPTER  13 

A  Day  of  Parables 
i-S'^-  Teaching  by  parables  begun  (Mk  4 1 

LkS*^).  This  c.  introduces  a  new  type  of 
teaching,  that  by  parables.  St.  Matthew  gives 
us  a  group  of  seven,  the  first  four  of  which 
(the  Sower,  the  Tares,  the  Mustard  Seed,  the 
Leaven)  were  addressed  to  the  multitudes,  and 
the  last  three  (the  Hid  Treasure,  the  Pearl, 
and  the  Draw-net)  to  the  disciples.  St.  Mark 
gives  only  four  parables  on  this  occasion, 
St.  Luke  only  two.  St.  Matthew's  group  of 
seven  forms  '  a  great  whole,  setting  forth  the 
mystery  of  the  kingdom  in  its  method  of  estab- 
lishment, its  corruption,  its  outward  and  in- 
ward growth,  the  conditions  of  entrance  into 
it,  and  its  final  purification.' 

St.  Matthew  and  St.  Mark  both  agree  that 
Jesus  did  not  begin  to  teach  regularly  in  para- 
bles until  opposition  to  His  teaching  had  deve- 
loped, and  the  people  under  the  influence  of 
the  Pharisees  and  scribes  had  begun  to  harden 
themselves  against  His  influence,  and  to  criti- 
cise His  doctrine  (vv.  10-16  Mk  4ii'i2 ;  cp.  also 
LkS^'^).  One  purpose  of  His  parabolic  teach- 
ing was  to  conceal  His  doctrine  from  the  unfit 
(see  on  vv.  10-16)  as  a  punishment  for  their 
wilful  blindness  and  spiritual  unreceptiveness. 
But  the  parables  also  served  to  reveal  the 
truth  in  suggestive  and  stimulating  forms  to 
the  fit.  They  arrested  the  attention,  remained 
in  the  memory,  and  could  not  fail  in  a  re- 
flective and  devout  mind  to  unfold  gradually 
somewhat  of  their  meaning.  They  acted  as 
a  test.  They  repelled  those  who  were  unre- 
ceptive  and  lacking  in  industry  and  earnestness, 
but  they  attracted  the  earnest  disciples  who 
knew  that  precious  treasure  was  concealed  be- 
neath the  surface,  and  were  willing  to  dig 
deep  until  they  found  it. 

The  method  of  teaching  by  parables  was  not 
new.  There  are  several  good  examples  in  the 
OT.  (see  e.g.  2  S 121-4  14  5  f.  iK2030f.  Isa5i-6 
2824-2S)_  It  was  also  known  to  the  rabbis  : 
e.g.  it  was  said  of  Rabbi  Meir  that  a  third  part 


of  his  discourses  was  tradition,  a  third  alle- 
gory, a  third  parable  ;  but  Christ  made  the 
parable  form  so  completely  His  own  that  few 
since  His  time  have  ventured  to  imitate  Him. 
Neither  the  Apostles  nor  any  of  the  Christian 
fathers  (except  Hermas)  are  known  to  us  as 
authoi's  of  parables. 

There  is  some  doubt  as  to  the  exact  extent 
to  which  the  details  of  our  Lord's  parables  are 
intended  to  be  interpreted.  Many  recent 
writers  maintain  that  each  pai'able  is  intended 
to  enforce  a  single  idea,  and  that  none  of  the 
details  are  significant.  This  seems  going  be- 
yond the  evidence,  and  even  against  it.  All 
the  synoptic  evangelists  represent  Jesus  as 
interpreting  the  details  of  the  parable  of  the 
Sower(13i8  Mk4i3Lk8ii),  and  St.  Matthew 
represents  Him  as  giving  a  minute  and  de- 
tailed explanation  of  the  parable  of  the  Tares 
(13  3'').  It  may  be  admitted  that  details  are 
not  always  significant,  and  that  interpreters  of 
the  allegorical  school  have  often  erred  in 
making  too  much  of  unimportant  features,  but 
the  evidence  seems  to  suggest  that  Christ's 
parables  are  carefully  constructed  and  finished 
works  of  art,  of  which  the  parts  as  well  as  the 
wholes  are  often  intended  to  be  interpreted. 

I.  The  house]  i.e.  Simon  and  Andrew's  at 
Capernaum  (Mkl^o,  etc.). 

3.  Parables]  In  the  NT.  the  word  parabole 
is  almost  confined  to  the  Synoptic  Gospels,  the 
only  exceptions  being  Heb  9  'J  1 1 1'-*  (RV),  where 
it  is  used  of  the  OT.  types  of  NT.  realities. 
In  the  Gospels  it  occasionally  means  a  maxim  or 
proverb  (1 5 1^  Lk  4  ^3  (RV)  5  so  6  39),  but  nearly  - 
always  a  parable,  that  is  (so  far  as  our  Lord's 
paraliles  are  concerned)  'a  narrative,  fictitious, 
but  agreeable  to  the  laws  and  usages  of  human 
life,  by  which  either  the  duties  of  men  or  the 
things  of  God,  particularly  the  nature  and 
history  of  God's  kingdom,  are  figuratively 
portrayed.'  A  parable  is  to  be  distinguished 
from  a  fable.  The  former  is  probable  and 
might  be  true,  the  latter  introduces  impos- 
sibilities, such  as  trees  talking  ;  the  former 
teaches  important  spiritual  truths,  the  latter 
does  not  advance  beyond  homely  lessons  of 
worldly  prudence.  The  parable  is  also  to  be 
distinguished  from  an  allegory.  The  parable 
is  a  story  complete  in  itself,  quite  apart  from 
its  interpretation,  whereas  an  allegory  has  ty. 
no  meaning  at  all  apart  from  its  interpreta-  |  j 
tion.  The  parable  ditfers  still  more  from 
the  myth,  in  which  allegory  and  fact  are 
so  mixed  that  the  allegory  is  taken  for 
fact.  No  parables  occur  in  the  Fourth  Gospel : 
their  place  is  taken  hj paroimial,  '  allegories,'^ 
of  which  the  most  complete  are  those  of  the  ' 
Fold  (Jn  101),  the  Good  Shepherd  (10  7),  and  the  • 
Vine  and  the  Branches  (15i):  cp.  Jnl06(RM). 

3i'-9.  The  Sower  (Mk43-9  Lk85-8).  For 
the  meaning  of  the  parable,  see  on  vv.  18-23. 


671 


13.  9 


ST.  MATTHEW 


13.  18 


Our  Lord  probably  took  as  His  text  an  actual 
field  and  an  actual  sower  within  view  at  the 
time.  Stanley,  who  visited  the  probable  spot, 
writes,  '  There  was  the  undulating  cornfield 
descending  to  the  water's  edge.  There  was 
the  trodden  pathway  running  through  the 
midst  of  it,  with  no  fence  or  hedge  to  pre- 
vent the  seed  from  falling  here  or  there  on 
either  side  of  it  or  upon  it  ;  itself  hard  with 
the  constant  tramp  of  horse,  mule,  and  human 
feet.  There  was  the  good  rich  soil  ;  there 
was  the  rocky  ground  of  the  hillside  protrud- 
ing here  and  there  through  the  cornfields ; 
there  were  the  large  bushes  of  thorn — the 
nahk^  that  kind  of  which  tradition  says  the 
crown  of  thorns  was  woven — springing  up, 
like  the  fruit-trees  of  the  more  inland  parts, 
in  the  very  midst  of  the  waving  wheat.' 

9.  Who  hath  ears]  cp.  llis  13^3  LkS^  1435 
Rev  2  7  :  see  on  vv.  10  *• 

10-17.  The  reason  for  speaking  in  parables 
(Mk4i<^-12  Lk89.i0).  Because  Christ's  preju- 
diced hearers  (see  prefatory  remarks)  will  not 
receive  plain  teaching,  such  as  the  Sermon  on 
the  Mount,  they  shall  be  punished  by  having 
the  truth  withdrawn  from  them,  according  to 
our  Lord's  own  precept  (7  '^),  '  Give  not  that 
which  is  holy  unto  the  dogs,  neither  cast  ye 
your  pearls  before  swine,  lest  they  trample 
them  under  their  feet,  and  turn  again  and  rend 
you.'  But  those  hearers  who  are  worthy, 
i.e.  those  who  are  of  the  household  of  faith, 
and  already  '  have '  religious  truth,  shall 
understand. 

II.  Unto  you]  i.e.  not  only  to  the  Apostles, 
but  to  all  spiritually  receptive  persons — to 
'  those  who  are  within,'  as  opposed  to  '  those 
who  are  without'  (Mk).  Cp.  the  rabbinical 
saying,  '  God  entrusts  not  His  mysteries  save 
to  the  just.'  The  mysteries]  The  deeper  things 
of  Christ's  kingdom  can  only  be  understood 
by  the  initiated  and  spiritually  enlightened, 
hence  they  are  rightly  called  '  mysteries.' 
Although  the  parables  are  said  to  be  concerned 
with  the  '  mysteries  of  the  kingdom,'  they  are, 
in  fact,  largely  concerned  with  the  person  of 
Christ  Himself.  This  is  because  He  is  the 
King  of  the  Kingdom,  and  only  by  acknowledg- 
ing His  sovereignty  can  men  enter  into  it.  In 
NT.  usage  '  the  mystery  '  of  God  generally 
means  His  plan  of  salvation  for  all  mankind, 
concealed  or  dimly  adumbrated  under  the  old 
covenant,  but  manifested  to  the  elect  since 
the  coming  of  Christ.  This  seems  to  be  the 
principal  meaning  here. 

Some  think  that  the  Christian  use  of  the 
word  is  derived  from  the  Greek  religious 
mysteries  ;  others  that  it  is  a  metaphor  taken 
from  Eastern  courts,  in  which  the  king's  coun- 
sels and  designs  are  spoken  of  as  his  '  secrets ' 
or  '  mysteries,'  because  they  are  communi- 
cated to  none  but  his  most  intimate  friends. 


12.  '  You  who  are  spiritually  minded,  who 
already  "  have  "  religious  truth,  shall  learn  more 
and  more  by  My  parables,  until  you  become 
spiritually  rich.  But  those  who  "  have  not," 
and  do  not  desire  to  have  spiritual  knowledge, 
so  far  from  learning  more  from  My  parables, 
will  have  even  the  poor  confused  notions  of 
truth  which  they  have  ("  seem  to  have,"  Lk) 
bewildered  and  darkened.'  In  25^9  Jesus 
applies  the  proverb  not  merely,  as  here,  to  the 
use  of  the  talent  of  spiritual  understanding, 
but  to  all  the  talents  or  faculties  of  man. 

14.  Esaias]  RV  '  Isaiah.'  The  quotation 
is  from  LXX  version  of  Isa  6  9.  The  promin- 
ence of  this  passage  in  the  NT.  is  remarkable : 
see  Jn  1 2  40  Ac  28  '^^  Ro  11 7, 8, 25  2  Cor  3 1*.  The 
Christians  found  in  it  a  reason  for  the  sur- 
prising fact  that  God's  own  people  refused  to 
accept  His  promised  salvation:  see  on  vv. 
1-3%  10,  12. 

17.  Tlioae  things]  i.e.  the  mysteries  of  the 
kingdom  of  God,  not  merely  Christ's  earthly 
life  and  miracles  in  their  outward  aspect. 

18-23.  The  Parable  of  the  Sower  inter- 
preted (Mk4i3  LkSii).  The  sower  is,  of 
course,  Christ,  and  Christian  teachers  gener- 
ally, but  is  not  a  prominent  figure  in  the 
parable.  The  seed  aptly  stands  for  Christian 
truth,  '  the  word  of  the  kingdom,'  or  '  word 
of  God,'  because  when  implanted  in  the  heart 
and  conscience,  it  grows,  develops,  and  brings 
forth  spiritual  fruit.  The  sower  scatters  the 
seed  not  only  on  the  good  gi'ound,  but  on  the 
bad,  as  an  example  to  Christian  preachers  not 
to  neglect  the  unreceptive  and  the  wicked  in 
their  ministrations.  The  seed  falling  by  the 
wayside,  or  rather  on  a  hard,  beaten  track 
across  the  field,  is  the  case  of  those  whose 
assiduous  attention  to  business,  social  calls, 
and  worldly  affairs,  renders  them  unreceptive 
to  spiritual  truth.  Even  while  the  sermon  is 
being  preached  their  minds  are  full  of  their 
own  affairs,  and  when  it  is  finished  their  first 
contact  with  the  world  sweeps  all  recollection 
of  it  away — '  Satan  cometh  immediately,  and 
taketh  away  the  word  that  was  sown  in  their 
hearts '  (Mk).  The  seed  falling  upon  the 
rocky  places,  where  there  is  a  thin  layer  of  soil 
above  and  hard  rock  beneath,  is  the  case  of 
those  who  are  susceptible — quickly  and  readily 
susceptible — to  religious  influences,  but  on 
whom,  owing  to  their  want  of  spiritual  stamina, 
no  permanent  impression  can  be  made.  They 
are  generally  of  an  enthusiastic  and  excitable 
temperament,  who  when  brought  under  strong 
religious  influences  '  run  well '  for  a  time,  but 
soon  tire,  and  fall  away.  The  seed  falling 
among  thorns  is  the  case  of  those  who  have 
every  capacity  for  developing  the  highest 
spiritual  gifts,  but  who  fail  because  they  de- 
liberately attempt  to  serve  two  masters,  God 
and  mammon,  which  is  impossible.     The  seed 


672 


13.  24 


ST.  MATTHEW 


13.  33 


falling  on  good  ground  is  the  case  of  good  and 
receptive  Christians,  who  respond  to  the  teach- 
ing of  Christ  in  proportion  to  the  spiritual 
capacity  with  which  God  has  endowed  them. 

24-30.  Parable  of  the  Tares  (peculiar  to  St. 
Matthew).  One  of  the  greatest,  most  charac- 
teristic, and  most  fruitful  of  the  parables. 
In  it  Christ  looked  from  the  present  into  the 
distant  future.  He  foresaw  that  scandals  and 
oifences  would  soon  arise,  which  would  cause 
great  searchings  of  heart  ;  the  denial  of  Peter, 
the  treachery  of  Judas,  the  deceit  of  Ananias, 
the  quarrels  among  the  Apostles,  the  parties  in 
the  Chitrch,  the  sensuality  of  the  Corinthians, 
the  treachery  of  false  brethren  and  false 
teachers,  the  falling  away  of  some,  the  love 
of  others  waxing  cold  ;  and  looking  fm-ther 
over  the  later  history  of  His  Church,  He  saw 
a  saddening  picture  of  low  morality,  low  ideals, 
avarice,  ambition,  disunion,  and  seeming  fail- 
ure. And  therefore  he  warned  His  disciples 
beforehand  that  thus  it  must  be,  that  '  in  the 
visible  Church  the  evil  must  be  ever  mingled 
with  the  good,'  and  that  earnest  men  must 
not  lose  heart  nor  be  impatient  because  they 
cannot  make  the  Church  as  pure  as  they 
would  have  it. 

The  parable  is  interesting  from  the  light  it 
throws  upon  our  Lord's  person.  He  is  the 
chief  character  throughout,  and  is  endowed 
with  divine  attributes.  He  is  the  householder, 
the  sower  of  the  seed,  the  antagonist  of  Satan, 
the  Lord  of  the  world.  The  angels  are  His 
ministers  and  do  His  bidding.  In  the  king- 
dom of  heaven  He  is  the  King,  and  has  the 
power  to  doom  to  heaven  and  hell.  Christ 
Himself  interprets  the  parable  (vv.  37-43). 

24.  The  kingdom  of  heaven]  in  this  parable, 
as  often,  is  identified  with  the  Church  on 
earth,  regarded  as  a  visible  society  embracing 
good  and  evil.  25.  While  men  slept]  This 
detail  may  indicate  the  subtlety  of  the  evil 
one  in  introducing  evil  into  the  Church  in 
ways  that  cannot  be  traced.  His  enemy] 
By  no  more  striking  expression  could  the 
greatness  of  the  power  of  Satan  be  indicated 
than  by  this,  that  he  is  described  as  the 
antagonist  of  Christ  Himself.  Nothing  in  the 
NT.  lends  colour  to  the  modern  tendency  to 
minimise  evil,  or  to  regard  it  as  another  form 
of  good.  Tares]  or  '  bastard  wheat '  :  so 
much  like  true  wheat,  that  until  the  corn  is  in 
the  ear  the  two  cannot  be  distinguished. 
Hence  any  attempt  to  root  up  the  tares  would 
result  in  rooting  up  the  wheat  also.  So  in  the 
Church  any  attempt  to  distinguish  between 
true  and  false  Chi-istians  is  doomed  to  failure. 
27.  The  servants]  i.e.  the  apostles  and  those 
in  authority  or  having  influence  in  the  Church. 
31,  32.  Parable  of  the  Mustard  Seed  (Mk 
430  Lkl3i8).  This  parable,  and  that  which 
immediately  follows,  the  leaven,  are  more  hope- 


ful and  cheerful  in  tone  than  those  that  went 
before,  in  which  most  of  the  seed  sown  failed 
to  bear  fruit,  and  tares  sprang  up  among  the 
wheat.  Both  parables  describe  an  enormous 
extension  of  the  Kingdom  of  God  from  small 
beginnings,  but  there  is  this  difference.  In  the 
parable  of  the  mustard  seed  the  growth  of  the 
Kingdom  as  a  visible  and  powerful  organisa- 
tion is  described,  in  that  of  the  leaven  its 
hidden  and  secret  influence,  spreading  wider 
and  wider  until  the  whole  of  society  is 
leavened  with  Christian  ideas. 

31.  Christ  takes  the  grain  of  mustard 
seed,  by  which  is  to  be  understood  Christianity 
both  as  a  doctrine  and  as  an  organised  society, 
and  plants  it  in  His  field,  which  is  the  world. 
Mustard  seed]  The  vegetable  or  herb,  not  the 
so-called  mustard  tree,  is  meant.  In  hot  coun- 
tries it  sometimes  grows  to  a  great  size.  The 
Jerusalem  Talmud  says, '  There  was  a  stalk  of 
mustard  in  Sichin  from  which  sprang  out  three 
boughs,  of  which  one  was  broken  off,  and 
covered  the  tent  of  a  potter,  and  produced 
three  cabs  (12  pints)  of  mustard.'  Rabbi 
Simeon  said,  '  A  stalk  of  mustard  was  in  my 
field,  into  which  I  was  wont  to  climb  as  men 
are  wont  to  climb  into  a  fig-tree.'  Although 
the  mustard  seed  is  not  really  the  smallest 
of  all  seeds,  it  was  so  in  popular  estimation. 
The  rabbis  called  the  smallest  possible  quantity 
'  the  quantity  of  a  grain  of  mustard,'  and 
Mahomet  uses  the  same  expression  in  the 
Koran. 

32.  Insignificant  in  its  beginnings,  founded 
by  a  supposed  criminal  in  an  obscure  province, 
directed  by  twelve  Galileans  of  little  wealth 
or  education,  the  Christian  movement  rapidly 
expanded  into  a  world-wide  Church,  so  power- 
ful as  a  bond  of  union,  that  the  Roman  empire 
itself  sought  to  strengthen  itself  by  its  alliance, 
so  strong  to  succour  the  oppressed,  that  the 
poor  and  lowly  took  refuge  under  its  pro- 
tection, so  majestic  in  its  ordered  stability  that 
the  rude  barbarians  who  conquered  Rome 
submitted  to  its  sway.  Its  growth  in  modern 
times  has  been  still  more  striking.  From  the 
year  1700  to  1800  it  is  estimated  that  the 
Christian  population  of  the  globe  advanced 
from  155  millions  to  200  millions.  From 
1800  to  1900  the  progress  has  been  from  200 
millions  to  more  than  500  millions,  so  that  the 
disciples  of  Christ  now  equal,  if  they  do  not 
exceed,  a  third  of  the  human  race. 

33.  Parableof  the  Leaven  (Lk  13  20-21).  The 
leaven  (or  '  yeast ')  is  here  the  Spirit  of  Chris- 
tianity working  secretly  in  the  world  until  the 
whole  is  leavened.  Devotionally  the  parable 
may  be  applied  to  individual  souls.  St.  Am- 
brose says,  '  May  the  Holy  Church,  who  is 
figured  under  the  type  of  this  woman  in  the 
Gospel,  whose  meal  are  we,  hide  the  Lord 
Jesus  in  the  innermost  places  of  our  hearts, 


43 


673 


13.  33 


ST.  MATTHEW 


13.47 


till  the  warmth  of  the  divuie  wisdom  penetrate 
into  the  most  secret  recesses  of  our  souls.' 

33.  Leaven]  i.e.  the  influence  of  Christ,  the 
power  of  Christianity.  The  figure  is  taken 
from  the  power  of  leaven  ('  yeast ')  to  make 
the  dough  light  and  wholesome,  and  to  spread 
through  an  enormous  mass  of  it  with  great 
rapidity.  Generally  leaven  is  used  as  a  figure 
for  wickedness  (16*5,  etc.),  and  some  wrongly 
so  regard  it  here,  taking  the  woman  for  the 
apostate  Church,  and  the  leaven  as  the  'mystery 
of  iniquity  '  with  which  she  corrupts  the  purity 
of  the  gospel. 

Three  measures]  lit.  '  three  seahs,'  a 
seah  containing  1^  pecks.  Since  this  was  the 
usual  quantity  to  be  baked  at  once  (Gnl8'5: 
cp.  also  Jg6i9  1S124,  where  the  equivalent 
amount,  an  ephah,  is  mentioned),  no  special 
significance  attaches  to  the  number  '  three.' 
The  meal  is  mankind,  as  uninfluenced  by  the 
gospel.  Took]  i.e.  from  elsewhere,  for  Chris- 
tianity is  not  of  this  world,  but  introduced 
from  without.  Till  .  .  was]  The  past  tense  is 
a  prophetic  way  of  speaking  of  the  certainty 
of  the  result. 

34)  35-  Christ's  parabolic  teaching (]VIk  4  33,34) 

35.  By  the  prophet]  i.e.  Asaph  the  seer,  the 
author  of  Ps78,  from  which  the  quotation 
(v.  2)  is  taken. 

36-43.  The  Tares  interpreted.     See  on  v.  24. 

The  field  is  called  the  world  as  well  as  the 
Kingdom  of  God  or  the  Chm'ch,  because  the 
Church  is  charged  with  a  mission  to  the  whole 
human  race,  and  is  destined  to  be  universal. 

The  children  of  the  kingdom]  true  Clu-istians. 

The  children  of  the  wicked  one']  false 
Christians.     41.   His  kingdom]  His  Church. 

All  things  that  offend]  RV  'that  cause 
stumbling.'  42.  Gnashing]  indicating  rage 
and  disappointment,  not  pain.  Their  punish- 
ment continues  because  their  sin  continues : 
cp.  8 12,  etc.  43.  In  the  kingdom]  in  the  final 
bliss  of  heaven  :  cp.  Dan  123. 

44-46.  The  Hidden  Treasure  and  the  Pearl 
of  Great  Price  (peculiar  to  St.  Matthew).  These 
two  parables  were  addressed  to  the  disciples  in 
the  house  on  the  subject  of  personal  religion. 
Their  teaching  is  that  it  is  not  enough  to  be 
outwardly  a  Christian  or  to  be  under  Christian 
influences.  The  true  Clu-istian  must  be  in- 
wardly convinced  that  his  religion  is  the  most 
precious  of  all  things.  He  must  know  Christ 
as  a  personal  Saviour,  and  feel  in  his  heart  the 
spirit  of  sonship,  crying,  Abba,  Father.  In 
comparison  with  this  he  must  despise  all  other 
things.  But  there  is  also  a  point  of  difference. 
The  first  parable  (the  hidden  treasure)  describes 
the  case  of  a  man  who  finds  a  treasure  without 
looking  for  it.  By  some  accidental  circum- 
stance he  becomes  aware  that  a  treasure  is 
buried  in  his  neighbour's  field,  and  immediately 
sells  all  that  he  has  to  buy  it.     This  is  the 


case  of  a  man  who  has  long  been  possessed  of 
the  outward  form  of  Christianity,  but  has  been 
entirely  unacquainted  with  its  power.  Then 
suddenly  it  is  revealed  to  him  what  a  surpassing 
treasure  it  is  to  love  God  and  to  know  Christ. 
He  sells  all  that  he  has,  i.e.  gives  up  all  that 
can  hinder  him  in  his  quest,  and  enters  on 
possession  of  the  treasure.  The  second  parable, 
that  of  the  merchant  seeking  goodly  pearls, 
describes  a  man  who  all  his  life  long  has  been 
in  the  pursuit  of  truth  and  at  last  finds  it. 
Such  a  one  was  the  philosopher  Justin,  who, 
dissatisfied  with  all  the  schools  of  pagan 
philosophy,  found  rest  for  his  soul  in  Christ. 

44.  Treasure]  Christ  Himself  and  all  that 
Christ  brings  with  Him  to  the  believing  soul. 

A  field]  the  outward  forms  of  Christianity, 
as  distinguished  from  then*  spirit.  He  hideth] 
i.e.  tlu-ows  the  earth  over  it  again,  so  that  no 
one  else  may  discover  it,  until  he  has  effected 
the  purchase.  Selleth  all  that  he  hath]  i.e. 
gives  up  every  sin  or  self-indulgence  which 
hinders  him  from  giving  himself  whole- 
heartedly to  Christ.  Buyeth]  In  itself  an 
immoral  transaction,  for  the  seller  did  not 
know  that  the  treasure  was  there.  But  this  is 
not  tlie  point  which  is  proposed  for  imitation. 

47-50.  The  Net  (peculiar  to  St.  Matthew). 
At  first  sight  the  teaching  of  this  parable  is 
the  same  as  that  of  the  parable  of  the  tares. 
There  is  the  same  identification  of  the  Kingdom 
of  Heaven  with  the  earthly  Church,  and  the 
same  idea  that  it  will  embrace  the  evil  as  well 
as  the  good.  But  whereas  in  that,  the  stress 
was  laid  upon  matters  pertaining  to  this  life, 
in  this  the  stress  is  laid  upon  what  will  happen 
in  the  next.  In  that  the  rulers  of  the  Chm-ch 
were  warned  not  to  anticipate  by  too  rigid  a 
discipline  the  final  separation  between  good 
and  evil,  in  this  they  are  taught  that  the  pro- 
cess of  separation  will  one  day  be  performed, 
and  that  effectually,  by  the  unert-ing  judgment 
of  Him  who  can  read  the  heart  of  man.  Then, 
and  then  only,  will  there  be  an  absolutely  pure 
Church,  not  having  spot  or  wrinkle  or  any 
such  thing. 

47.  A  net]  lit.  '  di-ag-net,'  i.e.  an  oblong  net 
of  immense  length,  employed  near  the  shore. 
The  bottom  edge  was  weighted  with  lead,  and 
swept  the  bottom  of  the  sea.  The  upper  edge 
floated  on  the  surface  of  the  sea,  supported  by 
corks.  Escape  from  it  was  impossible,  and 
when  it  was  dragged  to  shore,  it  contained 
every  fish  in  the  area  of  sea  which  it  had  swept. 
The  net  is  the  Church,  and  the  fishermen,  on 
whom,  however,  no  stress  is  laid  in  the  parable, 
are  the  apostles  and  their  successors.  The  sea] 
the  nations  of  the  world,  as  often  in  Scripture  : 
Ps657  Isa  8~  Rev  17 15.  Of  every  kind]  not 
merely  of  bad  and  good,  but  of  every  nation, 
kingdom,  and  tongue.  A  prophecy  that  the 
Church  will  be  Catholic,  or  universal. 


674 


13.  48 


ST.  MATTHEW 


14.  7 


48.  Shore]  i.e.  the  end  of  this  dispensation, 
or  world.  Sat  down]  In  the  parable  those 
who  drag  the  net,  are  not  the  same  as  those 
who  sort  the  fish.  The  latter  are  the  angels, 
the  ministers  of  judgment.  Vessels]  i.e.  the 
heavenly  habitations,  the  final  reward  of  the 
just.     50.   On  gnashing  of  teeth,  see  v.  42. 

51,  52.  Concluding  remarks  to  the  parables 
(peculiar  to  St.  Matthew).  52.  Every  scribe 
which  in  instructed  (RV  '  who  hath  been  made 
a  disciple  ')  unto  the  kingdom  of  heaven]  Jesus 
is  pleased  with  their  answer,  and  speaks  of 
them  as  the  future  scribes  or  teachers  of  His 
Church.  A  man  that  is  an  householder]  i.e. 
Christ  Himself  the  master  of  the  house  (the 
Church).  Afterwards  the  apostles  themselves 
will  become  '  householders,'  exercising  Christ's 
authority  committed  to  them.  His  treasure] 
i.e.  the  chest  where  money  and  jewels  are  kept. 
The  '  treasure  '  of  the  Christian  preacher  is  the 
Holy  Scripture,  and  His  own  inward  experi- 
ence of  what  true  religion  is.  Thiz/gs  new  and 
old]  the  old  truths  which  God  had  long  made 
known  to  the  Jews,  as  well  as  the  new  truth 
declared  by  Christ.  It  is  also  an  exhortation 
to  the  preacher  to  adapt  his  discourse  to  his 
hearers,  to  put  milk  before  babes,  and  strong 
meat  before  men. 

53-58.  Second  visit  to  Nazareth  and  its 
neighbourhood  (Mk6i).  The  first  is  described 
Lkiit^^  where  He  received  similar  treatment 
and  used  the  same  proverb. 

55.  The  carpenter's  son]  St.  Mark  has  '  the 
carpenter.'     His  brethren]  see  on  r240-50_ 

57.  Were  offended]  lit.  '  were  caused  to 
stumble,'  i.e.  were  hindered  from  believing. 

A  prophet]  see  on  Lk424  Jn444.  58.  Did 
not  many]   St.  Mark  has  '  could  not  do.' 

CHAPTER    14 
Death  of  the  Baptist.    Feeding  the  Five 
Thousand.     Walking  on  the  Sea 
1 ,  2.  Herod's  opinion  of  Jesus  (Mk  6 1*  Lk  9  7). 

1.  Herod  the  tetrarch]  son  of  Herod  the 
Great,  received  by  his  father's  will  the  govern- 
ment (tetrarchy)  of  Galilee  and  Persea.  His 
first  wife  was  the  daughter  of  the  Arabian 
prince  Aretas,  called  in  2  Cor  11 32  king  of 
Damascus.  During  a  visit  to  his  half-brother, 
Herod  Philip  (not  the  tetrarch),  who  lived  as 
a  private  citizen  in  Rome,  he  became  enamoured 
of  his  wife,  Herodias,  and  persuaded  her  to 
leave  her  husband.  He  at  once  divorced  his  own 
wife,  and  married  her.  The  marriage  gave  the 
greatest  offence  to  devout  Jews,  for  (1)  it  was 
unlawful  to  take  a  brother's  wife  after  his 
death,  much  less  while  he  was  alive  (LvlS^** 
2021).  The  only  exception  was  when  the 
brother  died  without  an  heir  (Dt  25  5-10).  (2) 
Herodias  was  the  niece  of  her  new  husband  : 
see  art.  '  Dynasty  of  the  Herods.' 

2.  This  is  John  the  Baptist]  The  belief  was 


the  effect  of  a  guilty  conscience  working  upon 
a  superstitious  mind. 

3-5.  Arrest  of  John  (MkGi7  Lk  3i9).  The 
manner  in  which  St.  Matthew  and  St.  Mark 
insert  the  arrest  of  John  at  this  point,  instead 
of  in  its  proper  historical  place,  the  beginning 
of  the  Galilean  ministry,  is  conclusive  proof 
that  their  narratives  are  not  independent. 
Either  they  borrow  from  one  another,  or  from 
some  common  source  :  see  art.  '  The  Synoptic 
Gospels.' 

5.  When  he  would  have  put  him  to  death] 
This  agrees  with  Josephus,  who  says  that  John 
was  arrested  for  political  reasons.  '  Herod,  who 
feared  lest  the  great  influence  John  had  over 
the  people  might  put  it  into  his  power  and  in- 
clination to  raise  a  rebellion,  thought  it  best 
by  putting  him  to  death  to  prevent  any  mis- 
chief that  he  might  cause.'  St.  Mark,  on  the 
other  hand,  represents  Herod  as  friendly  to 
John.  '  Herod  feared  John,  knowing  him  to 
be  a  just  and  holy  man,  and  he  kept  him  safe. 
And  when  he  heard  him,  he  was  much  per- 
plexed and  heard  him  gladly.' 

The  truth  seems  to  be  that  Herod  was  really 
friendly  to  John,  and  favourably  impressed  by 
his  preaching,  but  that  John's  denunciation  of 
his  new  marriage  rendered  it  difficult  for  that 
prince  to  protect  him.  He  therefore  yielded, 
though  reluctantly,  to  the  influence  of  Herodias, 
and  first  had  John  arrested,  and  then  executed. 
But  since  it  would  have  been  impolitic  to  dis- 
close the  true  reason  of  these  proceedings,  it 
was  given  out  that  John  was  suspected  of 
treasonable  practices. 

6-12.  Execution  of  the  Baptist  (MkG^i). 
The  dramatic  circumstances  of  the  death  of 
John  are  recorded  only  in  the  Gospels. 
Josephus  simply  says,  '  Accordingly  he  was 
sent  a  prisoner,  out  of  Herod's  suspicious 
temper,  to  Machserus,  the  castle  I  before  men- 
tioned, and  was  there  put  to  death.' 

6.  Birthday]  One  of  the  Greek  customs  in- 
troduced by  the  Herods.  The  Hebrews  regarded 
the  keeping  of  birthdays  as  a  part  of  idolatrous 
worship.  The  daughter]  Her  name  was  Salome. 
She  soon  afterwards  married  her  uncle,  Philip 
the  tetrarch.  Danced]  Another  instance  of 
Greek  manners.  It  was  the  custom  of  the 
Greeks  after  a  banquet  to  witness  the  perform- 
ances of  professional  female  dancers,  which 
were  of  a  mimetic  and  licentious  character. 
For  a  woman  of  Salome's  rank  and  position 
to  play  such  a  part  was  an  outrage  on  decency. 
J.  Lightfoot,  however,  takes  a  more  favourable 
view  of  Salome's  conduct — '  she  danced  ac- 
cording to  the  custom  of  the  nation,  viz.  to 
express  joy,  and  to  celebrate  the  day.' 

7.  With  an  oath]  cp.  the  rash  vow  of  Jephthah, 
Jg  1 1 31.  In  the  OT.  Ahasuerus  makes  exactly 
the  same  promise  to  Esther  (Esth53).  What- 
soever she  would  ask]  St.  Mark  adds, '  even  to 


675 


14.8 


ST.  MATTHEW 


14.  22 


the  half  of  my  kingdom,'  a  rhetorical  expres- 
sion for  a  very  great  reward.  The  incident  is 
in  accordance  with  Eastern  manners.  '  Shah 
Abbas  (Shah  of  Persia)  being  one  day  drunk, 
gave  a  woman  who  danced  much  to  his  satis- 
faction the  fairest  khan  in  all  Ispahan,  which 
yielded  a  great  revenue  to  the  shah  (to  whom 
it  belonged)  in  chamber-rents.  The  vizier 
having  put  him  in  mind  of  it  next  morning, 
took  the  liberty  to  tell  him  that  it  was  unjusti- 
fiable prodigality,  so  the  shah  ordered  her  to 
be  given  a  hundi'ed  "  tomans,"  with  which  she 
was  forced  to  be  content '  (Thevenot). 

8.  Being  before  instructed]  RV  '  being  put 
forward.'  A  charger]  i.e.  a  dish.  lo.  He  sent] 
Josephus  says  that  John  was  imprisoned  at 
Machasrus,  a  fortress  5  m.  E.  of  the  Dead  Sea. 

II.  She  brought  ^7]  The  judgment  of  God 
fell  upon  Antipas  and  Herodias  for  their  crime. 
Their  country  suffered  severely  in  the  disas- 
trous war  with  Aretas,  and  when  the  guilty 
pair  visited  Rome  to  demand  from  Caligula  the 
title  of  king,  they  were  banished  to  Lyons,  in 
G-aul,  on  a  charge  of  misgovernment. 

13-21.  Feeding  the  five  thousand  (MkG^o 
LkOio  Jn6i).  The  only  miracle  recorded  by 
the  four  evangelists,  and  also  one  of  the  most 
wonderful.  It  cannot  be  accounted  for,  as 
some  of  the  miracles  of  healing  possibly  can, 
as  the  powerful  effect  of  mind  over  mind,  or 
of  mind  over  body,  but  is  distinctly  a  physical 
miracle  incapable  of  natural  explanation. 

Some  critics  still  accept  Paulus's  rational- 
ising explanation  of  the  miracle,  viz.  that  the 
generosity  of  Jesus  and  His  apostles  in  sharing 
their  few  loaves  and  fishes  with  others  induced 
many  more,  who  had  brought  food  with  them, 
to  distribute  it,  and  so  enough  was  found  for 
all.  But  Paulus's  theory  does  not  explain,  (1) 
how  St.  Mark  (i.e.  Peter)  came  to  describe  it 
as  a  miracle  ;  (2)  how  St.  John,  who  was  also 
present,  came  to  describe  it  as  a  miracle  ;  (3) 
why  our  Lord,  if  it  was  not  a  miracle, 
described  it  as  such,  and  that  in  the  oldest 
tradition  (Mk  8 19  =  Mt  1 6  9)  ;  (4)  why  the  multi- 
tudes, who  must  have  known  the  facts,  were 
stirred  to  such  enthusiasm  by  this  '  sign  '  that 
they  were  convinced  that  He  was  the  Messiah, 
and  sought  to  make  Him  king  by  force 
(Jn6i4,i5). 

Considered  as  a  parable  the  miracle  teaches, 
(1)  Christ's  creative  power  and  lordship  over 
nature  ;  (2)  His  benevolence  and  bounty, 
giving  His  people  enough  and  more  than 
enough  ;  (3)  that  He  is  the  spiritual  food  of 
mankind,  the  bread  of  life,  sustaining  the 
souls  of  those  who  believe  on  Him.  In 
particular  the  miracle  is  a  figure  of  the  Lord's 
Supper,  in  which,  through  the  agency  of  His 
ministers.  He  feeds  the  multitudes  with  '  the 
spiritual  food  of  His  most  precious  Body  and 
Blood'  :  see  on  Jn6.     St  Mark's  account  is 


the  fullest,  and  (except  St.  John's)  the  most 
graphic. 

1 3.  Heard  of  it\  On  hearing  of  the  death  of 
John,  Jesus  thought  it  better  to  retire  from  the 
kingdom  of  Antipas,  until  it  was  clear  whether 
the  designs  of  Antipas  were  directed  against 
Him  also.  He  therefore  retired  across  the 
lake  to  Bethsaida  Julias,  in  the  dominion  of 
Philip.  His  speedy  return  may  be  accounted 
for  by  the  receipt  of  news  that  he  had  nothing 
to  fear. 

St.  Mark  gives  another  reason  for  the 
retirement.  The  Twelve  had  just  returned 
from  their  mission,  and  Jesus  wished  to  give 
them  a  little  rest.  His  intention,  however,  was 
frustrated  by  the  presence  of  the  multitudes. 
This  period  (just  before  the  second  Passover) 
marks  the  culminating  point  of  Jesus'  popu- 
larity. But  the  tide  was  about  to  turn.  His 
refusal  to  be  made  king  ( Jn  6  !■*'  i^)  displeased 
His  more  enthusiastic  followers,  and  the 
Pharisaic  opposition,  already  begun,  became 
more  active  and  effective. 

15.  His  disciples]  In  St.  John  the  initiative 
comes  from  our  Lord  Himself,  and  what  is  here 
put  into  the  mouth  of  the  disciples  is  said  by 
Philip.  The  time]  RV  '  the  hour,'  i.e.  the 
hour  at  which  Jesus  usually  concluded  His 
religious  instructions.  17.  We  have  here] 
According  to  St.  John  a  boy  had  them  for 
sale.  The  disciples  could  be  said  to  have 
what  they  could  so  readily  obtain.  1 9.  To  sit 
down]  lit.  '  to  recline.'  St.  Mark  says  that 
the  people  sat  down  in  separate  companies, 
which  he  compares  to  the  beds  in  a  garden. 

He  blessed,  etc.]  A  close  resemblance  to 
the  consecration  in  the  Lord's  Supper.  The 
miracle  is  to  be  regarded  as  taking  place  at 
this  moment.  The  disciples]  As  Jesus  did 
not  baptise,  so  He  did  not  personally  feed  the 
multitudes,  but  used  the  ministry  of  the 
Apostles,  thus  preparing  them  for  their  future 
ministry.  They  had  just  been  engaged  in  the 
ministry  of  the  Word.  Now  they  are  entrusted 
(in  type  and  figure)  with  the  ministry  of  the 
Sacraments.  20.  Twelve  baskets]  Kophino'i 
were  large  baskets  such  as  were  frequently 
carried  by  Jews.  Each  of  the  apostles  had 
one.  The  gathering  up  of  the  fragments  for 
future  use  was  a  lesson  in  economy,  a  protest 
against  waste. 

22-33.  The  walking  on  the  sea  (MkG^^ 
Jn  6 1^).  Another  physical  miracle,  also  belong- 
ing to  the  oldest  tradition.  As  it  is  attested 
by  actual  eyewitnesses,  it  cannot  be  resolved 
into  a  legend  or  allegory,  but  must  be  accepted 
as  an  historic  fact.  Symbolically  interpreted, 
it  represents  the  struggles  of  the  soul  and  of 
the  Church  with  the  troubles  of  the  world,  and 
the  succour  which  Christ  gives  in  the  darkest 
hour  of  temptation  and  adversity. 

The  attempts   to  translate  '  walking  upon 


676 


14.  22 


ST.  MATl^HEW 


15.  2 


the  sea '  in  v.  25  and  v.  26  by  '  walking  towards 
the  sea,'  or  '  walking  above  the  sea '  (i.e.  on 
the  shore),  scarcely  require  refutation.  They 
are  inconsistent  with  the  general  tenor  of  the 
narrative,  which  places  the  ship  in  the  middle 
of  the  sea,  and  lays  stress  upon  the  fear  of  the 
disciples  at  so  astounding  a  spectacle. 

22.  Constrained]  The  apostles  were  most 
unwilling  to  be  sent  away.  St.  John  explains 
the  reason.  The  people  were  desirous  to 
make  Jesus  king  by  force,  and  the  apostles 
thoroughly  sympathised  with  the  popular  enthu- 
siasm. 23.  A  mountain]  RV  'the  mountain,'  i.e. 
the  mountainous  country  surrounding  the  lake. 

The  evening]  But  it  was  evening  some  time 
earlier  (v.  15),  before  the  multitudes  were  fed. 
The  explanation  is  that  the  Jews  reckoned 
two  evenings,  the  first  corresponding  very  much 
to  our  afternoon  (St.  Luke,  9^2,  defines  it  as 
'  when  the  day  began  to  decline  ')  ;  the  second 
extending  from  twilight  to  darkness.  Here 
the  second  evening  is  meant.  25.  The  fourth 
watch]  This  is  Roman  reckoning.  The  fourth 
or  last  watch  was  from  3  to  6  a.m.  The 
Jews  reckoned  only  three  watches,  beginning 
at  6  P.M.  26.  A  spirit]  RV  'an  apparition.' 
St.  Mark  adds  that  '  He  would  have  passed  by 
them,'  doubtless  to  test  their  faith,  or  to  draw 
from  them  some  expression  of  their  need  of 
Him  :  cp.  Lk2437f. 

28.  Peter]  The  incident  is  only  in  St.  Mat- 
thew. It  is  thoroughly  in  keeping  with  St. 
Peter's  character,  confident  and  enthusiastic, 
and  unconscious  of  his  own  weakness.  '  So 
faith  in  the  Lord's  strengthening  and  upholding 
power  conducts  us  securely  over  the  agitated 
sea  of  a  sinful  life,  but  assuredly  it  too  often 
happens  that  the  weakness  of  this  faith  sinks 
down  into  the  waters '  (Olshausen).  Well  is  it 
for  us  if  we  cry  with  Peter,  '  Lord,  save  me.' 

32.  Into  the  ship]  Not  inconsistent  with 
St.  John's  statement,  '  they  were  willing  to 
receive  him  into  the  ship.'  They  were  willing 
and  did  so.  33.  They  that  were  in  the  ship] 
the  apostles  and  the  crew.  The  Son  of  God] 
The  fii-st  time,  in  the  Synoptic  Gospels,  that 
the  title  is  applied  to  Jesus  by  men. 

34-36.  Healings  in  the  land  of  Gennesaret 
(Mk6^3).     Enthusiasm  is  still  at  its  height. 

34.  The  land  of  Gennesaret]  A  fertile  plain 
on  the  W.  side  of  the  lake  towards  its  N.  end, 
extending  southwards  from  Capernaum. 

Josephus  says  of  it,  '  Such  is  the  fertility  of 
the  soil  that  it  rejects  no  plant,  and  accord- 
ingly all  are  here  cultivated  by  the  husband- 
men, for  so  genial  is  the  air,  that  it  suits  every 
variety.  Nature  here  nourishes  fruits  of 
opposite  climes  and  maintains  a  continual 
supply  of  them.  Thus  she  produces  the 
most  royal  of  all,  the  grape  and  the  fig,  during 
ten  months  without  intermission,  while  the 
other  varieties  ripen  the  year  round.'     The 


rabbis  called  it  '  a  paradise,'  and  '  a  garden  of 
princes.' 

36.  The  hem]    RV  'border':  see    on   920. 

As  many]  Multitudes  healed.  No  failures. 
Most  of  Christ's  miracles  unrecorded. 

CHAPTER  15 

The  TR.A.DIT10NS  OF  THE  Elders.  The 
Canaanitish  Woman.  Feeding  the 
Four  Thousand 

1-20.  Unwashed  hands  and  the  traditions  of 
the  elders  (Mk  7 1).  In  this  important  contro- 
versy Jesus  defined  His  position,  (1)  towards 
rabbinical  traditions  about  the  Law ;  (2)  towards 
the  Law  itself.  The  first  part  of  our  Lord's 
discourse  (vv.  3-9)  is  addressed  to  the  Pharisees. 
In  it  He  admits  (or  at  least  does  not  dispute) 
the  binding  character  of  the  Law  itself,  but 
denies  the  authority  of  rabbinical  tradition, 
and  that  on  two  grounds  :  (1)  that  it  had  no 
divine  authority  ;  (2)  that  instead  of  forming 
'  a  hedge  round  the  Law,'  and  assisting  its 
observance,  as  it  professed  to  do,  it  really  abro- 
gated it,  by  affording  pretexts  for  its  evasion. 
The  second  part  of  the  discourse  (vv.  10-20), 
addressed  to  the  disciples  and  the  multitude, 
carries  the  argument  a  step  farther.  Our  Lord 
lays  down  the  principle  (Mk  7  ^s)  that '  there  is 
nothing  from  without  a  man,  which  entering 
in  can  defile  him  ;  but  the  things  which  come 
out  of  him,  those  are  they  that  defile  the  man '  ; 
that  is  to  say,  that  the  whole  ceremonial  Law, 
with  its  distinctions  of  meats,  its  ablutions,  its 
sacrifices,  and  its  round  of  external  observ- 
ances, is  no  longer  binding,  and  is  about  to  be 
vabolished.  At  the  time  our  Lord's  line  of 
argument  was  probably  as  distasteful  to  His 
own  disciples  as  to  the  Pharisees.  Long  after 
this  (Ac  lOi'*)  St.  Peter  was  so  far  from  accept- 
ing it  that  he  resisted  the  divine  voice  that 
bade  him  eat  '  unclean '  food,  and  hold  familiar 
intercourse  with  G-entiles.  But  the  lesson  was 
learnt  at  last.  In  the  second  Gospel  there  is 
a  note,  due  either  to  Peter  or  to  his  secretary 
Mark,  which  correctly  glosses  our  Lord's 
words  :  '  This  he  said,  making  all  meats  clean  ' 
(Mk7i9RV). 

St.  Mark's  account  of  this  incident  is  fuller 
than  St.  Matthew's,  and  contains  notes  upon 
such  Jewish  usages  as  would  not  be  understood 
by  Gentile  readers.  St.  Matthew's  account, 
however,  though  shorter,  usefully  supplements 
St.  Mark's  in  several  important  particulars. 

1.  Were  of  Jerusalem]  RV  '  come  from  Jeru- 
salem.' The  active  hostility  of  the  hierarchy, 
strikingly  manifested  by  the  sending  of  these 
emissaries,  is  explained  by  the  fact  (known  to 
us  only  from  the  Fourth  Gospel)  that  Jesus 
had  already  preached  in  Jerusalem,  and  defied 
the  authorities  there. 

2.  The  tradition  of  the  elders]  The  '  elders ' 
are  mainly  the  scribes,  but  include  also  the  old 


677 


15.  5 


ST.  MAITHEW 


15.26 


heroes  of  the  nation,  Moses,  Joshua,  and  the 
prophets,  to  whom  certain  of  the  rabbinical 
ordinances  were  ascribed.  The  scribes  regarded 
their  traditions  as  equal  or  superior  in  authority 
to  the  Law  of  God.  For  instance,  they  said, 
'  The  words  of  the  scribes  are  lovely,  above 
the  words  of  the  Law  ;  for  the  words  of  the 
Law  are  weighty  and  light,  but  the  words  of  the 
scribes  are  all  weighty.' .  .  '  The  words  of  the 
elders  are  weightier  than  the  words  of  the 
prophets.' .  . '  He  that  shall  say.  There  are  no 
phylacteries,  transgressing  the  words  of  the 
Law,  is  not  guilty.  But  he  that  shall  say, 
There  are  five  divisions  in  a  phylactery,  adding 
to  the  words  of  the  scribes,  is  guilty '  :  see  on 
235. 

They  wash  not  their  hands]  The  penalty  for 
this  neglect  was  excommunication  by  the  San- 
hedrin.  Rabbi  Eleazar  ben  Hazar  was  excom- 
municated, '  because  he  undervalued  the  washing 
of  hands,'  and  dying  unreconciled,  was  carried 
to  the  grave  with  a  stone  laid  upon  his  bier, 
'  whence  you  may  learn  (say  they)  that  the 
Sanhedrin  stones  the  very  coffin  of  every 
excommunicate  person  that  dies  in  his  excom- 
munication.' The  intricate  details  of  the  rab- 
binical ablutions  are  not  worth  describing,, 
but  a  quotation  from  the  Talmud  will  show  the 
spirit  in  which  they  were  performed  :  '  Who- 
soever hath  his  dwelling-place  in  the  land  of 
Israel,  and  eateth  his  common  food  in  clean- 
ness (i.e.  with  washed  hands),  and  speaks  the 
holy  language  (i.e.  Hebrew),  and  recites  his 
phylacteries  morning  and  evening,  let  him  be 
confident  that  he  shall  obtain  the  life  of  the 
world  to  come.'  There  was  a  special  devil 
(Shibta),  who  was  said  to  torment  those  who 
ate  with  unwashed  hands.  4.  See  Ex  20^2 
DtSie. 

5.  But  ye  say,  etc.]  EV  '  But  ye  say,  Who- 
ever shall  say  to  his  father  or  his  mother,  That 
wherewith  thou  mightest  have  been  profited  by 
me  is  given  to  God ;  he  shall  not  honour  his 
father  (or,  his  mother).'  It  ix  a  gift]  Mk  '  it  is 
Corban.'  '  Corban,'  meaning  originally  a  sacri- 
fice or  a  gift  to  God,  was  used  in  NT.  times 
as  a  mere  word  of  vowing,  without  implying 
that  the  thing  vowed  would  actually  be  offered  or 
given  to  God.  Thus  a  man  would  say, '  Corban 
to  me  is  wine  for  such  a  time,'  meaning  that 
he  took  a  vow  to  abstain  from  wine.  Or  a 
man  would  say  to  a  friend,  '  Corban  to  me  for 
such  a  time  is  whatsoever  I  might  be  profited 
by  thee,'  meaning  that  for  such  a  time  he 
vowed  that  he  would  receive  neither  hospitality 
nor  any  other  benefit  from  his  friend.  Simi- 
larly, if  a  son  said  to  his  father  or  mother, 
'  Corban  is  whatsoever  thou  mightest  have 
profited  by  me,'  he  took  a  vow  not  to  assist  his 
father  or  mother  in  any  way,  however  much 
they  might  require  it.  A  vow  of  this  kind  was 
held  by  the  scribes  to  excuse  a  man  from  the 


duty  of  supporting  his  parents,  and  thus  by 
their  tradition  they  made  void  the  word  of  God. 

6.  Honour  not  his  father]  RV  '  shall  not 
honom-  his  father,'  i.e.  shall  not  be  obliged  to 
support  his  father. 

8.  See  Isa29 1^.  The  passage,  which  is  para- 
phrased rather  than  quoted,  appears  in  the  same 
form  in  St.  Mark.  11.  See  vv.  17-20,  and 
prefatory  remarks.  14.  They  be  blind  leaders] 
referring  to  the  scribes  and  Pharisees.  It  is  a 
proverbial  expression  occurring  again  LkG^^. 

15.  Peter]  as  usual  he  is  spokesman  of  the 
Twelve.  St.  Mark  (i.e.  Peter),  perhaps  from 
modesty,  does  not  mention  Peter  here. 

17-20.  Purity  is  to  be  sought  in  the  soul, 
not  in  externals.     See  prefatory  remarks. 

21-28.  The  Canaanitish  woman  (Mk724). 
The  two  accounts  are,  however,  independent. 

21.  Departed]  RV  '  withdrew.'  The  with- 
drawal was  due  to  the  hostility  of  the  Phari- 
sees, and  the  alienation  of  friends  caused  by 
the  speech  in  the  synagogue  of  Capernaum 
(Jn6'36).  Celsus  (the  heathen  opponent  of 
Christianity,  170  a.d.)  blamed  Christ's  policy 
of  withdrawal  from  danger  as  cowardly. 
Origen  well  replied  that  it  was  part  of  Christ's 
education  of  the  disciples,  '  teaching  them  not 
at  random,  or  unseasonably,  or  without  suffi- 
cient object,  to  encounter  dangers.' 

Into  the  coasts  (RV  '  parts ')  of  Tyre  and 
Sidon]  According  to  St.  Mark  (7  24,31),  Jesus 
made  a  long  sojourn  on  heathen  soil,  passing 
near  Tyre,  then  along  the  coast  to  Sidon, 
through  which  He  passed,  then  across  country 
to  the  som'ces  of  the  Jordan,  then  through 
Decapolis  to  the  E.  shore  of  the  lake. 

22.  A  woman  of  Canaan]  R  V  '  a  Canaanitish 
woman.'  She  was  one  of  that  nation  which 
the  Jews  had  been  bidden  to  exterminate,  and 
was  therefore  more  hateful  than  an  ordinary 
heathen.  St.  Mark  calls  her  '  a  Greek,  a 
Syrophoenician  by  race  ' ;  i.e.  she  spoke  Greek, 
but  belonged  by  race  to  those  Syrians  who 
dwelt  in  Phoenicia.  The  Phoenicians  were  of 
Canaanite  descent.  Thou  Son  of  David]  How 
did  she  know  that  Jesus  was  descended  from 
David  ?  Not  because  she  was  a  proselyte, 
for  below  she  is  called  '  a  dog,'  i.e.  a  heathen. 
Probably  because  the  fame  of  Jesus,  and  the 
popular  title  by  which  He  was  known,  had 
spread  far  beyond  the  confines  of  Galilee  : 
see  on  1 1  12  23. 

23.  Send  her  away]  viz.  by  granting  her 
request  and  healing  her  daughter. 

26.  The  children  are  the  Jews  ;  the  dogs 
are  the  Gentiles.  Christ  here  speaks  as  a  Jew, 
not  yet  revealing  His  true  sentiments  towards 
the  Gentiles,  for  which  see  S^^  Jn423  Ac  10  28, 
etc.  The  rabbis  often  spoke  of  the  Gentiles 
as  dogs,  e.g.  '  He  who  eats  with  an  idolater  is 
like  one  who  eats  with  a  dog,  for  as  a  dog  is 
uncircumcised,  so  also  is  an  idolater.'     '  The 


678 


15.27 


ST.  MATTHEW 


16.3 


nations  of  the  world  are  compared  to  dogs.' 
'  The  holy  convocation  belongs  to  you,  to  you, 
not  to  the  dogs,  to  you,  not  to  them  that 
are  without.' 

Yet  Jesus,  in  adopting  the  contemptuous 
expression,  slightly  softens  it.  He  says  not 
'dogs,'  but  '  little  dogs,'  i.e.  household,  fa- 
vourite dogs,  and  the  woman  cleverly  catches 
at  the  expression,  arguing  that  if  the  Gentiles 
are  household  dogs,  then  it  is  only  right  that 
they  should  be  fed  with  the  crumbs  that  fall 
from  their  masters'  table. 

27.  Truth,  Lord  ;  yet  the  dogs  (RV  '  Yea, 
Lord  :  for  even  the  dogs')  eat  the  crumbs, 
etc.]  The  ancients  sometimes  used,  instead  of 
a  napkin,  soft  pieces  of  bread  to  wipe  theii- 
hands  upon.  These  fragments  were  then 
thrown  to  the  dogs.  Masters']  i.e.  the  Jews. 
The  woman  is  humble.  She  is  willing  to  be 
called  a  dog,  and  to  acknowledge  the  Jews  as 
masters. 

28.  O  woman,  great  is  thy  faith,  etc.] 
Why  did  Jesus  speak  to  her  so  harshly,  and 
wait  so  long  before  granting  her  request '? 
(1)  To  test  the  strength  of  her  faith  ;  (2)  to 
teach  her  the  lesson  that  persistence  and  im- 
portunity in  prayer  will  finally  meet  their 
reward  ;  (3)  to  teach  the  disciples  that  greater 
faith  was  often  to  be  found  among  the  heathen 
than  in  Israel. 

The  miracle  is  interesting  as  one  of  the 
rare  cases  in  which  the  ministrations  of 
Christ  were  extended  to  a  pure  heathen.  It 
is  one  of  the  few  '  preludes  of  the  larger 
mercy  which  was  in  store,  first  drops  of  that 
gracious  shower  which  should  one  day  water 
the  whole  earth.'  In  St.  Mark's  version  our 
Lord  gives  a  clear  intimation  of  the  future 
call  of  the  Gentiles,  by  saying,  '  Let  the  chil- 
dren /?r.s^  be  filled.' 

29-31.  Various  healings  (Mk 7  31-37).  gt. 
Mark  here  inserts  the  healing  of  a  deaf  man 
with  an  impediment  in  his  speech. 

29.  Unto  the  sea]  According  to  St.  Mark, 
to  the  E.  side  of  it,  where  the  population  was 
mainly  heathen.  A  mountain]  RV  '  the 
mountain.'  31.  The  God  of  Israel]  implying 
that  the  multitudes  were  mainly  heathen. 

32-39.  Feeding  the  four  thousand  (Mk  8 1). 
The  multitudes  in  this  case  being  heathen  (see 
V.  31),  the  miracle  is  no  bare  repetition  of  the 
feeding  of  the  five  thousand  (l-ti3).  That 
symbolised  the  communication  of  Christ  to 
Israel,  but  this  symljolised  His  communication 
to  the  Gentile  world. 

Several  recent  commentators  regard  this 
miracle  as  only  another  version  of  the  feeding 
of  the  five  thousand.  They  argue,  (1)  that 
Jesus  would  not  have  repeated  a  miracle  ;  (2) 
that  the  apostles  would  not  have  said,  '  Whence 
should  we  have  so  many  loaves  in  a  desert 
place,  as  to  fill  so  great  a  multitude  ?  '  if  Jesus 


had  worked  a  similar  miracle  before.  These 
arguments  would  be  weighty  if  the  two  mira- 
cles occurred  in  difiierent  Gospels,  or  were 
derived  from  different  sources.  But  this  is  not 
the  case.  The  two  miracles  occm-  both  in  St. 
Matthew  and  St.  Mark,  the  common  matter  of 
which  Gospels  is  by  general  consent  assigned 
to  Peter  himself.  Peter's  narrative  also  con- 
tains a  saying  of  Jesus  in  which  the  two 
miracles  are  expressly  distinguished:  see  16 ^ 
Mk8i9. 

37.  Seven  baskets  (Gk.  spurides)  full]  In  the 
other  miracle  there  were  '  twelve  baskets  (Gk. 
kophiiioi)  full.'  The  diiference  in  the  baskets 
is  perhaps  to  be  accounted  for  by  the  different 
nationality  of  the  multitudes.  The  '  kophinos  ' 
was  well  known  as  the  provision-basket  of  the 
Jews.  Juvenal,  the  Roman  poet  (100-130 
A.D.),  speaks  of  the  Jews  going  about  in  heathen 
countries  carrying  a  '  kophinos  '  to  hold  then- 
food,  and  a  bundle  of  hay  for  their  bed,  to 
avoid  the  pollution  of  Gentile  food  and  bed- 
ding. The  capacity  of  the  '  kophinos '  was 
about  two  gallons.  The  '  spuris '  was  pro- 
bably larger.  In  a  '  spuris '  St.  Paul  was  let 
down  from  the  wall  of  Damascus  (Ac  9  25), 
though  St.  Paul  himself  uses  a  different  word 
(2  Cor  11  33). 

39.  Magdala]  RV  'Magadan.'  St.  Mark 
says  '  Dalmanutha.'  Neither  of  these  places 
can  be  located  with  certainty.  According  to 
Eusebius  (4th  cent.),  Magadan  was  near  Ge- 
rasa,  i.e.  on  the  E.  side  of  the  lake,  and  not, 
as  might  have  been  expected,  on  the  W. 

CHAPTER  16 

St.  Peter's  great  Confession 

1-4.  A  sign  from  heaven  demanded  (Mk  8  ^  ; 
cp.  LklP'^  :  see  onMtl238).  i.  Pharisees.  . 
Sadducees]  An  unnatural  and  unholy  alliance  of 
men  whose  only  bond  of  union  was  hatred  of 
Jesus.  The  Sadducees  had  probably  been  sent  ■ 
from  Jerusalem  by  the  chief  priests,  but  some 
regard  them  as  the  same  as  the  Herodians  men- 
tioned by  St.  Mark,  and,  therefore,  Galileans. 

From  heaven]  Jewish  superstition  held  that 
the  demons  could  work  signs  on  earth,  but 
that  only  God  could  work  them  in  heaven. 

2,  3.  They  professed  to  be  able  to  forecast 
the  weather,  but  shut  their  eyes  to  the  signs 
of  the  times  which  denoted  the  speedy  fulfil- 
ment of  the  prophecies  respecting  the  coming 
of  the  Messiah. 

The  second  Ralf  of  v.  2  ('  When  it  is  even- 
ing,' etc.)  and  all  v.  3  are  omitted  by  some 
important  ancient  authorities,  but  the  evidence 
in  their  favour,  both  internal  and  external,  is 
so  strong  that  it  is  hazardous  to  reject  them. 
J.  Lightfoot  says, '  The  Jews  were  very  curious 
in  observing  the  seasons  of  the  heavens,  and 
the  temper  of  the  air,'  and  gives  examples  of 
their  weatherwise  saws. 


679 


16.  4 


ST.  MATTHEW 


16.  16 


4.  But  the  sign  of  the  prophet  Jonas]  RV 

'  the  sign  of  Jonah.'     St.   Mark  omits  these 
words  :  see  on  1239*. 

5-12.  The  leaven  of  the  Pharisees  and  Sad- 
ducees  (MkS^^).  But  the  narratives  are  in- 
dependent. This  incident  could  only  be  de- 
rived from  an  eyewitness  and  an  apostle.  The 
discreditable  light  in  which  it  places  the 
Apostles  goes  to  confirm  its  authenticity. 

5.  To  the  other  side]  i.e.  the  E.  side.  This 
favours  the  view  that  Magadan  (Dalmanutha) 
was  on  the  W.  side. 

6.  The  leaven  of  the  Pharisees  and  of  the 
Sadducees]  St.  Mark  says,  '  of  the  Pharisees 
and  of  Herod.'  Herod  may  have  been  a  Sad- 
ducee  in  spite  of  his  superstitious  belief  in 
John's  resurrection,  but,  even  if  he  was  not, 
he  exactly  represented  the  secular,  irreligious, 
worldly  spirit  of  Sadduceeism.  The  leaven 
of  the  Pharisees  is  hypocrisy,  ostentation, 
pride,  formalism,  scrupulosity,  and  the  tend- 
ency to  place  the  letter  before  the  spirit. 
The  leaven  of  the  Sadducees  is  worldliness, 
and  the  temper  of  irreligious  scepticism. 

The  disciples  took  Jesus'  words  literally  as 
a  command  to  lay  in  a  fresh  stock  of  bread, 
taking  special  precautions  to  avoid  all  bread 
made  with  leaven  from  the  house  of  a  Phari- 
see or  a  Sadducee.  The  misunderstanding  is 
not  so  absurd,  if  it  be  remembered  that  Gen- 
tile food  and  Gentile  leaven  were  regarded  by 
the  stricter  Jews  as  unclean.  Since  Jesus  had 
pronounced  the  Pharisees  worse  than  the 
heathen,  it  was  quite  natural  (from  the  strictly 
Jewish  point  of  view)  that  He  should  proceed 
to  pronounce  their  houses,  food,  and,  there- 
fore, their  leaven  unclean.  Jewish  writings 
contain  subtle  discussions  as  to  when,  why,  and 
under  what  circumstances  heathen,  Samaritan, 
and  Cliristian  leaven  is  to  be  regarded  as 
unclean. 

9,  ID.  See  on  1532.  12.  Cp.  Lkl2i,  and 
see  on  v.  6. 

13-20.  St.  Peter's  confession  (Mk  8  27  Lk  9  is). 
Jesus  now  undertook  another  distant  excur- 
sion, partly  to  escape  the  hostility  of  the  Phari- 
sees (v.  4),  but  chiefly  to  hold  private  converse 
with  His  disciples,  and  to  lead  them  on  to  the 
recognition  of  His  Messiahship  and  divine 
Sonship,  which  was  the  supreme  object  of  His 
ministry  so  far  as  the  Twelve  were  concerned. 
What  was  the  significance  of  this  confession, 
which  clearly  marked  a  great  epoch  in  Christ's 
ministry  ?  According  to  some  its  significance 
lay  in  the  fact  that  He  was  now  for  the  first 
time  recognised  as  the  Messiah.  But  is  this 
so  ?  Already  He  had  been  called  the  '  Son  of 
God,'  i.e.  the  Messiah,  by  the  Apostles  (1433). 
He  had  been  so  designated  by  the  Baptist 
(3 11'  12)  and  by  popular  acclamation  ('  Son  of 
David '  =  the  Messiah,  927  1223  1522).  So  also 
in  the  Fom-th  Gospel  the  apostles  regard  Him 


as  the  Messiah  from  the  first  ('  We  have  found 
the  Messiah,'  Jn  1  ^i  ;  '  Rabbi,  thou  art  the 
Son  of  God,  thou  art  the  king  of  Israel,'  Jn 
1*9).  The  significance  of  Peter's  representa- 
tive confession,  therefore,  lies  in  this,  that 
what  they  had  before  received  on  the  authority 
of  the  Baptist,  and  as  a  mere  working  hypo- 
thesis, which  might  or  might  not  be  proved  by 
events  to  be  true,  they  now  deliberately  rati- 
fied as  their  own  conviction,  based  on  their 
personal  experience  of  what  Jesus  had  shown 
Himself  to  be.  Here  then  at  last  was  the 
solid  rock  on  which  Jesus  could  build,  not  the 
shifting  sand  of  possibilities  and  surmises,  nor 
the  weak  faith  which  consists  in  mere  sub- 
mission to  authority,  but  the  strong  conviction 
of  earnest  souls  who  know  what  they  believe 
and  why  they  believe  it,  and  are  willing  to 
live  by  the  truth  they  have  apprehended,  and, 
if  need  be,  die  for  it. 

13.  Caesarea  Philippi]  i.e.  the  Csesarea  built 
by  Philip  the  Tetrarch  (see  art.  '  the  Herods'), 
was  situated  at  the  sources  of  the  Jordan, 
near  the  foot  of  Mt.  Hermon  (9,000  ft.),  in 
the  midst  of  magnificent  scenery.  It  was  a 
Gentile  city,  and  was  often  called  Paneas 
(now  Banias),  because  the  god  Pan  was  wor- 
shipped there.  The  other  Caesarea  on  the 
sea-coast  was  called,  for  distinction,  Caesarea 
Palestina. 

14.  Cp.  142.  Why  do  not  the  apostles 
mention  the  belief  that  Jesus  was  really  the 
Messiah,  among  the  current  opinions  ?  Be- 
cause this  belief  no  longer  existed.  Those 
who  held  it,  had  abandoned  it  because  of  His 
continued  refusal  to  declare  Himself  (Jn  6 1^), 
and  to  do  what  was  expected  of  the  Messiah, 
viz.  deliver  the  oppressed  nation  from  its 
enemies.  Though  the  people  could  not  deny 
His  miracles  or  His  greatness,  they  felt  that 
He  had  disappointed  them,  and  His  popularity 
had  already  begun  to  ebb.  Elias]  RV  '  Elijah ' : 
see  on  17 10.  Jeremias]  Jewish  legend  repre- 
sented Jeremiah  as  well  as  Elijah,  as  pre- 
paiing  the  way  for  the  Messiah.  He  was  said 
to  have  hidden  the  ark  when  Jerusalem  was 
captiu-ed  by  the  Babylonians,  and  to  have 
called  Abraham,  Isaac,  Jacob,  and  Moses  from 
their  tombs  to  assist  him  in  mourning  for  the 
destruction  of  the  Temple.  In  the  days  of 
the  Messiah  it  was  said  that  he  and  Elijah 
would  dig  up  the  ark  from  the  cave  on  Mt. 
Nebo  in  which  it  was  concealed,  and  replace 
it  in  the  Holy  of  Holies. 

16.  The  Christ]  i.e.  'the  Messiah.'  So  also 
St.  Mark;  but  St.  Luke  has  'the  Christ  of 
God.'  The  Son  of  the  living  God]  These  words, 
together  with  the  next  three  vv.,  are  peculiar 
to  St.  Matthew,  but  are  nevertheless  authentic. 
They  suit  the  context  admirably,  and  are  so 
thoroughly  Hebraic  in  spirit,  that  their  signifi- 
cance can  only  be  apprehended  by  going  behind 


680 


16.  17 


ST.  MATTHEW 


16.  18 


the  Greek  to  the  Aramaic  original.  Their 
absence  from  St.  Mark  is  readily  explained. 
In  confessing  that  Jesus  was  the  Christ,  Peter 
did  no  more  than  express  the  general  sense  of 
the  apostolic  circle.  But  in  confessing  that 
He  was  the  '  Son  of  the  living  God,'  he  was 
going  beyond  what  the  others  at  that  time 
believed.  He,  thei'efore,  modestly  suppressed 
his  own  personal  confession  and  the  special 
commendation  with  which  Jesus  greeted  it. 
'  Son  of  God '  here  is  no  mere  equivalent 
of  '  the  Messiah,'  but  a  confession  of  Christ's 
unique  filial  relation  to  God.     This  is  shown, 

(1)  by  the  deep  emotion  with  which  the  speaker 
makes,  and  Jesus   receives,   the    confession  ; 

(2)  by  the  fact  that  the  confession  is  perfectly 
satisfactory  to  Jesus,  and  is  forthwith  made 
the  dogmatic  foundation  of  Christianity  ('  Upon 
this  rock  I  will  build  my  Church '). 

17.  Simon  Bar-jona]  i.e.  Simon,  son  of  Jonah. 
The  full  name  harmonises  with  the  solemnity 
of  the  occasion  and  the  emotion  of  the  speaker. 
In  Jn  1  *2  Peter's  father  is  called  '  Joanes ' 
(John),  of  which  Jonah  is  probably  a  contrac- 
tion. Flesh  and  blood]  corresponds  exactly 
to  the  English  expression  '  mortal  man,'  and 
is  often  found  in  that  sense  in  rabbinical 
writings. 

18.  Thou  art  Peter]  Gk.  Petros ;  Aramaic, 
Kephas.  Jesus  had  given  Peter  this  name  at 
their  first  interview  (Jn  1  ^2).  Peter  had  now 
realised  his  character,  and  Jesus  solemnly  con- 
firmed the  honourable  title.  And  upon  this 
rock]  Gk.  j^etra.  As  the  Gk.  word  here  is 
different,  most  ancient  commentators  deny 
that  Peter  is  the  rock.  The  Roman  Catholic 
Launoy  reckons  that  seventeen  Fathers  regard 

■  Peter  as  the  rock  ;  forty-four  regard  Peter's 
confession  as  the  rock  ;  sixteen  regard  Christ 
Himself  as  the  rock  ;  while  eight  are  of 
opinion  that  the  Church  is  built  on  all  the 
apostles.  Assuming,  however,  with  the  ma- 
jority of  modern  commentators  that  Peter  is 
the  rock,  the  interpretation  still  remains  nearly 
the  same,  because  it  is  upon  Peter,  as  confess- 
ing faith  in  Christ's  divinity,  that  the  Church 
is  founded. 

The  next  question  is,  '  Was  the  promise 
made  to  Peter  exclusively,  or  did  Christ  ad- 
dress Peter  as  the  representative  of  the  Twelve, 
intending  to  give  to  all  the  same  powers  that 
He  gave  to  Peter  ?  '  The  answer  can  hardly 
be  doubtful.  The  whole  text  speaks  of  the 
future.  Christ  says  not  '  I  build,'  but  '  I  will 
build ' ;  not  '  I  give,'  but  '  I  will  give,'  refer- 
ring to  the  future  for  the  explanation.  The 
rest  of  the  NT.  shows  in  what  sense  the  words 
of  Christ  are  to  be  understood.  On  the  even- 
ing of  Easter  Day  He  fulfilled  His  promise  to 
Peter,  by  giving  to  all  the  Apostles  present 
even  greater  powers  than  those  which  are  here 
promised — '  As  my  Father  hath  sent  me,  even 


681 


so  send  I  you.  And  .  .  he  breathed  on  them, 
and  saith  unto  them,  Receive  ye  the  Holy 
Ghost  :  Whosesoever  sins  ye  remit,  they  are 
remitted  unto  them  ;  and  whosesoever  sins  ye 
retain,  they  are  retained'  (Jn 20 22, 23).  jfo 
power  of  any  kind  was  then  given  to  Peter 
which  was  not  given  equally  to  all  the  Apostles, 
and  in  harmony  with  this  all  the  Apostles  are 
jointly  regarded  in  the  NT.  as  the  foundation 
on  which  the  Church  is  built  (1928  Eph220 
Rev  21 14). 

The  position  of  Peter  in  the  Apostolic 
Church  was  entirely  unlike  that  of  a  modern 
Pope.  In  Ac  11 2  he  is  sharply  criticised  for 
his  conduct  in  the  matter  of  Cornelius  and 
makes  his  defence  before  the  Church.  At  the 
council  of  Jerusalem  (Ac  15)  he  plays  quite  a 
subordinate  part.  It  is  James  who  presides 
and  pronounces  the  decision,  and  the  decree 
runs  in  the  name  of  the  apostles  and  elders. 
St.  Paul  claims  an  authority  equal  to  and  in- 
dependent of  Peter's.  He  reckons  himself 
'  not  a  whit  behind  the  very  chief  est  apostles ' 
(2  Cor  1 1 5),  and  on  a  celebrated  occasion  resists 
Peter  and  rebukes  him  to  his  face  (Gal  2  H). 
Moreover,  the  tone  of  St.  Peter's  first  and 
certainly  genuine  epistle  is  thoroughly  unpapal. 
'  The  elders  therefore  among  you,  I  exhort, 
who  am  a  fellow  elder,'  etc. 

What  then  was  the  nature  of  the  primacy 
which  Peter  possessed  ?  It  was  a  primacy  of 
personal  character  and  ability.  He  excelled 
the  other  apostles  not  in  office,  but  in  zeal, 
courage,  promptness  of  action,  and  firmness  of 
faith.  He  was  their  leader,  because  he  was 
most  fitted  to  lead.  He  boldly  ventured,  where 
others  hesitated.  And  this  explains  the  pecu- 
liarity of  the  present  passage,  that  the  promise 
was  made,  in  form  at  least,  to  Peter  alone. 
The  other  apostles  had  by  this  time  attained 
to  the  conviction  that  Jesus  was  the  Messiah 
(see  the  parallel  narratives),  but  only  Peter 
had  made  the  great  venture  of  faith  which  is 
implied  in  the  acknowledgment  of  the  divinity 
of  Christ. 

My  church,  with  emphasis  on  the  ify,  signi- 
fying that  the  Church  is  not  a  human  but  a 
divine  institution.  In  this  passage  the  Church 
is  identified  with  the  Kingdom  of  Heaven. 

The  gates  of  hell]  i.e.  the  gates  of  Hades, 
Heb.  Sheol,  the  abode  of  the  dead.  As  the 
Church  is  often  represented  as  a  city,  so  here 
its  great  adversary  Death  is  poetically  repre- 
sented as  a  fortified  city  with  walls  and  gates. 

Two  distinct  promises  are  here  made  :  (1) 
that  the  Church  as  an  organisation  shall  be 
indestructible.  No  persecutions,  or  assaults  of 
Satan  from  within  or  without  shall  destroy  it, 
because  the  life  which  is  in  it  is  Christ's  ;  (2) 
that  individual  members  of  the  Church,  united 
to  Christ  and  sharing  in  His  indestructible 
life,  shall  not  be  held  by  the  power  of  death, 


16.  19 


ST.  MATTHEW 


16.  28 


nor  overcome  by  judgment,  but  be  made  '  par- 
takers of  the  inheritance  of  the  saints  in  light.' 

19.  The  keys  of  the  kingdom  of  heaven] 
i.e.  the  keys  of  the  earthly  Church,  not  of 
heaven  itself.  Peter  is  not  here  compared  to 
the  porter  of  a  house,  who  has  only  the  key 
of  the  gate,  but,  since  he  possesses  all  the  keys, 
to  a  house-steward  exercising  full  authority 
over  the  house  and  all  its  inmates,  in  the 
master's  name  :  cp.  Isa  221^-25.  The  power  of 
the  keys  is,  (1)  the  power  to  govern  the  Church  ; 
(2)  the  power  to  exercise  discipline  in  it ;  (3) 
the  power  to  decide  who  shall  be  admitted  into 
it,  and  on  what  conditions  (subject,  of  course, 
to  the  Law  of  Christ)  ;  (4)  and  indirectly,  since 
the  steward  provides  food  for  all  the  house- 
hold, the  ministry  of  the  Word  and  Sacraments. 
Government  and  discipline,  however,  and  not 
ministry,  are  the  main  ideas.  The  narrower 
interpretations  of  the  power  of  the  keys,  as 
that  it  is  the  power  to  admit  into  the  Church 
by  the  preaching  of  the  gospel,  are  not  so 
much  erroneous  as  insufficient.  The  figure  in 
Lk  11 52  ('  the  key  of  knowledge ')  is  different. 
The  best  NT.  parallel  is  Eev37. 

Bind  .  .  loose]  These  words,  unintelligible  in 
Greek  and  English,  become  full  of  meaning 
when  traced  back  to  the  original  Aramaic. 

Every  rabbi  or  scribe  received  at  his  ordina- 
tion, which  was,  like  that  of  the  Christian 
Church,  by  the  laying  on  of  hands,  the  power  to 
bind  and  to  loose,  i.e.  to  decide  with  authority 
what  was  lawful  and  unlawful  to  be  done,  or 
orthodox  and  unorthodox  to  be  believed.  To 
bind  was  to  declare  unlawful,  to  loose  was  to 
declare  lawful.  We  read,  for  example,  that 
'  Rabbi  Meir  loosed  (i.e.  permitted)  the  mixing 
of  wine  and  oil,  and  the  anointing  of  a  sick 
man  on  the  sabbath '  ;  that  Rabbi  Jochanan 
said,  '  They  necessarily  loose  (i.e.  permit) 
saluting  on  the  sabbath,'  and  '  Concerning 
gathering  wood  on  a  feast  day,  the  school  of 
Shammai  binds  (i.e.  forbids)  it, — the  school  of 
Hillel  looses  (i.e.  permits)  it.'  The  power, 
therefore,  which  Christ  here  promised  to  Peter 
.  and  the  other  apostles  was  the  power  to  decide 
with  authority  questions  of  faith  and  morals 
in  the  Christian  Church, — the  power  to  fix  the 
moral  standard  and  to  determine  the  Christian 
creed.  In  the  exercise  of  this  authority  the 
apostles  'loosed'  the  prohibitions  of  the  Mosaic 
Law  first  to  the  Gentiles  (Ac  1 5),  and  finally  to 
the  Jews  (Mk7i9RV,  see  on  Mtl5i-20),  de- 
cided what  standard  of  morality  should  be 
enforced  in  the  society,  and  pronounced  with 
authority  in  controversies  of  faith. 

When  the  Jewish  rabbis  differed  upon  an 
important  matter  of  doctrine  or  practice,  a 
conference  was  held,  and  the  judgment  of  the 
majority  was  held  to  be  authoritative.  Simi- 
larly the  apostolic  power  of  '  binding  and 
loosing '  was  intended  to  be  exercised  collect- 


ively, and  great  deference  was  paid  both  in 
the  apostolic  and  in  subsequent  ages  to  the 
decisions  of  synods  (Ac  15). 

In  heaven]  It  is  promised  that  God  Himself 
will  ratify  the  '  binding  and  loosing '  of  the 
earthly  Church,  when  these  powers  are  duly 
and  legitimately  exercised.  '  Binding  and 
loosing '  is  different  from  the  power  of  re- 
mitting and  retaining  sins,  for  which  see  Jn  20  23. 

21-23.   Peter  rebuked. 

21.  Began  Jesus]  There  had  been  intima- 
tions of  his  death  before  (9i5  12*0  Jn2i9 
314  6^1),  but  now  they  began  to  be  more  dis- 
tinct. St.  Mark  says  expressly,  '  and  He  was 
speaking  the  word  openly.'  22,  Be  it  far, 
etc.]   lit.  '  God  have  mercy  on  thee.' 

23.  Satan]  The  sharpness  of  the  words 
indicates  a  strong  and  intense  emotion.  The 
chief  of  the  Apostles  was  addressed  in  the  self- 
same terms  as  those  which  had  been  spoken  to 
the  tempter.  St.  Peter's  suggestion  was  indeed 
something  like  a  renewal  of  the  same  tempta- 
tion. '  In  this  suggestion  that  He  might  obtain 
the  crown  without  the  cross  .  .  Christ  saw  the 
recurrence  of  the  temptation  which  had  offered 
Him  the  glory  of  those  kingdoms  on  condition 
of  His  drawing  back  from  the  path  which  the 
Father  had  appointed  for  Him.'  An  offence] 
lit.  '  stumbling-block.'  A  play  on  the  word 
Peter,  'A  stone  in  my  path,  not  a  founda- 
tion stone  of  my  Church.'  Savourest]  RV 
'  mindest.' 

24-28.  Exhortations  to  steadfastness  and 
self-denial  in  prospect  of  Christ's  return. 

24.  See  on  10^8.  By  the  cross  Jesus  means 
prinlarily  martyrdom,  either  in  will  or  act,  and 
not  merely  self-denial,  though  this  is  included. 

25.  Whosoever  will  save  his  life  (in  this 
world  in  time  of  persecution  by  denying  Me) 
shall  lose  it.  26.  Lose  his  own  soul]  RV 
'  forfeit  his  life.'  27.  This  v.  refers  to  the 
Last  Judgment. 

28.  The  most  probable  interpretation  of 
this  V.  refers  it  to  Christ's  coming  to  overthrow 
the  old  dispensation  by  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem,  70  a.d.  The  decisive  phrase  is, 
'  There  be  some  standing  here,  which  shall  not 
taste  of  death.'  This  obviously  excludes  the 
Last  Judgment,  and,  hardly  less  obviously, 
Christ's  Resurrection,  for  it  would  be  a  truism 
to  say  that  some  of  the  disciples  present  would 
live  to  see  an  event  which  happened  only  a 
few  months  later.  Whether  the  Transfiguration 
is  referred  to  is  not  so  clear.  It  was  witnessed 
by  only  some  of  those  present,  but,  on  the 
other  hand,  it  can  hardly  be  described  as  the 
kingdom  of  God  coming  '  with  power '  (Mk). 
Nevertheless  it  is  not  by  an  accident  that  the 
Transfiguration  immediately  followed  the  say- 
ing. The  Transfiguration  was  an  earnest  of 
the  greater  manifestation  of  power  shown  at 
the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  just  as  that  event 


682 


17.  1 


ST.  MATTHEW 


IT.  5 


itself  was  an  earnest  and,  as  it  were,  a  rehearsal 
of  the  final  act  of  judgment  :  see  further 
on  c.  24. 

Taste  of  death]  a  common  rabbinical  ex- 
pression for  '  to  die.'  Not  in  OT.  The  Son 
of  man,  etc.]  St.  Mark  '  the  kingdom  of  God 
come  in  power '  ;  St.  Luke  '  the  kingdom  of 
God.' 

CHAPTER    17 
The  Transfiguration 

1-8.  The  Transfiguration  (Mk92Lk928). 

St.  Leo  rightly  apprehended  the  historical 
situation  when  he  said  that  in  the  Transfigura- 
tion the  principal  object  aimed  at  was  that  in 
the  hearts  of  the  disciples  the  scandal  of  the 
cross  might  be  removed,  and  that  throughout 
the  terrible  and  humiliating  events  which  were 
shortly  to  happen  they  might  be  sustained  by 
the  remembrance  of  the  revelation  which  they 
had  been  vouchsafed. 

The  Transfiguration  revealed  Christ  in  His 
divine  glory  as  Son  of  God.  If,  as  is  gener- 
ally supposed,  it  took  place  at  night  (see  Lk 
937),  the  spectacle  of  the  face  of  Christ, 
shining  like  the  sun  in  its  strength,  must  have 
been  inexpressibly  glorious.  His  form  shone, 
not  like  that  of  Moses  with  borrowed  light, 
but  with  a  glory  which  came  from  within, 
and  was  His  own.  '  We  were  eye-witnesses 
of  His  majesty,'  said  one  of  the  witnesses 
(if  2  Peter  is  authentic).  '  And  we  beheld  His 
glory,'  said  another,  '  the  glory  as  of  the  only 
begotten  of  the  Father,  full  of  grace  and 
truth'  :  2Petli6-i8Jnli'i. 

Moses  and  Elijah  appeared,  the  former  as 
representing  the  Law,  and  the  latter  the 
prophets,  and  Christ  was  seen  in  the  midst  of 
them  as  greater  than  both.  '  The  unity  of  the 
Old  and  New  Covenant  is  wonderfully  attested 
by  this  apparition  of  the  princes  of  the  Old  in 
solemn  yet  familiar  intercourse  with  the  Lord 
of  the  New  ;  and  not  the  unity  only,  but  with 
this  unity  the  subordination  of  the  Old  to  the 
New,  that  "  Christ  is  the  end  of  the  Law " 
(RolO*),  and  the  object  to  which  all  prophecy 
pointed  (Lk24-i'i  Ac  11)13  2823  RoS^i),  that 
therefore  the  gi-eat  purpose  of  these  had  now 
been  fulfilled ;  all  which  was  declared  in  the 
fact  that,  after  their  testimony  thus  given, 
Moses  and  Elias  disappear,  while  Christ  only 
remains '  (Trench). 

Whether  the  Transfiguration  was  a  vision 
seen  in  trance,  or  a  waking  reality,  has  often 
been  discussed.  In  favour  of  the  former 
view  it  is  urged  that  their  eyes  were  '  heavy 
with  sleep,'  but  St.  Luke,  who  alone  mentions 
this  fact,  is  careful  to  add  that  '  they  re- 
mained awake  throughout,'  or  at  least  (for 
the  expression  is  somewhat  ambiguous)  that 
they  were  thoroughly  awake  at  the  actual 
time  of  the  vision.     That  it  was  a  real  object- 


ive occurrence,  and  not  a  mere  illusion,  is 
shown,  (1)  by  its  appearing  simultaneously  to 
the  three  apostles  ;  (2)  by  the  conversation 
between  Christ  and  the  visitors.  The  appear- 
ance of  Christ  with  two  of  His  saints  appar- 
ently in  glorified  bodies  is  an  earnest  of  the 
time  of  the  '  redemption  of  the  body,'  when 
the  Lord  Jesus  Christ '  shall  fashion  anew  the 
body  of  our  humiliation,  that  it  may  be  con- 
formed to  the  body  of  His  glory.' 

The  narrative  in  St.  Matthew  and  St.  Mark 
is  derived  from  St.  Peter.  That  in  St.  Luke 
is  largely  independent,  and  may  be  in  part 
derived  from  St.  John,  the  only  other  surviv- 
ing witness  when  St.  Luke  wrote. 

I.  After  six  days]  Lk  '  after  about  eight 
days,'  either  an  independent  calculation  or 
another  way  of  reckoning.  An  high  moun- 
tain] not  Mt.  Tabor,  the  top  of  which  was 
occupied  by  a  fortress,  but  more  probably 
Hermon,  which  is  near  Caesarea  Philippi,  and 
is  an  '  exceeding  high  mountain '  (9,000  ft.), 
which  Tabor  is  not  (1,800  ft.).  2.  Trans- 
figured] lit.  'metamorphosed.'  The  glory  of 
the  Godhead  burst  through  the  veil  of  flesh. 
St.  Luke  alone  mentions  that  the  change  took 
place  while  Jesus  was  praying.  3.  Moses  and 
Elijah  were  recognised  through  the  super- 
natural power  of  insight  which  enabled  them 
to  be  seen. 

4.  Three  tabernacles]  or,  '  booths.'  Peter 
wished  to  prolong  the  stay  of  the  heavenly 
visitants,  and  offered  to  build  them  temporary 
houses  on  the  mountain  for  their  accommoda- 
tion. He  felt  that  it  was  good  to  be  there  in 
such  glorious  surroundings,  and  by  no  means 
wished  to  descend  to  earth  again,  to  begin  the 
fatal  journey  to  Jerusalem  of  which  Moses 
and  Elijah  were  speaking  (St.  Luke).  St. 
Mark  adds  :  '  He  wist  not  what  to  answer,  for 
they  were  sore  afraid.'  5.  A  bright  cloud] 
i.e.  the  visible  glory  which,  according  to 
Jewish  ideas,  manifested  the  divine  presence. 
It  is  the  same  as  the  pillar  of  cloud  and  fire 
in  the  wilderness,  the  cloud  that  filled  Solo- 
mon's Temple,  and  the  visible  glory  which, 
according  to  the  rabbis,  rested  upon  the  ark, 
and  was  called  the  '  Shechinah.'  This  is  my 
beloved  Son]  Lk  '  This  is  my  Son,  my 
chosen.'  These  words,  in  which  the  Father 
Himself  testified  to  Christ's  divine  Sonship, 
are  similar  to  those  spoken  at  the  Baptism  ; 
but  whereas  those  were  spoken  in  part  at 
least  to  Christ  Himself,  these  were  spoken 
entirely  to  the  disciples.  They  contain  a 
striking  confirmation  of  Peter's  late  confes- 
sion, and  further  teach  what  the  Apostles 
found  it  so  hard  to  learn,  that  the  old  dis- 
pensation was  to  be  entirely  superseded  by 
the  new.  '  Hear,'  said  the  voice  of  the 
Father,  '  not  Moses  and  Elias,  but  my  beloved 
Son.' 


683 


17.  9 


ST.  MATTHEW 


17.  24 


9-13.   Elijah  and  the  Baptist  (Mk9ii). 

9,  The  vision]  lit.  '  the  thing  seen.'  The 
word  does  not  imply  the  unreality  of  the 
occurrence.  To  no  man]  Not  to  the  multitudes, 
lest  they  should  be  carried  away  by  political 
enthusiasm  ;  nor  to  the  other  disciples,  because 
they  were  not  yet  in  a  fit  state  to  receive  the 
lesson  that  it  taught.  To  be  witnesses  of  the 
Transfiguration  was  a  special  reward  of  the 
Three  for  their  gi-eater  faith  and  greater 
spiritual  receptiveness.  '  To  him  that  hath 
shall  be  given.'  Risen  again]  Another  clear 
prophecy  of  the  Resurrection. 

10,  Why  then  say  the  scribes?]  Jesus,  by 
forbidding  the  incident  to  be  spoken  of  (v.  9), 
seemed  to  attach  little  importance  to  the 
present  appearance  of  Elijah.  'Why  then,' 
ask  the  disciples,  '  do  the  scribes  attach  so 
much  importance  to  it  ?  And  why  are  we 
forbidden  to  reply  to  then*  leading  objection 
to  your  Messiahship,  by  saying  that  Elijah  has 
come,  and  that  we  have  seen  him.'  Elias 
must  first  come]  The  Jews  expected  a  personal 
return  of  Elijah  to  prepare  the  way  for  the 
Messiah,  not  another  prophet  like  him  :  see  on 
Lk  1  ^'^.  It  was  supposed  that  his  peculiar 
activity  would  consist  in  settling  ceremonial 
and  ritual  questions,  doubts  and  difficulties, 
and  that  he  would  restore  to  Israel,  (1)  the 
golden  pot  of  manna,  (2)  the  vessel  containing 
the  anointing  oil,  (3)  the  vessel  containing  the 
waters  of  purification,  (4)  Aaron's  rod  that 
budded  and  bore  fruit.  1 1 .  Elias  truly,  etc.] 
RV  '  Elijah  indeed  cometh,  and  shall  restore 
all  things.'  The  future  '  shall  restore '  is 
best  explained  as  a  quotation  of  the  exact 
words  of  the  scribes,  and  not  as  a  prophecy 
that  Elijah  will  come  in  person  to  prepare 
the  way  for  Christ's  Second  Advent,  though 
some  understood  it  to  mean  this.  Restore  all 
things]  see  Mai  4  6  Ac  3^1.  The  Baptist,  to 
whom  Jesus  alluded,  did  not  in  fact  '  restore 
all  things,'  nor  bring  about  the  perfect 
moral  purification  anticipated  by  the  prophet 
Malachi,  but  that  was  the  fault  of  his  hearers. 
The  possibility  of  the  Baptist's  failure  was 
distinctly  contemplated  by  Malachi,  for  he 
adds,  '  lest  I  come  and  smite  the  earth  with  a 
curse.'  Malachi  spoke  of,  and  Christ  under- 
stood by  his  words,  a  moral  restoration  of  the 
nation.  The  scribes  looked  for  the  restoration 
of  the  pot  of  manna,  stricter  ceremonies,  and 
similar  frivolities.  12.  But  have  done]  Herod, 
not  the  scribes,  actually  killed  John,  but 
Herod  only  did  what  the  scribes  would  have 
been  glad  to  do  :  cp.  LkT^o.  33_ 

14-20.  Healing  of  the  lunatic  (epileptic) 
(Mk9i4  Lk93").  St.  Mark's  account  is  much 
the  fullest.  Christ  descends  from  the  mount 
to  resume  His  works  of  benevolence.  He  who 
had  communed  with  G-od  and  His  prophets 
in    the    very    atmosphere    of    heaven,    now 


mingles  in  the  common  life  of  men,  and  concerns 
Himself  with  their  troubles.  He  was  full  of 
grace  as  well  as  truth.  Raphael  brings  this 
out  in  his  great  picture,  which  depicts  the 
Transfiguration  and  the  healing  of  the  epilep- 
tic boy  upon  the  same  canvas. 

The  scribes  had  taken  advantage  of  Christ's 
absence  to  undermine  His  influence  with  the 
multitude,  and  their  designs  had  been  assisted 
by  the  failure  of  His  disciples  to  heal  a 
peculiai'ly  severe  case  of  epilepsy  (Mk).  The 
return  of  Jesus  discomfited  the  scribes. 
The  epileptic  was  healed,  '  and  they  were 
all  astonished  at  the  majesty  of  God '  (Lk). 
J.  Lightfoot  remarks,  '  It  was  very  usual 
with  the  Jews  to  attribute  the  more  grievous 
diseases  to  evil  spirits,  especially  those  where- 
in either  the  body  was  distorted,  or  the  mind 
disturbed  or  tossed  with  a  frenzy.'  The 
demon  of  epilepsy,  in  the  case  of  infants,  was 
called  '  Shibta,'  in  the  case  of  adults,  '  Cor- 
dicus.'  How  far  the  language  of  Christ 
about  demons  is  an  accommodation  to  the 
ideas  of  the  time  is  discussed  at  end  of  c.  4. 

15.  Lunatick]  i.e.  epileptic,  because  epi- 
leptics were  supposed  to  be  affected  by  the 
changes  of  the  moon  {luna).  17.  O  faithless] 
The  rebuke  is  addressed  not  only  to  the  disci- 
ples, but  also  to  the  father  of  the  lad  and  the 
multitude.      20.   UnbeUef]  RY  '  little  faith.' 

Faith  as  a  grain  of  mustard]  i.e.  the  smallest 
amount  :  see  on  13^1.  Ye  shall  say  unto 
this  mountain,  etc.]  a  proverbial  expression  : 
see  on  2121.  21.  The  RV  and  Westcott  and 
Hort  omit  the  whole  v.,  but  it  is  too  strongly 
attested  to  be  lightly  rejected.  The  parallel 
in  Mk  (R V)  omits  '  and  fasting '  :  see  on  Mk  9  29. 

22,  23.  Jesus  predicts  His  passion  (Mk930 
Lk9-i3). 

22.  Abode]  RV  '  were  gathering  themselves 
together.'  Galilee]  mentioned  because  the  last 
miracle  had  taken  place  beyond  its  borders, 
near  C^sarea  Philippi.  23.  Sorry]  They 
thought  only  of  the  Passion,  not  of  the 
Resurrection,  the  allusion  to  which  they  did 
not  in  the  least  understand.  St.  Mark  says, 
'  But  they  understood  not  the  saying,  and 
were  afraid  to  ask  him.' 

24-27.  The  half-shekel  or  Temple  tribute 
(peculiar  to  St.  Matthew).  Jesus  is  asked  to 
pay  the  usual  tax  towards  the  maintenance  of 
the  Temple  services.  As  Son  of  God  He 
claims,  exemption,  yet  pays,  lest  He  should  be 
thought  to  despise  the  Temple.  A  sig- 
nificant indication  of  Christ's  consciousness 
of  a  special  relationship  to  God,  unlike  that 
of  other  men. 

24.  They  that  received  tribute  money~\  RV 
'  the  half -shekel '  (Gk.  dklrachma).  Every 
male  Israelite  above  the  age  of  twenty  was 
required  by  the  Law  (Ex30ii-i6  3825,26)  to 
pay  half  a  shekel  annually  (i.e.  about  eighteen- 


684 


17.  25 


ST.  MATTHEW 


18.  5 


pence)  towards  the  maintenance  of  the  Temple 
worship,  as  '  a  ransom  for  his  soul  unto  the 
Lord.'  It  was  usually  paid  between  the 
fifteenth  and  twenty-fifth  of  Adar  (March), 
i.e.  about  Passover  time,  so  that  the  money 
was  now  considerably  overdue.  25,  Custom] 
i.e.  taxes  on  merchandise.  Tribute]  i.e.  taxes 
on  persons  and  property.  26.  Then  are  the 
children  (B.V  '  the  sons ')  free]  Therefore 
Jesus,  being  the  Son  of  the  Heavenly  King, 
is  free  from  the  Temple  tax.  '  Childi'en '  (sons) 
is  not  meant  to  include  the  apostles  or  Chris- 
tians generally.  The  plural  is  only  part  of 
the  simile.  27.  Lest  we  should  offend  them] 
i.e.  '  lest  we  give  the  collectors,  who  do  not 
know  that  I  am  the  Son  of  God,  the  false  im- 
pression that  I  dishonour  the  Temple,  and  so 
hinder  their  conversion,  go  thou,'  etc.  Offend] 
RV  '  cause  to  stumble.'  A  piece  of  money] 
lit.  '  a  stater.'  A  silver  stater  was  exactly 
four  drachmae  or  denarii,  i.e.  a  shekel,  enough 
to  pay  for  two.  For  me  and  thee]  not  '  for 
us.'  The  two  cases  were  different.  In  our 
Lord's  case  the  payment  was  a  condescension, 
in  Peter's  a  debt. 

There  are  many  authentic  historical  instances 
of  valuables  being  found  inside  fish.  Poly- 
crates,  tyrant  of  Samos  (6th  cent.  B.C.),  thi-ew 
into  the  sea  an  emerald  signet  set  with  gold, 
the  work  of  the  Samian  artist  Theodoras.  A 
few  days  later  his  cook  found  the  signet  inside 
a  large  fish,  which  a  fisherman  had  presented 
to  the  monarch. 

Although  the  supernatural  element  in  this 
miracle  is  not  greater  than  in  the  other  physi- 
cal miracles,  yet  its  dramatic  character,  and  the 
absence  of  the  motive  of  benevolence  which  so 
generally  characterises  our  Lord's  miracles, 
suggest  to  some  critics  that  we  have  here  not 
strict  history,  but  a  mixture  of  history  and 
tradition,  the  nucleus  of  historic  fact  being 
that  our  Lord  sent  St.  Peter  to  catch  a  fish, 
and  that  this  fish,  when  sold,  realised  a 
shekel.  This  explanation  of  the  incident  is 
quite  possible. 

CHAPTER   18 

Offending    the   Little    Ones.     The 

Unmerciful  Servant 

1-14.  Ambition  reproved,  and  humility  taught 
by   the   example   of   a   little   child   (Mk  9^3-37 

Lk  9  46-48). 

I.  Who  is  the  greatest  ?]  RV  '  Who  then 
is  greatest  ?  '  The  '  then  '  is  explained  from 
St.  Mark's  statement  that  on  the  way  to 
Capernaum  the  disciples  had  been  disputing 
who  was  the  greatest.  The  Transfiguration 
had  revived  the  hopes  of  the  three  leading 
apostles  that  the  Kingdom  of  Christ  was  about 
to  be  established,  and  the  Twelve  were  divided 
into  three  parties  advocating  the  rival  claims 
of  Peter,  James,  and  John  to  the  office  of 


prime  minister.  Others  were  perhaps  jealous 
of  all  thi'ee,  and  favoured  other  candidates. 
They,  therefore,  came  to  Christ.  '  Who  then,' 
said  they  ('  since  we  cannot  settle  it  ourselves), 
is  the  greatest  in  the  Kingdom  of  Heaven  ? ' 
According  to  St.  Mark  aa<l  -St.- -Luke,  when 
they  came  into  Christ's  presence,  they  were 
ashamed  to  speak,  but  Jesus  understood  the 
question  they  desired  to  ask  :  cp.  2020  Lk2224. 
The  incident  is  well  placed  by  St.  Matthew 
after  the  incident  of  the  half-shekel  in  which 
Jesus  had  shown  His  own  humility  by  paying 
the  tax.  The  kingdom  of  heaven]  here  the 
Kingdom  of  the  Messiah  wrongly  conceived 
of  as  an  earthly  empire.  2.  A  little  child] 
Perhaps,  as  He  was  in  Peter's  house,  one  of 
Peter's  children.  Tradition,  however,  says 
that  it  was  Ignatius,  the  martyr,  afterwards 
bishop  of  Antioch. 

3.  Except  ye  be  converted]  RV  '  Except  ye 
turn.'  A  sharp  rebuke.  The  disciples  were 
disputing  their  rank  and  precedence  in  the 
Kingdom.  Jesus  denies  that  they  are  in  it  at 
all.  They  have  turned  their  backs  on  it 
altogether.  Only  by  reversing  their  course 
and  embracing  humility,  can  they  hope 
even  to  enter  it.  Here  Jesus  uses  the  '  King- 
dom of  Heaven '  to  express  the  inward 
character  of  the  true  members  of  His  Church. 

4.  Shall  humble  himself  as  this  little  child] 
A  little  child  has  no  pride,  knows  nothing  of 
worldly  rank  or  position,  and  is  simple,  teach- 
able, and  loving.  In  using  such  an  object- 
lesson,  Jesus  showed  His  greatness  as  a  teacher. 
According  to  St.  Mark,  He  took  the  little  child 
in  His  arms  to  teach  the  lesson  of  love  that 
follows.  St.  Bernard's  definition  of  humility 
is  true  and  deep.  '  It  is  the  virtue  by  which 
a  man  from  the  most  true  knowledge  of  him- 
self is  vile  (i.e.  of  little  worth)  in  his  own 
eyes  ;  the  esteeming  of  ourselves  small,  inas- 
much as  we  are  so,  the  thinking  truly,  and 
because  truly,  therefore  lowlily,  of  ourselves ' : 
see  also  on  5^. 

5.  Shall  receive]  i.e.  with  affection,  honour, 
and  respect,  and  with  the  design  of  learning 
from  them  the  special  lesson,  which  they  have 
to  teach,  viz.  humility  :  cp.  10*0,  where 
'receiveth  you'  means  'receiveth  your  teach- 
ing.' One  such  little  child]  Not  a  literal  child, 
but  a  child-like,  humble  person  of  any  age. 
This  is  the  meaning  even  in  St.  Luke,  who 
writes,  '  this  little  child,'  because  the  child  is 
taken  as  representing  a  class.  In  my  name] 
i.e.  for  my  sake.  Receiveth  me]  Christ  is 
honoured  when  His  saints  are  honoured  for 
their  likeness  to  Him.  St.  Mark  (cp.  also  St. 
Luke)  adds,  '  and  whosoever  receiveth  me, 
receiveth  not  me,  but  him  that  sent  me.' 

Between  vv.  5  and  6  St.  Mark  and  St. 
Luke  insert  a  saying  of  John's  about  a  man 


who  was  casting  out  devils  in  Christ's  name. 


685 


18.  6 


ST.  MATTHEW 


18.  19 


6-9.  Mk 9  42-48  :  cp.  also  Lkl7l-2 

6.  But  whoso  shall  offend  (R  V '  shall  cause  to 
stumble  ')  one  of  these  little  ones]  i.e.  whoso- 
ever shall  bring  about  the  ruin  of  the  soul  of 
a  true  believer,  by  depriving  him  of  the  child- 
like characteristics  of  humility  and  love. 

It  were  better  for  him]  RV  '  it  is  profitable 
for  him.'  Why  better  ?  Because  the  penalty 
for  ruining  the  soul  of  another  is  eternal  death, 
and  it  is  better  to  sufiier  the  worst  earthly 
penalty,  than  to  do  anything  which  will  incur 
that  awful  doom. 

A  millstone]  lit.  '  a  millstone  turned  by  an 
ass,'  as  opposed  to  one  turned  by  hand,  i.e.  '  a 
gi-eat  millstone  '  (RV).  Were  hanged  .  .  were 
drowned]  more  exactly,  '  had  been  hanged  .  . 
had  been  drowned,'  viz.  before  he  did  the 
deed.  Drowning  was  a  Roman  and  Greek 
punishment,  reserved  for  crimes  of  peculiar 
enormity.  It  is  not  known  to  have  been 
practised  by  the  Jews. 

7-9.  A  short  digression.  Jesus  passes 
from  the  case  of  '  these  little  ones,'  to 
temptations  to  sin  in  the  world  at  large 
(v.  7),  and  in  individual  cases  (vv.  8,  9). 

7.  Woe  unto  the  world]  Jesus  has  been 
dealing  with  '  offences,'  i.e.  temptations  to  sin, 
within  the  Church.  He  now  applies  the 
same  principle  to  the  world  at  large.  It  is  in 
every  case,  He  says,  a  greater  sin  to  lead  others 
into  sin  than  to  be  led.  There  is  a  greater 
punishment,  or  'woe,'  for  the  tempter  than 
for  the  tempted.  It  must  needs  be]  A  broad 
statement  of  the  results  of  human  experience, 
not  a  definition  of  the  doctrine  of  fatalism  or 
determinism.  God  does  not  compel  men  to 
sin,  any  more  than  He  compels  them  to  be 
virtuous.  Perhaps  Jesus  had  in  His  mind  the 
case  of  His  own  death.  The  death  of  Jesus 
was  (the  religious  state  of  the  nation  being 
what  it  was)  practically  certain,  yet  the 
human  agent,  Judas,  through  whom  the  offence 
came,  acted  freely,  and  was  held  responsible 
for  his  act.  8,  9.  How  each  man  is  to  deal  with 
his  own  individual  temptations  :  see  on  529.  30_ 

10-14.  Two  reasons  are  given  why  we  are 
not  to  despise  '  one  of  these  little  ones,'  i.e. 
any  humble  Christian.  One  is,  that  God  Him- 
self shows  them  honour,  by  appointing  angels 
to  be  their  guardians.  The  other  is,  that  He 
cares  so  much  for  them,  that  He  has  sent  His 
own  Son  to  redeem  them  (v.  11). 

10.  Their  angels]  Though  the  general 
ministry  of  angels  to  those  who  are  heirs  of 
salvation  is  generally  assumed  in  the  NT.  (Heb 
114,  etc.),  only  this  passage  and  Ac  12  is  teach 
that  a  special  guardian  angel  is  assigned  to  each 
individual.  It  is  implied  that  the  angels  en- 
trusted with  this  ministry  are  of  the  highest 
rank,  because  in  an  Oriental  court  only  the 
highest  officials  see  the  king's  face  :  cp. 
2  K  25 19. 


II.  The  RV,  following  many  ancient  au- 
thorities, omits  this  v.  It  is,  however,  difficult 
to  account  for  its  insertion,  if  it  is  not  genuine. 
It  is  certainly  not  inserted  from  Lk  1 9 1^. 

12-14.  Parable  of  the  Lost  Sheep,  'which is 
intended  to  show  that  it  would  be  in  direct 
opposition  to  God's  desire  for  human  salvation 
to  lead  astray  one  of  those  little  ones,  and  to 
cause  him  to  be  lost,  like  a  strayed  sheep.  Lk  1 5  ^ 
records  the  same  beautiful  parable,  though  in 
a  different  connexion '  (see  the  notes  there). 
The  practical  lesson  is  that  we  must  not  only 
be  kind  to,  and  honour  Chi-ist's  little  ones 
(i.e.  members  of  His  Church),  but,  if  they  go 
astray,  must  show  our  love  by  seeking  to  re- 
claim them,  like  the  Good  Shepherd. 

15-20.  Treatment  of  an  erring  brother 
(peculiar  to  St.  Matthew).  The  connexion 
with  what  precedes  is  as  follows :  '  Despise 
not  one  of  the  "  little  ones  "  (vv.  10-14)  ;  if, 
however,  one  "  offends  against  thee,"  then  pro- 
ceed thus.'  The  subject  changes  from  that 
of  doing  injury  to  the  '  little  ones,'  against 
which  Jesus  has  been  warning  (vv.  10-14),  to 
that  of  suffering  injury,  in  view  of  which  He 
prescribes  the  proper  method  of  brotherly 
visitation.  A  '  little  one  '  is  now  defined  as  a 
Christian  brother  in  general.  Previously  he 
was  not  only  a  Christian,  but  a  humble 
Christian. 

15.  If  thy  brother  shall  trespass  against 
thee]  so  RV.  Westcott  and  Hort,  however, 
omit  '  against  thee,'  considerably  altering  the 
sense  of  the  passage,  which  then  applies  to 
sin  in  general.  Hast  gained  thy  brother]  viz. 
'  back  to  God,  and  to  thyself.'  While  he  was 
in  his  sin,  he  was  lost  to  both. 

17.  Tell  it  unto  the  church]  i.e.  the  Christian 
Church,  as  in  161^,  not  the  Jewish  synagogue, 
as  some  have  supposed.  Jesus  uses  Jewish 
expressions,  because  those  only  were  then 
intelligible,  but  He  is  plainly  legislating  for 
His  own  society.  In  dealing  with  offenders  the 
Church  is  to  use,  (1)  admonition,  (2)  if  that  be 
unsuccessful,  excommunication.  This  was  also 
the  Jewish  method  of  procedure.  As  an 
heathen  man  (RV  '  gentile ')  and  a  publican] 
Social  intercourse  with  the  sinner,  while  unre- 
pentant, is  forbidden.  But  Jesus  does  not 
authorise  the  more  severe  forms  of  excom- 
munication in  use  among  the  Jews,  which 
involved  cursing  and  anathematising.  The 
discipline  of  His  Church  is  to  be  mild  and 
gentle.  18.  Bind  ..  loose]  see  on  1 6 19.  Here 
the  binding  and  loosing  refer  specially  to 
judicial  decisions,  which  Jesus  says  will  be 
ratified  in  heaven. 

19.  Again  I  say]  Having  promised  the 
ratification  in  heaven  of  the  judicial  decisions 
of  the  Church,  Jesus  proceeds  to  say  the  same 
thing  about  the  prayers  of  Christians.  He 
lays  stress  on  united  prayer.      The   way   to 


686 


18.  20 


ST.  MATTHEW 


19. 


obtain  a  request,  is  to  call  in  the  aid  of  a 
Christian  brother  and  to  pray  with  him.  Still 
more,  therefore,  will  the  united  prayer  of 
the  whole  Church  prove  effectual.  20.  For 
where  two  or  three]  Christ  proceeds  to  give 
the  reason  why  God  will  grant  such  prayers. 
It  is  that  He  Himself,  the  great  Intercessor,  is 
personally  present  in  every  worshipful  assembly 
of  Christians,  and  presents  their  prayers  to 
the  Father.  The  passage  applies  to  private 
prayer-meetings,  but  is  particularly  true  of 
assemblies  of  the  Church.  The  small  num- 
bers (two  or  three)  are  mentioned  to  encourage 
the  Christians  of  the  first  ages,  who  would  often 
consist  of  a  mere  handful  in  the  midst  of  a 
great  heathen  population.  A  convincing  proof 
of  Christ's  divinity  may  be  di-awn  from  this 
promise,  which  is  rendered  all  the  more  evident 
by  a  comparison  with  the  Jewish  sayings  from 
which  it  is  adapted,  e.g.  '  Whence  is  it  certain 
that  the  Holy  and  Blessed  God  is  present  in 
the  synagogue?'  (From  Ps82i.)  'Whence  is 
it  certain  that  when  ten  persons  are  praying, 
the  Divine  Majesty  is  present  ?  '  (From  the 
same  passage.)  '  Whence  is  it  certain  that  the 
Divine  Majesty  is  present  when  two  are  sitting 
and  studying  the  law  ?  '   (From  Mai  31''.) 

21,  22.  How  often  a  brother  is  to  be  for- 
given. A  favourite  subject  for  discussion 
among  the  rabbis.  They  taught  generally  that 
three  offences  were  to  be  pardoned. 

21.  Seven  times]  Peter  thought  himself  more 
than  twice  as  liberal  as  the  rabbis.  Our  Lord's 
reply  (v.  22)  teaches  that  there  must  be  no 
limit  to  human  pardon,  as  there  is  none  to 
God's  :  see  on  6i2,i4,i5^  and  cp.  Lkl73. 

23-35.  The  unmerciful  servant  (peculiar  to 
St.  Matthew).  The  lesson  is  that,  inasmuch 
as  God  has  forgiven  us  the  great  and  unpay- 
able debt  which  as  sinners  we  owe  to  Him,  so 
we  also  must  forgive  our  brethren  the  com- 
paratively trifling  debts  which  they  have  in- 
curred by  sinning  against  us.  The  parable 
concerns  the  Kingdom  of  Heaven,  i.e.  it  illus- 
trates God's  dealing  with  Christians,  not  with 
the  world. 

23.  A  certain  king]  i.e.  God.  Which  would 
take  account]  RV  '  would  make  a  reckoning 
with  his  servants.'  'We  are  the  servants  with 
whom  He  takes  account.  This  account,  as 
is  plain,  is  not  the  final  reckoning,  but  rather 
such  as  that  of  Lkl6^.  To  this  He  brings 
us  by  the  preaching  of  the  law — by  the  set- 
ting of  our  sins  before  our  face — by  awaken- 
ing and  alarming  our  conscience  that  was 
asleep  before — by  bringing  us  into  adversi- 
ties— by  casting  us  into  sore  sicknesses,  into 
perils  of  death.  Thus  David  was  summoned 
before  God  by  the  word  of  Nathan  the 
prophet ;  thus  the  Ninevites  by  the  preach- 
ing of  Jonah  ;  thus  the  Jews  by  John  the 
Baptist '  (Trench). 


24.  Ten  thousand  talents]  An  enormous 
sum  (£2,500,000  of  our  money,  if  the  Attic 
silver  talent  of  £240  is  meant,  and  still  more 
if  the  Hebrew  silver  talent  of  £410,  or  gold 
talent  of  £6,150,  is  meant),  indicating  the 
absolute  impossibility  of  a  man  making  atone- 
ment for  his  own  sin.  Only  Christ  Himself 
could  pay  the  ransom  price  of  man's  redemp- 
tion and  set  the  debtor  free.  For  sin  regarded 
as  a  debt,  see  on  6 12. 

25.  To  be  sold]  The  Mosaic  Law  allowed 
the  sale  of  a  debtor  with  his  wife  and  chil- 
dren, these  being  regarded  as  his  property 
(Lv2539  2K41),  but  the  rabbis  disapproved 
this  severity,  except  in  the  case  of  a  thief. 
The  reference  is  to  Gentile  customs,  probably 
to  the  Roman  law.  Spiritually  the  selling 
is  '  the  expression  of  God's  right  and  power 
altogether  to  alienate  from  Himself,  reject, 
and  deliver  into  bondage  all  those  who  have 
come  short  of  His  glory.' 

26.  Worshipped]  i.e.  prostrated  himself. 

I  will  pay  thee  all]  a  sign  that  his  repent- 
ance was  very  superficial,  as  indeed  his  subse- 
quent conduct  showed.  Yet  the  merciful  God 
accepted  even  this  imperfect  repentance, 
hoping  for  better  things  in  the  future.  '  The 
slave,'  says  Euthj^mius,  '  asked  not  for  full  re,- 
mission  but  for  time,  but  the  lovingkindness 
of  God  granted  full  remission  of  the  debt. 
Learn  from  this  that  God  gives  more  even 
than  we  ask.'  28.  An  hundred  pence]  {denarii')^ 
i.e.  about  £2  15s.  Orf.,  an  insignificant  sum, 
representing  the  trifling  character  of  offences 
against  man,  compared  with  those  against 
God.  34.  To  the  tormentors]  Torture  was 
not  a  Jewish  or  Roman  punishment  for 
debtors,  but  it  would  naturally  be  applied  by 
an  Eastern  despot  to  make  the  debtor  dis- 
close where  he  had  hidden  his  treasures. 

Till  he  should  pay  all  that  was  due]  '  i.e. 
(says  St.  Chrysostom)  for  ever ;  for  he  can 
never  possibly  pay.'  Others  more  plausibly 
see  in  the  'till,'  a  hope,  or  at  least  a  possibility, 
of  final  release  :  see  on  12^2.     35.  See  61^. 

CHAPTER  19 
The  Question  of  Divorce.  The  Rich 
Young  Man 
I,  2.  End  of  the  Galilean  ministry.  The 
Peraean  ministry  begins  (MklO^  LkO^i  ;  cp. 
Lkiyii).  The  time  was  now  late  summer  of 
28  A.D.  The  Passion  was  less  than  six  months 
distant.  Jesus  finally  left  Galilee,  and  entered 
upon  what  is  generally  called  the  '  Perasan 
ministry,'  the  scene  of  which  was  partly  Persea 
beyond  Jordan,  a  district  extending,  roughly, 
from  the  Sea  of  Galilee  to  the  Dead  Sea,  and 
partly  Jerusalem  and  Judeea.  To  this  period 
must  be  assigned  a  visit  to  Jerusalem  at  the 
Feast  of  Tabernacles  (September),  Jn?^  ; 
another  at  the  Feast  of  Dedication  (December), 


687 


19.  1 


ST.  MATTHEW 


19.  10 


Jnl023  ;  also  the  mission  of  the  Seventy,  and 
many  of  the  incidents  in  the  great  section 
peculiar  to  St.  Luke's  Gospel  (951-1928). 

I.  Into  the  coasts  (KV  '  borders ')  of  Judaea 
beyond  Jordan]  i.e.  into  the  southern  part  of 
Perasa,  opposite  to  Judsea. 

3-9.  The  question  of  divorce  (MklO^  ;  see 
on  532).  The  Pharisees  probably  intended  to 
entrap  Jesus  into  some  contradiction  of  the 
Law  of  Moses,  which  might  form  the  basis  of 
a  charge  before  the  Sanhedrin.  Some,  how- 
ever, think  that,  as  Pergea  was  in  the  territory 
of  Herod  Antipas,  they  wished  to  inveigle 
Him  into  speaking  against  that  monarch's 
divorce  of  the  daughter  of  Aretas  :  see  on 
143.  St.  Matthew's  narrative  is  fuller  and 
perhaps  more  original  than  St.  Mark's. 

3.  For  every  cause]  In  St.  Mark  the  ques- 
tion simply  is,  '  Is  it  lawful  for  a  man  to  put 
away  his  wife  ?  '  Jesus  was  asked  to  decide 
the  point  debated  between  the  school  of 
Hillel,  who  allowed  divorce  for  every  cause, 
and  that  of  Shammai,  who  allowed  it  only  for 
adultery.  Rabbi  Akiba  (a  Hillelite)  said, 
'  If  a  man  sees  a  woman  handsomer  than  his 
own  wife,  he  may  put  her  away,  because  it  is 
said,  "  If  she  find  not  favour  in  his  eyes."  ' 
The  school  of  Hillel  said,  '  If  the  wife  cook 
her  husband's  food  ill,  by  over-salting  or  over- 
roasting it,  she  is  to  be  put  away.'  On  the 
other  hand.  Rabbi  Jochanan  (a  Shammaite) 
said,  '  The  putting  away  of  a  wife  is  odious.' 
Both  schools  agreed  that  a  divorced  wife  could 
not  be  taken  back. 

Both  schools  objected  to  (though  perhaps 
they  did  not  forbid)  the  divorce  of  difirnt  wife, 
with  regard  to  which  the  dictum  of  Rabbi 
Eliezer,  '  For  the  divorcing  of  a  first  wife, 
even  the  altar  itself  sheds  tears,'  was  generally 
approved. 

4.  Male  and  female]   i.e.  one  for  one. 

5.  And  said]  Our  Lord  regards  the  words 
alluded  to  (see  On  2-*)  as  spoken  by  divine 
inspiration.  His  wife]  Ancient  and  modern 
interpreters  find  in  the  singular  a  prohibition 
of  polygamy.  The  rabbis  allowed  three  or 
four  wives.  '  It  is  lawful '  (they  said)  '  to 
have  many  wives  together,  even  as  many  as 
you  will,  but  our  wise  men  have  decreed  that 
no  man  have  above  four  wives.' 

6.  What  therefore  God  hath  joined  to- 
gether] Our  Lord  takes  up  higher  ground  than 
either  school.  He  goes  behind  the  Law  of 
Moses,  which  was  in  many  cases  a  concession 
to  Jewish  infirmities  and  prejudices,  to  God's 
original  intention  at  the  creation  of  the  human 
race,  and  declares  this  to  be  more  venerable 
than  the  written  Law,  which  the  Jewish  schools 
idolised.     See  further  on  531.32. 

7.  A  w^riting  of  divorcement]  see  Dt24i. 
Jewish  divorces  were  always  from  the  bond  of 
marriage,  so  that  both  parties   could   marry 


again,  unless  the  husband  specially  restrained 
the  wife's  liberty  in  that  respect.  Divorces 
were  thus  worded  :  '  I  iV.  have  put  away, 
dismissed,  and  expelled  thee  N.^  who  hereto- 
fore wast  my  wife.  But  now  I  have  dismissed 
thee,  so  that  thou  art  free,  and  in  thy  own 
power,  to  marry  whosoever  shall  please  thee  ; 
and  let  no  man  hinder  thee.  And  let  this  be 
to  thee  a  bill  of  rejection  fi'om  me  according 
to  the  Law  of  Moses  and  Israel. 

'  Reuheii,  the  son  of  Jacob,  witness. 

'  Eliezer,  the  son  of  Gilead,  witness '  (from 
J.  Lightfoot). 

8.  Because  of  the  hardness  of  your  hearts] 
The  rabbis  regarded  the  liberty  of  divorce  as 
a  special  privilege  conferred  by  God  upon  the 
chosen  people.  Rabbi  Chananiah  said,  '  God 
has  not  subscribed  His  name  to  divorces,  except 
among  Israelites,  as  if  He  said,  I  have  con- 
ceded to  the  Israelites  the  right  of  dismissing 
their  wives  ;  but  to  the  Gentiles  I  have  not 
conceded  it.'  Jesus  retorts  that  it  is  not  the 
privilege,  but  the  infamy  and  reproach  of 
Israel,  that  Mgses  found  it  necessary  to 
tolerate  divorce.  Moses  allowed  it  only  for 
the  '  hardness  of  your  hearts,'  i.e.  your  un- 
willingness to  accept  God's  will  in  the  matter 
of  marriage,  or,  as  others  explain  it,  for  your 
brutality  towards  your  wives,  which  would 
lead  you  to  maltreat  them,  unless  you  had  the 
privilege  of  divorcing  them. 

9.  See  on  532.  The  exact  text  of  this  v.  is 
very  uncertain.  Whosoever]  Some  ancient 
authorities  read,  '  Whosoever  shall  put  away 
his  wife,  except  for  fornication,  maketh  her 
an  adulteress,'  omitting  the  rest  of  the  verse. 

10-12.  Conversation  ('  in  the  house,'  Mk) 
on  marriage  and  celibacy  (Mk  10 1012).  The 
words  of  Jesus  with  regard  to  celibacy  must 
be  neither  exaggerated  nor  minimised.  They 
recognise  and  honour,  along  with  marriage,  the 
vocation  of  celibacy,  when  it  is  embraced  for 
the  Kingdom  of  Heaven's  sake.  The  qualifi- 
cation is  important.  The  Essenes  of  our 
Lord's  time  were  celibates  because  they  re- 
garded marriage  as  unholy.  The  Christian 
hermits  of  later  times  adopted  celibacy  simply  as 
a  means  towards  attaining  their  own  individual 
perfection.  Many  adopt  it  now  because  they 
will  not  face  the  responsibilities  and  anxieties 
of  married  life.  The  celibacy  which  Christ 
approves  is  that  which  is  adopted  for  the  sake 
of  doing  good  to  others  in  active  works  of  re- 
ligion and  mercy,  as  in  the  case  of  the  great 
sisterhoods  and  missionary  brotherhoods.  Any 
attempt  to  enforce  celibacy  upon  whole  classes 
of  persons,  as,  for  instance,  upon  the  clergy  in 
general,  is  forbidden  by  Christ  ('  He  that  is 
able  to  receive  it,  let  him  receive  it '),  and  is 
also  inexpedient. 

10.  If  the  case  of  the  man]  '  They  mean 
that,  if  the  tie  of  marriage  is  so  strict  that 


688 


19.  11 


ST.  MATTHEW 


19.  M 


there  is  no  separation  except  for  adultery, 
it  is  inexpedient  to  marry.  For  how  can 
a  husband  bear  all  the  other  faults  of  an 
abandoned  woman  ?  '  (Euthymius).  1 1 .  This 
saying]  viz.  '  that  it  is  not  expedient  to 
marry.'  The  disciples  had  spoken  of  a 
worldly  and  prudential  celibacy.  This,  Jesus 
warns  them,  is  unnatural  and  perilous.  The 
only  celibacy  which  is  safe  and  acceptable  to 
God  is  that  which  is  embraced  for  religious 
reasons  in  consequence  of  a  divine  call  ('  to 
whom  it  is  given,'  viz.  '  by  God  ').  12.  For 
the  kingdom  of  heaven's  sake]  i.e.  who  have 
embraced  celibacy  not  merely  for  their  own  per- 
sonal sanctification,  but  in  order  to  undertake 
work  for  the  advancement  of  Christ's  kingdom 
on  earth. 

13-15.  Christ  and  little  children  (Mkl0i3 
LklS^^).  A  touching  incident  teaching  the 
same  lesson  as  the  birth  and  infancy  of  Jesus 
Himself,  viz.  the  sanctity  of  childhood.  The 
disciples  thought  that  children  were  not  im- 
portant enough  to  claim  the  Master's  attention, 
and  this  aroused  His  just  anger  (St.  Mark). 
We  may  learn  from  this  that  catechising  and 
other  ministrations  to  children  are  not  to  be 
despised,  even  by  the  most  intellectual. 

Most  Christians  find  in  this  passage  the 
leading  principles  upon  which  infant  baptism 
is  based.  These  are,  (1)  that  children,  how- 
ever young,  are  capable  of  receiving  divine 
grace.  This  is  made  clear  by  the  fact  that 
Christ  blessed  them  (MklQiG).  (2)  Christ 
commands  infants  to  be  brought  to  Him,  and 
we  know  of  no  way  of  bringing  them  except 
by  baptism.  (3)  He  declares  infants  to  be 
specially  fitted — more  fitted  even  than  adults 
— for  admission  into  His  kingdom  (LklS^^'i'^ 
Mk  IQi^'is),  but  the  only  covenanted  admission 
into  that  kingdom  is  by  baptism- (Jn  3  5). 

The  chief  objection  to  infant  baptism  is  that 
it  is  not  expressly  commanded  in  the  NT.  But 
if  the  principle  upon  which  it  is  based  is  found, 
that  suffices.  The  NT.  was  not  intended  to 
be  a  code  of  law,  like  the  Pentateuch.  More- 
over, the  idea  that  infants  could  be  brought 
into  covenant  with  God  during  unconscious 
infancy  was  already  familiar.  Every  male 
Israelite  was  circumcised  on  the  eighth  day 
after  birth  (GnlT^^  Lvl23),  and  the  apostles 
certainly  regarded  baptism  as,  equally  with 
circumcision,  a  federal  or  covenanting  rite 
(Col  2 11. 12).  It  is  also  worthy  of  note  that 
baptism  as  an  initiatory  rite  is  older  than  the 
time  of  Christ.  When  a  Gentile  was  con- 
verted to  Judaism,  he  was  admitted  into  cove- 
nant with  God  by  three  rites — baptism,  cir- 
cumcision, and  sacrifice,  and  his  infant  children 
were  baptised  with  him.  This  is  expressly 
testified  by  the  oldest  rabbinical  code,  the 
Mishna.  When,  therefore,  the  apostles  bap- 
tised the  '  households  '  of  their  converts  (Ac 


44 


lgi5,33  igs  1  Cor  116)^  they  were  only  con- 
forming to  the  usual  Jewish  practice  in  the 
case  of  converts.  It  is  no  valid  objection  to 
infant  baptism  that  infants  cannot  have  re- 
pentance and  faith,  because  they  are  taught  to 
exhibit  these  as  soon  as  they  reach  the  age  of 
reason. 

16-22.  The  rich  young  man  (Mk  1 0 17  Lk  1 8 18). 
St.  Luke  calls  him  a  'ruler,'  i.e.  either  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Sanhedrin,  or  a  ruler  of  a  sjoia- 
gogue.  The  incident  is  a  striking  example  of 
the  seductive  power  of  wealth.  The  young 
man  was  so  good,  and  so  near  to  the  Kingdom 
of  God,  that  Jesus  '  looked  upon  him  and 
loved  him'  (Mk)  ;  and  yet  he  failed,  because 
though  he  loved  the  Kingdom  much,  he  loved 
money  more. 

16.  Good  Master]  EV  omits  '  good.' 

17.  Why  callest  thou  me  good  ?  etc.]  RV 
'  Why  askest  thou  me  concerning  that  which  is 
good  ?  One  there  is  who  is  good  '  (see  on 
MklQis).  18.  All  the  commandments  se- 
lected are  those  which  test  a  man's  love  to 
his  neighboiu-.  Love  of  one's  neighbour  is  a 
better  test  of  inward  religion  than  ceremonial 
piety.  20.  All  these  things,  etc.]  The  answer 
showed  how  little  the  young  man  knew  his 
own  heart,  but  he  was  only  repeating  the  vain- 
glorious boasting  of  his  teachers.  The  Talmud 
represents  God  as  speaking  of  '  My  sanctified 
ones,  who  have  kept  the  whole  law  from  Aleph 
to  Taw.'  Moses,  Aaron,  and  Samuel  were 
said  to  have  kept  the  whole  Law.  It  is  said 
that  when  Rabbi  Chanina  lay  upon  his  death- 
bed, he  said  to  the  angel  of  death,  '  Bring 
hither  the  book  of  the  Law,  and  see  whether 
there  is  anything  in  it  which  I  have  not  ob- 
served.' 21.  If  thou  wilt  (RV  '  wouldest ')  be 
perfect]  Jesus,  who  knew  what  is  in  man, 
knew  that  love  of  wealth  was  this  man's  be- 
setting sin.  He  therefore  m-ged  him  to  aban- 
don it,  according  to  the  precept,  '  If  thine  eye 
oifend  thee,  pluck  it  out.'  Jesus  was  dealing 
with  a  case  of  covetousness,  and,  therefore, 
prescribed  a  proper  remedy  for  covetousness, 
without  recommending  its  general  and  indis- 
criminate adoption.  Treasure  in  heaven]  see 
on  6 1-20. 

23-26.  Conversation  with  the  disciples  on 
the  perils  of  riches  (Mk  lO^s  Lk  18  2i). 

24.  It  is  easier  for  a  camel]  Jesus  rhetoric- 
ally calls  that  impossible  which  is  very  difficult, 
or  impossible  without  special  grace.  Such 
proverbs  occur  in  most  Eastern  languages. 
We  are  told  that  Rabbi  Sheshith  said  to  Rabbi 
Amram,  '  Perhaps  thou  art  one  of  those  of 
Pombeditha,  who  can  make  an  elephant  pass 
through  a  needle's  eye.'  The  Greeks  said,  'It 
is  easier  to  hide  five  elephants  under  one's 
arm  '  ;  the  Latins,  '  More  easily  would  a  locust 
bring  forth  an  elephant.'  Some  have  thought 
(but   it    seems   without   sufficient   authority) 


689 


19.  27 


ST.  MATTHEW 


20. 


that  '  the  eye  of  a  needle '  is  a  term  applied 
to  a  small  gate  for  foot-passengers,  situated 
at  the  side  of  the  large  city  gate  through 
which  a  camel  would  naturally  pass. 

The  Gk.  word  kamelos  (or,  with  one  letter 
altered,  kamllos)  also  means  '  rope,'  and  some 
interpreters  give  it  this  meaning  here. 

27-30.  The  reward  of  those  who  forsake 
all  to  follow  Christ  (Mkl02s  LklS^s). 

28.  These  words  may  refer  to  the  position 
to  be  accorded  the  Apostles  in  the  Church, 
after  the  resurrection,  personally  during  their 
lives,  afterwards  through  their  writings  and 
teaching  :  or  they  may  have  a  real  Eschato- 
logical  sense,  that  is,  they  may  refer  to  the 
new  conditions  after  the  final  consummation. 
In  the  regeneration]  cp.  Lk222'^-30.  The 
word  occurs  only  once  again  in  the  NT.,  viz. 
Tit  3-5,  where  it  is  used  of  the  grace  of  baptism. 
Here  it  is  an  open  question  whether  by  the 
Eegeneration  Jesus  means  His  own  resur- 
rection, or  the  general  resurrection  at  the  last 
day,  accompanied  by  the  renewal  of  all  created 
things. 

Dalman  says,  '  The  unusual  expression  "  re- 
generation "  is  distinctly  Greek,  and  cannot  be 
translated  literally  into  Hebrew  or  Aramaic' 
The  idea,  however,  is  Hebrew,  for  it  was  • 
believed  that  the  Messiah  would  restore  the  . 
world  to  its  primitive  perfection.  There  are 
also  many  analogies  for  the  use  of  Regenera- 
tion in  the  sense  of  a  personal  resurrection. 
Josephus  speaks  of  the  resurrection  as  '  being 
born  a  second  time.'  St.  Paul  speaks  of 
Christ's  resurrection  as  His  birth  or  begetting 
into  a  new  and  glorious  life  (AclB^s).  Among 
the  Greeks,  too,  Regeneration  was  the  usual 
term  for  the  transmigration  of  a  man's  soul 
into  another  body  to  begin  a  new  life,  which 
would  be  a  kind  of  resurrection. 

Judging]  may  also  mean  '  ruling.' 

The  twelve  tribes  of  Israel]  i.e.  not  the  un- 
believing Jews  who  would  reject  the  apostles' 
preaching,  but  the  Universal  Church,  the  tribes 
of  the  New  Israel  of  God.  See  Rev  7,  where 
the  twelve  tribes  of  Israel  (vv.  4-8)  are  identi- 
-'  cal,with  •  the  great  multitude  which'nb  man 
could  number,  of  all  nations  and  kindred  and 
people  and  tongues '  (v.  9).  The  apostles  at 
the  time  (perhaps  even  the  evangelist  when  he 
wrote)  understood  it  of  Israel  after  the  flesh, 
but  in  this  case,  as  in  so  many  others,  enlighten- 
ment was  to  come  later  (see  Intro.).  29.  An 
hundredfold]  referring  to  spiritual  compensa- 
tions in  this  life  :  see  on  Mk. 

30.  See  the  following  parable,  especially 
2016, 

CHAPTER  20 
The  Labourers  in  the  Vineyard.     The 
Journey  to  Jerusalem 
I-16,   Parable  of  the  labourers  in  the  vine- 


yard (peculiar  to  St.  Matthew).  This  difficult 
parable  is  closely  linked  with  what  goes  before, 
and  can  only  be  understood  in  connexion  with 
it.  It  rebukes  the  spirit  of  Peter's  enquiry 
(1927),  'We  have  left  all  and  followed  thee  ; 
what  then  shall  we  have  ? '  The  Twelve 
through  Peter  had  demanded  a  superlatively 
great  reward,  because  they  had  been  called 
first  and  had  laboured  longest.  Such  a  reward 
had  been  promised  them,  should  they  prove 
worthy  of  it  (19  "''^),  though  at  the  same  time  it 
was  darkly  hip  ted,  that  some  outside  the  apos- 
tolic circle  would  prove  in  the  end  more  worthy 
than  some  of  the  apostles  (X'd^^).  Then  follows 
the  parable.  It  is  a  sermon  on  the  text,  '  But 
many  shall  be  last  that  are  first,  and  first  that 
are  last,'  which  opens  (19  ^0)  and  closes  it  (20 1^). 
It  is  addressed  primarily  to  the  apostles.  It 
teaches  them  that  great  as  their  merit  and  their 
reward  undoubtedly  are,  there  will  perhaps 
be  others  whose  merit  and  reward  will  be  equal 
or  even  greater.  Thus  St.  Stephen  (not  an 
apostle)  was  the  first  to  gain  the  martyr's 
crown,  St.  Paul  laboured  '  more  abundantly 
than  they  all,'  Barnabas  and  James  the  Lord's 
brother  ranked  with  the  leading  apostles,  and 
many  great  names  in  the  subsequent  history  of 
the  Church — Athanasius,  Augustine,  Jerome, 
Charlemagne,  Alfred  the  Great,  St.  Louis — 
have  completely  eclipsed  the  fame  of  the  more 
obscure  apostles.  The  apostles  are  warned 
not  to  be  jealous  of  the  attainments  and 
rewards  of  other  followers  of  Christ,  but  to 
do  their  own  work  single-heartedly,  and  to 
leave  the  recompense  to  God.  Another  im- 
portant lesson  is  taught  by  the  identity  of  the 
recompense  paid  to  the  various  groups  of 
labourers.  They  all  receive  the  same  coin,  a 
denarius,  which  at  this  time  was  regarded  as 
a  liberal,  but  not  unusual  day's  pay  (TobS^*). 
This  does  not  necessarily  signify  that  there 
will  be  no  degrees  of  rank  or  blessedness  in 
heaven,  but  it  does  signify  that  such  degrees, 
if  they  exist,  will  be  relatively  unimportant. 
The  supreme  reward  of  all,  to  see  God  as  He 
is  in  His  unveiled  splendour,  will  be  enjoyed 
by  all  who  are  faithful  to  the  end,  and  those 
who  have  this  will  care  little  what  else  they 
have  or  have  not. 

(a)  Among  the  numerous  conflicting  inter- 
pretations of  this  parable,  the  following  are 
the  most  noteworthy.  (1)  Calvin  :  a  warning 
not  to  be  over-confident  because  we  have  begun 
our  Christian  course  well.  (2)  St.  Iren^us  : 
the  various  bands  of  labourers  are  the  OT. 
saints  ;  those    last    called    are    the    apostles. 

(3)  Greswell :  the  labourers  first  called  are 
the    Jews  ;  those    last    called,    the    Gentiles. 

(4)  St.  Chrysostom  :  it  refers  to  the  periods 
of  men's  lives  at  which  they  begin  to  serve 
God.  Some  begin  in  infancy,  others  in  youth, 
others  in  manhood,  others  in  old  age.     It  en- 


690 


20.  15 


ST.  MATTHEW 


20.  29 


courages  those  who  have  entered  late  on  God's 
service,  to  labour  heartily,  (b)  The  following 
interesting  parallel  is  taken  from  the  Talmud. 
'  To  what  was  Rabbi  Bon  like  ?  He  was  like 
to  a  king  who  hired  many  labourers,  among 
whom  there  was  one  who  performed  his  work 
extraordinarily  well.  So  the  king  took  him 
aside,  and  walked  with  him  to  and  fro.  And 
when  evening  was  come,  those  labourers  came, 
and  he  gave  him  a  complete  hire  with  the  rest. 
And  the  labourers  murmured  saying,  "  We  have 
laboured  hard  all  day,  and  this  man  only  two 
hours,  yet  he  hath  received  as  much  wages  as 
we."  But  the  king  said  to  them,  "  He  hath 
laboured  more  in  those  two  hours  than  you  in 
the  whole  day."  So  Rabbi  Bon  plied  the  Law 
more  in  twenty-eight  years,  than  another  in 
one  hundred  years.' 

15.  Is  thine  eye  evil  ?]  i.e.  Art  thou  jealous, 
because  I  am  generous  ?  16.  For  many  be 
called,  but  few  chosen]  These  words  are 
omitted  by  the  RV,  probably  rightly.  If  re- 
tained, they  are  very  difficult  to  interpret  in 
such  a  way  as  to  harmonise  with  the  parable. 

17-19.  Another  prediction  of  the  Passion 
(Mkl032  Lkl83i).  A  prophecy  remarkable 
for  its  detailed  character.  It  mentions  Christ's 
delivery  to  the  Romans  ('  Gentiles '),  His  mock- 
ing, scourging,  and  crucifixion,  and  His  resur- 
rection on  the  third  day.  St.  Luke  adds, 
'  And  they  perceived  not  what  was  said ' :  cp. 
1621  1722. 

20-28.  The  ambition  of  the  sons  of  Zebedee 
(MklO^^).  The  special  promise  to  Peter 
(16^*')  had  aroused  the  jealousy  of  the  other 
two  most  intimate  disciples,  who  now  came  to 
claim  the  two  most  prominent  of  the  twelve 
thrones  promised  in  19^^,  making  no  mention 
whatever  of  Peter.  The  incident  is  a  painful 
one,  coming  as  it  does  immediately  after  the 
warning  in  the  parable,  and  the  prediction  of 
the  Passion. 

20.  The  mother]  Her  name  was  Salome 
(27''^'^  compared  with  MklD'^O),  and  it  is  gener- 
ally supposed  that  she  was  sister  to  the  Virgin, 
and  therefore  our  Lord's  aunt :  see  on  Jn  1925. 

21.  The  right  hand  was  the  first  place  of 
honour,  the  left  the  second :  cp.  the  saying  of 
Rabbi  Acha,  '  The  Holy  and  Blessed  God  will 
cause  King  Messiah  to  sit  at  his  right  hand, 
and  Abraham  at  his  left.'  22.  Ye  know  not 
what  ye  ask]  The  mere  fact  that  you  ask  for 
such  a  thing,  shows  that  you  are  at  present 
worthy  not  of  the  highest  but  of  the  lowest 
place  in  the  kingdom:  see  vv.  16,  26.  To 
drink  of  the  cup]  '  Cup,'  a  metaphor  for  '  lot 
in  life,'  is  here  used  of  Chi'ist's  i-ejection,  per- 
secution, and  death  :  cp.  Isa.51i'i'  ('the  cup  of 
fury'),  Jer49i2  25 1^  Ezk2333.  To  be  bap- 
tized .  ,  baptized  with]  Interpolated  from  Mk  ; 
omitted  by  RV.  The  '  baptism  '  has  the  same 
meaning   as   the    '  cup.'     23.  Ye   shall   drink 


indeed  of  my  cup.  James  was  martyred  (Ac 
122).  According  to  tradition,  John  had  many 
strange  experiences  ;  such  as,  exile  in  Patmos, 
immersion  in  boiling  oil,  poison  ;  but  sur- 
vived these  ordeals,  and  died  a  natural  death. 

Is  not  mine  to  give]  i.e.  in  this  way,  as  a 
piece  of  favouritism.  Euthymius  well  says, 
'  Why  is  He,  who  is  all  powerful,  unable  to 
give  this  ?  Not  from  want  of  power,  but  from 
regard  to  justice.  This  eminence  is  reserved 
for  those  who  are  worthy  to  attain  it.  For  it 
is  not  only  participation  in  a  death  like  mine 
which  wins  the  first  seat,  but  undisputed  pre- 
eminence in  all  good  qualities.' 

25-27.  See  on  Lk2225,2(5_  26.  Minister] 
RM  '  servant.'  27.  Servant]  RM  '  bond- 
servant.' 

28.  A  ransom  for  many]  lit.  '  a  ransom 
instead  of  many.'  An  important  doctrinal 
passage  showing  the  importance  which  Jesus 
attached  to  His  own  death.  He  regards  it  as 
a  redemption  price,  which,  since  men  cannot 
pay  it  for  themselves.  He  pays  for  them,  and  so 
releases  them  from  the  bondage  of  sin  and  death. 
In  the  OT.  it  is  the  ransom  price  paid  for 
slaves  (Lvl920)^  for  captives  (Isa45i3),  and  for 
the  ransom  of  a  life  (Ex  21 30  NU3531). 

Many]  either  indicates  all  mankind,  laying 
stress  upon  their  multitude,  or  else  those  who 
actually  accept  redemption,  as  distinguished 
from  those  for  whom  the  redemption  price  is 
paid  :  see  2628. 

After  V.  28  the  Codex  Bezae  introduces  an 
interesting  saying  of  Jesus  which  may  possibly 
be  authentic  :  '  But  do  you  seek  to  become 
gi'eater  from  what  is  less,  and  less  from  what 
is  greater?  Accordingly  when  ye  have  been 
invited  to  supper,  and  enter  the  house,  recline 
not  in  the  chief  places,  lest  haply  one  more 
honourable  than  thou  enter  afterwards,  and 
the  host  (or  master  of  the  feast)  come  and  say 
to  thee,  "  Go  down  yet  lower,"  and  thou  be 
shamed.  But  if  thou  recline  in  the  inferior 
place,  and  one  inferior  to  thee  comes  in,  the 
host  will  say  to  thee,  "Eat  thy  supper  higher 
up,"  and  this  shall  be  profitable  to  thee.'  Cp. 
Lkl48. 

29-34.  Two  blind  men  at  Jericho  (MklO^o 
Lkl835).  Two  apparent  discrepancies  call  for 
notice  :  (1)  St.  Mark  and  St.  Luke  mention 
only  one  blind  man  ;  (2)  St.  Luke  says  that  the 
man  was  healed  as  Jesus  was  entering  Jericho, 
not  as  he  was  leaving  it.  Euthymius  says, 
'  Some  say  that  one  of  these  blind  men,  Bar- 
tima3us,  was  the  more  distinguished  of  the 
two,  and  so  was  mentioned  by  St.  Mark  and 
St.  Luke,  while  the  other  was  passed  over  as 
being  his  attendant,  as  in  the  case  of  the  two 
demoniacs  (8  2S).  But  my  own  conjecture  is, 
that  one  of  these  blind  men  is  to  be  identified 
with  St.  Mark's  ;ind  the  other  with  St.  Luke's, 
for  St.  Luke's  blind  man  was  apparently  healed 


691 


20.  30 


ST.  MATTHEW 


21, 


when  Christ  was  entering  into  Jericho,  and  not 
when  he  was  leaving  it.'  A  more  modern 
reconciliation  is  that  the  miracle  took  place 
between  the  old  town  of  Jericho  and  the  new 
city  called  Phasaelis,  built  by  Herod  the  Great. 
The  miracle  might,  therefore,  be  described  with 
equal  propriety  as  performed  when  leaving  the 
old  town,  or  when  approaching  the  new. 

30.  Son  of  David]  i.e.  the  Messiah  :  see  9^7. 

31.  Rebuked  them]  not  because  they  dis- 
believed that  Jesus  was  the  Messiah,  '  but  out 
of  honour  to  Jesus  lest  He  should  be  dis- 
turbed.' They  cried  the  more]  a  lesson  in 
persistence  in  prayer,  and  its  answer. 

34.  Followed  him]  not  only  in  the  way,  but 
in  the  Way  (Acidly 

CHAPTER  21 

The    Triumphal    Entry.     Cleansing   of 
THE  Temple 

Chronolo^  of  the  Last  Week  of  Christ's 
Life,  commonly  called  Holy  Week  (chiefly 
after  Hastings'  '  Dictionary  of  Christ  and  the 
Gospels '). 

Sabbath,  Nisan  8.  Arrival  at  Bethany  (Jn 
121).  Supper  in  the  evening  (Jn  122-8 
Mt  26^-13^  where  see  notes). 

Palm  Sunday,  Nisan  9.  Triumphal  entry 
into  Jerusalem  (21 1).  The  childi-en's 
Hosannas,  and  healings  in  the  Temple 
(21 14-16).     Return  to  Bethany  (21 17). 

Monday,  Nisan  10.  Return  from  Bethany 
(2118).  Blasting  of  the  fig  tree  (2119). 
Cleansing  of  the  Temple  (21 12,  where  see 
notes).  Retires  to  Bethany  (Mklli9). 
Conspiracy  of  His  enemies  (Lkl9'i7). 

Tuesday,  Nisan  11.  Returning  early  He 
finds  fig  tree  withered  (MklPO).  His 
authority  to  teach  questioned.  The  tri- 
bute money.  The  brother's  wife.  The 
first  commandment  of  all.  '  "What  think 
ye  of  Christ?'  (chs.  21,  22).  Woes  on 
the  Pharisees  (c.  2.S).  Jesus  in  the  Trea- 
sury. The  widow's  mite  (Mkl2-ii). 
Visit  of  the  Greeks  (Jnl220).  Christ 
finally  rejected  (Jnl237).  Lament  over 
Jerusalem  (2337-39).  Great  prophecy  of 
the  fall  of  Jerusalem,  and  the  Second 
Advent  of  the  Son  of  man,  followed  by 
parables  concerning  the  judgment  (chs.  24, 
25).     Counsel  of  Caiaphas  (263). 

Wednesday,  Nisan  12.  This  day  was  pro- 
bably spent  in  retirement  at  Bethany  (cp. 
Jnr236).  On  the  evening  of  this  day 
some  place  the  supper  at  Bethany  at 
which  Jesus  was  anointed  (Mk  141-9 
Mt  26  6-13),  but  see  above,  Nisan  8.  The 
bargain  of  Judas  (26  i*). 
Thursday,  Nisan  13.  In  the  afternoon  pre- 
parations for  the  last  supper  (26 17).  In 
the   evening,  the   last    supper  with   the 


Twelve  in  the  upper  room  (26^0).  The 
feet- washing  (Jnl32).  Departure  of 
Judas.  Institution  of  the  Holy  Com- 
munion (26  ^t)).  Discourses  in  the  upper 
room  (Jn  13  31-14  31).  Departure  from 
the  upper  room  (Jnl43i).  Allegory  of 
the  Vine  (Jnl5i).  The  Comforter  pro- 
mised (Jnl6).  Christ's  high-priestly 
prayer  (Jn  1 7).  Gethsemane  (26  37).  The 
agony  lasts  '  one  hour'  (Mkl437). 
Good  Friday,  Nisan  14.  About  midnight 
Jesus  is  arrested  (26*7).  Preliminary 
trial  before  Annas  (Jnl8i3).  Peter's 
denials,  about  3  a.m.  (Jnl827).  Jesus 
sent  to  Caiaphas  (Jn  18  24).  Trial  before 
the  Sanhedrin  at  daybreak,  about  4  a.m. 
(27 1).  Sent  to  Pilate,  about  6  a.m.  (27  2), 
from  Pilate  to  Herod  (Lk  237),  and 
back  to  Pilate  (Lk23ii).  Delivered  to 
be  crucified  ( Jn  1 9 1^).  Jesus  crucified, 
9  a.m.  (see  Mk  15  25,  but  contrast  Jn 
191*,  '  about  the  sixth  hour ').  Darkness 
from  12  noon  to  3  p.m.  (27*5).  Death  of 
Jesus,  3  P.M.  (27^0).  (The  paschal  lambs 
were  being  sacrificed  in  the  Temple  at 
the  time  of  Christ's  death,  cp.  Jnl936, 
In  the  evening  was  the  Jewish  Passover. 
Our  Lord,  knowing  that  His  death  was 
imminent,  had  eaten  it  the  night  before.) 
Burial  of  Jesus  (2757). 

Easter  Eve,  Nisan  15.  The  first  day  of 
unleavened  bread  and  the  sabbath  (Jn 
19  31).     The  sepulchre  sealed  (27^2). 

Easter  Day,  Nisan  16.  The  resurrection 
very  early  (Mk  16  9,  etc.).  Visit  of  the 
women  to  the  sepulchre  (281).  Visit  of 
Peter  and  John  to  the  sepulchre  (Jn  203). 
Appearance  to  Mary  Magdalene  (Jn 
2011-18).  In  the  afternoon  appearances  to 
the  two  disciples  (Lk  24 13),  and  to  Peter 
(Lk2434).  In  the  evening  appearance  to 
the  apostles,  Thomas  being  absent  (Lk 
2436  Jn  20 19). 

i-ii.  Solemn  entry  into  Jerusalem  (Mklli 
Lkl929  Jnl2i2).  More  than  a  third  of  the 
entire  Gospel  narrative  is  occupied  with  the 
last  week  of  Christ's  life,  commonly  called  Holy 
Week.  The  cause  of  this  is  to  be  sought, 
partly  in  the  special  importance  which  the 
Apostolic  Church  attached  to  the  death  of 
Jesus,  partly  in  the  indelible  impression  which 
the  words  and  acts  of  that  solemn  time  made 
upon  the  disciples,  and  partly  in  the  extreme 
activity  of  Jesus  at  this  period,  which  crowded 
the  last  days  of  His  life  with  striking  events 
and  sayings.  All  the  evangelists  lay  stress  on 
the  voluntary  character  of  the  death  of  Jesus. 
They  represent  Him  as  coming  up  to  Jerusa- 
lem deliberately  to  encounter  it,  as  being  the 
designed  aim  and  end  of  His  ministry  (2028 
2139   262,12,28,39,54^   etc.).     In   view  of   His 


692 


21.  1 


ST.  MATTHEW 


21.  8 


approaching  death,  which  might  appear  to  be 
a  complete  abnegation  of  His  claim  to  be  the 
Messiah,  He  judged  it  expedient  to  make  the 
claim  openly,  and  accordingly  made  arrange- 
ments for  a  formal  entry  into  Jerusalem  riding 
on  an  ass,  as  the  Messiah  was  expected  to  do, 
and  no  longer  restrained  the  enthusiasm'  of 
His  followers,  who  were  allowed  openly  to 
salute  Him  as  the  Son  of  David,  i.e.  the 
Messiah.  The  motives  of  political  prudence 
which  had  previously  restrained  Him  from  an 
open  avowal,  had  now  ceased  to  operate.  He 
knew  that  He  had  alienated  the  bulk  of  the 
Galileans,  and  that  Jerusalem,  in  spite  of 
certain  appearances  to  the  contrary,  was 
thoroughly  hostile.  He  therefore  feared  no 
political  consequences  from  the  superficial 
revival  of  popularity  with  which  His  change 
of  policy  would  be  greeted,  the  more  so  as  He 
was  about  to  raise  the  expectations  of  His 
adherents  only  for  a  moment,  in  order  effect- 
ually to  quench  them. 

The  entry  into  Jerusalem  is  the  one  gleam 
of  light  in  the  dark  days  that  closed  our  Lord's 
ministry.  Its  success  was  due  to  several 
causes  :  (1)  The  crowd  was  composed  largely 
of  Galileans,  many  of  whom  still  remained 
faithful  to  Jesus.  (2)  His  bold  change  of 
policy  won  back  for  a  moment  many  who  had 
left  Him  for  His  procrastination.  (3)  The 
extraordinary  enthusiasm  with  which  He  was 
received  in  Jerusalem  itself  is  to  be  explained 
by  the  recent  raising  of  Lazarus,  which  had 
made    a     deep     impression     in     the     capital 

(Jn  11  45-48  129,17). 

Peculiar  to  St.  Matthew  is  the  mention  of 
the  two  animals  ;  to  St.  Luke  the  complaint 
of  the  Pharisees,  and  the  weeping  over  the 
city  ;  to  St.  John  the  mention  of  the  palm- 
branches,  and  of  the  fact  that  natives  of  Jeru- 
salem went  out  to  welcome  Jesus. 

I.  When  they  drew  nigh]  The  synoptists  make 
no  break  in  the  journey  from  Jericho  to 
Jerusalem  (20  m.  of  bad  uphill  travelling), 
but  St.  John  says  that  Jesus  came  to  Bethany 
six  days  before  the  Passover  (i.e.  on  Friday  or 
Saturday),  and  stayed  there  until  the  triumphal 
entry,  which  was  probably  on  Sunday  (Jn  121). 

Bethphage]  lit.  '  House  of  Figs.'  There 
was  perhaps  a  village  of  this  name,  but  in  the 
Talmud  Bethphage  is  the  name  of  an  extensive 
district  stretching  from  the  base  of  Olivet  to 
the  walls  of  Jerusalem,  and  perhaps  all  round 
the  city.  '  Whatever  is  in  the  exterior  circuit 
of  Jerusalem  is  called  Bethphage.'  '  What  is 
meant  by  "  outside  the  wall  "  ?  Rabbi  Johanan 
said,  Outside  the  wall  is  Bethphage.' 

Mount  of  Olives]  i.e.  the  range  of  hills  facing 
Jerusalem  on  the  E.  and  lying  round  about 
from  NE.  to  SE.,  and  separated  from  the  Holy 
City  by  the  Valley  of  Jehoshaphat  or  Kidron. 
It    contains    four    summits  :    (1)   Galilee    or 


Scopus,  due  NE.  of  the  Temple  site,  and  about 
a  mile  distant  ;  (2)  the  Ascension,  due  E.  of 
the  Temple  site,  and  distant  about  |  m.,  2,600 
ft.  high,  and  commanding  a  fine  view  of  the 
city,  the  Olivet  of  the  Gospels  ;  (3)  the 
Prophets,  the  S.  spur  of  this  ;  (4)  the  Mt.  of 
Offence,  f  m.  SE.  of  the  Temple  site. 

The  traditional  Gethsemane  is  at  the  foot 
of  the  Ascension  towards  Jerusalem.  Stanley 
says  that  Jesus  did  not  pass  over  the  summit 
of  the  Ascension,  but  took  the  road  which 
passes  between  the  Prophets  and  the  Mt.  of 
Offence,  '  because  it  is,  and  must  always  have 
been,  the  usual  approach  for  horsemen  and  for 
large  caravans.' 

2.  An  ass  tied,  and  a  colt]  The  two  animals 
are  mentioned  only  by  St.  Matthew.  An 
unused  animal  was  preferred  for  an  occasion 
like  the  present  (see  Mk  1 1  2  1  S  6  7).  3.  The 
Lord]  i.e.  Jesus.  The  ready  way  in  which 
the  owner  parted  with  the  animals  proves  that 
he  was  a  disciple,  and  this  is  an  argument  for 
an  earlier  ministry  of  Jesus  in  Jerusalem. 

5.  A  combination  of  Isa62ii  with  ZechO^. 
The  rendering  is  free,  partly  following  the 
Heb.  and  partly  the  Septuagint.  According  to 
St.  John,  the  disciples  did  not  at  the  time 
perceive  that  Jesus  was  fulfilling  this  prophecy. 

And  a  colt]  i.e.  '  even  a  colt.'  Zechariah 
makes  no  reference  to  two  animals. 

7.  And  put  on  them  their  clothes]  either 
because  they  were  uncertain  which  one  He 
intended  to  mount,  or  in  order  gaily  to  capari- 
son both  animals  for  the  procession.  Eastern 
garments  are  brightly  coloured.  And  they  set 
him  (RV  '  he  sat ')  thereon]  i.e.  on  the  clothes 
placed  upon  the  colt,  not,  as  some  take  it, 
that  He  rode  upon  both  animals  alternately. 

By  riding  upon  the  ass  Jesus  deliberately 
fulfilled  the  prophecy  of  Zechariah,  and  so 
claimed  to  be  the  Messiah.  The  ass  was  chosen 
rather  than  the  horse,  because  the  ass  was  a 
symbol  of  peace,  the  horse  of  war  ;  the  ass  of 
humility,  the  horse  of  pride.  The  Jews  fully 
accepted  the  Messianic  reference  of  Zech99. 
Rabbi  Salomo  said, '  This  cannot  be  interpreted 
except  of  King  Messiah.' 

8.  Spread  their  garments]  An  extraordinary 
token  of  respect,  such  as  was  paid  to  kings  and 
great  conquerors  (2K913). 

Plutarch  says  of  Cato  the  younger  that  '  he 
was  escorted,  not  with  prayers  which  are  com- 
mon, nor  with  praises,  but  with  tears  and  em- 
braces which  could  not  be  satisfied,  the  people 
spreading  their  garments  under  his  feet,  and 
kissing  his  hands.' 

It  is  said  of  Rabbi  Nicodemus,  son  of  Gorion, 
that,  '  whenever  he  went  into  the  school  to 
lecture,  his  pupils  spread  garments  of  wool 
under  his  feet.'  In  quite  recent  times  the  in- 
habitants of  Bethlehem  spread  their  garments 
on  the  road  under  the  feet  of  the  horse  of  the 


693 


21.  9 


ST.  MATTHEW 


21.  18 


English  Consul  of  Damascus,  whose  assistance 
they  were  anxious  to  obtain. 

9.  That  went  before]  These  were  the  multi- 
tudes mentioned  by  St.  John,  who  went  out 
from  Jerusalem  to  meet  Jesus.  Those  who 
followed  behind  were  the  Galileans.  Hosanna 
to  the  son  of  David]  This  can  only  mean, 
'  Glory  and  honour  to  the  Son  of  David,'  just 
as  St.  Mark's  phrase, '  Hosanna  in  the  highest,' 
is  translated  by  St.  Luke, '  Glory  in  the  highest 
(heaven).'  How  '  Hosanna '  comes  to  have 
this  meaning,  is  disputed.  It  is  taken  from 
Psll825,  where  it  is  addressed  to  God,  and 
means  '  Save  (us)  now.'  Probably  it  had  be- 
come a  mere  exclamation  of  praise,  '  a  kind  of 
holy  hurrah,'  the  consciousness  of  its  gi'am- 
matical  meaning  being  lost,  as  in  the  case  of 
'  Alleluia.'  This  is  clearly  the  case  in  the 
'  Didache,'  which  has  the  phrase,  '  Hosanna  to 
the  God  of  David '  (Did.  10). 

The  exclamation  '  Hosanna  '  was  u«ed  chiefly 
at  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles.  The  seventh  day 
of  that  feast  was  called  '  Hosanna  Day,'  and 
the  branches  carried  by  the  worshippers  were 
called  '  Hosannas.'  The  events  of  Palm  Sun- 
day are  thus  an  imitation  of  the  ritual  of 
that  festival. 

It  is  sometimes  said  that  the  well-known 
classical  custom  of  carrying  palms  in  token  of 
victory  was  unknown  to  the  Jews  of  our  Lord's 
time  ;  but  certainly  the  palms  carried  Rev  7  ^ 
seem  to  be  symbols  of  victory. 

12-17.  Cleansing  of  the  Temple.  Hosannas 
of  the  Children  (MklUS  Lkl9^5).  In  St. 
Matthew  this  event  seems  to  take  place  on 
Palm  Sunday,  but  Mk  11 11  makes  it  clear  that 
it  did  not  occur  till  next  day.  On  reaching 
Jerusalem,  Jesus  went  into  the  Temple,  and 
'  looked  round  about  on  all  things,'  but,  the 
hour  being  late,  retired  to  Bethany. 

This  cleansing  of  the  Temple  is  probably  not 
the  same  as  that  described  Jn2i3  (see  notes 
there),  but  a  distinct  event.  For,  (1)  both 
events  are  definitely  dated  by  the  evangelists  ; 
(2)  the  repetition  of  the  act  is  natural,  the 
abuses,  during  a  period  of  two  years,  having 
had  time  to  recur  ;  (3)  the  omission  of  the 
former  event  by  the  synoptists,  and  of  the 
latter  by  St.  John,  are  explained  by  the 
general  design  of  the  synoptists  to  record 
only  the  Galilean  ministry,  and  of  St.  John 
to  supplement  rather  than  duplicate  the  synop- 
tic narratives.  The  cleansing  of  the  Temple 
and  of  its  worship,  and  of  the  priesthood,  were 
among  the  expected  activities  of  the  Messiah, 
according  to  Mal.31"^. 

The  incident  of  the  children  in  the  Temple 
is  peculiar  to  St.  Matthew. 

12.  The  tables  of  the  moneychangers]  Ac- 
cording to  Edersheim  the  Temple-market  was 
what  is  called  in  the  Talmud  '  the  booths  of 
the  sons  of  Annas.'    The  bulk  of  the  enormous 


profits  went  to  increase  the  wealth  of  Annas, 
his  family,  and  adherents.  The  Talmud  fre- 
quently speaks  in  strong  language  of  the  ini- 
quities of  this  traffic,  which  was  swept  away 
by  a  strong  explosion  of  popular  feeling  three 
years  before  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem. 

The  money-changers  sat  in  the  Temple- 
court,  (1)  to  receive  the  half -shekel  which  was 
due  from  every  male  Israelite  at  this  period 
(see  on  17^4)^  and  could  be  paid  either  at  home 
or  in  Jerusalem  ;  (2)  to  change  foreign  money 
into  Jewish  currency,  with  which  alone  the  half- 
shekel  could  be  paid,  or  animals  for  sacrifice 
be  bought.  The  money-changers'  commission 
was  called  Kollubos,  hence  the  money-changers 
were  called  KoUuhhtce.  They  probably  paid 
a  large  percentage  of  their  profits  to  Annas. 

Plumptre  compares  with  this  incident  '  the 
state  of  the  great  cathedral  of  London,  as 
painted  in  the  literature  of  Elizabeth  and 
James,  when  mules  and  horses  laden  with 
market  produce  were  led  through  St.  Paul's  as 
a  matter  of  every-day  occurrence,  and  bargains 
were  struck  there,  and  burglaries  planned,  and 
servants  hired.' 

13.  Isa567  Jer7ii. 

14-16.  Peculiar  to  St.  Matthew.  14.  The 
blind  and  the  lame]  who  were  begging  at  the 
Temple  gates  (Ac  3  2).  15.  Sore  displeased] 
because  even  children  were  calling  Jesus  '  son 
of  David,'  i.e.  '  Messiah.'  Boys  under  fourteen 
are  meant. 

17.  Bethany]  He  probably  lodged  with 
Lazarus  and  his  sisters.  Bethany  was  on  the 
further  side  of  the  Mt.  of  Olives,  about  15 
furlongs  distant  (Jn  1 1 1^)^  on  the  road  to 
Jericho. 

18-22.  Cursing  of  the  fig  tree  (Mk  11 12-14 
and  11 20-25),  St.  Mark  makes  it  clear  that  the 
fig  tree  was  cursed  on  Monday  morning  as  they 
left  Bethany,  but  that  the  effect  of  the  curse 
was  not  noticed  till  Tuesday  morning. 

This,  the  only  miracle  of  wrath  worked  by 
Jesus,  is  also  a  revelation  of  God's  mercy,  for 
whereas  the  countless  miracles  of  mercy  were 
all  wrought  upon  men,  this  one  was  wrought 
upon  a  tree.  '  He  parches  the  tree '  (says 
Theophylact),  '  that  He  may  teach  men  wis- 
dom.' '  He  exercises  His  power '  (says  Eu- 
thymius),  '  not  on  a  man,  because  He  is  a  lover 
of  men,  but  on  a  plant.'  The  whole  incident 
is  an  acted  parable.  There  is  no  reason  to 
suppose  that  Jesus  was  really  hungry,  or  ex- 
pected to  find  figs.  St.  Mark  says  expressly 
that  the  time  of  figs  was  not  yet.  Probably 
His  words  and  actions  were  entirely  symbolic, 
like  those  of  the  prophets  (Jerl3i272]K 
2211,  etc.). 

The  one  fig  tree,  standing  apart  from  all 
other  trees,  is  the  Jewish  nation,  and  whereas 
it  alone  had  leaves,  while  the  other  trees 
were  bare,  it  signifies  that  whereas  Israel  made 


694 


21.  20 


ST.  MATTHEW 


21.  34 


great  professions  of  righteousness  and  of  the 
service  of  Grod,  the  other  nations  of  the  earth 
made  none.  Both  Jew  and  Gentile  were, 
indeed,  equally  unfruitful,  but  the  Jew  added 
to  his  unfruitfulness  the  appearance  of  fruit, 
for  it  is  the  peculiarity  of  the  fig  tree  that  its 
fruit  appears  and  is  well  developed  before 
there  is  any  sign  of  leaves.  When,  therefore, 
leaves  appear  on  a  fig  tree,  ripe  fruit  may 
justly  be  expected.  The  fault  of  the  fig  tree, 
therefore,  was  not  that  it  had  no  fruit,  which 
was  not  to  be  expected  at  that  season,  but  that 
it  pretended  to  have  it,  and  had  not. 

The  curse  of  perpetual  bai'renness  pronoun- 
ced by  Jesus  upon  the  fig  tree,  i.e.  upon  Israel, 
has  received  a  signal  fulfilment.  In  the  time 
of  Christ  it  was  an  active  missionary  religion, 
making  thousands  of  proselytes  in  every  pro- 
vince of  the  empire,  and  leavening  religious 
thought  far  beyond  its  own  borders.  Now  it 
enrolls  no  proselytes. 

20.  How  soon]  RV  '  How  did  the  fig  tree 
immediately  wither  away  ? '  The  disciples, 
instead  of  asking  the  meaning  of  the  miracle, 
ask  how  it  was  done  ?  Jesus  did  not  explain  its 
symbolical  meaning,  but  made  it  an  object- 
lesson  in  the  power  of  believing  prayer. 

21.  Cp.  17 -^0  Lkl76  1  Cor  13 2.  Be  thou  re- 
moved] a  proverbial  expression  for  something 
very  difficult.  The  rabbis,  who  could  solve 
questions  of  gx'eat  difficulty,  were  called 
'rooters  up  of  mountains,'  and  it  was  said  of 
a  skilful  teacher  that  '  he  plucked  up  moun- 
tains and  ground  them  one  upon  another.' 

22.  All  things]  Not  all  things  absolutely,  but 
all  things  of  which  the  petitioners  are  worthy. 

23-27.  Christ's  authority  to  teach  challenged 
(Mkll27Lk2(3i). 

23.  The  chief  priests]  A  deputation  from 
the  Sanhedrin,  seeking  some  excuse  to  ex- 
communicate Him.  By  what  authority?] 
Jesus  had  not  received  rabbinical  ordination, 
and  had  no  authority  therefore  to  teach  as  a 
rabbi.  Doest  thou  these  things]  referring 
not  only  to  His  teaching,  but  to  His  cleansing 
of  the  Temple,  His  miracles.  His  triumphal 
entry  into  the  city,  and  His  ministry  in 
general.  27.  We  cannot  tell]  To  be  forced 
to  admit  their  ignorance,  was  more  damaging 
to  their  reputation  than  a  definite  answer 
would  have  been,  for  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant duties  of  the  Sanhedrin,  according  to 
the  Mishna,  was  to  judge  between  true  and 
false  prophets,  and  to  inflict  exemplary  pun- 
ishment upon  the  latter.  Neither  tell  I]  By 
implication  Jesus  claimed  the  authority  of  a 
prophet,  or  an  even  higher  authority. 

28-32.  Parable  of  the  Two  Sons  (peculiar  to 
St.  Matthew).  The  '  certain  man '  is  God, 
and  He  is  represented  as  a  father,  to  set  forth 
His  impartial  love  to  all  mankind,  righteous 
and  sinful  alike.     The  son  who  said  '  I  go. 


G95 


sii','  and  went  not,  is  the  chief  priests,  scribes, 
and  Pharisees,  who  '  rejected  for  themselves 
the  counsel  of  God,  not  having  been  baptised 
of  John'  (Lk730).  The  other  son,  who  at 
first  insolently  refused  to  go,  and  then  repented 
and  went,  is  the  publicans  and  harlots,  who 
'  believed  John,  and  were  baptised  by  him.' 
More  generally  the  first  class  embraces  those 
who  are  satisfied  with  the  outward  form  of 
godliness  and  with  the  avoidance  of  open  sin  ; 
the  second  class  those  who,  though  sinners, 
know  that  they  are  such,  and  so  are  more 
easily  brought  to  repentance.  31.  Before  you] 
Graciously  intimating  that  the  door  of  repent- 
ance was  still  open  to  them.  32.  In  the  •way 
of  righteousness]  i.e.  of  legal  righteousness. 
The  Pharisees  had  no  excuse  for  neglecting 
the  preaching  of  John,  for  it  was  based  on  the 
Law  which  they  idolised,  and  ran  counter  to 
none  of  their  cherished  convictions.  The 
preaching  of  Christ  was  different,  and  could 
not  easily  be  received  by  strict  Jews,  unless 
they  had  fii'st  passed  through  the  preliminary 
baptism  of  John. 

33-46.  The  Wicked  Husbandmen  (Mk  121 
Lk209).  The  doctrinal  importance  of  this 
parable,  which  belongs  to  the  oldest  tradition, 
is  great.  In  it  Christ  claims  to  be  in  a  unique 
sense  the  Son  of  God.  He  calls  Moses  and 
the  prophets  slaves  and  bondservants,  and 
places  Himself  at  an  immense  elevation  above 
them  as  the  beloved  Son  of  the  Householder, 
and  the  sole  heir  of  His  possessions.  The 
parable  contains  a  remarkable  prophecy  of  the 
destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  the  Romans 
(v.  41). 

23.  '  The  householder  is  God,  who  on 
account  of  His  tender  love  is  called  a  man. 
The  vineyard  is  the  people  of  the  Jews  planted 
by  God  in  the  land  of  promise.  The  hedge 
is  the  Law,  which  hindered  them  from  min- 
gling with  the  nations,  the  winepress  the  altar 
of  sacrifice,  the  tower  the  Temple,  the  husband- 
men, the  teachers  of  the  people,  i.e.  the 
Pharisees  and  scribes.  And  the  householder 
(God)  departed,  when  He  no  longer  spoke  to 
them  in  the  pillar  of  cloud,  or  perhaps  the  de- 
parture of  God  is  His  longsuffering  ;  for  God 
seems  to  sleep  and  to  be  in  a  far  country,  when 
He  is  longsuffering,  and  does  not  call  men  to 
account  for  their  sins  the  moment  that  they 
are  committed '  (Theophylact).  Tower]  i.e.  a 
watchtower  for  the  keepers  who  were  set  to 
guard  the  vineyard  when  the  grapes  were 
nearly  ripe  (Job  27  is  Song  1 6  Isa  1 S). 

34.  Time  of  the  fruit]  'In  the  history  of 
souls  and  of  nations,  there  are  seasons  which 
even  more  than  all  other  are  times  of  fruit  ; 
when  God  requires  such  with  more  than  usual 
earnestness,  when  it  Mall  fare  ill  with  a  soul  or 
a  nation,  if  these  be  not  found'  (Trench). 
'  And  the  fruits  of  the  vineyard  are  the  keeping 


21.35 


ST.  MATTHEW 


22.9 


of  the  commandments  of  the  Law,  and  the 
practice  of  the  virtues  ;  and  the  servants  are 
the  prophets  who  when  sent  to  demand  from 
Israel  obedience  to  the  Law  and  a  virtuous  life, 
were  variously  maltreated  '  (Euthymius). 

35.  Killed]  According  to  tradition  Isaiah 
was  sawn  asunder,  and  Jeremiah  stoned  :  see 
also2Ch2420-22andcp.Hebll.  37-  They  will 
reverence  my  son]  '  This  He  said,  not  as  if 
they  would  do  so,  for  He  knew  they  would 
not,  but  pointing  out  what  they  ought  to  do ' 
(Euthymius).  '  When  God  is  said  to  doubt 
about  the  future,  it  is  that  human  free-will 
may  be  preserved '  (Jerome). 

41.  They  say]  Jesus  extorts  their  condem- 
nation from  their  own  lips.  Otherwise  in  St. 
Mark  and  St.  Luke.  He  will,  etc.]  RV  '  He 
will  miserably  destroy  those  miserable  men.' 
The  allusion  is  to  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem 
70  A.D.,  and  the  end  of  the  Jewish  dispensation. 

Other  husbandmen]  i.e.  the  ministers  of  the 
Christian  Church,  many  of  them  Gentiles,  who 
succeeded  to  the  charge  which  the  scribes  and 
Pharisees  neglected. 

42.  The  stone,  etc.]  Psll822  Ac 411.  The 
'  stone,'  of  course,  is  Christ.  The  '  builders  ' 
are  the  Jews.  The  '  head  of  the  corner '  is  the 
most  important  position  in  a  building,  so  that 
Christ  represents  Himself  as  the  foundation 
upon  which  the  Kingdom  of  God  was  to  be 
built  up  in  spite  of  His  rejection  by  the  Jews. 

In  the  Ps.  the  '  stone  '  is  the  Jewish  nation, 
rejected  and  despised  by  the  Gentiles  dm'ing 
the  captivity,  but  after  the  return  restored  to 
a  place  of  honour  among  the  nations  of  the 
earth.  But  on  the  principle  that  what  is  said 
of  Israel  applies  especially  to  the  Messiah,  the 
rabbis  interpreted  the  passage  Messianically, 
e.g.  Rabbi  Salomo  on  MicS^  said,  'It  is  the 
Messiah  the  Son  of  David,  of  whom  it  is  written, 
The  stone  which  the  builders  rejected,'  etc. 

43.  The  favour  of  God  will  be  withdrawn 
from  a  nation  that  obeys  not  His  will,  and 
bestowed  on  one  that  does.  The  kingdom  = 
the  privileges  of  the  kingdom.  44.  Wetstein 
well  says,  '  He  who  falls  upon  a  great  stone,  is 
bruised  indeed,  but  can  be  healed,  but  he  upon 
whom  a  great  stone  falls,  is  ground  as  it  were 
to  dust,  like  the  chaif  that  is  scattered  to  the 
winds.'  Spiritually  interpreted,  those  who  fell 
upon  the  stone,  are  those  who  stumbled  at  the 
humiliation  of  Christ,  but  were  to  be  recovered 
by  His  glorious  Resurrection.  Those  upon 
whom  the  stone  fell,  are  those  who  did  not 
sufPer  themselves  to  be  recovered  even  by 
that  miracle,  and  so  were  involved  in  the 
common  destruction  of  the  Jewish  nation. 
Euthymius  says,  '  Christ  is  called  the  corner- 
stone, because  as  the  corner-stone  unites  in 
itself  two  walls,  so  also  Christ  unites  in  Himself 
two  peoples,  the  Gentiles  and  the  Jews,  and 
by  faith  makes  them  one.' 


CHAPTER   22 

Pabables  of  the  Marriage  of  the  King's 
Son  and  the  Wedding  Garment 

1-14.  Marriage  of  the  King's  Son  (peculiar 
to  St.  Matthew).  Jesus  concludes  His  discourse 
by  reiterating  in  still  clearer  and  stronger 
language  the  teaching  of  the  last  parable,  viz. 
His  Divine  Sonship,  the  impending  destruction 
of  Jerusalem,  the  rejection  of  the  Jews,  and 
the  call  of  the  Gentiles.  He  concludes  with 
a  warning  to  the  Gentiles  not  to  abuse  the 
mercy  about  to  be  extended  to  them,  by  appear- 
ing at  the  feast  (i.e.  becoming  Christians)  with- 
out the  garment  of  repentance  and  pureness 
of  living. 

This  parable  is  probably  quite  distinct  from 
that  of  the  Great  Supper  (Lk  14 16).  The  latter 
says  nothing  of  the  wedding  garment,  of  the  fall 
of  Jerusalem,  or  of  the  Sonship  of  Christ. 
Its  occasion,  moreover,  was  entirely  diflEerent, 
and,  from  its  contents,  it  was  obviously  spoken 
before  the  hostility  between  Christ  and  the 
Pharisees  had  reached  its  height. 

I.  And  Jesus  answered]  viz.  their  attempt  to 
seize  Him,  21^^,  by  another  parable.  2.  A 
certain  king]  i.e.  God.  A  marriage]  RY  '  a 
marriage  feast,'  which  would  last  seven  or 
fourteen  days;(Gn  29  2T  Jg  14 12  Tob  8 19).  The 
marriage  is  between  Christ  and  His  Church 
(Rev  21 2  2  Cor  11 2  Isa545,  etc.),  which  begins 
here,  but  is  perfected  in  the  world  to  come. 
For  Jewish  ideas  as  to  the  Messiah's  great 
feast,  see  on  8 11.  3.  His  servants]  i.e.  Moses 
and  the  prophets,  and  especially  the  Baptist, 
the  last  and  greatest  prophet  of  the  old  dis- 
pensation. Them  that  were  bidden]  i.e.  the 
Jews. 

4.  Other  servants]  i.e.  the  Apostles.  The 
repetition  of  the  invitation  was  a  Jewish  custom. 
'  What '  (said  the  rabbis)  '  was  the  boast  of 
the  men  of  Jerusalem  ?  Not  one  of  them 
went  to  a  banquet,  unless  he  were  twice  in- 
vited.' 6.  The  remnant]  are  the  chief  priests, 
scribes,  and  Pharisees,  who  were  the  chief 
persecutors  of  the  apostles  (AcS""^  7^^  122 
145,  etc.),  as  distinguished  from  the  nation 
generally,  which  only  '  made  light  of '  the 
Apostles' message.  7.  His  armies]  'The  armies 
of  the  Romans,  who,  under  Vespasian  and 
Titus,  slew  these  murderers,  and  burnt  their 
city,  Jerusalem.' 

8.  Then  saith  he]  Not  indicating  that  no 
Gentile  converts  were  to  be  made  before  that 
date,  but  that  from  that  time  '  the  fulness  of 
the  Gentiles'  would  begin  (Roll 25).  9.  Into 
the  highways]  RV  '  the  partings  of  the  high- 
ways.' More  probably  it  means  the  places 
where  the  roads  from  the  country  enter  a 
city,  and  so  by  metaphor.  Gentile  territory 
(Grimm).  So  also  Euthymius  :  '  He  calls  the 
cities  and  villages  of  the  Gentiles  the  outlets 


696 


22.  10 


ST.  MATTHEW 


22.  24 


of  the  highways,  signifying  the  forlorn  state 
of  the  Gentiles.' 

To  feast  the  poor  was  quite  common.  The 
Talmud  says,  '  It  was  a  custom  among  rich  men 
to  invite  poor  travellers  to  feasts.' 

10.  Both  bad  and  good]  Signifying,  as  in 
the  parable  of  the  net,  that  the  Church  is  to 
consist  of  good  and  evil,  and  that  the  entrance 
into  it  is  not  to  be  denied  to  any  but  scandalous 
sinners. 

11.  To  see  (RV  'behold')  the  guests]  The 
scene  changes  to  the  last  judgment,  when  the 
fitness  of  the  guests  to  be  there  will  be  the 
subject  of  a  solemn  scrutiny.  Theophylact 
well  says, '  The  entrance  to  the  marriage  feast  is 
without  scrutiny,  for  by  gi-ace  alone  were  we  all 
called,  both  good  and  bad.  But  the  subsequent 
life  of  those  who  have  entered  in,  will  not  be 
without  scrutiny,  but  the  King  will  make  a 
most  exact  scrutiny  of  those  who  after  their 
entry  into  the  faith,  shall  be  found  with  filthy 
garments.  Let  us  therefore  tremble,  reflect- 
ing that  unless  a  man  live  a  pure  life,  faith  by 
itself  is  of  no  avail,  for  not  only  is  he  cast  out 
of  the  marriage  feast,  but  is  cast  into  the 
fire.'  A  wedding  garment]  Eastern  etiquette 
is  strict,  and  to  appear  without  the  festive 
garment  that  custom  prescribes,  would  be  a 
serious  offence.  Since  the  judgment  is  accord- 
ing to  works,  the  wedding  garment  is  not  faith, 
or  imputed  righteousness,  but  a  holy  life. 

13.  The  servants]  RM  '  ministers,'  i.e.  the 
angels. 

14.  Cp.  2016.  Some  think  that  this  indicates 
that  only  a  few  of  all  mankind  will  be  finally 
saved,  but  Theophylact  is  probably  right  in 
saying  that  it  refers 'to  the  Jews  of  our  Lord's 
time,  all  of  whom  were  called,  but  few  were 
chosen,  because  few  accepted  the  invitation. 
The  '  calling  '  must  be  carefully  distinguished 
from  the  '  choosing.'  The  calling  is  the  act  of 
God,  and  does  not  depend  on  human  will ;  but 
whether  a  man  is  finally  chosen  or  not,  de- 
pends upon  his  own  conduct  after  his  call. 

15-22.  The  tribute  money  (Mk  1 2 13  Lk  20  20). 
The  Sanhedrin,  not  having  the  power  of  life 
and  death,  tried  to  entrap  Jesus  into  an  answer 
which  might  be  made  an  excuse  for  handing 
Him  over  to  Pilate  on  a  charge  of  rebellion 
and  treason.  The  Pharisees,  who  concocted 
the  plot,  did  not  appear  in  it  openly,  but  sent 
their  disciples,  and  the  Herodians,  who,  from 
hostility  to  Jesus,  were  quite  willing  to  join  in 
the  attempt  to  destroy  Him. 

16.  Herodians]  i.e.  partisans  of  the  dynasty 
of  the  Herods.  They  supported  the  Roman 
domination. 

17.  Is  it  lawful  ?]  The  party  of  the  Zealots, 
founded  by  Judas  of  Galilee,  held  that,  Israel 
being  a  theocracy,  and  God  the  only  King,  it 
was  unlawful  to  pay  tribute  to  anj'  foreign 
power.     The  Pharisees  asked  whether  Christ 


697 


agreed  with  Judas.  The  hypocrisy  of  the  ques- 
tion appears  in  this,  that  the  Pharisees  at  heart 
agreed  with  Judas,  yet  they  were  plotting  to 
put  Jesus  to  death  on  a  charge  of  supporting 
his  policy.     Tribute]  see  on  17  25. 

19.  A  penny]  see  on  18  28.  It  was  a  Roman 
coin,  and  the  Jewish  schools  held  it  for  a 
maxim  that  he  whose  coin  was  in  circulation 
was  king.  The  rabbi^  said,  '  Wheresoever  the 
money  of  any  king  is  current,  there  the  inhabit- 
ants acknowledge  that  king  for  their  lord.'  So 
in  the  Talmud,  Abigail  refuses  to  recognise 
David  as  king,  saying,  '  The  money  of  our 
Lord  Saul  as  yet  is  current.' 

20.  Whose  .  .  image .?]  The  rabbis  objected 
to  human  figures  on  coins  as  savouring  of 
idolatry.  Edersheim  says, '  Neither  Herod  nor 
Herod  Antipas  had  any  image  on  their  coins. 
This  must  therefore  have  been  either  a  foreign 
one  (Roman),  or  else  one  of  the  Tetrarch 
Philip,  who  exceptionally  had  the  image  of 
Tiberius  on  his  coins. '  See  Edersheim,  '  Life,' 
App.  II. 

21.  Render  therefore  unto  Caesar]  A  preg- 
nant saying,  destroying  the  basis  of  Jewish 
nationalism,  and  defining  the  relation  of  Church 
and  State  for  all  time.  A  brief  exposition 
must  sufliice.  Christ  showed,  (1)  His  sympathy 
with  imperialism,  as  opposed  to  national  and 
racial  particularism.  Intending  Himself  to 
found  a  universal  Church,  He  openly  showed 
His  sympathy  with  the  great  and  beneficent 
empire  which  broke  dovm  the  barriers  of 
national  hatred  and  prejudice,  established  uni- 
versal peace,  and  ensured  the  diffusion  of 
culture,  knowledge,  and  useful  arts  ;  (2)  that 
submission  and  loyalty  to  civil  power  is  a 
duty  binding  on  the  conscience.  Christ  says  not 
only  '  Give,'  but  'Render,'  signifying  that  sub- 
mission is  due  ;  (3)  that  nevertheless  there  are 
limits  to  the  obedience  due  to  the  civil  power. 
When  Csesar  asks  not  for  tribute,  but  for  wor- 
ship, as  actually  happened  at  this  time,  he  is  to 
be  resisted  ;  if  the  State  prescribes  the  religious 
worship  of  its  subjects,  obedience  is  not  due  ; 
(4)  that  consequently  Church  and  State  are 
not  one  thing,  but  two,  each  with  its  peculiar 
powers  given  by  God,  and  that  all  attempts 
to  amalgamate  them,  or  to  subject  the  one  to 
the  other,  are  wrong  ;  (5)  that  religious  perse- 
cution is  unlawful.  The  State  has  no  authority 
to  enforce  any  particular  religion  within  its 
borders,  and  the  Church  has  no  authority  to 
use  the  sword  of  the  magistrate  in  its  behalf. 

23-33-  The  Sadducees  and  the  Resurrection 
(Mk  1 2  IS  Lk 20 -'').  A  less  dangerous  interview 
than  the  preceding.  The  Sadducees  sought  to 
bring  Jesus  into  contempt  and  ridicule  with  the 
multitude  by  asking  Him  a  question  which  they 
thought  He  could  not  answer. 

23.  Sadducees]  see  on  3  '^.  24.  Shall  marry 
his  wife]  see  Dt255.     The  Levirate  marriage 


22.  28 


ST.  MATTHEW 


22.  43 


was  falling  into  disuse  at  this  time.  The 
Mishna  (200  a.d.)  recommends  that  the  cus- 
tom should  no  longer  be  observed.  28.  Whose 
wife  shall  she  be  ?]  Two  errors  underlay  the 
question  :  (1)  That  in  the  resurrection  men 
will  rise  to  a  natural  life  ;  (2)  that  the  Law 
will  continue  in  force.  The  sceptical  Sadducees 
naturally  represented  the  doctrine  of  the  Resur- 
rection in  its  most  ridiculous  form. 

There  was  some  division  of  opinion  among 
the  rabbis  as  to  whether  resurrection  would 
be  to  a  natural  or  to  a  supernatural  (spiritual) 
life.  A  few  took  the  spiritual  view,  e.g. 
Rabbi  Raf  is  reported  to  have  often  said,  '  In 
the  world  to  come  they  shall  neither  eat,  nor 
drink,  nor  beget  children,  nor  trade.  There 
is  neither  envy  nor  strife,  but  the  just  shall  sit 
with  crowns  on  their  heads,  and  shall  enjoy 
the  splendour  of  the  Divine  Majesty.'  But 
the  majority  inclined  to  a  materialistic  view 
of  the  resurrection.  The  pre-Christian  book 
of  Enoch  says  that  the  righteous  after  the 
resurrection  shall  live  so  long  that  they  shall 
beget  thousands.  The  received  doctrine  is 
laid  down  by  Rabbi  Saadia,  who  says,  '  As 
the  son  of  the  widow  of  Sarepton,  and  the 
son  of  the  Shunamite,  ate  and  drank,  and 
doubtless  married  wives,  so  shall  it  be  in  the 
resurrection  '  ;  and  by  Maimonides,  who  says, 
'  Men  after  the  resurrection  will  use  meat  and 
drink,  and  will  beget  children,  because  since 
the  Wise  Architect  makes  nothing  in  vain,  it 
follows  of  necessity  that  the  members  of  the 
body  are  not  useless,  but  fulfil  their  functions.' 
The  point  raised  by  the  Sadducees  was  often 
debated  by  the  Jewish  doctors,  who  decided 
that  '  a  woman  who  married  two  husbands  in 
this  world  is  restored  to  the  first  in  the  next.' 

30.  The  angels]  Jesus  takes  the  oppor- 
tunity of  rebuking  the  Sadducees'  disbelief  in 
angels  (Ac  23  8). 

32.  I  am  the  God  of  Abraham]  Ex  3  6.  The 
proof  of  the  resurrection  is  taken  from  the 
Law,  not  because  the  Sadducees  rejected  the 
Prophets  and  Hagiographa,  of  which  there  is 
no  certain  proof,  but  because  to  every  Jew 
the  Law  was  of  higher  authority  than  any 
other  part  of  the  canon.  Theophylact  says, 
'  He  said  not  "  I  was,"  but  "  I  am  the  God  of 
Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob."  For  though  they 
are  dead,  yet  they  live  through  the  hope  of 
the  resurrection.  Here  the  Lord  opposes  the 
heresy  of  the  Sadducees,  saying,  "  G-od  is  not 
the  God  of  the  dead,  i.e.  of  men  who  have 
altogether  perished,  but  of  the  living,  i.e.  of 
those  who  have  immortal  souls,  and  though 
they  are  now  dead  will  rise  again."  ' 

Strictly  speaking,  the  argument  of  Jesus  is 
an  argument  for  human  immortality,  but  to 
Jewish  minds  the  idea  of  immortality  neces- 
sarily carried  with  it  the  idea  of  a  resurrection. 

34-40.    The    great    commandment    of    the 


Law  (Mk  12  28).  Considering  that  this  question 
was  asked  by  an  individual  Pharisee,  that 
there  is  nothing  ensnaring  in  it,  and  that 
Jesus  commended  His  questioner,  saying, 
'  Thou  art  not  far  from  the  Kingdom  of  God ' 
(Mk),  it  is  probable  that  this  was  not  a 
temptation,  but  a  test,  an  honest  appeal  for 
information  on  the  part  of  one  who  had  heard 
His  last  answer  with  admiration.  St.  Luke 
records  a  somewhat  similar  incident  in  another 
connexion  (Lk  1 0  -S).  Some  regard  it  as  another 
version  of  this  incident. 

35.  A  lawyer]   i.e.  a  scribe,  or  rabbi. 
Tempting  him]    i.e.  proving  Him,  testing 

His  penetration  and  knowledge  of  the  Law  by 
a  hard  question. 

36.  Which  /.s  the  great  commandment  ?]  A 
question  debated  by  the  Jewish  schools.  The 
best  Jewish  opinion  coincided  with  om-  Lord's. 
Philo,  our  Lord's  contemporary,  says,  '  To 
speak  briefly,  of  the  innumerable  detailed 
exhortations  and  commandments,  the  two 
which  in  the  most  general  manner  sum  up  the 
whole,  are  the  duties  of  piety  and  holiness 
towards  God,  and  of  lovingkindness  and 
justice  towards  man.  Each  of  these  is  sub- 
divided into  various  special  duties,  all  of  them 
praiseworthy '  :  see  on  7  ^2.  The  first  com- 
mandment is  Dt6^,  the  second  Lvl9i^.  The 
former  formed  part  of  the  prayers  of  the 
phylacteries,  daily  recited  by  every  Jew  :  see  on 
23  ^.  Both  are  somewhat  freely  quoted  accord- 
ing to  the  LXX.  37.  Heart .  .  soul .  .  mind] 
i.e.  all  one's  powers.  '  Heart '  in  Hebrew  is 
the  inward  man,  sometimes  the  understand- 
ing ;  '  soul '  is  life,  often,  but  not  always, 
physical  life  ;  '  mind  '  is  'nearly  the  same  as 
reason,  or  rational  soul.  It  must  here  be 
understood  as  embracing  spirit,  i.e.  the  reli- 
gious faculty. 

41-46.  The  title  Son  of  David  (Mkl235 
Lk20-ii).  A  saying  of  Jesus  from  the  oldest 
tradition,  of  great  doctrinal  importance.  He 
declares  Himself  dissatisfied  with  the  honour- 
able title  of  Son  of  David,  because  He  is  in 
reality  also  David's  Lord.  By  applying  Ps  1 10 
to  Himself  He  claims,  (1)  a  seat  at  God's  right 
hand  ;  (2)  lordship  over  all  the  human  race  ; 
(3)  an  eternal  priesthood  and  empire  :  '  Thou 
art  a  priest  for  ever  after  the  order  of 
Melchizedek.' 

41.  Jesus  asked  them]  Having  repelled  the 
attack  of  the  Pharisees,  Jesus  takes  the  offen- 
sive, and  demonstrates  that  they  are  wrong  to 
regard  the  Messiah  as  a  mere  man.  43.  David] 
The  question  has  been  raised  whether  our 
Lord  here  definitely  decides  the  Davidic 
authorship  of  PsllO.  Probably  not.  His 
object  is  to  show  that  the  Pharisees'  low  view 
of  the  Messiah  is  inconsistent  with  their  own 
premises,  not  to  teach  the  true  authorship  of 
the  Psalm. 


698 


%±  44 


ST.  MATTHEW 


23.  7 


44.  The  Lord  (i.e.  God)  said  unto  my 
Lord]  i.e.  to  David's  Lord,  the  Messiah,  Ps  llUi. 
The  Jews  fully  accepted  the  Messianic  inter- 
pretation of  this  Psalm.  Rabbi  Joden  said, 
'  In  the  time  to  come  the  Holy  and  Blessed 
God  will  place  King  Messiah  at  His  right 
hand,  according  to  PsllO.' 

CHAPTER    23 
Denunciation  of  the  Pharisees 

1-36.  Final  denunciation  of  the  Scribes  and 
Pharisees.  The  other  synoptists  insert  in  this 
place  a  brief  utterance  directed  against  the 
scribes  (Mkl23«-^o  Lk  20  45-17),  but  the  dis- 
course as  it  stands  is  peculiar  to  St.  Matthew. 
A  portion  of  it,  however,  is  inserted  by  St. 
Luke  at  an  earlier  period,  on  the  occasion  of 
a  dinner  at  a  Pharisee's  house  (Lk  1 1 37-52)^  and 
this  suggests  that  we  have  here  a  collection  of 
sayings  against  the  scribes  and  Pharisees  really 
spoken  on  various  occasions.  The  scene  is 
the  Temple.  In  the  foreground  are  Jesus  and 
His  disciples  ;  a  little  farther  off  the  multi- 
tudes ;  in  the  background  are  the  discomfited 
Pharisees,  who,  instead  of  attacking,  are  now 
attacked.  Christ  addresses  first  the  multitudes 
(vv.  1-7),  then  the  disciples  (vv.  8-12),  finally 
the  scribes  and  Pharisees  (vv.  13-36). 

2.  Sit  in  Moses'  seat]  The  scribes  (who 
were  ordained  with  the  laying-on  of  hands) 
claimed  to  have  received  their  authority 
through  an  unbroken  succession  from  Moses. 
The  '  sitting '  refers  to  the  judicial  power, 
and  the  authority  to  teach,  which  all  scribes  or 
rabbis  possessed,  and  which  was  centred  in  the 
Great  Sanhedrin.  In  rabbinical  writings 
one  who  succeeds  a  rabbi  at  the  head  of 
his  school  is  described  as  'sitting  on  his  seat,' 
because  the  rabbis  taught  sitting  on  a  raised 
seat.  Sit]  or,  '  sat,'  i.e.  succeeded  to  Moses' 
authority.  3.  All  therefore  whatsoever]  In 
spite  of  the  wickedness  and  hypocrisy  of  the 
scribes,  they  were  to  be  obeyed  and  respected 
on  account  of  their  office,  to  which  they  had  a 
legitimate  right,  until  their  place  was  taken 
by  the  Apostles.  Similarly  a  duly  ordained 
Christian  minister,  however  much  he  may  de- 
serve to  be  despised  as  a  man,  is  yet  to  be 
tolerated  as  Christ's  representative  till  he  be 
deposed  by  lawful  authority. 

4.  Lkll^tJ.  Bind  heavy  burdens]  a  meta- 
phor from  overloading  a  beast  of  burden.  The 
'  burdens,'  which  they  '  bind  into  bundles,' 
are  the  intricate  and  troublesome  observances 
which  the  scribes  had  added  to  the  written 
Law,  and  had  declared  to  be  more  binding  than 
the  Law  itself  :  see  on  152.  The  one  good 
point  about  the  Sadducees  was  that  they  re- 
jected these  human  traditions.  Will  not  move 
them  (Lk  '  touch  them ')  with  one  of  their 
fingers]  much  less  bear  them  upon  their 
shoulders.     They   require    their   disciples   to 


keep  onerous  rules,  which  they  themselves  will 
not  observe,  or  (as  others  interpret  it)  they 
will  not  stretch  out  a  finger  to  adjust  these 
legal  burdens  to  the  backs  of  others,  so  that 
they  may  comfortably  bear  them. 

5.  Make  broad  their  phylacteries]  Every 
male  Jew  above  the  age  of  thirteen  was  re- 
quired to  say  both  morning  and  evening,  ex- 
cept on  sabbaths  and  feasts,  when  the  synagogue 
services  took  their  place,  '  the  prayers  of  the 
phylacteries.'  The  phylacteries  themselves 
were  cubical  boxes  (size  from  \  in.  to  1^  in.), 
made  of  the  skin  of  a  clean  animal,  and 
attached  to  a  broad  strip  of  material,  by 
which  they  were  bound  to  the  body  at  prayer- 
time.  Two  were  worn.  The  head-phylactery 
was  so  fastened  to  the  brow  that  the  prayer- 
box  came  between  the  eyes.  This  was  the 
one  which  the  Pharisees  made  broad,  i.e.  as 
large  and  conspicuous  as  possible.  The  arm- 
phylactery  was  tied  round  the  left  arm  on  the 
inside,  so  as  to  be  near  the  heart,  and  during 
use  was  invisible,  being  covered  by  the  sleeve. 
The  head-phylactery  was  divided  into  four 
compartments,  containing  on  little  rolls  these 
four  portions  of  scripture:  Exl3i-io  13ii-i*^ 
Dt  44-9  11 13-21.  The  arm-phylactery  contained 
the  same  passages  wi-itten  on  a  single  roll. 
The  rabbis  held  these  phylacteries,  or  fephillhi, 
in  the  highest  veneration.  They  were  to  be 
kissed  when  put  on  or  off,  they  were  holier 
than  the  frontal  of  the  high  priest's  mitre, 
they  were  a  preservative  against  demons, 
whence  their  name  phylacteries,  i.e.  amulets 
(from  a  Gk.  word  meaning  '  to  guard '). 
They  were  sworn  by,  by  touching  them. 
God  Himself  was  said  to  wear  them,  and  to 
swear  by  them  when  He  swore  by  '  His  holy 
arm.'  Orthodox  Jews  find  the  wearing  of 
the  phylacteries  commanded  in  the  Law  (Ex 
139.16  Dt6S  1118),  but  the  Karaite  Jews 
dispute  the  interpretation  and  do  not  wear 
them.  The  phylacterial  prayers  being  said  at 
stated  times,  the  Pharisees  would  arrange  to  be 
seen  saying  them  in  public,  at  the  '  corners  of 
the  streets '  :  see  on  6  ^.  The  borders]  or, 
rather,  '  holy  tassels '  :  see  on  9  20.  In  our 
Lord's  time  they  were  worn  publicly  on  the 
four  corners  of  the  outer  garment.  Modern 
Jews  wear  them  secretly  on  an  under  garment 
called  a  tullith^  for  fear  of  ridicule.  In  the 
synagogue  a  second  and  larger  taUilh  is  worn 
during  the  prayers  to  cover  the  head  and 
neck.  This  taUith^  or  prayer- veil,  was  perhaps 
in  use  in  our  Lord's  time. 

6.  Lk  1 1 43  Mk  1 2  38.  The  chief  seats  in  the 
synagogues  were  the  semicircular  bench  round 
the  ark  facing  the  congregation.  See  further 
on  20 '-^s  Mkl239  Lkl47. 

7.  Rabbi]  (Aramaic)  lit.  '  my  master,'  a 
title  of  respect  applied  to  a  scribe  duly  or- 
dained in  Palestine  (cp.  our  '  Reverend ').     Our 


699 


23.9 


ST.  MATTHEW 


23.27 


Lord,  though  unordained,  received   the  title 
by  courtesy. 

9,  Father  (Aramaic  ahha)  and  masters  (v.  1 0) 
are  also  titles  of  the  scribes,  the  former 
being  chiefly  used  as  a  prefix  to  the  name,  e.g. 
Abba  Shaul.  Some  Christians  take  these  pro- 
hibitions literally,  and  say  that  it  is  antichristian 
to  use  such  titles  of  respect  as  '  Reverend,' 
'  Father  in  God,'  '  Venerable,'  and  the  like, 
which  correspond  to  the  titles  of  the  scribes. 
But  what  Jesus  condemned  was  not  the  titles 
themselves,  so  much  as  the  presumptuous  claims 
which  the  titles  implied.  The  rabbis  really 
did  put  themselves  in  the  place  of  God,  and 
almost  on  an  equality  with  Him.  Their  tra- 
ditions were  more  binding  than  the  Law,  and 
were  regarded  as  in  a  sense  binding  upon  God. 
One  rabbi  went  the  length  of  being  buried 
in  white  garments  to  show  that  he  was  worthy 
to  appear  before  his  Maker.  Another  is  said 
to  have  been  summoned  to  heaven  by  God  to 
settle  a  point  of  the  law  of  ceremonial  purifi- 
cation :  see  on  15  2. 

13-36.  The  Seven  Woes  on  the  Scribes  and 
Pharisees.  Jesus,  knowing  that  His  death  was 
at  hand,  and  that  the  conversion  of  His  enemies 
was  hopeless,  poured  upon  them  a  torrent  of 
righteous  indignation,  in  the  manner  of  the 
prophets  of  old.  These  woes  apply  equally  to 
the  ministers  of  the  gospel,  who  having  the 
cure  of  souls,  abuse  it  as  did  the  Scribes. 

13.  Lkll52.  Shut  up,  etc.]  i.e.  prevent  the 
nation  from  being  converted.  The  Kingdom  of 
Heaven  is  here  the  Church.  14.  The  omission 
of  this  v.,  which  has  been  wrongly  inserted  from 
Mkl240  Lk20-*'',  reduces  the  eight  woes  to 
seven  :  see  on  Mk.  15.  To  make  one  prose- 
lyte] The  Ethiopic  version  has  the  interesting 
reading  '  to  baptise  one  proselyte.'  As,  how- 
ever, there  is  no  evidence  that  the  Pharisees 
were  particularly  anxious  to  make  proselytes 
to  Judaism,  it  is  perhaps  more  probable  that 
our  Lord  alludes  to  their  zeal  in  making  prose- 
lytes from  among  the  Jews  to  their  own  sect. 
Child  of  hell]  lit.  '  a  son  of  Gehenna,'  i.e.  one 
fit  to  go  thither  :  see  on  522.  Why  two-fold 
more?  Because  the  vices  of  teachers  appear 
in  an  accentuated  form,  and  without  any  re- 
deeming features,  in  scholars.  Others  say, 
'  Because  out  of  a  bad  heathen  they  made  a  worse 
Jew.'  Others  suggest  a  different  translation 
altogether,  viz. '  You  make  him  a  more  deceitful 
child  of  hell  than  yourselves.' 

1 6-22.  On  dishonest  casuistry.  The  lax 
moralists  of  that  time  invented  ways  of  evading 
the  obligation  of  truthfulness,  by  saying  that 
certain  forms  of  swearing  were  binding  and 
others  not.  Thus  an  oath  by  the  Temple  or 
the  altar  might  be  broken  without  sin,  but  not 
an  oath  by  the  gold  of  the  Temple,  or  by  the 
gift  on  the  altar.  Such  refinements  were  a 
direct  encouragement   to  dishonesty  and  un- 


truthfulness, and  our  Lord  denounced  them 
with  terrible  severity,  declaring  that  a  man's 
word  or  oath,  in  whatever  words  expressed,  is 
absolutely  binding.  The  lesson  here  taught 
is  truthfulness  and  honesty  in  general,  as  well 
as  the  sanctity  of  oaths.  Christ's  teaching 
here  is  not  inconsistent  with  5  2'*,  where  from 
a  higher  ideal  standpoint  He  forbids  oaths 
altogether.  16.  It  is  nothing]  i.e.  it  is  not 
binding.  The  gold  of  the  temple]  J.  Lightfoot 
is  probably  right  in  regarding  this  gold,  together 
with  the  'gift  on  the  altar'  (v.  18),  as  dedi- 
cated to  God,  i.e.  as  Corhan.  An  oath  in  which 
the  word  Corban  was  mentioned  was  held  to 
be  specially  binding  :  see  on  1 5  ^'  ^.  A  debtor] 
i.e.  bound  by  his  oath. 

23.  Lkll'i2.  J.  Lightfoot  remarks,  'The 
tithing  of  herbs  is  from  the  rabbins.  This 
tithing  was  added  by  the  scribes,  and  yet 
approved  of  by  our  Saviour,  when  He  saith, 
'•  Ye  ought  not  to  leave  these  undone."  '  The 
more  scrupulous  rabbis  tithed  not  only  the 
seeds  but  the  leaves  and  stalks  of  these  herbs. 

Cummin]  used  in  cooking  as  a  condiment. 

The  weightier  matters]  Alluding  to  but  not 
adopting  the  rabbinical  distinction  between 
the  '  heavy  '  and  '  light '  precepts  of  the  Law. 
Among  the  '  heavy '  precepts  were  the  sabbath, 
circumcision,  and  the  prohibition  to  profane 
the  Divine  Name.  Hillel  and  Shammai  differed 
somewhat  in  their  classification  of  the  613  pre- 
cepts which  the  Law  was  supposed  to  contain. 
Judgment]  stands  here,  hy  a  Hebraism,  for 
'  righteousness.'  Faith]  honesty,  truthfulness, 
trustworthiness.  These  ought  ye]  i.e.  Ye  ought 
to  have  observed  judgment,  mercy  and  faith, 
and  also  to  have  tithed  mint,  anise  and  cummin. 

24.  A  proverb  meaning  that  the  scribes 
scrupulously  avoid  insignificant  breaches  of  the 
Law,  while  continually  breaking  its  great  com- 
mandments. Strain  at  a  gnat]  RV  '  strain 
out  a  gnat,'  viz.  out  of  the  wine  that  you  are 
about  to  di'ink.  The  '  gnat '  here  is  probably 
a  minute  animal  bred  from  the  fermentation 
of  wine,  and  regarded  by  the  rabbis  as  un- 
clean.    The  camel  was  also  unclean  (Lv  1 1  '*). 

25.  Lkll39.     Ye  make  clean]  see  Mk  7  4. 
But  within  they]  (i.e.  the  cups  and  dishes) 

are  full  of  food  and  drink  which    has   been 
obtained  by  extortion  and  excess. 

26.  Cleanse  first  that]  i.e.  first  earn  your  meat 
and  drink  by  honest  labour,  not  by  extortion, 
then  your  cups  and  dishes  will  be  clean  in 
God's  sight. 

27.  Whited  sepulchres]  Contact  with  sepul- 
chres defiled,  so  that  the  Jews  smeared  them 
with  limewash  yearly  on  the  1 5th  day  of  Adar 
lest  travellers  touching  them  unawares  should 
be  made  unclean.  In  LklH^  Jesus  compares 
the  Pharisees  to  unmarked,  here  to  marked, 
sepulchres,  because  they  defiled  those  who 
came  into  close  contact  with  them. 


700 


23.  28 


ST.  MATTHEW 


24.  2 


28.  Alexander  Jannaeus,  the  Maccabean 
king  of  the  Jews  (c.  104-78  B.C.),  gave  utterance 
to  a  very  similar  sentiment.  On  his  deathbed 
he  warned  his  wife  to  '  take  heed  of  painted 
men,  pretending  to  be  Pharisees,  whose  works 
are  the  works  of  Zimri,  and  yet  they  expect 
the  reward  of  Phineas.'  'Painted  men'  are 
explained  to  mean  '  men  whose  outward  show 
doth  not  answer  to  their  nature.' 

29-31.  Lkll^".48.  29.  Tombs  of  the 
prophets,  etc.]  It  is  natural  to  suppose  that 
Jesus  alluded  to  some  actual  building  oper- 
ations then  going  on,  or  recently  completed 
near  Jerusalem.  Herod  the  Great  appears  to 
have  built  or  adorned  the  tombs  and  cenotaphs 
of  many  Jewish  worthies.  Calvin  well  re- 
marks, '  It  is  customary  with  hypocrites  thus 
to  honour  after  their  death  good  teachers  and 
holy  ministers  of  God,  whom  they  cannot 
endure  while  they  are  alive.  It  is  a  hypocrisy 
which  costs  little  to  profess  a  warm  regard  for 
those  who  are  now  silent.'  31.  Unto  your- 
selves] or,  '  against  yourselves.'  The  v.  is  an 
ironical  commentary  on  the  statement  of  the 
Pharisees  (v.  30),  '  If  we  had  been  in  the  days 
of  our  fathers,'  etc.  Jesus  retorts,  '  You  wit- 
ness to  yourselves  by  your  words  that  you  are  the 
literal  sons  of  those  who  killed  the  prophets. 
You  witness  against  yourselves  by  your  actions 
that  you  are  also  their  sons  spiritually,  for  you, 
like  them,  reject  the  words  of  the  prophets 
who  are  among  you,  viz.  the  Baptist  and 
Myself.'  32.  Fill  ye  up  then]  i.e.  '  Carry  out 
your  wickedness  to  the  full,  as  your  fathers 
did,  by  putting  Me  to  death.  You  desire  to  do 
so,  and  I  shall  not  hinder  you.'  33.  See  3^ 
1234. 

34-36.  Lk  11 49-51.  34.  I  send  unto  you] 
The  parallel  in  St.  Luke  (which  see)  has 
'  Therefore  also  said  the  wisdom  of  God,  I  will 
send  unto  them  prophets,'  etc.  The  prophets, 
etc.,  are  the  apostles,  prophets,  teachers,  evan- 
gelists, and  other  ministers  of  the  Apostolic 
Church.  Observe  that  here,  as  in  13  ^2,  our  Lord 
speaks  of  Christian  ministers  under  Jewish 
titles  as  '  wise  men  '  (i.e.  rabbis)  and  scribes. 

35.  That  upon  you]  '  The  scribes  and  Phari- 
sees are  regarded  as  the  representatives  of  the 
people,  for  whom,  as  their  leaders,  they  are 
held  responsible '  (Meyer).  The  righteous 
blood]  i.e.  the  penalty  for  shedding  it. 

Zacharias  son  of  Barachias]  Jesus  probably 
said  '  Zachariah,'  as  in  St.  Luke,  without  men- 
tioning the  father's  name,  but  the  evangelist  or 
one  of  the  earliest  copyists,  who  thought  it 
necessary  to  distinguish  among  the  twenty- 
nine  Zachariahs  of  the  OT.,  and  understood 
the  canonical  prophet  to  be  meant,  added  the 
words  '  son  of  Barachias.'  There  can  be  no 
real  doubt  that  the  person  meant  is  Zechariah, 
son  of  Jehoiada  (see  ■2Ch24  2i),  concerning 
whom  there  was  a  Jewish  tradition,  that  his 


blood  could  not  be  removed  by  washing,  but 
remained  bubbling  on  the  ground  where  it  had 
been  shed.  In  the  Jewish  arrangement  of  the 
books  of  the  sacred  Canon,  Chronicles  stands 
last,  so  that  Jesus  chose  His  examples  from 
the  first  and  last  books  of  the  Jewish  Bible. 

37~39-  Pathetic  lament  over  Jerusalem  (Lk 
1334, 35)_  St.  Luke  places  these  words  in  an- 
other, and  much  less  suitable  connexion.  As 
they  occur  in  St.  Matthew  they  form  a  worthy 
close  to  our  Lord's  ministry  in  Jerusalem. 

37.  How  often]  '  It  is  fair  to  assume  that 
Christ's  exclamation  over  Jerusalem  presup- 
poses that  the  capital  had  repeatedly  been  the 
scene  of  His  ministrations,  which  coincides 
with  the  visits  on  festival  occasions  recorded 
by  John:  cp.  AclO^O'  (Meyer).  Under  her 
wings]  see  2Esdrasl30.  38.  Your  house] 
i.e.  either,  (1)  the  city  itself,  (2)  the  Temple, 
or,  (3)  the  Jewish  dispensation.  39.  Till  ye 
shall  say.  Blessed  i>i  He,  etc.]  i.e.  either,  (1) 
till  the  Second  Advent,  when  they  will  see 
Christ  as  judge,  and  will  unwillingly  say 
'  Blessed  is  He  that  cometh,'  or,  (2)  till  the 
conversion  of  Israel  (see  Roll),  when  true 
believers  will  see  Christ  by  faith  and  willingly 
say,  '  Blessed  is  He  that  cometh,'  etc. 

CHAPTER  24 

The  Destruction  of  Jerusalem  and  the 
End  of  the  World  foretold 

1.  Jesus  went  out]  RV  '  Jesus  went  out 
from  the  temple,  and  was  going  on  his  way, 
and  his  disciples,'  etc. 

The  buildings]  The  magnificent  buildings,  a 
mass  of  marble  and  gold,  were  not  yet  finished 
(see  Jn  2  20).  The  rabbis  said,  '  He  who  has 
not  seen  the  temple  of  Herod,  has  never  seen 
a  beautiful  building.  The  sanctuary  was  made 
of  green  and  white  marble.  .  .  Herod  intended 
to  have  the  building  covered  with  gold,  but 
the  rabbis  dissuaded  him,  saying  that  it  was 
sufficiently  beautiful  as  it  was,  for  it  appeared 
like  the  waves  of  the  sea.'  Josephus  says, 
'  The  front  of  the  temple  was  covered  all  over 
with  plates  of  gold  of  great  weight,  and  at  the 
first  rising  of  the  sun  reflected  back  a  fiery 
splendour,  etc.  .  .  The  temple  appeared  to 
strangers,  when  they  were  at  a  distance,  like  a 
mountain  covered  with  snow,  for  those  parts 
of  it  which  were  not  gilt  were  exceedingly 
white.  Of  its  stones  some  were  45  cubits  in 
length,  5  in  height,  and  6  in  breadth.'  (A 
cubit  =  18  in.) 

2.  One  stone]  Josephus,  an  eyewitness,  says 
'  Caesar  (i.e.  Titus)  now  gave  orders  to  demolish 
the  whole  city  and  temple,  except  the  highest 
towers  and  the  west  wall.  All  the  rest  was  so 
thoroughly  laid  even  with  the  ground  by  those 
that  dug  it  up  to  the  foundation,  that  there 
was  left  nothing  to  make  those  who  came 
thither  believe  that  it  had  ever  been  inhabited.' 


701 


m.  3 


ST.  MATTHEW 


24.  7 


The  Talmud  says,  '  On  the  ninth  day  of  Ab 
(July- Aug.)  the  city  of  Jerusalem  was  ploughed 
up.' 

3-51.  Great  prophecy  of  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem,  and  the  end  of  the  world  (Mkl.S^ 
Lk'21  7).  Many  of  the  most  serious  difficulties 
of  this  great  discourse  disappear  when  it  is 
realised  that  our  Lord  referred  in  it  not  to 
one  event  but  to  two,  and  that  the  first  was 
typical  of  the  second.  This  is  especially  clear 
in  St.  Matthew's  Gospel.  The  disciples  ask 
Jesus  (v.  3)  for  information  on  two  subjects  : 
(1)  the  date  of  the  approaching  destruction  of 
the  Temple,  (2)  the  sign  that  will  precede  His 
second  coming  at  the  end  of  the  world.  That 
these  two  events  were  clearly  distinguished  in 
the  mind  of  Christ  Himself,  and,  therefore, 
in  this  discourse  as  He  delivered  it,  admits 
of  demonstration.  Lk212-i  especially,  which 
speaks  of  'the  times  of  the  Gentiles,'  during 
which  Jerusalem  shall  be  trodden  down  by  the 
heathen,  and  the  Jews  dispersed  into  all  lands 
'  till  the  times  of  the  Gentiles  be  fulfilled,' 
places  an  indefinite  interval  between  the 
fall  of  Jerusalem  and  the  end  of  the  world. 
Similarly  in  St.  Matthew  and  St.  Mark,  Jesus 
declares  that  He  is  ignorant  of,  or  is  not  allowed 
to  reveal,  the  date  of  the  end  of  the  world 
(24:3<5  Mkl332),  but  expressly  says  that  the 
fall  of  Jerusalem  will  take  place  within  the 
lifetime  of  the  Apostles  (10  23).  Again  the  state- 
ment that  the  end  will  not  come  till  the  gospel 
has  been  preached  to  all  nations  (24i'i)  post- 
pones the  end  indefinitely:  cp.  also  22i-i'i. 
The  reasons  why  the  two  events  are  not  equally 
distinguished  in  the  discourse  as  we  have  it, 
are  mainly  four :  (1)  Our  Lord's  words,  as  in 
other  cases,  are  condensed.  We  have  not  a 
full  report  of  the  speech,  but  its  most  striking 
passages,  which  being  isolated  from  their  con- 
text, are  naturally  somewhat  difficult  to  inter- 
pret. (2)  At  the  time  when  the  speech  was 
committed  to  writing,  the  apostles  believed 
that  Christ's  second  coming  would  occur  in 
their  lifetime,  and  that  the  fall  of  Jerusalem 
and  the  Last  Judgment  would  be  coincident : 
see  on  1  Th  4 1^.  This  belief  would  aif ect,  if 
not  the  faithfulness  of  their  report,  at  any  rate 
the  arrangement  of  it.  It  would  cause  the 
evangelists  to  group  together,  as  if  refen-ing  to 
the  same  event,  sayings  which  really  referred 
to  events  widely  sundered  in  time.  (3)  The 
discourse  perhaps  contains  some  sayings  not 
spoken  at  this  time,  but  inserted  here  because 
believed  to  refer  to  the  same  events.  The 
hypothesis  of  extensive  additions  cannot  indeed 
be  admitted.  Nevertheless,  it  is  quite  in  the 
manner  of  the  evangelists,  and  especially  of 
St.  Matthew,  to  group  together  in  a  single  dis- 
course utterances  delivered  at  different  times. 
(4)  Our  Lord  for  devotional  reasons  desired 
His  disciples  always  to  regard  His  coming  as 


if  it  were  near.  The  time  of  it  was  purposely 
not  revealed,  in  order  that  Christians  might 
live  in  a  state  of  continual  watchfulness,  look- 
ing for  their  Lord's  coming.  Such  continual 
exhortations  to  watchfulness  were  easily  under- 
stood to  imply  that  the  Second  Coming  was 
near. 

Other  views  of  the  scope  of  the  discourse 
are,  (1)  that  it  refers  entirely  to  the  destruc- 
tion of  Jerusalem  ;  (2)  or  entirely  to  the  Last 
Judgment ;  (3)  or  that  '  the  coming  '  of  Clrrist 
is  a  continuous  process  lasting  from  the  fall  of 
Jerusalem  to  the  Second  Advent ;  (4)  or  that 
Christ's  '  coming '  represents  the  extension  of 
His  kingdom  which  followed  the  Resurrection, 
or  Pentecost,  or  the  fall  of  Jerusalem  ;  (5)  or 
that  His  coming  refers  to  the  coming  of  the 
Comforter,  in  whom  Christ  Himself  returns  to 
earth. 

Some  suppose  (but  without  sufficient  war- 
rant) that  the  sections  Mkl  3  7-9^l4-20, 24,27,30-31^ 
were  not  spoken  by  Christ,  but  formed  part 
of  a  short  Christian  apocalypse  composed 
shortly  before  the  fall  of  Jerusalem. 

3.  Olives]  A  magnificent  view  of  the  site  of 
the  Temple  is  obtained  from  this  hill.  The 
disciples]  viz.  Peter,  James,  John,  Andrew 
(Mk).  These  things]  i.e.  the  overthi'ow  of  the 
Temple.  The  end  of  the  world]  i.e.  the  Last 
Judgment.  But  those  who  refer  the  discourse 
entirely  to  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  under- 
stand by  it  the  end  of  the  Jewish  dispensation. 

4-14.  Ebrard  regards  this  section  as  referring 
to  the  last  judgment,  but  in  the  opinion  of 
most  it  refers  to  the  fall  of  Jerusalem,  with 
the  possible  exception  of  verse  14,  q.v. 

5.  I  am  Christ]  RV  '  I  am  the  Christ,'  i.e. 
the  Messiah.  The  false  Messiahs  who  appeared 
before  the  fall  of  Jerusalem  were  Simon  Magus, 
Menander,  Dositheus,  and  perhaps  Theudas, 
who  raised  a  rebellion  in  45  or  46  a.d. 

6.  Wars,  etc.]  There  were  three  threats  of 
war  against  the  Jews  by  Caligula,  Claudius, 
and  Nero,  as  to  the  first  of  which  Josephus 
remarks  that  the  death  of  Caligula  '  happened 
most  happily  for  our  nation  in  particular, 
which  would  have  almost  utterly  perished,  if 
he  had  not  been  suddenly  slain.'  There  was 
also  a  war  between  Bardanes  king  of  Parthia 
and  Izates  king  of  Adiabene,  and  between 
the  same  Izates  and  Bardanes'  successor, 
Vologases.  War  was  also  continually  threat- 
ened between  Rome  and  Parthia.  The  end] 
according  to  the  ordinary  view  is  the  end 
of  the  troubles,  i.e.  the  fall  of  Jerusalem, 
not  the  end  of  the  Avorld. 

7.  Nation  shall  rise]  i.e.  there  will  be 
massacres  and  civil  tumults.  One  fearful 
massacre  happened  at  Seleucia  on  the  Tigi-is, 
where  dwelt  three  hostile  nations,  Greeks, 
Syrians,  and  Jews.  The  Greeks  and  Syrians 
joined  together  against  their  common  enemies 


702 


24.  8 


ST.  MATTHEW 


24.  20 


the  Jews,  and  slew  about  50,000  of  them. 
Similarly  at  Csesarea,  in  one  hour's  time 
about  20,000  Jews  were  massacred.  Famines] 
Ac  11 2'^.  The  whole  reign  of  Claudius  (41- 
54  A.D.)  was  a  time  of  great  scarcity.  Jose- 
phus  mentions  a  famine  in  Palestine  about 
46  A.D.  in  which  many  died  of  starvation. 

Pestilences]  omitted  by  RV.  Earthquakes] 
There  was  an  unexampled  number  at  this 
period  devastating  the  provinces  of  Asia, 
Achaia,  Syria,  Macedonia,  Campania,  etc. 
Josephus  mentions  one  in  Palestine  accom- 
panied by  '  amazing  concussions  and  bellow- 
ings  of  the  earth — a  manifest  indication  that 
some  destruction  was  coming  upon  men.' 

8.  Beginning  of  sorrows]  RV  '  of  travail.' 
Jewish  writers  speak  frequently  of  the  so- 
called  '  sorrows  of  the  Messiah,'  which  are 
to  last  nine  months,  and  to  be  the  birth-pangs 
of  the  coming  age.  They  would  be  a  period 
of  internal  corruption,  and  outward  distress, 
famine,  and  war,  of  which  Palestine  was  to 
be  the  scene,  and  Israel  the  chief  sufferers. 
Some  of  these  sorrows  would  fall  upon  the 
Messiah  Himself  (Edersheim). 

9,  10.   See  on  10i'-23. 

II.  False  prophets]  see  on  v.  5.  Josephus 
speaks  of  '  a  body  of  wicked  men,  who  de- 
ceived and  deluded  the  people  under  pretence 
of  divine  inspiration,  who  prevailed  with  the 
multitude  to  act  like  madmen,  and  went  before 
them  into  the  wilderness,  pretending  that  God 
would  there  show  them  the  signals  of  victory ' : 
see  also  2  Pet  21  lJn2iS4i.  12.  Cp.HeblO^s 
Rev2-i.  13.  Shall  endure]  i.e.  shall  resist  the 
enticements  of  false  prophets,  stand  firm  in 
persecution,  and  not  suffer  his  love  of  Christ 
to  grow  cold.  Unto  the  end]  viz.  of  the  ti-ibu- 
lation  ;  but  it  may  mean  unto  the  uttermost, 
or,  unto  death.  Shall  be  saved]  i.e.  either 
literally  by  flight  to  Pella  (v.  16),  or,  more 
probably,  saved  spiritually. 

14.  Since  the  gospel  had  not  been  preached 
to  the  whole  world,  or  even  to  the  whole 
Roman  world  by  70  A.D.,  as  indeed  Christ 
Himself  indicated  (lO^^),  many  suppose  that 
'  the  end '  here  is  the  last  judgment.  Those 
who  understand  it  to  refer  to  the  fall  of 
Jerusalem,  point  out  that  by  that  time  the 
gospel  had  been  preached  not  only  in  the  East, 
but  at  Rome,  and  perhaps  in  Spain  and  Gaul 
(Ro  15  24-^8). 

15-28.  The  flight  of  the  Christians  before 
the  fall  of  Jerusalem. 

15.  The  abomination  of  desolation]  i.e.  the 
abomination  which  makes  the  Temple  deso- 
late, by  causing  God  to  forsake  it  (Dan  9  27). 
Some  definite  event  is  meant,  because  it  is  the 
signal  of  instant  flight  (vv.  16-20).  It  is  to 
happen  before  the  fall  of  Jerusalem,  and  in 
'  the  holy  place,'  i.e.  in  that  part  of  the  Temple, 
which  only  the  priests  could  enter.     The  only 


event  which  answers  this  description  is  the 
capture  of  the  Temple  by  the  Zealots,  or 
Assassins,  66  or  67  a.d.,  and  the  abominations 
which  then  ensued.  The  Zealots  turned  the 
Temple  into  a  camp,  defiled  it  with  blood, 
made  a  creature  of  their  own  high  priest,  and 
finally  caused  the  daily  sacrifices  to  cease. 

St.  Luke's  version,  '  when  ye  see  Jerusa- 
lem encompassed  by  armies,'  is  not  an  in- 
terpretation of  '  the  abomination  of  desolation,' 
but  another  sign  outside  Jerusalem,  which  took 
place  at  the  same  time  as  the  desolation  within. 
Jerusalem  was  encompassed  with  armies,  (1) 
in  66  A.D.  by  the  troops  of  Cestius  Gallus  ; 
(2)  in  68  A.D.  by  those  of  Vespasian  ;  (3)  in 
70  A.D.  by  those  of  Titus.  The  first  invest- 
ment is  St.  Luke's  signal  for  flight.  Soon 
after  this  the  Zealots  seized  the  Temple  and 
the  city,  guarded  the  gates,  and  prevented  all 
escape.  The  prophecy  in  Daniel  originally 
referred  to  the  profanation  of  the  Temple  by 
Antiochus  Epiphanes,  169-168  B.C.,  but  its 
application  to  the  events  of  66-70  a.d.  is  very 
suitable. 

Other  views  of  the  nature  of  the  '  abomina- 
tion of  desolation  '  worthy  of  notice  are  that 
it  is,  (1)  the  Roman  eagles,  or  standards  ; 
(2)  a  statue  of  Titus  erected  on  the  site  of  the 
Temple  ;  (3)  the  appearance  of  Antichrist  at 
the  end  of  the  world  :  cp.  2Th24. 

Whoso  readeth,  let  him  understand]  not 
'  let  him  that  readeth  the  prophet  Daniel  un- 
derstand,' for  the  reference  to  Daniel  is  absent 
from  St.  Mark  (see  RV),  but  '  let  him  that 
readeth  this  prophecy  of  Chi-ist's  understand.' 
The  occurrence  in  both  evangelists  is  a  proof 
that  the  common  authority  used  by  St. 
Matthew  and  St.  Mark  was  not  oral  tradition, 
but  a  written  document. 

16.  Flee  into  the  mountains]  Eusebius  says, 
'  But  the  members  of  the  Church  in  Jerusalem, 
having  been  commanded  before  the  war  in 
accordance  with  a  certain  oracle  given  by  reve- 
lation to  the  men  of  repute  there,  to  depart 
from  Jerusalem,  and  to  inhabit  a  certain  city  of 
Perasa  called  Pella,  all  the  believers  in  Christ 
in  Jerusalem  went  thither,  and  when  now  the 
saints  had  abandoned  both  the  royal  metropolis 
itself  and  the  whole  land  of  Judaea,  the  ven- 
geance of  God  finally  overtook  the  lawless 
persecutors  of  Christ  and  His  Apostles.' 

17.  Not  come  down]  but  escape  by  the  out- 
side staircase,  or  over  the  roofs  of  the  houses  : 
see  on  9  2. 

20.  On  the  sabbath  day  (peculiar  to  St. 
Matthew,  the  Jewish  evangelist).  Alford  says, 
'  That  they  were  not  said  as  any  sanction  of 
observance  of  the  Jewish  sabbath  is  most  cer- 
tain ;  but  merely  as  referring  to  positive  im- 
pediments which  might  meet  them  on  that 
day,  the  shutting  of  the  gates  of  cities,  etc., 
and  their  own  scruples  about  travelling  further 


703 


24.  21 


ST.  MATTHEW 


24.  34 


than  the  ordinary  sabbath  day's  journey 
(about  a  mile  English)  ;  for  the  Jewish  Chris- 
tians adhered  to  the  Law  till  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem  '  (see  Intro.  §  6). 

21.  SeeDanl2i.  Josephus  saj^s, '  The  multi- 
tude of  those  that  perished  exceeded  all  the 
destructions  that  either  men  or  God  ever 
brought  upon  the  world.'  '  The  number  of 
those  that  perisheil  during  the  whole  siege  was 
1,100,000.'  22.  Those  days]  i.e.  of  the  siege 
of  Jerusalem,  which  occupied  less  than  five 
months.  No  flesh]  i.e.  no  inhabitants  of  the 
theatre  of  war,  Palestine.  Be  saved]  i.e.  be 
left  alive.     The  elect]  i.e.  the  Christians. 

23-26.  Chrysostom  and  others,  translating 
then  '  afterwards  '  (which  it  may  mean),  refer 
these  vv.  to  the  Last  Judgment,  but  it  is  better 
to  suppose  that  the  fall  of  Jerusalem  is  still 
spoken  of.  24.  False  Christs,  and  false  pro- 
phets] see  on  vv.  5,  11.  Signs  and  wonders] 
J.  Lightfoot  illustrates  from  the  Talmud  the 
magical  practices  of  the  Jews.  '  The  senior 
who  is  chosen  into  the  council,  ought  to  be 
skilled  in  the  arts  of  astrologers,  jugglers, 
diviners,  sorcerers,'  etc.  '  The  chamber  of 
Happarva  (in  the  Temple)  was  built  by  a  cer- 
tain magician  by  art  magic'  '  Rabbi  Joshua 
outdoes  a  magician  in  magic  and  drowns  him  in 
the  sea.'  26.  (Lkl723.)  If  they]  i.e.  they  who 
are  deluded  by  false  Messiahs.  Behold,  he]  viz. 
the  Messiah.  In  the  desert]  Some  of  the  false 
prophets  did  actually  lead  out  their  dupes  to 
the  desert.  In  the  secret  (RV  '  inner ')  cham- 
bers] a  poetical  expression  for  '  in  hiding.' 

27,  28.  Whether  these  vv.  describe  Christ's 
coming  to  destroy  Jerusalem,  or  His  second 
coming  to  judge  the  world,  or  both,  is  doubt- 
ful. The  context  suggests  that  the  destruction 
of  Jerusalem  is  meant,  but  it  is  just  the  con- 
text which  is  doubtful,  for  St.  Mark  omits 
both  vv.,  and  St.  Luke  gives  them  in  quite  a 
different  connexion.  As  originally  spoken,  they 
probably  referred  to  Christ's  second  coming. 

27.  (Lk  17  '■^'i.)  The  second  advent  of  the  Son 
of  man  will  be  confined  to  no  one  locality,  but 
will  be  manifested  instantaneously  to  the  whole 
universe.  But  if  the  reference  is  to  the  de- 
struction of  Jerusalem,  this  v.  describes  the 
conspicuous  and    world-renowned  nature    of 

the  event. 

28.  A  parable  or  proverb  (Lk  1 7  37).    Just  as, 

wherever  a  carcase  may  happen  to  be,  eagles 
or  vultures  will  invariably  be  found  ;  so  at 
Christ's  second  coming,  wherever  a  man  dead 
in  trespasses  and  sins  is  found,  there  also 
will  Christ  be  revealed  as  an  avenging  judge. 
Thus  '  the  carcase  '  represents  the  wicked, 
and  '  the  eagles,'  Christ  and  His  avenging 
angels  of  judgment.  Those  who  suppose  the 
fall  of  Jerusalem  to  be  meant,  understand  by 
'  the  carcase,'  the  Jews,  and  by  '  the  eagles,'  the 
Roman  armies. 


29-42.  Most  commentators  refer  these  vv. 
(in  the  main)  to  the  Second  Advent,  though 
some  think  that  the  fall  of  Jerusalem  is  still 
meant. 

29.  Immediately]  RY  '  But  immediately.' 
This  discourse,  in  the  form  in  which  it  has  ^ 
come  down  to  us,  seems  to  place  the  Second  . 
Advent  immediately  after  the  fall  of  Jerusalem. 
Solutions  of  the  difficulty  :  (1)  Plumptre  con- 
siders '  the  boldest  answer  a.s  the  truest  and 
most  reverential,'  and  finds  the  explanation  in 
Christ's  ignorance  of  '  that  day  and  hour ' 
(Mk  1332).  But  although  Christ  was  ignorant, 
as  man,  of  the  exact  day  and  hoiu'  of  His 
Second  Advent,  He  at  least  knew  that  it  was 
separated  from  the  fall  of  Jerusalem  by  an 
immense  interval  (see  intro.  to  this  discourse). 
Even  if  we  assume,  with  Plumptre,  His  com- 
plete ignorance  of  the  date,  we  are  no  nearer 

a  solution  ;  for  if  He  did  not  know  the  date, 
He  would  not  attempt  to  fix  it.  (2)  Stier 
maintains  the  theory  of  '  prophetic  perspective.' 
As  men  gazing  from  a  distance  on  two  distant 
mountain  peaks,  one  behind  the  other,  see  them 
in  close  proximity,  so  Christ  saw  the  two  events 
'  in  close  proximity,  overlooking  the  wide  in- 
tervening space.'  A  legitimate  hypothesis,  but 
inconsistent  with  the  fact  that  Christ  was  fully 
aware  of  the  '  wide  intervening  space.'  (3) 
That  '  immediately '  is  to  be  interpreted  with 
prophetic  latitude,  and  may  mean  after  an  in- 
terval of  thousands  of  years,  as  when  our  Lord 
says,  '  And  behold  I  come  quickly  '  (Rev  22  20  ; 
see  2  Pet  3  ^'  9).  This  is  the  best  explanation  of 
the  passage  as  it  staudx  (4)  That '  immediately 
after '  means  immediately  after  the  premonitory 
signs  of  Christ's  second  coming,  which  have 
been  omitted  in  the  evangelists'  report  of  the 
speech,  which  is  doubtless  condensed.  The 
sun,  etc.]  prophetic  imagery  for  the  fall  of 
earthly  empires,  thrones,  and  powers,  and 
human  pride  (Isa  1 3  lO). 

30.  The  sign  of  the  Son  of  man]  As  Christ 
does  not  explain  this  sign,  it  is  useless  to  guess 
what  it  will  be.  In  tradition  it  is  the  Cross. 
'  Then  shall  appear  the  Cross  in  the  sky, 
shining  more  brightlj'^  than  the  sun,  to  convict 
the  Jews  '  (Theophylact).  This  interpretation 
is  already  found  in  the  '  Didache.' 

Mourn]  lamenting  their  unbelief  and  dis- 
obedience :  cp.  Zechr2i2  Dan7i3  Revl". 

31.  Usually  explained  of  the  gathering  of 
believers  into  heaven  at  the  last  day.  Those 
who  think  that  the  fall  of  Jerusalem  is  meant, 
explain  it  of  the  gathering  of  the  heathen  into 
the  Church  from  all  quarters  of  the  world  after 
that  event,  or  of  the  flight  of  the  Christians 
from  all  quarters  of  Palestine  to  Pella. 

34.  This  generation]  i.e.  Jerusalem  will  be 
destroyed  within  the  lifetime  of  men  now 
living.  This  literal  meaning  is  not  to  be 
evaded,  as,  for  example,  by  regarding  '  this 


704 


24.  36 


ST.  MATTHEW 


25.  S 


generation '  as  the  human  race,  or  the  Jewish 
nation,  or  the  Chi-istian  Church,  or  the  universe. 

36.  But  of  that  day]  i.e.  the  Day  of  Judg- 
ment. Not  the  angels  of  heaven]  E.V  adds, 
'  neither  the  Son,'  which,  however,  RM  omits  : 
see  on  Mkl33-.2. 

40,  41.  The  general  idea  is  that,  though  to 
human  eyes  the  righteous  and  the  wicked  will 
appear  exactly  the  same,  the  angels  in  the 
judgment  will  be  able  to  distinguish. 

40.  One  shall  be  taken]  viz.  into  glory,  by 
the  angels.  The  other  left]  viz.  for  reproba- 
tion, or  punishment.  But  if  the  fall  of 
Jerusalem  is  meant,  the  '  taking  '  means  the 
successful  flight  from  Judsa  and  Jerusalem  ; 
the  being  '  left '  means  failure  to  flee. 

43-51.  An  exhortation  to  faithfulness  and 
•watchfulness  addressed  specially  to  the  Apostles 
and  other  chief  ministers  of  the  Church  (Lk 
12  39-40 j  It  appropriately  closes  the  discourse, 
but  whether  it  really  belongs  here  may  be 
doubted.  St.  Luke  introduces  it  in  a  quite 
different  connexion. 

43.  The  goodman  (RV  '  master ')  of  the 
house]  i.e.  m  the  application  of  the  parable, 
the  Apostles,  and  their  successors  in  posts  of 
authority  in  the  Church.  The  thief]  i.e.  on 
account  of  the  suddenness  and  unexpectedness 
of  His  coming,  our  Lord  :  see  1  Th  5  ^  Rev  16 1^. 
Although  the  second  coming  is  chiefly  in  view, 
it  must  be  remembered  that  Ckrist  comes  in 
judgment  to  the  individual  soul  at  death. 

Broken  up]  RV  'broken  through'  :  see  6 19. 

45.  A  faithful  and  wise  servant  (RM  '  bond- 
servant ')]  though  referring  primarily  to  the 
Apostles  and  ministers  of  the  Church,  may  be 
extended  to  all  who  have  the  care  of  the  souls  of 
others,  or  exercise  spiritual  influence  over'others 
(the  '  household ').  46.  When  he  cometh]  viz. 
at  the  Second  Advent,  or  at  the  servant's 
death.  47.  Make  him  ruler]  RV  '  set  him  over 
all  that  he  hath,'  i.e.  make  him  great  in  the 
future  Kingdom  of  Heaven,  and  sharer  of  His 
own  throne.  Our  Lord  implies  that  in  heaven 
there  will  be  various  degrees  of  authority  :  cp. 
Lkl9ii-27.  49.  To  smite]  a  metaphor  for  the 
abuse  of  authority  :  cp.  Ac  20^9  1  Pet  5  3. 

51.  Cut  him  asunder]  RM  '  severely  scourge 
him,'  i.e.  consign  him  to  the  place  of  final 
punishment. 

CHAPTER  25 
The  Ten  Yirgins.     The  Talents.     The 
Sheep  and  the  Goats 
The  whole  of  this  c,  which  is  entirely  con- 
cerned with  the  Second  Advent,  and  contains 
some  of  the  most  striking  of  all  Christ's  say- 
ings, is  peculiar  to  St.  Matthew. 

1-13.  Parable  of  the  Ten  Virgins.  Pro- 
fessing Christians,  who  alone  are  addressed 
here,  are  warned  of  the  absolute  need  of 
sufficient    oil,    i.e.    of    sufficient    depth    and 


reality  in  the  spiritual  life,  if  they  are  to  be 
admitted  into  Christ's  kingdom  hereafter. 
Unless  the  life  of  the  soul  is  continually 
nourished  by  secret  prayer,  devout  meditation 
upon  Grod's  Word,  and  reverent  use  of  the 
Sacraments,  there  is  extreme  danger  that  the 
lamp  of  piety  will  flicker  out,  that  even  the 
outward  show  of  conformity  to  Christ's  Law 
will  cease  to  be,  and  that  death  or  the  Second 
Advent  will  find  the  soul  not  ready. 

1.  Then]  i.e.  in  the  period  immediately 
before  the  Second  Advent.  The  kingdom  of 
heaven]  i.e.  the  Church  on  earth.  Unto  ten 
virgins]  The  ten  virgins  are  not  simply 
Christians,  but  good  Christians  ;  not  all  the 
baptised,  but  those  who  make  some  attempt 
to  act  up  to  their  Christian  profession.  The 
number  ten  represents  the  whole  number  of 
those  who  are  apparently  good  Christians.  It  is 
chosen  because  among  the  Jews  it  was  a  com- 
plete number.  Ten  Jews  constituted  a  congi'e- 
gation.  Which  took  their  lamps]  RM  '  torches,' 
i.e.  their  Christian  profession.  The  '  lamps ' 
are  all  that  is  outward  in  the  life  of  professing 
Christians,  as  the  oil  is  all  that  is  inward. 
To  meet  the  bridegroom]  All  Chi-istian  life 
is  a  going  out  to  meet  the  bridegroom,  i.e.  a 
preparation  for  the  second  coming  of  Christ. 

In  the  parable  the  wedding  is  supposed  to 
take  place  at  night.  The  bridegroom,  accom- 
panied by  his  friends,  goes  in  procession  to  the 
bride's  house  to  fetch  her  home  to  his.  On  the 
return  journey  the  virgins,  the  friends  of  the 
bride,  are  supposed  to  join  the  procession,  and 
to  enter  with  her  into  the  bridegroom's  house, 
where,  in  accordance  with  Jewish  custom,  the 
wedding  feast  was  held.  The  customs  of  the 
Jews  with  regard  to  weddings  difl'ered  little 
from  those  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  or  of 
modern  Oriental  nations,  who  invariably  cele- 
brate weddings  at  night.  The  marriage  of 
Christ  with  His  Church  is  represented  in  the 
parable  as  taking  place  in  the  world  to  come, 
the  betrothal  having  taken  place  in  this  world. 

2.  And  five  of  them  were  wise  and  five  were 
foolish]  The  foolish  virgins  are  not  identical 
with  the  wicked,  or  the  hypocrites.  There  is 
nothing  insincere  about  them,  they  are  only 
foolish  and  shallow.  They  have  some  oil, 
that  is,  some  genuine  religion,  but  not  enough. 
They  are  like  those  in  the  parable  of  the 
sower  who  have  no  depth  of  earth.  They 
endure  for  a  time,  but  cannot  carry  through 
what  they  have  begun.  Their  stock  of  perse- 
verance and  patience  is  soon  exhausted,  and 
their  lamps  go  out. 

3.  Took  no  oil  with  them]  Oil  is  the 
symbol  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  of  inward 
sanctification  (Ac  10  38  Heblf  ljn220.27). 
Here  it  stands  for  all  that  is  earnest  and 
sincere  in  the  Christian  life  :  secret  prayer, 
faith,  humility,  charity,  and  good  works. 


45 


705 


25.4 


ST.  MATTHEW 


25.21 


4.  Oil  in  their  vessels]  The  foolish  virgins 
took  some  oil,  but  not  enough.  The  wise 
virgins  took  an  extra  supply,  in  case  the 
bridegroom  delayed  his  coming. 

5.  Tarried]  A  hint  (but  it  is  no  more)  that 
Christ  would  not  come  as  soon  as  the  first 
Christians  expected.  Slumbered  and  slept] 
If  a  definite  meaning  is  to  be  given  to  this 
detail  it  represents  the  repose  of  faith,  the 
serene  confidence  in  God,  which  those  who 
have  found  Christ,  and  have  ordered  their 
lives  after  His  word,  have  a  right  to  feel. 
The  confidence  of  the  foolish  virgins,  however, 
was  misplaced. 

6.  At  midnight]  i.e.  the  time  of  the  Second 
Advent  and  the  resurrection  of  the  dead. 

8.  Are  gone  out]   RV  '  are  going  out.' 

9.  Not  so;  lest]  RV  '  Peradventure  there 
will  not  be  enough.'  Jerome  says:  'This  answer 
they  make  not  from  avarice,  but  from  fear. 
For  each  individual  soul  will  receive  the  reward 
for  his  own  deeds,  nor  in  the  day  of  judgment 
can  the  virtues  of  one  make  amends  for  the 
vices  of  another.'  To  them  that  sell]  Clearly 
the  bridegroom,  though  on  the  point  of 
coming,  had  not  yet  come.  If  this  detail  is 
to  be  pressed,  '  they  that  sell '  are  the  teachers 
and  ministers  of  the  Church  (Origen).  10.  And 
the  door  was  shut]  viz.  the  door  of  heaven. 

12.  I  know  you  not]  i.e.  because  in  the  true 
sense  you  have  never  known  Me  :  cp.  JnlO^^. 

14-30.  Parable  of  the  Talents  (distinct 
from,  though  similar  to,  that  of  the  Pounds, 
Lk  19 11-27,  q.v.).  The  parable  is  intended  for 
all  Christians,  warning  even  those  of  the 
meanest  ability  to  use  to  the  best  advantage 
the  talents  with  which  God  has  entrusted 
them,  if  they  would  share  in  the  future  king- 
dom of  Christ.  It  suitably  follows  and 
supplements  the  parable  of  the  virgins  ;  for 
whereas  that  represented  Christ's  servants  as 
wait'uig  for  Him,  this  represents  them  as 
working  for  Him  ;  and  whereas  that  laid 
stress  on  their  inward  spiritual  life,  this  lays 
stress  on  the  outward  activities  in  which  the 
spiritual  life  shows  itself.  It  differs  from  the 
parable  of  the  pounds  in  being  addressed  to 
the  disciples  alone,  in  its  simpler  structure, 
and  in  its  not  inculcating  the  doctrine  of 
diversities  of  rewards  in  the  world  to  come. 
'  This  parable  shines  clearest  in  the  light  of 
the  circumstances.  Jesus  and  His  disciples 
are  still  on  Olivet  overlooking  Jerusalem  and 
the  temple  in  all  their  glory.  Jesus  had  fore- 
told their  destruction.  What  was  the  cause 
of  that  ruin  ?  Because  the  nation  had  buried 
the  talent  God  had  entrusted  to  them,  instead 
of  using  it  for  Him.' 

14.  A  man]  i.e.  Jesus  Christ.  Travelling 
into  a  far  country]  viz.  when  He  ascended  into 
heaven.  An  ancient  writer  beautifully  says  : 
'  He  calls  His  going  to  the  Father  a  journey 


into  a  far  country  out  of  love  to  the  saints 
whom  He  left  on  the  earth,  for  He  was  more 
truly  in  a  far  country  when  He  was  on  earth.' 
Theophylact  says  :  '  He  is  said  to  go  into  a  f  ar 
country,  because  He  is  long-suffering,  and  does 
not  immediately  demand  the  fruit  of  men's 
works,  but  waits.'  His  O'wn  servants]  lit. 
'  slaves.'  In  ancient  times  slaves  practised 
trades  and  professions,  kept  shops,  carried  on 
businesses,  paying  the  whole,  or  a  certain  per- 
centage, of  their  profits  to  their  masters. 

15.  Talents]  see  on  1824.  '  It  seems  better 
to  explain  the  five  (talents)  more  extensively 
of  all  the  gifts  of  God,  whether  called  those 
of  nature,  or  of  grace,  of  condition,  or  oppor- 
tunities, or  sacraments.  One  receives  five 
talents  and  another  two  ;  one  has  a  deeper 
insight  into  God's  word,  or  has  constitution- 
ally a  more  kind  or  liberal  disposition  than 
another,  or  is  trained  up  with  more  abundant 
means  of  grace,  and  with  opportunities  of 
tiirning  the  same  to  good  account,  or  with  a 
higher  station  in  God's  Church  than  another ' 
(Isaac  Williams). 

According  to  his  several  ability]  God  gives 
men  spiritual  gifts  according  to  their  natural 
capacities  ;  e.g.  a  man  with  a  natural  gift  of 
eloquence  becomes  by  God's  grace  a  good 
preacher  ;  a  man  of  natural  piety,  a  spiritual 
guide  ;  a  wealthy  man,  a  philanthropist  ;  a  pro- 
found philosopher,  a  theologian ;  a  man  of 
high  social  position,  a  powerful  influence  by 
virtue  of  his  example,  etc. 

16.  Traded]  Christians  are  said  to  trade 
with  their  talents,  when  they  employ  them  to 
the  profit  of  their  own  souls  and  the  benefit 
of  others.  Other  five  talents]  The  talents  made 
in  trade  are  the  good  which  Christians  do  to 
themselves  and  others  by  the  due  use  of  the 
talents  with  which  God  has  entrusted  them. 
The  talents  gained  by  the  apostles  were  human 
souls  converted  by  them.  18.  Digged  in  the 
earth]  The  man  who  hides  his  talent,  is  he 
who  neither  employs  his  abilities  for  his  own 
spiritual  advantage,  nor  for  that  of  others. 

19.  After  a  long  time]  Another  hint  that 
the  Advent  may  be  delayed.  Reckoneth  with 
them]  viz.  at  the  Judgment. 

21.  Well  done]  In  this  parable  the  servants 
having  been  equally  faithful  and  diligent, 
receive,  despite  the  difference  of  the  talents 
entrusted  to  them,  an  equal  reward.  It  is 
different  in  the  parable  of  the  pounds,  where 
the  servants,  having  shown  different  degrees  of 
diligence,  receive  different  rewards.  The  les- 
son of  both  parables  is  that  not  ability  but 
faithful  diligence  is  rewarded.  Over  many 
things]  'Here  again,  as  in  24^7,  we  have  a 
glimpse  given  us  into  the  future  that  lies  be- 
hind the  veil.  We  see  that  the  reward  of 
faithful  work  lies,  not  in  rest  only,  but  in  en- 
larged activity.     The  world  to  come  is  thus 


706 


25.  24 


ST.  MATTHEW 


25.  41 


connected  by  a  law  of  continuity  with  that  in 
which  we  live  ;  and  those  who  have  so  used 
their  "  talents  "  as  to  turn  many  to  righteous- 
ness, may  find  new  spheres  of  action,  beyond 
all  our  dreams,  in  that  world  in  which  the  ties 
of  brotherhood  that  have  been  formed  on  earth, 
are  not  extinguished,  but,  so  we  may  rever- 
ently believe,  multiplied  and  strengthened ' 
(Plumptre).  The  joy]  viz.  of  eternal  blessed- 
ness (v.  34). 

24.  The  one  talent]  '  Very  instructive  is 
the  fact  that  it  is  the  recipient  of  the  one 
talent  who  proves  the  defaulter  here.  Hence- 
forward none  may  excuse  his  sloth  on  a  plea 
like  this.  So  little  is  committed  to  my  charge 
that  it  cannot  matter  how  I  administer  that 
little.  It  is  so  little  I  can  do  for  Grod,  what 
signifies  that  little  whether  it  be  done  or  left 
undone  ?  '  (Trench).  I  knew  thee  that  thou 
art  an  hard  man]  '  The  churl  accounted  his 
lord  churlish,  esteeming  him  such  a  one  as 
himself.  He  did  not  believe  in  his  lord's  for- 
giving love,  and  in  his  gracious  acceptance  of 
that  work  with  all  its  shortcomings,  which 
was  done  for  him  out  of  a  true  heart,  and  with 
a  sincere  desire  to  please  him  '  (Trench). 

27.  To  the  exchangers]  R  V  '  bankers.'  '  We 
cannot  regard  these  words  as  a  perfectly  idle 
sentence,  for  they  furnish  an  appropriate 
thought.  These  timid  natures  who  are  not 
adapted  for  independent  laboiu-  on  behalf  of 
the  kingdom  of  God,  are  now  advised  at  least 
to  associate  themselves  with  persons  of  greater 
strength,  under  whose  guidance  they  may  apply 
their  gifts  to  the  service  of  the  Church  ' 
(Olshausen).      With  usury]  i.e.  '  with  interest.' 

29.  For  unto  every  one]  see  13^2  it  is  a 
law  of  the  natural  as  well  as  of  the  spiritual 
world,  that  the  disuse  of  a  faculty  finally  leads 
to  its  complete  loss,  whereas  the  due  use  of  it 
leads  to  its  development  and  increase. 

30.  Weeping]  RV  '  the  weeping.'  The 
penalty  is  not  merely  exclusion,  as  in  the  case 
of  the  foolish  virgins,  but  punishment,  in 
addition. 

31-46.  The  last  judgment  described  (peculiar 
to  St.  Matthew).  Christ  here  speaks  of  the 
judgment  of  Christians  alone,  because  that 
was  the  question  which  most  concerned  the 
Apostles  and  their  future  converts.  That  the 
persons  to  be  judged  are  described  in  v.  32  as 
'  all  the  nations,'  is  in  no  way  inconsistent  with 
this.  Jesus  foresaw,  and  frequently  prophesied, 
that  His  religion  would  become  universal  (8  n, 
etc.),  and  therefore  appropriately  described 
the  Christians  who  at  the  Last  Day  will  rise  to 
be  judged,  as  all  the  nations  of  the  earth. 
A  common  interpretation,  however,  is  that  the 
judgment  of  all  mankind  is  meant.  Against 
this  is  to  be  set  not  so  much  the  title  '  Lord,' 
which  even  His  enemies  will  then  give  to 
Chi'ist,  as  the  statement  that  all  the  persons 


judged  had  regarded  Christ  as  their  Master 
during  their  lifetime,  and  had  recognised  the 
duty  of  serving  Him. 

32.  All  the  nations]   see  above. 

Sheep  .  .  goats  (or,  '  kids  ')]  The  sheep  are 
the  righteous  ;  the  goats,  from  their  com- 
parative worthlessness,  the  wicked. 

33.  His  right  hand  .  .  the  left]  These  ex- 
pressions have  the  same  significance  in  most 
languages.  In  Plato's  '  Republic '  Er  the 
Pamphylian  is  allowed  to  see  the  judgment 
after  death  executed  by  the  judges  of  the 
underworld.  The  judges  sit  between  two 
gaps,  one  leading  to  heaven,  the  other  to  hell. 
'  After  passing  sentence,  the  judges  commanded 
the  just  to  take  the  road  to  the  right  upwards 
through  the  heaven,  and  fastened  in  front  of 
them  some  symbol  of  the  judgment  which  had 
been  given  ;  while  the  unjust  were  ordered  to 
take  the  road  downward  to  the  left,  and  also 
carried  behind  them  evidence  of  all  their 
evil  deeds.'  Similarly  the  rabbis  said,  '  Those 
on  the  right  hand  are  the  just,  who  study  the 
Law,  which  is  at  the  right  hand  of  God 
(Dt  33  2) ;  those  on  the  left  are  the  wicked, 
who  study  riches  (Prov  31*^).'  'In  those  on 
the  right  hand  righteousness,  in  those  on  the 
left  hand  guilt,  preponderates.' 

34.  The  King]  i.e.  Christ  Himself,  appear- 
ing in  the  glory  of  His  kingdom  :  cp.  Rev  19 16. 

Inherit]   i.e.  receive  by  right  of   sonship. 

35.  For  I  was  an  hungered,  and  ye  gave  me 
meat]  Faith  in  Christ  being  presumed  (for 
the  persons  judged  are  professing  Christians), 
the  Judgment  proceeds  according  to  works,  by 
which  a  living  is  distinguished  from  a  dead 
faith  ( Jas  2 1^-26).  The  absolute  Lordship  of 
Christ  over  the  human  race  is  expressed  in  a 
very  simple  yet  most  emphatic  way  when  it  is 
said  that  every  good  deed  done  to  a  fellow- 
creature  is  a  good  deed  done  to  Christ,  and 
that  at  the  Last  Day  all  men  will  be  judged 
according  to  their  attitude  to  Him. 

The  rabbis  also  have  some  great  sayings 
on  charity  that  deserve  to  be  remembered. 
'  Whoever  exercises  hospitality  willingly,  to 
him  belongs  Paradise.'  '  To  entertain  a 
traveller  is  a  greater  thing  than  to  receive  a 
manifestation  of  the  Divine  Majesty.'  'Who- 
ever gives  a  crust  to  a  just  person,  is  as  if  he 
had  observed  the  five  books  of  the  Law.' 
'Whoever  visits  the  sick,  shall  be  free  from 
the  judgment  of  Gehenna.'  '  Imitate  the 
deeds  of  God.  God  clothes  the  naked  (Gn 
3  21)  ;  do  thou  also  clothe  the  naked.  God 
visits  the  sick  (Gn  18 1),  do  thou  also  visit  the 
sick.  He  consoles  mourners  (Gn  25  H),  do 
thou  also  console  moui'ners.' 

41.  Ye  cursed]  but  not  of  My  Father.  Ye 
are  the  authors  of  your  own  ruin.  Prepared] 
not  for  men,  but  for  the  devil  and  his 
angels. 


707 


25.  46 


ST.  MATTHEW 


26.  14 


46.  Everlasting]  R  V '  eternal,'  as  also  in  v.  4 1 . 
'  Woe  to  all  sinners,  and  especially  to  those 
who  have  no  pity.  It  is  the  man  who  had  no 
pity  who  is  banished  to  the  fire,  for  instead  of 
love  he  put  in  his  heart  hatred.  This  is  the 
sum  of  all  vices,  and  its  chief  manifestation 
is  inhumanity '  (Euthymius). 

In  the  view  of  the  present  writer,  the  eternity 
of  future  punishment,  as  of  future  reward,  is 
a  necessary  deduction  from  the  doctrine  of 
the  immortality  of  the  soul,  and  is  expressly 
affirmed  in  this  passage.  The  nature  of  it 
seems  by  no  means  so  certain.  Probably  an 
essential  part  of  it  will  be  the  loss  of  free- 
will, the  abuse  of  this  faculty  being  punished 
by  its  loss.  Future  punishment  will  in  any 
case  exhibit  God's  mercy  and  benevolence,  as 
well  as  His  justice. 

CHAPTER  26 

The  Betray.il.     The  Last  Supper.     Ar- 
rest OF  Jesus,  and  Trial  before  the 
High  Priest 
1-5.  A  Council  is  held  against  Jesus  (Mk 

141  Lk22i:  cp.  Jnl.3i). 

2.  After  two  days]  This  fixes  the  date  as 
Tuesday,  if  the  Passover  was  on  Thursday 
night  ;  or  Wednesday,  if,  as  is  more  probable, 
it  was  on  Friday  night.  Is  betrayed]  This 
clear  prediction  is  peculiar  to  St.  Matthew. 

3.  And  the  scribes]  RV  omits.  The  palace] 
RV  '  the  court,'  i.e.  the  central  quadi-angle, 
the  house  being  built  round  a  square  plot  of 
gi-ound,  like  a  college.  From  the  place  of 
meeting  it  may  be  inferred,  but  not  with  cer- 
tainty, that  this  was  not  a  formal  meeting  of 
the  Sanhedrin.  Caiaphas]  in  full,  Joseph 
Caiaphas,  son-in-law  to  Annas,  was  appointed 
high  priest  by  the  Roman  procurator  "Vale- 
rius Gratus  (Pilate's  predecessor),  and  there- 
fore before  26  a.d.  He  was  deposed  by 
Vitellius  37  a.d.  5.  Not  on  the  feast  da;/] 
RV  'Not  during  the  feast.'  This  strongly 
favours  the  view  that  the  Jewish  Passover 
that  year  took  place  on  Friday  night.  If  the 
Passover  took  place  on  Thursday  night,  as 
many  maintain,  Jesus  was  crucified  on  the 
feast  day  itself,  which  extended  from  the 
Passover  evening  till  sunset  the  next  day. 

6-13.  Jesus  is  anointed  in  the  House  of 
Simon  the  Leper  (Mk  14 3  Jnl2i:  see  further 
on  Jn).  This  incident  seems  in  St.  Matthew 
and  St.  Mark  to  take  place  on  Tuesday  or 
Wednesday  evening,  but  the  true  chronology 
is  probably  given  by  St.  John,  who  places  it 
six  days  before  the  Passover.  It  is  inserted 
here  probably  from  the  light  it  throws  upon 
the  character  of  Judas  (see  St.  John's  narra- 
tive), whose  treachery  immediately  follows  in 
the  synoptists.  For  a  similar,  but  quite  dis- 
tinct incident,  see  LkT^s. 

Some  authorities  (but  without  good  reason) 


distinguish  between  this  anointing  and  that  of 
Jnl2i,  making  altogether  three  anointings. 

6.  Simon  the  leper]  His  leprosy  must  have 
been  healed,  or  he  could  not  have  entertained 
guests.  The  incurable  character  of  leprosy 
renders  it  a  sure  conjecture  that  he  owed  his 
healing  to  Jesus.  It  is  probably  no  more  than 
a  coincidence,  yet  it  is  a  very  singular  one, 
that  in  the  very  similar  incident  in  Lk73<5^  the 
name  of  the  host  is  also  Simon.  This  Simon 
was  probably  a  near  relation  of  the  family  of 
Lazarus. 

7.  A  woman]  i.e.  Mary,  sister  of  Lazarus 
(Jn).  A  quite  untrustworthy  but  widely- 
spread  tradition  identifies  her  with  the  'sinner' 
of  Lk737^  "v^ho  is  (also  without  any  sufficient 
reason)  often  identified  with  Mary  Magdalene. 

Alabaster  box  .  .  poured  it  on  his  head]  see 
on  Lk73".3s  His  head]  St.  John  says  'his 
feet.'  Anointing  was  customary  both  in  Jew- 
ish and  Gentile  feasts.  The  Talmud  says, 
'  The  school  of  Shammai  saith.  He  holds  sweet 
oil  in  his  right  hand  and  a  cup  of  wine  in  his 
left.  He  says  grace  first  over  the  oil,  and 
then  over  the  wine.  He  blesseth  the  sweet 
oil  and  anoints  the  head  of  him  that  serves.' 
Here,  however,  it  is  one  who  sits  at  meat  who 
is  anointed. 

8.  His  disciples]  St.  John  mentions  espe- 
cially Judas.  9.  For  much]  for  300  denarii 
(Mk,  Jn).  II.  Ye  have  the  poor]  cp.  Dtl5ii 
Mkl4".  12.  My  burial]  Another  prediction 
of  His  death,  followed  in  the  next  v.  by  a  re- 
markable prophecy  of  the  universal  extension 
of  His  religion. 

14-16.  Judas  betrays  Jesus  (Mkl4io  Lk 
223).  The  exact  date  cannot  be  fixed.  It  may 
have  been  as  early  as  Sunday  night,  or  Mon- 
day, y.  16  implies  a  considerable  interval 
between  the  betrayal  and  the  arrest.  The 
paltry  sum  for  which  Jesus  was  betrayed  (the 
price  of  a  slave,  Ex  21 3^)  has  raised  the  ques- 
tion whether  avarice  was  really  the  main  mo- 
tive of  Judas.  There  have  even  been  attempts 
to  place  his  conduct  in  a  favourable  light,  as 
if  his  desire  was  to  bring  about  a  rising  of  the 
people  at  the  time  of  the  feast,  and  so  to  con- 
strain '  the  dilatory  Messiah  to  establish  His 
kingdom  by  means  of  popular  violence  ' 
(Paulus),  or  by  the  exercise  of  His  super- 
natural power.  This  is  possible,  but  not  prob- 
able. Judas  was  thoroughly  alienated  from 
Jesus.  He  found  his  Master's  ideals  diverging 
more  and  more  widely  fi'om  his  own.  Instead 
of  an  earthly  kingdom,  in  which  Judas  hoped  to 
hold  a  lucrative  position,  Christ  seemed  to  be 
aiming  at  an  impracticable  ideal,  which  might, 
perhaps,  be  very  beautiful,  but  which  certainly 
did  not  seem  to  be  a  practical  way  of  making 
money.  He  had  already  embezzled  money 
from  the  common  purse,  and  he  could  not  be 
ignorant  that  he  was  suspected  and  disliked  by 


708 


26.  15 


ST.  MATTHEW 


26.  24 


his  colleagues,  and  that  his  true  character  had 
long  been  discerned  by  his  Master.  His  former 
love  and  trust  were  now  turned  to  hatred  and 
contempt,  and  in  a  frenzy  of  disappointed 
ambition  he  betrayed  Jesus.  Yet,  when  the 
fatal  deed  was  done,  there  came  a  revulsion  of 
feeling,  and  he  would  fain  have  undone  it. 

15.  They  covenanted  with  him]  RV  '  they 
weighed  unto  him,'  in  accordance  with  ancient 
custom  (Gn  23 1*^),  but  money  was  probably  at 
this  period  always  coin,  not  bullion. 

1 7-30.  The  Last  Supper  (Mk  1 4 12  Lk  22  7  Jn 
13 1).  For  the  order  of  events  see  on  Jn, 
and  intro.  to  c.  21.  The  question  whether  the 
Last  Supper  was  the  Jewish  Passover  or  not, 
is  discussed  in  a  note  on  JnlS^s,  where  it  is 
argued  that  Jesus,  knowing  that  He  would  be 
crucified  on  Friday,  celebrated  the  Passover  on 
Thursday  evening,  a  day  before  the  legal  time. 
That  the  Jewish  Passover  did  not  take  place 
till  Friday  evening  (after  the  crucifixion)  is 
abundantly  plain  from  the  Fourth  Gospel  (see 
especially  JnlS-S),  and  even  in  the  Synoptic 
Gospels,  which  at  first  sight  give  an  opposite 
impression,  there  are  sufficiently  clear  indica- 
tions that  this  was  the  case.  The  chief  are, 
(1)  The  purpose  of  the  priests  not  to  take 
and  execute  Jesus  during  the  festival,  lest  a 
tumult  should  arise  (205  RY).  (2)  It  was 
contrary  to  custom  to  hold  trials  and  execute 
criminals  on  the  first  and  holiest  day  of  the 
feast,  which  was  kept  as  a  sabbath.  (3)  The 
feast  day  would  not  be  called  simply  '  Prepara- 
tion,' i.e.  Friday.  (4)  The  officers  and  the 
disciples  would  not  have  carried  arms  on  the 
feast  day.  (5)  Joseph  of  Arimathea  would 
not  have  bought  a  linen  cloth,  or  the  women 
have  prepared  spices  on  that  day  (MklS***^ 
Lk235'i). 

17.  The  first  daji  of .  .  unleavened  bread]  A.s, 
according  to  St.  Mark  and  St.  Luke,  this  was 
the  day  on  which  the  Passover  lambs  were 
slaughtered,  it  must  mean  the  day  before  the 
Passover  (Jewish  reckoning),  i.e.  from  sunset 
on  Thursday  to  sunset  on  Friday.  The  last 
supper  was  held  on  Thursday  evening,  and  the 
lambs  were  killed  at  3  p.m.  on  Friday,  but  that 
would  be  on  the  same  day,  according  to 
Jewish  ideas. 

In  strict  usage  '  the  first  day  of  unleavened 
bread '  meant  the  fii'st  day  of  the  Passover 
festival,  which  began  with  the  paschal  supper. 
But  it  is  possible  that  the  day  before  this,  when 
the  paschal  lambs  were  sacrificed,  and  all  leaven 
was  expelled  from  the  houses,  was  popularh/ 
spoken  of  as  '  the  first  day  of  unleavened 
bread.' 

The  disciples  came  to  Jesus]  at  or  after  sun- 
set on  Thursday,  and  within  an  hour  or  two 
the  necessary  preparations  for  the  supper  were 
complete.  Where  wilt  thou  that  we  prepare] 
'  For  they  might  anywhere  ;  since  the  houses 


at  Jerusalem  were  not  to  be  hired,  but  during 
the  time  of  the  feast,  they  were  of  common 
right '  (J.  Lightfoot).  The  rabbis  say,  '  It 
is  a  tradition  that  houses  were  not  let  for 
hire  at  Jerusalem,  because  they  were  not  pri- 
vately owned,  nor  were  beds,  but  the  house- 
holder received  from  his  guests  as  a  recompense, 
the  skins  of  the  animals  sacrificed.'  To  eat  the 
Passover]  The  Last  Supper  is  here  called 
'  the  Passover,'  because  in  many  respects  it 
resembled  it.  It  is  not,  however,  certain  that 
there  was  a  lamb.  Jesus  Himself  was  the 
Lamb,  and,  as  He  intended  to  supersede  the 
type  by  the  reality,  it  was  not  absolutely 
necessary  for  the  type  to  be  present. 

The  paschal  lamb  was  slain  in  the  court  of 
the  Temple  on  the  afternoon  of  the  14th 
Nisan,  and  was  eaten  the  same  evening  after 
sunset,  when  the  15th  Nisan  had  already  be- 
gun :  see  Ex  1 2,  etc. 

18.  The  Master  saith]  It  is  clear  that  the 
man  was  a  disciple,  so  that  here  is  another 
synoptic  proof  of  a  previous  ministry  of  Jesus 
at  Jerusalem.  St.  Mark  and  St.  Luke  here  add 
additional  details  to  the  narrative,  implying  a 
miraculous  gift  of  foresight  on  our  Lord's 
part.  My  time  is  at  hand]  The  disciple  would 
doubtless  be  surprised  at  the  proposal  of 
Jesus  to  keep  the  Passover  a  day  before  the 
legal  time.  The  apostles  were  therefore  in- 
structed to  give  the  reason  :  '  My  time  is  at 
hand,'  i.e.  My  death  will  happen  before  the 
legal  time  of  the  Passover  arrives. 

20.  He  sat  down]  RY  '  He  was  sitting  at 
meat,'  or,  rather,  '  reclining.'  For  the  attitude 
at  table,  see  on  Jnl323.  The  Law  (Exl2ii) 
required  the  Passover  to  be  eaten  standing, 
but  this  was  no  longer  observed.  The  Talmud 
says,  '  It  is  the  custom  of  slaves  to  eat  stand- 
ing, but  now  let  them  eat  reclining,  that  it 
may  be  discerned  that  at  the  exodus  they 
went  out  from  slavery  into  freedom.' 

23.  He  that  dippeth]  RY  '  He  that  dipped  ' 
(Ps419).  St.  John  describes  this  incident  in 
much  fuller  detail. 

24.  It  had  been  good]  A  popular  expres- 
sion. The  rabbis  said,  '  Whoever  knows  the 
Law  and  does  it  not,  it  were  better  for  him 
never  to  have  been  born.'  '  If  a  man  does  not 
attend  to  the  honour  of  his  Creator,  it  were 
better  if  he  had  not  come  into  the  world.' 

The  justice  of  Judas's  punishment,  seeing 
that  the  betrayal  of  Jesus  was  predestined, 
has  been  much  discussed.  The  solution  pro- 
bably is  that  the  betrayal  by  Judas  was  not 
predestined.  It  was  morally  certain  that  in  a 
state  of  society  like  that  in  Palestine  in  our 
Lord's  time,  a  teacher  like  Jesus  would  be 
betrayed  by  some  one,  but  that  some  one  need 
not  have  been  Judas.  Judas  was  rightly 
punished  because  he  freely  took  the  evil 
business   upon    himself.      For   the   probable 


709 


26.  25 


ST.  MATTHEW 


26.  29 


reasons   why   Jesus   chose   Judas   to    be    an 
Apostle,  see  on  JnG"^. 

25.  Master]  RV  '  Rabbi.'  Thou  hast  said] 
i.e.  Yes :  a  rabbinical  idiom  never  found  in 
the  OT. 

After  V.  25  the  evangelist  probably  (though 
not  certainly)  intends  it  to  be  understood  that 
Judas  at  once  withdrew  (see  v.  47),  thus  agree- 
ing with  St.  John,  who  also  represents  the 
traitor  as  leaving  before  the  institution  of  the 
Holy  Sacrament.  In  St.  Luke  Judas  appears 
to  be  present  and  to  receive  the  Sacrament,  but 
that  is  probably  because  the  third  Gospel  does 
not  relate  the  events  in  order  :  see  on  Lk  and 
on  Jn  13  30. 

26-30.  Institution  of  the  Lord's  Supper  (Mk 
14  22  Lk  22 19  1  Cor  1 1  '^'^).  It  is  not  certain  how 
far  Jesus  at  the  Last  Supper  followed  the  cus- 
tomary Passover  ritual,  but  it  is  clear  that  He 
did  so  to  some  extent.  The  following  gives 
the  usual  order  of  proceedings,  omitting  a  few 
details  : 

(1)  The  first  cup  was  blessed  and  drunk.  (2) 
The  hands  were  washed  while  a  blessing  was 
said.  (3)  Bitter  hei'bs,  emblematic  of  the  so- 
journ in  Egypt,  were  partaken  of,  dipped  in 
sour  broth  made  of  vinegar  and  bruised  fruit. 
(4)  The  son  of  the  house  asked  his  father  to 
explain  the  origin  of  the  observance.  (5)  The 
lamb  and  the  flesh  of  the  thank  offerings 
(chagigah)  were  placed  on  the  table,  and  the 
first  part  of  the  Hallel  sung  (Pss  113,  114). 
(6)  The  second  cup  was  blessed  and  drunk.  (7) 
Unleavened  bread  was  blessed  and  broken,  a 
fragment  of  it  was  eaten,  then  a  fragment  of 
the  thank  offerings,  then  a  fragment  of  the 
lamb.  (8)  Preliminaries  being  thus  ended,  the 
feast  proceeded  at  leisure  till  all  was  consumed. 

(9)  The  lamb  being  quite  finished,  the  third 
cup,  the  cup  of  blessing,  was  blessed  and  drunk. 

(10)  The  fourth  cup  was  drunk,  and  meanwhile 
the  second  part  of  the  Hallel  (Pss  115-1 18)  was 
sung. 

Those  who  partook  of  the  Passover  were 
required  to  be  ceremonially  clean,  and  to  have 
been  fasting  from  the  time  of  the  evening 
sacrifice,  which  on  this  day  was  offered  early, 
about  1.30  P.M.  All  male  Israelites  above  the 
age  of  fourteen  were  required  to  partake  of  it. 

26.  As  they  were  eating,  Jesus  took  bread] 
This  may  correspond  with  No.  7,  but  it  seems 
more  probable  that  both  the  bread  and  the  wine 
were  consecrated  together  at  the  close  of  the 
meal,  the  bread  when  it  was  almost,  and  the 
cup  when  it  was  quite,  finished. 

The  Jewish  ritual  of  breaking  the  Passover 
bread  was  as  follows:  '  Then  washing  his  hands, 
and  taking  two  loaves,  he  breaks  one,  and  lays 
the  broken  loaf  upon  the  whole  one,  saying, 
"  Blessed  be  He  who  causeth  bread  to  grow  out 
of  the  earth."  Then,  putting  a  piece  of  bread 
and  some  bitter  herbs  together,  he  dips  them 


in  the  sour  broth,  saying  this  blessing :  "  Blessed 
be  Thou,  O  Lord  God,  our  eternal  King,  He 
who  hath  sanctified  us  by  His  precepts,  and 
commanded  us  to  eat."  Then  he  eats  the  un- 
leavened bread  and  bitter  herbs  together.'  But 
it  is  unlikely  that  Jesus,  who  was  founding  a 
new  rite,  followed  the  Jewish  ritual  in  every 
detail. 

This  is  my  body]  see  on  v.  30. 

27.  The  cup]  RV  '  a  cup.'  Since  it  was  taken 
after  supper  (St.  Luke  and  St.  Paul),  and  is 
expressly  called  by  the  latter  the  '  cup  of 
blessing'  (ICorlOi*^),  it  was  clearly  the  third 
cup  of  the  paschal  supper,  called  by  the  rabbis 
the  '  cup  of  blessing '  (No.  9).  The  ritual  was  as 
follows  :  (1)  It  was  washed  and  cleansed  ;  (2) 
the  wine  in  it  was  mingled  with  water,  and  it 
was  blessed  ;  (3)  it  was  crowned,  i.e.  the  wor- 
shippers stood  round  it  in  a  ring  ;  (4)  the 
householder  veiled  his  head  and  sat  down  ;  (5) 
he  drank  it,  holding  it  with  both  hands. 

That  the  cup  of  the  Christian  sacrament  was 
also  mingled  with  water,  was  indicated  by  Jesus 
Himself,  when  He  called  it  '  this  fruit  of  the 
vine.'  The  Talmud  says,  '  The  rabbis  have  a 
tradition.  Over  wine  which  hath  not  water 
mingled  with  it  they  do  not  say  the  blessing, 
"  Blessed  be  He  that  created  the  fruit  of  the 
vine,"  but,  "Blessed  be  He  that  created  the  fruit 
of  the  tree." '  And  it  is  added,  '  The  wise  agree 
with  Rabbi  Eleazar,  that  one  ought  not  to  bless 
over  the  cup  of  blessing  till  water  be  mingled 
with  it.' 

28.  My  blood  of  the  New  Testament]  RV 
'  my  blood  of  the  covenant.'  This  is  a  clear 
proof  that  Jesus  regarded  His  death  as  an 
atoning  sacrifice  for  the  sins  of  the  world,  and, 
therefore,  as  altering  the  relation  of  the  whole 
human  race  to  God.  As  Moses  had  once  made 
a  covenant  with  God  by  the  blood  of  victims 
sprinkled  on  the  people  (Ex  24  §),  so  now  Jesus 
by  His  own  blood  made  a  new  and  better 
covenant. 

Shed  for  many]  i.e.  probably  '  for  mankind,' 
stress  being  laid  on  their  multitude. 

29.  I  will  not  drink  henceforth,  etc.]  (Mk  14  25 
Lk22i^).  These  mysterious  and  beautiful 
words  are  a  well-known  '  crux '  of  interpreters. 
It  seems  clear,  however,  that  they  are  to  be 
taken  as  referring  to  the  whole  rite  of  the 
Lord's  Supper,  and  not  simply  to  the  '  fruit  of 
the  vine,'  or  cup.  This  is  evident  from  Lk22i6, 
'  I  will  not  any  more  eat  thereof '  (viz.  of  the 
Christian  Passover  or  Supper) '  until  it  be  ful- 
filled in  the  kingdom  of  God.'  Interpretations 
fall  into  two  main  classes,  according  as  '  the 
kingdom  of  God  '  ('  My  Father's  kingdom  ')  is 
understood  to  refer  to  the  period  after  the  Re- 
surrection, or  to  the  period  after  the  Judgment. 
According  to  the  first  interpretation,  the  sacred 
rite  which  Jesus  now  institutes,  and  which  He 
will  not  again  celebrate  until  He  has  triumphed 


710 


26.  30 


ST.  MATTHEW 


26.  30 


over  death  and  sat  down  a  conqueror  on  the 
throne  of  His  Father's  kingdom,  will,  after 
the  Ascension,  and  especially  after  the  descent 
of  the  Spirit,  be  to  the  disciples  a  new  thing. 
No  longer  will  the  shadow  of  disappointment 
and  seeming  failure  hang  over  their  meetings. 
The  sin  of  the  world  will  have  been  atoned 
for,  death  will  have  been  conquered,  the  Spirit 
will  have  been  given,  and  Jesus  will  be  present 
at  the  feast,  not,  as  now,  in  the  body  of  His 
humiliation,  but  in  the  power  of  His  risen  and 
glorious  life.  According  to  the  other  interpre- 
tation, the  Lord's  Supper  is  regarded  as  a  type 
and  prophecy  of  the  eternal  marriage  supper  of 
the  Lamb  (Rev  1 9  9).  These  two  views  do  not 
exclude  one  another.  The  title  '  this  fruit  of 
the  vine  '  which  Jesus  applies  to  the  sacred  cup 
even  after  consecration,  would  seem  to  exclude 
the  mediaeval  doctrine  of  Transubstantiation. 

30.  Sung  an  hymn]  i.e.  the  second  part  of 
the  Hallel  (Pss  115-118)  which  accompanied 
the  fourth  Passover-cup  :  see  No.  10  above. 

Additional  Notes  on   the  Last   Supper 

(a)  Its  theological  and  apologetic  importance. 

On  the  night  of  the  Last  Supper  the  fortunes 
of  Jesus  were  at  their  lowest  ebb.  There  was 
treason  in  His  own  camp.  The  triumph  of 
His  enemies  was  at  hand,  and  He  looked 
forward  with  certainty  on  the  morrow  to  the 
degrading  death  of  a  common  malefactor. 
Yet  He  chose  this  moment  to  ordain  a  rite  in 
which  His  death  should  be  commemorated  by 
His  followei's  to  the  end  of  time,  showing 
that  He  foresaw  His  resurrection  and  the 
future  triumph  of  His  cause.  Such  conduct 
under  such  circumstances  shows  a  strictly 
supernatural  gift  of  faith  and  insight.  More- 
over He  chose  this  moment  of  deepest  depres- 
sion and  seeming  failure,  for  the  most  studied 
declaration  of  His  true  Divinity.  For  what 
less  than  divine  can  He  be  said  to  be,  whose 
death  atones  for  the  sins  of  the  whole  world, 
and  reconciles  the  human  race  to  Grod  ?  And 
how  can  He  be  other  than  the  Author  of  Life 
Himself,  who  declares  that  His  Body  and 
Blood  are  the  spiritual  food  and  drink  of 
mankind  ?  If  all  the  records  of  Christianity 
had  perished,  and  only  the  rite  of  the  Holy 
Communion  remained,  it  would  still  remain 
certain  that  One  had  appeared  on  earth  who 
claimed  to  be  the  Divine  Saviour  of  the  world, 
and  whose  death  was  believed  to  have  been 
followed  by  a  glorious  Resurrection  and 
Ascension. 

{b)  The  doctrine  of  the  Lord's  Supper. 
Space  does  not  permit  us  to  give  an  adequate 
account  even  of  the  best-known  interpreta- 
tions of  our  Lord's  words  in  instituting  this 
holy  rite.  All  that  can  be  done  here  is  to 
indicate  a  few  leading  points  which  the  reader 
may  find  devotionally  helpful. 


(1)  Although  some  earnest  believers  have 
seen  in  the  Lord's  Supper  nothing  but  a  bare 
commemoration  of  the  Lord's  death,  yet  the 
gi-eat  majority  of  Christians  in  all  ages  have 
believed  that,  attached  to  devout  and  reverent 
participation  in  the  rite,  is  a  special  covenanted 
blessing,  which  cannot  (ordinarily  at  least)  be 
obtained  in  any  other  way,  and  which  is 
necessary  for  the  nourishment  and  growth 
of  the  spu-itual  life.  Such  a  view  seems 
clearly  to  underlie  the  statement  of  St.  Paul 
(1  Cor  10 16),  that  'the  cup  of  blessing  which 
we  bless '  is  to  the  faithful  communicant  '  the 
communion,'  i.e.  the  partaking  in  common  with 
others,  '  of  the  blood  of  Christ,'  and  '  the  bread 
which  we  break,'  '  the  communion  of  the  body 
of  Christ.' 

(2)  The  covenanted  blessing  is  generally 
conceived  as  a  special  realisation  of  the 
union  between  the  believer  and  his  Saviour,  as 
suggested  by  our  Lord's  own  allegory  of  the 
Vine  and  the  Branches  (Jnl5)  spoken  imme- 
diately after  the  institution,  and  by  that  of 
the  Bread  of  Life  (Jn6),  which  was  intended 
to  prepare  the  way  for  it.  It  is  specially 
true  at  the  Table  that  '  Clu-ist  dwells  in  our 
hearts  by  faith,'  '  we  are  one  with  Christ  and 
Christ  with  us,'  'we  dwell  in  him  and  he  in 
us,'  and  He  is  in  us  the  fountain  of  life, 
sanctification,  and  cleansing. 

(3)  The  primary  reference  of  the  rite  is  to 
the  death  of  Christ.  The  '  broken  body  '  and 
'shed  blood'  symbolise  the  atoning  death 
upon  the  cross.  It  is  implied  that  those  who 
with  faith  and  due  thankfulness  approach  the 
Table,  '  obtain  remission  of  their  sins,  and  all 
other  benefits  of  his  passion.' 

(4)  At  the  same  time  the  reference  is  not 
exclusively  to  Christ's  death.  He  does  not 
say  '  Do  this  in  remembrance  of  my  death,' 
but  '  Do  this  in  remembrance  of  me,'  i.e.  of  all 
that  I  am  to  Christians ; — of  My  incarnation, 
resurrection,  and  ascension,  as  well  as  of  My 
death.  To  the  early  Christians  the  rite  was 
very  largely  a  memorial  of  the  Resurrection, 
and  as  such  was  regularly  celebrated  on  the 
first  day  of  the  week  (Ac  20  7). 

(5)  Accordingly  in  the  Supper  it  is  with  the 
ascended  and  glorified  Lord  that  the  Christian 
holds  communion.  While  commemorating  the 
tragedy  of  Calvary  he  communes  with  Him 
who  '  is  alive  for  evermore,  and  has  the  keys 
of  hell  and  of  death  '  (Rev  1 18).  He  joins  in 
the  heavenly  worship  of  'the  Lamb  as  it 
had  been  slain,'  who,  in  recompense  for  His 
humiliation,  is  now  endowed  with  almighty 
power  (Rev  5*^^). 

(6)  There  is  some  difference  of  view  among 
believing  Christians  as  to  how  the  scriptural 
expressions,  eating  and  drinking  Christ's  flesh 
and  blood  (Jn653),  or  Christ's  body  and  blood 
(1  Cor  10 16),  are  to  be  understood.    Many  think 

711 


26.  31 


ST.  MATTHEW 


26.  44 


that  Christ  is  present  in  the  ordinance  only 
according  to  His  divine  nature,  and  that  He 
communicates  to  believers  not  His  actual  body 
and  blood,  but  only  the  benefits  which  the 
offering  of  these  upon  the  Cross  procured  for 
mankind.  Others,  however,  interpreting  our 
Lord's  mysterious  words  in  a  more  literal 
sense,  are  of  opinion  that  Christ  is  present 
in  the  ordinance  not  only  in  His  Deity,  but 
also  in  His  glorified  humanity,  and  that  in 
some  spiritual  and  ineffable,  but  still  most  real 
manner.  He  imparts  to  believers  not  only  His 
Godhead,  but  also  His  Manhood,  making 
them  partakers,  not  in  figure  only,  but  verily 
and  indeed,  of  His  sacred  body  and  blood. 
We  are  here  in  the  presence  of  very  deep 
mysteries,  of  which  we  should  speak  with  awe 
and  reverence,  remembering  how  very  limited 
our  faculties  are. 

(7)  The  Supper  is  a  memorial  rite,  '  this  do 
in  re  membra  lice  of  me,'  more  literally,  '  as  my 
memorial'  (Lk22i9  1  Cor  11 24).  Some  have 
regarded  it  as  a  memorial  before  man  only, 
but  the  prevailing  opinion  among  Clu'istians  is 
that  it  is  a  memorial  also  before  God,  a  pleading 
before  the  Father  of  the  merits  of  the  precious 
death  of  His  Son.  The  word  used  {anamnesis) 
is  a  rare  one,  and  in  biblical  Greek  means 
uniformly  a  memorial  before  God,  both  in  the 
OT.  (see  e.g.  Lv247  LXX),  and  in  the  NT. 
(HeblO^).  There  is  good  reason,  therefore, 
for  thinking  that  this  may  be  the  meaning 
here. 

Note.  At  this  point  must  be  inserted 
Jnl4-17. 

31-35.  Jesus  predicts  His  Death,  the  scatter- 
ing of  the  disciples,  the  fall  of  Peter,  and  His 
own  Resurrection  (Mkl427  Lk223i  Jnl33S). 

31.  I  will  smite]  freely  adapted  from  Zech 
13",  a  strictly  Messianic  passage.  The  quota- 
tion is  intended  to  alleviate  the  scandal  of  the 
disciples'  conduct,  by  showing  that  it  was  fore- 
told. 33.  Peter  answered]  '  He  ought  rather 
to  have  besought  Christ,  and  begged  for  aid 
(against  the  coming  temptation).  But  he 
sinned  in  three  ways  at  once  :  (1)  in  contradict- 
ing the  Prophet  and  the  Christ,  (2)  in  placing 
himself  above  the  rest,  (3)  in  trusting  in  him- 
self alone,  and  not  in  the  help  of  God.  Where- 
fore also  he  was  permitted  to  fall,  that  he 
might  be  humblecl,  and  might  learn  not  to 
trust  too  much  in  himself,  and  that  others  also 
might  leam  the  same.  Also  he  was  allowed 
to  fall  that  he  might  learn  to  love  more.  For 
he  to  whom  more  is  forgiven,  loves  more  ' 
(Euthymius).  34.  Before  the  cock  crow]  i.e. 
before  ths  day  begins  to  dawn.  There  is 
practically  no  difference  of  meaning  between 
this  and  '  before  the  cock  crow  twice '  (Mk), 
for  when  the  cock  once  begins  to  crow  in  the 
morning,  he  does  so  at  frequent  intervals. 
The  rabbis  say,  '  They  do  not  keep  cocks  at 


Jerusalem  on  account  of  the  holy  things 
(which  they  might  pollute)  ;  nor  do  the  priests 
keep  them  throughout  all  the  land  of  Israel.' 
But  this  law  was  clearly  not  enfored. 

36-46.  The  Agony  in  the  Garden  (MkH^a 
Lk22'4'J).  The  peculiar  intensity  of  Christ's 
agony  at  Gethsemane  presents  a  ditficult  pro- 
blem, rt  cannot  have  been  due  to  fear  of 
death,  for  He  came  to  Jerusalem  expressly  to 
die,  and  never  faltered  in  His  resolve,  nor  is  the 
foreseen  flight  of  the  disciples,  the  treachery 
of  Judas,  the  denial  of  Peter,  and  the  sin  of 
the  Jewish  nation  in  rejecting  and  crucifying 
Him,  sufficient  to  account  for  it.  Perhaps  the 
explanation  is  to  be  found  in  the  mystery  of 
the  Atonement.  He  was  to  bear  the  sins  of 
the  whole  world,  and  the  thought  of  that 
awful  burden  oppressed  Him.  '  The  Lord  felt 
the  bitterness  of  death,  He  tasted  it  as  the 
wages  of  sin  ;  and  this  alone  is  the  bitterness 
of  death — not  His  own,  but  so  much  the  pro- 
founder  and  keener  as  the  sin  of  the  whole 
world'  (Dale). 

The  best  commentary  on  Gethsemane  is 
HebS'''.  Important  additional  details  are 
found  in  St.  Luke's  Gospel  (Western  text). 

36.  Gethsemane]  lit.  '  oil-press.'  On  the 
W.  slope  of  Olivet,  near  the  foot.  '  It  is 
now  '  (says  Sir  C.  W.  Wilson)  '  a  small  enclo- 
sure surrounded  by  a  high  wall.  The  ground 
is  laid  out  in  flower-beds,  which  are  carefully 
tended  by  a  Franciscan  monk  ;  but  the  most 
interesting  objects  are  the  venerable  olive- 
trees,  which  are  said  to  date  from  the  time  of 
Christ,  and  which  may  in  truth  be  direct 
descendants  of  trees  which  grew  in  the  same 
place  at  the  time  of  the  crucifixion.'  The 
gardens  of  Jerusalem  were  outside  the  city, 
because  it  was  forbidden  to  plant  a  garden 
within  the  walls. 

37.  Peter,  etc.]  In  this  hour  of  agony  He 
clung  to  the  companionship  of  His  closest 
friends,  to  whom  also,  as  spectators  of  the 
glory  of  the  Transfiguration,  His  present 
humiliation  would  be  less  of  a  stumbling- 
block.  And  very  heavy]  RY  '  and  sore 
troubled.' 

39.  Let  this  cup]  i.e.  not  merely  His  death, 
but  all  that  was  implied  in  bearing  the  sins  of 
the  world  in  His  own  body  on  the  tree  :  cp. 
2022.  The  prayer,  'Let  this  cup  pass,'  was 
not  sinful,  because  it  was  accompanied  by  the 
resolution  to  submit  to  the  divine  will,  what- 
ever it  was.  Not  as  I  will]  As  Christ  was 
God  and  man,  there  were  in  Him  two  wills, 
a  human  will  and  a  divine  will,  and  the  former 
did  not  always  conform  itself  to  the  latter 
without  an  inward  struggle  :  cp.  JnS^*^  6^8. 

40,  Asleep]  '  You  promised  to  die  with  me, 
and  could  you  not  watch  with  me  one  hour  ? ' 
(Euthymius).  41.  Temptation]  i.e.  the  tempta- 
tion to  forsake  and  deny   Christ.     44.    The 

712 


26.  45 


ST.  MATTHEW 


26.  57 


third  time]  not  a  '  vain  repetition,'  but  a 
repetition  of  intense  earnestness.  In  great 
agony  men  do  not  frame  many  words,  but  say 
the  same  words  many  times.  45.  Sleep  on 
now]  spoken  with  reproachful  irony,  '  You 
have  slept  through  My  agony.  Sleep  also 
through  My  betrayal  and  capture.'  46.  Let 
us  be  going]  i.e.  not  to  escape,  but  to  meet 
the  betraj^er. 

47-56.  Jesus  is  taken  (Mkl4^3  Lk2247  jn 
18'^)  :  see  further  on  Jn. 

47.  From  the  chief  priests]  These  were  the 
Temple  guard  of  Levites,  sent  by  the  Sanhedrin. 
St.  John  mentions  that  Roman  soldiers  were 
also  present.  48.  Kiss]  '  It  was  not  unusual 
for  a  master  to  kiss  his  disciple  ;  but  for  a 
disciple  to  kiss  his  master  was  more  rare  '  (J. 
Lightfoot). 

49.  Hail,  master]   IIY  '  Hail,  Rabbi.' 
Kissed]     a    dilferent    word  :     '  Kissed    and 

embraced  him  effusively.'  Jesus  received  the 
kiss,  (1)  to  soften  the  heart  of  Judas  by  His 
gentleness,  if  that  were  possible  ;  (2)  in  the 
words  of  St.  Hilary,  '  to  teach  us  to  love  our 
enemies,  and  those  whom  we  know  to  be 
bitter  against  us.' 

50.  Friend,  wherefore  art  thou  come  ?]  RV 
'  Friend,  do  that  for  which  thou  art  come.' 
Lk  adds, '  Betrayest  thou  the  Son  of  man  with 
a  kiss  ?  '  Here  follows  in  St.  John  a  dialogue 
between  Jesus  and  those  who  came  to  seize 
Him  ;  after  which  they  all  fell  to  the  ground. 

51.  One  of  them]  The  synoptic  tradition 
suppresses  the  name,  probably  to  ensure  the 
safety  of  Peter.  St.  John  alone  mentions 
that  it  was  Peter,  with  whose  character  the 
act  fully  accords.     His  sword]   see  Lk223S. 

A  servant]  RV  '  the  servant '  ('  slave  '). 
His  name  was  Malchus  (Jn).  St.  Luke  alone 
mentions  that  Christ  healed  him. 

52.  All  they  that  take  the  sword,  etc.]  cp. 
Rev  1310.  This  incident  is  a  practical  com- 
mentary on  the  third  Beatitude  (5^).  It 
discourages  resort  to  violence  on  the  part  of 
Christ's  followers,  and  recommends  instead 
the  meek  endurance  of  injuries.  Peace,  not 
war,  is  their  mission.  Another  interpreta- 
tion has  been  given,  '  All  they  that  take  the 
sword,'  i.e.  rashly  and  on  their  own  authority, 
'  shall  perish  by  the  sword,'  i.e.  are  worthy  to 
perish  by  the  sword,  i.e.  the  sword  of  the 
magistrate.  So  that  Christ  here  renews  the 
precept  given  to  Noah, '  Whoso  sheddeth  man's 
blood,  by  man  shall  his  blood  be  shed '  (Gn  9  6). 

55.  I  sat  daily]  This  cannot  merely  refer 
to  the  two,  or  at  most  thi-ee  days'  ministry 
during  Holy  Week,  but  indicates  a  more 
extended  ministry  at  Jerusalem  at  an  earlier 
period,  as  the  Fourth  Gospel  relates. 

57-68.  Trial  before  Caiaphas  (Mkl453  Lk 
2254).  The  synoptists  omit  the  preliminary 
examination  before  Annas  recorded   by   Jn, 


713 


because  it  led  to  nothing.  St.  John  omits  the 
trial  before  Caiaphas,  because  it  had  already 
been  recorded.  From  St.  Matthew  and  St. 
Mark  it  might  be  thought  that  the  trial  took 
place  immediately  after  the  ai-rest,  but  St. 
Luke,  whose  narrative  is  here  independent, 
makes  it  clear  that  there  was  a  considerable 
interval,  during  which  the  rest  of  the  members 
of  the  Sanhedi-in  were  summoned.  The  chief 
enemies  of  Jesus  had  not  gone  to  bed,  and 
were  already  assembled.  It  was  necessary  to 
wait  for  the  morning  (Lk22'5'J),  because  it  was 
unlawful  to  try  capital  offences  at  night. 
There  was,  however,  very  little  attempt  on 
the  part  of  the  Jewish  authorities  to  preserve 
even  the  forms  of  a  legal  trial.  The  time  of 
the  trial  would  be  about  4  a.m. 

The  following  account  of  the  judicial- 
procedure  of  the  Sanhedi'in  in  capital  cases  is 
abridged  from  Schiirer,  who  follows  the 
Mishna.  The  members  of  the  court  sat  in  a 
semi-circle.  A  quorum  of  23  was  required. 
In  front  of  them  stood  the  two  clerks  of  the 
court,  of  whom  the  one  on  the  right  hand 
recorded  the  votes  for  acquittal,  and  the  one 
on  the  left  hand  the  votes  for  condemnation. 
The  '  disciples  of  the  wise '  (pupils  of  the 
scribes)  occupied  three  additional  rows  in 
front.  It  was  required  to  hear  the  reasons 
for  acquittal  first  (a  regulation  violated  in  the 
case  of  Jesus)  and  afterwards  the  reasons  for 
condemnation.  The  '  disciples  of  the  wise  ' 
could  speak,  but  only  in  favour  of  the  prisoner. 
Acquittal  could  be  pronounced  on  the  day  of 
the  trial,  but  condemnation  not  till  the  follow- 
ing day  (this  regulation  also  was  violated, 
though  some  suppose  that  there  were  two 
meetings,  one  on  Thursday  night,  the  other 
on  Friday  morning  to  render  the  proceedings 
technically  legal).  Each  member  stood  to 
give  his  vote,  and  voting  began  with  the 
youngest  member.  For  acquittal  a  simple 
majority  sufficed  ;  for  condemnation  a  majority 
of  two  was  necessary. 

Was  the  assembly  which  condemned  Jesus 
a  regular  and  formal  meeting  of  the  Sanhedrin? 
Edersheim  denies  it,  because  '  All  Jewish 
order  and  law  would  have  been  grossly  in- 
fringed in  almost  every  particular,  if  this  had 
been  a  formal  meeting  of  the  Sanhedrin.' 
But  the  case  of  Stephen  shows  how  little  the 
Sanhedrin  cared  for  order  and  law,  when  it 
was  really  angry.  A  stronger  argument  is 
drawn  from  the  place  of  meeting,  which  was 
apparently  the  high  priest's  palace,  though 
none  of  the  evangelists  expressly  say  so,  and 
Lk2266  possibly  suggests  the  contrary.  This 
was  certainly  not  the  proper  place  for  the 
Sanhedrin  to  meet,  but  we  are  not  in  a  position 
to  say  that  at  this  time  such  a  meeting-place 
was  impossible  or  even  unlikely.  The  legal 
place  of  meeting  was  the  Hall    Gazith  (lit. 


26.  58 


ST.  MATTHEW 


26.75 


'Hall  of  Hewn  Stones')  which  was  on  the 
Temple  mount,  and  probably  within  the  Temple 
enclosure.  But  the  Mishna  says  that  forty 
years  before  the  fall  of  Jerusalem  the  Sanhe- 
drin  removed  to  the  '  booths,'  or  '  shops.' 
Whether  these  booths  were  in  the  Temple,  or 
in  Jerusalem,  or  on  the  Mt.  of  Olives,  is  un- 
certain, but  if  such  an  iiTegularity  as  meeting 
in  the  '  booths '  was  possible,  so  also  was  that 
of  meeting  in  the  high  priest's  house. 

58.  Unto  the .  .  palace]  RV  'unto  the  court ' 
(i.e.  quadrangle)  '  of  the  high  priest '  :  see  on 
V.  3.     The  servants]  RY  '  the  officers.' 

59.  Sought  false  witness]  That  the  judges 
sought  witnesses  at  all,  much  less  false  wit- 
nesses, is  enough  to  condemn  them  to  perpetual 
infamy. 

61.  I  am  able  to  destroy]  At  the  worst  this 
was  a  boastful  remark,  and  could  not  be  made 
the  basis  of  a  capital  charge.  This  incident 
strikingly  confirms  the  accuracy  of  the  dis- 
courses recorded  in  the  Fourth  Gospel,  which 
alone  records  this  saying  of  Christ  (Jn2i9). 
The  false  witnesses  distorted  the  saying.  Christ 
did  not  say  '  I  am  able  to  destroy,'  but '  Destroy 
this  temple,'  i.e.  '  If  you  destroy  this  temple.' 

63.  I  adjure  thee  by  the  living-  God]  Jesus 
consents  to  be  put  on  His  oath,  thus  declaring 
oaths  before  a  magistrate  to  be  lawful.  The 
Christ,  the  Son  of  God]  The  high  priest  asks 
not  merely  whether  He  is  the  Messiah,  but 
whether  He  is  a  divine  Messiah.  To  claim  to 
be  the  Messiah  whom  all  good  Israelites  were 
expecting,  was  no  crime,  but  to  claim  to  be 
the  Son  of  Grod,  in  the  sense  of  God's  equal, 
was  blasphemy.  Here  the  synoptists  again 
strongly  confirm  the  peculiar  features  of  the 
Fourth  Gospel,  for  how  did  the  high  priest 
know  or  suspect  that  Jesus  claimed  to  be 
divine,  unless  Jesus  had  publicly  said  so  at 
Jerusalem,  as  related  in  the  Fourth  Gospel? 

(Jn  5 17-47  856-59  1033). 

64.  Thou  hast  said]  Christ's  exact  words 
which  St.  Mark  and  St.  Luke  render  by  '  I 
am  '  (see  2fi  25).  Nevertheless]  better,  '  more- 
over.' Hereafter  (RV  'Henceforth')  ye  shall 
see,  etc.]  Jesus  here  makes  two  distinct 
statements :  (1)  That  henceforth,  i.e.  from 
the  Ascension  onwards.  His  enemies  will  be- 
hold Him  sitting  on  the  right  hand  of  God, 
and  causing  His  Kingdom  mightily  to  prevail 
over  the  earth,  in  spite  of  all  their  efforts  to 
prevent  it.  (2)  That  they  will  also  see  Him 
one  day  coming  to  judgment  seated  on  the 
clouds  of  heaven.  The  reference  is  to  Dan  7 1^, 
which  was  then  interpreted  of  the  Messiah. 

65.  Rent  his  clothes]  The  Jewish  law  was  : 
'  They  that  judge  a  blasphemer  first  ask  the 
witness,  and  bid  him  speak  out  plainly  what 
he  hath  heard  ;  and  when  he  speaks  it,  the 
judges,  standing  on  their  feet,  rend  their  gar- 
ments and  do  not  sew  them  up  again.' 


66.  He  is  guilty  (RV  '  worthy ')  of  death. 
To  condemn  Jesus  at  once,  was  contrary  to 
the  law,  which  was,  '  Judgment  in  capital 
causes  is  passed  the  same  day  if  it  be  for 
acquitting ;  but  if  it  be  for  condemning,  it 
is  passed  the  day  after.'  The  reason  is,  '  He 
delays  his  judgment,  and  lets  it  rest  all  night, 
that  he  may  sift  out  the  truth.'  But  Eder- 
sheim  remarks,  '  It  seems,  however,  at  least 
doubtful,  whether  in  case  of  profanation  of 
the  divine  name,  judgment  was  not  immediately 
executed.'  The  trial  was  further  illegal,  as 
being  held  on  the  eve  of  the  Passover,  for 
'  Let  them  not  judge  on  the  eve  of  the  sabbath, 
or  on  the  eve  of  a  feast  day.'  After  passing 
sentence  of  death  the  judges  were  bound  to 
taste  nothing  the  whole  day.  The  punishment 
for  blasphemy  was  stoning. 

67.  Fulfilment  of  IsaSO^. 

68.  Prophesy]  Christ  was  blindfolded  at 
the  time.  The  mockery  was  carried  out  by 
the  '  officers '  of  the  Sanhedrin. 

Additional  Note  on  the  Trial 

The  synoptists  all  agree  that  Jesus  was 
condemned  for  blasphemy,  i.e.  for  claiming 
more  than  human  powers  and  attributes. 
This  is  inconsistent  with  the  contention  of 
those  who  maintain  that  Jesus  merely  pro- 
fessed to  be  a  mere  human  teacher,  or  at  most 
a  prophet.  The  trial  itself  is  enough  to  show 
that  there  is  essential  unity  between  the 
synoptists  and  the  Fourth  Gospel  in  their 
doctrine  of  Christ's  person.  The  Christ  of  the 
synoptists  at  the  last  great  crisis  of  His  life 
makes  the  same  tremendous  claims  as  the 
Christ  of  St.  John,  and  is  put  to  death  for 
making  them. 

69-75.  Peter's  Denials  (Mkl466  Lk2254 
Jn  18 15-18,  25  27).  The  accounts  agree  in  all 
main  features,  but  the  details  are  difficult  to 
harmonise  exactly.  All  agree  that  Peter  was 
thi-ee  times  charged  with  being  a  disciple,  and 
three  times  denied  it ;  also  that  a  cock  crew 
at  the  time  of  the  third  denial,  reminding 
Peter  of  the  words  of  Jesus.  St.  Luke  and 
St.  John  represent  Peter  in  a  somewhat  more 
favourable  light  than  St.  Matthew  and  St. 
Mark,  for  they  say  nothing  of  his  cursing  and 
swearing.  St.  Luke  alone  mentions  the  look  of 
Jesus  which  went  to  the  heart  of  Peter.  St. 
John  represents  the  denials  as  taking  place  in 
the  court  of  Annas,  the  synoptists  in  that  of 
Caiaphas,  but  perhaps  both  had  apartments  in 
the  same  building.  In  any  case  the  account 
of  St.  John,  who  was  an  actual  eyewitness,  is 
to  be  preferred  :  see  on  Jn. 

69.  In  the  'palace]  RV  '  in  the  court,'  i.e. 
in  the  quadrangle. 

75.  Wept  bitterly]  '  Thou  hast  seen  Peter's 
sin,  see  also  his  repentance.  For  to  this  very 
end  were  the  sins  and  the  repentances  of  the 


714 


27.  1 


ST.  MATTHEW 


27.  11 


saints  written,  that  whenever  we  sin,  we  may 
imitate  their  repentance.  And  Peter  was 
allowed  to  fall  not  only  for  the  reasons  men- 
tioned before,  but  also  that  he  might  learn  to 
make  allowances  for  those  that  stumble,  know- 
ing from  his  own  experience  what  human 
weakness  is  '  (Euthymius). 

CHAPTER  27 
Before  Pilate.    The  Crucifixion 
1,2.  Jesus  delivered  to    Pilate    (Mkl5^  Lk 
231  Jnl828:  see  on  Jn). 

1.  When  the  morning]  Since  according  to  St. 
Luke,  who  follows  an  excellent  and  independ- 
ent authority,  the  trial  itself  did  not  take 
place  '  until  it  was  day '  (Lk2266)^  this  second 
meeting  must  be  placed  some  time  later  in 
the  morning,  considerably  after  cock-crowing 
(26 'i'*).  The  object  of  the  meeting,  which 
was  evidently  largely  attended,  was  simply  to 
consider  how  to  induce  Pilate  to  carry  out  the 
sentence,  and  not  as  some  think  to  pronounce 
sentence  of  death,  and  so  technically  to  comply 
with  the  law  which  forbade  the  death  sen- 
tence to  be  pronounced  on  the  day  of  the 
trial. 

2.  Pilate]  the  fifth  Roman  procurator  of 
Judaea,  was  appointed  in  26  a.d.,  and  held 
office  for  ten  years.  He  was  then  summoned 
to  Rome  to  answer  certain  charges  made 
against  him,  and  was  banished  to  Vienna  in 
Gaul,  where  he  is  said  to  have  committed  suicide. 
The  Roman  governor  resided  generally  at 
Csesarea,  but  came  to  Jerusalem  at  Passover 
time  to  keep  order.  The  Sanhedrin  could  not 
lawfully  execute  Jesus  without  the  consent  of 
Pilate  (Jn  1 8^1),  and  Pilate  was  not  likely  to 
regard  seriously  the  purely  religious  charge 
upon  which  Jesus  had  been  condemned. 
They,  therefore,  altered  the  charge  to  one  of 
treason  (v.  11). 

3-10.  End  of  Judas  (see  Ac  1 1^).  The  di- 
vergences of  the  two  accounts  of  the  end  of 
Judas  are  well  known.  In  St.  Matthew  he 
hangs  himself ;  in  Acts  he  is  killed  by  a  fall. 
In  St.  Matthew  the  priests  buy  a  field  with  the 
blood-money  to  bury  strangers  in  ;  in  Acts 
Judas  himself  buys  a  field,  presumably  for  his 
own  purposes.  It  is  possible  by  various  in- 
genious conjectures  to  harmonise  the  accounts, 
but  the  truth  of  the  matter  probably  is  that  the 
Apostles  did  not  care  to  investigate  at  the 
time  so  hateful  a  subject  as  the  fate  of  the 
traitor,  and  that  when  the  Gospels  came  to  be 
written  the  exact  circumstances  could  no 
longer  be  ascertained. 

3.  When  he  sav?  that  he  -was  condemned] 
This  somewhat  favours  the  view  that  Judas 
did  not  intend  by  betraying  Jesus  to  cause  His 
death.  But  it  is  more  probable  that  the  meek 
demeanour  of  the  Sufferer  at  His  arrest  and 
during  His  trial,  brought  about  a  revulsion  of 


feeling  in  Judas,  who  now  detested  himself  for 
what  he  had  done.  '  This  is  the  way  of  the  devil. 
Before  we  sin,  he  suffers  us  not  to  see  the 
evil  of  it,  lest  we  should  repent.  But  after 
the  sin  is  done,  he  suffers  us  to  see  it,  to 
cause  us  remorse,  and  to  drive  us  to  despair ' 
(Euthymius).  Repented  himself]  Yet  his  sor- 
row was  not  of  a  godly  nature  (2  Cor  7  9),  for  it 
led  to  despair,  and  further  sin.  4.  What  is 
that  f]  His  wicked  companions  in  crime  desert 
him  when  the  crime  is  done.  5.  In  the  temple] 
RV  '  into  the  sanctuary,'  i.e.  into  the  holy  place. 
Judas  in  his  recklessness  and  despair  penetrated 
where  no  one  but  the  priests  had  a  right  to 
enter,  or,  it  may  be,  standing  outside  the  holy 
place,  flung  the  money  violently  through  the 
door.  6.  It  is  not  lawful]  An  argument  from 
Dt23i8.  The  treasury]  lit.  'the  Corbanas,' 
so  called  because  what  was  placed  in  it  was 
'  Corban,'  i.e.  given  to  God  :    see  JnS^o. 

7.   Bought]  In  Acts   Judas  buys   the  field. 

The  potter's  field]  The  potter  probably  used 
to  obtain  clay  from  it.  8.  The  field  of  blood 
(Heb.  Aceldama)]  In  Acts  it  receives  its  name 
from  the  death  of  Judas  in  it. 

9.  By  Jeremy  the  prophet]  This  quota- 
tion, really  from  Zech  11 12 ,  13  (q.v.),  is  ascribed 
to  Jeremiah,  because  Jeremiah  stood  first  in 
the  book  of  the  Prophets,  from  which  it  was 
taken  ;  the  order  being  Jeremiah,  Ezechiel, 
Isaiah,  the  Twelve  Minor  Prophets.  The  pas- 
sage is  paraphrased  rather  than  quoted. 

This  explanation  is  due  to  J.  Lightfoot, 
who  quotes  '  a  tradition  of  the  rabbis.'  '  This 
is  the  order  of  the  prophets.  The  book  of 
Joshua,  Judges,  Samuel,  Kings  (former  pro- 
phets), Jeremiah,  Ezechiel,  Isaiah,  the  Twelve 
(latter  prophets).'  Other  explanations  are,  a 
lapse  of  the  evangelist's  memory  ;  the  word 
Jeremiah  due  not  to  the  evangelist  but  to 
the  first  transcriber,  who  was  thinking  of 
JerlS^;  an  oral  or  traditional  utterance 
ascribed  to  Jeremiah  ;  a  quotation  from  a 
lost  work  of  Jeremiah. 

And  they  took]  or,  '  I  took.'  Whom  they] 
RV  'whom  certain,'  RM  'or,  whom  they 
priced  on  the  part  of  the  sons  of  Israel.' 

ID.  And  gave]  RM  '  and  I  gave.' 

11-26.  Trial  before  Pilate]  (Mkl62  Lk23i-7 
13-25  Jn  1 8  28_i  9 16).  St.  Matthew  and  St.  Mark 
give  practically  the  same  account.  St.  Luke 
and  St.  John  are  independent  of  one  another 
and  of  the  others.  All  give  a  substantially 
harmonious  account  of  the  trial.  Peculiar 
to  St.  Matthew  was  the  dream  of  Pilate's  wife, 
the  washing  of  Pilate's  hands,  and  the  cry  of 
the  people,  '  His  blood  be  on  us  and  on  our 
children.'  Peculiar  to  St.  Luke  are  the  exact 
formulation  of  the  political  charges  (viz. 
stirring  up  rebellion  against  Caesar,  refusing  to 
pay  tribute  to  Caesar,  and  professing  to  be 
Christ  or  king),  and  the  trial  before  Herod. 


715 


27.  11 


ST.  MATTHEW 


27.  3 


™1 


The  peculiarities  of  St.  John  are  many  (see  on 
Jn).  The  chief  are  the  conversations  between 
Pilate  and  Jesus,  Pilate's  merciful  purpose  in 
scourging  Jesus,  and  the  final  cry  which  over- 
came Pilate's  resistance,  '  If  thou  let  this  man 
go,  thou  art  not  Caesar's  friend.' 

Pilate  does  not  appear  at  the  trial  in  an 
altogether  unfavourable  light.  He  is  not  with- 
out a  rude  sense  of  justice.  He  slu-inks  from 
the  guilt  of  innocent  blood,  and  finally  yields 
only  to  the  fear  of  being  accused  at  Rome 
of  disloyalty  if  he  exasperates  too  much  the 
Jewish  leaders.  Pilate  shows  his  truly  Roman 
contempt  for  the  Jews,  his  superstition,  and, 
what  often  goes  with  superstition,  his  shallow 
scepticism.  He  was,  however,  genuinely  im- 
pressed with  Jesus,  which  shows  that  he  was 
not  without  religious  susceptibility. 

II.  Thou  sayest]  i.e.  'I  am.'  But  Jesus 
explained  to  Pilate  privately  that  His  kingdom 
was  not  of  this  world  (Jn).  Here,  as  so  often, 
the  Fom-th  Gospel  alone  renders  the  narrative 
clearly  intelligible.  15.  At  that  feast]  This  is 
the  only  evidence  of  such  a  custom,  which  is, 
however,  appropriate  to  the  season  of  the 
Passover,  which  commemorates  a  deliverance. 

17.  Barabbas]  Some  ancient  authorities 
have  here  the  interesting  reading  '  Jesus  Ba- 
rabbas,' which  may  really  have  been  the  man's 
full  name.  The  people  may  have  preferred 
him  to  Christ  because  he  had  led  a  rebel- 
lion against  Rome,  whereas  Christ  had  said, 
'  Render  to  Csesar  the  things  that  are  Caesar's.' 
The  two  thieves  probably  belonged  to  his 
company. 

19.  His  wife]  In  tradition  her  name  is  given 
as  Procla,  or  Claudia  Procula,  and  she  is  said 
to  have  been  inclined  to  Judaism,  or  even  to 
have  been  a  proselyte,  and  afterwards  to  have 
become  a  Christian.  In  the  Greek  Church 
she  is  canonised.  From  the  time  of  Augustus 
the  wives  of  provincial  governors  commonly 
accompanied  their  husbands. 

20.  The  multitudes  were  not  unfriendly, 
until  the  chief  priests  used  their  influence 
against  Jesus. 

24.  Washed  his  hands]  A  piece  of  Jewish 
symbolism  (see  Dt21'5)  adopted  by  Pilate  to 
make  himself  intelligible  to  the  multitude. 

I  am  innocent]  It  was  customary  for  Gentile 
judges  to  protest  '  before  the  sun '  that  they 
were  innocent  of  the  blood  of  the  person  about 
to  be  condemned. 

25.  His  blood  be  on  us]  A  cry  of  blind  and 
vindictive  rage.  They  care  not  who  bears  the 
blame,  so  that  Jesus  be  put  to  death.  There 
is  tragic  irony  in  this  unconscious  prophecy, 
which  was  fulfilled  in  two  ways.  (1)  As  a 
curse  upon  the  unbelieving  part  of  the  nation, 
on  whom  the  blood  of  Jesus  was  avenged  at 
the  destruction  of  Jerusalem.  (2)  As  a  bless- 
ing upon  believers,  on  whom  the  blood  of  Jesus 


came  for  sanctification,  and  the  remission  of 
sins  :  cp.  Jn  1 1  ^o. 

26.  Scourged]  in  accordance  with  the  Roman 
custom  before  crucifixion.  The  culprit  was 
stripped  and  tied  in  a  bending  posture  to  a 
pillar,  or  stretched  on  a  frame,  and  the  punish- 
ment was  inflicted  with  a  scourge  made  of 
leathern  thongs,  weighted  with  sharp  pieces  of 
bone  or  lead.  Criminals  sometimes  died  under 
it.  According  to  St.  John,  Pilate  scourged 
Jesus  to  move  the  Jews  to  pity. 

27-30.  Jesus  is  mocked  by  the  Roman 
soldiers  (MklSi"  Jnl9i). 

27.  Common  hall]  RV  '  palace  '  :  see  on  Jn 
18^8.  But  the  expression  may  mean  'bar- 
racks.' The  whole  band]  RM  'cohort'  :  about 
600  men  :  see  on  JnlS^'^'-^.  28.  Stripped 
him]  RM  '  Some  ancient  authorities  read, 
clothed  Him.'  The  latter  is  probably  right. 
He  had  been  stripped  previously  for  scourg- 
ing. A  scarlet  (or  purple)  robe]  an  emblem 
of  royalty.  The  reed  was  to  represent  a 
sceptre. 

31-34.  He  is  led  to  the  Cross  (Mk  1 5  20  Lk 
23  -6  Jn  1 9  ^^).  The  cross  was  regarded  as  the 
most  horrible  and  most  degi'ading  form  of  pun- 
ishment, fit  only  for  slaves.  '  It  is  an  outrage 
for  a  Roman  citizen  to  be  bound  ;  a  crime  for 
him  to  be  scourged.  It  is  almost  parricide 
to  have  him  put  to  death.  What  can  I  call 
having  him  crucified  ?  No  word  can  be  found 
adequate  to  describe  so  monstrous  a  proceed- 
ing '  (Cicero).  Crucifixion  was  not  a  Jewish 
punishment.  It  originated  among  the  Phoe- 
nicians, from  whom  it  passed  to  the  Greeks 
and  Romans.  Alexander  the  Great  once 
crucified  2,000  Tyrians.  After  the  death  of 
Herod  the  Great,  Varus  crucified  2,000  rioters. 
The  crucifixion  of  Jesus  was  unconsciously 
avenged  by  the  Romans,  who,  after  the  fall 
of  Jerusalem,  crucified  so  many  Jews  that 
there  was  neither  wood  for  the  crosses  nor 
room  to  set  them  up.  The  cross  consisted  of 
two  parts,  a  strong  stake  or  pole  8  or  9  ft. 
high,  which  was  fixed  in  the  ground,  and  a 
movable  cross-piece  (jxttibidum),  which  was 
carried  by  the  criminal  to  the  place  of  execu- 
tion. Sometimes  the pat'ihuhim  was  a  single 
beam  of  M^ood,  but  more  often  it  consisted  of 
two  parallel  beams  fastened  together,  between 
which  the  neck  of  the  criminal  was  inserted. 
Before  him  went  a  herald  bearing  a  tablet 
on  which  the  offence  was  inscribed,  or  the 
criminal  himself  bore  it  suspended  by  a  cord 
round  his  neck.  At  the  place  of  execution 
the  criminal  was  stripped  and  laid  on  his  back, 
and  his  hands  were  nailed  to  the  patihulum. 
The  2)afihuhim^  with  the  criminal  hanging  from 
it,  was  then  hoisted  into  position  and  fastened 
by  nails  or  ropes  to  the  upright  pole.  The 
victim's  body  was  supported  not  only  by  the 
nails  through  the  hands,  but  by  a  small  piece 


716 


27.32 


ST.  MATl^HEW 


27.  45 


of  wood  projecting  at  right  angles  (sedile),  on 
which  he  sat  as  on  a  saddle.  Sometimes  there 
was  also  a  support  for  the  feet,  to  which  the 
feet  were  nailed.  The  protracted  agony  of 
crucifixion  sometimes  lasted  for  days,  death 
being  caused  by  pain,  hunger,  and  thirst. 
Jesus  was  crucified  on  a  cross  with  four  arms 
{crux  uninissa),  as  is  proved  by  a  title  being 
placed  over  His  head. 

The  Seven  Words  from  the    Cross 

(1)  '  Father,  forgive  them  ;  for  they  know 
not  what  they  do'  (Lk233i). 

(2)  '  Verily  I  say  unto  thee.  To  day  shalt 
thou  be  with  me  in  paradise '  (Lk  23  ■^^). 

(3)  '  Woman,  behold  thy  son  !  Behold  thy 
mother  !'  (Jnig^t^.a;). 

(4)  '  My  God,  my  God,  why  hast  thou  for- 
saken me?'  (Mt2746Ps22i). 

(5)  'I  thirst'  (Jnl92S). 

(6)  'It  is  finished'  (Jnl930). 

(7)  '  Father,  into  thy  hands  I  commend  my 
spirit'  (Lk23^'3Ps315). 

32.  As  they  came  out]  viz.  of  the  city,  exe- 
cutions being  forbidden  within  the  walls 
(Nu  1 5  35  1 K  2 1 13  Ac  7  58  Heb  1 3 12).  Up  to  this 
point  Jesus  had  carried  His  own  cross  (jxtti- 
huluin)  :  see  Jnl9i''.  The  tradition  that 
Jesus  fainted  under  the  cross  is  probably 
true  :  see  Mk  1 5  22.  He  had  been  greatly 
weakened  by  the  scourging.  Simon]  If  Simon 
was  coming  home  from  working  in  the  fields 
(see  Mk,  Lk),  this  is  another  indication  that 
the  Feast  of  the  Passover  had  not  yet  begun. 
He  was  probably  a  Jew  resident  in  Jerusalem, 
but  born  at  Cyrene  in  Libya  (N.  Africa) 
where  there  were  many  Jews.  The  Cyrenians 
had  a  synagogue  in  Jerusalem  (Ac  6  ^).  Simon 
afterwards  became  a  Christian  (MklS^i  :  cp. 
RolGi3). 

Compelled]  see  on  5^1.  Here  is  to  be  in- 
serted Christ's  address  to  the  daughters  of 
Jerusalem  (Lk232S),  among  whom,  tradition 
says,  was  Berenice,  or  Veronica,  a  pious  woman 
of  .lerusalem,  who  gave  Him  her  kerchief,  or 
napkin,  that  He  might  wipe  the  drops  of  agony 
from  His  brow.  The  Lord  accepted  her  offer- 
ing, and,  after  using  it,  handed  it  back  to  her, 
bearing  the  image  of  His  face  miraculously 
impressed  upon  it.  This  napkin,  it  is  alleged, 
is  now  in  St.  Peter's  at  Rome,  but  possession 
of  it  is  claimed  also  by  Milan,  and  Jaen  in 
Spain.  The  legend  of  Veronica  is  unhistori- 
cal,  but  interesting  from  its  wide  diffusion. 

33.  Golgotha  (Aramaic),  or  0(7iV(/7'((  (Latin), 
means  '  a  skull.'  It  received  its  name  either 
from  being  the  place  of  execution,  or  from 
being  an  eminence  shaped  like  a  skull.  It 
was  certainly  not  a  '  mountain,'  as  it  has 
been  popularly  called  since  the  5th  cent. 
Calvary  was  close  by  the  garden  in  which 
Jesus  was  buried  (Jn),  and  there  is  no  reason 


why  the  traditional  site  (which  lies  within  the 
Church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre)  should  not  be 
the  true  one.  '  The  traditional  site,  the  Church 
of  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  has  lately  been  proved 
to  lie  beyond  the  second  wall,  which  was  the 
outside  wall  at  the  date  of  the  Crucifixion,  and 
several  rock  tombs  have  been  found  about  it. 
It  was  near  a  road.  It  may  therefore  have 
been  the  site  '  (Dr.  G.  A.  Smith).  Similarly 
Sir  C.  Warren. 

34.  Vinegar  (E,V  '  wine  ')  .  .  mingled  with 
gall]  Mk  '  wine  mingled  with  myrrh '  :  see 
Ps69-i.  Pious  women  of  Jerusalem  were  ac 
customed  to  oifer  to  condemned  criminals  a 
draught  of  wine  and  myrrh  just  before  their 
execution,  to  stupefy  them.  The  editor  of  the 
Gk.  Matthew,  not  understanding  the  custom, 
and  thinking  that  the  myrrh  was  added  to 
make  the  cup  bitter  and  distasteful  to  Jesus, 
has  rendered  it  '  gall,'  seeing  in  the  incident  a 
fulfilment  of  Ps69-i.  Tasted]  Jesus  tasted 
it,  in  acknowledgment  of  the  kindness  of  the 
women  who  offered  it,  but  would  not  drink  it, 
because  He  would  die  for  the  sins  of  the  world 
with  all  His  faculties  of  mind  unimpaired. 

35.  Crucified  him]  It  is  important  to  notice, 
as  bearing  upon  the  question  of  the  reality  of 
Christ's  death  and  resurrection,  that  the  feet 
were  nailed  as  well  as  the  hands.  Even  if 
Christ  was  not  quite  dead,  the  nailing  of  the 
feet  would  effectually  prevent  His  leaving  the 
tomb  to  appear  to  the  apostles  :  see  Lk2440. 
The  time  of  the  crucifixion  was  the  third  hour 
according  to  St.  Mark,  but  after  the  sixth 
hour  according  to  St.  John  :   see  on  Jn  1 9  !•*. 

Parted  his  garments]  At  this  time  the 
criminals'  clothes  were  the  perquisites  of  the 
executioners.  That  it  might  be  fulfilled]  This 
reference  to  Ps22i8  is  omitted  by  RV  :  see 
on  Jn  19  23, 24. 

37.  The  variations  of  the  inscription  on  the 
cross  are  unimportant.  St.  John  alone  states 
that  it  was  written  in  Greek,  Latin,  and 
Hebrew.  38.  Thieves]  RV  'robbers,'  i.e. 
brigands,  as  distinguished  from  thieves  :  see 
on  Lk.  39.  Passed  by]  The  reference  to 
the  passengers  along  the  roads  is  another 
indication  that  this  was  a  working  day,  not 
the  Passover.  40.  Thou  that  destroyest  the 
temple  (RV  '  sanctuary ')]  They  called  upon 
Him  to  perform  what  He  was  actually  about 
to  do,  for  '  the  temple '  was  His  body  :  see 
Jn22i.  43.  He  trusted  in  God]  Ps 22 8.  The 
action  of  the  judges  in  jeering  at  the  sufferings 
of  the  man  they  had  condemned  to  death,  is 
indecent  and  brutal.  Their  misuse  of  the 
words  of  Scripture  is  blasphemous.  45.  From 
the  sixth  hour  (noon)]  Jesus  had  now  been 
about  three  hours  on  the  cross  (Mk  1 5  25). 

Darkness  over  all  the  land  (or,  '  earth ')] 
The  chief,  if  not  the  only,  historical  objection 
to  this  darkness,  is  the  silence  of  Josephus. 


717 


27.46 


ST.  MATTHEW 


ST.  56 


But  Josephus  is  silent,  not  only  as  to  this, 
but  as  to  almost  every  event  connected  with 
Christianity.  Whether  as  a  coincidence,  or  as 
a  miracle,  the  fact  of  the  darkness  must  be 
received,  for  the  oldest  tradition  is  unanimous 
on  the  point.  The  theory  of  an  eclipse  is 
impossible,  as  the  moon  was  at  the  full.  The 
apocryphal  Gospel  of  Peter  says,  '  And  it  was 
midday,  and  darkness  covered  all  the  land  of 
Judaea.  And  many  went  about  with  lamps 
thinking  that  it  was  night,  and  they  fell.  Then 
the  sun  shone  out,  and  it  was  found  to  be  the 
ninth  hour.' 

46.  Eli,  Eli,  etc.]  Ps22i.  It  is  not  certain 
whether  Jesus  spoke  in  Hebrew  or  Aramaic, 
for  most  MSS  contain  a  mixture  of  both. 

These  words  are  a  cry  of  the  human  nature 
of  Jesus,  which  alone  could  suffer  desertion, 
when  He  experienced  the  bitterness  of  death. 
They  may  serve  to  comfort  Christian  men 
and  women  when  they  experience  the  greatest 
of  all  trials,  the  temporary  withdrawal  of  the 
consciousness  of  God's  presence.  But  a  deeper 
meaning  is  also  to  be  sought.  Upon  the  cross 
Jesus  was  making  atonement  for  the  sins  of 
the  world,  '  bearing  our  sins  in  his  own  body 
on  the  tree,'  for  upon  Him  was  laid  '  the  iniquity 
of  us  all.'  He  was  so  closely  identified  with 
the  race  which  He  came  to  save,  that  He  felt 
the  burden  of  its  sin,  and  cried  as  the  Repre- 
sentative of  Humanity, '  My  God,  my  God,  why 
hast  thou  forsaken  me  ?  ' 

'  The  Lord  was  forsaken,  that  we  might  not 
be  forsaken  ;  He  was  forsaken  that  we  might 
be  delivered  from  our  sins  and  from  eternal 
death  ;  He  was  forsaken  that  He  might  show 
His  love  to  us,  and  manifest  to  us  His  justice 
and  His  pity  ;  that  He  might  attract  to  Him- 
self our  love,  in  short  that  He  might  exhibit 
to  us  a  pattern  of  patience.  The  way  to 
heaven  lies  open,  but  it  is  steep  and  difficult. 
He  willed  to  go  before  us  with  an  example 
full  of  wonder,  that  the  way  might  not  alarm 
us,  but  that  the  stupendous  example  of  a 
suffering  God  might  incite  us '  (St.  Cyprian). 

47.  Calleth  for  Elias]  RV  '  calleth  Elijah.' 
'  No  Jew  could  have  mistaken  Ell  for  the 
name  of  Elijah,  nor  yet  misinterpreted  a  quo- 
tation of  Ps22i  as  a  call  for  the  prophet' 
(Edersheim).  '  The  Jews  said  this  in  mock- 
ery, having  many  stories  of  appearances  of 
Elijah  to  rescue  men  fi'om  peril  of  death ' 
(Wetstein). 

48.  Vinegar]  i.e.  posca,  the  sour  common 
wine  drunk  by  the  Roman  soldiers.  What- 
ever may  have  been  the  sentiments  of  the 
bystanders,  the  motive  of  the  man  who  offered 
the  vinegar  was  compassion.  The  Fourth 
Gospel  alone  gives  the  reason  of  the  act.  It 
■was  our  Lord's  fifth  word,  '  I  thirst '  (Jn  19  2S). 

49.  Hei-e  many  ancient  authorities  insert 
an    account   of    the    spear-thrust   mentioned 


Jnl934.  It  is  remarkable  that  the  interpola- 
tion (if  such  it  is)  mentions  the  spear-thrust 
before  the  death  of  Jesus,  and  not  after  it,  as 
in  St.  .lohn. 

50.  Cried  again]  with  a  loud  voice  in 
triumph,  'It  is  finished'  (Jnl930),  adding 
immediately,  '  Father,  into  thy  hands,'  etc. 
(Lk23'i6).  50.  Yielded  up]  He  died  volun- 
tarily (JnlQiS). 

51.  The  veil  of  the  temple]  Two  veils,  a 
cubit  apart,  hung  before  the  Holy  of  Holies. 
They  are  said  to  have  been  40  cubits  (60  ft.) 
long,  20  wide,  and  of  the  thickness  of  the 
palm  of  the  hand.  Both  were  rent.  Josephus, 
for  obvious  reasons,  does  not  record  this  event. 

The  significance  of  the  rending  of  the  veil 
is  variously  understood.  Some  see  in  it  a 
sign  that  the  old  covenant  was  at  an  end,  the 
sacrifices  abolished,  and  the  divine  presence 
withdrawn  from  the  Temple,  even  the  Holy 
of  Holies  being  now  made  common  ground, 
open  to  the  feet  of  all.  Others  who  regard 
the  Holy  of  Holies  as  a  type  of  heaven,  and 
the  rest  of  the  Temple  as  a  type  of  earth,  see 
in  the  rending  of  the  veil  the  removing  of  the 
barrier  between  heaven  and  earth,  the  recon- 
ciling of  God  and  man  through  the  death  of 
Christ:  cp.  Heb  1019.20. 

The  earth  did  quake]  Probably  to  be  con- 
nected with  the  rending  of  the  veil.  '  In  the 
Gospel  (according  to  the  Hebrews)  we  read 
that  the  lintel  of  the  Temple  of  infinite  size 
was  broken  and  divided.  Josephus  also  relates 
that  the  angelic  powers,  who  once  presided 
over  the  Temple,  then  together  cried  out.  Let 
us  depart  from  these  abodes '  (Jerome).  The 
statement  of  Josephus,  however,  refers  to  a 
later  period.  Rocks  rent]  '  It  would  not  be 
right  altogether  to  reject  the  testimony  of 
travellers  to  the  fact  of  extraordinary  rents 
and  fissures  in  the  rocks  near  the  spot ' 
(Alf ord).  '  To  this  day  Golgotha  is  a  proof 
of  it,  where  the  rocks  were  rent  on  account  of 
Christ '  (St.  Cyril  of  Jerusalem,  315-386  a.d.). 

52.  The  graves  were  opened]  i.e.  by  the 
shock  of  the  earthquake.  And  many  bodies 
of  the  saints,  etc.]  i.e.  they  rose,  not  immedi- 
ately, but  with  Christ  at  His  Resurrection. 

This  incident  seems  to  be  a  pictorial  set- 
ting forth  of  the  truth  that  in  the  Resurrection 
of  Christ  is  involved  the  resurrection  of  all 
His  saints,  so  that  on  Easter  Day  all  Christians 
may  be  said  in  a  certain  sense  to  have  risen 
with  Him. 

54.  The  Son  of  God]  RM  '  a  son  of  God,' 
i.e.  a  hero  or  demi-god,  which  is  more  suitable 
in  the  mouth  of  a  heathen  soldier.  St.  Luke, 
'  Truly  this  man  was  righteous.' 

55.  Ministering]  It  was  the  custom  of 
Jewish  women  to  contribute  to  the  support  of 
famous  rabbis  :  see  on  Lk  8 1"^. 

56.  Mary     Magdalene]   Most     authorities 


718 


27.  57 


ST.  MATTHEW 


28.  9 


regard  '  Magdalene '  as  equivalent  to  '  of 
Magdala,'  a  town  near  Tiberias.  There  is  no 
ground  for  the  common  identification  of  this 
Mary  with  the  sister  of  Lazarus,  or  with  the 
'sinner  '  who  anointed  our  Lord's  feet  (LkT^T). 
Mary  the  mother  of  James  and  Joses]  St.  Mark 
calls  this  James,  '  James  the  little  '  :  see  on 
Jnl925.  The  mother  of  Zebedee's  children] 
i.e.  Salome  (Mk).  The  synoptists  omit  all 
mention  of  the  presence  of  the  Virgin,  either 
because  she  had  been  already  led  away  by 
St.  John,  or  because  she  was  not  one  of  the 
ministering  women. 

57-61.  Burial  of  Jesus  (Mklb'^^  Lk235i 
Jnl93S  :  see  on  Jn).  The  burial  of  Jesus  in 
the  tomb  of  a  wealthy  and  influential  man  was 
a  literal  fulfilment  of  Isa  53  ^  :  '  with  the  rich 
in  his  death.' 

57.  Arimathaea]  unidentified.  Perhaps  Ra- 
mathaim  Zophim  in  the  hill-country  of  Ephraim. 
Joseph]  According  to  St.  Luke  he  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Sanhedrin,  who  had  not  consented 
to  the  death  of  Jesus.  According  to  St.  John 
he  was  assisted  by  Nicodemus.  58.  Begged 
the  body]  According  to  St.  Mark,  Pilate  assured 
himself  that  Jesus  was  really  dead  before 
surrendering  the  body.  It  was  not  lawful  to 
suffer  a  man  to  hang  all  night  upon  a  tree, 
Dt2123.  Strictly  speaking,  Jesus  had  no 
legal  right  to  honourable  burial.  The  Jewish 
law  was,  '  They  that  were  put  to  death  by  the 
council  were  not  to  be  buried  in  the  sepulchres 
of  their  fathers,  but  two  bm'ial  places  were 
appointed  by  the  council.'  60.  He  had  hewn] 
Only  St.  Matthew  mentions  that  the  tomb 
belonged  to  Joseph.  61.  The  other  Mary] 
i.e.  Mary  the  mother  of  James  and  Joses. 

62-66.  The  sepulchre  is  guarded  (peculiar 
to  St.  Matthew).  It  is  sometimes  argued  that 
this  incident  is  unauthentic,  because  the  ene- 
mies of  Christ  would  not  be  likely  to  remem- 
ber obscure  prophecies  of  the  Resurrection, 
which  even  the  disciples  failed  to  understand. 
This  view  is  possible.  But  they  remembered 
the  obscure  saying,  '  Destroy  this  temple,'  etc., 
two  years  after  it  had  been  spoken,  and  there 
was  a  still  more  recent  and  clearer  prediction 
addressed  to  the  Pharisees  (12  "lO). 

62.  Now  the  next  day]  RV  '  Now  on  the 
morrow,  which  is  the  day  after  the  Preparation.' 
The  '  Preparation  '  is  the  usual  word  for  Friday. 

63.  After  three  days]  Jn2i9  Mtl240,  etc. 
65.  Ye  have]   RM  '  Take  a  guard,'  viz.  of 

Roman   soldiers.     66.  And  setting  a  watch] 
RV  '  the  guard  being  with  them.' 

CHAPTER  28 

The  Resurrection 
For  the  Resurrection  see  special  article. 
i-io.  The  Resurrection  and  appearance  to 
the  women  (Mki«i  Lk  24 1  Jn20i).     If  it  be 
remembered  that  a  considerable   number  of 


women  visited  the  tomb — Mary  Magdalene, 
Mary  mother  of  James,  Salome  (Mk),  Joanna 
(Lk),  and  '  the  other  women  with  them  '  (Lk) — 
the  fragmentary  accounts  of  the  evangelists 
are    not    very   difficult    to    arrange   in   order. 

(1)  Mary  Magdalene  and  the  other  women 
visit  the  tomb  immediately  after  the  resurrec- 
tion, and  see  one  angel  (Mt,  Mk),  or  two  (Lk). 

(2)  She  runs  at  once  to  Peter  and  John,  who 
were  probably  alone  at  Peter's  house,  and  thus 
misses  the  appearance  of  Christ  to  the  women 
recorded  by  St.  Matthew.  (3)  The  other 
women  returning  more  leisurely  are  met  by 
Christ  Himself  (Mt),  and  report  what  they 
have  seen  to  the  other  apostles.  (4)  Mary 
returns  to  the  tomb,  and  after  the  departure 
of  Peter  and  John,  sees  Jesus  in  the  garden 
(Jn).  Other  arrangements  of  the  events  are 
also  possible. 

I.  In  the  end  of  the  sabbath]  RV  '  late  on 
the  sabbath.'  Strictly  speaking,  the  Jewish 
sabbath  closed  at  sunset,  but  here  St.  Matthew, 
adopting  the  popular  method  of  reckoning, 
regards  the  sabbath  as  lasting  till  dawn  on 
Sunday  morning.  '  Late  on  the  sabbath  '  is, 
therefore,  between  midnight  and  dawn  on 
Sunday,  as  indeed  is  expressly  stated.  The 
other  Mary]  i.e.  Mary,  the  mother  of  James. 
The  women  had  come  with  ointment  and  spices 
(Mk,  Lk)  to  anoint  and  embalm  the  body, 
either  not  knowing  what  Joseph  and  Nicodemus 
had  done,  or  supposing  that  the  work  had  been 
too  hastily  performed  owing  to  the  approach 
of  the  sabbath,  which  was  also  the  feast  day. 

2-4.  The  descent  of  the  angel,  the  earth- 
quake, and  the  consternation  of  the  watchers, 
which  accompanied  the  resurrection,  are  pecu- 
liar to  St.  Matthew.  He  does  not,  however, 
state  that  the  resurrection  itself  was  visible, 
as  do  many  of  the  later  authorities. 

5.  The  angel]  Mk  '  a  young  man ' ;  Lk  '  two 
men.'  In  Mk  and  Lk  the  angel  (or  angels) 
appears  inside  the  tomb.  Such  slight  discre- 
pancies harmonise  well  with  the  excited  feelings 
which  such  a  vision  would  be  likely  to  pro- 
duce. Minute  and  detailed  agreement  in  inde- 
pendent narratives  under  such  circumstances 
would  be  suspicious.  Fear  not  ye]  The  words 
of  the  angel  are  nearly  the  same  in  St.  Matthew 
and  St.  Mark,  but  considerably  different  in 
St.  Luke,  who  follows  an  independent  tradition. 
St.  Luke,  who  records  no  Galilean  appearances, 
naturally  omits  the  reference  to  Galilee. 

7.  He  goeth  before  you  into  Galilee]  as,  in- 
deed, Jesus  Himself  had  already  promised 
(2632). 

9.  Jesus  met  them]  This  appearance  is  pecu- 
liar to  St.  Matthew.  All  hail]  A  common  Jewish 
salutation.  '  How  do  they  salute  an  Israelite  ? 
"  All  hail."  ' 

Held  him  by  the  feet]  viz.  to  kiss  them. 
This  was  not  uncommon.     'As  Rabbi  Janni 


719 


28.  10 


ST.  MATTHEW 


28.  18 


and  Rabbi  Jonathan  were  sitting  together,  a 
certain  man  came  and  kissed  the  feet  of  Rabbi 
Jonathan.'  '  When  Rabbi  Akiba's  wife  came 
to  him,  she  fell  at  his  feet  and  kissed  them.' 
Cp.  2  K  4  ■■^''.  Worshipped  him]  now  with  more 
than  merely  human  reverence.  It  is  notice- 
able thit  Jesus  never  repelled  any  mark  of 
reverence  shown  to  Him,  however  profound. 

10.  Into  Galilee]  again  emphasising  the 
importance  of  this  meeting. 

The  appearance  to  the  women  is  not  regarded 
by  recent  critics  as  belonging  certainly  to  the 
oldest  form  of  the  tradition. 

11-15.  Bribery  of  the  guards  (peculiar  to 
St.  Matthew).  The  report  of  the  soldiers  may 
have  had  something  to  do  with  the  conversion 
of  so  many  priests  described  in  Ac  6'^. 

11.  Chief  priests]  These  were  Sadducees, 
hostile  to  any  idea  of  a  resurrection.  12.  As- 
sembled] This  was  a  packed,  informal  meeting 
of  the  Sanhedrin.  13.  His  disciples,  etc.]  A 
somewhat  inconsistent  statement,  since  if  they 
were  asleep,  they  could  not  know  that  the 
disciples  had  stolen  the  body.  It  is  important, 
however,  to  notice  that  this  fiction  of  the  chief 
priests  demonstrates  that  the  tomb  was  empty, 
and  that,  therefore,  the  resurrection  of  Jesus 
was  a  bodily  resurrection.  14.  And  secure 
you]  The  ordinary  punishment  for  an  offence 
of  this  kind  was  death  (Acl2i9),  but  Pilate 
would  hardly  trouble  himself  about  what  the 
soldiers  had  done  while  under  the  orders  of 
the  chief  priests. 

16-20.  Appearance  on  a  mountain  in  Gali- 
lee (peculiar  to  St.  Matthew,  but  there  can  be 
little  doubt  that  the  original  ending  of  St. 
Mark,  which  is  unfortunately  lost,  recorded 
the  same  appearance  :  see  Mk  1 6 ").  It  is 
highly  probable  (see  on  v.  16),  but  is  incapable 
of  strict  proof,  that  this  appearance  is  identical 
with  that  to  five  hundred  brethren  at  once 
mentioned  by  St.  Paul  (lCorl5<5).  At  any 
rate,  it  is  a  meeting  of  great  importance,  being 
mentioned  once  by  the  angel  and  twice  by  our 
Lord  (26  32  28  lO).  If  there  were  five  hundred 
living  persons  who  could  give  a  particular 
account  of  this  incident,  the  rapid  way  in 
which  the  evangelist  passes  over  it  is  in  part 
accounted  for. 

16.  The  eleven  disciples]  This  does  not  of 
necessity  imply  that  no  others  were  present, 
but  only  that  the  words  of  Jesus  were  mainly 
addressed  to  them.  Where  Jesus  had  ap- 
pointed them]  St.  Matthew  does  not  say  when 
Jesus  made  this  appointment,  thus  indicating 
that  he  does  not  profess  to  give  a  full  account 
of  the  appearances  after  the  resurrection.  That 
the  meeting  was  by  appointment  renders  it  pro- 
bable that  all  the  disciples  who  could  possibly 
be  brought  together  were  present. 

17.  They  worshipped  him]  Certainly  with 
divine     worship  :    see     Jn20"^.      But     some 


doubted]  or,  as  the  Gk.  may  perhaps  be  more 
correctly  translated,  '  but  others  doubted,'  i.e. 
not  the  Eleven,  but  others  who  were  present. 

The  doubt  may  have  arisen  from  the 
change  which  had  passed  over  our  Lord's  now 
glorified  body  (Mkl6i3  Lk24i'3  Jn21'i),  but 
more  probably  from  the  reason  which  Paley 
gives  :  '  Chi-ist  appeared  first  at  a  distance  ; 
the  greater  part  of  the  company,  the  moment 
that  they  saw  Him,  worshipped,  but  some  as 
yet,  i.e.  upon  this  first  distant  view  of  His 
person,  doubted  ;  whereupon  Christ  came  up 
to  them  (v.  18)  and  spake  to  them,  etc'  :  the 
doubt,  therefore,  was  a  doubt  only  at  fu'st, 
for  a  moment,  and  upon  His  being  seen  at  a 
distance,  and  was  afterwards  dispelled  by  His 
nearer  approach,  and  by  His  entering  into 
conversation  with  them. 

18.  And  Jesus  came]  RY  '  came  to  them,'  viz. 
to  resolve  their  doubt  by  giving  them  a  close 
view  of  His  person.  It  is  worthy  of  notice 
that  in  all  the  appearances  after  the  resurrec- 
tion, our  Lord  allowed  the  disciples  either  to 
touch  or  to  come  into  very  close  proximity  to 
His  risen  body.  His  anxiety  to  remove  all 
reasonable  doubts  as  \o  the  cardinal  fact  of 
His  bodily  resurrection,  is  especially  evident 
in  Lk  24  39  Jn  20  20, 27. 

All  power  (authority)  is  given]  lit.  '  was 
given,'  viz.  at  My  resurrection.  '  There  was 
given  Me,  says  Jesus,  as  man,  the  power  which 
I  before  possessed  as  God '  (Euthymius)  :  cp. 
Eph  1 20-22  '  Human  nature,  which  was  before 
condemned,  now  sits  in  heaven  personally 
united  to  the  Divine  Word,  and  is  adored  by 
angels.  For  in  truth  human  nature  which  was 
before  enslaved,  now  in  Christ  rules  the 
Universe '  (Theophylact). 

The  view,  which  dates  the  glorification  of 
Christ,  not  from  the  Ascension,  but  from  the 
Resurrection,  is  safely  grounded  on  this  pas- 
sage. It  is  the  view  of  St.  Augustine,  of 
most  of  the  fathers,  of  Albertus  Magnus,  of  the 
schoolmen,  and  of  many  modern  authorities. 
Von  Gerlach  correctly  says,  '  The  Resurrection 
of  Jesus,  and  not  His  Ascension,  was  His 
entrance  into  the  new  eternal,  divine,  and 
heavenly  life,  as  in  it  all  power  in  heaven 
and  upon  earth  was  already  given  to  Him.' 
Similarly  Milligan,  '  The  glorification  of  Jesus 
began  at  His  Resurrection,  not  at  His  Ascen- 
sion '  ;  and  Westcott,  '  After  the  Resurrection 
our  Lord  belongs  already  to  another  realm,  so 
that  the  Ascension  only  ratifies  and  presents 
in  a  final  form  the  lessons  of  the  forty  days  in 
which  it  is  included.' 

The  only  really  doubtful  point  is  the 
locality  of  Christ's  body  during  the  forty 
days  ;  whether  it  was  in  heaven  at  God's 
right  hand  (Theophylact,  Milligan,  Rothe, 
etc.),  or  on  earth  (Aquinas).  In  either  case,  the 
heavenly  reign  and  glory  of  Christ  had  begun. 


720 


28.  19 


ST.  MATTHEW 


28.  20 


19.  And  teach  (RV  '  make  disciples  of)  all 
nations,  baptising  them  (or  '  by  baptising  them ')] 
In  the  clearest  possible  language  Christ  ex- 
presses His  intention  of  founding  a  universal 
religion.  It  has  sometimes  been  argued  that 
these  words  cannot  be  authentic,  because  of 
the  subsequent  unwillingness  of  the  Church  of 
Jerusalem,  and  even  of  Peter,  to  receive  Gen- 
tile converts.  But  the  question  in  the  Acts 
was  not  whether  Gentile  converts  should  be 
received,  but  whether  they  should  first  be  cir- 
cumcised. 

The  argument  against  infant  baptism  drawn 
from  this  passage  (that  infants  cannot  be 
'  taught,'  and  therefore  should  not  be  baptised, 
disappears  in  the  E.V,  which  says  that  the 
apostles  are  'to  make  disciples  of  all  nations 
by  baptising  them.'  To  Jewish  hearers  such 
words  would  naturally  suggest  infant  baptism, 
because  the  idea  of  infant  disciples  or  proselytes 
was  familiar  to  Judaism:  see  on  19 ^3'^^. 

In  the  name  (RV  '  into  the  name ')  of  the 
Father,  etc.]  One  of  the  leading  dogmatic  texts 
in  the  NT.,  being  the  nucleus  around  which  the 
Apostles'  Creed  subsequently  grew.  It  teaches, 
(1)  the  divinity  of  Christ,  for  no  mere  man 
could  thus  insert  his  name  between  those  of  the 
Father  and  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  (2)  The  unity  of 
the  Godhead,  for  one  '  name,'  or  divine  nature, 
belongs  to  the  three.  (3)  The  Trinity  of  per- 
sons, for  since  the  former  two  are  persons,  so 
also  is  the  third.  (4)  The  subordination  of  th« 
coequal  persons  to  one  another,  viz.  the  Son 
to  the  Father,  and  the  Spirit  to  both.  '  Let 
therefore  Arius  and  Sabellius  be  put  to  shame, 
Arius  because  Christ  said  not  "  Into  the  names 
(pi.),"  but  "  Into  the  name  (sing.),"  and  the 
name,  or  deity,  of  the  Three  is  one.  Where- 
fore the  Three  are  but  one  God.  Sabellius, 
because  the  Lord  made  mention  also  of  the 
three  persons,  not  of  one  person  having  three 
names,  sometimes  being  called  the  Father, 
sometimes  the  Son,  and  sometimes  the  Spirit, 
as  Sabellius  ignorantly  affirmed '  (Theophylact). 

The  RV  changes  '  in  the  name  '  to  '  into  the 
name.'  If  the  difference  is  to  be  pressed  (which 
is  not  certain),  it  implies  that  baptism  is  a 
change  of  religious  condition.  The  baptised 
person  passes  from  a  state  of  alienation  from 
God  info  a  state  of  union  and  reconciliation 
with  Him.  This  passage  does  not  record  the 
first  institution  of  Baptism,  which  had  been 
in  use  from  the  beginning  of  the  ministry, 
but  its  solemn  promulgation  as  a  rite  of  uni- 
versal, perpetual,  and  necessary  observance  : 
see  Jn322  4i. 

Although  the  Trinitarian  formula  in  this 
passage  is  found  in  all  MSS  and  versions,  some 
recent  critics  regard  it  as  an  interpolation,  or 
at  least  as  an  unauthentic  utterance  of  Jesus. 
They  argue  that  all  the  baptisms  described  in 
the  NT.  are  into  the  name  of  Jesus,  not  into 


the  name  of  the  Trinity  (Ac238  S^s  10^8  195)^ 
and  that  so  definite,  and,  as  it  were,  stereotyped, 
a  foi'mulation  of  Trinitarian  doctrine,  must  be 
later  than  the  apostolic  age.  These  arguments 
are  not  without  weight,  nevertheless  there  are 
important  considerations  on  the  other  side. 
For  the  formula,  whether  spoken  by  Jesus  or 
not,  dates  certainly  from  the  apostolic  age.  It 
was  clearly  known  to  Clement  of  Rome  (90 
A.D.),  who  has  three  Trinitarian  statements, 
mentioning  Father,  Son,  and  Holy  Spirit  thrice 
in  that  order  ;  it  forms  the  basis  of  the  earliest 
form  of  the  Apostles'  Creed  (circ.  100  a.d.);  it  is 
expressly  quoted  in  the  '  Didache '  (c.  100  a.d.)  ; 
and  is  definitely  alluded  to  by  Justin  Martyr 
(150  A.D.).  It  may  be  doubted  whether  any 
other  single  text  of  the  NT.  has  such  early  and 
satisfactory  attestation.  Nor  is  it  easy  to  say, 
with  such  a  definite  Trinitarian  formula  before 
us  as  2  Cor  131-*,  that  the  baptismal  formula 
must  necessarily  be  later.  Trinitarian  doctrine 
and  approximations  to  it,  are  diffused  thi-ough 
the  whole  NT.  literature,  and  the  prevalence 
of  such  a  type  of  teaching  is  most  naturally 
accounted  for  by  supposing  that  it  has  behind 
it  some  such  pregnant  utterance  of  our  Lord 
as  the  present,  the  meaning  of  which  was 
gradually  unfolded  subsequently  under  the 
guidance  of  the  Spirit.  The  argument  from 
the  baptisms  '  into  the  name  of  Jesus '  or  of 
'  the  Lord  Jesus  '  in  Acts  is  more  plausible 
than  strong.  In  no  case  is  the  actual  formula 
given,  and  we  cannot  be  sure  that  the  author 
means  more  than  that  the  baptisms  in  question 
were  Christian  baptisms.  The  'Didache'  (c. 
100  A.D.),  like  Acts,  speaks  of  Christian  bap- 
tism as  being  into  the  name  of  the  Lord 
Jesus,  but  when  it  comes  to  describe  the  rite 
in  detail,  prescribes  the  Trinitarian  formula, 
and  that  only. 

20.  Teaching  them]  '  Next  because  it  is  not 
sufficient  merely  to  be  baptised,  but  it  is  neces- 
sary also  to  do  good  works  after  baptism,  He 
saith,  "  Teaching  them  to  observe  all  things 
whatever  I  commanded  you,"  not  one  or  two 
only,  but  all  my  commandments.  Let  us 
tremble  therefore,  brethren,  reflecting  that  if 
one  thing  be  lacking  in  us,  we  are  not  perfect 
servants  of  Christ,  for  we  are  required  to  keep 
all '  (Theophylact). 

Lo,  I  am  with  you]  This  presence  of  Christ 
by  His  Spirit  may  be  taken  in  the  most  com- 
prehensive sense: — in  His  Church,  to  guide  it 
into  all  the  truth  ;  in  the  assemblies  of  the 
faithful,  to  receive  their  worship,  and  to  pre- 
sent their  petitions  to  the  Father  ;  in  the 
official  acts  of  His  ministers,  as  being  the 
true  High  Priest  and  Pastor  of  His  Church  ; 
and  in  the  hearts  of  the  faithful,  as  the 
source  of  their  spiritual  life  and  growth. 
The  omnipresence  of  Christ  implies  His 
divinity. 


46 


721 


ST.  MAEK 


INTRODUCTION 


I.  Life  of  St.  Mark.  Mark,  i.e.  Marcus,  a 
common  Roman  praenomen,  was  the  name  by 
which  the  evangelist  was  usually  known  in 
Gentile  and  Christian  circles.  His  original 
Jewish  name  was  John  (Ac  1 2 12)_  As  St.  Mark 
was  the  cousin  of  St.  Barnabas,  it  is  plausibly 
suggested  that,  like  him,  he  was  a  Levite,  settled 
Cyprus   (Col  4 10).      An   ancient   tradition 


m 


states  that  '  he  ministered  in  the  priesthood  in 
Israel,  being  according  to  the  flesh  a  Levite  '  ; 
and  that  '  after  his  conversion,  he  amputated 
his  finger  that  he  might  be  rejected  from  the 
priesthood.'  Certainly  in  early  times  he  bore 
the  title  of  KoJobodactylus,  i.e.  '  maimed  in  the 
finger,'  but  it  is  possible  that  the  loss  of 
his  finger  was  due  to  accident  or  congenital 
malformation. 

According  to  an  unnamed  ancient  presbyter 
who  lived  in  the  apostolic  age,  St.  Mark  was 
not  a  follower  of  Jesus,  but  a  convert  of  St. 
Peter.  The  presbyter's  account  is  confirmed 
by  certain  indications  in  the  NT.  It  is  clear 
from  the  Acts  that  the  mother  of  St.  Mark, 
whose  name  was  Mary,  was  living  in  Jerusalem 
not  long  after  the  crucifixion  (1212),  gj^e  was 
a  woman  of  some  wealth,  occupying  her  own 
house,  and  employing  several  servants  or  slaves. 
St.  Peter  probably  lodged  with  her  (12^2)  ;  at 
any  rate,  her  house  was  used  as  a  church,  and 
formed  an  important  Christian  centre.  St. 
Peter,  being  thus  an  inmate  of  the  same  house 
with  St.  Mark,  was  enabled  to  convert  him, 
and  afterwards  spoke  of  him  as  'Mark  my 
son,'  i.e.  my  convert  (IPetS^^):  cp.  lCor4i5. 

At  the  time  of  the  crucifixion  St.  Mark, 
though  not  a  convert,  was  probably  already  an 
enquirer.  In  Mkl45i  mention  is  made  of  a 
certain  young  man  who  was  so  much  interested 
in  the  fate  of  Jesus,  that  when  the  arrest  took 
place,  he  hastily  rose  at  midnight  and  followed 
the  procession.  This  picturesque  but  unim- 
portant incident  is  recorded  by  no  other 
evangelist,  and  since  the  name  is  suppressed, 
it  is  at  least  probable  that  the  young  man  was 
St.  Mark  himself.  If  this  is  correct,  it  would 
appear  that  St.  Mark,  though  not  technically  a 
'  hearer  '  of  Jesus,  was  at  least  a  witness  of 
some  of  the  events  of  Holy  Week. 

It  is  probable  that  St.  Mark,  as  a  convert  of 
St.  Peter,  sympathised  more  with  the  Jewish 
party  led  by  that  Apostle  than  with  the  Gentile 
party  of  St.  Paul.  This  probably  gives  the 
true  explanation  of  the  distressing   incident 


related  in  AclS^s.  Barnabas  and  Paul  had 
brought  Mark  from  Jerusalem  to  Antioch 
(Ac  1 2  25)^  and  had  chosen  him  to  act  as  their 
'  minister '  (i.e.  ministerial  assistant  for  such 
work  as  catechising  and  baptising  converts, 
which  was  not  ordinarily  done  by  the  Apostles 
in  person,  1  Cor  1 14-17^  on  their  first  missionary 
journey  (Acl 3  5).  But  after  passing  through 
Cyprus,  Mark  left  them  and  returned  to  Jeru- 
salem (Acl3i3).  The  causes  of  this  action 
were  partly  personal.  St.  Mark,  it  seems  pro- 
bable, resented  the  growing  ascendency  of  St. 
Paul  over  his  cousin  St.  Barnabas,  but  most  of 
all  he  disliked  St.  Paul's  treatment  of  uncir- 
cumcised  Gentiles  as  the  equals  of  circumcised 
Jews.  He  therefore  preferred  to  return  to 
the  thoroughly  Hebrew  Church  of  Jerusalem. 
The  breach  was  not  healed  even  by  the  Coun- 
cil of  Jerusalem,  which  occurred  some  three 
or  four  years  later.  Soon  after  that  event, 
when  Barnabas  proposed  to  Paul  to  take  Mark 
on  another  missionary  journey,  St.  Paul  re- 
fused, and  a  warm  dispute  parted  the  two 
friends,  St.  Mark  accompanying  St.  Barnabas 
to  Cyprus  (Ac  1 5  37).  Ultimately,  however, 
the  breach  between  St.  Mark  and  St.  Paul  was 
healed.  St.  Paul,  writing  from  his  prison  in 
Rome  (61  A.D.),  speaks  of  him  in  affectionate 
terms  as  a  companion  and  fellow-labourer 
(Philemon  v.  24  Col4lO).  A  few  years  later, 
writing  shortly  before  his  death  (66  A.D.), 
he  speaks  of  him  as  '  profitable  to  me  for  the 
ministry,'  or,  rather,  '  profitable  to  me  for 
ministering,'  and  bids  Timothy  bring  him  with 
him  (2  Tim  4 11). 

But  it  is  as  the  companion  of  St.  Peter  that 
St.  Mark  is  best  known  to  ecclesiastical  tradi- 
tion. According  to  the  apostolic  presbyter 
before  referred  to,  St.  Mark  became  the  '  inter- 
preter '  of  St.  Peter,  probably  after  the  release 
of  St.  Paul  from  his  first  imprisonment.  St. 
Peter,  in  all  probability,  was  not  a  very  good 
Greek  or  Latin  scholar.  Preaching  in  Aramaic, 
he  required  the  services  of  an  interpreter  to 
translate  his  sermons  clause  by  clause  into 
Greek  or  Latin,  as  the  case  might  be,  and  also 
to  conduct  his  correspondence.  The  relation 
of  St.  Mark  to  St.  Peter  as  his  'interpreter'  is 
confirmed  by  1  Peter,  written  from  Rome, 
where  St.  Peter  says,  '  The  church  that  is  at 
Babylon  (i.e.  Rome),  elected  together  with 
you,  saluteth  you  ;  and  so  doth  Marcus  my 
son'  (1  Pet 5 13). 


722 


INTRO. 


ST.  MARK 


INTRO. 


After  the  martyrdom  of  St.  Peter  (circ. 
67  A.D.)  little  is  known  of  the  life  of  St.  Mark. 
Tradition  makes  him  the  founder  and  first 
bishop  of  the  important  Church  of  Alexandria. 
He  is  not  spoken  of  as  a  martyr  by  any  writer 
earlier  than  the  5th  cent.  He  is  commemor- 
ated by  the  Church  on  April  25th. 

2.  Authorship  of  St.  Mark's  Gospel.  The 
direct  authorship  of  the  second  Gospel  by  St. 
Mark  has  never  been  disputed  in  the  Church, 
and  even  modern  negative  criticism  is  dis- 
posed to  regard  him  as  the  author  of  at 
least  the  nucleus  of  the  present  Gospel.  In 
ancient  times  it  was  sometimes  alluded  to  as 
the  '  memoirs  of  Peter,'  or  '  Peter's  Gospel.'  it 
being  the  common  opinion  that  St.  Mark  did 
no  more  than  reproduce  the  substance  of  St. 
Peter's  preaching.  The  most  ancient  witness, 
the  apostolic  presbyter  whose  sayings  are  re- 
corded by  Papias  about  130  A.D.,  gives  the 
following  important  testimony  :  '  Mark  having 
become  (or,  having  been)  Peter's  interpreter, 
wrote  all  that  he  remembered  (or  all  that  Peter 
related)  ;  though  he  did  not  [record]  in  order 
that  which  was  said  or  done  by  Ckrist.  For 
he  neither  heard  the  Lord  nor  followed  Him  ; 
but  subsequently,  as  I  said,  [attached  himself] 
to  Peter,  who  used  to  frame  his  teaching  to 
meet  the  [immediate]  wants  [of  his  hearers]  ; 
and  not  as  making  a  connected  narrative  of 
the  Lord's  discourses.  So  Mark  committed 
no  error,  as  he  wrote  down  some  particulars 
just  as  he  recalled  them  to  mind.  For  he  took 
heed  to  one  thing — to  omit  none  of  the  facts 
that  he  heard,  and  to  state  nothing  falsely  in 
[his  narrative  of]  them.'  From  this  it  appears 
that  the  presbyter,  while  satisfied  with  St. 
Mark's  general  care  and  accuracy,  was  for 
some  reason  or  other  dissatisfied  with  his 
'  order,'  preferring  probably  either  that  of  St. 
Luke,  who  was  specially  careful  to  write  '  in 
order,'  or  that  of  St.  John,  who  gives  a  dis- 
tinct chronology.  The  presbyter's  statement 
that  St.  Mark's  Gospel  depends  on  St.  Peter 
is  confirmed  by  internal  evidence.  It  records 
three  events — the  raising  of  Jairus'  daughter, 
the  Transfiguration,  and  the  Agony — at  which 
only  Peter,  James,  and  John  were  present. 
James  was  soon  martyred  (Ac  1 2  2).  John 
wrote  an  independent  Gospel.  Peter  alone 
remains  as  St.  Mark's  authority  for  these 
events. 

3.  Its  Literary  History.  St.  Mark's  Gospel, 
having  been  used  by  St.  Matthew  and  St. 
Luke,  must  be  earlier  than  either.  Its  exact 
date  depends  upon  the  date  assigned  to  the 
latter  Gospel.  If  St.  Luke's  Gospel  was 
written,  as  many  suppose,  during  St.  Paul's 
imprisonment  in  Rome  about  61  a.d.,  St. 
Mark's  Gospel  must  be  dated  about  60  a.d., 
or  earlier.  But  the  date  of  the  third  Gospel 
is  quite  uncertain,  hence  many  authorities  date 


St.  Mark  as  late  as  66-70  a.d.,  relying  mainly 
on  Mk  131^,  on  which  see  the  notes.  Ancient 
testimony  is  divided  as  to  whether  the 
Gospel  was  written  before  or  after  St.  Peter's 
martyrdom  (64  or  67  a.d.).  The  oldest  wit- 
ness, Irenseus  (177  A.D.),  says,  'After  the 
decease  of  [Peter  and  Paul]  Mark,  the  disciple 
and  interpreter  of  Peter,  himself  also  de- 
livered to  us  in  writing  the  substance  of 
Peter's  preaching.'  But  a  witness  nearly  as 
ancient,  Clement  of  Alexandria,  says,  '  When 
Peter  had  preached  the  Word  publicly  in  Rome, 
and  by  the  Spirit  had  declared  the  gospel, 
his  hearers,  who  were  numerous,  exhorted 
Mark,  as  one  who  had  followed  him  a  long 
time,  and  remembered  what  was  said,  to  write 
down  his  words.  Accordingly  Mark  composed 
the  Gospel  and  circulated  it  among  those  who 
asked  him  to  write  it.  When  Peter  heard  of 
it  he  neither  hindered  nor  encouraged  the 
work.' 

That  the  Gospel  was  published  at  Rome 
is  attested  by  nearly  all  the  ancient  authorities, 
and  is  the  general  verdict  of  modern  criticism. 
The  only  passage  which  seems  to  suggest  a 
Palestinian  origin  is  131*.  In  this  v.  the 
evangelist  shows  his  special  affection  and 
solicitude  for  the  Churches  of  Jerusalem  by 
inserting  a  special  warning  to  them  to  watch 
for  the  sign  of  the  desecration  of  the  Temple, 
and  immediately  upon  its  occurrence  to  flee  to 
a  place  of  safety.  But  it  does  not  follow  that 
the  evangelist,  at  the  time  of  writing,  was 
actually  in  Palestine.  In  distant  Rome  his 
thoughts  would  often  turn  to  his  old  home  at 
Jerusalem  and  his  relations  and  friends  in  the 
neighbourhood,  and  nothing  is  more  natural 
than  that  he  should  insert  such  an  affectionate 
warning  as  this  verse  contains. 

For  the  history  of  the  Gospel  after  pub- 
lication, the  probable  loss  of  its  original 
ending,  and  the  authorship  of  the  present 
appendix,  see  on   169-20. 

St.  Mark  certainly  wrote   in  Greek.     The 
recent  attempts  to  prove  an  Aramaic  original  -^ 
have  failed  to  carry  conviction. 

4.  Contents  and  Character  of  the  Gospel. 
The  second  Gospel  is  addressed  to  Gentile 
Christians,  primarily  those  of  Rome.  This 
is  shown  by  its  careful  explanations  of  Jewish 
customs,  localities,  etc.,  washings  (7 3),  Pass- 
over (1412)^  Preparation  (Ib'^'^) ;  and  especially 
of  Aramaic  words,  '  Boanerges  '  (3 1'^),  '  Ta- 
litha  cumi'  (5*1),  '  Corban '  (711),  '  Ephpha- 
tha'  (73-i),  'Bartima3us'(104«5),  '  Abba' (1430), 
'  Eloi,'  etc.  (I534) :  also  by  its  numerous 
Latinisms,  'denarius'  (63"),  'census'  (121*), 
'centurio'  (1539),  '  quadrans  '  (12*2),  '  legio  ' 
(59),  '  sextarius  '  (7*),  '  speculator '  (6  27),  '  satis 
facere'  (1512).  Significant  also  in  this  con- 
nexion is  the  fact  that  it  contains  no  direct 
mention  of  '  the    Law,'  and   hardly  a  single 


723 


INTRO. 


ST.  MARK 


1.  1 


quotation  from  the  OT.,  except  in  reports  of 
our  Lord's  speeches.  The  Gospel  has  little, 
if  any,  theological  or  party  tendency.  It 
contains  few  of  our  Lord's  numerous  dis- 
courses, probably  because  extensive  collections 
of  them  already  existed.  Of  the  numerous 
parables  it  records  only  four  :  the  Sower  (4  3), 
the  Seed  growing  secretly  (426),  the  Mustard 
Seed  (430),  and  the  Wicked  Husbandmen 
(121);  of  the  great  discourses  only  one,  the 
prophecy  of  the  fall  of  Jerusalem  (13^).  Its 
aim  is  to  present  a  graphic  picture  of  the 
events  of  the  ministry  as  St.  Peter  knew  them, 
from  the  baptism  to  the  resurrection.  It 
deals  almost  entirely  with  the  objective  facts, 
especially  the  miracles  of  healing,  which  it 
describes  with  great  fulness. 

As  compared  with  the  parallel  narratives  of 
St.  Matthew  and  St.  Luke,  St.  Mark's  narra- 
tive is  characterised  by  a  vividness,  fulness, 
and  wealth  of  detail,  which  seem  due  to  the 
testimony  of  an  actual  eye-witness.  He  notices 
our  Lord's  looks  and  emotions,  His  compas- 
sion (1  *1)  ;  His  anger  (3  °)  ;  His  turning  about 
in  the  throng  (5^^)  ;  His  sighing  and  looking 
up  to  heaven  (7^4)  ;  His  leading  the  blind 
man,  spitting,  and  putting  His  hands  on  his 
eyes  (8^3)  ;  His  sitting  down  and  calling  the 
Twelve  (9  3^)  ;  His  putting  His  hands  on  little 
children  (10 1^)  ;  His  love  of  the  young  ruler 
(10  21).  He  mentions  graphic  details  neglected 
by  the  other  evangelists  :  the  two  thousand 
swine  (5  ^3)  ;  the  sitting  down  in  ranks  by 
hundreds  and  by  fifties  (6*0)  ;  the  crucifixion 
at  '  the  third  hour '  (15^5)  ;  the  sitting  in  the 
sea  (41)  ;  the  sleeping  on  a  pillow  (438)  .  the 
sitting  over  against  the  treasury  (1241).  jjig 
accounts  of  the  healing  of  demoniacs  are  par- 
ticularly full.  He  evidently  regarded  these 
miracles  as  a  special  proof  of  Christ's  Messianic 
dignity. 

5.  Matter  Peculiar  to  this  Gospel.  The 
second  Gospel  contains  only  about  30  vv. 
peculiar  to  itself.  These  include  the  parable 
of  the  seed  growing  secretly  (4^6),  the  heal- 
ing of  the  blind  man  at  Bethsaida  (8  22),  and 
the  story  of  the  young  man  who  fled  from 
his  pursuers  (14^1). 

6.  Analysis  of  the  Gospel. 

(1)  The  Forerunner  of  Jesus  (li"^). 

(2)  The  baptism  and  temptation  (19-13). 

(3)  The  ministry  in  and  near   Capernaum 

(114_434). 

(4)  The  ministry  on  both  sides  of  the  Sea 
of  Galilee  (435-723). 

(5)  In  the  neighbourhood  of  Tyre  and  Sidon 

(7  24-30). 

(6)  On  the  eastern  side  of  the  lake  (7  3i-8  21). 

(7)  At  Bethsaida  (822-26). 

(8)  Journey  to  CiBsarea  Philippi  (827-929). 

(9)  The  last  journey  to  Jerusalem  (930- 
1052). 


(10)  Holy  Week  (111-1547). 

(11)  The  Resurrection  (16). 

7.  Relation  to  the  other  Synoptic  Gospels. 
Since  St.  Mark  contains  hardly  any  matter  not 
also  contained  in  St.  Matthew  and  St.  Luke, 
he  has  until  recent  times  been  comparatively 
neglected.  By  the  ancients  he  was  regarded 
as  an  abbreviator  of  St.  Matthew,  and  a  few 
modem  authorities  have  held  the  same  view. 
But  at  present  the  superior  originality  of  St. 
Mark  is  conceded  on  all  hands,  and  it  is  gener- 
ally admitted  that  the  first  and  third  evangel- 
ists derived  from  him  all  those  incidents  which 
they  record  in  common  with  him. 

Some  critics  have  argued  from  the  ad- 
mitted '  priority  '  of  St.  Mark,  that  he  alone 
is  trustworthy,  but  this  is  a  precarious  infer- 
ence. There  is  not  the  least  evidence  that 
the  '  logia,'  or  collections  of  discourses  used 
by  St.  Matthew  and  St.  Luke  are  either  less 
trustworthy  or  less  ancient  than  the  Second 
Gospel.  For  further  information  on  this 
subject  the  reader  is  referred  to  art.  '  The 
Synoptic  Problem.' 

8.  St.  Mark  and  the  Miraculous  Birth  of 
Jesus.  It  is  sometimes  argued  that,  because 
St.  Mark  did  not  mention  oiu"  Lord's  birth  of 
a  virgin,  he  disbelieved  it.  But  his  silence  is 
sufficiently  explained  by  his  design  of  record- 
ing only  those  facts  about  our  Lord's  life,  of 
which  St.  Peter  had  personal  experience.  St. 
Peter's  knowledge  of  Jesus  began  at  His 
baptism,  so  that  St.  Mark  naturally  began  his 
narrative  at  this  point.  Some  think  that  St. 
Mark  wrote  before  the  miracle  of  our  Lord's 
conception  was  generally  known  ;  others  that 
he  shows  his  knowledge  of  it  in  63. 

9.  The  last  Twelve  Verses  :  see  on  16^-20, 
(The  commentary  on  St.  Mark  in  a  work  of 

this  kind  is  necessarily  a  skeleton,  because 
nearly  the  whole  subject-matter  has  already 
been  dealt  with  in  the  commentary  on  St. 
Matthew.  By  referring,  as  directed,  to  the 
parallel  passages  in  St.  Matthew  [and  occasion- 
ally in  St.  Luke],  the  student  will  be  able  to 
supply  whatever  is  deficient  in  the  commentary 
on  St.  Mark.) 

CHAPTER   1 
Baptism  of  Jesus.     Beginning  of  the 

Ministry 

1-8.  Appearance  of  John  the  Baptist  (Mt 
3 1  Lk  3 1).  See  on  Mt  and  Lk.  St.  Mark's  Gos- 
pel, being  based  on  the  reminiscences  of  Peter, 
begins  with  the  public  ministry  of  Jesus,  or, 
rather,  with  His  connexion  with  the  Baptist, 
through  which  Peter  and  other  apostles  first 
became  acquainted  with  Him.  It,  therefore, 
omits  the  birth  narratives,  although  it  is  pos- 
sible that  St.  Mark  was  acquainted  with  them 
(see  on  63). 

I.  The  beginning]  It  is  clear  that  at  first 


724 


1.  2 


ST.  MARK 


3.  6 


the  elementary  preaching  of  the  gospel  by  the 
apostles  began  with  the  baptism  of  Jesus  by 
John,  and  that  it  was  only  subsequently,  and 
to  the  initiated  alone,  that  the  secret  of  our 
Lord's  miraculous  birth  was  disclosed.  The 
reasons  for  this  prudential  reserve  during  the 
Yirgin's  lifetime  are  obvious.  The  Son  of 
God]  These  words  are  omitted  by  Westcott 
and  Hort,  practically  on  the  authority  of  a 
single  MS.  They  are  rightly  retained  by  the 
RV,  and  by  Swete.  2.  In  the  prophets]  RV '  in 
Isaiah  the  prophet.'  The  quotation,  however, 
is  not  entirely  taken  from  Isaiah,  but  partly 
from  Mai  31  and  partly  from  Isa403.  The 
quotation  from  Malachi  does  not  occur  in  the 
parallels.  Before  thy  face]  In  the  Heb.  '  be- 
fore my  face.'  This  was  clearly  a  Christian 
adaptation  of  the  passage  :  see  on  Mt  1 1 10. 

9-1 1.  Baptismof  Jesus(Mt3i3Lk32i).  See 
on  Mt. 

12,  13.  The  temptation  (Mt4i  Lk4i).  See 
on  Mt.  St.  Mark  alone  has  the  graphic  touch 
that  He  was  '  with  the  wild  beasts.' 

14,  15.  Arrest  of  John  and  beginning  of 
the  Galilean  ministry  (Mt4i2  Lk4i^  Jn4i-3). 
See  on  Mt. 

16-20.  Call  of  Simon,  Andrew,  James,  and 
John  (Mt4i8,  cp.  Lk.51).     See  on  Mt. 

21-28.  A  demoniac  healed  in  the  synagogue 
at  Capernaum  (Lk43i).  A  striking  point  in 
this  miracle  is  the  testimony  of  the  demon  to 
Chi-ist's  Messiahship,  which,  however,  He  re- 
fused to  accept.  If  the  possession  was  real, 
the  demon's  confession  of  Christ  as  'the  Holy 
One  of  God '  was  probably  extorted  by  fear. 
If  the  possession  was  not  real,  but  imagined 
by  the  insane  man,  the  confession  was  probably 
due  to  the  man's  instinctive  sense  that  a  person 
with  supernatm-al  powers  was  present,  ready 
to  heal  him. 

22.  Taught]  To  teach  with  authority,  as 
distinguished  from  mere  exhortation,  was  only 
allowed  to  those  who  had  received  rabbinical 
ordination.  Christ  was  probably  allowed  to 
teach,  like  John,  as  a  prophet,  not  as  a  rabbi. 

24.  What  have  we,  etc.]  The  plural  is 
generally  understood  to  prove  the  actual  ex- 
istence of  the  indwelling  evil  spirit.  At  the 
same  time,  it  is  a  well-known  fact  that  if 
an  insane  person  is  the  victim  of  a  delusion, 
he  adapts  all  his  words  and  actions  to  accord 
with  it.  If  the  insane  person  believed  that 
he  was  possessed  by  a  devil,  he  would  be  likely 
to  speak  in  the  plural.  The  Holy  One  of  God] 
seeJn6<59. 

25.  It  was  not  expedient  that  Christ  or  the 
apostles  should  receive  what  was  generally 
supposed  to  be  diabolical  testimony  (Mtl025 
1224).  26.  Torn]  better, '  convulsed.'  27.  What 
new  doctrine]  RV  '  A  new  teaching.' 

29-34.  Healing  of  Simon's  wife's  mother 
and  others  (MtS^^  Lk438).     See  on  Mt.     Ob- 


serve St.  Mark's  graphic  touch.  And  all  the 
city  was  gathered  together  at  the  door. 

35-39-  Tours  through  Galilee  (Lk  4  42)_  gge 
on  Mt4  23. 

35.  Prayed]  To  spend  a  night,  or  a  great 
part  of  a  night,  in  prayer,  was  our  Lord's  way 
of  preparing  for  preaching  (v.  38),  for  working 
miracles  (9  29),  and  for  other  important  actions, 
such  as  the  choice  of  the  Twelve  (Lk  6 12). 

40-45.  The  leper  cleansed  (Mt8i  Lk5i2). 
See  on  Mt. 

45.  (Peculiar  to  Mk.)  It  explains  the  reason 
why  Jesus  so  often  enjoined  secrecy  on  those  who 
were  healed.  He  was  afraid  that  the  popular 
enthusiasm  would  lead  to  political  complications. 

CHAPTER  2 

The  Sick  of  the  Palsy 

1-12.  Healing  of  the  palsied  man  (Mt9i  Lk 
5").     SeeonMt. 

13-17.  Call  of  Levi  (Mt  9  «  Lk  b  27).  See  on  Mt. 

16.  The  scribes  and  Pharisees]  RV  '  the 
scribes  of  the  Pharisees '  :  implying  that  some 
scribes  were  Sadducees,  though  this  w\as  rare. 

18-22.  The  controversy  on  fasting  (Mt^i^ 
Lk533).     See  on  Mt. 

21.  New  cloth]  RV  '  undressed  cloth.'  Else 
the  new  piece]  R  V  '  else  that  which  should  fill 
it  up,  taketh  from  it,  the  new  from  the  old, 
and  a  worse  rent  is  made.' 

22.  Old  bottles]  RV  'old  wine-skins.'  And 
the  wine  is  spilled]  RV  '  and  the  wine  perisheth 
and  the  skins  :  but  they  put  new  wine  into 
fresh  wine-skins.' 

23-28.  Plucking  the  ears  of  corn  on  the 
sabbath  (Mt  1 2 1  Lk  6 1).     See  on  Mt. 

26.  In  the  days  of  Abiathar  the  high  priest] 
RV  '  when  Abiathar  was  high  priest.'  A  well- 
known  difficulty,  for  Ahimelech  seems  to  have 
been  the  high  priest  at  this  time.  '  The  whole 
expression,  which  occurs  neither  in  Mt  nor 
Lk,  is  omitted  by  a  very  important  gi-oup  of 
authorities,  and  may  be  an  editorial  note ' 
(Swete).  If  it  be  retained,  it  is  not  to  be 
regarded  as  a  mere  blunder,  but  as  a  deliberate 
inference  from  the  somewhat  conflicting  data 
of  the  OT.  For  whereas  in  1  S21 1  Ahimelech 
appears  as  high  priest,  and  is  shortly  afterwards 
slain  by  Saul  for  his  friendship  with  David 
(IS 22 16),  in  2 SB iM  Chi 8 1*5  246  he  appears 
long  after  his  supposed  death,  officiating  in  the 
priesthood  together  with  Zadok,  and  is  repre- 
sented as  the  son,  not  the  father  of  Abiathar. 
St.  Mark's  expression  is,  therefore,  quite  in 
harmony  with  one  of  the  two  conflicting  OT. 
accounts.  Such  confusions  of  proper  names 
are  not  uncommon  in  the  OT. 

CHAPTER  3 

Choice  op  the  Twelve 
1-6.  The  withered  hand  (Mt  129  Lk  6  6).    gee 
on  Mt.     6.   Herodians]   see  on  Mt  2216. 


725 


3.7 


ST.  MARK 


4.26 


7-12.  Withdrawal  of  Jesus.  Multitudes 
healed.  See  on  Mtl2i5-iT.  St.  Mark's  ac- 
count is  much  fuller.  Observe  here  (a)  the 
extraordinary  sensation  made  by  the  appear- 
ance of  Jesus,  as  shown  by  the  great  distances 
from  which  the  multitudes  were  drawn  ;  (b) 
the  enormous  number  of  cures,  without  any 
allusion  to  failures.  Clearly  the  miracles  re- 
corded are  only  a  very  small  proportion  of  the 
miracles  performed. 

8.  Idumaea]  The  district  S.  of  Judaea  and 
the  Dead  Sea.  Beyond  Jordan]  This  district, 
like  Tyre  and  Sidon,  was  mainly  Gentile,  and 
it  is  possible  that  among  those  healed  were 
some  G-entiles. 

ID.  Plagues]  lit.  '  scourges,'  diseases  being 
regarded  as  a  divine  chastisement,  ii.  Thou 
art  the  Son  of  God]  i.e.  '  the  Messiah.'  See 
on  1 21-28. 

13-19^  Choice  of  the  Twelve  (Mtl02  Lk 
612).     See  on  Mt. 

17.  Boanerges]  The  sons  of  Zebedee  are 
so  named  from  their  vehement  character,  and 
perhaps  also  from  their  powerful  eloquence 
(cp.  938  1037  Lk  9  53-56).  So  Yirgil  speaks  of 
'  the  twin  Scipiadse,  those  two  thunder-bolts 
of  war.'  The  form  Boanerges  is  corrupt 
and  its  derivation  doubtful.  Probably  it 
stands  for  the  Heb.  B'lie  regesh,  '  sons  of 
tumult.'  Regesh  means  '  thunder '  in  Arabic, 
and  it  may  have  done  so  (though  there  is 
no  clear  evidence  that  it  did)  in  Hebrew 
and  Aramaic. 

18.  The  Canaanite]  RV  '  the  Canangean '  or 
'  zealot '  :  see  on  Mt  10*. 

i9*'-30.  Christ  is  accused  of  dealings  with 
Beelzebub  (Mt  1 2  22).     See  on  Mt. 

19.  An  house]  perhaps  Simon's.  20.  A 
graphic  touch  derived  from  the  personal  re- 
miniscences of  Peter.  21.  His  friends]  From 
V.  31  they  appear  to  have  been  His  mother  and 
brethren.  '  There  is  both  a  logical  and  chrono- 
logical relation  between  this  attitude  of  our 
Lord's  family  and  this  new  phase  of  the  oppo- 
sition of  the  scribes.  The  logical  relation  is 
found  in  the  language  of  the  two.  His  family 
said  "  He  is  beside  Himself  "  ;  the  scribes  said, 
"  He  is  possessed  by  the  devil  himself."  It  is 
not,  however,  implied  at  all  that  His  family 
was  in  sympathy  with  the  scribes,  their  appre- 
hension being  simply  that  His  mind  was  un- 
settled, and  that  He  needed  to  be  put  under 
restraint.  This  lack  of  human  sympathy  with 
Him  led  Jesus  to  point  out  the  higher  reality  of 
spiritual  relationship  and  association'  (G-ould). 
"The  Fourth  Gospel  agrees  with  the  synoptists 
in  representing  the  '  brethren  '  as  unbelievers 
and  altogether  unsympathetic  (Jn75).  Only 
their  anxiety,  not  their  unbelief,  is  to  be  attri- 
buted to  the  Virgin  mother  :  see  Jn  2  3. 

31-35.  His  mother  and  His  brethren  (Mt  12  46 
Lk8i9).     See  on  Mt,  and  on  v.  21. 


CHAPTER  4 

Parable  of  the  Sower.     Stilling  the 
Tempest 

1-9.  Parable  of  the  Sower  (Mtl3i  LkS*). 
See  on  Mt. 

10-20.  The  parable  interpreted  (MtlS^o 
Lk89).     SeeonMt. 

21-25.  Further  remarks  upon  teaching  by 
parables  (Lk8i6-i8).  Omitted  by  Mt,  who 
introduces  these  sayings  in  other  connexions, 
viz.  Mt5i5  72  102(5,  which  see. 

21.  A  candle]  RV  'the  lamp.'  A  bushel] 
RV  '  the  bushel.'  A  bed]  RV  '  the  bed.'  A 
candlestick]  RV  '  the  stand.'  St.  Matthew  in- 
troduces this  saying  into  the  Sermon  on  the 
Mount  (Mt5i5).  There  it  bids  the  disciples 
give  to  the  world  the  light  of  a  good 
example.  Here  it  bids  them  enlighten  the 
world  by  their  teaching.  22.  For  there  is 
nothing  hid]  '  Our  Lord  corrects  a  false  im- 
pression which  might  have  arisen  from  the 
mention  of  a  mystery  (v.  11).  If  the  gospel 
was  for  a  moment  treated  as  a  secret,  it  was  so 
only  because  this  temporary  secrecy  was  essen- 
tial to  its  successful  proclamation  after  the 
Ascension.  Those  to  whom  the  secret  was  now 
confided  were  charged  with  the  responsibility 
of  publishing  it  then '  (Swete).  See  further  on 
Mtl026,  where  the  saying  recurs.  23.  See  on 
Mt  1 1 15.  24.  Take  heed  what  ye  hear  (AV, 
RV).  The  context,  however,  requires  that 
this  should  be  rendered  '  Understand  (weigh 
well  the  meaning  of)  what  ye  hear,'  a  quite 
possible  rendering.  With  what  measure  ye 
mete]  i.e.  '  ye  measure.'  '  In  that  measure  in 
which  you  measure  your  attention  to  My  teach- 
ing, in  the  same  measure  will  spiritual  under- 
standing be  measui'ed  unto  you  '  (Euthymius). 
This  proverb  occurs  in  several  connexions 
(Mt  7  2  Lk  6  38  q.v.).  25.  To  the  diligent  student 
of  divine  truth  more  of  divine  truth  shall  be 
revealed.  The  slothful  student  shall  not  only 
learn  no  more,  but  shall  even  forget  what  he 
already  knows.  In  Mtl3i2  2bP^  the  context 
being  different,  these  words  have  a  different 
meaning.  -• 

26-29.  The  seed  growing  secretly  (the  only 
parable  peculiar  to  Mk).  Tatian  in  his  '  Diates- 
saron  '  places  it  immediately  before  the  Tares. 
Such  a  position  for  it  is  suitable,  but  it  is  wrong 
to  regard  it,  with  "Weiss,  as  only  an  imperfect 
and  mutilated  version  of  that  parable. 

The  point  of  the  parable  is  not  so  much  the 
secret  invisible  energy  of  the  seed,  or  divine 
Word,  as  that  of  the  earth  into  which  the  seed 
falls,  i.e.  the  moral  and  spiritual  nature  of  man. 
The  seed  of  Christianity  will  grow,  because 
the  soil  into  which  it  will  fall  is  suitable  to 
nourish  it.  The  human  soul  is  'naturally 
Christian '  (Tertullian),  and  Christianity  is  the 
'  natural  religion.'     Christianity  can,  therefore, 


726 


\ 


4.  26 


ST.  MARK 


6.27 


propagate  itself  without   human   effort,   and 
often  does  so. 

26.  A  man]  i.e.  the  apostles  and  other 
preachers  of  the  gospel.  Cast  seed]  i.e. 
preach  the  gospel  by  word  or  example.  The 
ground]  i.e.  the  souls  of  men. 

27.  Sleep,  and  rise]  i.e.  ministers  of  the 
gospel  having  preached  the  word  are  to  pur- 
sue their  ordinary  employments  without  undue 
anxiety.  Visible  results  may  be  slow,  but  the 
seed  is  sure  to  germinate,  because  the  soul  of 
man  is  specially  fitted  by  God  to  receive  it, 
and  will  by  its  own  spiritual  activity  cause  it 
at  last  to  bear  fruit.  Christ  does  not,  however, 
discourage  due  pastoral  care.  Though  the 
earth  brings  forth  of  herself,  '  this  does  not 
exclude  due  cultivation,  and  rain  from  heaven, 
and  sunshine '  (Bengel). 

28.  First  the  blade,  etc.]  Therefore  mis- 
sionaries who  have  no  results  to  show,  are  not 
to  be  discouraged.  In  India  at  present,  few 
converts  are  made,  but  the  seed  is  being  sown, 
and  the  time  of  the  harvest  will  come. 

29.  The  harvest]  is  an  earthly  harvest.  It 
is  gathered  in  Christian  lands,  when  a  faithful 
pastor,  after  long  waiting,  gathers  in  a  harvest 
of  true  penitents  and  genuine  servants  of 
Christ.  It  is  gathered  in  heathen  lands,  when 
the  hindrances  to  the  gospel  are  at  last  re- 
moved, and  the  people  ask  for  baptism.  Many, 
however,  regard  '  the  harvest '  here  as  that  at 
the  end  of  the  world. 

30-32.  The  grain  of  mustard  seed  (MtlS^i 
Lkl3i8).     See  on  Mt. 

33,  34.  Mt  1334,35.     See  on  Mt  13 10-17. 

35-41.  Stilling  the  storm  (Mt8i8,23-27  Lk 
8  22).  See  on  Mt.  St.  Mark's  graphic  details 
should  be  noticed — '  the  other  boats  with  Him,' 
V.  36,  and  '  the  pillow  (cushion)  in  the  stern,' 
V.  38. 

CHAPTER  5 

The  Gadaeene  Demoniac.    Jairus' 
Daughter 

1-20.  The  Gadarene  (Gerasene)  demoniac 
(Mt82S  Lk82t5).  See  on  Mt ;  Mk's  account 
is  much  the  fullest. 

I.  Gadarenes]  RV  'Gerasenes.'  9.  Mk  and 
Lk  (not  Mt)  state  that  the  man  called  him- 
self '  Legion,'  because  he  believed  himself  to 
be  possessed  by  numerous  devils. 

18-20.  Our  Lord  thought  the  quiet  of  home 
life  better  for  the  man  than  the  excitement  of 
going  about  with  Him.  He  told  him  to  pro- 
claim the  miracle,  because  in  this  mainly 
Gentile  district  there  was  no  danger  of  popular 
excitement.     20.    Decapolis]  see  on  Mt425. 

21-43.  The  woman  with  the  issue,  and 
Jairus'  daughter  (Mt9i«  LkS^O).     See  on  Mt. 

30.  Knowing  that  virtue  (peculiar  to  Mk 
and  Lk).  37.  Mk  and  Lk  (not  Mt)  mention 
that  Peter,   James   and   John  witnessed  this 


miracle.  These  three  were  also  privileged  to 
be  present  at  the  Transfiguration  and  the 
Agony  in  Gethsemane. 

41.  Talitha  cumi]  (peculiar  to  Mk).  St. 
Mark  heard  from  St.  Peter's  lips  the  exact 
Aramaic  words  spoken  by  Jesus. 

CHAPTER  6 

Visit  to  Nazareth.  Mission  of  the 
Twelve.    Execution  of  the  Baptist. 

Feeding     of     the     Five     Thousand. 

Walking  on  the  Sea 

1-6.   Visit  to  Nazareth  (Mtl354). 

3.  Is  not  this  the  carpenter  ?]  Mt  '  Is  not 
this  the  carpenter's  son  ? '  Baur,  Bleek, 
Renan,  and  Hilgenfeld  regard  St.  Mark's 
version  of  this  expression  as  a  proof  that  he 
was  acquainted  with  the  Virgin  Birth.  '  Mark 
tolerates  not  the  paternity  of  Joseph  even  in 
the  mouth  of  Nazarenes '  (Hilgenfeld).  Most 
scholars  dispute  the  inference. 

It  is  not  quite  certain  whether  Jesus  was  a 
carpenter  or  a  smith.  The  Greek  word  may 
mean  either.  According  to  an  ancient  tradition 
He  made  ploughs  and  yokes. 

Celsus  (160  A.D.)  derides  the  mean  and  ser- 
vile occupation  of  Jesus,  but  manual  work 
was  honoured  among  the  Jews.  '  It  is  in- 
cumbent,' said  the  rabbis,  '  on  the  father  to 
circumcise  his  son,  to  redeem  him,  to  teach 
him  the  Law,  and  to  teach  him  some  occupa- 
tion.' Rabbi  Judah  said,  'Whosoever  teacheth 
not  his  son  to  do  some  work,  is  as  if  he  taught 
robbery.'  Rabbi  Meir  said, '  Let  a  man  always 
endeavour  to  teach  his  son  an  honest  trade.' 

5.  He  could  there  do]  This  expression,  as 
presenting  an  apparent  difficulty  to  faith,  is 
more  original  than  St.  Matthew's  '  He  did 
not  there  many  mighty  works.'  Of  course 
the  inability  was  moral.  Jesus  required  faith 
in  those  who  were  to  be  healed,  or  in  persons 
connected  with  them,  and  only  in  a  very  few 
cases  waived  this  requirement  ( Jn  5 1^). 

7-13.  Mission  of  the  Twelve  (Mt  10 1  Lk  9 1). 
See  on  Mt.      13.  Anointed]  cp.  JasSi*. 

14-29.  Herod  and  Jesus.  Execution  of  the 
Baptist  (Mt  14 1).     SeeonMt:  cp.  Lk97. 

20.  Observed  him]  RV  '  kept  him  safe.' 
He  did  many  things]  RV  '  he  was  much  per- 
plexed.'    Herod's  conscience  was  uneasy. 

21.  High  captains]  RM  '  or,  military  tri- 
bunes, Gr.  chiliarchs.''  Chief  es^f ales']  RV  '  the 
chief  men.'  22.  The  daughter  of  . .  Herodias] 
Hort,  relying  upon  only  five  MSS,  alters  this 
into  '  his  daughter  Herodias,'  a  reading  which 
is  clearly  the  blunder  of  some  scribe,  since  it 
violates,  as  Weiss  says,  '  all  history,  all  gram- 
mar, and  the  context.'  27.  An  executioner] 
AVmg.  'one  of  his  guard.'  The  word  is  Latin, 
corresponding  either  to  speculator,  '  a  watcher,' 
a  soldier  of  the  bodyguard,  or  spiculator,  '  one 
armed  with  a  javelin,'  and  so  an  executioner. 


727 


6.  30 


ST.  MARK 


8.  26 


The  word  often  occurs  in  rabbinical  Hebrew  in 
the  sense  of  an  executioner. 

30-44.  Return  of  the  apostles.  Feeding 
the  five  thousand  (Mt  1 4 13  Lk  9 10  Jn  6 1).  See 
on  Mt  and  Jn.  The  graphic  touches  in  Mk 
should  be  noticed  :  '  Come  ye  yourselves 
apart,'  etc. ;  '  no  leisure  so  much  as  to  eat ' ;  'as 
sheep  not  having  a  shepherd ' ;  'the  green 
grass  ' ;  '  like  garden  beds.'  These  are  re- 
miniscences of  the  eyewitness  Peter. 

40.   Ranks]  i.e.  groups,  lit.  '  garden-beds.' 
45-52.  Walking  on  the  sea  (Mt  14  22  Jn6i5). 

See  on  Mt  and  Jn. 

53-56.  Miracles  in  the  land  of  Gennesaret 

(Mtl434).     SeeonMt. 

CHAPTER  7 
Eating    with    Unwashed    Hands.      The 
Syrophcenician  Woman.     Healing  of  a 
Deaf  Man 

1-23.  Eating  with  unwashed  hands  (Mt 
I51).     See  on  Mt. 

3,  4.  A  note  added  by  St.  Mark  for  the 
benefit  of  his  Gentile  readers,  who  would  not 
be  familiar  with  Jewish  customs.  St.  Mat- 
thew's Jewish  readers  needed  no  such  explan- 
ation. 3.  Wash  their  hands  oft]  lit.  'wash  their 
hands  with  the  fist.'  The  Jewish  custom  was 
to  wash  the  hands  up  to  the  wrist,  and  that  is 
probably  the  meaning  here,  although  it  is  hard 
to  extract  it  from  the  present  (perhaps  corrupt) 
Gk.  text.  Wetstein  thinks  that  '  a  fist '  is  the 
minimum  quantity  of  water  {\  of  a  h'm,  or  pint), 
which  was  allowed  for  washing  the  hands. 
'  A  quarter  of  a  hin  of  water  is  the  quantity 
appointed  for  one  man's  hands.'  The  AV, 
amending  the  text,  reads,  '  Except  they  wash 
their  hands  oft:  RV  gives  '  diligently,'  a 
possible  conjecture. 

4.  Except  they  wash]  lit.  '  baptise  them- 
selves.' The  Jews  carefully  distinguished 
'  washing '  the  hands,  i.e.  pouring  water  over 
them,  from  '  baptising  '  or  dipping  them.  In 
V.  3  pouring  water  over  them  is  meant  ;  but 
here,  after  a  visit  to  the  market-place,  in  which 
all  kinds  of  defilement  would  be  met  with, 
dipping  them  is  regarded  as  necessary.  Dip- 
ping the  hands  was  performed  before  meals, 
washing  at  meal-times.  Washing  of  cups,  etc.] 
The  details  are  too  intricate  to  be  given  here. 
In  some  cases  the  articles  were  washed,  in 
others  only  sprinkled.  The  '  cup  '  is  the  Lat. 
sextarius  =  1  pint.  And  of  tables]  rather,  '  of 
beds,'  or,  couches  for  reclining  at  dinner. 

II.  Corban]  see  on  MtlS^. 

19.  Purging  all  meats]  RV  '  This  he  said, 
making  all  meats  clean'  :  see  on  Mt  15 1-20. 

24-30.  The  Syrophcenician  woman  (Mt 
15  21).     See  on  Mt. 

31-37.  The  deaf  man  with  an  impediment  in 
his  speech  (peculiar  to  Mk).  This  miracle 
ia  selected    by  Mk  for    its  unusual  character. 


Usually  our  Lord  healed  instantaneously,  here 
by  stages  :  usually  by  a  word,  here  by  material 
means.  The  reason  for  the  difference  of 
treatment  must  be  sought  in  the  spiritual  state 
of  the  sufferer.  The  miracle  was  done  pri- 
vately that  the  man,  in  the  absence  of  the 
multitude,  might  be  able  to  concentrate  his 
attention.  Jesus  made  use  of  the  language  of 
signs,  because  the  man  was  deaf.  He  put  his 
fingers  in  His  ears,  indicating  that  He  would 
pierce  through  the  obstruction.  He  touched 
His  tongue,  indicating  that  He  would  remove 
the  impediment  in  his  speech.  Having  thus 
produced  faith  in  the  man,  He  worked  the 
miracle.  Edersheim  thinks  that  our  Lord  used 
this  elaborate  process  because  the  man  was  a 
Gentile,  and,  therefore,  was  with  more  diffi- 
culty brought  to  believe  and  to  understand. 
31.  Tyre]   see  on  Mtl52i. 

33.  Spit]  R V  '  spat ' :  see  Jn  9  6.  '  He  spat 
on  his  tongue,  using  a  means  of  healing  ac- 
cepted in  popular  opinion  of  Jew  and  Gentile. 
The  use  of  saliva  for  cures  is  universally  re- 
cognised by  the  rabbis '  (Edersheim). 

34.  Sighed]  moved  by  the  afflictions  of  hu- 
manity. Ephphatha]  Here,  as  often,  St.  Mark, 
following  St.  Peter,  preserves  the  actual  Ara- 
maic expression  of  our  Lord  :  cp.  5*i. 

The  ceremony  of  '  opening  the  ears,'  i.e. 
touching  them  with  saliva  and  saying  '•Eph- 
phatha, Be  opened,'  was  introduced  into  the 
Baptismal  service  probably  in  the  4th  cent. 

CHAPTER  8 
Feeding  the  Four  Thousand.     The  Sign 
FROM    Heaven.     Healing    of  a  Blind 
Man.     Confession  of  Peter 

i-io.  Feeding  the  four  thousand  (Mtl532)_ 
See  on  Mt. 

11-13.  A  sign  from  heaven  sought  (Mt 
161).     SeeonMt. 

14-21.  A  warning  against  the  leaven  of  the 
Pharisees  and  of  Herod  (Mtl6*).     See  on  Mt. 

22-26.  A  blind  man  healed  at  Bethsaida 
(peculiar  to  Mk,  and  selected,  like  the  healing 
in  7^2^  for  its  unusual  features).  The  man  was 
healed  in  stages,  probably  because  his  faith  was 
imperfect.  Jesus  first  strengthened  his  faith 
by  partly  healing  him,  and  then,  when  his  faith 
was  adequate,  completed  the  cure. 

22.  Bethsaida]  see  on  Jnl^^.  23.  Spit] 
see  on  1^^.     Put  his  hands]  cp.  9^^  1913. 

24.  I  see,  etc.]  RV  '  I  see  men  ;  for  I  be- 
hold them  as  trees  walking.'  Medical  testi- 
mony agrees  with  the  process  here  described. 
Cheselden  says  of  a  patient  of  his  who, 
having  been  born  blind,  recovered  his  sight, 
'  When  he  first  saw,  he  knew  not  the  shape 
of  anything,  nor  any  one  thing  from  another, 
however  different  in  shape  or  magnitude.' 

26.  Neither  go,  etc.]  RV  '  Do  not  even  enter 
into  the  village.' 


728 


8.  27 


ST.  MARK 


10.  17 


27-C.  9I.  Confession  of  Peter  (Mtl6i3 
Lk9i8).     SeeonMt. 

CHAPTER  9 

The    Transfiguration.      An   Epileptic 
HEALED.     Prediction  of  His  Death 
2-8.  The   Transfi^ration  (Mtl7i  Lk928). 
See  on  Mt.  ' 

9-13.  A  question  about  Elijah.  See  on 
Mt  17  9-13. 

14-29.  An  epileptic  healed  (Mt  17 14  Lk  9  37). 
See  on  Mt. 

23.  If  thou  canst  believe]  RV  '  If  thou 
canst  !  All  things,'  etc.  29.  By  prayer  and 
fasting]  RV  omits  '  and  fasting,'  but  the  evi- 
dence for  it  is  strong. 

30-32.  Prediction  of  the  Passion  (Mtl722 
Lk943).     See  on  Mt. 

33-37.  The  controversy  as  to  which  should 
be  greatest  (Mtl8i  LkO^t')-     See  on  Mt. 

38-40.  The  man  casting  out  devils  in  Christ's 
name  (Lk9*9).  The  apostles  report  that  a 
private  Christian,  who  had  not  been  called  to 
the  apostolic  office  ('he  foUoweth  not  with  us,' 
Lk),  and  had  received  no  definite  commission 
from  Christ  to  work  miracles,  as  the  apostles 
had  (31^),  was  nevertheless  casting  out  devils 
in  Christ's  name.  Jealous  for  the  privileges 
of  their  newly  acquired  office,  they  forbade 
him,  but  Christ  says  that  they  ought  to  have 
welcomed  his  help.  Cp.  the  history  of  Eldad 
and  Medad  (Nu  1 1  ^6),  where  Moses  rebukes 
Joshua  for  the  same  jealous  attitude.  The 
lesson  is  that  the  spiritual  gifts  of  the  laity 
ought  to  be  fully  developed  and  utilised  for 
the  good  of  the  Church,  and  that  the  clergy 
ought  to  welcome  and  not  be  jealous  of  their 

help.  'W^/'^.^-^ 

38.  John]  The  njupe  only  m ''Mark.  The 
fiery  temperament  of  Boanerges  here  comes  out. 

39.  That  can  lightly  speak  evil  of  me]  RV 
'  and  be  able  quickly  to  speak  evil  of  me.'  The 
success  of  the  man's  ministry  proved  the 
genuineness  of  his  faith.  If  he  had  been  an 
enemy  of  Jesus,  he  could  not  have  worked  the 
miracles. :  see  Ac  1 9 1^.  40.  For  he  that  is  not 
against  us  is  on  our  part]  Much  to  be  preferred 
is  the  more  pointed  version  of  Lk,  which  is 
also  strongly  attested  here  :  '  For  he  that  is  not 
against  you  is  for  you  '  (Lk  RV).  The  meaning 
is.  The  man,  though  without  your  apostolic 
commission,  was  doing,  and  doing  successfully, 
the  very  same  benevolent  work  that  you  were 
doing.  You  ought,  therefore,  to  have  esteemed 
him  a  friend  and  a  helper,  not  an  enemy.  A 
jealous  and  exclusive  spirit  is  unworthy  of  the 
ministers  of  Christ. 

41-50.  On  offences  (Mt  18 '5  Lk  17 1).  See  on 
Mt.  41.  SeeonMt  1042.  44,46.  These  vv. 
(which  are  identical  with  v.  48)  are  omitted  by 
the  best  modern  authorities. 

48.  Where  their  worm  dieth  not]  Isa6624. 


729 


Literally,  the  worm  is  the  maggot  bred  in  pu- 
trefying substances  (Exl6-'0  IsaU^  Acl223). 
Figuratively  it  stands  for  the  moral  corruption 
and  degi'adation  which  follow  upon  a  long 
course  of  wilful  sin,  and  ultimately  issue  in 
eternal  death.  The  lost  soul,  being  at  length 
hopelessly  corrupt,  and  loathsome  even  to 
itself,  has  its  own  hell  within  it. 

49.  For  every  one  shall  be  salted  with  fire] 
The  conclusion  of  this  v.  (and  every  sacrifice 
shall  be  salted  vsnith  salt)  is  omitted  by  the  RV, 
but  is  too  strongly  attested  to  be  safely  re- 
jected. The  saying  is  a  most  difficult  one,  and 
there  are  about  twenty  different  interpreta- 
tions. The  probable  meaning  is,  Every  believer 
shall  be  '  salted,'  i.e.  purified  and  prepared  for 
eternity,  by  the  '  fire '  of  discipline,  i.e.  by  the 
struggles  with  the  flesh  (v.  43),  and  other 
afflictions  and  temptations  of  this  life  ;  and 
'  every  sacrifice,'  i.e.  every  person,  who  presents 
himself,  his  soul,  and  body,  to  be  a  reasonable, 
holy,  and  living  sacrifice  to  God,  shall  be 
'  salted,'  i.e.  pm-ified  and  prepared  for  eternity, 
by  the  salt  of  divine  grace.  The  '  salt '  here  is 
the  salt  of  the  new  covenant,  i.e.  the  grace 
which  is  given  to  believers  in  Christ  :  see 
Lv2i3. 

50.  Salt  is  good]  '  Divine  grace  is  good, 
but  if  the  divine  grace  given  to  you  as  Chris- 
tians dies,  owing  to  your  neglect  to  use  it, 
how  will  you  revive  it  ?  Preserve  and  make 
due  use  of  the  divine  grace  given  to  you, 
especially  the  grace  of  charity,  and  thus  you 
will  be  at  peace  with  one  another.'  In  Mt5i3, 
by  an  easy  transference,  the  apostles  them- 
selves are  called  '  salt,'  as  possessing  divine 
gi-ace.  Among  the  ancients  salt  was  an 
emblem  of  wisdom  and  of  friendship.  To 
the  latter  signification  our  Lord  alludes  when 
He  says,  '  Have  peace  one  with  another.' 

CHAPTER  10 

The  Question  of  Divorce.     The  Rich 
Young  Man.     Blind  Bartim^.us 

1-12.  The  question  of  divorce  (Mtl93). 
See  on  that  passage,  and  on  Mt.O^'-.  St.  Mark 
represents  our  Lord  as  prohibiting  divorce 
absolutely,  without  mentioning  any  exception. 

I.   See  on  MtlOi  :  cp.  Lkl7ii. 

13-16.  The  blessing  of  little  children  (Mt  1 9  is 
Lkl8i5).     SeeonMt. 

17-22.  The  rich  young  man  (Mt  1 9 1<5  Lk  1 8  «). 
See  on  Mt. 

17.  Good  Master]  Mk  and  Lk  represent 
the  young  man  as  saying,  '  Good  Master,  what 
shall  I  do  that  I  may  inherit  eternal  life  ?  ' 
and  Jesus  as  replying,  '  Why  callest  thou 
me  good  ? '  etc.  ;  whereas  Mt  represents  the 
young  man  as  saying,  '  Master,  what  good 
thing  shall  I  do,  that  I  may  have  eternal 
life  ? '  and  Jesus  as  replying,  '  "Why  askest 
thou   me   concerning   that   which   is    good  ? ' 


10.  18 


ST.  MARK 


12.38 


etc.  (RV).  The  true  version  is  clearly  that  of 
Mk  and  Lk.  The  author  of  Mt  (or  perhaps 
an  early  scribe,  for  there  is  considerable 
reason  for  thinking  that  the  original  text  of 
Mt  agreed  with  Mk  and  Lk)  altered  the  text 
slightly,  to  prevent  the  reader  from  supposing 
that  Christ  denied  that  He  was  good. 

i8.  Why  callest,  etc.]  RV  'Why  callest 
thou  me  good  ?  None  is  good  save  one,  even 
God.'  Since  Jesus  declares  Himself,  and  is 
repeatedly  declared  by  others  to  be  sinless 
(Jn66i  846  1430  1  Pet 2 22  IJnS^,  etc.),  this 
cannot  mean  that  He  was  not  good,  but  that 
for  some  reason  or  other  on  the  present 
occasion  He  refused  the  title.  (1)  According 
to  some  He  refused  it,  because  in  the  sense 
in  which  it  was  offered,  it  was  unequal  to 
His  merits  and  His  claims.  The  young  man, 
they  think,  called  Him  good,  in  the  sense  in 
which  he  would  have  called  any  eminent 
Rabbi  good,  whereupon  our  Lord  pointedly 
remarked  that  only  God  is  good,  meaning, 
'  If  you  call  me  good  in  the  same  sense  in 
which  God  is  good,  I  am  willing  to  accept 
it,  but  if  you  call  me  good  in  a  merely 
human  sense  I  reject  it  as  insufficient.'  (2) 
The  other  view  is  that  the  human  nature  of 
Christ,  although  '  sinless '  during  the  whole 
of  His  earthly  life,  was  not  'good'  in  the 
absolute  sense.  He  advanced  in  '  goodness.' 
Passing  through  the  different  stages  of  a  truly 
human  experience.  He  acquired  by  conscious 
effort  the  virtues  proper  to  each.  He  learned 
obedience  (Heb  5  §),  and  was  perfected  through 
sufferings  (Heb  210).  He  was  truly  tempted 
as  we  are,  yet  without  sin  (Heb  2 1^  4  is)^  and 
maintained  His  virtue  by  prayer  and  constant 
watchfulness  (Heb  5  7  Mtl423f.).  God,  how- 
ever, is  'good'  absolutely.  He  can  neither 
be  tempted  of  evil  nor  advance  in  goodness. 
It  is  only  as  God,  not  as  man,  that  Christ  is 
'  good  '  in  the  absolute  sense. 

23-31.  The  perils  of  riches.  The  reward  of 
those  who  despise  them  (Mt  1 9  24  Lk  1 8  24).  See 
on  Mt. 

30.  For  their  temporal  losses  they  will  have 
a  hundredfold  return  in  spiritual  blessings, 
including  holy  fellowship  with  saints  and 
angels.  '  Houses  '  and  '  lands  '  perhaps  stand 
for  rich  spiritual  possessions.  If  their  literal 
meaning  is  to  be  pressed,  our  Lord  indicates 
that,  owing  to  the  prevailing  spirit  of  brotherly 
love,  which  issued  in  the  apostolic  communism, 
Christians  would  enjoy  their  houses  and  lands 
in  common,  as  members  of  one  family. 

Persecutions]  A  startling  word  in  the  midst 
of  a  shower  of  blessings.  Yet  persecutions  are 
often,  to  a  Christian,  the  greatest  blessing  of  all. 

32-34.  The  passion  predicted  (Mt20i'^ 
Lkl83i).     SeeonMt. 

35-45.  The  ambition  of  James  and  John 
(Mt2020).     See  on  Mt. 


46-52.  Blind  Bartimaeus  (Mt  20  29  Lk  1 8  35). 
See  on  Mt.  The  name  of  the  blind  man  (Bar- 
Timseus  lit.  '  son  of  Timaeus ')  is  given  only 
byMk. 

CHAPTER  11 
Jesus  rides  into  Jerusalem.      The   Fig 
Tree.  Cleansing  the  Temple.  Christ's 
Authority  challenged 

I -I  I.  The  entry  into  Jerusalem  (Mt21i 
Lk  1 9  29  Jn  1 2 12).     See  on  Mt  and  Jn. 

10.  Blessed  be  the  kingdom  of  our  father 
David]  These  words,  peculiar  to  Mk,  show  that 
the  people  expected  Him  to  set  up  an  earthly 
kingdom  like  David's,  and  that  immediately. 

12-14.  Cursing-  of  the  fig  tree  (Mt21i8). 
See  on  Mt. 

15-19.  Cleansing  of  the  temple  (Mt21i2 
Lk  1 9  45).     See  on  Mt  and  on  Jn  2 13. 

16.  ^«^  vessel]  This  prohibition  is  peculiar 
to  Mk.  The  people  make  a  thoroughfare 
through  the  Temple,  carrying  with  them 
baskets,  household  utensils,  etc.  17.  Of  all 
nations]  These  words,  though  found  in  IsaSG'^, 
are  recorded  only  by  Mk.  They  show  that 
our  Lord  distinctly  contemplated  the  call  of 
the  Gentiles. 

20-26.  The  withering  of  the  fig  tree.  The 
power  of  faith  (Mt21 20).     See  on  Mt. 

25.  This  V.  does  not  occur  in  the  parallel 
passage  in  Mt,  but  there  is  something  similar 
in  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount  (Mt  6 14). 

Stand]  The  customary  attitude  of  prayer : 
see  on  MtG^f. 

26.  This  V.  is  omitted  by  many  modern 
critics  ;  but  there  is  considerable  evidence  for 
its  retention:  cp.  MtG^s  1835. 

27-33.  Christ's  authority  to  teach  (Mt  2 123 
Lk20i).     SeeonMt. 

CHAPTER  12 

Various  Incidents  and  Discourses  in 
the  Temple 

1-12.  The  wicked  husbandmen  (Mt2133 
Lk209).     See  on  Mt. 

13-17.  The  tribute  money  (Mt  22 15  Lk2020). 
See  on  Mt. 

18-27.  The  Sadducees  and  the  Resurrection 
(Mt2223  Lk202r).  See  on  Mt.  26.  In  the 
bush]  RV  '  in  the  place '  (i.e.  passage)  '  con- 
cerning the  bush.' 

28-34.  The  great  commandment  (Mt  22  34). 
See  on  Mt. 

35-37-  Is  Christ  the  son  of  David  (Mt224i 
Lk204i).     See  on  Mt. 

38-40.  Warning  against  the  scribes  (Lk  20  45). 
Mt  inserts  at  this  point  a  long  and  severe 
discourse  against  the  scribes  and  Pharisees 
(Mt23i). 

38.  Cp.  Mt  2.3  6  (2.3 14).  Long  clothing]  (lit. 
'  stoles ').  The  word  is  used  in  LXX  for 
priestly  and  royal  robes,  and  in  NT.  for  dress 


730 


12.39 


ST.  MARK 


14.  51 


worn  on  festive  occasions.  Not  the  use, 
but  the  ostentatious  use,  of  dignified  costume 
is  condemned  by  Christ.  Salutations]  see  on 
Mt23'^.  39.  Uppermost  rooms,  etc.]  RV 
'  chief  places  at  feasts.'  If  there  were  three 
on  a  couch,  the  chief  guest  lay  in  the  middle. 
If  there  were  two  on  a  couch,  he  lay  on  the 
right  side.  40.  Devour  widows'  houses]  De- 
vout women  were  accustomed  to  contribute  to 
the  support  of  famous  rabbis  (15^1  Lk8-^),  and 
our  Lord  probably  here  refers  to  the  abuse  of 
such  generosity.  But  inasmuch  as  the  scribes 
and  Pharisees  were  the  rulers  and  judges  of 
the  nation.  He  may  refer  to  their  corruption 
and  rapacity  in  the  administration  of  justice, 
whereby  they  oppressed  the  poor. 
41-44.  The  widows'  mite  (Lk21 1). 

41.  The  treasury]  According  to  the  Talmud 
there  were  in  the  Court  of  the  Women  thirteen 
chests  for  offerings  called  '  Trumpets,'  from 
which  three  times  in  the  year,  before  the  three 
chief  feasts,  the  money  was  transferred  to  the 
treasury  called  Cor-banas.  Each  was  marked 
with  the  object  to  which  the  offerings  it 
received  were  to  be  devoted,  e.g.  temple  ex- 
penses, sacrifices,  oil,  wine,  incense,  sacred 
vessels,  etc.  Cp.  JnS-O.  Money]  lit. 'brass.' 
Perhaps  small  copper  coins,  such  as  the  as  and 
qtbadrans^  are  meant  (MtS^*'  10  2^). 

42.  A  (lit.  '  one  ')  poor  widow]  cp.  Mt21 19; 
'  one  fig  tree.' 

42.  Two  mites]  lit.  '  two  lepta,  which  make 
a  quadrans.'  The  lepton  was  a  Greek  coin, 
the  smallest  in  circulation,  equivalent  to  -i-  of 
a  deiiarms^  or  \  of  a  farthing.  The  widow 
offered  two,  because  the  rabbis  forbade  a  single 
lepton  to  be  placed  in  the  almschest. 

43.  Hath  cast  more  in]  i.e.  more  in  propor- 
tion to  her  means,  and  so  has  pleased  God 
more.  '  A  certain  woman  offered  a  handful 
of  wheat  meal,  and  the  high  priest  despised 
her,  saying.  How  worthless  this  is  to  eat,  how 
worthless  to  offer.  But  in  a  dream  it  was 
revealed  to  him.  Despise  her  not,  for  it  is  the 
same  as  if  she  had  offered  her  soul  (or,  life) ' 
(The  Talmud).  '  Liberality  is  estimated  ac- 
cording to  a  man's  substance  '  (Aristotle). 

CHAPTER  13 
Great  Prophecy  of  the  Fall  of  Jerusa- 
lem AND  OF  THE  EnD  OF  THE  WORLD 

1-37.  Christ's  great  prophecy  (Mt24i  Lk 
215).     SeeonMt. 

14.  Spoken  of  by  Daniel  the  prophet]  RV 
rightly  omits  these  words.  Let  him  that 
readeth  understand]  Words  of  the  evangelist, 
not  of  Jesus,  intended  to  warn  Palestinian 
readers  to  watch  carefully  for  the  fulfilment 
of  this  sign,  and  immediately  afterwards  to 
flee  for  their  lives.  They  do  not  necessarily 
indicate,  as  some  think,  that  the  fulfilment 
was  already  imminent,  and  that  therefore  the 


date  of  the  Gospel  is  as  late  as  66-70  a.d. 
See  onMt  24  is. 

32.  Neither  the  Son]  This  is  the  true  read- 
ing not  only  here,  but  in  Mt2436^  where  it  has 
been  altered  in  many  MSS,  probably  as  being 
a  difficulty  to  faith.  Rightly  to  understand 
it,  we  must  remember  that  Jesus  possessed 
two  complete  and  perfect  natures,  the  divine 
and  the  human.  In  His  divine  nature  He 
knew  all  things  whatsoever,  but  in  His  human 
nature  He  knew  only  such  things  as  He  willed 
to  know.  And  since  it  was  not  expedient  that 
we  should  know  the  day  and  the  hour  of  the 
Last  Judgment,  He  willed  to  be  ignorant  of 
it.  This  avowed  ignorance  implies  no  limita- 
tion of  Christ's  divine  nature.  Christ  had 
no  will  but  His  Father's.  When  the  Father 
willed  to  withhold  from  Him  any  of  His 
designs,  His  will  was  to  be  ignorant. 

The  Arians  taught  that  the  Son  was  ignorant 
even  in  His  divine  nature,  but  Athanasius  re- 
plied, '  But  lovers  of  Christ  recognise  that  the 
Word  did  not  say,  "I  know  not,"  as  being  the 
Word,  for  He  knew ;  but  He  thus  indicated 
His  humanity,  showing  that  ignorance  is  part 
of  human  nature.' 

CHAPTER    14 

The  Last  Supper.     Arrest  and  Trial  of 

Jesus 

I,  2.  A  council  of  the  Priests  against  Jesus 
(Mt26i  Lk22i).     SeeonMt. 

3-9.  The  anointing  at  Bethany  (Mt26<5 
Jn  121).     See  on  Mt  and  Jn. 

10,  II.  Judas  betrays  Jesus  (Mt  26 14  Lk  22  3). 
See  on  Mt. 

12-16.  Preparations  for  the  Last  Supper  (Mt 
2617  Lk  22  7).     SeeonMt. 

1 7-26.  The  Last  Supper  (Mt  26  20  Lk  22 14  Jn 
13-17  1  Cor  11 23).     See  on  Mt,  Lk,  Jn,  1  Cor. 

24.  The  new  testament]  RV  '  the  covenant.' 
RM  '  Some  ancient  authorities  insert  neiv.'' 

27-3 1  •  Jesus  foretells  Peter's  denial.  See  on 
Mt26^i,  where  the  other  references  are  given. 

30.  Before  the  cock  crow  twice]  '  Twice '  is 
omitted  by  important  ancient  authorities,  and 
is  open  to  some  doubt.  The  other  three 
evangelists  speak  of  only  one  crowing  of  the 
cock. 

32-42.  Agony  in  Gethsemane  (Mt2636  Lk 
22-10:  cp.  Jnl8i).     See  on  Mt. 

36.  Abba]  Aramaic  for  '  father.'  Peculiar 
toMk. 

43-50.  Arrest  of  Jesus  (Mt2647  Lk2247 
Jn  182).     See  on  Mt  and  Jn. 

51,  52.  The  young  man  who  followed.  The 
incident  being  peculiar  to  St.  Mark,  and  a 
quite  unimportant  one,  it  is  often  supposed  by 
modern  commentators  that  the  young  man  was 
the  evangelist  himself.  Mai'k's  mother  cer- 
tainly lived  in  Jerusalem  (Acl2i2).  Other 
conjectures  are   St.  John,  James  the  Lord's 


731 


14  51 


ST.  MARK 


16.9 


brother,  or  a  resident  in  the  house  where  the 
last  supper  had  been  eaten. 

51.  A  linen  cloth]  probably  a  night-dress, 
but  J.  Lightfoot  thinks  that  it  was  a  tallith 
(i.e.  the  large  or  synagogue  tallith :  see  on 
Mt235),  which  the  young  man,  for  ascetic 
purposes,  wore  as  his  only  garment. 

53-65.  Trial  of  Jesus  (Mt2657  Lk2254,06). 
See  on  Mt  and  Jul 81^. 

58.  I  will  destroy]  Clearly  the  accusation 
was  that  Jesus  had  plotted  to  burn  or  other- 
wise destroy  the  Temple.  Much  less  satis- 
factory is  St.  Matthew's  version,  '  I  am  able 
to  destroy  the  Temple.'  The  words,  '  that  is 
made  without  hands,'  and  '  another  made  with- 
out hands,'  are  peculiar  to  Mk.  "Westcott  and 
Hort  give  in  their  margin  the  remarkable 
reading,  '  but  in  three  days  I  will  effect  the 
resurrection  of  another  (Temple)  made  with 
out  hands.'     See  on  Mt  26  '''i  Jn  2 19. 

66-72.  Peter  denies  Jesus  (Mt2669  Lk22S5 
Jn  18 15, 25).     See  on  Mt  and  Jn. 

68.  And  the  cock  crew]  Omitted  by  im- 
portant ancient  authorities,  and  rejected  as  an 
interpolation  by  Westcott  and  Hort  and  EM. 
See  on  v.  30.  72.  The  second  time]  Omitted 
by  important  ancient  authorities  ;  bracketed  by 
Swete  :  see  on  v.  30. 

When  he  thought  thereon]  An  expression 
of  uncertain  meaning,  but  the  AV  is  prob- 
ably right.  Other  interpretations  : — '  having 
covered  his  head'  (Theophylact,  Field),  'he 
began  to  weep '  ;  'he  wept  vehemently '  ; 
'  when  he  had  set  his  eyes  on  Jesus,  he  wept '  ; 
'  when  he  had  rushed  outside,  he  wept.' 

CHAPTER  15 
The  Trial  before  Pilate.     The  Cruci- 
fixion 

1-15.  Trial  before  Pilate  (Mt  27  L  n  Lk  23  L 13 
Jnl82S).  See  on  Mt  and  Jn.  For  the  trial 
before  Herod  see  on  Lk236. 

16-20.  The  mockery  (Mt  27  27).    See  on  Mt. 

16.    Praetorium]  see  on  Jul 828. 

21-41.  The  Crucifixion  (Mt273i  Lk2326  Jn 
19 1*^).     See  on  Mt,  Lk,  Jn. 

21.  Alexander  and  Rufus]  These  names  oc- 
cur only  in  Mk.  They  were  clearly  Christians 
of  eminence,  well  known  in  the  Roman  Church 
for  which  this  Gospel  was  composed.  Rufus 
is  probably  the  Rufus  of  Rol6i3,  where  he 
is  called  '  chosen  in  the  Lord.'  Who  Alex- 
ander was,  is  unknown.  It  is  unlikely  that 
he  is  identical  with  any  of  the  other  Alexanders 
mentioned  in  NT.  (Ac  19  33  1  Tim  120  2  Tim  41^). 

28.  Nearly  all  modern  editors  omit  this  v. 
It  is  generally  regarded  as  interpolated  from 
Lk2237,  which,  however,  is  not  parallel. 

31.  Himself  he  cannot  save]  RM  '  Can  he 
not  save  himself  ? '  40.  The  less]  i.e.  the  little, 
generally  identified  with  the  son  of  Alphaeus 
(Mtl03). 


42-47.  Burial  of  Jesus  (Mt2757  Lk2350  Jn 
1938).     See  on  IMt  and  Jn. 

43.  Waited  for  the  kingdom  of  God]  cp.  Lk 
2  25, 38.  This,  which  is  also  St.  Luke's  expression, 
answers  to  St.  Matthew's, '  who  also  himself  was 
Jesus'  disciple.'  Joseph  had  discovered  the  King 
of  the  Kingdom  for  which  he  waited. 

44.  Whether,  etc.]  RM  'Whether  he  were 
already  dead.' 

47.  Mary  the  mother  of  Joses]  lit.  '  Mary 
of  Joses '  (or  '  of  Joseph,'  for  that  spelling 
is  also  strongly  supported).  Who  was  this 
Mary  ?  She  can  hardly  be  the  same  as  the 
'  Mary  of  James '  in  1 6 1,  for  the  evangelist 
(even  if  drawing  from  different  sources)  would 
hardly  describe  the  same  woman  as  '  of  Joses ' 
and  '  of  James '  in  two  consecutive  verses. 
Nor  is  it  easy  to  identify  her  with  Mary  the 
mother  of  James  and  Joses  (15**^).  She  is 
not  called  '  Mary  the  "nother  of  James  and 
Joses,'  or  even  '  Mary  of  James  and  Jcses,' 
but  simply  '  Mary  of  Joses  '  (or  '  Joseph '). 
Hence  it  is  most  natural  to  translate,  '  Mary 
the  daughter  of  Joses '  (Joseph),  and  to  re- 
gard her  as  the  daughter  (or  just  possibly 
the  wife)  of  Joseph  of  Arimathsea,  or  of  some 
unknown  Joses  (Joseph). 

CHAPTER  16 
The  Resurrection 
1-8.  The  women  at  the  tomb,  and  the  angel 

(Mt  28 1  Lk  24 1  Jn  20 1).     See  on  Mt  and  Jn. 

I.  Mary  the  mother  of  James]  lit.  '  Mary 
of  James,'  i.e.  probably  '  Mary  daughter  of 
James,'  or  just  possibly  '  Mary  wife  of  James.' 
She  is  perhaps  the  same  as  Mary  the  mother 
of  James  and  Joses,  IS'^o. 

9-20.  Conclusion  of  the  Gospel.  One  uncial 
MS  gives  a  second  termination  to  the  Gospel 
as  follows  :  '  And  they  reported  all  the  things 
that  had  been  commanded  them  briefly  (or 
immediately)  to  the  companions  of  Peter.  And 
after  this  Jesus  Himself  also  sent  forth  by  them 
from  the  east  even  unto  the  west  the  holy  and 
incorruptible  preaching  of  eternal  salvation.' 

Internal  evidence  points  definitely  to  the 
conclusion  that  the  last  twelve  vv.  are  not  by 
St.  Mark-.  For,  (1)  the  true  conclusion  cer- 
tainly contained  a  Galilean  appearance  (Mk 
167,  cp.  1428).  and  this  does  not.  (2)  The 
style  is  that  of  a  bare  catalogue  of  facts,  and 
quite  unlike  St.  Mark's  usual  wealth  of  graphic 
detail.  (3)  The  section  contains  numerous 
words  and  expressions  never  used  by  St.  Mark. 

(4)  Mkl6-'  makes  an  abrupt  fresh  start,  and 
is  not  continuous  with  the  preceding  narrative. 

(5)  Mary  Magdalene  is  spoken  of  (16  9)  as  if 
she  had  not  been  mentioned  before,  although 
she  has  just  been  alluded  to  twice  (15'*7  16 1). 

(6)  The  section  seems  to  represent  not  a  pri- 
mary tradition,  such  as  Peter's,  but  quite  a 
secondary  one,  and  in  particular  to  be  depend- 


732 


16.9 


ST.  MARK 


16.  20 


ent  upon  the  conclusion  of  St.  Matthew,  and 
uponLk24i3f.. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  section  is  no  casual 
or  unauthorised  addition  to  the  Gospel.  From 
the  2nd  cent,  onwards,  in  nearly  all  manu- 
scripts, versions,  and  other  authorities,  it 
forms  an  integral  part  of  the  Gospel,  and  it 
can  be  shown  to  have  existed,  if  not  in  the 
apostolic,  at  least  in  the  sub-apostolic  age.  A 
certain  amount  of  evidence  against  it  there  is 
(though  very  little  can  be  shown  to  be  inde- 
pendent of  Eusebius  the  Church  historian, 
265-340  A.D.),  but  certainly  not  enough  to 
justify  its  rejection,  were  it  not  that  internal 
evidence  clearly  demonstrates  that  it  cannot 
have  proceeded  from  the  hand  of  St.  Mark. 

The  most  probable  account  of  the  literary 
history  of  the  section  seems  to  be  the  follow- 
ing. The  Gospel  of  St.  Mark,  being  the  first 
extensive  and  authoritative  account  of  our 
Lord's  life  as  distinguished  from  His  dis- 
courses, attained  at  its  first  publication  (55- 
60  A.D.)  a  considerable  circulation,  first  in  the 
W.  and  afterwards  in  the  E.  At  that  time  it 
concluded  with  an  account  of  the  Galilean 
appearance,  which  is  now  only  to  be  found  in 
St.  Matthew  (Mt28i6).  The"'subsequent  pub- 
lication of  the  First  and  Third  Gospels,  which 
incorporated  practically  its  whole  subject- 
matter,  and  were  far  more  interesting  as  con- 
taining discourses,  practically  drove  it  out  of 
circulation.  When  at  the  close  of  the  apos- 
tolic age  an  attempt  was  made  (probably  in 
Rome)  to  collect  the  authentic  memorials  of 
the  Apostles  and  their  companions,  a  copy  of 
the  neglected  Second  Gospel  was  not  easily 
found.  The  one  that  was  actually  discovered, 
and  was  used  to  multiply  copies,  had  lost  its 
last  leaf,  and  so  a  fitting  termination  (the 
present  appendix)  was  added  by  another  hand. 
A  recently  discovered  Armenian  MS  (1891) 
definitely  ascribes  the  appendix  to  Ariston, 
i.e.  probably  Aristion,  'a  disciple  of  the  Lord' 
mentioned  by  Papias  (130  a.d.). 

Some  think  that  the  Gospel  originally  con- 
cluded at  16 s  ('for  they  were  afraid'),  but 
this  is  unlikely.  Such  a  conclusion  would  be 
unaccountably  abrupt — more  so  in  the  Greek 
than  in  the  English  ;  and  16  ^  1428  prepare  the 
way  for  and  anticipate  a  Galilean  appearance. 

9-1 1.  Appearance  to  Mary  Magdalene.  See 
on  Jn  20 1^. 

9.   Seven  devils]  cp.  LkS^. 

ID.  She  went]  cp.  Lk24io  Jn20i8.  As  they 
mourned  and  wept]  cp.  Lk24i'i'.  The  author 
of  the  '  Gospel  of  Peter '  (150  a.d.,  or  earlier) 
must  probably  be  added  to  the  early  witnesses 
to  these  twelve  vv.,  for  he  writes,  '  And  upon 
all  these  things  we  fasted  and  sat  mourning 
and  weeping  night  and  day  until  the  sabbath. 
.  .  But  we,  the  twelve  disciples  of  the  Lord, 
wept  and  were   grieved.'      11.    Believed  not] 


This  appendix  lays  great  stress  on  the  slowness 
of  the  apostles  to  believe  (vv.  13,  14).  Cp.  Mt 
2817  Lk  24 11. 25, 37  Jn  20  25, 27. 

12,  13.  Appearance  to  two  disciples.     They 

were  walking  to  Emmaus  :  see  Lk24i3. 

12.  In  another  form]  This  is  an  explanation 
of  the  fact  that  Christ  was  not  at  first  recog- 
nised. It  differs  somewhat  from  that  of  St. 
Luke,  '  Their  eyes  were  holden,  that  they 
should  not  know  him'  (Lk24i'').  13.  Neither 
believed  they  them]  Another  slight  discrepancy 
with  St.  Luke,  who  says  (Lk2434)  that  when 
the  two  disciples  reached  Jerusalem  they  were 
greeted  with  the  words,  '  The  Lord  is  risen 
indeed,  and  hath  appeared  to  Simon.' 

14-18.  Appearance  to  the  eleven.  This  is 
variously  identified  with  the  appearance  on 
the  evening  of  the  resurrection  day  (Lk2436 
Jn  20  i9)j  and  with  the  final  interview  (Ac  1 6). 
But  Swete  is  probably  right  in  thinking  that 
after  an  allusion  to  the  first  appearance  to  the 
Eleven  on  Easter  Day,  the  writer  passes  on  to 
give  a  summary  of  the  words  of  Jesus  spoken 
on  various  occasions  during  the  forty  days. 

14.  Upbraided  them]  According  to  certain 
ancient  MSS  mentioned  by  Jerome  (340- 
420  A.D.),  the  apostles  thus  replied  to  our 
Lord's  reproaches  :  '  This  age  is  the  very 
essence  of  iniquity  and  incredulity,  and  on 
account  of  unclean  spirits  permits  not  the  true 
virtue  of  God  to  be  apprehended.  Do  Thou, 
therefore,  now  at  this  time  reveal  Thy  justice 
(or,  righteousness).' 

15.  Go  ye  into  all  the  world]  This  seems 
part  of  the  same  charge  as  that  mentioned 
Mt28i8.  To  every  creature]  RV  'to  the 
whole  creation.'  A  rabbinical  expression  for 
mankind  in  general. 

16.  Baptism  is  here  declared  necessary  to 
salvation  only  for  those  who  have  heard 
the  gospel  message.  It  is  not  declared 
necessary  for  unevangelised  heathen,  or  for 
those  who  have  not  attained  the  age  of  reason. 
Not  the  want  of  baptism,  but  contempt  of  it 
condemns  a  man.  (For  infant  baptism,  see 
on  Mt  19 13-15.)     Damned]  i.e.  condemned. 

17.  New  tongues]  Some  MSS  omit '  new  '  : 
see  on  Ac  2*.  The  gift  of  miracles  was  given 
in  order  to  assist  the  diffusion  of  the  gospel  at 
the  very  first.  When  Christianity  was  fii-mly 
planted,  the  gift  of  miracles  was  withdrawn. 

18.  Serpents]  cp.  Lkl0i9Ac283.  Drink 
any  deadly  thing]  There  is  no  example  in  the 
NT.,  but  St.  John  and  Barsabas  (Acl23)  are 
said  in  early  tradition  to  have  drunk  a  cup  of 
poison  unharmed.  Lay  hands  on  the  sick] 
doubtless  at  the  same  time  anointing  them 
with  oil  (613  Jas5i-i). 

19.  20.  The  Ascension  (Lk2450  Ac  1 9,  which 
see).  19.  On  the  right  hand]  the  place  of 
highest  honour  and  power.  20.  Signs  follow- 
ing] viz.  the  miracles  mentioned  in  vv.  17,  18. 


733 


ST.  LUKE 


INTRODUCTION 


1.  Life  of  St.  Luke.  The  word  '  Luke ' 
(LouJcas)  is  a  contraction  of  the  Latin  name 
Lucanus,  often  found  in  inscriptions. 

St.  Luke  was  a  Gentile,  or,  as  others  think, 
a  proselyte,  of  Antioch  in  Syria,  where  he 
followed  the  profession  of  a  physician  (Col 
4 1^).  His  connexion  with  Antioch  which  tra- 
dition affirms,  is  confirmed  by  the  '  Western ' 
reading  of  Ac  11  ^8,  which  implies  that  St.  Luke 
was  present  when  the  prophet  Agabus  deli- 
vered his  famous  prophecy  before  the  Church 
of  Antioch.  The  same  passage  proves  that 
he  was  not  a  convert  of  St.  Paul,  but  one  of 
the  earliest  members  of  the  Church  of  Antioch, 
which  apparently  had  from  the  beginning 
baptised  Gentiles  as  well  as  Jews  (see  on  Ac 
1 1 20,  where  the  true  reading  is  '  Greeks  '). 

He  became  a  follower  of  St.  Paul,  and  his 
companion  in  his  missionary  journeys.  Many 
facts  about  his  travels  with  St.  Paul  can  be 
gathered  from  the  Acts,  because,  though  he 
does  not  name  himself,  he  generally  speaks  of 
the  Apostle's  party  as  '  we '  when  he  was 
present,  and  '  they '  when  he  was  absent.  It 
thus  appears  that  he  joined  the  apostle  at 
Troas  on  the  Second  Missionary  journey  (about 
50  A.D.),  and  accompanied  him  to  Philippi 
(AcieiO).  Here  St.  Paul  left  him  (17 1). 
After  this  for  several  years  we  cannot  trace 
his  movements,  but  he  was  probably  engaged 
in  missionary  work  in  the  district,  for  when 
St.  Paul  returned  to  Philippi  some  seven  years 
later  on  his  third  missionary  journey,  St.  Luke 
was  still  there  (Ac  20  5).  He  then  accom- 
panied St.  Paul  on  the  rest  of  his  travels  until 
they  reached  Rome  about  59  or  60  a.d. 

During  St.  Paul's  first  imprisonment  St. 
Luke  was  with  him,  though  perhaps  not  con- 
tinuously (Col  41*  Philemon  v.  24).  He  was 
also  a  companion  of  St.  Paul  during  his  second 
imprisonment  (about  67  a.d.),  when  the 
Apostle  was  expecting  martyrdom  (2  Tim  4  n). 

Nothing  certain  is  known  of  St.  Luke's 
subsequent  life.  A  third-century  authority 
says,  '  Luke,  by  nation  a  Syrian  of  Antioch, 
a  disciple  of  the  apostles,  and  afterwards  a 
follower  of  St.  Paul,  served  his  master  blame- 
lessly till  his  confession  (martyrdom  ?).  For 
having  neither  wife  nor  children  he  died  in 
Bithynia  at  the  age  of  74,  filled  with  the  Holy 
Ghost.' 

2.  Authorship  of  the  Gospel.  The  canonical 
authority  and  authenticity  of  St.  Luke's  Gospel 


have  never  been  questioned  until  quite  recent 
times,  and  the  following  considerations  seem 
to  set  the  question  beyond  doubt. 

It  is  admitted  on  all  hands  that  Luke  and 
Acts  are  by  the  same  author.  The  reference 
in  Acts  to  the  '  former  treatise,'  the  descrip- 
tion of  which  exactly  suits  the  Gospel  (Ac  1 1), 
the  common  dedication  to  Theophilus  (1  ^ 
Ac  1 1),  the  general  similarity  of  style,  and  the 
definitely  Pauline  conception  of  Christianity 
which  both  exhibit,  are  sufficient  proofs  of 
identity  of  authorship.  That  this  author  was 
St.  Luke  is  proved  at  length  in  the  Intro. 
to  Acts  (q.v.). 

St.  Luke's  Gospel  was  used  (and  abused) 
by  the  heretic  Marcion,  140  A.D.  ;  copiously 
quoted  by  Justin  Martyr,  150  a.d.  ;  included 
by  Tatian  in  his  harmony  of  the  four  Gospels 
(Diatessaron),  160  A.D.  ;  used  without  doubt 
of  its  authenticity  by  Irenaeus,  177  a.d.  ; 
Theophilus  of  Antioch,  180  a.d.  ;  TertuUian, 
200  A.D.  ;  and  included  in  the  Muratorian 
Canon  of  Scripture,  200  a.d. 

3.  Date,  etc.  The  date  of  composition 
cannot  be  certainly  determined.  It  is  later 
than  Mark,  of  which  it  appears  to  make  use, 
and  earlier  than  Acts,  to  which  it  forms  an 
introduction.  If,  as  seems  probable.  Acts 
was  written  at  Rome  about  62  a.d.,  Luke 
may  be  assigned  to  the  preceding  year,  i.e. 
to  the  early  part  of  St.  Paul's  imprisonment 
at  Rome.  Some  suppose  it  to  have  been 
written  earlier,  about  57  a.d.,  at  Cagsarea,  and 
others  considerably  later,  about  74,  or  even  as 
late  as  80  a.d. 

4.  Sources.  When  St.  Luke  wrote,  a  large 
number  of  written  accounts  of  our  Lord's  life 
and  work  already  existed  (1 1),  and  it  is 
to  be  supposed  that  he  made  diligent  use  of 
them.  But  since  during  the  two  years  and 
more  of  St.  Paul's  imprisonment  at  Caesarea 
(Ac  24  27)  St.  Luke  was  in  Palestine,  it  is 
more  than  likely  that  he  made  good  use  of  his 
opportunities  of  consulting  the  eyewitnesses 
themselves.  Of  written  sources  he  almost 
certainly  used  St.  Mark's  Gospel.  He  is  also 
said  by  some  to  have  used  St.  Matthew's 
'Logia,'  i.e.  a  collection  of  our  Lord's  dis- 
courses written  by  St.  Matthew,  and  now 
incorporated  in  the  First  Gospel.  But  the 
differences  of  wording  and  arrangement  in  the 
sayings  of  our  Lord  common  to  the  First  and 
Third  Gospels  render  this  supposition  some- 

34 


INTRO. 


ST.  LUKE 


INTRO. 


what  hazardous.  For  a  full  discussion  of 
this  difficult  question,  the  reader  is  referred  to 
the  article,  '  The  Synoptic  Problem.' 

Critics  rightly  argue  from  the  presence  in 
St.  Luke's  Gospel  of  a  long  section  (9^1-1928), 
almost  entirely  peculiar  to  himself,  that  St. 
Luke  must  have  used  some  '  special  '  source, 
i.e.  some  circle  of  traditions  unconnected  with 
those  mainly  Galilean  traditions  which  under- 
he  Mt  and  Mk.  The  materials  for  this  section 
were  either  collected  in  Judasa,  or  more  pro- 
bably in  Peraea,  where  most  of  the  incidents 
are  located.  The  birth  narratives  must  also 
be  assigned  to  a  special  source,  which  has  been 
thought,  from  the  nature  of  the  information, 
to  have  been  the  Virgin  mother  herself.  It  is 
quite  possible  that  she  was  still  living  when  St. 
Luke  was  in  Palestine.  Since  St.  Luke  is  well 
informed  about  Herod,  it  is  possible  that  one 
of  his  informants  was  Joanna,  wife  of  Chuza, 
Herod's  steward  (8'). 

Relation  to  St.  John.  There  are  some 
curiously  close  parallels  between  St.  Luke's 
Gospel  and  St.  John's.  Both  allude  to  the 
ministry  in  Judaea  (44-1  1334).  Both  mention 
the  visit  of  Peter  to  the  sepulchre  (24 12),  the 
sisters  Martha  and  Mary  (10  38)^  the  appearance 
on  Easter  Eve  (24  36).  Both  place  the  prediction 
of  Peter's  denial  at  the  last  supper  (2234), 
and  the  denial  itself  before  the  trial  (22^4). 
Yet  St.  John's  Gospel  is  probably  quite  inde- 
pendent of  St.  Luke's. 

Relation  to  St.  Paul.  Ancient  tradition 
exaggerated  the  influence  of  St.  Paul  upon 
St.  Luke's  Gospel.  St.  Paul's  expression, 
'  according  to  my  gospel '  (Ro  16  25),  was  under- 
stood to  mean  '  according  to  St.  Luke's  Gospel.' 
Irenaeus  says,  '  Luke,  the  companion  of  Paul, 
put  down  in  a  book  the  gospel  preached  by 
him  (Paul),'  whereas  St.  Luke  himself  says 
that  he  compiled  his  Gospel  from  the  narra- 
tives of  eyewitnesses.  Yet  the  Pauline 
influence  is  real.  Religious  universalism  is 
a  more  marked  feature  of  this  than  of  the 
other  synoptic  Gospels,  and  so  is  the  doctrine 
of  salvation  by  faith.  The  account  of  the 
Lord's  Supper  (at  least  in  the  usual  text)  is 
nearer  to  St.  Paul's  than  to  the  synoptic 
account. 

Relation  to  Marcion.  The  heretic  Marcion 
issued  about  140  a.d.,  an  edition  of  St.  Luke 
which  began  with  Christ's  teaching  at  Caper- 
naum, and  omitted  many  important  passages. 
Some  modem  critics,  at  the  risk  of  discrediting 
the  authority  of  the  Third  Gospel,  have  main 
tained  that  Marcion's  version  of  it  is  the  only 
genuine  one.  It  is,  however,  now  generally 
recognised  that  the  existing  version  of  St. 
Luke  is  the  older,  and  that  Marcion  altered 
it  to  suit  his  peculiar  doctrinal  views. 

5-  Style.  Although  not  written  in  pure 
Attic    Greek,  St.    Luke's   Gospel    and    Acts 


735 


have  greater  pretensions  to  style  than  any 
other  NT.  documents.  St.  Jerome  says,  '  his 
style  is  more  polished,  and  savours  of  secular 
eloquence.'  This  is  specially  true  of  his  pre- 
face, which  follows  classical  models.  But 
St.  Luke  varies  his  style  to  suit  his  subject- 
matter.  Sometimes,  as  in  the  chs.  describing 
the  Nativity,  he  is  intensely  Hebraic,  imi- 
tating the  LXX.  Sometimes,  especially  when 
describing  our  Lord's  actions  and  words,  he 
falls  into  the  common  unadorned  style  of 
the  synoptic  evangelists.  But  everywhere  his 
style  has  its  own  distinctive  marks,  by  which 
it  can  be  readily  recognised.  He  shows  a  con- 
siderable knowledge  of  the  technical  vocabu- 
lary of  the  Greek  physicians,  which  harmonises 
with  St.  Paul's  statement  that  he  was  a 
medical  man  (Col  4 14). 

6.  Aim  and  Character.  The  Gospel  is  in- 
tended primarily  for  the  edification  of  a  single 
individual,  Theophilus,  a  man  of  high  position 
iiving  at  Rome,  and  apparently  a  convert  of  St. 
Luke.  Yet  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  it 
was  intended  to  reach  a  large  circle  of  Gentile 
readers.  St.  Luke  claims  for  his  narrative 
fulness,  accuracy,  order,  and  exhaustive  re- 
search. In  pursuance  of  his  plan  of  writing 
'  in  order,'  he  attempts  to  fix  the  chronology, 
and  to  place  the  gospel  history  in  its  true  con- 
nexion with  contemporary  secular  events.  It 
is  clear,  that,  like  St.  Paul,  his  sympathies  were 
cosmopolitan,  and  that  he  was  interested  in  the 
wider  life  and  culture  of  the  great  empire.  Of 
special  dogmatic  or  party  purpose  the  Gospel 
shows  little  trace.  The  writer  is  frankly  a  Paul- 
inist,  laying  stress  on  the  universal  character 
of  Christianity,  but  there  is  scarcely  a  trace  of 
bias  against  the  Twelve,  or  Jewish  Christianity. 
This  is  especially  clear  in  the  Acts,  where  the 
exploits  of  Peter  are  as  sympathetically  re- 
corded as  those  of  Paul.  St.  Luke's  universal- 
ism is  shown  by  the  pedigree  from  Adam  (3  23), 
by  the  praise  accorded  to  Samaritans  (1033),  by 
the  rebuke  of  Jewish  intolerance  against  that 
people  (952f.  17iif-)-  and  by  the  appoint- 
ment of  the  70  disciples  whose  mission  was 
to  carry  the  gospel  to  the  Gentiles  (c.  10). 
Universalism  characterises  our  Lord's  first- 
recorded  discourse  (424  f.)^  and  jg  emphasised 
in  the  discourses  after  the  Resurrection  (244V 
Ac  1 8).  Equally  characteristic  is  the  idea  of 
free  grace,  not  by  the  works  of  the  Law,  but 
by  faith.  St.  Luke  is  full  of  the  spirit  of  the 
Christian  missionary,  and  delights  in  those 
words  and  acts  of  Jesus  which  offer  salvation 
to  the  poor,  the  outcast,  and  the  abandoned 
criminal.  This  sentiment  is  also  found  in 
Mt,  who  has  the  parable  of  the  Lost  Sheep, 
and  the  saying,  '  the  Son  of  Man  came  to  seek 
and  to  save  that  which  was  lost '  ;  but  in  St. 
Luke  it  is  much  more  prominent.  He  alone 
records  the  touching  parable  of  the  Prodigal 


INTRO. 


ST.  LUKE 


1. 


Son,    and    the    conversion    of    the    penitent 
thief. 

Some  critics  detect  in  St.  Luke  an  Ebionite, 
i.e.  a  socialistic  or  communistic  tendency. 
He  certainly  shows  a  special  sympathy  with 
the  poor  (4 is  1413  igs  913^^  and  records  many 
warnings  of  our  Lord  against  wealth  (6  24,  etc.). 
He  even  regards  community  of  goods  as  pre- 
ferable to  private  property  (Ac  244,  etc.),  but 
it  must  be  remembered  that  the  apostolic  com- 
munism was  voluntary  (Ac  5  4).  Other  exam- 
ples of  this  tendency  are  the  parables  of  Dives 
and  Lazarus,  of  the  Bich  Fool,  and  of  the  Un- 
just Steward.  Another  possible  example  is 
the  beatitude,  '  Blessed  are  ye  poor '  (6  ^o), 
where  St.  Matthew  has  '  poor  in  spirit.' 

In  speaking  of  our  Lord,  St.  Luke,  like 
St.  John,  is  careful  to  notice  the  eifect  of 
His  words  and  works  on  those  who  witnessed 
them  :  '  He  was  glorified  of  all '  (4  is)  ;  '  they 
were  all  astonished  at  the  majesty  of  God ' 
(9  43)  ;  '  and  all  the  people,  when  they  saw  it^ 
gave  praise  unto  God'  (1843).  He  also  re- 
cords carefully  our  Lord's  prayers,  being  alone 
in  mentioning  that  our  Lord  prayed  on  six 
distinct  and  memorable  occasions:  (1)  At  His 
baptism,  3^1  ;  (2)  after  cleansing  the  leper, 
5 1*^  ;  (3)  before  calling  the  Twelve  apostles, 
6 12  ;  (4)  at  His  Transfiguration,  9  29  ;  (5)  on 
the  cross  for  His  murderers,  2334  ;  (6)  with 
His  last  breath,  2346.  St.  Luke,  like  St. 
Matthew,  is  specially  interested  in  our  Lord's 
discourses.  He  preserves  more  often  than 
St.  Matthew,  a  record  of  the  circumstances  in 
which  the  words  were  actually  spoken,  where- 
as St.  Matthew  collects  and  arranges  them 
according  to  subject-matter.  Hence  St.  Luke 
seems  to  scatter  what  St.  Matthew  has  collected. 

7.  Matter  peculiar  to  St.  Luke.  A  proof  of 
St.  Luke's  diligence  in  collecting  materials  is 
that  about  half  of  his  Gospel  consists  of  matter 
peculiar  to  himself.  He  alone  mentions  the 
parables  of  the  Two  Debtors  (74i),  of  the 
Good  Samaritan  (10  30),  of  the  Friend  at  Mid- 
night (115),  of  the  Eich  Fool  (12i6),  of  the 
Barren  Fig  Tree  (13  6),  of  the  Lost  Coin  (158), 
of  the  Prodigal  Son  (15  H),  of  the  Unjust 
Steward  (161),  of  Dives  and  Lazarus  (1619), 
of  the  Unjust  Judge  (18 1),  of  the  Pharisee 
and  Publican  (18^);  also  the  following  mira- 
cles: the  miraculous  draught  of  fishes  (oi), 
the  raising  of  the  widow's  son  (7  H),  the  cure 
of  a  woman  with  a  spirit  of  infirmity  (1310), 
of  a  dropsical  man  (141),  of  ten  lepers  (1711), 
of  Malchus's  ear  (2251). 

Besides  these,  much  other  important  matter 
is  peculiar  to  him,  e.g.  the  first  two  chs.,  the 
questions  put  to  John  the  Baptist  by  the 
people  (3 10. 14),  the  topic  of  conversation  at  the 
Transfiguration  (931),  the  conversion  of  Zac- 
cheus  (19 1),  the  weeping  over  Jerusalem 
(19  41),  the  promise  to  Simon   that  his  faith 


736 


should  not  fail  (2231),  the  bloody  sweat  (22  44), 
the  trial  before  Herod  (23 'i'),  the  words  ad- 
dressed to  the  women  of  Jerusalem  (23  27),  the 
incident  of  the  penitent  thief  (2340)  ;  the 
words  on  the  Cross,  '  Father,  forgive  them  ; 
for  they  know  not  what  they  do,'  and  •  Father, 
into  thy  hands  I  commend  my  spirit '  (23  34, 46)  . 
the  walk  to  Emmaus  (24 12),  and  most  of  the 
details  of  the  appearance  on  the  evening  of 
Easter  Day  (2436).  It  should  be  observed 
that  almost  the  whole  of  the  long  section 
(9  51-1 9  28)  consists  of  matter  peculiar  to  St. 
Luke.  Some  of  the  sayings  in  it  are  found 
also  in  Mt,  but  generally  in  a  different  con- 
nexion. 

8.  Analysis  of  the  Gospel. 
(1)  The  preface,  li-4. 

■    (2)  The  infancy  and  boyhood,  1^-252. 

(3)  Ministry  of  the  Forerunner,  3 1-20. 

(4)  The  preparation  for  the  ministry, 
Christ's  baptism,  pedigree,  and  temptation, 
321-413. 

(5)  The  Galilean  ministry,  414-950. 

(6)  The  later  ministry,  mainly  in  Peraea, 
9  51-1 9  28.  Many  of  the  incidents  recorded  in 
this  section  really  belong  to  other  periods  of 
the  ministry.  Marks  of  locality  and  date  are 
vague  and  rare. 

(7)  The  last  visit  to  Jerusalem  and  the 
Passion,  1929-23. 

(8)  The  Resurrection  (and  Ascension?)  c.  24. 

9.  The  Text.  Besides  the  two  ordinary 
types  of  text,  viz.  that  used  by  the  Authorised 
Version  and  that  used  by  the  Revisers,  there 
is  another  interesting  type  of  text,  generally 
called  '  Western,'  of  very  great  antiquity.  It 
is  characterised  by  omissions,  additions,  and 
sometimes  by  changes.  Some  chief  omissions 
are  in  10  4i  12  39  23  34  24  36, 40, 51.  The  chief  addi- 
tion is  after  6  4.  The  most  interesting  change 
of  text  is  in  the  account  of  the  institution 
of  the  Lord's  Supper,  which,  in  its  'Western  ' 
form,  has  no  affinity  with  St.  Paul's  account 
of  that  event.  Several  of  the  '  Western '  read- 
ings are  discussed  in  the  commentary,  and 
as  they  are  now  regarded  as  of  considerable 
importance,  the  student  is  recommended  to 
make  himself  acquainted  with  them.  In  the 
Acts  the  '  Western '  text  is  a  still  more 
important  and  interesting  problem. 

CHAPTER  1 

Birth  of  John.  The  Annunciation 
1-4.  Preface.  To  write  a  preface  to  a  his- 
tory is  not  a  Jewish,  but  a  classical  custom, 
and  by  following  it  St.  Luke  shows  himself  a 
true  Gentile,  trained  in  Greek  culture  and 
imitating  classical  models.  Here  he  affects 
classical  elegance  and  correctness  of  expres- 
sion, but  in  the  course  of  his  Gospel  he 
generally  imitates  the  simpler  synoptic  style. 
This   Preface   contains   all    that   is   really 


1. 1 


ST.  LUKE 


1.  13 


known  as  distinguished  from  what  is  guessed 
about  the  sources  of  the  Synoptic  Gospels. 
Its  main  statements  are,  (1)  that  already,  when 
St.  Luke  was  compiling  his  G-ospel  (5G-58  a.d.), 
many  earlier  Gospels  existed  ;  (2)  that  these 
Gospels  were  based  upon  the  evidence  of  the 
eyewitnesses  ;  (3)  that  these  eyewitnesses  were 
the  apostles  and  official  Christian  teachers  ; 
(4)  that  the  eyewitnesses  '  delivered '  their  testi- 
mony in  the  form  of  a  more  or  less  definitely 
fixed  tradition,  which  may  have  been  either 
oral  or  written  ;  (5)  that  Christians  were 
definitely  instructed  and  catechised  in  the 
contents  of  this  tradition. 

St.  Luke  claims  for  his  Gospel,  (1)  diligence 
in  collecting  all  available  materials,  (2)  fulness. 

(3)  careful    investigation    especially   of    the 
earliest  period  (our  Lord's  birth  and  infancy), 

(4)  orderly  arrangement,  (5)  accuracy. 

I.  Surely  believed]  RV fulfilled.'  2.  Even 
as]  i.e.  these  narratives,  were  in  exact  accord- 
ance with  the  evidence  of  the  eyewitnesses.  Eye- 
witnesses] i.e.  mainly  the  Apostles  themselves, 
perhaps  also  the  seventy  disciples. 

3.  In  order]  may  refer  either  to  chrono- 
logical order,  or  to  orderly  arrangement 
according  to  subjects. 

Most  excellent  Theophilus]  Some  think  that 
Theophilus  is  not  a  real  person,  but  an  ideal 
name  for  a  Chi-istian  reader  ('  beloved  of  God '). 
More  probably  Theophilus  was  a  distinguished 
Roman  citizen  resident  in  Rome.  The  epithet 
'most  excellent'  was  under  the  empire  pecu- 
liarly appropriated  to  Romans  of  high  rank, 
and  became  in  the  2nd  cent,  a  technical  title 
indicating  equestrian  rank.  This  is  probably 
its  sense  here.  Both  Felix  and  Festus,  ad- 
dressed by  this  title  in  Ac  23  26  24  3  26  25,  were 
'  knights  '  {eqiiite>i).  Acts  is  also  dedicated  to 
Theojihilus. 

4.  Instructed]  lit.  '  catechised,'  i.e.  taught  by 
means  of  question  and  answer.  At  a  very  early 
period,  probably  in  the  apostolic  age,  candidates 
for  baptism  ('  catechumens  ')  were  required  to 
go  through  a  preliminary  course  of  training 
in  Christian  doctrine  and  morality,  of  which 
catechising  formed  a  prominent  part.  Theo- 
philus was  probably  one  of  St.  Luke's  own  con- 
verts, who  had  with  other  catechumens  attended 
regular  catechising  on  the  life  of  our  Lord. 

5-25.  Conception  of  John  the  Baptist.  The 
rise  of  Christianity  was  preceded  by  a  long 
period  of  four  hundred  years,  during  which  pro- 
phecy was  silent,  and  the  religious  guidance  of 
the  nation  passed  to  the  rabbis  and  the  scribes, 
who  made  void  the  Law  of  God  by  their  tradi- 
tions. The  advent  of  Christ  was  heralded  by  a 
great  revival  of  prophecy,  and  by  the  restora- 
tion  of  direct  communications  from  God   to 


in  particular,  John  the  Baptist,  who,  though  he 
left  no  written  prophecies,  and  worked  no 
miracle,  was  declared  by  our  Lord  to  be  the 
greatest  of  the  prophets,  yea,  and  more  than  a 
prophet. 

5.  The  classical  style  of  the  preface  now 
changes  abruptly  to  one  which  is  deeply  tinged 
with  Hebraisms.  This  Hebraic  style  continues 
to  the  end  of  c.  2.  Some  scholars  explain  it 
by  supposing  that  St.  Luke  is  here  using  a 
Hebrew  document.     Herod]   see  Mt2i. 

The  course  of  Abia  (Abijah)]  David  divided 
the  priests,  into  twenty-four  'courses'  or 
groups,  each  of  which  in  rotation  was  respon- 
sible for  the  Temple  services  for  a  week. 
Each  course,  therefore,  officiated  twice  a  year, 
at  an  interval  of  six  months.  The  course  of 
Abijah  was  the  eighth.  After  the  Captivity 
only  four  courses  returned,  but  these  were 
subdivided  into  twenty-four  courses  under 
the  old  names.  The  course  of  Abijah  is  said 
to  have  officiated  in  April  and  October  :  see 
lCh243]S'ehl2i. 

6.  Righteous]  i.e.  according  to  the  OT. 
standard.  They  were  good,  pious  Jews,  strict 
and  careful  observers  of  the  Mosaic  Law,  but 
not,  of  course,  sinless.  9.  Lot]  To  avoid 
disputes  the  various  functions  were  decided 
by  lot.  To  burn  incense]  This  was  done  daily, 
morning  and  evening  (Ex  30  6-8).  The  daily 
sacrifice  of  the  lamb  was  offered  on  the  great 
altar  of  burnt  offering  outside  the  Temple 
proper,  in  front  of  the  porch.  The  incense 
was  offered  inside  the  Temple  on  the  golden 
altar  of  incense  which  stood  before  the  veil 
of  the  Holy  of  Holies.  The  officiating  priest 
was  alone  within  the  Temple  while  offering 
the  incense,  and  the  other  priests  and  the 
people  were  outside  worshipping  in  the  various 
Temple  courts.  Only  once  in  a  lifetime  could 
a  man  enjoy  this  privilege,  and  he  was  ever 
afterwards  called  '  rich.'  It  was  the  '  highest 
mediatorial  act,'  '  the  most  solemn  part  of  the 
day's  service,  symbolising  Israel's  accepted 
prayers.' 

11.  An  angel]  It  was  said  of  the  high  priest 
Smion  the  Just  (died  320  B.C.)  that  'for 
those  forty  years  wherein  he  had  served  as 
high  priest,  he  had  seen  an  angel  clothed  in 
white  commg  into  the  Holy  Place  on  the  Day 
of  Atonement  and  going  out  again.'  St.  Luke 
gives  special  prominence  to  the  ministry  of 
angels,  and  the  appearances  which  he  records 
are  particularly  difficult  to  account  for  as  sub- 
jective phenomena  :.  see  126  29.13,21  128  I510 
1622  2243  244,23,  and  often  in  Acts. 

12.  Was  troubled]   cp.  2^  Jg622  1322,  etc. 

13.  My  prayer]  Probably  not  for  offspring, 
but  for  the  coming  of  the  kingdom  of  God, 


res  r2\-.P-rn  ^fency,  as  in  the     and  0/  ^ i^:Z&:i£^^Z^^  ^i t 
cases  of  Zacharias,  Joseph,  Mary,  Elisabeth,     able  prayer  for  so  solemn  an  occasion       It 
Simeon    Anna,  the  shepherds,  the  Magi,  and,     was  a  maxim  of  the  rabbis  thatTprayer  in 
47  737  ^    J 


1.  15 


ST.  LUKE 


1.28 


which  there  is  no  mention  of  the  kingdom 
of  Grod  is  no  prayer  at  all.'  John]  lit.  '  Jeho- 
vah is  gracious.' 

15.  John  was  a  Nazirite,  i.e.  one  of  a  class 
of  men  in  Israel  who  consecrated  themselves 
to  God  by  abstaining  from  all  intoxicants,  by 
avoiding  with  scrupulous  care  all  ceremonial 
defilement,  and  by  wearing  the  hair  long, 
NuG^-^i.  Usually  men  made  the  Nazirite  vow 
for  a  definite  time,  not  less  than  thirty  days, 
but  John,  like  Samson,  Samuel,  and  the 
Rechabites  in  the  OT.,  was  a  Nazirite  for  life. 
There  are  some  examples  of  the  ^f^azirite  vow 
even  among  Christians  (Ac  18  ^^  2126).  James 
the  Lord's  brother  is  said  by  Hegesippus  to 
have  been  a  life-long  Nazirite. 

John,  the  Nazirite  and  dweller  in  the 
wilderness  (probably  also  a  celibate),  repre- 
sents the  austere  and  ascetic  type  of  piety 
which  few  can  imitate.  Jesus,  purposing  in 
His  life  to  offer  an  example  to  all  mankind, 
came  eating  and  drinking,  and  sharing  the 
joys  and  sorrows  and  even  the  recreations  of 
ordinary  society.  Both  these  types  of  piety, 
the  ascetic  and  the  social,  have  their  place  in 
the  Kingdom  of  God. 

Filled  with  the  Holy  Ghost]  As  Jesus  was 
conceived  without  sin,  so  his  forerunner  was 
sanctified  in  the  womb,  though  the  reference 
is  less  to  personal  sanctification  than  to  conse- 
cration to  the  prophetic  office  :  see  Jer  1  ^  Gal 
lis.  17.  Go  before  him]  RV  'go  before  his 
face,'  i.e.  before  the  face  of  Jehovah.  Elias] 
RV 'Elijah':  see  Mai  4  5. 6  and  on  Mt  17 10.  To 
turn  the  hearts,  etc.]  Malachi's  exact  words  are, 
'  He  shall  turn  the  heart  of  the  fathers  to  the 
children,  and  the  heart  of  the  children  to  their 
fathers.'  'The  fathers'  are  the  patriarchs  and 
prophets  of  Israel, '  the  children  '  are  their  de- 
generate descendants  who  have  alienated  the 
heart  of  '  their  fathers  '  by  their  disobedience 
to  their  godly  precepts.  The  preaching  of  John 
will  turn  the  heart  of  the  children  to  imitate 
their  just  (i.e.  pious)  ancestors,  and  thus  the 
heart  of  their  ancestors,  now  alienated,  will 
be  turned  to  them  in  love  and  approbation. 

18.  With  the  unbelief  of  Zacharias  compare 
the  laughter  of  Abraham,  Gn  17 1'',  and  of  Sarah, 
Gnl8i2_  To  ask  for  a  sign  was  not  in  itself 
wrong.  Abraham,  Gideon,  and  Hezekiah  had 
done  so  without  rebuke.  But  the  appear- 
ance of  the  angel  ought  itself  to  have  been  a 
sufficient  sign  to  Zacharias. 

19.  I  am  Gabriel,  etc.]  cp.  Tobl2i5^  'I  am 
Raphael,  one  of  the  seven  holy  angels  which 
present  the  prayers  of  the  saints,  and  go  in 
before  the  glory  of  the  Holy  One.'  Two  angels 
only  are  named  in  the  canonical  Scriptures, 
Gabriel  (lit.  '  the  mighty  man  of  God '),  Dan 
8 16  9  21,  and  Michael  (lit.  '  Who  is  like  God  ? '), 
Dan  1013,21  121  Jude  v.  9  Rev  127.  in  the 
Apocrypha,  Raphael  and  Uriel  are  also  named. 


The  rabbis  say  that  the  Jews  learnt  the  names 
of  the  angels  in  Babylon. 

The  apparent  sanction  given  here  to  current 
Jewish  angelology  is  a  good  instance  of  the 
accommodation  to  human  ideas  which  is  so 
common  in  both  Testaments.  God's  messenger 
reveals  himself  by  the  name  of  Gabriel,  because 
that  was  the  name  by  which  he  was  commonly 
known  among  the  Jews.  The  Jews  themselves 
did  not  suppose  that  they  knew  the  real  names 
of  the  angels.  According  to  the  rabbis  the 
names  of  the  angels  represented  their  mission, 
and  were  changed  as  their  mission  was  changed. 

21.  Marvelled  that  he  tarried]  RV  'Mar- 
velled while  he  tarried.'  The  people  were 
afraid  that  the  officiating  priest  might  be  struck 
dead  for  omitting  some  formality  (LvlGi^), 
hence  the  custom  M^as  for  the  priest  to  finish 
his  ministry  as  quickly  as  possible.  Once  when 
Simon  the  Just  delayed  too  long,  the  people 
became  so  anxious  that  they  almost  broke  into 
the  Holy  Place.  Afterwards  they  reproached 
him  for  his  want  of  consideration  for  them. 

22.  Came  out]  His  duty  was  now  to  pro- 
nounce the  priestly  benediction  (NuG^'i),  but 
this  he  was  unable  to  do.  23.  The  days]  i.e.  the 
week  of  the  course  of  Abijah.  24.  Hid  herself 
five  months]  She  desired  to  devote  herself  en- 
tirely to  prayer  and  thanksgiving  for  so  signal 
a  mercy.  The  reproach  of  childlessness  was 
deeply  felt :  see  Gn3023  1  S 1 6,  etc. 

26-38.  The  Annunciation  (see  on  Mtl). 
Wonder  and  awe  and  adoring  praise  are  the 
emotions  with  which  Cliristians  have  ever  re- 
garded the  unspeakable  condescension  of  Him 
who,  '  when  He  took  upon  Him  human  nature 
to  deliver  it,  did  not  abhor  the  Virgin's  womb.' 
That  Mary  fully  understood  who  her  child 
was  to  be,  cannot  be  supposed.  The  thought 
of  such  a  condescension  of  the  Author  of 
nature  as  is  implied  in  the  words  of  the  Creed 
'  conceived  by  the  Holy  Ghost,  bom  of  the 
Virgin  Mary,'  is  overwhelming  even  to  us  ;  to 
Mary  it  would  have  been  so  appalling  that  she 
could  not  possibly  have  performed  the  duties 
of  a  mother.  Hence  the  angel  was  only  per- 
mitted to  reveal  to  her,  that  her  son  would  be 
the  Messiah,  and  the  '  Son  of  God '  in  some 
specially  exalted  yet  human  sense.  The  whole 
narrative  moves  within  the  circle  of  Jewish 
OT.  ideas,  and  this  is  a  proof  of  its  truth,  for 
an  invented  story  would  certainly  show  marks 
of  a  Christian  origin.  The  grace,  modest 
reticence,  and  inimitable  simplicity  of  the 
narrative,  are  in  marked  contrast  to  the  vulgar 
details  of  the  Apocryphal  Gospels.  The  festival 
of  the  Annunciation  (the  day  on  which  our 
Lord  became  man)  is  kept  on  March  25th. 

26.  The  sixth  month]  i.e.  from  the  concep- 
tion of  John,v.  24.     Nazareth]  see  on  Mt223. 

28.  Came  in]  Local  tradition  states  that 
Gabriel  appeared  to  her  as  she  was  drawing 


738 


1.  m 


ST.  LUKE 


1.46 


water  at  the  fountain  of  the  Virgin  outside 
Nazareth,  where  the  Church  of  the  Annuncia- 
tion now  stands.  But,  as  the  angel '  came  in  ' 
to  her,  she  must  have  been  in  the  house,  per- 
haps engaged  in  prayer,  as  painters  are  fond 
of  representing  her.  Two  well-known  devo- 
tions have  been  founded  on  this  incident  :  (1) 
the  '  Ave  Maria  '  ('  Hail,  Mary  ! ')  ;  (2)  the 
'  Angelus.' 

Highly  favoured]  or,  rather,  '  endued  with 
grace '  (RM),  not,  as  the  Vulgate  has  it,  '  full 
of  grace."  She  is  addressed  not  as  the  mother 
of  grace,  but  as  the  daughter  of  it  (Bengel). 
The  angel  recognised  in  Mary  a  holiness  of 
an  entirely  special  kind,  which  God  had  given 
her  to  fit  her  to  be  the  mother  of  the  Holy 
One.  Sinless  in  the  absolute  sense  she  pro- 
bably was  not  (see  on  Jn'2-i),  yet  we  may 
reverently  believe  that  no  one  approached  the 
perfection  of  holiness  and  purity  so  nearly  as 
she.  Blessed  art  thou  among  women]  These 
words  are  omitted  by  many  good  authorities  : 
see  on  v.  42.  32.  His  father  David]  This 
seems  to  imply  the  Davidic  descent  of  Mary  : 
cp.  v.  27,  which  is  ambiguous,  and  v.  (39. 

34.  How  shall  this  be,  seeing  I  know  not  a 
man  ?]  The  traditional  view  of  this  passage, 
which  sees  in  it  a  proof  of  the  perpetual  vir- 
ginity of  our  Lord's  mother,  is  perhaps  correct. 
Unless  Mary  had  resolved  to  remain  a  virgin 
after  her  marriage  with  Joseph,  and  had 
obtained  her  husband's  consent  to  do  so,  she 
would  not,  as  a  betrothed  woman,  regard  it  as 
impossible  that  she  should  have  a  child  :  see 
onMtl25  1250. 

35.  The  Holy  Ghost,  etc.]  Mary  would 
doubtless  understand  'the  Holy  Ghost'  im- 
personally, as  the  creative  power  of  God,  but 
St.  Luke's  readers  would  understand  it  per- 
sonally, as  frequently  in  the  Acts.  The  Holy 
Ghost,  (1)  miraculously  forms  and  hallows  our 
Lord's  human  body  and  soul  at  His  concep- 
tion ;  (2)  descends  upon  Him  with  an  abiding 
unction  at  His  baptism,  consecrating  Him  to 
the  Messianic  office  and  preparing  Him  for 
His  ministry  ;  (3)  brings  about  the  mystical 
union  of  the  ascended  Christ  with  His  people. 

Overshadow]  like  the  Shekinah  in  the 
Temple,  or  the  cloud  of  glory  at  the  Trans- 
figuration, which  symbolised  the  divine  pre- 
sence. We  have  here  '  a  new,  immediate  and 
divine  act  of  creation,  and  thtis  the  transmis- 
sion of  sinfulness  from  the  sinfid  race  to  him 
is  excluded.'  That  holy  thing,  etc.]  RV  '  that 
which  is  to  be  born  shall  be  called  holy,  the 
Son  of  God.'  Mary  would  probably  under- 
stand from  this  that  her  Child  was  to  be  sin- 
less, but  not  that  He  would  be  divine,  because 
the  Son  of  God  was  an  accepted  title  of  the 
Messiah. 

36.  Unasked,  the  angel  gives  Mary  a  sign. 
He  who  has  caused  Elisabeth  to  conceive  con- 


trary to  nature  can  make  good  His  word  to 
Mary  also.  Thy  cousin]  RV  '  thy  kinswoman.' 
It  does  not  follow  from  this  that  Mary  be- 
longed, like  Elisabeth,  to  the  tribe  of  Levi. 
Male  descent  alone  determined  the  tribe,  and 
Mary  may  have  been  related  to  Elisabeth  on 
her  mother's  side. 

38.  Behold  the  handmaid  (lit.  '  the  slave  ') 
of  the  Lord]  In  these  words  of  humble  sub- 
mission Mary  accepts  her  great  destiny.  She 
does  so  freely,  with  full  understanding  of  the 
difficulty  of  her  position.  The  future  she 
leaves  in  God's  hand.  Be  it  unto  me  accord- 
ing to  thy  word]  This  sacred  moment,  which 
marks  the  beginning  of  our  Lord's  incarnate 
life,  should  be  contrasted  with  Gn  3  ^.  There 
the  disobedience  of  a  woman  brought  sin  and 
death  into  the  world.  Here  the  obedience  of 
a  woman  brought  salvation,  reversing  the 
effect  of  the  Fall. 

39-56.  Mary's  visit  to  Elisabeth.  The 
Magnificat.  "This  beautiful  narrative  must  be 
derived  from  Mary  herself,  probably  directly. 
It  is  told  as  vividly  and  minutely  after  a  lapse 
of  half-a-century  as  if  it  were  an  event  of 
yesterday.  Clearly  it  was  one  of  those  things 
which  the  Virgin  mother  kept  and  pondered 
in  her  heart. 

39.  Into  a  city  of  Judah]  or,  '  into  a  city 
called  Judah  '  (i.e.  possibly  Juttah,  a  priestly 
city  near  Hebron). 

41.  The  babe  leaped]  The  Jews  believed 
that  children  were  intelligent  before  birth : 
cp.  Gn2522.  42.  Blessed  art  thou  among 
women]  A  Hebraism  for  '  Thou  art  the  most 
blessed  of  all  women  ' :  see  on  v.  48. 

43.  The  mother  of  my  Lord]  The  aged 
Elisabeth  acknowledges  that  the  young  maiden 
is  greater  and  more  highly  favoured  than  she, 
because  she  is  '  the  mother  of  my  Lord,'  i.e.  of 
the  Messiah.  44.  See  on  v.  41.  45.  For  there 
shall  be  a  performance]  RM  '  that  there  shall 
be,'  etc. 

46-55.  The  Magnificat.  This  glorious  song 
of  praise,  which  has  been  used  in  the  services 
of  the  Church  from  early  times,  tells  us  more 
than  anything  else  in  the  NT.  of  the  character 
of  our  Lord's  mother,  and  of  her  spiritual 
fitness  for  her  exalted  destiny.  She  was  one 
who  diligently  searched  the  Scriptures,  and 
was  able  in  spite  of  her  youth  to  enter  into 
their  deepest  spiritual  meaning.  Not  that  she 
had  risen  as  yet  beyond  the  standpoint  of 
Judaism.  She  still  regarded  the  coming  of 
the  Kingdom  as  an  overthrow  of  Herod's 
dynasty  and  a  restoration  of  Jewish  nation- 
alism (vv.  52,  54).  But  her  thoughts  were 
fixed  on  its  ethical  character.  It  meant  to  her 
the  setting  up  of  the  ideal  of  humility,  gentle- 
ness, and  charity,  in  place  of  the  pride  of  tem- 
poral greatness,  a  thought  which  her  Son 
carried  further  when  He  said,  '  Except  ye  be 


739 


1.46 


ST.  LUKE 


1.68 


converted,  and  become  as  little  children,  ye 
shall  not  enter  into  the  kingdom  of  heaven.' 
In  the  Magnificat  Mary  appears  as  a  prophetess, 
like  Hannah,  whom  she  closely  imitates,  but 
greatly  excels  in  spiritual  elevation  :  see  1  S2i. 
The  genuineness  of  the  Magnificat  is  manifest 
from  its  thoroughly  Jewish  character.  It 
contains  no  trace  of  definitely  Christian  ideas. 
These  may  be  read  into  it,  and  were  intended 
by  the  Holy  Spirit  to  be  ultimately  read  into 
it,  but  they  are  not  there  in  such  a  form  as  to 
be  apprehended  by  those  who  are  not  already 
Christians.  The  Magnificat  is  conveniently 
divided  into  two  parts  :  (1)  w.  46-49,  (2)  vv. 
50-55.  The  first  part  is  personal  in  character, 
expressing  the  exultant  praise  of  the  holy 
mother  for  the  signal  favour  which  God  has 
shown  her,  and  foretelling  that  all  future 
generations  will  call  her  blessed.  The  second 
part  sets  forth  the  character  of  the  Kingdom 
as  a  moral  revolution,  and  a  reversal  of  all 
existing  standards  of  goodness  and  greatness. 

46.  In  the  Gospels  (not  in  the  Pauline 
Epistles)  '  soul '  and  '  spirit '  are  synonymous . 

47.  In  God  my  Saviour]  In  Mary's  idea 
of  '  salvation  '  was  doubtless  included  deliver- 
ance from  foreign  power  as  well  as  spiritual 
deliverance.  '  God  my  Saviour '  is,  of  course, 
in  accordance  with  OT.  ideas,  God  the  Father. 
Not  till  much  later  did  she  come  to  regard  her 
Son  in  this  aspect.  48.  The  low  estate]  cp. 
1  S 1 11.  Mary,  though  descended  from  David, 
was  in  humble  circumstances. 

All  generations  shall  call  me  blessed]  Pro- 
phetically spo'ien.  She  has  become  the  pat- 
tern of  womanhood  and  motherhood  to  the 
whole  Chi-istian  world,  and  her  song  has  been 
enshrined  in  the  Litm-gy  of  every  Christian 
Church.  Reverence  for  our  Lord's  mother, 
even  in  its  abuses,  has  not  been  without  its 
elevating  effect  on  humanity.  '  It  is  remark- 
able,' says  a  judicious  writer,  '  that  one  of 
whom  we  know  nothing  except  her  gentleness 
and  her  sorrow,  should  have  exercised  a  mag- 
netic power  upon  the  world  incomparably 
greater  than  was  exercised  by  the  most  majestic 
female  patriots  of  Paganism.  Whatever  may 
be  thought  of  its  theological  propriety,  there 
can  be  little  doubt  that  the  Catholic  reverence 
for  the  Virgin  has  done  much  to  elevate  and 
purify  the  ideal  of  woman,  and  to  soften  the 
manners  of  men.  It  supplied  in  a  great 
measure  the  redeeming  and  ennobling  element 
in  that  strange  amalgam  of  religious,  licentious, 
and  military  feeling  which  was  formed  round 
women  in  the  age  of  chivah-y,  and  which  no 
succeeding  change  of  habit  or  belief  has  wholly 
destroyed '  (Lecky). 

49.  Cp.  PslllK  50.  Cp.  PslOSi".  51-  Cp. 
Ps89io.  With  prophetic  certainty  Mary  re- 
gards the  putting  down  of  pride,  and  the 
establishment  of  meekness  as  already  achieved. 


52.  Cp.  Job 5 11  12if»  IS 27.  The  mighty] 
RV  '  princes,'  include  Herod  and  his  dynasty, 
but  the  main  idea  is  that  a  kingdom  based  on 
humility  and  love  has  entered  into  the  world, 
more  powerful  than  all  earthly  kingdoms,  and 
destined  to  revolutionise  them.  53.  Cp.  Pss 
1079  3410  1S25.  In  true  OT.  style  spiritual 
and  temporal  blessings  are  conceived  of  as 
united  in  the  Messianic  age.  The  temporal 
needs  of  the  poor  and  lowly  are  to  be  cared 
for  and  their  wrongs  redressed.  All  things 
needful  both  for  their  souls  and  bodies  will  be 
bountifully  supplied.  54.  Cp.  Ps983.  55.  Cp. 
Mic720.  The  national  feeling  is  pronounced. 
The  Gentiles  are  not  mentioned,  except  in- 
directly in  the  allusion  to  the  promise  to 
Abraham.  The  true  translation  of  vv.  54,  55 
is  (see  RV)  '  He  hath  helped  Israel  his  servant, 
that  he  might  remember  mercy  towards  Abra- 
ham and  his  seed  for  ever,  as  he  spake  to  our 
fathers  56.  Joseph's  discovery  of  Mary's 
condition  (Mt  1  is)  must  have  been  subsequent 
to  her  return  to  Nazareth. 

57-80.  Birth  and  childhood  of  the  Baptist. 
The  Benedictus. 

59.  The  eighth  day]  Circumcision  took  place 
on  the  eighth  day,  even  though  it  was  the  sab- 
bath :  see  Jn  7  2^.  At  the  circumcision  of  a 
child  the  circumciser  said,  '  Blessed  be  the 
Lord  our  God,  who  hath  sanctified  us  by  his 
precepts  and  hath  given  us  the  law  of  circum- 
cision.' The  father  replied,  '  Who  hath  sanc- 
tified us  by  his  precepts  and  hath  commanded 
us  to  enter  the  child  into  the  covenant  of 
Abraham  our  father.'  63.  Writing  table]  i.e. 
a  tablet  covered  with  wax  for  writing  upon. 

68-79.  '^he  Benedictus.  '  This  song,  which 
was  composed  in  the  priest's  mind  during  the 
time  of  his  silence,  broke  solemnly  from  his 
lips  the  moment  speech  was  restored  to  him, 
as  the  metal  flows  from  the  crucible  in  which 
it  has  been  melted  the  moment  that  an  outlet 
is  made  for  it '  (Godet).  It  consists  of  five 
sfi'ophes,  each  of  three  vv.,  but  is  most  con- 
veniently divided  into  two  portions  :  (1)  vv. 
68-75,  (2)  vv.  76-79.  In  the  first  portion 
Zacharias  praises  God  for  having  now  fulfilled 
His  promises  to  Israel  by  raising  up  the  Mes- 
siah in  David's  house,  to  save  Israel  from 
foreign  oppression,  and  to  establish  peace, 
true  religion,  and  righteousness.  In  the  second 
portion  Zacharias  directly  addresses  his  son  as 
the  destined  forerunner  of  the  Messiah,  and 
the  preacher  of  repentance  to  Israel.  The 
song  closes  with  a  beautiful  description  of  the 
salvation  which  the  Messiah  will  bring  to  His 
people. 

This  song,  like  the  Magnificat,  is  purely 
Jewish  in  tone.  It  does  not  even  mention 
the  Gentiles,  and  it  is  only  in  the  light  of  sub- 
sequent events  that  a  Christian  sense  can  be 
read  into  it. 


740 


1.68 


ST.  LUKE 


2.5 


68.  Hath  visited]  The  past  tense  may  ex- 
press Zacharias'  certainty  that  the  Messiah  will 
come,  but  more  probably  it  implies  prophetic 
knowledge  that  the  conception  of  Jesus  has 
already  taken  place.  Redeemed]  To  Zacharias 
this  would  mean  political  redemption  from 
foreign  rule  as  well  as  spiritual  redemption. 

69.  An  horn  of  salvation]  The  power  of  the 
Messianic  King  is  likened  to  the  strength  of  a 
bull,  or  wild-ox  (AV  '  unicorn  '),  which  is  re- 
presented by  his  horns  :  cp.  1  S  2 10  2  S  22  3  Ps 
75 10,  etc.  David]  The  expression  implies  that 
Mary  was  descended  from  David. 

70.  Since  the  world  began]  may  be  taken 
literally,  Adam  being  regarded  as  the  first 
prophet.  More  probably  it  is  used  vaguely 
for  '  in  olden  times.' 

71.  Enemies]  i.e.  Herod  and  the  Romans, 
but  when  Christians  sing  this  hymn,  they  mean 
Satan  and  all  the  enemies  of  Christ.  72.  To 
perform  the  mercy  promised  to  our  fathers] 
RV  '  To  shew  mercy  towards  our  fathers.' 
The  RV  implies  that  the  patriarchs,  though 
dead,  still  exist,  and  take  an  interest  in  the 
fortunfs  of  their  posterity,  a  doctrine  affirmed 
with  authority  by  Christ  (Mt2232). 

Covenant]  The  '  covenant '  and  '  the  oath  ' 
(v.  73)  are  identical,  though  the  irregular 
grammatical  construction  conceals  this  :  see 
G.n22i«-i8.  76.  Of  the  Lord]  Zacharias  under- 
stood it  of  Jehovah  ;  Christians  understand 
it  of  Christ.  77,  This  v.  well  describes  the 
character  of  John's  ministry,  which  joined  the 
announcement  of  the  Kingdom  with  the  preach- 
ing of  repentance.  Translate,  '  To  give  unto 
his  people  knowledge  of  salvation — salvation 
which  consists  in  the  remission  of  sins.' 

78.  The  dayspring]  The  Gk.  word  here 
(anufole)  is  ambiguous.  It  may  either  mean 
the  rising  of  a  heavenly  body,  and  hence  the 
heavenly  body  itself,  so  that  the  Messiah  is 
virtually  called  '  the  Sun  '  or  '  Star  of  Israel,' 
or  it  may  mean  '  the  Branch,'  a  title  applied 
to  the  Messiah  (Jer235  3315  Zech3S  6 12). 

79.  Peace]  not  successful  war  is  Zacharias' 
ideal  for  the  Messianic  period,  and  not  only 
earthly  peace,  but '  peace  with  God.' 

CHAPTER  2 

Birth  and  Childhood  of  Jesus 
1-5.  The  census  of  Quirinius.  There  are 
two  historical  difficulties  in  connexion  with 
St.  Luke's  mention  of  the  census  of  Quirinius  : 
(1)  There  is  no  direct  evidence,  except  St. 
Luke's  statement,  that  Augustus  (31  B.C.-14 
A.D.)  ever  held  a  census  of  the  whole  Roman 
empire.  (2)  Quirinius  was  not  governor  of 
Syria  at  the  time  of  our  Lord's  birth  (about 
7  or  6  B.C.),  but  either  Sentius  Saturninus  (9-6 
B.C.),  or  Quinctilius  Varas  (6-4  B.C.). 

As  to  (1),  the  absence  of  direct  confirmatory 
evidence  ought  not  to  be  sufficient  to  discredit 


a  statement  which  is  made  as  a  result  of  care- 
ful enquiry,  by  a  nearly  contemporary  author 
who  is  honestly  striving  to  be  accurate  (l^''*), 
and  which  is  in  itself  credible,  and  in  accord- 
ance with  Augustus's  character  and  methods 
of  administration.  In  8  B.C.  he  carried 
out  a  census  of  Roman  citizens  throughout 
the  empire,  and  it  is  quite  possible  that  he 
also  planned  a  general  census,  which,  how- 
ever, owing  to  administrative  difficulties,  was 
not  completely  executed  in  every  part  of 
the  empire.  (2)  Although  Quirinius  was  not 
governor  of  Syria  in  7,  6  B.C.,  he  may  have 
been  there  as  '  legatus  Csesaris '  to  conduct 
the  census,  or  more  probably  to  carry  on  the 
war  with  the  troublesome  tribe  of  the  Homo- 
nadenses.  It  was  not  unusual,  when  a  pro- 
vince was  in  a  disturbed  state,  for  the  civil 
and  military  administration  to  be  placed  in 
different  hands.  It  is  probable,  therefore, 
that,  when  our  Lord  was  born,  Saturninus  or 
Varus  was  at  the  head  of  the  civil,  and 
Quirinius  of  the  military,  administration  of 
Syria.  Quirinius  was  civil  governor  of  Syria 
some  twelve  years  later  (6  A.D.),  when  he 
carried  out  the  well-known  census  of  Ac  5  3^, 
mentioned  also  by  Josephus  ('  Ant.'  xviii.  1.1, 
2.  1).  It  is  known,  however,  from  an  inscrip- 
tion discovered  at  Tivoli,  in  1764,  that  he 
held  office  in  Syria  at  an  earlier  date,  when  he 
subdued  the  Homonadenses,  and  for  this  ex- 
ploit was  honoured  by  two  '  supplicationes ' 
(solemn  thanksgivings  to  the  gods),  and  the 
decorations  of  a  triumphing  general.  We  may 
conjecture,  therefore,  that  this  was  in  7,  6  B.C., 
at  the  time  when,  according  to  St.  Luke,  the 
earlier  and  less-known  census  took  place. 

1.  Augustus]  The  first  Roman  emperor.  His 
actual  reign  dated  from  the  battle  of  Actium  31 
B.C.  to  his  death  in  14  a.d.  Taxed]  RV  '  en- 
rolled.' This  enrolment  was  perhaps  simply  a 
census  or  numbering  of  the  inhabitants.  The 
second  enrolment  under  Quirinius  in  7  a.d. 
was  for  purposes  of  taxation,  and  excited  a 
rebellion  (Ac  5  3''). 

2.  Cyrenius]  RV  '  Quirinius.' 

3.  Into  his  own  city]  It  was  a  fix;ed  prin- 
ciple of  Roman  government  to  respect  the 
feelings  and  even  the  prejudices  of  subject 
peoples,  and  Herod,  being  a  foreigner  whose 
rule  was  barely  tolerated  by  patriotic  Jews, 
had  every  reason  not  to  give  offence.  He 
enrolled  his  pagan  subjects,  therefore,  in  the 
Roman  manner,  but  allowed  the  Jews  the 
privilege  of  being  enrolled  in  their  place  of 
origin  according  to  their  family  and  tribe. 

5.  His  espoused  wife]  RV  '  who  was  be- 
trothed to  him.'  Yet  they  were  probably 
married,  because  it  was  contrary  to  Jewish 
custom  for  betrothed  persons  to  live  together, 
and  Joseph  would  wish  to  protect  Mary  by 
making  her  his  wife  as  soon  as  possible. 


741 


2.6 


ST.  LUKE 


2.  25 


6.  7.  The  Nativity.  SeeonMt2i.  There 
is  an  inward  fitness  that  He,  who  for  our  sake 
emptied  Himself  of  His  glory,  should  be  born 
in  a  stable  and  laid  in  a  manger,  but  assuredly 
it  would  never  have  occurred  to  any  one,  Jew 
or  Christian,  to  invent  such  a  story,  which 
accordingly  may  be  accepted  as  authentic  his- 
tory. By  the  manner  of  His  birth  Jesus 
showed  His  sympathy  with  the  hard  lot  of  the 
poor,  and  His  contempt  for  human  splendoiu-. 
He  also  gave  a  foretaste  of  His  future  man- 
ner of  life,  when  He  was  despised  and  re- 
jected of  men,  and  had  no  place  to  lay  His 
head. 

7.  Firstborn]  A  technical  term  among  the 
Jews,  signifying '  that  which  openeth  the  womb  ' 
(Ex  34 19*-),  and  not  implying  the  birth  of  other 
offspring.  That  St.  Luke  uses  it  in  this  tech- 
nical sense  is  clear  from  222.23,  No  room]  It 
is  clear  from  Mf2ii  that  as  soon  as  the  enrol- 
ment was  over,  and  the  crowds  attending  it 
had  dispersed,  Joseph  and  Mary  obtained  a 
house  in  Bethlehem,  intending  to  settle  there 
permanently,  since  it  was  the  most  fitting 
place  for  the  residence  of  the  Messiah. 

8-20.  Announcement  to  the  shepherds,  ■who 
visit  the  Holy  Family.  As  Jesus  was  born  in 
a  stable,  so  His  birth  was  first  announced  to 
peasants,  in  token  that  the  gospel  was  meant 
for  the  poor  and  ignorant,  as  well  as  for  the 
rich  and  learned. 

8.  Shepherds]  David  himself  had  been  a 
shepherd  at  Bethlehem  (1  S 1 6  n).  The  flocks 
at  Bethlehem  were  destined  for  the  Temple 
sacrifices,  and  the  shepherds  who  kept  them 
occupied  a  higher  social  position  than  other 
shepherds,  who  were  considered  outcasts  by 
the  scribes  because  of  their  necessary  isolation 
from  religious  ordinances.  There  was  a 
Jewish  tradition  that  the  birth  of  the  Messiah 
would  be  proclaimed  from  the  '  Migdol  Eder,' 
'  the  tower  of  the  flock,'  which  lay  near  Beth- 
lehem on  the  road  to  Jerusalem  (Edersheim). 

10.  To  all  people]  RV  '  to  all  the  people' 
(of  Israel).  There  is  here  no  express  mention 
of  the  Gentiles.  11.  A  Saviour]  The  spiritual 
sense  is  certainly  prominent  here — '  a  Saviour 
from  sin  and  death.'  This  title  of  Jesus  is 
rare  in  the  Gospels,  being  found  only  here  and 
in  Jn4^2.  several  times  in  Titus  and  2  Peter. 

Christ  the  Lord]  RM  '  Anointed  Lord.' 

12.  Shall  be  a  sign]  RV  '  is  the  sign.'  The 
unusual  sight  of  an  infant  in  a  manger  would 
be  a  sign  that  the  angel  had  spoken  the  truth. 

14.  The  'Gloria  in  excelsis'  (Glory  .  .  in 
the  highest),  in  which  the  hosts  of  heaven 
praised  God  for  His  wondrous  love  to  mankind 
shown  in  the  Incarnation,  was  expanded  into  a 
morning  hymn  as  early  as  the  2nd  cent.,  and 
has  been  sung  in  the  Communion  service  of 
the  Western  Church  for  many  ages.  Taking 
the  old  reading  of  the  AV,  the  hymn,  which 


742 


consists  of  two  lines,  may  be  thus  paraphrased : 
(1)  The  angels  are  praising  God  in  highest 
heaven  for  Christ's  Nativity.  (2)  On  earth  men 
enjoy  peace  with  God,  and  peace  and  goodwill 
with  one  another.  But  the  reading  of  the  R  V 
('  men  of  good  pleasure ')  is  preferable,  and  the 
meaning  is,  (1)  The  angels  are  praising  God  in 
highest  heaven  for  Christ's  Nativity.  (2)  There 
is  peace  on  earth  (peace  with  God  and  peace 
with  one  another)  among  men  to  whom  God 
shows  His  favour  by  this  wondrous  birth. 

The  hymn  goes  beyond  the  words  of  the 
angel,  in  declaring  that  God's  favour  in  Christ 
is  extended  to  all  mankind. 

19.  Mary's  was  a  quiet  and  reflective  nature: 
cp.  V.  51.  These  two  vv.  suggest  that  it  was 
from  her  the  information  contained  in  these 
chapters  was  derived. 

21.  The  Circumcision.  Although  our  Lord 
was  sinless,  He  was  subjected  to  a  rite  which 
symbolised  the  putting  off  of  the  sinful  lusts 
of  the  flesh.  Although  He  was  the  Son  of 
God,  it  behoved  Him  to  be  made  a  child  of  God 
through  the  covenant  of  Abraham.  Now  first 
His  redeeming  blood  was  shed,  and  the  pain 
of  the  Circumcision  was  a  foretaste  of  Calvary: 
cp.  Mt3i5  Ro83  Heb2i7  GaU*.  Under  the 
new  covenant  the  sacrament  of  Holy  Baptism 
(the  circumcision  made  without  hands,  Col  2  ii) 
has  'fulfilled,'  and  taken  the  place  of  cir- 
cumcision. 

22-38.  The  Purification  and  Presentation  in 
the  Temple.  Women  after  childbirth  were 
unclean,  for  a  boy  forty  days,  for  a  girl  eighty 
days.  They  were  then  bound  to  present  an 
offering  for  Purification,  viz.  a  lamb  for  a 
burnt  offering  and  a  pigeon  for  a  sin  offering. 
Poor  women  might  offer  two  pigeons,  as  the 
mother  of  Jesus  did:  see  Lv  12 2.  A  firstborn 
son  was  presented  to  God  and  redeemed  with 
five  shekels  of  the  sanctuary  (10  or  12  shil- 
lings). Ex  132  Nu  8 16  1815.  Neither  of  these 
ceremonies  necessitated  personal  attendance  of 
the  mother  in  the  Temple.  A  woman  could 
offer  her  sacrifices  of  purification  by  proxy,  and 
a  firstborn  son  could  be  presented,  and  his 
redemption  price  paid  to  a  priest  anywhere. 
Joseph  and  Mary  went  to  the  Temple  because 
they  were  near,  and  because  they  loved  the 
house  of  God. 

22.  Her  purification]  R  V  '  their  purification,' 
i.e.  either,  (1)  the  Jews'  purification,  or  (2)  the 
pm-ification  of  mother  and  child.  Strictly 
speaking,  however,  only  the  mother  (not  the 
child)  was  ceremonially  unclean. 

25-35.  Simeon  and  the  Nunc  Dimittis] 
Simeon  belonged,  like  Zacharias  and  Anna,  to 
the  class  of  humble  and  devout  Jews  who 
'  looked  for  the  redemption  of  Jerusalem,' 
and  whose  type  of  piety  was  very  different 
from  that  of  the  scribes  :  see  vv.  37. 38.  To  such 
persons  the  sacrificial  system  of  the  Old  Cove- 


2.  25 


ST.  LUKE 


2.  40 


nant  and  the  spiritual  teaching  of  the  prophets 
had  been  a  true  preparation  for  Christ,  and 
consequently  God  shed  abroad  among  them  the 
gift  of  prophecy,  and  revealed  to  them  truths 
to  which  the  doctors  of  the  Law  were  blind. 

25.  Devout]  more  exactly  '  God-fearing.' 
The  word  is  peculiar  to  St.  Luke  (Ac  2^82 
2212^.  The  consolation  of  Israel]  a  common 
expression  among  the  rabbis  for  the  Messianic 
age.  '  So  may  I  see  the  consolation  '  was  a 
usual  form  of  oath.  26.  The  Lord's  Christ] 
the  same  as  '  the  Christ  of  God'  (D-*^),  i.e. 
'  Him  whom  God  has  sent  as  the  Messiah.' 

29-32.  This  beautiful  hymn  (usually  called 
the  '  Nunc  Dimittis  '),  which  has  been  used  in 
the  evening  service  of  the  Church  since  the 
4th  or  6th  century,  is  in  thorough  harmony 
with  the  spirit  of  this  Gospel.  It  expressly 
includes  the  Gentiles  in  Christ's  Kingdom,  in 
accordance  with  the  OT.  prophecies. 

29.  The  meaning  is,  '  My  master  and  owner, 
now  thou  givest  freedom  to  thy  slave  by  a 
peaceful  death,  according  to  the  prophetic 
word  that  thou  spakest '  (v.  26).  Simeon 
regards  his  release  from  the  toils  and  troubles 
of  life  as  an  enfranchisement  from  slavery,  a 
change  to  a  state  of  freedom  and  rest.  In 
peace  means  '  in  a  state  of  peace  with  God.' 

30.  Thy  salvation]  is  practically  personal, 
meaning  the  Messiah. 

31.  All  people]  EV  '  all  peoples,'  i.e.  all 
the  nations  of  the  earth.  32.  A  light,  etc.] 
RV'A  light  for  revelation  to  the  Gentiles,' 
i.e.  the  Messiah  is  the  Light  of  the  Gentiles, 
sent  by  God  to  reveal  His  truth  to  the  heathen 
world.  He  is  also  the  glory  of  the  chosen 
people,  because  all  nations  in  glorifying  the 
Messiah  will  glorify  the  nation  from  whom 
the  Messiah  springs.  '  In  those  days  ten  men 
of  all  languages  of  the  nations  shall  take  hold 
of  the  skirt  of  him  that  is  a  Jew,  saying  we 
will  go  with  you,  for  we  have  heard  that  God 
is  with  you  '  (Zech  8  '^^}. 

33.  Joseph  and  his  mother]  RY  'his  father 
and  his  mother.'  Since  Joseph  filled  the  place 
of  a  father  to  Jesus,  he  was  naturally  called  his 
father  :  cp.  v.  27,  '  the  parents.' 

34,  35.  These  vv.  contain  the  first  hint  in 
the  NT.  of  the  sufferings  of  the  Messiah,  and 
of  His  holy  mother. 

34.  Behold  this  child,  etc.]  This  child  will 
divide  Israel  into  two  opposite  camps.  Some 
will  reject  His  claims.  To  such  He  will  be 
'  a  stone  of  stumbling  and  a  rock  of  offence  ' 
(IsaSi'*),  i.e.  the  occasion  of  their  spiritual 
ruin.  Others  will  accept  His  claims.  Such  He 
will  raise  through  their  faith  to  a  higher 
spiritual  life,  which  may  be  rightly  called  a 
resurrection  (rising  again)  from  death  to  life. 

35.  Yea,  a  sword]  This  prophecy  was  ful- 
filled when  Mary  saw  her  Son  rejected,  con- 
demned, insulted,  scourged,  and  crucified. 


That  the  thoughts]  i.e.  that  the  true  charac- 
ters of  men  (as  shown  in  their  reception  or 
rejection  of  Jesus)  may  be  made  manifest. 

36-38.  Anna  the  prophetess  also  recognises 
Jesus  as  the  Messiah,  and  speaks  of  Him  as 
such  among  those  who  '  looked  for  the  redemp- 
tion of  Jerusalem.'  Her  manner  of  life  is 
described  in  detail,  because  she  is  a  type  of 
the  '  widows  indeed  '  of  the  Christian  Church 
(1  Tun  5  5),  who  did  not  marry  again,  but 
devoted  themselves  to  works  of  charity  and 
piety. 

36.  Prophetess]  The  title  shows  that  Anna 
was  known  as  a  prophetess  before  this  incident. 
Other  instances  of  prophetesses  are  Miriam, 
Deborah,  Hannah,  Huldah,  and  the  daughters 
of  Philip.  Aser]  RV  'Asher.'  It  is  clear 
that  members  of  other  tribes  than  Judah  and 
Levi  returned  from  the  Captivity. 

37.  If  she  was  married  at  12,  which  is 
possible  in  the  East,  she  must  have  been  103 
years  old.  Departed  not]  i.e.  was  unfailing 
in  her  attendance.  38.  All  them  that  looked, 
etc.]  see  on  vv.  25-36. 

39.  Return  to  Nazareth.  St.  Luke  repre- 
sents the  Holy  Family  as  returning  to 
Nazareth  immediately  after  the  Purification, 
without  any  allusion  to  the  visit  of  the  Magi, 
or  the  flight  into  Egypt.  This  seems  to  indi- 
cate that  he  did  not  use  St.  Matthew's  Gospel. 

40.  Growth  and  spiritual  development  of 
Jesus.  The  information  may  have  been 
gained  from  the  mother  herself.  Waxed 
strong  in  spirit]   RV  omits  '  in  spirit.' 

Filled  with  wisdom]  lit.  'becoming  full  of 
wisdom'  :  cp.  v.  62, '  increased  in  wisdom.'  As 
Jesus  was  perfect  God  and  perfect  man  so  He 
possessed  completely  the  attributes  of  both 
natures.  As  God  He  knew  all  things,  but  as 
man  He  '  waxed  strong  (in  spirit),  becoming 
filled  with  wisdom,'  and  '  increased  in  wisdom 
and  stature,  and  in  favour  with  God  and  man.' 
As  an  infant  He  possessed  the  knowledge 
proper  to  an  infant  ;  as  a  boy,  that  proper  to 
a  boy  ;  as  a  man,  that  proper  to  a  man  ;  as  the 
anointed  Messiah  (3^2),  that  proper  to  one 
commissioned  to  establish  the  Kingdom  of  God 
on  earth  ;  and  as  the  ascended  and  glorified 
Redeemer,  that  proper  to  one  who,  as  man, 
and  not  simply  as  God,  rules  the  entire  uni- 
verse (Mt28i'^).  What  this  means  we  may 
not  be  able  to  say,  but  we  may  rest  assured  He 
still  feels  for  man,  and  understands  his  needs. 
Although  it  was  always  possible  for  Him  who 
was  God  as  well  as  man,  to  di-aw,  if  the  needs 
of  His  mission  required  it,  upon  the  inexhaust- 
ible stores  of  His  divine  knowledge  (cp.  Jn  1  ■^S), 
yet  it  was  His  usual  custom  to  obtain  His 
information  through  human  channels  and 
from  human  soui'ces,  and,  even  as  a  teacher,  to 
use  chiefly  the  ample  stores  of  His  super- 
naturally  enlightened  human  knowledge.    This 


743 


2.  40 


ST.  LUKE 


3.  1 


supernatural  enlightenment  far  exceeded  both 
in  i-ange  and  in  penetration  that  granted  to 
the  greatest  of  the  prophets — it  was  the  know- 
ledge which  was  granted  to  the  Incarnate  Son 
for  the  purpose  of  communicating  to  man  the 
Father's  perfect  and  final  revelation  ;  but  it 
was  limited  in  accordance  with  its  object,  and 
did  not  embrace  matters  which  it  was  inex- 
pedient for  man  to  know,  and  therefore  for 
the  Incarnate  Son  to  reveal :  see  on  Mk  1 3  ^2, 
and  cp.  Ac  1 7. 

40-52.  The  boy  Jesus  in  the  Temple.  We 
know  nothing  directly  of  the  childhood  of 
Jesus  except  this  one  incident,  which  is  re- 
corded entirely  for  the  sake  of  the  remarkable 
utterance  in  v.  49. 

41.  As  women  were  not  obliged  to  attend, 
Mary's  regular  keeping  of  the  feasts  is  a  mark 
of  special  piety  :  cp.  v.  22. 

42.  Twelve  years]  Jesus  accompanied  His 
parents  for  the  first  time,  because  He  was 
approaching  his  thirteenth  year,  in  which  He 
would  become,  by  Jewish  custom,  '  a  son  of 
the  Law,'  i.e.  subject  to  its  obligations. 

43.  Tarried  behind]  Jesus  was  probably 
staying  with  friends,  and  thought  that  His 
parents  would  remain  in  Jerusalem  for  the 
whole  Passover  week.  Instead  of  this  they 
seem  to  have  left  after  two  days,  as  was  often 
done. 

46.  After  three  days]  They  spent  one  day 
looking  for  Him  in  the  caravan,  one  day  in 
the  return  journey  to  Jerusalem,  and  found 
Him  on  the  third  day.  Doctors]  i.e.  scribes 
or  rabbis.  Among  the  famous  men  who  may 
possibly  have  been  present  were  the  aged 
Hillel  and  Shammai,  Rabban  Simeon,  G-amaliel, 
Annas,  Joseph  of  Arimathsea,  Nicodemus, 
Johanan  ben-Zacchai,  Caiaphas.  It  is  said 
(but  it  is  not  certain)  that  there  was  a  syna- 
gogue within  the  Temple  enclosure,  where 
members  of  the  Sanhedrin  gave  public  in- 
struction on  sabbaths  and  festivals.  Hearing 
them]  not  teaching  them,  as  the  Apocryphal 
Gospels  say. 

49.  How  is  it]  '  Not  a  reproof,  but  an 
expression  of  surprise.  He  is  not  surprised 
at  their  coming  back  for  Him,  but  at  their  not 
knowing  where  to  find  Him.'  About  my 
Father's  business]  This  translation  is  possible, 
but  that  of  the  RV,  '  in  my  Father's  house,' 
is  more  probable.  The  words  mean  :  '  There 
is  only  one  place  in  Jerusalem  where  I,  the 
Son  of  God,  might  be  expected  to  be  found, 
and  that  is  in  my  Father's  house.'  The  utter- 
ance shows  that  even  at  this  early  age  Jesus 
was  conscious  that  His  true  father  was  not 
Joseph  (as  His  mother's  words  seemed  to 
imply,  V.  48).  but  God. 

50.  Understood  not]  The  lapse  of  twelve 
years  during  which  no  miracle  had  occurred, 
had  partly  obliterated  the  impression  made  by 


the  remarkable  circumstances  of  the  Nativity. 
This  and  the  next  v.  furnish  another  indication 
that  St.  Luke's  information  was  obtained  from 
St.  Mary.  51.  Was  subject]  The  evangelist 
guards  against  the  possible  supposition  that 
Christ's  words  in  v.  49  were  intended  as  a 
repudiation  of  His  parents'  authority  over 
Him.     52.   See  on  v.  40. 

CHAPTER   3 
John's  Ministry.     Baptism  and 
Genealogy  of  Jesus 
1-14.   Preliminary  Ministry  of   the  Baptist 

(Mt3iMkli).     See  on  Mt. 

I.  In  the  fifteenth  year]  If  the  years  of 
Tiberius  are  reckoned  from  the  death  of 
Augustus,  who  died  14  A.D.,  the  date  is  28,  29 
A.D.  Most  authorities,  however,  suppose  that 
the  years  of  Tiberius  are  here  reckoned  from 
11  A.D.,  when  he  was  made  the  colleague  of 
Augustus  in  the  empire,  with  equal  authority 
over  all  the  provinces  and  armies.  This  gives 
the  date  25,  26  a.d.  for  the  beginning  of  the 
ministry  of  John.  Jesus,  who  appeared  soon 
afterwards,  was,  therefore,  probably  baptised 
26  A.D.,  and  kept  the  first  Passover  of  His 
ministry  (Jn2i3)  27  a.d.  Allowing  three 
Passovers  to  the  ministry,  the  crucifixion  took 
place  in  29  a.d. 

Pilate]  see  on  Mt  27  2. 

Herod  being  tetrarch]  see  art.  '  Dynasty  of 
the  Herods.' 

Philip]  the  tetrarch,  is  to  be  carefully  dis- 
tinguished from  his  brother  Herod  Philip,  who 
was  of  private  station.  He  was  the  son  of 
Herod  the  Great  by  a  woman  of  Jerusalem 
named  Cleopatra.  He  ruled  for  38  years 
without  reproach,  and  was  favourably  dis- 
tinguished from  the  other  sons  of  Herod  by 
his  gentleness  and  want  of  ambition.  Jo- 
sephus  says  of  him  :  '  He  was  moderate,  and 
peaceful  in  his  rule,  and  spent  his  whole  life 
in  his  country.  He  went  out  with  only  a 
small  retinue,  always  taking  with  him  the 
throne  on  which  he  might  sit  and  judge. 
Whenever  he  met  any  one  who  had  need  of 
him,  he  made  no  delay,  but  set  down  the 
throne  wherever  he  might  be,  and  heard  the 
case.'  See,  further,  art.  '  Dynasty  of  the 
Herods.' 

Lysanias]  The  only  Lysanias  mentioned  in 
profane  history  as  ruling  over  Abilene  was 
executed  36  n  .c.  by  the  triumvir  Mark  Antony, 
at  the  instigation  of  Cleopatra,  queen  of 
Egypt.  He  governed  not  only  Abilene,  but 
also  Iturfea  and  other  extensive  districts.  The 
Lysanias  of  St.  Luke  is  probably  his  grandson. 

Abilene]  the  territory  round  Abila,  a  town 
of  some  importance,  situated  on  the  River 
Abana,  in  a  gorge  of  Mt.  Antilibanus,  18 
Roman  m.  from  Damascus  on  the  way  to  He- 
liopolis  or  Baalbec.     There  are  still  to  be  seen 


744 


3.  2 


ST.  LUKE 


4.  18 


there  an  ancient  temple,  ancient  aqueducts, 
and  a  Roman  road. 

2.  Annas,  etc.]  E,V  '  in  the  high  priesthood 
of  Annas  and  Caiaphas.'  A  peculiar  expres- 
sion to  indicate  a  peculiar  state  of  things. 
Annas  held  office  from  7-14  a.d.,  when  he 
was  deposed  by  Pilate's  predecessor,  Valerius 
Grains.  But  inasmuch  as  his  successors  were 
either  his  relations,  or  entirely  devoted  to  his 
interests,  he  retained  supreme  power,  and  was 
probably  regarded  by  orthodox  Jews  as  the 
rightful  high  priest.  Ex-high  priests  retained 
their  title,  and  Annas  is  called  high  priest 
again,  JnlS^^  Ac4*' :  see  on  JnlS^^  and 
Mt21i2.  Caiaphas]  see  on  Mt263  Jnll^a 
1813.  The  word  of  God  came]  John  received 
a  definite  call  to  his  ministry,  like  Isaiah  (Isa  6) 
and  Jeremiah  (Jer  1).     4.   See  on  Isa  40  3. 

5,  6.  (Peculiar  to  Lk.)  '  Spiritually  inter- 
preted, the  valleys  would  represent  unbelief 
and  all  sins  of  omission  which  must  be  filled  up 
by  the  diligent  adding  of  grace  to  grace  (2Pt 
1 5-7).  The  mountains  would  mean  pride  and 
haughtiness  and  self-will  and  obstinacy,  which 
must  be  humbled  and  cast  down.  The 
crooked  places  would  signify  all  sorts  of 
deceit  and  guile  and  hypocrisy  and  untruth- 
fulness. The  rough  ways  would  picture 
anger,  strife,  envy,  hatred,  malice,  and  all 
uncharitableness. ' 

10-14.   See  on  Mt3. 

15-17.  John's  witness  to  Jesus  (MtS^i 
Mk  1 7).     See  on  Mt. 

18-20.  John  is  imprisoned  by  Herod  (Mt 
143Mk6i').     See  on  Mt. 

21,22.  Baptism  of  Jesus  (Mt3i3  Mkl^). 
See  on  Mt. 

23-38.   Genealogy  of  Jesus.     See  on  Mt  1 1. 

23.  Thirty  years]  The  legal  age  for  the 
Levites  to  begin  their  ministry  (]S'u43,47)_ 

38.   Son  of  Adam]   see  on  Mt  1 1. 

CHAPTER   4 

The  Temptation.    Nazareth.   Capernaum 
1-13.  The  Temptation  (Mt  41  Mk  112).    gee 

on  Mt. 

5.  Lk  inverts  2nd  and  3rd  Temptations. 

13.  For  a  season]  'These  words  signify 
"  until  a  favourable  time."  The  conflict  fore- 
told so  precisely,  can  be  none  other  than  that 
of  Gethsemane.  "  This  is  your  hour  and  the 
power  of  darkness,"  said  Jesus  at  this  very 
time  (22^3),  and  a  few  moments  before  He 
had  said,  "  The  prince  of  this  world  cometh  " 
(Jnl430)'  (Godet). 

14,  15.  Return  to  Galilee.  Beginning  of 
the  Ministry  proper  (Mt4i2  Mkli*  Jn4i.-i3). 
See  on  Mt  and  Jn. 

14.  In  the  power  of  the  Spirit]  Christ's 
miracles  and  preaching  in  Judsea  ( Jn  1  29-4  '*2) 
had  already  made  Him  famous,  so  that  when  He 
was  come  unto  Galilee,  the  Galileans  received 


Him,  having  seen  all  the  things  that  He  did  at 
Jerusalem  at  the  feast  ( Jn  4  *^). 

16-30.  Visit  to  Nazareth.  See  MtlS^s 
Mk  6 1.  It  must  remain  doubtful  whether  this 
visit  to  Nazareth,  which  Lk  places  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  Galilean  ministry,  is  identical  with 
that  placed  considerably  later  by  Mt  and  Mk. 
In  any  case,  Lk  here  makes  use  of  an  important 
independent  source.  On  synagogues  see  on 
Mt  423. 

16.  As  his  custom  w^as]  When  living  at 
Nazareth,  Jesus  had  been  accustomed  to  read 
the  lessons  as  an  ordinary  member  of  the 
congregation.  Even  boys  under  age  were 
allowed  to  do  this.  Stood  up  for  to  read]  The 
Law  and  the  Prophets,  but  not  the  Hagio- 
grapha,  were  read  standing.  The  rabbis  said  : 
'  They  do  not  read  the  law  otherwise  than 
standing  up.  Nay,  it  is  unlawful  for  him  that 
readeth  to  lean  upon  anything.'  '  A  man  may 
read  out  of  the  book  of  Esther  either  standing 
or  sitting,  but  not  so  out  of  the  Law.'  Jesus 
having  stood  to  read,  sat  to  expound.  As  He 
read  in  Hebrew,  the  Methurgeman,  or  Inter- 
preter, translated  into  the  vernacular  Aramaic. 
See  onMt26. 

17.  There  was  delivered  .  .  the  book  (or  '  a 
roll ')]  The  rolls  were  in  the  charge  of  the 
hazzan,  or  attendant  (v.  20),  who  handed  them 
to  the  reader,  and  received  them  back  when 
read.  Sometimes  the  prophets  formed  a  single 
roll,  sometimes  (as  here)  they  were  divided 
into  books. 

18.  From  Isa61i>2,  with  one  clause  'to  set 
at  liberty  them  that  are  bruised  '  inserted  from 
Isa  58'',  LXX.  This  passage,  in  which  the 
prophet  declares  to  the  exiles  in  Babylon  their 
approaching  deliverance,  is  now  read  in  Jewish 
synagogues  on  the  Day  of  Atonement,  and  may 
so  have  been  read  even  at  that  time.  The 
reading  was  very  short  (two  verses  only), 
because  a  sermon  was  to  follow.  When  there 
was  no  sermon,  the  reading  was  made  con- 
siderably longer. 

The  Spirit  of  the  Lord,  etc.]  In  Isaiah  this 
is  a  soliloquy  of  the  Righteous  Servant  of 
Jehovah,  whom  our  Lord  identifies  with  Him- 
self. The  Jews  generally  regarded  it  as  a 
soliloquy  of  the  prophet  himself.  He  hath 
anointed  me]  viz.  at  My  baptism.  He  hath 
sent  me  to  heal  the  brokenhearted]  RV  omits. 

To  preach  deliverance]  RV  '  to  proclaim 
release  to  the  captives.'  The  original  words 
have  reference  to  the  release  of  the  Jewish 
captives  from  Babylon.  Jesus  applies  them 
to  the  release  of  sinners  from  the  guilt  and 
bondage  of  sin,  through  His  ministry.  The 
blind]  Spiritual  blindness  is  here  chiefly  in 
view.  To  set  at  liberty  them  that  are  bruised] 
From  Isa  586.  Qur  Lord  purposely  inserted 
these  words  in  the  passage  read  according  to  a 
common  custom.     The  rabbis  said, '  The  reader 


745 


4.19 


ST.  LUKE 


5.  1 


of  the  prophet  may  skip  from  one  text  to 
another,  but  he  may  not  skip  from  prophet 
to  prophet,  but  in  the  twelve  (minor)  prophets 
it  is  lawful.'  19.  To  preach  the  acceptable 
year  of  the  Lord]  In  Isaiah  this  is  the  year 
of  the  return,  but  Jesus  applies  it  to  His 
earthly  ministry.  It  is  not  to  be  inferred 
from  this  that  Christ's  ministry  lasted  only 
a  year. 

21.  This  day  is  this  scripture,  etc.]  With  the 
emphatic  self-assertion  of  this  sermon,  cp. 
the  Sermon  on  the  Mount  (Mt  5-7).  22.  Bare 
him  witness]  i.e.  declared  that  the  report  of 
His  power  as  a  preacher  was  not  exaggerated. 

And  they  said]  or,  rather,  '  bui  they  said,' 
according  to  the  Heb.  idiom,  which  has  only 
one  word  for  '  and '  and  '  but.'  Is  not  this 
Joseph's  son  ?]  and,  therefore,  not  the  Messiah, 
or  a  prophet,  or  any  one  great. 

23.  Physician,  heal  thyself]  The  defect  or 
malady  from  which,  in  the  opinion  of  the 
Nazarenes,  Clu-ist  was  suifering,  was  want  of 
consideration  among  those  who  knew  Him  best, 
especially  his  fellow-townsmen.  Let  Him 
remove  that  defect  by  working  such  miracles  as 
would  convince  them  that  He  was  a  teacher 
sent  from  God,  and  He  would  then  be  more 
successful  in  'healing,'  i.e.  converting,  others. 
The  Nazarenes  were  jealous  because  Jesus  had 
worked  miracles  at  Capernaum  and  other 
places  before  He  worked  any  at  Nazareth. 
The  proverb  occurs  frequently  in  rabbinical 
writings,  '  Physician,  heal  thine  own  lameness.' 
'  In  a  sad  state  is  the  city  whose  physician  has 
the  gout,  and  whose  steward  has  one  eye.' 

24.  No  prophet  is  accepted]  RV  'accept- 
able.' The  truth  is  a  familiar  one.  We 
often  think  lightly  of  what  is  very  familiar. 
The  blessings  at  our  doors  are  those  we  value 
least.  Here  and  in  Mtl357,  Christ's  'own 
country '  is  Nazareth,  where  He  was  brought 
up.  In  Jn  4  -i-i  it  is  perhaps  Judoea,  where  He 
was  born.  There  is  a  curious  parallel  in  the 
life  of  '  the  heathen  Christ,'  Apollonius  "of 
Tyana,  who  is  represented  as  saying,  '  What 
wonder  is  it,  if,  when  I  am  esteemed  by  the 
rest  of  mankind  as  like  a  god,  and  by  some 
even  as  a  god,  my  own  country  alone  until 
now  refuses  to  recognise  me  ?  '  Plutarch  says, 
'  You  will  find  that  few  of  the  most  prudent 
and  wisest  of  mankind  have  been  appreciated 
in  their  own  country.'  Another  ancient  writer 
says,  '  All  the  philosophers  seem  to  have  had 
a  hard  life  in  their  own  country.' 

25-27.  The  vv.  contain  a  refusal  to  work 
miracles  in  Nazareth.  St.  Matthew  (IS^s) 
gives  the  reason  :  '  because  of  their  unbelief.' 

25.  EHas]  RV  '  Elijah.'  Our  Lord  gives 
two  instances  of  prophets,  who,  being  dis- 
honoured in  their  own  country,  went  and  con- 
ferred great  blessings  upon  foreigners.  Three 
years  and  six  months]  So  also  in  Jas  5 1''.    This 


does  not  agree  with  the  OT.,  which  says  that 
the  rain  returned  in  the  third  year  (1K171 
181),  but  it  agrees  with  Jewish  traditional 
usage,  which  fi'equently  introduced  the  number 
three  and  a  half,  as  being  half  of  the  mystical 
number  seven.  '  Ever  since  the  persecution 
under  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  three  years  and 
a  half  (=42  months  =  1,200  days)  had  become 
the  traditional  dvu-ation  of  times  of  great 
calamity  (Dan  7  25  127  Rev  11 2, 3  12  6,  u  135)' 
(Plummer). 

27.  Eliseus]  RV  '  Elisha.' 

28.  They  are  angry  with  Jesus  for  ventur- 
ing to  compare  Himself  with  the  old  prophets, 
and  for  rebuking  them  for  their  want  of  faith 
in  Him. 

29.  That  they  might  cast  him  down]  per- 
haps as  a  preliminary  to  stoning  Him  as  a 
blasphemer — '  The  place  of  execution  was  twice 
a  man's  height.  One  of  the  witnesses  throws 
him  down,'  etc.  As  the  local  synagogues 
with  their  '  bench  of  three  '  could  not  condemn 
to  death,  Plummer  conjectures  that  this  was 
what  the  Jews  call  the  '  rebel's  beating.'  This 
was  administered  by  the  people  without  trial 
and  on  the  spot,  when  any  one  was  caught  in 
what  seemed  to  be  a  flagrant  violation  of  some 
law  or  tradition  (Jn  8^9  iQSi  Ac213i,32). 

30.  Went  his  way]  A  mysterious  restraint 
upon  the  power  of  His  enemies  is  implied  as 
in  Jnl86. 

31.  Migration  to  Capernaum.  See  on  Mt4i3. 
3 1 ''-37.  Demoniac  healed  in  the  synagogue. 

Mkl23.    SeeonMkl2if. 

38-41.  Healing  of  Simon's  ■wife's  mother 
and  others  (Mt  8 1-^  Mk  1  29).     See  on  Mt. 

42-44.  Retirement  to  a  desert  place.  Preach- 
ing tours  (Mk  1  35).     See  on  Mt  4  23-2.5. 

44.  The  synagogues  of  Galilee]  The  best 
critics  read,  '  the  synagogues  of  Judsea.'  This 
is  the  only  express  mention  by  the  synoptists 
of  the  Judaean  ministry,  but  see  on  Mt2337 

CHAPTER  5 
Miraculous  Draught  of  Fishes. 
The  Palsied  Man 
i-ii.    First   miraculous   draught    of   fishes 

(peculiar  to  Lk).  Many  critics  identify  this 
incident  with  that  recorded  in  Mt4i8  and  Mk 
1 16.  But  there  are  important  considerations 
on  the  other  side  :  (1)  the  persons  are  different 
(there  four  disciples,  here  Peter  is  addressed); 
(2)  the  words  used,  though  similar  in  sense, 
are  very  different  in  form ;  (3)  the  disciples 
are  not  said  to  have  '  left  all '  in  Mt,  but  only 
to  have  left  their  father  in  the  ship.  More- 
over, in  Mt  and  Mk  the  disciples  are  fishing, 
here  they  are  washing  their  nets  before  putting 
them  away.  Besides,  if  Mt  and  Mk  really  de- 
scribe the  same  event,  why  do  they  omit  the 
most  striking  incident  of  all,  the  miraculous 
draught  of  fishes  ?     See  on  Mt  4  i^. 


746 


5.  5 


ST.  LUKE 


6.  20 


The  incident  was  probably  a  miracle,  but  it 
is  possible  to  give  a  plausible  natural  explana- 
tion of  it.  Tristram  says  :  '  The  thickness  of 
the  shoals  of  fish  in  the  Lake  of  Gennesareth 
is  almost  incredible  to  any  one  who  has  not 
witnessed  them.  They  often  cover  an  area  of 
more  than  an  acre  ;  and  when  the  fish  move 
slowly  forward  in  a  mass,  and  are  rising  out 
of  the  water,  they  are  packed  so  close  together, 
that  it  appears  as  if  a  heavy  rain  was  beating 
down  on  the  surface  of  the  water.'  Fish  so 
closely  packed  as  this  could  not  easily  escape. 

5.  Master]  implying  that  he  was  already  a 
disciple.  This  particular  word  is  peculiar  to 
St.  Luke. 

8.  Depart  from  me]  '  Peter  perceived  that 
His  command  was  effectual  beyond  expecta- 
tion, and  that  He  was  a  divine  and  super- 
natural man,  and,  therefore,  feeling  himself 
unworthy,  begged  Him  to  depart '  (Euthymius). 
It  is  natm-al  for  the  sinful  soul  to  shrink  from 
the  presence  of  the  all-holy  God.  The  near- 
ness of  God  had  been  brought  home  to  St. 
Peter  by  the  miracle  which  he  had  just  wit- 
nessed:  cp.  Ex  20 18.  i». 

10.  Catch  men]  lit.  '  catch  them  alive.'  The 
apostles  are  to  catch  men  for  life,  not  for 
death,  by  means  of  their  preaching.  In  the 
works  of  Clement  of  Alexandria,  200  a.d.,  there 
is  a  beautiful  hymn  to  Christ  as  the  fisher  : 

'  Fisher  of  mortal  men, 
Even  of  those  that  are  being  saved, 
Ever  the  holy  fish 
From  the  wild  ocean 
Of  the  world's  sea  of  sin 
By  thy  sweet  life  thou  enticest  away.' 

12-16.  The  leper  cleansed  (Mt8i  Mkl^o). 
See  on  Mt. 

16.  And  prayed]  Peculiar  to  Lk,  who  more 
often  than  any  other  evangelist  mentions  our 
Lord's  prayers. 

17-26.  The  Paralytic  (Mt9i  Mk2i).  See 
on  Mt. 

27-39.  Call  of  Levi,  and  the  controversy  as 
to  fasting  (Mt  9  9  Mk  2  is).     See  on  Mt. 

39.  (Peculiar  to  Lk.)  Christ  means  that 
He  cannot  expect  the  disciples  of  John  and 
of  the  Pharisees,  who  have  tasted  the  old  wine 
of  the  Law,  and  found  it  good,  to  receive  at 
once  and  without  difficulty  the  new  teaching. 

The  old  is  better]  So  AV  and  RM  ;  but  RV 
'■  the  old  is  good.' 

CHAPTER  6 

Choice  of  the  Twelve.     Sermon  in  the 
Plain 

1-5.   Plucking  the  ears  of  corn  (Mt  12 1  Mk 

223).     See  on  Mt  and  Mk. 

I.  On  the  second  sabbath  after  the  first]  Gk. 
chuteroprdtnii,  lit.  '  second-first.'  There  is 
considerable  ground  for  omitting  this  obscure 
expression  as  interpolated,  and  reading  simply, 


'  on  a  sabbath,'  with  the  RV.  If,  however,  it 
is  genuine,  it  probably  means,  '  on  the  second 
sabbath  after  the  waving  of  the  sheaf  on  the 
second  day  of  the  Passover  festival '  (see 
Lv23i-is).  It  was  the  custom  to  number  the 
sabbaths  from  Passover  to  Pentecost  from 
this  day.  Of  the  numerous  other  interpreta- 
tions the  best  are,  '  the  second  chief  sabbath 
of  the  year '  (i.e.  Pentecost),  and  '  the  first 
sabbath  of  the  second  month  of  the  year.'  The 
'  Jewish  Encycl.'  conjectures  that  the  disciples 
were  blamed  for  plucking  the  ears  before  the 
sheaf  was  waved,  which  was  forbidden  (Lv  23 1^). 

5.  In  one  important  MS,  the  Codex  Bezas, 
this  V.  is  placed  after  v.  10,  and  in  its  place  is 
inserted  this  remarkable  incident  and  saying 
of  Jesus  :  '  On  the  same  day  He  saw  a  man 
working  on  the  sabbath,  and  said  to  him  : 
"  O  man,  if  thou  knowest  what  thou  doest, 
blessed  art  thou.  But  if  thou  knowest  not, 
cursed  art  thou,  and  a  transgressor  of  the 
law."  '  The  utterance  is  perhaps  authentic. 
'  In  substance  it  certainly  bears  the  mark  of 
genius.  I  regard  it  as  an  interpolated  frag- 
ment of  a  true  tradition  '  (Meyer).  '  We 
may  believe  that  this  traditional  story  is  true  ' 
(Plummer).  '  Its  form  and  contents  speak  for 
its  originality,  and,  I  am  disposed  to  believe, 
its  authenticity  '  (Alford).  On  the  contrary, 
Godet  says,  '  This  can  only  be  an  invention 
or  a  perversion.' 

6-1 1.  The  man  with  the  withered  hand 
(Mtl29Mk3i).     See  on  Mt. 

12-19.  Choice  of  the  Twelve  (Mtl02 
Mk3i3).    See  on  Mt  and  Mk. 

16.  Judas  the  brother  of  James]  So  AV  and 
RM.     But  RV  '  Judas  the  son  of  James.' 

17.  In  the  plain]  RV  'on  a  level  place.' 
This  may  have  been  a  plateau,  high  up  the 
mountains,  but  see  on  MtS^. 

20-49.  Great  sermon  to  the  disciples  and 
in  part  to  the  multitudes.  It  forms  here  the 
ordination  address  of  the  Twelve.  In  what 
sense  it  is  identical  with  the  Sermon  on  the 
Mount  is  explained  on  Mt5i.  That  it  is  for 
all  practical  purposes  the  same  sermon,  but 
abridged,  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  it  contains 
only  five  verses  (vv.  24-26,  39,  40)  which  are 
not  in  St.  Matthew's  version,  and  that  it 
follows  St.  Matthew's  order. 

Analysis  :  (1)  Four  beatitudes,  on  the 
poor,  the  hungry,  weepers,  and  the  hated 
(vv.  20-23). 

(2)  Four  woes,  on  the  rich,  the  full, 
laughers,  and  the  well  spoken  of  (vv.  24-26). 

(3)  Exhortation  to  love,  as  shown  in  re- 
turning good  for  evil,  not  resisting  evil,  loving 
enemies,  not  judging  rashly  (vv.  27-38). 

(4)  Exhortation  to  stringent  self-examin- 
ation on  the  part  of  those  who  presume  to 
guide  others,  lest  they  be  found  to  be  hypo- 
crites (vv.  39-45). 


747 


6.20 


ST.  LUKE 


7.  24 


(5)  Exhortation  to  obedience.  The  strong 
foundation  upon  which  obedient  Christians 
build  (vv.  46-49). 

St.  Luke's  sermon  is  much  less  striking  than 
St.  Matthew's.  It  omits  the  whole  question 
of  the  relation  of  the  Gospel  to  the  Law,  and 
all  those  passages  in  which  Christ  claims  to 
be  the  supreme  Legislator,  Judge,  and  Ruler 
of  the  human  race  ;  it  has  only  four  beatitudes 
instead  of  eight,  and  in  general  gives  the  im- 
pression of  an  abridged  and  imperfect  report, 
in  which  some  of  the  sayings,  owing  to  ex- 
tensive omissions,  do  not  appear  in  their  true 
context.  Some,  but  not  all,  of  St.  Luke's 
omissions  can  be  accounted  for  by  the  fact 
that  his  Gospel  was  intended  for  Gentiles. 

Some  critics  profess  to  find  in  St.  Luke's 
sermon  an  Ebionitic,  or  as  we  should  now  say,  a 
socialistic  or  communistic  tendency.  Probably 
wrongly,  for  by  '  the  poor  '  and  'the  hungry,' 
St.  Luke  does  not  mean  the  literally  such,  any 
more  than  St.  Matthew,  who  expressly  speaks 
of  '  the  poor  in  spirit,'  and  of  those  who 
'  hunger  and  thirst  after  righteousness.'  So 
also  St.  Luke's  rich,  well-fed,  and  prosperous 
persons,  are  not  simply  the  well-to-do,  but 
those  who  have  the  vices  of  their  station. 
Our  Lord  never  approves  poverty  or  con- 
demns riches  simply  as  such.     See  on  Mt. 

20-23.   Four  Beatitudes.     See  on  MtS^^^^. 

22.  Separate  you]  viz.  by  excommunication. 
The  usual  sentence  was  for  thirty  days,  during 
which  the  excommunicated  might  not  come 
within  four  cubits  of  any  one. 

24-26.  Four  woes  (peculiar  to  Lk).  The 
'  woes '  refer  chiefly  to  future  punishment  in 
the  world  to  come,  but  not  exclusively,  for  in 
the  siege  of  Jerusalem  they  received  a  literal 
fulfilment. 

24.  You  that  are  rich]  i.e.  those  who,  pos- 
sessing wealth,  trust  in  it  (MklO^^),  or  spend 
it  in  selfish  luxm-y  like  Dives  (LklG^^),  and 
despise  the  poor  (.Jas2*5),  and  oppress  them 
(Jas5^).  Ye  have  received  your  consolation] 
cp.  Abraham's  words  to  Dives  (K!--^),  'Son, 
remember  that  thou  in  thy  lifetime  receivcdst 
(in  full)  thy  good  things.'  25.  You  that  are 
full]  and  careless  of  your  poorer  brethren's 
needs,  like  the  rich  man  '  who  fared  sump- 
tuously every  day'  (16^9).  Shall  hunger] 
Spiritual  destitution  is  meant,  in  this  world 
and  the  next.  That  laugh]  The  godless,  con- 
temptuous laughter  of  the  wicked  (EccluslO^o^ 
is  meant.  Innocent  mirth  is  approved  by 
Christ  (Lkl524).  Mourn  and  weep]  viz.  in 
the  world  to  come. 

26.  A  warning  to  all  Christian  ministers 
and  teachers  not  to  court  popularity  by  speak- 
ing smooth  words,  and  saying  '  Peace,  when 
there  is  no  peace.'  Plutarch  relates  of  Phocion 
the  Athenian,  '  Once  while  he  was  delivering 
a  public  speech  and  making  a  good  impression. 


and  saw  that  all  his  hearers  were  equally 
pleased  with  what  he  said,  he  turned  to  his 
friends  and  said,  "  Surely  I  must  have  for- 
gotten myself,  and  said  something  wrong."  ' 
Similarly  Diogenes  Laertius  relates  of  a  cer- 
tain philosopher,  that  when  some  one  an- 
nounced to  him  that  all  men  were  praising 
him,  he  replied, '  Why,  what  evil  have  I  done  ? ' 

The  false  prophets]  cp.  JerS^i  6I*  S^ 
EzklSio. 

27-38.  Exhortations  to  love,  forgiveness  of 
injuries,  and  avoiding  of  rash  judgments. 

27-30.   See  on  Mt  5  39-42. 

31.   See  onMt7i2. 

32-36.   See  on  Mt  5  42-48. 

37,  38.  See  on  Mt7i.2. 

39.  St.  Matthew  gives  this  saying  in  a  much 
more  suitable  connexion  (MtlS^**),  where  it  is 
applied  to  the  Pharisees.  Here  it  appears  to 
mean  that  before  judging  others  we  must 
judge  ourselves,  otherwise  we  shall  be  blind 
leaders  of  the  blind.  The  ditch]  RV  '  a  pit.' 
Palestine  is  full  of  unfenced  wells,  quarries,  etc. 

40.  Another  saying  which  occurs  in  a  more 
natural  context  in  Mtl024,  q.v. 

41-45.  Exhortation  to  stringent  self-exami- 
nation on  the  part  of  religious  guides. 

41.  42.   See  on  MtT^-s. 

43-45.   See  on  Mt7i6-'20^  and  Mt  12  33, 35.    ' 
46-49.   Obedient  hearing.      See  on  Mt  7  21-27. 

CHAPTER   7 

Raising  of  the  Widow's  Son.     The 

Woman  who  avas  a  Sinner 

i-io.    Healing   of  the  centurion's  servant. 

See  on  MtS^. 

11-17.  The  raising  of  the  widow's  son 
(peculiar  to  Lk).  On  the  credibility  and 
significance  of  Christ's  miracles  of  resurrection, 
consult  Mt 9 18  Jnlli. 

11.  Nain]  25m.  SW.  of  Capernaum  on  the 
hill  '  little  Hermon  '  as  it  slopes  down  to  the 
plain  of  Esdraelon  :  now  a  squalid  collection 
of  mud-hovels.  Much  people]  RV  '  a  great 
multitude.'  Lazarus  also  was  raised  in  the 
presence  of  a  multitude  of  witnesses. 

12.  Carried  out]  Jewish  tombs  were  always 
outside  the  walls,  and  burials  were  required 
to  be  performed  within  24  hours.  Only  son] 
see  Jer626  Zechl2io  Am  8 10.  14.  The  bier] 
a  mere  pallet,  not  a  coffin. 

I  say  unto  thee]  Elijah  and  Elisha  raised  the 
dead  with  difficulty,  and  after  strong  wrest- 
lings with  God  in  prayer  (1 K  1720,21  2 K433,34)^ 
Christ  without  effort,  by  a  single  word  of 
power:  cp.  Jnll43.  16.  A  great  prophet]  or, 
'even  the  prophet'  (Dtl8i^),  for  only  the 
very  greatest  prophets  had  raised  the  dead. 

18-23.  A  deputation  from  John  the  Baptist. 
See  on  Mtll2. 

24-35.  Christ's  opinion  of  John.  See  on 
Mtll'. 


748 


7.29 


ST.  LUKE 


8.  4 


29,  30.  Peculiar  to  Lk. 

30.  Rejected]  RV  '  rejected  for  themselves 
the  counsel  of  God.'  God's  '  counsel,'  or 
design,  was  that  they  should  be  prepared  for  the 
coming  of  Christ  by  receiving  John's  baptism. 

36-50.  Christ  anointed  at  the  house  of 
Simon  the  Pharisee  (peculiar  to  Lk).  Placed 
here  as  an  illustration  of  hovi^  'Wisdom' 
(i.e.  the  Gospel)  is  justified  by  the  changed 
life  of  one  of  '  her  children  '  (this  sinful 
woman).  '  We  are  still  in  that  epoch  of 
transition  when  the  rupture  between  our  Lord 
and  the  Pharisees,  although  already  far 
advanced,  was  not  yet  complete.  A  Pharisee 
could  still  invite  Him  without  difficulty.  It 
has  been  supposed  that  this  invitation  was 
given  with  a  hostile  intention.  But  this 
Pharisee's  own  reflection,  v.  39,  shows  his 
moral  state.  He  was  hesitating  between  the 
holy  impression  which  Jesus  made  upon  him, 
and  the  antipathy  which  his  caste  felt  against 
Him '  (Godet).  The  woman  at  the  time  of 
the  incident  was  no  longer  a  '  sinner ' ;  she  had 
been  converted  by  Jesus,  but  the  Pharisee  did 
not  know  this. 

This  anointing  is  probably  quite  distinct 
from  that  at  Bethany  (Mt26*5  Jnl22),  and 
the  woman  is  not  to  be  identified  either  with 
Mary  Magdalene,  or  with  Mary  of  Bethany, 
who  were  clearly  women  of  good  position  and 
character  (see  on  Mt266  Jnl2  2). 

36.  Sat  down]  or,  rather,  '  lay  down,' 
'  reclined.' 

37.  A  sinner]  i.e.  a  woman  of  ill  fame,  or, 
rather,  one  who  had  been  such.  She  would 
have  no  difficulty  in  entering  the  house,  as 
banquets  in  the  East  are  generally  public 
functions.  An  alabaster  box  (RV  '  cruse  ')] 
'  We  have  evidence  that  perfumed  oils — 
notably  oil  of  roses,  and  of  the  iris  plant,  but 
chiefly  the  mixture  known  in  antiquity  as 
foliatum — were  largely  manufactured  and  used 
in  Palestine.  A  flask  with  this  perfume  was 
worn  by  women  round  the  neck'  (see  on 
Song  1 13).  38.  As  Jesus  was  reclining  (not 
sitting)  with  His  head  towards  the  table  and 
His  feet  stretched  out  behind  Him,  the  woman 
could  easily  act  as  indicated.  Tears]  She  was 
overwhelmed  by  penitent  recollections  of  her 
past  life,  and  gratitude  to  Him  who  had  saved 
her  from  it.  Hairs]  To  appreciate  this  act  we 
must  remember  that  it  was  one  of  the  greatest 
humiliations  for  a  woman  to  be  seen  with  her 
hair  dishevelled.  Similar  acts  of  respect  were 
sometimes,  but  rarely,  paid  to  rabbis.  A  man 
once  came  to  kiss  the  feet  of  Rabbi  Jonathan, 
because  he  had  induced  filial  reverence  in  his 
son.  Anointing  the  feet  was  common  among 
the  Jews,  the  Romans,  and  the  Greeks,  espe- 
cially at  banquets. 

39.  This  man,  if  he  were  a  prophet]  One 
good  MS  reads  '  the  prophet.' 


40,  Jesus  answering]  The  Pharisee  thought 
that  Jesus  did  not  know  the  woman's  history. 
Jesus  shows  the  Pharisee  that  He  can  discern 
even  the  thoughts  of  his  own  heart.  Simon] 
the  same  as  Simeon,  or  Symeon.  It  is  a  mere 
coincidence  that  the  other  anointing  took 
place  at  the  house  of  a  man  of  the  same  name. 
There  are  eleven  Simons  in  the  OT.,  nine  in 
the  NT.,  and  twenty  in  Josephus.  41.  Pence] 
i.e.  denarii.  According  to  weight  a  denarius 
was  about  8fZ.,  but  according  to  purchasing 
power  2s.  or  more.  The  two  debts  were, 
therefore,  about  £50  and  £5. 

44.  No  water]  cp.  GnlS-t  Jgl9'^i  IS 25^1, 
and  see  on  Jn  13^.  46.  Oil]  which  was  cheap, 
as  opposed  to  ointment,  which  was  dear. 

47.  '  Thou  canst  see  that  she  is  a  reformed 
character  and  that  her  many  sins  have  been 
forgiven,  because  of  the  love  she  bears  to  Me, 
who  have  saved  her  from  her  sinful  life.'  It 
should  be  carefully  observed  that  the  woman 
loved  because  she  was  forgiven,  not  forgiven 
because  she  loved. 

To  whom  little  is  forgiven]  i.e.  '  Thou, 
Simon,  like  this  woman,  hast  also  been  My 
disciple,  but  it  is  plain  from  the  little  love 
thou  showest  Me  that,  unlike  her,  thou  hast 
not  been  brought  to  repentance  through  My 
ministry.' 

48.  Thy  sins  are  forgiven]  Christ  had  for- 
given her  before,  when  she  turned  from  her 
old  life.  He  now  for  her  greater  comfort 
renews  the  absolution.  For  the  bearing  of 
Christ's  absolving  power  upon  His  divinity, 
see  on  Mt9i-s.  49.  Sins  also]  RV  'even 
sins.' 

CHAPTER   8 

Parable  of  the  Sower.     The  Demoniac 

OP  Gadara 

1-3-  Tours  through  Galilee.  The  minister- 
ing women  (peculiar  to  Lk). 

2.  Mary  called  Magdalene]  see  on  Mt  27  ^^. 

Seven  devils]  MklG^.  The  'seven'  indi- 
cates the  greatness  of  her  disease,  not  of  her 
previous  wickedness.  There  is  no  evidence 
that  the  persons  possessed  with  devils  in  the 
NT.  were  specially  wicked,  or  that  Mary 
Magdalene  had  ever  been  a  woman  of  evil  life. 

3.  Joanna]  see  24 10.  Our  Lord  did  not,  like 
the  Pharisees, '  devour  widows'  houses.'  Those 
who  contributed  to  His  support  were  women 
of  wealth  and  position.  Chuza]  probably  the 
steward  of  Herod  Antipas,  who  as  such  managed 
his  house  and  estates.  From  Joanna  St.  Luke 
probably  obtained  much  of  his  special  informa- 
tion.    Susanna]  Of  her  nothing  is  known. 

Ministered  unto  him]  Tliis  illustrates  our 
Lord's  precept  (1  Cor  9 1'*)  that  they  which  preach 
the  gospel  should  live  of  the  gospel. 

4-15.  Parable  of  the  Sower  (Mtl3i  Mk4i). 
See  on  Mt. 


749 


8.  16 


ST.  LUKE 


9.61 


1 6-1 8.  Further  remarks  on  teaching  by 
parables  (Mki^i-^ii').     See  on  Mk. 

19-21.  His  mother  and  brethren  (Mtl246 
Mk33i).     See  on  Mt. 

22-25.  Stilling  the  storm  (Mt8-'3  Mk435). 
See  on  Mt,  Mk. 

26-39.  The  demoniac  in  the  country  of  the 
Gadarenes  (RV  'Gerasenes')  (Mt8^«  Mk5i). 
See  on  Mt,  Mk. 

40-56.  Jairus'  daughter.  The  woman  with 
an  issue  (Mt  9 1«  Mk  5  21).     See  on  Mt. 

CHAPTER  9 

Feeding   the    Five    Thousand.     Peter's 

Confession.     The  Transfiguration 

1-6.  Mission  of  the  Twelve  (Mtl0i>5-15  Mk 
67-13).     See  on  Mt. 

7-9.  Herod  thinks  that  John  is  risen  again 
(Mt  1 4 1  Mk  G 1^).     See  on  Mt. 

10-17.  Feeding  of  the  five  thousand  (Mtl4i3 
Mk630  Jn  (')!).     See  on  Mt  and  Jn. 

18-27.  Confession  of  Peter  (Mt  1 G 13  Mk  8  27). 
See  on  Mt.  St.  Luke's  accoimt  is  the  most 
imperfect.  Why  he  omits  to  mention  the 
locality  (Caesarea  Philippi),  and  Christ's  rebuke 
to  Peter,  which  were  certainly  in  his  source, 
does  not  appear.  He  alone  mentions  that 
Christ  was  '  praying  alone  '  (v.  18). 

28-36.  The  Transfiguration  (Mt  1 7 1  Mk  9  2). 
See  on  Mt. 

31.  Lk  alone  mentions  the  subject  of  the 
conversation,  Christ's  death. 

37-43.  The  epileptic  healed  (Mt  1 7 14  Mk  9 1^), 
See  on  Mt  and  Mk. 

43''-45.  He  predicts  His  Passion  (Mtl7  22 
Mk930).  See  on  Mt.  It  is  not  clear  why  St. 
Luke  omits  the  prophecy  of  the  resurrection, 
which  certainly  was  in  the  source  used  by  the 
synoptists.     See  Mt  and  Mk. 

46-48.  Who  should  be  greatest  (Mt  18 1  Mk 
933).     See  on  Mt. 

49,  50.  The  man  casting  out  devils  in  Christ's 
name.     See  on  Mk  9  38-41. 

Chs.  9-51-19-'^.  The  Per aean  Ministry.  Here 
begins  a  long  and  important  section  consist- 
ing of  ten  chapters  (9^1-19-*)  peculiar  to  the 
third  Gospel,  and  called  generally  the  '  Peraean 
section.'  (For  '  Pertea  '  see  on  Mt  1 9 1.)  From 
the  narratives  of  Mt  and  Mk,  who  devote  but 
a  chapter  to  it  (Mtl9  MklU),  it  would  be 
supposed  that  the  final  jom-ney  of  Jesus  to 
Jerusalem  occupied  not  more  than  a  week  or 
two,  but  in  St.  Luke  it  is  so  crowded  with 
incidents,  that  sevei-al  months  must  be  assigned 
to  it.  It  need  not,  however,  be  supposed  that 
all  the  incidents  and  discourses  which  St.  Luke 
places  in  this  period  really  belong  to  it.  Marks 
of  time  are  infrequent  and  vague,  and  lead  to 
the  conclusion  that  many  of  the  incidents  came 
into  the  evangelist's  hands  with  no  indications 
of  date,  and  were,  therefore,  grouped  together 
in  this  appendix  to  the  Galilean  ministry.    All 


the  Gospels  agree  in  bringing  our  Lord  to 
Persea  shortly  before  the  Passion. 

Some  think  that  St.  Luke  describes  not  one, 
but  thi-ee  journeys  to  Jerusalem :  (1)  9^^  =  Jn 
71-1039  (Feast  of  Tabernacles  and  of  Dedica- 
tion; (2)  13--  =  Jnll  (raising  of  Lazarus); 
(3)  17ii  =  Jnll55  (journey  from  Ephraim  to 
Jerusalem).  But  it  is  better  to  hold  that  St. 
Luke  describes  only  one  journey,  which  partook 
largely  of  the  nature  of  an  extended  mission- 
ary tour. 

51-56.  James  and  John  desire  to  call  down 
fire  upon  a  Samaritan  village  (peculiar  to  Lk). 
Though  James  and  John  did  not  gain  their 
title  '  Boanerges  '  (Mk3i7)  from  this  incident, 
yet  it  undoubtedly  illustrates  the  character  of 
the  '  Sons  of  Thunder '  on  its  weaker  side. 
Their  desire  for  vengeance  was  a  fault,  but  a 
generous  one.  They  resented,  not  a  personal 
slight,  but. an  insult  to  the  Master  whom  they 
had  now  come  to  regard  as  greater  than  Moses 
or  Elijah  or  any  OT.  saint.  They  were  right 
to  be  angry,  but  they  were  wrong  in  their  anger 
to  forget  mercy,  and  to  desire  to  destroy  rather 
than  to  save  sinners. 

51.  When  the  time  was  come  (RV  'when 
the  days  were  well  nigh  come ')  that  he  should 
be  received  up]  lit. 'for  His  Ascension,'  St.  Luke 
thus  indicating  that  His  painful  death  would 
have  a  glorious  issue.  Set  his  face]  see  Isa507. 
St.  Mark  states  that  Jesus  went  before,  and 
the  disciples  followed  in  amazement  and  appre- 
hension (Mkl032). 

52.  Samaritans]  see  on  .Jn44>8.9>20.  Xo 
make  ready]    viz.  a  lodging  and  a  meal. 

53.  As  though  he  w^ould  go  to  Jerusalem] 
The  Samaritans  expected  a  Messiah,  but  the 
fact  that  Jesus  was  going  to  Jerusalem  to 
worship,  rather  than  to  their  own  holy  moun- 
tain Gerizim,  was  a  sufficient  proof  to  them 
that  Jesus  was  not  he.  The  Jews  often 
passed  through  Samaria,  but  they  seldom 
availed  themselves  of  Samaritan  hospitality, 
though  according  to  the  rabbis  '  their  land 
was  clean,  then'  waters  were  clean,  their  dwell- 
ings were  clean,  and  their  roads  were  clean.' 

54.  Even  as  Elias  (Elijah)  did]  2K110. 
Omitted  by  RY.  55.  Ye  know  not  what 
manner  of  spirit  ye  are  of]  (omitted  by  im- 
portant ancient  authorities,  see  RV),  i.e.  either, 
(1)  ye  know  not  that  the  spirit  of  the  new 
covenant  is  one  of  forbearance  and  forgiveness  ; 
or,  (2)  ye  know  not  that  the  spirit  which  you 
exhibit  comes  from  Satan  not  from  God. 

56.  For  the  Son  .  .  save  them]  These  beau- 
tiful words  are  wanting  in  many  ancient 
authorities,  but  are  in  any  case  an  authentic 
utterance  of  Jesus,  appropriately  inserted  here. 

57-62.  Jesus  is  joined  by  new  disciples. 
See  on  Mt  8 19-22. 

61,  62.   Peculiar  to  Lk. 

61.   Bid  them  farewell]   Our  Lord  probably 


750 


10.  1 


ST.  LUKE 


10.30 


does  not  forbid  the  man  to  take  leave  of  his 
relations,  but  only  indicates  in  a  striking  and 
figm'ative  way  that  those  who  aspire  to  be 
followers  of  Him,  especially  in  the  work  of  the 
ministry,  must  disentangle  themselves  from 
family  ties,  and  give  themselves  wholeheartedly 
to  the  work. 

CHAPTER  10 

The  Seventy.     The  Good  Samaritan. 
Martha  and  Mary 

i-i6.  Choice  and  mission  of  the  Seventy 
(peculiar  to  Lk).  Another  step  in  the  organ- 
isation of  the  Church.  The  Seventy  receive  a 
subordinate  commission,  similar  to  that  of  the 
apostles,  to  preach  and  to  cast  out  devils 
(vv.  9,  17).  Two  motives  may  be  discerned 
in  the  sending  forth  of  so  numerous  a  body  of 
missionaries.  (1)  The  time  before  His  Passion 
was  now  short,  and  Jesus  wished  the  message 
of  salvation  to  reach  as  many  Israelites  as 
possible.  (2)  He  wished  to  train  His  fol- 
lowers to  act  alone  after  His  departure.  Pro- 
bably the  Twelve  did  not  accompany  the 
Seventy.  Jesus  kept  them  with  Him  for 
special  personal  training. 

The  number  70  is  significant.  It  was  the 
number  of  the  Sanhedz-in.  As  Jesus  had 
already  set  up  twelve  new  Patriarchs  of  the 
New  Israel,  so  now  He  establishes  a  new 
Sanhedrin.  The  Jews  deduced  this  number 
from  the  seventy  elders  of  Nu  1 1 1*^-  -■*.  Or 
the  number  may  symbolise  the  nations  of  the 
earth.  The  Jews  held,  agi'eeably  to  GnlO, 
that  the  human  race  was  made  up  of  70  peojiles, 
14  descended  from  Japhet,  30  from  Ham,  and 
26  from  Shem.  If,  as  is  not  unlikely,  the 
appointment  of  the  Seventy  took  place  about 
the  Feast  of  Tabernacles,  the  ritual  of  the 
feast  may  have  had  something  to  do  with  the 
number,  for  then  70  bullocks  were  offered  on 
behalf  of  the  G-entile  nations.  The  rabbis 
said,  '  They  offer  seventy  bullocks  for  the 
seventy  nations,  to  make  atonement  for  them, 
that  the  rain  may  fall  upon  the  fields  of  all 
the  world.' 

The  charge  to  the  Seventy  reads  like  an 
abridged  report  of  St.  Matthew's  charge  to 
the  Twelve.  It  contains  only  one  v.,  and  that 
an  unimportant  one  (v.  8),  which  is  not  in  St. 
Matthew.  St.  Luke,  however,  is  not  depend- 
ent upon  St.  Matthew,  for  he  arranges  the 
sayings  in  quite  a  different  order.  The  close 
similarity  of  the  two  charges  is  best  accounted 
for  by  supposing  that  Christ  gave  nearly  the 
same  directions  to  the  Seventy  as  to  the 
Twelve.  It  should  be  observed,  however,  that 
He  does  not  confine  their  mission  to  the 
Israelites.  In  Per^a  the  Gentiles  were 
numerous. 

I.  Seventy]  Many  ancient  authorities  read 
'seventy-two'  here  and  in  v.  17.     6.  The  son 


751 


of  peace]  RV  '  a  son  of  peace,'  i.e.  one  inclined 
to  peace.  A  Hebrew  idiom.  8.  Peculiar  to 
Luke.  The  ministers  of  the  gospel  are  not  to 
be  dainty  or  luxurious. 

13-15-  See  on  Mt  11 21-24^  where  the  words 
occur  in  quite  a  different  connexion. 

17-20.  Return  of  the  Seventy  (peculiar  to 
Lk).  18.  I  beheld  Satan]  Our  Lord  poetically 
compares  Satan's  discomfiture  at  the  successful 
mission  of  the  Seventy  to  his  original  fall 
from  heaven.  The  only  other  allusion  to  the 
fall  of  Satan  in  the  Gospels,  and  perhaps  in 
the  Bible,  is  Jn8^^.  19.  Serpents  and  scor- 
pions] Victory  over  spiritual  foes  is  meant, 
rather  than  immunity  from  bodily  injury,  yet 
cp.  Mkl6i8  Ac 28 3-5.  The  enemy  is  Satan 
(Mt  1325).  20.  Jesus  bids  the  disciples  rejoice 
not,  as  they  are  doing,  because  they  have 
miraculous  powers,  but  because  their  names 
are  enrolled  as  citizens  of  heaven  in  the  book 
of  life  (Isa43  Dan  12 1  Ex  32  32  Rev  3  5,  etc.). 

21-24.  The  revelation  to  babes  (Mt  11 25-27). 
See  on  Mt. 

21.  In  spirit]  RV  'in  the  Holy  Spirit.' 
One  of  St.  Luke's  characteristic  references  to 
the  Holy  Spirit.  Christ's  acts  and  emotions, 
as  well  as  His  words  were  inspired. 

23,  24.   See  on  Mtl3i"'i7. 

25-37-  Parable  of  the  Good  Samaritan 
(peculiar  to  Lk).  This  lawyer  is  not  to  be 
identified  with  that  of  Mt2235  Mkl228. 

25-28.   See  on  Mt  22  35-40. 

29.  Who  is  my  neighbour  ?]  The  '  lawyer ' 
intended  to  justify  himself  by  showing  that, 
even  upon  a  liberal  interpretation  of  the  word 
'  neighbour,'  he  had  done  his  duty.  He  ex- 
pected Christ  to  say  that  a  neighbour  was  a 
friend  or  at  least  an  Israelite.  The  idea  that 
a  '  neighbour  '  might  be  a  foreigner  had  never 
occurred  to  him.  The  rabbis  said,  '  He  excepts 
all  Gentiles  when  he  saith  His  neighbour.' 
'An  Israelite  killing  a  stranger-inhabitant 
doth  not  die  for  it  by  the  Sanhedrin,  because 
it  is  said.  If  any  one  lifts  up  himself  against 
his  neighbour.'  'We  are  not  to  contrive  the 
death  of  the  Gentiles,  but  if  they  are  in  any 
danger  of  death  we  are  not  bound  to  deliver 
them,  e.g.  if  any  of  them  fall  into  the  sea 
you  need  not  take  him  out,  for  such  a  one  is 
not  thy  neighbour.' 

In  answer  Christ  appealed  to  the  man's 
conscience,  not  to  his  reason.  If  Christ  had 
said  '  a  heathen  is  thy  neighbour,'  the  man 
would  have  argued  the  point  with  learned 
subtlety.  Instead  of  this  Jesus  told  him  a 
story  in  which  a  man  treated  a  foreigner  as  a 
neighbour,  and  the  lawyer  was  bound  to 
confess  that  this  was  in  accordance  with  the 
mind  of  God. 

30-37-  ^  sufficient  motive  for  this  parable 
is  provided,  if  it  be  understood  as  simply  in- 
culcating the  duty  of  benevolence  to  persons 


10.  30 


ST.  LUKE 


11.  21 


of  all  kinds  with  whom  we  are  brought  in 
contact,  enemies  as  well  as  friends,  foreigners 
as  well  as  fellow-countrymen,  because  '  God  has 
made  of  one  (blood)  all  nations  of  men  for  to 
dwell  on  all  the  face  of  the  earth'  (AclY^s 
10  28).  The  traditional  allegorical  interpreta- 
tion, however,  is  too  interesting  to  be  entirely 
passed  over.  We  give  it  in  the  words  of 
Euthymius  :  '  The  man  is  Adam  and  his  o£E- 
spring,  the  descent  from  Jerusalem  to  Jericho 
is  the  Fall.  The  thieves  are  the  demons  who 
beset  our  path,  and  strip  us  of  the  garments  of 
virtue  and  the  fear  of  God,  and  wound  us 
spiritually  by  causing  us  to  sin.  Man  was 
made  half  dead,  in  that  he  remained  immortal 
in  the  soul,  but  mortal  in  the  body.  The 
Priest  is  the  Law  given  by  Moses,  the  Levite 
is  the  teaching  of  the  prophets,  and  the  good 
Samaritan  is  Christ  Himself.  The  inn  is  the 
Church  which  receives  every  kind  of  man. 
The  innkeeper  is  every  ruler  of  the  Church, 
i.e.  every  bishop  and  successor  of  the  apostles. 
And  the  two-  pence  are  the  Old  and  the  New 
Testaments,  which  minister  healing  to  the  sick.' 

30.  Jericho]  see  on  Mt  20 -9.  A  city  of  the 
priests.  The  road  to  Jerusalem  is  still  ex- 
tremely dangerous,  being  infested  by  brigands. 

33.  Samaritan]  see  on  Jn  4  5  * .  34.  Oil  and 
wine]  used  as  remedies  for  wounds  in  the 
East.     35.   Pence]   see  on  Mt  18-^. 

38-42.  Jesus  at  the  house  of  Martha  and 
Mary  (peculiar  to  Lk).  It  is  a  striking  con- 
firmation of  the  historic  truth  of  the  Fourth 
Gospel,  that  the  characters  of  the  two  sisters 
— the  busy,  active,  hospitable  Martha,  the  quiet, 
contemplative,  teachable  Mary — are  the  same 
there  as  here. 

38.  Village]  i.  e.  Bethany  (Jn  111).  St.  Luke 
was  probably  ignorant  of  the  name.  Martha 
(lit.  '  mistress ')]  Sometimes  supposed  to  be 
wife  of  Simon  the  Leper.  She  is  a  scriptural 
example  of  the  virtue  of  hospitality. 

39.  Mary]  Not  identical  with  Mary  Magda- 
lene, or  the  '  sinner '  (7  ^"). 

At  Jesus'  (RV  '  the  Lord's)  feet]  Jesus  was 
reclining  on  a  couch  for  the  meal,  with  His  head 
towards  the  table  and  His  feet  stretched  out 
behind  him.  Martha  and  Mary  were  both 
waiting  at  table,  but  whereas  Martha  occupied 
herself  with  offering  dish  after  dish,  and  so 
was  '  cumbered  about  much  serving,'  Mary 
spent  most  of  her  time  sitting  behind  Jesus, 
and  listening  to  what  He  was  saying.  When 
Martha  complained  that  Mary  allowed  her  to 
do  all  the  work,  Jesus  said  that  He  was  quite 
contented  with  a  single  dish,  and  that  both 
sisters  would  honour  Him  more  by  attending 
to  what  He  said,  than  by  giving  Him  an  elaborate 
dinner. 

42.  But  one  thing  is  needful]  '  There  is  no 
need  of  an  elaborate  meal.  A  few  dishes  or 
even  one  would  suffice.     Indeed,  only  one  por- 


tion is  really  necessary,  that  which  Mary  has 
chosen,  to  listen  to  Me.'  Our  Lord  gently 
hints  to  Martha  that  He  would  rather  have  a 
quiet  talk  with  her  on  heavenly  things,  than 
receive  all  these  hospitable  attentions  at  her 
hands. 

CHAPTEE  11 
The  Lord's  Prayer.     The  Sign  of  Jonah 

1-4.  The  Lord's  Prayer  (Mt  69-15).  See 
on  Mt.  If  the  Lord's  Prayer  was  given  only 
once,  St.  Luke  is  probably  right  as  to  the 
occasion.  His  version,  howcA'er  (as  in  the 
case  of  the  Beatitudes),  is  manifestly  inferior 
to  St.  Matthew's.  Of  the  seven  petitions  he 
omits  two — the  third  ('  Thy  will  be  done,'  etc.), 
and  the  seventh  ('  but  deliver  us  fi'om  the  evil 
one ' :  see  the  RY).  In  place  of  Mt's  beautiful 
opening,  '  Our  Father  in  the  heavens,'  he 
has  simply,  '  Father,'  and  for  the  expressive 
metaphor  '  debts  '  he  substitutes  '  sins.'  He 
manifestly  had  not  access  to  the  original  and 
authentic  '  logia '  of  the  apostle  Matthew,  of 
which  the  first  evangelist  makes  such  large 
and  fruitful  use. 

2.  Our  Father  which  art  in  heaven]  The 
true  reading  here  is  simply  '  Father.'  Thy 
will  be  done,  as  in  heaven,  so  on  earth]  Modern 
editors  omit  this  clause.  4.  But  deliver  us 
from  evil  ('  the  evil  one ')]  Modern  editors 
omit  this  clause  also. 

5-8.  The  friend  at  midnight  (peculiar  to 
LTi).  The  connexion  with  what  goes  before 
is  suitable  and  natural.  Having  given  the 
disciples  a  form  of  intercessory  prayer,  Jesus 
encourages  them  to  persevere  in  its  use,  and 
also  in  the  use  of  other  prayers  formed  on  its 
model,  by  a  homely  parable,  the  lesson  of 
which  is,  If  a  churlish  man  can  be  forced  by 
importunity  to  give  against  his  will,  how  much 
more  can  persevering  prayer  bring  down  from 
the  bountiful  Father  in  heaven  all  good  things. 

8.   Importunity]  better,  '  shamelessness.' 

9-13.  Prayer  and  the  answer  to  prayer 
(Mt7 '■■11,  Sermon  on  the  Mount).     See  on  Mt. 

II,  12.  In  answer  to  prayer  God  gives 
neither  what  is  useless  (a  stone)  nor  what  is 
harmful  (a  serpent,  or  scorpion).  The  scorpion 
(1019  Dt8i-5  Ezk26  Rev  9  3, 5, 10)  [^  a  small 
poisonous  crab-like  animal,  which,  when  at 
rest,  is  round  like  an  egg.  V.  12  is  peculiar 
to  Lk. 

14,  15.  A  dumb  devil  cast  out  (Mt  9  32-34). 
See  on  Mt. 

16.  A  sign  from  heaven  demanded.  See  on 
Mtl23S  161,  and  see  on  verses  29  f. 

17-23.    Christ    and     Beelzebub.      See    on 

Mt  12  25-30. 

21,  22.  Lk  is  here  fuller  and  more  pic- 
turesque than  Mt  and  Mk.  The  imagery 
seems  derived  from  Isa  49  24-26.     21.   A  strong 

man]  RV  '  the  strong  man  fully  armed,'  i.e. 


75'i 


11.  23 


ST.  LITKE 


12.3 


Satan.  His  palace  (RY  '  own  court ')  is  the 
world,  so  far  as  it  is  under  his  usurped 
dominion.  His  goods  are  the  souls  which  he 
holds  captive.  His  armour  is  his  crafty  devices 
for  keeping  them  in  captivity  and  separating 
them  from  all  good  influences.  The  stronger 
is  Christ,  who,  by  casting  out  devils  and  preach- 
ing the  gospel,  rescues  souls  from  Satan's 
power.  The  spoils  are  the  rescued  souls, 
which  Christ  '  divides '  by  setting  them  to 
work  at  various  employments  in  His  own  ser- 
vice. 23.  In  this  contest  between  Christ  and 
Satan  no  one  can  be  neutral.  Gathereth .  . 
scattereth]  He  who  does  not  help  Me  to 
gather  and  marshal  My  army,  is  working  for 
its  defeat  and  rout. 

24-26.  The  peril  of  the  vacant  soul 
(Mt  1243-45).     See  on  Mt. 

27,  28.  A  woman  calls  our  Lord's  mother 
blessed  (peculiar  to  Lk).  Mk  and  Mt  insert 
at  this  point  the  incident  of  our  Lord's  mother 
and  brethren  wishing  to  see  Him  (Mtl2'"' 
MkS^i),  which  St.  Luke  has  already  recorded 
in  a  quite  ditferent  connexion  (S^^). 

27.  As  he  spake]  What  our  Lord  had  just 
said  about  the  danger  of  a  relapse  after  a 
superficial  repentance  (v.  26)  struck  the  woman 
as  so  true  to  life  (probably  through  some  un- 
fortunate experience  in  her  own  family),  that 
she  was  moved  to  express  her  appreciation  of 
His  teaching  openly.  Blessed,  etc.]  Edersheim 
quotes  a  good  rabbinical  parallel  :  '  Blessed  is 
the  hour  in  which  the  Messiah  was  created  ; 
blessed  the  womb  whence  He  issued  ;  blessed 
the  generation  that  sees  Him  ;  blessed  the  eye 
that  is  worthy  to  behold  Him.'  28.  Christ 
does  not  deny  that  His  mother  is  blessed,  but 
declares  that  to  hear  His  words  and  obey  them, 
and  so  to  be  brought  into  spiritual  fellowship 
with  God,  is  blessing  infinitely  greater. 

29-32.  The  sign  of  Jonah  (Mt  1238-42), 
See  on  Mt. 

33-36.  Invyard  light  and  darkness.  Christ 
is  still  rebuking  those  who  refused  to  believe 
in  Him  without  a  special  sign  from  heaven. 
In  St.  Matthew  these  vv.  form  part  of  the 
Sermon  on  the  Mount. 

33.  A  favourite  saying  of  Christ's  occurring 
in  various  connexions  (8i<^  MtS^-^  Mk4-i). 
Here  it  means  that  Christ  by  His  public  preach- 
ing and  miracles  has  made  Himself  so  con- 
spicuous and  public  a  '  sign '  to  this  generation, 
that  they  ought  to  ask  for  no  other. 

34-36.  (Mt622,23^  q.v.)  If  they  will  only 
regard  His  work  and  teaching  without  preju- 
dice, then  their  own  consciences  will  testify 
that  He  has  a  real  mission  from  God. 

37-54.  Christ  is  entertained  by  a  Pharisee. 
He  denounces  Pharisaic  formalism  and  hypo- 
crisy. For  the  relation  of  this  discoui'se  to 
Mt  23 1-36,  see  on  Mt23i. 

38.  Washed]  lit.  'baptised' :  see  on  MkT^-s. 


39-41.  See  on  Mt23  25, 26.  <  what  is  the  use 
of  you  Pharisees  cleansing  the  outward  appear- 
ance of  your  conduct  (symbolised  by  the  out- 
side of  the  cup  and  the  platter),  if  your  souls 
within  are  full  of  greed  and  wickedness  ? 
God,  who  made  both  the  outside  and  the 
inside  of  man,  expects  both  to  be  made  clean. 
Only  give  what  is  within  the  cup  and  platter 
as  alms  to  the  poor,  and  in  general  practice 
generosity  instead  of  greed,  and  all  your 
vessels  will  become  clean  to  you  without 
ceremonial  cleansing. 

41.  Give  alms  of  such  things  as  ye  have]  A 
possible,  but  unlikely  translation.  Better, 
'  Give  as  alms  what  is  within  (the  cup  and 
platter).'  Others  render,  '  Give  yom*  hearts  to 
almsgiving.'     All  things]  i.e.  all  your  vessels. 

42.  See  on  Mt  23  23.  43.  See'on  Mt236. 
44.  See  on  Mt  23  27.  46.  See  on  Mt  23*. 
47,  48.   See  on  Mt  23  29-31.     49-51.  See  on 

Mt  23  34-36  ^p.  Therefore  also  said  the  wisdom 
of  God]  In  Mt  23  34  the  words  are  an  utterance 
of  Christ  Himself.  Christ's  knowledge  of 
the  divine  counsels  is  so  complete  that  His 
utterances  are  also  utterances  of  the  Wisdom 
of  God.  52.  See  on  Mt23i3.  The  key  of 
knowledge]  i.e.  the  key  which  opens  the  door 
to  knowledge  of  the  things  concerning  the 
kingdom  of  God. 

CHAPTER  12 
The  Leaven  of  the  Pharisees.     The 

Rich  Fool 
1-12.  Jesus  warns  His  followers  against 
Pharisaic  hypocrisy,  and  exhorts  them  to  be 
courageous  in  face  of  opposition.  This  speech 
is  not  unsuitable  to  the  context  in  St.  Luke, 
but  the  whole  of  the  sayings  are  found  also  in 
St.  Matthew's  Gospel,  generally  in  a  more 
natural  connexion  (mostly  in  the  charge  to  the 
Twelve,  10  -5-42).  Perhaps  St.  Luke  here  groups 
together  sayings  spoken  at  different  times. 

1.  When  there  were]  RV  '  when  the  many 
thousands  of  the  multitude  were  gathered 
together.'  They  were  attracted  by  the  dis- 
pute between  our  Lord  and  the  Pharisees 
recorded  in  the  last  c.  Since  our  Lord  begins 
by  addressing  His  disciples,  and  warns  them 
of  coming  persecutions,  it  may  be  inferred 
that  the  multitude  was  at  first  inclined  to  side 
with  the  Pharisees  ;  yet  see  v.  13,  where  the 
authority  of  Jesus  is  plainly  recognised.  The 
leaven]  see  on  Mt  16*5. 11,12. 

2-9.   See  on  Mt  1026-33. 

2,  3.  These  vv.  have  a  different  connexion 
and  meaning  in  Mt. 

2.  Hypocrisy,  like  that  of  the  Pharisees,  is 
useless  and  foolish,  for  in  the  Judgment  Day 
there  will  be  a  merciless  exposure  of  it. 

3.  For  in  that  day  the  most  secret  words  and 
thoughts  of  hypocrites  will  be  proclaimed  to 
the  whole  creation.     Therefore  (RV  '  Where- 


48 


753 


12.  10 


ST.  LUKE 


12.  35 


fore  ')]    is  better  translated    '  for,'    '  because  ' 
(cp.  r^o  1944  Ac  12  23). 

10.  See  on  Mt  1231,32.  n^  i2.  See  on 
Mt  10 17-20. 

13-21.  Parable  of  the  rich  fool  (peculiar 
to  Lk).  The  parable  teaches  that  since  death 
and  judgment  are  inevitable,  men  ought  to 
devote  their  attention  to  laying  up  treasure 
in  heaven,  not  on  earth. 

13.  Divide  the  inheritance]  Such  questions 
were  decided  by  the  '  bench  of  three  '  of  the 
local  synagogues.  Christ,  as  usual,  refuses 
to  be  drawn  into  any  political  or  semi-political 
action.  The  unseasonable  request  of  the  man 
(he  appears  to  have  interrupted  our  Lord's 
discourse  to  make  it),  showed  that  his  mind 
was  too  much  set  upon  worldly  things.  14.  Who 
made  me?]  Cp.  Ex2i4.  15.  For  a  man's 
life]  The  Gk.  is  difficult  and  the  translation 
doubtful,  but  the  sense  seems  to  be  that  neither 
a  man's  physical  nor  his  spiritual  life  is  de- 
pendent upon  great  possessions.  A  healthy 
and  happy  human  life  can  be  lived  in  a  state 
of  comparative  poverty,  and  spiritual  life  is 
rather  hindered  than  aided  by  great  possessions. 
Others  understand  it  to  mean  that  a  man's  life 
is  not  like  a  possession,  but  infinitely  more 
valuable.  Cp.  below  (v.  23),  '  the  life  is  more 
than  meat,  and  the  body  is  more  than  raiment.' 

16.  Brought  forth]  The  man's  wealth  was 
honestly  and  justly  acquired.  His  fault  was 
not  injustice,  but  covetousness.  17.  I  have 
no  room]  '  Thou  hai^t  barns,  the  mouths  of  the 
poor  which  can  hold  much  ;  barns  which  can 
never  be  pulled  down  or  destroyed,  for  they  are 
heavenly  and  divine,  if  indeed  it  be  true  that  he 
who  feeds  the  poor,  feeds  God '  (Theophylact). 

19.  To  my  soul]  The  fool  speaks  as  if 
earthly  wealth  could  supply  the  needs  of  an 
immortal  soul.  20.  This  night,  etc.]  lit. 
'this  night  do  they  (i.e.  the  angels  of  ven- 
geance) require  thy  soul  of  thee.'  The  right- 
eous man  willingly  and  joyfully  commits  his 
soul  to  God  ;  but  from  the  wicked  man  it  is 
exacted  with  stern  terror.  21.  Rich  toward 
God]  On  laying  up  treasure  in  heaven,  which 
is  here  meant,  see  on  Mt  619-21. 

There  is  an  interesting  rabbinical  parallel 
to  this  parable  :  '  Once  Rabbi  Simeon  went 
to  a  certain  circumcision  and  there  feasted. 
The  father  gave  them  old  wine,  seven  years 
old,  to  drink,  saying,  "  With  this  wine  will  I 
grow  old,  rejoicing  in  my  son."  They  feasted 
together  till  midnight.  At  midnight  Rabbi 
Simeon,  trusting  to  his  own  virtue,  went  out  to 
go  into  the  city,  and  on  the  way  met  the  angel 
of  death,who,  he  perceived,  was  very  sad.  He 
asked  therefore,  "  Why  art  thou  so  sad  ?  "  He 
replied,  "  I  am  sad  for  the  speeches  of  those 
who  say,  I  will  do  this  or  that  ere  long,  though 
they  know  not  how  quickly  they  may  be  called 
away  by  death.     The  man  who  just  boasted. 


'  With  this  wine  I  will  grow  old,  rejoicing  in 
my  son,'  behold  his  time  draws  near.  Within 
thirty  days  he  must  be  snatched  away."  The 
rabbi  said  to  him,  '•  Do  thou  let  me  know 
my  time."  The  angel  answered,  "  Over  thee 
and  such  as  thou  art,  we  have  no  power  ;  for 
God,  being  delighted  with  good  works,  pro- 
longeth  your  lives."  ' 

22-34.  Against  anxiety  about  wealth  and 
worldly  things.  Almost  the  whole  of  this 
section  occurs  in  St.  Matthew's  Sermon  on 
the  Mount.  The  present  context,  however, 
is  very  suitable,  and  is  perhaps  correct. 

22-31.     See  on  Mt  6  2^-33. 

29.  Neither  be  ye  of  doubtful  mind]  or, 
'  neither  be  ye  high-minded.' 

32.  Fear  not,  little  flock]  A  beautiful  and 
tender  saying  peculiar  to  Lk,  intended  to  en- 
courage the  disciples  who  would  be  for  so 
long  in  so  hopeless  a  minority.  The  sense  is, 
'  If  God  is  willing  to  give  you  the  kingdom, 
much  more  will  He  give  you  food  and  raiment, 
therefore  you  need  not  be  afraid  (v.  33)  to 
sell  that  ye  have  and  give  alms.'  33.  See  on 
Mtl92i  620.  Sell  that  ye  have,  etc.]  Christ 
addresses  not  all  the  disciples,  but  those  who, 
like  the  apostles,  had  received  a  call  to  leave 
all,  and  devote  themselves  to  the  work  of  the 
ministry. 

Bags  (RV  '  purses  ')  which  wax  not  old] 
The  purses  which  will  keep  your  money  safely 
are  not  your  own,  but  those  of  the  poor  on 
whom  you  bestow  your  charity.  Placed  in 
those  purses,  your  earthly  treasure  will  become 
'  treasure  in  the  heavens  that  faileth  not.' 

34.  See  on  Mt62i. 

35-48.  Exhortation  to  vigilance.  The 
greater  part  of  it  appears  also  (and  most  ap- 
propriately) in  Mt  24.  The  apostles  and 
other  ministers  of  the  word  are  chiefly  ad- 
dressed, though  there  is  a  lesson  for  all 
(v.  41  f.).  The  question  of  Peter  (v.  41)  is 
peculiar  to  Lk. 

35,  36.  A  little  parable  peculiar  to  Luke, 
warning  the  apostles  to  be  ready  for  Christ's 
second  coming,  which  will  be  sudden.  The 
apostles  are  compared  to  sLaves  left  to  watch 
the  house  (the  Church)  while  the  master 
(Christ)  goes  to  a  wedding  feast  (i.e.  ascends 
into  heaven).  Their  loins  are  girded  because 
they  have  housework  to  do  (preaching  the 
gospel  and  ruling  the  Church),  and  they  have 
lighted  lamps,  because  their  task  is  to  enlighten 
a  dark  and  sinful  world  by  their  shining 
example.  Christ's  return  from  the  marriage 
feast  is  His  Second  Advent,  or  it  may 
mean  His  judgment  of  each  individual  soul  at 
death.  The  '  marriage  feast '  here  is  not  the 
final  joy  of  the  blessed,  as  in  the  parable  of 
the  Ten  Virgins,  but  Christ's  session  at  the 
right  hand  of  God  between  the  Ascension  and 
Second  Advent. 


754 


12.  37 


ST.  LUKE 


IS.  6 


The  parable,  though  primarily  intended  for 
the  rulers  of  the  Church,  is  applicable  to  all 
Christians,  for  all  have  received  some  kind  of 
commission  from  Christ. 

37,  38.  See  on  Mt  24-16.  These  vv.  con- 
tinue the  parable.  Those  whom  Christ  shall 
find  watching  at  His  Second  Coming,  He  will 
invite  to  share  in  the  final  feast  (the  joy  of 
heaven)  .;  when  He  Himself  will  serve  them, 
supplying  them  with  all  blessedness,  and 
wiping  away  all  tears  from  their  eyes.  The 
second  and  third  watches  are  the  second  and 
third  of  the  Roman  four  watches  (Mtl42o). 
They  thus  represent  the  dead  of  night,  and  by 
metaphor  the  unexpectedness  of  the  Second 
Advent.  The  Jews  reckoned  only  three  night 
watches. 

39,40.  See  on  Mt  24*3, 44.  Another  parable 
in  which,  by  a  curious  inversion,  the  goodman 
(master)  of  the  house  means  the  apostles,  and 
the  thief  Christ.  Christ  is  so  called  from  the 
secrecy  and  unexpectedness  of  His  coming. 

41.  (Peculiar  to  Lk.)  Christ  does  not 
answer  Peter's  question  directly,  but  His 
answer  shows  that  He  is  speaking  mainly  of 
the  apostles  and  those  in  authority. 

42-46.   See  on  Mt  24-15-50. 

47.  48.  (Peculiar  to  Lk.)  Christ  here  seems 
to  assert  (cp.  10  !->  i*)  that  there  will  be  degrees 
of  future  punishment. 

48.  He  that  knew  not]  '  The  reference  is 
to  the  future  pastors  of  the  Church.  "  He 
that  knew  not,"  will  still  be  punished,  for  he 
could  have  known  ;  but  not  punished  so  much 
as  the  other,  for  the  other  was  presumptuous, 
but  this  one  was  slothful  ;  and  presumption 
is  a  greater  sin  than  sloth  '  (Euthymius).  They 
will  ask  the  more]  Christ  thi-ough  His  angels 
will  deiaand  '  His  own  with  usury,'  i.e.  will 
demand  that  the  talents  entrusted  to  each 
man  shall  have  been  improved,  and  turned  to 
good  use.  In  the  case  of  the  Apostles  He  will 
demand  what  souls  they  have  gained  besides 
their  own. 

49-53.  The  strife  that  the  gospel  will  pro- 
duce.    In  different  connexions  in  Mt. 

49.  A  paradox.  The  Prince  of  Peace  comes 
to  bring  strife  and  bloodshed,  fire  and  sword, 
into  the  world,  because  only  through  war  can 
lasting  peace  be  attained.  Some,  however, 
understand  by  fire,  the  fire  of  Chi-istian  love. 

What  will  I,  etc.]  i.e.  '  how  much  I  wish 
that  it  were  already  kindled  !  '  (Theophylact). 
Other  translations  :  '  What  more  have  I  to 
desire,  if  it  be  already  kindled  ?  '  (Plummer). 
'  What  do  I  desire  V  Would  that  it  were 
already  kindled  ! '  (Origen). 

50.  See  on  Mt  20  '^'^  =  Mk  1 0  3S.  A  baptism] 
i.e.  Christ's  Passion.  Straitened]  i.e.  afflicted, 
oppressed. 

51-53.   See  on  Mt  1 0  s-i-si;. 

54-59.   Ignorance  of  the  signs  of  the  times. 


54-56.   See  on  Mt  161-3. 

57.  Peculiar  to  Lk.  Of  yourselves]  Why, 
even  without  signs,  do  you  not  judge  rightly  of 
Me  and  My  doctrine  by  the  natural  light  of 
reason  and  conscience  ? 

58,  59.   See  on  Mt  5  25, 26. 


Pilate.     The 
Lament  over 


765 


CHAPTER   13 

The  Galileans  killed  by 
Unfruitful  Fig  Tree. 
Jerusalem 

1-9.  Three  exhortations  to  repentance,  of 
which  the  former  two  are  based  on  recent 
events,  and  the  third  is  a  parable.  All  are 
peculiar  to  Lk. 

I .  Whose  blood  Pilate]  These  men  had  evi- 
dently been  killed  in  the  courts  of  the  Temple 
for  some  real  or  suspected  sedition  while  they 
were  slaying  their  victims,  an  act  which  was 
performed  not  by  the  priests,  but  by  the 
offerers,  or  their  servants.  Nothing  is  known 
of  this  particular  act  of  atrocity,  but  Philo,  a 
contemporary  wi'iter,  speaks  of  Pilate's  repeat- 
ed massacres  of  persons  uncondemned,  and 
insatiable  and  most  grievous  ferocity.  It  was 
perhaps  either  the  cause  or  the  consequence  of 
the  enmity  between  Herod  and  Pilate  men- 
tioned 23 1^.     2.   Were  sinners]  see  on  Jn  9  3. 

3.  Shall  all  likewise  perish]  This  was  liter- 
ally fulfilled  at  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem, 
but  probably  Jesus  means,  '  as  these  have 
suffered  literal  death,  so  you  shall  all  suffer 
spiritual  death.'  4.  Tower  in  Siloam  fell] 
Another  unknown  incident.  It  is  plausibly 
conjectured  that  this  tower  was  part  of  the 
waterworks  and  aqueduct  which  Pilate  built 
with  the  sacred  money  of  the  Temple  treasury 
(Korhauas)^  to  the  great  scandal  of  pious  Jews. 
The  persons  killed  were  probably  workmen, 
whose  death  was  regarded  as  a  judgment  for 
their  impiety.     For  '  Siloam  '  see  on  Jn  9  '^. 

The  idea  was  very  common  among  the  Jews 
that  gi-eat  calamities  are  a  proof  of  great  sin. 
This  was  the  view  of  Job's  friends,  who  were 
convinced  that  his  great  misfortunes  argued 
him  a  great  sinner  (Job  47  8 --1^,20  225).  Our 
Lord  on  several  occasions  strongly  opposed 
this  view  (see  Jn  9  2).  Sometimes,  no  doubt, 
suffering  is  a  direct  punishment  for  sin,  but 
not  always,  perhaps  not  generally.  In  the 
case  of  the  righteous  it  often  arises  from  the 
sin  of  others,  or  is  permitted  as  a  trial  of 
faith,  or  as  a  means  of  refining  and  purifying 
the  character.  A  righteous  man's  sufferings 
may  even  be  directly  due  to  his  righteousness, 
as  in  the  case  of  our  Lord,  the  apostles, 
Socrates,  and  numerous  missionaries  and  re- 
formers in  all  ages  and  countries. 

6-9.  The  Barren  Fig  Tree.  This  parable  illus- 
trates the  warning  (vv.  3,  5),  '  Except  ye  re- 
pent, ye  shall  all  likewise  perish.'  A  certain 
man  (God)  had  a  fig  tree  (the  Jewish  nation) 


13.  10 


ST.  LUKE 


14 


¥ 


in  his  vineyard  (the  world),  and  he  came  (at 
various  crises  of  their  history)  seeking  fruit 
(good  works  and  pure  religion)  and  found 
none.  And  he  said  to  the  vine-dresser  (the 
Son  of  God),  Behold  these  three  years  (under 
the  Law,  under  the  Prophets,  and  under  the 
Scribes)  I  come  seeking  fruit.  Cut  it  down. 
Why,  besides  being  unfruitful,  doth  it  also 
cumber  the  ground  (prevent  the  conversion  of 
the  world)  '?  And  the  vine-dresser  (Christ) 
answered.  Lord,  let  it  alone  this  year  also  (for 
a  further  time  of  grace),  till  I  dig  about  it  and 
dung  it  (i.e.  preach  the  gospel,  show  signs  and 
wonders,  send  down  the  Spirit,  do  all  things  for 
its  conversion),  and  if  it  bear  fruit  thenceforth, 
well ;  but  if  not,  thou  shalt  cut  it  down  (i.e.  shalt 
destroy  the  nation  with  its  city  and  Temple)  : 
cp.  Mt21i9.  The  parable  is  also  capable  of  a 
more  general  application  to  the  individual  soul . 

10-17.  The  ■woman  writh  a  spirit  of  infirmity 
(peculiar  to  Lk).  The  story  is  told  not  so 
much  for  the  sake  of  the  miracle,  as  for  the 
light  it  throws  upon  the  question  of  sabbath 
observance.  It  is  the  only  case  of  Christ's 
preaching  in  a  synagogue  recorded  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  ministry. 

12.   He  called  Aer]  An  unasked-for  cure. 

14.  Said  unto  the  people]  The  ruler  durst 
not  openly  rebuke  Jesus,  but  indirectly  cen- 
sured Him  by  censuring  the  people. 

15.  Loose  his  ox]  The  rabbis,  while  per- 
mitting attention  to  beasts  on  the  sabbath,  did 
so  grudgingly  :  '  It  is  not  only  permitted  to 
lead  a  beast  to  the  water  on  the  sabbath,  but 
also  to  draw  water  for  it,  yet  so  that  the  beast 
draw  near  and  drink,  without  the  water  being 
carried  to  it  and  set  dovsTi  by  it.' 

1 6.  Satan  hath  bound]  The  Jews  attributed 
such  ills  to  Satan.  It  is  not  implied  that  the 
woman  was  of  evil  life. 

18-21.  The  Mustard  Seed  and  the  Leaven 
(Mt  1 3  31-33  Mk  4  30).     See  on  Mt. 

22-30.  Are  they  few  that  be  saved  ?  Jesus 
does  not  directly  reply  to  the  question,  but 
warns  His  hearers  of  the  difficulty  of  obtaining 
salvation,  of  the  danger  of  delaying  repent- 
ance, and  of  the  probable  rejection  of  many 
unbelieving  descendants  of  Abraham,  and  of 
the  salvation  of  many  believing  Gentiles. 
There  are  close  parallels  in  St.  Matthew. 

23,  24.  See  on  Mt7i3,i4.     Gate]  i.e.  'door.' 

25.  The  master]  i.e.  our  Lord.  The  '  shut- 
ting the  door '  takes  place  at  Christ's  second 
coming,  or  perhaps  at  the  death  of  each  indi- 
vidual. Lord,  open]  see  on  Mt  25 10-12^  also 
Mt723.  26.  This  V.  specially  applies  to  the 
Jews.      27.   Depart]  see  on  Mt25'*i. 

28,  29.   See  on  Mt  8 11.12. 

30.   See  on  Mt20i-i6. 

31-35.  Message  to  Herod  Antipas,  and  la- 
ment over  Jerusalem.  This  threat  of  Herod  is 
peculiar  to  Lk. 


31.  Certain  of  the  Pharisees]  Probably  they 
wished  to  frighten  Jesus  out  of  the  dominions 
of  Herod,  where  He  was  tolerably  safe,  into 
JudaBa,  where  He  would  be  in  the  power  of 
the  Sanhedrin :  cp.  Amaziah's  attempt  to 
frighten  Amos  (Am7io-i").  Herod]  For  his 
biography  see  on  Mt  14  i-n.  Will]  RV  '  would 
fain  kill  thee.'  Herod  may  have  used  thi-eaten- 
ing  words,  or  there  may  have  been  a  rumour  to 
that  efPect,  but  it  is  certain  that  he  did  not  seri- 
ously seek  our  Lord's  death :  cp.  23  n.  32.  That 
fox]  The  fox  is  an  emblem  of  cunning,  not  of 
cruelty.  Behold]  i.e.  '  I  perform  My  ministry 
to-day  and  to-morrow  (i.e.  for  the  time  ap- 
pointed), and  on  the  third  day  (i.e.  when  My 
hour  is  come)  I  shall  be  perfected  by  death. 
No  threats  of  Herod  can  shorten  My  ministry, 
or  hasten  the  hour  of  My  death.'  Perfected] 
He  calls  His  death  His  '  perfecting,'  because 
by  it  He  perfected  His  work  by  atoning  for 
the  sins  of  the  world,  also  because  it  was  fol- 
lowed by  His  glorious  resurrection  and  ascen- 
sion, whereby  His  human  nature  was  '  perfected ' 
or  glorified.  33.  Nevertheless,  etc.]  i.e.  '  Yet 
although  My  death  is  so  near,  I  must  labour 
for  the  time  appointed.  Herod  cannot  pre- 
vent Me.  He  cannot  destroy  Me  here  in 
remote  Galilee,  for  it  is  only  in  Jerusalem 
that  a  prophet  can  die.'  Walk]  RV  'go  on 
my  way.'  Out  of  Jerusalem]  '  The  saying  is 
severely  ironical,  and  that  in  two  ways  :  (1) 
According  to  overwhelming  precedent,  Jerusa- 
lem is  the  place  in  which  a  prophet  ought  to 
be  put  to  death  ;  for  //  had  obtahied  hy  usage 
the  right  to  slay  the  prophets  (Grotius).  (2)  It 
is  not  Herod  that  will  be  the  murderer.  It  is 
at  yoiir  hands,  in  your  capital  that  I  shall  die  ' 
(Plummer). 

34,  35.  Mt  23  37-39.     SeeonMt. 

CHAPTER  14 
The  Dropsical  Man.    The  Great  Supper. 
Divers  Sayings  and  Parables 
1-6.  The  sabbath  question  again.     The  man 
with  the  dropsy  healed  (peculiar  to  Lk). 

1.  To  eat  bread]  So  far  from  being  ab- 
stemious on  the  sabbath,  the  Jews  carried  the 
pleasures  of  the  table  to  excess.  '  The 
Hebrews  honour  the  sabbath  chiefly  by  in- 
viting each  other  to  drinking  and  intoxication  ' 
(Plutarch).  '  Rabbah  Abba  bought  flesh  of 
thirteen  butchers  that  he  might  be  sure  to 
taste  the  best,  and  paid  them  at  the  very  gate, 
that  he  might  hasten  dinner,  and  all  this  in 
honour  of  the  sabbath  '  (Talmud). 

2.  There  was  .  .  before  him]  Spectators 
often  enter  the  house  to  witness  an  Eastern 
banquet.  3.  Is  it  lavd"ul  to  heal  ?]  See  on 
Mti2io.  5.  An  ass]  Nearly  all  modem 
editors  read  '  a  son.'  The  rabbis  allowed  '  an 
ox  or  an  ass,  a  son  or  a  daughter,  a  man-ser- 
vant or  a  maid-servant '  to  be  drawn  out  of  a 


766 


14.7 


ST.  LUKE 


14.  33 


well  on  the  sabbath.  Thus  they  allowed  to 
themselves  breaches  of  the  sabbath  day  which 
they  denied  to  Christ. 

7-1 1.  On  places  of  honour  at  feasts  (peculiar 
to  Lk,  but  a  similar  discourse  occurs  in  the 
'  Western  '  text  of  St.  Matthew,  20^8,  q.v.).  It 
is  probable  that  the  dropsical  man  was  healed 
before  the  dinner  began,  and  that  there  then 
ensued  an  unseemly  struggle  for  places,  which 
gave  occasion  for  the  '  parable  '  following. 

7.  A  parable]  An  elastic  word.  Here  it 
means  a  piece  of  advice,  inculcating  humility. 

Chose .  .  the  chief  rooms]  RV  '  seats,'  i.e. 
places  on  the  couches  :  see  on  Mkl239.  A 
good  illustration  of  the  pride  of  the  rabbis  is 
the  conduct  of  Rabbi  Simeon  ben  Shetah,  who 
when  invited  to  dinner  by  king  Jannseus(104- 
79  B.C.),  placed  himself  between  the  king  and 
queen,  saying,  '  Exalt  wisdom  and  she  shall 
exalt  thee,  .tnd  make  thee  to  sit  among  princes.' 
But  such  conduct  was  not  universally  ap- 
proved, and  with  the  advice  which  our  Lord 
here  gives  may  be  compared  the  more  spiritual 
teaching  of  other  rabbis.  Rabbi  Akiba  said, 
'  Yield  up  thy  place,  and  go  down  two  or  three 
seats,  and  sit  down,  until  they  say  to  thee.  Go 
up  higher.  Go  not  higher  of  thyself,  lest  they 
say  to  thee.  Go  down  lower,  for  it  is  better 
that  they  should  say  to  thee.  Go  higher,  than 
Go  lower.  Thus  the  son  of  Hillel  used  to 
say,  'My  humiliation  is  my  exaltation,  and 
my  exaltation  is  my  humiliation.'  11.  Cp. 
Mt23i--^  ;  repeated  LklSi'*. 

12-14.  On  entertaining  the  poor  (peculiar 
to  Lk,  whose  Gospel  is  full  of  sympathy  with 
the  poor).  12.  Thy  friends,  etc.]  A  man  is  not 
in  the  true  sense  hospitable,  who  entertains 
only  those  who  can  entertain  again.  Such 
interested  hospitality  is  not  wrong,  but  there 
is  no  merit  in  it,  and  it  does  not  lay  up  trea- 
sure in  heaven.  14.  At  the  resurrection  of 
the  just]  i.e.  at  the  glorious  resurrection  to 
life  eternal  which  the  righteous  only  will 
enjoy,  with  which  is  contrasted  '  the  resur- 
rection of  condemnation '  which  awaits  the 
unrighteous  (Jn  5  '^^).  '  The  resurrection  of  the 
just '  here  answers  exactly  to  '  the  resurrection 
from  the  dead,'  viz.  of  righteous  persons  only 
(Phil  3 11  RV),  as  distinguished  from  '  the 
resurrection  of  the  dead,'  which  includes  all 
mankind  (Acl7^-).  Our  Lord's  words  give 
no  real  sanction  to  the  Jewish  belief  in  two 
distinct  resurrections,  the  first  of  the  righteous 
the  second  of  the  unrighteous,  traces  of  which 
some  expositors  find  in  1  Cor  15^3  ITh-li*', 
and  especially  in  Rev  20 -5. '5. 

15-24.  The  great  supper  (peculiar  to  Lk, 
although  Mt22i-i^  presents  many  points  of 
similarity  :  see  on  that  passage).  Here  the 
'  certain  man  '  is  God,  the  many  bidden  are 
the  rulers  of  the  Jews,  the  servant  who  in- 
vites   them    is    Jesus     Christ.      When    the 


757 


rulers  refuse  the  invitation  to  the  feast  (i.e. 
to  enter  into  Christ's  Kingdom),  the  poor, 
the  maimed,  the  blind,  and  the  lame  (i.e.  the 
despised  classes  of  the  Jewish  nation)  are  in- 
vited. They  joyfully  obey,  and  yet  there  is 
room,  because  the  kingdom  of  Christ  is  meant 
to  embrace  all  mankind  (v.  22).  Then  Christ, 
through  His  Apostles,  goes  out  into  the  high- 
ways and  hedges  (i.e.  into  heathen  lands),  and 
compels  the  Gentiles  to  come  in.  15.  Eat 
bread  in  the  kingdom  of  God]  The  mention  of 
the  '  resurrection  of  the  just,'  with  which,  ac- 
cording to  Jewish  ideas,  the  reign  of  the 
Messiah  would  begin,  reminds  this  Jew  of  the 
great  feast,  which  'the  Messiah  would  then 
hold  :  see  on  Mt8^^.  18.  The  excuses  show 
careless  unconcern,  not  hardened  wickedness. 
Business  occupations,  family  ties,  and  various 
distractions,  are  pleaded  as  excuses  for  not 
taking  God's  summons  seriously.  23.  Com- 
pel them  to  come  in]  Our  Lord  does  not  here 
(as  has  often  been  supposed)  sanction  religious 
persecution.  '  He  said  ''  Compel  them,"  not 
commanding  force  to  be  used,  but  indicating 
that  in  the  case  of  Gentiles  a  more  urgent  and 
persistent  kind  of  preaching  must  be  used, 
seeing  that  they  were  under  the  power  of 
demons,  and  sleeping  in  the  deep  darkness  of 
error '  (Euthymius).  24.  For  I  say]  Here 
Christ  drops  the  parabolic  form  and  speaks  in 
His  own  person.  '  For  I  (Christ)  say  unto 
you,  that  none  of  the  Jewish  rulers  who  have 
rejected  My  invitation  shall  taste  of  My  sup- 
per, i.e.  of  the  blessedness  in  store  for  the 
saints  of  God.' 

25-35.  That  we  must  give  up  all  to  follow 
Christ,  and  count  the  cost  before  we  do  so. 
The  two  parables  of  the  Rash  Builder  (vv.  28- 
30)  and  the  Rash  King  (vv.  31-33)  are  peculiar 
to  Lk.  The  multitude  who  follow  Jesus 
(v.  25)  are  inclined  to  believe  that  He  is  the 
Messiah,  and  expect  great  temporal  benefits 
from  their  discipleship.  Jesus  warns  them 
that,  instead  of  this,  they  must  expect  persecu- 
tion and  even  death  (v.  27),  and  that  those 
who  cannot  make  a  complete  sacrifice  of 
earthly  affections  (v.  26),  and  ambition  (v.  33), 
had  better  turn  back  while  there  is  yet  time. 

26,27.  See  on Mt  10 37- 38.  26.  Hate]  'This 
does  not  imply  the  feeling  of  hatred,  but  a 
readiness  to  act  as  if  one  hated.  The  nearest 
and  dearest  must  be  forsaken,  and  opposed, 
and  offended,  if  need  be,  to  follow  Christ.' 

28-33.  None  of  the  details  of  these  two 
parables  or  similes  are  significant.  The  parables 
simply  enforce  the  one  idea  that  it  is  folly 
to  undertake  a  serious  business  (here,  becoming 
a  disciple  of  Christ),  without  counting  the  cost. 

33.  Forsaketh  not  all]  Only  the  Apostles 
(and  the  Seventy)  were  required  to  do  this  in 
act,  but  every  disciple  is  required  to  do  it  in 
will,  i.e.  to  subordinate  all  earthly  interests 


14.  34 


ST.  LUKE 


15.  11 


and  claims  to  Christ's,  when  the  two  are 
incompatible. 

34,35-  Salt]  i.e.  '  discipleship.'  In  MtS^^ 
(q.v.)  it  means  the  pure  and  unselfish  lives  of 
Christians.  '  The  salt  which  has  lost  its 
savour  '  is  here  the  discipleship  which  refuses 
to  make  the  sacrifices  which  Christ  demands 
(vv.  26,  27,  33). 

35.  The  land  .  .  the  dunghill]  These  have  no 
special  meaning.  The  sense  is  that  the  dis- 
cipleship which  makes  no  sacrifices  is  valueless 
for  any  purpose. 

CHAPTER  15 

Parables  of  the  Lost  Sheep,  of  the 
Lost  Coin,  of  the  Prodigal  Son 
1-7.  Parable  of  the  Lost  Sheep.  See  on 
Mt  18 12-13.  The  first  of  a  series  of  three 
parables  for  the  encouragement  of  penitents. 
It  shows  the  love  of  our  Saviour  for  the  out- 
cast, the  despised,  and  the  criminal  classes 
generally.  It  rebukes  the  Pharisees,  who 
professed  to  be  shepherds,  for  their  neglect  of 
that  part  of  the  flock  that  most  needed  their 
help,  and  lastly  it  indicates  that  the  Pharisees 
are  in  many  respects  worse  than  the  sinners 
they  despise.  The  owner  of  the  flock  is  our 
Lord  Himself,  the  Good  Shepherd  (JnlQi^)  ; 
the  flock  is  His  Church,  embracing  men  of  all 
kinds  ;  the  ninety  and  nine  are  those  who 
seem  to  be  righteous,  like  the  Pharisees  ;  the 
one  sheep  that  is  lost  and  is  found,  is  all  truly 
penitent  sinners.  These  are  represented  as 
one  sheep  not  because  they  are  few  in  number 
compared  with  the  others,  but  to  show  Christ's 
love  for  each  individual  soul.  The  seeking 
and  laying  the  lost  sheep  upon  His  shoulders, 
are  Christ's  work  of  love  in  pleading  with  the 
sinner,  and  finally  after  due  repentance  bring- 
ing him  back  to  a  state  of  grace.  The  friends 
and  neighbours  who  rejoice  with  Him  are 
the  angels.  '  On  no  image  did  the  early 
Church  dwell  with  more  fondness  than  this,  as 
witness  the  many  gems,  seals,  fragments  of 
glass,  and  other  relics  which  have  reached  us, 
on  which  Christ  is  thus  portrayed.  It  is 
frequent  also  in  bas-reliefs,  on  sarcophagi,  and 
paintings  in  the  catacombs.  Sometimes  other 
sheep  are  at  His  feet,  generally  two,  looking 
up  with  pleasure  at  Him  and  His  burden. 
This  representation  always  occupies  the  place 
of  honour,  the  centre  of  the  vault  or  tomb  ' 
(Trench).  The  rabbis  have  a  story  that 
Moses,  while  tending  Jethro's  flocks,  went 
after  a  kid  (or  lamb)  which  had  gone  astray. 
As  he  thought  that  it  must  be  weary,  he 
gently  raised  it  and  carried  it  on  his  shoulders. 
God  was  pleased  and  said,  '  Since  thou  hast 
shown  pity  in  bringing  back  a  man's  beast, 
thou  shalt  be  the  shepherd  of  my  flock  Israel 
all  thy  life  long.' 

I.   Publicans  and  sinners]  see  on  MtS'*^  O^i. 


7.  Which  need  no  repentance]  i.e.  which 
think  they  need  no  repentance,  but  really  need 
it  more  than  the  publicans  and  sinners  whom 
they  despise.  The  rabbis  divided  the  just  or 
righteous  into  two  classes,  (1)  the  '  perfectly 
just,'  or  '  men  of  works,'  who  had  never  in  all 
their  lives  committed  a  single  sin,  and  (2)  the 
'  penitents,'  who,  having  once  been  wicked,  had  ' 
repented.  The  Pharisees  considered  them- 
selves to  belong  to  the  former  class,  as  also, 
perhaps,  did  the  young  ruler  who  said  '  All 
these  have  I  kept  from  my  youth'  (MklO^O). 
How  external  the  Pharisaic  standard  of  right- 
eousness was,  may  be  gathered  from  the  story 
of  the  '  holy  man,'  who  '  never  committed  one 
trespass  all  the  days  of  his  life,  except  this 
one  misfortune  which  befell  him,  that  one  day 
he  put  on  his  head-phylactery  before  his  arm- 
phylactery.'     For  'phylactery,'  see  on  Mt235. 

8-10.  The  Lost  Coin  (peculiar  to  Lk).  The 
last  parable  set  forth  the  work  of  Christ  in 
seeking  and  reclaiming  the  lost,  this  one  sets 
forth  that  of  the  Church.  The  woman  is  the 
Church  ;  the  ten  pieces  of  silver  are  the  human 
souls  in  her  keeping  ;  the  lost  piece  is  a  soul 
that  has  fallen  from  grace  through  her  negli- 
gence. Eager  to  atone  for  her  neglect,  and 
full  of  love  for  her  erring  member,  she  lights 
a  candle,  i.e.  vigorously  exercises  the  ministry 
of  the  Word,  and  by  preaching  the  gospel  and 
by  loving  pastoral  intercourse  brings  back  the 
lost  soul  to  a  state  of  gi-ace.  The  sweeping  of 
the  house  is  the  vehemence  with  which  she  sets 
about  her  task,  thereby  incurring  the  charge  of 
'  turning  the  world  upside  down  '  (Ac  1 7 1'). 
Having  found  the  lost  coin,  she  calls  upon  her 
friends  and  neighbours,  i.e.  not  only  her  faith- 
ful members,  but  also  the  angels,  to  join  in 
her    joy.     8.   Pieces]    Gk.    drachma^    a    coin 


equivalent  in  value  to  the  Roman  denarius  j 
(Mtl828).  9.  Friends]  lit.  female  friends  and  \ 
neighbours. 

11-32.  The  Prodigal  Son  (peculiar  to  Lk).  | 
'  This  parable,  like  ths  two  preceding,  is  in-  ' 
tended  to  show  what  joy  there  is  in  heaven  at 
the  conversion  of  sinners,  and,  therefore,  how 
wrong  the  Pharisees  were  to  murmur,  because 
Christ  consorted  with  sinners  to  convert  them  ' 
(Cornelius  a  Lapide).  The  father  is  God  ; 
the  elder  son  is  just  persons,  or  rather  those 
who  think  themselves  and  are  thought  by 
others  to  be  such,  here,  in  particular,  the 
Pharisees  who  '  trusted  in  themselves  that  they 
were  righteous,  and  despised  others.'  The 
younger  son  is  all  penitent  sinners,  here,  in 
particular,  the  publicans  and  sinners  of  vv.  1,  2. 
The  portion  of  goods  (v.  12)  is  the  whole  of  a 
man's  faculties  and  powers,  which  he  ought  to 
exercise  and  enjoy  in  his  father's  house,  i.e.  in 
dependence  upon  God  and  in  His  service,  but 
which  the  prodigal  son  demands  to  have  under 
his  own  control,  to  use  according  to  his  own 


758 


15.  11 


ST.  LUKE 


16.6 


will  and  pleasure.  The  lack  of  love  and  apos- 
tasy of  heart  shown  in  this  demand  is  soon 
followed  by  apostasy  of  life,  for  not  many  days 
after  (v.  13),  he  gathers  all  together,  i.e.  de- 
liberately resolves  to  devote  his  whole  fortune 
and  all  his  powers  to  the  pursuit  of  pleasure, 
and  journeys  into  a  far  country,  i.e.  into  the 


vites  him  to  the  festivities,  and  shows  him 
equal  honour  and  love  (v.  28).  He  shows 
himself,  like  the  Pharisees,  quite  unconscious 
of  his  own  failings,  and  arrogantly  boasts,  '  I 
have  never  transgressed  a  commandment  of 
thine '  (v.  29)  :  see  on  v.  7.  He  puts  the 
worst  construction  on  his  brother's  past  sins, 


world  of  sin  where  God  is  not,  or  rather  where "~  perhaps  exaggerating  them  (v.  30),  and  shows 


He  is  forgotten,  and  wastes  his  substance  in 
riotous  living,  i.e.  throws  off  even  the  semblance 
of  piety  and  respectability,  and  ruins  not  only 
his  soul,  but  his  health  and  fortune  in  extra- 
vagance and  debauchery.  Presently  there 
arises  a  mighty  famine  in  the  land,  i.e.  his 
pleasures  pall,  his  friends  prove  false,  his 
animal  indulgences  fail  to  satisfy  him.  In  his 
distress  he  goes  and  joins  himself  to  a  citizen 
of  that  country,  i.e.  at  first  he  seeks  relief  by 
plunging  deeper  into  sin,  selling  himself  to 
Satan  to  kill  regret.  But  he  finds  no  relief. 
Satan  is  now  his  master,  and  shows  his  con- 
tempt for  him  by  using  him  as  a  drudge  and 
a  slave.  Finding  now  no  pleasure  or  satisfac- 
tion in  his  sin,  and  the  hunger  of  his  soul 
remaining  still  unappeased,  he  determines  to 
return  to  his  father  and  to  say  '  Father,  I  have 
sinned  .  .  Make  me  as  one  of  thy  hired  servants,' 
i.e.  place  me  lowest  in  thy  kingdom.  His 
father  sees  him  a  gi'eat  way  off,  and  goes  to 
meet  him,  for  God  meets,  nay,  almost  antici- 
pates, the  first  efforts  of  sinners  to  return.  He 
falls  on  his  neck  and  kisses  him,  the  kiss 
signifying  the  reconciliation  between  God  and 
man  brought  about  by  Christ.  The  son  makes 
his  confession  of  sin,  but  does  not  add  '  Make 
me  as  one  of  thy  hired  servants,'  because  he 
now  sees  that  God  wishes  to  restore  him  to  his 
full  privileges.  Then  the  father  says  to  his 
servants  (the  ministers  of  His  Church),  Bi'ing 
forth  the  former  robe,  and  put  it  on  him  (i.e. 
restore  him  to  his  former  privileges  as .  a 
Christian  by  the  ministry  of  reconciliation), 
and  put  a  ring  on  his  hand  (a  symbol  of  rank 
and  honour),  and  shoes  on  his  feet  (symbolising 
spiritual  freedom,  for  slaves  went  barefoot), 
and  bring  the  fatted  calf  and  kill  it  (signifying 
the  joy  there  is  in  earth  and  heaven  over  a 
repentant  sinner,  perhaps  also  the  spiritual 
nourishment  which  the  hungi-y  soul  will  find  in 
the  ordinances  of  religion  which  have  been  so 
long  neglected)  ;  for  this  my  son  was  dead  (in 
sin)  and  is  alive  again  (by  repentance).  And 
they  begin  to  be  merry,  i.e.  to  rejoice  over  the 
penitent,  and  to  treat  him  with  as  much  honour 
as  if  he  had  never  sinned.  The  conclusion  of 
the  parable  graphically  traces  the  character  of 
the  elder  brother,  who  represents  the  Pharisees 
and  persons  of  their  spirit.  He  is  busied  in 
the  field  (v.  25),  i.e.  in  a  round  of  regular,  but 
loveless,  religious  observances.  He  shows 
anger  and  jealousy,  and  that  in  spite  of  the 
affectionate  entreaties  of  his  father,  who  ui- 


759 


himself  incapable  of  forgiveness  (v.  30). 

The  parable  may  be  suitably  applied  to 
illustrate  the  relations  of  Jew  and  Gentile 
(the  Jew  being  the  elder,  the  Gentile  the 
younger  son),  but  this  is  not  its  primary 
meaning. 

12.  Give  me  the  portion]  according  to 
Jewish  law,  one-half  of  what  the  eldest  re- 
ceived (Dt21i").  He  may  have  had  a  right 
to  demand  his  property  before  his  father's 
death.  '  We  have  here  perhaps  a  survival  of 
that  condition  of  society  in  which  testaments 
"  took  effect  immediately  on  execution,  were 
not  secret,  and  were  not  revocable,"  and  in 
which  it  was  customary  for  a  father,  when  his 
powers  were  failing,  to  abdicate  and  surrender 
his  property  to  his  sons :  cp.  Ecclus  33 19-23.' 

15.  To  a  citizen]  i.e.  Satan,  or  some  com- 
panion more  wicked  than  himself.  16.  He 
would  fain  have  filled]  i.e.  and  did  so.  Husks] 
i.e.  the  pods  of  the  carob-tree,  eaten  only  by 
the  very  poorest  people.  And  no  man  gave 
unto  him]   food  of  any  kind. 

19.  Hired  servants]  i.e.  imperfect  Chris- 
tians, who  perform  their  duties  to  God  in  the 
spirit  of  hirelings  rather  than  of  sons. 

22.  The  best  robe]  or,  rather, '  the  former 
robe,'  i.e.  the  state  of  grace  in  which  he  was 
before  his  sin.  In  its  Christian  application 
the  robe  of  baptismal  innocence,  because  in 
baptism  we  '  put  on  Christ '  as  a  garment 
(Gal  3  27). 

CHAPTER    16 

The  Unjust  Steward.     The  Eich  Man 
AND  Lazarus 

1-13.  Parable  of  the  Unjust  Steward  (pecu- 
liar to  Lk).  The  details  of  this  somewhat  diffi- 
cult parable  are  probably  not  significant.  It  is 
intended  to  illustrate  the  proper  use  of  wealth. 
Christians  should  use  it  so  well  here  on  earth, 
by  expending  it  not  selfishly  on  their  own  plea- 
sures, but  unselfishly  for  the  good  of  others, 
and  for  the  advancement  of  God's  kingdom, 
that  instead  of  hindering  them  from  reaching 
heaven,  it  will  help  them  to  enter  there. 
The  prudence  (foresight)  of  the  steward  is 
commended  in  this  parable,  not  his  dishonesty. 

5-7'  Tenants  in  the  East  pay  their  rent  in 
kind,  not  in  money.  The  landlord  provides 
them  with  seed,  aiad  they  return  him  at  harvest- 
time  a  certain  proportion  of  the  yield. 

6.  An  hundred  measures]  lit.  '  baths,'  the 
'  bath '  being  a  Heb.  liquid  measure  =  9  gallons. 


16.7 


ST.  LUKE 


16.22 


Bill]  EY  'bond.'  7.  Measures]  lit.  cors, 
the  cor  being  a  Heb.  dry  measure  =  11  bushels. 

8.  And  the  lord]  RV  'his  lord,'  i.e.  his 
master.  Many  readers  wrongly  imagine  that 
Jesus  is  the  speaker  here.  Because  he  had 
done  wisely]  i.e.  '  prudently.'  The  master 
praised  not  the  morality  of  the  transaction, 
but  its  far-sighted  prudence,  and  it  is  just  this 
that  Jesus  holds  up  for  imitation.  For  the 
children  (sons)  of  this  world  (i.e.  worldly 
people)  are  in  their  generation  (i.e.  in  dealing 
with  other  worldly  people)  wiser  (i.e.  more 
prudent  and  far-seeing)  than  the  children  of 
light  (i.e.  than  the  spiritually  enlightened  are  in 
making  provision  for  their  heavenly  welfare). 

9.  Make  to  yourselves]  i.e.  make  to  your- 
selves friends  in  heaven  by  means  of  a  prudent 
use  of  your  wealth  (viz.  by  hospitality,  alms- 
deeds,  etc.),  that  when  ye  fail,  i.e.  die  (or, 
according  to  the  RV,  when  '  it,'  i.e.  your 
wealth,  '  fail '),  the  angels  may  receive  you 
into  the  eternal  habitations.  Of]  RV  '  by 
means  of.'  Friends]  i.e.  either  '  the  poor,' 
who  by  their  prayers  obtain  your  admission 
to  heaven,  or,  more  probably,  '  the  angels,' 
who  become  the  friends  of  those  who  give 
alms,  and  at  the  last  carry  their  souls  to 
heaven.  The  mammon  of  unrighteousness] 
A  common  rabbinical  expression.  It  occurs 
in  the  pre-Christian  book  of  Enoch.  It  does 
not  here  mean  wealth  unrighteously  ac- 
quired, but  simply  '  deceitful  wealth.'  So  we 
speak  of  '  filthy  lucre,'  not  meaning  unjust 
gain,  but  gain  in  general:  see  MtG^*.  So 
rightly  Calvin :  '  By  giving  this  name  to 
riches,  he  intends  to  render  them  an  object  of 
our  suspicion,  because  for  the  most  part  they 
involve  their  possessors  in  unrighteousness.' 

10.  II.  V.  11  explains  v.  10.  If  you  are 
unfaithful  in  such  an  unimportant  matter  as 
money  (i.e.  if  you  do  not  spend  your  incomes 
to  the  glory  of  God),  God  will  not  entrust  you 
with  those  spiritual  gifts,  graces,  and  virtues 
which  are  much  more  important.  12.  If  you 
do  not  spend  your  money  rightly,  you  will 
not  inherit  the  kingdom  of  heaven.  Money  is 
here  called  that  which  is  another's,  because 
Christians  are  to  regard  it  not  as  their  own, 
but  as  a  trust  for  which  they  must  one  day 
give  account.  That  which  is  your  ow^n  is  the 
joy  of  heaven,  '  the  kingdom  prepared  for  you 
from  the  foundation  of  the  world.'  13.  See 
onMt624. 

14-18.  The  Pharisees  mock  Jesus.  His 
reply.  The  connexion  of  vv.  16,  17,  18  is 
difficult,  and  it  may  be  that  they  do  not  pro- 
perly belong  here,  but  it  is  also  possible  that 
our  Lord's  discourse  is  abridged,  the  connect- 
ing links  being  left  out.  14.  Covetous]  RY 
'  lovers  of  money '  ;  see  on  Mk  1 2  ^o. 

15,  16.  See  on  Mt  11 12' 13.  The  connexion 
(if  such  is  to  be  sought)  is  this  :  Before  Christ 


began  to  preach,  it  was  comparatively  easy  for 
the  Pharisees  to  justify  themselves  before  men, 
but  now  that  the  deeper  morality  of  the  Gospel 
is  widely  accepted,  men  are  beginning  to  find 
out  the  deficiencies  of  the  Pharisees. 

17,  18.  See  on  Mtb^^.  Here  the  sense  is: 
The  Pharisees,  however,  object  to  be  tried  by 
the  standard  of  the  Gospel,  and  demand  to  be 
tried  by  the  standard  of  the  Law.  But  even 
according  to  this  (which  is  still  in  force  in  its 
spiritual  sense),  they  are  found  to  be  deficient, 
for,  while  observing  it  in  trivial  matters,  they 
break  it  in  matters  of  weight,  e.g.  (v.  18), 
whereas  the  Law  forbids  divorce  except  for 
adultery,  the  Pharisees,  or  most  of  them,  allow 
it  for  every  cause  :  see  on  Mt  5  ^2. 

19-31.  The  rich  man  and  Lazarus:  peculiar 
to  Lk,  and  full  of  that  sympathy  with  the 
poor  which  characterises  his  Gospel.  It  does 
not,  however,  as  Strauss  maintains,  assert  that 
the  mere  possession  of  wealth  is  wrong,  or 
that  mere  poverty  justifies.  On  the  contrary, 
the  rich  man  is  condemned,  not  because 
he  was  rich,  but  because  he  was  callous, 
and  Lazarus  justified,  not  because  he  was 
poor,  but  because  he  was  poor  in  spirit.  The 
callousness  of  the  rich  man  was  due  to  his 
scepticism.  He  consumed  his  wealth  in  self- 
ish luxury,  sparing  none  of  it  for  the  poor, 
because  he  did  not  really  believe  in  God  or  a 
future  life.  If  he  had  so  believed,  he  would 
have  acted  differently.  The  parable  may 
perhaps  be  directed  against  the  Pharisees,  who 
were  '  lovers  of  money '  (v.  14)  ;  but  inasmuch 
as  their  covetousness  did  not  take  the  form  of 
sumptuous  living,  it  seems  better  to  regard  it 
as  a  warning  addressed  to  Christians  generally 
against  luxury,  worldliness,  selfishness,  and 
unbelief. 

19.  Rich  man]  conveniently  called  'Dives' 
(Lat.).  He  represents  all  those  who  in  the 
enjoyment  of  wealth  forget  God  and  the  world 
to  come,  and  neglect  all  acts  of  charity  and 
love.  Purple]  i.e.  a  rich  material  dyed  with 
the  liquid  obtained  from  the  shellfish  '  murex,' 
formed  the  rich  man's  upper  garment,  and  fine 
linen  his  under  garment,  or  shirt ;  both  were 
exceedingly  costly.  20.  Lazarus]  =  Eleazar, 
i.e.  'He  who  has  God  for  his  help.'  His 
name  expresses  his  character.  From  Lazarus 
is  derived  lazar  =  leper.  Desiring]  but  not 
obtaining  his  desire.  21.  The  dogs]  Since  the 
dog  was  in  the  East  an  unclean  animal,  the 
licking  was  an  aggravation  of  the  poor  man's 
misery.  22.  By  the  angels]  The  rabbis  said  : 
'  None  can  enter  Paradise  but  the  just,  whose 
souls  are  carried  thither  by  angels.'  '  When 
an  Israelite  departs  to  his  eternal  home,  the 
angel  in  charge  of  the  garden  of  Eden,  who 
receives  every  circumcised  son  of  Israel,  intro- 
duces him  into  the  garden  of  Eden.'  '  When 
the  just  depart  from  the  world   three  com- 


760 


16.  23 


ST.  LUKE 


16.  31 


panies  of  angels  go  before  them  in  peace.  The 
first  says,  "  Let  him  come  in  peace  " ;  the  second 
says,  "  Let  them  rest  in  their  beds  "  ;  the  third 
accompanies  him.'  Abraham's  bosom]  A  Jew- 
ish name,  not  of  heaven,  but  of  the  intermedi- 
ate state  of  bliss,  in  which  the  souls  of  the  just 
await  the  resurrection.  E.g.  '  Ada  bar  Ahavah 
sits  to-day  in  Abraham's  bosom ' :  cp.  4  Macl3 1". 
'  When  we  have  thus  suffered,  Abraham,  Isaac, 
and  Jacob  will  receive  us.'  Other  equivalent 
names  are  '  Paradise,'  '  the  garden  of  Eden,' 
and  '  under  the  throne  of  glory.'  2^.  In  hell] 
RV  '  in  Hades.'  Hades  is  here  used  in  a  wide 
sense  for  the  intermediate  state  of  all  souls, 
just  and  unjust,  between  death  and  judgment. 
In  this  sense  both  Dives  and  Lazarus  were  in 
'  Hades,'  though  the  one  was  comforted  and 
the  other  tormented.  This  usage  of  the  word 
is  quite  common.  '  Hades,  in  which  the  souls 
both  of  just  and  unjust  are  detained  '  (Hip- 
polytus).  '  In  the  lower  world  are  both  tor- 
ment and  refreshment.  There  a  soul  is  either 
punished  or  tenderly  cherished,  as  a  foretaste 
or  rehearsal  of  the  final  judgment'  (Tertullian). 
The  rich  man  was  not  in  '  hell '  {Gehenna),  be- 
cause no  one  is  sent  there  until  after  the  Last 
Judgment. 

In  torments]  Spiritual  torment  or  punish- 
ment must  be  meant,  for  Dives  was  now  a 
disembodied  spirit.  Seeth  Abraham]  The 
rabbis  placed  Paradise  in  sight  of  the  place  of 
torment,  and  were  familiar  with  the  idea  of 
conversations  among  the  dead :  see  on  v.  26. 
There  is  a  rabbinical  story  not  unlike  this 
parable  :  '  There  were  two  partners  in  crime 
in  this  world,  one  of  whom  repented  before 
his  death,  but  the  other  did  not.  After  death 
the  one  was  carried  away  and  placed  in 
the  company  of  the  just ;  the  other  in  the 
company  of  the  wicked.  The  latter  saw  the 
former,  and  said,  "  Woe  is  me,  for  there  is 
respect  of  persons  in  this  matter.  He  and  I 
robbed  together  and  murdered  together,  and 
now  he  stands  in  the  congregation  of  the  just, 
and  I  in  the  congi-egation  of  the  wicked." 
They  answered  him,  "  Thou  fool,  it  was  in 
thy  power  also  to  have  repented,  but  thou 
didst  not."  He  said  to  them,  "  Let  me  go 
now,  and  become  a  penitent."  But  they  said, 
"  Thou  most  foolish  of  men,  dost  thou  not 
know  that  this  world  in  which  thou  art  is  like 
the  sabbath,  and  the  world  from  which  thou 
camest,  like  the  eve  of  the  sabbath  ?  If  thou 
providest  nothing  on  the  sabbath-eve,  what 
wilt  thou  eat  on  the  sabbath  ? "  And  he 
gnashed  his  teeth  and  gnawed  his  own  flesh.' 

In  his  bosom]  The  figure  is  not  taken  from 
reclining  at  a  banquet  (Jnl3'^3)^  because  the 
great  banquet  would  not  take  place,  according 
to  Jewish  ideas,  till  the  coming  of  the  Mes- 
siah (Mt8 11),  but  from  children  quietly  resting 
in  their  parents'  lap  or  bosom. 


24.  Father  Abraham]  He  spoke  as  a  Jew, 
thinking  that  Abraham  had  power  over  the 
fires  of  Hades,  and  would  help  his  own 
descendants.  The  rabbis  said,  '  The  fire  of 
Gehenna  has  no  power  over  the  sinners  of 
Israel,  for  Abraham  descends  and  rescues  them 
from  it.'  25.  Thy  good  things]  i.e.  thy  wealth 
and  pleasures.  Dives  was  punished,  not  for 
his  wealth,  but  for  his  abuse  of  it.  Lazarus 
was  justified,  not  for  his  poverty,  but  for  his 
patience  and  humility.  26.  Beside  all  this] 
better,  '  in  all  these  regions  of  the  dead.'  A 
great  gulf  fixed]  Somewhat  different  from  the 
representations  of  the  rabbis,  who  said  (see 
Eccl  7 1'l), '  Grod  hath  set  the  one  against  the 
other,  i.e.  Hell  and  Paradise.  How  far  are 
they  distant  ?  A  hand's  breadth.  Rabbi  Jo- 
chanan  saith,  A  wall  is  between.  But  the  rabbis 
say.  They  are  so  even  with  one  another, 
that  you  may  see  out  of  one  into  the  other '  : 
cp.  Rev  14 10.  29.  Moses  and  the  prophets] 
These  would  give  them  sufficient  light  and 
guidance. 

30,  31.  Our  Lord  disbelieved  the  power  of 
signs  and  wonders  to  produce  repentance,  and 
here  declares  that  even  the  sign  of  His  own 
Resurrection  will  leave  many  hard  hearts 
unmoved. 

The  pains  of  Dives  being  those  of  Hades, 
not  of  Gehenna,  many  recent  commentators 
regard  his  release  from  them  as  possible,  and 
see  in  his  new-born  anxiety  for  the  welfare  of 
others  (v.  27)  an  indication  that  his  punishment 
is  producing  its  intended  purifying  effect :  see 
on  Mt  12  32. 

Additional  Note 

The  chief  interest  of  this  parable  to  modern 
readers  is  the  light  that  it  throws,  or  seems  to 
throw,  upon  the  state  of  departed  souls  between 
death  and  judgment.  As  to  its  significance  in 
this  respect,  expositors  are  not  entirely  at  one. 
Some  regard  all  its  statements  on  the  sub- 
ject as  teaching  definite  doctrines  binding  on 
Christians,  others  regard  them  as  only  the 
poetic  framework  of  the  parable,  embodying 
conventional  Jewish  ideas,  and  therefore  as 
having  no  significance  for  Christians.  Both 
extremes  are  to  be  avoided.  On  the  one  hand, 
the  parable  is  plainly  intended  to  inculcate,  as 
against  the  unbelief  of  worldly  and  sensual 
men,  the  doctrine  of  future  rewards  and 
punishments  beginning  immediately  after 
death,  and  to  be  so  far  a  serious  doctrinal 
statement.  On  the  other  hand,  the  thoroughly 
Jewish  cast  of  the  phraseology  warns  us  against 
taking  its  details  too  literally.  Tlie  essence  of 
the  teaching  is  thus  expressed  by  Luckock  : 
'  The  souls  of  the  departed  in  the  intermediate 
state  are  possessed  of  consciousness,  memory, 
and  sensibility  to  pain  and  pleasure  ;  the  life  of 
all   men,  whether  good  or  bad,  is  continued 


761 


17.  1 


ST.  LUKE 


17.26 


■without  interruption  after  the  separation  of 
soul  and  body ;  and  retribution  commences 
between  death  and  judgment.  These  con- 
clusions are  in  direct  antagonism  to  the  theory 
that  the  soul  falls  asleep  when  the  body  dies, 
and  will  not  wake  again  till  the  resurrection 
of  the  dead.' 

CHAPTER  17 

Occasions  of  Offence.    The  Ten  Lepers. 

The  Second  Advent 

1,  2.    On   causing   others   to   sin.     See    on 

Mtl8«.7. 

2,  One  of  these  little  ones]  An  affectionate 
designation  of  the  disciples,  especially  such  as 
were  beginners  and  easily  led  astray.  Per- 
haps the  converted  publicans  and  sinners  of 
16  ^'2  are  specially  meant. 

3,  4.  The  duty  of  forgiveness.  We  are  to 
forgive  an  unlimited  number  of  times,  yet  we 
may  rebuke  in  love  :  cp.  Lvl9i7.  See  on  Mt 
18i5,2i_     2,  Trespass  against  thee]  RV  '  sin.' 

5,  6.  On  faith  and  its  effects.   See  on  Mt  17  20 

2121. 

5.  Increase  our  faith]  Others  render, '  Give  us 
faith  in  addition,'  i.e.  add  it  to  the  gifts  already 
promised.  Whether  the  '  faith  '  mentioned  is 
faith  in  general,  or  the  faith  which  enables  to 
forgive  a  brother  seven  times,  is  not  clear. 

6.  Sycamine]  This  word  means  sometimes 
the  '  mulberry  tree,'  sometimes  the  '  sycomore.' 

7-10.  That  works  do  not  justify.  '  Our  Lord 
having  exhorted  His  disciples  to  good  works, 
now  proceeds  to  rebuke  the  vainglory  which 
so  often  accompanies  them,  showing  that  as  a 
master  is  under  no  obligation  to  a  slave  who 
performs  his  appointed  tasks,  so  neither  is  God 
to  us.  But  since  God  is  gracious.  He  treats 
those  who  are  slaves,  as  if  they  were  free 
hired  labourers,  and  recompenses  their  labours 
with  a  reward,  and  receives  their  service  which 
is  strictly  due,  as  if  it  were  meritorious,  and 
gives  a  requital  out  of  all  proportion  to  the  toil. 
Thus  the  goodness  of  God  is  stronger  than  His 
justice '(Euthymius).   7.  A  servant]  lit. 'a  slave.' 

11-19.  Ten  lepers  cleansed  (peculiar  to  Lk). 
For  leprosy  see  on  Mt8i-*.  "The  healing  of  a 
Samaritan,  and  the  stress  laid  upon  his  greater 
gratitude,  is  in  keeping  with  the  character  of 
this  Gentile  Gospel. 

II.  Through  the  midst  of  (or,  rather,  'be- 
tween ')  Samaria  and  Galilee]  '  The  caravans 
of  Galilee  took  either  the  Samaritan  route  or 
the  Perfean.  Jesus  follows  neither,  but  travels 
along  the  boundary  between  Samaria  and  Gali- 
lee. He  directed  His  steps  from  W.  to  E. 
towards  the  Jordan,  which  He  must  cross  to 
enter  Peraea '  (Godet).  '  He  seems  to  have 
crossed  the  Jordan  at  Scythopolis,  where  there 
was  a  bridge,  and  to  have  descended  along  the 
bank  of  Jordan  in  Perasa,  until  He  crossed 
again  near  Jericho  '  (Wetstein). 


14.   Unto  the  priests]   The  Jews  probably 

went  to  Jerusalem,  because  of  the  necessary 
sacrifices  ;  the  Samaritan  to  Mt.  Gerizim,  unless 
we  are  to  suppose  that  he  became  a  Jewish 
proselyte.  As  they  went]  The  healing  was 
delayed  to  test  their  faith.  19.  Thy  faith  hath 
made  thee  whole  (or,  '  saved  thee  ')]  i.e.  not 
only  has  it  healed  thy  body,  but  also  thy  soul. 
It  was  otherwise  with  the  other  nine  lepers. 
Their  ingratitude  imperilled  their  continuance 
in  that  state  of  salvation  in  which  their  faith 
had  placed  them. 

20,  21.  When  and  how  the  Kingdom  of  God 
appears  (peculiar  to  Lk).  The  question  of 
the  Pharisees  was  probably  a  mocking  one — 
'  When  is  this  Kingdom  of  God  of  which  thou 
sayest  so  much,  and  of  which  thou  claimest 
to  be  King,  visibly  to  appear  ?  ' 

20.  Cometh  not  with  observation]  i.e.  can- 
not be  observed  by  the  senses,  is  not  manifested 
by  outward  signs  or  political  changes.  21.  Is 
within  you]  i.e.  within  your  hearts.  But 
since  Jesus  would  hardly  say  that  the  Kingdom 
of  God  is  within  the  hearts  of  the  Pharisees, 
the  better  translation  is,  '  The  Kingdom  of 
God  is  among  you,'  but  ye  do  not  perceive  it. 

22-37.  On  the  coming  of  the  Son  of  man. 
The  Pharisees  having  now  withdrawn,  Jesus 
proceeds  to  speak  more  unreservedly  to  the 
disciples  of  the  final  and  glorious  coming  of 
His  Kingdom,  which  will  be  heralded  by  visible 
signs,  which  yet  will  be  hard  to  interpret,  so 
that  in  the  end  the  Son  of  man  will  appear 
unexpectedly.  St.  Matthew  inserts  many  of 
these  sayings  in  the  great  discourse  on  the  end 
of  the  world,  and  the  fall  of  Jerusalem  (Mt 
24),  where  they  are  eqmally  suitable  to  the 
context. 

22.  To  see  one  of  the  days]  i.e.  '  In  your 
future  tribulations  and  persecutions  you  will 
desire  to  see  one  of  the  days  of  bliss  and 
glory,  which  will  follow  the  Second  Coming  of 
the  Son  of  man.  You  will  desire  a  glimpse  of 
heaven  to  comfort  you  in  your  calamities.' 
Plummer  ingeniously  translates :  '  You  will  de- 
sire to  see  the  first  of  the  days  of  the  Son  of 
man,'  i.e.  the  day  of  the  Second  Advent.  The 
ordinary  interpretation, '  You  will  look  back  with 
regret  on  the  peaceful  and  happy  days  of  My 
earthly  ministry,  and  long  to  see  even  one 
of  them  again,'  does  not  suit  the  context. 

And  ye  shall  not  see  it~\  not  because  it 
will  not  come,  but  because  it  will  not  come 
in  those  days  of  your  longing  for  it. 

23.  See  on  Mt2423.  See  here]  is  the  Son 
of  man,  etc.  24.  See  on  Mt  24  27.  in  his  day] 
Westcott  and  Hort  (but  not  RV)  omit  these 
words.     25.   Cp.  MkS^i. 

26,  27.  See  on  Mt  2437-39.  26.  Also  in  the 
days]  i.e.  in  the  days  when  the  Son  of  man  will 
return.  We  should  have  expected  '  in  the  day 
of  the  Son  of  man,'  as  in  v.  30. 


762 


17.  28 


ST.  LUKE 


18.9 


28-30.   Peculiar  to  Lk.     See  Gnl9. 

31.  In  Mt24i'i',  q.v.,  these  words  are  advice 
to  the  Christians  of  Jerusalem  with  regard  to 
their  hasty  flight  from  the  city  just  before  its 
fall.  Here  they  refer  to  Christ's  Second 
Coming,  and  warn  Christians,  when  that  day  is 
imminent,  to  be  completely  detached  from 
worldly  affairs  and  worldly  interests.  The 
language  is  parabolic,  and  must  be  spiritually 
interpreted. 

32.  Remember  Lot's  wife]  who  was  not 
detached  from  worldly  things,  but  looked 
back  with  longing  towards  Sodom,  and  the 
wealth  and  luxury  which  she  had  left  there. 

33.  In  MtlO^o  16^5^  where  the  same  words 
occur,  the  reference  is  to  willingness  to  suffer 
martyrdom.  Here  the  idea  is  more  general  : 
'  He  who  sets  too  much  value  on  his  earthly 
life,  shall  lose  his  eternal  life.' 

34,35.  See  onMt'24^0.-".  36.  Omitted  by 
RV  and  the  best  authorities. 

37.  See  on  Mt2428  (first  interpretation). 

CHAPTER    18 

The  Unjust  Judge.  The  Pharisee  and 
THE  Publican.     The  Rich  Ruler 

1-8.  The  Unjust  Judge  (peculiar  to  Lk). 

There  is  a  close  connexion  with  what  pre- 
cedes. The  mention  of  the  Second  Advent 
leads  Christ  to  speak  of  the  need  of  prayer 
and  watchfulness  in  view  of  it.  The  main 
lessons  of  the  parable  are  :  (1)  The  duty  of 
continual  prayer  ;  (2)  the  certain  answer  to 
prayer,  if  it  be  only  persistent  enough  ;  (3) 
the  certainty  that  in  the  end  God  will  main- 
tain the  cause  of  His  elect  against  their  ad- 
versaries ;  (4)  a  warning  against  failure  of 
faith  in  times  of  seeming  abandonment  by 
God. 

The  moral  difficulty  that  in  this  parable  God 
seems  to  be  compared  to  an  unjust  judge,  is 
best  met  by  saying  that  in  reality  God  is  not 
so  much  compared  as  contrasted  with  him. 
The  argument  is.  If  justice  can  be  obtained 
by  persistence  even  from  an  unjust  judge, 
how  much  more  can  it  be  obtained  from 
the  Author  of  all  justice.  It  is  true  that 
God  is  said,  like  the  unjust  judge,  to 
delay  justice.  But  His  motive  is  entirely 
different.  His  delay  is  due  to  love,  love  of 
the  saints,  whose  faith  He  designs  to  purify 
and  strengthen  by  much  waiting,  and  love  of 
their  adversaries,  to  whom  He  gives  a  space 
for  repentance  before  the  day  of  vengeance 
comes. 

I.  Perhaps  this  is  our  Lord's  own  comment 
on  the  parable.  Always  to  pray]  On  the  other 
hand,  the  rabbis  taught  that  God  must  not 
be  fatigued  by  too  frequent  prayer.  Three 
times  a  day  was  enough.  '  If  a  man  comes  to 
address  you  every  hour,  you  say  that  he  holds 
you  cheap  :  the  same  is  true  of  God,  whom  no 


man  ought  to  fatigue  by  praying  every  hour.' 
The  words  are  to  be  taken  literally,  because 
even  purely  secular  acts,  when  done  to  God's 
glory,  are  acts  of  devotion.  The  whole  lives 
of  the  faithful  should  be,  in  Origen's  words, 
'  one  great  connected  prayer.'  Faint]  i.e. 
become  weary. 

2.  A  judge]  Probably  a  heathen  judge,  be- 
cause, (1)  The  local  Jewish  tribunals  consisted 
of  three  judges,  and  (2)  Jewish  judges  (at  least 
in  NT.  times)  had  no  such  evil  reputation. 
They  were  required  to  have  this  sevenfold 
qualification,  '  prudence,  gentleness,  piety, 
hatred  of  mammon,  love  of  truth,  that  they 
be  beloved,  and  of  good  report.'  Yet  see  on 
Mkl2^o. 

3.  Avenge  me]  better,  '  Give  me  justice 
against  my  adversary.'  Her  'adversary'  was 
probably  a  rich  neighbour,  who,  taking  ad- 
vantage of  the  death  of  her  husband,  had  stolen 
her  land.  The  offence  of  violently  appropriat- 
ing the  property  of  widows  and  orphans  is 
often  alluded  to  in  the  OT.,  and  forbidden  with 
threats  of  divine  vengeance  (Ex  22  2^-24^  etc.). 

5.   Weary  me]  lit.  '  give  me  a  black  eye.' 

7.  Avenge  his  o-vm  elect]  i.e.  the  members 
of  His  Church.  Christ  coniforts  His  disciples 
who  are  discouraged  by  the  persecutions  which 
are  even  now  threatening,  by  promising  that 
God  will  visit  their  persecutors  (the  Jews  and 
afterwards  the  heathen)  with  condign  punish- 
ment. This  was  literally  fulfilled  in  the 
calamities  which  overtook  the  Jews  and  the 
chief  heathen  persecutors  of  the  Christians. 

Though  he  bear  long  with  them]  better, 
'  though  he  is  slow  to  act  for  them,'  i.e.  though 
His  coming  seem  to  be  delayed. 

8.  Speedily]  cp.  Rev  22  20  2  Pet  3  8-10.  Christ's 
coming,  though  it  may  seem  to  be  long  delayed, 
will  be  as  speedy  as  the  scheme  of  God's 
providence,  which  takes  account  of  the  needs 
of  the  whole  world,  will  permit.  It  will  not 
be  delayed  an  instant  longer  than  is  necessary. 

Nevertheless,  etc.]  The  sense  is,  '  Neverthe- 
less, in  spite  of  the  warning  and  encouragement 
I  am  giving  you,  the  faith  of  many  will  have 
waxed  cold  at  the  time  of  My  return.'  Christ 
does  not  mean  that  the  elect  will  have  lost  their 
faith  altogether,  but  that  on  account  of  the 
trials  and  disappointments  which  will  precede 
the  Second  Advent,  and  also  on  account  of  its 
unexpected  delay,  they  will  be  discouraged. 

Faith]  or,  rather,  '  the  faith,'  i.e.  the  un- 
shaken confidence  in  the  certainty  of  My 
Second  Coming,  which  I  hope  to  find. 

9-14.  The  Pharisee  and  the  Publican  at 
Prayer  (peculiar  to  Lk).  This  parable  is 
apparently  addressed  not  to  the  Pharisees 
themselves,  but  to  certain  of  the  disciples  of 
Jesus  who  were  proud  of  their  spiritual  attain- 
ments, and  lacking  in  the  virtues  of  humility 
and  penitence. 


763 


18.  10 


ST.  LUKE 


19.  11 


10.  Into  the  temple]  Probably  into  the 
second  court,  '  The  Court  of  the  Women,'  at 
one  of  the  stated  hours  of  prayer.  The 
Temple,  like  modern  Clu-istian  churches,  was 
used  for  private  as  well  as  public  prayer. 

Publican]  see  on  MtS'*''.  u^  Stood]  i.e. 
placed  himself  conspicuously  in  the  attitude  of 
prayer  :  see  on  MtG^.  God,  I  thank  thee] 
The  words  of  the  Pharisee  can  hardly  be  called 
a  prayer.  He  asks  for  nothing,  and  feels  his 
need  of  nothing.  The  Pharisee  did,  indeed, 
acknowledge  that  his  virtues  were  derived 
from  God,  but  he  took  all  the  merit  of  them 
to  himself,  and  boasted  of  them  before  God 
and  man. 

the  week]   viz.  on  Mondays 

see  on  Mt6i«-is.     Of  all  that 

'of   all   that   I    get.'      The 

himself    on    his    works    of 


12.  Twice  in 

and  Thursdays  : 
I  possess]  RV 
Pharisee    prided 


supererogation,  i.e.  works  done  over  and  above 
what  God  required  :  see  on  17  "-lo.  The  Law 
commanded  only  one  fast  in  the  whole  year 
(viz.  Day  of  Atonement,  LvlG-'S).  The 
Pharisee  fasted  twice  a  week.  The  Law 
tithed  only  the  fruits  of  the  field  and  the 
increase  of  cattle.  The  Pharisee  tithed  mint 
and  cummin  (Mt  23  23)^  and  indeed  his  whole 
income  (cp.  Tob  1 7, 8)_ 

13.  Afar  off]  viz.  from  the  Pharisee,  whom, 
in  his  humility,  he  thought  far  more  righteous 
than  himself.  Would  not  hft  up]  Since  the 
rabbis  forbade  the  eyes  to  be  raised  to  heaven 
during  prayer  (see  MtG^),  it  is  necessary  to 
suppose  that  there  was  some  special  indication 
of  humility  in  the  publican's  attitude.  Be 
merciful,  etc.]  lit.  '  be  propitiated  to  me  the 
sinner.'  'As  the  Pharisee  had  singled  himself 
out  as  the  one  holy  in  the  world,  so  the  pub- 
lican singles  himself  out  as  the  chief  of 
sinners,  the  man  in  whom  all  sins  have  met — 
a  characteristic  trait  !  for  who,  when  first 
truly  convinced  of  sin,  thinks  any  man's  sins 
can  equal  his  own  (1  Tim  1 15)  ? '  (Trench). 

14.  Justified]  A  favoiu'ite  word  of  St.  Paul's, 
employed  in  St.  Paul's  sense,  as  is  natural  in 
the  Pauline  Gospel.  'Justify'  in  the  NT. 
means  always  '  to  regard  as  just,'  not  '  to  ren- 
der just,'  or  'sanctify.'  Rather  than  the  other] 
This  probably  means  that  the  publican  was 
justified,  and  that  the  Pharisee  was  not  ;  not 
that  the  Pharisee  was  regarded  as  righteous, 
and  the  publican  as  more  than  righteous. 

For  every  one]   Mt23i2  LkU". 

15-17.  Jesus  and  the  children  (Mtl9i3  Mk 
1013).     See  on  Mt. 

18-30.  The  rich  young  ruler.  The  reward 
of  those  who  forsake  all  (Mt  1 9 16  Mk  1 0 17).  See 
on  Mt. 

31-34.  The   passion   and   resurrection 
dieted  (Mt  20 17  Mk  1 0  ^^ ).     See  on  Mt. 

35-43-  The  blind  man  at  Jericho  (Mt20-^ 
MklO-i'^).     See  on  Mt. 


pre- 


CHAPTER  19 

Zacch^us.     The    Pounds.     Christ's 
UMPHAL   Entry  into   Jerusalem. 

CLEANSES    THE    TeMPLE 


Tri- 
He 

The 


764 


i-io.  Zacchaeus  (peculiar  to  Lk). 
narrative  shows  that  our  Lord's  familiar  inter- 
course with  publicans  and  sinners  was  justified 
by  its  results.  Zacchaeus  became  a  convert, 
surrendered  half  of  his  great  wealth  to  the 
poor,  and  made  restitution  for  his  past  mis- 
deeds. 

2.  The  chief]  RV  'a  chief  publican.' 
'  There  must  have  been  at  Jericho  one  of  the 
principal  custom-houses,  both  on  account  of 
the  exportation  of  the  balm  which  grew  in 
that  oasis,  and  which  was  sold  in  all  countries 
of  the  world,  and  on  account  of  the  consider- 
able traffic  which  took  place  on  this  road,  by 
which  lay  the  route  from  Per^a  to  Judaea  and 
Egypt.  Zacch^us  was  at  the  head  of  this 
office '  (Godet).  It  is  unlikely  that  Zacchaeus 
belonged  to  the  highest  class  of  publicani,  who 
collected  the  taxes  of  whole  provinces  or 
kingdoms,  though  occasionally  Jews  filled 
such  an  office.  Zacchseus  has  a  Hebrew  name, 
and  is  clearly  a  Jew  :  see  on  Mt  5  ■^s  9  9-i3_ 

3.  To  see,  etc.]  RV  'to  see  who  Jesus  was,' 
i.e.  to  distinguish  Him  in  the  dense  crowd 
which  surrounded  Him.  4.  A  sycomore]  not 
the  English  sycamore,  but  a  tree  which  re- 
ceives its  name  from  the  fact  that  its  fruit  is 
like  a  fig,  and  its  leaves  like  those  of  the  mul- 
berry :  cp.  17<5  and  Am  71*.  Sycamores  are 
not  now  very  common  in  Palestine. 

5.  At  thy  house]  Jericho  was  a  priestly 
city,  and  according  to  the  Talmud  contained 
as  many  priests  as  Jerusalem.  Specially  sig- 
nificant, therefore,  was  Christ's  resolution  to 
lodge  with  a  publican.  8.  And  Zacchseus 
stood]  Probably  after  the  feast,  or  on  the 
next  day.  The  effect  of  our  Lord's  conversa- 
tion was  the  complete  conversion  of  Zacchaeus, 
which  immediately  showed  itself  in  act.  I 
give]  viz.  at  this  moment.  Up  to  the  time  of 
his  conversion  Zacchaeus  had  given  little  in 
charity.  He  now  atones  for  his  past  neglect 
by  surrendering  one-half  of  his  capital.  If  I 
have  taken,  etc.]  RV  '  wrongfully  exacted 
ought.'  He  proposes  to  examine  into  his  past 
transactions,  and  if  he  has  wronged  any  one, 
to  make  restitution  out  of  the  half  of  his 
capital  which  he  still  retains.  Fourfold]  The 
Law  only  required  this  from  a  detected  thief 
(Ex  221).  9.  To  this  house]  Because  with 
Zacchaeus  his  family  and  household  servants 
were  converted. 

A  son  of  Abraham]  both  in  descent  and 
character.  This  the  Pharisees  would  have 
denied,  for  they  ranked  publicans  with  the 
heathen  :  see  on  Mt  fi -1".      10.   Cp.  MtlSH. 

1 1-27.    Parable  of  the  Pounds  (peculiar  to 


19.  11 


ST.  LUKE 


19.  42 


Lk,  but  similar  to  the  Parable  of  the  Talents, 
Mt26i'*,  q.v.).  It  differs  from  that  parable, 
(1)  in  the  introduction  of  the  rebellious  citi- 
zens, vv.  14,  27  ;  (2)  in  its  gi'aduation  of  the 
rewards  and  punishments  of  the  next  world ; 
(3)  in  representing  future  bliss  as  a  state  of 
social  activity  in  a  perfect  community. 

The  nobleman  (v.  12)  is  Christ  Himself, 
who  goes  into  a  far  country  (heaven),  to  receive 
for  Himself  a  kingdom  (almighty  power  over 
the  universe),  and  to  return  (at  the  Second 
Advent).  He  calls  His  ten  servants  (all  the 
members  of  His  Church),  and  entrusts  them 
with  a  pound  each  (i.e.  all  their  bodily,  mental, 
and  spiritual  capacities).  The  citizens  who 
hate  Him  are  all  the  enemies  of  Christ.  They 
are  called  His  citizens,  because  even  the  wicked 
are  by  right  His  subjects,  seeing  that  He  has 
created  and  redeemed  them.  On  His  return 
(to  judge  the  world).  He  summons  the  ten 
servants  (such  Christians  as  appear  to  have 
been  faithful  to  their  trust),  and  enquires 
what  use  they  have  made  of  the  capacities 
and  opportunities  entrusted  to  them.  Some 
have  made  great  use,  others  little,  others  none 
at  all ;  and  are  accordingly  recompensed,  some 
by  being  placed  over  ten  cities  (a  great  reward), 
others  over  five  cities  (a  less  reward),  others 
by  being  entirely  excluded  from  all  the  rewards 
of  the  futm-e  kingdom.  The  taking  of  the 
pound  from  the  man  who  did  not  use  it,  signi- 
fies that  faculties  which  are  not  used,  are 
finally  lost ;  and  the  giving  of  the  pound  to 
him  who  had  ten  already,  signifies  that  those 
faculties  which  are  rightly  used  are  capable  of 
indefinite  increase.  The  ten  cities  and  the 
five  cities  indicate  the  different  kinds  of  em- 
ployment assigned  in  heaven  to  persons  of 
different  spiritual  capacity.  They  also,  per- 
haps, indicate  different  states  of  blessedness 
assigned  to  the  saved  in  accordance  with  their 
behaviour  in  the  previous  state  of  probation 
on  earth.  In  the  corresponding  parable  in  Mt 
the  teaching  is  different.  There  all  the  faith- 
ful servants  show  the  same  diligence,  and 
receive  the  same  reward.  The  slaying  of  the 
rebellious  citizens  (v.  27)  represents  the 
judgment  of  the  wicked  at  the  Last  Day.  This 
parable,  like  so  many  others,  assigns  to  Jesus 
the  position  of  King  and  Judge  of  the  human 
race.  It  may,  therefore,  be  fairly  used  to 
prove  His  Divinity. 

II.  Because  they  thought]  The  multitudes 
thought  that  Jesus  was  going  to  Jerusalem  to 
set  up  the  Messianic  kingdom  at  once.  Jesus 
therefore  explained  by  a  parable  that  the 
kingdom  would  not  be  established  till  His 
Second  Coming,  and  that  even  then  not  all 
the  children  of  Abraham,  but  only  the  spiritu- 
ally fit,  would  be  admitted  into  it.  This 
was  the  chief  lesson  to  the  multitudes,  who 
expected  that  all  Israelites  would  share  in  the 


future  glory.  To  the  disciples  the  lesson  was 
that  even  among  the  saved  there  would  be 
differences,  and  that,  therefore,  those  who 
wished  a  great  reward  in  the  future  kingdom  of 
heaven  must  labour  with  all  diligence  in  their 
various  vocations  on  earth.  13.  Servants]  lit. 
'  slaves.'  Pounds]  lit.  minm.  The  mbia  was 
the  sixtieth  part  of  a  talent,  i.e.  100  denarii, 
or  £4. 

14.  We  will  not,  etc.]  This  v.  may  have  a 
special  reference  to  Christ's  rejection  by  the 
Jews  after  His  Resurrection  and  Ascension. 
For  the  historical  fact  which  perhaps  suggested 
this  incident  in  the  parable,  see  art.  '  Dynasty 
of  the  Herods  '  (Archelaus). 

24,  25.  This  complete  misapprehension  of 
Christ's  character  shows  that  he  had  never 
really  '  known  '  Christ  with  saving  knowledge. 

27.  Although  this  v.  describes  the  final 
punishment  of  those  who  reject  Christ,  it  may 
also  have  reference  to  the  temporal  destruction 
of  those  Jews  who  rejected  Christ  at  the  fall 
of  Jerusalem. 

28-40.  The  triumphal  entry  into  Jerusalem 
(Mt  2 1 1  Mk  1 1 1  Jn  1 2 12).     See  on  Mt  and  Jn. 

37.  The  descent]  There  was  a  magnificent 
view  of  Jerusalem  and  the  Temple  from  this 
point,  and  at  the  sight  of  the  capital  of  the  new 
kingdom  the  multitudes  broke  into  a  shout  of 
triumph. 

38.  Peace  in  heaven]  i.e.  There  is  peace  for 
man  (i.e.  favour  with  God)  in  heaven.  By 
sending  the  Messiah,  God  shows  that  He 
regards  His  people  with  favour.  The  expres- 
sion is  peculiar  to  Lk  :  cp.  2i-i. 

41-44.  Christ  weeps  over  Jerusalem  (peculiar 
to  Lk).  '  The  path  mounts  again  ;  it  climbs 
a  rugged  ascent  ;  it  reaches  a  ledge  of  smooth 
rock,  and  in  an  instant  the  whole  city  bursts 
into  view.  As  now  the  dome  of  the  Mosque 
El-Aksa  rises  like  a  ghost  from  the  earth 
before  the  traveller  stands  on  the  ledge,  so 
then  must  have  risen  the  Temple -tower  ;  as 
now  the  vast  enclosure  of  the  Miissulman 
sanctuary,  so  then  must  have  spread  the 
Temple-courts  ;  as  now  the  grey  town  on  its 
broken  hills,  so  then  the  magnificent  city,  with 
its  background — long  since  vanished  away — of 
gardens  and  suburbs  on  the  W.  plateau  behind. 
Immediately  below  was  the  valley  of  the 
Kedron,  here  seen  in  its  greatest  depth  as  it 
joins  the  Valley  of  Hinnom,  and  thus  giving 
full  effect  to  the  great  peculiarity  of  Jerusa- 
lem seen  from  its  E.  side — its  situation  as  of  a 
city  rising  out  of  a  deep  abyss.  It  is  hardly 
possible  to  doubt  that  this  rise  and  turn  of 
the  road,  this  rocky  ledge,  was  the  exact  point 
where  the  multitude  paused  again,  and  "  He, 
when  He  beheld  the  city,  wept  over  it  " ' 
(Stanley).     Cp.  Mt2337. 

42.  If  thou  hadst  known]  i.e.  O  that  thou 
hadst   knowTi  !      This  implies  previous  visits 


765 


19.  43 


ST.  LUKE 


22.  19 


of  Christ  to  Jerusalem.     This  thy  day]  i.e. 
the  time  of  Christ's  earthly  ministry. 

43.  Enemies]  i.e.  the  Romans.  A  trench] 
lit.  '  a  palisade.'  The  Romans  actually  raised 
a  palisade  round  Jerusalem.  The  Jews  burnt 
it,  and  the  Romans  replaced  it  by  a  wall. 

44.  Thy  children]  i.e.  thy  inhabitants. 
The  time  of  thy  visitation]  i.e.  the  time  of 

Christ's  ministry. 

45.  46.  Second  cleansing  of  the  Temple 
(Mt  2 1 1-'  Mk  11 1'i).     See  on  Mt. 

47,  48.  Jesus  teaches  daily.     Cp.  Mk  1 1  is. 

48.  Were  very  attentive]  RV  '  hung  upon 
him,  listening.' 

CHAPTER  20 

Various  Incidents  of  the  Last  Week 

1-8.  The  authority  of  Jesus  challenged 
(Mt  2 1  23  Mk  11 27).     See  on  Mt. 

9-18.  The  wicked  husbandmen  (Mt2133 
Mkl2i).     SeeonMt. 

19-26.  The  tribute  money  (Mt  22  is  Mk  12 13). 
See  on  Mt. 

27-40.  The  Sadducees  and  the  Resurrection 
(Mt  22  23  Mk  1 2  18).     See  on  Mt. 

36.  Neither  can  they  die]  This  is  perhaps 
given  as  a  reason  why  after  the  Resurrection 
there  is  no  more  marriage. 

37.  At  the  bush]  RV  '  in  the  place  concern- 
ing the  Bush  '  :  cp.  Ex  3. 

41-44.  Is  the  Christ  David's  son  ?  (Mt224i 
Mkl235).     SeeonMt. 

45-47-  Jesus  denounces  the  scribes  (Mt23i 
Mkl238).     SeeonMt. 

47.   Devour  widows'  houses]  see  on  Mk  12^0. 

CHAPTER  21 
The   Widow's  Mite.     Prophecy  of   the 
Fall   op  Jerusalem  and  the  Second 
Advent 

1-4.  The  widow's  mite  (Mk  12  41).  SeeonMk. 

5-36.  Great  prophecy  of  the  Fall  of  Jerusalem 
and  the  Second  Advent  (Mt  24 1  Mk  13 1).  See 
on  Mt.  St.  Luke  distinguishes  these  two 
events  more  clearly  than  the  other  evangelists 
(v.  24).  He  also  describes  Jerusalem  as  being 
'  surrounded  by  armies.'  This  greater  definite- 
ness  is  held  by  some  to  indicate  that  St.  Luke 
wrote  after  the  fall  of  Jerusalem,  and  added 
certain  interpretative  notes  to  our  Lord's 
utterances.  But  there  is  no  real  reason  why 
Christ  should  not  have  spoken  exactly  as  St. 
Luke  records.     See  on  Mt. 

9.  Not  by  and  by]  i.e.  not  at  once.  13.  Tes- 
timony] It  shall  be  an  opportunity  for  you 
to  bear  witness  to  Me.  15.  Mouth]  i.e. 
eloquence. 

18,  19.  Peculiar  to  Lk.  19.  By  patient 
continuance  in  well-doing  and  in  sutfering 
ye  shall  possess  (i.e.  keep  safe  the  inward 
life  of)  your  souls.  24.  The  times  of  the 
Gentiles]    i.e.    the   time    of   the  rejection  of 

766 


Israel,  and  of  Gentile  predominance  both  in 
the  affairs  of  the  world  and  in  the  Kingdom  of 
God.  The  limes  of  the  Gentiles  will  come  to 
an  end,  when  Israel  is  converted  (Ro  1 1 25). 

37,  38.  Christ's  daily  teaching.  He  lodges 
at  the  Mount  of  Olives  (Mt21i7  Mklli9). 
See  on  Mt. 

CHAPTER    22 
Treason    of   Judas.     The    Last    Supper. 
The  Agony  in  the  Garden.     Arrest 
OF  Jesus.     The  Jewish  Trial 

1-6.  Conspiracy  of  the  chief  priests.  Treach- 
ery of  Judas  (Mt  26 1-^.  i^-iti  Mk  14 1. 2, 10,  ii).  gge 
on  Mt.  St.  Luke  omits  the  anointing  at 
Bethany,  because  he  has  already  recorded  a 
similar  incident  (73"). 

4.  Captains]  i.e.  the  Levitical  guard  or  police 
of  the  Temple,  not  the  Roman  garrison  of 
Jerusalem. 

7-13.  Preparations  for  the  Last  Supper 
(Mt26i"Mkl4i2).    SeeonMt. 

12.  Furnished]  arrayed  for  the  Passover. 

14-23.  Institution  of  the  Lord's  Supper. 
Denunciation  of  the  Traitor  (Mt  26  20-29  Mkl  4i'i'-25 
1  Cor  1 1 23).  See  on  Mt.  St.  Luke's  account 
most  resembles  that  in  1  Cor  1 1 23^  which  is 
only  natural,  seeing  that  he  was  a  disciple  of 
St.  Paul.  The  most  striking  peculiarity  of 
his  account  is  that  he  mentions  two  cups,  one 
before  and  one  after  the  blessing  of  the  bread. 
The  latter  is  without  doubt  the  cup  of  the 
Holy  Communion,  or  Eucharist,  which,  as  has 
been  shown  on  St.  Matthew,  corresponded  to  the 
'  Cup  of  Blessing '  or  '  third  cup '  of  the  Pass- 
over Supper.  The  earlier  cup  of  St.  Luke 
may  therefore  have  been  the  '  second  cup  '  of 
the  Passover,  which  was  drunk  after  the  lamb 
was  placed  on  the  table  (see  on  Mt).  The 
mention  of  two  cups  by  St.  Luke  was  early 
felt  to  be  a  difficulty,  and  accordingly  a  few 
ancient  MSS  reduce  the  cups  to  one,  some  by 
omitting  the  former  cup,  others  by  omitting 
the  latter.  The  latter  omission,  which  has 
the  support  of  only  one  Greek  and  five 
Latin  MSS,  has  met  with  some  support  from 
recent  critics.  If  it  be  accepted,  St.  Luke's 
first  cup  must  be  that  of  the  Eucharist,  and 
in  that  case  he  represents  the  Eucharistic  cup 
as  consecrated  before  the  bread. 

17.  Took  the  cup]  RV  '  received  a  cup.' 

18.  I  will  not  drink,  etc.]  If  these  words 
are  in  their  true  position  they  seem  to  show 
that  Jesus  did  not  Himself  drink  of  the  cup 
of  the  Eucharist.  Mt  and  Mk,  however,  place 
them  after  the  blessing  of  the  Eucharistic  cup, 
instead  of  before  it.  19.  In  remembrance 
of  me]  lit. '  for  My  memorial.'  This  command 
for  the  continual  repetition  of  the  ordinance 
is  mentioned  only  by  St.  Luke  and  St.  Paul. 
The  word  translated  '  remembrance  '  is  a  rare 
one,  and   in   biblical  Greek  means  always  a 


22.  20 


ST.  LUKE 


22.  53 


memorial  before  God,  e.g.  Lv247  :  'Thou 
shalt  put  pure  frankincense  upon  each  row  (of 
shewbread),  that  it  may  be  on  the  bread  for  a 
memorial,  even  an  offering  made  by  fire  unto 
the  Lord.'  So  also  in  NT.  (Heb  10  3).  Accord^ 
ingly  the  rite  is  intended,  not  so  much  to  remind 
men  of  the  death  of  Christ,  as  to  remind 
God  of  it,  to  plead  before  God  the  merits  of 
Christ's  sacrifice,  as  the  only  gi-ound  for  mercy 
and  favour.  20.  This  cup  is  the  new  testament 
(RV  '  covenant ')  in  my  blood]  The  meaning, 
according  to  ICorlQi*^,  seems  to  be:  'This 
cup  conveys  to  those  who  with  true  and  lively 
faith  partake  of  it,  the  benefits  of  the  new 
covenant,  which  the  shedding  of  my  blood 
procures  for  mankind '  (i.e.  remission  of  sins, 
eternal  life,  spiritual  sustenance,  etc.).  Mt  and 
Mk  have,  '  This  is  my  blood  of  the  new 
covenant.'  There  is  no  reason  why  our  Lord 
should  not  have  used  both  expressions  in 
explaining  to  His  disciples  the  spiritual  effect 
of  the  rite.  2i.  This  v.  is  a  strong  support 
of  the  view  that  Judas  received  the  sacrament, 
but  it  is  not  conclusive  :  see  on  Mt,  and 
Jnl330. 

24-30.  A  contention  which  should  be  the 
greatest  (peculiar  to  Lk).  This  contention  is 
probably  to  be  placed  at  the  very  beginning  of 
the  supper,  before  the  feet-washing  :  see  on 
Jn  13 1-20.  Our  Lord  had  previously  rebuked 
a  very  similar  contention  provoked  by  the 
ambition  of  the  sons  of  Zebedee  ;  see 
Mt20''5-2S,  where  almost  the  same  words  are 
used.     28.  Temptations]  i.e.  ti'ials. 

29,  30.   See  on  Mt  19  ^"-30. 

31-34.  Peter's  fall  foretold  (common  to 
all  the  evangelists).  See  on  Mt  26  31-35.  St. 
Luke  agrees  with  St.  John  that  Jesus  made 
the  prediction  in  the  supper-room. 

31,  32.  These  two  vv.  are  peculiar  to  St. 
Luke.  Satan  hath  desired]  i.e.  Satan  hath 
procured  that  all  of  you  should  be  surrendered 
to  him  to  be  severely  tried,  like  Job.  Sift] 
The  violent  motion  of  the  sieve  corresponds 
to  the  violent  trial  that  the  apostles  were  to 
experience  when  Christ  was  arrested. 

32.  For  thee]  Christ  prayed  specially  for 
Peter,  because  he  was  the  leader  of  the 
Apostles,  and  so  much  depended  on  him.  His 
primacy  was  personal,  not  official,  being  derived 
from  the  special  faculty  of  faith  from  which 
he  derived  his  name,  and  which,  after  his  fall, 
he  conspicuously  displayed. 

35-38.  Jesus  directs  His  disciples  to  make 
provision  for  a  time  of  persecution  (peculiar  to 
Lk).  '  The  meaning  of  our  Lord  in  this  much 
controverted  passage  appears  to  be  to  forewarn 
the  apostles  of  the  outward  dangers  which 
will  await  them  henceforward  in  their  mission 
— unlike  the  time  when  He  sent  them  forth 
without  earthly  appliances,  they  must  now 
make  use  of  common  resources  for  sustenance. 


yea  and  even  of  the  sword  itself  for  defence ' 
(Alford). 

35.  When  I  sent  you]  see  93,  and  cp.  10*. 

36.  He  that  hath  a  purse]  Although  under 
ordinary  circumstances  those  who  preach  the 
gospel  are  to  live  of  the  gospel  and  not  con- 
cern themselves  with  worldly  affairs,  yet  under 
exceptional  circumstances,  e.g.  amid  hostile 
surroundings,  or  in  a  heathen  land,  or  in  a 
church  extremely  poor,  ministers  of  the  gospel 
may  engage  in  trade,  or  in  other  ways  provide 
for  their  maintenance,  as  St.  Paul  did  (Acl83). 

Scrip]  i.e.  provision-basket. 

And  he  that  hath  no  svrord]  The  better 
translation  is,  'And  he  that  hath  no  money  and 
no  scrip,  let  him  sell  his  cloak  and  buy  a 
sword.'  The  meaning  is  that  the  danger  will 
be  so  gi'eat,  that  self-defence  will  be  of 
primary  importance.  The  best  course  for  a 
man  who  has  no  money,  will  be  to  sell  his 
cloak  to  buy  a  sword  to  defend  himself. 
Sword  stands  here  for  all  lawful  means  of 
self-defence.  When  St.  Paul  pleaded  before 
Nero,  he  doubtless  employed  counsel  to  defend 
him.  This  was  '  buying  a  sword  '  in  the  sense 
which  Jesus  intended. 

37.  The  things  concerning  me]  i.e.  the 
prophecies  of  My  death.     End]  i.e.  fulfilment. 

38.  Here  are  two  sw^ords]  The  disciples 
thought  that  Jesus  advised  them  to  buy  swords 
to  protect  Him  from  arrest.  They  pointed 
out,  therefore,  that  they  had  two  already, 
with  which  they  were  prepared  to  defend 
Him.  Seeing  Himself  misunderstood,  Jesus 
abruptly  closed  the  conversation  with  the 
words,  It  is  enough,  i.e.  '  Enough  of  this 
trifling ! '  He  had  intended  the  disciples  to 
'  buy  swords  '  (i.e.  take  measures)  for  their 
own  safety,  not  for  His.  He  Himself  was 
resolved  to  die,  but  He  wished  their  lives  to 
be  preserved. 

39-46.  The  Agony  in  the  Garden  (Mt2636 
Mk  1432).     See  on  Mt,  and  on  Lk4i3. 

43,  44.  These  vv.,  which  contain  the  ex- 
quisitely human  features  of  the  bloody  sweat, 
and  the  appearance  of  the  angel  to  strengthen 
Jesus,  are  peculiar  to  Lk.  They  exhibit  om* 
Lord  as  true  man,  subject  to  all  the  weak- 
nesses and  trials  of  humanity,  and  requiring 
the  same  comfort  and  support  in  His  agony 
as  other  men.  Although  omitted  by  a  few 
ancient  authorities,  these  vv.  obviously  describe 
an  authentic  incident  :  cp.  Mt4ii. 

44.  Drops  of  blood]  Great  mental  agony 
has  been  known  to  produce  this  phenomenon. 

47-53.  Arrest  of  Jesus  (Mt2647  Mkl443 
Jn  183).     See  on  Mt  and  Jn. 

51.  Suffer  ye  thus  far]  i.e.  Suffer  My 
enemies  to  do  even  this,  -viz.  arrest  Me. 
Make  no  further  resistance.  Healed  him] 
This  healing  is  peculiar  to  Lk. 

53.  This   is   your    hour]  i.e.   the   hour  in 


767 


23.  54 


ST.  LUKE 


which   God  permits  you   to    do   your  wicked 
work,  and  Satan  apparently  to  triumph. 

54-62.   Peter  denies  Jesus  (Mt  2G  ^^-'^s,  69-75). 
See  Mc  and  references   there.     All  the  evan- 
gelists record  the  incident. 

63-65.  Jesus  mocked  by  the  high  priest's 
servants  (Mti^ij^^T  MkU^S).     See  on  Mt. 

66-71.  The  Jewish  trial  (Mt  2659  MkU^S; 
cp.  Jn  181^).     See  on  Mt  and  Jn. 

CHAPTER  23 

Trial  before    Pilate  and  Herod.     The 

Crucifixion  and  Burial 

1-5.   The  trial  before   Pilate  begins  (Mt27 

1, 2, 11-14  Mk  1  b  ^-■>  Jn  1 8  -'S-3S).    See  on  Mt  and  Jn. 

6-12.  Trial  before  Herod  (peculiar  to  Lk). 
'  By  sending  Jesus  to  Herod  the  clever  Roman 
gained  two  ends  at  once.  First,  he  got  rid  of 
the  business  which  was  imposed  on  him,  and 
then  he  took  the  first  step  towards  a  recon- 
ciliation with  Herod  (v.  12).  The  cause  of 
their  quarrel  had  probably  been  some  conflict 
of  jurisdiction.  In  that  case,  wa.s  not  the  best 
means  of  soldering  up  the  quan-el  to  concede  to 
him  a  right  of  jurisdiction  within  the  very  city 
of  Jeru.salem  '? '  (Godet). 

7.  Herod's  jurisdiction]  This  extended  over 
Galilee  and  Persea. 

Was  at  Jerusalem]  i.e.  in  order  to  keep  the 
Passover. 

13-25.  Trial  before  Pilate  resumed.  Jesus  is 
condemned  (Mt  27 1^--^^  Mk  ISt^-^o  Jn  18  38-19 16). 
See  on  Mt  and  Jn. 

26-32.  The  procession  to  the  Cross  (Mt 
273-' Mk  1521.22  Jniyi').  See  on  Mt.  The 
beautiful  address  to  the  women  of  Jerusalem 
is  peculiar  to  Lk.  These  women  are  not  the 
same  as  the  Galilean  sympathisers  (8  i^^),  but 
residents  in  Jerusalem.  The  warm  feeling 
with  which  all  classes  of  women  regarded 
Jesus  is  especially  marked  in  this  '  the  Gospel 
of  womanhood.' 

28.  Weep  not  for  me]  You  are  not  wrong 
in  weeping  for  Me,  nevertheless  something 
is  about  to  befall,  for  which  you  will  weep 
with  far  greater  reason,  the  destruction  of 
your  city  and  the  overthrow  of  your  nation. 

30.  Cp.  Isa  2 19  Rev  G 1*^.  31.  If  they  do  these 
things,  etc.]  i.e.  '  If  the  Romans  'so  cruelly 
treat  Me  whom  they  know  to  be  innocent, 
how  much  more  severely  will  they  treat  your 
children  whom  they  will  regard  as  rebellious 
and  guilty  ?  '  Or,  '  If  the  inhabitants  of  Jeru- 
salem are  so  guilty  now  in  slaying  Me,  to  what 
further  stages  of  Avickedness  will  they  after- 
wards advance  ?  ' 

33-49.  Crucifixion  and  Death  of  Jesus  (Mt 
27  3^-56  Mk  1 5  23-41  Jn  1 9  is-37).  See  on  Mt  and 
Jn.  Peculiar  to  Lk  are  three  of  the  Seven 
Words  from  the  Cross,  and  the  incident  of  the 
Converted  Thief. 

34.  Father,  forgive  them,  etc.]  (peculiar  to 


24.  16] 

Uross,  is  \ 


768 


Lk).  This,  the  first  Word  from  the  Cross, 
omitted  by  a  few  early  authorities,  but  is 
unquestionably  authentic.  Jesus  here  puts 
into  practice  His  own  teaching  about  loving 
enemies  and  forjfiving  them. 

39.  One  of  the  malefactors]  At  first  both 
malefactors  reviled  Jesus  (Mt27^"),  then  one 
of  them,  moved  by  the  gentleness  and  majesty 
of  the  Sufferer,  was  ashamed,  and  rebuked  his 
fellow.  From  shame  he  passed  to  penitence 
and  faith. 

42.  Lord,  remember  me,  etc.]  RV  '  Jesus, 
remember  me  when  thou  comest  in  thy  king- 
dom.' The  thief  here  acknowledges  Jesus  to 
be  the  Messiah,  a  stupendous  act  of  faith  under 
the  circumstances.  '  He  was  rejected  by  the 
Jews  who  saw  Him  raising  the  dead.  He  was 
not  rejected  by  the  thief  who  saw  Him  hang- 
ing with  him  on  the  Cross  '  (St.  Augustine). 
The  thief  apparently  expected  Christ  to  rise 
again  and  establish  His  kingdom. 

43.  To-day,  etc.]  (peculiar  to  Lk).  '  The 
grace  granted  is  more  abundant  than  the 
prayer.  For  his  prayer  was  that  the  Lord 
would  be  mindful  of  him  when  He  should  have 
come  into  His  kingdom.  But  the  Lord  said 
unto  him,  "  Verily  I  say  unto  thee,  To-day 
shalt  thou  be  with  me  in  paradise."  Where 
Christ  is  there  is  life,  there  is  the  Kingdom  ' 
(St.  Ambrose).  On  '  Paradise '  see  Lk  1 6  22, 23. 
This  incident  teaches  us  not  to  despise  even 
deathbed  repentances. 

44.  In  the  RY  the  darkness  is  said  to  be 
due  to  '  the  sun's  light  failing.' 

46.  Father,  etc.]  (peculiar  to  Lk).  This 
'word'  is  a  quotation  from  PsSl^.  Spirit] 
i.e.  Christ's  human  spirit.  '  Spirit '  and  '  soul ' 
are  identical  in  the  Gospels.  Christ  is  said  to 
have  both  (Mt2638  27^0  Jnl227  1321  19  30). 

50-56.  The  burial  (Mt  27  57-61  Mk  15  42-47 
Jn  1 9  38-42).     See  on  Mt,  Mk  and  Jn. 

CHAPTER  24 

The  Resurrection  and  the  Ascension 
i-ii.   Two  angels  appear  to  the  women  at 
the  sepulchre  (Mt  28 1-8  Mkl6i-s  :  cp.  Jn20i.2). 
See  on  Mt  and  Jn. 

12.  Peter  visits  the  sepulchre.  See  on  Jn 
203-10.  This  V.  is  wanting  in  some  ancient 
authorities. 

13-35-  The  journey  to  Emmaus  (Mk  16  12, 13). 
Though  alluded  to  in  Mk,  this  beautiful  narra- 
tive is  peculiar  to  Lk.  The  conjecture  of 
Theophylact  that  one  of  the  two  disciples 
was  St.  Luke  still  finds  supporters,  but  is 
unlikely. 

13.  Emmaus]  Josephus  speaks  of  an  Em- 
maus 60  furlongs  from  Jerusalem,  the  habita- 
tion of  a  colony  of  Titus's  soldiers.  This  may 
be  the  modern  Kulonieh  (lit. '  colony '),  7  m.  W. 
of  Jerusalem. 

16.  Their   eyes  were  holden]  Mk   gives  a 


24.  17 


ST.  LUKE 


24.  52 


slightly  different  explanation  ('  He  appeared 
in  another  form  ').  St.  Luke  implies  that  our 
Lord  prevented  their  recognition  of  Him  by 
an  act  of  will.  But  apart  from  this  a  certain 
change  seems  to  have  passed  over  His  body  at 
the  Resurrection  :  cp.  Jn  21  *.  17.  As  ye  walk, 
and  are  sad]  RV  '  And  they  stood  still,  looking 
sad,'  but  the  'Western  '  text  is  nearly  as  AV. 

18.  Cleopas]  a  person  otherwise  unknown. 
The  obscurity  of  the  persons  concerned  is  a 
pledge  of  the  authenticity  of  the  narrative. 

Art  thou]  RV  '  Dost  thou  alone  sojourn  in 
Jerusalem  and  not  know  the  things,'  etc. 

21.  Redeemed  Israel]  perhaps  they  were 
only  thinking  of  redemption  from  Roman  rule 
(Ac  1  *^).  Third  day]  Possibly  tbey  remembered 
Christ's  prophecy  (18  33).  26.  Ought  not  Christ] 
More  exactly,  '  Ought  not  the  Messiah '  (in 
consequence  of  the  prophecies)  '  to  have  suf- 
fered these  things  and  to  have  entered  into 
His  glory  ?  '  This  passage  supports  the  view 
that  Jesus  entered  into  glory  not  at  the 
Ascension,  but  at  the  Resurrection.  The  Gk. 
implies  that  the  entering  into  glory  was 
already  past,  and  the  phrase  '  His  glory '  im- 
plies that  the  glory  was  complete.  Probably 
our  Lord  was  in  heaven  during  the  Forty  Days, 
descending  to  earth  for  occasional  interviews. 

30.  Hetookbread]  RV  the  bread.'  Although 
so  similar  to  the  institution  of  the  Holy  Supper, 
this  was  probably  not  a  celebration  of  it,  but  an 
act  resembling  the  blessing  and  breaking  of  the 
bread  at  the  feeding  of  the  5,000,  at  which 
probably  the  two  disciples  had  been  present. 

31.  He  vanished]  Our  Lord's  risen  body  was 
a  perfect  organ  of  spirit,  and  could  manifest 
itself  in  whatever  place,  or  under  whatever 
sensible  conditions  He  willed.  After  disap- 
pearing at  Emmaus  He  seems  to  have  trans- 
ported Himself  instantaneously  to  Jerusalem, 
and  there  to  have  appeared  to  Simon,  v.  34  : 
cp.  our  Lord's  mysterious  appearance  when 
'the  doors  were  shut,'  Jn20i9_ 

34.  The  Lord  is  risen]  Apparently  incon- 
sistent with  Mkl6i3^  q.v.  To  Simon]  see 
1  Cor  155. 

36-43.  Appearance  on  Easter  Evening  (Jn 
20 19-25  :  cp.  Mk  1 6 1*).  See  on  Jn.  At  first  sight 
there  appears  to  be  no  break  in  the  narrative 
till  the  end  of  the  Gospel,  and  the  Ascension 


(v.  51)  seems  to  take  place  011  he  very  day  of 
the  Resurrection.  But  since  it  is  unlikely  that 
so  careful  an  historian  as  St.  Luke  would 
contradict  himself  on  so  important  a  point  of 
chronology  (see  Ac  1 3),  it  seems  safer  to  hold 
that  the  conclusion  of  St.  Luke  from  v.  44  is 
a  summary  of  the  whole  events  of  the  40 
days,  and  not  simply  of  those  of  Easter  Day. 
It  is,  however,  just  possible  that  v.  51  does 
not  describe  the  Ascension.  In  this  case  there 
is  no  difficulty  in  assigning  the  whole  of  the 
events  of  this  chapter  to  Easter  Day. 

39.  And  my  feet]  Probably  the  feet  also 
were  pierced.  Handle  me]  A  proof  of  a  cor- 
poreal resurrection.  Our  Lord's  body  was 
now  spiritual,  but  it  was  manifested  by  Him 
on  this  occasion  under  sensible  conditions  to 
show  that  it  was  the  same  body  which  was  cru- 
cified. Flesh  and  bones]  are  mentioned  as  re- 
presenting the  solid  and  tangible  framework  of 
the  body.  Blood  is  not  mentioned,  but  this 
is  no  proof  that  our  Lord's  body  did  not  pos- 
sess it:  see  lCorlOi<5. 

42.  And  of  an  honeycomb]  Some  ancient 
authorities  omit  these  words.  Our  Lord  ate, 
not  as  needing  food,  but  to  afford  a  sign.  The 
Apostles  laid  great  stress  on  His  eating  and 
di'inking  with  them  as  proof  of  the  reality  of 
the  Resurrection,  AclO'^i :  cp.  Acl^  RM. 

44-49.  Summary  of  instructions  given  during 
the  Forty  Days.  44.  The  law  .  .  the  prophets 
.  .  the  psalms  stand  for  the  three  divisions  of 
the  OT.  Canon  recognised  by  the  Jews.  The 
'  Prophets  '  include  the  historical  books  except 
Chronicles  and  Ruth.  '  Psalms  '  stand  for  '  the 
Writings,'  i.e.  the  third  division  of  the  Canon, 
of  which  it  is  the  principal  book. 

47.  Among  all  nations]  RV  '  unto  all  the 
nations';  a  proof  that  Jesus  contemplated 
a  universal  Church.  49.  The  promise]  i.e. 
the  Holy  Spirit,  Ac  1  •* :  cp.  Jn  1 5  '^'^. 

50-53.  The  Ascension  (Acl?  Mkl6i9). 
See  on  Ac.  51.  And  carried  up  into  heaven] 
A  few  ancient  authorities  omit  these  words. 
If  they  are  omitted,  it  is  possible  to  regard  this 
event,  not  as  the  Ascension,  but  as  a  miraculous 
disappearance  of  Jesus  at  the  end  of  the  inter- 
view begun  in  v.  36.  52.  And  they  wor- 
shipped him]  A  few  ancient  authorities  omit 
these  words. 


49 


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ST.  JOHN 


INTRODUCTION 


I.  General  characteristics.  Few  books  have 
exercised  so  wide  an  influence  as  this.  Not 
only  has  it  a  message  for  believers,  for  whose 
edification  it  was  primarily  intended,  but  it 
casts  a  mysterious  spell  even  over  readers 
whose  religious  standpoint  is  furthest  removed 
from  its  own.  There  is  nothing  like  it  in 
literature  except  the  three  Epistles  attributed 
to  the  same  source.  The  attempt  to  analyse 
the  eif  ect  produced  by  a  unique  work  of  genius 
like  the  present  is  never  successful — the  effect 
is  the  product  of  the  author's  personality, 
and  personality  is  unanalysable — but,  without 
attempting  this,  it  may  be  possible  to  draw 
attention  in  a  helpful  way,  at  the  outset,  to 
two  of  its  leading  characteristics. 

(a)  The  writer  possesses  the  unusual  gift  of 
clothing  the  profoundest  ideas  in  language  of 
childlike  simplicity.  His  ideas  are  far  deeper 
than  St.  Paul's,  but  are  much  more  simply 
expressed.  Take,  for  example,  his  descrip- 
tions of  the  nature  of  God  :  '  God  is  [a]  spirit, 
and  they  that  worship  him  must  worship  him 
in  spirit  and  in  truth '  ;  '  He  that  loveth  not, 
knoweth  not  God,  for  God  is  love '  ;  or  of  the 
preexistence  and  divinity  of  the  Word,  '  In 
the  beginning  was  the  Word,  and  the  Word 
was  with  God,  and  the  Word  was  God '  ;  or 
of  His  oneness  with  the  eternal  Father,  '  I 
and  the  Father  are  one  '  ;  '  Before  Abraham 
was,  I  AM  '  ;  or  of  the  Incarnation,  '  And  the 
Word  was  made  flesh,  and  dwelt  among  us 
(and  we  beheld  his  glory,  the  glory  as  of  the 
only  begotten  of  the  Father)  full  of  grace  and 
truth '  ;  or  of  Christ  as  the  Life,  '  I  am  the 
Resurrection  and  the  Life  :  he  that  believeth 
in  Me,  though  he  were  dead,  yet  shall  he  live, 
and  whosoever  liveth  and  believeth  in  Me  shall 
never  die '  ;  or  of  true  faith,  '  Blessed  are  they 
that  have  not  seen,  and  yet  have  believed.'  In 
these  and  many  other  passages  the  peculiar 
union  of  simplicity  and  profundity  produces 
the  effect  of  sublimity,  a  characteristic  often 
noted  by  the  ancients,  who  expressed  it  by 
the  figure  of  a  soaring  eagle,  which  became  the 
accepted  symbol,  even  as  early  as  the  second 
century,  of  the  Fourth  Evangelist. 

(b)  The  Gospel  is  not  only  a  history,  but  an 
allegory.  It  is  the  work  of  a  mystic,  trained 
in  the  allegorical  method  of  interpreting  the 
Scriptures,  and  expecting  his  own  work  to  be 
interpreted  in  a  like  manner.  '  John,'  says 
Clement    of    Alexandria  (200  a.d.),   'having 


observed  that  the  bodily  things  [i.e.  the  bare 
historic  facts]   had  been  sufficiently  set  forth 
by  the  [earlier]  Gospels,  .  .  produced  a  spiritual 
[i.e.  an  allegorical]  Go.spel '  (Euseb.  '  H.  E.'  vi. 
14).     We  must  not,  however,   press  the  idea 
of  allegory  too  far.     We  are  not  to  suppose, 
with  Origen,  that  some  of  the  incidents  in  the 
Gospel  are  not  history  at  all,  but  only  allegory. 
But  we  may  assume  that  the  author's  choice 
of  materials  is  dominated  by  an  allegorical  or 
didactic  purpose.    He  sits  down  to  write,  not  a 
biography,  but  an  interpretation  of  the  life  of 
Christ,  and  since  his  method  is  that  of  alle- 
gory,  we   are  justified   in  seeking  a  mystical 
meaning  not  only  in  every  saying  and  in  every 
incident,    but   even   in  minute   details   which 
at  first  sight   seem    trivial.     This   persistent 
symbolism  gives  to  the  Fourth  Gospel  much 
of    its    mysterious    charm.      It   produces   an 
effect   on    the    mind  not  unlike  that   of  one 
of  Holman  Hunt's  pictures.     Even  the  un- 
initiated feel  that  far  more  is  suggested  than 
is  expressed  on  the  surface.     Specially  clear 
and  striking  examples  of  the   author's   sym- 
bolism occur  in  1^^  (the  open  heavens),  2'^-^^ 
(the  good  wine  of  the  gospel),  2^i  (the  temple 
of  Christ's  body),  3^  (water  and  the  Spirit), 
SI"*    (the    uplifted    serpent),    4^0    (the    living 
water),  4^5  (the  fields  white  for  harvest),   G^i 
(the  true  manna  and  the  bread  from  heaven), 
7,  8  (the  symbolism  of  the   feast  of   taber- 
nacles), 91"*^  (the  opening  of  the  eyes  of  the 
man   born    blind,    symbolising    Christ   as  the 
Light   of  the   world),  IO^.h   (Christ   as   the 
Door  of  the  sheep  and  the  Good  Shepherd), 
1 1  25  (the  raising  of  Lazarus,  sjTnbolising  Christ 
as  the  Resurrection  and  the  Life),   ll^i  (the 
mystical  meaning  of  the  high  priest's  utter- 
ance), 127  (the  anointing,  symbolising  Christ's 
death  and  burial),  12--*  (the  corn  of  wheat), 
13^5  (the  symbolical  feet- washing),  13^0  ('and 
it  was  night'),   146  (Christ  'the  Way'),  15 ^ 
(the   Vine  and   the   branches),    16^5  (Christ's 
words    are    '  in    proverbs,'    i.e.    allegorical), 
1934,35    (the    symbolism    of    the    blood    and 
water:    cp.    IJno^. §),   19^6  ('a  bone  of  him 
shall  not  be  broken'),  20 ^  (the  symbolism  of 
the   grave   clothes),    20  ^"^    ('  Touch   me   not,' 
etc.),    215-14    (symbolism    of   the    draught    of 
fishes  and  of  the  meal),  20  ^^  (the  '  girding '  of 
Peter). 

2.   Date  and  Authorship. 

(1)  External  evidence.     That  the  Gospel,  by 


770 


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ST.  JOHN 


INTRO. 


whomsoever  written,  probably  falls  within  the 
first  cent.  A.D.,  appears  from  the  following 
quotations  or  references  to  it  by  early  writers. 

St.  Ignatius,  110  A.D.,  reproduces  3^  almost 
verbatim,  '  He  knoweth  whence  he  cometh 
and  whither  he  goeth.'  He  speaks  of  the 
Lord's  Supper  as  Christ's  '  flesh '  (not  '  body ') 
and  blood  (cp.  c.  6).  He  calls  Christ  the 
'Logos'  ('Word')  of  God,  the  Door  of  the 
Father,  and  the  Living  Water.  He  calls 
Satan  '  the  prince  of  this  world.'  All  these 
phrases  are  peculiar  to  St.  John. 

St.  Polycarp,  110  a.d.  (a  personal  disciple 
of  St.  John),  quotes  St.  John's  First  Epistle, 
a  work  most  closely  connected  with  the  Gospel, 
and  almost  certainly  by  the  same  hand. 

Basilides,  the  Gnostic,  120  a.d.  'And  this 
is  what  is  meant  in  the  Gospels,  "  There  was 
the  true  light  which  lighteth  every  man  coming 
into  the  world  "  '  (see  1 9). 

'  That  everything  has  its  own  proper  seasons 
is  sufficiently  proved  by  the  words  of  the 
Saviour,  "  Mine  hour  is  not  yet  come " ' 
(see  24): 

Aristides,  the  Apologist,  circ.  130  a.d.,  uses 
the  characteristic  expression,  'came  down  from 
heaven,'  in  connexion  with  the  Incarnation 
(see  313  623*-),  and  calls  our  Lord's  sinless 
human  nature  '  flesh '  (cp.  c.  6). 

Papias,  130  a.d.,  according  to  very  ancient 
evidence,  named  John  as  the  author  of  this 
Gospel.  He  certainly  used  the  First  Epistle 
of  John,  for  which  see  above. 

Valentinus,  140  a.d.,  quotes  10^,  'All  that 
have  come  before  me  are  thieves  and  robbers.' 

The  Gospel  of  Peter,  150  a.d.,  or  earlier, 
uses  all  four  Gospels. 

St.  Justin  Martyr,  150  a.d.  'As  many  as 
are  persuaded  and  believe  that  what  we  teach 
and  say  is  true,  are  brought  by  us  where  there 
is  water,  and  are  regenerated  in  the  same 
manner  in  which  we  were  ourselves  regener- 
ated. For  in  the  name  of  God  the  Father 
and  Lord  of  the  universe,  and  of  our  Saviour 
Jesus  Christ,  and  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  they 
then  receive  the  washing  with  water.  For 
Christ  also  said,  "  Except  ye  be  born  again, 
ye  shall  not  enter  into  the  kingdom  of 
heaven."  Now  that  it  is  impossible  for  those 
who  have  been  once  born  to  enter  into  their 
mothers'  wombs,  is  manifest  to  all '  (cp.  3^,5). 
He  also  often  speaks  of  the  Word  becoming 
flesh  in  language  evidently  suggested  by  the 
Fourth  Gospel. 

Tatian,  160  a.d.,  compiled  a  harmony  of 
the  Four  Gospels  called  Diatessaron. 

Theophilus  of  Antioch,  180  a.d.  '  And 
hence  the  holy  writings  teach  us,  and  all  the 
spirit-bearing  men,  one  of  whom,  John,  says, 
"  In  the  beginning  was  the  Word,  and  the 
Word  was  with  God,"  showing  that  at  first 
God  was  alone,  and  the  Word  in  Him  '  (see  1 1). 


St.  Irenaeus,  177  a.d.,  a  disciple  of  Poly- 
carp, a  disciple  of  John,  speaks  of  this 
Gospel  as  St.  John's  again  and  again,  and 
even  argues  that  there  can  be  only  four 
Gospels,  viz.  those  that  we  at  present  possess. 

The  Muratorian  Fragment,  200  a.d.  '  The 
author  of  the  Fourth  Gospel  is  John,  one  of 
the  disciples.' 

Clement  of  Alexandria,  200  a.d.,  Tertul- 
lian,  200  a.d.,  and  Origen,  220  a.d.,  speak  of 
the  apostolic  authorship  as  undoubted. 

Eusebius,  the  Church  historian,  330  a.d., 
classes  it  without  hesitation  among  the  '  un- 
disputed '  writings. 

So  far  as  is  known,  its  authenticity  was 
denied  by  no  one,  orthodox  or  unorthodox, 
in  ancient  times,  except  the  obscure  sect  of 
the  Alogi.  Even  these  acknowledged  its 
antiquity,  for  they  ascribed  it  to  St.  John's 
leading  opponent  at  Ephesus,  Cerinthus. 

(2)  hiternal  evidence.  It  is  a  characteristic 
of  writings  which  are  forged,  or  issued  with- 
out fraudulent  intent  under  another  name 
(pseudepigraphical),  to  indicate  the  supposed 
author  prominently  and  clearly  (Eccl  1 1 
Esdrli-4  Tobli  Wisd7-9  Barli,  so  also 
Gospel  of  Peter,  Apostolic  Constitutions, 
etc.),  and  had  this  been  the  character  of  the 
Fourth  Gospel,  St.  John's  name  would  with- 
out question  have  been  unmistakably  promi- 
nent. As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  author  has  so 
carefully  concealed  his  identity,  that  it  requires 
considerable  research  and  reflection  to  dis- 
cover who  he  was.  A  careful  reader,  however, 
will  discern,  (1)  that  he  was  a  Jew.  His 
accurate  acquaintance  with  Jewish  laws,  cus- 
toms, and  opinions,  is  enough  to  establish 
this  (121  425  (3i4f.  740f.  1234  427  715,35  49  749 
722  1828  737  1831).  Moreover,  the  author's 
style  and  syntax  are  rather  Hebraic  than 
Greek,  and  he  occasionally  shows  knowledge 
of  the  original  Hebrew  of  the  OT.  (645  13  is 
1937).  (2)  That  he  was  a  Jew  of  Palestine. 
This  is  shown  by  his  knowledge  of  unimportant 
Palestinian  localities  such  as  '  Cana  of  Galilee  ' 
(21.11),  'Bethany  beyond  Jordan'  (1 2S), 
Ephraim  'near  the  wilderness'  (11^4)^  '^non 
near  to  Salim'  (323),  Sychar  (4  5).  (3)  That 
he  lived  before  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem. 
This  is  clear  from  his  accurate  acquaint- 
ance with  the  topography  of  Jerusalem,  and 
especially  of  the  Temple.  He  knows,  for 
example,  the  intermittent  spring  of  Bethesda 
with  its  five  porches  near  the  sheep-gate, 
Solomon's  porch,  the  distance  from  Jerusalem 
to  Bethany,  Kidron,  the  pool  of  Siloam, 
Gethsemane,  the  treasury,  the  pavement  called 
Gabbatha,  Golgotha  '  nigh  to  the  city  where 
there  was  a  garden.'  He  is  well  acquainted 
with  the  current  views  about  the  Messiah  among 
the  Samaritans  and  Jews  of  the  period.  He 
shows  an  exact  knowledge  of  the  ritual  of  the 


771 


INTRO. 


ST.  JOHN 


INTRO. 


feasts — e.g.  Passover,  Dedication,  Tabernacles, 
and  of  other  religious  customs,  e.g.  ablutions 
before  meals,  and  purifications  before  the  Pass- 
over. He  is  familiar  with  the  relations  between 
the  Jews  and  the  Samaritans,  with  rabbinical 
ideas  about  being  '  born  in  sins,'  with  the 
impropriety  of  a  rabbi  addressing  a  woman 
in  a  public  place,  with  Jewish  reluctance  to 
enter  a  Gentile  house,  or  to  let  dead  bodies 
remain  unburied  on  the  sabbath,  and  alto- 
gether invests  his  narrative  with  a  verisimili- 
tude which  can  hardly  be  accounted  for  except 
on  the  supposition  that  he  was  a  contemporary. 
(4)  That  he  was  an  apostle  and  an  eyewitness. 
That  he  was  an  eyewitness  is  three  times 
stated  :  1 1*  '  we  beheld  his  glory  '  ;  19^^'  and 
he  that  hath  seen  hath  borne  witness,  and  his 
witness  is  true,  and  he  knoweth  that  he  saith 
true,  that  ye  also  may  believe  '  ;  21^4  (appen- 
dix) '  this  is  the  disciple  which  beareth  witness 
of  these  things  and  wrote  these  things,  and  we 
know  that  hie  witness  is  true  '  (cp.  also  IJn  1 1, 
written  by  the  same  author).  In  21 '-0,24  \}^q 
writer  is  expressly  identified  with  the  disciple 
whom  Jesus  loved,  the  son  of  Zebedee 
(21  ■•2),  who  was  present  at  the  Last  Supper 
leaning  on  Jesus'  breast  (13^3),  stood  by  the 
cross  (19  '-'^),  received  into  his  house  the  Blessed 
Virgin  (19^"),  ran  with  Peter  to  the  tomb 
(20^),  and  was  present  at  the  sea  of  Tiberias 
(21 ''').  He  was  not  James  the  son  of  Zebedee, 
for  James  was  martyred  44  a.d.  (Ac  12  2). 
Tradition,  therefore,  seems  to  be  right  in 
asserting  that  he  was  John.  It  is  a  confirma- 
tion of  this  view,  that  the  writer  shows  a 
closer  acquaintance  with  the  inner  life  and 
sentiments  of  the  apostolic  circle  than  any 
other  evangelist  (see  e.g.  2ii.2-^  427  G^ef-  92 
lisf.  1216  chs.  13-17   182  20if'f-  c.  21). 

3.  Difficulties.  We  can  only  briefly  allude 
to  the  chief  objections  which  have  been 
brought  against  the  Johannine  authorship  of 
the  Fourth  Gospel. 

Objection  1.  The  Synoptic  Gospels,  which 
mention  only  one  Passover,  obviously  limit 
the  ministry  to  one  year,  while  the  Fourth 
Gospel  which  mentions  three  (2^3  Q'^  12^),  and 
perhaps  four  (5^),  extends  it  to  three  or  four. 
Reply.  The  Synoptists  nowhere  state  or  even 
hint  (not  even  in  Lk4 1^,  q.v.)  that  the  ministry 
was  confined  to  a  single  year. 

Objection  2.  The  Synoptists  confine  the 
ministry  to  Galilee  and  Persa,  but  the  Fourth 
Gospel  locates  a  large  portion  of  it  in  Judaea. 
Reply.  The  Synoptic  Gospels  (for  whatever 
reason)  are  written  from  an  exclusively 
Galilean  point  of  view,  but  even  they  hint  at 
a  ministry  in  JudsBa  (Mt2337  Lk  133-1  4-14  rv). 

Objection  3.  The  Synoptists  date  the  last 
Passover  on  Thursday  evening,  but  the  Fourth 
Gospel  on  Friday  evening.  Reply.  The  dis- 
crepancy is  perhaps  only  apparent,  but  if  it  is 


772 


real,  the  account  of  the  Fourth  Evangelist  is 
the  more  credible  (see  on  Jnl828). 

Objection  4.  The  style  of  the  Gospel  differs 
in  such  a  marked  degree  from  the  style  of  the 
Revelation,  that  the  same  writer  cannot  have 
written  both.  Reply.  If  this  is  so,  the 
Johannine  authorship  of  the  Revelation,  which 
is  a  much  more  disputable  book  than  the 
Gospel,  may  require  to  be  given  up.  We  may 
suppose,  however,  that  the  Revelation  was 
written  in  the  reign  of  Nero,  and  the  Gospel 
a  quarter  of  a  century  later,  in  which  case  the 
difference  of  style  can  be  sufficiently  accounted 
for  (see  Intro,  to  Revelation). 

Objection  5.  Our  Lord's  discourses  in  the 
Fourth  Gospel  differ  altogether  in  style  and 
subject-matter  from  those  in  the  Synoptics, 
and  therefore  cannot  be  authentic.  Reply. 
The  Fourth  Gospel  does  not  profess  to  repre- 
sent the  general  tenor  and  style  of  Christ's 
teaching.  It  is  a  didactic  work,  intended 
mainly  to  produce  and  enhance  faith  in  our 
Lord's  Divine  Sonship  (2031).  The  author, 
therefore,  purposely  collects  and  records 
mainly  those  sayings  of  Christ  which  illustrate 
the  Divinity  of  His  Person. 

4.  Date  and  Place  of  Composition.  Accord- 
ing to  all  ancient  authorities,  this  Gospel  was 
written  by  St.  John  in  his  old  age  at  Ephesus, 
i.e.  about  90  A.D.,  or  a  little  earlier. 

5.  The  Writer's  Purpose  and  Theological 
Position.     (1)  The  main  object  of  the  Gospel 
is  to  produce  faith  in  Jesus  as  the  Messiah 
and   the  Son   of   God   (20  3i),  and  in  general 
to  promote  those  views  of  our  Lord's  person 
and  work,   which    in  the   later   Church   were 
generally  designated  '  orthodox.'     As  against 
humanitarian  (Ebionite)  tendencies,  whether 
within  or  without  the  Church,  the  author  laj's 
the  utmost  stress  upon  our  Lord's  true  Deity 
(see  especially  1  If- IS (WH)  5 20 f.  S^s  1030  175)^ 
and  concludes  his  Gospel  (for  c.  21  is  a  later 
appendix)  with  St.  Thomas's  great  confession, 
'  My  Lord  and  my  God  '  (20  28).     On  the  other 
hand,  as  against  Docetism,  which,  while  con- 
fessing our  Lord's  Deity,  denied  that  He  was 
truly  man.  great  stress  is  laid  on  our  Lord's 
true    humanity.      The  Word  became   '  flesh ' 
(1 14),  and  that  flesh  could  be  handled  (2020,27). 
The  Incarnate  Saviour  possessed  a  true  human 
soul  (1011.17  1227)^  and  a  human  spirit  (1133 
13  21),    and    was    subject    to    painful    human 
experiences,    e.g.    He    was   weary  (46),  wept 
(1135),    groaned    and    was    troubled    (1133). 
Further,  as  against  Cerinthus,    the  Apostle's 
opponent  at  Ephesus,  who  taught  that  Jesus 
was  a  mere  man  upon  whom  the   heavenly 
Son   of   God    descended   at   His  baptism,   St. 
John  emphasises  the  unity  of  Christ's  person, 
and  the  unbroken  stream  of  His  consciousness 
reaching    back   beyond   the    Incarnation    into 
eternity  (lif-  3i3  6 33, 38, 4i, 42, so, 51,  58  gss  175). 


INTRO. 


ST.  JOHN 


INTRO. 


(2)  Among  the  leading  religious  ideas  of 
this  Gospel,  most  of  which  are  peculiar  to, 
or  at  least  characteristic  of,  St.  John,  are 
'  eternal  life  '  regarded  as  a  present  as  well 
as  a  future  possession  ;  '  judgment '  as  a 
present  act  effecting  a  present  separation 
between  the  friends  and  the  enemies  of  God  ; 
'  abiding  in  '  (in  a  spiritual  sense)  '  flesh  '  in  the 
sense  of  human  nature  without  the  connota- 
tion of  sinfulness  ;  eating  and  drinking 
Christ's  '  flesh  and  blood  '  ;  the  eternal  pre- 
destination of  events  by  God  (6^7,39,44 
1028,  1239  179  12)^  which,  however,  is  not 
identical  with  determinism  or  fatalism,  because 
salvation  is  offered  to  all  men  (4*2  12^2)  ; 
'  living  water,'  by  which  the  grace  of  the 
Holy  Spirit  is  typified  (4iof.);  the  'new 
birth,'  or  '  birth  from  above  '  of  water  and  the 
Spirit  (33*-)  ;  '  truth  '  in  the  sense  not  only  of 
veracity  and  correct  belief,  but  also  of  that 
holiness  which  ought  to  follow  from  correct 
belief  (8*4  10  is  17i"  1837;  cp.  especially  the 
phi-ase  'to  do  the  truth,'  S-MJnl^);  'the 
world '  in  the  sense  of  the  loicked  world,  alienated 
from  God,  and  under  the  dominion  of  Satan, 
'  the  prince  of  this  world  '  (7  7  8  23  13 1  14 17, 2T,  so 
I518  1611  1714,  etc.)  ;  '  light'  and  '  darkness  ' 
in  a  moral  and  spiritual  sense  (I5320  312 
11 10  1236,36^  etc.);  '  witness  '  and  '  witnessing  ' 
to  religious  truth,  affirmed  of  the  Father 
(5  32,37  818),  of  the  Son  (311  4-^4  8i4>  etc.),  of 
the  Holy  Ghost  (1526),  of  Moses  and  the 
prophets  (546,  etc.),  of  the  Baptist  (l7f.  132f. 
etc.),  of  the  Apostles  (1527),  of  the  words 
and  miracles  of  Jesus  (5^6  1025). 

(3)  Among  the  titles  of  Christ  peculiar  to 
this  Gospel  or  to  the  Johannine  literatm-e 
are,  'the  Word,'  or  'Logos'  1 1'l-i  (elsewhere 
only  in  IJnli  E,evl9i3);  the  'Saviour  of 
the  world'  (4^2  Ijn4i4);  the  'Light  of 
the  world,'  or  'of  men'  (1^  8 12  95);  the 
'  Manna,'  or  '  Living  Bread  '  (6  31  f-)  ;  the  '  Door ' 
(107);  the  'Good  Shepherd'  (IQH)  ;  'the 
Way,  the  Truth,  and  the  Life '(146);  'the 
Resurrection  and  the  Life  '  (1125)  ;  '  the  True 
Vine'  (I51);  'the  Holy  One  of  God'  (669 
RV).  The  idea  of  Christ  as  the  Paschal  Lamb 
(1936,  perhaps  also  129,36)  is  shared  with  St. 
Paul  (1  Cor  5"),  but  the  application  of  the  OT. 
types  of  Jacob's  ladder  (l^i)  and  of  the 
brazen  serpent  (31*)  to  Christ  is  peculiar  to 
this  Gospel.  Peculiar  also  is  the  combination 
of  Christ's  Passion,  Resurrection,  and  Ascen- 
sion into  one  complex  conception  of  which  the 
leading  characteristic  is  '  glory  '  (13  31.32,  etc.). 
The  Passion  is  never  contemplated  in  its 
native  horror  in  and  by  itself,  but  always  as 
interpreted  and  glorified  by  the  Resurrection 
and  the  Ascension. 

The  doctrine   of  the  Holy  Spirit  receives 


far  more  development  in  this  Gospel  than  in 
the  Synoptics.  His  personality  is  clearly 
implied  by  the  masculine  pronoun  (14i6f-),  by 
the  personal  title  '  Advocate  '  peculiar  to  St. 
John  (1416,20  152(5  167)^  and  by  His  func- 
tions (168.13,1-i). 

6.  Relation  to  the  Synoptists.  The  author 
omits  much  of  the  matter  in  the  Synoptics, 
and  in  a  few  cases  seems  to  correct  them  or 
inferences  drawn  from  them.  He  represents 
John  the  Baptist  as  giving  more  explicit  testi- 
mony to  the  Messiahship  of  Jesus,  and  Jesus 
Himself  as  less  reluctant  to  publish  it.  His 
attitude  to  miracles  is  also  different.  He 
records  not  a  single  example  of  the  most 
frequent  synoptic  type  of  miracle,  the  casting 
out  of  devils,  nor  does  he  employ  the  synoptic 
term  'mighty  works.'  To  him  Christ's  mira- 
cles, of  which  he  records  the  mystic  number 
seven,  are  '  signs,'  or  '  works.'  They  are  re- 
corded, not  so  much  for  their  miraculous 
character,  as  for  the  sake  of  the  doctrine  or 
spiritual  principle  which  they  illustrate. 

7.  Relation  to  the  Revelation.  The  Revela- 
tion may  perhaps  be  by  a  different  author  from 
this  Gospel,  but,  in  any  case,  it  belongs  to 
the  same  theological  school.  The  following 
are  the  chief  words  and  ideas  common  to  the 
two  books — Christ  as  the  Logos  and  as  the 
Lamb,  the  Deity  of  Christ,  and  the  duty  of 
worshipping  Him  with  the  same  worship  as 
is  due  to  the  Father  ;  the  prominence  of 
Satan  ;  the  idea  of  '  keeping  the  command- 
ments,' and  the  emphasis  laid  on  'witness' 
and  '  truth.' 

8.  Analysis  of  the  Gospel  (after  Arch- 
deacon Watkins). 

(1)  The  prologue  (1  i-is). 

(2)  Early  manifestation  of  Jesus  (119-454). 
(a)  Witness  of  the  Baptist  (119-40). 

(6)  Manifestation  to  individuals  (141-211). 
(c)  Manifestation  in  public  (2 12-4  54). 

(3)  The      fuller     revelation  :    growth      of 

unbelief  among  the  Jews  (51-1250). 

(a)  Life  (5i-67i). 

(b)  Truth,  light,  love  (71-10^2). 

(c)  Fuller  revelation  of  life,  truth,  light, 

love  :  more   hostile  unbelief  of  the 
Jews  (111-1250). 

(4)  The  fuller  revelation  :  growth  of  faith 

among  the  disciples  (131-1726). 

(a)  Love  in  humiliation  (131-34). 

(b)  Last  words  of   love   to   the  faithful 

(1335-1633). 

(c)  Love  in  the  intercessory  prayer  (1 7 1-26). 
(6)  Climax    of    unbelief  :  surrender,     and 

crucifixion  (181-1942). 

(6)  Climax     of     faith  :  resurrection      and 

proofs  (c.  20). 

(7)  Appendix  (c.  21). 


773 


1. 1 


ST.  JOHN 


1.5 


CHAPTER  1 

The  Divinity  and  Incarnation  of  the 
"Word.  Witness  of  John.  The  First 
Disciples. 

i-i8.  Preface,  declaring  (1)  that  the  Word 
was  God,  (2)  that  He  was  made  man,  (3)  that 
He  revealed  the  Father. 

This  sublime  preface  is  intended  to  com- 
mend 'the  truth  as  it  is  in  Jesus,'  both  to 
Jewish  and  Gentile  minds.  It  describes  our 
Lord's  person  and  office  by  a  term  familiar  to 
both,  that  of  the  Logos  or  Word  of  God. 
'Logos'  has  two  meanings  in  Greek:  (1) 
reason  or  intelligence,  as  it  exists  inwardly  in 
the  mind,  and  (2)  reason  or  intelligence,  as  it 
is  expressed  outwardly  in  speech.  Both  these 
meanings  are  to  be  understood  when  Christ  is 
called  '  the  Word  of  God.'  He  is  the  inward 
Word  of  God,  because  He  exists  from  all  eter- 
nity '  in  the  bosom  of  the  Father,'  as  much 
one  with  Him  as  reason  is  one  with  the  reason- 
ing mind.  Nothing  is  so  close  to  a  man  as 
his  own  thought.  It  is  within  him,  and  is  in 
a  very  real  sense  himself.  So  nothing  is  so 
close  to  God  as  His  own  eternal  Word.  It  is 
within  Him,  it  is  one  with  Him,  and  it  is 
divine  like  Him  (vv.  1,  2,  18).  Christ  is  also 
God's  outward  Word.  He  expresses  and  ex- 
plains and  reveals  to  the  world  what  God  is. 
It  was  He  who  created  the  world  (v.  3),  making 
its  order  and  beauty  an  outward  expression 
of  God's  hidden  nature.  In  spite  of  the  Fall, 
He  remained  in  the  world,  revealing  to  sinful 
man,  through  reason,  through  conscience,  and 
through  prophecy,  the  nature  of  the  Father. 
He  was  the  True  Light  that  shineth  in  dark- 
ness, and  lighteth  every  man  that  cometh  into 
the  world  (v.  4  f .).  In  the  fulness  of  time  He 
revealed  God  still  more  perfectly,  by  becom- 
ing man,  and  living  a  perfect  and  sinless  human 
life  (v.  14  f.).  So  perfectly  did  Christ's  won- 
derful life  reveal  the  innermost  character  of 
God,  that  though  '  no  man  hath  seen  God  at 
any  time '  (1 1^),  those  who  have  seen  Christ 
may  be  said  in  a  very  real  sense  to  have  seen 
the  Father  also  (149).  The  human  life  of 
Christ  not  only  reveals  what  God  is,  it  also 
helps  man  to  become  like  God.  The  incarnate 
Christ  is  '  full  of  grace  and  truth  '  (1  i4,i6,iV)^ 
and  gives  believers  the  power  to  put  away 
their  sinful  nature,  and  to  be  born  again  as 
sons  of  God  (112,13). 

(1)  The  Hebrew-speaking  Jews  were  fa- 
miliar with  the  idea  that  God  reveals  Himself 
to  the  world  through  His  Meinra,  or  Word, 
which  they  distinguished  from  Himself  as  His 
organ  of  revelation.  The  Targums  of  the  OT. 
speak,  not  of  Jehovah,  but  of  the  Memra  of 
Jehovah,  as  being  manifested  to  Abraham, 
Hagar,  Isaac,  Jacob,  and  to  Moses  at  the  bush. 
St.  John's  preface,  therefore,  proclaimed  to 


the  Hebrew,  '  That  Memra  of  Jehovah,  which 
appeared  to  the  patriarchs  and  prophets,  was 
no  other  than  Chi'ist  before  His  Incarnation.' 
(2)  The  educated  Greek-speaking  Jews  (Hel- 
lenists) were  familiar  with  the  writings  of  the 
Jewish  philosopher,  Philo  of  Alexandria  (circ. 
15  B.C.-50  A.D.).  He  believed  that  God  does 
not  act  upon  the  world  directly,  but  mediately 
through  his  Logos  or  Reason.  To  the  Hel- 
lenist, therefore,  St.  John's  Gospel  said, 
'  That  Logos,  through  which  you  say  God  acts 
upon  the  world  and  reveals  himself  in  it,  is  no 
other  than  Christ.'  (3)  Educated  heathens 
also  believed  in  a  divine  Logos  or  Reason, 
diffused  through  the  world,  and  disposing  all 
things  in  a  rational  order.  First  Heraclitus, 
then  Plato,  and  finally  the  Stoics  developed 
this  doctrine,  until,  in  the  apostolic  age,  it  waa 
the  explanation  of  the  universe  commonly 
accepted  by  educated  persons.  To  the 
heathen,  therefore,  St.  John's  preface  said, 
'  That  divine  Logos,  which  inspired  your 
philosophers,  so  far  as  they  have  spoken  truly, 
and  whose  existence  is  admitted  by  all  educated 
men,  has  finally  manifested  Himself  in  the 
life  of  Jesus  of  Nazareth.  Read  the  account 
that  follows  of  His  wonderful  life  and  sayings, 
and  you  will  acknowledge  that  this  is  true.' 

St.  John's  doctrine  of  the  Logos  differs  from 
the  Jewish  and  the  heathen  doctrine  mainly  in 
these  two  points  :  (1)  That  the  Logos  is  per- 
sonal, and  (2)  that  He  became  flesh. 

I.  In  the  beginning]  not  as  in  Gnli,  'in 
the  beginning  of  creation,'  but  '  in  the  begin- 
ning of  eternity,'  i.e.  from  all  eternity  :  cp.  8  ^^ 
175.  Was  the  Word]  i.e.  the  Word  existed. 
'  The  Word '  as  a  title  of  our  Lord  is  only 
found  in  the  Johannine  writings  (1^*  1  Jnl^ 
Rev  19 13).  On  its  meaning,  see  above.  Was 
•with  God]  lit.  '  was  directed  towards  God,'  the 
attitude  of  loving  and  intimate  intercourse  : 
cp.  '  in  the  bosom  of  the  Father '  (v.  18).  Was 
God]  i.e.  was  divine,  and  is  therefore  to  be 
worshipped  with  the  same  worship  as  is  due  to 
the  Father.  Jesus  is  again  called  God  in 
express  terms  in  v.  18  (RM)  2028  iJn520 
Ro95  Tit2i3  (RV)  Ac2028  Hebis  2Petli 
(RV).  3.  Made  by  Him]  i.e.  '  through '  Him, 
as  the  Father's  agent.  That  Christ  is  the 
creator  of  the  universe  is  stated  Col  1 16, 17 
1  Cor  8  6  Hebl2  lio  Rev3i4,  but  not  in  any 
Gospel  except  this. 

3,  4.  The  Word  is  not  only  the  Creator  of 
the  world,  but  is  also  its  Life  ;  i.e.  He  sustains 
it  in  existence,  supplies  life  to  all  living  organ- 
isms, and  guides  all  the  operations  of  nature. 
To  rational  beings  like  men,  He  is  also  their 
Light,  or  Instructor.  He  was  this  even  before 
His  Incarnation,  instructing  them  through 
reason,  through  conscience,  and  through  pro- 
phecy.    (For  another  punctuation  see  RV.) 

5.  This  instruction  by  the  Word  was  hindered 


774 


1.6 


ST.  JOHN 


1.  16 


by  the  Fall,  which  involved  the  world  in  moral 
and  spiritual  darkness.  And  the  darkness  com- 
prehended (RV  '  apprehended  ')  it  not]  i.e.  the 
people  whose  minds  were  darkened  by  sin  did 
not  understand  or  obey  the  instructions  of  the 
Word.  Prejudice  prevented  them.  Another 
translation  is  '  and  the  darkness  overcame  it  not.' 

6-8.  Parenthesis :  The  mission  of  Christ's 
forerimner,  John  the  Baptist.  Perhaps  this 
section  is  directed  against  those  followers  of 
the  Baptist  who  maintained  that  he  was  the 
Messiah.  The  evangelist  makes  it  clear, 
(1)  that  the  Baptist  had  a  true  mission  from 
God,  and  (2)  that  he  was  not  the  Light.  His 
mission  was  to  bear  witness  to  it,  and  to 
reflect  it. 

9.  The  preface  resumed.  The  true  Light, 
Christ  our  Lord,  existed  even  before  His 
Incarnation,  and  enlightened  every  man, 
whether  Jew  or  Gentile,  born  into  the  world. 
This  important  text  teaches  us  that  the  light 
of  revelation  shines  among  all  races,  and  that 
there  is  some  truth,  however  distorted  by  error, 
in  all  religions.  The  best  translation  is, '  Already 
the  true  Light  existed,  which  lighteth  every 
man  as  he  cometh  into  the  world.'  For  other 
translations  see  the  B,V.  10.  He  was  in  the 
■world]  viz.  before  His  Incarnation.  11.  He 
came,  viz.  at  the  Incarnation,  unto  his  own 
(home),  viz.  the  Holy  Land  ;  and  his  own,  i.e. 
the  Jews,  received,  i.e.  believed.  Him  not. 

12.  Power]  rather, 'the right,' or  'privilege.' 
Those  who  '  believed  on  His  name,'  i.e.  accepted 
Him  as  the  divine  Son  of  God,  and  the  Saviour 
of  the  world,  received  the  privilege  of  be- 
coming true  sons  of  God.  13.  This  sonship 
conferred  on  men  depended  not  on  human 
descent  from  Abraham  (blood),  nor  upon  the 
sexual  relations  of  their  parents  (the  will  of 
the  flesh),  nor  could  it  be  had  for  willing  or 
wishing  it,  i.e.  human  effort  (the  will  of  man). 
It  was  a  free  and  supernatural  gift  from  God, 
inward  and  spiritual,  implanted  by  the  Holy 
Ghost,  and  dependent  for  its  maintenance  on 
union  with  Christ  :  see  on  3^'^. 

14.  The  Word  w^as  made  (RV  '  became ') 
flesh]  a  plain  statement  of  the  wondrous  fact 
of  the  Incarnation,  the  central  mystery  of  our 
religion.  God  became  man  to  atone  for  sin, 
and  to  make  us  partakers  of  the  divine  nature. 
'  Flesh  '  in  St.  John  means  human  nature  (body, 
soul,  and  spirit)  without  the  added  idea  of 
sinfulness,  which  attaches  to  it  in  St.  Paul  (see 
especially  6  ^1  f-).  Our  text  affirms,  therefore, 
that  the  Redeemer  is  '  perfect  God  and  perfect 
man,  of  a  reasonable  soul  and  human  flesh  sub- 
sisting ;  equal  to  the  Father,  as  touching  His 
Godhead,  and  inferior  to  the  Father,  as  touch- 
ing His  manhood.  Who  although  He  be  God 
and  man,  yet  He  is  not  two,  but  one  Christ.' 

Dwelt  among  us]  lit.  '  dwelt  in  a  tabernacle 
among  us,'  the  tabernacle  being  His  body  (see 


219,  and  cp.  2  Cor  5 1.4  2  Pet  1 13.  i").  The  allu- 
sion is  to  the  '  Shekinah,'  which  the  rabbis 
identified  with  '  the  Word  of  Jehovah.'  As 
the  •  Shekinah,'  or  visible  glory  of  God,  dwelt 
in  the  tabernacle  of  old,  so,  when  Christ  was 
born  into  the  world,  His  divine  nature  dwelt 
in  His  body  as  in  a  temple.  We  beheld  his 
glory]  i.e.  not  merely  the  visible  glory  of  the 
Transfiguration  and  the  Ascension,  but  the 
moral  and  spiritual  splendour  of  His  unique 
life,  which  revealed  the  nature  of  the  invisible 
Father.  The  evangelist  here  claims  to  have 
been  an  eyewitness,  as  in  19 '•5.  The  only  be- 
gotten of  (RV  'from')  the  Father]  The  glory 
of  Christ's  life  was  not  a  reflected  glory,  as 
would  have  been  the  case  had  He  been  a  mere 
human  saint  or  prophet,  but  it  was  the  glory 
of  God's  only  begotten  Son,  and  therefore 
God's  own  glory,  for  Christ  and  His  Father 
are  one.  '  Only  begotten  '  as  a  title  of  Christ 
is  peculiar  to  St.  John  (1  is  3 I6-I8  1  Jn  4  9).  It 
indicates  that  no  man  or  even  angel  is  God's 
son  in  the  sense  in  which  Christ  is.  A  '  son  ' 
in  the  full  sense  of  the  word  is  of  the  same 
nature  as  his  father,  and  hence  Christ,  being 
God's  Son,  is  divine.  Full  of  grace  and  truth] 
'  grace '  is  the  divine  favour  and  loving-kindness  ; 
'  truth,'  as  often  in  St.  John,  is  not  simply 
veracity,  but  holiness  in  general  (cp.  1 1'^  3^1 
4  23  8  44  iJn  1 6).  Christ  was  full  of  grace  and 
holiness,  not  that  He  might  keep  them  to 
Himself,  but  that  He  might  bestow  them 
upon  men. 

15.  Another  parenthesis,  introducing  fur- 
ther testimony  of  the  Baptist,  which  the  evan- 
gelist indicates  as  of  permanent  importance 
('  beareth,'  '  crieth,'  RV,  not  bare,  cried,  AV). 

He  that  cometh  after  me]  i.e.  He  who  begins 
his  work  later  than  myself.  Is  become  (RV) 
before  me]  viz.  in  honour.  For  he  was  before 
me]  i.e.  He  existed  before  my  birth,  and  even 
before  His  own  birth,  as  the  eternal  Son  of 
God.  The  Baptist  learnt  that  Christ  was 
God's  Son  by  a  special  revelation,  and  by  the 
voice  of  the  Father  at  Christ's  baptism :  see 
vv.  32-34. 

16-18.  The  preface  concluded.  The  'we' 
of  V.  16  shows  that  these  vv.  are  not  words  of 
the  Baptist,  but  that  they  express  the  spiritual 
experience  of  Christ's  disciples,  in  whose  name 
the  evangelist  speaks.  16.  Of  his  fulness] 
'  Fulness '  ( pleromd)  was  a  word  much  used 
(and  abused)  by  the  Gnostics  against  whom 
St.  John  contended.  Here  it  means,  (1)  the 
fulness  of  the  divine  attributes  which  dwelt 
in  Christ  (Ephl23  Colli9  29),  and  (2)  the 
fulness  of  the  human  virtues  which  He  dis- 
played. Both  these  '  fulnesses  '  Christ  im- 
parts in  some  measure  to  true  believers,  as 
the  evangelist  testifies  from  personal  expe- 
rience. Grace  for  grace]  i.e.  gi-ace  succeeding 
grace,  one   act   of   love  after  another,  ever 


775 


1.  17 


ST.  JOHN 


1.  26 


increasing  in  proportion  as  we  deserve  it  or 
require  it.  17.  Moses  set  before  us  mere 
commands,  without  changing  our  nature,  or 
giving  us  the  power  to  obey  them.  Jesus 
Christ  came  to  change  our  nature.  He  ofEers 
us  '  grace,'  whereby  we  are  born  again  as  chil- 
dren of  G-od,  and  become  heirs  of  everlasting 
life  ;  also  '  truth,'  i.e.  Christian  holiness,  which 
becomes  possible  to  those  who  abide  in  Christ: 
cp.  R0521.  By  Moses .  .  by  Jesus]  lit.  'through' 
Moses,  '  throvigh  '  Jesus. 

18.  God  the  Father  never  reveals  Himself 
to  men  directly,  but  always  by  and  through 
His  only-begotten  Son.  This  was  the  case 
even  before  the  Incarnation.  It  was  Grod  the 
Son  who  manifested  Himself  to  the  patriarchs, 
gave  the  Law  to  Moses,  inspired  the  prophets, 
and  enlightened  the  sages  of  the  Gentiles. 
But  now  by  His  Incarnation  He  has  revealed 
God  more  perfectly.  So  completely  does  '  the 
Word  made  flesh '  represent  the  invisible 
Father,  that  '  he  that  hath  seen  me  hath  seen 
the  Father  '  (149)  ;  cp.  b^~  6^'^  Ex 3.3 20  Col  1  is 
1  Tim  6 16  IJn  4 12, 20.  The  only  begotten  Son] 
Many  very  ancient  authorities  read,  '  (the)  only 
begotten  God,'  a  striking  statement  of  our 
Lord's  Deity.  In  the  bosom]  i.e.  in  eternal, 
intimate,  loving  union  with  the  Father  :  cp. 
the  expression  '  in  Abraham's  bosom '  (Lk 
16  22),  and  Jn  13  23.  This  v.  explains  how  it  is 
that  God  is  love,  not  only  since  the  creation, 
when  He  created  objects  for  His  love,  but 
from  eternity  :  cp.  1724. 

1 19-442.  Preliminary  ministry  of  our  Lord. 
All  the  events  recorded  by  St.  John  from  1 1^ 
to  4  42  (the  testimony  of  the  Baptist  ;  the  pre- 
liminary call  of  John,  Andrew,  Peter,  Philip, 
and  Nathanael  ;  the  marriage  at  Cana  ;  the 
visit  to  Capernaum  ;  the  first  cleansing  of  the 
Temple  ;  the  interview  with  Nicodemus  ;  the 
interview  with  the  Samaritan  woman)  may  be 
regarded  as  a  preliminary  ministry,  for  they 
took  place  before  the  Baptist  was  cast  into 
prison  (see  Mt4i2).  The  ministry  proper  be- 
gins with  the  imprisonment  of  the  Baptist, 
upon  news  of  which  Jesus  withdrew  into 
Galilee  (Mt4i2  Jn443,46). 

19-28.  Public  testimony  of  the  Baptist  to 
Jesus  in  reply  to  a  deputation  from  the  Sanhe- 
drin.  The  independence  and  fulness  of  the 
account  of  the  Baptist  in  this  Gospel  renders 
it  highly  probable  that  the  evangelist  had  once 
been  the  Baptist's  disciple.  He  knows,  for 
example,  the  exact  places  where  John  bap- 
tised (12S  323);  the  exact  day  and  even  hour 
when  certain  things  were  said  (129,35,39).  the 
contemporary  disputes  with  the  Jews  about 
purifying  (325);  the  relations,  not  always 
friendly,  between  the  disciples  of  John  and 
those  of  Christ  (3  26) ;  the  exact  time  when 
John  was  cast  into  prison  (324).  His  account 
of  the  Baptist's  testimony  agrees  with  that  of 


the  Synoptists,  but  he  adds  to  it  important 
particulars.  He  mentions,  for  instance,  that 
John  actually  saw  the  dove  descending  upon 
Jesus,  and  was  thus  enabled  to  recognise  Him 
(132),  that  he  applied  to  Him  the  titles  Lamb 
of  God  (129,30)  and  Son  of  God  (134  336)^  the 
latter  clearly  in  a  superhuman  sense,  for  he 
declares  His  preexistence  (115.30),  and  says 
that  to  believe  in  Him  is  to  have  eternal 
life  (336).  For  the  historical  diSiculties,  see 
on  these  passages  and  on  Mtll2.  The 
Synoptists  record  the  Baptist's  testimony 
before  our  Lord's  baptism,  and  St.  John  his 
testimony  afterwards,  when  the  descent  of  the 
Spirit  upon  Jesus,  and  the  voice  of  the  Father, 
had  convinced  the  Baptist  that  Jesus  was  truly 
the  Son  of  God. 

19.  The  Jews]  In  this  Gospel  '  the  Jews ' 
has  the  following  special  senses  :  (1)  the  in- 
habitants of  Judsea,  (2)  members  of  the 
Sanhedrin  (the  meaning  here),  and  (3)  the 
enemies  of  Jesus.  Sent]  One  function  of  the 
Sanhedrin  was  to  judge  false  prophets,  hence 
they  now  desired  to  judge  the  claims  of  John. 

Priests  and  Levites]  the  proper  parties  to 
enquire  into  a  new  religious  movement.  The 
priests  performed  the  services  of  the  Temple, 
offered  the  sacrifices,  and  burnt  the  incense. 
The  Levites  waited  upon  the  priests  in  their 
ministry,  and  discharged  subordinate  duties. 

20.  Not  the  Christ]  Some  already  believed 
that  he  was,  Lk3i5.  21.  Elias]  i.e.  Elijah, 
whose  personal  return  to  prepare  the  way  of 
the  Messiah  was  expected  by  many  (Mai  4  5 
Mk  6 15 ;  see  especially  on  Mt  1614  17  lO).  John 
denied  that  he  was  literally  Elijah,  though  his 
coming  fulfilled  Malachi's  prophecy  (Mt  1 1 14 
1712  Lkli7).  That  prophet]  RV  'the  pro- 
phet,' viz.  the  prophet  mentioned  Dtl8i5,  and 
regarded  by  the  deputation  not  as  the  Messiah, 
but  as  one  of  his  forerunners.  John,  however, 
regarded  the  prophet  of  Dtl8i5  as  actually 
the  Messiah  (cp.  Ac  3  22),  and  therefore  denied 
that  he  was  '  that  prophet.'  23.  The  words 
in  Isaiah  (Isa  40  3)  refer  to  the  preparation  for 
the  return  from  Babylon  of  the  exiled  Jews  : 
the  Baptist  applies  them  to  himself,  as 
descriptive  of  his  work  :  see  on  Mt  3  3. 

24.  And  they]  R V  '  and  they  had  been  sent 
from  the  Pharisees.'  25.  Why  baptizest  thou  ?] 
Baptism  was  ordinarily  administered  only  to 
proselytes.  The  meaning  of  the  challenge 
seems,  therefore,  to  be,  'What  right  hast  thou, 
who  art  neither  the  Messiah,  nor  his  forerunner 
"  that  Prophet,"  to  treat  Israelites  as  if  they 
were  proselytes  ? '  It  is  implied  that  the 
Messiah,  who  came  to  inaugurate  an  entirely 
new  covenant,  might  possibly  be  expected  to 
baptise  even  Jews.  26.  With  water]  John's 
baptism  was  outward,  symbolising  repentance 
and  remission  of  sin  :  Christ's  was  inward, 
conveying  the  gift  of  the  Spirit,  and  the  power 


776 


1.  28 


ST.  JOHN 


2.1 


to  lead  a  new  life.  28.  Bethabara]  lit, '  house 
of  passing  over,'  RV  '  Bethany,'  RM  '  Betha- 
barah,'  or  '  Betharabah  ';  probably  the  same  as 
the  Beth-barah  of  Jg724.  A  ford  on  the 
Jordan,  l^TE.  of  Bethshean,  is  still  called 
'  Abarah,'  lit.  '  passing  over.' 

29.  The  Lamb  of  God]  The  reference  is 
perhaps  not  to  the  Paschal  lamb,  but  to  the 
Suffering  Servant  of  Isa53,  who  is  'brought as 
a  lamb  to  the  slaughter,'  and  whose  death 
atones  for  sin.  Contrast  this  description  of 
the  Messiah  with  the  prevalent  idea  of  a  con- 
queror who  would  restore  the  kingdom  to 
Israel.  The  Jews  generally  regarded  the 
Messiah  not  as  '  the  Lamb  of  God,'  but  as  '  the 
Lion  of  the  tribe  of  Judah.'  The  sin  of  the 
world]  The  idea  of  atonement  for  the  sins  of 
larael  is  found  in  Isa53  :  the  further  idea  that 
the  Messiah  will  atone  for  the  sins  of  the 
world,  follows  naturally  from  the  numerous 
utterances  of  the  OT.  prophets  which  speak  of 
the  participation  of  the  G-entiles  in  the  Mes- 
sianic kingdom  (Ps87,  etc.). 

30.  See  V.  16.  31.  I  knew  him  not]  But 
in  MtS^*  he  seems  to  know  Him,  for  he  says, 
'  I  have  need  to  be  baptized  of  thee.'  The 
discrepancy,  however,  is  only  apparent.  John 
is  looking  for  the  promised^  sign.  Jesus  pre- 
sents Himself  for  Baptism.  His  majestic  ap- 
pearance strikes  John  with  awe.  Through 
prophetic  insight  (or  perhaps  as  the  result  of 
a  personal  interview  before  the  Baptism)  he 
surmises  that  He  is  the  true  Messiah  ('  I  have 
need,'  etc.).  The  sign  that  follows  makes  the 
surmise  a  certainty.  34.  The  Son  of  God] 
The  chief  difficulty  as  to  the  use  of  this  term 
by  the  Baptist  is  removed  by  the  statement 
that  he  first  learnt  that  Jesus  was  '  the  Son  of 
God '  at  the  Baptism.  In  the  OT.  it  was  a 
title  of  the  Davidic  king,  and  of  the  Messiah 
(2S714  Ps  89  27,  etc.),  and  did  not  necessarily 
imply  (though  see  Ps  2,  and  cp.  Ps  110) 
superhuman  dignity. 

35-51.  Preliminary  call  of  five  Apostles, 
Andrew,  John,  Peter,  Philip,  and  Bartholo- 
mew (peculiar  to  Jn).  This  account,  so  far 
from  conflicting  with  the  (later)  call  described 
Mt4i8  Mklis  (cp.  Lk5i),  really  removes  a 
difficulty,  for  it  shows  how  the  Apostles  came 
to  obey  the  final  call  to  follow  Jesus  so  readily. 
After  their  preliminary  call,  described  here,  the 
Apostles  loosely  attached  themselves  to  Jesus 
as  learners,  but  did  not  leave  their  homes  and 
occupations.  Afterwards  when  further  inter- 
course had  strengthened  their  hope  that  He 
was  really  the  Messiah,  they  left  all  and 
followed  Him. 

35.  Two]  One  was  Andrew,  the  other  (who 
characteristically  suppresses  his  name)  was 
John  himself  (see  v.  40).  The  Baptist  points 
out  Jesus,  thus  suggesting  that  henceforth 
they  should  be  His  disciples.     39.  The  tenth 


hour]  i.e.  by  Jewish  reckoning,  about  4  p.m. 
But  some  think  that  at  Ephesus,  where  this 
Gospel  was  written,  hours  were  numbered  as 
with  us,  in  which  case  the  time  would  be  10  A.M. 
(see  4«  191-1).  42.  Jona]  RV  'John';  see  Mt 
IGi".  Cephas]  At  the  very  first  interview  our 
Lord  reads  Peter's  character:   see  on  MtlGis. 

43.  It  would  appear  that  Jesus  Himself  was 
acquainted  with  Philip.  45.  Nathanael]  is 
probably  an  apostle,  and  is  hence  to  be  iden- 
tified with  Bartholomew,  whose  name  also 
appears  coupled  with  Philip's  in  MtlO^. 
'  Bartholomew  '  means  '  son  of  Tolmai '  :  cp. 
Barjona,  Barabbas,  Bartimseus,  Barjesus.  The 
son  of  Joseph]  This  does  not  indicate  the 
evangelist's  own  belief,  but  what  was  generally 
believed  at  this  time.  46.  Nazareth]  an  ob- 
scure place  not  even  mentioned  in  OT.,  which 
indicated  Bethlehem  as  the  birthplace  of  the 
Messiah  (MicS^).  47.  No  guile]  'guile'  or 
deceitfulness  was  the  special  failing  of  Jacob 
(Israel),  and  of  Israelites  generally.  Again 
our  Lord  discerns  the  heart  of  man.  48.  I 
saw  thee]  implies  supernatural  knowledge. 
Perhaps  Jesus  alludes  to  some  recent  prayer 
or  resolution  which  Nathanael  made  under  the 
figtree. 

49.  The  Son  of  God]  A  title  of  the  Mes- 
siah even  in  the  OT.  :  see  on  v.  34.  51.  See 
Gn28i2.  As  Jacob  saw  in  his  dream  a 
vision  of  angels  ascending  and  descending  the 
ladder,  so  the  disciples  would  see  in  Christ 
the  link  and  connexion  between  heaven  and 
earth.  Through  Christ  the  locked-up  heavens 
were  again  to  be  opened,  and  communion  be- 
tween heaven  and  earth  restored.  The  title 
'  Son  of  man  '  indicates  Christ  as  completely 
partaking  of  human  nature,  and  realising  its 
original  ideal  :  see  especially  the  full  note  on 
Mt820. 

CHAPTER  2 

The  Wedding  at  Cana.     The  Temple 

cleansed 
i-ii.  The  marriage  at  Cana.  This  miracle 
is  not  recorded  by  the  synoptists  because  it 
occurred  before  the  beginning  of  the  minis- 
try proper.  St.  John  records  it,  because, 
spiritually  interpreted,  it  forms  a  suitable 
introduction  to  our  Lord's  ministerial  work. 
It  teaches,  (1)  the  superiority  of  the  Gospel 
to  the  Law.  Christ  changes  the  water  of 
Judaism  into  the  good  wine  of  the  Gospel. 
This  is  not  a  fanciful  interpretation,  but  an 
entirely  natural  one,  if  it  be  granted  (as  is 
abundantly  shown  in  the  Intro.)  that  the 
ancients  were  right  in  regarding  this  Gospel  as 
a  '  spiritual '  or  allegorical  one.  (2)  Being  a 
physical  or  creative  miracle,  it  manifests  Christ 
as  the  Lord  of  matter  as  well  as  of  spirit. 
(3)  It  sanctifies  marriage,  and  gives  Christ's 
approval  to  innocent  mirth  and  gladness.    (4) 


777 


2.  1 


ST.  JOHN 


2.20 


It  reveals  Grod's  goodness  and  overwhelming 
bounty.  In  recording  it,  St.  John  doubtless 
had  in  view  the  Gnostic  false  teachers,  who 
regarded  matter  as  evil,  and  practised  a  rigid 
asceticism,  rejecting  all  bodily  pleasures,  and 
abstaining  from  flesh  and  wine,  and  even  from 
marriage.  Such  teaching  was  very  prevalent 
in  Ephesus,  where  this  Gospel  was  written 
(see  1  Tim  4 1-6),  and  tradition  tells  us  that  St. 
John  vehemently  opposed  it. 

I.  The  third  day]  It  was  a  three-days' 
journey  from  Jud^a  to  Galilee.  Cana]  now 
Kana-el-Jelil,  a  village  9  m.  NW.  of  Nazareth, 
called  '  of  Galilee  '  to  distinguish  it  from  Cana 
(Kanah)  in  Asher  (Joshl9-S).  3.  They  have 
no  wine]  The  deficiency  happened  towards  the 
close  of  the  festivities,  which  usually  lasted 
seven,  or  fourteen  days  (Jgl-i^s  Tob9i9).  It 
was  perhaps  caused  by  the  presence  of  so 
many  (five  or  six)  of  the  disciples  of  Jesus, 
and  hence  our  Lord  had  a  natural  motive  for 
working  the  miracle.  4.  Woman]  A  very 
gentle  rebuke,  but  still  a  rebuke.  Now  that 
His  ministry  has  actually  begun,  not  even  His 
mother  may  presume  to  suggest  or  control  His 
course  of  action  :  cp.  Mtl246  Lkll27.  'Wo- 
man,' or,  rather,  '  Lady,'  is  in  Greek  a  title  of 
respect,  used  even  in  addressing  queens. 

Mine  hour  (i.e.  for  putting  forth  My 
miraculous  power)  is  not  yet  come]  Yet  it 
came  a  few  minutes  later,  when  the  Father, 
by  an  inward  revelation,  had  manifested  His 
will  to  Jesus.  'Hour,'  in  the  sense  of  'ap- 
pointed time,'  is  common  in  this  Gospel 
(730  820  1223,27  131  17 1).  6.  Purifying] 
Washing  the  hands  before  dinner  (Lk  1 1 38)  is 
meant  :  cp.  Mk?^,  and  see  the  full  notes  on 
Mt;i5i-20. 

Firkins]   Gk.  metretes^  about  9  gallons. 

9.  Ruler]  an  honoured  guest,  who  presided 
at  the  entertainment.  10.  Well  drunk]  RV 
'  drunk  freely.'  The  expression  is  proverbial, 
and  need  not  be  literally  interpreted  of  the 
present  company. 

II.  Beginning  of  miracles]  lit.  'signs.' 
Clearly  Christ  wrought  no  miracles  in  His 
childhood,  as  the  Apocryphal  Gospels  assert. 
St.  John  calls  our  Lord's  miracles  '  signs,'  be- 
cause they  indicate  something  beyond  them- 
selves. They  are  no  mere  marvels,  but  reveal 
God's  character,  Christ's  divine  nature,  and 
the  mysteries  of  the  gospel  dispensation.  All 
the  miracles  in  this  Gospel  are  also  parables  : 
see  Intro.  Manifested]  To  '  manifest '  is  to 
display  something  which  before  was  hidden  ; 
here,  the  glory  of  His  Messiahship,  faith  in 
which,  already  begun  among  the  disciples  (1  -ii), 
was  confirmed  by  this  miracle. 

12.  Short  visit  to  Capernaum.  This  unim- 
portant event  seems  recorded  for  some  personal 
reason.  Perhaps  it  was  the  occasion  of  the 
first  visit  of   Jesus  to   the  evangelist's  own 


house.  Brethren]  These  are  variously  regarded 
as  sons  of  Joseph  by  a  former*  wife,  sons  of 
Joseph  and  Mary,  and  as  cousins  of  Jesus  : 
see  special  note  on  Mt  12*6-50. 

13-17.  First  Passover  and  First  Cleansing 
of  the  Temple.  For  a  full  commentary,  see 
on  Mt21i2  By  a  striking  sign  our  Lord  at 
the  very  outset  of  His  ministry  brought  His 
claims  before  the  whole  nation.  The  rulers  at 
once  took  up  an  attitude  of  hostility,  although 
a  few,  like  Nicodemus,  were  favourably  im- 
pressed. The  people,  upon  the  whole,  ap- 
proved our  Lord's  action.  Many  believed,  but 
their  faith,  based  on  miracles,  was  superficial, 
and  Jesus  would  not  trust  them.  The  dis- 
ciples were  confirmed  in  their  faith  by  seeing 
Jesus  fulfil  OT.  prophecies.  By  this  act  Jesus 
claimed  to  be,  not  merely  a  prophet,  but  the 
Messiah,  as  is  shown  by  the  expression  '  My 
Father's  house,'  which  asserts  His  right  to  the 
Messianic  title  '  the  Son  of  God.'  The  Jews 
considered  that  the  Temple  court  in  which  this 
sign  took  place  (the  Court  of  the  Gentiles)  was 
profane  ;  but  Jesus  by  cleansing  it  showed  that 
it  was  holy,  and  vindicated  for  the  Gentiles  a 
rightful  place  in  the  true  Temple  of  God. 

17.  The  zeal]  Cited  from  Ps  699.  This  Ps. 
is  elsewhere  quoted  as  Messianic,  Jn  1525  19  28 
Ac  1 20  E,o  11 9.10  153,  and  is  ascribed  to  David. 
The  Psalmist  complains  that  his  zeal  for  God's 
house  and  for  true  religion  has  brought  upon 
him  bitter  persecution  and  unnumbered  calami- 
ties.    This  was  also  the  case  with  our  Lord. 

18-22.  The  Jews  seek  a  sign.  First  pro- 
phecy of  the  Resurrection. 

19.  Destroy  this  temple  (or,  rather,  '  sanc- 
tuary ')]  These  words  made  a  deep  impression, 
and  were  quoted  against  Jesus,  in  a  maliciously 
altered  form,  at  His  trial  (Mt266i).  The 
evangelist  understood  them  (v.  21)  to  apply  to 
the  Resurrection,  and  this  interpretation  is 
confirmed  by  the  fact  that  our  Lord  on  other 
occasions  also  pointed  to  His  Resurrection  as 
a  sign  for  His  opponents  (Mtl239>40^  where 
consult  the  notes).  Many  critics,  however, 
think  that  our  Lord's  real  meaning  was,  '  When 
this  old  dispensation  of  the  Ceremonial  Law  is 
destroyed,  I  will  quickly  raise  up  in  its  place 
a  new  and  spiritual  religion.' 

20.  Three  temples  have  stood  on  Mt.  Moriah : 
(1)  Solomon's  Temple,  (2)  Zerubbabel's  Tem- 
ple, (3)  Herod's  Temple.  This  last,  however, 
some  regard  not  as  a  new  Temple,  but  as 
Zerubbabel's  Temple  repaired  and  enlarged. 
Herod  the  Great  began  to  build  it  20  B.C.,  and 
at  this  time,  apparently,  building  operations 
had  ceased.  They  were  soon  resumed,  how- 
ever, and  the  Temple  was  finally  completed 
by  Herod  Agrippa,  64  A.D.  Reckoning  from 
20  B.C.  the  date  of  our  Lord's  cleansing  of  the 
Temple  would  be  about  26  a.d.,  but  strict 
accm-acy  is  not  attainable. 


778 


1 


2.  23 


ST.  JOHN 


3.5 


23-25.  Many  believe  on  Jesus,  but  with 
imperfect  faith. 

23.  In  the  feast  dm/]  RV  '  during  the  feast,' 
which  lasted  a  week.  24.  Did  not  commit 
(RV  '  trust ')  himself  unto  them]  because  of 
their  carnal  conceptions  of  His  person  and 
work.  They  were  impressed  by  His  miracles, 
and  thought  that  He  would  prove  a  militant 
and  victorious  Messiah. 

CHAPTER  3 
The  New  Birth.     John's  Testimony  to 

Jesus 
1-15.  Conversation  with  Nicodemus.     The 

ministry  at  Jerusalem,  though  disappointing, 
was  not  fruitless.  Christ's  miracles  and  teach- 
ing had  made  an  impression,  not  only  on 
Nicodemus,  but  as  Nicodemus  himself  says 
(v.  2,  cp.  12*2),  on  other  members  of  the 
Sanhedrin.  This  interview  took  place  by  night, 
on  account  of  the  timidity  of  Nicodemus  (cp. 
7  50),  and  probably  in  St.  John's  house  at  Je- 
rusalem, the  evangelist  himself  being  present. 
Nicodemus  may  possibly  be  the  Nicodemus,  son 
of  Gorion,  mentioned  in  the  Talmud,  i.  A 
ruler]  i.e.  a  member  of  the  Sanhedrin. 

2,  3.  Nicodemus  had  asked  no  question,  but 
Jesus  knew  what  he  wished  to  ask,  viz.  '  If 
Thou  art  the  Messiah,  as  some  of  us  are 
inclined  to  believe,  tell  us  how  we  must  enter 
that  Kingdom  of  God,  which  Thou  hast  come 
to  establish,  and  of  which  Thou  hast  said  so 
much.'  Our  Lord  answers  that  a  new  birth, 
i.e.  a  new  heart  and  a  new  nature,  are  necessary, 
according  to'  the  testimony  of  the  OT.  pro- 
phets :  '  I  will  put  my  Law  in  their  inward  parts 
and  write  it  in  their  hearts'  (see  JerSl^i*- 
Ezk  37  26,  etc.).  As  evidence  of  the  '  new  birth,' 
our  Lord  would  require  ]ruminty,h.umh\e  trust 
in  God  for  salvation  through  Christ,  not  a 
vainglorious  boasting  in  descent  from  Abraham, 
or  in  the  punctilious  fulfilment  of  legal  cere- 
monies; also  rejjeyitance,  i.e.  sincere  abhorrence 
of  sin,  and  not  merely  of  ceremonial  defile- 
ment;  and,  lastly,  love,  and  that  not  only  of 
one's  friends,  but  also  of  one's  enemies ;  not 
only  of  the  righteous,  but  of  publicans  and 
sinners ;  not  only  of  the  Jew,  but  of  the 
Samaritan  and  the  Gentile — a  love,  moreover, 
manifesting  itself  not  in  word  only,  but  in  works 
of  mercy,  such  as  feeding  the  hungry,  clothing 
the  naked,  and  instructing  the  ignorant. 

4.  How  can  a  man]  Nicodemus  is  unwilling 
to  believe  that  he,  an  orthodox  and  pious  Jew, 
and  withal  a  ruler  and  a  Pharisee,  must  undergo 
so  radical  a  change,  before  he  can  enter  Christ's 
Kingdom.  He  therefore  affects  to  misunder- 
stand" Christ's  words  :  cp.  6^2. 

5.  Of  water  and  of  the  Spirit]  Our  Lord 
again  insists  that  a  new  birth  is  necessary,  and 
explains  that  it  must  be  an  inward  and  spiritual 
one.     It  must  not  be  only  of  '  water,'  i.e.  the 


reception  of  the  outward  rite  of  baptism  with- 
out proper  appreciation  of  what  membership 
of  Christ's  Kingdom  involves,  but  also  of  '  the 
Spirit,'  i.e.  Nicodemus  must  approach  Christ's 
baptism  with  such  sincerity  of  repentance  and 
faith,  and  such  earnest  resolution  to  live  up  to 
the  ideals  of  the  new  Kingdom,  that  in  his  case 
the  outward  rite  will  be  accompanied  by  an 
effusion  of  the  Spirit,  that  will  make  his  baptism 
a  real  '  new  birth  of  water  and  of  the  Spirit.' 
Baptism  is  again  spoken  of  as  a  '  new  birth  ' 
by  St.  Paul — '  according  to  his  mercy  he  saved 
us  by  (RV  '  through  ')  the  washing  (RM  '  laver,' 
i.e.  bath)  of  regeneration  (or  '  new  birth ')  and 
renewing  of  the  Holy  Ghost '  (Tit  3  5).  Christ's 
baptism  is  often  distinguished  from  John's,  as 
a  baptism  of  the  Spirit  (Mt3ii  Jnl33  Ac  15 
194,  etc.).  It  confers  (on  those  who  receive  it 
rightly)  spiritual  graces  which  could  not  be 
fully  given  until  Jesus  had  been  glorified 
(7  39).  We  learn  from  3  26  that  already  Jesus 
was  admitting  disciples  into  His  Kingdom  by 
the  rite  of  baptism,  and  this  explains  the 
allusion  to  '  water '  here. 

Jewish  and  Christian  Baptism 

(1)  The  phrase  'new  birth'  or  'regeneration' 
here  applied  by  our  Lord  to  Christian  baptism 
was  not  a  new  one.  The  rabbis  were  accus- 
tomed to  admit  proselytes  to  Judaism  by  three 
rites,  all  of  which  they  regarded  as  essential — 

(a)  baptism  (always  by  complete  immersion) 
in  the  presence  of  witnesses  who  answered  to 
the     Christian    '  sponsors  '    or    '  godparents  '  ; 

(b)  in  the  case  of  males,  circumcision ;  (c) 
sacrifice.  The  rabbis  frequently  spoke  of  this 
proselyte  baptism  as  a  '  regeneration,'  i.e.  a  new 
birth  from  heathenism,  in  which  the  proselytes 
had  been  under  the  dominion  of  Satan,  into  the 
family  of  God,  in  which  they  enjoyed  the  privi- 
leges of  the  covenant  of  Abraham.  Our 
Lord,  therefore,  might  fairly  expect  Nico- 
demus, a  rabbi  and  a  sanhedrist,  to  understand 
Him  when  He  spoke  of  His  own  baptism  as  a 
new  birth  from  the  ceremonies  and  shadows 
of  the  Law  to  the  spiritual  reality  and  power 
of  the  New  Dispensation. 

(2)  The  context  of  this  v.,  in  which  much 
more  is  said  about  '  spirit '  than  about  '  water,' 
warns  us  not  to  rely  unduly  upon  the  saving 
efficacy  of  baptism  regarded  as  a  merely  ex- 
ternal ordinance.  Baptism  is  not  a  chai'm 
like  the  purifications  of  the  heathen,  nor  a 
mere  symbol  of  purity  like  those  of  the  Jewish 
Law,  but  a  sacrament,  i.e.  a  moral  means  of 
gi-ace,  the  full  efficacy  and  effect  of  which 
depend  upon  the  response  in  the  soul  of 
the  baptised  person  to  the  covenanted  grace 
proffered  in  the  ordinance. 

(3)  No  argument  against  infant  baptism  can 
be  drawn  from  the  words  '  Except  a  man,'  etc. 
The    Greek   is  quite  indefinite,  '  Except  any 


779 


3.  6 


ST.  JOHN 


3.  24 


one.'  In  the  case  of  infants  the  conscious 
response  of  the  soul  to  the  proffered  grace  of 
the  ordinance  takes  place  when  the  age  of 
reason  is  reached.  On  infant  baptism,  see 
on  Mt  19 13-15. 

(4)  On  this  passage,  together  with  Mt28i9 
(cp.  Mk  16 1'^),  is  founded  the  prevailing  opinion 
that  baptism  ('  where  it  may  be  had ')  is  in- 
dispensably necessary  for  admission  into  the 
Christian  covenant. 

6.  The  nature  we  inherit  from  our  parents 
is  corrupt  ;  the  new  nature  which  comes  with 
the  new  birth  is  holy  and  spiritual.  8.  As 
none  can  trace  the  source  or  aim  of  the  wind, 
yet  all  can  hear  and  feel  it,  so  is  it  with  those 
who  have  experienced  the  new  birth.  There 
is  something  in  the  inner  life  not  to  be  ex- 
plained, but  which  reveals  itself  in  its  oper- 
ations, and  can  be  known  only  by  experience. 

10.  '  You  a  teacher  in  Israel,  and  this,  with- 
out which  all  religion  is  a  dead  thing,  not 
known  to  you  ! '  ii.  We]  Probably  St.  John 
and  a  few  other  disciples  were  present. 

12.  Earthly  things]  i.e.  religious  facts  and 
experiences  (e.g.  repentance,  faith,  the  new 
birth,  etc.),  which  happen  upon  this  earth,  and 
which  are,  therefore,  comparatively  easy  to 
apprehend.  Heavenly  things]  i.e.  the  hidden 
and  unfathomable  counsels  of  God  for  human 
salvation,  e.g.  the  Incarnation,  and  the  Atone- 
ment (vv.  13, 14, 15).  13.  Ascended]  This  word 
is  not  to  be  taken  quite  literally.  Our  Lord 
only  means  that  He  had  been  in  heaven  before 
His  Incarnation,  and  hence  could  speak  of 
heavenly  things  (i.e.  the  Father's  most  secret 
counsels)  from  personal  experience.  Which 
is  in  heaven]  Some  important  authorities  omit 
these  words,  which,  if  genuine,  affirm  that  our 
Lord  was  at  the  same  time  on  earth  and  in 
heaven,  in  a  state  of  humiliation,  and  in  a 
state  of  glory. 

14.  SeeNu21*5-9.  As  the  children  of  Israel, 
bitten  by  the  fiery  serpents,  were  cured  by 
looking  at  the  brazen  serpent,  so  sinners  may 
receive  remission  of  sins  and  eternal  life  by 
looking  with  faith  at  Jesus,  who  was  '  lifted 
up,'  first  upon  the  cross,  and  afterwards  into 
heaven:  cp.  828  1232,34.  15.  RV  'that  who- 
soever believeth  may  in  Him  have  eternal  life.' 

Eternal  life]  This  expression,  though  found 
in  the  other  Gospels  (Mtl9i6,  etc.)  and  in  the 
Pauline  Epistles  (Ro2'',  etc.),  is  specially 
characteristic  of  St.  John.  It  is  that  state  of 
blissful  communion  with  God,  which  is  enjoyed 
by  the  believer  who  is  reconciled  to  God 
through  faith  in  Christ.  The  NT.  generally 
speaks  of  it  as  a  future  possession,  but  St. 
John  often  regards  it  as  possessed  already 
to  some  extent  in  this  world.  '  Eternal,' lit. 
'  seonian,'  means  not  simply  '  endless,'  but 
'  belonging  to  the  world  to  come,'  and  so 
'  supernatural,'  '  spiritual,'  '  heavenly.' 


16-21.  are  probably  words  of  Jesus,  though 
some  regard  them  as  reflections  of  the  evangel- 
ist. They  state  the  broad  saving  truths  of 
the  gospel  in  direct  opposition  to  the  narrow 
Pharisaism  in  which  Nicodemus  had  been 
reared.  Whereas  the  Pharisees  confined  sal- 
vation to  a  single  race,  and  believed  that  the 
Messiah  would  judge  the  Gentiles  with  extreme 
severity,  om-  Lord  declares  that  God  has  sent 
His  Son  to  save  the  whole  world,  and  not  to 
judge  or  condemn  any  part  of  it.  '  Whosoever 
will,'  may  believe  and  be  saved. 

17.  Condemn]  lit.  'judge'  (RV),  but  the 
context  shows  that  an  unfavourable  judgment 
is  meant.  18.  Is  condemned  (lit.  'hath  been 
judged  ')  already]  God's  judgment  upon  men's 
actions  is  a  present  fact;  He  judges  men  here  and 
now.  The  publication  of  His  judgment,  how- 
ever, will  not  take  place  until  the  Last  Day. 

18.  The  name]  i.e.  (practically)  the  Person. 

19.  This  is  the  condemnation  (RV  '  judg- 
ment ')]  i.e.  the  condemnation  is  based  upon 
this,  that  the  Light  is  come  into  the  world, 
etc.  It  is  implied  that  men  whose  deeds  are 
really  good,  are  irresistibly  attracted  by  Christ's 
words  and  works,  so  that  they  become  be- 
lievers. 21.  To  'do  the  truth,'  means  to  live 
the  Christian  life,  for  Christian  truth  is  more 
than  a  belief,  it  is  a  way  of  life.  The  phrase 
is  peculiar  to  St.  John  :  cp.  1  Jn  1  6. 

22-36.  Jesus  leaves  Jerusalem  and  baptises  in 
the  country  districts  of  Judaea,  where  He  prob- 
ably spent  most  of  the  time  from  the  Passover, 
27  A.D.,  to  the  late  harvest  (December)  of  the 
same  year  :  see  on  435.  jjig  great  success 
rouses  the  jealousy  of  John's  disciples  (v.  26), 
but  the  Baptist,  so  far  from  regarding  Christ's 
disciples  as  too  many,  laments  that  they  are 
too  few  (v.  32),  and  again  testifies  his  belief 
in  Christ's  Messiahship.  22.  Baptized]  Our  Lord 
baptised  only  through  the  ministry  of  His  dis- 
ciples (4  2).  The  synoptists  represent  Christian 
baptism  as  not  ordained  till  after  the  Resur- 
rection (Mt  2819  Mk  16 1^)  ;  but  here  it  is  said  to 
have  been  practised  from  the  beginning  of  the 
ministry.  The  two  accounts  are  not  really 
inconsistent.  What  had  been  Ckrist's  practice 
during  His  ministry  was  raised  to  the  dignity 
of  a  perpetual  ordinance  after  the  Resur- 
rection. Some  regard  this  preliminary  baptism 
of  Christ  as  a  mere  baptism  of  repentance  like 
John's,  but  it  is  apparently  called  a  birth  '  of 
water  and  the  Spirit '  (3  5),  and  consequently 
must  have  been  specifically  Christian  baptism, 
although  doubtless  the  fulness  of  the  Spirit 
could  not  be  given  till  after  the  Ascension 
(7  39).  That  the  Spirit  could  be  given  in  some 
measure  before  the  Ascension,  20^2  is  evi- 
dence. 23.  yEnon]  lit.  '  full  of  springs,'  is 
generally  located  8  m.  S.  of  Scythopolis,  near 
Salim  (Salumias)  and  the  Jordan.  24.  This 
V.  corrects  the  impression  which  the  synoptic 


780 


^ 


3.  25 


ST.  JOHN 


4.  15 


narrative  produces,  that  John  was  imprisoned 
immediately  after  our  Lord's  baptism.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  the  two  ministries  overlapped 
by  several  months,  perhaps  by  a  whole  year. 

25.  The  Jews]  RV  '  a  Jew.'  Perhaps  the 
Jew  was  a  disciple  of  Jesus,  and  the  dispute 
was  about  the  comparative  cleansing  power 
of  John's  baptism  and  Christ's.  27.  *  Do  not 
wonder  at  the  success  of  Jesus.  No  man  can 
usurp  what  heaven  has  not  gi-anted  him.' 

29.  By  Jewish  custom  '  the  friend  of  the 
bridegroom  '  arranged  the  marriage  contract 
between  the  bridegroom  and  the  bride,  and 
presided  at  the  wedding  feast.  This  John  did 
for  Jesus,  by  preparing  the  Jewish  people  (the 
bride)  to  receive  our  Lord's  teaching. 

31-36.  Not,  as  some  think,  a  reflection  of 
the  evangelist,  but  a  continuation  of  the  testi- 
mony of  the  Baptist.  The  Baptist  places 
Christ  (he  that  cometh  from  above)  at  an  in- 
finite elevation  above  himself  (he  that  is  of  the 
earth)  (v.  31).  He  declares  that  Christ  came 
down  from  heaven,  and  so  can  testify  to  what 
He  has  seen  there  (v.  32).  He  alone  can  give 
the  Spirit  without  measure  (v.  34).  He  is 
God's  Son  ;  to  Him  all  power  is  committed  ; 
and  through  faith  in  Him  eternal  life  is 
offered.  To  disobey  Him  is  to  incur  God's 
wrath  (vv.  35,  36). 

31.  Christ's  teaching  is  as  superior  to  John's 
as  the  heavens  are  higher  than  the  earth. 

32.  No  man]  a  rhetorical  overstatement. 
John  deplores  that  the  number  of  Christ's 
followers,  though  great,  is  as  nothing  com- 
pared with  what  it  ought  to  be.  33.  That  God 
is  true  (lit. '  truthful')]  To  believe  the  Messiah 
is  to  believe  God,  for  the  Messiah  is  God's 
ambassador  and  interpreter  (see  the  next  v.). 

34.  For  God  (RY  '  he ')  giveth]  This  may 
either  mean  '  for  Christ  giveth  not  the  Spirit 
by  measure  (to  believers),'  or,  'for  God  giveth 
not  the  Spirit  by  measure  (to  Christ).' 

36.   Believeth  not]  RV  '  obeyeth  not.' 

CHAPTER  4 

The  Samaritan  Woman 
1-42.   Christ  in  Samaria.      The  ministry  in 
Samaria  is  recorded  because  it  is  the  author's 
design  to  exhibit  Christ  as  the  Saviour,  not 
only  of  Israel,  but  of  the  world  (442). 

The  Samaritans  were  mainly  an  alien  race, 
descended  from  the  colonists  planted  in  the  land 
by  the  Assyrians  (2K17  6,2-t,26,29  Ezr4i.9,i0). 
They  boasted,  however,  of  being  Israelites,  and 
with  some  degree  of  justification,  for  there  was 
probably  a  considerable  Jewish  element  in  the 
population.  Their  worship,  originally  a  com- 
promise with  heathenism,  was  now  purely 
Jewish.  They  kept  the  sabbath,  and  the 
Jewish  feasts,  and  observed  circumcision  and 
other  traditional  ordinances.  Of  the  OT.  they 
accepted  only  the  Pentateuch,  which  they  inter- 


preted as  commanding  the  erection  of  a  Temple 
on  Mt.  Gerizim.  That  Christ  should  have 
preached  in  Samaria  is  somewhat  surprising  in 
view  of  such  passages  as  MtlS^^  and  10^,  but 
it  must  be  remembered  that  He  did  not  enter 
Samaria  for  this  purpose,  but  simply  to  reach 
Galilee  (v.  3). 

I.  The  Pharisees  had  been  hostile  to  John's 
ministry  ;  they  were  likely  to  be  more  so  to  the 
more  successful  ministry  of  Jesus.  Our  Lord, 
therefore,  left  Judaea,  the  chief  centre  of 
Pharisaism,  to  avoid  a  rupture.  2.  Our  Lord 
did  not  baptise,  because  it  was  His  work  to  bap- 
tise with  the  Holy  Ghost  (1  ^3),  and  He  could  not 
do  this  (fully  at  least)  till  after  His  Ascension 
(see  on  35  322).  4.  Must  needs  go  through] 
Jesus  had  just  heard  that  Herod  Antipas  had 
cast  John  into  prison  (Mt4  ^2).  To  escape  this 
fate.  He  avoided  Persea,  the  seat  of  Herod's 
power,  and  passed  through  Samaria.  5.  Sychar] 
now  'Askar,  near  Shechem.  Jacob's  well  still 
retains  its  name.  The  parcel  of  ground,  etc.] 
This  is  a  Samaritan  tradition,  not  expressly 
authorised  by  the  OT.,  but  based  on  a  com- 
parison of  Gn33i9  with  Gn4822.  6.  Thus] 
i.e.  wearied  as  He  was.  For  Christ's  subjec- 
tion to  human  infirmity,  see  also  1135,38  1928^ 

The  sixth  hour]  i.e.  either  noon  or  6  p.m. 
The  number  of  events  wliich  happened  subse- 
quently seems  to  require  the  earlier  hour,  but 
see  on  139. 

8.  The  later  rabbis  declared  that  to  partake 
of  Samaritan  bread  was  like  eating  swine's  flesh, 
but  in  our  Lord's  time  Samaritan  food  was 
accounted  clean.  9.  The  Jew^s  have  no  deal- 
ings, etc.]  Some  ancient  authorities  omit  this 
statement,  which  must  be  taken  to  refer  only 
to  intimate  dealings.  Our  Lord  had  broken 
down  the  barrier  by  asking  a  favour.  He 
wished  to  encourage  her  to  ask  a  favour  of 
Him,  and  so  to  give  Him  an  opportunity  of 
leading  her  to  the  truth.  10.  The  gift  of  God] 
i.e.  all  the  blessings  offered  to  us  in  Christ, 
especially  the  gift  of  eternal  life  (see  vv.  13, 
14).  Living  water]  As  Christ  does  not  identify 
Himself  with  the  '  water,'  as  He  does  with  the 
'  bread'  in  c.  6,  the  'water'  must  be  '  the  grace 
and  truth'  of  which  He  is  full  (1 1*),  and  which 
are  communicated  to  believers  through  the 
Spirit  (7  39).  Both  the  thirst  and  the  hunger 
of  the  soul  (and  these  are  felt  even  by  such 
outcasts  as  the  Samaritan  woman)  are  satisfied 
by  Christ.  11.  The  woman  takes  'living 
water '  literally,  as  meaning  the  running  water 
of  a  spring  or  stream  as  distinguished  from 
the  stagnant  water  of  a  cistern  or  well  (Gn  26 19 
Lvl45,  etc.).  12.  In  spite  of  their  mainly 
heathen  origin,  the  Samaritans  claimed  Israel- 
itish  descent.  14.  Shall  never  thirst]  '  Every 
spiritual  desire  and  aspiration  of  the  soul  shall 
be  completely  satisfied,  and  for  ever,  for  the 
life    which    I    give    is    eternal.'      15.  These 


781 


4.  16 


ST.  JOHN 


4.  44 


mocking  words  show  that  the  woman  was  still 
unimpressed. 

1 6.  Finding  her  impervious  to  gentleness, 
our  Lord  uses  stronger  measures.  He  reveals 
Himself  to  her  as  a  prophet,  and  with  a  pro- 
phet's authority  reveals  and  rebukes  her  sin  : 
cp.  2S12.  i8.  Although  this  woman  had 
apparently  been  divorced  by  five  husbands  for 
unfaithfulness,  and  was  now  living  in  sin,  our 
Lord  did  not  deal  with  her  harshly.  For 
other  examples  of  His  considerate  treatment 
of  fallen  women,  see  S^^n  and  LkY^fi-iJO. 

20.  The  woman  is  ashamed,  and  seeks  to 
change  the  conversation.  Our  Lord  kindly 
permits  it,  knowing  that  the  words  He  has 
spoken  will  bear  fruit.  She  asks  Him,  since 
He  is  a  prophet,  to  pronounce  upon  the  main 
point  in  dispute  between  the  Jews  and  the 
Samaritans.  The  Samaritans  argued  from  Dt 
27  *  that  Gerizim  was  the  one  divinely  appointed 
place  of  sacrifice,  because  there  God  had  com- 
manded an  altar  to  be  raised  and  the  Law  in- 
scribed. The  Samaritan  text  reads  Gerizim 
in  this  passage  instead  of  Ebal. 

21-24.  Speaking  as  a  prophet,  our  Lord 
draws  a  sublime  picture  of  the  religion  of  the 
future.  All  that  is  transitory,  national,  local, 
and  ceremonial  about  the  religion  of  Jerusalem 
and  Gerizim  is  to  pass  away,  and  God  will 
accept  for  the  future  only  the  worship  of  the 
spirit  and  the  heart.  In  the  meantime,  how- 
ever, Jerusalem,  not  Gerizim,  is  the  true  centre 
of  worship,  there  Jehovah  has  placed  His 
name,  there  the  Redeemer  is  to  suffer,  and 
there  His  religion  is  to  be  first  established. 

22.  '  We  Jews  understand  the  nature  of  the 
God  we  worship  :  you  Samaritans  do  not. 
We  have  the  Psalmists  and  Prophets  to  teach 
us  the  meaning  of  spiritual  religion  :  you  re- 
ject all  but  the  ceremonial  Law  of  Moses. 
Moreover,  you  show  your  ignorance  of  God  by 
setting  up  an  unauthorised  worship  in  a  place 
which  He  has  not  chosen.'  Salvation  is  of  the 
Jews]  alluding  to  the  promises  to  Abraham 
(Gnl2),  and  to  David  (2S7ii-i3,i6  Pss893,4 
13211),  and  to  the  historic  fact  that  the  gospel 
was  to  be  preached  to  all  nations  '  beginning 
at  Jerusalem'  (Lk2447). 

23.  In  spirit]  i.e.  with  true  inward  reverence, 
as  distinguished  from  mere  outward  observ- 
ance. In  truth]  i.e.  with  true  holiness  of  life. 
'  Truth,'  in  St.  John,  is  not  only  correct  belief, 
but  also  practical  piety  :  see  on  3  21. 

24.  God  is  a  Spirit]  or,  rather,  '  God  is 
spirit '  (RM).  '  Spirit '  is  the  name,  in  the  NT., 
of  the  highest  and  most  god-like  faculties  of 
the  soul.  Our  Lord  means,  therefore,  that 
God  is  the  supreme  understanding,  knowledge, 
reason,  will,  love,  holiness,  etc.,  and  hence 
must  be  worshipped  with  the  corresponding 
faculties  of  the  human  soul,  which  is  also 
'spirit,'  as  made  in  His  image. 


782 


25,  Messias  cometh]  An  excuse  for  delay. 
There  is  no  need  (says  the  woman)  to  trouble 
about  a  more  spiritual  worship  until  that 
distant  day  when  the  Messiah  comes.  26.  The 
Samaritan  idea  of  the  Messiah  was  religious,  not 
political,  and  hence  Jesus  could  here  proclaim 
Himself  as  the  Messiah  without  causing  a 
political  ferment :  contrast  His  action  among 
the  Jews  (6  is  10  ^-t,  etc.). 

Our  Lord's  teaching  about  worship  in  spirit 
and  in  truth  (v.  24),  though  general  in  form, 
had  special  reference  to  the  woman's  needs. 
Her  religion  was  an  external  one  of  forms  and 
ceremonies,  and  this  accounted  for  her  evil 
life.  If  she  could  but  be  taught  that  religion 
is  the  attitude  of  the  heart  towards  God,  ail 
would  be  changed. 

27.  With  the  woman]  RV  '  with  a  woman.' 
In  His  high  estimate  of  womanhood  Jesus 
rose  far  above  the  ideas  of  His  time,  and 
taught  lessons  which  are  only  now  being 
learned  (see  on  Mt  1 18-25).  The  contemporary 
rabbis  refused  to  teach  religion  to  women, 
and  would  not  even  speak  to  a  woman  in  a 
public  place. 

34.  My  meat,  etc.]  Jesus  meant  that  in 
the  joy  of  seeking  to  save  a  sinful  soul  His 
fatigue  and  hunger  had  vanished,  and  He  no 
longer  needed  the  food  which  the  disciples  had 
brought.  35.  Four  months]  Harvest  began 
in  April,  so  the  date  would  be  December,  a.d. 
27.  The  ministry  in  Jerusalem  and  Judaea 
(213-43)  must  accordingly  have  lasted  eight 
months.  Lift  up]  At  this  moment  Jesus  sees 
the  Samaritans  coming  through  the  cornfields. 

They  are  white  already]  The  literal  harvest 
is  four  months  distant,  but  the  spiritual  har- 
vest of  the  souls  of  these  Samaritans  is  ripe, 
and  will  be  reaped  this  very  day. 

36,  37.  Christ  had  sowed  alone  in  con- 
verting the  Samaritan  woman,  but  the  Apostles 
would  share  in  reaping  the  harvest  of  Samari- 
tan converts  (cp.  Ac  8).  And  this  was  a  type 
of  the  future  conversion  of  the  world.  Christ 
would  sow  the  seed,  but  the  Apostles  would 
reap  the  harvest.  The  wages  are  simply  the 
unselfish  joy  of  saving  souls.  38.  Other  men] 
In  spite  of  the  plural  this  means  Christ  Him- 
self. 42.  The  Saviour  of  the  world]  They 
accepted  Him  as  the  world's  Saviour,  because 
they  had  experienced  His  saving  power  in 
their  own  case.  It  is  an  instance  of  the  argu- 
ment from  Christian  experience  :  see  1 29  3  le,  i7 

633  1247  lJn414. 

43-54.  Beginning  of  the  ministry  proper  in 
Galilee,  December,  27  a.d.  Healing  of  the 
nobleman's  son. 

44.  Our  Lord's  own  country  here  is  pro- 
bably Judsea,  where  He  was  born,  and  which 
the  ancient  prophecies  indicated  as  His  true 
home.  Others  suppose  that  it  is  Galilee,  and 
that   He   deliberately    went   there   to   suffer 


4.  46 


ST.  JOHN 


5.19 


dishonour  and  rejection.  In  Mt  13  ^7  our  Lord 
applies  the  same  proverb  to  Nazareth,  where 
He  was  brought  up. 

46-54.  This  miracle  cannot  be  the  same  as 
that  recorded  MtS^  Lk?^  ;  the  differences 
are  too  great.  We  have  here  a  king's  officer, 
there  a  centurion  ;  here  a  father  and  son,  there 
a  master  and  servant  ;  here  a  Jew  (see  v.  48), 
there  a  Gentile  ;  here  a  fever,  there  a  palsy  ; 
here  weak  faith  which  is  blamed  (v.  48),  there 
strong  faith  which  is  commended  ;  here  Jesus 
is  asked  to  come,  there  He  is  begged  not  to 
come  ;  here  He  does  not  go,  there  apparently 
He  does  ;  here  the  healing  words  are  spoken 
at  Cana,  there  at  Capernaum. 

46.  Nobleman]  The  word  means  '  one  of  the 
king's  officials.'  The  '  king '  is  Herod  Antipas, 
who  was.  strictly  speaking,  only  a  tetrarch,  but 
was  called  king  by  courtesy. 

48.  Except  ye  see  signs]  Not  too  much 
must  be  made  of  this  rebuke.  Our  Lord  was 
trying  his  faith,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Canaan- 
itish  woman  (Mk  7  27).  It  answered  the  test, 
and  was  rewarded  by  the  healing  of  his  son. 
For  '  signs  and  wonders,'  see  on  Mtl23Sf- 

54.  Translate, '  This  again  as  a  second  sign 
did  Jesus,  after  He  had  come  out  of  Judaea 
into  Gralilee.'  It  thus  clearly  preceded  all  the 
Galilean  miracles  recorded  by  the  synoptists. 

The  evangelist  probably  records  this  miracle 
to  show  that  the  effects  of  faith  may  extend 
.beyond  the  person  who  exercises  it  ;  perhaps 
also  to  show  that  our  Lord's  power  to  heal 
could  be  exercised  at  a  distance. 

CHAPTER  5 
Bethesda.  Christ  and  the  Sabbath 
1-47.  A  miracle  at  the  Pool  of  Bethesda  on 
the  Sabbath  Day,  and  a  controversy  arising 
therefrom.  This  miracle  may  be  regarded  as 
a  parable  illustrating  the  deadly  effects  of  sin, 
and  the  power  of  the  Saviour  to  deal  with  the 
most  hopeless  cases.  This  poor  man  in  his 
youth  had  shattered  his  nervous  system  by  a 
life  of  sensual  indulgence  (v.  14),  and  had  lain 
for  thirty-eight  years  a  hopeless  paralytic 
(v.  5).  This  being  an  extreme  case,  the  usual 
order  of  Christ's  miracles  is  reversed.  In- 
stead of  being  wrougHt  as  a  reward  of  faith 
(see  v.  13),  the  miracle  is  wrought  to  produce 
faith.  The  man  was  too  much  broken  down 
in  mind  and  body  to  believe,  until  some  signal 
mercy  had  been  vouchsafed  to  him.  The 
mercy  was  vouchsafed,  and  repentance  and 
faith  followed  (v.  14). 

This  visit  to  Jerusalem  took  place  in  March, 
28  A.D.,  consequently  the  Galilean  ministry 
mentioned  4^4  lasted  three  or  four  months. 
Among  its  most  notable  incidents  were  the 
appointment  of  the  Twelve  and  the  Sermon 
on  the  Mount.  Desiring  to  visit  Jerusalem 
without  interrupting  the  Galilean  work,  our 


Lord  sent  the  apostles  on  a  preaching  tour 
through  the  country  (Mk67),  and  then  went 
up  to  the  capital,  either  alone,  or  more  prob- 
ably accompanied  by  St.  John,  who  acted  as 
His  host.  Having  stayed  there  about  a  week, 
He  rejoined  the  Twelve  in  Galilee,  shortly 
before  the  Passover,  28  a.d.  (Mk630  ;  cp. 
Jn64). 

I.  A  feast]  i.e.  the  Feast  of  Purim,  which 
occurs  in  March  (Adar  14,  15),  about  a  month 
before  the  Passover.  Its  origin  is  doubtful, 
though  the  Jews  commemorated  in  it  the 
triumph  over  Haman,  who  proposed  to  ex- 
terminate the  Jews  in  the  Persian  empire  on 
a  particular  day  (13th  Adar,  473  B.C.),  chosen 
by  lot  (/mr,  Esth3'i').  The  feast  was  mainly 
of  a  convivial  and  charitable  character,  but  in 
the  synagogues  the  book  of  Esther  was  read, 
and  the  congregation  applauded  the  name  of 
Mordecai,  and  cursed  that  of  Haman.  (An 
inferior  but  strongly  supported  reading  here 
is  '  the  feast,'  which  would  probably  mean  the 
Passover.  Those  who  adopt  it  are  compelled 
to  add  a  whole  year  to  Christ's  ministry.) 

2.   Sheep   marhef']    RV   '  sheep   gate  '  :    cp. 
Neh3i  12^9.     Bethesda]  i.e.  '  house  of  mercy,' 
or,  possibly,  'house  of  the  stream,'  is  perhaps 
the    Virgin's  pool,  SE.  of  the    Temple,    the 
only  natural  spring  in  Jerusalem.     It  is    an 
intermittent  spring,  and  when  '  the  troubling 
of  the  waters '  occurs,  the  Jews  still  bathe  in 
it  for  medicinal  purposes.     Variant  spellings 
are  '  Bethzatha  '  and  '  Bethsaida.'      3,  4.   The 
best  authorities  omit  the  words  waiting  for .  . 
■whatsoever   disease   he  had,    which    describe 
the  troubling  of  the  water  by  an  angel.     The 
troubling  of  the  waters  was  a  natural  phe- 
nomenon, which  popular  superstition  ascribed 
to    supernatural    agency.      8.  Thy   bed]    i.e. 
mat.     10..  The  man's  act  was  not  unlawful, 
even  from  the  OT.  standpoint.      Jerl72i  and 
Nehl3i9  only  forbid  the  bearing  of  burdens 
on  the  sabbath  in  connexion  with  labour  and 
trade.     15.  And  told  the  Jews]  doubtless  to 
win  honour  for  Jesus  as  a  prophet  and  worker 
of  miracles. 

17.  RV  '  My  Father  worketh  even  unto 
now,  and  I  work.'  (1)  These  words  enunciate  a 
new  ideal  of  the  sabbath.  The  '  rest '  of  God 
after  the  creation,  which  the  sabbath  typifies, 
is  not  mere  inertia,  but  activity  in  doing  good. 
So  man's  true  sabbath  rest  is  not  inactivity, 
but  leisure  for  work  of  a  higher  character,  e.g. 
the  worship  of  God,  and  works  of  mercy.  (2) 
The  words  also  imply  our  Lord's  Deity,  for 
(rt)  He  claims  that  God  is  His  Father  in  a 
unique  sense  ('  My  Father,'  not '  our  Father  '), 
and  (J))  He  coordinates  His  own  work  with 
God's. 

19-29.  An  important  doctrinal  section.  Our 
Lord,  while  affirming  His  filial  subordination 
to  the  Father  ('  the  Son  can  do  nothing  of 


783 


5.  20 


ST.  JOHN 


Himself,'  v.  19),  and  the  derivation  of  His 
own  Being  from  His  (v.  26)  ;  yet  declares  that 
He  exercises  the  Father's  whole  power  and 
authority  (v.  20)  ;— the  power  to  quicken 
those  dead  in  sins  (v.  25),  the  power  to  raise 
men  from  literal  death  at  the  Last  Day  (v.  28), 
and  the  power  to  judge  the  world  (v.  22).  He 
accordingly  demands  'that  all  men  should 
honour  the  Son,  even  as  they  honour  the 
Father.' 

20.  Loveth  the  Son]  Hence  God  is  love 
(lJn48)  from  eternity.  Greater  works]  some- 
thing greater  than  miracles,  the  giving  of  new 
life  to  those  dead  in  sins  (see  vv.  21,  24,  25). 

21.  This  V.  speaks  both  of  spiritual  and 
literal  death.     24.   Heareth]  and  obeyeth. 

25.  The  dead]  i.e.  the  spiritually  dead. 
They  are  raised  from  the  death  of  trespasses 
and  sins  to  a  new  life  by  the  preaching  of  the 
gospel.  26.  The  Father  is  the  fountain  of 
life  even  within  the  Godhead.  From  Him 
the  Son  is  begotten,  and  the  Spirit  proceeds. 

27,  Because  he  is  the  Son  of  man]  rather, 
'  because  He  is  /ho?/,'  lit.  '  a  son  of  man.'  As 
man  He  can  sympathise  with  the  nature  which 
he  shares:  cp.  Heb4i5.  28.  The  literal 
resurrection  at  the  last  day  is  meant. 

29.  Damnation]  i.e.  condemnation,  lit. 
'  judgment.' 

30-36.  Our  Lord  mentions  four '  witnesses' 
through  which  men  may  be  brought  to  believe 
in  Him  :  (1)  the  witness  of  the  Baptist,  good, 
but  insufficient  ;  (2)  the  witness  of  the  Father, 
which  Christ's  hearers  are  not  willing  to  re- 
ceive ;  (3)  the  witness  of  Moses  and  the 
prophets,  which  they  also  reject  ;  and  (4)  the 
witness  of  Christ's  own  '  works,'  the  character 
of  which  is  sufficient  evidence  that  the  Father 
has  sent  Him. 

30.  As   I   hear]  viz.  from  the  Father. 

31.  Christ's  witness  to  Himself  could  not  be 
received  according  to  the  principles  of  Jewish 
law:  see  8i3,  and  cp.  NuSo^o  Dtl76. 


6.  14 


nises  and  welcomes  the  divine  in  Christ  :  cp. 
321.  38.  His  word]  is  not  here  the  Scripture, 
but  the  Divine  Voice  speaking  through  the 
conscience  and  spiritual  nature  of  man. 

39.   Search]  rather,  '  Ye  search  '  (RV). 

43.  If  another]  '  A  false  Messiah,  adapting 
his  views  to  your  carnal  ideas,  you  will  receive.' 
Our  Lord's  words  were  literally  fulfilled  a 
century  later,  when  the  bulk  of  the  nation 
accepted  the  claims  of  the  impostor  Bar- 
cochba.  46.  He  wrote  of  me]  in  type  and 
figure  as  well  as  in  direct  prophecy. 

CHAPTER   6 
The  Bread  of  Life 

6 1-7 1.  Feeding  the  five  thousand.  Walking 
upon  the  sea.  Discourse  upon  the  bread  of 
life.  Defection  of  many  disciples.  The 
Apostles  stand   firm. 

Returning  from  Jerusalem,  our  Lord  met 
the  Apostles  somewhere  on  the  "W.  of  the  lake 
(perhaps    at    Capernaum),    and    heard    their 
report   of   their   mission   (Lk9iO).     He  then 
spent  about  a  fortnight  preaching  and  healing 
the  sick  (6  2),  and  afterwards,  seeking  retire- 
ment, sailed  with  them  to  a  desert  place  on  the 
NE.  coast  belonging  to  a  city  called  Bethsaida 
(Mk632  Lk9i0;  cp.  Jn6i).     The  multitudes 
followed  on  foot,  and  Jesus  took  compassion 
on  them  and  fed  them  (62f.).      The  time  was 
]ust  before  the   Passover,   28   a.d.  (6 4),  and 
immediately  after  the  death  of   the  Baptist 
(Mtl4i3).     For  a   full    commentary    on    this 
mu-acle,  which  alone  is  recorded   by  all  the 
evangelists  (Mtl4i5  Mk635   Lk9i2)    gee    on 
Mtl4i5.  ^' 

I.  Tiberias]  a  Gentile  city  on  the  lake, 
built  by  Herod  Antipas  during  our  Lord's 
lifetime,  and  named  after  the  emperor 
Tiberius.    3.  A  mountain]  RV '  the  mountain.' 

4.  The  passover]  the  second  of  the  ministry. 
The  nearness  of  the  Passover  accounts  for  the 
crowds  seen  approaching  (v, 


iZ.  Another]  i.e.'the  Father,  not  the  Baptist.     Sin^^nrioi^rnp'to"  jiulalem  tj  k7e„T: 


timony,  for  he,  though  a  prophet,  was  but  a  man. 
Nevertheless,  since  7/mt  attach  importance  to 
it,  I  will  use  it,  for  I  wish,  in  whatever  way, 
to  bring  you  to  believe  in  Me,  and  so  to  be 
saved.'  35.  '  John  is  only  a  lamp  or  lantern, 
shining  feebly  by  borrowed  light  ;  I  am  the 
True  Light  which  he  feebly  reflects.'  Ye  were 
willing]  John's  ministry  was  plainly  past. 

36.  The  works]  include  the  miracles,  but 
should  not  be  confined  to  them.  The  gracious 
character,  and  redemptive  purpose  of  Christ's 
acts,  prove  that  they  come  from  God. 

37.  The  witness  of  the  Father  is  given  (1) 
in  the  OT.  Scriptures,  (2)  in  the  response  of 
all  that  is  good  in  the  heart  of  man  to  the 
teaching  of  Christ.  The  divine  element  in 
man,  which  the  Father  planted  there,  recog- 


784 


^   — ^^^v  go  up 

to  Jerusalem  for  this  feast,  as  there  were  plots 
against  His  life  (71). 

10.    Make  the  men]  RV  '  the  people.' 
So   the   men]    i.e.    ttie    males.      11.  Given 
thanks]    The    other    Gospels    say,    'blessed.' 
The  usual  benediction  was,  'Blessed  art  Thou 
Jehovah  our  God,  King  of  the  world,  who 
causest  bread  to  come  forth  from  the  earth.' 

14,  15.  This  miracle  marks  a  crisis  in 
our  Lord's  ministry.  His  popularity  was  at 
its  height.  The  people  were  convinced  that 
He  was  the  Messiah.  They  demanded  that 
He  should  be  crowned  king  of  Israel,  and 
should  lead  them  against  their  enemies.  By 
rejecting  their  overtures,  and  by  showing,  in 
His  subsequent  address  at  Capernaum,  that  His 
aims  were  of  an  entirely  different  character 


I 


6.  16 


ST.  JOHN 


6.  26 


He  forfeited  His  popularity,  and  never  re- 
gained it  (see  G  <'''). 

Although  this  miracle  had  been  recorded  by 
the  three  synoptists,  St.  John  (contrary  to 
his  usual  practice)  relates  it  again,  because 
it  forms  a  suitable  introduction  to  the 
important  discourse  upon  the  bread  of  life 
which  follows  (vv.  26  f.),  and  which,  in  St. 
John's  view,  is  an  unfolding  of  its  symbolical 
meaning.  '  The  miracle  illustrates  the  mode 
of  Christ's  working  in  all  ages  ;  both  in 
temporal  and  in  spiritual  things,  the  spirit 
that  proceeds  from  Him  makes  the  greatest 
results  possible  to  the  smallest  means  ;  that 
which  appears,  as  to  quantity,  most  trifling, 
multiplies  itself,  by  His  divine  power,  so  as  to 
supply  the  wants  of  thousands.  The  physical 
miracle  is  for  us  a  type  of  the  spiritual  one 
which  the  power  of  His  words  works  in  the 
life  of  mankind  in  all  time  '  (Neander). 

1 6-2 1.  The  miracle  of  walking  on  the  sea 
is  recorded  also  by  Mt  (1422)  and  Mk  (6^5)  : 
see  on  Mt.  St.  John  records  it,  perhaps 
because  of  its  close  connexion  with  the  miracle 
of  feeding  ;  more  probably  because  of  the 
mystical  signification  which  he  discerns  in  it, 
for  which  see  on  Mt. 

1 8,  19.  The  disciples  were  not  to  cross  the 
lake,  but  to  coast  along  it,  and  to  take  Jesus 
on  board  at  an  appointed  place  (see  v.  17). 
A  violent  wind  blew  them  out  into  the  middle 
of  the  lake,  so  that  Jesus  was  obliged  to  walk 
upon  the  water  to  reach  them. 

22-25.  The  multitudes  which  had  been  fed 
remained  on  the  spot  all  night.  In  the  morn- 
ing they  were  surprised  to  find  Jesus  gone. 
They  knew  that  He  had  not  embarked  with 
the  disciples,  who  had  taken  away  the  only 
boat.  How  then  had  He  departed  ?  Soon  a 
fleet  of  boats  arrived  (perhaps  to  sell  pro- 
visions), and  they  made  use  of  these  to  cross 
the  lake  in  search  of  Jesus. 

26-59.  Discourse  on  the  Bread  of  Life. 
As  in  c.  4  Jesus  is  the  giver  of  '  living  water,' 
so  here  He  is  the  '  living  bread '  or  '  manna  ' 
of  the  soul.  Such  language  had  been  to  some 
extent  prepared  for  by  OT.  references  to 
the  spiritual  feast  to  which  '  Wisdom  '  invites 
her  children,  '  Come  eat  ye  of  my  bread,  and 
drink  of  the  wine  which  I  have  mingled ' 
(Prov  9  5,  etc.)  ;  and  by  the  current  view  that 
the  '  manna '  of  the  OT.  is  to  be  spiritually 
interpreted  (Philo  identifies  it  with  the  '  Logos ' 
or  '  Word  '  of  God  ;  St.  Paul  calls  it  '  spiritual 
meat,'  1  Cor  10^  ;  the  Psalmist  calls  it  '  angels' 
food,'  Ps  78  25).  There  are  also  OT.  references 
to  the  banquet  of  the  Messiah  (Isa25*"',  etc.), 
which  are  frequently  echoed  in  the  NT. 
(MtSii  22  2  f.  2510  2629  Lkl4i5  Eevl99). 
But  such  passages  do  not  lead  up  to,  or  explain 
our  Lord's  language  about  eating  His  flesh, 
and  drinking  His  blood.     The  nearest  parallel 


to  this  is  the  Passover.  Our  Lord's  hearers 
were  about  to  go  up  to  Jerusalem  to  eat  the 
Passover  (6*).  Some  of  them,  perhaps, 
had  heard  the  Baptist  call  Him  '  the  Lamb  of 
God  that  taketh  away  the  sin  of  the  world  ' 
(1 29. 36).  Om-  Lord,  accordingly,  set  before  them 
His  Person  as  the  sacred  reality  of  which  the 
Passover  lamb  was  a  type.  As  the  blood  of 
the  Paschal  lamb  had  protected  the  Israelites 
of  old  from  the  sword  of  the  destroying  angel, 
so  the  death  of  the  Lamb  of  God  would  give 
spiritual  life  to  the  whole  world  (v.  51).  As 
in  the  Paschal  meal  the  Israelites  ate  the 
flesh  of  a  literal  lamb,  so  in  the  feast  which 
He  came  to  prepare,  they  would  spiritually 
eat  the  flesh  and  drink  the  blood  of  the  True 
Lamb.  By  the  '  flesh '  of  Christ  is  to  be 
understood  His  human  nature  (see  l^"*),  and 
by  His  blood,  His  atoning  blood,  shed  for  the 
sins  of  the  world.  There  is  reference,  there- 
fore, both  to  the  Incarnation,  and  to  the 
Atonement.  The  eating  and  drinking  of 
Christ's  flesh  and  blood  is  spiritual  (6*^3)^  and 
can  only  take  place  through  the  medium  of 
faith  (vv.  35,  40,  47).  It  is  not,  however, 
identical  with  faith,  but  rather  is  the  reward 
of  faith.  Those  who  have  lively  faith  in 
Christ  as  the  Son  of  God  and  the  Redeemer  of 
the  world,  are  so  incorporated  with  Him,  that 
they  dwell  in  Him  and  He  in  them  (v.  56)  ; 
He  is  in  them  a  principle  of  spiritual  life 
(v.  57),  and  of  resurrection  (v.  54)  ;  and  He 
strengthens  and  refreshes  their  souls,  so  that 
they  neither  hunger  nor  thirst  (vv.  35,  55), 
until  they  attain  everlasting  life  (vv.  50,  51, 
54,  58).  This  vital  union  between  Christ  and 
the  believer  is  elsewhere  illustrated  by  the 
parable  of  the  True  Vine  (15  ^'Oi  ^^^  by  St. 
Paul's  metaphor  of  the  body  and  the  members 
(lCorl2i2f.). 

This  discourse  is  regarded  by  nearly  all 
commentators  as  intended  to  prepare  the  way 
for  the  institution  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  by 
explaining  the  fundamental  idea  and  principle 
of  that  holy  rite,  viz.  the  union  of  the  believer 
with  Christ's  human  nature  through  faith. 
The  Supper  was  ordained  (see  on  Mt  26  26-30) 
as  the  ordinary  and  covenanted  means  of 
feeding  upon  Christ — of  '  eating  his  flesh  and 
drinking  his  blood,'  i.e.  of  appropriating 
spiritually  and  by  faith  His  glorified  humanity 
and  sharing  in  the  benefits  of  His  passion. 
This,  the  original  apostolic  doctrine,  which 
guarded  both  the  reality  of  the  reception  by 
the  believing  soul  of  Christ's  true  humanity, 
in  this  ordinance,  and  also  the  absolute  need 
of  a  lively  faith  if  .this  blessed  result  was  to  be 
achieved,  was  endangered  in  St.  John's  time 
by  two  opposite  tendencies,  that  of  Gnosticism, 
which,  while  confessing  Christ's  Godhead, 
denied  His  Incarnation  and  Atonement,  and 
that  of  a  false  ecclesiasticism,  which,  while 


50 


785 


6.  27 


ST.  JOHN 


6.  63 


confessing  both,  imagined  that  union  with  the 
Incarnate  Redeemer  could  be  attained  mechani- 
cally through  the  sacraments,  without  a  living 
faith.  As  against  the  former  the  evangelist 
emphasises  the  reality  of  Christ's  '  flesh,'  or 
human  nature,  and  of  His  '  blood  '  or  atoning 
sacrifice  ;  and  as  against  the  latter  the  need  of 
a  living  faith,  as  the  only  means  through 
which  Christ's  flesh  and  blood  can  be  savingly 
appropriated,  and  become  the  food  of  the 
soul.  The  '  flesh  '  of  Christ,  which  is  received 
by  faith,  is,  of  course,  His  glorified  humanity, 
as  it  now  is  at  the  right  hand  of  God,  and  as 
it  is  communicated  to  believers  through  the 
Spirit  (vv.  62,  63).  At  the  institution  of  the 
Supper,  however,  our  Lord  spoke  not  of  His 
'  flesh,'  but  of  His  '  body,'  and  for  this  there 
was  a  reason.  Both  words  denote  Christ's 
human  nature,  but  whereas  to  eat  Christ's 
'  flesh '  indicates  only  the  union  of  the  indi- 
vidual believer  with  his  Saviour,  to  eat  Christ's 
'  body '  indicates  also  his  union  with  other 
believers,  a  fundamental  idea  of  the  sacra- 
ment of  love,  which  was  intended  to  be  the 
centre  of  Christian  unity  (1  Cor  lO^'^,  17). 

27.  '  Do  not  earnestly  strive  to  obtain  food 
and  raiment  and  luxuries  for  your  bodies,  but 
spiritual  food  for  your  souls.  I  am  indeed 
the  Messiah,  but  the  Messiah's  work  is  not  to 
give  temporal  prosperity  as  you  imagine,  but 
everlasting  life.'  Sealed]  '  By  this  miracle  God 
the  Father  has  ''  sealed "  (i.e.  publicly  pro- 
claimed) Me,  not  as  the  giver  of  temporal 
prosperity,  as  you  carnally  suppose,  but  as  the 
giver  of  immortality.'  28.  The  works  of  God] 
i.e.  works  well-pleasing  to  God.  29.  For  the 
plural  'works,'  i.e.  a  multitude  of  supposed 
meritorious  acts,  Jesus  substitutes  one  single 
work,  faith  in  Himself.  Faith  in  Jesus  is 
called  a  '  work,'  because  it  is  a  definite  act  of 
the  will.  It  is  the  one  work  required,  because 
it  is  the  solemn  dedication  of  the  whole  life  to 
God,  and  virtually  includes  in  itself  all  other 
works,  and  renders  them  acceptable. 

30,  31.  Jesus  having  practically  (in  v.  29) 
claimed  to  be  the  Messiah,  the  people  now 
require  Him  to  repeat  Moses'  miracle  of  the 
manna.  This  was  regarded  as  the  greatest  of 
the  OT.  miracles,  and  it  was  expected  that  the 
Messiah  would  repeat  it. 

32.  Moses'  manna,  though  it  came  from 
heaven,  was  not  heavenly  bread,  and  could  not 
sustain  spiritual  life.  33.  He  which  cometh] 
RV  'that  which  cometh.'  35.  What  bread 
and  water  are  to  the  body,  that  Christ  is  to 
the  soul.  Every  aspiration  after  God  and 
holiness  He  is  able  to  satisfy.  36.  The  idea 
is  contained  in  v.  26,  but  perhaps  Christ  is 
referring  to  some  unrecorded  words.  37.  Those 
whom  the  Father  '  gives '  to  Christ,  are  those 
who  actually  come.  The  Father  desires  the 
salvation  of  every  man,  and  draws  all  men  to 


Christ  (3 16  12^2),  but  some  refuse  to  come 
(S'lO).  The  Father  foresees  what  men  will 
come,  and,  as  a  result  of  His  foreknowledge, 
'  gives  '  them  to  Christ. 

39.  Raise  it  up]  Jesus  shows  that  He  has 
come  to  abolish  not  natural,  but  spiritual 
death.  Believers  will  die,  but  their  death  will 
be  followed  by  a  glorious  resurrection.  Here, 
as  usually  in  the  NT.,  '  resurrection  '  means  the 
resurrection  of  the  righteous,  not  also  of  the 
wicked.  42.  The  Jews  argue  that  since  Jesus 
has  a  human  parentage,  He  cannot  have  existed 
before  His  birth,  and  so  have  come  down  from 
heaven.     Joseph]   see  1*^. 

44.  '  Your  murmuring  and  unbelief  are  caused 
by  your  resistance  to  the  "drawing"  of  the 
Father,  who  bids  you  believe  on  Me.  You 
have  hardened  your  heart,  and  closed  your 
ears  to  His  teaching,  so  that  now  you  cannot 
believe.'  45.  A  free  quotation  from  Isa54i3  ; 
cp.  also  Joel  228^.  46.  Only  our  Lord  is 
'  taught  of  God  '  in  the  fullest  sense.  48.  '  I 
am  the  reality  typified  by  the  manna.' 

51.  Which  I  will  give]  an  allusion  to  our 
Lord's  atoning  death,  as  is  made  evident  by 
the  mention  of  His  blood  in  v.  53.  The  world] 
Salvation  is  offered  to  all  mankind.  53.  Eating 
and  drinking  Christ's  flesh  and  blood  is  not  the 
same  thing  as  faith,  though  faith  is  the  means 
of  it.  It  is  an  actual  and  vital  union  with 
Christ's  human  nature,  whereby  the  believer 
dwells  in  Christ  and  Christ  in  him,  and  all 
the  benefits  of  Christ's  passion  are  communi- 
cated to  him  :  see  above.  55.  Meat  indeed] 
lit.  '  true  meat  .  .  true  drink,'  i.e.  true  nourish- 
ment for  the  soul.  57.  The  life-imparting 
union  between  the  Father  and  the  Son,  is  a 
figure  of  the  life-imparting  union  between 
Christ  and  the  believer. 

59.  If  Tell  Hum  is  the  ancient  Capernaum, 
its  synagogue  has  been  excavated.  We  can 
still  trace  its  dimensions,  observe  its  fallen 
pillars,  and  discover  over  the  lintel  of  its 
entrance  the  device  of  a  pot  of  manna  orna- 
mented with  vine-leaves  and  bunches  of  grapes. 

62.  '  After  My  Ascension,  when  I  shall  no 
longer  possess  a  natural  body,  you  will  under- 
stand that  My  words  about  eating  My  flesh  and 
drinking  My  blood,  which  now  offend  you,  are 
to  be  spiritually  interpreted.'  63.  '  What  im- 
parts the  power  of  everlasting  life  to  those 
who  feed  upon  My  flesh,  is  not  the  flesh  as 
such,  but  the  Spirit  which  pervades  it.  The 
flesh  without  the  Spirit  profits  nothing  :  the 
flesh  with  the  Spirit  profits  much.  In  heaven 
I  shall  be  a  quickening  Spirit,  and  My  body 
will  be  spiritual.  After  the  Ascension  the 
Holy  Spirit  will  make  you  partakers  of  My 
flesh,  and  you  will  receive  it  spiritually  by 
faith.'  The  words  that  I  speak  (RV  'have 
spoken  ')]  '  These  words  of  Mine  about  eating 
and  drinking  My  flesh  and  blood,  about  My 


786 


6.65 


ST.  JOHN 


7.27 


Ascension,  and  about  the  gift  of  the  Spirit, 
contain  the  very  essence  of  the  gospel.  Those 
who  believe  them  and  obey  them,  will  be  made 
partakers  of  My  Spirit,  and  of  eternal  life.' 

65.  See  vv.  44,  4.5. 

66-71.  Effects  of  the  discourse.  Many  dis- 
ciples forsake  Jesus,  but  the  Twelve  stand 
firm,  and  their  faith  is  strengthened. 

69.  That . .  Christ,  the  Son  of  the  living  God] 
RV  '  the  Holy  One  of  God,'  which  emphasises 
Christ's  sinlessness.  Not  till  later  does  St. 
Peter  confess  that  He  is  the  Son  of  the  living 
God  (Mtl6i6).  71.  Judas]  RV  'Judas,  the 
son  of  Simon  Iscariot.'  '  Iscariot '  means  an 
inhabitant  of  Kerioth,  a  town  in  Judaea.  Judas 
was  thus  the  only  Judaean  apostle. 

CHAPTER  7 
The  Feast  of  Tabernacles 

7I-1021.  Jesus  at  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles, 
October,  28  a.d. 

After  the  discourse  of  c.  6,  delivered  just 
before  Passover  28  a.d.,  Jesus  did  not  go  up  to 
Jerusalem  (7 1),  but  devoted  Himself  for  five 
or  six  months  to  active  work  in  various  parts 
of  Galilee,  of  which  St.  John  says  nothing. 
At  the  close  of  this  period  He  visited  the 
country  of  Tyre  and  Sidon  (Mk724),  made  a 
tour  through  Decapolis,  where  He  fed  the 
4,000  (Mk8i),  retired  to  Csesarea  Philippi, 
where  St.  Peter  made  his  great  confession 
(Mk827f.)j  and  subsequently,  at  a  place  not 
specified,  was  transfigured.  To  this  period 
belong  the  gradual  falling  away  of  the  people, 
the  widening  of  the  breach  with  the  Pharisees, 
the  deepening  of  the  faith  of  the  apostles, 
who  are  led  to  acknowledge  Him  as  the  Son  of 
God,  and  the  prophecies  of  Death  and  Resur- 
rection which  followed  the  Transfiguration. 
When,  in  October,  Jesus  went  up  to  Jeru- 
salem to  keep  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles,  His 
Galilean  ministry  was  over,  and  He  knew 
that  His  death  was  impending. 

The  account  of  our  Lord's  teaching  at  the 
Feast  of  Tabernacles  is  remarkably  vivid,  and 
bears  all  the  marks  of  historic  accuracy  (see 
especially  the  graphic  details  in  T^^-'^^<  25-27, 
31,32,  40-52^  and  in  c.  9).  He  sets  His  claims 
before  the  inhabitants  of  Jerusalem  with  great 
urgency,  knowing  that  His  time  on  earth  is 
short.  His  hearers  will  die  in  their  sins 
unless  they  believe  that  He  is  the  Messiah 
(824).  He  is  more  than  the  Messiah  ;  He  is 
the  Son  of  God.  self-existent  and  eternal 
(8  58),  the  Living  Water  (737),  the  Light  of 
the  world  (8^2  9  5),  the  Good  Shepherd  who 
lays  down  His  life  for  His  sheep  (10 1*'!^), 
and  the  giver  of  true  freedom  (8^6).  He 
works  only  one  miracle,  but  it  is  an  important 
one,  enforcing  His  claim  to  be  the  Light  of 
the  world  (c.  9). 

I.  To  kill]  see  5 18. 


2.  Feast  of  tabernacles]  or,  '  feast  of  in- 
gathering,' or,  '  of  harvest,'  held  in  October, 
marked  the  completion  of  the  harvest  of  fruit, 
oil,  and  wine.  For  eight  days  the  people  lived 
in  booths,  in  memory  of  the  wanderings  in  the 
wilderness.  Numerous  sacrifices  were  offered. 
Among  the  notable  ceremonies  were  the  pro- 
cession to  Siloam  to  fetch  water,  and  its  pour- 
ing out  at  the  altar  (cp.  7^7),  the  singing  of 
the  Hallel  (Pss  113-118),  the  daily  processions 
round  the  altar,  and  the  lighting  of  the  four 
great  golden  candlesticks  in  the  Court  of  the 
Women  (cp.  812). 

3.  Thy  disciples]  Only  a  few  disciples 
followed  Jesus  in  His  Galilean  tours.  At  the 
great  Feast  of  Tabernacles  they  would  be 
gathered  together  in  great  numbers.  5.  The 
unbelief  of  the  brethren  was  removed  after 
the  resurrection  by  the  appearance  to  James 
(1  Cor  15  7  Ac  11*).  Being  unbelievers,  they 
were  evidently  not  of  the  number  of  the 
Twelve.  For  an  account  of  them  see  on  Mt 
1250.  6.  My  time]  as  indicated  by  God's 
will.  Your  time]  They,  having  no  special 
commission  from  God,  were  bound  by  no 
such  considerations  as  He.  Moreover,  they 
were  in  no  danger  :  the  world  looked  upon 
them  as  its  own.  8.  I  go  not  up  yet]  Many 
ancient  authorities  omit  '  yet,'  but  in  any  case 
it  is  to  be  understood. 

14.  Finding  that  He  had  a  strong  party  on 
His  side,  Jesus  came  forth  from  His  retire- 
ment and  taught.  15.  Letters]  i.e.  rabbinical 
learning.  Having  never  learned]  i.e.  having 
never  been  the  pupil  of  a  recognised  rabbi  or 
scribe,  as  Paul  was  of  Gamaliel.  16,  17.  'My 
teaching,  like  that  of  the  prophets  of  old,  is  a 
direct  inspiration  from  God,  and  not,  like  that 
of  the  scribes,  a  tradition  of  men.  It  appeals 
to  the  heart,  not  to  the  head.  Not  the  learned, 
but  those  who  apply  themselves  earnestly  to 
do  God's  will,  will  perceive  that  it  comes 
from  God.  19.  You  are  not  keeping  the 
Law.  Moses  commanded  you  not  to  shed 
innocent  blood,  and  yet  you  seek  to  slay  Me, 
an  innocent  man.'  20.  His  opponents  hypo- 
critically try  to  make  Him  think  them  inno- 
cent. 

21  f.  I  did  one  Avork  (eight  months  ago 
when  I  healed  the  impotent  man  at  the  pool 
of  Bethesda),  and  ye  are  still  marvelling 
(because  I  did  it  on  the  sabbath  day).  '  Moses 
would  not  have  marvelled.  Moses  recognised 
that  works  of  piety  and  charity  may  be  done 
on  the  sabbath  day.  In  fact,  he  commanded 
circumcision  to  be  performed  on  the  sabbath 
day  as  on  other  days,  and  you  obey  his  com- 
mand. How,  then,  can  you  object  to  My 
miracle  of  healing  ?  To  heal  a  man  is  as  much 
a  work  of  piety  and  charity  as  to  circumcise 
him.'     22.   Not  because]   RV  '  not  that.' 

27.  Jewish  ideas  as  to  the  Messiah  were  not 


787 


7.33 


ST.  JOHN 


8.6 


very  consistent.  One  view  was  that  His  birth- 
place and  lineage  would  be  notorious  (cp. 
Mt2)  ;  others  held  that  His  manifestation 
would  be  shrouded  in  mystery. 

33,  34.  A  call  to  decision,  and  a  reproach 
for  rejecting  their  deliverer.  34.  Hereafter, 
when  misfortunes  come  upon  you,  you  shall 
seek  My  help,  and  shall  not  find  it.  35.  The 
dispersed  (RY  '  the  Dispersion ')  among  the 
Gentiles  (RV  '  the  Greeks ')]  i.e.  the  Jews 
living  in  heathen  lands.  The  Jews,  not 
seriously  but  mockingly,  attribute  to  our 
Lord  the  design  which  St.  Paul  afterwards 
carried  out,  of  abandoning  the  Holy  Land, 
and  making  the  Jewish  synagogues  through- 
out the  Empire  centres  for  diffusing  the 
gospel  among  proselytes  and  other  Grentiles. 

37.  The  last  day]  The  feast  proper  closed 
on  the  seventh  day,  but  the  eighth  day,  which 
is  probably  here  meant,  was  kept  as  a  sabbath 
with  a  holy  convocation  to  commemorate  the 
entrance  into  Canaan  (Lv23^^).  If  any  man 
thirst]  Here,  as  to  the  woman  of  Samaria, 
Christ  declares  Himself  the  giver  of  '  the 
living  water.'  This  declaration  is  connected 
with  the  ritual  of  the  feast.  On  every  day 
of  the  feast  except  the  last,  a  golden  pitcher 
of  water  was  fetched  (in  literal  fulfilment  of 
Isal23)  from  the  pool  of  Siloam  by  a  priest, 
and  poured  together  with  wine  on  the  W.  side 
of  the  altar  at  the  time  of  the  morning  sacri- 
fice, amid  the  singing  of  psalms  and  hymns. 
This  water  was  held  to  symbolise  the  mira- 
culous water  which  supplied  the  Israelites  in 
the  wilderness,  and  also  the  outpouring  of  the 
Spirit  promised  in  the  days  of  the  Messiah. 
On  the  eighth  day,  when  the  water  was  not 
poured  out,  Jesus  came  forward  declaring 
Himself  the  giver  of  the  true  water  which 
that  water  typified,  viz.  the  Holy  Spirit. 

38.  The  scripture]  Our  Lord  combines  the 
sense  of  several  OT.  passages,  e.g.  Isa443 
5811  Ezk47i.  Belly]  here,  by  a  Hebraism, 
for  a  man's  inmost  soul  :  cp.  the  use  of  beten 
('belly')  in  ProvlS^  2027,30  2218  2622  Job 
152,35  3218,19.  Christ  compares  Himself  with 
the  Temple.  As  the  fountain  of  Siloam  poured 
forth  its  waters  from  the  Temple  mountain, 
so  a  stream  of  heavenly  life  issues  from  the 
Redeemer,  and  from  all  who  have  become 
like  Him.  We  have  here  a  striking  expres- 
sion of  the  power  of  Christian  influence. 

39.  The  Holy  Ghost  was  not  yet  gk-e)i\ 
Under  Christianity,  the  Holy  Spirit,  though 
personally  distinct  from  Christ,  is  still  the 
Spirit  of  Jesus,  i.e.  the  Spirit  of  the  Saviour. 
He  could  not,  however,  become  this  until  the 
saving  work  of  Christ  was  complete,  until  Christ 
had  died  for  our  sins  upon  the  cross,  risen 
again  for  our  justification,  and  ascended  into 
heaven  to  plead  the  merits  of  His  sacrifice 
with  the  eternal  Father.      Hence  the  Com- 


forter could  not  be  given  as  the  Comforter, 
until  Jesus  had  been  glorified  :  cp.  16"^- 

40.  The  Prophet]  i.e.  the  prophet  of  DtlSi^, 
regarded  not  as  the  Messiah,  but  as  a  fore- 
runner of  the  Messiah.  42.  Bethlehem]  St. 
John  was  not  ignorant  of  the  birthplace  of 
Jesus.  He  is  here  only  reporting  the  words 
of  others. 

49.  Cursed]  RV  '  accursed,'  viz.  because  of 
their  ignorance.  The  contempt  of  the  Phari- 
sees for  those  who  have  not  received  a 
rabbinical  training  is  a  touch  true  to  life. 

50,  51.  Nicodemus  has  made  some  advance 
in  boldness.  He  ventures,  though  timidly, 
to  plead  for  justice  for  our  Lord.  He  was 
certainly  right  on  the  point  of  law  :  see 
Ex  231  Dtlie  1915.  52.  The  Pharisees  were 
wrong  not  only  in  their  law,  but  in  their 
facts,  for  Jonah  at  least  was  a  Galilean.  In 
any  case  the  saying  would  not  apply  to  our 
Lord,  who  was  a  Judsean.  The  narrative, 
interrupted  by  the  interpolation  7^^-811,  is 
resumed  8 12. 

CHAPTER  8 

The  Feast  of  Tabernacles  continued. 
Christ  the  Light  of  the  World 

7  ^3-8 11.  The  woman  taken  in  adultery.  All 
modern  critics  agree  that  this  section  is  no 
original  part  of  the  Fourth  Gospel.  It  is  not 
in  the  author's  style  ;  it  breaks  the  sequence 
of  our  Lord's  discourses,  and  is  omitted  by 
most  of  the  ancient  authorities.  Probably  it 
is  an  authentic  apostolic  tradition  inserted 
here  to  illustrate  the  principle  of  81^.  Some 
MSS  place  it  at  the  end  of  the  Gospel.  The 
incident  probably  took  place  in  Holy  Week, 
and  is  therefore  appropriately  inserted  by 
some  MSS  after  Lk213S. 

3.  In  adultery]  The  woman  was  only 
betrothed,  not  married,  otherwise  her  punish- 
ment would  not  have  been  stoning,  but 
strangulation,  for  so  the  rabbis  interpreted 
Lv  20 10  Dt  22  22.  But  inasmuch  as  among  the 
Jews  betrothal  was  almost  equivalent  to 
marriage  (see  on  Mt  1 18),  the  sin  of  a  betrothed 
woman  was  regarded  as  a  species  of  adultery. 

6.  Punishment  of  death  for  this  oflEence  was 
obsolescent,  and  some  think  that  they  wished 
to  make  Jesus  unpopular  with  the  people  by 
inducing  Him  to  advocate  its  revival.  More 
probably  they  wished  to  embroil  Him  with 
the  Roman  authorities,  who  would  not  allow 
a  death-sentence  to  be  executed  without  their 
permission.  The  displeasure  of  Jesus  was 
largely  due  to  the  officiousness  of  the  accusers. 
It  was  not  their  business  to  accuse  and  judge 
the  woman,  but  that  of  the  husband  and  the 
judges.  They  had  neither  a  legal  nor  a  moral 
right  to  interfere.  Wrote]  Christ  was  always 
reluctant  to  interfere  in  civil  disputes  :  see 
Mt222i  Lk  12 13-15  Jnl836.     Writing  on  the 


788 


ST.  JOHN 


8.  37 


ground  was  a  symbolical  action  well  known  in 
antiquity,  signifying  unwillingness  to  deal  with 
the  matter  in  hand. 

7.  Without  sin]  Christ  read  their  hearts, 
and  under  His  searching  glance  all  felt  them- 
selves sinners,  if  not  against  the  letter,  yet 
against  the  spirit  of  the  seventh  command- 
ment :  cp.  Mt  5  28.  They  could  not  condemn 
her  without  condemning  themselves.  A  stone] 
The  principal  witnesses  cast  the  first  stone 
(Dt  17  7  Ac  7  58).  9.  In  the  midst]  viz.  of  the 
disciples  who  alone  were  left.  Augustine 
says  strikingly,  '  the  mlsera  before  the  Miseri- 
cordia.'  11.  Neither  do  I  condemn  thee]  i.e. 
to  judicial  punishment,  such  as  your  accusers 
demand.  Our  Lord's  gentle  dealing  with  the 
woman  was  due  to  His  desire  not  to  break  the 
bruised  reed.  She  had  already  suffered  much, 
and  (we  may  suppose)  was  bowed  down  under 
the  burden  of  sin.  He  perceived  that  in  her 
case  a  warning  to  sin  no  more  would  suffice  : 
cp.  Lk73t3-50. 

8i--io'-i.  The  narrative  of  the  Feast  of 
Tabernacles  (interrupted  by  the  interpolated 
section  7  ^--8  ii)  is  resumed.  The  scene  is  the 
Temple  (8^0),  the  time  the  last  day  of  the 
feast  (737). 

12.  The  light  of  the  world]  The  idea  of  the 
Messiah  as  '  the  Light '  was  familiar  to  the 
Jews  (see  Lkl'i'8,79  2^'^).  and  was  especially 
appropriate  at  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles,  during 
which  (or  perhaps  on  the  first  day  only)  the 
two  colossal  golden  candlesticks  in  the  Court 
of  the  Women  were  lighted.  Christ  as  '  the 
Light  of  the  world '  dissipates  the  darkness  of 
ignorance  and  sin.  The  light  of  life]  i.e.  My 
guidance  which  leads  to  life  eternal.  13.  See 
on  v.  17.  14.  '  The  law  as  to  witnesses  applies 
only  to  human  witnesses.  It  does  not  apply 
to  Me,  who  am  more  than  man,  seeing  that  I 
know  that  I  came  down  from  heaven,  and 
shall  return  thither.'  15.  '  You  judge  only  by 
outward  appearance,  and  hence  cannot  discern 
the  Divine  in  Me.'     17.   Cp.  Dt  17'5  1915. 

17,  18.  If  the  testimony  of  two  men  is 
true,  how  much  more  true  is  the  testimony  of 
two  witnesses  who  are  divine  !  18.  See  on 
6  36, 37.  20.  In  the  treasury]  or,  rather,  '  by 
the  treasury.'  The  '  treasury '  consisted  of 
thirteen  brazen  trumpet-shaped  chests,  in 
which  were  placed  the  Temple  tribute  and 
the  people's  voluntary  offerings.  They  stood 
in  the  Court  of  the  Women. 

2 1-30.  Another  discoiu-se  of  Jesus,  delivered 
probably  on  the  same  day  (some  think  a  few 
days  later).  Jesus  speaks  of  His  return  to 
the  Father,  which  is  misunderstood  by  the 
Jews  and  explained  by  Him.  He  also  seeks 
to  convince  them  of  sin,  and  to  show  them 
their  need  of  a  Saviour. 

21.  I  go  my  way  (by  death),  and  ye  shall 
seek  me  (vainly  in  your  misfortunes  as  your 


deliverer),  and   shall    die   in   your  sins    (EY 

'  sin  ')  (because  you  refuse  to  believe  on  Me  as 
your  Saviour)  :  cp.  7^^.  22.  Will  he  kill  him- 
self?] and  thereby  enter  Gehenna,  the  punish- 
ment awarded  to  suicide?  (Jos.  'Wars,'  iii.  8,  5). 
In  that  case  we  shall  certainly  not  care  to 
follow  Him  !  The  mockery  is  more  bitter 
than  in  735.  q.y.  23.  Their  earthly  hearts  are 
without  the  higher  wisdom  and  divine  life  of 
those  who  are  born  of  God.  24.  I  am  hel 
viz.  the  Messiah,  and  the  Saviour.  He  alone 
can  say,  '  Thy  sins  be  forgiven  thee.' 

25.  Even  the  same']  viz.  the  Messiah.  This 
rendering  alone  suits  the  context.  Another 
translation  is,  '  Why  do  I  even  speak  to  you 
at  all  ?  '  26.  '  I  have  much  fault  to  find  with 
you,  but  I  refrain.  I  am  not  sent  to  judge 
you,  but  to  teach  you  ;  and  I  teach  you  the 
absolute  truth  about  God,  which  I  learnt  from 
Him  before  I  came  into  the  world.'  28.  When 
ye  have  lifted  up  the  Son  of  man  (upon  the 
cross),  then  shall  ye  know  that  I  am  he]  (i.e. 
the  Messiah),  because  My  death  will  be  fol- 
lowed by  My  Resurrection,  which  will  be  a 
token  from  God  that  My  words  are  true. 

31-59.  Y.  31  begins  another  speech,  delivered 
on  the  same  day  to  those  Jews  who  were 
inclined  to  regard  Him  as  the  Messiah.  When 
these  half-believers  find  that  Jesus  demands 
an  entire  change  of  heart,  a  breach  with  ortho- 
dox Judaism,  and  faith  in  Himself  as  the 
eternal  Son  of  God,  their  feeling  towards  Him 
is  changed  to  violent  hatred. 

31.  Believed  on  him]  RY  'believed  him.' 
They  had  believed  His  statement  (vv.  24-26) 
that  He  was  the  Messiah,  but  they  had  not 
believed  '  on  '  Him  with  religious  faith  as  the 
Light  and  Life  of  men.  31,  32.  Christ's 
words  exasperated  these  Pharisaic  believers, 
because  He  implied  (1)  that  they  would  have 
to  amend  their  lives  in  order  to  abide  in  His 
word,  whereas  they  considered  their  conduct 
perfect  ;  (2)  that  they  were  ignorant  of  saving 
truth,  whereas  they  regarded  themselves  in 
complete  possession  of  it  ;  (3)  that  they  were 
not  spiritually  free,  because  superstitiously 
attached  to  the  letter  of  the  imperfect  Mosaic 
Law.  33.  They  pretend  to  think  that  Jesus 
is  alluding  to  their  political  bondage  to  the 
Romans.  They  indignantly  deny  the  imputa- 
tion of  bondage.  They  declare  themselves 
the  superiors  of  their  oppressors.  35.  A 
slave,  unlike  a  son,  formed  no  part  of  the 
family.  He  could  be  sold  or  expelled  at  will. 
So  these  Jews,  slaves  of  sin  and  of  the  letter 
of  the  Law,  were  no  true  members  of  the 
Messiah's  kingdom,  and  would  be  expelled 
from  it.     The  Son]  RY  '  the    son.' 

37.  Their  desire  to  kill  Christ,  the  pro- 
mised seed  of  Abraham,  proved  that  they 
were  not  children  of  Abraham,  but  of 
Satan.     Hath  no   place]  RY  '  hath  not   free 


789 


8.  41 


ST.  JOHN 


9.  14 


course.'  They  had  received  Christ's  word 
for  a  moment,  and  then  contemptuously  re- 
jected it.  41.  Fornication]  i.e.  impure  or 
superstitious  worship,  as  often  in  the  OT. 
The  Jews  claim  to  be  the  true  spiritual,  as 
well  as  the  natural,  descendants  of  Abraham. 
Inheriting  his  covenant  and  faith,  they  have 
'  one  Father,  even  Grod.'  43.  They  misunder- 
stood his  expressions  (speech),  because  the 
subject-matter  of  His  discourse  (word)  was 
altogether  above  them.  He  was  speaking  of 
spiritual  things  which  are  spiritually  dis- 
cerned. 44.  He  was  a  murderer  from  the 
beg'inning]  viz.  of  the  human  race,  when  he 
sought  to  destroy  our  first  parents,  and  abode 
(fi,V  'stood')  not  in  the  truth,  i.e.  in  that 
state  of  innocence  in  which  he  was  created. 
This  is  the  only  certain  allusion  in  the  Gos- 
pels to  the  fall  of  Satan  (Lk  10  is  is  doubtful). 

46.  Christ  argues  from  His  sinlessness  to 
His  veracity.  Since  His  enemies  can  find  no 
fault  with  His  life,  they  ought  to  believe  His 
words.  Christ's  sinlessness  is  affirmed  not 
only  by  Himself,  but  by  His  most  intimate 
disciples  :  cp.  661  1  Pet  2  22  UnS^.  48.- To 
Jesus'  declaration  that  His  hearers  are  '  not 
of  God,'  i.e.  not  true  Israelites,  they  retort 
that  He  Himself  is  '  a  Samaritan,'  i.e.  a  heretic. 

Hast  a  devil]  They  cannot  deny  Christ's  mira- 
cles or  the  power  of  Christ's  words,  so  they 
ascribe  them  to  diabolical  agency  :  cp.  Mt  12  2'1. 

49.  Christ's  works  cannot  proceed  from  the 
devil,  because  they  are  designed  to  honour, 
not  Satan,  nor  Himself,  but  God. 

50.  And  (RV  '  but ')  I  seek  not  mine  own 
glory  :  there  is  one  (i.e.  God)  that  seeketh  it 
for  Me,  and  judgeth  those  who  withhold  it 
from  Me,  and  so  dishonour  Me. 

51.  By  dishonouring  Jesus  the  Jews  have 
incurred  the  judgment  of  the  Father  (v.  50), 
i.  e.  the  penalty  of  eternal  death.  But  this  judg- 
ment is  not  irrevocable.  If  even  now  they 
will  obey  Christ's  word,  they  may  escape 
eternal  death.  52.  The  Jews  understand  our 
Lord  to  speak  of  natural  death,  and  so  to 
claim  to  be  immortal,  and  the  giver  of  im- 
mortality. Such  a  claim,  implying  superiority 
to  all  the  prophets  of  the  OT.,  seems  to  them 
the  effect  of  frenzy  or  diabolical  possession. 

53,  54.  '  The  Son  '  (says  Westcott)  '  makes 
Himself  to  be  nothing.  He  is  and  declares 
Himself  to  be  that  which  the  Father,  so  to 
speak,  makes  Him.'  56.  'I  am  greater  than 
your  Father  Abraham,  for  Abraham  looked 
forward  with  exultation  to  the  manifestation 
of  one  greater  than  himself,  one  in  whom  all 
the  nations  of  the  earth  should  be  blessed.' 

He  saw  it']  either  in  prophetic  vision,  or,  as 
some  think,  from  Paradise.  57.  The  Jews 
understand,  or  pretend  to  understand,  our 
Lord  to  mean  that  He  was  alive  in  the  time 
of  Abraham  !     58.  Before  Abraham,  etc.]   lit. 


'  Before  Abraham  was  born,  I  AM.'  Christ 
seems  here  to  declare  Himself  to  be  the 
Jehovah,  or  I  AM  of  the  OT.,  the  eternal, 
self-existent  Creator  :  cp.  ExSi*.  59.  Going 
through  the  midst  of  them,  and  so  passed  by] 
RV  omits  these  words. 

CHAPTER  9 
The  Man  born  Blind 
I -1 2.  The  healing  of  the  man  bom  blind. 
This  miracle  occurred  on  the  same  day  as  the 
events  of  the  last  c,  i.e.  probably  on  the  last 
day  of  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles.  It  is  intended 
to  illustrate  the  truth  that  Christ  is  '  the  Light 
of  the  world'  (8 12  9 5).  Christ  proves  His 
power  to  open  the  eyes  of  the  soul  by  opening 
the  eyes  of  the  body.  The  miracle,  being 
wrought  on  the  sabbath  day,  intensified  the 
hostility  of  the  rulers,  which  had  already  been 
violently  inflamed  by  the  discourses  of  c.  8  : 
see  8  59. 

2.  The  disciples  thought  that  possibly  the 
man  had  sinned,  either  in  a  previous  state  of 
existence  (in  accordance  with  the  doctrine  of 
the  transmigration  of  souls),  or  more  probably 
as  an  infant  before  birth.  To  the  Jews  who 
attributed  intelligence  to  unborn  children 
(Gn  2522-2(3  Lk  1  ^i)  this  last  was  a  natural  idea. 

3.  As  in  Lkl3i-5,  Jesus  rebukes  the  hasty 
inference,  common  among  the  Jews  (see  e.g. 
Job  4  7),  that  misfortunes  are  always  the  di- 
rect result  of  sin.  As  a  matter  of  fact  diseases 
often  come  as  part  of  the  present  order  of 
nature,  and  not  as  special  judgments :  cp. 
Lkl3*.  A  great  moral  difficulty  is  involved 
in  such  a  state  of  things,  but  Jesus  does  not 
discuss  it. 

4.  Jesus  saw  that  His  death  was  impending, 
and  that  His  time  for  doing  works  of  mercy 
was  short.  6.  In  two  other  mu-acles  (MkT^^ 
and  8  23)  Jesus  heals  by  a  gradual  process,  and 
uses  visible  means.  In  this  case  the  applica- 
tion of  saliva  and  clay  to  the  man's  eyes 
was  an  aid  to  faith  (saliva  being  a  recognised 
remedy  for  eye-diseases),  and  his  being  sent 
to  bathe  in  the  water  was  a  test  of  faith 
as  it  was  in  the  case  of  Naaman  (2  K  5 1^). 

7.  Siloam]  The  evangelist  regards  this 
pool  of  healing  water  as  a  type  of  Christ, 
who  is  '  sent '  by  the  Father  to  heal  the  dis- 
eases of  the  soul.  The  OT.  forms  of  the  word 
are  Shiloah,  Isa8<5,  and  Shelah,  NehSi^.  It  is 
now  called  Birket  Silw,in.  It  is  fed  by  an 
underground  conduit  from  the  Virgin's  Foun- 
tain.    8.   Blind]  RV  '  a  beggar.' 

13-34.  This  whole  section  illustrates  the 
incredible  blindness  of  the  Pharisees  (vv.  40, 
41),  who  can  see  nothing  in  this  unique  sign, 
except  the  technical  breach  of  the  sabbath,  of 
which  they  suppose  Jesus  to  have  been  guilty. 

14.  The  conduct  of  Jesus  was  illegal  in  two 
ways  :  (1)  It  was  forbidden  to  render  medical 


790 


9.17 


ST.  JOHN 


10.  11 


aid  on  the  sabbath,  unless  there  was  imminent 
danger  of  death  ;  (2)  there  was  a  special  pro- 
vision against  applying  saliva  to  the  eyes  on 
the  sabbath  day.  17.  He  is  a  prophet]  This 
view,  if  accepted,  would  remove  the  difficulty 
about  the  sabbath  day,  for  it  was  generally 
supposed  that  prophets  had  authority  over  the 
sabbath  law.  22.  Put  out  of  the  synagogue] 
i.e.  excommunicated.  24.  Give  God  the  praise] 
RV  '  Give  glory  to  God,'  a  Hebrew  idiom  for 
'  Confess  your  error,'  Josh?  19  1S65  lEsdr9S. 

34.  Born  in  sins]  This  gives  the  clue  to 
V.  2.  The  Pharisees  assume  that  the  man  had 
been  born  blind  as  a  punishment  for  exceptional 
wickedness,  which  began  even  before  birth. 

Cast  him  out]   i.e.  excommunicated  him. 

35.  When  the  door  of  the  synagogue  was 
shut,  the  door  of  the  Kingdom  of  Heaven  was 
opened.  The  Son  of  God]  Christ  so  seldom 
uses  this  title  of  Himself,  that  it  has  been 
corrected  in  many  copies  into  the  more  usual 
'  the  Son  of  man.'  Whichever  title  was  used, 
the  man  rightly  understood  Jesus  to  claim 
superhuman  dignity,  and  accordingly  wor- 
shipped Him  (v.  38). 

39,  For  judgment  I  am  come]  This  does 
not  contradict  3 1",  for  the  '  judgment '  meant 
here  is  not  the  judicial  act  of  rewarding  and 
punishing,  which  Christ  will  exercise  at  the 
Last  Day,  but  the  present  separation  of  man- 
kind into  two  opposite  camps,  which  is  the 
inevitable  result  of  His  manifestation  in  the 
flesh.  That  they  which  see  not  (but  are  con- 
scious of  their  ignorance)  might  see :  and  that 
they  which  see  (or,  rather,  think  they  see) 
might  be  made  blind:  cp.  Mtl3ii-i'^.  40.  Are 
w^e  blind  also  ?  ]  Christ's  Pharisaic  disciples 
rightly  perceive  that  His  words  are  directed 
against  them.  41,  If  the  Pharisees  were 
simply  ignorant,  but  confessed  their  ignorance 
and  were  willing  to  learn,  they  would  not  be 
guilty.  What  makes  them  so  guilty  is  that, 
though  ignorant,  they  esteem  themselves  wise, 
and  refuse  to  learn  the  way  of  life.  They  are 
still  seeking  the  righteousness  of  the  Law, 
rather  than  the  righteousness  of  God. 

CHAPTER  10 
The  Good  Shepherd.  The  Feast  of  the 
Dedication 
1-18.  Allegories  of  the  Fold  and  of  the 
Good  Shepherd.  This  c.  continues  Christ's 
discourse  to  His  Pharisaic  disciples  begun  at 
933.  His  words  take  the  form  of  an  allegory 
which  is  intended  partly  to  rebuke  the  Phari- 
sees, pai'tly  to  comfort  the  blind  man,  and 
partly  to  instruct  the  Chiirch  as  to  the  duties 
of  Christian  pastors.  The  blind  man,  unjustly 
expelled  from  the  fold  of  Judaism  by  false 
shepherds  (the  Pharisees),  finds  refuge  in  the 
flock  of  the  True  Shepherd,  i.e.  in  the  Christian 
Church,  the  mild  discipline  of  which  is  con- 


791 


trasted  with  the  cruel  severity  of  the  syna- 
gogue. The  allegory  is  based  entirely  on 
OT.  figures:  see  Ps23  Ezk34  Jer23i-i  Zech 

114-17. 

I.  The  thieves  and  robbers  mentioned  here 
are  primarily  the  Pharisees  who  have  unjustly 
excommunicated  the  blind  man,  and  second- 
arily and  prophetically  false  pastors  in  the 
Christian  Church.  Christ  is  the  rightful 
owner  of  the  flock,  and  those  who  would 
exercise  the  office  of  shepherd  must  '  enter  by 
the  door,'  i.e.  receive  their  authority  from 
Him,  and  exercise  it  in  His  spirit.  This  the 
Pharisees  have  not  done.  2.  To  understand 
the  imagery,  it  must  be  remembered  that 
Eastern  folds  are  large  open  enclosures  into 
which  several  flocks  are  driven  at  the  approach 
of  night.  There  is  only  one  door,  which  a 
single  shepherd  guards,  while  the  others  go 
home  to  rest.  In  the  morning  the  shepherds 
return,  are  recognised  by  the  doorkeeper,  call 
their  flocks  round  them,  and  lead  them  forth 
to  pasture.  3.  By  name]  A  beautiful  picture 
of  pastoral  converse.  The  true  pastor  knows 
every  member  of  his  congregation  individually. 

4.  Goeth  before  them]  The  false  pastor, 
loving  popularity,  follows  his  flock.  The  true 
pastor  leads  them.  He  leads  them,  (1)  by  his 
teaching.  He  gives  his  people  not  what  they 
want,  but  what  they  ought  to  want  ;  (2)  by 
his  good  example,  his  holy  life  being  an  en- 
sample  to  the  flock  (1  Pet  6  3). 

7.  I  am  the  door  of  the  sheep]  i.e.  '  I  alone 
can  endue  pastors  and  teachers  with  spiritual 
authority  over  the  flock  of  God.'  In  v.  9 
Christ  calls  Himself  '  the  door '  in  a  wider 
sense.  8.  '  All  who  have  taught  Israel  from 
the  cessation  of  prophecy  to  My  own  coming 
have  been  false  and  unauthorised  teachers.' 
Our  Lord  is  alluding,  of  course,  not  to  the 
OT.  prophets,  but  to  the  scribes  who  had 
dominated  the  religious  life  of  Israel  for  400 
years,  but  whose  teaching  had  nevertheless 
been  rejected  by  many  spiritually-minded  men, 
e.g.  by  the  author  of  the  book  of  Jonah,  who 
earnestly  protested  against  it,  and  by  many  of 
the  later  Psalmists,  whose  writings  breathe  a 
spirit  the  very  opposite  of  that  of  the  scribes 
and  Pharisees.  9.  I  am  the  door]  'Through 
faith  in  Me  both  shepherds  and  sheep  enter 
into  the  Kingdom  of  God,  and  find  all  their 
spiritual  needs  supplied.'  Pasture]  i.e.  the 
means  of  grace. 

II.  The  good  shepherd]  The  Gk.  signifies 
the  Perfect  or  Ideal  Shepherd.  This  beautiful 
figure  is  often  found  in  the  OT.  applied  to 
Jehovah  (Pss23,  80  Isa40ii)  ;  only  in  Ezekiel 
does  it  become  a  title  of  the  Messiah  (Ezk  34  23 
37  24).  Giveth  (RV  '  layeth  down  ')  his  life  for 
the  sheep]  Another  distinct  prophecy  of  His 
death.  Eastern  shepherds  are  always  armed, 
and  are  sometimes  killed  in  defending  their 


10.  12 


ST.  JOHN 


11.1 


flocks  against  the  wolves,  leopards,  and  pan- 
thers, which  infest  the  wilderness  (GnSl^s  1  S 
1734).  The  expression  '  layeth  down  his  life  ' 
is  peculiar  to  St.  John  (see  133").  12.  Seeth 
the  wolf  coming'  .  .  and  fleeth]  The  wolf 
(Satan)  may  come  in  various  ways,  as  an  open 
persecution,  as  a  popular  heresy,  as  a  tendency 
to  lax  morality.  The  hireling  shepherd  is  the 
cowardly  compromiser  who  gives  way  to,  in- 
stead of  resisting,  the  evil  tendencies  of  his 
age.  14,  15.  RV  '  I  know  mine  own,  and 
mine  own  know  me,  even  as  the  Father 
knoweth  me,  and  I  know  the  Father.'  16.  The 
Gentiles  also  are  God's  children.  The  gospel 
is  for  them  also,  and  Jew  and  Gentile  shall 
form  one  Church  under  one  shepherd  (Christ). 
Onefold]  RV  'one  flock.' 

17.  As  usual  in  this  Gospel,  the  death  and 
resurrection  of  Christ  are  united  in  one  idea. 

18.  Christ's  death  is  the  result,  neither  of  a 
compulsory  decree  of  the  Father,  nor  of  the 
power  of  the  Evil  One,  but  of  a  voluntary 
impulse  springing  from  Christ's  love  for  lost 
mankind. 

22-39.  Jesus  at  the  Feast  of  the  Dedication. 
As  there  is  no  statement  that  Jesus  went  up 
to  Jerusalem,  it  is  fair  to  infer  that  Jesus 
spent  the  two  months  between  the  Feast  of 
Tabernacles  and  that  of  the  Dedication  in  or 
near  Jerusalem.  Less  probable  is  the  view 
that  these  months  were  spent  in  Galilee, 
Samaria,  and  Peraea,  and  that  the  mission  of 
the  Seventy,  and  many  other  incidents  re- 
corded in  Lk  9  51-1 9  27,  belong  to  this  period. 

22.  The  Feast  of  the  Dedication  (lit.  '  the 
Renewal ')  was  instituted  by  Judas  Maccabaeus, 
164  B.C.,  to  commemorate  the  purification  of 
the  Temple,  which  had  been  profaned  by  the 
idolatrous  king  Antiochus  Epiphanes.  It  was 
held  on  the  25th  of  Kislev  (about  the  middle 
of  December),  and  on  account  of  the  brilliant 
illuminations  was  also  called  '  the  Lights.' 

23.  Porch]  i.e.  portico,  or,  cloister.  This 
portico  was  on  the  E.  side  of  the  Temple 
buildings,  and,  according  to  Josephus,  was  a 
portion  of  Solomon's  Temple,  which  had  been 
left  standing  by  Nebuchadnezzar. 

25.  I  told  you]  viz.  in  those  discourses  in 
which  I  claimed  to  be  the  Son  of  God  (5 !''■'*'' 
714-39  812-59),  and  the  Good  Shepherd  (IQi-iS). 
These  were  Messianic  titles.  26.  As  I  said 
unto  you]  see  10 1^  28.  No  power  of  the 
world  or  of  Satan  can  pluck  believers  out  of 
Christ's  hand  ;  only  their  own  unfaithfulness 
to  grace  received  can  do  this.  29.  The  Father 
is  superior  to  all  hostile  powers,  and  therefore 
believers  can  never  be  lost  through  the  power 
of  the  enemy.  There  is  another  reading, 
'  That  which  the  Father  hath  given  unto  me  is 
greater  than  all '  (so  RM).  This  means  that 
believers,  through  grace,  are  superior  to  all 
their  enemies,  and  can  never  be  lost  except 


OT.,  which  you 
not  infrequently 
:    see    1234    1525 

here  is  from  Ps 


through  their  own  fault.  30.  I  and  my  Father 
(RV  'the  Father  ')  are  one]  lit.  '  one  thing,'  i.e. 
one  essence  or  substance.  The  Greek  indi- 
cates that  the  Father  and  the  Son  are  two 
Persons  but  one  God. 

31.  Again]  see  8^9. 

34-36.  If  the  fallible  and  sinful  judges  of 
Israel  were  rightly  called  '  gods,'  much  more 
may  I,  who  am  one  with  the  Father  and  free 
from  sin,  claim  the  title  of  '  the  Son  of  God.' 

34.  Your  law]  i.e.  the 
acknowledge.  '  The  Law  ' 
stands  for  the  whole  OT 
1  Cor  14  21.  The  quotation 
82  6.  Gods]  Judges,  as  God's  representatives, 
are  several  times  called  '  gods  '  in  the  OT. 
(Ex 21 6  22  7,8,28  .  cp.  also  IS 2813).  35.  The 
word  of  God  '  came  '  to  the  judges  when  He 
appointed  them  to  their  office.  36.  Sanctified] 
consecrated  to  the  office  of  Messiah  and  Re- 
deemer of  the  world.  38.  The  Father  is 
in  me]  A  commentary  upon  v.  30.  Human 
personality  differs  from  divine  personality. 
Human  persons  exclude  one  another.  The 
Divine  Persons  mutually  contain,  pervade,  and 
include  one  another.  They  are  absolutely 
one  in  knowledge,  sympathy,  will,  and  act. 

40-42.  The  Peraean  ministry.  These  vv.  cover 
a  period  of  about  three  months,  which  is  gene- 
rally spoken  of  as  the  Peraean  ministry  (see 
Mtl9i  MklQi,  andcp.Lk95i).  Its  chief  inci- 
dentswere  the  mission  of  the  Seventy (Lk  10 1), 
the  question  of  divorce  (Mtl93),  the  blessing 
of  little  children  (Mk  1013),  the  question  of  the 
rich  young  ruler  (MklOi'7),  and  Christ's  mes- 
sage to  Herod  Antipas  (Lkl33i).  The  whole 
section,  Lk  9^1-1 8  34,  appears  to  belong  to  this 
period,  but  many  of  the  incidents  are  not 
chronologically  arranged. 

40.  The  place  was  Bethany  beyond  Jordan, 
1 28.  41.  The  remark  that  John  dad  no  miracle 
shows  that  there  was  little  inclination  at  this 
period  to  invest  popular  teachers  with  mira- 
culous powers.  42.  Although  John  was  dead, 
his  influence  was  still  strong  in  this  district, 
and  the  people  were  ready  to  believe  that  He 
to  whom  John  had  borne  witness  was  the  true 
Messiah. 

CHAPTER  11 

Christ  the  Resurrection  and  the  Life 
1-44.  The  raising  of  Lazarus.  The  last  and 
greatest  of  the  seven  '  signs '  recorded  in 
this  Gospel  is  related  with  such  photographic 
minuteness  of  detail,  that  it  is  clear  that  the 
evangelist  was  present.  Three  points  about  it 
are  specially  noteworthy  :  (1)  that  it  was  a 
physical  miracle,  which  no  ingenuity  can  reduce 
to  a  case  of  faith-healing  ;  (2)  that  it  was 
definitely  worked  to  produce  faith  in  Christ 
(v.  42)  ;  (3)  that  more  than  any  other  miracle 
it  was  performed  under  test  conditions  ; — the 


792 


! 


n.  1 


ST.  JOHN 


11.31 


object  of  it  was  really  dead  (v.  39),  and  hostile 
witnesses  were  present  (v.  42).  Its  spiritual 
meaning  is  given  in  v.  25,  '  I  am  the  resur- 
rection, and  the  life.'  The  raising  of  Lazarus 
to  corporeal  life  is  to  the  evangelist  a  token 
and  pledge  that  the  worker  of  it  can  raise  the 
dead  soul  to  spiritual  life,  and  endue  it  with  a 
blessed  immortality.  The  publicity  and  noto- 
riety of  this  miracle  explain  the  warm  welcome 
which  Jesus  received  from  the  inhabitants  of 
Jerusalem  at  His  triumphal  entry  on  Palm 
Sunday.  The  synoptists  mention  the  welcome 
(Mt 21 8-11  II),  but  say  nothing  of  its  cause. 
Various  reasons  are  alleged  for  the  omission  of 
this  miracle  by  the  synoptists.  Some  say  that 
when  they  wrote,  Lazarus  and  his  family  were 
still  alive,  and  did  not  desire  to  be  made  the 
objects  of  public  curiosity.  More  probably  it 
was  omitted  as  belonging  to  the  Jud^an  min- 
istry, which  (for  whatever  reason)  the  sjTiop- 
tists  did  not  undertake  to  record. 

I.  Lazarus]  i.e.  Eleazar,  '  God  is  my  help,' 
a  man  of  good  social  position,  probably  a  son 
or  near  relative  of  Simon  the  Leper  (Mt 
26*5)  ;  not  to  be  identified  with  the  beggar 
Lazarus  of  the  parable.  Bethany]  a  village 
at  the  Mount  of  Olives,  a  little  less  than  2  m. 
from  Jerusalem,  now  called  El  'Azeriyeh,  '  the 
place  of  Lazarus.'  Mary  .  .  Martha]  St.  John 
supposes  that  they  are  known  to  his  readers 
from  St.  Luke's  narrative  (LkTO^S).  The  cir- 
cumstances of  the  family,  and  the  characters 
of  the  sisters  in  the  two  Grospels  are  quite  in 
agi-eement.  2.  St.  John  assumes  that  the  fact 
of  the  anointing  is  already  known  in  a  general 
way  from  the  synoptists  (see  Mt2G'^  Mk  14  3, 
and  cp.  Lk  73<3),  but  since  their  narratives  are 
somewhat  obscure  and  confusing,  he  intends 
to  give  later  on  (12 1  *•)  a  more  accurate  account. 

3.  Lovest]  The  love  which  Christ  bore  to 
the  whole  human  race  did  not  prevent  Him 
from  forming  special  friendships.  4.  Not  unto 
death]  i.e.  not  unto  permnnent  death.  But  for 
the  glory  of  God,  etc.]  Lazarus  was  allowed  to 
die  that  God  might  be  glorified  by  his  resur- 
rection. So  the  blind  man  was  born  blind 
that  God  might  be  glorified  by  his  eyes  being 
miraculously  opened  (U^). 

6.  Two  days]  Our  Lord  waited  two  days, 
(1)  that  the  death  of  Lazarus  might  be  an 
indisputable  fact :  cp.  v.  .39  ;  (2)  that  there 
might  be  time  for  a  competent  number  of 
witnesses  to  assemble  :  cp.  v.  42.  There  is  a 
seeming  want  of  tenderness  to  the  sisters  in 
allowing  Lazarus  to  die,  and  then  making 
them  wait  four  days  for  the  miracle ;  but 
wider  interests  than  those  of  a  single  family 
were  involved.  Moreover,  the  delay  was  the 
means  of  testing  and  strengthening  the  sisters' 
faith:  cp.  vv,  22,  27,  32.  9,  10.  Our  Lord's 
allegorical  answer  means,  '  The  allotted  time 
of  My  ministry  is  not  yet  finished,  therefore  I 


793 


shall  be  safe  in  Judsea,  and  so  will  you.  But 
when  My  allotted  time  has  elapsed,  then  I  shall 
be  in  danger  of  death,  and  you  also.'  9.  The 
light]  i.e.  the  sun.  11.  Sleepeth]  because 
Lazarus  was  soon  to  be  awakened  as  from 
sleep  :  cp.  MkS^f*.  15.  A  secondary  object  of 
the  miracle  was  the  strengthening  of  the  dis- 
ciples' faith. 

16.  Didymus]  i.e.  'twin,'  is  the  correct 
translation  of  the  Ai-amaic  '  Thomas.'  Per- 
haps he  was  twin  brother  of  Matthew  with 
whom  he  is  coupled  (Mt  10^  Mk3  is  Lk6i5).  He 
here  figures  as  the  pessimist  of  the  apostolic 
circle  ;  in  c.  20  as  the  sceptic.  Yet  his  love 
and  devotion  to  our  Lord  are  undoubted.  Die] 
because  of  the  danger  in  Judsea. 

17.  The  grave]  EV  '  the  tomb.'  In  Pales- 
tine burial  took  place  on  the  day  of  death. 
The  possession  of  a  private  tomb  by  the  family 
of  Lazarus  is  an  indication  of  wealth.  The 
poor  were  buried  in  cemeteries  (2K236). 

19.  Visits  of  condolence  were  paid  with 
great  ceremony  for  seven  days  after  a  death. 

20.  Sat  still']  RV  '  still  sat.'  Sitting  was 
the  attitude  of  grief.  '  After  the  body  is  carried 
out  of  the  house,  all  chairs  and  couches  are 
reversed,  and  the  mourners  sit  on  the  ground  on 
a  low  stool.'  22.  Even  now]  marvellous  faith 
under  the  circumstances.  She  believes  that 
Jesus  can  raise  Lazarus,  but  dare  not  express 
the  hope  that  He  will. 

24.  A  belief  in  a  future  resurrection  was 
at  this  period  professed  by  all  pious  Jews,  and 
was  not  peculiar  to  the  Pharisees.  The  ex- 
pression '  the  Last  Day  '  is  peculiar  to  St.  John. 

25.  I  am  the  resurrection,  and  the  life]  These 
solemn  words,  which  are  used  most  appro- 
priately in  the  Burial  Service,  not  only  refer 
to  the  raising  of  Lazarus  to  a  natural  life,  but 
indicate  that  Clu-ist  is  also  the  author  of 
the  resurrection  to  eternal  life.  He  that  be- 
lieveth]  The  words  apply  primarily  to  Lazarus. 
Lazarus  was  a  believer  in  Christ.  Lazarus  was 
dead.  And  because  Lazarus  was  a  believer, 
he  was  about  to  be  raised  from  the  dead.  His 
resurrection  was  a  token  and  pledge  of  the 
resurrection  of  all  believers.  26.  Shall  never 
die]  because  death  to  Christians  is  not  really 
death.  Death  did  not  break  the  living  union 
between  the  soul  of  Lazarus  and  His  Redeemer, 
nor  will  it  break  that  of  other  believers.  '  The 
souls  of  the  righteous  are  in  the  hand  of  God  ; 
there  shall  no  torment  touch  them.'  27.  The 
Son  of  God]  When  used,  as  here,  as  a  popular 
title  of  the  INIessiah,  this  expression  implies  a 
special  nearness  to  God,  but  not  necessarily 
actual  divinity.  Which  should  come]  RV'even 
he  that  cometh.'  '  He  that  cometh '  was  a 
common  title  of  the  Messiah  :  cp.  6 1*  Mt  1 1  3 . 

31.  For  three  days  the  mourners  used  to 
visit  the  grave,  believing  that  the  soul  hovered 
round,  fain  to  re-enter  and  reanimate  its  fleshly 


11.33 


ST.  JOHN 


11.54 


tenement.  On  the  fourth  day,  it  was  thought, 
the  soul  departed  and  decomposition  began. 

33.  He  groaned]  i.e.  He  sorrowed  in  sym- 
pathy with  the  mourners.  But  RM  '  He  was 
moved  with  indignation,'  i.e.  at  the  havoc 
wrought  by  death  in  thus  cutting  off  a  young 
life.  Our  Lord  regarded  not  only  sin,  but  also 
disease  and  death,  as  part  of  that  kingdom 
of  Satan  which  He  came  to  destroy.  Their 
dominion  over  the  human  race  filled  Him  with 
acute  distress.  In  the  spirit]  i.e.  in  His  human 
spirit.  The  Gospels  assign  to  Jesus,  as  per- 
fect man,  both  '  soul '  and  '  spirit.'  And  was 
troubled]  The  RM  more  correctly  renders  '  and 
troubled  Himself.'  Christ  was  not  subject  to 
human  emotions,  as  we  are,  against  His  will. 
Out  of  sympathy  with  mankind  He  conde- 
scended to  feel  them. 

35.  Jesus  wept]  An  exquisitely  human  touch, 
showing  that  the  evangelist,  with  all  his  in- 
sistence upon  Christ's  divinity,  has  a  firm 
grasp  of  His  true  humanity.  Contrast  with 
the  sympathetic  tears  of  Jesus  the  Stoic  ideal 
of  indifference  to  human  emotion.  In  Jesus 
the  strength  of  a  man  was  united  to  the  tender- 
ness of  a  woman.  Men  may  learn  from  this 
that  there  is  nothing  unmanly  in  tears.  Some 
think  that  Jesus  wept  because  He  was  about  to 
summon  back  a  soul  from  the  felicity  of  Para- 
dise to  the  strife  and  sorrow  of  this  mortal  state. 

37.  Could  not  this  man]  Probably  a  hostile 
criticism,  imputing  to  .Jesus  lack  of  love  or 
lack  of  power.  38.  A  stone  lay  upon  it]  which 
implies  that  it  was  an  underground  vault,  or, 
'  a  stone  lay  against  it '  (RV),  which  implies 
that  it  was  a  cavern  hewn  in  the  side  of  a  hill. 
The  tomb  now  called  that  of  Lazarus  '  is  a  deep 
vault  like  a  cellar,  excavated  in  the  limestone 
rock  in  the  middle  of  the  village,  to  which 
there  is  a  descent  by  26  steps.'  39.  Martha 
thinks  that  Jesus  wishes  to  take  a  last  look  at 
His  friend,  and  she  seeks  to  dissuade  Him, 
fearing  that,  putrefaction  having  already  begun, 
the  corpse  will  present  a  fearful  spectacle. 
The  apparent  failure,  for  the  moment,  of  her 
half -formed  faith  is  true  to  life. 

41,  42.  This  prayer  of  Jesus  is  remarkable, 
for,  (1)  He  thanks  God  beforehand  for  the 
miracle,  as  if  it  had  already  been  performed  ; 
(2)  contrary  to  His  usual  practice.  He  offers 
the  miracle  as  a  proof  of  His  divine  mission, 
and  that  to  unbelievers.  41.  Hast  heard  me] 
RV  'heardest  me,'  viz.  four  days  ago  in  PerEea, 
when  I  prayed  that  Lazarus  might  be  raised  to 
life.  42.  i  said  if^  viz.  that  Thou  didst  hear 
My  prayer  that  Lazarus  might  be  raised. 

44.  Came  forth]  doubtless  with  difficulty, 
his  legs  being  bound  together  by  grave- 
clothes.  Hence  the  command  '  Loose  him.' 
It  is  possible,  however,  that  the  legs  of  Lazarus 
were  swathed  separately  after  the  Egyptian 
manner.     45^  46.  The  Gk.,  interpreted  strictly, 


means  that  all  the  Jews  who  were  present 
believed,  and  that  some  of  them  went,  appar- 
ently in  good  faith,  to  the  Pharisees,  hoping 
to  convince  them.  Perhaps  they  expected 
that  such  a  miracle  would  receive  favourable 
consideration  from  those  who  were  the  special 
champions  of  the  doctrine  of  the  Resurrection. 
They  certainly  reported  the  miracle  as  a  fact : 
see  V.  47. 

47-53.  A  meeting  of  the  Sanhedrin  against 
Jesus.  As  in  the  synoptics,  the  chief  priests, 
i.e.  the  Sadducees,  take  a  more  prominent 
part  than  the  Pharisees  in  compassing  the 
death  of  Jesus.  Similarly  in  the  Acts  it  is 
mainly  the  Sadducees  who  are  hostile  to  the 
infant  Church.  The  hostility  of  the  Sadducees 
was  due  not  so  much  to  dislike  of  the  doctrine 
of  the  Resurrection,  as  to  selfish  and  political 
motives:  see  v.  48. 

47.  What  do  we?]  i.e.  Why  are  we  doing 
nothing  ?  48.  The  Romans  shall  come]  They 
feared  that  Jesus  would  be  proclaimed  king  by 
the  people,  and  that  the  Romans  would  there- 
upon inflict  summary  judgment  upon  the 
nation.  Our  place  and  nation]  i.e.  our  posi- 
tion in  the  State,  and  the  very  existence  of 
the  nation.  Others  understand  '  our  place  '  to 
be  Jerusalem  (cp.  2Mac3i8-30)^  or  the  Temple 
(cp.  Ac6i4  2  Mac  .5 19).  49.  Caiaphas]  In  full 
Joseph  C,  a  Sadducee.  See  on  Mt263.  That 
same  year]  i.e.  high  priest  in  that  memorable 
year  in  which  Jesus  was  crucified.  The  ex- 
pression does  not  imply  that  the  high-priest- 
hood was  an  annual  office.  Ye  know  nothing] 
see  1814.  Caiaphas  speaks  somewhat  con- 
temptuously of  the  Pharisees — '  You  Pharisees 
have  no  policy  to  offer.  We  Sadducees  have 
a  very  definite  one.  Jesus  must  die,  in  our 
interests,  and  yours,  and  In  the  interests  of 
the  national  existence.'  51,  52.  Of  old  the 
high  priest  had  declared  the  divine  will  by 
Urim  and  Thummim  (Ex  2830,  etc.).  The 
prophetic  power,  long  withdrawn,  is  restored 
for  a  moment,  just  as  the  Levitical  priesthood 
was  about  to  be  abolished  by  the  one  offering  of 
Christ  upon  the  cross.  Die  for  (i.e.  on  behalf  1 
of)  that  nation]  The  high  priest  unwittingly  ' 
proclaimed  Jesus  as  the  true  paschal  lamb, 
whose  blood  would  atone  for  the  sins  of  the 
world.  By  sacrificing  Jesus  he  brought  about 
a  blessing  of  which  he  never  dreamed  (the 
remission  of  sins),  and  compassed  for  the  nation 
the  very  evil  which  he  sought  to  avert  (the  loss 
of  national  existence).  52.  In  (RV  '  into ')  I 
one]  i.e.  into  one  Church.  The  children  of  God] 
i.e.  the  Gentiles.  Scattered  abroad]  The 
unity  of  the  human  race  has  been  destroyed 
by  sin.  The  death  of  Christ,  by  abolishing 
sin,  reestablishes  its  unity. 

54-57.  Retirement  to  Ephraim.  Attitude 
of  the  multitudes  at  Jerusalem.  Suppressed 
excitement. 


794 


11.54 


ST.  JOHN 


12.  24 


54.  To  avoid  the  snares  of  His  enemies,  and 
to  secure  a  short  season  of  undisturbed  com- 
munion with  His  disciples,  Jesus  retires  to 
Ephraim,  perhaps  Ephrain  or  Ephron  ('2Ch 
13i9),orOphrah(lS13i7).  55.  To  purify  them- 
selves] No  man  could  eat  the  Passover  while 
ceremonially  unclean  (see  18^8  Nu9io  2Ch 
30^'''),  hence  the  Passover  pilgrims  assembled 
in  Jerusalem  some  time  beforehand  to  purify 
themselves  by  ablutions,  shaving  the  head,  and 
sacrifice.  In  some  cases  the  process  lasted  a 
week.  57.  Jesus  was  still  too  popular  to  be 
taken  publicly. 

CHAPTER   12 

The   Triumphal  Entry.     Close   op  the 

Public  Ministry 

i-ii.  Supper  at  Bethany  (see  on  Mt266 
and  Mkl43,  which  record  the  same  incident). 
The  event  in  LkT^ef.  is  different.  The 
supper  was  at  the  house  of  Simon  the 
leper,  a  near  relation,  perhaps  the  father,  of 
Lazarus  and  the  sisters.  St.  John  alone  men- 
tions the  name  of  the  woman  who  anointed 
Jesus,  the  quantity  of  the  unguent  (1  litre  = 
12  oz.),  and  the  author  of  the  mean  speech, 
'  Why  was  not  this  ointment  sold  for  three 
hundred  pence,  and  given  to  the  poor  ? '  He 
also  states  that  the  supper  was  held  six  days 
(not  two  days,  as  St.  Mark)  before  the  Pass- 
over. Mary  probably  anointed  Jesus  in  grati- 
tude for  the  restoration  of  her  brother  Lazarus 
to  life. 

I.  Six  days]  Since  the  Passover,  according 
to  this  Gospel,  took  place  on  Friday,  Jesus 
apparently  arrived  on  Saturday  (the  sabbath), 
and  the  supper  must  have  taken  place  the 
same  evening.  5.  Three  hundred  pence  (de- 
?tariiy]  about  £9.  6.  The  bag-  (or,  box)]  The 
apostles  had  one  purse,  because  they  realised 
that  those  who  have  spiritual  things  in  com- 
mon, ought  (ideally,  at  least)  to  have  temporal 
things  in  common  also.  But  though  commun- 
ism is  the  ultimate  Christian  ideal,  and  has 
always  been  regarded  as  such  (see  Ac  2**),  it 
does  not,  therefore,  follow  that  it  is  practic- 
able or  good  in  the  existing  state  of  the  world. 

Bare]  RV  '  took  away,'  i.e.  stole. 

7.  Let  her  alone:  against  the  day  of  my 
burying  hath  she  kept  this]  i.e.  She  has  done 
quite  right  not  to  sell  the  ointment.  She  has 
kept  it  for  to-day,  making  to-day  as  it  were 
My  burial  day,  by  performing  the  prophetic 
act  of  anointing  and  embalming  My  body. 
But  a  better  reading  is,  '  Suffer  her  to  keep  it 
against  the  day  of  My  burying '  ;  i.e.  She  has 
only  used  a  portion  of  the  ointment  in  anoint- 
ing My  feet.  Do  not  insist  on  her  giving  the 
rest  to  the  poor.  Bather  let  her  keep  it  for 
anointing  My  body  for  burial  after  the  death 
which  I  perceive  to  be  impending.  9.  Much 
people]    RV    '  the    common    people.'      They 


came]  doubtless  into  the  house  to  watch  the 
banquet.  In  the  East  a  feast  is  a  public  cere- 
mony, and  there  is  a  continual  succession  of 
sightseers.      11.   Went  away]  i.e.  apostatised. 

12-19.  The  triumphal  entry  (see  on  Mt21l 
Mk  1 1 1  Lk  1 9  ^^.)  The  purpose  of  our  Lord's 
public  entry  was  to  testify  to  the  nation  and 
to  mankind  that  He  was  actually  the  Messiah 
promised  by  the  OT.  prophets,  and  the  person 
by  whom  the  kingdom  of  God  was  to  be  estab- 
lished. St.  John  writes  briefly,  supplementing 
the  synoptic  account,  a  knowledge  of  which 
he  assumes.  The  synoptists  seem  to  regard 
the  entry  as  a  purely  Galilean  demonstration, 
and  give  no  explanation  of  our  Lord's  favour- 
able reception  in  Jerusalem.  St.  John  repre- 
sents the  procession  as  consisting  not  only  of 
Galileans  (v.  12),  but  also  of  inhabitants  of 
Jerusalem,  who  had  seen  Lazarus  raised  from 
the  dead,  and  whose  testimony  to  the  truth  of 
the  miracle  caused  the  extraordinary  sensation 
in  Jerusalem  (vv.  17,  18). 

12.  The  next  day]  This  is  now  generally 
called  Palm  Sunday.  Much  people]  evidently 
Galileans.  13.  Palm  trees]  Among  the  He- 
brews, as  among  the  Greeks,  palms  were 
carried  as  symbols  of  victory  and  rejoicing 
(1  Mac  1351  Rev  7  9).  16.  Observe  the  author's 
intimate  knowledge  of  the  sentiments  of  the 
disciples. 

20-22.  Jesus  and  the  Greeks.  A  dominant 
idea  of  this  Gospel  is  universalism.  Christ 
dies  for  all  men.  Gentiles  as  well  as  Jews,  and 
is,  therefore,  the  Saviour  of  the  world  (422 
1  Jn  4 14).  Appropriately,  therefore,  the  evan- 
gelist notices  that  the  last  public  utterance  of 
Jesus  was  on  the  Gentile  question.  St.  John 
sees  in  the  request  of  these  Greeks  for  an 
interview  (which  we  are  to  presume  was 
granted)  a  foreshadowing  of  the  calling  of 
the  Gentiles. 

20.  Greeks]  i.e.  Gentiles,  probably  from 
Galilee  or  Decapolis,  where  there  was  a  large 
Gentile  population.  Their  presence  at  the 
feast  shows  that  they  sympathised — as  so 
many  devout  Gentiles  did — with  the  mono- 
theistic faith  of  Israel. 

23-26.  Last  public  discourse  of  Jesus.  The 
voice  from  heaven.  The  time  is  probably 
Wednesday  afternoon,  the  place  the  Temple  : 
cp.  Mt2123.  Jesus  resigns  Himself  to  death, 
comforting  Himself  by  contemplating  its  glo- 
rious issues. 

23.  The  humble  request  of  these  Greeks 
for  an  interview  brings  vividly  before  Christ's 
mind  His  approaching  death,  through  which 
alone  salvation  can  be  offered  to  the  Gentiles. 

Should  be  glorified]  viz.  by  death,  which  in 
the  case  of  Jesus  was  not  a  humiliation,  but  a 
triumph  over  the  powers  of  evil.  24.  As  a 
grain  of  corn  must  rot  in  the  ground  before  it 
can  bring  forth  fruit,  so  must  the  Son  of  man 


795 


12.  25 


ST.  JOHN 


12.  40 


die  and  be  buried  before  the  harvest  of  the 
world  can  ripen  and  be  reaped.  The  divine 
life,  so  long  as  Jesus  remained  on  earth  in  the 
body  of  His  humiliation,  was  confined  to  Him- 
self. But  when  by  His  death  and  resurrection 
the  earthly  shell  was  cast  off,  the  way  was  open 
for  the  diiiusion  of  the  divine  life  among  all 
mankind.  Our  Lord's  mysterious  words  would 
probably  be  luiderstood  by  the  Greeks,  who, 
if  they  had  been  initiated  in  the  mysteries  of 
Eleusis,  had  seen  the  immortality  of  the  soul 
represented  under  the  figure  of  a  grain  of 
wheat  buried  in  the  earth  that  it  might  germ- 
inate and  spring  up  into  new  life. 

25,  26.  Our  Lord's  followers  also,  if  their 
labom-s  for  the  conversion  of  the  world  are  to 
be  fruitful,  must,  like  Him,  '  love  not  their 
lives  unto  death.'  Only  by  self-denial,  self- 
sacrifice,  self-mortification,  and,  if  need  be, 
by  a  martyr's  death,  can  the  faith  be  spread, 
and  life  given  to  a  dying  world.  They  are 
to  expect  no  reward  in  this  world,  but  in  the 
world  to  come  they  shall  have,  eternal  life,  and 
their  heavenly  Father  will  delight  to  honour 
them.  26.  Where  I  am]  i.e.  where  I  am  soon 
to  be,  viz.  in  heaven. 

27.  Deeply  pathetic  are  these  words,  and 
deeply  comforting  to  all  who  feel  their  load 
of  sorrow  too  heavy  for  them  to  bear.  Even 
Jesus  could  not  face  His  hour  of  agony  with- 
out a  struggle.  The  horror  of  His  approach- 
ing death  filled  Him  with  anguish.  His  soul 
was  troubled.  For  a  moment  He  almost 
prayed  to  be  spared  the  bitter  cup.  Then 
His  purpose  victoriously  reasserted  itself.  It 
was  to  die  that  He  came  into  the  world,  and 
by  dying  willingly  He  will  glorifj-  His  Father. 
The  intensely  human  struggle  described  here 
exactly  corresponds  to  the  agony  in  the  garden 
recorded  by  the  synoptists  (Mt263''^||),  and  is 
evidence  that  St.  John,  no  less '  than  they, 
realised  our  Lord's  true  humanity,  and  its 
subjection  to  human  conditions.  Father,  save 
me  from  this  hour]  or,  perhaps  better,  '  Shall  I 
say,  Father,  save  me  from  this  hour?'  For 
this  cause]  i.e.  to  die. 

28.  Father,  glorify  thy  name]  viz.  by  accept- 
ing My  willing  sacrifice  upon  the  Cross.  A 
voice]  The  voices  from  heaven  in  the  NT.  are 
objective  in  the  sense  that  all  present  hear 
them  and  are  startled  by  them,  but  only  those 
for  whom  they  are  intended  understand  their 
meaning.  Thus  at  the  Baptism  the  heavenly 
voice  was  understood  by  Christ  and  the  Baptist, 
at  the  Transfiguration  jjy  Christ  and  the  chosen 
three,  here  by  Christ  and  the  apostles,  perhaps 
by  Christ  alone.  Similarly  at  St.  Paul's  con- 
version only  St.  Paul  himself  distinguished  the 
words  spoken  from  heaven,  though  all  heard 
the  voice.  I  have  both  glorified  it]  viz.  by  ac- 
cepting the  offering  of  Thy  life's  work,  crowned 
as  it  is  by  Thy  willing  submission  to  suffer 


death  upon  the  cross,  and  will  glorify  it  again 
by  raising  Thee  from  the  dead,  and  placing 
Thee  in  glory  at  My  right  hand. 

31.  Now  (i.e.  within  a  few  days)  is  the 
judgment  (or,  a  judgment)  of  this  world]  i.e.  of 
the  persons  in  it.  Christ's  death  followed  by 
His  Resurrection  is  a  '  judgment,'  because  it  is 
a  deliberate  challenge  to  mankind  to  accept 
Him  as  the  Divine  Redeemer  of  the  world 
Henceforth  men  must  take  sides  for  and  against 
Christ.  To  accept  Him  is  to  accept  eternal 
life  :  to  reject  Him  is  to  be  self-condemned. 

Now  shall  the  prince  of  this  world  (i.e.  Satan) 
be  cast  out]  i.e.  deposed  by  the  power  of 
Christ's  Death  and  Resurrection  from  his 
usurped  dominion  over  the  human  race.  '  The 
prince  of  the  world '  (i.e.  of  the  Gentile  world) 
was  a  recognised  rabbinical  title  of  Satan. 

32.  And  I,  if  I  be  lifted  up  (viz.  upon  the 
cross)  .  .  will  (after  My  Resurrection  and  Ascen- 
sion) draw  all  men  unto  me  (RV  'myself')] 
St.  John  regards  the  crucifixion  of  Jesus  as  a 
symbol.  His  elevation  upon  the  cross  is  an 
emblem  of  His  being  set  up  as  the  ensign 
(IsalliO)  around  which  the  nations  are  to 
rally.  'The  attractive  power  of  the  cross  lies 
largely  in  the  fact  that  sorrow  and  suffering 
are  universal,  and  that  the  sympathy  for  which 
all  suffering  souls  crave  is  only  to  be  found  in 
the  love  of  the  Crucified.  All  ine/i]  The  offer 
of  salvation  is  made  to  all.  34.  The  people 
understand  Christ's  allusion  to  His  death,  and 
find  this  difficult  to  reconcile  with  '  the  Law,' 
i.e.  the  OT.  (see  10^4),  which  teaches  that  the 
reign  of  the  Messiah  will  be  eternal  (Pss45'5 
110  *  Isa  9  6, 7  Dan  7 14).  Can,  therefore,  Jesus 
be  the  Messiah  ?  Has  He  even  claimed  to  be 
He  ?  He  has  only  (v.  2.S)  claimed  to  be  the 
Son  of  man.  Is  this  Son  of  man,  whom  He 
claims  to  be,  the  Messiah  or  not  ?  They  press 
for  an  answer. 

35)  36-  Jesus  gives  no  direct  answer,  though 
He  implies  that  He  is  the  Messiah  by  calling 
Himself  the  Light:  see  8 12.  Avoiding  all 
controversy,  He  bids  them  believe  on  Him, 
while  they  have  Him  with  them,  and  warns 
them  of  their  danger  if  they  do  not. 

36.  Children  (RV  'sons')  of  light]  i.e. 
enlightened  persons.  The  phrase  occurs  Lk 
1 6  8  Eph  5  s  1  Th  5  5.  Did  hide  himself]  lit.  '  was 
hidden.'  This  was  Christ's  final  retirement 
from  His  public  ministry,  and  corresponds  with 
Mt24i,  where  Christ  leaves  the  Temple  for  the 
last  time.  He  went,  probably,  to  Bethany 
(Mt21iV). 

37-43.   Cause  of  the  unbelief  of  the  Jews. 

At  first  they  could  believe,  but  refused.  By 
and  by  they  became  incapable  of  it.  In  this 
too  common  experience  St.  John  sees  the 
judgment  of  God  :  cp.  Ro9-ll. 

38.  Lord,  who,  etc.]  quoted  exactly  from 
LXX  of  Isa53i.     40.  He  hath  blinded,  etc.] 


796 


12.  41 


ST.  JOHN 


13.20 


A  very  free  quotation  from  Isa6^*'.  41.  These 
things  said  Esaias  (Isaiah)]  Strictly  speaking, 
God  said  tliem  to  Isaiah  about  Isaiah's  own 
contemporaries,  but  St.  John  sees  in  the  pas- 
sage a  typical  prophecy  of  the  unbelief  of  the 
Jews  in  the  time  of  Christ.  When  he  saw  his 
glory]  i.e.  Christ's  glory.  The  words  were 
spoken  at  Isaiah's  call  when  he  '  saw  the 
Lord '  (whom  the  evangelist  identifies  with 
Christ)  '  upon  a  throne  high  and  lifted  up ' 
(Isa6^).  43.  They  loved  to  be  honoured  by 
men,  more  than  to  be  honoured  by  God. 

44-50.  Judgment  of  Jesus  upon  their  un- 
belief. He  refuses  to  condemn  them  formally 
(v.  47),  because  His  First  Coming  was  not  to 
judge,  but  to  save.  Yet  He  adds  that  in  the 
Last  Day  they  will  be  self-condemned.  His 
words,  which  they  rejected,  will  rise  up  against 
them  in  judgment.  These  vv.  are  neither  a 
public  address,  which  Jesus  came  out  of  his 
retirement  to  deliver,  nor  a  private  exhortation 
to  the  Greeks,  but  rather  a  collection  of  striking 
sayings  of  Jesus  on  the  subject  of  faith  and  un- 
belief, appropriately  inserted  by  the  evangelist 
in  this  place. 

45.   Cp.  149.     46.   Cp.  812  95-39,  etc. 

47.  And  believe  not]  RV  '  and  keep  them 
not.'  I  judge  him  not]  cp.  5*5gi5,26  I  came 
not]  cp.  31".  48.  In  the  last  day  Jesus  will 
but  ratify  the  verdict  of  their  own  consciences. 

50.  '  The  gospel  message  which  the  Father 
has  committed  to  Me  conveys  to  those  who 
accept  and  obey  it  eternal  life.' 

CHAPTER  13 

The  Last  Supper 
1-17.  The   Supper  and  the   Feet-washing. 

This  supper  is  identified  by  almost  all  modern 
authorities  with  the  Last  Supper,  which  took 
place  on  Thursday  night  at  Jerusalem  (Mt  26  -^ 
Mk  1 4 17  Lk  22  i^i).  Writing  to  supplement  the 
synoptists,  St.  John  omits  practically  all  that 
they  have  recorded,  and  this  accounts  for  his 
omission  of  the  institution  of  the  Holy  Com- 
munion. The  points  peculiar  to  St.  John  are 
the  feet-washing,  the  incident  of  the  sop,  the 
details  about  the  beloved  disciple,  and  the 
wonderful  discourses,  of  which  the  synoptists 
give  no  hint. 

1.  Before  the  feast]  St.  John  corrects  the 
impression,  which  many  have  derived  from  the 
synoptic  narratives,  that  the  Last  .Supper  was 
the  actual  Jewish  Passover.  It  was,  in  fact,  a 
Christian  Passover,  held  the  day  before  the 
Jewish  feast  (18 -S),  and  probably  not  con- 
formed in  all  respects  to  the  Jewish  ritual. 
There  is,  for  example,  no  mention  of  a 
lamb,  though  it  is  possible  that  there  may 
have  been  one.  Unto  the  end]  or,  '  to  the 
uttermost.' 

2.  Supper  being  ended]  or,  '  during  supper  ' 
(RV).     But    inasmuch    as   feet-washing   took 


place  at  the  beginning  of  a  meal,  much  is  to 
be  said  for  the  rendering,  '  supper  having  been 
served.'  The  devil]  Judas  had  so  often  yielded 
to  Satan's  evil  suggestions  that  now  he  made 
no  resistance.  Heart  stands  here  as  often  for 
the  soul,  or  inner  man. 

4.  Riseth]  The  disciples  had  been  disputing 
(Lk22'"4)  which  of  them  should  be  accounted 
greatest,  and,  as  we  gather  from  Christ's 
rebuke  (Lk2227),  not  one  of  them  would  serve 
at  supper,  for  fear  of  being  thought  inferior 
to  the  others.  Jesus,  therefore,  after  waiting 
a  little  for  one  of  them  to  offer,  rose  Himself. 
Not  content  with  waiting  at  table,  which  might 
upon  occasion  be  done  by  a  person  of  good  po- 
sition (122),  He  washed  their  feet,  the  function 
of  a  slave.  Feet-washing  took  place  before  a 
banquet,  and  was  occasionally  omitted,  though 
its  absence  might  be  remarked  (Lk  7  ■*■*).  St. 
John's  account  supplements  St.  Luke's  by 
recording  the  symbolical  act  by  which  our  Lord 
enforced  His  words,  '  I  am  among  you  as  he 
that  serveth'  (Lk222r). 

8.  If  I  wash  thee  not]  Besides  the  literal, 
the  evangelist  sees  in  these  words  a  symbolical 
meaning  :  '  Unless  I  wash  thee  from  thy  sins, 
thou  hast  no  part  with  Me '  :  see  v.  10.  10.  He 
that  is  washed  (i.e.  has  bathed  his  whole  body) 
needeth  not  save  to  wash  his  feet]  This  is  a 
parable  of  things  spiritual.  The  complete 
bathing  or  immersion  stands  for  the  full  and 
complete  forgiveness  which  Christ  offers  to 
His  disciples  in  Holy  Baptism,  and  which 
cannot  be  repeated  :  the  washing  of  the  feet 
symbolises  the  daily  forgiveness  of  sins  com- 
mitted after  Baptism  by  repentance  and  prayer. 

Not  all]  The  apostles  had  repented  of  their 
pride  and  ambition,  and  had  received  forgive- 
ness from  our  Lord  (15  3),  except  Judas,  who 
could  not  be  forgiven,  because  he  cherished 
his  sin. 

12.  Set  dowm]  rather,  'reclined  at  table'  : 
see  V,  23.  14-17.  Our  Lord  now  draws  from 
the  incident  the  more  obvious  lessons  of  humil- 
ity and  willing  service  to  others,  as  in  St.  Luke 
(Lk222'4-30)_  i^^  This  precept  was  obeyed  liter- 
ally by  many  ancient  Churches  on  Maundy 
Thursday,  and  still  is  by  the  Roman  and 
Eastern  Churches. 

18-30.  Jesus  indicates  the  Traitor. 

18.  I  do  not  call  you  all  happy  (blessed), 
for  I  know  that  among  you  is  a  traitor.  But 
My  choice  even  of  the  traitor  is  in  accordance 
with  the  prophecy  of  Scripture.  The  scripture] 
The  quotation  is  a  free  one  from  Ps41 9.  The 
speaker  is  David,  but  since  David  is  a  type  of 
Christ,  the  words  are  treated  as  a  typical  pro- 
phecy of  Christ's  betrayal.  19.  That  I  am  he] 
i.e.  the  Messiah  ;  or,  'that  I  AM'  (see  8 58). 

20.  Lest  the  knowledge  that  there  is  a 
traitor  among  them  should  weaken  their  con- 
fidence in  one  another,  and  in  their  divine  call 


797 


13.  21 


ST.  JOHN 


14.  2 


to  the  apostolate,  Jesus  hastens  to  assure  them 
that  they  will  receive  the  fullest  divine  powers 
from  Himself  and  His  Father  for  the  work  of 
the  ministry. 

21-30.  Cp.  the  parallel  accounts  in  Mt262i 
Mkl4i8  Lk22  2i.  St.  John's  main  point  is 
that  the  designation  of  the  traitor  was  private, 
not  public.  It  was  made  in  a  whisper  to  St. 
John  only,  and  even  to  him  the  name  was  not 
mentioned.  St.  John's  account  is  altogether 
probable.  Had  Jesus  denounced  the  traitor 
clearly  and  openly,  Judas  would  never  have 
left  the  room  alive. 

23.  Leaning  on  (RY  '  reclining  in ')  Jesus' 
bosom]  The  guests  lay  on  their  left  sides,  on 
separate  but  adjacent  couches,  each  supporting 
his  head  upon  his  left  hand,  with  his  left  elbow 
resting  upon  a  cushion.  The  first  place  of 
honour  (behind  Jesus)  was  probably  occupied 
by  St.  Peter  ;  the  second  place  of  honour  (in 
front  of  Jesus)  was  occupied  by  St.  John.  St. 
John,  therefore,  could  easily  lean  back  on 
Jesus'  bosom.  26.  Answered]  evidently  in  a 
whisper,  so  that  St.  Peter  could  not  hear.  A 
sop]  RV  '  the  sop.'  The  sop  handed  to  another 
was  a  pledge  of  good  will,  like  our  old  custom 
of  taking  wine  with  a  person.  At  the  Passover 
the  sop  consisted  of  three  things  wrapped 
together,  the  flesh  of  the  paschal  lamb,  a  piece 
of  unleavened  bread,  and  bitter  herbs.  27.  The 
sop  was  the  last  appeal  of  divine  love  to  Judas. 
He  rejected  it,  and  straightway  at  that  moment 
the  devil  obtained  full  possession  of  his  soul. 

30.  Went  immediately  out]  St.  John  repre- 
sents Judas  as  departing  before  the  institution 
of  the  Holy  Communion  (see  v.  34).  The 
synoptists  (or,  at  least,  St.  Luke)  seem  to 
represent  him  as  remaining  and  communicating. 
St.  John's  account  is  altogether  more  probable. 

Night]  The  word  has  tragic  emphasis.  It 
was  night  literally,  a  time  appropriate  for 
deeds  of  darkness  ;  also  it  was  night  spiritually 
in  the  soul  of  Judas,  in  which  the  light  of 
God's  Spirit  had  been  for  ever  quenched. 

1 3  ^^-17^*^'  The  Last  Discourses  of  Jesus  to 
His  disciples.  We  come  now  to  what  is 
perhaps  the  most  precious  part  of  the  whole 
evangelical  history,  those  wonderful  dis- 
courses, delivered  by  our  Lord  in  the  upper 
room  just  after  the  institution  of  the  Lord's 
Supper.  St.  John  alone  I'ecords  them.  Like 
a  consecrated  priest,  the  evangelist  conducts 
us  into  the  Holy  of  Holies,  revealing  the 
inmost  thoughts,  desires,  and  aspirations  of 
our  divine  Redeemer. 

31-35.  The  Lord's  Supper  (Holy  Com- 
munion) and  the  New  Commandment  of  Love. 
Relieved  of  the  traitor's  presence,  our  Lord 
institutes  the  rite  of  Holy  Communion, 
which  is  to  take  the  place  of  the  Passover, 
and  proceeds  to  explain  its  significance  as  a 
pledge  and  bond  of  love  among  the  disciples 


798 


(vv.  34,  35),  and  afterwards  as  a  means  of 
union  and  communion  with  Himself  (15i*-). 

31.   Now  is  the  Son  of  man  glorified]   viz, 
by   death.     His   death  was   already   virtually 
accomplished,  when  the  traitor  went  forth  to 
arrange   for   His   arrest.     32.   God   shall   also 
glorify   him]  viz.    by   raising    Him   from   the    1 
dead,   and  exalting  Him  to  His   right  hand  i 
in  heaven.     In  himself]   i.e.  in   the  Father's  ' 
peculiar  glory,  which  the  Son  of  G-od  resigned 
at  His  Incarnation  :  cp.  17  ^  Phil28-ii. 

33.  Little  children]  This  touching  designa- 
tion is  almost,  if  not  altogether,  peculiar  to  St. 
John  (IJn  2 1. 12, 28  3  7,  is  4  4  5  21).  i^  extreme 
old  age,  when  too  feeble  to  preach,  he  used  to 
be  carried  into  Church,  and  simply  to  say  to 
the  people,  '  Little  children,  love  one  another.' 

Ye  shall  seek  me]  '  You  will  be  left  here  on 
earth  for  a  time  ;  but,  unlike  the  Jews,  you 
will  seek  Me  and  will  find  Me,  for  if  you 
love  one  another,  I  will  answer  your  prayers, 
and  reveal  Myself  to  you.'  Ye  cannot  come] 
not  at  once,  but  hereafter,  for  'I  go  to  pre- 
pare a  place  for  you'  (142).  24.  A  new 
commandment]  Love  is  the  fulfilling  of  the 
Law.  The  old  commandment  to  love  one 
another  (LvlQ^*^),  which  our  Lord  regarded 
as  the  essential  feature  of  the  Law,  is  now 
reenacted  in  a  higher  sense,  and  grounded  on 
a  new  motive,  viz.  the  Love  of  Christ  for  all 
mankind,  as  shown  in  His  Atoning  Death. 
The  feast  which  commemorates  this  death  is 
to  be  the  great  bond  of  love  and  union  among 
Christians. 

36-38.  Peter's  denial  foretold]  Parallel  with 
Lk  22  31-34^  and  similar  in  character  to  Mt263i 
Mkl427,  q.v. 

36.  Thou  shalt  follow]  a  prophecy  not  only 
of  Peter's  martyrdom,  but,  as  the  event 
showed,  of  the  manner  of  his  martyrdom 
(crucifixion)  :  see  211^,  19, 

CHAPTER  14 

The  Comforter 

1-3 1.  The  mansions  in  heaven.  The  mission 
of  the  Comforter.  This  great  discourse,  which 
is  not  easily  susceptible  of  formal  subdivision, 
deals  with  five  main  subjects  :  (1)  the  heavenly 
mansions  ;  (2)  Christ  as  the  Way  to  the 
Father  ;  (3)  the  mutual  indwelling  of  the 
Father  in  the  Son,  and  of  the  Son  in  the 
Father  ;  (4)  the  efficacy  of  prayer  through 
Christ  ;  (5)  the  mission  of  the  Comforter. 

Some  scholars  think  that  a  displacement  has 
occurred  in  the  farewell  discourses,  and  par- 
ticularly that  this  c,  which  seems  to  conclude 
Christ's  words  to  His  disciples,  originally 
stood  between  chs.  16  and  17. 

1.  'Be  not  disquieted  at  My  departure  (see 
1336).  Have  faith  that  I  have  the  power  to 
fulfil  the  promises  that  I  now  make  to  you.' 

2.  My  Father's  house]   i.e.  heaven.     Many 


14.  3 


ST.  JOHN 


14.23 


mansions]  RM  '  abiding-places.'  There  are 
various  degrees  of  glory  in  heaven,  and  various 
employments,  suitable  to  the  desert  and 
capacity  of  each  (Lk  19 16-26^  etc.).  The  word 
used,  which  sometimes  denotes  a  place  of 
refreshment  for  travellers,  is  thought  by  West- 
cott  to  suggest  that  heaven  is  a  state  of  con- 
tinual progress,  but  this  is  unlikely.  3.  I  -will 
come  again]  viz.  at  the  end  of  the  world. 

4.  'You  know  whither  I  go,  viz.  to  My 
Father  in  heaven  ;  and  you  know  how  you 
also  may  follow  Me,  viz.  by  believing  in  Me.' 
But  the  E,V  has  simply,  '  And  whither  I  go, 
ye  know  the  way.' 

5.  Thomas]  For  the  character  of  Thomas 
see  11 1*5  20  ^s.  Thomas  expected  an  imme- 
diate manifestation  of  the  Messianic  kingdom 
on  earth,  and  this  prevented  him  from  under- 
standing Jesus.  6,  7.  '  The  Kingdom  which  I 
have  come  to  reveal  is  not  an  earthly  one  ; 
the  mansions  of  which  I  have  spoken  are  in 
heaven,  not  on  earth.  To  share  in  My  King- 
dom, is  to  share  that  state  of  exalted  and 
blissful  communion  with  the  Father,  which  is  not 
possible  on  earth.  I  depart  to  heaven,  to  enter 
into  that  state  of  bliss  ;  and  you  may  follow 
and  enjoy  it  too,  if  you  will  have  faith  in  Me 
as  the  one  mediator  between  God  and  man 
(the  Way),  the  one  teacher  authorised  to 
reveal  the  things  of  God  (the  Truth),  and  the 
one  author  of  spiritual  as  of  natural  life  (the 
Life).'  6.  No  man]  It  is  important  to  remem- 
ber that  pious  heathen,  who  have  never  heard 
of  Christ,  may  and  do  find  acceptance  with 
God,  through  Him,  whom,  if  they  had  known, 
they  would  have  accepted  as  their  Redeemer 
(Ro  2 14-16).  7.  Have  seen  him]  not  in  His 
absolute  nature,  which  is  invisible  (1 1^),  but 
in  His  character,  which  is  revealed  in  My 
Person  :  see  6*^^  and  -v.  9  below. 

8.  Philip  desired  to  see  the  eternal  invisible 
Father  as  a  distinct  being  beside  the  Son. 
He  wished  for  a  visible  Theophany  :  cp.  Ex 
2410.     10.   See  on  1038.     11.   Cp.  lO^s  1524. 

12.  Greater  loorkH]  The  Apostles'  work  was 
more  etfectual  than  that  of  Christ  Himself, 
because  they  were  inspired  by  the  Spirit  of 
the  Risen  and  Ascended  Lord.  Not  till  Christ 
had  departed  to  the  Father  could  the  Spirit 
be  fully  given.  13.  Not  only  is  Christian 
prayer  to  be  offered  in  the  name  of  (i.e.  in- 
voking the  mediation  of)  the  Son,  but  even 
answers  to  prayer  are  given  through  the  Son, 
that  the  same  honour  may  be  accorded  to  the 
Son  as  to  the  Father.  Whatsoever]  cp.  151" 
1623,24  The  limitations  to  be  understood  are 
that  the  petitioner  must  ask  in  faith  (Mt21  22)^ 
be  in  charity  with  his  neighbours  (Mt6i4), 
and  habitually  keep  God's  commandments 
(lJn322).  14.  Here,  according  to  the  reading 
of  the  RV,  Christ  teaches  the  disciples  to  pray 
directly  to  Himself,  as  well  as  to  the  Father 


in  His  Name.     Examples  of  prayer  to  Christ 
are  Ac759  9i4>2i  lCorl2. 

16.  Another  Comforter]  RM  'Advocate,'  or, 
'  Helper.'  Attractive,  and  suitable  to  the 
context,  as  the  rendering  '  Comforter  '  is,  there 
can  be  little  doubt  that  the  true  meaning  of 
the  Gk.  Paracletos  is  '  Advocate.'  The  Holy 
Spirit  is  represented  as  Christ's  Representative 
on  earth,  carrying  on  His  work,  and  inspiring 
and  strengthening  His  disciples  to  fulfil  their 
vocation.  As  Christ's  '  Advocate  '  he  pleads 
Chi'ist's  cause  in  the  hearts  of  the  disciples, 
and  appeals  also  to  the  better  conscience  of 
'  the  world,'  convicting  the  world  of  sin,  of 
righteousness,  and  of  judgment  (168).  He 
inspires  believers  with  the  spirit  of  prayer, 
and,  when  they  pray,  'Himself  maketh  inter- 
cession for  us  with  groanings  which  cannot  be 
uttered '  (Ro  8  26, 27).  To  His  guidance  the  dis- 
ciples are  to  resign  themselves  with  implicit 
confidence,  for  He  is  the  Spirit  of  Truth.  He 
guides,  not  so  much  as  an  external  authority, 
as  an  inward  light  shining  in  the  heart — an 
interior  monitor  regulating  the  secret  springs 
of  character.  In  His  coming,  Christ  also 
returns  to  earth,  to  dwell  in  the  hearts  of 
believers  by  faith  ;  but  yet  He  must  not  be 
altogether  identified  with  Christ,  for  He  is 
'  another  '  Comforter.  The  functions  of  the 
Comforter  sufficiently  attest  His  divinity". 

17.  Spirit  of  truth]  He  inspires  what  is 
good  and  true  in  conduct,  and  reveals  what  is 
good  and  true  in  doctrine.  The  world,  etc.] 
The  experience  of  the  Spirit  is  inward  and 
spiritual :  this  the  world  cannot  grasp.  Dwelleth 
with  you]  viz.  externally,  by  His  presence 
in  the  Church.  And  shall  be  in  you]  as  an 
inward  principle,  sanctifying,  inspiring,  guiding, 
and  filling  you  with  peace  and  joy.  18.  Com- 
fortless] lit.  '  orphans.'  I  will  come  to  you] 
invisibly  and  spiritually  in  the  coming  of 
the  Spirit.  19.  But  ye  see  me]  i.e.  shall  see 
Me,  literally  during  the  forty  days,  spiritually 
after  Pentecost,  when  you  shall  enjoy  com- 
munion with  Me  so  deep  and  satisfying,  that 
it  will  be  better  than  sight.  Because  I  live] 
'  because  I  live '  for  evermore,  '  and  ye  shall 
live  '  (RM)  spiritually  in  Me.  20.  At  that 
day  (i.e.  after  Pentecost)  ye  shall  kno'w  by 
spiritual  experience  that  I  am  in  my  Father, 
and  ye  in  me]  So  close  is  the  spii-itual  union 
between  Christ  and  believers,  that  He  com- 
pares it  with  the  mutual  indwelling  of  the 
Father  and  the  Son. 

22.  Judas]  called  Thadd^us  or  Lebb^us 
(MtlO^),  is  not  the  same  as  Jude  the  Lord's 
brother.  He  thought  that  Jesus  was  about  to 
establish  an  earthly  kingdom,  and  therefore 
to  manifest  Himself  to  the  v(rorld.  23.  Jesus, 
by  adding  that  the  Father  also  will  come  to 
believers,  shows  more  clearly  that  it  is  a 
spiritual  manifestation  of  which  He  is  speaking, 


799 


14.  26 


ST.  JOHN 


15 


^ 


and  that  only  to  those  who  love  Jesus,  can  the 
manifestation  be  made.  We  will  come] 
Where  the  Son  is,  there  of  necessity  is  the 
Father  also,  as  well  as  the  Spirit,  for  the 
Three  are  One,  being  different  forms  of  the 
subsistence  and  manifestation  of  the  same 
Divine  Being.  This  passage  illustrates  the 
doctrine  that  the  Persons  of  the  Holy  Trinity 
are  inseparable,  and  contain  one  another.  The 
technical  word  is  perlchoresis  (Gk.),  or  '  circu- 
mincessio  '  (circuminsessio),  Lat.     See  on  10  38. 

26.  In  my  name]  i.e.  as  My  full  Eepresent- 
ative,  endowed  with  all  My  powers,  and  with 
a  mission  to  promote  My  cause  in  the  world. 

He  (masculine,  to  show  the  Spirit's  person- 
ality) shall  teach  you  all  things]  i.e.  all  saving 
truth,  which  it  is  necessary  for  you  and  your 
successors  to  know.  Those  who  would  confine 
the  Christian  religion  to  the  words  of  Christ 
recorded  in  the  Gospels,  are  here  reproved. 

Bring  all  things]  The  Spirit  would  awaken 
the  words  of  Christ  which  lay  like  slumbering 
germs  in  the  minds  of  the  disciples,  and  cause 
them  to  germinate  and  bear  fruit  after  many 
days.  Of  this  process  St.  John's  Gospel  itself 
is  the  most  striking  example 


Olives.     The  last  view  seems  to  be  the  most 
plausible. 

CHAPTER  15 
The  True  Yine.  The  Witness  of  the 
Comforter  and  of  the  Apostles 
1-17.  The  allegory  of  the  True  Vine  and 
its  interpretation.  The  metaphor  of  'the 
vine '  was  suggested  by  '  the  fruit  of  the  vine ' 
which  had  just  been  consecrated  in  the  Holy 
Supper  (Mt  26  29),  and  the  allegory  was  intended 
to  illustrate  the  main  idea  underlying  that 
holy  rite,  viz.  union  with  Christ.  It  sets  forth 
Christ  as  the  sole  source  of  spiritual  life,  and 
of  Christian  sanctity.  As  long  as  the  spiritual 
union  between  Christ  and  the  believer,  which 
(ideally  and  normally,  at  any  rate)  begins  with 
Baptism,  is  maintained  by  faith  love  and 
prayer,  the  believer's  soul  is  nourished  by 
constant  supplies  of  grace,  just  as  truly  as 
the  branches  of  a  vine  are  nourished  by  the 
sap  that  flows  into  them  from  the  stem. 
Nourished  by  the  life  of  Christ,  the  believer's 
soul  is  cleansed,  sanctified,  and  made  fruitful 
in  all  good  works.  Neglect  of  prayer,  the 
holy  sacraments  and  the  other  means  of  grace 


tne  most  striK-iug  cAdua^jic.  ----./     .  ,     ,  ,      •    ,  .-         £  j.v         •  j 

27.   Peace]   more  exactly   defined   as    '  My     is  punished  by  interruption  of  this  union,  and. 


Peace,'  is  the  peace  of  reconciliation  with  God 
through  the  Death  of  Christ.  Not  as  the 
world  giveth]  This  peace  is  not  mere  earthly 
joy  and  prosperity :  it  is  a  removal  of  all 
elements  of  discord  from  the  soul.  28.  And 
come  again']  i.e.  in  the  coming  of  the  Spirit. 
For  my  Father  is  greater  than  I]  '  Rejoice 


finally,  by  its  complete  severance,  resulting  in 
spiritual  death,  and  inability  to  perform  works 
acceptable  to  God. 

I.  The  true  vine]  i.e.  the  ideally  perfect 
vine.  '  The  vine  was  the  symbol  of  Israel,  not 
in  their  national  but  in  their  church  capacity ' 
(Edersheim):  cp.  PsSQS  IsaS^  Jer  22i  HoslQi 


that  I  so  to  My  Father,  for  it  is  good  both  for     It  was  also  a  symbol  of  the  Messiah  (Delitzsch) 


Me  and  for  you.  He  will  exalt  Me  to  supreme 
authority  over  the  universe,  enable  Me  to  dis- 
pense the  Holy  Spirit,  and  cause  My  work  to 
prosper  in  your  hands.'  When  Christ  said 
'  My  Father  is  greater  than  I,'  He  was  probably 
thinking  of  the  humiliation  of  His  earthly  life, 
and  of  His  created  human  nature  ('  equal  to 
the  Father  as  touching  His  Godhead,  and 
inferior  to  the  Father  as  touching  His  man 


Accordingly  Christ  here  affirms,  (1)  that  He  is 
the  true  Messiah  ;  (2)  that  His  Church  is  the 
true  Israel  of  God,  and  His  followers  the 
true  Israelites  (cp.  ICorlQis  GalGie  lPet2  9 
Rev  2939,  etc.)  ;  but,  above  all,  (3)  that  He  is 
the  one  fountain  of  spiritual  life,  supplying 
all  needful  grace  to  believers.  The  figure  of  the 
vine  and  the  branches  corresponds  to  that  of  the 
body  and  the  members,  used  first  by  Christ  at 


hood  '^  •  vet  there  is  a  sense  in  which  even  the     the  institution  of  the  Holy  Supper  (Mt2626) 


eternal' Son,  as  being  begotten,  is  inferior  to 
the  Father. 

30.  Hereafter,  etc.]  rather,  '  No  longer  will 
I  speak  much  with  you,'  because  time  will  not 
allow  it.  The  prince]  i.e.  Satan,  who,  through 
the  powers  that  be,  works  his  will  on  Jesus : 
cp.  1231.  Hath  nothing  in  me]  i.e.  hath  no 
power  over  the  Sinless  One.  31.  But  I  go 
forth  to  meet  My  death  that  the  world  may 
know,  etc.  Arise,  let  us  go  hence]  On  account 
of  these  words,  some  plausibly  (but  without 
sufficient  authority),  wish  to  place  this  c.  after 
c.  16.  The  discourses  which  follow  (chs.  15, 
16,  17)  were  delivered  either  (1)  standing  at 
the  table  before  departing,  or  (2)  in  the 
Temple,  or  (3)  in  some  retired  place  m  Jeru- 
salem, or   (4)   on  the  way  to  the  Mount  of 


and  often  afterwards  by  St.  Paul,  to  express  the 
mysterious,  but  real  and  vital  union  which  sub- 
sists between  Christ  and  individual  believers, 
and  between  Chi-ist  and  His  Church  (Rol25 
1  Cor  10 17  12i2-3iEphl23  3M4-16  530  Colli8-24 
219  315),  As  the  vine  sends  sap  into  every 
branch,  causing  the  grapes  to  grow  and  ripen, 
so  Christ  communicates  spiritual  life  and  grace 
to  every  soul  that  is  effectively  '  in  Him,'  caus- 
ing it  to  bring  forth  '  the  fruits  of  the  Spirit' 
(Gal  5  22),  to  be  '  fruitful  in  every  good  work ' 
(Col  1 10),  and — greatest  gift  of  all — to  be  '  par- 
taker of  the  divine  natm-e '  (2  Pet  1 4).  Union 
with  Christ  is  normally  begun  in  Baptism 
(1  Cor  1213  G-al327  Ro63,  etc.),  and  maintained 
by  constant  faith  (Eph3i7),  obedience  (Jn  1423 
Rev  3  20),   love   (lJn4i2),   Holy   Communion 


800 


15.2 


ST.  JOHN 


16.  4 


(Jn656  1  Cor  10 16).  The  husbandman]  cp. 
Mkl2i  Lkl36. 

2.  Every  branch]  refers  primarily  to  in- 
dividual Christians  ;  yet  what  is  said  applies 
also  to  Churches  (Rev25  3^^).  Taketh  away] 
yet  not  finally  till  the  Last  Judgment.  Purg- 
eth]  RV  'cleanseth,'  or,  still  better,  'pruneth.' 
The  reference  is  (1)  to  the  discipline  of 
sorrow,  disappointment,  temptation,  and  trial, 
by  which  the  saints  are  perfected  (Hebl26 
Rev  3 19;  cp.  Heb58)  ;  (2)  to  the  cutting  off 
of  the  superfluities,  ambitions,  luxuries,  and 
worldly  pleasures  and  lusts,  which  hinder  the 
Christian  life  (Gal  5  24  6  14  Jas  1 2i).  3.  Through 
the  word]  The  '  word  '  is  the  whole  training 
of  the  Twelve,  including  the  admonitions  and 
severe  rebukes  with  which  He  strove  to  correct 
their  faults,  and  make  them  'clean,',  i.e. 
'pruned,'  and  in  a  fruit  bearing  state.  4.  'See 
that  ye  abide  in  Me  by  diligently  using  the 
means  of  grace,  and  I  will  abide  in  you.' 

6.  As  a  branch]   i.e.  as  a  useless  branch. 

Men  (RV  '  they ')  gather  them]  The  angels 
gather  the  useless  branches  (i.e.  persons  who 
are  not  in  Christ),  and  cast  them  into  the  fire 
(of  future  punishment  in  Hades  or  Gehenna), 
and  they  are  burned  (punished). 

II,  12.  The  Saviour  now  resolves  His 
commands  into  perfect  self -forgetting  love. 

11.  My  joy]  i.e.  the  joy  which  I  have  in 
loving  the  Father,  and  being  loved  by  Him 
(v.  10).  This  joy  Christ  imparts  to  the  dis- 
ciples, thereby  fulfilling  (i.e.  perfecting)  their 
imperfect  joy  :  cp.  1624  1713  IJn  1^  2Jnli2. 

12.  See  1334.  13.  Lay  down]  see  10  n, 
and  cp.  Ijn3i6.  The  Saviour  regards  the 
offering  up  of  life,  and  that  for  friends,  as  the 
highest  expression  of  love,  and  expects  the 
disciples  to  prove  themselves  capable  of  similar 
self-sacrifice.  15.  All  things]  This  apparently 
contradicts  1 6 12  (cp.  1 4  2»3)^  but  only  apparently. 
Christ's  teaching  during  His  ministry  was 
complete  in  the  sense  that  it  set  forth  all  the 
principles  of  Christianity.  Yet  there  was  re- 
quired the  subsequent  illumination  of  the 
Spirit,  (1)  to  interpret  the  deeper  meaning  of 
those  principles,  and  (2)  to  apply  them  prac- 
tically to  the  needs  of  the  Church.  16.  Or- 
dained] RV  '  appointed.'  Bring  forth  fruit] 
This  mainly  refers  to  the  conversion  of  the 
world,  which  was  the  fruit  of  the  spiritual 
labours  of  the  Apostles.  Should  remain] 
Their  work  has  lasted  nearly  2,000  years,  and 
the  vitality  of  Christian  missionary  work  is 
still  unimpaired.     Whatsoever]  see  on  1413. 

In  my  name]  '  in  accordance  with  My  spirit 
and  character.  17.  I  command  you  to  abide 
in  Me,  that  by  so  doing  you  may  have  the 
power  to  love  one  another.' 

18-25.  The  world's  hatred]  cp.  the  similar 
predictions,  Mt  10 16-28  249  Lk  2112.16  .  cp.  also 
1  Pet  4 12. 13. 


51 


801 


18.  Cp.  1  Jn  3 13.  The  world  is  mankind  re- 
garded as  alienated  from  God.  20.  The  word] 
see  Mt  1024.     The  reference  is  not  to  Jn  13  16. 

25.  Their  law]  i.e.  their  Scriptures  (see 
1034).  The  passage  alluded  to  is  Ps694  :  cp. 
Ps  35 11.  David  is  the  person  hated,  but  David's 
case  is  typical  of  Christ's. 

26,  27.  The  Witness  of  the  Holy  Spirit  and 
of  the  Apostles  to  Christ. 

26.  The  Comforter]  see  on  1416.  Whom  I 
vnll  send]  According  to  1417,26^  it  is  the  Father 
who  sends  the  Spirit;  now  it  is  Christ  Himself, 
showing  clearly  that  '  what  things  soever  the 
Father  doeth,  these  also  doeth  the  Son  like- 
wise'(5 19).  Cp.  Lk  24  49  Ac  2  33,  and  see  on 
167.  Which  proceedeth  from  the  Father]  The 
Eastern  Church  uses  this  text  to  prove  the 
eternal  procession  of  the  Holy  Ghost  from  the 
Father  alone,  but  the  preposition  used  shows 
that  not  the  eternal  origin,  but  the  temporal 
mission  of  the  Comforter  is  meant.  He  (the 
masculine  pronoun  emphasises  the  Spirit's 
personality  :  cp.  1426)  shall  testify  of  me] 
by  His  whole  working  in  the  Church  from 
Pentecost  onward  :  see  on  168. 

CHAPTER  16 
The    Resurrection    and    Ascension    of 
Christ    will    prove    the    Disciples' 
comfort  in  time  of  Persecution 

1-6.  The  Persecution  of  the  Apostles  pre- 
dicted. This  section  repeats  many  of  the 
ideas  of  the  previous  c.  (see  15 18-24).  The 
reason  of  the  anticipated  persecution  is  '  be- 
cause they  (the  persecutors)  have  not  known 
the  Father  nor  Me '  (v.  3)  ;  i.e.  because  they 
have  mistaken  the  character  of  the  service 
which  the  Father  requires  of  them.  They 
think  that  He  requires  strict  observance  of  the 
Ceremonial  Law  ;  what  He  really  requires  is 
worship  in  spirit  and  in  truth,  according  to  My 
teaching. 

I.  Offended]  i.e.  that  your  faith  should  not 
be  shaken  (RV  '  made  to  stumble  ').  2.  Out 
of  the  synagogues]  i.e.  excommunicate  you  : 
see  922,34  1242^  andcp.  Mtl0i7.  Doeth  God 
service]  more  precisely,  '  offereth  sacrifice  to 
God.'  There  was  a  Jewish  saying,  'Every 
one  that  sheddeth  the  blood  of  the  wicked,  is 
as  he  that  offereth  a  sacrifice.'  4.  The  time] 
RV  '  their  hour,'  i.e.  the  hour  of  your  enemies' 
apparent  triumph.  Ye  may  remember]  The 
Apostles'  persecutions  would  be  easier  to  bear, 
if  it  was  clearly  understood  that  they  were  fore- 
ordained by  God  and  foretold  by  Christ  :  cp. 
13 19  1 4  29.  I  said  not  unto  you  at  (R V '  from  ') 
the  beginning]  Some  intimations  of  the  coming 
persecutions  had  been  given  in  the  earlier 
charge  to  the  Twelve  (MtlOi6),  but  only  now 
does  our  Lord  bring  the  matter  prominently 
forward.  Because  I  was  with  you]  While 
Christ  was  with  the  Apostles,  they  were  in  no 


16. 


ST.  JOHN 


16.  W 


danger  of  persecution,  and  therefore  there 
was  no  need  to  speak  to  them  about  it.  But 
since  persecution  was  to  begin  after  His  death, 
and  His  death  was  now  impending,  it  was 
necessary  for  Him  to  begin  to  speak  to  them 
about  it.  5.  None  of  you  asketh  me]  The 
Apostles  were  so  much  disturbed  by  the  thought 
of  Christ's  imminent  death,  and  their  own 
approaching  persecutions,  that  they  had  no 
heart  to  enquire  about  the  glorious  abode  to 
which  Christ  was  going,  and  to  which  they 
also  would  one  day  go. 

7-15.  The  work  of  the  Comforter  in  the 
world  and  in  the  Church. 

7.  It  was  better  for  them  that  Christ's 
personal  presence  should  be  withdrawn,  in 
order  that  His  spiritual  presence  might  be 
nearer  to  them  than  ever,  or,  rather,  might 
for  the  first  time  truly  begin.  This  would  be 
effected  by  the  coming  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  when 
He  who  was  now  '  with '  them,  would  be  ever 
them.     If  I  go  not  away]   The  glorifi- 


m 


cation  of  Christ's  humanity  through  the  in- 
dwelling Spirit  was  not  complete  till  the  Eesur- 
rection  and  Ascension,  hence  not  till  after  the 
Ascension  could  the  Spirit  of  the  glorified 
Christ  be  given.     Comforter]  see  on  1416. 

8.  Reprove]  RV  '  convict.'  The  Gk.  word, 
which  also  occurs  320  8  9  (AV)  8^6,  means  to 
prove  a  person  in  the  wrong,  hence  to  convict. 
The  Holy  Ghost  will  '  convince  '  or  '  convict ' 
the  world,  by  placing  before  it  the  claims  of 
Christ  with  a  force  and  clearness  that  cannot 
be  evaded.  The  result  will  be  twofold.  Some 
will  be  '  convicted  by  their  own  consciences ' 
(89),  or  'pricked  to  the  heart'  (Ac 2 37),  and 
so  repent  and  believe  (Ac  2  38).  Others  will 
be  hardened  in  their  sin  and  unbelief  (Ro  1 1 8), 
and  be  '  convicted  '  of  wilful  blindness  in  the 
sight  of  God  and  good  men. 

9-1 1.  The  Holy  Ghost,  through  the  apos- 
tolic preaching,  and  through  the  new  power 
of  holiness  manifested  in  the  lives  of  believers, 
will  convince  mankind,  (1)  of  their  sin  and 
folly  in  rejecting  Christ  ;  (2)  that  Christ  is  a 
sincere  and  righteous  teacher,  and  not,  as  they 
had  thought,  an  impostor,  as  will  be  clearly 
demonstrated  when  the  Father  has  raised  Him 
from  the  dead  and  set  Him  at  His  right  hand 
in  heaven  ;  (3)  that  the  unspiritual  system  of 
religion  which  they  have  hitherto  professed, 
and  which  has  led  them  to  reject  Christ,  is  of 
the  devil  and  not  of  God,  that  God  Himself 
has  condemned  it,  and  that  therefore  they 
must  condemn  it  too. 

This  passage  is  an  extremely  difficult  one, 
and  various  other  interpretations  of  it  are  given. 

II.  Judgment]  i.e.  condemnation.  The 
prince]  i.e.  Satan:  see  1231  1430.  The  Resur- 
rection is  the  proof  that  Satan  and  the  world 
(i.e.  the  opponents  of  Jesus)  are  condemned 
by  God. 


12,  13.  This  promise  of  divine  guidance  to 
the  Apostles  as  teachers,  justifies  us  in  accept- 
ing their  writings  as  specially  inspired.  The 
promise,  however,  is  not  exclusively  to  them, 
for  in  all  time  (and  not  least  in  our  own)  the 
Holy  Spirit  is  guiding  the  Church  into  all 
truth.  13.  Into  all  truth]  RV  '  all  the  truth,' 
i.e.  all  that  is  necessary  to  the  salvation  of 
souls  and  to  the  well-being  of  the  Church. 
It  should  be  noticed  that  the  Church's  appre- 
hension of  truth  is  regarded  as  progressive. 

Things  to  come]  Here  the  prediction  of 
events  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  functions  of 
tnie  prophecy. 

14,  15.  One  of  the  leading  Trinitarian 
passages  in  the  NT.  In  it  (1)  the  three 
Persons  are  clearly  distinguished  ;  (2)  their 
relative  subordination  is  clearly  taught,  the 
Father  giving  His  all  to  the  Son,  and  the  Son 
communicating  His  all  to  the  Spirit ;  (3)  their 
equality  of  nature  is  distinctly  affirmed,  for 
the  Son  receives  from  the  Father  '  all  things 
whatsoever  the  Father  hath '  (see  RY),  i.e. 
His  whole  nature  and  attributes,  and  communi- 
cates them  to  the  Spirit.  14.  The  Spirit 
would  glorify  Christ,  by  progressively  revealing 
the  full  sense  of  what  Christ  had  taught  them. 

16-24.  The  Apostles'  Sorrow  turned  into 
Joy. 

16.  Ye  shall  see  me]  (1)  with  bodily  sight 
during  the  forty  days  ;  (2)  with  spiritual 
vision  after  Pentecost  (see  on  14 18>  19).  20.  But 
the  w^orld  shall  rejoice]  '  My  enemies  will  re- 
joice at  My  death,  and  the  apparent  failure  of 
My  designs.'  22.  I  will  see  you  again]  The 
reference  is  both  to  the  Resurrection  and  to 
the  coming  of  the  Spirit.  23.  In  that  day] 
i.e.  the  time  beginning  at  Pentecost.  Ye  shall 
ask  me  nothing]  RM  is  preferable,  '  Ye  shall 
ask  me  no  question,'  i.e.  about  the  true  mean- 
ing of  My  words,  for  all  will  then  be  clear  to 
you.  He  wU  give  it  you]  RV  adds  '  in  my 
name,'  i.e.  for  My  sake.  24.  Hitherto  .  .  name] 
because  prayer  in  the  name  of  Christ  pre- 
supposes His  glorification. 

25-33.  Last  Words.  Temporary  defeat  in 
the  present  vnll  be  followed  by  final  victory. 

25.  In  proverbs]  RM  '  in  parables.'  Very 
many  of  our  Lord's  discourses  were  dark  and 
enigmatical  to  the  Apostles,  until  the  coming 
of  the  Holy  Spirit  furnished  the  key  to  their 
meaning.  Mere  words  can  only  hint  at,  not 
fully  express,  the  things  of  God.  It  requires 
the  inward  teaching  of  the  Holy  Spirit  to 
bring- home  to  the  soul  God's  message  of  sal- 
vation. The  time]  i.e.  the  dispensation  of  the 
Spirit  beginning  at  Pentecost.  26.  I  say  not.  . 
that  I  will  pray  the  Father  for  you]  'After 
Pentecost  you  will  have  direct  access  to  the 
Father.  You  will  ask  directly  for  what  you 
need  in  My  name,  and  no  longer  will  it  be 
needful  for  you,  as  it   is  at  present,  first  to 


802 


16.  30 


ST.  JOHN 


17.  12 


come  to  Me,  and  to   ask  Me  to  bring  your     visible  and  invisible,  with  one  another,  in  virtue 


needs  before  the  Father.'  This  text  does  not 
deny  Christ's  heavenly  intercession  (Ro  8  ^"^ 
Heb  7  25  IJn  2 1),  but  only  such  a  view  of  it 
as  would  make  it  a  barrier  between  the  Father 
and  the  prayers  of  His  children. 

30.  Needest  not  that  any  man  should  ask 
thee]  Thou  didst  answer  our  questions  before 
we  asked  them,  for  Thou  didat  know  what 
questions  were  in  our  minds. 

30,  31.  Jesus  shows  that  He  can  read 
the  thoughts  of  their  hearts  in  a  deeper  sense 
than  they  imagined.  He  knows  precisely 
what  their  faith  is  worth,  and  prophesies  their 
immediate  desertion  of  Him.  In  Mt263i  = 
Mk  14  27  this  prophecy  is  said  to  have  been 
delivered  at  the  Mount  of  Olives,  or  at  least 
on  the  way  thither.  This  favours  the  view 
that  the  discourses  vv.  15-1 7  were  delivered  on 
the  way  to  the  Mount  of  Olives. 

32.  To  his  own]  i.e.  to  his  own  house  ;  see 
111  1632  1927  Lkl8  2S  Ac21«.  Yet  I  am  not 
alone]  Only  for  a  few  awful  moments  upon 
the  cross  (Mt  27  ■*'^)  was  our  Lord's  conscious 
communion  with  His  Father  interrupted. 

33.  I  have  overcome  the  world]  See  the  sub- 
lime vision  in  the  Revelation,  where  Christ  goes 
forth  '  conquering  and  to  conquer  '  (Rev  6  2). 
The  victory  of  Chi'ist  over  the  world,  and  the 
victory  of  believers  through  that  victory,  are 
favourite  themes  of  the  fourth  evangelist 
(see  Ijn2i3,i4  44  54   Rev 2 7, n, ir, 26  35,12,21 

1211  152  1714  217). 

CHAPTER   17 
Christ's  High-priestly  Prayer 

1-26.  Christ's  Great  Intercession  for  Him- 
self, for  the  Apostles,  and  for  the  World.  This 
prayer  is  often,  and  suitably  called  Christ's 
'  High-priestly  prayer,'  because  in  it  He 
solemnly  consecrates  Himself  to  be  priest  and 
victim  in  the  approaching  sacrifice.  The  veil 
is  drawn  back  for  a  moment  from  the  inner 
sanctuary  of  His  mind,  and  we  are  enabled  to 
contemplate  with  awe  and  reverence  the  nature 
of  that  close  communion  which  He  habitually 
maintained  with  His  heavenly  Father. 

Christ  prays  (1)  for  Himself  (vv.  1-6),  that 
as  He  has  glorified  the  Father  by  His  life  on 
earth,  so  He  may  also  glorify  Him  by  His 
death,  and  after  death  may  receive  again  that 
glory  which  for  our  sakes  He  resigned  at  His 
Incarnation.  (2)  For  the  Apostles  (vv.  6-19), 
that  they  may  be  kept  from  sin,  and  from 
unfaithfulness  in  the  midst  of  a  wicked  and 
hostile  world,  that  they  may  be  perfectly 
united  in  affection  and  will,  and  that  they  may 
be  consecrated,  even  as  He  is  consecrated,  for 
the  solemn  mission  which  they  are  to  under-, 
take.  (3)  For  the  world  (vv.  20-26),  that  it 
may  be  converted  (v.  5l),  for  believers  that 
they  may  have  perfect  union  and  communion, 


of  their  union  with  the  one  God  through  the 
one  Christ  ;  and  that  finally  all  may  attain  to 
everlasting  salvation,  and  see  Christ  enthroned 
in  that  glory  which  He  had  with  the  Father 
before  the  world  was. 

I .  The  hour]  viz.  of  My  glorification  through 
death.  Glorify  thy  Son]  Christ  asks  the  Father 
to  glorify  Him  by  accepting  the  sacrifice  of 
His  death,  and  by  raising  Him  from  the 
dead.  When  this  is  done,  the  Son  will  glorify 
the  Father  by  converting  th  e  world.  2 .  Power] 
RY  '  authority.'  At  the  Incarnation  the 
Father  gave  the  Son  authority  to  die  for  the 
sins  of  the  whole  world,  and  to  proclaim  the 
Father's  gracious  offer  of  salvation  to  all 
mankind.  As  many  as  thou  hast  given  him] 
RV  '  whatsoever  thou  hast  given  him.'  Those 
whom  the  Father  '  gives  '  to  Christ,  are  those 
who  freely  accept  the  offer  of  salvation  which 
is  freely  made  to  all.  3.  Eternal  life  consists 
in  a  knowledge  of  God,  and  of  Jesus  as  the 
Messiah  sent  from  God,  i.e.  as  a  preexistent, 
divine  being.  '  Knowledge '  here  is  not  in- 
tellectual knowledge,  but  knowledge  based  on 
the  religious  experience  of  the  devout  Chris- 
tian soul.  4.  Our  Lord's  sinlessness  and 
moral  perfection  are  implied.  5.  The  memory 
of  Jesus  extends  beyond  His  birth,  and  beyond 
the  creation  of  the  world,  back  to  eternity, 
when  He  was  '  in  the  form  of  God,'  and 
'  equal  to  God'  (Phil  2  6)  ;  cp.  v.  24.  With  thine 
own  self]  i.e.  at  Thy  side. 

6,  Thy  name]  i.e.  Thy  nature.  The  men] 
i.e.  the  Apostles.  Kept  thy  word]  an  expression 
especially  characteristic  of  St.  John's  Gospel, 
lstEp.,andRev.  (JnSSi  1423  1  Jn25,  etc.). 

9.  I  pray  not  for  the  world]  rather,  '  I  am 
not  now  praying  for  the  world.'  Jesus  prays 
for  the  world  m  vv.  20-26,  especially  in  v.  2 1 ,  and 
enjoins  others  to  do  so,  Mt544>etc.  That 
Christ  prays  for  the  world  is  proved  by  the 
entire  nature  of  His  work,  the  object  of  which 
is  the  salvation  of  the  world  (Jn442,  etc.). 

10.  All  mine,  etc.]  RV  '  all  things  that  are 
mine  are  thine,  and  thine  are  mine.'  All  the 
attributes  which  belong  to  the  Son  belong  to 
the  Father ;  and  all  the  attributes  which 
belong  to  the  Father  (omniscience,  omnipo- 
tence, etc.)  belong  to  the  Son.  11.  Keep 
through  thine  own  name]  RV  '  keep 
them  in  thy  name  which  thou  hast  given 
me,'  i.e.  keep  them  in  a  state  of  grace 
defended  by  that  almighty  power,  which,  by 
Thy  gift,  I  share  with  Thee.  God's  '  name  ' 
here  is  practically  His  divine  nature  and  omni- 
potence. One]  How  close  must  be  that 
union  and  fellowship,  which  is  compared  with 
the  unity  of  Persons  in  the  Godhead  itself  ! 

12.  The  son  of  perdition]  i.e.  him  who  is 
destined  to  perdition,  viz.  Judas  Iscariot.  In 
2  Th  2  3  the  expression  is  used  of  Antichrist. 


803 


17.  13 


ST.  JOHN 


18.  13 


The  phrase  is  a  Hebraism  :  cp.  Mt23i5,  'a 
son  of  Gehenna.'  The  scripture]  in  accord- 
ance with  1318,  is  Ps419. 

13.  My  joy]  i.e.  the  joy  which  I  derive 
from  loving  communion  with  the  Father,  as 
in  1511  :  see  IJnl*.  14.  Thy  word]  i.e. 
Thy  whole  revelation  of  Thyself  as  disclosed 
in  My  life.  Hath  hated  them]  i.e.  will  hate 
them,  the  past  tense  expressing  the  certainty 
of  the  hatred,  already  so  clearly  foretold,  16  2. 

15.  I  pray  not,  etc.]  Because,  if  the  Apostles 
were  taken  out  of  the  world,  they  would  not 
be  able  to  convert  it.  From  the  evil]  more 
correctly  rendered  by  the  RV,  '  from  the  evil 
one.'  St.  John  habitually  conceives  of  evil 
as  personal  :  see  IJn 3 10, 12  5 is, i9_ 

17.  Sanctify  them  (RM  'consecrate  them') 
through  thy  truth  (RV  '  in  the  truth  ')]  Con- 
secrate them  to  their  apostolic  office,  endowing 
them  also  with  divine  illumination  and  wisdom 
for  their  work  :  cp.  Ex'iS-^i.  Our  Lord  also 
was '  consecrated '  for  His  work  when  He  entered 
the  world  :  see  lO^o.  18.  '  As  Thou  didst  not 
send  Me  into  the  world  without  first  consecrat- 
ing Me  (see  10  ^6)^  §0  now  I  consecrate  My 
Apostles  before  sending  them  forth.'  19.  'Now 
once  more  I  consecrate  Myself,  not  this  time 
as  a  mere  teacher,  but  as  priest  and  victim  in 
the  approaching  sacrifice.  The  blood  of  the 
new  covenant,  which  My  death  will  initiate 
and  ratify,  will  consecrate  My  Apostles  to  their 
office  and  work.'  For  '  sanctify '  in  the  sense 
of  offering  a  victim  in  sacrifice,  see  ExlS^ 
Dt  15 19  :  cp.  2  S  8  n.  Through  the  truth]  RV 
'  in  truth,'  i.e.  truly. 

21.  That  they  all  may  be  one]  A  leading 
passage  on  the  unity  of  the  Church.  The 
centre  of  unity  is  not  on  earth  but  in  heaven. 
Christians  are  'one,'  because  they  are  spiritually 
united  to  the  Father  and  the  Son,  whose  divine 
life  and  blessed  union  they  share  through  the 
faith  that  gives  eternal  life  (31'^,  etc.),  and 
through  believing  participation  in  the  sacra- 
ments (3  5  6  56  1  Cor  1 0 16, 17  1 2 13).  In  this,  its 
deepest  sense,  the  unitj'  of  the  Church  cannot 
be  broken  by  outward  divisions.  But  inward 
unity  ought  also  to  show  itself  in  visible  out- 
ward unity,  '  that  the  world  may  know  that 
Thou  hast  sent  Me.'  Hence  every  Christian  is 
bound  to  pray  and  work  for  the  reunion  of 
Christendom.  22.  The  glory]  i.e.  according  to 
the  context,  mainly  the  glory  of  unity  and 
love.  23.  That  the  world  may  know]  The 
whole  world  will  be  converted  when  the  Church 
of  Christ  presents  the  spectacle  of  perfect 
love  and  visible  unity.  Divisions  hinder  the 
work  of  Christ,  unity  advances  it.  26.  Thy 
name]  i.e.  Thy  nature. 

CHAPTER  18 

Christ  before  Annas,  Caiaphas,andPilate 
1-14.  Christ's  arrest  and  trial  before  Annas 


(cp.  Mt2630  =  Mkl426  =  Lk2239).  The  nar- 
rative is  now  parallel  with  the  synoptic  account, 
with  which,  though  obviously  independent, 
it  closely  agrees.  Our  Lord's  agony  in  the 
garden  is  omitted  as  well  known,  but  it  is 
alluded  to  (v.  11),  and  the  evangelist  else- 
where uses  language  quite  as  definite  as  that 
of  the  synoptists  in  speaking  of  His  agony  of 
mind  at  the  prospect  of  death  (12  27  13  21).  In 
thisGrospel,  as  in  the  others,  the  sufferer,  though 
divine,  is  'a  man  of  sorrows,  and  acquainted 
with  grief.' 

I.  The  brook  Cedron]  RV  '  Kidron,'  a  deep, 
precipitous  ravine  to  the  E.  of  Jerusalem, 
dividing  it  from  the  Mount  of  Olives,  and  now 
called  the  Valley  of  Jehoshaphat.  Both  Jews 
and  Moslems  hold  that  the  Last  Judgment  will 
take  place  there  (see  Joel32>i2).  It  is  men- 
tioned several  times  in  the  OT.  (2S1523  IK 
237  Jer3140,  etc.),  but  in  the  NT.  only  here. 
'  Brook '  should  be  '  valley '  or  '  ravine,'  lit. '  win- 
ter-torrent' (RM).  A  garden]  i.e.  Gethsemane  : 
see  on  Mt2636.  2.  Ofttimes  resorted]  cp.  Lk 
2239.  j^  statement  like  this  must  rest  on 
apostolic  testimony.  3.  A  band  of  men']  RV 
'  the  band  of  soldiers,'  viz.  the  Roman  garrison 
which  was  always  stationed  in  the  fortress  An- 
tonia,  near  the  Temple.  A  '  band  '  or  '  cohort' 
numbered  about  600  men.  And  officers]  These 
were  either  officers  of  the  Sanhedrin,  or  the 
band  of  Levitical  police  who  kept  order  in  the 
Temple.  6.  Fell  to  the  ground]  To  show  that 
He  could  not  be  arrested  against  His  will 
(see  1018),  Jesus,  before  giving  Himself  up, 
showed  His  preternatural  power  ;  or  perhaps 
the  falling  was  an  effect  of  superstitious  fear. 
9.  That  the  saying  might  be  fulfilled]  see  1 7  2. 
St.  John  here  gives  the  sense,  not  the  exact 
words. 

Have  I  lost  none]  The  original  saying  re- 
ferred to  spiritual  loss  ;  and,  perhaps,  the  mean- 
ing is  not  different  here.  Jesus  desired  the 
Apostles  to  escape,  lest,  if  they  were  arrested, 
they  might  be  tempted  to  apostasy,  which 
would  involve  the  loss  of  their  souls. 

10.  Simon  Peter]  Peter's  and  Malchus's 
names  are  mentioned  only  by  St.  John.  Right 
ear]  This  detail,  a  mark  of  intimate  know- 
ledge, is  also  in  Lk,  who  further  mentions 
that  our  Lord  healed  the  servant's  ear. 

II.  The  cup]  This  is  proof  that  St.  John  knew 
of  the  agony  in  the  garden  :  see  Mt  26  39  Mk  1 4  36 
Lk2242  12.  The  band]  i.e.  the  Roman  co- 
hort. The  captain]  i.e.  the  military  tribune 
(Gk.  cJuliarch)^  was  the  officer  in  chief  com- 
mand of  the  Roman  garrison  :  see  Ac  2 131. 
His  presence  in  person  marks  the  importance 
and  probable  danger  of  the  arrest.  13.  To 
Annas  first]  i.e.  before  He  was  taken  to 
Caiaphas.  This,  though  not  mentioned  in  the 
other  Gospels,  is  intrinsically  probable.  The 
authority  of  Annas  was  so  great  that  it  over- 


804 


18.  U 


ST.  JOHN 


18.30 


shadowed  that  of  the  actual  high  priest  Caia- 
phas.  He  is  mentioned  before  Caiaphas, 
Lk32  Ac  4  6.  He  absolutely  controlled  the 
Sanhedrin,  which  at  this  period,  according  to 
the  Talmud,  transferred  its  place  of  meeting 
from  '  the  Hall  of  Hewn  Stones '  in  the 
Temple  to  the  head-quarters  of  his  party,  '  the 
Bazaars  of  the  sons  of  Annas.'  He  was  high 
priest  from  7  to  14  a.d.,  and  even  after  his 
deposition  by  the  Romans,  retained  the 
office  in  his  family,  no  less  than  five  of  his 
sons  being  appointed  high  priests.  For  his 
character  see  on  Mt21i2.  Father  in  law] 
This  fact,  in  itself  pro Bable,  is  known  only 
from  St.  John.     14.  Caiaphas]  see  11^9-5-2 

15-18.  St.  John  introduces    St.   Peter  into 
the  Palace.     First  denial.      For  the  interest- 
ing  but    unimportant  variations  of    the  four/ 
accounts  of  St.  Peter's  denials,  see  on  Mt26^ 
Mkl4>^Lk2254. 

15.  Another  disciple]  clearly  the  same  as 
the  unnamed  disciple  of  13^3,  who  is  the 
apostle  John.  Known  unto  the  high  priest] 
a  fact  by  no  means  improbable,  considering 
the  comparativelv  good  position  occupied  by  St. 
John's  family  (Mk  1  20  ;  see  on  19  2").  The  high 
priest  is  Annas:  see  on  v.  19.  The  palace] 
EV  '  the  court,'  i.e.  the  inner  quadrangle  : 
see  on  Mt263.5S.  Of  the  high  priest]  viz. 
Annas.  Probably  Annas  and  his  son-in-law 
lived  in  the  same  large  building.  18.  Coals] 
i.e.  charcoal. 

19-24.  Preliminary  examination  before  An- 
nas (peculiar  to  this  Gospel).  The  object  of 
Annas's  examination,  which  was  irregular  and 
informal,  was  obA'iously  to  induce  Jesus  to 
incriminate  Himself  in  view  of  the  approach- 
ing trial,  the  available  evidence  against  Him 
being  weak  (Mt2G^^).  It  is  passed  over  by 
the  synoptists,  because  it  achieved  no  result  ; 
but  the  narrative  of  St.  Luke  allows  ample 
time  for  it  before  the  formal  trial  (Lk  22  54-65). 

19.  The  high  priest]   i.e.  Annas  :  see  v.  24. 

20,  21.  Annas  tried  to  entrap  Jesus  into  the 
admission  that  He  had  founded  a  secret  society. 
Jesus  repudiated  the  suggestion,  and  refused 
to  be  drawn  into  making  any  statements  likely 
to  incriminate  His  disciples  (cp.  v.  8). 

22.  Struck  Jesus]  This  is  corroborated  by  Lk 
22*53^  which  agi-ees  chronologically  with  St. 
John. 

24.  Now  Annas  had  sent  him]  The  correct 
translation  is,  '  Annas,  therefore,  sent  Him 
bound  unto  Caiaphas.'  Our  Lord  was  led 
out  into  the  courtyard,  and  there,  as  he 
passed  by  on  His  way  to  the  apartments  of 
Caiaphas,  which  probably  lay  on  the  other 
side  of  the  quadrangular  court,  '  He  turned  and 
looked  upon  Peter'  (Lk226i).  The  subsequent 
trial  before  Caiaphas  is  omitted,  as  being 
well  known. 

25-27.  St.  Peter's  second  and  third  denials. 


26.  The  knowledge  that  the  servant  was  a 
kinsman  of  Malchus  bears  out  the  statement 
(v.  15)  that  'the  disciple'  was  known  to  the 
high  priest.  27.  Crew]  This  fixes  the  time 
as  about  3  a.m. 

28-32.  Jesus  is  led  to  Pilate  (Mt27i  Mk 
15iLk23i).  See  especially  on  St.  Matthew. 
The  pathos  of  this  tragic  spectacle  of  the 
rulers  of  the  chosen  people  leading  their 
promised  Messiah  to  a  Gentile  ruler  to  be 
put  to  death,  and  thereby  forfeiting  their 
place  in  the  Kingdom  of  God  and  their  na- 
tional existence,  is  by  no  evangelist  so  touch- 
ingly  portrayed  as  by  St.  John.  Yet  even 
this  great  sin  did  not  frustrate  the  divine 
purpose,  but  rather  was  the  means  of  effect- 
ing it  (1149-53).  While  St.  John's  account 
A  of  the  civil  trial  is  by  far  the  fullest  and 
the  most  informing,  he  omits  several  im- 
portant incidents  ;  the  dream  of  Pilate's  wife 
(Mt),  the  washing  of  Pilate's  hands  (Mt),  the 
trial  before  Herod  (Lk),  and  the  prophetic  cry 
of  the  people,  '  His  blood  be  on  us  and  on  our 
children'  (Mt). 

28.  The  hall  of  judgment]  RV  '  the  palace,' 
lit.  '  the  prsetorium,'  here  indicates  the  official 
residence  of  Pilate,  which  was  either  the 
castle  of  Antonia  or  a  palace  built  by  Herod 
on  the  W.  hill  of  Jerusalem  :  see  Mt  27  27. 
Pilate's  judgment-seat  was  in  the  open  air, 
but  he  more  than  once  entered  the  building 
to  confer  with  Jesus  privately  (Jn  1833  19  9). 

That  they  might  not  be  defiled  (RV)]  A 
Gentile  house  would  not  have  been  purged 
from  the  presence  of  leaven  in  prospect  of 
the  Passover,  and  therefore  by  entering  it  they 
would  have  defiled  themselves.  St.  John,  who 
had  already  eaten  the  Passover  with  Jesus, 
was  apparently  not  so  scrupulous  :  he  entered, 
and  hence  was  able  to  report  the  conversations 
between  our  Lord  and  Pilate  (vv.  33-38 
c.  19  9-11). 

But .  .  might  eat  the  passover]  It  is  obvious 
that  St.  John  places  the  Jewish  Passover,  not 
on  Thursday  evening,  as  the  synoptists  seem 
to  do,  but  on  Friday  evening,  and  regards  the 
Last  Supper  on  Thursday  night  as  an  antici- 
pated Passover — a  Passover  eaten  before  the 
legal  date,  because  Jesus  knew  that  He  was  to 
suffer  on  the  morrow.  Some  critics,  however, 
following  the  j^Wwid  facie  meaning  of  the 
synoptists,  date  the  Jewish  Passover  on  Thurs- 
day evening,  and  understand  the  expression 
here  ('  but  might  eat  the  Passover ')  to  refer 
not  to  the  Passover  proper,  but  to  the  '  chagi- 
gah,'  a  sacrifice  offered  on  the  morning  after 
the  paschal  meal  :  see  on  Mt26i7. 

30.  According  to  Lk232,  they  accused  Him 
of  sedition,  of  withholding  tribute  from  Caesar, 
and  of  assuming  the  royal  title.  The  charge 
of  blasphemy,  on  which  the  Sanhedrin  con- 
demned  Him,   would   have   no   weight  with 


805 


18.  31 


ST.  JOHN 


19.  14 


Pilate.  31.  It  is  not  lawful,  etc.]  This  appar- 
ently conflicts  with  JnS^.sg  Ac  5  33  7^7  2127. 
It  would  seem,  (1)  that  the  Sanhedrin  could 
sentence  to  death,  (2)  but  could  not  execute 
the  sentence  without  permission,  and  (3)  that 
the  governor  sometimes  permitted  them  to 
exceed  their  powers.  The  Talmud  says  that 
the  power  of  life  and  death  was  lost  40  years 
before  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem. 

32.  Jesus  had  prophesied  not  only  His 
death,  but  His  crucifixion,  and  this  could  only 
be  fulfilled  by  His  being  delivered  to  the 
Romans,  for  the  Jewish  penalty  for  blasphemy 
was  stoning  (8^9  lO^i  Ac  7  59). 

33-38^.  Within  the  Praetorium.  Pilate  and 
Christ.  With  the  exception  of  Pilate's  first 
question,  all  is  peculiar  to  St.  John.  With 
Roman  directness  Pilate  goes  straight  to  the 
point :  Has  Jesus  any  political  designs  ?  His 
words,  '  Am  I  a  Jew  ? '  show  his  contempt 
for  the  Jews,  and  his  question,  '  What  is 
truth  ?  '  echoes  the  flippant  (but  perhaps  only 
superficial)  scepticism  of  polite  circles  in  Rome. 

37.  Thou  sayest  that  I  am  a  king]  RM 
'  Thou  sayest  it,  because  I  am  a  king.'  Pro- 
bably the  words  are  a  surprised  question  : 
'  Dost  thou,  a  heathen,  say  that  I  am  a  king  ! ' 
Pilate  was  impressed  with  our  Lord's  per- 
sonality, and  was  willing  to  confess  that  there 
was  something  kingly  about  Him.  To  this 
end]  The  only  kingdom  which  Christ  claims 
for  Himself  is  absolute  empire  over  '  the 
Truth'  (146,  etc.).  Every  one,  etc.]  All  who 
are  earnestly  doing  their  duty  according  to 
the  light  vouchsafed  to  them,  are  ready  to 
receive  Christ's  Gospel,  when  it  is  presented 
to  them.  38.  What  is  truth  ?]  Rome  was 
infested  with  a  horde  of  Greek  sophists  and 
Juggling  Oriental  theosophists,  who  all  claimed 
a  monopoly  of  '  the  truth,'  and  hence  Pilate 
had  learned  to  scoff  at  all  mention  of  the 
search  for  it. 

38''-40.  Outside  the  Praetorium.  Barabbas 
is  preferred  to  Jesus  (see  Mt  2715-26  Mk  15*5-15 
Lk  2318-25).  All  is  in  essential  agreement 
with  the  synoptists. 

CHAPTER   19 
The  Crucifixion.     The  Burial 

1-3.  Inside  the  Praetorium.  Scourging  and 
mockery  by  the  soldiers  (Mt  27  '^^  Mk  1 5 15).  It 
might  be  supposed  from  Mt  and  Mk  that  the 
scourging  was  only  the  ordinary  preliminary 
to  a  Roman  execution,  but  Lk23i6  suggests 
that  it  was  an  act  of  mercy  to  Jesus  intended 
to  save  His  life.  This  the  Fourth  Gospel 
fully  confirms,  showing  how  Pilate  tried  to 
work  upon  the  compassion  of  the  multitude. 
The  present  narrative  elucidates,  without  in 
any  way  contradicting,  the  synoptic  account. 

4-7.  Outside  the  Praetorium.  '  Behold  the 
man.'     •  Crucify  Him.' 


806 


5.  Behold  the  man  !]  Lat.  Ecce  homo.  The 
words  are  gently  and  sympathetically  spoken, 
and  are  intended  to  move  compassion  :  '  This 
meek  and  suffering  form  cannot  be  the  usurper 
of  a  throne.'  6.  Take  ye  him]  Pilate  attempts 
to  put  the  responsibility  of  shedding  innocent 
blood  upon  the  Jews.  7.  We  have  a  law] 
This  confirms  the  evidence  of  the  synoptists 
that  Jesus  was  condemned  by  the  Sanhedrin, 
not  simply  for  claiming  to  be  the  Messiah,  but 
for  claiming  to  be  divine,  and  so  blaspheming 
God  (Mt  2G  «-i  Mk  1 4  '^2  Lk  22  69). 

7-1 1.  Inside  the  Praetorium.  Jesus  refuses 
to  satisfy  Pilate's  curiosity  as  to  His  origin. 

8.  The  more  afraid]  viz.  of  allowing  Jesus 
to  be  unjustly  executed.  In  spite  of  super- 
ficial scepticism  (19  38),  Pilate  was  super- 
stitious, and  thought  that  Jesus  might  be  some 
demigod  or  hero,  some  son  of  Jupiter,  appear- 
ing in  human  form  :  cp.  Acl4ii.  9.  Whence 
art  thou  ?]  Art  thou  a  man  or  a  demigod  ? 

11.  Caiaphas  was  more  guilty  than  Pilate. 
Pilate  had  lawful  authority  over  Jesus,  which, 
as  ordained  by  God,  was  acquiesced  in  by 
Jesus  Himself.  Caiaphas  had  no  such  authority, 
for  Caiaphas  was  only  high  priest,  and  Jesus 
was  the  Messiah.  Again,  Pilate  was  only 
Caiaphas's  tool ;  he  knew  not  the  issues  at  stake 
in  the  rejection  and  condemnation  of  Jesus, 
but  Caiaphas  did  know,  or  ought  to  have  known. 

From  above]  i.e.  from  God  (cp.  R0I31), 
though  some  think  that  it  means  from  the  high 
priest  Caiaphas.  He  that  delivered  me]  i.e. 
not  Judas,  but  Caiaphas. 

12-16.  Outside  the  Prastorium.  Pilate  yields 
to  the  clamour. 

12.  Thou  art  not  Caesar's  (i.e.  Tiberius's) 
friend]  The  Jews  now  appeal  to  Pilate's  selfish 
fears.  They  threaten  to  accuse  him  of  dis- 
loyalty to  the  emperor,  a  charge  which  the 
cruel  and  suspicious  Tiberius  was  only  too 
willing  to  receive.  St.  John  alone  brings  out 
the  leading  motive  which  induced  Pilate  to 
yield.  13.  Sat  down]  or,  possibly,  '  caused 
Jesus  to  sit  down.'  The  Pavement]  In  front 
of  a  Roman  judgment  seat  there  was  usually, 
at  this  period,  a  mosaic  or  tesselated  pavement. 

Hebrew]  i.e.  Aramaic.  Gabbatha]  'Gab- 
bath  or  Gabbetha  means  a  rounded  height ' 
(Edersheim). 

14.  St.  John  sees  prophetic  significance  in 
Pilate's  words,  '  Behold  your  king,'  and  there- 
fore times  them  precisely.  Pilate,  the  repre- 
sentative of  the  Gentile  world,  sees  in  Jesus, 
whom  Israel  rejects,  the  true  king  of  Israel. 
The  Passover  is  mentioned,  because,  in  the 
evangelist's  view,  Jesus  is  the  true  Paschal 
lamb. 

The  preparation]  i.e.  the  day  before  the 
Passover,  extending  from  sunset  on  Thursday 
to  sunset  on  Friday.  Those,  however,  who 
think  that  the  Passover  took  place  on  Thursday, 


19.  16 


ST.  JOHN 


19.  28 


translate,  '  And  it  was  the  Friday  in  Passover 
week,'  a  possible,  but  improbable  rendering  : 
see  1828. 

About  the  sixth  hour]  i.e.  about  noon.  St. 
Mark  says  '  the  third  hour,'  i.e.  9  A.M.  (Mk  15  26). 
There  is  a  cUscrepancy  here  of  about  3  hours, 
which  cannot  be  satisfactorily  accounted  for. 
However,  Eastern  ideas  of  time  are  vague,  and 
if  the  actual  time  of  crucifixion  lay  midway 
between  9  and  12,  the  discrepancy  is  not  a  very 
large  one,  and  may  possibly  be  explained  by 
the  complete  absorption  of  the  disciples  in  the 
dramatic  incidents  of  our  Lord's  trial  and 
execution,  which  rendered  them  unobservant 
of  the  flight  of  time.  The  discrepancy  is  not 
satisfactorily  explained,  by  supposing  (as  some 
do)  that  St.  John  counts  his  hours  from  mid- 
night, for  this  would  throw  back  the  crucifixion 
to  6  A.M.,  still  leaving  a  three-hours'  discrepancy. 

1 6.  Unto  them]  viz.  to  the  chief  priests,  so 
that  the  crucifixion  might  appear  their  act, 
rather  than  Pilate's,  who  was  heartily  ashamed 
of  it. 

17-22.  Jesus  is  crucified  (cp.  Mt273i  Mkl520 
Lk2326).  St.  John,  who  is  in  thorough  agree- 
ment with  the  synoptists,  omits  the  incident 
of  Simon  of  Cyrene  (Mt,  Mk,  Lk),  and  the 
first  '  word '  on  the  cross  (Lk),  but  adds  the 
characteristic  interview  between  the  chief 
priests  and  Pilate. 

19.  Title]  According  to  Roman  custom  an 
inferior  officer  bore  before  the  condenmed  a 
block  of  white  wood  upon  which  was  engraved 
the  crime  for  which  he  suffered.  The  chief 
priests  regarded  Pilate's  title  as  intended  to 
insult  the  Jews  by  insinuating  that  the  fitting 
ruler  for  such  a  nation  was  a  condemned 
criminal.  20.  Was  nigh]  a  local  detail,  pecu- 
liar to  this  Gospel.  Hebrew,  a)td  Greek,  and 
Latin]  It  was  written  in  three  languages,  so 
that  it  could  be  read  by  every  one,  including 
foreigners.  The  evangelist  records  the  fact 
as  symbolising  the  universality  of  the  gospel. 

22.  What  I  have  written]  A  touch  true  to 
life.  Pilate,  though  morally  a  coward,  was 
obstinate — '  by  nature  obstinate  and  stubborn '  ; 

"  '  at  once  self-willed,  and  implacable  '  (Philo). 

23,  24.  The  Parting  of  the  Garments  (Mt  27  35 
Mkl524  Lk2334).  St.  John  alone  sees  in  this' 
incident  a  fulfilment  of  ScripEure,  and  this 
accounts  for  his  minute  description  of  it.  The 
dress  of  a  Jew  consisted  of,  (1)  the  head-dress, 
(2)  the  shoes,  (3)  the  outer  garment,  (4)  the 
girdle,  (5)  the  inner  garment.  There  were 
four  soldiers  (cp.  Ac  1 2  i),  who  each  took  one 
part.  There  remained  the  seamless  inner  gar- 
ment. For  this  they  cast  lots,  fulfilling  Ps  22 18^ 
a  Davidic  psalm,  from  which  the  fourth  '  Word  ' 
on  the  cross  was  taken.  St.  John  quotes  it 
from  the  LXX  version.  The  garments  of 
criminals  were  a  perquisite  of  the  executioners. 

25-27.  Jesus  and  His  mother.     This  beauti- 


ful episode  is  peculiar  to  St.  John.  Its  grace 
and  naturalness,  and  withal  its  reticence,  speak 
powerfully  for  its  truth.  It  took  place  before 
the  darkness,  which  St.  John  does  not  record. 

25.  His  mother,  etc.]  According  to  the  AV 
and  RY,  only  three  women  are  named,  but 
most  modern  critics  hold  that  four  are  in- 
tended. Translate,  therefore,  '  His  mother, 
and  His  mother's  sister '  (i.e.  Salome,  the 
mother  of  the  evangelist) ;  '  atid  Mary  the 
daughter  of  Clopas,  and  Mary  of  Magdala '  : 
see  further  on  Mt  27  ^e.  The  wife  of  Cleophas 
(RV  '  Clopas ')]  A  more  probable  rendering 
is,  '  the  daughter  of  Clopas.'  Nothing  is  known 
of  this  Clopas,  who  (for  reasons  which  cannot 
be  fully  given  here,  but  which  are  accepted 
by  most  recent  critics)  is  not  to  be  identified 
with  the  Alphseus  of  MtlO^,  or  with  the 
Cleopas  of  Lk  24  is.  Clopas  is  a  contraction  of 
Cleopatros.  For  the  view,  now  generally  aban- 
doned, that '  Mary  of  Clopas '  was  the  mother 
of  our  Lord's  '  brethren,'  see  the  detached 
note  on  Mt  12  46-50.  26.  Woman,  behold,  etc.] 
Although  bearing  the  sins  of  the  whole  world, 
Jesus  was  not  forgetful  of  human  ties,  and 
solemnly  commended  his  mother  to  the  care 
of  the  beloved  disciple,  St.  John.  St.  John 
was  comparatively  wealthy,  and  was,  moreover, 
the  Virgin's  nephew,  so  that  the  arrangement 
was  in  every  way  suitable.  She  was  not  com- 
mended to  our  Lord's  '  brethren,'  probably 
because  they  were  not  her  own  children, 
and  were  not  believers:  see  on  Mtl246-50_ 
It  is  clear  that  St.  Joseph  was  by  this  time 
dead.  Unto  his  own  home'\  This  implies  that 
St.  John  had  a  separate  establishment  at  Jeru- 
salem. This  would  help  to  explain  his  ac- 
quaintance with  Annas  (1815),  and  his  special 
information  about  our  Lord's  ministry  at 
Jerusalem.  "When  our  Lord  visited  Jerusalem, 
St.  John  was  probably  His  host. 

28-30.  Death  of  Jesus  (Mt  27  45-55 1|).  The 
sayings  '  I  thirst '  and  '  It  is  finished '  are 
peculiar  to  St.  John.  The  former  explains, 
what  the  synoptics  do  not,  why  '  one  of  them 
ran  and  took  a  sponge,  and  filled  it  with 
vinegar,'  etc.  (Mt2748  Mkl535). 

28.  That  the  scripture,  etc.]  i.e.  Ps  6921;  cp. 
Ps22i5.  Although  Jesus  mainly  based  His 
Messianic  claim  on  His  fulfilment  of  the  OT. 
Scriptures  in  their  widest  and  most  general 
sense  (Lk24  27  Acl0  43),  yet  He  attached  some 
importance  (though  less  than  the  disciples  did) 
to  their  literal  and  detailed  fulfilment.  I 
thirst]  the  fifth  'Word.'  These  words  of 
human  anguish,  attesting  Christ's  true  human- 
ity, are  significantly  absent  from  the  Docetic 
'Grospel  of  Peter,'  which  says  that  on  the 
cross  He  felt  no  pain.  A  vessel]  The  Roman 
soldiers  often  drank  a  sour  wine,  or  vinegar, 
called  iws^ca.  Ulpian  says,  '  Our  soldiers  are 
wont  to  drink  wine  and  vinegar,  one  day  wine, 


807 


19.  30 


ST.  JOHN 


20.  8 


another  day  vinegar.'  Hyssop]  i.e.  the  reed 
mentioned  by  the  synoptists.  But  Post  (in 
HDB.)  takes  it  to  be  a  plant  like  pepper- 
mint, added  to  the  wine  to  make  it  quench 
thirst  better.  30.  It  is  finished]  (the  sixth 
word).  All  My  earthly  work,  including  the 
world's  redemption,  is  finished.  The  three 
synoptists  mention  Christ's  loud  cry,  but 
only  St.  John  mentions  what  He  said.  St. 
Luke  alone  adds  the  seventh  word,  which  im- 
mediately followed.  Gave  up]  The  death  was 
voluntary — '  No  man  taketh  it  from  me,  but  I 
lay  it  down  of  myself  (10 1^). 

31-37.  The  sign  of  the  pierced  side.  A  sec- 
tion peculiar  to  St.  John,  and  claiming  ex- 
pressly to  be  the  testimony  of  an  eyewitness. 
The  knowledge  of  Jewish  and  Roman  custom 
displayed  in  it  speaks  for  its  historical  truth. 

31.  The  preparation]  i.e.  the  day  before 
the  sabbath  (Friday).  The  sabbath  began 
at  sunset  on  Friday :  see  on  v.  14.  That  the 
bodies]  An  accm-ate  account  of  the  Jewish 
practice,  as  opposed  to  that  of  the  Romans, 
who  left  corpses  to  rot  on  their  crosses.  The 
letter  of  the  Law  (Dt2122)  required  the  re- 
moval of  the  bodies  in  all  cases  before  night ; 
much  more  was  it  necessary  in  this  case  for 
the  bodies  to  be  removed,  seeing  that  the  mor- 
row was  a  sabbath  and  a  high  festival.  An 
high  day]  It  was  at  once  the  sabbath  and  the 
first  day  of  unleavened  bread.  That  their  legs] 
A  specially  Roman  practice.  The  criminal's 
legs  were  broken  with  heavy  mallets  to 
accelerate  death. 

34.  Pierced  his  side]  This  was  done  to  make 
sure  of  His  death,  and  was  a  common  practice 
at  executions.  The  act  was  providentially  or- 
dered, that  it  might  be  made  evident  that  the 
Resurrection  was  a  resuscitation  after  a  real 
death,  not  a  mere  recovery  from  a  death-like 
stupor.  Blood  and  water]  No  satisfactory 
medical  explanation  of  this  phenomenon  has 
been  given,  though  it  has  been  suggested  that 
the  death  of  Christ  was  due  to  rupture  of  the 
heart  consequent  upon  acute  mental  suffer- 
ings, and  that  thereupon  the  cavities  of  the 
heart  became  filled  with  a  watery  serum, 
which  flowed  out  when  Christ's  side  was 
pierced.  The  evangelist  himself  seems  to 
have  regarded  the  strange  phenomenon  as  a 
miracle  ;  he  certainly  saw  in  it  a  deep  mystical 
significance,  for  which  see  on  1  JnS^.  35.  The 
eyewitness  claims  to  be  the  actual  author  of 
the  Gospel,  in  spite  of  the  third  person :  see 
2124.  36.  A  bone  of  him]  In  the  evangelist's 
view,  Christ's  legs  were  not  broken,  that  it 
might  be  thereby  made  evident  that  He  was 
the  true  paschal  lamb.  The  Jews  were  spe- 
cially forbidden  to  break  the  bones  01  the 
Paschal  Lamb:  see  Ex  12 46.  37.  They  shall 
look]  St.  John  quotes  directly  from  the  Heb. 
of  Zechl2io,  which  the  LXX  has  mistrans- 


lated. We  have  here  a  point  of  contact  with 
Rev  1  7. 

38-42.  The  burial  (see  Mt2757  Mkl542  Lk 
23  50).  AH  is  in  agreement  with  the  synoptists, 
but  there  are  three  additional  particulars  :  (1) 
That  Nicodemus  assisted  Joseph  of  Arimathaea; 

(2)  that  the  tomb  was  in  a  garden  close  by  ; 

(3)  that  the  body  was  embalmed  after  the 
Jewish  manner  with  lOU  lb.  weight  of  spices. 
These  details  imply  special  knowledge. 

39.  Myrrh  and  aloes]  The  myrrh  and  the  aloe 
wood  were  reduced  to  powder,  and  inserted 
between  the  bandages,  which  were  wound 
fold  upon  fold  round  the  body.  The  enor- 
mous quantity  (about  76  lb.  avoirdupois)  of 
spices,  though  surprising,  is  credible  as  the 
offering  of  two  wealthy  men.  According  to 
Jewish  and  general  Eastern  custom,  the  neck 
and  face  of  the  corpse  were  doubtless  left 
bare  :  see  on  20  ^.  42.  The  Jews'  preparation] 
see  on  v.  14. 

CHAPTER  20 

The  Resurrection 

I- 10.  The  Resurrection.  Visits  of  Mary 
Magdalene,  and  of  Peter  and  John  to  the  tomb 
of  Jesus.  (For  the  Resurrection  appearances 
see  on  the  synoptics,  especially  on  St.  Matthew ; 
for  the  visit  of  Mary  Magdalene  see  Mt  28  ^ 
Mkl6i  Lk 24 1.10;  for  that  of  St.  Peter  see  Lk 
2412.)  This  section,  peculiar  to  the  Fourth 
Gospel,  is  marked  by  specially  vivid  features. 
The  race  to  the  tomb  in  which  John,  the 
younger  man,  outruns  Peter;  the  impetuous 
nature  of  Peter,  who  enters  first ;  the  more 
reflective  character  of  John,  who  reads  the 
meaning  of  the  sign  of  the  graveclothes  and 
believes  first ;  the  details  of  the  scene  inside 
the  sepulchre;  the  state  of  mind  of  the  dis- 
ciples, who  had  not  yet  learnt  to  expect  a 
resurrection  ; — all  these,  as  if  caught  on  the 
plate  of  a  photographic  camera,  the  memory  of 
the  aged  Apostle  faithfully  retained.  Here  is 
either  absolute  truth,  or  artistic  realism  of  a 
kind  unexampled  in  ancient  literature. 

2.  We  know  not]  Observe  the  plural,  which  _ 
corroborates  the  synoptic  representation  that 
other  women,  besides  Mary  Magdalene,  visited 
the  tomb  (Mt28i  Mkl6i  Lk24i).      For  the 
details  see  on  Mt. 

8.  And  he  saw  and  believed]  Why  did  John 
believe  ?  Probably  because  the  body  of  Jesus 
had  miraculously  passed  through  the  thick 
folds  of  the  graveclothes,  leaving  them  un- 
moved and  untouched,  just  as,  on  the  evening 
of  the  same  day,  the  risen  Lord  appeared  in 
the  midst  of  the  disciples,  when  the  doors 
were  shut.  It  was  clear  from  the  position  of 
the  clothes,  which  had  not  been  unwound,  that 
no  human  hands  had  removed  the  Lord's 
body,  and  further,  since  His  body  had  passed 
unimpeded  through  solid  matter,  that  it  was 


808 


20.  11 


ST..  JOHN 


20.  23 


now  a  spiritual  and  glorious  body,  not  bound 
by  the  laws  of  terrestrial  matter.  Jesus  had 
risen,  therefore,  not  to  an  earthly  but  to  a 
heavenly  life. 

I  i-i8.  The  appearance  to  Mary  Magdalene. 
This  is  different  from  that  of  Mt28i\  but 
identical  with  that  of  MklG^. 

12.  Two  angels]  as  in  Lk.  Mt  and  Mk 
mention  only  one.  St.  John  notices  their 
exact  attitude  and  position.  1$.  Supposing 
him  to  be  the  gardener]  Many  did  not  recog- 
nise our  Lord  at  first,  because  His  appearance 
had  undergone  a  certain  change  (Mt 28 1*"  Mk 
1612  Lk  24 16,37  Jn  21^).  i6.  Rabboni]  Eder- 
sheim  regards  this  as  the  Galilean  form  of 
'  Eabbi.' 

17.  Touch  me  not,  etc.]  'I  have  not  come 
to  renew  the  old  intimacy,  but  am  on  the  point 
of  returning  home  to  My  Father.  When  I  am 
enthroned  in  heaven,  you  shall  touch  Me  once 
more,  not  however  with  the  physical  touch  of 
your  hands,  but  with  the  spiritual  touch  of  a 
living  faith.'  I  ascend]  viz.  after  forty  days. 
But  many  recent  writers  maintain  that  our 
Lord  ascended  immediately  after  the  Resurrec- 
tion, that  He  was  in  heaven  dm-ing  the  forty 
days  of  earthly  manifestation,  and  that  the 
event  called  '  the  Ascension  '  (Ac  1  ^)  was  only 
His  final  farewell  to  the  disciples,  not  His 
entry  into  glory.  My  Father,  and  your 
Father]  Observe  that  Jesus  never  says  '  Our 
Father,'  or  '  Our  God,'  as  if  He  stood  in  the 
same  relation  to  God  as  other  men.  The 
Lord's  prayer  is  no  exception^  for  it  is  a  prayer 
of  the  disciples,  not  of  Jesus  Himself. 

19-23.  Jesus  appears  in  the  evening  to  the 
disciples:  see  Lk243'5  (Mkl6i^).  According 
to  St.  Mark,  Jesus  appeared  '  to  the  eleven  as 
they  sat  at  meat.'  St.  John  is  more  precise, 
noting  the  absence  of  Thomas.  St.  Luke 
says  that  Jesus  appeared  'to  the  eleven  and 
them  that  were  with  them.'  By  this  time  our 
Lord  had  appeared,  not  only  to  Mary  Magda- 
lene and  the  women,  but  also  to  the  two 
disciples  walking  to  Emmaus,  and  to  Peter. 

19.  The  doors  were  shut]  A  clear  indication 
that  our  Lord's  body  had  become  a  spiritual 
body,  and  was  no  longer  subject  to  the  ordinary 
laws  of  matter,  or  the  conditions  of  space  : 
op.  V.  26  Lk243i>36  and  Lk245i  RM.  Yet 
there  is  no  suggestion  of  an  unreal  or  phantom 
(Docetic)  body,  for  He  ofi^ers  it  to  be  handled 
(Lk2439  Jn2U-'');  and  even  eats  before  them 
(Lk  24  42  Ac  1  ^  (RM)  1 0  ^i).  It  is  to  be  presumed 
that  Jesus  closed  the  interview  by  mysteriously 
vanishing.  Peace]  The  usual  Jewish  greeting, 
but  how  full  of  meaning  now  that  the  Cross 
had  made  peace  between  man  and  God  ! 

21.  Sent. .  send]  The  Gk.  words  are  different: 
cp.  17 18. 

22.  Breathed  on  f/^e/n]  The  word  for  '  breath ' 
and  '  spirit '  is  the  same  in  Gk.    By  this  action 


our  Lord  showed  how  closely  the  Holy  Spirit 
is  connected  with  His  person,  being  in  fact 
'  the  spirit  of  Jesus.'  The  Church  has  never 
ventured  to  imitate  this  action,  but  has  sub- 
stituted in  ordination  the  laying-on  of  hands. 

Receive  ye  the  Holy  Ghost]  i.e.  for  the  pur- 
pose of  consecration  to  the  ministerial  office. 
The  Spirit  was  undoubtedly  given  at  this  time, 
and  yet,  we  must  suppose,  not  in  its  full  power 
till  Pentecost:  see  7^^  16^.  23.  Whosesoever 
sins  ye  remit]  This  includes  all  the  means  by 
which,  through  the  ministry  of  the  Word, 
souls  are  reconciled  to  God  ;  e.g.  baptism,  the 
preaching  of  repentance,  and  moral  discipline, 
as  well  as  absolution  (see  on  MtlSi^). 

As  others  were  present  besides  the  Apostles 
(Lk2433)jit  has  been  suggested  that  the  minis- 
terial powers  here  mentioned  were  conferred 
not  upon  the  Apostles  only,  but  upon  the  whole 
Chm-ch.  St.  John,  however,  who  alone  men- 
tions the  communication  of  ministerial  powers, 
mentions  the  Apostles  only  as  receiving  them. 
It  is  possible  indeed  that  our  Lord's  conunis- 
sion  to  baptise  and  teach,  etc.,  was  given  to 
the  corporate  body  of  believers  (see  Mt  28 16-20)^ 
but  it  was  clearly  intended  to  be  normally 
exercised  through  an  authorised  ministry. 

Christians  of  different  communions  and 
schools  of  thought  are  not  entirely  at  one  as 
to  the  precise  meaning  of  this  verse,  and  their 
explanations  of  it  differ  very  considerably,  at 
least  in  detail.  A  full  account  of  the  numerous 
interpretations  cannot  be  given  here.  It  must 
suffice  to  indicate  very  briefly,  for  the  informa- 
tion of  the  reader,  the  two  main  views  which 
are  taken  of  the  nature  of  the  power  to  '  remit ' 
and  'retain'  sins,  which  the  risen  Lord  here 
communicates  to  His  Apostles,  and  through 
them  to  His  Church.  (1)  Many  believers  see 
in  it  nothing  but  the  power  to  exercise  ecclesi- 
astical discipline.  They  regard  sins  as  'retained,' 
when  a  notorious  offender  is  excommunicated, 
i.e.  deprived  for  a  time  of  the  sacraments  and 
other  ministrations  of  the  Church,  and  '  re- 
mitted,' when,  as  a  penitent,  he  is  restored 
once  more  to  full  communion.  On  this  view, 
the  forgiveness  which  the  Church  is  empowered 
to  bestow,  is  only  a  human  forgiveness, — the 
forgiveness  of  the  injured  and  justly  offended 
Christian  brotherhood.  (2)  Other  believers 
hold  that  something  more  is  intended.  Im- 
pressed with  the  mysterious  solemnity  of  the 
words  themselves,  of  their  occasion,  and  of 
the  symbolical  act  which  accompanied  them, 
remembering  also  that  our  Lord  more  than 
once  promised  that  the  discipline  of  the  earthly 
Church,  when  rightly  exercised,  should  be 
ratified  in  heaven  (Mt  1619  1818;  cp.  ICorS^ 
2  Cor  2 10),  they  believe  the  meaning  to  be  that 
God  Himself  (normally  and  usually)  ratifies  in 
heaven  the  remitting  and  retaining  of  sins  by 
the  earthly  Church,  though  He  still,  of  course, 


809 


20.  25 


ST.  JOHN 


21.  5 


retains  in  His  own  hands  the  power  to  remedy 
all  injustice,  and  to  grant  pardon  (where  peni- 
tence is  deep  and  real),  even  beyond  the 
covenanted  channel. 

When  the  important  and  far-reaching  quali- 
fications with  which  the  second  view  is  now 
generally  held  are  duly  considered,  it  will 
probably  appear  to  many  readers  that  the  two 
views  are  not  so  much  fundamentally  opposed, 
as  expressive  of  two  difEerent  aspects  of  truth. 
At  any  rate  there  is  at  present  a  strong  tend- 
ency among  theologians  representing  the  two 
points  of  view  to  come  to  a  better  under- 
standing by  frank  mutual  explanations. 

25,  26.  The  doubts  of  Thomas.  Thomas  in 
a  sense  represents  the  spirit  of  our  age.  He 
will  be  satisfied  with  nothing  less  than  the 
evidence  of  the  senses. 

25.  The  print  of  the  nails]  It  is  clear  that 
Thomas  had  witnessed  the  crucifixion. 

26-29.  Second  appearance  to  the  Apostles. 
Climax  of  the  Gospel  in  the  Confession  of 
Thomas. 

26.  After  eight  days]  i.e.  on  the  next  Sunday, 
both  Sundays  being  counted  in.  Here  we  have 
the  beginning  of  the  observance  of  the  Lord's 
Day,  as  the  weekly  memorial  of  the  Resurrec- 
tion. The  other  NT.  references  are  Ac  20" 
1  Cor  16  2  Rev  110.  Within]  viz.  in  the  same 
upper  room  in  Jerusalem  ;  not,  as  some  think, 
in  Galilee.  Thomas  with  them]  His  presence 
shows  a  willingness  to  be  convinced.  The 
doors  being  shut]  see  on  v.  19.  27.  Probably 
Thomas  did  not  avail  himself  of  om*  Lord's 
invitation.  28.  My  Lord  and  my  God]  The 
climax  of  the  gospel.  The  unbelief  of  Thomas 
passes  into  faith  in  Christ's  true  Deity.  Ob- 
serve that  Jesus  accepts  and  approves  the  con- 
fession of  Thomas.  29.  It  is  better  to  be  con- 
vinced by  moral  and  spiritual  evidence  than  by 
the  evidence  of  the  senses. 

30,  31.   Conclusion  of  the  Gospel. 

30.  Many  other  signs]  probably  refers  to 
signs  done  after  the  Resurrection.  Those 
done  before  the  Resurrection  were  done  in  the 
presence  of  the  people.  31.  The  author's  pur- 
pose in  writing  is  to  produce  faith  in  Jesus  as 
the  Messiah,  and  as  the  Son  of  God,  i.e.  as 
divine :  see  v.  28.     Life]  i.e.  eternal  life. 

Through  his  name]  i.e.  through  union  with 
Him  as  the  incarnate  Son  of  God.  His  '  name ' 
is  His  nature  as  the  God-Man. 

Here  the  Gospel  originally  closed. 

CHAPTER   21 

Supplementary 
1-25.  Appendix.  The  Gospel  is  brought  to 
a  definite  close,  its  contents  are  reviewed,  and 
its  purpose  stated  in  2030.31.  The  present  c. 
is  therefore  probably  an  appendix  added  at  a 
later  time,  but  (since  all  MSS  and  versions 
contain  it)  before  the  Gospel  had  been  exten- 


sively copied,  or  had  passed  into  general 
circulation.  There  is  good  reason  for  suppos- 
ing that  it  is  by  the  same  author  as  the  Gospel. 
For  (1)  the  style  is  identical.  For  example, 
there  is  a  fondness  for  the  same  connecting 
particles,  and  for  sentences  beginning  abruptly 
without  any  conjunction  at  all.  The  favourite 
Johannine  words  are  used,  such  as  '  manifest,' 
'  glorify,'  '  witness,'  '  love,'  '  disciples  '  (in  the 
sense  of  '  apostles  ').  Everywhere  too  is  dis- 
played that  peculiar  and  inimitable  simplicity 
which  characterises  the  Johannine  writings 
generally.  (2)  There  are  also  important  corre- 
spondences with  the  narrative  of  the  Fourth 
Gospel.  The  Sea  of  Tiberias  and  Cana  of 
Galilee  are  mentioned  only  in  that  Gospel  and 
in  this  appendix.  Didymus  and  Nathanael,  as 
actual  characters  and  under  these  names, 
appear  only  in  St.  John.  Common  to  this  Gospel 
and  this  appendix,  and  to  them  only,  is  the 
mention  of  '  the  disciple  whom  Jesus  loved,' 
and  of  his  leaning  upon  the  Master's  breast 
at  supper,  and  the  insistence  upon  the  truth  of 
his  testimony:  cp.  19^5.  Characteristic  also 
is  the  peculiar  expression  '  signifying  by  what 
manner  of  death  he  should  glorify  God '  :  cp. 
1 2  33  1 8  32.  The  only  really  doubtful  vv.  are  the 
last  two  (vv.  24,  25),  which  may  possibly  have 
been  added  by  the  Ephesian  elders,  who  first 
put  the  Gospel  in  circulation  after  the  death 
of  the  Apostle,  and  who  wished  to  testify  to 
its  genuineness  and  trustworthiness.  The 
main  object  of  the  appendix  is  to  correct  a 
popular  belief  that  the  beloved  disciple  would 
not  die  before  our  Lord's  Second  Advent 
(v.  23). 

1-14.  Manifestation  of  the  risen  Lord  to 
seven  disciples  at  the  Sea  of  Tiberias.  The 
Fourth  Gospel  confirms  the  synoptic  tradition 
that  there  were  appearances  in  Galilee  as  well 
as  in  Judaea.  The  date  of  this  appearance 
cannot  be  fixed. 

I.  Shewed  (RV  '  manifested ')  himself]  see 
on  211.  2.  Of  Cana]  A  later  writer  would 
not  have  been  likely  to  possess  this  additional 
information.  The  .so«.s  of  Zebedee]  i.e.  James 
(called  'the  Great '),  and  St.  John  the  Evan- 
gelist. Two  others]  The  '  Gospel  of  Peter  ' 
seems  to  identify  them  with  Andrew  and  Levi 
(Matthew).  3.  I  go  a  fishing]  The  period  of 
waiting  had  doubtless  tried  the  Apostles 
severely,  and  it  was  more  as  a  distraction,  than 
as  a  means  of  livelihood  that  St.  Peter  returned 
to  his  nets.  That  night]  At  night  it  is  easy 
to  catch  fish,  because  then  they  cannot  see  the 
nets.  In  daylight  it  is  much  more  difficult. 
The  successful  draught  (v.  6)  was  made  in 
daylight,  and  is  therefore  probably  to  be 
regarded  as  miraculous.  4.  Knew  not]  A 
certain  change  had  passed  over  our  Lord's 
body:  see  on  2015.  5.  Children]  cp.  1333. 
From  our  Lord,  St.  John  learnt  to  call  his 


810 


21.7 


ST.  JOHN 


21.  20 


own  converts  by  this  aflfectionate  title  :  see  on 
1333_  The  exact  word  is  in  lJn2i3, 18^  a 
similar  one  in  1333,  iJn2i>i2,28  37,18  44  521. 

7.  That  disciple]  As  at  the  visit  to  the 
tomb,  so  here,  the  beloved  disciple  is  the  first 
to  draw  the  true  inference.  This  undesigned 
coincidence  speaks  for  genuineness.  8.  As  it 
were  two  hundred  cubits]  i.e.  300  ft. 

9.   Coals]  i.e.  charcoal.     Fish]  or  a  fish. 

Bread]  or  a  loaf 

How  Jesus  prepared  this  meal  is  a  mystery, 
but  why  He  did  so  is  plain.  He  wished,  after 
the  Resurrection,  as  well  as  before  it,  to  set 
Himself  forth  as  the  bread  of  life,  or  the 
spiritual  food  of  mankind,  and  He  did  so,  as 
in  c.  6,  by  a  symbolical  act.  There  is 
probably  a  reference  to  the  Holy  Commu- 
nion, as  was  perceived  already  in  the  2nd 
cent.  The  recently  discovered  inscription 
on  the  tomb  of  Abercius,  bishop  of  Hierapolis 
in  Phrygia  in  the  reign  of  Marcus  Aurelius 
(161-180  A.D.),  contains  the  words,  'Every- 
where faith  led  the  way,  and  set  before  me 
for  food  the  fish  from  the  fountain,  mighty 
and  stainless,  which  a  pure  virgin  grasped,  and 
gave  this  to  friends  to  eat  always,  having 
good  wine,  and  giving  the  mixed  cup  with 
bread.'  Here  the  fish  is  Christ,  the  fountain 
baptism,  the  pure  virgin  the  Church  (see 
Lightfoot, '  Apost.  Fathers,'  pt.  2,  vol.  1,  p.  480). 
In  the  catacombs  at  Rome  also,  in  the 
cemetery  of  St.  Lucina,  is  a  fresco  repre- 
senting a  fish  (i.e.  Christ)  bearing  upon  its 
back  a  basket  full  of  sacramental  bread. 

Yet  was  not  the  net  broken]  The  earlier 
draught  of  fishes  with  the  breaking  net 
symbolised  the  Church  on  earth,  imperfect  in 
its  organisation  and  methods,  and  allowing 
many  souls  to  escape  from  its  meshes.  This 
draught,  in  which  the  net  is  unbroken  and 
every  fish  is  brought  safe  to  shore,  symbolises 
the  Church  triumphant  in  heaven,  freed  at 
last  from  all  earthly  imperfections,  and 
embracing  in  its  membership  all  genuine 
servants  of  God  whose  salvation  is  now  for 
ever  assured. 

14.  The  third  time]  i.e.  the  third  appearance 
to  any  considerable  number  of  Apostles  col- 
lectively. The  appearances,  private  or  semi- 
private,  to  Mary  Magdalene,  the  women,  the 
two  disciples,  Peter,  and  James,  are  not 
reckoned.  The  appearances  on  the  mountain 
in  Galilee,  and  to  the  five  hundred,  had 
apparently  not  yet  taken  place. 

This  being  a '  spiritual '  Gospel,  the  allegorical 
interpretation  of  this  incident  is  to  be  firmly 
maintained.  So  interpreted,  it  constitutes  a 
renewed  call  by  the  risen  Lord  to  the  Apostles 
to  become  '  fishers  of  men,'  and  a  renewed  pro- 
mise to  be  with  them  in  their  work.  The 
details  also,  the  unbroken  net,  the  fish  and  the 
bread,  probably  even  the  number  of  the  fishes, 


are  to  be  mystically  interpreted,  but  the  mean- 
ing of  the  last  is  uncertain.  The  other  chief 
Johannine  book,  the  Apocalypse,  abounds  in 
the  mysticism  of  numbers. 

15-17.  Restoration  of  St.  Peter  to  his 
apostolic  office.  By  his  threefold  denial  Peter 
had  forfeited  his  position  among  the  apostles. 
Hence,  before  restoring  him,  Jesus  required 
from  him  a  threefold  confession  of  love. 
Quite  baseless  is  the  papal  interpretation  that 
St.  Peter  is  here  endowed  with  supreme  eccle- 
siastical jurisdiction  over  the  other  apostles. 
All  that  is  done  is  to  restore  him  to  his  old 
position. 

15.  Simon,  son  of  Jonas]  E,V '  son  of  John ' : 
see  142_  Observe  that  in  this,  as  in  the  other 
Gospels,  our  Lord  does  not  call  him  Peter. 
Lk223'i  is  the  only  exception.  Lovest  thou 
me  (cigapds)  more  than  these?]  i.e.  more  than 
these  thy  brethren  love  Me  ?  Once  (Mt2633 
Jn  133'i')  Peter  had  boasted  of  a  love  and  con- 
stancy greater  than  that  of  others.  Now  he 
is  more  humble.  In  his  reply  he  will  not  say 
that  he  loves  Jesus  '  more  than  these.'  He 
will  not  even  say  that  he  loves  Jesus  at  all  in 
the  full  sense  of  Christian  love  (agapdn,  agape). 
All  he  will  say  is  that  he  loves  Jesus  with  the 
warmth  of  personal  affection  (philehi,  phiUa). 
Twice  Jesus  asks  him,  '  Lovest  thou  Me  V ' 
(agapd/i).  The  third  time  He  adopts  Peter's 
own  word, ^/i/Zew(.  Feed  my  lambs]  lit.  'give 
food  to  them,'  i.e.  by  the  ministry  of  the  Word 
and  Sacraments.  "The  '  lambs '  here  are  prob- 
ably neither  Christian  children  nor  recent 
converts,  but,  like  the  'sheep'  in  vv.  16,  17, 
Christians  in  general,  the  name  being  one  of 
affection  :  cp.  1  Pet  5  2, 3.  16.  Feed  (R V '  tend ') 
my  sheep]  Here  the  Gk.  word  indicates  author- 
ity, so  that  the  meaning  is.  Exercise  discipline 
and  authority  over  the  flock:  so  Ac 20^8  1  Pet 
52  Rev  2  27  717,  and  often  in  OT.  17.  Thou 
knowest]   or,  rather,  '  perceivest '  (RM). 

18-20.   Prophecy  of  Peter's  Martyrdom. 

18.  Thou  shalt  stretch  forth  thy  hands  (upon 
the  arms  of  the  cross),  and  another  (i.e.  the 
executioner)  shall  gird  thee  (viz.  with  the  loin- 
cloth, the  only  garment  allowed  to  criminals 
at  their  execution)  and  carry  thee  whither 
thou  wouldest  not  (viz.  to  execution).  St.  John 
here  assumes  the  manner  of  St.  Peter's  death 
to  be  known  to  his  readers.  According  to  the 
probably  true  tradition,  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul 
were  martyred  at  Rome  about  68  A.D.,  the 
former  being  crucified,  the  latter  beheaded. 

19.  Follow  me]  i.e.  by  dying  the  death  of 
crucifixion.     'Follow'  here  is  metaphorical. 

20-23.  The  misunderstood  saying  about  the 
beloved  disciple. 

20.  Following]  viz.  in  a  literal  sense.  Our 
Lord,  during  His  conversation  with  Peter,  had 
walked  to  a  little  distance  from  the  others. 
Peter,  happening  to  turn  round,  sees  John  f ol- 


811 


21.  21 


ST.  JOHN 


21.  25 


lowing.  21.  What  sAaZZ  this  man  fZo.?]  i.e.  Shall 
he  also  die  a  glorious  martyr's  death  ?  Seeing 
that  our  Lord  rebukes  the  question,  there  was 
probably  in  it  some  latent  jealousy,  or,  at 
least,  presumption.  22.  Tarry]  i.e.  remain 
alive.  Till  I  come]  The  reference  is  not  to 
the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  but  to  the  Last 
Judgment:  cp.  143.  23.  Should  not  die]  In 
spite  of  this  appendix,  the  opinion  still  per- 
sisted. One  story  was  that  he  was  translated 
like  Elijah,  another  that  he  still  breathed  in 
his  grave,  a  fable  which  even  St.  Augustine 
was  inclined  to  believe. 

24,  25.  Conclusion.     V.  24  is  full   of   St. 


John's  own  phrases  and  mannerisms,  and, 
therefore,  in  spite  of  the  plural  '  we  know,'  is 
probably  by  the  Apostle  himself.  Nor  is  there 
any  absolutely  cogent  reason  for  rejecting 
V.  25,  which  is  absent  from  only  one  ancient  MS. 
We  know]  The  apostle  associates  himself 
with  the  members  of  the  Ephesian  Church, 
who  knew  him  well,  and  were  convinced  of 
his  truthfulness.  Some,  however,  think  that 
the  '  we '  are  the  Ephesian  elders,  who  pub- 
lished the  Gospel,  and  thus  declared  it  au- 
thentic. 25.  The  author  apologises  for  the 
incompleteness  and  fragmentary  character  of 
his  work. 


Additional  Note.    John  at  Ephesus 


According  to  the  generally  received  tradition, 
which  dates  from  at  least  the  former  half  of 
the. second  century,  the  Apostle  John,  the  son 
of  Zebedee,  after  the  martyrdom  of  St.  Paul, 
67  A.D.,  or  more  probably  after  the  fall  of 
Jerusalem,  70  a.d.,  migrated  from  Jerusalem 
to  Ephesus,  and  there  ruled  the  Churches  of 
Asia  Minor  for  more  than  a  quarter  of  a 
century,  and  finally  died  a  natural  death  in  the 
reign  of  Trajan  (about  100  a.d.),  having  first 
composed  and  published  the  Fourth  Gospel, 
and  the  First  Epistle  of  John,  perhaps  also  the 
Second  and  Third  Epistles  and  the  Revelation. 
As  the  trustworthiness  of  this  tradition  has 
lately  been  challenged,  it  will  be  convenient 
to  place  before  the  reader  a  summary  of  the 
early  evidence. 

St.  Justin  Martyr  (150  a.d.)  attributes  the 
Revelation  to  the  Apostle  John,  and  since 
that  book  is  in  the  form  of  a  pastoral  letter  to 
'the  seven  churches  which  are  in  Asia  '  (1^), 
Justin  must  have  believed  in  the  Asiatic 
sojom-n  of  the  Apostle. 

St.  Irenaeus,  who  wrote  in  Gaul  177  a.d., 
but  whose  youth  was  spent  in  Asia,  where  he 
had  been  a  hearer  of  St.  Polycarp,  a  personal 
disciple  of  St.  John,  says  : 

'  Thus  all  the  elders  testify,  who  were  con- 
versant in  Asia  with  John  the  disciple  of  the 
Lord.  And  he  remained  among  them  up  to 
the  times  of  Trajan  '  (98-117  a.d). 

'  Afterwards  John,  the  disciple  of  the  Lord, 
who  also  had  leaned  upon  His  breast,  himself 
published  a  Gospel  dm-ing  his  residence  at 
Ephesus  in  Asia.' 

'  While  I  was  yet  a  boy,  I  saw  thee  (Florinus) 
in  Lower  Asia  with  Polycarp.  I  can  even  de- 
scribe the  place  where  the  blessed  Polycarp 
used  to  sit  and  discourse,  and  how  he  would 
speak  of  his  familiar  intercourse  with  John, 
and  with  the  rest  of  those  who  had  seen  the 
Lord.' 

Polycrates  (who  as  bishop  of  Ephesus  had 


special  opportunities  for  knowing  the  truth) 
in  a  letter  written  to  Victor,  bishop  of  Rome, 
about  193  A.D.,  speaks  of  '  John  who  was  both 
a  witness  and  a  teacher,  who  reclined  upon 
the  bosom  of  the  Lord,  and,  being  a  priest, 
wore  the  sacerdotal  plate.  He  fell  asleep  at 
Ephesus.' 

Tertullian,  200  a.d.,  and  Clement  of  Alex- 
andria, 200  A.D.,  give  similar  evidence. 

There  are  two  main  difiiculties,  which  are 
held  by  some  to  throw  a  considerable  doubt 
upon  the  truth  of  this  tradition.  (1)  The  ninth- 
century  Chronicle  of  Georgius  Hamartolos  says, 
'  Papias,  bishop  of  Hierapolis,  declares  in  the 
second  book  of  the  Oracles  of  the  Lord  that 
John  was  put  to  death  by  the  Jews.'  Of 
com-se  if  Papias  (130  a.d.)  did  say  this,  and  if 
the  execution  of  John  took  place  in  Palestine, 
the  Ephesian  ministry  of  the  Apostle  is  ex- 
cluded. But  it  is  significant  that  the  earlier 
ecclesiastical  writers,  most  of  whom,  like 
L-enaeus  and  Eusebius,  were  diligent  students 
of  Papias,  seem  to  know  nothing  of  this  sup- 
posed Palestinian  martyrdom  of  John,  and,  on 
the  contrary,  represent  him  as  surviving  all  the 
other  Apostles,  and  dying  a  natm-al  death  in  ex- 
treme old  age  at  Ephesus.  Probably  Georgius 
has  misinterpreted  some  obscure  statement  of 
Papias,  whose  style  is  always  slovenly,  and 
often  ambiguous.  (2)  Among  the  personal 
disciples  of  Jesus,  according  to  Papias,  were 
two  Johns,  John  the  Apostle  and  John  the 
Presbyter  (or  Elder).  It  is  suggested  by  some 
that  the  John  who  settled  at  Ephesus  and  was 
the  instructor  of  Polycarp,  was  not  the  Apostle 
but  the  Presbyter.  This  view  does  not  seem 
very  probable.  We  are  not  told  that  the  Pres- 
byter had  any  connexion  with  Asia,  and  it 
hardly  seems  credible  that  Irenaeus,  who  was 
a  hearer  of  Polycarp,  can  have  so  completely 
misunderstood  his  Master's  references  to  John, 
as  to  suppose  that  he  meant  the  Apostle  when 
he  really  meant  the  Presbyter. 


812 


THE    ACTS    OF    THE    APOSTLES 


INTRODUCTION 


I.  Plan  and  Purpose.  (1)  Acts  represents 
the  exact  religious  standpoint  of  St.  Paul. 
Its  theme,  the  expansion  of  Christianity  from 
a  Jewish  sect  into  a  world-wide  religion,  is  in 
fact  St.  Paul's  own  ideal,  in  pursuit  of  which 
he  broke  every  hindering  tie,  and  strained  every 
faculty  of  mind  and  body  for  upwards  of  thirty 
years.  The  keynote  of  the  book  is  struck  at 
once  in  1  s,  '  Ye  shall  be  witnesses  unto  Me 
both  in  Jerusalem  and  in  Samaria,  and  unto 
the  uttermost  part  of  the  earth.'  These  words, 
uttered  by  the  risen  Lord,  fell  at  the  time  upon 
dull  and  inattentive  ears.  At  first  the  Twelve 
realised  only  their  mission  to  the  house  of 
Israel.  It  required  a  special  revelation  to  pro- 
cure the  baptism  of  the  Ethiopian  eunuch,  and 
a  thrice-repeated  vision  to  induce  the  reluctant 
Peter  to  baptise  Cornelius.  Even  when  these 
important  steps  had  been  taken,  the  Twelve 
showed  such  hesitation  to  undertake  aggres- 
sive work  among  the  Gentiles,  that  the  Lord 
of  the  Church  raised  up  a  thirteenth  apostle 
to  champion  Gentile  rights,  and  to  inaugurate 
a  more  liberal  policy.  This  '  chosen  vessel,' 
converted  by  a  special  miracle,  and  endowed 
with  an  authority  independent  of  the  Twelve, 
broke  through  the  old  prejudices  which  still 
hampered  the  original  disciples,  founded  flour- 
ishing Gentile  Churches,  in  which  the  Law 
was  no  longer  observed,  in  the  most  important 
eastern  provinces  of  the  Empire,  and,  at  the 
date  when  the  book  closes  (about  61  a.d.), 
was  proclaiming  the  gospel  in  the  great  western 
capital  itself. 

The  book  is  thus  a  defence  of  Gentile 
Christianity,  and  of  its  great  originator  and 
advocate,  St.  Paul,  of  whom  the  author  was  a 
companion  and  enthusiastic  admirer.  What 
Boswell  was  to  Johnson,  that  this  unnamed 
writer  was  to  St.  Paul.  Just  as  Johnson  owes 
the  affectionate  regard  of  posterity  in  no  small 
measure  to  the  labours  of  his  faithful  and  ad- 
miring biographer  Boswell,  so  St.  Paul  owes 
his  place  of  esteem  in  the  minds  of  subsequent 
generations  as  the  ideal  Christian  hero  and 
missionary  very  largely  to  the  author  of  Acts. 
The  Pauline  Epistles  may  teach  us  more  of  the 
Apostle's  inner  life,  but  it  is  Acts  which  gives 
us  those  outward  facts  which  make  him  live 
before  us  as  an  actual  character  on  the  scene 
of  history. 

(2)  But  the  writer  of  Acts  has  still  a  fur- 
ther  purpose.     He   recognises   in   a   manner 


quite  remarkable  for  so  thoroughgoing  a  sup- 
porter of  St.  Paul,  the  immense  value  and 
importance  of  the  work  of  St.  Peter  and  the 
earlier  Apostles.  It  is  probable  that  when  he 
wrote  (about  61  A.D.),  there  still  lingered  in 
Gentile  Churches  some  suspicion  of  the  opinions 
and  methods  of  the  Twelve,  and  in  the  Judaic 
Churches  of  Palestine  some  dislike  and  distrust 
of  the  Apostle  of  the  Gentiles.  This  the 
writer  deliberately  determined  to  remove.  He 
therefore  divided  his  book  into  two  distinct 
sections,  chs.  1-12,  in  which  the  chief  hero  is 
St.  Peter,  and  chs.  13-28  in  which  the  chief 
hero  is  St.  Paul.  He  intended  his  Gentile 
readers  by  a  perusal  of  chs.  1-12  to  be  brought 
to  understand  and  to  admire  St.  Peter,  and  his 
Jewish  Christian  readers  by  a  perusal  of  the 
rest  of  the  book  to  be  brought  to  understand 
St.  Paul.  True  to  his  purpose  of  acting  as  a 
peacemaker,  he  places  both  his  heroes  in  the 
most  attractive  possible  light,  passes  lightly 
over  the  past  differences  and  misunderstand- 
ings (e.g.  he  omits  the  serious  dispute  between 
Peter  and  Paul  at  Antioch,  Gal2iif-,  alto- 
gether), and  dwells  far  more  upon  the  points  of 
agreement  than  upon  the  points  of  difference 
between  two  great  Christian  parties. 

(3)  There  are  reasons  for  thinking  that  the 
author  intended  his  work  to  be  also  a  kind 
of  apology  for  Christianity  addressed  to  the 
heathen  world.  Without  going  to  the  length 
of  supposing,  as  some  do,  that  it  was  intended 
to  be  produced  and  read  at  St.  Paul's  trial  as  a 
formal  vindication  of  the  Apostle  and  his  re- 
ligion against  the  misrepresentations  of  his 
accusers,  we  may  still  discern  in  almost  every 
chapter  a  desire  to  influence  favourably  Gen- 
tile readers,  especially  those  belonging  to 
the  cultured  and  official  classes.  The  author 
is  well  equipped  for  his  task.  He  writes  as 
an  educated  man  to  educated  men.  He  opens 
his  book  with  a  short  preface  and  dedication 
in  the  approved  classical  manner.  He  writes 
in  a  style  which,  if  not  the  purest  Attic 
Greek,  is  still  graceful,  easy,  refined,  and  for- 
cible. It  is  not  only  superior  to  any  other 
Greek  in  the  NT.,  but  it  compares  favourably 
with  that  of  many  of  the  best  profane  authors 
of  the  age,  and  is  far  superior  to  the  Greek 
of  the  early  patristic  writers,  such  as  St. 
Clement  of  Rome,  the  author  of  the  so-called 
Second  Epistle  of  Clement,  the  author  of  the 
Epistle  to  Diognetus,  and  even  to  that  of  such 


813 


INTRO. 


THE   ACTS 


INTRO. 


professional  scholars  as  Aristides  and  St. 
Justin  Martyr.  An  educated  pagan,  happening 
to  peruse  Acts,  could  not  fail  to  recognise 
that  some  at  least  of  the  despised  Galileans 
were  persons  of  culture  and  refinement.  Our 
author  is  in  close  sympathy  with  the  best  side 
of  heathen  life  and  religion,  recognising  that 
even  the  worshippers  of  the  false  gods  of  pagan 
Greece  and  Rome  were  feeling  after  the  true 
God  if  haply  they  might  find  Him,  and  that 
He  had  not  left  Himself  entirely  without  wit- 
ness even  in  the  gross  darkness  of  degrading 
superstition (14 15  IT^";  cp.Rol  20).  Heattempts 
to  conciliate  the  official  and  power-holding 
classes,  in  whose  hands  was  the  actual  admin- 
istration of  the  Empire,  by  representing  St. 
Paul  as  a  peaceable  and  law-abiding  subject, 
proud  of  his  Roman  citizenship,  and,  so  far 
from  cherishing  disloyal  designs  against  the 
Imperial  Government,  continually  and  success- 
fully appealing  to  its  aid  against  the  hostile 
machinations  of  the  turbulent  Jews  (IS^'* 
1931-41  2132  22  29  2329  2426  2516-20,25-27  2632 
273,43  287,10,16,30). 

2.  Value  of  the  Book.  To  modern  readers 
the  chief  value  of  Acts  is  that  it  is  the  only 
authentic  record  which  we  possess  of  the  first 
thirty-five  years  of  the  history  of  the  Christian 
Church.  With  the  exception  of  a  few  meagre 
hints  in  St.  Paul's  Epistles,  Acts  is  absolutely 
om*  only  fii-st-century  authority  for  the 
momentous  events  which  followed  the  Resur- 
rection and  Ascension  of  our  Lord.  Even 
from  the  purely  secular  point  of  view,  the 
process  by  which  an  obscure  Jewish  sect  ex- 
panded into  a  world-wide  Church,  is  a  subject 
full  of  interest ;  but  for  Christians,  who 
believe  that  the  process  was  part  of  God's 
gracious  purpose  for  the  salvation  and  re- 
generation of  the  world,  the  subject  possesses 
an  interest  and  attractiveness  altogether 
unique. 

3.  Trustworthiness  and  Historical  Character 
of  the  Narrative.  Modern  scholars  apply  tests 
of  gi-eat  stringency  to  ancient  historical 
writings  which  profess  to  embody  the  evidence 
of  eyewitnesses  or  contemporaries.  Every 
statement  made  in  such  writings  which  can 
possibly  be  tested,  is  scrutinised  and  com- 
pared with  the  statements  of  other  ancient 
writings  of  undoubted  authority,  also  with  the 
now  very  voluminous  and  valuable  evidence 
of  inscriptions,  monuments,  and  coins.  If  the 
writer's  statements  which  can  be  tested  are 
found  upon  the  whole  to  be  accurate  and 
reliable,  credit  is  also  given  to  his  statements 
which  cannot  be  tested,  and  his  work  is  pro- 
nounced to  be  a  valuable  authority  for  the 
events  therein  recorded.  If,  however,  his 
statements  which  can  be  tested  are  found  to 
be  frequently  false  or  inaccurate,  his  work  is 
pronounced  unauthentic  and  unreliable. 


These  tests  have  been  applied  with  great 
and   increasing   rigour   during   the    last    half 
century  to  the  remains  of  Christian  antiquity, 
especially  to  those  of  a  narrative  character, 
like  Acts.     Tried  by  these  tests,  the  various 
apocryphal  Acts,  e.g.  the  Acts  of  Andrew,  the 
Acts  of  John,  the  Acts  of  Paul,  the  Acts  of 
Peter,  the  Acts  of  Thomas,  the  Acts  of  Paul 
and  Thecla,  and  the  Preaching  of  Peter,  have 
been  demonstrated  to  be  forgeries.     But  the 
canonical  Acts  of  the  Apostles  has  emerged 
from  the  ordeal  with  its  reputation  established. 
The  book  is  full  of  geographical  and  political 
notices  which  admit  of  definite  proof  or  dis- 
proof, and  in  practically  every  case  (the  state- 
ment about  Theudas,  536,  ig  ^  possible  excep- 
tion) the  author  has  been  proved  to  be  right. 
Thus  he  knows  that  Cyprus  was  at  this  time 
governed    by    a    proconsul    (AV    '  deputy '), 
whose  name  is  correctly  given  as  Sergius  Paulus 
(see  1 3  7)  ;  that  Philippi  was  a  Roman  colony, 
having     magistrates    called     '  praetors '     (AV 
'  magistrates  '),   attended    by    '  lictors  '    (AV 
'  sergeants  ')  (1620,35)  .  that  the  magistrates  of 
Thessalonica    were    called    '  politarchs '    (AV 
'rulers')  (17 6)  ;  that  the  ruler  of  Malta  was 
called  'primus '  (AV  '  chief  man'  )  (28 7)  ;  that 
there  were  officers  of  the  province  of  Asia 
called  '  Asiarchs '  (AV  '  the  chief  of   Asia  ') 
(19  31),  with  whose  functions  he  is  also  familiar ; 
that   at   Athens   questions   of   religion   were 
under   the    supervision   of   the    '  Areopagus ' 
(1719)  ;    that    Derbe    and    Lystra,    but    not 
Iconium,  were  cities  of  Lycaonia  (146)  .  that 
Ephesus  was  '  neocoros '  (AV  '  a  worshipper,' 
RV  '  temple-keeper ')  to  the  temple  of  Artemis, 
and  that  political  power  was  exercised  by  the 
'  demos  '  ('  people  ')  meeting  in    '  the    lawful 
assembly,'    presided   over    by    an    influential 
officer  called  the  '  secretary '  ( A V '  town  clerk ')  ; 
that  the  inhabitants  of  Ephesus  were  addicted 
to  magic  (1913*-),  etc.     He  thoroughly  under- 
stands the  Jewish  Sanhedrin,  its  functions  and 
its  parties  ;  the  position  of  the  chief  priests,  of 
the  Temple  guard,  of  the  Roman  garrison  in 
the   fortress   Antonia,  and   of    the  Herodian 
princes  at  Jerusalem.     He  is,  moreover,  fami- 
liar with  Roman  law,  the  procedure  of  Roman 
tribunals,    and   the   rights   and   privileges  of 
Roman  citizens,  e.g.  freedom  from  binding  and 
scourging,  and  the  right  of  appealing  to  the 
Emperor.      He    seems    also    to    be    correct 
(though  further  evidence  is  desirable)  in  his 
allusions  to  the  Italic  and  Augustan  '  cohorts  ' 
(AV  'bands')  at    Csesarea  (10 1  27 1),  and  to 
the  imperial  troops  called  '  frumentarii,'  whose 
head-quarters    were    on    the     Cselian    Hill    at 
Rome.     He  is  well  acquainted  with  navigation, 
and  his  account  of  the  voyage  to  Rome  has 
been  shown  to  be  true  in  every  detail  by  pro- 
fessional navigators  who  have  sailed  over  the 
course  with  the  express  purpose  of  investi- 


814 


INTRO. 


THE   ACTS 


INTRO. 


gating  its  accuracy.  We  may  add  that  the 
author's  allusion  to  the  popular  belief  at 
Lystra  that  Zeus  and  Hermes  (Jupiter  and 
Mercurius)  were  accustomed  to  visit  the  earth 
in  human  form,  and  his  descriptions  of  the 
temple  and  priest  of  '  Zeus  propolis '  and  of 
the  attempted  sacrifice  to  the  Apostles,  are 
thoroughly  true  to  life,  and  have  every  ap- 
pearance of  historical  truth  (148). 

The  natural  inference  from  these  facts  is 
that  either  the  author  himself  was  a  contem- 
porary and  an  eyewitness,  or  that  his  book  is 
based  upon  and  closely  follows  the  evidence 
of  contemporaries  and  eyewitnesses. 

4,  Authorship.  (1)  Inter /lal  evidence.  The 
book  is  anonymous,  but  from  internal  evidence 
it  is  possible  to  gain  much  information  about, 
and  perhaps  to  identify,  the  author. 

Certain  sections  (16io-i7  205-15  2II-I8  27 1- 
28 1^  ;  also,  in  the  D  text,  1 1 2S)  are  written 
in  the  first  person  plural,  and  are  hence  called 
'  the  we-sections.'  From  them  we  learn  that 
the  author  was  a  native  of  Antioch,  and  one 
of  the  earliest  converts  in  that  place  (11 28  D 
text)  ;  also  that  he  became  a  companion  of 
St.  Paul  during  the  Second  Missionary 
Journey.  Joining  the  Apostle  at  Troas  (16 1^), 
he  accompanied  him  to  Philippi,  w^here  he  was 
left  behind,  seemingly  in  pastoral  charge  of 
the  newly-established  Church  (171).  There 
he  remained  some  years,  probably  engaged 
in  evangelising  the  district,  until  St.  Paul 
revisited  Philippi  on  his  Third  Missionary 
Journey.  He  then  accompanied  the  Apostle 
to  Caesarea,  and  Jerusalem  (20*5  21i-i8),  and 
finally  to  Rome  (c.  27). 

Who  was  this  companion  ?  He  cannot  have 
been  Silas  (Silvanus),  who  was  present  at  the 
Council  of  J"erusalem  (1522),  and  would  there- 
fore have  used  the  first  person  in  describing 
it  ;  nor  Timothy,  who  is  spoken  of  in  the 
third  person  (171'^)  ;  nor  Titus,  who  was  a 
companion  of  the  Apostle  before  the  we- 
sections  begin  (Gral23),  and  therefore,  had 
he  been  the  author,  would  have  begun  the 
we-sections  earlier.  There  remains  Luke, 
who,  in  harmony  with  the  indications  of  Acts, 
appears  as  a  companion  of  St.  Paul  only  in  the 
later  Epistles  (CoUi*  Philemon  v.  24  2  Tim 
4 11),  and  who  was  certainly,  as  Acts  indicates, 
with  St.  Paul  at  Rome  (Col  4 14  Philemon  v.  24). 
In  Col 4 1-1,  Luke  is  called  the  'beloved  physi- 
cian,' and  this  again  suits  the  author  of  Acts, 
who  has  an  unusual  (probably  a  professional) 
knowledge  of  medicine,  and  shows  consider- 
able acquaintance  with  the  technical  terms  of 
the  Greek  medical  writers  (for  instances  see 
37  9 18  12  23  1311  288,  etc.).  Internal  evidence, 
therefore,  points  with  certainty  to  a  com- 
panion of  St.  Paul,  and  with  considerable  pro- 
bability to  St.  Luke,  as  the  author. 

(2)  External  evidence.    The  internal  evidence 


is  decisively  confirmed  by  the  external.  Thus  (a) 
the  author  of  Acts  is  certainly  also  the  author 
of  the  Third  Gospel.  The  common  dedica- 
tion to  Theophilus,  the  reference  to  a  '  former 
treatise '  of  a  scope  and  character  exactly 
answering  to  the  Gospel,  the  absolute  identity 
of  style  spirit  and  Pauline  standpoint,  and, 
we  may  add,  the  common  exhibition  of  un- 
usual medical  knowledge,  point  decisively  to 
common  authorship,  and  since  the  Gospel  is 
ascribed  by  very  ancient  tradition  to  St.  Luke, 
Acts  must  also  be  his.  (5)  Acts  was  received 
by  all  ancient  authorities  as  the  unquestioned 
work  of  Luke,  the  companion  of  Paul.  Ter- 
tullian,  Clement  of  Alexandria,  and  the  Mura- 
torian  fragment  (circ.  200  A.D.)  all  ascribe  it 
to  Luke.  A  little  earlier  Irenseus  (177  A.D.) 
transcribes  long  passages  from  it  into  his 
work,  '  Against  Heresies.'  There  are  also 
practically  certain  references  to  it  in  the  works 
of  Clement  of  Rome  (95  a.d.),  Polycarp  (110 
A.D.),  and  in  the  Epistle  of  the  Churches  of 
Gaul  (177  A.D.).  This  strong  combination  of 
internal  and  external  evidence  raises  the 
Lucan  authorship  to  a  practical  certainty. 

The  suggestion  of  certain  critics  that  only 
the  '  we-sections  '  are  the  work  of  a  companion 
of  St.  Paul,  and  that  the  rest  of  the  book  is 
by  another  and  much  later  writer,  cannot  be 
taken  very  seriously.  A  uniform  and  easily 
recognisable  style  pervades  the  whole  book, 
so  that  if  any  of  it  is  by  a  companion  of  St. 
Paul,  the  whole  is. 

It  is  probably  unnecessary  to  say  much  about 
the  theory  of  F.  C.  Baur  and  the  Tubingen 
school  that  Acts  is  an  unauthentic  romance  of 
the  middle  of  the  second  century.  Recent 
research  has  tended  so  strongly  to  confirm  the 
antiquity  and  credibility  of  Acts,  that  the 
theory  in  question  has  been  generally  aban- 
doned even  in  the  circle  in  which  it  originated. 

5.  Date.  The  most  natural  date  to  assign 
to  Acts  is  towards  the  close  of  the  first  Roman 
imprisonment  (circ.  61  a.d.).  It  is  hard  to 
believe  that  if  St.  Paul's  trial  had  actually 
taken  place  when  the  book  was  written,  the 
author  would  have  failed  to  mention  the 
result. 

So  early  a  date,  however,  involves  some 
difficulties.  It  throws  back  the  date  of 
St.  Luke's  Gospel  to  60,  perhaps  to  56  or  57, 
and  St.  Mark's  (which  St.  Luke  used)  still 
further.  To  many  critics  these  dates  seem 
altogether  too  early.  Holding  as  they  do, 
that  St.  Luke's  Gospel  contains  indications 
(see  on  Lk21)  that  it  was  not  composed  till 
after  the  fall  of  Jerusalem,  70  a.d.,  they  date 
the  Gospel  shortly  after  70,  and  Acts  towards 
the  close  of  the  decade  70-80.  We  may  fairly 
leave  the  question  open,  with  a  preference  for 
the  former  view. 

6.  The  Text.    The   codex   Bezse   (D)  and 


815 


INTRO. 


THE   ACTS 


INTRO. 


certain  other  authorities,  generally  called '  west- 
ern,' exhibit  a  text  so  different  from  that  either 
of  the  RV  or  the  A V,  that  it  may  almost  be  said 
to  constitute  a  different  edition  of  the  book. 
The    chief   '  western '     variations   are    at    8  ^" 

1127,28  1210  143,5,6  I52    1526    IQSb    199,14,25,28 

2015  211'^,  where  the  notes  should  be  con- 
sulted. The  Bezan  variations  give  additional 
particulars,  which  in  nearly  all  cases  seem  to 
be  authentic.  We  attribute  them,  therefore, 
if  not  to  St.  Luke  himself,  at  any  rate  to  some 
well-informed  writer  of  the  apostolic  or  sub- 
apostolic  age. 

7.  Sources.  For  the  early  history  of  the 
Church  of  Jerusalem,  there  was  available  the 
testimony  of  St.  Mark,  who  was  certainly 
with  St.  Luke  at  Rome  (CoUio>i4)  ;  also  the 
testimony  of  Philip,  with  whom  St.  Luke 
stayed  '  many  days  '  at  Csesarea  (21  lO).  During 
the  long  waiting  at  Ctesarea,  St.  Luke  doubt- 
less visited  Jerusalem,  and  obtained  additional 
information  from  James,  John,  Peter,  and 
others.  His  knowledge  of  St.  Paul's  career 
was  of  course  obtained  from  St.  Paul  himself, 
and  from  his  own  experiences  as  his  com- 
panion. 

8.  Theology  of  Acts.  The  extremely  primi- 
tive and  simple  character  of  the  theology  of 
Acts  is  a  strong  proof  of  the  authenticity  of 
the  record.  The  great  dogmatic  Epistles  of 
St.  Paul  had  already  appeared  when  Acts  was 
written,  but  hardly  the  faintest  trace  of  their 
characteristic  expressions  occurs  in  the  author's 
narrative. 

(1)  Christology.  The  Apostles  insist  that 
Jesus  is  the  expected  Messiah.  His  Messiah- 
ship  is  proved  partly  from  prophecy  and  partly 
from  the  fact  of  the  Resurrection.  In  general 
it  is  declared  that  '  to  Him  give  all  the  prophets 
witness ' ;  and  again,  '  yea,  and  all  the  prophets 
from  Samuel,  and  them  that  followed  after  as 
many  as  have  spoken,  they  also  told  of  these 
days.'  In  particular  Moses  (Dtl8i^)  is  quoted 
as  to  our  Lord's  prophetic  office,  and  Joel  (2-S) 
as  to  the  outpouring  of  the  Spirit  in  the  age  of 
the  Messiah.  But  most  of  the  quotations  are 
from  the  Psalms.  Ps  1 6  ^o  is  quoted  both  by 
St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul  as  a  proof  of  the 
Resurrection  ;  and  Ps2'i^  by  St.  Paul  in  the 
same  sense  (see  Acl 3 3").  Psl32ii  is  quoted 
to  prove  the  Davidic  descent  of  the  Messiah, 
and  PsllQi  to  illustrate  the  Ascension.  Ps 
118  22  ('  the  stone  which  the  builders  rejected  ') 
is  also  applied  to  Jesus  as  in  the  Gospels.  But 
the  great  proof  of  the  Messiahship  of  Jesus 
is  the  crowning  miracle  of  His  Resurrec- 
tion, which  is  appealed  to  on  every  occasion 
with  the  greatest  confidence.  In  the  house 
of  Cornelius  Peter  claims  to  have  eaten  and 
drunk  with  Jesus  after  He  rose  from  the 
dead  (10 -ti).  On  the  day  of  Pentecost  Peter 
says,  '  This  Jesus  did  God  raise  up,  whereof 


we  all  are  witnesses '  (2  ^2),  and  in  general  the 
history  declares,  '  with  great  power  gave  the 
Apostles  their  witness  to  the  Resurrection  of 
the'  Lord  Jesus  '  (4  33). 

But  faith  in  our  Lord's  Messiahship  was 
intended  by  the  Apostles  to  lead  on  (as  it  had 
in  their  own  case)  to  faith  in  our  Lord's  Di- 
vinity. The  indications  that  Jesus  was  already 
regarded  as  a  Divine  Person  are  neither  few 
nor  insignificant.  Such  titles  as  '  the  prince 
of  life,'  '  Lord  of  all,'  '  Judge  of  quick  and 
dead,'  and  '  Saviour,'  are  only  really  applicable 
to  one  who  is  divine.  More  significant  still  is 
the  practice  of  prayer  to  Christ.  The  dying 
Stephen  invoked  not  God,  but  Jesus,  to  for- 
give his  murderers  and  to  receive  his  spirit 
(759  E,Y).  The  Christians  even  received 
their  name  from  their  practice  of  praying 
to  Jesus  (gi-i  921  2216).  In  that  age,  among 
a  people  trained  to  regard  God  as  the  only 
lawful  object  of  religious  devotion,  and  to 
guard  His  unique  prerogatives  with  the  ut- 
most jealousy,  prayer  to  Jesus  clearly  implied 
that  He  was  within  the  Godhead.  Another 
significant  indication  of  what  was  believed 
about  Jesus  within  the  Church  is  contained 
in  the  confidential  address  of  St.  Paul  to  the 
elders  of  Ephesus  (2028).  There,  according  to 
the  best  reading  (see  RV),  St.  Paul  said  to 
the  elders, '  Feed  the  Church  of  God,  which  He 
purchased  with  His  own  blood,'  thus  expressly 
assigning  the  divine  name  to  Jesus.  It  is 
somewhat  remarkable  that  the  title  '  the  Son 
(huios)  of  God,'  so  common  in  the  Gospels  and 
Epistles,  never  occurs  in  the  early  speeches  in 
Acts.  Its  place  is  taken  by  another  word, 
pais  (313,  26  425,27,30)^  ^hich  the  AV  also  trans- 
lates '  Son,'  but  the  RV  '  servant.'  Both  trans- 
lations are  supported  by  good  modern  authori- 
ties. The  Gospel  title,  '  Son  of  God'  (hu/oK), 
occurs  only  in  the  (probably  genuine)  confes- 
sion of  the  eunuch  (8^7),  and  in  the  preaching 
of  St.  Paul  (920  1333). 

Characteristic  of  Acts  is  the  stress  laid  upon 
the  continued  activity  of  the  Ascended  Lord, 
who  is  regarded  as  still  carrying  on  from 
heaven  the  work  which  He  began  on  earth. 

(2)  The  Doctrine  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  Much 
prominence  is  given  to  the  activity  of  the 
Holy  Spirit,  who  is  regarded  mainly  as  the 
Spirit  of  the  Ascended  Chi-ist.  Although 
He  is  a  'gift'  of  Chi-ist  to  believers  (23,38)^ 
His  will  and  personality  are  strongly  marked 
(829,39    1019    1112    132    166,7    2023   2111    2825), 

jjs  also  is  His  Divinity  (53*-).  The  doctrines 
of  the  personality  and  divinity  of  the  Spirit, 
however,  are  not  as  yet  thrown  into  definite 
theological   language. 

(3)  Universalism.  The  writer  strongly  sym- 
pathises with  St.  Paul's  view  that  the  obliga- 
tion of  the  Ceremonial  Law  had  been  abrogated 
by    Christ,  and   that   Gentiles   ought    to   be 


816 


INTRO. 


THE  ACTS 


1.  1 


admitted  to  the  Church  without  being  circum- 
cised. At  the  same  time,  he  is  perfectly  fair 
to  St.  Paul's  opponents,  and  never  uses  bitter 
language  against  them.  The  tone  of  his  book 
is  generous  and  conciliatory.  He  does  full 
justice  to  St.  Peter  and  St.  James  and  the 
other  apostles  of  the  circumcision  :  see  §  1. 

(4)  Petrine  and  Pauline  Theology.  It  is 
a  proof  of  the  accuracy  of  the  writer  that 
the  speeches  of  Peter  and  Paul  reflect  the 
characteristic  ideas  of  the  speakers  ;  but  yet 
so  naturally  and  unobtrusively  that  it  is 
obvious  that  the  writer  has  not  copied  their 
Epistles.  The  speeches  of  St.  Peter  have 
many  points  of  contact  with  1  Peter  (see 
on  2  !■*),  and  those  of  St.  Paul  have  recognis- 
able, though  by  no  means  close,  coincidences 
with  the  Pauline  Epistles. 

9.  Contents,  Chronology,  and  connexion 
with  the  Epistles. 

I.  The  Church  in  Jerusalem,  li-S^. 
29-3.5  A.D. 

The  Ascension,  Pentecost.  First  conflicts 
with  the  Sanhedrin.  Stephen's  speech  and 
martyrdom. 

II.  The  Church  in  Jud^a  and  Samaria, 
8-i-lli8.    35,  36  A.D. 

Philip  in  Samaria.  Conversion  of  Saul 
(probably  35  or  36  a.d.,  though  some  place  it 
as  early  as  30  a.d.,  shortly  after  the  Ascen- 
sion). Baptism  of  Cornelius,  and  important 
discussion  thereupon. 

III.  The  Church  op  the  World,  11  is- 
2831.    35-61  a.d. 

(1)  The  Church  in  Antioch,  1119-133.     35- 

47  A.D. 

Mission  of  Paul  and  Barnabas  to  Jerusalem. 
Persecution  by  Herod  Agrippa  I  (44  a.d.). 
Barnabas  and  Saul  sent  forth  from  Antioch. 

(2)  First  Missionary  Journey  of  Paul  and 
Barnabas,   13 '1-15  35.    47  a.d. 

Cyprus,  Pisidia,  Antioch,  Iconium,  Lystra, 
Derbe.     Return  to  Syrian  Antioch. 

Possible  date  for  the  Epistle  to  the  Gala- 
tians,  beginning  of  49  a.d. 


Council  of  Jerusalem,  Pentecost,  49(?)  a.d. 

(3)  Second    Missionary    Journey    of   Paul, 

1536_18-22.         49-52  A.D. 

Galatia  revisited,  Europe,  Philippi,  Thessa- 
lonica,  Beroea,  Athens. 

Corinth,  IBi-i^.  1  and  2  Thessalonians  writ- 
ten from  Corinth,  50-52  a.d. 

Possible  date  of  St.  Matthew's  Hebrew 
'Logia'  or  Gospel,  about  45-50  a.d. 

Visit  to  Jerusalem,  and  return  to  Syi-ian 
Antioch. 

(4)  Third  Missionary  Journey  of  Paul, 
1823_2i  16.     Aug.  52  A.D.  to  Pentecost,  56  a.d. 

Galatia  revisited,  Apollos  at  Ephesus,  Paul 
at  Ephesus,  19 1-"  (53-55  a.d.). 

1  Corinthians  written  early  in  55  A.D. 
Paul  in  Macedonia  and   Greece   (Corinth), 

20  1-6  (55,  56  A.D.). 

2  Corinthians  and  (according  to  usual  view) 
Galatians,  written  from  Macedonia,  and  Ro- 
mans from  Corinth. 

Possible  date  of  St.  Mark's  Gospel. 
Troas,  207-12.     Voyage  to  Jerusalem,  2013- 
2116. 

(5)  Paul  in  Jerusalem  and  Caesarea,  2117_ 

2816. 

Pentecost,  56-59  a.d. 

Paul's  arrest.  C^sarea.  Paul  before  Felix, 
Festus,  Agrippa.  Possible  date  for  St.  Luke's 
Gospel,  57,  58  a.d.     Voyage  to  Rome. 

(6)  Paul  in  Rome,  2817-31.     From  59  a.d. 
Epistles    to    the    Philippians,    Colossians, 

Ephesians,  and  Philemon. 

Probable  date  of  Acts,  61  a.d. 


St.  Paul's  trial  before  Nero,  and  acquittal, 

61  A.D. 

Labours  in  Spain,  Crete,  Asia  Minor,  Mace- 
donia, Achgea.  Epistles  to  Titus  and  1  Timo- 
thy written,  65  (?)  a.d. 

Second  imprisonment  at  Rome.  The  Se- 
cond Epistle  to  Timothy  written,  67  a.d. 

Second  trial,  condemnation  and  martyrdom 
of  St.  Paul  (probably  of  St.  Peter  also),  67  a.d. 

[Some  authorities  place  the  martyrdom  of 
SS.  Peter  and  Paul  earlier,  in  64  A.D.] 


PART   1 

The  Establishment  and  Progress  of  the  Church  at  Jerusalem  (Chs.  1-83) 


The  Acts  of  the  Apostles]  A  more  adequate 
title  would  be  '  The  Acts  of  Peter  and  Paul,' 
the  Acts  of  Peter  extending  f  rom  c.  1  to  c.  12, 
and  the  Acts  of  Paul  from  c.  13  to  c.  28. 

CHAPTER  1 

The  Ascension.     Election  of  Matthias 
1-5.  St.  Luke's  Introduction.     He  recapitu- 
lates the  general  contents  of  his  Gospel,  adding, 
however,  this  additional  information,  (1)  that 
the  appearances  of  the  risen  Lord  were  numer- 


the  Resurrection  and  the  Ascension.  If  we 
possessed  St.  Luke's  Gospel  only,  we  might 
possibly  conclude  that  the  risen  Lord  appeared 
only  three  times,  and  that  He  ascended  on  the 
very  day  of  His  Resurrection. 

I.  The  former  treatise]  i.e.  St.  Luke's  Gos- 
pel :  see  Intro.     Theophilus]  see  on  Lk  1  3. 

Began]  The  Gospel  records  the  work  that 
Jesus  began  to  do.  Acts  records  its  accom- 
plishment. The  chief  agent  in  this  book  is  the 
Ascended  Christ  Himself,  operating  through 


ous,  and  (2)  that  forty  days  elapsed  between     His  Spirit,  and  performing  works  which  were 
52  817 


1.  2 


THE  ACTS 


1.  11 


not  possible  while  He  was  still  in  the  flesh 
(Jnl4i2).  2.  Through  the  Holy  Ghost]  St. 
Luke  represents  all  the  actions  of  Christ's 
ministry  as  performed  by  the  power  of  the 
Holy  Spirit,  which  He  received  at  His  Baptism 
to  consecrate  Him  to  His  office  of  Messiah  : 
see  1038.  Commandments]  viz.  to  preach 
repentance  and  remission  of  sins  to  all  nations 
beginning  at  Jerusalem,  and  to  tarry  in  the 
city  until  they  should  be  endued  with  power 
from  on  high  (Lk24^"f-). 

3.  Many  infallible  proofs]  EV  omits  'in- 
fallible,' but  the  Gk.  implies  that  they  were 
reliable  and  convincing.  The  '  many '  is  im- 
portant, for  St.  Luke  records  only  four  appear- 
ances, all  in  Judsea  :  see  art.  '  The  Resurrec- 
tion.' 

Forty  days]  i.e.  at  intervals  during  forty 
days.  The  kingdom  of  God]  Sometimes  '  the 
Kingdom  of  God'  denotes  the  inward  and 
spiritual  aspects  of  Christianity,  sometimes 
Christianity  as  organised  into  a  visible  Kingdom 
or  Church.  Both  meanings  are  here  blended. 
The  departing  Lord  doubtless  wished  to  give 
the  Apostles  spiritual  instructions  to  prepare 
them  to  receive  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  also 
special  directions  for  the  future  government  of 
His  Church  :  see  intro.  to  Mt,  §  6  (6),  and  pre- 
fatory remarks  to  Mt  5.  4.  And,  being  as- 
sembled] rather,  '  and  while  sitting  at  meat 
with  them'  :  see  EM  and  cp.  Mkl6i4.  The 
fact  of  the  risen  Lord's  eating  is  attested  also 
by  Lk2442,  where  Jesus  eats  'before'  the 
disciples  ;  and  the  sitting  at  table  by  Ac  10*1. 

The  promise  of  the  Father]  i.e.  the  promised 
gift  of  the  Holy  Ghost  which  was  to  be  be- 
stowed at  Pentecost  :  see  Lk244f». 

5.  Baptized  with  the  Holy  Ghost]  There  can 
be  little  doubt  that  the  Apostles  had  already 
received  baptism,  not  only  from  John,  but  also 
from  Jesus  Himself  :  see  Jn322,26  41,2.  But 
Christian  Baptism  was  not  yet,  in  the  full 
sense,  a  Baptism  'with  the  Holy  Ghost  and 
with  fire,'  because,  Jesus  being  not  yet  glori- 
fied, the  Holy  Ghost  could  not  yet  be  fully 
given  (Jn73'.*). 

6-1 1.  The  Ascension.  Belief  in  the  Ascen- 
sion of  Jesus  follows  necessarily  from  belief 
in  His  Resurrection.  If  Jesus  rose  from  the 
dead  not  with  a  natural,  but  with  a  spiritual 
body  (and  this  is  undoubtedly  the  doctrine  of 
Holy  Scripture),  then  it  was  impossible  for 
Him  to  remain  permanently  on  earth.  The 
translation  of  His  body  to  that  sphere  of 
existence  to  which  it  now  properly  belonged, 
was  both  natural  and  necessary.  The  Ascen- 
sion is  only  described  in  detail  in  the  present 
passage.  The  allusion  to  it  in  Lk245i,  though 
probable,  is  not  certain,  and  that  in  MklG^^  is 
not  by  the  writer  of  the  Second  Gospel.     Th 


j.-_.      e 

paucity  of  allusions  to  the  Ascension  in  the     .  ,_^  ...^v^^^^    „„x„  „,,f.,,   n*^  ,-,.,r,^« 

JNl.  is  probably  due  to  the  fact  that  it  was     in  judgment  He  may  approve  your  work 

818 


not  accompanied  by  any  change  in  the  con- 
dition of  Jesus.  It  was  on  the  first  day  of 
His  Resurrection,  not  on  the  fortieth,  that 
Jesus  was  glorified  and  invested  with  all 
authority  in  heaven  and  on  earth  (Mt  28 18)  ; 
hence  the  event  of  Acl 9  was  regarded  by  the 
Apostles  as  of  secondary  importance.  In  the 
Ascension,  as  in  the  Resurrection,  Christ  is 
the  firstfruits  of  the  human  race,  opening  the 
Kingdom  of  heaven  to  all  believers.  He  is 
also,  as  ascended,  the  high  priest  and  intercessor 
of  humanity,  pleading  on  man's  behalf,  before 
the  eternal  Father,  His  completed  sacrifice 
(Heb7,8). 

6.  They  therefore]  These  words  imply  that 
at  the  common  meal  which  the  risen  Lord 
shared  with  His  Apostles  (v.  4),  He  made  an 
appointment  with  them  to  meet  Him  on  the 
day  of  His  Ascension.  The  Galilean  meeting 
described  by  St.  Matthew  (28it5f.)^  fm^j  j^en- 
tioned  by  St.  Mark,  was  al,-o  by  appointment. 

Restore .  .  the  kingdom]  i.e.  make  the  Jewish 
nation  independent  of  Rome,  and  dominant, 
politically  and  religiously,  over  all  the  nations 
of  the  earth.  This  was  the  current  Messianic 
expectation  of  the  Jews,  and  the  fact  that  the 
author  represents  the  Apostles  as  still  enter- 
taining it,  is  a  mark  of  the  historical  truth  of 
his  narrative.  It  needed  the  Pentecostal  out- 
pouring of  the  Holy  Spirit  to  teach  the  Apostles 
that  the  Christ's  Kingdom  is  not  of  this  world. 
The  answer  of  Jesus  implies  that  He  will 
restore  the  Kingdom  to  Israel  ;  not,  however, 
to  'Israel  after  the  flesh,'  as  the  Apostles 
imagined,  but  to  '  the  Israel  of  God,'  i.e.  to 
Christian  believers  of  every  nation,  by  making 
Christianity  the  dominant  religion  throughout 
the  world. 

7.  It  is  not  for  you]  The  Apostles  were  to  be 
not  so  much  prophets  of  the  future,  as  witnesses 
of  the  past.  Hath  put  in  his  own  power]  see 
on  Mkl332.  There  is  another  possible  trans- 
lation of  these  words  :  '  which  the  Father 
appointed  by  His  own  power.'  8.  Samaria, 
etc.]  Jesus  here  revokes  the  temporary  limita- 
tion of  the  mission  of  the  Apostles  to  the  Jews 
(Mtl05,«).  This  passage  is  one  of  the  many 
proofs  that  Jesus  intended  to  found  a  universal 
religion. 

9.  A  cloud  received  him]  The  visible  and 
corporal  Ascension  does  not  necessarily  imply 
that  heaven  is  a  place  situated  above  the 
clouds.  The  object  of  the  Ascension  was  not 
to  indicate  where  or  what  heaven  is,  but  to 
assure  the  Apostles  by  an  unmistakable  sign 
that  Jesus  had  entered  it.  It  is  possible  that 
heaven  is  not,  strictly  speaking,  a  place,  but  a 
condition.  10.  Two  men]  certainly  angels, 
as  in  Lk244. 

II.  Why  stand]  It  is  fruitless  to  gaze.  Go 
rather  and  labour,  that  when  He  comes  again 


In 


].  12 


THE   ACTS 


2. 


like  manner]  i.e.  in  glory,  and  in  His  hmnan 
nature  :  cp.  '  this  Jesus  '  above. 
12-14.  T^6  waiting  Church. 

12.  Olivet]  lit.  'the  olive-orchard'  ;  called 
usually  The  Mount  of  Olives.  This,  the  scene 
of  Christ's  agony  and  betrayal,  is  now  made 
the  scene  of  His  triumph.  A  sabbath  day's 
journey]  i.e.  2,000  cubits,  or  6  furlongs. 

13.  Anupperroom]  RV  'the  upper  chamber,' 
probably  that  in  which  the  Last  Supper  had  been 
eaten  ;  not,  as  some  have  argued  from  Lk24S3^ 
a  chamber  in  the  Temple.  It  may  have  been 
in  the  house  of  Mary  the  mother  of  Mark  ; 
see  1212.  Peter,  etc.]  see  on  Mtl02f-  The 
brother  of  James]  RV  correctly,  '  the  son  of 
James.' 

14.  With  one  accord]  Unanimity  and  com- 
mon action  distinguish  the  Christian  community 
in  Acts.  This  characteristic  expression  (Gk. 
homothumadon)  occurs  again  2^^  42't  5^2  757 
86  1220  1525  1812  1929^  and  nowhere  else  in 
the  NT.  except  in  RolS'^.  In  prayer]  add 
(from  Lk24^3)  'and  praise.'  The  women] 
viz.  those  which  had  accompanied  Jesus  in 
Galilee,  and  ministered  to  Him  of  their  sub- 
stance. Among  them  probably  were  Mary  of 
Magdala,  Joanna,  and  Susanna  (Lk82:3)  ;  Mary 
the  mother  of  James  and  Joses,  and  Salome 
the  wife  of  Zebedee  (MklS^O);  possibly 
Martha  and  Mary  of  Bethany  ;  and  almost 
certainly  Mary  the  mother  of  Mark  (12^2), 
who,  perhaps,  was  hostess.  Mary  the  mother 
of  Jesus]  The  last  mention  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin  in  the  sacred  history.  Of  her  subse- 
quent life  nothing  certain  is  known.  His 
brethren]  see  on  Mt  12  •16-50. 

15-26.  The  election  of  Matthias.  As  the 
Church  was  about  to  be  established  on  a 
durable  and  permanent  basis,  it  was  necessary 
that  the  twelve  foundations  on  which  it  was  to 
rest  (Eph220  Rev  2114)  should  be  made  com- 
plete. Matthias,  therefore,  was  chosen  to  fill 
the  place  of  the  traitor  Judas  ;  the  twelfth 
Patriarch  of  the  new  Israel  of  God. 

15.  Peter]  Peter,  having  been  restored  by 
Jesus  to  the  office  forfeited  by  his  triple 
apostasy  (Jn21i5f.),  resumes  his  old  rank  as 
leader  of  the  Apostles.  This  leadership  was 
probably  personal,  not  official  :  see  on  MtlGi^. 

16.  Must  needs]  RV  '  It  was  needful  that 
the  scripture  should  be  fulfilled.'  Just  as 
the  scandal  and  stumbling-block  of  the  death 
of  Jesus  was  diminished  by  the  discovery  that 
it  was  foretold  in  the  OT.,  and  was  part  of  the 
determinate  counsel  of  God  (Lk242»5>46  Ac  2  23 
31'''' 18,  etc.),  so  the  scandal  of  the  fall  of  an 
Apostle  was  relieved  by  the  discovery  that 
David  had  foretold  it  in  the  Psalms  :  cp.  Jn 
13i8Mt262'i.  Peter  quotes  PssG9  25  and  1098. 
David  really  spoke  of  his  own  enemies,  per- 
haps (in  Psl09)  of  Ahithophel,  but  Peter 
regards  the  words  as  a  typical  prophecy  of  the 


treachery  of  Judas.  17.  Part]  RV '  his  portion ' 
(lit.  '  lot,'  Gk.  kleros).  In  Patristic  Greek  the 
word  designates  the  clergy. 

18,  19.  These  vv.  are,  of  course,  a  note  by 
St.  Luke,  not  a  part  of  St.  Peter's  speech. 
For  the  historical  difficulties  see  on  Mt  273-10. 

20.  Bishopric]  RV  'office'  (Pss6925  1098). 

21,  22.  St.  Peter  names  two  qualifications 
of  an  Apostle,  (1)  to  have  followed  Jesus  from 
the  day  of  His  Baptism  by  John  to  the  day  of 
His  Ascension  ;  (2)  to  have  been  a  witness  of 
His  Resurrection.  The  former  of  St.  Peter's 
requirements  excludes  St.  Paul,  who  had  some 
difficulty  on  this  account  in  establishing  his 
claim  to  be  an  Apostle.  23.  The  Apostles 
might  doubtless  have  added  Matthias  to  their 
number  on  their  own  authority,  but  instead  of 
doing  so  they  consulted  the  brethren,  thus 
introducing  a  popular  element  into  the  polity 
of  the  Church :  see  on  63-6.  Two]  The 
disciples  (probably  because  the  Holy  Spirit 
had  not  yet  been  received)  did  not  venture  to 
make  a  final  choice,  but  left  the  decision  to 
God.  Joseph  called  Barsabas]  RV  '  Barsab- 
bas,'  i.e.  Joseph,  son  of  Sabba,  is  probably 
brother  of  the  Judas  Barsabbas  mentioned  in 
1 5  22.  His  surname  '  Justus '  is  Roman,  and 
was  assumed  in  accordance  with  a  not  un- 
common practice  of  the  Jews  at  this  time  :  cp. 
'Marcus'  (1212),  'Niger'  (I31),  '  Paulus ' 
(13  9).  According  to  Papias,  this  Joseph  drank 
a  draught  of  poison  without  receiving  injury. 

Matthias]  lit.  'gift  of  Jehovah.'  This 
apostle  is  not  again  mentioned  in  the  NT. 

24.  They  prayed]  This,  the  first  recorded 
Christian  prayer,  is  probably  addressed  to 
Jesus  Himself.  For,  (1)  prayer  to  Jesus  was 
no  exceptional  thing,  but  a  usual  practice  of 
the  Apostolic  Church  (see  9 1'*)  ;  and  (2)  it  was 
appropriate  that  He  who  had  chosen  eleven  of 
the  apostles  should  be  invoked  to  choose  the 
twelfth.  25.  His  own  place]  St.  Peter  speaks 
with  merciful  reserve,  but  probably  means 
Hell  ('  Gehenna ').  The  same  euphemism  is 
found  in  rabbinical  writings.  26.  Gave  forth 
their  lots]  R V  '  gave  lots  for  them '  ;  RM  '  gave 
lots  unto  them.'  The  two  names  were  probably 
written  on  tablets,  and  shaken  in  a  vessel  until 
one  of  them  dropped  out.  The  use  of  the  sacred 
lot  (Urim)  was  common  from  the  age  of  Moses 
to  that  of  David,  but  afterwards  it  fell  into  dis- 
use. This  solitary  example  of  its  revival,  oc- 
curring, as  it  did,  before  the  descent  of  the  Holy 
Spirit,  is  not  to  be  regarded  as  a  precedent. 

CHAPTER  2 

The  Day  of  Pentecost 
1-13.  Pentecost.  On  this  day  the  risen 
Lord  fulfilled  His  promise  to  send  another 
Comforter  (or  Advocate)  '  that  He  may  abide 
with  you  for  ever  ;  even  the  Spirit  of  Truth, 
whom  the  world  cannot  receive  ;  for  it  be- 


819 


2.  1 


THE  ACTS 


2.  4 


holdeth  Him  not,  neither  knoweth  Him  ;  but 
ye  know  Him  ;  for  He  abideth  with  you,  and 
shall  be  in  you '  (Jnl4i'').  Primarily,  Pente- 
cost is  to  be  regarded  as  the  Consecration  of 
the  Church  for  its  work  of  evangelising  the 
world.  The  fiery  tongues  which  lighted  upon 
the  Apostles  symbolised  the  gift  of  '  boldness 
with  fervent  zeal  constantly  to  preach  the 
gospel  unto  all  nations  ;  whereby  we  have 
been  brought  out  of  darkness  and  error  unto 
the  clear  light  and  true  knowledge  of  Thee, 
and  of  Thy  Son  Jesus  Christ.'  To  assist  in 
the  work  of  evangelising  the  world,  the  gift  of 
prophecy  (i.e.  of  inspired  preaching)  was  given, 
nor  was  this  gift  confined  to  the  Apostles,  for 
'  I  will  pour  out  of  my  Spirit  upon  all  flesh  ; 
and  your  sons  and  your  daughters  shall  pro- 
phesy, and  your  young  men  shall  see  visions, 
and  your  old  men  shall  dream  dreams.'  The 
books  of  the  NT.  remain  to  testify  that  this 
gift  of  prophecy  was  a  real  one.  We  must 
also  believe  (although  St.  Luke  does  not 
allude  to  the  fact)  that  on  the  day  of  Pentecost 
the  Holy  Spirit  was  given  as  a  principle  of 
inward  spiritual  life.  The  Lord  Jesus  had 
definitely  promised  this  at  the  Last  Supper. 
He  said  that  the  Holy  Spirit  would  come  to 
dwell  with  them  and  within  them  for  ever, 
and  that  He  Himself  would  return  with  the 
coming  of  the  Spirit  to  dwell  in  their  hearts 
by  faith.  This  Spirit  was  to  be  their  Advocate 
with  the  Father,  to  teach  them  all  things, 
to  bring  to  their  remembrance  all  things 
that  Jesus  had  told  them,  and  to  guide 
them  into  all  the  truth.  The  Spirit  was  also 
to  have  a  mission  to  those  without.  Through 
the  earnest  utterances  of  believers.  He  would 
'  convict  the  world  of  sin,  and  of  righteous- 
ness, and  of  judgment,'  and  a  beginning  of 
this  process  was  seen,  when  the  hearers  of 
St.  Peter's  first  sermon  '  were  pricked  in  their 
heart,  and  said  unto  Peter  and  the  rest  of  the 
Apostles,  Brethren,  what  shall  we  do  ?  ' 

At  Pentecost  a  new  spirit  entered  the 
world,  and  began  to  transform  it.  That  spirit 
is  still  at  work,  and  the  most  sceptical  cannot 
deny  its  presence  or  its  power.  Men  may 
attempt  to  account  for  it  by  natural  causes, 
but  it  is  there,  and  history  teaches  us  that  it 
comes  to  us  from  Jesus  of  Nazareth,  who,  as 
Dr.  Lecky  says,  '  has  not  only  been  the  highest 
pattern  of  virtue,  but  the  highest  incentive 
to  its  practice,  and  has  exerted  so  deep  an 
influence  that  it  may  be  truly  said  that  the 
simple  record  of  three  short  years  of  active 
life  has  done  more  to  regenerate  and  to  soften 
mankind,  than  all  the  disquisitions  of  philo- 
sophers, and  than  all  the  exhortations  of 
moralists.' 

I.  Pentecost]  so  called  because  it  was  the 
fiftieth  day  from  the  first  day  of  the  Passover. 
It  was  also  called  '  the  Feast  of  Weeks,'  because 


it  occurred  a  week  of  weeks  (i.e.  seven  weeks) 
after  the  Passover.  It  marked  the  completion 
of  the  corn  harvest,  and  according  to  the  later 
Jews  it  commemorated  the  giving  of  the  Law 
on  Sinai.  The  characteristic  ritual  of  this 
feast  was  the  offering  and  waving  of  two 
leavened  loaves  of  wheaten  flour,  together  with 
a  sin  offering,  burnt  offerings,  and  peace 
offerings  (Lv23is-20).  Appropriately,  there- 
fore, on  this  day  the  gospel  harvest  began  ; 
and  the  old  Law  of  ordinances  was  superseded 
by  the  new  Law  of  love. 

2.  A  sound]  The  miraculous  accompaniments 
of  the  outpouring  of  the  Spirit  were  intended 
partly  to  strengthen  the  faith  of  the  Apostles 
in  the  reality  of  the  gift,  and  partly  to  arrest 
the  attention  of  the  inhabitants  of  Jerusalem. 

3.  Cloven  tongues]  RV  '  tongues  parting 
asunder,  like  as  of  fire.'  St.  Luke  means  that 
the  tongues  or  flames  of  fire  appeared  first  in 
one  mass  over  the  assembled  Church,  and  then 
divided,  one  flame  or  tongue  settling  upon  the 
head  of  each  disciple.  The  mighty  wind  sym- 
bolised the  power  and  energy  of  the  Spirit, 
and  the  tongues  of  fire  the  fervour  with  which 
the  disciples  were  empowered  to  proclaim  the 
gospel. 

4.  To  speak  with  other  tongues]  We  should 
not  gather  from  the  references  to  the  gift 
of  tongues  in  St.  Paul  (1  Cor  12-14)  and  in 
the  appendix  to  St.  Mark  (16  ^7)^  that  the 
gift  in  question  was  the  power  of  speaking 
foreign  languages.  Nor  do  foreign  languages 
appear  to  have  been  spoken  when  Cornelius 
and  his  companions  spoke  with  tongues  and 
magnified  God  (AclO'*'^),  nor  when  the  twelve 
men  at  Ephesus,  upon  whom  St.  Paul  had  laid 
hands,  '  spake  with  tongues  and  prophesied ' 
(19*5).  Many,  therefore,  are  of  opinion — 
especially  since  St.  Peter  compares  the  case 
of  Cornelius  and  his  companions  with  the 
event  at  Pentecost  (11^^) — that  in  this  pas- 
sage also  the  speaking  with  tongues  is  not 
to  be  understood  as  a  speaking  in  foreign 
languages,  but  as  some  kind  of  ecstatic  utter- 
ance of  praise,  not  fully  under  the  control 
of  the  speaker.  This  view  is  plausible,  but 
difficult  to  reconcile  with  the  prima  facie 
meaning  of  the  present  passage.  In  v.  6  it 
is  said  that  the  multitude  were  confounded, 
'  because  that  every  man  heard  them  speak 
in  his  own  language.'  Again  in  v,  7  the 
multitude  ask,  '  Behold,  are  not  all  these 
which  speak  Galilseans  ?  And  how  hear  we 
every  man  in  our  own  tongue,  wherein  we 
were  born  ? '  (see  also  v.  11).  The  meaning 
surely  must  be  that  the  disciples  either  spoke, 
or  that  they  seemed  to  their  hearers  to  speak, 
foreign  languages.  This  being  so,  we  are  con- 
strained to  believe,  either  that  St.  Luke  has 
misunderstood  the  nature  of  the  event,  or 
that  this  Pentecostal  miracle  was  of  a  higher 


820 


2.  5 


THE  ACTS 


2.  38 


and  more  extraordinary  character  than  the 
later  'speaking  with  tongues.'  Among  modern 
parallels  the  most  suggestive  is  the  case  of 
St.  Vincent  Ferrer,  who,  when  preaching  in 
Spanish,  is  said  to  have  been  understood  by 
English,  Flemish,  French,  and  Italian  hearers 
(see  further  on  1  Cor  12-14).  We  may  see  in 
this  event,  which  seemed  to  obliterate  the 
barriers  of  nationality  and  language,  a  reversal 
of  the  separation  and  confusion  of  tongues 
(Gnll). 

5.  Were  dwelling]  i.e.  were  dwelling  per- 
manently. Their  love  of  Jerusalem  and  the 
Temple  had  attracted  them  from  all  lands  to 
take  up  their  abode  in  the  Holy  City.  6.  The 
multitude]  comprising  not  only  these  '  dwellers ' 
in  Jerusalem,  but  those  who  had  come  to  keep 
the  feast.  Pentecost  was  one  of  the  three 
festivals  at  which  every  Israelite  was  expected 
to  appear  before  the  Lord. 

9.  Parthians,  and  Medes,  and  Elamites]  are 
nations  beyond  the  empire  and  influence  of 
Rome.  Here  were  settled  the  Ten  Tribes  of 
the  first  captivity  (2K17*').  Mesopotamia] 
The  chief  Jewish  centre  here  was  Babylon, 
which,  ever  since  the  captivity  of  Judah,  was 
famed  for  its  rabbinical  schools,  and  was  for 
that  reason  regarded  as  part  of  the  Holy  Land. 

Judaea]  Judaea,  as  distinguished  from  Galilee, 
to  which  the  Apostles  belonged.  Cappadocia 
.  .  Pamphylia]  Jews  were  scattered  throughout 
Asia  Minor  as  far  as  Pontus,  and  even  crossed 
the  Euxine  to  the  Crimea.  They  enjoyed 
everywhere  full  ci^ic  rights. 

10.  Egypt]  According  to  Philo  there  were 
a  million  Jews  in  Egypt.  They  formed  a 
large  part  of  the  population  of  Alexandria, 
where  Judaism  allied  itself  with  the  Platonic 
philosophy,  and  attempted  to  appropriate  the 
best  elements  of  Hellenic  culture.  Cyrene] 
A  Greek  city  in  N.  Africa,  founded  631  B.C. 
A  quarter  of  its  great  population  consisted 
of  Jews,  who  possessed  full  rights  of  citizen- 
ship.    See  Mt273ii  AcG^  11 20  131. 

Strangers  of  Rome]  RV  '  sojourners  from 
Rome.'  They  probably  possessed  the  Roman 
citizenship,  like  St.  Paul.  Jewish  prisoners 
were  brought  to  Rome  by  Pompey,  but  they 
soon  regained  their  freedom,  and  settled,  with 
full  civic  rights,  in  a  district  beyond  the  Tiber. 
In  19  A.D.  they  were  banished,  but,  after  the 
fall  of  Sejanus,  were  allowed  to  return. 

14-41.  St.  Peter's  sermon  and  its  effects. 
Peter's  sermon  falls  into  four  divisions  : 

(1)  vv.  14-21.  Explanation  of  the  pheno- 
menon of  speaking  with  tongues  as  a  manifest- 
ation of  the  outpouring  of  the  Spirit  foretold 
by  the  prophet  Joel,  Jl  2  28.  (2)  vv.  22-28.  St. 
Peter  shows  that  the  outpouring  of  the  Spirit 
is  connected  with  the  life  and  work  of  Jesus 
of  Nazareth,  whom,  after  His  crucifixion  by 
lawless  men,  God  raised  from  the  dead,  accord- 


ing to  the  prophecy  of  David  in  the  Psalms 
(Ps  168-11).  (3)  vv.  29-36.  St.  Peter  proves 
that  Ps  1 6  ^"11  refers  to  the  Resurrection  not  of 
David  but  of  Jesus,  and  adds  the  personal 
testimony  of  the  Apostles  that  Jesus  had 
really  been  raised.  He  then  affii-ms  the 
Ascension  of  Jesus,  and  declares  that  it  is  He 
who  has  sent  down  from  heaven  the  gift  of 
the  Holy  Spirit.  From  the  Ascension  which 
he  illustrates  by  PsllQi,  he  further  concludes 
that  Jesus  is  the  Messianic  King  so  long 
expected  by  the  Jews.  (4)  vv.  37-40.  St. 
Peter  concludes  with  a  practical  exhortation 
to  his  hearers  to  repent  and  be  baptised,  that 
they  and  their  children  may  receive  the  gift  of 
the  Holy  Ghost. 

The  genuineness  of  this  speech  is  vouched 
for  by  the  simplicity  of  its  theology,  and  by 
its  resemblances  to  1  Peter  (e.g.  '  foreknow- 
ledge,' lPetl2;  'to  call  upon'  (God),  117; 
'rejoicing,'  I'^'S  41^;  'the  right  hand  of  God,' 
322;  'exalt,'  56;  'the  house'  (=  Israel),  2^ 
417,  etc.). 

15.  But  the  third  hour]  On  festival  days 
the  Jews  tasted  nothing  until  the  morning 
synagogue  service,  held  at  the  third  hour 
(9  A.M.),  was  finished. 

16.  Joel]  see  Joel  2  28-32.  The  only  impor- 
tant variation  is  that  Peter  changes  Joel's 
'  afterward '  into  the  more  definite  '  in  the  last 
days.'  The  '  last  days  '  are  the  Christian  dis- 
pensation. 19.  Wonders  in  heaven,  etc.]  A 
metaphorical  description  of  the  calamities 
which  will  happen  on  earth  before  Christ's 
Second  Coming,  which  St.  Peter  probably  re- 
garded as  near  :  cp.  Mt2429.  20.  That  great 
and  notable  day]  i.e.  either  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem,  or  Christ's  Second  Advent.  23.  By 
wicked  hands]  lit.  '  by  the  hand  of  lawless 
men  '  (i.e.  the  Romans).  24.  The  pains  of 
death]  lit.  '  the  birth-pangs  of  death.'  Death 
being  personified  as  a  woman  in  travail,  and 
receiving  relief  when  the  dead  are  '  born  again ' 
by  resurrection.  But  it  is  more  probable  that 
St.  Peter  really  spoke  of  the  '  snares '  of  death, 
the  word  for  'snare'  (hebel)  and  that  for 
'birth-pang'  (hebel)  being  practically  iden- 
tical. 25.  See  Psl6Sf.  26.  Rest  in  hope]  lit. 
'  pitch  its  tent  upon  hope.'  27.  Hell]  i.e. 
Hades,  the  abode  of  disembodied  spirits  wait- 
ing for  the  resurrection  (Heb.  Sheol).  A 
proof  text  of  the  reality  of  Christ's  descent 
into  '  hell '  (i.e.  Hades).  33.  By  the  right 
hand]  or,  '  to  the  right  hand.'  The  promise  of] 
i.e.  the  promised  Holy  Ghost. 

37.  Were  pricked  in  their  heart]  (1)  because 
they  had  crucified  Jesus ;  (2)  because  they 
had  not  acknowledged  Him  as  the  Messiah. 
and  had  thus  deprived  themselves  of  the  hope 
of  salvation.  38.  In  the  name  of  Jesus  Christ] 
see  on  Mt28i-\  The  remission  of  sins]  one  of 
the  principal  benefits  of  Holy  Baptism,  when 


821 


2.  42 


THE  ACTS 


3.6 


the  ordinance  is  rightly  received  (2216;  cp. 
1043,47  1338  Hebl022;  alsolCorGH  Eph 
526,26).  The  gift  of  the  Holy  Ghost]  It  is  to 
be  inferred  from  815-17  196^  cp.  Heb62,  that 
the  Holy  Ghost  was  given  by  the  laying 
on  of   the   Apostles'    hands. 

42-47.  The  life  and  worship  of  the  first 
converts.  The  converts  were  still  earnest 
Jews,  attending  the  services  in  the  Temple 
daily  (v.  46),  but  they  already  formed  a  Church 
within  a  Church  :  for  (1)  they  continued  sted- 
fastly  in  the  Apostles'  doctrine  (v.  42),  i.e.  they 
no  longer  regarded  the  chief  priests,  scribes, 
and  Pharisees  as  their  accredited  teachers,  but 
rather  the  Apostles.  Thus  the  breach  with 
Judaism  had  already  begun  in  principle.  (2) 
They  continued  stedfastly  in  the  Apostles' 
fellowship.  (3)  They  continued  stedfastly  in 
the  breaking  of  bread,  i.e.  in  celebrating  the 
sacrament  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  or  Holy 
Communion.  At  first  the  Lord's  Supper  was 
celebrated  daily  (v.  46),  but  afterwards  every 
Lord's  Day  at  least  (20').  (4)  They  con- 
tinued stedfastly  in  the  prayers,  i.e.  in  the 
prayers  offered  at  the  celebration  of  the  Lord's 
Supper,  and  at  the  other  services  of  the 
Church  (so  the  RV).  The  AV,  however, 
translates  '  in  prayers,'  which  would  include 
private  prayers  also. 

42.  In  prayers]  lit.  '  in  the  prayers,'  i.e.  the 
public  prayers  of  the  Church.  "These  would 
probably  be  partly  liturgical,  after  the  example 
of  the  Temple  and  the  Synagogue  (cp.  the 
liturgical  addition  to  the  Lord's  Prayer,  Mt 
6 13  AV),  and  partly  extempore.  Extempore 
prayer  was  allowed  to  be  offered  at  the  cele- 
bration of  the  Lord's  Supper  by  the  Christian 
prophets  (see  the  '  Didache '),  and  was  appar- 
ently still  in  use  in  the  age  of  Justin  Martyr 
(150  A.D.),  but  shortly  after  this  the  public 
prayers  of  the  Church  became  exclusively 
liturgical. 

44.  Were  together]  probably  they  had  com- 
mon meals.  Had  all  things  common]  This 
arrangement  was  not  exactly  what  we  call 
communism,  for,  (1)  the  sale  of  property  was 
voluntary,  the  result  of  a  spontaneous  out- 
flowing of  Christian  love  (5-*);  and  (2)  even 
when  property  had  been  sold,  the  money 
usually  remained  in  the  hands  of  the  vendor, 
to  be  distributed  to  the  poorer  saints  from 
time  to  time  '  as  every  man  had  need '  (v.  45). 
The  cases  of  Barnabas  and  of  Ananias  and 
Sapphira,  who  not  only  sold  property,  but  even 
laid  the  money  at  the  Apostles'  feet,  were  ex- 
ceptional, and  because  exceptional  are  specially 
noted  by  the  evangelist.  46.  Breaking  bread 
from  house  to  house]  RV  '  breaking  bread  at 
home,'  probably  in  the  '  upper  room  '  where 
the  Sacrament  had  been  instituted,  and  the 
Holy  Ghost  had  descended.  The  reference  is 
probably  to  the  Lord's  Supper,  and  not  to  an 


ordinary  meal ;  but  it  must  be  remembered 
that  at  this  period  the  Lord's  Supper  was 
usually  celebrated  at  the  close  of  a  sacred 
meal,  called  the  agape  or  love-feast :  see 
below.  47.  And  the  Lord]  RV  'And  the 
Lord  added  to  them '  (RM  '  together ')  '  day 
by  day  those  that  were  being  saved,'  i.e.  con- 
scious of  sin  and  seeking  salvation. 

The  Love-Feast 

It  is  clear  from  v.  46,  and  ICorll^of-^  that 
Holy  Communion  was  at  first  celebrated  in 
connexion  with  a  common  meal  called  agape, 
i.e.  '  love-feast,'  or  '  feast  of  charity '  (Jude 
V.  12).  Our  Lord  had  instituted  the  Sacrament 
at  the  close  of  a  sacred  banquet,  and  the  Apos- 
tolic Chvurch  at  first  naturally  followed  His 
example.  The  feast  was  an  afternoon  or 
evening  meal,  at  which  rich  and  poor  met 
together  in  the  church,  the  food  and  drink 
being  provided  mainly  by  the  rich.  Prayers 
and  benedictions,  similar  to  those  of  the  Jews, 
were  said  over  each  dish  or  course,  and  '  the 
kiss  of  charity'  (lPet5i^)  probably  concluded 
the  meal.  Then  hands  were  washed,  and  there 
followed  prayer  and  sacred  psalmody  under 
the  leadership  of  a  prophet  or  other  minister. 
'  The  breaking  of  bread,'  or  Holy  Communion, 
seems  to  have  followed  (not  preceded)  the 
agape  (1  Cor  11 21, 25)^  and  the  agape  and  the 
Holy  Communion  were  regarded  as  forming 
one  service,  called  '  the  Lord's  Supper  '  (1  Cor 
1 1 20).  The  abuses  to  which  this  arrangement 
gave  rise  (see  1  Cor  11),  led,  somewhat  late  in 
the  apostolic  age,  to  the  gradual  separation  of 
the  two  rites.  Already  in  the  time  of  Pliny  (115 
A.D.)  the  Holy  Communion  was  celebrated  in 
the  morning,  and  the  agajie  in  the  evening  ; 
and  Justin  Martyr  (150  a.d.),  in  describing 
the  Holy  Communion,  makes  no  allusion  to 
the  agape,  which  was  by  that  time  an  entirely 
separate  ordinance. 

CHAPTER   3 

The  Lame  Man  Healed 
1-26.  Healing  of  the  lame  man.  Speech  of 
Peter.  St.  Luke  here  singles  out  from  the 
multitude  of  '  wonders  and  signs  done  by  the 
Apostles '  (2  43),  the  one  which  led  to  the  first 
persecution. 

1.  The  ninth  hotii'l  The  hours  of  prayer 
were  the  third  (215),  when  the  morning  sacri- 
fice was  offered ;  the  sixth  (noon) ;  and  the 
ninth,  the  time  of  the  evening  sacrifice. 

2.  Beautiful]  This  gate  was  of  Corinthian 
brass.  It  faced  the  E.,  and  its  proper  name 
was  the  Gate  of  Nicanor.  '  Its  height  was 
fifty  cubits,  and  its  doors  were  forty  cubits, 
and  it  was  adorned  in  a  more  costly  manner, 
having  much  richer  and  thicker  plates  of  silver 
and  gold  than  the  others '  ( Josephus).  6.  In  the 
name]  i.e.  by  the  power  of  Jesus  Christ.    It  is 


822 


3.  11 


THE   ACTS 


4.  5 


significant  that,  whereas  Jesus  worked  miracles 
in  His  own  name,  the  Apostles  only  did  so  in 
dependence  on  Him.  ii.  Solomon's]  see  on 
Jnl023,  and  cp.  Ac  5 12. 

12-26.  Peter's  Speech.  Peter  affirms  that 
the  miracle  has  been  performed  through  faith 
in  Jesus,  who,  though  crucified,  was  truly  the 
Messiah,  as  was  shown  by  His  Resurrection. 
The  Apostle  takes  a  lenient  view  of  the  con- 
duct of  the  Jews  in  the  crucifixion  of  Jesus, 
attributing  it  to  ignorance  ;  and  he  calls  them 
to  repentance,  stating  that  the  gospel  must  first 
be  preached  to  them,  before  it  is  carried  to 
the  rest  of  mankind. 

13.  Hath  glorified]  viz.  by  raising  Him  from 
the  dead,  seating  Him  at  His  right  hand,  and 
enduing  Him  with  almighty  power,  of  which 
the  miracle  upon  the  lame  man  is  a  proof. 

His  Son]  or,  '  Child.'  But  many  recent 
authorities  render,  '  His  Servant,'  supposing 
that  Jesus  is  here  identified  with  the  '  Servant 
of  Jehovah'  in  Isa 40-66.  14.  The  Holy  One 
and  the  Just]  a  strong  affirmation  of  the  sin- 
lessness  of  Jesus  :  cp.  Jn  6  "^Q  (RV),  '  We  have 
believed  and  know  that  thou  art  the  Holy  One 
of  God.'  15.  The  Prince  of  life]  i.e.  the 
Author  of  eternal  life  :  cp.  Jn3i«5  1125.  The 
word  translated  '  Prince  '  occurs  again,  5^1,  'a 
Prince  and  a  Saviour  ' ;  Heb  2 10^  '  the  Captain 
of  their  salvation'  ;  Heb  12 2,  'the  Author  of 
our  faith.'  The  divinity  of  Jesus  is  implied 
in  the  fact  that  He  is  the  author  of  life  :  cp. 
Jnl4  1125  lJnl2.  16.  His  name]  virtually 
His  Power.  18.  Should  suffer]  see  especially 
Ps22  Isa  50  6  and  535  Dan  9  26.  Our  Lord 
Himself  found  intimations  of  His  sufferings 
in  the  OT.,  Lk2426  JnlS^s,  etc. 

19.  When  the  times  of  refreshing]  RY  'that 
so  there  may  come  seasons  of  refreshing  from 
the  presence  of  the  Lord,  and  that  he  may 
send  the  Christ  who  hath  been  appointed 
for  you,  even  Jesus.'  The  idea  that  the  Second 
Coming  of  Christ  may  be  hastened  or  retarded 
by  the  conduct  of  the  chosen  people  or  of  the 
Church,  is  also  expressed  in  2  Pet  3 12  (RM). 
The  Jews  believed  that  just  before  the  coming 
of  the  Messiah  Israel  would  be  involved  in 
terrible  sufferings,  and  that  from  these  the 
Messiah  would  relieve  them,  thus  bringing 
'  seasons  of  refreshing  from  the  presence  of 
the  Lord.' 

21.  Whom  the  heaven  must  receive]  i.e. 
retain.  This  rendering  is  better  than  the 
alternative  one,  '  who  must  hold  the  heaven 
in  possession.'  Restitution  of  all  things]  In 
Mtiyii  a  restitution  of  all  things  by  Elijah  is 
mentioned,  in  preparation  for  the  first  coming 
of  Christ.  The  i-estitution  here  spoken  of  is 
the  restoration  of  the  whole  universe  to  its 
original  and  intended  perfection,  which  will 
take  place  when  Christ  comes  again.  It  is  the 
same  as  '  the  regeneration  '  of  creation  spoken 


of  by  Christ,  Mtl928;  as  'the  new  heavens 
and  new  earth  '  of  2  Pet  3 13  Rev  2 1 1 ;  and  as 
'  the  redemption '  of  the  body  and  of  the  phy- 
sical creation  of  Ro  8 18-23  Since  the  world 
began]  The  first  such  prophecy  is  Gn3i5,  im- 
mediately after  the  Fall ;  and  St.  Peter  not 
unfairly  assumes  that  all  the  prophets,  even 
those  whose  utterances  have  not  been  trans- 
mitted to  us,  looked  forward  to  the  coming  of 
a  Redeemer,  and  the  final  restoration  of  all 
things.  22.  Moses]  see  DtlS^^-i^:  and  cp. 
7  3'''.  In  Dt  the  prophet  is  to  be  understood 
collectively  of  the  line  of  great  prophets  which 
began  with  Samuel.  But  it  received  its  chief 
fulfilment  in  Jesus  Christ  ;  and  to  Him  alone 
do  the  words  '  like  unto  me,'  and  '  every  soul 
which  will  not  hear  that  prophet  shall  be  de- 
stroyed,' strictly  apply.  25.  Unto  Abraham] 
see  Gnl23  1818  2218  264  2814  Gal38.  26.  Unto 
you  first]  and  afterwards  to  the  Gentiles  (Lk 
2447  Ac  18).  St.  Peter,  as  these  words  show, 
already  contemplated  the  conversion  of  the 
Gentiles.     Son]  or  '  Servant'  :  see  v.  13. 

CHAPTER  4 
Arrest  of  Peter  and  John 

1-22.  Arrest  of  Peter  and  John.  Peter's 
speech  before  the  Sanhedrin.  The  proceed- 
ings of  the  Apostles  displeased  the  authorities, 
(1)  because  they  taught  the  people  (v.  2) 
without  having  received  the  education  and 
ordination  of  rabbis  (cp.  v.  13)  ;  (2)  because 
they  preached  the  Resurrection,  a  doctrine 
particularly  distasteful  to  the  Sadducees,  the 
dominant  party  among  the  influential  mem- 
bers of  the  priesthood  ;  (3)  because  they 
feared  that  the  people  would  become  in- 
flamed with  enthusiasm,  and  that  this  would 
lead  to  collisions  with  the  Romans.  It  is  a 
mark  of  historic  truth  that  the  chief  opposi- 
tion to  the  Apostles  is  here  assigned  to  the 
Sadducees,  who  denied  the  Resurrection.  The 
Pharisees,  who  affirmed  it,  were  comparatively 
fi-iendly  (5^4  23  6),  and  not  a  few  of  them 
became  Christians  (15^). 

I.  As  they  spake]  Clearly  John  also 
addressed  the  people.  The  captain  of  the 
temple]  a  priest  next  in  dignity  to  the  high 
priest,  having  under  him  a  body  of  priests  and 
Levites,  who  maintained  order  in  the  Temple. 

The  Sadducees]  Most  of  the  chief  priests 
belonged  to  this  party.  They  denied  the  oral 
traditions  of  the  elders,  the  existence  of  angels 
and  spirits,  predestination  and  fate,  the  immor- 
tality of  the  soul,  and  the  resurrection  of  the 
body  :   see  Mt37  16if-  2223  Ac517  236f. 

5.  Their  rulers]  A  full  and  important 
meeting  of  the  Sanhedrin  was  summoned. 
'  Rulers  '  =  chief  priest  ;  '  scribes  '  =  rabbis  or 
'  lawyers,'  professional  teachers  of  the  Law. 
Most  of  the  scribes  were  Pharisees.  '  Elders ' 
=  such  members  of   the   Sanhedrin  as  were 


823 


4.  6 


THE  ACTS 


5.4 


neither  chief  priests  nor  scribes.  6.  Annas 
the  high  priest]  see  on  JnlS^^  John]  An 
unknown  person.  But  D  reads  '  Jonathan.' 
This  is  probably  correct,  for  Jonathan  was 
son  of  Annas,  and  succeeded  Caiaphas. 

Alexander]  is  unknown. 

8.  Filled  with  the  Holy  Ghost]  in  fulfilment 
of  the  promise  Lk  12  ii.  1 1.  This  is  the  stone] 
In  Ps  118  22  the  stone  is  Israel,  which  the  heathen 
builders  of  the  world's  great  empires  reject 
and  despise,  but  which  nevertheless  is  destined 
to  play  the  chief  part  in  the  world's  history. 
In  the  NT.  the  stone  is  interpreted  as  the 
Messiah,  and  the  builders  as  the  rulers  of 
the  Jews:  see  Mt2142;  cp.  also  Eph2i9-22 
1  Pet  2  4-8.  12.  Neither  is  there  salvation  in 
any  other]  Though  salvation  is  oifered  to 
men  through  Jesus,  and  Jesus  alone,  it  does 
not  follow  that  those  who  are  ignorant  of  His 
name  are  lost.  God  can  save,  through  Christ, 
those  who  have  never  heard  the  gospel,  if  they 
respond  to  the  degree  of  grace  and  enlighten- 
ment vouchsafed  to  them.  13.  Unlearned 
and  ignorant  men]  This  rendering  gives  a  false 
impression.  What  is  meant  is  that  the  Apostles 
had  not  received  the  training  of  rabbis,  and 
were  consequently  unskilled  in  rabbinical 
traditions,  and  had  no  authority  to  teach. 
'  Ignorant '  should  be  translated  '  private 
persons,'  or,  '  laymen.' 

23-31.  Prayer  of  the  Apostles  on  their 
release.  24.  With  one  accord]  The  prayer 
was  probably  led  by  St.  Peter,  the  others 
repeating  the  words  after  him.  25.  Who  by 
the  mouth]  EY  '  who  by  the  Holy  Ghost,  by 
the  mouth  of  our  father  David,  didst  say,'  etc. 

Why  did  the  heathen  rage  ?  etc.]  verbatim 
from  Ps2i  (LXX).  This  Ps.  is  directly  Mes- 
sianic, though  it  may  have  been  suggested 
by  the  historical  circumstances  of  some  actual 
Davidic  king,  e.g.  Solomon.  The  people] 
EY  'the  peoples,'  i.e.  the  Jews,  regarded 
either  as  consisting  of  twelve  tribes,  or  as 
dispersed  in  different  nations.  Vain  things] 
vain,  because,  though  the  enemies  of  Jesus 
seemed  to  triumph  at  His  Crucifixion,  God 
raised  Him  from  the  dead,  and  placed  Him  at 
His  right  hand  in  heaven.  27.  Child]  or, 
'.servant'  :  see  on  3^3.  Were  gathered  to- 
gether] add  '  in  this  city  '  (EY). 

28.  Thy  counsel]  There  is  a  theological 
difiiculty  here.  God  is  said  to  have  fore- 
ordained the  iniquitous  proceedings  of  the 
scribes  and  Pharisees  who  condemned  Jesus. 
The  explanation  is  that  God  is  said  to  fore- 
ordain what  he  foresees  and  permits.  God 
permitted  the  death  of  Jesus,  intending  by  it 
to  redeem  the  world,  and  to  destroy  the  works 
of  the  devil  :  cp.  223  3 18.  29.  That  with  all 
boldness  they  may  speak  thy  word]  rather, 
'  that  with  all  boldness  ive  may  speak  thy 
word.' 


824 


30.  By  stretching]  E  Y '  while  thou  stretchest 
forth  thy  hand  to  heal.' 

31.  The  place  was  shaken,  etc.]  The 
physical  phenomena  of  Pentecost  (see  23) 
were  partly  reproduced.  They  spake  the 
word]  They  continued  their  public  preaching 
to  the  people,  and  their  private  exhortations  to 
the  disciples,  in  spite  of  the  opposition  of  the 
Jewish  authorities. 

32 — C.  S  K^.  The  communism  of  the  Church 
of  Jerusalem.  Barnabas,  Ananias,  and  Sap- 
phira. 

32.  Neither  said  any  o//Ae/«]  This  expression 
shows  that  the  Church  of  Jerusalem  recognised 
the  principle  of  private  property.  A  disciple's 
property  really  was  his  own,  but  he  did  not 
say  that  it  was  his  own  ;  he  treated  it  as  if 
it  were  common  property.  The  Anabaptist 
principle  that  private  property  is  unlawful, 
finds  no  real  support  in  the  Acts.  The 
communism  was  voluntary.  33.  With  great 
power]  The  expression  suggests  that  the 
preaching  was  supported  by  miracles. 

36,  Joses]  EY  'Joseph.'  Barnabas]  lit. 
'the  Son  of  Prophecy.'  We  learn  from  13 1 
that  he  was  a  prophet  ;  and  he  probably  gained 
his  name  '  Barnabas '  from  some  specially 
comforting  or  consoling  prophecy  which  he 
delivered  to  the  Church  of  Jerusalem,  soon 
after  his  conversion.  A  Levite]  By  the 
Mosaic  Law  Levites  were  forbidden  to  hold 
land  in  Palestine,  but  the  regulation  had  been 
long  in  abeyance.  Cyprus]  from  the  time  of 
Alexander  the  Great  many  Jews  had  settled 
in  this  fertile  island.  It  is  likely  that  Barnabas 
had  been  educated  at  the  neighbouring  uni- 
versity of  Tarsus,  and  had  there  made  the 
acquaintaince  of  St.  Paul  :    cp.  927. 

CHAPTEE  5 

The  Apostles  again  Imprisoned 
1-16.  The  sin  of  Ananias  and  Sapphira  was 
not  keeping  back  part  of  the  price,  which  they 
had  a  perfect  right  to  do  (v.  4),  but  pretending 
that  the  money  which  they  offered  to  the 
Apostles  was  the  whole  price  of  the  possession 
sold,  which  was  not  the  case.  Their  motive 
was  vanity  and  ambition.  They  wished  to 
have  a  greater  reputation  for  liberality  than 
they  were  entitled  to. 

I.  Ananias]  i.e.  'Jehovah  hath  been  gracious.' 
Sapphira]  If  the  word  is  Greek  it  means 
'  sapphire  '  ;  if  Aramaic,  '  beautiful.'  3.  The 
death  of  Ananias  and  Sapphira  is  to  be  regarded 
as  an  act  of  God,  not  of  Peter,  like  the  blind- 
ing of  Elymas  (139).  Peter  acts,  not  on  his 
own  authority,  but  under  the  direct  inspiration 
of  the  Holy  Ghost,  who  informs  him  of  the 
secret  sin,  and  authorises  him  to  execute  the 
divine  vengeance.  Similarly  St.  Paul  is  inspired 
to  pronounce  sentence  against  Elymas.  4.  Was 
it  not  thine  own  ?]  Clear  proof  that  the  apo 


J 


5.6 


THE  ACTS 


6.  5 


stolic  communism  was  voluntary.  Unto  God] 
Ananias  had  lied  unto  men,  but  the  sin  against 
man  was  so  insignificant,  compared  with  the  sin 
against  God,  that  St.  Peter  rhetorically  calls  it 
no  sin  at  all.  6.  Wound  him  up]  others  ren- 
der, '  composed  his  limbs.' 

The  truth  of  the  narrative  of  Ananias 
and  Sapphira  is  guaranteed  by  its  painful 
character.  No  historian  would  have  gone  out 
of  his  way  to  invent  it.  The  punishment  of 
death  seems  severe,  but  it  must  be  remembered 
that  our  Lord's  most  severe  denunciations 
were  against  hypocrisy.     To  brand  religious 


historical  difficulty  in  the  Acts.  Gamaliel's 
speech  was  delivered  36  a.d.  or  earlier,  but 
the  insurrection  of  Theudas,  according  to 
Josephus,  did  not  take  place  till  some  10 
years  later  (about  46  a.d.)  :  see  '  Antiq.'  xx. 
6,  1.  Perhaps  St.  Luke  alludes  to  an  early 
Theudas,  of  whom  we  know  nothing. 

37.  Judas  of  Galilee]  raised  an  important 
rebellion  in  the  days  of  the  taxing,  or  '  enrol- 
ment '  by  Quirinius  (6,  7  A.D.). 

40.  Beaten  them']  Probably  with  'forty 
stripes  save  one,'  a  penalty  inflicted  upon 
St.  Paul  five  times  (2  Cor  1 1  s-i).     They  were 


hypocrisy  for  all   time  as   infamous,  seems  to     punished  for  disobedience  :  see  4 18 


be  the  object  of  this  miracle.  It  is  not 
necessary  to  suppose  that  Ananias  and  Sap- 
phira were  eternally  lost.  After  this  terrible 
punishment,  they  may  have  been  forgiven. 

12.  In  Solomon's  porch]  seeSii.  Solomon's 
portico  was  practically  abandoned  to  the 
Christians,  who  made  it  their  place  of  daily 
assembly,  the  Apostles  teaching  and  working 
miracles  there.  13.  Of  the  rest]  i.e.  of  the 
non- Christians.  15.  The  shadow]  With  this 
should  be  compared  the  faith  of  the  Corinth- 
ians in  the  efficacy  of  the  cloths  that  had 
touched  St.  Paul's  body  (1912).  Something 
of  superstition  probably  mingled  with  this 
faith,  but  true  faith  predominated,  and  God 
accepted  it. 

17-42.  Second  imprisonment  of  Peter  and 
John.    Speech  of  Gamaliel. 

17.  The  Sadducees]  see  on  MtS^  Ac4i. 

20.  Words  of  this  life]  i.e.  the  new  life 
in  God  which  the  Death,  Resurrection  and 
Ascension  of  our  Lord  had  made  possible 
for  man.  28.  To  bring  this  man's  blood  upon 
us]  viz.  by  causing  the  people  to  rise  up  and 
avenge  the  murder  of  Jesus  by  slaying  us. 
29-32.  Peter's  speech  is  practically  an  epitome 
of  previous  speeches;  see  4 19  313, 15  233,36  315 
326  24.  33.  Were  cut]  lit.  'were  sawn 
asunder.'     Took  counsel]   RV  '  were  minded.' 

34.  Gamaliel]  St.  Paul's  teacher  (22  3),  grand- 
son   of  Hillel    and   son     of    Rabbi    Simeon, 
was  by  far    the    most 
the  time.     He  was   the 
teachers    who    received 
(higher    than    Rab    or 

moderation  on  this  occasion  is  to  be  ex- 
plained,  (1)    by    his     hostility    to    the    Sad- 


influential    rabbi    of 

first  of    the    seven 

the    title      Rahhan 

Rabbi).     Gamaliel's 

occasion 

hostility 


ducees,  whom  he  would  not  allow  to  win  a 
decisive  triumph  over  a  sect  which  had  much 
in  common  with  the  Pharisees  ;  (2)  by  the 
favourable  impression  which  the  Apostles' 
preaching  and  miracles  had  made  upon  him. 
He  was  not  a  convert,  but  thought  that  some- 
thing was  to  be  said  for  the  new  teaching. 
Subsequent  developments,  particularly  the 
preaching  of  Stephen,  probably  alienated  him, 
as  it  did  the  other  Pharisees.  36.  Theudas] 
The   mention   of   this   name    is  the  greatest 


825 


42.  In  every  house]  RV  '  at  home,'  i.e.  in 
the  private  Christian  assemblies,  held  in  '  the 
upper  room  '  or  elsewhere. 

CHAPTER   6 

Stephen  and  the  Seven 

1-7-  The  Hebrew-speaking  Jews,  who  were 
in  a  majority  in  the  Church  of  Jerusalem,  were 
inclined  to  despise  and  neglect  the  minority 
who  spoke  Greek.  In  particular,  the  Greek- 
speaking  widows  received  less  food  than  their 
Hebrew-speaking  sisters.  This  led  to  com- 
plaints, and  the  impartiality  of  the  Apostles 
was  called  in  question.  The  Apostles,  finding 
the  distribution  of  charity  too  great  a  burden 
for  them,  summoned  a  meeting  of  the 
Church,  and  called  upon  the  brethren  to  elect 
seven  men  to  undertake  this  business.  The 
office  to  which  they  were  appointed  was  in 
later  times  called  the  diaconate  (Phil  111  Tim 
3^,12)  ;  but  the  name  had  not  yet  come  into 
use,  and  St.  Luke  consequently  avoids  it. 

I.  Grecians]  i.e.  Hellenists,  or  Greek-speak- 
ing Jews.  Hebrews]  i.e.  Hebrew-speaking 
Jews.  Hebrew  was  spoken  mainly  in  Jeru- 
salem and  Judfea.  Ministration]  i.e.  dis- 
tribution of  food  (v.  2).  2.  It  is  not  reason] 
rather,  '  It  does  not  please  us.'  Serve  tables] 
i.e.  attend  to  the  distribution  of  food.  Others 
think  that  the  tables  of  bankers  are  meant,  and 
that  the  Apostles  complain  that  they  cannot 
keep  the  accounts,  or  manage  the  finances  of 
so  large  a  community.  3.  Full  of  the  Holy 
Ghost]  All  Church  work  requires  to  be  per- 
formed in  the  power  of  the  Spirit,  and  not 
least  the  management  of  charity  and  finance. 

Wisdom]  i.e.  the  practical  discernment  and 
tact  so  necessary  in  the  distribution  of 
charity. 

5.  The  names  are  all  Greek,  which  suggests 
that  some  at  least  of  them  were  Greek-speak- 
ing Jews.  That  all  were  Hellenists  is  not 
probable.  Greek  names  were  quite  common 
even  among  the  Hebrews  (cp.  Nicodemus, 
Philip,  and  Andrew).  One,  Nicolas,  was  a 
proselyte,  i.e.  doubtless  a  full  circumcised  pro- 
selyte. Of  two  only,  Stephen  and  Philip, 
have  we  any  further  account.     The  appoint- 


6.6 


THE  ACTS 


ment  of  the  Seven  marks  the  first  stage  in  the 
growth  of  liberal  ideas  within  the  Church. 

The  differences  between  the  Hellenistic 
(Grecian)  Jews  and  the  Hebrews  are  note- 
worthy. The  Hellenists  used  the  Gk.  OT. 
(Septuagint) ;  were  educated  more  or  less  in 
the  Greek  manner;  studied  (though  to  a 
limited  extent)  Greek  literature  and  philo- 
sophy, and  adopted  a  more  liberal  attitude 
towards  the  Gentile  world  than  the  Hebrews. 
The  typical  representative  of  Hellenism  is 
Philo,  who  makes  Moses  and  the  prophets 
speak  the  language  of  philosophy.  Josephus 
also  (in  spite  of  his  knowledge  of  Hebrew) 
has  pronounced  Hellenistic  tendencies. 

6.  The  essential  element  in  ordination  is 
prayer,  and  the  laying  on  of  hands  by  the 
chief  ministers  of  the  Church.  The  laying 
on  of  hands  in  making  appointments  is 
ancient.  Thus  '  Joshua  was  full  of  the  spirit 
of  wisdom  because  Moses  had  laid  his  hands 
upon  him  '  (Nu  2718-^3  Dfc349). 

8-15.  The  preaching,  miracles,  and  arrest 
of  Stephen. 

The  reason  why  the  preaching  of  Stephen 
gave  so  much  greater  offence  than  that  of  the 
Twelve  probably  was  that  he  saw  that  the 
coming  of  Christ  virtually  abrogated  the  Cere- 
monial Law,  and  that  its  abandonment  was 
only  a  question  of  time.  He  thus  anticipated 
St.  Paul,  perhaps  even  went  beyond  him  at  least 
in  theory  (see  on  v.  14).  But  as  his  speech 
gives  no  clear  indications  of  such  views,  not 
even  in  7-^8,  some  suppose  that  he  attacked  the 
authority,  not  of  the  Law  of  Moses  itself,  but 
only  of  those  traditional  additions  to  it  which 
the  scribes  held  to  be  of  equal  or  greater 
authority.  Stephen  was  probably  a  Hellenist, 
and  his  opponents  in  the  synagogues  (v.  9) 
were  also  Hellenists. 

8.  Of  faith]  RV  '  of  grace.' 

9.  There  are  said  to  have  been  no  less  than 
480  synagogues  in  Jerusalem,  and  the  Cyre- 
nians  and  Alexandrians,  at  any  rate,  would 
have  been  sufficiently  numerous  to  have  syna- 
gogues of  their  own.  Libertines]  lit.  'freed- 
men.'  These  were  descendants  of  those  Jews 
who,  having  been  carried  by  the  Romans,  par- 
ticularly by  Pompey,  to  Rome  as  prisoners  of 
war,  had  afterwards  been  emancipated  from 
slavery.  Cyrenians]  A  fourth  part  of  the  in- 
habitants of  Cyrene,  the  capital  of  Upper 
Libya,  consisted  of  Jews.  Alexandrians]  At 
Alexandria  (founded  by  Alexander  the  Great, 
332  B.C.)  two  of  the  five  parts  into  which  the 
city  was  divided  were  inhabited  by  Jews,  who 
were  ruled  over  by  a  Jewish  officer  called  an 
alabarch.  At  Alexandria  the  OT.  had  been 
translated  into  Greek.  Here  flourished  a  Jew- 
ish-Greek philosophy  of  which  Philo  is  the 
chief  exponent.  ApoUos  was  an  Alexandrian 
(1824),     Tradition  makes  St.  Mark   the  first 


. 


826 


bishop  of  Alexandria.  Cilicia]  To  this  syna- 
gogue St.  Paul  probably  belonged.  Asia]  The 
Roman  province,  not  the  continent.  It  em- 
braced Lydia,  Mysia,  Caria,  part  of  Phrygia. 
Its  three  chief  towns  were  Ephesus,  Smyrna, 
and  Pergamos. 

II.  Suborned  men]    The    success  of  these  . 
tactics  against  Jesus  encouraged  them  to  repeat 
them.     13.  This  holy  place]  i.e.  the  Temple. 

14.  Destroy  this  place,  etc.]  What  St. 
Stephen  had  probably  said  was  that  the  Law 
would  pass  away  as  having  been  fulfilled  in 
Christ,  and  that  if  the  Jews  persistently  re- 
fused to  acknowledge  Jesus  as  the  Messiah, 
their  city  and  Temple  would  be  destroyed,  as 
Jesus  had  prophesied  (Mt24,  etc.).  Although 
the  charge  was  malicious  and  false,  there  was 
some  truth  in  it.  Stephen's  teaching  was 
clearly  more  advanced  and  liberal  than  that  of 
the  Twelve.  15.  The  face  of  an  angel]  This 
description  is  probably  due  to  St.  Paul,  who 
was  doubtless  present :  cp.  7  ^K 

CHAPTER  7 
Defence  and  Martyrdom  of  Stephen 
1-53.  Speech  of  Stephen.  There  is  every 
reason  to  believe  that  this  speech  was  really 
delivered  by  St.  Stephen,  and  not  composed 
by  St.  Luke ;  for,  (1)  the  speech  does  not  (in 
any  direct  manner)  answer  the  charges  alleged 
(6 14),  as  a  speech  composed  by  the  historian 
himself  would  have  done  ;  (2)  there  are  several 
erroneous  references  to  the  OT.  (not  all  due  to 
the  use  of  LXX),  natural  enough  in  a  speech 
delivered  impromptu,  but  not  natural  in  a 
speech  composed  deliberately.  St.  Paul  who 
heard  the  speech  probably  reported  it  to  St. 
Luke. 

The  exact  point  of  the  speech,  and  how  it  is 
intended  to  be  an  answer  to  the  charges  (6 1^)^ 
is  disputed.  It  would  appear,  however,  that 
the  great  length  at  which  the  history  of  the 
Jews  is  related,  is  intended  to  show  that 
Stephen  was  not  a  blasphemer  of  God  but  as 
firm  a  believer  in  the  OT.  as  his  accusers.  He 
gives  a  particular  account  of  Moses  (vv.  20-44), 
and  declares  his  firm  belief  in  the  divine  au- 
thority of  the  Law  delivered  by  him  ('  the 
lively  oracles,'  v.  38).  He  points  out,  however, 
that  Moses  himself  predicted  the  coming  of  a 
prophet  greater  than  himself,  and  that  to  hear 
this  prophet  (whom  he  identifies  with  Jesus, 
V.  62)  is  commanded  by  the  Law  itself.  Stephen, 
therefore,  who  obeys  this  command  of  Moses 
to  hear  Jesus,  is  keeping  the  Law,  while  his 
adversaries,  who  disobey  this  command,  are 
breaking  the  Law  (v.  53).  The  prophets  also 
predicted  the  coming  of  Jesus,  and  Stephen, 
who  follows  Jesus,  obeys  the  prophets,  while 
his  adversaries  are  rebels  against  them,  as 
their  fathers  were  (vv.  51,  52).  The  speech 
contains  no  reply  to  the  charge  of  predicting 


7.2 


THE  ACTS 


7.39 


the  destruction  of  the  Temple.  If  the  speech 
had  been  allowed  to  be  finished,  it  is  probable 
that  it  would  have  closed  with  a  solemn  warn- 
ing that  unless  his  adversaries  accepted  Jesus 
as  the  Messiah,  in  accordance  with  the  teaching 
of  Moses  and  the  prophets,  their  city  and 
Temple  would  be  destroyed.  The  Apology  of 
Stephen  may  be  compared  with  the  Apology 
of  Socrates.  Both  were  delivered,  not  with 
the  object  of  gaining  an  acquittal,  but  of  testi- 
fying openly  to  the  truth,  and  of  denouncing 
the  blindness  and  injustice  of  the  judges. 

2.  Men,  etc.]  RV  '  Brethren  and  fathers ' ; 
i.e.  Israelites,  and  Sanhedrists.  In  Mesopo- 
tamia] Genesis  says  nothing  of  an  appearance 
in  Mesopotamia,  but  such  an  appearance  is 
implied,  Josh 24 2, 3  Neh97  (cp.  GnlS^),  and 
affirmed  by  Philo.  3.  See  Gnl2i,  which  is 
mistranslated  by  the  A  V,  to  harmonise  with  this 
passage.  4.  Charran]  i.e.  Haran,  or  Carrhse,  an 
ancient  city  of  N.  Mesopotamia.  Here  Crassus, 
the  Roman  general,  was  disastrously  defeated 
by  the  Parthians  53  B.C.     See  Gn  1131  124,5. 

When  his  father  was  dead]  According  to 
Genesis  (see  Gn  11 2^5, 32  12  4)^  Terah  lived  60 
years  after  his  son's  migration  into  Canaan. 
Stephen's  statement  is  not  a  mere  blunder, 
but  a  divergent  tradition,  found  also  in  Philo, 
and  apparently  intended  to  shield  the  patriarch 
from  the  charge  of  unfilial  conduct,  in  thus 
abandoning  his  aged  father.  5.  See  Gnl27 
1315,  etc. 

6.  See  Gn  1 5  ^3>  16  Four  hundred  years]  so 
Gnl5i3.  more  precisely  430  years,  Ex  12-^0. 
But  there  was  another  tradition  which  made 
the  430  years  of  Ex  1 2  ^o  refer  to  the  sojoiu-n 
of  the  patriarchs  in  Palestine  and  Egypt.  This 
is  found  in  some  MSS  of  the  LXX  (Exl2'40) ; 
in  Josephus,  and  in  Gal  3 1'i'.  7.  In  this  place] 
in  Canaan,  not  Sinai,  as  is  the  case  in  Ex  3 12. 

8.  Circumcision]  GnlT^f.     9.  SeeGnS?^^ 

Envy]  Stephen  sees  in  Joseph  a  type  of  Jesus, 
and  in  the  envy  of  his  brethren,  a  type  of  the 
envy  of  the  chief  priests  and  scribes  which 
caused  the  death  of  Jesus. 

14.  Threescore  and  fifteen  souls]  Stephen 
follows  LXX  of  Gn  46  27  Ex  1 5.  The  Hebrew 
makes  the  number  seventy.  16.  There  are 
two  errors  in  this  v. :  (1)  Jacob  was  not  buried 
at  Sychem  (Shechem),  but  at  Hebron,  in  the 
cave  of  Machpelah  (Gn  50 13).  (2)  It  was  not 
Abraham,  but  Jacob,  who  bought  a  sepulchre 
at  Shechem,  from  the  sons  of  Emmor  (Hamor), 
Gn33i9  Josh  24  32.  Either  St.  Stephen  is  fol- 
lowing a  divergent  tradition,  or,  as  is  more 
probable,  the  errors  are  due  to  a  lapse  of 
memory  natural  enough  under  the  disturbing 
circumstances  of  the  speech.  The  father  of 
Sychem]  The  true  rendering  is  the  '  son '  of 
Sychem,  which  would  be  another  discrepancy 
with  Gn33i9.  But  the  RV  adopts  another 
reading,  '  in  Sychem  (Shechem).' 


827 


18.  Knew  not  Joseph]  i.e.  knew  not  the 
history  of  Joseph  and  of  his  great  services  to 
his  adopted  country.  19.  So  that]  rather, 
'that  they  might  cast  out  their  babes,'  etc. 

20.  Was  exceeding  fair]  lit.  'fair  unto  God,' 
i.e.  fair  even  in  the  eyes  of  God:  cp.  GnlO^, 
'  a  mighty  hunter  before  Jehovah.' 

22.  Learned]  i.e.  taught.  Undoubtedly  true, 
though  not  mentioned  in  the  OT.  '  The  wis- 
dom of  the  Egyptians '  consisted  of  natural 
science,  magic,  astronomy,  medicine,  and 
mathematics,  and  was  mainly  in  the  hands  of 
the  priesthood.  Mighty  in  words]  not  incon- 
sistent with  Ex  4 10,  for  Moses'  eloquence  was 
acquired  subsequently.  23.  Forty  years  old] 
His  age  is  derived  from  tradition. 

30.  Forty  years]  Another  tradition.  The 
rabbis  said,  'Moses  lived  in  Pharaoh's  palace 
40  years,  in  Midian  40  years,  and  ministered 
to  Israel  40  years.'  An  angel]  in  Ex 3 2  'the 
angel  of  Jehovah,'  who  is  afterwards  identified 
with  Jehovah  Himself.  34.  I  will  send]  rather, 
'  let  me  send.'  35.  A  ruler  and  a  deliverer]  lit. 
'  a  ruler  and  redeemer.'  Moses'  '  redemption ' 
of  the  people  from  the  bondage  of  Egypt  was 
a  type  of  Christ's  greater  redemption  of  them 
from  the  bondage  of  sin  and  Satan. 

37.  A  prophet]  The  importance  of  Moses, 
according  to  Stephen,  is  that  he  is  the  type 
and  forerunner  of  a  gi-eater  than  himself, 
whose  coming  he  foretold  :  see  Dt  18  is,  is  ;  and 
cp.  Ac  3  22.  Christ  is  the  second  and  greater 
Moses,  and,  like  him,  a  redeemer  (v.  35),  law- 
giver (v.  38),  and  prophet  (v.  37).  Loyalty  to 
Moses,  therefore,  necessarily  implies  loyalty 
to  Christ. 

38.  In  the  church]  i.e.  in  the  congregation 
or  assembly  of  all  Israel  at  Mt.  Sinai  when 
the  Law  was  given  and  the  Covenant  made 
and  ratified.  On  this  occasion  Moses  again 
typified  Christ  by  acting  as  Mediator.  He  was 
with  God  (or  God's  angel)  on  Mt.  Sinai  holding 
converse  with  Him:  he  was  also  with  the 
people  below  holding  converse  with  them,  and 
thus  being  intimately  associated  with  both,  made 
a  covenant  between  them.  With  the  angel] 
The  idea  that  Moses  did  not  receive  the  Law 
directly  from  God,  but  from  an  angel  or  angels, 
is  contrary  to  the  OT.,  but  was  current  among 
the  Jews  at  this  period:  see  Jos.  'Ant.'  15.6,3, 
'  We  have  learnt  the  most  holy  part  of  our  Law 
by  angels.'  The  Fathers  identify  the  angel 
who  spoke  to  Moses  with  the  Logos,  or 
second  person  of  the  Holy  Trinity.  Lively 
oracles]  An  oracle  is  an  inspired  utterance, 
hence  the  term  is  suitably  applied  to  the 
Scriptures.  The  oracles  are  lively,  or  living,  be- 
cause they  have  the  power  of  God  in  them,  and 
the  promises  which  they  contain  are  effectual. 

39.  Israel's  rebellion  against  Moses  is  a  type 
of  their  later  rebellion  against  Jesus.  Egypt] 
i.e.  the  Egyptian  way  of  life,  especially  Egyp- 


7.  42 


THE   ACTS 


7.59 


tian  idolatry  (bull-worship).  In  Egypt  Apis  was 
worshipped  at  Memphis,  and  Mnevis  at  Helio- 
polis  under  the  form  of  a  bull  :  see  Ex  321. 

42.  The  book  of  the  prophets]  The  twelve 
minor  prophets  formed  one  roll  or  book.  O 
ye  house,  etc.]  freely  quoted  from  LXX 
of  Amos  525,26_  Stephen,  following  LXX, 
supposes  that  the  worship  of  Moloch  and  of 
the  stars  took  place  in  the  wilderness.  This  is 
not  expressly  mentioned  in  the  Pentateuch, 
but  it  is  not  improbable,  for  the  worship  of 
Moloch  is  forbidden  LvlS^i,  etc.  Have  ye 
offered?]  The  answer  is 'No.'  In  appearance 
sacrifices  had  been  offered  to  God,  but  inas- 
much as  they  were  offered  by  worshippers 
polluted  by  idolatry,  they  were  no  true  sacri- 
fices. 

43.  Ye  took  up]  viz.  to  carry  in  a  religious 
procession,  or,  to  carry  from  one  halting-place 
to  another.  The  tabernacle  of  Moloch]  a  pro- 
fane imitation  of  the  tabernacle  of  Jehovah. 
Moloch  (Molech,  or  Milcom)  was  an  idol  of 
the  Ammonites  to  whom  children  were  offered. 
His  image  is  said  to  have  been  hollow,  heated 
from  below,  with  the  head  of  an  ox,  and  out- 
stretched arms  in  which  children  were  laid, 
their  cries  of  agony  being  stifled  by  the  beat- 
ing of  drums.  The  Heb.,  however,  should 
probably  be  translated  not  '  the  tabernacle  of 
Moloch  '  (LXX  and  AY),  but  '  Siccuth,  your 
king '  (another  false  god).  The  star  of  your 
god  Remphan]  i.e.  his  star-emblem.  The  Heb. 
has  Cliiuii  (not  Remphan),  i.e.  the  planet 
Saturn.  Beyond  Babylon]  Amos  says,  '  beyond 
Damascus.'  Stephen  has  adapted  the  prophecy 
(according  to  the  rabbinical  fashion)  to  later 
events. 

44.  Stephen's  reference  to  the  movable 
tabernacle  in  the  wilderness  is  probably  in- 
tended to  show  that  the  worship  of  God  is 
not  necessarily  confined  to  one  place  (Jerusa- 
lem), and  that  for  adequate  cause  (e.g.  the 
persistent  rejection  of  Christ  by  the  Jews) 
the  privilege  of  Jerusalem  may  be  taken  away. 

The  tabernacle  of  witness]  Thus  LXX 
translates  the  phrase,  which  really  means  '  the 
tent  of  meeting,'  i.e.  the  tent  where  God  met 
His  worshippers.  But  the  phrase  is  neverthe- 
less an  apt  one,  for  the  tent  contained  the 
ark,  which  was  a  witness  of  the  covenant,  and 
the  two  tables  on  which  the  fundamental  law 
of  the  covenant  (the  Decalogue)  was  written. 

The  fashion]   see  Ex  25^0  2G30  Heb  8  5. 

45.  RV  '  Which  also  our  fathers,  in  their 
turn,  brought  in  with  Joshua  when  they  en- 
tered on  the  possession  of  the  nations,'  etc. 
Note  Jesus  =  'Joshua,'  as  in  Heb 4 8. 

48.  Stephen's  words  do  not  indicate  that  the 
building  of  Solomon's  Temple  was  a  mistake, 
but  they  do  indicate  that  God's  worship  is  not 
necessarily  tied  to  one  place,  and  that  the 
divine  choice  of  Jerusalem  as  a  place  of  wor- 


ship is  not  irreversible.  Solomon  himself 
recognised  this  truth,  1 K  8  27,  49,  50.  See  Isa 
661.2. 

51-53-  Stephen,  not  careful  of  life,  and 
willing  to  be  a  martyr,  now  denounces  his 
judges.  52.  Have  slain]  referring  especially 
to  Isaiah  and  Jeremiah,  who  both,  according  ' 
to  tradition,  suffered  martyrdom.  The  Just 
One]  i.e.  Jesus:  see  Si*.  53.  By  the  dis- 
position of  angels]  RV  'as  it  was  ordained 
by  angels';  RM  'as  the  ordinance  of  angels.' 
The  precise  meaning  is  uncertain,  but  some 
kind  of  mediation  of  angels  in  the  giving  of 
the  Law  is  probably  meant :  see  Gal  3 19  Heb  2  2. 

54-C.  83.  Martyrdom  of  Stephen.  Saul's 
persecution  of  the  Church. 

54.  Were  cut]  lit.  '  were  sawn  asunder ' : 
see  533.  55.  Standing]  Jesus  rises  from  the 
throne  on  which  He  is  represented  as  eternally 
sitting  (Mt2664  Mkl6i9,  etc.)  to  succour  the 
martyr  in  his  extremity,  and  to  welcome  his  soul 
into  bliss.  56.  The  Son  of  man]  Here  only  is 
this  title  applied  to  Jesus  by  any  one  except 
Himself.  It  indicates  that  Stephen  saw  Him 
in  human  form :  see  on  Mt  8  20.  57.  Stopped 
their  ears]  because  they  regarded  his  words  as 
blasphemous. 

58.  Out  of  the  city]  see  1K2113  Lv24i4-i6. 

And  stoned  hini]  '  After  a  man  has  been  con- 
demned to  be  stoned,  they  bring  him  good 
strong  wine,  and  give  him  to  drink,  that  he 
may  not  feel  too  great  horror  of  a  violent 
death.  Then  come  the  witnesses,  and  bind  his 
hands  and  feet,  and  lead  him  to  the  place  of 
stoning.  Then  the  witnesses  take  a  great 
stone,  large  enough  to  cause  death,  and  lay  it 
upon  his  heart  all  together,  lest  one  should 
act  before  another,  according  to  Dtl?''',  "  The 
hand  of  the  witnesses  shall  be  first  against 
him  "  :  then  all  the  Israelites  can  overwhelm 
him  with  stones'  (Talmud).  The  execution 
of  Stephen  was  tumultuous  and  illegal,  for, 
(1)  there  was  no  formal  sentence  pronounced 
by  the  court,  (2)  the  Roman  authorities  were 
not  consulted  about  the  death  sentence  :  see 
Jnl83i. 

Saul]  A  young  Jew  of  Tarsus  in  Cilicia, 
born  a  Roman  citizen,  a  tent-maker  by  trade, 
of  well-to-do  parents,  trained  at  Jerusalem  in 
the  rabbinical  school  of  Gamaliel  the  Pharisee, 
and  accustomed  to  speak  Hebrew  (2139*. 
etc.).     His  other  name,  Paul,  first  occurs  139. 

59.  Calling  upon  God]  RV  '  calling  upon 
the  Lord  '  (i.e.  Jesus).  Receive  my  spirit]  A 
direct  prayer  to  Jesus,  and,  therefore,  a  proof 
that  the  doctrine  of  the  divinity  of  Jesus  was 
already  established  in  the  Church.  It  is  not 
a  prayer  to  a  mere  saintly  intercessor  ('  Jesus, 
pray  for  me  '),  but  a  direct  prayer  offered  in 
the  firm  belief  that  Jesus  can  really  grant 
what  is  ask«d,  viz.  the  salvation  of  the  soul. 
Prayer  to  Jesus  was  universal  in  the  Christian 


828 


7.  60 


THE  ACTS 


8.36 


Church  (914,  etc.).  6o.  Like  his  Master, 
Stephen  dies  praying  for  his  enemies  :  cp. 
Lk  2334. 

C.  8.     I.  At  that  time]  RV  '  on  that  day.' 


Except  the  apostles]  The  apostles  still 
wished  to  achieve  the  conversion  of  Jerusalem. 
Besides,  as  leaders  of  the  flock,  they  disdained 
flight. 


PAET  2 

The  Extension  of  the  Church  to  Judaea  and  Samaria  (Chs.  8  *-1  1  is) 


The  Christians,  scattered  by  persecution, 
preach  everyvrhere  through  Judaea  and  Sa- 
maria. The  places  specially  mentioned  are 
Samaria,  Azotus,  Csesarea,  Lydda,  the  Sharon 
valley,  and  Joppa. 

CHAPTER   8 
Philip  in  Samaria.     Simon  Magus 

The  graphic  details  of  the  ministry  of  Philip 
which  follow,  were  doubtless  obtained  from 
Philip  himself.  St.  Luke  stayed  at  his  house 
at  CaBsarea,  and  made  the  acquaintance  of  his 
four  virgin  daughters,  prophetesses  (218). 
During  St.  Paul's  three  years'  imprisonment 
at  Csesarea,  St.  Luke  doubtless  had  much 
intercourse  with  Philip,  with  whose  liberal 
views  he  was  in  sympathy.  The  historical 
character  of  the  following  narratives  stands 
upon  a  firm  basis.  In  later  years  Philip 
migrated  with  his  daughters  to  Tralles,  in 
Asia  Minor,  of  which  he  became  the  first 
bishop.  Philip  the  Deacon  and  Evangelist 
is  confused  by  some  early  writers  with  Philip 
the  Apostle,  who  in  his  later  years  migrated 
to  Hierapolis,  and  who  also  had  daughters. 

5.  Philip]  The  deacon  and  evangelist,  not 
the  Apostle  (see  vv.  1  and  14).  The  city  of 
Samaria]  doubtless  the  capital,  called  (like  the 
district)  Samaria,  and  also  (since  the  time  of 
Herod  the  Great)  Sebaste,  in  honour  of 
Augustus  (Sebastos).  7.  Unclean  spirits] 
Whether  the  NT.  demoniacs  were  really  pos- 
sessed, or  were  insane  persons  whose  delusion 
took  the  form  of  a  belief  that  they  were  pos- 
sessed, is  an  open  question.  In  either  case 
the  miracles  of  healing  performed  on  them 
are  remarkable  (see  on  Mt  4  24, 25^ 

9.  Simon]  Justin  Martyr  (150  A.D.),  himself 
a  Samaritan,  says  that  Simon  belonged  to  the 
Samaritan  village  of  Gitto.  He  is  regarded  as , 
the  father  of  heresy,  and  is  the  reputed  author 
of  a  Gnostic  work  called  '  The  Great  Revela- 
tion,' of  which  fragments  remain.  Bevsritched] 
'  astounded'  (also  v.  11).  10.  The  great  power 
of  God]  RV  '  that  power  of  God  which  is 
called  Great,'  i.e.  the  chief  emanation  from 
the  Deity,  and  so  entitled  to  divine  worship. 
According  to  Justin,  he  went  even  further, 
claiming  to  be  the  first  or  supreme  God. 

13.  Believed]  i.e.  believed  in  the  genuineness 
of  Philip's  miracles,  but  did  not  believe  in  God 
with  a  spiritual  and  saving  faith.  Simon  as 
a  sorcerer  and  conjurer  was  an  excellent  judge 
of  alleged  miracles. 


14.  By  sending  Peter  and  John  the  apostles 
formally  sanctioned  the  reception  of  the 
Samaritans  into  the  Church.  The  Samaritans, 
though  observing  the  Law,  were  almost  en- 
tirely heathen  in  origin,  so  that  the  incident 
marks  an  important  step  towards  admitting 
pure  Gentiles. 

15-17.  This  is  the  fullest  account  of  the 
apostolic  laying  on  of  hands  after  baptism, 
which  is  more  briefly  described,  1 9  6,  and  al- 
luded to,  Heb  6  2.  In  later  times  the  ordinance 
was  administered  by  bishops,  and  was  called 
Confirmation,  the  Seal,  and  the  Chrism.  The 
author  of  Hebrews  speaks  of  it  as  one  of  the 
first  principles  of  the  doctrine  of  Christ 
(Heb  6  2). 

18.  Saw]  It  is  probable  that  many  upon 
whom  the  Apostles  laid  hands  received  miracu- 
lous gifts.  That  Simon,  who  made  his  living 
by  working  lying  wonders,  should  have  desired 
the  power  of  working  genuine  ones,  was 
natural  enough. 

26-40.  Philip  and  the  Ethiopian  eunuch. 
The  eunuch,  though  a  believer  in  the  God  of 
Israel,  was  a  Gentile.  Luke  the  universalist 
delights  to  record  his  admission  into  that  wider 
communion  in  which  all  races  and  all  conditions 
stand  on  an  equality.  This  is  the  first  example 
of  a  Gentile  baptism.  That  it  did  not  lead  to 
the  same  disputes  as  the  baptism  of  Cornelius, 
is  due  to  the  fact  that  it  was  private. 

26.  Toward  the  south]  or,  about  mid-day. 
Gaza]  The  town  is  called  desert,  or  deserted, 

because  it  had  been  destroyed,  96  B.C. 

27.  Candace]  The  Ethiopian  kingdom  of 
Meroe  lay  to  the  S.  of  Egypt,  and  was  governed 
by  queens,  whose  dynastic  title  was  '  Candace.' 

32.  See  Isa  53  ">  §  (LXX).  Isaiah  is  speak- 
ing of  the  suffering  Servant  of  Jehovah,  whom 
the  Apostolic  Church  rightly  identified  with 
Jesus  the  Messiah.  33.  In  his  humiliation 
his  judgment  was  taken  away]  i.e.  in  the 
humiliation  of  His  Passion,  justice  was  denied 
Him  by  the  Sanhedrin  and  by  Pilate.  And 
who  shall  declare  his  generation?]  i.e.  and 
what  language  is  adequate  to  describe  the 
wickedness  of  His  contemporaries  who  unjustly 
crucified  Him  ?  For  his  Ufe  is  taken  from 
the  earth]  This  refers  not  to  the  Ascension 
of  Jesus  (as  some  have  thought),  but  to  His 
violent  death. 

36.  Baptized]  '  Preaching  Jesus '  had 
clearly  included  instruction  upon  the  nature 
and  necessity  of  the  Christian  sacraments. 


829 


8.37 


THE  ACTS 


a  18 


37.  which  the  RV  omits,  is  a  very  early 
and  trustworthy  marginal  addition,  which  was 
ultimately  incorporated  into  the  text.  The 
simplicity  of  the  baptismal  confession  is  a 
proof  of  its  genuineness.  1  Pet  3  21  alludes  to 
the  baptismal  profession  of  faith.  38.  The 
eunuch  was  probably  baptised  by  immersion, 
the  usual  practice  of  the  early  Church,  though 
not  held  to  be  absolutely  essential. 

39.  Caught  away  Philip]  Probably  the  Holy 
Spirit  prompted  Philip  to  depart  abruptly 
for  Azotus  (Ashdod).  Rejoicing]  According  to 
Eusebius,  the  eunuch,  on  his  arrival  home, 
evangelised  his  countrymen.  In  his  conversion 
was  fulfilled  Ps68^i,  'Princes  shall  come  out 
of  Egypt ;  Ethiopia  shall  soon  stretch  out  her 
hands  unto  God.'  40.  Was  found  at  Azotus] 
Azotus  or  Ashdod  was  one  of  the  five  Philis- 
tine cities,  whose  inhabitants  were  enemies  of 
the  Jews  after  the  captivity  (Neh  4 '').  It  was 
distant  over  20  m.  (northwards)  from  Gaza. 

All  the  cities]  These  would  include  Jamnia, 
Joppa  and  Lydda.     Caesarea]  see  on  10 1. 

CHAPTER  9 

Saul  becoiMes  a  Christian 
1-30.  The  Conversion  of  Saul  is  to  regarded 
as  a  miraculous  event.  The  way  for  it  may 
have  been  prepared  by  Stephen's  speech,  by 
the  spectacle  of  the  constancy  of  the  Christian 
martyrs,  and  by  Saul's  own  consciousness  of 
the  imperfections  of  the  Law  (Ro  7  ^-8  ^^).  Yet 
there  is  no  indication  that  he  was  anything 
but  a  violent  enemy  of  Christianity  until  the 
moment  of  his  conversion.  His  own  language 
on  this  point  is  quite  clear  (1  Cor  15^  Gal  1  i^-i^ 
1  Tim  1 13).  St.  Paul  always  maintained  that 
the  appearance  of  the  risen  Chi'ist  to  him 
which  brought  about  his  conversion,  was  as 
objective  and  real  as  the  appearances  to  the 
other  Apostles.  He  regarded  it  as  the  turn- 
ing-point of  his  life,  and  the  beginning  of 
his  new  vocation.  He  claimed  to  be  an 
Apostle  of  equal  rank  and  authority  with  the 
other  Apostles  (2  Cor  11 5  Gal  28,  etc.),  (1)  be- 
cause Christ  had  appeared  to  him  as  to  the 
others  (ICorlS^  9^),  and  (2)  because  Christ 
had  appointed  him  an  Apostle  just  as  He  had 
appointed  the  others  (Ac  22  21,  etc.).  For 
confirmation  of  the  trulAi  of  this  he  appealed 
to  '  the  signs  of  an  apostle '  (miracles,  conver- 
sions, etc.)  which  accompanied  his  ministry 
(2  Cor  12 12). 

Saul's  conversion  at  once  gave  Christianity 
a  higher  social  status.  He  was  an  educated 
man,  of  good  family,  a  rabbi,  and  (probably)  a 
member  of  the  Sanhedrin.  It  could  no  longer 
be  objected  to  the  teachers  of  the  new  faith 
that  they  were  all  ignorant  and  unlettered 
men. 

The  conversion  of  Saul  is  a  turning-point 
in  the  history  of  Christianity.     By  conversion 


he  became  not  merely  a  Christian,  but  an  en- 
lightened Christian.  He  perceived  that  the 
ceremonial  Law  was  no  longer  binding,  and 
his  perception  of  this  fact  enabled  him  to 
preach  Christianity  as  a  universal  religion. 
The  Twelve  already  held  this  view  in  prin- 
ciple, but  to  Saul  belongs  the  credit  of  acting 
upon  it  with  energy,  and  of  carrying  it  out  to 
its  logical  results. 

I.  The  high  priest]  The  Romans  allowed 
the  Sanhedrin  to  exercise  civil  and  criminal 
jurisdiction  (except  in  capital  cases)  over  the 
whole  Jewish  community,  even  outside  Pales- 
tine. 2.  Synagogues]  clearly  the  Christians 
had  not  yet  separated  from  the  Jewish  syna- 
gogues. This  way]  '  Way,'  thus  used  abso- 
lutely for  Christianity,  is  peculiar  to  Acts  :  see 

1617  1825,26  199,23  224  241-i.22. 

3.  A  light]  according  to  lCor9i,  Paul  saw, 
within  the  light,  Jesus  Himself,  in  His  risen 
and  glorified  body. 

5.  It  is  hard  for  thee  to  kick  against  the 
pricks]  These  words,  which  the  RV  omits  as 
an  interpolation  from  26 1*,  mean  that  the  role 
of  a  persecutor  is  impossible  to  Paul.  Paul  is 
really  in  the  position  of  a  plough -ox.  Jesus  is 
his  driver,  and  holds  the  goad.  Paul  can  no 
more  resist  Jesus  than  the  plough-ox  can  resist 
his  driver.  There  is  probably  no  allusion  to 
stings  of  conscience,  as  some  have  supposed. 

6.  According  to  26 1^,  Jesus  also  told  Paul 
that  his  mission  would  be  to  preach  to  the 
Gentiles.  7.  Stood  speechless]  According  to 
26 14,  they  fell  to  the  earth.  Hearing  a  voice] 
RV  '  hearing  the  voice.'  Yet  in  22  9  Paul  says, 
'  they  heard  not  the  voice  of  him  that  spake  to 
me.'  The  latter  account,  being  Paul's  own,  is 
to  be  preferred.  Those  who  wish  to  harmonise 
the  two  accounts  translate  here  'hearing  the 
sound '  (RM).  But  it  is  not  necessary  to  har- 
monise. The  variations  in  unimportant  details 
only  accentuate  the  general  harmony. 

8.  Saw  no  man]  RV  '  saw  nothing.' 

9.  Saul  fasted  to  show  his  penitence. 

10.  Ananias]  probably  the  head  of  the 
Christian  body  at  Damascus.  Late  tradition 
makes  him  one  of  the  Seven,  consecrated  bishop 
of  Damascus  by  Peter  and  Andrew,  and  a 
martyr.  15.  A  chosen  vessel]  i.e.  a  chosen 
instrument :  cp.  13  2  Gal  1  is^  etc.  The  Gentiles] 
cp.  2221  2617  Rois  1113  Gal  2  7, 8.  And  the 
children  of  Israel]  Though  Paul's  mission  was 
mainly  to  the  Gentiles,  it  was  his  custom  to 
preach  the  gospel  first  to  the  Jews  :  see  13 1*, 
etc.  16.  I  will  shew  him]  see  2023  21  n  2  Cor 
11 23.  18.  And  was  baptized]  It  is  added  (22 16) 
that  St.  Paul  received  at  his  baptism  the  remis- 
sion of  his  former  sins. 

The  thi-ee  accounts  of  St.  Paul's  conversion 
(chs.  9,  22,  26)  present  some  not  very  important 
variations.  Thus,  St.  Paul  alone  fell  to  the 
earth  (c.  9),  but  in  c.  26  all  fell  to  the  earth. 


830 


i 


9.19 


THE  ACTS 


10.9 


The  men  heard  a  voice  (c.  9),  but  in  c.  22 
they  heard  7iot  the  voice.  These  men  '  saw 
no  man '  (c.  9),  but  in  c.  22  they  '  saw  indeed 
the  light.'  In  c.  26  it  is  the  Lord  who  declares 
that  St.  Paul  is  to  be  '  a  minister  and  witness ' 
to  the  Gentiles ;  in  c.  9  and  c.  22  it  is  Ananias. 
In  c.  26  no  allusion  is  made  to  the  Apostle 
becoming  blind,  or  to  Ananias,  but  it  is  noted 
that  the  Lord  spoke  in  Hebrew. 

19.  Certain  days]  St.  Luke  makes  no  men- 
tion of  the  Arabian  sojourn  of  St.  Paul,  which, 
according  to  Gal  1 1^^  took  place  immediately 
after  the  conversion.  Either  St.  Luke  did  not 
know  of  it,  or  thought  it  unimportant  for  his 
purpose.  By  '  Arabia '  is  probably  meant  the 
territory  of  the  Nabatasans,  which  in  the  period 
of  their  greatest  prosperity  extended  from  the 
Euphrates  to  the  Red  Sea.  To  this  race  be- 
longed king  Aretas,  whose  ethnarch  in  Damascus 
endeavoured  to  arrest  St.  Paul  (2  Cor  1 1  ^~). 

20.  Christ]  EV  '  Jesus.'  The  Son  of  God] 
Whatever  may  be  the  meaning  of  this  term  in 
the  Synoptic  Gospels,  in  the  Pauline  theology 
it  undoubtedly  means  a  preexistent  divine 
being,  consubstantial  with  the  Father,  and  His 
agent  in  the  Creation  and  Redemption  of  the 
world.  23.  After  many  days]  according  to 
Gal  1 18^  after  '  three  years.'  The  Jews]  These 
must  have  persuaded  the  governor  of  king 
Aretas  to  persecute  Paul  :  see  2  Cor  1 1 32. 

25.  The  disciples]  RV  '  his  disciples.'  26.  It 
is  strange  that  after  this  arduous  work  at 
Damascus  the  Church  of  Jerusalem  should 
still  doubt  the  fact  of  Paul's  conversion. 

27.  To  the  apostles]  according  to  Gal  1 , 
Paul  stayed  in  Jerusalem  fifteen  days,  and  of 
the  Apostles  saw  only  Peter  and  James  the 
Lord's  brother.  29.  Grecians]  i.e.  Greek- 
speaking  Jews.  30.  The  reason  why  Paul 
was  willing  to  leave  Jerusalem  is  given  in  22  is 
(a  vision  of  Jesus  in  the  Temple). 

31.  Extension  of  the  Church  in  Judaea, 
Galilee,  and  Samaria. 

The  churches]  RV  '  the  Church.'  The  local 
churches  formed  one  organic  whole. 

32-43.  Activity  of  Peter  at  Lydda  and 
Joppa. 

32.  Throughout  all  quarters]  or, '  throughout 
all  the  saints.'  Lydda]  in  the  plain  of  Sharon, 
about  10  m.  SE.  of  Joppa,  on  the  way  to 
Jerusalem. 

33.  .^neas]  the  name  is  different  from  that 
of  the  hero  of  Virgil's  poem  (^neas). 

34.  The  Apostle  healed  '  in  the  name  of 
Jesus.'  Jesus  healed  in  His  own  name,  as 
being  Himself  the  author  of  the  cure. 

35.  Saron]  or,  Sharon,  is  a  very  fruitful 
plain  extending  along  the  coast  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean from  Joppa  to  Carmel  (1  Ch27-'*  Song 
21,  etc.).     36.  Joppa]  now  Jaffa,  the  port  of 


CHAPTER  10 
Peter  and  the  Gentiles 

1-48.  Conversion  of  Cornelius.  The  bap- 
tism of  Cornelius  was  an  event  of  far-reaching 
importance,  and  is,  therefore,  described  by  St. 
Luke  in  great  detail.  If  it  was  not  the  first 
actual  baptism  of  a  Gentile  (see  S^S),  it  was. 
at  any  rate,  the  first  such  baptism  which  was 
publicly  acknowledged.  The  historical  char- 
acter of  the  incident  has  been  called  in  question 
because  St.  Peter  in  Galatians  is  represented 
as  opposing  St.  Paul  on  the  Gentile  question 
(Gal 2 II*-);  But,  (1)  Galatians  represents 
Peter  as  in  complete  agreement  with  Paul  on 
all  essential  points  (Gal  2  6, 12);  and  (2)  the 
Jewish  prejudices  of  Peter  are  fully  recog- 
nised in  the  narrative  in  Acts.  Indeed,  it 
required  a  thrice-repeated  vision  to  remove 
them  (109f-)- 

I.  Caesarea]  built  by  Herod  the  Great  on 
the  site  of  an  insignificant  town  called  Strato's 
Tower,  and  renamed  Csesarea  Augusta  in 
honour  of  his  patron  Augustus.  There  was  a 
theatre,  an  amphitheatre,  a  royal  palace,  and 
a  temple  containing  images  of  Augustus  and 
of  Rome.  The  majority  of  the  inhabitants 
were  Greek,  but  Jews  enjoyed  equal  rights. 
At  this  time  Caesarea  was  the  capital  of  the 
Roman  province,  and  the  residence  of  the 
governor. 

Cornelius,  a  centurion]  A  legion  consisted 
of  about  6,000  men,  and  was  divided  into  ten 
cohorts,  each  commanded  by  a  tribune  (or 
chiliarch,  see  21 3i).  A  cohort  was  divided 
into  six  centuries,  each  commanded  by  a  cen- 
turion. Centurions  were  men  who  had  risen 
from  the  ranks,  and  were  therefore,  as  a  rule, 
men  of  capacity  and  good  character  :  cp.  LkT^, 
The  Italian  hand]  rather,  '  cohort.'  In  the 
smaller  provinces  legions  were  not  stationed, 
and  therefore  St.  Luke  is  doubtless  right  in 
saying  that  there  was  only  a  cohort  of  Roman 
soldiers  at  C^sarea.  The  men  were  recruited 
in  Italy,  and  were  probably  Roman  citizens. 

2.  One  that  feared  God]  i.e.  a  believer  in 
the  one  true  God,  but  not  a  circumcised 
proselyte.  The  baptism  of  Cornelius  would 
not  have  been  an  innervation  if  he  had  been 
circumcised  :  see  6  5.  Cornelius  was  diligent 
in  the  three  recognised  religious  duties  of 
prayer,  fasting  (v.  30),  and  almsdeeds  ;  he  kept 
the  Jewish  hours  of  prayer  (v.  3). 

3.  Ninth  hour]  i.e.  3  p.m.  4.  A  memorial] 
Acts  of  genuine  piety  cause  God  to  remember 
us  for  good.  Cornelius,  by  using  well  the 
grace  already  vouchsafed  him,  was  thought 
worthy  to  receive  greater  grace.  8.  To  Joppa] 
A  distance  of  about  40  m. 


9-  The  sixth  hour]  see  on  3^.  The  flat 
Jerusalem,  and  the  only  seaport  ever  possessed  housetop  of  Oriental  houses  is  used  for  prayer, 
by  the  Jews.     Dorcas]  i.e.  'gazelle.'  meditation,  recreation,  and  sleeping  (2 K 23 12 

831 


10.  10 


THE  ACTS 


11.  19 


Neh8 16  1 S9  25, 26  (RV)  2  S 1 1 2.  lo.  Trance] 
Trance,  ecstasy,  or  waking  vision,  is  only  one 
of  the  modes  of  divine  revelation,  and  that  by  . 
no  means  the  most  frequent  or  most  important. 
For  examples  see  Isa6  Dan  7,  8,  9  21  2  Cor  12  2 
Rev  1 10.  Visions  play  a  somewhat  important 
part  in  the  history  of  Acts  (9 10  169  18  ^  22^7  : 
cp.  2723  2^'^).  16.  Thrice]  the  vision  was 
repeated  to  confirm  and  establish  the  lesson 
taught  by  it  (Gn  4 132). 

The  question  of  the  distinction  of  meats 
was  important,  because,  so  long  as  it  was 
observed,  the  Church  (like  the  Jews)  was 
cut  off  from  all  real  social  intercourse  with 
Gentiles,  who  placed  '  unclean  '  food  on  their 
tables.  A  special  revelation  was  accordingly 
made  to  the  chief  of  the  Apostles  announcing 
that  the  distinction  of  meats  was  abrogated, 
and  that  henceforth  Jew  and  Gentile  were  ta 
associate  and  eat  together,  on  terms  of  equality 
(v.  28).  Jesus  had  already  laid  down  this 
principle  (Mk7i9  RV),  but  St.  Peter  had  not 
understood  it. 

28.  An  unlawful  thing]  cp.  Jn49  1828  Ac 
113  Gal  2 12, 14.  30.  Four  days,  etc.]  RV 
'  Four  days  ago,  until  this  hour,  I  was  keeping 
the  ninth  hour  of  prayer  in  my  house.'  The 
reference  to  fasting,  omitted  by  the  RV,  has 
considerable  ancient  attestation. 

36-38.  The  construction  is  confused,  reflect- 
ing St.  Peter's  deep  emotion.  Adopting  the 
reading  of  the  RM,  we  may  freely  translate 
thus  :  '  He  sent  the  word  unto  the  children 
of  Israel,  preaching  peace  (for  all  mankind) 
through  Jesus  Christ  (He  is  Lord  of  all  men). 
Ye  know  the  things  that  were  done  throughout 
the  whole  of  Judaea,  beginning  ffom  Galilee, 
after  the  baptism  which  John  preached,  (even 
the  deeds  of)  Jesus  of  Nazareth,  how  God 
anointed  Him  with  the  Holy  Ghost  and  with 
power,  who  went  about  doing  good,'  etc. 

41.  Eat  and  drink]  see  on  1*.  42.  Quick] 
i.e.  living  :  see  2  Tim4i  lPet45  ;  cp.  Rol49. 

43.  AU  the  prophets]  cp.  324  2622.  44.  As 
a  rule,  the  Holy  Spu-it  was  given  after  baptism, 


with  the  laying  on  of  the  Apostles'  hands  (238 
§17  196).  Xn  this  particular  case  the  Holy 
Spirit  was  given  before  baptism,  as  a  miraculous 
assurance  that  the  Gentiles  were  not  to  be 
excluded  from  the  gift  of  the  Holy  Spirit, 
but  were  to  be  baptised.  46.  Speak  -with 
tongues]  see  on  2^.  47.  Water]  the  water,  1 
viz.  of  Baptism.  48.  In  the  name  of  the 
Lord]  RV  '  in  the  name  of  Jesus  Christ '  :  see 
on  Mt  28 19. 

CHAPTER  11 

The  riRST  Gentile  Church 
1-18.  The  baptism  of  Cornelius  discussed 
and  approved  at  Jerusalem.  Those  Christians 
who  maintained  the  need  of  observing  the 
Ceremonial  Law  did  not  attack  the  baptism 
itself  because,  although  they  disliked  it,  our 
Lord's  command  to  baptise  all  nations  was  too 
definite  to  be  questioned.  They  attacked, 
therefore,  St.  Peter's  undoubted  breach  of 
Jewish  law  and  custom  :  '  Thou  wentest  in  to 
men  uncircumcised,  and  didst  eat  with  them ' 
(v.  3).  What  they  apparently  desired  was, 
that  if  Gentiles  were  baptised  at  all,  they  should 
be  regarded  as  an  inferior  class,  and  not  allowed 
to  eat  at  the  same  table  with  their  Jewish 
superiors  :  cp.  Gal  2 12  f.  Peter  did  not  discuss 
the  general  principle,  but  defended  himself 
on  the  ground  that  he  had  received  a  special 
revelation  authorising,  and  indeed  command- 
ing, him  to  act  as  he  did  in  this  particular  case. 
2.  They  that  were  of  the  circumcision]  This 
may  either  mean  the  whole  Church  of  Jerusalem 
in  contrast  with  Cornelius  and  his  friends,  or  the 
Judaising  party  in  that  Church  which,  perhaps, 
already  existed,  as  it  certainly  did  some  years 
later  (15 1. -5). 

18.  The  Church  of  Jerusalem  unanimously 
endorsed  Peter's  action,  doubtless  because  the 
case  was  an  exceptional  one,  and  was  not  likely 
to  become  a  precedent.  When  St.  Paul  made 
a  practice  of  doing  what  St.  Peter  had  only 
done  as  a  rare  exception,  the  controversy  was 
revived  (c.  15). 


PART  3 

The  Church  in  Antioch,  35-47  a.d.  (Chs.  1119-133) 


19-26.  Extension  of  the  Church  to  Antioch. 
Admission  of  Gentile  members.  Antioch  in 
N.  Syria  ranked  next  to  Alexandria,  as  the 
third  city  in  the  Roman  empire.  It  was  beau- 
tifully situated  on  the  Orontes,  about  15  m. 
from  the  sea.  Its  port  was  Seleucia.  The  bulk 
of  the  population  was  Syrian  by  race,  but  the 
language  and  culture  were  Greek.  There  were 
also  numerous  Jews,  who  had  gathered  round 
their  synagogues  a  remarkable  number  of 
proselytes.  Antioch  was  the  capital  of  the 
province  of  Syria,  and  the  seat  of  the  Roman 
governor,  so  that  here  Christianity  came  into 


contact  for  the  first  time  with  Greek  and 
Roman  civilisation.  Antioch  remained  a  great 
Christian  centre  :  among  its  honoured  names 
were  Ignatius  and  Chrysostom  ;  its  school  of 
theology  and  exegesis  was  famous,  and  its 
bishop  was  one  of  the  four  patriarchs.  Here 
Christianity  was  first  preached  on  any  large 
scale  to  Gentiles  (see  on  v.  20).  It  is  probable, 
however,  that  most  of  them  were,  like  Cornelius, 
in  some  way  attached  to  the  synagogue.  St. 
Paul  seems  to  have  been  the  first  to  appeal  to 
Gentiles  pure  and  simple  :  see  1427. 

19,  The  narrative  goes  back  to  81,  to  trace 


832 


11.  20 


THE   ACTS 


11.  30 


the  chain  of  causation  which  led  to  the  founda- 
tion of  the  first  great  Gentile  Church.  Chris- 
tianity, it  will  be  seen,  spread  along  the  great 
trade  routes  both  by  land  and  sea.  Phenice] 
i.e.  Phoenicia.  20.  Men  of  Cyprus  and  Cyrene] 
these  would  be  Hellenists  (Greek-speaking 
Jews),  and  therefore  presumably  more  liberal 
in  their  views  than  Hebrews.  To  these  un- 
named Cyprians  and  Cyrenians  belongs  the 
credit  of  first  preaching  systematically  to 
Gentiles.  Spake  unto  the  Grecians]  i.e.  to 
the  Greek-speaking  Jews.  So  the  AV.  But 
the  context  plainly  requires  '  spake  unto  the 
Greeks  '(i.e.  unto  the  Gentiles),  and  this  reading 
is  adopted  by  the  B,V. 

22.  The  Church  of  Jerusalem  on  hearing 
the  news  acted  with  commendable  self-restraint. 
They  did  not  hastily  condemn  the  new  de- 
parture, little  as  they  liked  it,  but  sent  a  trust- 
worthy person,  Barnabas,  to  examine  into  the 
circumstances  upon  the  spot,  and  to  report. 

23.  Barnabas,  after  carefully  observing  the 
results  of  the  policy,  approved  it  (was  glad), 
and  exhorted  them  all  (i.e.  both  Jews  and 
Gentiles)  to  persevere  in  their  profession  of 
faith,  and  to  form  one  united  Church.  Barna- 
bas thus  anticipated  Paul  in  sanctioning  the 
principle  of  Gentile  equality,  which  involved 
eating  with  Gentiles  (Gar2i2)j  and  it  was 
because  Paul  was  likely  to  be  in  sympathy  with 
such  a  policy,  that  Barnabas  summoned  him  to 
Antioch. 

26.  Christians]  The  giving  of  this  name 
marked  the  recognition  of  the  fact  that  '  the 
Way '  was  something  more  than  a  new  Jewish 
sect.  The  inclusion  of  numerous  Gentiles 
within  the  Church,  and  that  without  their  be- 
coming Jews,  and  the  preaching  of  Jesus  as 
one  whose  aiathority  was  superior  to  that  of 
Moses,  gave  complete  justification  to  those  who 
saw  in  Christianity  a  new  religion.  The  form 
of  the  word  is  Latin,  so  that  it  may  have 
originated  in  the  Latin-speaking  coui't  of  the 
Roman  governor.  At  any  rate,  the  name  was 
not  invented  by  the  Jews,  who  did  not  admit 
that  Jesus  was  'the  Christ'  (Messiah).  In 
64  A.D.  Tacitus  mentions  that  the  name  was  in 
use  among  the  common  people  at  Rome.  In 
the  2nd  cent,  a  corrupted  form,  '  Chrestians,' 
lit.  '  the  good  people,'  was  sometimes  used. 

27-30.  The  Church  of  Antioch  succours  the 
Church  of  Jerusalem  in  time  of  famine. 

27.  Friendly  relations  clearly  prevailed  be- 
tween Jerusalem  and  Antioch,  the  former 
Church  sending  accredited  prophets  and 
teachers  to  Antioch  to  assist  in  the  work  of 
evangelisation.  Prophets]  The  gift  of  pro- 
phecy specially  distinguished  the  apostolic  from 
the  subapostolic  and  later  ages.  It  was  widely 
diffused,  being  exercised  by  private  Christians, 
and  even  by  women  in  the  Church  assemblies 
(lCorl4i).     Generally  it  took  the  form  of 


inspired  exhortation  or  instruction,  but  was 
sometimes  predictive.  The  official  prophets, 
who  were  recognised  as  possessing  the  gift  to 
the  fullest  extent  (e.g.  Agabus,  Barnabas, 
Symeon  called  Niger,  Lucius  of  Cyrene, 
Manaen,  Judas,  and  Silas,  see  13 1  1532  21^0) 
ranked  next  to  the  Apostles,  and  were  regarded 
with  them  as  the  foundation  upon  which  the 
Church  was  built  (Eph  2  20).  The  chief  product 
of  Christian  prophecy  is  the  inspired  NT. 

Unto  Antioch]  The  Bezan  text  here  adds  : 
'  And  there  was  much  gladness.  And  when  we 
were  gathered  together,  one  of  them  named 
Agabus  spake  [and  signified,  etc.] .'  This  read- 
ing, which  seems  trustworthy,  confirms  the 
tradition  that  St.  Luke  belonged  to  Antioch, 
and  was  one  of  the  early  converts  there. 

28.  Agabus]  see  21 10.  Great  dearth 
throughout  all  the  world]  There  was  a  severe 
famine  in  the  fom-th  year  of  Claudius,  45  a.d., 
which  affected  both  Judaea  and  Greece.  To 
this  St.  Luke  probably  refers.  Claudius] 
reigned  from  41-54  A.D.  The  prophecy  of 
Agabus  was  perhaps  delivered  in  44  A.D. 

30.  The  elders]  lit.  'presbyters.'  These 
officers  are  here  mentioned  for  the  first  time. 
All  the  Apostolic  Churches  were  governed  by 
presbyters  (14  23)^  or,  as  they  were  sometimes 
called  at  first,  bishops  (2028;  cp.  Philli). 
The  presbyters  ranked  next  to  the  apostles 
and  above  the  deacons.  On  them  devolved 
(under  the  apostles)  the  government  and  pas- 
toral care  of  the  Church.  They  visited  and 
anointed  the  sick,  and  entertained  strangers 
(see  Jas5i4).  The  more  learned  of  them 
laboured  in  the  word  and  teaching,  and  such 
were  held  worthy  of  double  honour  (1  Tim  5  ^8). 
They  did  not  exercise  what  is  now  called 
episcopal  authority.  This  was  reserved  to  the 
apostles  and  apostolic  men.  They  were  essen- 
tially local  officers.  There  were  several  in 
one  Church,  and  they  formed  one  body  or 
'  college  '  (the  presbytery,  1  Tim  4 1^).  Govern- 
ment by  presbyters  was  adopted  by  the  Church 
from  the  Synagogue.  Jewish  synagogues 
were  governed  by  a  body  of  presbyters  at  the 
head  of  whom  was  an  officer  called  '  the  ruler 
of  the  synagogue.'  Many  think  that  in  Chris- 
tian Churches  also  the  leading  presbyter  had 
from  the  first  a  special  position,  similar  to  that 
of  St.  James  at  Jerusalem,  and  that  towards 
the  close  of  the  apostolic  age  the  title  '  bishop,' 
at  first  applied  to  all  presbyters  indiscrimin- 
ately, began  to  be  restricted  to  him  (see  Intro, 
to  Pastoral  Epistles,  notes  on  1  Tim  3  ^ 
Tit  1  '). 

The  usual  view  is  that  this  visit  of  St.  Paul 
to  Jerusalem  is  nowhere  else  alluded  to,  being 
passed  over  in  silence  in  the  Epistle  to  the 
Galatians.  But  the  writer's  own  view  is  that 
this  visit  is  that  mentioned  Gal2i-io.  See 
on  c.  15. 


53 


833 


12.1 


THE   ACTS 


13.3 


CHAPTEE  12 

Imprisonment  of  Peter. 
Herod 


Death  of 


1-19.  Persecution  of  the  Church  at  Jeru- 
salem by  Herod.  Martyrdom  of  James  the 
son  of  Zebedee.  Peter's  imprisonment  and 
miraculous  release.  The  Church  was  per- 
secuted (1)  by  the  Sadducees  and  chief  priests, 
4 1  5 1'i' ;  (2)  afterwards  by  the  Pharisees.  6 11  *•  ; 
and  now  (3)  by  the  king  of  the  Jews.  Not  till 
later  was  persecution  to  come  from  the  Eomans. 

1.  Aboui  that  time]  viz,  when  relief  was 
sent  to  the  Church  of  Jerusalem  (1129. 30)_ 
The  death  of  Herod  (v.  23)  fixes  the  date  as 
44  A.D.  Herod  the  king]  i.e.  Herod  Agrippa  I, 
son  of  Aristobulus  (Herod  the  Great's  son) 
and  Bernice  ;  born  10  B.C.  See  art.  '  The 
Dynasty  of  the  Herods.' 

2.  James]  i.e.  James  the  Great,  son  of 
Zebedee.  4.  Four  quaternions]  four  parties 
of  four  soldiers  each,  relieving  one  another  at 
intervals.  Easter]  i.e.  the  Passover.  5.  With- 
out ceasing]  B,V  '  earnestly.'  7.  The  prison] 
RV  '  the  cell.'  10.  The  second  ward]  i.e  the 
second  guard  of  soldiers.  And  they  went  out] 
D  adds,  '  and  went  down  the  seven  steps ' 
(probably  an  authentic  detail). 

12.  Mary]  This  Mary,  mother  of  Mark,  and 
aunt  of  Barnabas,  was  a  widow  of  consider- 
able wealth,  as  her  style  of  living  testifies. 
Her  house  had  a  gateway  into  the  courtyard 
(not  a  '  door,'  as  AY),  which  was  kept  by  a 
portress.  There  was  room  within  for  the 
Church  to  worship  (12 1^).  Many  suppose 
that  her  house  was  the  scene  of  the  Last 
Supper,  and  of  the  descent  of  the  Holy  Ghost. 

John  . .  Mark]  the  evangelist:  see  Intro,  to 
Mk. 

13,  14.  The  gate]  i.e.  the  gateway  or  vesti- 
bule. 15.  His  angel]  They  thought  that 
Peter's  guardian  angel  had  assumed  his  voice 
and  appearance:  see  on  MtlS^o.  17.  Unto 
James,  and  to  the  brethren]  The  meeting 
in  Mary's  house  was  clearly  an  unofficial  one. 
Observe  that  Peter  recognises  James  (i.e.  the 
Lord's  brother)  as  the  head  of  the  local  Church 
of  Jerusalem. 

20-24.  Death  of  Herod  Agrippa  I,  44  a.d. 
Josephus's  account  of  Herod's  death,  which 
is  quite  independent,  confirms  St.  Luke's  (see 
'  Ant.'  19.  8). 

20.  Tyre  and  Sidon  obtained  their  corn 
and  provisions  from  Palestine.  Hence  when 
a  dispute  arose  (perhaps  over  some  commer- 


cial or  tariff  question),  Herod  forbade  the 
exportation  of  com  to  Tyre  and  Sidon. 
Famine  prices  prevailed,  and  the  cities  were 
obliged  to  come  to  terms.  They  '  persuaded ' 
Blastus  (AV  '  made  him  their  friend  '),  prob- 
ably by  a  bribe,  and  desired  '  peace,'  i.e.  a 
cessation  of  the  tariff  war. 

23.  The  angel]  B,V  '  an  angel.'  This  is,  of 
course,  the  Christian  interpretation  of  the 
incident.  No  angelic  appearance  is  to  be 
assumed.  24.  So  signal  a  judgment  upon  a 
persecutor  was  an  indication  of  the  righteous- 
ness of  the  Christian  cause.  It  is  a  remark- 
able fact  that  most  of  the  early  persecutors 
perished  miserably. 

C.  1 2 -5-1 3  3.  Separation  of  Barnabas  and 
Saul  for  missionary  work,  47  a.d. 

25.  Returned  from  Jerusalem]  the  best  read- 
ing is  '  returned  to  Jerusalem,'  i.e.  to  fetch 
Mark  to  Antioch. 

CHAPTER  13 
St.  Paul  as  a  Missionary 

I.  Prophets]  see  on  1127.  Simeon  that 
was  called  Niger]  Niger  was  a  Roman 
cognomen.  Lucius  of  Cyrene]  doubtless  one 
of  those  Cyrenians  who  fii'st  preached  at 
Antioch  (II20).  Manaen]  the  OT.  form  is 
'Menahem.'  Which  had  been  brought  up 
vnth  Herod  the  tetrarch]  Two  meanings  are 
possible.  Either,  (1)  Menahem's  mother  had 
been  Herod's  wet-nurse  ;  or  (2)  Menahem  had 
been  brought  up  with  Herod  as  his  foster- 
brother.  The  tetrarch  (Herod  Antipas)  was 
the  son  of  Herod  the  Grea,t,  by  Malthace, 
and  received  (after  his  father's  death)  Galilee 
and  Persea.  In  39  a.d.  he  was  banished  to 
Gaul,  where  he  died.  2.  As  they  ministered  to 
the  Lord]  i.e.  celebrated  divine  worship.  From 
the  Gk.  word  used  is  derived  our  word  -liturgy.' 

And  fasted]  see  on  Mt  6 16.  The  Holy  Ghost 
said]  an  expression  vividly  suggesting  the  per- 
sonality of  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  His  office  as 
the  Guide  of  the  Church.  Acts  is  so  full  of 
such  expressions  (10 19  829,30  1112  134  i66)^ 
that  it  has  even  been  called  '  the  Gospel  of  the 
Holy  Ghost.'  In  this  case  the  Holy  Ghost 
probably  spoke  by  one  of  the  prophets.  Sep- 
arate me  Barnabas  and  Saul]  Some  regard  this 
incident  as  the  ordination  of  Paul  and  Barna- 
bas ;  others  as  their  solemn  setting  apart  for 
missionary  work.  Henceforth  they  are  called 
'apostles'  by  St.  Luke  (U-t.!-*).  3.  This  was 
the  apostoUc  custom  to  fast  at  ordinations  : 
see  1423. 


PART  4 

The  Church  of  the  World,  47-61  a.d.  (Chs.  134-2831) 

I34_i535  First  Missionary  Journey  and  the  title  of  Apostle,  (1)  by  the  success  of  his 
Council  of  Jerusalem.  During  this  journey  labours,  13^9  14 1.21  ;  (2)  by  signs  and  wonders, 
St.  Paul  conclusively  established  his  right  to     13  ^  14  8,10 ;    and  (3)  by  the   foundation  and 

834 


13.4 


THE   ACTS 


13.33 


organisation  of  churches,  1423.  Jt  -will  be 
noticed  that  St.  Paul  takes  the  lead,  and  soon 
becomes  a  more  prominent  figure  than  Bar- 
nabas. Although  upon  a  mission  to  the 
Gentiles,  St.  Paul  always  addresses  the  Jews 
first  (1346), 

C.  13.  4-13.  Cyprus.  This  island  was  fa- 
miliar ground  to  Barnabas  (4  ^6).  It  contained 
a  large  Jewish  population,  to  which  the  apos- 
tles mainly  confined  their  attention  (v.  5).  The 
principal  town  was  Salamis,  but  the  seat  of 
government  was  Paphos  (see  v.  6).  Cyprus 
was  at  this  time  a  senatorial  province,  and  the 
governor  is  therefore  correctly  described  as 
proconsul  (v.  7).  The  principal  exports  of 
Cyprus  were  copper  and  timber.  The  deity 
chiefly  worshipped  was  Aphrodite  (Venus). 
Paphos,  the  centre  of  her  worship,  had  an  evil 
reputation  for  laxity  of  morals. 

5.  Their  minister]  Possibly  for  the  admin- 
istration of  baptism,  which  St.  Paul  usually  per- 
formed by  deputy  (iCorli'^-i^).  6.  A.  .  sorcerer] 
lit.  'a  magus.'  Here  in  a  bad  sense:  see  on 
Mt2i.  7.  Deputy]  Gk.  a?ithupatos,  i.e. '■ -pro- 
consul,' the  correct  title  of  the  governor  of  a 
senatorial  province.  Sergius  Paulus]  a  mem- 
ber of  the  ancient  patrician  gens  of  the  Sergii. 
An  inscription  has  been  discovered  in  Cyprus, 
which  speaks  of  the  proconsulship  of  this 
Paulus.  8.  Elymas]  The  name  is  Arabic,  mean- 
ing '  the  wise,'  an  equivalent  of  the  Gk.  magus. 

9.  Paul]  Saul,  as  a  Roman  citizen,  had  the 
well-known  Roman  name  Paul.  It  is  here 
introduced,  because  the  apostle,  for  the  first 
time,  comes  into  intimate  contact  with  the 
Roman  world.  The  name  Saul  in  Gk.  has  the 
ridiculous  sense  of  '  waddling.'  Observe  that 
from  this  point  Paul  becomes  a  more  pro- 
minent figure  than  Barnabas.  Filled  with  the 
Holy  Ghost]  This  miracle  of  wrath  was  justi- 
fied by  a  special  revelation. 

13.  John  departing  from  them]  Mark  may 
have  objected  to  the  conversion  of  so  many 
Gentiles.  Others  suggest  personal  resentment 
against  St.  Paul,  whose  reputation  was  now 
eclipsing  that  of  St.  Barnabas,  Mark's  cousin. 
Failure  of  courage  or  of  perseverance  is  also 
possible. 

14-52.  Antioch  of  Pisidia.  St.  Paul's  Ser- 
mon in  the  Synagogue. 

The  cities  which  the  apostles  now  proceeded 
to  evangelise  (Pisidian  Antioch,  Iconium, 
Lystra,  and  Derbe)  were  situated  in  the  south- 
ern part  of  the  Roman  province  of  Galatia, 
and  it  is  now  very  generally  supposed  that  the 
Epistle  to  the  Galatians  was  addressed  to  the 
churches  in  these  cities.  If  so,  we  can  use 
that  Epistle  to  illustrate  this  narrative.  The 
other  view  that  the  Galatian  Churches  were 
situated  in  N.  Galatia  is  less  probable,  because 
no  missionary  journey  in  N.  Galatia  is  men- 
tioned in  Acts. 


14.  Perga]  An  important  city,  the  capital 
of  Pamphylia.  Antioch  in  Pisidia]  rather, 
'  Pisidian  Antioch.'  This  Antioch  was  really 
in  Phrygia,  but  from  its  position  was  called 
'  Antiochia  ad  Pisidiam,'  '  Antioch  bordering 
on  Pisidia.'  It  was  the  centre  of  military  and 
civil  administration  for  S.  Galatia,  and  com- 
manded the  great  high-road  from  Syria  to 
Ephesus  and  the  West.  We  gather  from  Gal 
4 13  that  St.  Paul  preached  in  Galatia  on  account 
of  an  illness  which  overtook  him  on  his  travels. 
Prof.  Ramsay  supposes  that  having  caught 
malarial  fever  at  the  low-lying  Perga,  he  de- 
termined to  try  the  effect  of  the  mountain  air 
of  Antioch.  The  Synagogue]  The  sabbath  ser- 
vice of  the  synagogue  consisted  then  as  now  of, 
(1)  the  recitation  of  the  Shema  (i.e.  of  Dt64-9 
1 1 13-21  Nu  1537-41)  ;  (2)  fixed  prayers  and  bene- 
dictions ;  (3)  a  lesson  from  the  Law  ;  (4)  a 
lesson  from  the  Prophets,  intended  to  illus- 
trate the  law  ;  (5)  a  sermon  or  instruction. 
The  ruler  of  the  synagogue  (at  Antioch  thera 
appears  to  have  been  more  than  one)  decided 
who  was  to  read  or  preach. 

16-41.  St.  Paul's  sermon  falls  into  three 
parts  :  (1)  the  historical  introduction  (vv.  16- 
25)  ;  (2)  the  preaching  of  salvation  through 
the  Incarnation,  the  Death  and  the  Resurrec- 
tion of  Jesus,  who  is  God's  Son,  to  whom  the 
prophets  bore  witness  (vv.  26-37)  ;  (3)  the 
practical  application  and  appeal  (vv.  38-41). 
The  introduction  reminds  us  of  Stephen's 
apology,  but  whereas  Stephen  laid  the  main 
stress  upon  Moses,  St.  Paul  lays  it  upon 
David.  The  description  of  our  Lord's  rejec- 
tion by  the  rulers,  and  of  His  death  and 
resurrection  reminds  us  strongly  of  St.  Peter's 
earlier  speeches  at  Jerusalem,  but  St.  Paul 
adds  the  further  claim  that  Jesus  is  God's  Son 
(v.  33).  The  Pauline  doctrine  of  justification 
by  faith,  and  not  by  the  works  of  the  Law, 
finds  expression  in  v.  39  :  cp.  Gal  2  is  321.^  etc., 
which  show  that  this  doctrine  was  actually 
preached  to  the  Galatians. 

18.  Suffered  he  their  manners]  Both  here 
and  in  Dtl^i  the  true  reading  probably  is 
'  bare  he  them  as  a  nursing  father.' 

19.  By  lot]   RV   'for  an  inheritance.' 

20.  Judges  about  the  space  of  four  hundred 
and  fifty  years]  This  period  for  the  judges 
(more  precisely  443  years)  is  also  adopted  by 
Josephus,  but  is  inconsistent  with  1 K  6 1. 
Another  reading,  adopted  by  the  RV,  makes 
the  period  of  450  years  extend  from  the  death 
of  Joshua  to  the  reign  of  David.  22.  See 
Ps89  20  IS  1314.  24.  His  coming]  i.e.  His 
entry  upon  the  Messianic  office  (to  be  dated 
from  His  Baptism).  26.  To  you]  RV  'to 
us.' 

33.  In  the  second  psalm]  There  is  another 
reading  '  in  the  first  psalm,'  which  may  be 
correct,  as  there  is  evidence  that  the  first  two 


835 


13.34 


THE   ACTS 


14.8 


psalms  were  sometimes  counted  as  one.  In 
the  passage  referred  to  (Ps  2  '^)  the  Messiah  is 
declared  to  be  begotten  as  the  Son  of  God 
on  the  day  when  Jehovah  scatters  His  enemies 
before  Him.  So  at  the  Resurrection,  when 
the  enemies  of  Jesus  were  confounded,  He  was 
'  declared  to  be  the  Son  of  Grod  with  power,' 
and  made  '  the  first  begotten  of  the  dead ' 
(Col  1 18  Rev  1 5). 

34.  I  will  give  you  the  sure  mercies  of 
David]  RY  '  I  will  give  you  the  holy  and  sure 
blessings  of  David.'  See  IsaSS^.  But  how 
does  this  text  prove  the  Resurrection  of  Jesus, 
and  His  unending  life  ?  Because  unless 
Jesus  had  risen  to  unending  life  and  power, 
the  Messianic  promises  made  to  David  could 
never  have  been  fulfilled.  35.  See  Psl6io, 
and  cp.  St.  Peter's  use  of  the  passage,  231. 

40.  In  the  prophets]  The  particular  prophecy 
quoted  is  Hab  1  ^.  Habakkuk  had  threatened 
the  Jews  with  destruction  by  the  Chaldseans 
(Babylonians).  The  passage,  as  applied  by 
St.  Paul,  looks  forward  to  the  destruction 
of  Jerusalem  by  the  Romans. 

42.  RV  'And  as  they  went  out,  they  be- 
sought,' etc.  The  request  for  another  sermon 
(according  to  the  RV)  was  general  and  not 
confined  to  the  Gentiles.  45.  What  irritated 
the  Jews  was  not  the  substance  of  the  gospel 
message,  but  the  fact  that  it  was  proclaimed 
to  the  heathen  as  well  as  to  themselves. 

46.  Lo,  we  turn  to  the  Gentiles]  This  momen- 
tous decision  to  appeal  to  the  Gentiles  directly, 
and  not  through  the  instrumentality  of  the 
Synagogue,  required  courage  in  the  face  of 
current  prejudice.     See  further  18^  28  2S. 

4  7.  See  Isa  42  6  49  6  Lk  2  32.  48.  As  many  as 
were  ordained  to  eternal  life  believed]  This 
expresses  the  Pauline  and  Apostolic  doctrine 
of  predestination,  according  to  which  God 
desires  the  salvation  of  all  men  (1  Tim  2*410, 
etc.),  but  inasmuch  as  He  foresees  that  some 
(in  the  exercise  of  their  free  will)  will  actually 
repent  and  believe,  while  others  will  refuse  to 
do  so.  He  ordains  the  former  to  eternal  life, 
and  the  latter  to  eternal  death  (Ro  8  28-30,  etc.). 

50.  Devout  and  honourable  women]  i.e. 
proselytes  to  Judaism,  and  (probably)  wives 
to  the  chief  men  of  the  city.  Coasts]  i.e. 
borders.  51.  Shook  off  the  dust]  seeMtlQi* 
Mk6  11  Lk95,  and  cp.  186.  Iconium]  a  Phry- 
gian city  of  considerable  importance  situated 
in  a  most  beautiful  and  fertile  plain  80  m.  SE. 
of  Antioch.     It  is  now  called  Konia. 

52.  In  spite  of  the  (apparently)  successful 
persecution,  and  the  departure  of  the  apostles, 
the  new  converts  stood  firm,  and  were  filled 
with  joy  and  with  the  Holy  Ghost :  cp.24<5  43i_ 

CHAPTER  14 
First  Missionary  Jourxey  (continued) 
1-7.  Paul  and  Barnabas  at  Iconium.     The 


836 


gospel  meets  with  great  success  among  both 
Jews  and  Gentiles  in  this  populous  city,  and 
miracles  are  wrought  in  confirmation  of  the 
faith. 

2.  The  first  persecution  at  Iconium,  which 
probably  took  the  form  of  arraigning  the 
apostles  before  the  magistrates,  failed.  Ac- 
cordingly the  second  persecution  (v.  5)  took 
the  form  of  a  popular  tumult.  V.  2  reads 
thus  in  D,  '  But  the  rulers  of  the  synagogue 
of  the  Jews  raised  a  persecution  against  the 
righteous  (i.e.  the  Christians),  and  exasperated 
the  souls  of  the  heathen  against  the  brethren, 
but  the  Lord  quickly  gave  peace.' 

3.  For  the  importance  of  miracles  as  a  sign 
of  apostleship,  see  2  Cor  1 2 12  Ro  1 5  is.  4.  The 
apostles]  The  name  is  here  first  given  to  Paul 
and  Barnabas:  see  on  131-3.  6.  Lystra  and 
Derbe,  cities  of  Lycaonia]  Lystra  (like  An- 
tioch) was  a  Roman  colony,  founded  by 
Augustus,  6  B.C.  Its  ofiicial  language  was 
Latin.  It  lay  18  m.  SSW.  of  Iconium.  Derbe 
lay  about  30  m.  SE.  of  Lystra.  Lystra  and 
Derbe  are  correctly  described  as  Lycaonian 
cities,  in  distinction  from  Antioch,  which  was 
Phrygian. 

The  curious  second-century  romance,  '  The 
Acts  of  Paul  and  Thecla,'  gives  many 
additional  particulars  of  St.  Paul's  pro- 
ceedings at  Iconium,  some  of  which,  perhaps, 
are  authentic.  Thecla,  who  belonged  to 
one  of  the  chief  families  of  Iconium,  over- 
heard from  a  window  the  preaching  of  the 
apostle.  She  was  at  that  time  engaged  to  a 
young  man  named  Thamyris,  but  on  hearing 
St.  Paul's  words  she  became  so  enamoured  of 
virginity  that  she  broke  off  her  engagement. 
For  this  interference  with  family  life,  and  for 
impiety,  St.  Paul  was  scourged  and  expelled 
from  the  city,  and  Thecla  was  condemned  to 
be  burnt  alive.  A  fall  of  rain  extinguished 
the  fire,  and  she  escaped  and  followed  Paul  to 
Antioch.  Here  again  she  was  persecuted,  but 
was  rescued  by  Tryph^na,  a  lady  of  great 
influence.  The  presbyter  who  composed  this 
romance  (though  it  was  probably  founded  on 
fact)  was  deposed  from  his  office. 

8-20.  Lystra.  Here  was  a  typical  heathen 
population,  but  little  affected  by  Judaism,  as 
there  was  no  synagogue.  The  people  were 
grossly  superstitious,  and  easily  led  into  any 
kind  of  extravagance.  Though  Latin  was  the 
ofiicial  language,  the  common  people  spoke 
their  own  uncouth  Lycaonian  dialect  (v.  11), 
which  was  unintelligible  to  the  apostles. 
While  at  Lystra  the  apostles  probably  lodged 
with  the  parents  of  Timothy  :  see  on  16 1. 

8.  A  cripple]  Probably  this  man  had  learnt 
from  the  Jews  the  worship  of  the  true  God 
(D  says  that  he  was  'in  the  fear  of  God'),  and 
consequently  he  had  received  some  preparation 
for.  the  gospel  message.     The   circumstances 


J 


14.11 


THE   ACTS 


15. 


and  eflEect  of  this  miracle  are  like  those  of  the 
miracle  worked  by  Peter  and  John,  S^. 

II.  In  the  speech  of  Lycaonia]  This  ex- 
plains why  the  apostles  did  not  protest  against 
the  proposals  at  the  time.  They  appear  to 
have  gone  home  in  entire  ignorance  of  the 
construction  which  the  people  had  placed 
upon  the  miracle.  The  gods  are  come  down] 
The  less  educated  or  more  credulous  heathen 
at  this  time  still  believed  that  the  gods  were 
in  the  habit  of  visiting  the  earth  in  human 
form.  It  was  in  the  neighbouring  country  of 
Phrygia  that  Jupiter  and  Mercury  were  said 
to  have  paid  a  visit  to  the  virtuous  peasants 
Baucis  and  Philemon,  and  to  have  been  enter- 
tained by  them.  Even  in  Athens,  in  the  age 
of  Pisistratus,  a  visit  of  Athene  (Minerva)  in 
human  form  was  believed  possible.  12.  The 
majestic  appearance  of  Barnabas  caused  him 
to  be  identified  with  the  chief  god  (Zeus)  cor- 
responding to  the  Roman  Jupiter.  The 
insignificant  stature  of  Paul  (2  Cor  10  W),  and 
his  gift  of  eloquence,  suggested  his  identifi- 
cation with  Hermes  (the  Roman  Mercury). 
Hermes  was  the  god  of  eloquence,  and  the 
attendant,  messenger,  and  spokesman  of  Zeus. 

13.  Which  was  before  their  city]  i.e.  whose 
temple  was  before  the  city.  Unto  the  gates] 
or  'porches.'  It  is  difficult  to  decide  where 
the  sacrifice  took  place,  whether  at  the  porch 
of  the  apostles'  house,  or  at  the  gates  of  the 
city,  or  at  the  gates  of  the  temple.  Perhaps 
the  first  is  favoured  by  the  statement  (v.  14) 
that  they  '  sprang  out '  among  the  people. 

14.  Rent  their  clothes]  in  horror  at  the 
blasphemy  :  cp.  MfiG'^''^.  Ran  in]  RV  'sprang 
forth.'     15.  Of  like  passions]  i.e.  of  like  nature. 

Vanities]  i.e.  vain  gods.  17.  Gave  us  rain] 
RY  '  gave  you  rains.'  There  was  great  scarcity 
of  water  in  Lycaonia,  owing  to  a  deficient 
rainfall.  19.  Persuaded  the  people]  The  fickle- 
ness of  the  Lycaonians  is  reflected  on  by  more 
than  one  G-reek  author,  and  perhaps  St.  Paul 
alludes  to  it  in  the  Epistle  to  the  G-alatians  (1  <5 
31  415,  etc.).  20.  There  is  no  reason  to  sup- 
pose a  miracle  here  :  cp.  20  ^0. 

Having  at  Lystra  to  deal  with  pure  heathens, 
and  not  as  usual  with  persons  influenced  by 
Judaism,  St.  Paul  bases  his  teaching  upon 
Natural  Religion.  The  three  main  truths  of 
Natural  Religion  according  to  him  are,  (1) 
God's  Unity,  (2)  His  creative  power,  and, 
(3)  His  benevolence.  The  main  difficulty  to 
which  St.  Paul  addresses  himself  is.  Why  then 
has  God  permitted  the  nations  to  remain  so  long 
in  ignorance  ?  and  the  answer  is  that  this 
ignorance  is  only  for  a  time  (v.  16)  ;  and  that 
even  in  the  time  of  ignorance  God  did  not 
leave  Himself  entirely  without  witness  (v.  17). 
The  whole  speech  should  be  compared  with 
that  delivered  at  Athens,  also  to  a  purely 
heathen  audience  (17 '^^-^i). 


21-28.  Visit  to  Derbe,  and  return  journey  to 
Antioch  of  Syria.  Derbe,  or  Claudio-Derbe, 
where  the  work  of  the  apostles  seems  to  have 
been  very  successful,  was  a  small  Lycaonian 
town  on  the  extreme  boundary  of  the  Roman 
province  of  Galatia.  A  convert  of  this  city 
named  Gains  is  mentioned  (20*). 

21.  To  Lystra]  thus  showing  remarkable 
perseverance  and  courage.  22.  Confirming] 
exhorting  to  steadfastness,  so  much  needed  by 
the  fickle  Galatians. 

23.  Elders]  lit.  '  presbyters.'  We  have  a 
right  to  infer  from  this  passage  that  wherever 
the  apostles  established  a  church,  they  estab- 
lished also  a  definite  ministry.  Presbyters 
only  are  mentioned,  but  it  is  to  be  presumed 
that  there  were  also  deacons  to  assist  them. 
It  is  somewhat  remarkable  that  St.  Paul's 
Epistles  (except  the  Pastorals)  contain  no 
allusion  to  presbyters.  Bishops,  however, 
probably  in  the  sense  of  presbyters,  are  men- 
tioned (Phil  1 1) :  see  on  Ac  1 1 30. 

25.  Attalia]  the  port  of  Perga.  26.  Antioch] 
They  had  been  absent  about  18  months. 

27.  furnishes  the  first  example  of  a  mission- 
ary meeting.  It  was  a  meeting  of  the  whole 
Church,  not  of  a  few  enthusiasts. 

CHAPTER    15 

The  Question  of  Circumcision 
1-35.  The  Council  of  Jerusalem,  49  a.d. 
The  usual  view  is  that  Gal  2 1-10  describes 
the  visit  of  St.  Paul  to  Jerusalem  on  the 
occasion  of  this  Council.  Adopting  this,  the 
following  was  the  course  of  events.  The 
baptism  of  G-entiles  by  St.  Paul  on  his  First 
Missionary  Journey,  without  requiring  them  to 
be  circumcised  or  to  keep  the  Law,  was  keenly 
criticised  at  Jerusalem  by  the  Pharisaic  party 
within  the  Church.  Some  of  these  mal- 
contents even  came  to  Antioch,  teaching  that 
'  except  ye  be  circumcised  after  the  manner 
of  Moses,  ye  cannot  be  saved'  (Ac  151). 
They  falsely  professed  to  have  the  support  of 
Peter  and  James,  and  St.  Paul  indignantly 
refers  to  them  as  'false  brethren  privily 
brought  in,  who  came  in  privily  to  spy  out 
our  liberty  which  we  have  in  Christ  Jesus  ' 
(Gal  24).  They  demanded  that  Paul  and 
Barnabas  should  go  up  to  Jerusalem,  and 
submit  the  matter  to  the  superior  authority  of 
the  Twelve.  At  first  St.  Paul  refused  to  go, 
regarding  himself  as  possessing  an  independent 
and  equal  authority.  But  on  receiving  a 
special  revelation  (Gal  2  2)  that  the  result 
would  be  favom-able  to  his  views,  and  would 
tend  to  the  furtherance  of  the  gospel,  he 
consented  to  go,  taking  with  him  Barnabas, 
and  Titus,  one  of  his  Gentile  converts.  Before 
the  Council,  private  conferences  were  held 
between  St.  Paul  and  the  heads  of  the  Church 
of  Jerusalem,  with  the  object  of  reaching  a 


837 


15.  1 


THE   ACTS 


15.  20 


settlement.  As  a  step  towards  this,  the 
circumcision  of  Titus  was  vehemently  de- 
manded by  the  Judaisers,  and  apparently 
recommended  by  the  Twelve.  As  Titus  was 
intended  to  be  a  fellow-worker  of  St.  Paul, 
and  would  accordingly  be  brought  into  frequent 
close  contact  with  Jews,  much  was  to  be  said 
for  this  course.  What  happened  is  not  quite 
clear.  Most  think  that  Titus  was  not  circum- 
cised ;  others  that  St.  Paul,  receiving  an 
assurance  that  the  main  question,  that  of 
Gentile  freedom,  would  be  decided  in  his 
favour,  gave  way  on  the  minor  point,  and 
circumcised  Titus,  not  under  compulsion,  but 
as  a  spontaneous  act  of  Christian  charity 
(compare  his  conduct  in  the  case  of  Timothy, 
16^).  Before  the  Conference  a  complete 
settlement  was  reached.  The  Twelve  acknow- 
ledged Paul's  teaching  as  orthodox,  recognised 
him  as  the  Apostle  of  the  Gentiles,  conceded 
his  demand  that  the  Gentiles  should  be  free 
from  the  observance  of  the  Law,  and  gave 
him  the  right  hand  of  fellowship.  After  this 
the  result  of  the  Council  was  a  foregone 
conclusion. 

Some  scholars  take  an  entirely  different 
view  of  the  historical  situation.  They  think 
that  the  visit  to  Jerusalem  described  in 
Gal 2 1-10  is  not  that  of  Acl5  at  all,  but  that  of 
Ac  11 29, 30.  They  regard  the  Epistle  to  the 
Galatians  as  vrritten  before  the  Council,  during 
the  heat  of  the  circumcision  controversy,  and 
they  place  Peter's  visit  to  Antioch  (Gal2iif-) 
also  before  the  Council.  Much  can  be  said  in 
favour  of  this  view,  and  the  present  writer  is 
inclined  to  favour  it. 

1.  Certain  men]  They  falsely  claimed  to 
have  been  sent  by  James  (see  v.  24,  Gal  2 12). 

2.  Barnabas]  St.  Luke  passes  over  Peter's 
visit  to  Antioch,  and  Barnabas's  temporary 
'  dissimulation  '  (Gal  2 1^).  3.  The  journey  to 
Jerusalem  partook  somewhat  of  the  character 
of  a  triumphant  progress,  or  demonstration  in 
favour  of  Paul  and  Barnabas.  Outside  Jeru- 
salem the  Pauline  party  was  clearly  in  the 
ascendant.  4.  Even  at  Jerusalem  the  officials 
of  the  church,  and  its  members  as  a  whole,  were 
favourably  disposed  towards  St.  Paul.  The 
Judaisers  were  in  a  minority.  5.  Pharisees] 
The  only  express  mention  of  converted  Phari- 
sees. What  attracted  the  Pharisees  in  Chris- 
tianity was  (1)  the  fulfilment  in  Christ  of  the 
Messianic  hope  which  the  devout  Pharisees 
cherished,  and  (2)  the  doctrine  of  the  Resur- 
rection. 

7-1 1-  The  speech  of  St.  Peter  endorses  the 
opinions  of  St.  Paul  in  every  particular.  He 
speaks  of  the  Law  as  a  yoke  '  which  neither  we 
nor  our  fathers  were  able  to  bear '  (cp.  Gal  5 1, 
where  St.  Paul  bids  the  Galatians  not  to  be 
entangled  again  with  the  yoke  of  bondage), 
and  emphasises  the  Pauline  doctrine  of  salva- 


838 


tion  by  grace  and  faith,  and  not  by  the  works 
of  the  law :  cp.  Ro  3  2-1  Gal  2  is  3  6,  etc.  There 
is  nothing  incredible  in  this.  It  is  plain  from 
Galatians  that  Peter  and  even  James  were  in 
complete  agreement  in  principle  with  St.  Paul 
(Gal  2  6  f.),  and  IPet  makes  it  evident  that 
St.  Peter  was  much  attracted  and  influenced 
by  St.  Paul's  theology. 

13.  James]  James,  the  Lord's  brother, 
presided  at  the  Council,  doubtless  in  the 
capacity  of  chief  ruler  of  the  local  Church 
of  Jerusalem.  We  should  have  expected 
Peter  to  preside. 

14-21.  St.  James'  speech  proves  him  as 
decided  an  adherent  of  Gentile  liberty  as  St. 
Peter.  He  approves  St.  Peter's  conduct  in 
baptising  Cornelius,  and  quotes  prophecies 
showing  that  the  Messianic  Church  will 
embrace  all  nations.  The  Jews  are  to  con- 
tinue to  keep  the  Law,  but  the  Gentiles  are 
only  to  be  required  to  abstain  from  certain 
practices  offensive  to  Jews. 

14.  Simeon]  RV  '  Symeon.'  St.  James 
uses  the  ancient  Hebrew  form  of  Peter's  name, 
instead  of  the  more  usual  '  Simon.'  For  his 
name]  i.e.  '  that  his  name  might  be  glorified 
in  them.' 

16-18.  St.  James  cites  from  memory,  and 
not  quite  accurately,  Am  9 11.12  (LXX),  of 
which  nevertheless  he  preserves  the  true  sense. 

16.  After  this  I  will  return]  Amos  simply 
has  '  In  that  day,'  i.e.  in  the  day  of  the 
Messiah.  The  tabernacle  of  David]  i.e.  the 
royal  family  descended  fi-om  David.  David's 
family  is  compared  to  a  fallen  tent,  because, 
when  Amos  wrote,  the  southern  kingdom  was 
quite  insignificant  compared  with  the  northern. 

17,  18.  Who  doethall  these  things.  Known 
unto  God  are  all  his  works  from  the  beginning 
of  the  world]  There  is  nothing  in  Amos  cor- 
responding to  these  words.  RV  reads,  'who 
maketh  these  things  known  from  the  begin- 
ning of  the  world.'  RM  reads,  'who  doeth 
these  things  which  were  known  from  the 
beginning  of  the  world.' 

20.  St.  James  mentions  four  prohibitions  : 
(1)  pollutions  of  idols,  (2)  fornication,  (3)  eat- 
ing the  flesh  of  strangled  animals,  (4)  eating 
blood.  The  object  of  these  prohibitions  was 
to  render  social  intercourse  between  Jews  and 
Gentiles,  and  particularly  common  meals,  less 
difficult.  Pollutions  of  idols]  No  Christian 
would  directly  worship  an  idol,  but  Gentile 
Christians  might  easily  incur  pollution  accord- 
ing to  Jewish  ideas,  (1)  by  buying  flesh  in  a 
heathen  market,  (2)  by  attending  a  feast  in  a 
heathen  house.  In  both  cases  there  would  be 
a  danger  of  eating  flesh  offered  in  sacrifice  to 
idols.  Fornication]  Most  interpret  this  of 
ordinary  fornication,  but  seeing  this  was  al- 
ready forbidden  to  all  Christians,  there  is  much 
to  be  said  for  J.  Lightfoot's  view,  that  what 


15.21 


THE  ACTS 


16.7 


is  really  meant  is  marriage  within  the  degrees 
forbidden  in  the  book  of  Leviticus.  Such 
marriages,  common  among  the  heathen,  would 
be  most  distasteful  to  the  Jews,  and  would  be 
regarded  by  them  as  fornication  :  cp.  1  Cor  5  ^. 
Things  strangled]  This  refers  to  Lv  1713, 14 
Dt  12 16, 23^  according  to  which  the  blood  was 
to  be  drained  out  of  all  animals  before  they  were 
eaten.  This  prohibition,  however,  is  entirely 
omitted  by  D  and  other  ancient  authorities 
both  here  and  in  v.  29.  From  blood]  see  LvS^^^ 
720  1710  1926    Dtl2i6,23  1523.     D  and  other 

authorities  add  here  this  injunction  :  '  And 
that  they  should  hot  do  to  others  what  they 
would  not  have  done  to  themselves.' 

21.  Here  St.  James  recognises  that  Jewish 
Christians  are  still  to  attend  the  synagogue  ser- 
vices and  to  keep  the  Law.  22,  This  v.  is  evi- 
dence that  the  whole  Church,  and  not  merely 
the  clergy,  were  consulted  in  matters  of  public 
policy.  Judas  surnamed  Barsabas  (Barsabbas)] 
probably  the  brother  of  the  Joseph  Barsabbas 
who  was  a  candidate  for  the  apostolate  (1^^). 
He  was  clearly  a  Hebrew.  Silas,  on  the  other 
hand,  was  probably  a  Hellenist,  as  his  Latin 
name  ('  Silas  '  =  '  Silvanus  ')  indicates.  He 
appears  again,  15 «  161^  174,10,14  igs  2  Cor 
1 1^,  as  a  companion  of  St.  Paul.  Later  he  was 
an  associate  of  St.  Peter  (IPetSi^).  Appa- 
rently he  possessed  the  Roman  citizenship 
(16  3'^).  23.  The  apostles  and  elders  and 
brethren]  Recent  editors  read,  '  the  apostles 
and  presbyters,  brethren.'  Apparently  the 
apostles  and  presbyters  describe  themselves 
as  '  brethren  '  to  give  the  letter  a  fi-aternal 
and  affectionate  character.  But  the  text  is 
probably  corrupt. 

25.  Being  assembled  with  one  accord]  rather, 
'  having  come  to  one  accord.'  28.  Observe  the 
claim  to  inspiration.  34.  This  v.  is  omitted 
as  an  interpolation  by  many  modern  editors. 
It  is  contained  in  D,  which  adds,  '  and  Judas 
went  alone.' 

35.  In  Antioch]  Here  should  be  placed, 
according  to  the  usual  view,  Peter's  visit  to 
Antioch,  mentioned  Gal2ii*.  At  first  Peter 
ate  publicly  with  the  G-entiles,  but  on  the 
arrival  of  '  certain  from  James,'  he  '  separ- 
ated himself,  fearing  them  that  were  of  the 
circumcision.'  The  rest  of  the  Jews,  and  even 
Barnabas,  '  dissembled  '  with  him.  St.  Paul 
then  publicly  rebuked  him,  and  apparently  St. 
Peter  confessed  himself  in  the  wrong.  Accord- 
ing to  the  other  view,  which  the  present  writer 
favours,  Peter's  visit  to  Antioch  took  place 
before  the  Council.  It  is  easier  to  understand 
the  refusal  to  eat  with  the'  Gentiles  before 
than  after  the  Council. 

St  Paul's  Second  Missionary  Joueney, 
49,  50  A.D.  (Chs  1536-1822) 

Having  secured  the  formal  recognition  by 


the  Twelve  of  G-entile  Christianity,  St.  Paul 
was  free  to  resume  his  missionary  labours.  He 
first  revisited  the  Churches  founded  on  the 
First  Journey,  and  then  carried  the  gospel  to 
Europe,  preaching  at  Philippi,  Thessalonica, 
Beroea,  Athens,  and  Corinth.  He  then  re- 
turned to  the  Syrian  Antioch,  and  visited 
Jerusalem. 

i53<3-i65.  The  Galatian  and  other  Churches 
revisited. 

C.  15.  36-41.  St.  Paul's  grievance  against 
Barnabas  was  that  the  latter  insisted  on  taking 
with  them  an  unsuitable  assistant  simply  because 
he  was  a  relation.  The  Church  of  Antioch  seems 
to  have  sympathised  with  St.  Paul  (see  v.  40). 
St.  Paul  was  subsequently  reconciled  with 
Barnabas  (1  Cor  9  6)  and  also  with  Mark  (2  Tim 
411  Col  4 10).  41.  Confirming  the  churches] 
see  16^,  and  cp.  14^2. 

CHAPTER  16 
St.  Paul  in  Europe 

I.  Timotheus]  was  probably  of  Lystra,  not 
Derbe.  His  mother  Eunice  was  perhaps  a 
widow,  and  she,  together  with  his  grand- 
mother Lois,  educated  the  lad  in  the  religion 
of  Israel,  though  he  was  not  circumcised  (see 
2  Tim  1 5).  The  whole  family  had  been  con- 
verted at  St.  Paul's  first  visit.  3.  See  Preface 
to  c.  15.  4,  5.  Here  we  have  evidence  that  the 
decrees  of  the  Council  were  actually  promul- 
gated in  the  Galatian  Churches,  and  that  they 
were  well  received. 

6-40.  Journey  into  Europe,  Philippi. 

6.  RV  'And  they  went  through  the  region 
of  Phrygia  and  Galatia,  having  been  forbidden 
of  the  Holy  Ghost  to  speak  the  word  in  Asia.' 
At  Lystra  (v.  6)  they  received  a  divine  inti- 
mation that  they  were  not  to  carry  out  their 
purpose  (probably  their  main  purpose  in  this 
journey)  of  preaching  in  the  Roman  province 
of  Asia.  Accordingly  they  passed  through 
that  part  of  the  ancient  Phrygia  which  be- 
longed to  the  Roman  province  of  Galatia,  and 
in  which  were  situated  Iconium  and  Antioch, 
which  they  doubtless  revisited. 

Those  who,  like  Lightfoot,  hold  that  the 
churches  to  which  the  Epistle  to  the  Galatians 
is  addressed,  were  situated  in  North  Galatia, 
understand  '  the  region  of  Phrygia  and  Galatia ' 
here  to  mean  the  district  in  N.  Galatia  once 
inhabited  by  Phrygians,  but  at  this  time  by 
Gauls.  Here  they  suppose  that  St.  Paul  was 
delayed  by  illness  (Gal4i3),  and  seized  the 
opportunity  of  preaching  and  founding  numer- 
ous Celtic  or  Gallic  churches  which  are  nowhere 
mentioned  in  Acts. 

7.  RV  '  And  when  they  were  come  over 
against  Mysia,  they  assayed  to  go  into  Bithynia, 
and  the  Spirit  of  Jesus  suffered  them  not.' 
Leaving  Antioch,  St.  Paul  journeyed  north- 
ward thi'ough  the   province  of   Asia  till   he 


839 


16.8 


THE   ACTS 


16.37 


came  to  the  borders  of  Mysia  (the  north- 
western part  of  the  province).  He  then 
attempted  to  strike  westward  into  Bithynia, 
but  was  forbidden  by  '  the  Spirit  of  Jesus.' 
This  remarkable  expression,  which  makes  the 
Holy  Spirit  the  Spirit  not  only  of  the  Father, 
but  also  of  the  Son,  is  an  evidence  that  the 
true  divinity  of  Jesus  was  firmly  held  when 
St.  Luke  wrote. 

8.  And  they  passing  by  Mysia  (i.e.  passing 
through  it  without  preaching)  came  down  to 
Troas]  Troas,  the  chief  port  of  Mysia,  was 
made  a  Roman  colony  by  Augustus,  and 
received  many  privileges,  because  of  the 
supposed  Trojan  origin  of  the  Roman  people. 
Similar  privileges  were  given  to  the  neigh- 
bouring city  of  Ilion. 

9.  The  man  of  Macedonia  has  sometimes 
been  supposed  to  be  St.  Luke,  or  even  the 
guardian  angel  of  Macedonia  (Dan  10 1-).  The 
man  was  recognised  as  Macedonian  by  his 
speech,  or  by  his  dress.  The  introduction  of 
Christianity  into  that  continent,  where  it  was 
destined  to  win  its  chief  triumphs,  is  fitly 
prepared  for  by  a  special  revelation. 

10.  The  we  indicates  that  St.  Luke  was 
now  a  member  of  the  party.  Whether  he 
joined  it  at  Troas,  or  had  accompanied  it  all 
along  is  not  clear. 

11.  Samothracia]  an  island  half-way  between 
Troas  and  Neapolis.  Neapolis]  the  port  of 
Philippi. 

12.  Philippi]  RV  'Philippi,  which  is  a  city 
of  Macedonia,  the  first  of  the  district,  a  Roman 
colony.'  At  Philippi,  founded  by  Philip,  father 
of  Alexander  the  Great,  Octavius  and  Antony 
had  defeated  the  republican  leaders,  Brutus 
and  Cassius,  and  the  city,  in  honour  of  the 
victory,  had  been  made  a  Roman  colony  with 
Latin  rights.  It  lay  on  the  great  Egnatian 
way  which  united  Italy  and  Asia,  and  was  of 
great  commercial  importance.  The  chief  city] 
lit.  '  the  first.'  Some  think  that  the  meaning 
is  that  this  was  the  first  city  reached  by  the 
Apostle  in  Macedonia,  or  in  Europe. 

13.  Where  prayer  w^as  w^ont  to  be  made] 
RV  '  where  we  supposed  there  was  a  place  of 
prayer'  (Gk.  prosenche).  Where  the  Jews 
were  too  few  to  build  a  synagogue,  they  were 
wont  to  assemble  in  open-air  places  of  prayer 
(proseuchre),  by  the  seaside,  or  on  a  river's 
bank,  for  convenience  of  purification. 

14.  Lydia]  She  came  from  Thyatira  in 
Lydia,  a  district  where  there  were  many 
dyers.  She  was  a  proselyte  to  Judaism,  and 
a  woman  of  some  wealth  and  position.  As 
she  is  not  mentioned  in  the  Epistle  to  the 
Philippians,  she  was  probably  then  dead,  or 
had  left  the  city.  Renan  has  the  strange 
fancy  that  she  was  St.  Paul's  wife.  15.  Her 
household]  the  expression  includes  servants 
and  slaves  as  well  as  children.     Other  examples 


of  the  baptism  of  households  are  16^3  jg^ 
1  Cor  116:  see  on  Mt  1913-15.  6.  To  prayer] 
rather,  '  to  the  place  of  prayer.' 

A  spirit  of  divination]  The  girl  belonged  to 
the  class  of  '  clairvoyants  '  or  '  mediums,'  and 
really  believed  herself  to  be  possessed  by  a 
spirit.  Her  recognition  of  the  divine  mission 
of  St.  Paul  indicates  a  considerable  degree  of 
spiritual  discernment.  The  expulsion  of  the 
'  spirit '  need  not  have  been  a  miracle.  The 
girl  recognised  in  St.  Paul  a  minister  of 
'  the  supreme  God,'  supreme,  therefore,  over 
the  spirit  which  possessed  her.  Hence  the 
command  to  the  spirit  to  come  forth  was  (in 
her  belief)  authoritative,  and  consequently 
effectual . 

18.  Being  grieved]  Although  the  testimony 
of  the  girl  was  true,  St.  Paul  would  not  receive 
it,  because  it  emanated,  as  he  supposed,  from 
an  evil  spirit.  Similarly  Jesus  would  not 
receive  the  testimony  of  demons  to  His  Divine 
Sonship  and  Messiahship  (Mk  1 25^  etc.). 

20.  Magistrates]  At  Philippi  there  were  two 
magistrates  (duumvirs)  corresponding  to  the 
consuls  at  Rome.  Provincial  duumvirs  often 
claimed  and  received  the  courtesy  title  of 
prcetors,  which  is  the  title  by  which  St.  Luke 
calls  them  here.  Je'ws]  Christianity  was  not 
yet  clearly  distinguished  from  Judaism. 
Judaism  was  a  lawful  religion  for  Jews,  but 
not  for  Roman  citizens.  22.  Paul  and  Silas 
probably  protested  that  they  were  Romans, 
but  in  the  tumult  their  protest  passed  un- 
heeded. 

27.  By  Roman  custom  a  gaoler  who  allowed 
a  prisoner  to  escape  suffered  the  same  penalty 
as  the  prisoner.  If  the  charge  was  a  capital 
one  he  suffered  death.  The  non-escape  of 
the  prisoners  was  due  to  terror  and  amaze- 
ment. 30.  What  must  I  do  to  be  saved  ?] 
The  gaoler,  to  have  asked  such  a  question, 
must  have  been  a  hearer  of  Paul  and  Barnabas, 
and  have  been  impressed  by  their  teaching. 
The  strange  events  of  the  night  and  the  kind- 
ness shown  him  by  Paul  now  bring  matters 
to  a  crisis.  35.  According  to  D,  the  motive 
of  St.  Paul's  release  was  alarm  at  the  earth- 
quake. The  Serjeants]  Gk.  '  the  lictors,'  offi- 
cers who  attended  the  magistrates,  carrying 
axes  and  rods,  symbols  of  the  power  to  punish. 

37.  Being  Romans]  i.e.  Roman  citizens. 
In  his  speech  against  Yerres  Cicero  says  :  '  to 
fetter  a  Roman  citizen  is  a  crime,  to  scourge 
him  a  scandal,  to  slay  him  parricide.' 

Roman  citizenship  could  be  acquired  (1)  by 
birth,  if  both  parents  were  Romans  ;  (2)  by 
grant  to  certain  cities  or  districts  ;  (3)  by  grant 
to  individuals  for  political  or  military  services, 
e.g.  long  service  in  the  army  ;  (4)  by  purchase 
(22  -S).  As  Tarsus  did  not  come  under  (2),  and 
Paul  was  born  free,  his  father  and  mother 
must  have  been  Roman  citizens.     The  chief 


840 


16.  39 


THE   ACTS 


17.  17 


privileges  of  citizenship  at  this  time  were,  (1) 
the  right  to  appeal  to  the  Emperor,  (2)  free- 
dom from  degrading  punishments,  such  as 
bonds,  scourging,  and  crucifixion. 

39.  Desired  them  to  depart]  representing 
that  in  the  excited  state  of  the  city  it  was 
impossible  to  protect  them.  40.  Comforted] 
exhorted.  And  departed]  Silas  and  Timothy 
accompanied  St.  Paul,  but  (since  the  '  we '  is 
now  di'opped)  St.  Luke  was  probably  left 
behind  to  take  charge  of  the  Philippian 
Church  (see  17 1).  He  seems  to  have  made 
Philippi  his  headquarters  for  several  years, 
rejoining  St.  Paul  at  Troas  during  the  Third 
Missionary  Journey  (20  s). 

CHAPTER   17 

Second  Missionary  Journey  (continued) 

1-15.  Thessalonica  and  Beroea. 

I.  Amphipolis]   32  m.  W.  of  Philippi. 

Apollonia]   30  m.  W.  of  Amphipolis. 

Thessalonica]  now  Saloniki,  was  the  capital 
of  the  province  of  Macedonia,  and  an  important 
commercial  centre.  St.  Paul's  plan  was  first 
to  evangelise  the  seats  of  government  and 
the  trade  centres,  knowing  that  if  Christianity 
was  once  established  in  these  places  it  would 
spread  through  the  Empire.  3.  Christ]  RV 
'the  Christ,'  i.e.  the  Messiah.  4.  Devout 
Greeks]  Not  necessarily  proselytes,  but  per- 
sons who  had  given  up  idolatry,  attended 
the  synagogue  services,  and  worshipped  the 
God  of  the  Jews.  5.  Lev/d  fellows]  lit.  'cer- 
tain evil  men  of  the  idlers  in  the  market- 
place.' Jason]  probably  identical  with  the 
Jason  of  RolG'^i,  and  therefore  a  Jew. 
His  correct  name  was  probably  Jesus  or 
Joshua.  6.  The  rulers]  The  Gk.  word  used 
here  (politarchai,  a  rare  and  peculiar  one)  is 
proved  to  be  correct  by  an  inscription  on  an 
arch,  which  also  contains  the  names  Sosipater, 
Gains,  and  Secund us.     9.  Taken  security]  The 

immediate  departure  of  Paul  and  Silas  renders     ^ ^.-^- 

it  probable  that  Jason  gave  security  that  St.  As  the  original  home  of  philosophy,  Athens 
Paul  would  leave  the  city,  and  that  the  Apostle  was  the  headquarters  of  ail  the  chief  philo- 
assented  to  this  undertaking,  and  was  thus  sophic  schools.  Among  its  sacred  spots  were 
prevented  from  revisiting  the  Thessalonians  :  the  Academy  of  Plato,  the  Lyceum  of  Ari- 
see  lTh2i8.  stotle,  the  Porch  of  Zeno,  and  the  Garden  of 

The  Epistles  to  the  Thessalonians,  who  are  Epicurus.  The  only  two  philosophies,  how- 
represented  as  mainly  a  Gentile  Church  (1  Th  ever,  which  at  this  time  exercised  an  important 
19  2 1*),  imply  a  much  longer  residence  at  influence  upon  politics  and  social  life,  were 
Thessalonica  than  three  weeks.     V.  2,  there-      "     "  ■  -     -    - 

fore,  must  be  understood  to  mean  that  he 
worked  for  three  weeks  among  the  Jews,  and 
afterwards  turned  to  the  Gentiles,  among  whom 
he  laboured  for  three  or  four  months. 

10.  Berea  (Beroea)]  a  Macedonian  town  of 
some  importance,  50  m.  SW.  of  Thessalonica. 
To  this  '  out  of  the  way '  place  (Cicero)  St. 
Paul  retreated,  probably  for  rest  and  quiet. 

14.  As  it  were  to  the  sea]  i.e.  they  pretended 
to  go  to  the  sea  (to  elude  pursuit),  and  then 


turned  off  and  went  by  land  to  Athens.  Others 
translate  simply  '  to  the  sea,'  and  suppose  that 
St.  Paul  embarked  at  Dium  and  went  by  sea 
to  Athens.  15.  Unto  Athens]  D  adds  :  '  But 
he  passed  by  (i.e.  did  not  preach  in)  Thessaly, 
for  he  was  prevented  from  preaching  the 
word  to  them.' 

It  appears  from  lTh3i  that  Timothy  and 
Silas  did  actually  join  St.  Paul  at  Athens  ac- 
cording to  his  instructions,  but  the  Apostle 
being  filled  with  anxiety  about  the  state  of  the 
Macedonian  Churches  which  he  had  just 
founded,  sent  them  back  again  to  confirm  them, 
and  to  bring  him  accurate  tidings  concerning 
them.  Timothy  was  sent  to  Thessalonica, 
Silas  (apparently)  to  Philippi,  so  that  St. 
Paul  was  left  alone  in  Athens.  On  returning 
from  their  mission,  Timothy  and  Silas  found 
that  St.  Paul  had  gone  on  to  Corinth,  and 
there  they  rejoined  him  (18  5). 

16-34.  Athens. 

After  leaving  Beroea,  St.  Paul  entered  the 
Roman  province  of  Achaia,  which  was  at  this 
time  a  senator ian  province,  governed  by  a 
proconsul,  and  of  which  the  capital  was  Corinth. 
He  first  visited  Athens.  Athens,  though 
fallen  from  its  former  glory,  was  still  the 
artistic  and  philosophic,  and,  in  many  ways, 
the  religious,  capital  of  the  world.  The  city 
was  full  of  temples  and  altars,  and  the  people 
so  devoted  to  religious  ceremonies  and  mys- 
teries that  they  merited  the  title  (whether  in 
a  good  or  bad  sense)  of  '  superstitious ' 
(v.  22).  Athens,  on  account  of  its  illustrious 
history,  was  held  in  honour  by  the  Romans. 
It  was  allowed  to  retain  its  ancient  institutions, 
but  the  democracy  had  long  lost  all  real 
power,  and  the  affairs  of  the  city  were  ad- 
ministered by  the  aristocratic  court  of  the 
Areopagus  (v.  19).  Athens  was  famed  for  its 
university,  the  most  renowned  in  the  world,  at 
which  a  large  number  of  students  from  all 
parts  of  the  empire  were  always  in  residence. 


Stoicism  and  Epicm-eanism,  which,  for  this 
reason,  are  singled  out  by  St.  Luke  for  especial 
mention. 

16.  Wholly  given  to  idolatry]  Xenophon 
calls  Athens  '  one  altar,  one  sacrifice  and  offer- 
ing to  the  gods.'  St.  Paul,  as  a  Jew,  would 
have  no  sympathy  with  the  artistic  beauty  of 
the  Athenian  statues  and  temples,  but  only 
horror  at  the  superstition  which  they  repre- 
sented. 

17.  In  the  market  daily]  So  Socrates  used  to 


841 


17.  18 


THE   ACTS 


17.26 


sit  every  day  and  all  day  in  the  market-place  of 
Athens,  discussing  philosophy  with  all  comers. 
The  market-place,  or  agora,  of  Athens  aflEorded 
a  glorious  arcliitectural  spectacle.  '  Here  the 
eye  fell  on  portico  after  portico,  painted  by  the 
brush  of  famous  artists,  and  adorned  with  the 
noblest  statues.  But  St.  Paul  would  not  have 
admired  these  so  much  as  the  tower  and  water- 
clock  of  Andronicus,  telling  out  to  him  the 
hours  of  his  solitary  waiting.  This  still 
stands  to-day.  The  Agora  was  dominated  on 
its  S.  side  by  the  abrupt  hill  of  Mars,  and  the 
still  more  impressive  heights  of  the  Acropolis. 
In  the  Stoa  Poecile  he  met  with  the' successors 
of  Zeno,  the  Stoics  with  whom,  as  with  the 
Epicureans,  he,  like  a  second  Socrates,  disputed 
daily  '  (F.  C.  Conybeare). 

1 8.   Epicureans   and   Stoics.    At  this   time 
Stoicism  was  the  philosophy  of  the   majority 
of  serious-minded  people,  Epicureanism  that  of 
the  frivolous  and  irreligious.     The  Stoics,  so 
called  from  the  Porch  (Stoa  Poecile)  at  Athens, 
in  which  their  founder,  Zeno  of  Citium,  lec- 
tured (about  278    B.C.),  had    many  points  of 
contact  with  Judaism,  especially  with  Phari- 
saism.     Josephus   speaks   of    the   tenets    of 
the  Stoics  and  of  the  Pharisees  as  being  very 
similar.     The  spirit  of    both   was   somewhat 
narrow  and  austere.     Both  rejected  compro- 
mise, believing  that  a  man  should  suffer  per- 
secution and  even  death  rather  than  depart  in 
the  least  degree  from  the  path  of  piety  and 
virtue.     Both  were  devoted  to  Law,  the  Pha- 
risees to  the  Law  of  Moses,  the  Stoics  to  the 
Law  of  Nature,  which  they  regarded    as  an 
actual  code  imposed  on  mankind  by  the  Creator. 
The  Stoics  were  strong  fatalists,  denying  the 
freedom    of    the    will  ;    the    Pharisees    were 
strong    predestinarians.      Both    believed    in 
Providence,  or  the  rational  ordering  of   the 
world    by    an    intelligent    being,    a   doctrine 
denied  by    the    Epicureans.      The    Pharisees 
were  monotheists ;  the  Stoics  approximated  to 
monotheism.      They   believed    in    a    Divme 
Reason,  or    Logos,  pervading  all   things  and 
ordering  all  things,  though  (being  Pantheists) 
they  regarded  it  as  the  soul  of  the  world,  rather 
than  as  a  distinct  and  transcendent  personal 
Being.     They  also  believed  in  a  future   life 
for  man,   though   not  in   actual   immortality. 
St.  Paul,  therefore,  decidedly  sympathised  with 
the  Stoics  as  against  the   Epicureans,  whose 
doctrine  that  the  end  of  life  is  pleasure,  was,  of 
course,  highly  distasteful  to  him.   Epicureanism 
was  reprobated  both  by  Jews  and  by  serious 
pagans.     Josephus  says  :  '  The  Epicureans  cast 
providence  out  of  life,  and  deny  that  God  takes 
care  of  human  affairs,  and  hold  that  the  uni- 
verse is  not  directed  with  a  view  to  the  con- 
tinuance of    the  whole  by   the    blessed   and 
incorruptible  Being,  but  that  it  is  carried  along 
automatically  and  heedlessly.' 

842 


1 8.  Babbler]  lit.  'a  picker  up  of  seeds' 
(like  a  bird)  ;  hence  a  shallow  talker  who  picks 
up  scraps  of  information,  and  retails  them  at 
secondhand.  And  the  resurrection]  better, 
'and  Anastasis.'  The  Athenians,  either  in 
jest  or  in  earnest,  seem  to  have  understood 
Anastasis  (the  Resurrection)  to  be  a  female 
deity,  the  wife  of  Jesus. 

19.  And  they  took  him,  etc.]  Some  translate, 
'  And  they  arrested  him  and  brought  him  before 
the  court  of  the  Areopagus.'  But  there  is  no 
indication  in  St.  Paul's  speech  that  he  was  on 
his  trial,  or  that  any  judgment  was  passed  upon 
him  (v.  32).  We  prefer,  therefore,  the  render- 
ing, 'And  they  took  him  by  the  hand,  and 
brought  him  to  the  Hill  of  Ares  '  (Mars'  Hill). 
The  Hill  of  Ares,  or  Areopagus,  is  an  eminence 
situated  nearly  due  "W.  of  the  Acropolis. 
Here,  from  early  times,  the  Court  of  the 
Areopagus  met  in  the  open  air.  The  court 
was  not  sitting,  so  that  the  place  was  available 
for  a  quiet  lecture  and  discussion. 

22-32,  Paul's  speech.  It  is  discreet  and  to 
the  point.  It  deals  not  with  the  OT.,  with 
which  his  hearers  were  unacquainted,  but  with 
the  truths  of  natural  religion,  many  of  which 
were  understood  (though  only  partially)  by 
the  Athenian  philosophers  (cp.  the  speech  at 
Lystra,  Uisf.). 

22.  Too  superstitious]  rather,  'more  re- 
ligious' (than  other  men).  Both  senses  are 
possible,  but  the  tactful  apostle  would  be  more 
likely  to  begin  his  speech  with  a  compliment 
than  with  a  reproach.  23.  Your  devotions] 
RV  '  the  objects  of  your  worship.' 

TO  THE  UNKNOWN  GOD]  RV'Toan 
UNKNOWN  God.'  Several  ancient  writers  men- 
tion such  altars.  Pausanias  speaks  of  '  altars  of 
known  (lit.  '  named ')  and  unknown  gods  and 
heroes.'  Philostratus  says,  '  It  is  more  prudent 
to  speak  well  of  all  gods,  especially  at  Athens, 
where  altars  are  erected  even  to  unknown  gods.' 
At  Athens  during  a  plague  Epimenides  let  loose 
at  the  Areopagus  black  and  white  sheep,  and 
commanded  the  Athenians  to  sacrifice  '  to  the 
proper  god,'  wherever  the  sheep  lay  down. 
Often  '  the  proper  god '  could  not  be  clearly 
ascertained,  and  so  an  altar  was  raised  to  an 
unknown  god.  The  inscription  (as  St.  Paul 
probably  knew)  had  a  purely  pagan  meaning  ; 
but  the  phrase  was  a  fine  one  ;  it  was  capable 
of  a  higher  sense,  and  in  this  higher  sense 
St.  Paul  made  it  the  text  of  his  sermon. 

24.  Creation  was  altogether  denied  by  the 
Epicureans,  who  regarded  the  atoms  of  matter 
as  eternal  ;  and  only  imperfectly  recognised 
by  the  Stoics,  who  were  pantheists,  and  did  not 
regard  the  Divine  Person  which  shaped  the 
world  as  distinct  from  it.  The  doctrine  of 
creation,  as  preached  by  St.  Paul,  was  con- 
sequently a  strange  one  at  Athens. 

26.  The  Apostle  rebukes  the  narrow  pride 


i 
I 


17.  28 


THE   ACTS 


18.  12 


of  the  Greeks,  who  divided  mankind  into  Greeks 
and  barbarians,  the  latter  being  of  no  account. 
The  Stoics,  who  believed  in  the  spiritual  equality 
of  all  men,  would  have  agreed  with  St.  Paul 
in  this. 

28.  A  quotation  from  the  '  Phsenomena '  of 
Aratus,  a  Cilician  poet.  Almost  the  same 
words  occur  in  the  '  Hymn  to  Zeus '  of  Cle- 
anthes.  Both  these  poets  were  Stoics.  St. 
Paul  quotes  the  Gk.  poets  again,  1  Cor  1533  and 
Tit  1 12  ;  but  it  is  not  safe  to  assume  that  he 
had  any  wide  acquaintance  with  Greek  classical 
literature.  His  Pharisaic  training  would  have 
made  him  indisposed  to  devote  serious  study 
to  profane  literature. 

29.  The  argument  probably  is  :  Since  we 
are  the  offspring  of  God,  in  that  our  souls  are 
immaterial  and  immortal,  we  ought  to  regard 
the  author  of  our  souls  as  an  immaterial  and 
immortal  spirit,  and  not  like  silver  or  gold  or 
any  material  object.  The  Stoics  would  have 
sympathised  with  this  sentiment.  Seneca  says, 
'  Thou  shalt  not  form  God  of  silver  and  gold, 
a  true  likeness  of  Him  cannot  be  moulded  of 
this  material.'  . .  '  God  is  near  thee,  He  is  with 
thee,  He  is  within.' 

30.  Times  of  this  ignorance]  cp.  14 1^^.  Re- 
pent] i.e.  turn  from  idolatry.  Idolatry  was 
pardonable  in  the  times  of  ignorance,  but  now 
that  the  True  Light  has  appeared,  it  is  a  heinous 
sin.  31.  St.  Paul  was  accustomed,  in  preach- 
ing to  the  heathen,  to  lead  up  to  the  idea  of  a 
judgment  to  come  (24  ^s).  Hath  given  assurance] 
viz.  that  He  will  be  the  Judge.  The  Resur- 
rection of  Jesus  is  the  evidence  that  He  will 
be  the  future  Judge  of  the  world.  34.  Dio- 
nysius  the  Areopagite]  i.e.  a  member  of  the 
Court  of  Areopagus.  As  all  members  of  the 
Areopagus  had  passed  through  the  office  of 
Archon,  Dionysius  must  have  been  of  high 
social  position.  Tradition  makes  him  bishop 
of  Athens,  and  a  martyr.  The  work  '  On 
the  heavenly  hierarchy  '  attributed  to  him  is 
spurious. 

According  to  this  passage  Dionysius  and 
Damaris  were  the  first  converts  made  in  Achaia 
(Greece),  but,  according  to  lCorl6i5,i7^  a 
Corinthian  named  Stephanas,  who  must  have 
been  converted  later.  The  explanation  pro- 
bably is  that  St.  Paul  regards  Athens  as  a  free 
and  independent  city,  not  as  part  of  the  Roman 
province  of  Achaia. 

CHAPTER  18 
Second  Missionary  Journey  (concluded) 
1-18.  St.  Paul  at  Corinth.  Corinth  was  the 
capital  of  the  Roman  province  of  Achaia.  The 
ancient  town  had  been  entirely  destroyed  in 
146  B.C.  by  the  Roman  general  Mununius,  but 
it  had  been  refounded  as  a  Roman  colony  in 
46  B.C.  by  Julius  Caesar.  Situated  on  the 
Corinthian  isthmus,  it  had  two  ports,  Cenchreas 


on  the  ^gean,  and  Lechseum  on  the  Gulf  of 
Lepanto.  The  traffic  between  Italy  and  Asia 
chiefly  passed  through  Corinth,  which  rapidly 
became  a  populous  and  wealthy  trading  centre. 
The  morals  of  the  Corinthians,  who  were  de- 
voted to  pleasure  and  the  worship  of  Venus 
(Aphrodite),  were  such  as  to  outrage  even 
pagan  sentiment.  Allusions  to  the  prevailing 
sensuality  of  the  city,  which  was  encouraged 
by  its  religion,  are  to  be  found  in  the  Epistles 
to  the  Corinthians.  Here  Paul  stayed  a  year 
and  six  months,  but  St.  Luke  (for  whatever 
reason)  gives  us  few  particulars  of  his  work. 
From  Corinth  St.  Paul  indited  his  two  Epistles 
to  the  Thessalonians. 

2.  Aquila .  .  Priscilla]  As  Aquila  and  Pris- 
cilla  (Prisca)  are  not  said  to  have  been  con- 
verted by  Paul,  they  were  probably  already 
Christians.  The  edict  of  the  emperor  Claudius 
(about  52  A.D.)  which  expelled  the  Jews  from 
Rome,  was  caused  by  tumults  which  arose  in 
the  Jewish  quarter,  when  the  faith  of  Christ 
was  preached  there.  This  at  least  is  the  pro- 
bable inference  to  be  drawn  from  the  words  of 
Suetonius,  '  He  expelled  the  Jews  from  Rome, 
because  they  were  in  a  state  of  continual 
tumult  at  the  instigation  of  one  Chrestus' 
(Chrestus  is  probably  '  Christus,'  or  Christ). 
Aquila  and  Priscilla  were  St.  Paul's  hosts  at 
Corinth.  Deporting  from  Corinth  with  St. 
Paul  (v.  18),  they  remained  at  Ephesus,  where 
they  were  instrumental  in  converting  Apollos 
(v.  26).  The  church  at  Ephesus  met  in  their 
house  (1  Cor  16 19).  They  then  revisited  Rome, 
perhaps  to  prepare  for  the  Apostle's  visit, 
and  there  also  their  house  was  the  Church's 
meeting-place  (Ro  163-5).  After  St.  Paul's 
trial  they  returned  to  Ephesus  (2Tim4i9), 
which  is  our  last  notice  of  them.  Pontus]  with 
Bithynia  formed  a  Roman  province  occupying 
the  S.  coast  of  the  Euxine  (Black  Sea). 

3.  Tentmakers]  All  Jews,  however  wealthy, 
were  taught  a  trade. 

5.  Silas  and  Timotheus]  see  1715.  They 
brought  money  with  them,  so  that  Paul  no 
longer  worked  with  his  hands,  but  gave  him- 
self entirely  to  preaching  (2  Cor  11  ^  Phil  415). 

Was  pressed  in  the  spirit]  RV  '  was  con- 
strained by  the  word,'  i.e.  devoted  himself 
continually  to  preaching.  6.  Blasphemed] 
They  said  'Jesus  is  anathema'  (1  Cor  123). 

7.  Justus]  RV  '  Titus  Justus.'  Probably  a 
Roman  colonist  of  the  Roman  colony  Corinth. 

8.  Crispus]  St.  Paul  baptised  this  import- 
ant convert  with  his  own  hands,  as  also 
Gaius,  and  the  household  of  Stephanas  (1  Cor 
1 15).  From  1  Cor  16 15>  1^  we  learn  that  Stepha- 
nas was  the  first  convert  made  in  Achaia. 

12.  Gallic]  the  brother  of  Nero's  tutor 
Seneca,  and  uncle  of  the  poet  Lucan,  was 
a  well-educated,  amiable,  and  accomplished 
man,  who,  having  filled  the  office  of  consul, 


843 


18.  17 


THE  ACTS 


19.  2 


was  sent  out  as  proconsul  of  Achaia  about 
52  A.D. 

17.  The  Greeks  hated  and  despised  the  Jews, 
and  seeing  that  their  contempt  was  shared  by 
Gallio,  they  ventured  to  insult  the  Jews  in 
his  presence  by  assaulting  Sosthenes.  Gallio 
cared,  etc.]  This  may  either  mean  that  Gallio 
pretended  not  to  see  the  assault  on  Sosthenes, 
or  else  that  he  cared  nothing  about  the  re- 
ligious questions  involved. 

18.  A  vow]  After  delivery  from  danger  or 
recovery  from  sickness,  the  Jews  were  ac- 
customed to  take  upon  themselves  a  modified 
form  of  the  Nazirite  vow  (see  Nu6).  As  the 
special  consecration  of  this  state  forbade  in- 
tercourse with  Gentiles,  St.  Paul  deferred  it 
till  his  work  at  Corinth  was  finished.  The 
essential  ceremony  was  the  presentation  of  the 
hair  grown  during  the  period  of  separation  at 
the  altar  at  Jerusalem  together  with  certain 
specified  sacrifices  ;  hence  the  head  was  shaved 
both  at  the  beginning  and  at  the  end  of  the 
period  of  separation.  See  further  2 1  26.  It  is 
not  necessary  to  suppose  that  St.  Paul  took 
this  vow  to  conciliate  the  Jews  or  the  Jewish 
Christians.  He  simply  adopted  the  usual 
Jewish  way  of  thanking  God  for  a  great 
deliverance 

Many  additional  particulars  about  the  Cor- 
inthian ministry  of  St.  Paul  can  be  learnt  from 
1  and  2  Cor.  See  the  commentary  on  those 
Epistles. 

19-22.  Visit  to  Jerusalem.  Paul  probably 
sailed  in  a  ship  specially  chartered  to  convey 
Jews  to  Palestine  to  keep  the  Passover. 

19.  Ephesus]  The  prohibition  to  preach  the 
word  in  Asia  (16 '5)  had  now  apparently  been 
removed.  Aquila  and  Priscilla  were  left  in 
Ephesus  to  prepare  the  way  for  the  great 
missionary  effort  that  he  desired  to  make  in 
this  important  centre. 

21.  This  feast]  i.e.  Pentecost  (or  possibly 
Passover)  52  a.d.  Clearly  St.  Paul  had  vowed 
to  make  his  Nazirite  offering  at  this  feast. 
The  RV  omits  the  words  referring  to  the 
feast  altogether,  but  they  are  strongly  attested. 

22.  And  gone  up]  viz.  to  Jerusalem.  We 
may  suppose  that  St.  Paul  spent  some  time 
at  Jerusalem,  before  going  to  Antioch. 

Third  Missionary  Journey,  Aug.  52  a.d. 
to  Pentecost  56  A.D.  (Chs.  18  23-2 116) 

23.  Visit  to  Galatia.  St.  Paul  revisits  An- 
tioch in  Syria  and  the  Churches  of  Galatia 
and  Phrygia,  founded  in  the  First  Missionary 
Journey  (i.e.  Antioch  in  Pisidia,  Iconium, 
Lystra,  Derbe). 

24-28.  ApoUos  at  Ephesus. 

24.  Apollos]  The  name  is  a  contraction 
of  Apollonius.  He  is  mentioned  again  19  ^ 
lCorli2  34f.  46  1012  Tit3i3.  He  had  been 
instructed  and  baptised  by  the  disciples  of  the 


Baptist,  and  therefore  regarded  Jesus  as  the 
Messiah  (Mk  1 7,  etc.),  perhaps  even  as  '  the  Son 
of  God,'  and  '  the  Lamb  of  God  that  taketh 
away  the  sin  of  the  world  '  ( Jn  1  29>  34)_  Hjg 
knowledge  was  accurate  as  far  as  it  went,  and 
his  faith  was  sincere.  That  he  received  Chris- 
tian baptism  (probably  from  Aquila)  is  a  cer- 
tain inference  from  v  25  compared  with  19 1"''^- 

Eloquent]  RY  '  learned.'  Both  meanings 
may  be  included.  Probably  Apollos  was  ac- 
quainted with  the  philosophy  of  the  Alexan- 
drian Jew  Philo,  and  his  speculations  about 
the  Divine  Logos  ('  Reason '  or  '  Word  '). 

26.  The  synagogue]  We  infer  that  Priscilla 
and  Aquila,  though  Christians,  still  attended 
the  synagogue.  27.  Wrote  .  .  the  disciples] 
Christians  travelling  received  '  letters  of  com- 
mendation '  to  other  Christian  Churches,  which 
secured  them  hospitality  and  admission  to 
communion  (cp.  2  Cor  3 1).  Helped  them  much] 
RM  '  helped  much  through  grace  them  which 
had  believed.'  Apollos  was  so  popular  at 
Corinth,  that  his  admirers  soon  formed  a 
faction  or  party  in  the  Church  (lCorli2  34)_ 

28.  Convinced]   RV  '  confuted.' 

CHAPTER  19 

Ephesus 
1-4 1.  Paul  at  Ephesus.  Opposition  of  the 
manufacturers  of  idols.  St.  Paul,  leaving 
Antioch  in  S.  Galatia  (see  1823),  approached 
Ephesus  not  by  the  usual  level  route  leading 
through  ColossaB  and  Laodicea  (see  Col2i), 
but  through  the  northern  and  more  mountain- 
ous route  leading  down  the  Cayster  valley 
(see  191,  'the  upper  coasts,'  RV  'the  upper 
country  ').  He  stayed  at  Ephesus  over  two 
years  and  three  months,  see  vv.  8,  10,  22  (in 
2031  the  Apostle  calls  it  three  years),  and 
making  the  city  his  centre,  evangelised  the 
whole  of  the  province  of  Asia.  According 
to  D  he  did  not  originally  intend  to  preach 
in  Ephesus,  but  the  Holy  Spirit  constrained 
him  (contrast  166).  yi^Q  hear  little  here  of 
opposition  from  the  Jews.  The  craftsmen 
and  the  uneducated  classes  were  hostile,  but 
the  magistrates  of  the  city  (v.  35)  and  of 
the  province  (v,  31)  were  not  mifriendly. 

1.  Ephesus]  the  capital  of  the  Roman 
province  of  Asia,  and  the  most  important  sea- 
port of  Asia  Minor,  was  especially  renowned 
for  its  great  temple  of  Diana  (Artemis),  which 
was  one  of  the  wonders  of  the  world.  St. 
Paul  chose  it  for  a  prolonged  stay  because 
(like  Corinth)  it  was  on  the  main  line  of  com- 
munication between  E.  and  W.,  and  also 
because  it  was  a  great  centre  of  religious 
pilgrimage:  cp.  v.  27. 

Certain  disciples]  They  must  have  arrived 
since  Apollos's  departure,  otherwise  Apollos 
would  have  instructed  them  more  perfectly. 

2.  Have  ye   received]  RV  '  did  ye  receive 


844: 


19.  3 


THE   ACTS 


19.  35 


the  Holy  G-host  when  ye  believed  ? '  Of 
course  they  had  heard  of  the  Holy  Grhost,  but 
St.  Paul  means,  had  they  experienced  that  new 
power  of  holiness,  that  peace  and  love  and  joy 
which  the  ascended  Messiah  had  first  given  at 
Pentecost,  and  was  still  ready  to  bestow  on 
all  believers.  Whether  there  be,  etc.]  E.V 
'whether  the  Holy  Ghost  was  given.' 

3.  Unto  (RV  '  into ')  -what  then  were  ye 
baptized  ?]  St.  Paul  assumes  that  if  these 
men  had  received  Christian  baptism  they 
must  have  heard  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  It  is 
probable,  therefore,  that  the  Trinitarian  for- 
mula was  used  (see  Mt  28 1^).  4.  John's  bap- 
tism was  only  preparatory,  and  did  not  confer 
the  special  gift  of  the  Spirit.  6.  Laid  his 
hands]  As  in  c.  8,  the  Holy  Spirit  was  con- 
ferred, not  at  the  actual  immersion,  but  at  the 
laying  on  of  hands  which  followed.  Spake 
with  tongues]  see  on  2**.  And  prophesied] 
cp.  lO-i'5.  Inspired  and  fervent  utterances  of 
praise  are  meant. 

9.  That  way]  i.e.  Christianity,  see  on  9  2. 

The  school]  Tyrannus  was  probably  a  Gen- 
tile, who  made  his  living  by  keeping  a  '  school ' 
of  philosophy.  Paul  no  doubt  appeared  to 
the  Ephesians  as  one  of  those  wandering 
'  sophists  '  or  professors  of  philosophy,  who 
were  so  numerous  under  the  early  Empire.  D 
adds  that  St.  Paul  disputed  '  from  the  fifth 
hour  to  the  tenth,'  a  probably  authentic 
detail. 

10.  To  this  period  is  to  be  referred  the 
foundation  of  the  Seven  Churches  of  Asia, 
Ephesus,  Smyrna,  Pergamum,  Tyatira,  Sardis, 
Philadelphia,  Laodicea  (Rev  1  n),  and  of  Co- 
lossae,  Hierapolis,  Troas. 

11.  12.  God  condescended  to  work  miracles 
through  these  handkerchiefs,  having  regard  to 
the  genuine  faith  of  those  who  thus  used  them, 
and  not  to  their  superstition.  It  is  not  said 
that  St.  Paul  approved  the  practice. 

13.  The  exorcism  of  these  vagabond  Jews 
was  simply  the  uttering  of  magical  formulas. 
They  thought  that  the  mere  words  '  in  the 
name  of  Jesus '  would  produce  the  required 
effect.  15,  16.  There  are  two  historical  diffi- 
culties in  this  narrative  :  (1)  It  seems  strange 
that  sons  of  so  distinguished  a  person  as  a 
Jewish  chief  priest  should  be  strolling  exor- 
cists. The  reading  of  D,  '  Sceva,  a  [heathen?] 
priest,'  removes  this  difficulty.  (2)  Seven  sons 
are  mentioned  in  v.  14,  and  only  two  in  v.  16 
('  mastered  both  of  them,'  RV).  It  may  be 
supposed  that  only  two  took  part  in  this  par- 
ticular incident. 

18,  19.  The  incident  led  to  a  reformation 
within  the  Church.  Many  converts  had  con- 
tinued their  magical  practices  after  their  bap- 
tism. They  now  came  forward  and  publicly 
renounced  them,  proving  their  sincerity  by 
burning  their  books  of  spells.     Fifty  thousand 


845 


pieces  of  silver]  50,000  c?mcAmoB  =  £  1,700,  or, 
in  actual  purchasing  power,  much  more. 

21.  Rome]  There  is  evidence  that  Paul 
planned  the  evangelisation  of  the  Western 
Empire  many  years  before  he  actually  under- 
took it :  cp.  Ro  1 10. 13  1 5  •^2-24.  22.  Timothy  and 
Erastus  (not  the  Erastus  of  RolG^s)  were 
sent,  partly  to  remind  the  Churches  of  Europe 
of  the  teaching  and  example  of  St.  Paul,  and 
partly  to  collect  money  for  the  poor  saints  at 
Jerusalem  (2417  ICorlGi.iO).  Shortly  after 
this  1  Corinthians  was  written. 

23  f.  St.  Luke  mentions  no  persecutions  or 
trials  until  the  close  of  the  Ephesian  ministry, 
yet  we  know  that  though  '  a  great  door  and 
effectual '  was  opened  to  the  Apostle,  yet  there 
were  '  many  adversaries '  (1  CorlG^);  that  he 
was  in  daily  danger  of  death  (IS^o.si);  that 
Prisca  and  Aquila  to  save  his  life  '  laid  down 
their  own  necks '  (Ro  1 6  3)  ;  and  that  he  '  fought 
with  beasts,'  i.e.  savage  enemies  (1  Cor  1532). 

23.  That  way]  i.e.  Christianity  (9^,  etc.). 

24.  Shrines]  Many  small  terra-cotta  and 
marble  shrines  of  Artemis,  containing  a  figure 
of  the  goddess,  have  been  found  near  Ephesus. 
They  were  either  dedicated  in  the  Temple,  or 
taken  home  by  devout  worshippers  as  memo- 
rials of  their  pilgrimage. 

Diana]  Really  a  native  Asiatic  deity,  a  per- 
sonification of  the  reproductive  and  nutritive 
powers  of  nature.  From  certain  quite  super- 
ficial resemblances  the  Greeks  identified  her 
with  their  own  Artemis,  but  her  worship  always 
remained  Asian  in  type.  The  Temple  had 
been  burnt  down  356  B.C.,  and  rebuilt  on  a 
scale  of  sumptuous  magnificence.  26.  All 
Asia]  The  Temple  had  been  built  by  contri- 
butions from  the  whole  of  Asia. 

28.  Were  full  of  wrath  ]  D  adds,  and  '  run- 
ning into  the  street '  cried  out,  etc.  Great  is 
Diana]  D  has,  '  Great  Diana  of  the  Ephe- 
sians ! '  an  invocation  of  the  goddess.  This 
reading  may  be  correct.  29.  The  theatre] 
would  hold  over  24,000  people.  31.  The  chief 
of  Asia]  Gk.  the  '  Asiarchs.'  They  were  offi- 
cials, not  of  the  city  of  Ephesus,  but  of  the 
province  of  Asia,  and  were  specially  connected 
with  the  worship  of  the  Roman  emperor. 

33.  Since  Alexander  was  a  Jew,  it  seems 
probable  that  the  Jews  put  him  forward  to 
explain  to  the  angry  mob  that  they  had  no 
sympathy  whatever  with  St.  Paul's  proceed- 
ings. The  Jews'  contempt  for  idols  was  well 
known,  and  therefore  there  was  imminent 
danger  that  they  would  be  involved  in  a  mas- 
sacre directed  against  enemies  of  idolatry. 

And  they  drew  Alexander,  etc.]  or,  '  and 
some  of  the  multitude  instructed  Alexander.' 
The  reading  is  doubtful  and  the  sense  obscure. 

35.  The  townclerk]  This  important  official 
drafted  the  decrees  of  the  senate  and  people, 
and  sealed  them  when  they  were  passed.     He 


19.  37 


THE   ACTS 


20.  28 


presided  at  the  lawful  assemblies  of  the 
people. 

A  worshipper]  RV  '  temple-keeper,'  Gk. 
neohoros^  lit.  'temple-sweeper.'  A  second-cent, 
inscription  speaks  of  Ephesus  as  '  doubly 
temple-keeper  of  the  Emperors,  and  temple- 
keeper  of  Artemis.'  From  Jupiter]  or,  '  from 
heaven.'  The  '  image  '  (the  word  is  not  ex- 
pressed in  the  Gk.)  was  probably  not  an  idol, 
but  a  meteoric  stone,  in  which  the  goddess 
was  supposed  to  dwell. 

37.  Blasphemers]  It  is  clear  that  St.  Paul 
had  expressed  his  views  with  gentleness  and 
moderation.  38.  The  law,  etc.]  rather,  '  the 
courts  are  open,'  or,  '  court  days  are  kept.' 

Deputies]  rather,  '  proconsuls,'  the  correct 
title  of  the  Roman  governor  in  a  senatorial 
province  like  Asia.  There  was,  of  course, 
only  one  proconsul  in  Asia.  The  plural  is 
colloquial,  '  there  are  such  things  as  law  courts 
and  proconsuls.'     Implead]  RV  '  accuse.' 

CHAPTER  20 
Third  Missionary  Journey  (continued) 
1-6.  Paul  in  Macedonia  and  Greece.  St. 
Paul  waited  at  Ephesus  until  the  return  of 
Timothy  and  Erastus,  and  left  Ephesus  shortly 
after  Pentecost,  55  A.D.  (1  Cor  168-12).  We 
learn  from  Ro  1 5  ^^  that  he  spent  some  time  in 
Macedonia,  and  extended  his  missionary  labours 
(which  were  marked  by  signal  miracles)  as  far 
as  Illyricum.  From  Macedonia  he  wrote  the 
second  Corinthian  Epistle,  and  (according  to  a 
widely  held  opinion)  the  Epistle  to  the  Gala- 
tians.  In  Corinth  he  spent  the  three  winter 
months  of  55,  56  a.d.,  and  there  he  wrote  the 
Epistle  to  the  Romans. 

3.  The  plot  was  to  kill  Paul  on  board  the 
Jewish  pilgrim  ship  in  which  he  had  taken  his 
passage. 

4,  5.  The  men  mentioned  here  were  dele- 
gates bearing  the  contributions  of  St.  Paul's 
Gentile  churches  to  the  afflicted  mother  church 
of  Jerusalem.  Gaius]  to  be  distinguished  from 
Gains  the  Macedonian  of  ID-^*,  and  the  Gaius 
of  3  Jn.  He  was  a  neighbour,  and,  perhaps,  a 
friend  of  Timothy,  and  had  probably  been 
converted,  like  Timothy,  during  St.  Paul's  first 
missionary  journey.  Tychicus]  He  was  with 
St.  Paul  at  Rome  during  his  first  imprison- 
ment, and  was  the  bearer  of  Ephesians  (Eph 
621,22)  and  Colossians  (Col  4  7, 8).  He  is  men- 
tioned again  2  Tim  4 12  Tit  3 12.  Trophimus] 
a  Gentile  convert  of  Ephesus,  whom  St.  Paul 
was  accused  of  introducing  into  the  Temple  at 
Jerusalem  (2128f.).  He  is  mentioned  again 
2  Tim  4 12.  These]  i.e.  probably  Tychicus  and 
Trophimus  only,  not  the  whole  party. 

6.  We]  St.  Paul  found  St.  Luke  at  Philippi, 
where  he  had  left  him  in  charge  of  the  Chm-ch 
(c.  16),  and,  after  celebrating  the  Passover  with 
the  local  Christians,  took  him  with  him  to  Troas. 


7-12.  Troas. 

7.  The  first  clear  reference  to  the  keeping 
of  the  Lord's  Day,  with  which  may  be  com- 
pared 1  Cor  IG  2.  The  expression  '  Lord's  Day ' 
first  occurs  Rev  1 10.  The  disciples]  RV  'we,' 
indicating  the  presence  of  St.  Luke.  To  break 
bread]  i.e.  to  celebrate  the  Lord's  Supper. 
This  was  now  clearly  the  stated  Christian  ser- 
vice on  the  Lord's  Day.  As  the  Jewish  days, 
began  at  sunset,  probably  the  Christians  as- 
sembled on  Saturday  evening,  as  we  should 
call  it :  see  further  on  2  46, 47. 

10.  His  life  is  in  him]  It  has  been  argued 
both  here  and  at  Mt924  that  the  death  was 
only  apparent  ;  but  St.  Luke,  who  was  a 
medical  man,  and  was  present,  says  expressly 
that  Eutychus  was  dead.  We  have  here, 
therefore,  probably  a  miracle  of  resiu-rection. 

11.  Broken  bread]  RV  'broken  the  bread,' 
viz.  of  the  Eucharist.  And  eaten]  probably 
of  the  agape,  which  here  apparently  followed 
the  Communion  :  see  2*6, 47_ 

13.  Assos]  A  Greek  (^olic)  colony  on  the 
S.  coast  of  the  Troad.  By  walking  thither  St. 
Paul  avoided  the  tedious  voyage  round  Cape 
Lectum.  14.  Mitylene]  the  capital  of  the 
isle  of  Lesbos.  15.  Chios]  A  large  island 
forming  part  of  the  province  of  Asia.  Trogyl- 
lium]  is  opposite  Samos.  Miletus]  the  most 
famous  and  important  of  the  Ionian  colonies. 
It  was  a  seaport  situated  on  the  Carian  coast. 

18-35.  St.  Paul's  Speech  to  the  Elders  of 
Ephesus.  He  reminds  them  of  his  ministry 
among  them  (vv.  18-21).  And  now  that  the 
Spirit  draws  him  to  Jerusalem,  to  face  the  un- 
known future,  he  entrusts  the  Ephesian  chiu-ch 
to  the  charge  of  the  elders  to  guard  her  against 
the  heresies  and  enemies  which  he  foresees  (vv. 
22-31).  He  concludes  by  recommending  them 
in  touching  words  to  the  protection  of  the 
Almighty  (vv.  32-35). 

19.  Temptations]  trials  or  misfortunes. 

Lying-  in  wait]  RV  '  plots.'  25.  Shall  see 
my  face  no  more]  St.  Paul  is  not  here  speak- 
ing as  a  prophet,  but  is  merely  giving  utterance 
to  an  overpowering  presentiment  that  the  time 
of  his  death  is  near.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  his 
life  was  preserved  many  years,  and  he  subse- 
quently revisited  Miletus  (2  Tim  4  20)^  Ephesus 
(1  Tim  13  S^"*),  and  other  places  in  Asia. 

28.  We  have  here  a  very  decided  testimony 
that  though  Christian  ministers  may  be  elected 
by  the  people,  their  authority  comes  from  God, 
whose  ambassadors  they  are.  Overseers]  a 
literal  translation  of  the  Gk.  word  episcopos 
(Lat.  ejjiscoptis,  E.  '  bishop ').  At  this  time 
the  title  '  bishop '  (i.e.  overseer)  was  freely 
applied  to  the  Christian  p)resbyters  ('  elders ') 
(Phil  1 1).  By  the  beginning  of  the  second 
cent,  (perhaps  already  in  the  Pastoral  Epistles) 
the  term  was  generally  restricted,  as  now,  to 
the  chief  ruler  of  a  church. 


846 


20.  30 


THE   ACTS 


21.  23 


His  own  blood]  The  blood  of  Christ  is  here 
called  '  God's  blood,'  a  striking  expression 
affirming  with  great  emphasis  the  Deity  of 
Christ.  There  is  an  inferior  reading,  '  Feed 
the  Church  of  the  Lord '  (RM),  which  prob- 
ably originated  in  a  desire  to  eliminate  the 
unusual  expression  '  the  blood  of  God.'  West- 
cott  and  Hort  think  that  the  original  read- 
ing may  have  been  '  the  blood  of  His  own 
Son.' 

30.  The  heretics,  Hymenseus  and  Alexander 
(1  Tim  1 20),  also  Diotrephes  (3  Jn  9),  were  pres- 
byters of  Ephesus.  From  the  Epistles  of  St. 
John,  which  were  written  at  Ephesus,  we  learn 
that  the  Ephesian  heresies  were  of  the  Gnostic 
and  Docetic  types.  St.  John's  chief  opponent 
at  Ephesus  was  Cerinthus,  who  taught  a  Jewish 
form  of  Gnosticism. 

34.  Cp.  183  1  Cor4i2  1  Th29  2Th38. 

35.  Ye  ought  to  support  the  weak]  '  The 
weak'  are  here,  probably,  the  poor  and  the  sick. 
The  presbyters  are  exhorted  to  work  with  their 
hands  (like  St.  Paul),  that  with  their  earnings 
they  may  support  the  sick  and  the  poor.  It  is 
more  blessed,  etc.]  It  is  strange  that  this  beau- 
tiful saying  is  found  in  no  Gospel.  Similarly 
Aristotle  says,  '  It  belongs  to  virtue  rather  to 
confer  than  to  receive  a  benefit.'  On  the  con- 
trary, Athenaeus  says,  '  A  giver  is  foolish  :  a 
receiver  is  fortunate.' 

36-38.  A  striking  example  of  the  intense 
affection  which  the  apostle's  converts  felt  for 
him.  If  he  had  bitter  enemies,  he  had  also 
staunch  friends. 

CHAPTER   21 

St.  Paul  arrested  at  Jerusalem 
I.  Were  gotten]  rather,  'had  torn  ourselves.' 
Coos]  or  Cos,  a  fertile  island  off  the  Carian 
coast,  producing  silks,  ointments,   wheat,  and 
wines. 

Rhodes]  a  city,  and  large  island,  situated  S. 
of  Caria.  The  famous  colossus  was  a  statue 
of  the  sun-god,  105  ft.  high,  which  stood  at 
the  harbour  entrance.  Erected  280  B.C.,  it 
stood  for  56  years,  when  it  was  overthrown 
by  an  earthquake.  Its  fragments  remained 
where  they  fell  till  656  a.d.  Patara]  an  im- 
portant Lycian  seaport.  After  Patara,  D  adds 
'  and  Myra,'  an  accurate  geographical  touch  : 
see  275. 

3.  Tyre]  The  greatest  maritime  city  of  the 
ancient  world,  claiming  to  have  been  founded 
as  early  as  2750  B.C.  It  produced  glass  and 
purple  dye,  but  its  chief  wealth  came  from 
the  fact  that  it  almost  monopolised  the  carry- 
ing-trade of  the  world.  The  Tyrian  mariners 
were  so  skilled  in  astronomy,  and  constructed 
such  accurate  charts,  that  they  sailed  by  night 
as  well  as  by  day,  and  made  long  voyages  out 
of  sight  of  land.  They  are  known  to  have 
circumnavigated  Africa — an  extraordinary  feat 


847 


for  the  small  ships  of  the  ancients.     4.   Dis- 
ciples] RV  '  the  disciples.' 

7.  Ptolemais]  Originally  called  Acco,  its 
name  was  changed  to  Ptolemais  by  Ptolemy 
Philadelphus,  when,  after  the  death  of  Alex- 
ander the  Great,  it  came  into  his  possession. 
It  is  situated  on  the  coast  a  few  miles  to  the 
N.  of  the  promontory  of  Carmel,  and  is  now 
called  Acre. 

8.  Philip]  see  6^  and  c.  8.  The  Evangelist] 
Evangelists  were  itinerant  officers,  whose  duty 
it  was  to  break  new  ground,  and  establish  new 
churches.  They  ranked  below  the  prophets, 
and  above  the  presbyters  or  pastors.  Philip, 
originally  a  '  deacon,'  has  now,  through  the 
success  of  his  missionary  work,  been  advanced 
to  a  higher  dignity.  The  NT.  never  uses 
'  evangelist '  in  the  sense  of  a  writer  of  a 
Gospel.  9.  Prophesy]  There  were  female 
prophets  under  the  OT. :  Miriam,  Ex  15 20  ; 
Deborah,  Jg4  4;  Noadiah,  Neh 6 1*  ;  Huldah, 
2  K  22 14;  cp.  Isa83.     See  Joel  2  28  Ac2i7. 

10.  Agabus]  see  112s.  For  his  symbolic 
action,  cp.  lK22ii  Isa202  JerlSi  Ezk4,  5. 
For  the  fulfilment,  see  v.  27  f.  1$.  Took  up 
our  carriages]  rather,  '  packed  up  our  bag- 
gage.' 16.  Brought  with  them  one  Mnason] 
A  more  probable  translation  is,  '  brought  us  to 
Mnason,'  etc.  Mnason's  house  was  probably 
half-way  between  Cassarea  and  Jerusalem.  D 
(Latin)  reads,  '  and  when  they  had  come  to  a 
certain  town,  we  lodged  with  Mnason,  an  old 
disciple  of  Cyprus,  and  leaving  there  we  came 
to  Jerusalem.' 

St.  Paul  in  Jerusalem  (Chs21i7_28i6) 

17-40.  Disturbances  in  the  Temple.  St. 
Paul  arrested. 

18.  James]  The  Lord's  'brother,'  the  ac- 
knowledged head  of  the  Church  of  Jerusalem  : 
cp.  1513,  etc.  19.  Particularly]  i.e.  in  minute 
detail.     20.  The  Lord  (i.e.  Jesus)]  RV  '  God.' 

23,  24.  The  four  men  were  Nazirites  (see 
Nu6),  and  St.  Paul  was  advised  to  pay  for 
their  sacrifices,  and  to  associate  himself  with 
their  Nazirite  vow  during  the  week  that  it 
had  still  to  run  (see  v.  27).  By  thus  becoming 
a  Nazirite,  and  defraying  the  sacrificial  ex- 
penses of  these  poorer  Nazirites  (the  latter  a 
most  meritorious  work,  according  to  contem- 
porary opinion  ;  see  Jos.  'Ant.'  19.  16.  1),  St. 
Paul  would  prove  himself  a  good  Jew  as  well 
as  a  good  Christian. 

The  Jewish  Christians  were  suspicious  of 
St.  Paul,  not  because  he  refused  to  circumcise 
his  Gentile  converts  (this  point  had  already 
been  settled  at  the  Council  of  Jerusalem),  but 
because  it  was  reported  that  he  advised  even 
Jews  to  neglect  the  observance  of  the  Law 
(v.  21).  The  charge  was  false  in  point  of 
fact,  but  it  had  this  amount  of  truth  in  it, 
that  St.  Paul's  principle  that  a  man  is  saved 


21.  25 


THE   ACTS 


23.  3 


by  faith  in  Christ  and  not  by  the  works  of  the 
Law,  would  naturally  lead  to  the  abandon- 
ment of  the  ceremonial  Law  even  by  Jews. 

25.  See  c.  16. 

26.  Entered,  etc.]  We  may  freely  translate 
this  difficult  passage  thus  :  '  He  entered  into 
the  Temple,  informing  the  priests  that  within 
seven  days  (see  v.  27)  the  days  of  their  purifi- 
cation would  be  accomplished  ;  and  he  pur- 
posed to  remain  with  them  in  the  Temple  for 
a  whole  week,  until  the  legal  sacrifice  had  been 
oifered  for  each  one  of  them.' 

27  f .  The  outer  court  of  the  Temple  was 
called  '  the  Com't  of  the  Gentiles.'  Within 
this  was  '  the  Court  of  Israel,'  separated  from 
it  by  a  high  wall  with  doors  (see  v.  30).  In- 
scriptions upon  the  barrier  denounced  the 
penalty  of  death  upon  all  Gentile  intruders. 
One  of  these  has  been  preserved,  and  runs  : 
'  No  alien  is  to  pass  within  the  fence  and  en- 
closure round  the  Temple.  Whosoever  shall 
be  taken  shall  be  responsible  to  himself  alone 
for  the  death  which  will  ensue.'  See  also  Jos. 
'Ant.'  15.  11.5. 

29.  Trophimus]  see  on  20  *. 

30.  They  drew  him  and  all  his  companions 
'  out  of  the  Temple,'  i.e.  out  of  the  Court  of 
Israel,  and  closed  the  doors  of  this  court, 
ostensibly  to  prevent  any  more  Gentiles  from 
entering.  31.  Went  about  to]  i.e.  were  seek- 
ing to.  The  chief  captain  of  the  band]  rather, 
'  the  tribune  of  the  Roman  cohort,'  which  was 
stationed  in  the  fortress  Antonia,  adjoining  the 
Temple.  34.  Castle]  lit.  '  encampment.'  The 
fortress  Antonia  is  meant.  36.  Away  with 
him]  i.e.  Slay  him. 

38.  Art  not  thou]  rather,  '  Thou  art  not 
then  the  Egyptian,'  etc.  Four  thousand  men] 
rather,  the  four  thousand  men  of  the  Sicarii. 
The  Sicarii  (i.e.  assassins)  were  the  extreme 
members  of  the  '  zealot '  party.  They  carried 
out  their  '  national '  policy  by  openly  assassin- 
ating influential  Jews  supposed  to  be  friendly 
to  Rome.  Josephus  says,  '  But  an  Egyptian 
false  prophet  did  the  Jews  more  mischief 
still.  He  got  together  30,000  deluded  men^ 
whom  he  led  round  from  the  wilderness  to  the 
Mount  of  Olives,  and  intended  to  break  into 
Jerusalem  by  force  from  that  place.  He 
said  that  at  his  command  the  walls  of  Jeru- 
salem would  fall  down  '  ('  War,'  2.  13.  5  ; 
'Ant.'  20.8.  6).  Felix  dispersed  them,  but 
the  Egyptian  escaped. 

39.  St.  Paul  was  not  without  civic  pride. 
Tarsus  was  the  seat  of  a  famous  university, 
and  had  produced  several  of  the  most  emi- 
nent Stoic  philosophers.  On  its  coins  it 
proudly  boasted  itself  '  Self -Governing  Me- 
tropolis.' Citizenship  of  Tarsus  was  confined 
to  a  select  few  of  the  inhabitants,  so  that  its 
possession  was  proof  of  respectability  and 
social  standing. 


848 


CHAPTER   22 
St.  Paul's  Defence 

1-21.    St.    Paul's    Speech    to   the    People. 

St.  Paul  was  accused  of  (1)  hostility  to  the 
Jews,  (2)  contempt  for  the  Jewish  Law, 
and  (3)  the  desecration  of  the  Temple.  He 
answers  all  these  charges  by  showing,  (1) 
that  he  was  a  Jew  by  birth,  trained  by 
Gamaliel,  and  so  zealous  for  the  Law,  that  he 
had  been  a  persecutor  of  the  Christian  faith  ; 
(2)  that  his  conversion  to  Christianity  was  the 
result  of  a  direct  divine  revelation,  made 
first  at  Damascus,  and  confirmed  by  a  subse- 
quent revelation  to  Ananias  ;  (3)  that  even 
after  his  conversion  he  continued  to  honour 
the  Temple,  and  to  worship  there,  and  saw 
a  vision  there  ;  (4)  that  his  preaching  to  the 
Gentiles  was  the  result  of  a  divine  command, 
consequent  upon  the  unbelief  of  the  Jews. 

I.   Fathers]  i.e.  the  Sanhedrists  and  rabbis. 

3.  Gamaliel]  see  on  5^4.  4.  This  way] 
i.e.  Christianity  :  see  9  2.  5.  The  estate,  etc.] 
i.e.  the  Sanhedrin.  6f.  See  on  9 3,  and  cp. 
2612.  9.  And  were  afraid]  RV  omits  these 
words.  Heard  not]  i.e.  did  not  distinguish 
the  words,  or  understand  the  meaning  of  the 
voice  :  cp.  Jnl229.  13.  Looked  up]  or,  're- 
ceived my  sight  again  and  looked.' 

14.  That  Just  One]  see  3^^  7^2. 

17.  A  trance]  Some  identify  this  trance  with 
that  mentioned  2  Cor  12  2;  but  this  is  (for 
chronological  reasons)  unlikely. 

22-C.  23 11.   Paul  before  the  Sanhedrin. 

23.  Cast  off]  or,  '  shook.'  24.  Chief 
captain]  i.e.  tribune.  The  castle]  i.e.  the 
fortress  of  Antonia:  see  21  ^■i.  25.  Bound 
him  with  thongs]  The  correct  reading  pro- 
bably means,  '  And  when  they  had  stretched 
him  out  ready  for  the  scourging.'  A  Roman] 
see  16  ^'i'.     27.  Chief  captain]   i.e.  tribune. 

28,  See  on  1637.  It  is  evident  that  the 
chief  captain  had  not  bought  the  citizenship 
under  Claudius  (41-54  a.d.),  who  sold  it  for 
a  merely  nominal  sum. 

CHAPTER   23 

St.  Paul  sent  to  C^sarea 

1.  St.  Paul  often  asserts  his  good  conscience 
before  God  and  man  :  see  22  3  24^6. 

2.  Ananias]  is  not  the  same  as  Annas  (4  6). 
He  was  the  son  of  Nebedseus,  and  held  the 
high  priesthood  from  47-59  A.D.  His  rapacity 
and  violence  were  notorious.  To  smite  him] 
because,  being  a  prisoner,  he  spoke  without 
being  asked  :  cp.  Jn  18  22.  3.  God  shall  smite 
thee]  St.  Paul's  angiy  retort  has  often  been 
contrasted  with  our  Lord's  mild  words  on  a 
similar  occasion  (Jnl823).  But  St.  Paul's 
rebuke  was  well  deserved.  Thou  whited  wall] 
i.e.  '  thou  hypocrite.'  The  allusion  is  to  the 
practice  of  limewashing  dirty  walls  to  conceal 


23.5 


THE   ACTS 


24.  27 


the  filth:  cp.  Mt2327  Lkll^i.  Contrary  to 
the  law]   see  JnT^i,  and  cp.  DtlQis,  etc. 

5.  As  the  high  priest,  when  present,  pre- 
sided over  the  Sanhedrin,  it  is  somewhat 
strange  that  St.  Paul  should  not  have  known 
who  Ananias  was.  A  possible  explanation  is 
that  St.  Paul  was  somewhat  short-sighted. 

Thou  shalt  not  speak  evil]  see  Ex  22  28. 

6f.  The  Sadducees,  who  disbelieved  a 
future  life  or  a  resurrection,  derided  the  sup- 
posed appearance  of  the  risen  Jesus  ;  but  the 
Pharisees,  who  believed  both,  heard  St.  Paul's 
story  with  considerable  sympathy.  St.  Paul 
then,  seeing  how  matters  stood,  declared  him- 
self a  Pharisee  of  the  Pharisees.  He  declared 
that,  like  the  Pharisees,  he  looked  for  the 
coming  (i.e.  the  Second  Coming)  of  the 
Messiah  ('  the  hope '  of  Israel),  and  for  the 
future  resurrection  of  the  dead,  and  claimed 
Pharisaic  sympathy  against  his  Sadducean 
enemies.  11.  The  appearance  was  vouch- 
safed to  Paul  to  assure  him  that  his  life 
would  not  be  cut  short  before  the  great  desire 
of  his  life  was  attained. 

12-35.   St.  Paul  is  sent  to  Caesarea. 

12.  The  men  who  plotted  against  St.  Paul 
were  probably  Sicarii  or  Assassins  (see  on  21 3S)^ 
whom  we  know  that  the  high  priest  Ananias 
did  not  scruple  to  employ  to  remove  his 
enemies.  16.  St.  Paul's  nephew  was  perhaps 
a  rabbinical  student  at  Jerusalem,  as  St.  Paul 
himself  had  been. 

26-30.  Lysias  presents  his  action  in  the 
most  favourable  light.  He  makes  no  mention 
of  his  illegal  order  to  scourge  the  prisoner, 
and  takes  credit  to  himself  for  his  zeal  in  suc- 
couring a  Roman  citizen,  whereas,  as  a  matter 
of  fact,  he  had  no  idea  at  the  time  that  St.  Paul 
was  a  Roman  citizen.  27.  An  army]  RV 
'the  soldiers.'  31.  Antipatris]  founded  by 
Herod  the  Glreat,  now  Ras-el-'Ain. 

33.  The  governor]  i.e.  Antonius  Felix, 
procm'ator  of  Judaea,  circ.  52-58  a.d.  His 
ferocious  repression  of  the  Zealots  called  into 
being  a  new  and  still  more  pernicious  class  of 
enthusiasts,  the  Sicarii,  or  Assassins  :  see  on 
21^8.  His  folly  and  cruelty  goaded  the 
nation  into  disaffection  and  rebellion.  34.  Of 
Cilicia]  Cilicia  and  Judaea  were  at  this  time 
minor  provinces,  attached  to  the  superior  pro- 
vince of  Syria.  Hence  Felix  could  have  sent 
Paul  for  trial  to  the  governor  of  Syria,  if  he  had 
wished.  35.  Herod's  judgment  hall]  the  palace 
built  by  Herod  the  Great  at  Caesarea,  where 
the  Roman  procurator  resided.  It  was  also  a 
fortress,  and  would  contain  a  guard-room. 

CHAPTER  24 

St.  Paul  before  Felix 
1-27.  St.  Paul  and  Felix. 
I.  Tertullus]   in  spite  of  his  Roman  name 
may  have  been  a  Greek  or  even  a  Jew  (cp.  '  our 


Law,'  AV  V.  6).  2.  Great  quietness]  Felix 
really  deserved  some  credit  for  his  vigorous 
action  against  the  brigands  and  zealots,  when 
he  first  entered  office,  and  for  his  suppression 
of  the  Egyptian  false  prophet.  And  would 
have  judged  .  .  his  accusers  to  come  unto  thee] 
These  words,  though  absent  from  many  ancient 
authorities,  seem  from  internal  evidence  to  be 
genuine  and  authentic.  They  probably  belong 
to  the  D  text,  but  D  is  here  deficient.  8.  Of 
whom]  i.e.  of  Paul,  if  the  above  words  are 
omitted  ;  but  of  Lysias,  if  they  are  retained. 
9.  Assented]  RV  '  joined  in  the  charge.' 
10-22.  St.  Paul's  Defence.  St.  Paul  an- 
swered the  charges  as  follows.  (1)  He  had 
no  seditious  intentions,  for  he  was  found  puri- 
fied in  the  Temple  '  neither  with  multitude, 
nor  with  tumult'  (v.  18).  (2)  The  sect  of 
the  Nazarenes,  to  which  he  belonged,  was  a 
perfectly  orthodox  and  lawful  combination  of 
Jewish  believers,  accepting  '  all  things  which 
are  written  in  the  law  and  the  prophets,' 
accepting  also  the  orthodox  doctrine  of  the 
resurrection  and  the  judgment,  which  some  of 
his  accusers  (being  Sadducees)  denied  (v.  14). 
(3)  No  evidence  was  produced  of  an  intended 
pollution  of  the  Temple  (v.  19). 

14.  Heresy]  RV  '  a  sect.'  Tertullus  had 
applied  the  word  to  the  Christians  in  a  bad 
sense. 

15.  Allow]  rather,  '  look  for.'  16.  Herein] 
i.e.  relying  on  this  hope.  But  others  under- 
stand it  to  mean  '  during  this  earthly  life.'  I] 
RV  'I  also,'  i.e.  'I  as  well  as  they.'  17.  Many 
years]  or,  'some  years.'  18.  Whereupon]  RV 
'Amidst  which.'  21.  By  you]  RV  'before 
you.'     22.  That  (the)  way]  i.e.  Christianity. 

I  will  know^  the  uttermost  of]  rather,  '  I  will 
determine.'     23.   Liberty]  rather,  'indulgence.' 

24.  Drusilla]  The  youngest  of  the  three 
daughters  of  Agrippa  I  (the  Herod  of  12i). 
She  deserted  her  husband,  Azizus,  king  of 
Emesa,  to  marry  Felix. 

25.  Felix  trembled]  Instead  of  simply  stating 
what  the  Christian  faith  was,  St.  Paul,  after 
the  manner  of  the  Baptist  and  the  ancient 
prophets,  boldly  called  his  august  hearers  to 
repentance.  He  reasoned  of  righteousness 
(condemning  Felix's  receipt  of  bribes  and  evil 
government :  cp.  v.  26) ;  of  temperance,  or, 
rather,  '  continence  '  (with  special  reference  to 
the  adulterous  union  of  Drusilla  and  Felix), 
and  of  the  future  judgment,  which  will  be  with- 
out respect  of  persons.  The  result  was  that 
Felix  trembled,  but  delayed  his  repentance  ; 
and  that  Drusilla  was  made  an  irreconcilable 
enemy. 

27.  Porcius  Festus]  succeeded  Felix  as  pro- 
curator of  Judisa  about  58  a.d.  He  died  after 
a  short  tenure  of  office,  having  governed,  upon 
the  whole,  well.  He  is  credited  with  having 
(for  a  time)  suppressed  the  Sicarii  or  Assassins. 


54 


849 


25.  1 


THE   ACTS 


26.  9 


And  Felix .  .  Paul  bound]  For  these  words 
the  Bezan  text  substitutes,  'but  Felix  left 
Paul  in  prison  for  the  sake  of  Drusilla '  (a  very 
probable  statement). 

Remark.  St.  Paul  spent  two  whole  years  in 
prison  at  Csesarea.  How  was  the  time  occupied  ? 
Some  critics  suppose  that  he  wrote  the  third 
group  of  his  Epistles  (Philippians,  Colossians, 
Ephesians,  Philemon).  Much  can  be  said  for 
this  view.  E.g.  in  Phil  1  ^3  he  says,  'my  bonds 
in  Christ  are  manifest  in  all  the  prsetorium 
(or  palace),'  and  we  know  from  Ac  23^5  that 
he  was  confined  in  the  praetorium  (palace)  of 
Herod.  But  upon  the  whole  it  seems  more 
probable  that  all  four  were  written  at  Rome  (e.g. 
'they  of  Caesar's  household,'  Phil 4 22^  naturally, 
though  not  necessarily,  suggests  Rome).  St. 
Luke  was  doubtless  busy  collecting  materials 
for  his  Gospel  and  Acts,  transcribing  his  own 
notes,  etc.  He  probably  obtained  much  in- 
formation from  Philip  the  Evangelist  who 
resided  at  Csesarea ;  from  James  the  Lord's 
'  brother,'  and  from  Mary  the  Virgin,  or  from 
some  intimate  female  friend  of  hers. 

CHAPTER  25 
St.  Paul  before  Festus 
I  f .   St.  Paul  and  Festus. 

2.  The  high  priest]  RY  '  the  chief  priests.' 

3.  Favour]  They  desired  from  the  judge 
partiality,  not  justice  ;  and  probably  offered 
him  money.     5.  Able]   rather,  '  influential.' 

6.  More  than,  etc.]  RV  '  not  more  than 
eight  or  ten  days.' 

9.  Provincial  governors  were  generally  anx- 
ious to  be  on  good  terms  with  their  subjects, 
because,  when  their  term  of  office  was  over, 
the  provincials  had  the  right  to  complain  of 
them  to  the  Emperor.  Before  me]  The  pro- 
posal was  that  Paul  should  be  tried  by  the 
Sanhedrin,  and  that  Festus  should  be  present 
to  see  fair  play. 

10,  II.  The  appeal  was  forced  upon  him 
because,  (1)  trial  by  the  Sanhedrin  (even  with 
Festus  present  as  moderator)  meant  certain  con- 
demnation ;  and  (2)  there  seemed  no  prospect 
of  release  without  appeal.  Festus  was  too  just 
to  pronounce  his  condemnation  ;  but  he  was 
also  too  timid  to  incur  the  odium  of  pronouncing 
him  innocent.  10.  I  stand]  RV  (correctly)  '  I 
am  (now)  standing  before  Caesar's  judgment- 
seat'  (i.e.  thy  judgment-seat,  O  Festus);  'where 
I  ought  to  be  judged  '  (and  not  before  a  Jewish 
court,  like  the  Sanhedrin).  12.  The  council] 
i.e.  the  governor's  legal  advisers. 

13.  King  Agrippa  and  Bernice]  Agrippa  II 
(Marcus  Julius  Agrippa)  was  the  son  of 
Agrippa  I  and  Cypros.  See  art.  '  Dynasty  of 
the  Herods.'  His  sister  Bernice,  with  whom 
at  this  time  he  was  living  on  terms  of  criminal 
intimacy,  was  an  attractive  but  dissolute 
woman.     At  thirteen  she  was  married  to  her 


uncle,  Herod,  king  of  Chalcis,  to  whom  she 
bore  two  sons.  After  his  death  she  became 
wife  of  Polemo,  king  of  Cilicia,  and  mistress 
of  Vespasian  and  Titus.  To  salute]  RV 
'  and  saluted.'  On  the  arrival  of  the  Roman 
governor,  the  inferior  rulers  naturally  made 
haste  to  show  him  respect. 

19.  Superstition]  RV  '  religion.' 

20.  Doubted]  RV  '  (was)  perplexed  how  to 
inquire  concerning  these  things.' 

21.  Augustus]  lit.  '  the  Augustus.'  '  Au- 
gustus,' originally  a  family  name,  had  now 
become  an  official  title  of  the  Emperor. 

23.   Chief  captains]  i.e.  tribunes. 

26.  As  Agrippa  was  expert  in  all  matters  of 
the  Jewish  law,  Festus  hoped  that  he  would 
help  him  to  compose  a  letter  to  the  Emperor, 
which  would  make  it  clear  what  the  charges 
against  Paul  really  were. 

CHAPTER  26 
Defence  before  Agrippa 

1-32,  St.  Paul  before  Agrippa.  This  speech, 
though  in  form  a  defence  to  the  Jews,  is 
really  intended  by  St.  Luke  to  be  St.  Paul's 
defence  to  the  world — an  apology  for  his 
whole  life  and  work. 

Analysis.  Opening  compliment  to  Agrippa 
(vv.  2,  3)  ;  the  Apostle's  orthodox  Pharisaic 
education  (vv.  4,  5)  ;  he  is  really  called  in 
question  because  he  believes  in  the  hope  of  all 
orthodox  Jews,  the  coming  of  the  Messiah, 
and  the  Resurrection  (vv.  6-8)  ;  his  persecu- 
tion of  the  Church  in  the  time  of  his  ignorance 
(vv.  9-1 1) ;  his  conversion  and  divine  commission 
to  preach  to  the  Gentiles  (vv.  12-18)  ;  his  sub- 
sequent conduct  the  result  of  a  direct  divine 
command  (v.  19)  ;  his  labours  among  Jews  and 
Gentiles  (v.  20)  ;  the  hostility  of  the  Jews 
(v.  21)  ;  the  conclusion,  emphasising  the  fact 
that  Christianity  is  nothing  but  orthodox 
Judaism  properly  understood.  Moses  and  the 
prophets  taught,  (l)that  the  Messiah  should 
come  ;  (2)  that  He  should  suffer ;  (3)  that  He 
should  rise  again  from  the  dead,  the  first-fruits 
of  them  that  sleep  ;  (4)  that  in  the  Messiah's 
days  the  religion  of  Israel  would  be  taught  to 
the  Gentiles.  This  is  precisely  what  St.  Paul 
preaches,  and  therefore  he  claims  acquittal  from 
Agi-ippa,  and  from  all  orthodox  Jews  (vv.  22, 
23,  27). 

5.  See  223  236  Phil  3  5.  6.  The  promise]  viz. 
of  the  Messiah,  made  to  Abraham,  Gn22i8; 
also  of  the  Resurrection,  for  it  was  believed 
by  the  Pharisees  and  orthodox  Jews  that  all 
Jews  would  be  raised  to  life  to  share  in 
the  Messianic  kingdom.  7.  Instantly]  RV 
'  earnestly.'  9,  10.  '  I  once  found  the  same 
difficulty  in  believing  that  God  does  actually 
raise  the  dead  ;  and  therefore  I  bitterly  per- 
secuted those  who  proclaimed  the  Resurrection 
of  Jesus,  just  as  you  are  now  persecuting  me.' 


850 


26.  9 


THE   ACTS 


27.10 


9.  Contrary  to  the  name]  i.e.  in  order  to 
suppress  the  confession  and  invocation  of  it. 

ID.  My  voice]  RV  '  my  vote.'  The  Gk. 
means  '  the  vote  of  a  judge,'  and  establishes 
the  fact  that  at  the  time  of  the  death  of 
Stephen,  Paul,  though  so  young  a  man,  was  a 
member  of  the  Sanhedrin. 

12-18.  See  on  9  3  22  6. 

16-18.  It  appears  from  9^  22^0  that  all  the 
directions  that  Jesus  gave  to  Paul  at  the 
moment  of  his  conversion  were,  '  Arise,  and 
go  into  the  city,  and  it  shall  be  told  thee  what 
thou  must  do.'  The  command  to  preach  to 
the  Gentiles  was  apparently  given  through 
Ananias  (22 1^),  and  more  definitely  in  a  sub- 
sequent vision  at  Jerusalem  (22  21).  It  seems 
reasonable,  therefore,  to  suppose  that  St.  Paul 
here  summarises  the  contents  of  more  than 
one  revelation. 

23.  That  Christ  should  suffer]  RV  '  how 
that  the  Chi'ist  must  suffer  '  ;  RM  '  if  the 
Christ  must  suffer,'  or,  '  whether  the  Christ 
must  suffer  '  :  see  Lk  24  26, 46  and  Isa53.  The 
first]  see  1  Cor  15  20,  'the  firstfruits  of  them 
that  slept '  ;  Col  1 1^,  '  the  firstborn  from  the 
dead  ' ;  Rev  1 5,  '  the  first  begotten  of  the  dead.' 

Light]  see  Lk 2  32  Isa  9  2  42  6  49  6  60 1-3.  The 
people]  i.e.  the  Jewish  nation,  '  the  people  of 
God.' 

24.  The  exclamation  of  Festus  shows  impa- 
tience and  perhaps  anger  at  the  idea  that  an 
uneducated  peasant  like  Jesus  (one,  moreover, 
who  had  been  crucified)  could  have  anything 
to  teach  a  Roman  like  himself.  Much  learn- 
ing] lit.  '  the  numerous  writings,'  probably  the 
writings  of  Moses  and  the  prophets,  quoted 
by  St.  Paul  in  his  speech.  Or  the  reference 
may  be  a  general  one  to  the  Apostle's  well- 
known  studious  habits.  25.  Observe  the  good 
temper  and  courtesy  of  St.  Paul's  retort. 

Most  noble]  see  Lk  1 3,  '  most  excellent 
Theophilus '  (same  word). 

28.  Almost  thou  persuadest  me  to  be  a 
Christian]  This  translation  is  now  given  up. 
The  best  rendering  seems  to  be,  '  Too  easily 
art  thou  persuading  thyself  that  thou  canst 
make  me  a  Christian  !  ' 

32.  Agrippa,  speaking  as  a  Jew,  pronounces 
St.  Paul's  views  orthodox,  or  at  least  not 
heretical.  There  is  nothing  in  them,  he  thinks, 
contrary  to  the  OT.,  though,  of  course  he  does 
not  accept  them  as  true. 

CHAPTER   27 

The  Voyage  and  Shipwreck 
27I-28I6.  The  Journey  to  Rome. 
This  narrative  is  the  most  detailed  account 
of  an  ancient  voyage  which  we  possess,  and  is 
our  principal  source  of  knowledge  of  the  art 
of  navigation  as  practised  by  the  ancients.  St. 
Luke  describes  the  voyage  at  length,  because  it 
exhibits  his  hero  in  a  very  favourable  light. 


The  details  of  the  voyage  are  clearly  authentic 
(see  Intro.). 

1.  Julius]  a  person  otherwise  unknown. 
The  narrative  reveals  him  as  courteous  and 
humane,  open  to  religious  impressions,  and 
able  to  appreciate  a  gi-eat  character.  Augustus' 
band]  rather,  '  the  Augustan  cohort.'  This 
cohort  has  been  generally  regarded  as  one  of 
the  five  cohorts  which,  Josephus  tells  us, 
were  stationed  at  Csesarea.  Prof.  Mommsen, 
however,  thinks  that  it  belonged  to  a  body  of 
troops  called  frumentarii  (lit.  '  victuallers  '), 
whose  headquarters  were  at  Rome  on  the 
Coelian  hill.  They  not  only  superintended 
the  provisioning  of  the  imperial  armies,  but 
were  continually  going  to  and  fro  on  the  Em- 
peror's business. 

2.  A  ship  of  Adramyttium]  i.e.  a  ship  owned 
at  Adramyttium,  which  was  about  to  undertake 
its  homeward  voyage.  Adramyttium  was  an 
important  seaport  of  Mysia.  We  launched, 
meaning  to  sail  by  the  coasts  of  Asia]  RV 
'which  was  about  to  sail  unto  the  places  on 
the  coast  of  Asia,  we  put  to  sea.'  Aristarchus] 
see  1929  20"*.  3.  Sidon]  an  important  sea- 
port situated  about  20  m.  N.  of  its  great 
commercial  rival.  Tyre.  To  refresh  himself] 
rather,  '  to  receive  attention.'  4,  Under 
Cyprus]  RV  '  under  the  lee  of  Cyprus '  ;  i.e. 
to  the  E.  of  the  island,  as  was  usual  with  ships 
westward  bound,  to  avoid  the  prevalent  W. 
winds.  5.  Myra]  see  211.  This  town  was 
important  as  one  of  the  great  harbours  in  the 
corn  trade  between  Egypt  and  Rome. 

6.  A  ship  of  Alexandria]  At  this  time  Rome 
was  almost  entirely  dependent  upon  foreign 
corn,  obtained  mainly  from  Egypt.  This 
vessel  was  one  of  the  great  corn-ships  (v.  38) 
employed  to  convey  wheat  from  Alexandria  to 
Puteoli  or  Ostia.  The  arrival  of  these  corn- 
ships  in  Italy  was  a  signal  for  great  rejoicings. 

7.  Scarce]  i.e.  with  difficulty.  Cnidus]  a 
seaport  of  Caria.  Not  suffering  us]  viz.  to 
pursue  a  direct  course  to  Italy  S.  of  Cape 
Malea.  Under  Crete]  i.e.  under  the  lee  of 
Crete  (to  the  E.  and  S.  of  it).  Salmone] 
the  NE.  promontory  of  Crete.  Upon  it  stood 
a  temple  of  Athena.  8.  Fair  havens]  where 
St.  Paul  waited  for  a  considerable  time  (v.  9), 
still  preserves  its  ancient  name.  It  is  a  small 
bay  situated  about  6  m.  E.  of  Cape  Litino. 
It  is  secure  only  against  N.  and  NIV.  winds, 
whereas  the  harbour  of  Phoenix  (v.  12)  is 
secure  against  all  winds.  Lasea]  has  been 
identified  by  its  ruins.  It  is  mentioned  by  no 
other  ancient  writer. 

9.  The  fast]  i.e.  the  Day  of  Atonement, 
falling  about  the  autumnal  equinox.  Ancient 
mariners  reckoned  the  dangerous  season  of 
navigation  from  September  14th  to  November 
11th.  From  November  11th  till  March  5th 
all  navigation  was  suspended.     10.  No  revela- 


851 


27.  12 


THE   ACTS 


28.  13 


tion  is  to  be  assumed  here.  I2.  Phenice]  RV 
'  Phoenix,'  i.e.  either  the  modern  Loutro,  or 
the  neighbouring  town  of  Phineka.  Toward 
the  south  west  and  north  west]  i.e.  the  bay  or 
harbour  formed  a  semicircle,  of  which  one 
half  looked  SW.  and  the  other  half  NW. 

14.  Translate,  '  But  after  no  long  time 
there  beat  down  from  it '  (i.e.  from  Crete)  '  a 
tempestuous  wind  which  is  called  Euraquilo;' 

Euroclydon]  The  best  reading  is  '  Euraquilo,' 
i.e.  an  E.N.E.  wind. 

16.  RV  '  and  running  under  the  lee  of  a 
small  island,  called  Cauda,  we  were  able,  with 
difficulty,  to  secure  the  boat.'  Clauda]  or 
(RV)  '  Cauda '  (now  Gavdo  or  G-ozzo),  is  23  m. 
S.  of  Phoenix.  To  come  by  the  boat]  RV  '  to 
secure  the  boat.'  This  was  a  small  rowing- 
boat  towed  from  the  stern  of  the  ship.  The 
storm  having  come  on  suddenly,  there  had 
been  no  time  to  haul  it  aboard.  This  was 
now  done,  but  with  difficulty,  for  it  was  full  of 
water. 

17.  Helps]  i.e.  means  of  protection  against 
foundering.  Undergirding]  Broad  girths  were 
passed  under  the  ship,  and  strained  tight,  to 
hold  the  timbers  together.  Modern  seamen 
sometimes  resort  to  the  practice,  which  is 
called  '  f rapping.'     Lest  they  should  fall  into 


40.  RV  '  and  casting  off  the  anchors,  they 
left  them  in  the  sea,  at  the  same  time  loosing 
the  bands  of  the  rudders  ;  and  hoisting  up  the 
foresail  to  the  wind,  they  made  for  the  beach.' 

Rudder  bands]  RV  '  the  rudders.'  Ancient 
vessels  had  two  rudders  (in  the  form  of  a  huo-e 
oar  or  paddle),  one  on  each  quarter.  While 
drifting,  the  sailors  had  raised  the  blades  of 
the  rudders  out  of  the  water,  to  prevent  them 
from  being  broken.  Now  that  steering  had  to 
be  done,  they  unlashed  the  rudders,  and  let 
them  down  into  the  water. 

41.  A  place  where  two  seas  met]  This  may 
either  mean,  (1)  a  strait  (i.e.,  in  this  case,  the 
narrow  strait  which  separates  Selmun  Island 
from  the  mainland)  ;  or,  (2)  a  tongue  of  land 
(or  spit  of  sand)  washed  on  both  sides  by  the 
sea.     42.  To  kill  the  prisoners]  cp.  1219  1627. 

CHAPTER   28 
St.  Paul  a  Prisoner  at  Rome 
They.  .  they]    RV  'we  .  .  we.'    Melita] 
'Melitene.'     Melita   is   certainly   Malta, 
not   (as  has  been  erroneously  supposed) 
Meleda  off  the  Illyrian  coast.     Tradition  cor- 
rectly locates  the  shipwreck  in  St.  Paul's  Bay, 


I. 

RM 

and 


about 
barous 


m.  NW.  of 
people]    RV 


Valetta.     2.  The   bar- 
'  the    barbarians.'     The 


-  IT r     o-       — J — -- ^^v,^^iv,j     _Lu  ,         Lj_ic    uiuuiujaus.       j.ne 

the  quicksands]  RV  '  lest  they  should  be  cast     Gk.  word  does  not  imply  that  they  were  im- 


upon  the  Syrtis.'  The  '  G-reater  Syrtis,'  'the 
Goodwin  Sands  of  the  Mediterranean '  (Fan-ar), 
lay  to  the  SW.  of  Cauda.  Strake  sail]  better, 
'  reduced  sail.'  They  probably  lowered  the 
mainsail  more  than  half-way,  but  left  the 
small  '  artemon  '  or  stormsail  extended. 

18.  Lightened  the  ship]  by  throwing  part 
of  the  cargo  overboard.  19.  We  .  .  our]  RV 
'  they  .  .  their.'  The  tackling]  i.e.  spars,  ropes, 
etc.  But  a  better  translation  is  '  the  ship's 
furniture,'  i.e.  beds,  tables,  benches,  cooking 
utensils,  chests,  boxes,  etc. 

23.  The  angel]  rather,  '  an  angel.'  For 
other  visions  of  Paul  see  189  22  is  23  n. 

26.  St.  Paul  here  speaks  as  a  prophet,  and 
accurately  predicts  the  future.  27.  The  four- 
teenth night]  viz.  from  their  departure  from 
Fair  Havens.  In  Adria]  RV  '  in  the  sea  of 
Adria,'  which  lay  between  Malta,  Italy,  Greece 
and  Crete.  28.  They  sounded]  '  J.  Smith 
shows  how  exactly  the  geogi-aphical  details  in 
the  traditional  St.  Paul's  Bay  (on  the  NE. 
coast  of  Malta)  correspond  with  the  description 
here'  (Knowling). 

34.  For  your  health]  RV  '  for  your  safety.' 
Unless  they  were  strengthened  by  food  they 
might  be  drowned  in  the  attempt  to  get  ashore. 

35.  All  pious  Jews  gave  thanks  to  God 
before    taking    food.       37.    The    number    of 


civilised,    but    only   that   they   were   neither 
Greeks  nor  Romans. 

3.  Cp.  Mk  16 18.  As  St.  Paul  was  arranging 
the  faggot  on  the  fire,  the  viper,  feeling  the 
heat,  glided  out  of  the  faggot  and  bit  the 
Apostle's  hand.  There  are  now  no  vipers  in 
Malta,  but  the  clearing  of  the  ancient  forests, 
and  the  great  density  of  the  population,  are 
sufficient  to  account  for  their  disappearance. 

4.  Vengeance]  rather, '  Justice '  (personified 
as  a  goddess).  A  god]  cp.  the  events  at 
Lystra  (14  H),  which  also  illustrate  the  popular 
levity  of  judgment. 

7.  The  chief  man]  lit.  '  the  first  man.'  In- 
scriptions show  that  this  title  is  technically 
correct.  Malta  was  part  of  the  province  of 
Sicily,  and  Publius  was  a  subordinate  of  the 
prffit<)r  of  Sicily.  Tradition  places  his  house 
at  Citta- Vecchia.  8.  Bloody  flux]  R V  '  dysen- 
tery.' Observe  in  this  v.  the  technical  medical 
language.  9.  Others]  We  have  here  the  first- 
hand evidence  of  a  competent  medical  witness 
to  the  reality  of  St.  Paul's  miraculous  cures. 

II.  After  three  months]  i.e.  probably  some- 
what early  in  February,  before  the  usual  time 
of  navigation.  Castor  and  Pollux]  (lit.  '  the 
Dioscuri'),  the  twin  sons  of  Jupiter,  and 
tutelary  deities  of  sailors.  12.  Landing]  RV 
'touching.'     Syracuse]  100  m.  N.   of  Malta, 


persons  on  board  is  large,  but  not  unusually     the  capital  of  Sicily,  and  a  Roman  colony 
so.    The  vessel  on  which  Josephus  was  wrecked  13.   Fetched  a  compass]   ie   made  a  circuit 

carried  about  600  persons.     39.   To  thrust  in  Rhegium]    an  ancient  Gk.   colony  situated 

the  ship]  rather,  '  to  run  the  ship  aground.'  on  the  Italian  side  of  the  Straits  of  Messina 

852 


28.  15 


THE  ACTS 


28.  30 


near  the  dreaded  rock  of  Scylla,  and  the 
whirlpool  of  Charybdis.  Puteoli]  also  called 
Dica3archia,  was  (with  Ostia)  the  great  corn 
mart  of  Italy,  where  the  Alexandrian  corn- 
ships  discharged  their  cargoes.  It  lay  on  the 
N.  shore  of  the  Bay  of  Naples,  and  contained 
a  certain  number  of  Jews.  15.  Appii  forum] 
RV  '  the  Market  of  Appius,'  was  43  Roman 
m.  S.  of  Rome  on  the  gi-eat  Appian  Road,  the 
main  line  of  communication  between  Rome 
and  the  East.  The  Three  Taverns]  10  Roman 
miles  from  the  capital. 

St.  Paul  in  Rome  (2816-31) 

16.  The  captain  of  the  guard]  either  the 
captain  of  the  prtetorian  guard  (^prcefectun 
prceto7-io),  or,  more  probably,  the  captain  of 
the  troops  called  frumentar'n^  whose  camp  was 
on  the  Coelian  hill :  see  on  27 1.  To  dwell  by 
himself]  This  exceptional  treatment  was  due 
to  the  favourable  report  of  Festus  and  the 
goodwill  of  the  centurion. 

17.  Called  the  chief  of  the  Jews  together] 
or.  '  called  together  the  Jewish  community 
first,'  in  accordance  with  his  usual  plan  of 
preaching  to  the  Jews  before  he  preached  to 
the  G-entiles.  21.  It  is  somewhat  strange 
that  the  chief  priests  did  not  write.     Perhaps 


they  did,  but  the  letter  was  delayed,  or  mis- 
carried. 22.  The  Jews  profess  no  fii"st-hand 
knowledge  of  the  Christians,  hence  it  is 
evident  that  at  Rome  the  Church  and  the 
Synagogue  were  already  definitely  separated. 
The  expulsion  of  the  Jews  from  Rome  by 
Claudius  is  probably  the  cause  of  this.  There 
being  no  Jewish  community,  the  infant  Church 
started  as  a  mainly  non-Jewish  body. 

25.  See  IsaG^.  Our  fathers]  RV  'your 
fathers.'  St.  Paul  renounces  fellowship  with 
the  unbelieving  Jews.  29.  This  v.  is  omitted 
by  important  ancient  authorities,  but  much  is 
to  be  said  for  its  genuineness. 

30.  Two  whole  years]  Such  delays  of 
justice  were  not  unusual.  In  this  case  the 
delay  was  apparently  caused,  (1)  by  the  loss 
of  the  official  papers  in  the  wreck,  (2)  by  the 
non-appearance  of  the  accusers,  (3)  by  the 
difficulty  of  getting  together  the  witnesses. 
During  this  imprisonment  St.  Paul  wrote  the 
Epistles  to  the  Philippians,  Colossians,  Ephe- 
sians,  and  Philemon.  At  his  first  trial  he  was 
acquitted,  and  released.  A  few  years  later  he 
was  again  arrested,  brought  to  trial  at  Rome, 
condemned,  and  executed. 

On  Rome  and  the  Roman  Church,  see  the 
Intro,  to  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans. 


853 


ROMANS 


INTRODUCTION 


1.  Place  in  Scripture.  This  letter,  though 
it  is  not  the  earliest  nor  the  simplest  of  the 
noble  group  ascribed  to  St.  Paul,  and  though 
equally  with  the  rest  it  was  prompted  by 
special  local  needs,  fitly  comes  first  in  the 
series.  The  book  of  Acts,  with  its  prophecy 
in  2311  concerning  St.  Paul,  'so  must  thou 
bear  witness  also  at  Rome,'  ends  with  a  vivid 
picture  of  him  a  prisoner  in  Rome.  The  first 
of  the  Epistles  dramatically  follows  with  its 
disclosure  of  his  mind  as  in  freedom  he  had 
looked  forward  to  a  purposed  visit  to  that  city. 
It  is  the  greatest  of  his  writings  in  importance 
as  in  length,  the  most  characteristic  and  com- 
prehensive, the  letter  best  suited  to  form  an 
introduction  to  his  teaching,  and  an  epitome 
of  his  thought.  It  was  fitting  that  the  chief 
letter  of  the  Apostle  to  the  G-entiles  should  be 
a  letter  to  the  Church  in  the  capital  of  the 
Gentile  world,  and  that  it  should  have  pre- 
cedence in  the  final  order  of  his  published 
writings. 

2.  Place  in  the  Life  and  Writings  of  St.  Paul. 
It  is  not  possible  to  date  the  events  in  his  life 
with  absolute  precision,  but  the  narrative  in 
Acts,  together  with  information  contained  in 
his  own  writings,  enables  us  to  arrange  their 
sequence.  If  we  accept  the  chronology  of 
C.  H.  Turner,  which  approximates  to  that  of 
Ramsay  very  closely,  and  forms  a  mean  be- 
tween those  of  Harnack  and  Lightfoot,  the 
conversion  of  St.  Paul  took  place  36  a.d.,  six 
years  after  the  crucifixion  ;  the  first  missionary 
journey,  47  A.D. ;  the  Council  at  Jerusalem,  49 
A.D. ;  the  second  journey,  49-52  a.d.  ;  the  third 
jom-ney,  52-56  a.d.  ;  the  arrest  in  Jerusalem, 
56  A.D. ;  the  imprisonment  in  Csesarea,  56-58 
A.D. ;  the  arrival  in  Rome,  59  a.d.  ;  and  the 
martyrdom  there,  65  a.d. 

Arranged  in  chronological  order,  the  thirteen 
Epistles  of  St.  Paul  fall  into  four  groups  : 

I.  1  and  2  Thessalonians,  during  the  second 

journey,  51  a.d. 
II.  1  and  2  Corinthians,  Galatians,  and  Romans, 
during  the  third  journey,  52-56  a.d. 

III.  Philippians,    Ephesians,    Colossians,    and 

Philemon,  during  the  Roman  imprison- 
ment, 59-61  a.d. 

IV.  1  and  2    Timothy,  and  Titus,  after  his 

release. 

In  point  of  doctrine,  as  of  time,  there  is  a 
marked  distinction  between  these  four  groups. 


due  in  part  to  differences  in  the  spiritual  attain- 
ments and  requirements  of  the  recipients  ;  in 
part,  also,  to  the  unresting  activity  of  the 
writer's  own  reflections  upon  the  meaning  of 
the  faith  he  proclaimed.  In  the  first  group 
the  doctrinal  statements  are  brief,  simple,  and 
practical ;  the  second  coming  of  Christ  receiving 
special  attention.  In  the  second  group  the 
truth  of  God's  salvation  in  Christ  is  presented 
as  a  whole,  defined,  through  questioning  and 
controversy  and  through  opposition  to  Jewish 
legalism,  as  a  universal  scheme  of  grace,  and 
its  main  principles  are  stated  and  applied.  In 
the  third  group  the  ripened  thoughts  of  the 
Apostle  concerning  the  exaltation  of  Christ's 
person,  and  the  true  nature  of  the  Church  as 
His  body,  are  gathered  and  set  forth  contem- 
platively. In  the  fourth  group  there  is  no 
continuous  exposition  of  doctrine,  but,  instead, 
pastoral  suggestions  of  practical  details  in 
Church  life. 

The  Epistle  to  the  Romans  is  thus  at  the 
very  heart  of  the  Apostle's  teaching,  the 
greatest  literary  product  of  his  life's  most 
strenuous  period  -  and  of  his  highest  powers. 
Repulsed  by  Jerusalem,  towards  which  in 
pride  of  birth  and  education  his  face  had 
formerly  been  set,  he  has  turned  to  imperial 
Rome,  whose  people  are  in  truth  the  world  in 
miniature,  the  seed  of  Adam,  if  not  of  Abra- 
ham, not  without  law  or  conscience  though 
beyond  the  pale  of  Jewish  law,  in  their  own 
way  responsible  to  God  and  under  condemna- 
tion. Behind  and  beyond  the  Christians  in 
Rome  he  sees  in  thought  the  countless  millions 
of  the  Gentile  world  unsaved.  Equally  with 
Israel  they  know  and  own  a  moral  law,  and 
recognise  their  inability  to  keep  it.  Towards 
them,  also,  he  would  fain  fulfil  his  apostleship. 

3.  Date  and  Place  of  Composition.  Com- 
parison of  the  Epistle  with  Acts  points  to 
Corinth  as  the  place,  and  to  56  a.d.  as  the 
date,  towards  the  close  of  the  third  great 
journey,  when  he  was  about  to  return  to  Jeru- 
salem with  the  alms  of  the  Greek  Churches. 
After  the  three  years  spent  in  Ephesus  he 
'  purposed  in  the  spirit,  when  he  had  passed 
through  Macedonia  and  Achaia,  to  go  to  Jeru- 
salem, saying,  After  I  have  been  there  I  must 
also  see  Rome'  (Acl92i);  and  when  he 
reached  Jerusalem  he  was  the  bearer  of  Greek 
alms  to  the  distressed  Church  in  that  city  (Ac 
24 17).    In  the  letter  itself  he  states  that  it  has 


854 


INTRO. 


ROMANS 


INTRO. 


oftentimes  been  his  purpose  to  preach  in 
Rome  (1^3  1523)^  but  his  sense  of  prior  duty 
to  other  Gentiles  who  had  not  received  the 
gospel  has  hindered  him,  and  restricted  his 
journeys  hitherto  to  a  circuit  from  Jerusalem 
to  Illyricum  (Ro  15 1^^^^).  '  But  now  I  go  unto 
Jerusalem  ministering  unto  the  saints  ;  for 
it  hath  been  the  good  pleasure  of  Macedonia 
and  Achaia  to  make  a  certain  contribution  for 
the  poor  among  the  saints  that  are  at  Jeru- 
salem .  .  .  When  I  have  accomplished  this,  I 
will  go  on  by  you  unto  Spain  '  (15  ^^■'■^S).  It  is 
■  therefore  the  winter  of  55-56  A.D.  He  is  in 
Achaia — in  fact,  in  Corinth  ;  for  Gaius,  his  host, 
whose  house  is  the  local  church  (16^^),  had  been 
baptised  by  him  there  (ICorli*).  Erastus, 
who  sends  greeting,  is  treasurer  of  that  city 
(1623,  cp.  2Tim420),  and  Phoebe,  the  bearer 
of  the  letter,  is  a '  deaconess  of  the  church  that 
is  at  Cenchrese,'  the  port  of  Corinth  (16 1). 

It  is  a  solemn  moment  in  the  Apostle's  life, 
and  his  spirit  is  moved  as  he  looks  back  upon  his 
mission  to  the  Gentiles  in  Greece  and  Asia  Minor. 
Bitter  opposition  and  controversy  and  misre- 
presentation (2  Cor,  Gal)  have  been  his  portion, 
as  well  as  wonderful  success.  Jewish  pride, 
prejudice,  and  legalism  have  pursued  him  and 
stirred  up  enmity  against  him.  His  apostolate 
to  the  Gentiles,  though  it  has  put  alms  for  the 
Jewish  Church  into  his  hands,  has  enlarged  his 
thought  and  preaching  beyond  Jewish  limits, 
and  brought  suspicion  on  his  fidelity  to  Hebrew 
scripture  and  tradition.  He  has  deepened  his 
Roman  citizenship  and  his  grasp  of  human 
nature.  The  Western  as  well  as  the  Eastern 
Empire  must  receive  Christ.  There  is  already 
a  Church  in  Rome  ;  he  will  strengthen  it,  and 
pass  on  westwards,  even  to  Spain.  In  this 
Epistle  a  heroic  spirit,  a  universal  outlook,  a 
note  of  triumph  over  controversy  and  mis- 
representation, an  imperialistic  instinct,  and  a 
profound  insight  into  human  nature,  have 
united  to  inspire  its  intense  passion  and  its 
unique  power. 

4.  Occasion  and  Purpose.  Like  the  other 
Epistles  by  St.  Paul  it  is  a  true  letter,  not  an 
epistolary  treatise.  It  owes  its  massiveness 
and  comprehensiveness  to  the  greatness  and 
impressiveness  of  the  situation  which  called 
for  it  and  of  the  subject  with  which  it  deals. 
Jerusalem  and  Rome  are  both  in  his  thoughts, 
Jewish  and  Gentile  unrest  of  spirit  and  need 
of  a  Saviom'  arise  before  him  as  he  writes,  and 
in  response  to  them  the  divine  scheme  of  re- 
demption through  Christ  takes  shape  as  never 
before  in  his  mind.  Thinking  of  them  he 
lives  over  again  the  spiritual  anguish  of  the 
crisis  of  his  own  life  (chs.  7,  8).  His  experience 
of  deliverance,  himself  a  Pharisee  of  the 
Pharisees,  a  citizen  of  Rome,  and  a  son  of 
cultured  Tarsus,  must  and  will  be  repeated  by 
proud   Rome.     There,  in   Jewish  synagogue 


and  in  Gentile  church,  the  law  will  yield  its 
forbidding  sovei'eignty  to  the  gospel  of  God's 
grace  in  Jesus  Christ,  as  once  it  has  done  in 
his  own  experience  upon  the  way  to  Damascus. 
The  letter  finds  its  formal  occasion  in  the  ap- 
proach of  the  long-expected  opportunity  to  visit 
Rome.  It  is  primarily  a  letter  of  self-intro- 
duction to  an  unvisited  Church,  to  prepare  its 
members  for  his  coming.  He  has  many  friends 
among  them.  He  has  heard  much  of  them, 
their  faith,  their  obedience,  their  divisions, 
their  difficulties,  and  their  temptations  (l^ 
12-16)  ;  and  it  may  be  that  they,  like  others, 
have  received  an  evil  report  of  his  teaching. 
In  ally  case,  he  does  not  mean  to  reside  with 
them  for  long,  but  to  make  Rome  his  base  for 
further  evangelisation  in  the  West,  his  work 
being  ended  for  the  present  in  the  East.  They 
will  strengthen  him,  as  he  hopes  to  stablish 
them  '  in  the  fulness  of  the  blessing  of  Christ ' 

(112  1529). 

But  it  has  a  larger  purpose,  reflected  by 
its  doctrinal  outpouring.  It  is  as  though  he 
foresaw  in  Rome  the  mingling  of  all  the  in- 
fluences against  which  his  own  life-conflict, 
within  and  without,  had  had  to  be  waged,  for 
sooner  or  later  all  living  things  converged  on 
Rome.  With  characteristic  imagination  he 
anticipates  his  arrival  ;  the  floodgates  of  his 
soul  are  flung  open,  and  the  pent-up  thoughts 
which  he  would  then  have  voiced  refuse  to  be 
restrained.  The  letter  is  an  earnest,  a  fore- 
taste, of  the  promised  '  spiritual  gift  to  the 
end  ye  may  be  established '  (1  n),  of  the  gospel 
which  he  is  '  ready  to  preach  to  you  that  are 
in  Rome  '  (1 1^).  The  Roman  Christians  are 
themselves  able  to  admonish  one  another  (1 5 1*)  ; 
his  object  is  but  to  put  them  again  in  remem- 
brance (151^)  as  a  'minister  of  Christ  Jesus 
unto  the  Gentiles.'  Though  he  is  a  stranger 
and  they  are  Gentiles,  he  has  an  apostolate  to 
Gentiles.  His  letter  is  more  than  a  contro- 
versial contribution,  or  a  personal  apologetic, 
or  a  treatise  ;  it  is  an  apostolic,  and,  therefore, 
authoritative  utterance  directed  to  meet  their 
known  and  their  presumptive  needs.  From 
the  lips  of  an  apostle  not  less  than  a  Gospel 
was  looked  for,  and  such  the  Epistle  came  to 
be  as  it  took  shape. 

5.  Destination.  As  it  stands,  the  letter 
plainly  is  addressed  '  to  all  that  are  in  Rome, 
beloved  of  God,  called  to  be  saints '  (1 '''  i^ 
1528),  '  called  to  be  Jesus  Christ's  '  (1 6).  Are 
they  Jews  or  Gentiles  ?  The  presumption  is 
that  if  it  is  for  all  Christians,  both  are  included 
(cp.  9  2'i,  '  ua  whom  he  also  called  not  from 
the  Jews  only,  but  also  from  the  Gentiles '). 
Many  passages  refer  to,  or  are  applicable  to, 
Gentiles  only  (e.g.  '  among  all  the  tiations  .  . 
among  whom  are  ye  also,'  1 5, 6  ;  '  fruit  in  you 
also,  even  as  in  the  rest  of  the  Gentiles,'  1 13  • 
'I  speak  to  you  that  are  Gentiles,'  11^3  j  'I 


855 


INTRO. 


ROMANS 


INTRO. 


write  unto  you  because  of  the  grace  given  me 
that  I  should  be  a  minister  unto  the  Gentiles,' 
1515,16);  the  argument  in  chs.  9-11  is  for 
G-entiles  exclusively,  and  in  it  the  Jews  ('  my 
kinsmen,'  not  '  your '  or  even  '  our ')  are 
spoken  of  as  an  outside  body,  while  many  of 
the  sins  against  which  warning  is  given  are 
such  as  G-entiles  rather  than  Jews  were 
addicted  to  (6 12, 13,  I7i  3 13).  On  the  other  hand, 
familiarity  and  sympathy  with  the  Jewish 
standpoint  is  assumed  both  in  writer  and 
readers.  In  c.  2  under  the  general  apostrophe 
addressed  to  all  mankind  ('  thou  art  without 
excuse,  O  man,  whosoever  thou  art,'  2i),  the 
Jew  is  naturally  addressed  in  the  second 
person  ('  if  thou  bearest  the  name  of  a  Jew,' 
217-27)^  but  immediately  thereafter  the  Jews 
are  spoken  of  in  the  third  person  (228t  31*)  ; 
the  reference  in  4^  to  'Abraham  our-  fore- 
father '  (cp.  39  9 10)  betrays  no  more  than  the 
unfailing  remembrance  of  the  Apostle  to  the 
Gentiles  that  he  is  himself  a  Hebrew  (cp.  9  ^  10 1, 
etc.),  while  in  7^,  'I  speak  to  men  that  know 
law,'  the  reference  need  not  be  to  Jewish  law 
at  all,  but  simply  to  universal  moral  law  (cp. 
1 19>32)^  and  even  if  it  were  to  Jewish  law,  they 
might  have  been  Gentile  proselytes  to  Judaism 
before  conversion  to  Christianity,  or,  if  they 
were  converts  to  Christianity  directly,  the 
Old  Testament  was  still  the  Christian  Bible. 
In  91^-,  and  again  in  10 1  especially,  where 
Jewish  privilege  is  dwelt  upon  wistfully,  the 
Apostle  gives  no  hint  that  any  of  his  readers 
are  Jews  :  his  '  brethren  and  kinsmen  accord- 
ing to  the  flesh '  are  referred  to  in  the  third 
person  as  if  over  against  his  readers  in  a  separate 
camp.  Several  of  the  persons  greeted  in  the 
letter  bear  Jewish  names,  but  most  have  Gentile 
names,  Greek  for  the  most  part,  as  was  natural. 
It  is  noteworthy  that,  unlike  the  Thessalonians, 
Corinthians,  and  Galatians,  they  are  not  ad- 
dressed collectively  as  'a  church.'  In  16 ^ 
the  '  church  '  in  the  house  of  Prisca  and  Aquila 
is  marked  off  from  the  rest.  Presumably  in 
Rome  there  would  be  a  number  of  Christian 
circles  and  meeting-places.  As  a  whole  the 
evidence  is  convincing  that  the  Roman 
Christians  addressed  are  a  loose-knit  body, 
composed  almost  wholly  of  Gentiles,  conver- 
sant, either  as  Jewish  proselytes  or  as  Christian 
converts,  with  the  Old  Testament  religion, 
and  concerned  as  Christians  to  adjust  their 
ceremonial,  moral,  and  spiritual  relationship  to 
it  rightly. 

6.   History  of  Christianity  in  Rome. 

(a)  JcAvish  preparation.  Between  Jeru- 
salem and  Rome  there  had  long  been  direct 
and  easy  communication.  If  the  military  heel 
of  Rome  was  planted  firmly  on  Jewish  soil, 
the  softer  tread  of  Jewish  commerce  and  reli- 
gion was  simultaneously  heard  upon  the  pave- 
ments of  the  Roman  capital.     As  conquered 


Greece  soon  took  her  captor  captive  by  the 
force  of  her  literature,  art,  and  culture,  con- 
quered Israel  was  already  advancing  towards 
a  like  success  by  means  of  its  lofty  ethics  and 
religion,  which  were  also  enshrined  in  an  im- 
perishable literature.  At  least  as  early  as  the 
2nd  cent.  B.C.  Jews  found  their  way  to  Rome 
on  embassies,  and  in  63  B.C.  the  capture  of 
Jerusalem  by  Pompey  brought  many  against 
their  will  to  settle  as  slaves  or  freedmen  in  the 
city.  They  formed  a  synagogue  and  a  '  Ghetto,' 
and  found  protection  and  favour  under  the 
first  emperors,  numbering  many  thousands, 
and  making  many  proselytes  without  effort. 
Tiberius  and  Caligula  withdrew  the  imperial 
favour.  Under  Claudius  many  of  them  were 
temporarily  expelled  (52  a.d.),  among  them 
Aquila  and  Prisca  (AclS-),  on  account,  it 
appears,  of  disorders  which  broke  out  upon 
the  preaching  of  Christ  among  them.  Under 
Nero  hitherto  they  had  prospered. 

(b)  The  Christian  Church.  There  is 
evidence,  as  well  as  probability,  that  news 
was  brought  to  Rome  of  Jesus'  career  and 
claims  very  soon  after  His  death.  To  the 
Roman  Jews  all  that  passed  in  Jerusalem  was 
deeply  interesting  (cp.  Ac  2^0)^  and  the  life- 
work  and  teaching  of  the  Prophet  of  Nazareth, 
with  the  resurrection-faith  of  His  followers 
and  the  conversion  of  Saul  for  sequels,  formed 
an  episode  in  Jewish  history  which  could  neither 
be  suppressed  nor  ignored.  The  expulsion 
under  Claudius  of  Aquila  and  Prisca,  St.  Paul's 
informants  concerning  Rome,  and  his  fellow- 
workers  in  Corinth  Ephesus  and  Rome,  sug- 
gests that  the  gospel  met  with  strenuous 
opposition,  first  from  the  Jewish,  and  later, 
as  a  cause  of  civil  tumult,  from  the  Imperial 
authorities.  The  account  of  St.  Paul's  arrival 
in  Acts  (28  ^^-ss^  suggests  that  he  was  met  and 
welcomed  by  Ge>itile  '  brethren,'  and  proves 
that  the  Jewish  authorities  were  not  ignorant 
of  the  new  '  sect  everywhere  spoken  against,' 
but  as  a  body  had  stood  aloof,  and  with  some 
exceptions  persisted  in  their  attitude.  In 
Rome  as  elsewhere  it  had  proved  easier  for 
Gentile  proselytes  than  for  born  Jews  to 
receive  the  new  Teaching.  To  them  St.  Paul, 
as  if  in  anticipation  of  Jewish  coldness,  chiefly 
appeals  in  his  letter. 

(c)  Connexion  of  Roman  Christianity  with 
(1)  St.  Paul  and  (2)  St.  Peter. 

(1)  Plainly  St.  Paul  has  had  no  part  in  the 
intr®duction  of  Christianity  into  Rome,  yet 
he  knows  its  existing  position  intimately,  and 
knows  not  a  few  of  its  Jewish  and  Gentile 
professors  there. 

(2)  The  late  tradition  that  St.  Peter  was 
the  founder  is  incompatible  with  the  absence 
of  any  reference  to  him  in  c.  15  ;  nor,  had  he 
been  then  the  head  of  the  Roman  Church, 
could  a  personal  greeting  to  him  have  been 


856 


I 


INTRO. 


ROMANS 


rNTRO. 


absent.  There  is  no  indication  of  any  apostolic 
origin.  The  foundation  has  been  laid,  Christ 
is  there  named  (16  20),  house-churches  exist 
(16  5),  but  strictly  speaking  there  is  no  united 
Church.  Such  apostolic  basis  as  it  was  to  have 
was  first  afforded  by  this  letter.  It  is  like  a 
consecrating  breath  of  the  Apostle's  presence. 
Though  Christianity  had  long  preceded  him 
in  Rome,  its  people,  Jew  and  Gentile,  were 
not  fused  into  a  single  Church  until  the  genius 
of  St.  Paul,  who  read  the  hearts  of  both,  by 
letter  and  by  word  supplied  the  sacred  fire. 
7.  The  Epistle  as  a  whole. 

(a)  Authenticity  and  Integrity.  That  it  is 
the  work  of  St.  Paul  admits  of  no  serious 
question.  The  evidence,  internal  and  external, 
is  overwhelming.  It  is  the  supreme  self- 
revelation  of  the  Apostle.  That  the  Epistle 
as  we  have  it  is  a  coherent  unity  has  been 
doubted  on  substantial  though  inconclusive 
grounds.  The  doxology  which  marks  the  close 
of  the  Epistle  after  16  24  i^  most  of  the  best 
manuscript  authorities,  is  found  elsewhere,  after 
1423,  or  in  both  places,  in  others.  Moreover, 
apart  from  this  massive  and  impressive  dox- 
ology, there  are  other  passages,  benedictory  in 
form,  between  1423  and  1624,  which  look  like 
endings,  e.g.  16^^  1620  and  1624  ;  in  one  im- 
portant manuscript  Rome  is  not  mentioned, 
and  some  of  the  persons  named  in  c  16  are 
known  to  have  been  connected  with  Ephesus, 
which  has  suggested  Ephesus  as  the  original 
destination  of  that  chapter.  It  is  not  impos- 
sible that  in  shortened  or  lengthened  form  the 
Epistle  to  the  Romans  may  at  some  time  have 
circulated  among  several  groups  of  readers, 
but  the  unity  of  the  Epistle  in  its  present  form 
cannot  be  disproved  or  seriously  shaken.  In 
any  case  its  teaching  remains  unimpaired. 

(b)  Style.  Like  St.  Paul's  other  letters,  it 
was  dictated  to  an  amanuensis  (1622),  a  fact 
which  helps  to  explain  the  irregularities  of  the 
language  and  the  thought  as  it  flowed  on  in  a 
rushing  broken  torrent  from  the  passionate 
soul  of  the  Apostle.  The  tentmaker  and  the 
organiser  of  the  Churches  had  scant  leisure  to 
polish  his  sentences  and  ponder  his  phrases. 
It  may  be  that  his  hand  was  nimbler  with  the 
needle  than  the  pen.  His  style  is  a  mirror  of 
himself.  Not  the  letter,  but  the  spirit ;  not  the 
seen  and  the  superficial,  but  the  unseen  and 
the  underlying  ;  not  the  part,  but  the  whole  ; 
not  the  nice  details  of  argument,  but  the  broad 
sweep  of  truth,  is  his  concern.  Doubtless 
these  dictated  letters  preserve  for  us,  even 
better  than  his  reported  speeches  in  the  book 
of  Acts,  the  form  and  manner  of  his  preaching, 
as  well  as  the  vehemence  of  its  intellectual, 
moral,  and  spiritual  power. 

(e)  Use  and  Interpretation  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment. Familiarity  with  every  portion  of  the 
Old  Testament  is  assumed  in  the  readers  as 


well  as  exhibited  by  the  writer.  Its  law, 
history,  psalmody,  and  prophecy  are  all  requi- 
sitioned in  the  argument  in  a  manner  strongly 
reminiscent  of  the  rabbinical  school,  kindred 
snatches  of  Scripture  being  run  together,  alle- 
gory and  type  being  traced  in  narratives,  yet 
also  with  a  masterly  insight  into  the  prophetic 
spirit  of  the  book,  and  with  a  Christian's  sense 
of  its  completion  and  fulfilment  in  Jesus  Christ 
(cp.  3 10-18  925-33  1016-21  .  alsocp.chs.  4,  10,  and 
11).  By  some  threescore  quotations  the  uni- 
versal reign  of  sin  and  need  of  grace,  the  saving 
power  of  faith,  the  sovereignty  of  the  divine 
will,  the  judgment  of  unbelieving  Israel,  and 
the  summons  to  the  Gentiles,  are  confirmed  by 
way  of  preparation  for  the  universal  truth  in 
Christ.  In  legal  language,  and  by  scriptural 
thought,  the  legal  is  transcended,  and  way  is 
made  for  grace.  The  stricken  conscience  of 
the  Hebrew  under  law  is  healed  by  the  hope 
of  Israel  realised  in  Jesus  Christ. 

(rf)  Relation  to  Christ's  Teaching.  As  a 
teacher  the  Apostle,  though  wielding  authority, 
differs  vastly  from  the  Master,  who  taught  '  not 
as  the  Scribes.'  The  form  and  manner  of  the 
general  teaching  could  scarcely  differ  more 
from  His  ;  but  it  is  impossible  to  read  chs. 
12-14  without  discerning  the  ethical  identity 
of  the  ideals  enjoined  by  both.  It  is  the 
same  Christian  life  and  character  that  each 
would  fain  see  realised.  Nor  can  it  be  gain- 
said that  the  Apostle  at  bottom  shares  his 
Master's  characteristic  attitude  to  the  burdens 
of  the  Pharisaic  law,  and  extends  the  same 
invitation  to  weary  and  heavy-laden  bearers  of 
the  yoke  to  come  to  Him  for  rest.  Between 
the  teaching  of  Jesus  and  that  of  Paul  the  two 
great  facts  of  atoning  death  and  triumphant 
resurrection  have  intervened,  the  facts  which 
in  succeasion  cast  Paul  down  and  lifted  him  up, 
blinded  him  and  gave  him  new  sight,  caused  him 
to  die  and  to  live  again.  Of  necessity  Paul's 
own  relation  to  the  Cross  as  a  Pharisaic  per- 
secutor in  the  name  of  law,  and  his  experience 
as  a  convert  of  its  regenerating  power,  suffuse 
his  whole-  conception  of  Christ's  gospel. 
Though  Jesus  in  the  Gospels  might  assure 
men  of  God's  forgiveness  apart  from  any  re- 
ference to  His  death,  Paul  had  no  experience 
of  any  such  unmediated  forgiveness.  The 
death  and  reappearance  of  the  Lord  alone  had 
sufficed  to  bring  home  to  him  at  once  the  full 
enormity  of  his  guilty  enmity  to  good  and  the 
irresistible  sufficiency  of  the  will  of  God  to 
pardon  and  to  save  through  Christ.  If  in  the 
recorded  words  of  our  Lord  we  would  find 
anticipations  of  the  Pauline  gospel,  it  is  not  to 
the  parable  of  the  Prodigal  Son  alone,  but 
also  to  the  institution  of  the  Sacramental 
Supper  on  the  eve  of  the  Saviour's  sacrifice 
that  we  must  turn.  Can  it  be  seriously  said 
that  Paul's  conception  of  the  bond  between 


857 


INTRO. 


ROMANS 


INTRO. 


the  Saviour  and  the  saved  is  any  other  than 
the  Saviour's  own  ?  All  that  we  can  say  is 
that,  while  it  was  the  simple  comprehensive 
truth  of  God  as  it  was  in  Christ  Jesus  that  he 
saw  and  proclaimed,  while  it  was  a  borrowed, 
not  an  original  gospel,  that  he  preached,  he 
saw  the  truth  with  his  own  eyes  unflinchingly, 
and  declared  it  in  his  own  language.  None  of 
the  apostolic  band  could  view  the  truth  in 
Christ  from  so  detached  a  standpoint  as  he, 
with  his  birth  in  the  dispersion,  his  education 
as  a  rabbi,  his  Roman  citizenship,  and  his 
Graeco-Cilician  home.  It  was  a  necessary  con- 
sequence of  this  very  detachment  which  enabled 
St.  Paul  to  see  the  truth  in  Christ's  life  and 
Person  so  independently,  so  universally,  and 
in  such  clear  perspective,  that  his  manner  of 
teaching,  his  vocabulary,  and  his  mode  of 
thought  should  seem  to  be  at  utter  variance 
with  his  Master's.  But  the  more  we  study  his 
teaching  as  a  whole,  and  the  more  patiently  we 
compare  its  burden  and  its  spirit  with  that  of 
Jesus,  the  more  we  realise  the  justice  of  that 
verdict  of  Christendom  which  has  judged  him 
to  be  the  greatest  and  truest  of  Christians,  and 
the  justice  of  his  own  favourite  self -description 
as  a  '  bondservant  of  Jesus  Christ.' 

(e)  The  Contents.  (For  detailed  outline  see 
p.  864  below,  and  for  running  exposition  see  the 
commentary.) 

As  has  been  said,  the  Epistle  is  a  true  letter, 
personal  in  testimony  and  in  exhortation 
throughout.  C.  1  ^■i''  contains  the  address  and 
preamble.  Chs.  118-1136  contain  a  foretaste 
of  the  '  spiritual  gift '  which  it  is  the  Apostle's 
longing  to  impart  to  the  Roman  Christians 
(l^i),  a  reasoned  vindication  of  'the  gospel' 
which  he  is  '  ready  to  preach '  to  them,  of 
which  he  is  not  ashamed,  which  is  '  the  power 
of  God  unto  salvation  to  every  one  that 
believeth,'  and  in  which  '  is  revealed  a  righteous- 
ness of  God  from  faith  unto  faith.'  Though 
full  of  profound  thought,  the  teaching  in  this 
section  is  not  a  treatise,  it  is  personal  instruc- 
tion addressed  again  and  again  to  '  brethren,' 
abounding  in  vivacious  uses  of  '  I,'  '  you,'  '  we,' 
in  true  letter  form.  Chs.  121-1513  contain 
practical  exhortations  suggested  naturally  by 
the  Apostle's  presentation  of  the  truth  in 
Christ, — exhortations  universally  applicable  to 
Christian  people  (chs.  12,  1.3),  and  exhortations 
specially  addi-essed  to  the  circle  of  his  readers 
(chs.  14,15).  Chs.  1 5 14-1 6  27  contain  a  variety 
of  personal  details  :  the  Apostle's  motive  in 
writing  (15i'*-2i),  plans  of  travel,  introduction 
of  Phoebe,  personal  greetings,  admonition 
against  authors  of  error  and  dispeace,  con- 
veyance of  greetings  from  his  friends,  and 
solemn  final  doxology. 

8.  The  Teaching  of  the  Epistle. 

The  following  is  an  outline  of  the  thought 
embodied    in    the    Epistle,    particularly    in 


chs.  1-11,  which,  while  rather  a  vindication 
than  an  exposition  of  his  gospel,  contain  the 
substance  of  his  whole  message.  To  constitute 
a  comprehensive  summary  of  his  teaching  as  a 
whole,  it  must  be  supplemented  by  the  reader 
in  many  important  details  from  the  other 
Pauline  Epistles,  for  a  mind  like  the  Apostle's 
was  in  continual  movement,  expanding,  en- 
riching, and  maturing  its  convictions,  and  each 
of  his  letters  has  its  own  distinctive  contri- 
butions to  the  sum  of  Christian  truth.  If  we 
would  complete  our  account  of  his  teaching, 
e.g.  on  the  Person  of  Clirist  and  His  relation- 
ship to  the  Christian,  on  the  Church,  the 
Ministry,  the  Sacraments,  not  to  mention 
other  themes,  we  must  make  use  of  the  other 
Epistles.  This  outline,  however,  of  the 
thought  in  the  greatest  of  his  writings  may 
serve  as  a  useful  introduction  to,  and  fore- 
glimpse  of,  his  teaching  as  a  whole. 

The  Preamble  (1  i-i7).  St.  Paul  writes  not 
only  as  a  servant  of  Jesus,  the  Christ,  but 
also  as  a  messenger  of  long-expected  good 
news  from  God.  The  promised  Son  of  David's 
race  according  to  the  flesh  has  at  last  been 
born  and  lived  His  life  ;  by  resurrection  from 
the  dead  He  has  been  supernaturally  shown 
to  be  the  Son  of  God  according  to  the  Spirit. 
'  The  mystery  kept  in  silence  through  times 
eternal  is  now  manifested  '  (16  2^).  This  good 
news  it  is  a  sacred  duty  to  tell  both  to  Greeks 
and  to  the  rest  of  the  world.  It  is  a  gospel  to 
be  proud  of  ;  for  every  man,  be  he  Jew  or 
Greek,  who  accepts  it  in  faith  receives  from 
God  not  a  theory  of  salvation  but  a  saving 
power.  It  reveals  a  new  righteousness,  not 
human  but  divine,  issuing  from  living  faith. 

(A)  The  Need  of  the  World. 

Of  such  good  news,  and  such  faith-right- 
eousness leading  to  salvation,  mankind  is 
universally  in  sore  need.  Gentile  and  Jew 
alike  are  deservedly  under  the  wrath  of  God, 
who  has  revealed  His  anger  against  all  un- 
righteousness and  irreligion.  All  have  sinned. 
All  are  without  excuse.  God  has  suffered  all 
to  become  in  some  measure  hardened  and 
reprobate  through  sinful  habit. 

(a)  Think,  first,  of  the  Gentile  world. 
Though  less  favoured  than  Israel,  the  Gentiles 
have  not  been  without  revelation.  They  have 
been  able  to  discern  from  the  open  face  of 
natui'e  the  everlasting  power  and  divinity  of 
the  invisible  God.  In  their  minds  they  have 
had  knowledge  of  God,  the  self-manifesting. 
But  everywhere  they  have  lapsed.  They  have 
trampled  on  the  truth,  reasoned  foolishly,  and 
fallen  into  all  manner  of  idolatiy,  worshipping 
and  serving  the  creature  rather  than  the 
Creator.  Their  wisdom,  their  philosophy,  has 
ended  in  failure.  They  have  been  ungrateful, 
and  have  not  glorified  God.  Before  Him  they 
are  without  excuse.     Deservedly  He  has  given 


858 


INTRO. 


ROMANS 


INTRO. 


them  up  to  the  indulgence  of  their  impure 
lusts,  to  abuse  their  bodies,  to  dishonour  sex, 
to  cherish  a  reprobate  mind.  By  act  and  by 
consent  they  have  been  guilty  of  every  form 
of  social,  domestic,  and  personal  sin  against 
God  and  man.  They  have  known  the  divine 
ordinance,  that  they  who  practise  such  things 
are  worthy  of  death,  but  they  have  chosen  to 
ignore  God.  They  are  self -condemned,  for 
they  are  ready  to  judge  one  another,  knowing 
well  when  they  are  wronged  that  sin  is  sin, 
and  their  just  judgment  upon  others  recoils 
upon  themselves.  How  is  it  that  men  are 
blind  to  this,  abusing  God's  forbearance,  which 
should  prompt  them  to  repentance,  and  aggra- 
vating their  guilt  ?  God  will  assin-edly  render 
to  every  man  according  to  his  works.  To 
those  who  by  patience  in  well-doing  seek  for 
glory  and  honour  and  eternal  life  He  will 
grant  the  objects  of  their  quest ;  to  the  fac- 
tious and  disobedient,  anguish  under  His  indig- 
nation (118-216). 

(b)  Are  the  Jews  in  better  case  ?  They  are 
involved  in  the  self-same  judgment.  Indeed, 
as  first  in  privilege,  they  are  first  in  condem- 
nation. God  has  no  partiality  :  His  justice  is 
even-handed.  If  the  Gentile  who  has  never 
enjoyed  the  privilege  of  Jewish  law  and 
revelation  is  condemned  for  his  sins  against 
his  own  more  limited  light,  God  cannot  permit 
the  privileged  Jew  to  sin  with  impunity.  The 
same  justice  that  metes  out  stern  punishment 
to  the  Gentile  who  is  outside  the  pale  of 
Jewish  law  and  revelation  because  he  sins 
against  the  unwritten  law  within  the  heart, 
demands  an  even  sterner  sentence  upon  the 
Jew  who  breaks  his  higher  Law.  There  are 
Gentiles  who  do  by  nature  the  things  of  the 
Law,  though  they  know  not  Moses  and  the 
Prophets  :  these  become  as  it  were  their  own 
law,  in  that  they  show  the  work  of  the  Law 
written  in  their  hearts,  their  conscience  bear- 
ing witness  therewith,  and  their  reflections  one 
with  another  accusing  or  else  acquitting  them 
— such  men  put  many  a  Jew  to  shame. 

It  is  indeed  a  great  thing  to  belong  to  the 
Hebrew  race,  to  be  heir  to  the  oracles  of 
God,  to  the  Law,  the  Promises,  the  sacred 
ordinances  and  rites  of  God's  chosen  and 
adopted  people,  to  have  the  blood  of  Abraham 
in  one's  veins,  to  be  of  one  flesh  with  the 
Christ  who  should  come  (217-32  93-5).  But 
to  be  born  a  Jew,  to  be  circumcised  a  Jew,  to 
receive  a  Jewish  name,  is  not  enough.  To 
God  a  man's  heart  is  more  than  his  flesh  and 
blood,  his  conduct  than  his  ceremonial.  '  He 
is  not  a  true  Jew  who  is  one  outwardly : 
neither  is  that  true  circumcision  which  is  out- 
war  i  in  the  flesh  :  but  he  is  a  Jew  who  is  one 
inwardly,  and  circumcision  is  that  of  the  heart, 
in  the  spirit  not  in  the  letter.'  '  They  are  not 
all  It^rael  who  are  of  Israel :  neither  because 


they  are  Abraham's  seed  are  they  all  children. 
.  .  It  is  not  the  children  of  the  flesh  that  are 
children  of  God.'  Hebrew  history  and  Scrip- 
ture are  full  of  evidence  that  mere  possession 
of  the  Law  has  never  secured  obedience  to  it ; 
each  of  the  commandments  has  been  dis- 
honoured daily ;  and  instead  of  being  the 
glory  of  God,  Israel  has  too  often  been  a 
reproach  to  Him  among  the  nations.  It  is 
not  more  true  that  the  Law  is  the  pride  of 
Israel  as  a  nation  among  the  nations,  than 
that  the  Law  is  the  condemnation  of  the 
individual  Jew  (217-38,  also  chs.  9-11). 

Thus  it  appears  that  as  the  Greek  or  other 
Gentile  is  convicted  by  his  unwritten  law  of 
conscience,  so  the  Jew  is  convicted  by  his 
recorded  law.  All  are  under  sin.  There  is 
none  righteous,  none  whose  works  fulfil  the 
demands  of  the  divine  Law  under  which  he 
lives.  Every  mouth  is  stopped.  Were  law  to 
have  the  final  word,  the  doom  of  all  were 
sealed  (3  9-20). 

(B)  The  Inadequacy  of  Law  to  save  (c.  7). 

The  persistence  of  sin  under  the  rule  of 
Gentile  conscience  and  Hebrew  law  is  proof 
that  law  has  been  unable  to  save,  though  it  is 
able  to  condemn  :  it  can  teach,  threaten,  and 
admonish,  but  it  cannot  inspire  and  empower. 
Indeed,  in  man's  fallen  condition,  law  seems 
but  to  aggravate  the  evil  it  denounces.  But  for 
it  we  should  not  know  sin — our  lives  were 
innocent  as  those  of  babes  or  beasts.  Obe- 
dience, the  essence  of  duty,  presupposes  a 
command  or  prohibition,  the  essence  of  law. 
The  insistence  of  law  is  a  standing  provoca- 
tion and  temptation  to  disobedience.  The 
very  words  '  thou  shalt  not '  suggest  to  man's 
wayward  sense  of  freedom  '  why  not  '? '  '  shall 
I  not  ? '  Apart  from  law  sin  is  dead,  lifeless, 
or  unborn  :  through  law  sin  finds  its  opportunity 
and  enters  the  heart  of  man  on  its  fatal  errand. 

Is  law  sinful,  then,  because  it  thus  opens 
the  way  for  sin  ?  No  :  the  sin  is  not  in  law, 
but  in  us  who  respond  so  perversely  to  its 
just  demands.  The  law  is  in  itself  a  thing 
of  righteousness  ;  it  is  the  voice  of  God, 
whether  the  whisper  of  conscience  or  the  peal 
of  Sinai  ;  it  is  good  throughout.  It  is  in  fact 
the  great  instrument  for  showing  up  sin  in  its 
true  character,  in  its  naked  ugliness.  Sin  is 
seen  at  its  worst  as  man's  enemy  when  it  thus 
subverts  the  very  law  of  God  for  its  baleful 
uses.  Law  would  fain  guide  us  to  life  :  '  obey 
and  ye  shall  live '  is  its  burden  ;  but  sin  se- 
duces us  into  the  way  of  death.  By  pointing 
out  the  way  of  life  law  must,  however  un- 
willingly, disclose  to  us  implicitly  other  ways 
which  lead  to  death.  Sin,  when  we  have  thus 
become  familiar  with  the  way  to  death,  casts 
its  spell  over  our  eyes  and  invests  the  fatal 
way  with  a  seductive  glamour.  But  sin  is  not 
in  law,  is  not  in  God  ;  it  can  only  be  in  us. 


859 


TNTRO. 


ROMANS 


There  is  in  us  a  principle  of  evil,  our  carnal 
nature,  a  kind  of  lower  law.  The  mind  of 
the  flesh  is  enmity  against  God  and  rebellion 
against  His  law :  it  is  death  (8  6, 7).  in  our 
moral  life  we  are  aware  of  division  and  dis- 
cord within  us.  After  the  inward  man  we 
delight  in  the  law  of  God,  we  hate  evil,  we 
desire  to  obey  and  do  good,  yet  we  do  not 
succeed.  The  good  which  we  would,  we  do 
not  ;  the  evil  which  we  would  not,  that  we 
habitually  do.  It  becomes  as  it  were  a  law  of 
our  life  to  sin.  We  are  sin-possessed.  Another, 
a  loioer  law  in  our  members,  in  our  flesh,  wages 
war  against  the  law  of  our  mind,  and  enslaves 
us.  In  the  agony  of  despair  the  soul  of  man 
cries  out, '  O  wretched  man  that  I  am  !  who  shall 
deliver  me  from  this  living  death,  from  this  sin- 
dominated,  death-bringing  bodily  existence  ?  ' 

(C)  A  New  Way  of  Salvation  needed  and 
foreshadowed. 

History  and  experience  thus  combine  to 
attest  man's  need  of  deliverance.  Man  as 
man  must  be  liberated  from  sin,  from  condem- 
nation, from  the  law  of  his  lower  self,  even  in 
a  sense  from  the  grim  grasp  of  the  Eevealed 
Law  of  Israel's  Covenant-God.  In  himself 
man  has  proved  powerless  to  achieve  salvation 
even  when  guided  by  explicit  law  and  encour- 
aged by  special  providences  and  uplifting 
promises.  Can  it  be  that  he  is  now  without 
hope  and  lost '?  Gentile  wisdom  and  Jewish 
privilege  stand  self -condemned  and  humbled. 
Unless  God  intervenes  salvation  is  for  ever 
beyond  reach,  and  the  divine  end  of  creation 
frustrated. 

With  true  prophetic  insight  St.  Paul  dis- 
cerns a  divine  purpose  in  this  humiliation  of 
mankind.  Thus  humbled,  man  is  prepared  to 
look  above  for  deliverance,  and  to  remain 
humble  should  God  deign  to  save  him.  And 
man's  utmost  need  is  God's  utmost  opportunity 
('where  sin  abounded,  grace  did  abound  more 
exceedingly,'  5  2^).  Conscience  and  law  are 
seen  not  only  to  be  inadequate  for  man's 
complete  salvation,  but  also  by  reason  of  their 
incompleteness  to  deepen  man's  sense  of  need 
and  to  point  forward  to  the  coming  in  God's 
providence  of  a  higher  law  and  a  fuller  revela- 
tion. To  say  with  the  Jew  that  either  the 
law  must  save  or  we  are  lost,  is  to  fetter  and 
cramp  the  goodness  of  God,  to  make  the  law 
greater  than  its  Giver.  There  may  have  been, 
nay,  there  has  been,  waiting  in  the  secret 
counsel  of  God  a  way  of  salvation  destined, 
not  to  discredit  or  set  aside  law,  but  to  trans- 
cend the  old  method  of  attempting  to  satisfy 
conscience  and  law  and  to  achieve  work- 
righteousness.  Gentile  and  Jew  were  right, 
were  bound,  to  seek  salvation  by  honouring 
their  conscience  and  their  law,  and  cherishing 
their  light,  and  they  have  not  been  without 
their  reward  ;  but  they  were  wrong  to  shut 


INTRO. 

their  eyes  and  their  hearts  to  the  limitation 
and  the  partiality  of  the  old-time  method  and 
the  pitiful  inadequacy  of  its  results :  their 
failures  ought  to  have  led  them  to  turn  with 
increased  humility  and  hope  to  God,  from 
whom  alone  so  great  a  boon  aa  their  soul's 
salvation  could  come.  Man's  unbelief  cannot 
annul  God's  faithfulness. 

The  new  way  is  not  without  some  fore- 
shadowing in  the  Old  Dispensation  (cp.  c.  4). 
The  children  of  Abraham  might  have  remem- 
bered that  the  justice  of  God  was  never 
mechanical :  that  His  favours  were  not  always 
bought  or  earned,  but  might  be  freely  given, 
and  often  descended  on  unexpected  quarters. 
Who  could  say  that  Israel's  position  as  God's 
peculiar  people  had  always,  had  ever,  been 
deserved?  (cp.  chs.  9-11).  The  history  of 
Abraham,  the  Father  of  the  Faithful,  proves 
that  God's  dealings  with  him  were  based  on 
other  grounds  than  simple  legal  justice.  God's 
recompense  of  good  is  far  more  than  legally 
proportioned  to  man's  desert.  It  was  some- 
thing more  than  virtuous  acts  that  commended 
Abraham  to  God  and  gave  value  to  his  life  : 
'  not  through  the  law  was  the  promise  to  Abra- 
ham or  to  his  seed  that  he  should  be  heir  of  the 
world.'  The  supreme  merit  of  Abraham  was 
his  faith  in  God  :  it  was  his  firm  faith  that 
enabled  him  alike  to  obey  the  call  to  leave  home 
and  kindred  and  to  yield  up  his  only  son,  and 
to  believe  that,  in  spite  of  his  own  old  age  and 
the  barrenness  of  Sarah,  God  would  give  him 
a  son  and  fulfil  the  promise  that  he  would  be- 
come the  father  of  many  nations.  Abraham's 
true  seed  and  heirs  are  those  who  cherish  his 
faith  in  God :  he  will  become  the  father  of 
many  nations  when  the  Gentiles  enter  into 
that  faith.  It  is  circumcision  of  the  heart, 
trustful  self -surrender  to  God,  that  is  the  mark 
of  the  true  child  of  Abraham,  the  true  heir 
of  that  faith  which  was  in  Abraham's  bosom 
before  his  flesh  was  circumcised,  and  of  those 
promises  which  were  out  of  all  proportion  to 
his  actual  deeds. 

The  prophets  in  their  day  looked  beyond 
human  actions  and  Hebrew  merit  for  the  sal- 
vation of  Israel,  and  taught  that  God's  eye  is 
ever  on  the  heart  which  moves  the  hand.  The 
heart  must  be  right,  must  be  fixed  on  God, 
must  look  to  Him  for  power  to  raise  and 
wisdom  to  guide  the  hand  that  works.  Did 
not  the  very  hope  and  promise  of  Messiah,  a 
Saviour  from  the  right  hand  of  God,  imply 
that  man  was  powerless  to  save  himself  ?  The 
Messianic  hope  was  therefore  the  harbinger  of 
a  new  righteousness  not  resting  on  works  done 
by  men,  but  instead  resting  on  God's  gi-ace 
and  enabling  good  works  to  be  done — a  ri;;ht- 
eousness  of  the  heart,  a  conscience  cleared  not 
by  human  merit  but  by  divine  forgiveness  and 
renewal. 


860 


INTRO. 


ROMANS 


INTRO. 


This  means  that  a  new  view  must  hence- 
forth be  taken  of  Israel's  history,  privilege 
and  vocation,  its  sacraments  and  its  Messiah, 
its  righteous  God  who  judges  not  as  man 
judges,  but  looks  upon  the  heart  and  reads 
its  secrets.  Pride  of  race,  presumption  upon 
Grod's  favour,  must  for  ever  be  laid  aside. 
God's  aim  is  not  Israel's  aggrandisement,  but 
man's  universal  sanctification  and  attachment 
to  Himself.  The  election  of  Israel  is  that 
all  the  nations  may  share  the  blessing.  The 
coming  of  Messiah  therefore  could  have  no 
other  purpose  than  the  coming  of  God's  uni- 
versal and  eternal  kingdom  of  holiness,  the 
highest  good  of  the  greatest  number.  Con- 
science, law,  and  Messiah  have  righteousness 
on  earth  as  their  common  aim.  Conscience 
and  law  are  the  world's  schoolmasters  to 
educate  it  up  to  Christ.  His  actual  and 
attested  coming  is  the  fulfilment  and  therefore 
also  the  vindication  of  both  (S^^),  the  achieve- 
ment of  righteousness  by  a  new  means  which 
was  beyond  their  reach.  God  is  now  fully 
disclosed  in  His  true  character,  not  as  an  arbi- 
trary sovereign  grasping  at  sovereignty  for  its 
own  sake,  nor  as  a  stern  judge  administering 
a  grim  law  over  which  He  has  no  control, 
but  as  a  Holy  and  Loving  Father,  jealously 
requiring  righteousness  in  His  children  for 
their  own  sake,  and  putting  forth  every  effort 
to  realise  their  highest  good.  '  For  the  earnest 
expectation  of  the  creation  waiteth  for  the 
revealing  of  the  sons  of  God  . .  for  the  whole 
creation  groaneth  and  travaileth  in  pain  to- 
gether until  now. .  .  For  the  creation  was  sub- 
jected to  vanity,  not  of  its  own  will  simply, 
but  of  God's  who  subjected  it,  in  hope  that  the 
creation  itself  also  shall  be  delivered  from 
the  bondage  of  corruption  into  the  liberty  of 
the  glory  of  the  children  of  God  '  (813-22).  Of 
free  grace  His  beneficent  hand  equips  both 
men  and  nations  with  their  several  talents  at 
the  outset  of  their  stewardship,  while  as  yet 
of  merit  they  can  have  none,  and  rewards  them 
at  the  close  of  their  day  according  to,  yet  far 
above,  their  works.  Of  free  grace  He  bestows 
on  some  a  larger  stewardship  than  on  others. 
Of  free  grace  likewise  He  bestows  His  supreme 
gift  of  righteousness  unto  salvation  which  men 
can  neither  achieve  nor  earn,  but  which  they 
must  prepare  themselves  to  receive  through 
humble  penitence  for  sin  committed,  and 
through  heart-yearning  and  heart-trust,  in  a 
word,  through  faith  in  God  who  alone  saves. 
'  0  the  depth  of  the  riches  both  of  the  wisdom 
and  of  the  knowledge  of  God  !  how  unsearch- 
able are  his  judgments,  and  his  ways  past  tracing 
out !  For  who  hath  known  the  mind  of  the  Lord, 
or  who  hath  been  his  counsellor  ?  or  who  hath 
first  given  to  him,  and  it  shall  be  recompensed 
unto  him  again  ?  For  of  him,  and  through 
him,  and  unto  him  are  all  things'  (1133-36)_ 


861 


{D)  God's  Salvation   in    Jesus    His   Christ 

(319-31  5,  8). 

What  conscience  and  law  could  not  do  in 
that  they  were  weak  through  the  flesh,  God 
has  accomplished,  sending  His  own  Son  in  the 
likeness  of  our  human,  sin-ridden  flesh.  He 
has  set  men  free  from  their  bondage  to  fleshly 
lust,  to  sin,  and  to  the  law  which  can  con- 
demn to  death  but  cannot  save  unto  life, 
through  the  higher  law  or  principle  of  the 
Spirit  of  Life  in  Christ  Jesus.  This  deliver- 
ance is  not  simply  revealed  but  mediated  and 
effected  through  Jesus,  for  He  purifies  and 
renews  the  heart  as  well  as  opens  the  eyes. 

Jesus  is  the  Christ,  the  promised  Saviour 
from  sin.  He  is  God's  true,  unique,  '  own '  Son, 
His  representative  on  earth,  doing  His  work, 
wielding  His  power,  revealing  His  mind,  shar- 
ing His  Spirit,  reconciling  men  to  His  Father 
as  veritable  sons.  His  coming  was  '  for  sin.' 
His  life  and  death  were  a  condemnation  of  sin, 
as  showing  that  human  life  could  rise  above 
it  in  the  power  of  the  Divine  Spirit  :  they  are 
also  the  destruction  of  sin,  breaking  its  power 
over  men,  revealing  its  hatefulness  and  dead- 
liness,  and  reconciling  us  to  the  Heavenly 
Father  from  whom  it  has  estranged  us.  Jesus 
the  Christ  was  a  man  (5 1^),  human  as  Adam  : 
His  work  of  grace  will  prove  as  far-reachftig 
in  its  consequences  for  good  as  Adam's  trans- 
gression has  proved  for  evil.  He  is  the  second 
Adam  (Si^-^i),  undoer  of  the  mischief  of  the 
first.  Through  Adam's  fall,  his  one  trespass, 
sin  and  death  entered  the  world  and  reigned 
over  men, '  even  over  them  that  had  not  sinned 
after  the  likeness  of  Adam's  transgression, 
and  through  the  one  man's  disobedience  the 
many  were  made  sinners.'  In  like  manner 
through  Jesus'  one  life-comprehending  act  of 
obedience.  His  self-surrender  in  death  the 
righteous  for  the  unrighteous,  His  lifting-up, 
grace  shall  reign,  the  many  shall  be  made 
righteous  even  though  of  themselves  they 
shall  not  achieve  the  same  obedience.  Sin, 
condemnation,  death  formed  our  portion  as 
Adam's  heirs  through  the  flesh  :  through 
Christ  holiness,  justification,  and  life  are  ours, 
a  free  portion  given  to  us  as  partakers  of  His 
Spirit,  joint-heirs  of  God  with  Him.  Accord- 
ing to  the  old  regime  a  man  must  die  to  ex- 
piate his  sin  :  '  he  that  hath  died  is  justified 
from  sin  '  (6  7).  In  Christ  a  higher  than 
forensic  justification  is  accomplished  without 
the  necessity  of  physical  death.  If  a  man 
becomes  by  the  grace  of  God  one  with  Christ, 
knit  to  Him  in  spirit,  he  passes  spiritually 
through  the  Saviour's  experience  of  death  and 
resurrection.  He  dies  to  the  old  life,  to  sin, 
with  Christ.  In  spirit  he  is  crucified  with  the 
Lord.  The  carnal  in  him  falls  away,  as  flesh 
falls  away  from  spirit  in  death  :  mortality  and 
sin   are  laid   aside  as   in   a  grave  :   and   the 


INTRO. 


ROMANS 


INTRO. 


spirit,  the  true  self,  God's  child  in  him,  rises 
with  the  risen  Christ  to  the  new  life,  dead 
only  to  sin,  alive  unto  God  in  Christ  Jesus. 

The  life  and  work  of  Jesus  as  the  Christ  of 
God  is  thus  not  only  the  instrument  of  de- 
liverance and  a  final  revelation  to  man  of  God 
and  of  man's  own  self,  but  also  an  all-embrac- 
ing cosmic  fact.  It  is  far  more  than  a  type 
or  object-lesson  of  the  Christian's  experience, 
for  it  is  also  a  supreme  instrument  in  its  own 
reproduction.  It  thus  gathers  up  within  itself 
all  individual  spiritual  experience  of  salvation. 
Through  the  Cross  and  the  open  sepulchre 
every  soul  must  find  its  exodus  from  bondage 
to  liberty.  It  is  the  appointed  way.  Every 
soul  has  a  death  to  die  and  a  resurrection  to 
receive  :  a  life  to  withdraw  from  the  world 
and  yield  up  to  God,  and  to  receive  back 
with  the  seal  of  acceptance  and  renewal 
upon  it.  We  not  only  know  this  now  through 
Christ  and  see  it  in  Him,  but  we  experience 
it  in  and  with  Him.  He  dies  and  lives 
again  in  us,  or  we  die  and  live  again  in 
Him.  We  are  one  with  Him  in  the  Spirit. 
And  if  with  the  apostle  we  know  Christ  cru- 
cified and  raised  from  the  dead,  that  is  self- 
yielded  unto  death  for  our  sins,  and  God- 
accepted  for  our  assurance  and  our  justification 
through  the  faith  which  rests  on  His  resur- 
rection regarded  as  a  proof  of  God's  acceptance 
of  His  death  for  others,  we  know  Christ  fully. 
His  death  and  resurrection  are  a  summary  and 
consummation  of  His  whole  life.  To  know 
Him  in  them  is  to  know  Him  completely,  and 
not  only  Him  but  the  love  of  God  disclosed 
in  Him,  for  it  was  love  that  prompted  God 
to  send  Him  to  us  :  '  God  commendeth  his 
own  love  toward  us  in  that,  while  we  were  yet 
sinners,  Christ  died  for  us  ' ;  and  it  is  the  same 
divine  love  that  is  '  shed  abroad  in  our  hearts 
through  the  Holy  Spirit  which  was  given  unto 
us.'  Through  Christ  it  has  come  about  that 
our  knowledge  of  God  as  the  righteous  vin- 
dicator of  stern  law  is  all  but  merged  to  vanish- 
ing in  our  knowledge  of  His  tender  love,  the  self- 
same love  unto  death  which  Jesus  cherished 
towards  us  on  earth,  and  still  cherishes  at  the 
right  hand  of  God  as  our  constant  intercessor, 
a  love  from  which  '  neither  death,  nor  life,  nor 
angels,  nor  principalities,  nor  things  present, 
nor  things  to  come,  nor  powers,  nor  height,  nor 
depth,  nor  any  other  creature  shall  be  able  to 
separate  us.' 

Surveying  this  divine  work  of  salvation,  the 
Apostle  clearly  distinguishes  certain  activities 
on  the  part  of  God,  whose  succession  need  not 
be  thought  of  as  strictly  temporal  in  the  eter- 
nal will.  The  redeeming  purpose  of  divine 
love  involves  the  following  sequence  of  grace. 
God  foreknows  His  individual  children  ;  fore- 
ordains them  '  to  be  conformed  to  the  image 
of  his  Son  that  he  may  be  the  firstborn  among 


many  brethren ' ;  calls  them  to  fulfil  their 
destiny  ;  justifies  them,  i.e  forgives  their  sin 
and  imputes  to  them  new  righteousness  when 
in  faith  they  respond  to  His  call ;  and  glorifies 
them,  i.e.  through  sanctification  brings  them 
to  the  consummation  of  their  life-purpose  and 
the  realisation  of  their  true  selves  (829>30) 
In  each  stage  of  the  process  the  '  image  of  his 
Son '  is  present ;  in  each  the  eternal  Christ  par- 
ticipates ;  our  election,  our  vocation,  our  jus- 
tification, our  adoption,  our  sanctification,  and 
our  glorification  are  inseparable  from  Him. 

{E)  The  Ne'w  Righteousness :  Life  in  the 
Spirit  (chs.  5,  6,  8,  12-15). 

With  singular  fulness  and  insight  St.  Paul 
describes  the  substance  and  the  secret  of 
salvation  as  an  experience  of  the  human  soul. 
The  Epistle  is  a  revelation  of  the  spiritual 
riches  of  his  own  experience,  as  well  as  a 
masterly  delineation  of  a  universal  ideal.  His 
touch  is  never  firmer,  his  grasp  never  stronger, 
than  when  he  lays  bare  in  swift  heart-search- 
ing sentences  the  meaning,  the  joys,  the  hopes, 
and  the  responsibilities  of  the  new  life  in 
Christ.  Whatever  view  be  taken  of  the 
fidelity  of  other  elements  in  his  teaching  to 
the  letter  of  the  explicit  words  of  his  Master, 
no  one  can  seriously  allege  that  the  Apostle's 
conception  of  the  regenerate  life,  or,  for  that 
matter,  his  practical  embodiment  of  it,  differs 
in  any  material  respect  from  that  which  is  en- 
shrined in  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount  and  in 
the  Gospels  as  a  whole.  The  words  may  be 
different  ;  the  manner  of  the  teacher  may  not 
be  the  same ;  but  beyond  question  the  self- 
same spirit  breathes  through  both,  the  same 
vision  arises  at  the  bidding  of  each. 

(1)  In  relation  to  God  the  Christian  lives 
a  filial  life.  All  that  a  son  should  be  in 
thought,  word,  and  deed,  it  is  for  him  to  be 
towards  God.  Perfect  freedom  of  access  to 
the  Father,  unbroken  communion,  childlike 
trust,  unfailing  hope,  self -yielding  love,  are 
his.  Intercourse  with  Him  and  service  are 
his  chief  joy  ;  growth  in  likeness  to  Him 
is  his  chief  reward.  Gratefully  he  acknow- 
ledges his  utter  dependence  upon  the  Father 
for  forgiveness  and  reconciliation  and  new 
righteousness,  and  for  every  good  gift.  To 
glorify  Him  is  the  sum  of  duty  and  the  sum- 
mit of  ambition.  The  Christian  is  a  son  and 
therefore  an  heir  of  God,  joint-heir  with  Christ 
the  Elder  Brother  and  the  First-born  of  many 
sons.  Bondage  and  fear  towards  God  are 
done  away  :   '  Abba,  Father  I '  is  his  cry. 

(2)  In  relation  to  Christ.  No  words  can 
exaggerate  the  intimacy  of  the  bond  between 
the  believer  and  Christ.  He  belongs  to  his 
Lord ;  in  life  and  death  his  face  is  towards 
Him  who  died  for  him  (14  8).  From  His  love 
he  is  inseparable  (835).  jje  is  in  Christ  Jesus; 
baptised  into  Him,  into  His  death, — crucified, 


862 


INTRO. 


ROMANS 


INTRO. 


dead,  buried,  and  risen  with  Him.  It  is 
not  simply  the  man  Jesus,  good,  obedient, 
pure,  and  true  till  death,  but  Jesus  the  Eternal 
Christ  of  God — Christ  in  spite  of  crucifixion, 
Christ  because  raised  from  the  dead,  enthroned 
-with  the  Father,  and  alive  for  evermore. 
'The  Lord  is  the  Spirit'  (2Cor3i7),  known  no 
longer  after  the  flesh,  visible  only  to  the  eye 
of  faith.  It  is  not  so  much  the  deliberate 
imitation  or  following  of  Jesus  as  a  man,  for 
that  may  mean  but  self-reliance  after  all,  as 
faith  in  Him  the  Son  of  God,  that  is  first 
demanded,  for  it  is  by  faith  that  we  are  en- 
abled to  follow, — faith  must  precede,  even 
where  we  cannot  see.  We  are  to  '  put  on  the 
Lord  Jesus.'  Serving  Him  we  please  God,  and 
are  approved  of  men  (15^^);  receiving  Him  we 
have  an  earnest  of  the  satisfaction  of  all  our 
needs  (1314). 

According  to  St.  Paul,  then,  faith  is  the 
link  that  unites  us  to  Christ  in  the  unseen  and 
eternal  world,  the  principle  that  links  our  life 
to  His  so  that  we  are  one  with  Him,  even  as 
He  is  one  with  the  Father  in  spiritual  fellow- 
ship. Faith  is  our  response  to  the  advances  of 
God's  redeeming  love.  St.  Paul  is  not  content 
with  St.  John  to  dwell  on  love  to  God  as  our 
response  to  His  love ;  doubtless  he  takes  that 
answering  love  for  granted,  for  he  was  no 
stranger  to  the  power  of  love,  and  on  occasion 
could  hymn  its  praise  as  greater  even  than  faith, 
and  he  speaks  of  the  love  of  God  as  shed  abroad 
in  our  hearts  (55).  Probably  he  had  been 
constrained  to  believe  in  Jesus  as  Christ  upon 
the  way  to  Damascus  even  before  he  was  con- 
scious of  passionate  love  towards  Him,  and 
therefore  lays  stress  upon  the  priority, of  faith. 
He  loved  Him  because  he  saw  in  Him  the 
suffering  and  triumphant  Christ  of  God;  it 
was  not  simply  because  he  loved  Him  that  he 
believed  Him  to  be  the  Christ.  Love  followed 
faith  and  crowned  it.  He  fastens  upon  faith, 
a  living  trust  in  a  living  God,  a  personal  re- 
liance upon  a  Saviour  Christ,  as  the  root- 
principle  of  the  Christian  life,  the  instrument 
of  Christian  progress.  Through  this  vital 
attachment,  self  is  forgotten,  the  world  recedes, 
the  body  is  reduced  to  its  true  position,  the 
higher  life  nourished  and  supported.  Like 
love,  faith  lays  hold  of  the  whole  man  and 
transforms  him;  it  is  not  blind  or  unintelligent: 
it  trusts  because  it  knows  and  has  experi- 
ence ;  it  holds  the  key  to  obedience ;  such  is  its 
power  over  the  springs  of  moral  action,  that 
'whatsoever  is  not  of  faith  is  sin'  (1423). 
Christianity  is  the  life  of  faith. 

(3)  In  relation  to  the  Spirit.  If  the  Christian 
life  upon  its  human  side  is  a  life  of  faith,  on 
its  divine  side  it  is  life  in  the  Spirit  of  God, 
in  the  Spirit  of  Christ,  in  the  same  Holy  Spirit 
who  of  old  spake  in  prophecy,  in  Scripture, 
and  in  conscience.     The  Spirit  is  the  motive- 


power  of  the  Christian  life,  quickening  its  per- 
ceptions and  faculties,  flooding  the  heart  with 
the  love  of  God,  identifying  Himself  with  the 
believer's  spirit,  and  witnessing  with  it  that  it 
is  the  true  child  of  God  the  Father,  helping 
us  to  pray,  pleading  with  the  Father,  bringing 
Christ  into  the  soul  to  mingle  with  it.  '  As 
many  as  are  led  by  the  Spirit  of  God,  these  are 
sons  of  God  '  (8  !■*).  '  If  any  man  hath  not 
the  Spirit  of  Christ,  he  is  none  of  His '  (8  9). 
The  higher  instincts  of  men  belong  to  the 
Spirit,  and  are  divine ;  the  kingdom  of  God  on 
earth  '  is  not  eating  and  drinking,  but  righteous- 
ness and  peace  and  joy  in  the  Holy  Spirit ' 
(141''').  Christian  virtues  are  fruits  of  the  in- 
dwelling Spirit.  The  work  of  grace  is  its 
unresting  activity. 

(4)  In  relation  to  Society.  In  chs.  12-15 
the  Apostle  pours  out  from  the  treasury  of 
his  experience  and  reflection,  ethical  precepts 
and  exhortations  which  glance  like  jewels  in 
their  spiritual  brilliancy.  Every  aspect  of  the 
Christian  character,  every  phase  of  the  life  in 
Christ,  is  here  reflected.  In  the  power  of  the 
Spirit,  in  the  righteousness  which  is  through 
faith,  the  Christian  is  to  be  modest,  humble,  sin- 
cere, patient,  cheerful,  sympathetic,  merciful, 
generous,  hospitable  (c.  12).  Remembering 
the  death  of  his  Lord  for  all,  he  will  not  live  for 
himself,  but  sacrifice  himself  for  others,  deny 
himself  innocent  pleasures  and  lawful  rights 
rather  than  lead  a  weak  brother  into  temptation, 
or  set  a  stumbling-block  in  his  path  (c.  14). 
He  will  not  succumb  to  evil,  not  try  to  over- 
come evil  with  evil.  He  will  eschew  anger  and 
revenge,  will  bless  his  persecutors,  and  feed  his 
enemy  (c.  12).  As  a  citizen  he  will  loyally 
recognise  the  lawful  and  divinely  appointed 
authority  of  the  ruling  powers  which  restrain 
evil-doers,  and  encourage  well-doing  ;  he  will 
not  withhold  from  them  taxes,  customs,  fear,  and 
honour  (131-'^').  As  a  member  of  the  Church, 
the  one  body  in  Christ,  he  will  play  his  jxirt 
diligently,  in  a  fervent  spirit  serving  the  Lord ; 
he  will  exercise  his  own  spiritual  gifts,  and 
respect  the  varying  gifts  of  others,  whether 
prophecy,  ministering,  teaching,  exhortation, 
ruling,  or  contributing  to  the  temporal  needs  of 
the  Church  (12^-8) ;  he  will  by  every  means  in 
his  power  help  on  his  brethren,  love  them  for 
Christ's  sake,  and  encourage  them  in  the 
Christian  life,  bear  their  infirmities  (15^),  be 
slow  to  judge  them  (14io-i3)^  live  in  peace  and 
harmony  with  them,  avoid  causes  of  stumbling 
and  division  in  doctrine  and  practice  (161''). 

(5)  In  relation  to  Oneself.  The  Christian 
will  honour  himself  and  keep  himself  pure. 
Remembering  that  Christ  died  for  him  and  for 
sin,  he  will  present  his  body  a  living  sacrifice, 
holy,  acceptable  to  God,  in  reasonable  service 
(121).  jjg  -^iii  restrain  his  fleshly  nature 
watchfully;  keep  the    commandments  ;  culti- 


863 


INTRO. 


ROMANS 


INTRO. 


vate  the  spiritual  side  of  his  nature  resolutely, 
even  at  the  expense  of  the  bodily  ;  enter  into 
the  life  of  Christ,  abhorring  evil,  cleaving  to 
good.  He  will  strive  not  to  be  fashioned  ac- 
cording to  this  world,  but  to  be  transformed 
by  the  renewing  of  his  mind  into  the  image  of 
God's  Son,  so  proving  God's  good  and  perfect 
will  (12  2).  As  one  who  shall  stand  before 
the  judgment-seat  of  God  (14  lO),  and  who 
knows  that  the  consummation  of  God's  saving 
work  draws  nearer  (13  ii),  and  that  the  night 


preceding  the  great  day  is  far  spent,  he  will 
put  slumber  far  from  him,  and  cast  ofE  the 
works  of  darkness,  and  put  on  the  armour 
of  light  (1311-1^).  Under  difficulties  he  will 
be  of  good  courage,  assured  that  to  those  who 
love  God  all  things  work  together  for  good 
(8  2S).  He  is  Christ's  ;  he  has  the  Spirit  dwell- 
ing in  him;  he  is  the  child  of  the  Father  in 
heaven.  These  things  he  cannot  forget — his 
personal  life  is  shaped  by  them,  guided  by  the 
One  Spirit. 


Summary  of  the  Epistle 


The  subject  of  the  Epistle  is  the  meaning 
and  power  of  the  gospel,  i.e.  God's  message 
to  man  of  salvation  through  faith  in  Jesus 
Christ,  for  Jew  and   Gentile  alike. 

I.  Chs.  1-8.  The  Divine  Way  of  Acceptance 
with  God. 

1 1-17.  After  an  introduction  fitted  to  engage 
the  attention  and  sympathy  of  the  Roman 
Christians  (1  i-i^),  St.  Paul  sets  down  the 
subject  of  the  Epistle.  It  is  the  gospel  which 
works  a  moral  miracle  among  men  by  proclaim- 
ing a  state  of  acceptance  with  God,  offered  to 
all   as  a  free  gift,  on   the  sole   condition   of 

faith  (li«  f-)- 

118-320.  St.  Paul  shows  that  all  men  need 

salvation.    Both  Gentile  and  Jew  have  sinned, 

though  God  has  given  each  a  law  of  life  ;  and 

each  will  be  judged  by  the  law  he  has  (1 1^-2  29). 

In    spite    of    his   privileges,    the    Jew    needs 

salvation  as  much  as  the  Gentile,  as  his  moral 

condition  shows  (3i"20). 

321-26.  The  need  of  sinful  man  has  been  met 
by  the  love  of  God.  Christ  has  shed  His 
blood  as  an  offering  to  God  for  man's  redemp- 
tion. Thereby  God's  holy  displeasure  against 
sin  has  been  manifested,  and  all  who  join  in  that 
offering  by  self-surrendering  faith  in  Christ 
are  received  by  God  into  a  state  of  acceptance. 

41-5  21.  Reasons  why  men  should  welcome 
this  way  of  salvation.  (1)  It  is  in  harmony 
with  God's  dealings  in  the  past.  Acceptance 
with  God  has  always  been  on  account  of  faith 
(41-25)  (2)  It  brings  to  men  peace  and  joy 
and  everlasting  security  (5i-ii).  (3)  By  trans- 
ferring us  into  relationship  with  Christ,  it 
more  than  abolishes  the  evil  effects  of  sin  and 
death  which  we  have  derived  from  our  former 
relationship  with  Adam  (512-21). 

6 1-8  30.  The  power  of  the  gospel.  It  does 
not  merely  provide  against  the  consequences 
of  sin.  By  his  faith  in  Christ  a  believer  is 
changed.  He  becomes  so  vitally  united  with 
Christ  in  His  death  and  life  that  the  man  he 
used  to  be  is  dead,  and  his  heart  is  joined  with 
Christ  in  communion  with  God  (6 1-23). 


Nothing  else  would  do  this.  So  evil  is  man's 
nature  that  even  the  holy  law  only  emphasises 
the  fact  of  his  slavery  to  sin  (7 1-23).  But  the 
man  who  has  faith  in  Christ  is  freed  from 
slavery  by  a  greater  power  than  himself.  The 
Spirit  of  Christ  has  entered  into  him,  and  the 
Spirit  within  overpowers  the  sin  in  his  flesh, 
will  deliver  his  body  from  the  grave,  and 
makes  him  God's  son  and  heir  of  God's  gloiy. 
Thus,  in  all  his  troubles,  the  Christian  is 
secure  in  the  divine  love  of  Christ  (8 1-39). 

II.  Chs.  9-1 1 .  God's  Way  of  Acceptance  vindi- 
cated. St.  Paul  feels  that  some  might  object — 
The  Messiah,  and  the  blessings  of  His  king- 
dom, were  promised  by  God  to  Israel.  But 
Israel  as  a  whole  has  rejected  Jesus,  and  is 
outside  His  kingdom.  Therefore,  if  Jesus  be 
the  Messiah,  God  has  broken  His  word  to 
Israel  ;  which  cannot  be  thought  of. 

He  answers — God  never  bound  Himself  to 
Israel  as  a  race.  He  has  always  claimed  the 
right  to  select  some  descendants  of  Abraham 
to  be  His  instruments,  and  to  reject  others 
(91-21).  Yet  He  has  been  merciful  to  Israel, 
who  have  fallen  by  their  wilfulness  (922-1021). 
However,  Israel's  fall  is  partial  and  temporary, 
the  disobedience  of  both  Gentiles  and  Jews  was 
reckoned  with  in  God's  purpose,  and  He  will 
bring  the  Jews,  finally,  into  His  kingdom  (11 1-^6). 

III.  Chs.  12-16.  The  Practical  Life  accept- 
able to  God.  In  chs.  12  f.  St.  Paul  points  out 
the  life  of  love  and  obedience  which  is  the  Chris- 
tian's true  sacrifice,  and  which  would  commend 
Christianity  to  the  people  of  Rome  and  to 
the  rulers  of  the  empire. 

In  chs.  14f.  he  enjoins  love  and  tolerance 
between  the  Jewish  and  Gentile  sections  of 
the  Roman  Church  (141-151^).  He  hopes  to 
visit  Rome  after  a  visit  to  Jerusalem  under- 
taken in  the  furtherance  of  unity  (15 1*-29),  for 
which  he  asks  their  prayers  (15^*^-33). 

C.  IG.  In  the  midst  of  personal  greetings 
occurs  a  warning  (16i"-20)  against  hostile 
teachers,  probably  Jewish,  whose  appearance 
at  Rome  he  expected. 


864 


1.1 


ROMANS 


1.  13 


CHAPTEE  1 

The  Power  of  the  Gospel  and  the 
Need  of  the  World.  The  Guilt  of 
THE  Heathen 

In  his  salutation  the  apostle  emphasises  his 
commission,  and  the  greatness  of  the  Person 
whose  servant  he  is  and  who  is  the  centre  of 
his  message  (vv.  1-7).  After  expressing  his 
desire  to  visit  the  Romans  (vv.  8-15),  he 
states  the  subject  of  his  Epistle,  viz.  acceptance 
with  God  through  faith  in  Jesus  Christ  (vv. 
16,  17),  and  proceeds  to  develop  it  by  showing 
that  none  have  been  able  to  merit  acceptance 
with  God.  He  begins  by  proving  this  of  the 
Gentiles  (vv.  18-32). 

1-7.   The  Salutation. 

Paraphrase.  '  (1)  I,  Paul,  who  write  am  a 
bondservant  of  Christ,  set  apart  by  God  as 
an  apostle  to  proclaim  that  message  of  good 
news  (2)  which  was  promised  by  His  prophets. 
(3)  The  subject  of  the  message  is  His  Son,  of 
David's  lineage  by  human  descent,  (4)  but,  as 
regards  His  spiritual  being,  shown  to  be  Son 
of  God  by  the  divine  power  exercised  in  His 
Resurrection.  (5)  Since,  through  Christ,  I  was 
brought  into  God's  favour,  and  commissioned 
to  be  apostle  to  the  Gentiles,  (6)  and  that  you 
at  Rome,  whom  Christ  has  chosen,  are  Gen- 
tiles ;  (7)  therefore  I  write  to  you,  praying 
that  God  may  grant  you  His  blessings.' 

I.  Servant]  A  title  used  in  the  OT.  of 
those  devoted  to  a  special  work  for  God  :  cp. 
Josh  24  29  Ps36  (title)  Jer7  25  DanQH  ZechSS. 
St.  Paul  claims  a  similar  place  in  the  New 
Covenant.  Servant  of  Jesus  Christ]  cp.  OT. 
expression  '  servant  of  God '  ;  one  of  many 
undesigned  testimonies  to  the  Apostle's  belief 
in  the  divinity  of  Christ  :  cp.  9^  10 12. 

Called]  i.e.  chosen  by  Christ.  He  empha- 
sises this,  because  a  party  of  Judaising  Chris- 
tians, who  opposed  the  doctrine  of  salvation 
by  faith,  and  held  that  circumcision  was  of 
perpetual  obligation,  denied  his  apostleship  : 
cp.  1  Cor  9 1  *•  Gal  1 1  :  see  Intro.  Gal.  Apostle] 
see  on  16'^.     Separated]  cp.  Ac  13  2  Gal  l^^. 

3.  David]  Thus  fulfilling  prophecies,  as 
Isall^,  and  the  expectation  of  the  Jews  (cp. 
Mkl235  Jn742)  that  the  Messiah  would  be 
descended  from  David  :    cp.  Mtl  i-i7  Lk  3  23-32. 

4.  Declared]  cp.  Ac  1333.  Son  of  God]  For 
St.  Paul's  teaching  on  the  person  of  Christ 
cp.  83,32  95  2Cor44  8^  Phil26  CoUisf.  2^. 

With  power]  i.e.  by  a  display  of  divine 
power.  The  Resurrection  was  a  miracle  :  cp. 
2Corl34  Ephli9*.  According  to]  i.e.  as 
regards.  Spirit  of  holiness]  Not  the  Holy 
Spirit,  but  Christ's  human  spirit  '  in  which  the 
Divinity  or  Divine  Personality  resided  '  (San- 
day  and  Headlam).  By  the  resurrection]  As 
His  words  and  works  marked  Him  out  as 
more  than  mere  man  (cp.  MtlG^*^),  so  did  the 


Resurrection.  Notice  the  confidence  and  the 
emphasis  with  which  the  apostles  proclaimed 
the  Resurrection  of  Christ  as  being  a  certain 
fact,  and  as  proving  the  truth  of  the  gospel  : 
see  on  426  Acl22  22-if.  lyis.si^  etc. 

5.  Grace]  In  Acts  and  Epistles  this  word 
usually  means  the  unmerited  favour  of  God, 
shown  (1)  in  forgiveness  and  salvation,  cp. 
32'i  Ephl'^;  as  opposed  to  debt,  cp.  4*,  to 
works,  cp.  1 1 6  Eph  2  §  f-,  and  to  law,  cp.  Gal  2  21 ; 

(2)  in  the  call  of   the  Gentiles,  cp.  Eph  32  *•  ; 

(3)  in  special  gifts  of  calling  to  and  fitness 
for  Christian  work,  cp.  12  6  1615  1  Cor  3 10  Gal 
2  9  Eph  4  7  f .  Here  '  grace '  means  the  Christian 
standing  generally,  to  which  is  added  in  Paul's 
case  the  distinctive  gift  of  apostleship.  For 
obedience  to  the  faith]  RV  '  unto  obedience  of 
faith,'  i.e.  to  win  that  obedience  which  is  con- 
nected with  faith  :  cp.  16  26.  Nations]  R V 
'the  nations,'  i.e.  Gentiles:  cp.  v.  13,  Gal 
116  2''f.  Name]  RV  'name's  sake,'  i.e.  the 
Apostle  works  for  the  sake  of  Christ,  and  to 
promote  His  glory.  The  name  of  God  is 
what  God  has  revealed  about  Himself:  cp.  Ex 
34  5  f.  Mt28i9. 

7.  Called  to  be  saints]  lit.  'summoned 
saints.'  '  Saint '  means  '  consecrated  to  God' : 
cp.  Ex  22  31.  In  this  sense  all  Christians  are 
saints  :  cp.  1  Pet  2  9. 

8-15.  The  Apostle  greatly  desires  to  visit 
Rome. 

Paraphrase.  '  (8)  I  thank  God  that  your 
faith  is  so  well  known.  (9)  I  constantly  pray 
about  you,  (10)  asking  that  God  may  permit 
me  soon  to  visit  you.  (11)  For  I  long  to  im- 
part to  you  some  spiritual  benefit,  (12)  in  fact 
that  we  may  be  mutually  helped  by  each 
other's  faith.  (13)  I  have  often  planned  a 
visit,  although  I  have  been  prevented,  for  (14) 
all  Gentiles,  of  whatever  race,  lie  within  the 
sphere  of  my  duty.  (15)  Therefore,  so  far 
as  the  decision  rests  with  me,  I  am  eager  to 
preach  the  gospel  to  you.' 

9.  Serve]  The  Gk.  word  is  used  of  the  wor- 
ship of  God  by  people  or  priest.  St.  Paul's 
work  of  preaching  the  gospel  was  a  priestly 
service,  in  which  he  offered  the  Gentiles  as 
a  sacrifice  to  God  :  cp.  I516.  With]  RV 
'  in.'  ID.  Have  a  prosperous  journey]  RV  'be 
prospered.'  He  knew  his  journey  to  Jerusalem 
would  be  dangerous,  cp.  1530,  but  did  not  fore- 
see that  he  would  visit  Rome  as  a  prisoner: 
cp.  Ac 2724.  II.  Spiritual  gift]  The  term  is 
sometimes  used  of  the  special  endowments 
which  accompanied  the  reception  of  the  Holy 
Spirit:  cp.  1  Cor  12-14.  The  meaning  here  is 
that  St.  Paul  hopes  the  Romans  may  increase 
in  faith  and  love  through  his  teaching  and 
influence.  Established]  i.e.  strengthened  in 
faith  and  other  virtues.  12.  The  Apostle 
will  not  assume  superiority.  13.  Let]  RV 
'  hindered,'    i.e.    by   more    pressing  calls :  cp. 


55 


865 


1.  14 


ROMANS 


1.32 


1622  f.  14.  Greeks]  The  Roman  Christiana 
were  Greek-speaking  for  250  years.  To  the 
G-reek  and  Roman,  all  the  rest  of  the  world 
was  barbarian.  15.  In  me]  Emphasis  on  '  me ' ; 
God  might  will  otherwise.  St.  Paul  was  going 
to  Jerusalem,  and  felt  that  his  life  would  be 
in  danger  :  cp.  IS^^*-  Ac  20  22*. 

16,  17.  The  main  subject  of  the  Epistle — 
Righteousness  by  Faith. 

Paraphrase.  '(16)  I  am  not  ashamed  to 
preach  the  message  of  Christ  even  in  great 
Rome,  for  it  is  the  divine  power  whereby 
God  brings  salvation  to  all  who  have  faith  in 
Christ.  (17)  For  in  it  is  revealed  that  God 
accepts  men  as  righteous  solely  on  the  con- 
dition of  faith,  as  is  shown  in  the  OT.' 

16.  Ashamed]  cp.  lCorl23f.  Salvation]  i.e. 
deliverance  from  dangers  or  enemies.  So  it 
signified  the  deliverance  which  the  Messiah 
would  bring  :  cp.  Lk  1  ^'^-Ti.  Here  it  is  such  as 
belongs  to  a  spiritual  kingdom  ;  and  is  from 
'sin,'  cp.  Mtl2i  Lkl77;  from  'wrath,'  cp.  59; 
from  'the  grave,'  cp.  IS^i;  and  to  'eternal 
life,' cp.  JnS^^'.  As  regards  conversion  and 
baptism,  Christians  '  were  '  or  '  are  saved,'  cp. 
82i  (RV),  Eph25,8  2Timl9  ;  as  recipients  of 
God's  favour  and  blessing.  Christians  are 
'  being  saved,'  cp.  Ag2^t  (RY),  1  Cor  lis  (RV); 
as  regards  future  glory,  Christians  '  will  be 
saved,'  cp.  13 11  MtlO^^.  Believeth]  i.e.  who 
devotes  and  entrusts  himself  to  Christ  as  his 
Lord  and  Saviour.  The  Jew  first]  to  whom 
the  Messiah  was  promised  and  from  whom  He 
came.  Greek]  i.e.  any  one  not  a  Jew  =  Gen- 
tile. 17.  The  righteousness  of  God]  RV  '  a 
righteousness  of  God.'  A  state  of  righteous- 
ness, or  acceptance  with  God,  to  which  man 
could  not  attain  by  his  own  efforts,  but  which 
God  bestows  upon  him  of  His  free  grace. 

From  faith  to  faith]  RV  '  by  faith  unto 
faith,'  i.e.  given,  on  condition  of  faith,  to  those 
who  have  faith:  cp.  322.  Just]  RV  'right- 
eous.' The  quotation  is  from  Hab24,  which 
referred  to  preservation  from  the  calamities  of 
the  Chaldean  invasion.  The  principle  is  that 
it  is  faith  which  gains  God's  approval. 

18-32.  The  Apostle  has  briefly  stated  God's 
offer  of  righteousness  in  the  Christian  mes- 
sage. He  now  proceeds  to  show  that  all  men 
have  failed  to  attain  acceptance  with  God 
by  other  means.  First  he  speaks  of  the  Gen- 
tiles. They  lie  under  God's  wrath  on  account 
of  their  unrighteousness  (v.  18).  They  might 
have  had  a  knowledge  of  God  (vv.  19,  20), 
but  have  turned  away  to  idolatry  (vv.  21-23), 
and  are  sunk,  in  consequence,  in  moral  corrup- 
tion (vv.  24-32). 

Paraphrase.  '  ( 1 8)  The  need  of  such  a  method 
of  salvation  is  evident  when  we  consider  how 
mankind  has  always  suppressed  the  truth  within 
and  lived  in  wickedness.  For  them  wrath,  not 
righteousness,  is  revealed.     (19)  For  instance, 


God  has  made  Himself  known  to  the  Gentiles  ; 
(20)  for  His  power  and  divinity  are  so  clearly 
impressed  upon  the  visible  creation  that  they 
cannot  plead  ignorance.  (21)  They  had  a 
revelation  of  God,  but  instead  of  worshipping 
Him  aright,  they  became  so  involved  in  useless 
speculations  about  His  nature,  that  they  lost 
the  sense  of  truth  and  right.  (22)  Their 
conceit  led  to  such  idolatrous  folly  (23),  that 
they  regarded  an  image  of  man  or  beast  as 
a  fitting  representation  of  the  majesty  of 
God.  (24-27)  Therefore  God  gave  them  over 
to  the  degradation  which  was  the  result  of  their 
apostasy.  (28-31)  Their  rejection  of  the 
true  idea  of  God  was  followed,  as  a  penal 
consequence,  by  depravity  and  every  kind  of 
sin.  (32)  So  great  is  their  wickedness,  that 
although  they  know  the  guilt  of  such  sins,  they 
not  only  commit  them,  but  approve  of  them 
in  others.' 

18.  Wrath]  i.e.  the  steadfast  indignation  of 
God  against  sin.  God  '  would  not  love  good, 
unless  He  hated  evil,  the  two  being  insepar- 
able '  (Trench).  Revealed]  by  the  state  to 
which  sin  had  brought  the  Gentile  world,  and 
by  God's  revelation  of  a  coming  day  of  wrath  : 
cp.  25.  Hold]  RV  'hold  down,'  i.e.  sup- 
press. 19.  Known  .  .  in  them]  i.e.  nature 
teaches  a  knowledge  of  God,  and  man  has  the 
faculty  of  receiving  the  teaching.  20.  From] 
RV  '  since.'  By]  RV  '  through.'  Godhead] 
RV  '  divinity.' 

21.  Vain]  i.e.  foolish,  empty.  Imagina- 
tions]   RV    '  reasonings,'   i.e.  about  God. 

23.  Changed]  i.e.  exchanged.  Glory]  i.e. 
the  manifested  power  and  goodness  of  God. 

Into]  RV  '  for.'  Man]  as  in  Greece  and 
Rome,  where  even  immorality  was  ascribed 
to  the  gods.     Birds,  etc.]   as  in  Egypt. 

24.  Gave  them  up]  Those  who  forsake  God, 
forsake  Him  who  restrains  evil  and  inspires 
good.  Further,  one  sin  leads  to  another,  by 
natural  consequence  which  is  God's  law  :  cp. 
Ps  8 1 12  Ac  7  'i2.  So  the  idolatry  of  success, 
money,  pleasure,  and  luxury,  often  leads  to 
gambling,  dishonesty,  and  vice. 

25.  Who]  RV  '  for  that  they.'  Changed] 
RV  '  exchanged.'  Truth  of  God]  i.e.  the  true 
idea  of  God.  Into  a  lie]  RV  '  for  a  lie,'  i.e. 
for  an  idol,  a  false  conception  of  God.  More] 
RV  'rather.' 

26.  Affections]   RV  '  passions.' 

28.  Convenient]  RV 'fitting.' 

29.  Debate]  RV  'strife.'  Whisperers]  i.e. 
secret  slanderers. 

30.  Despiteful]  RV '  insolent.'  Proud]  RV 
'  haughty.' 

32.  Knowing]  i.e.  by  conscience.  Judg- 
ment] RV  'ordinance.'  Have  pleasure  in] 
R  V '  consent  with. '  A  sign  of '  complete  victory 
over  conscience,  and  complete  callousness  to 
the  moral  ruin  of  others  '  (Moule). 


866 


2.1 


ROMANS 


2.18 


CHAPTER  2 

The  Failure  of  the  Jews 

In  c.  1  St.  Paul  showed  that  the  Gentiles 
were  under  God's  judgment  on  account  of  sin. 
Now  he  is  about  to  turn  to  the  Jews.  He 
asserts  first,  that  God's  judgment  will  fall 
impartially  upon  all  sinners  (vv.  1-11).  Each 
man  will  be  judged  by  the  light  which  he  has 
(vv.  12-16).  The  privileges  and  knowledge 
of  the  Jews  only  aggravated  the  guilt  of  their 
flagrant  disobedience  (vv.  17-24)  ;  and  cir- 
cumcision would  not  protect  them,  for  God 
looks  at  the  heart  and  life  (vv.  2.5-29). 

i-ii.  The  Jew  would  agree  in  condemning 
the  sins  mentioned  in  c.  1,  yet  he  himself 
was  equally  guilty,  and  must  be  judged,  like 
the  Gentiles,  by  his  deeds,  whether  good  or 
bad. 

Note.  There  is  no  contradiction  here  to  the 
doctrine  of  justification  by  faith,  for  (1)  St. 
Paul  is  speaking  of  men  apart  from  the  gos- 
pel ;  (2)  '  faith  is  present  in  a  more  or  less 
rudimentary  state  in  every  upward  effort  or 
aspiration  of  man '  (Hort,  quoted  by  Gore) ;  (3) 
good  works  are  the  fruit  and  evidence  of  faith. 

Paraphrase.  '(1)  Perhaps  you  condemn  such 
sinners.  In  doing  so,  you  condemn  yourself, 
for  you  too  are  guilty.  (2)  We  all  know  that 
God's  judgment  against  evildoers  is  unerring 
and  impartial.  (3)  Do  you  think  you  are  differ- 
ent from  others,  and  exempt  from  judgment  ? 
(4)  or  do  you  think  God  is  too  kind  to  punish 
you,  not  understanding  that  His  kindness  is 
meant  to  move  you  to  repent  ?  (5)  Seeing 
that  you  do  not  repent,  you  are  daily  incurring 
a  heavier  judgment.  (6)  For  God  will  judge 
every  man  by  his  deeds,  (7-10)  whether  he  be 
Jew  or  Gentile,  giving  eternal  life  to  those  who 
do  good,  while  there  will  be  wrath  for  all  who 
persist  in  evil ;  (1 1)  for  God  judges  impartially.' 

I.  Inexcusable]  RV  'without  excuse'  :  cp. 
120.  Judges]  cp.  Gal  2 15.  The  same  things] 
of  the  same  kind,  if  not  so  glaring.  2.  Are 
sure]  RV  '  know,'  i.e.  by  reason  and  revela- 
tion.    5.  After]   i.e.  in  accordance  with. 

Against]  RV  'in.'  8.  Contentions]  RV 
'  factions,'  i.e.  upholding  their  ideas  and 
traditions  against  God's  voice  :  cp.  JnS'^^. 

Indignation]  RV  '  shall  be  indignation.' 

9.  Jew  first]  privilege  increases  responsi- 
bility. II.  Respect  of  persons]  i.e.  regard 
for  the  outward  circumstances  of  a  man  in- 
stead of  his  real  character ;  here  of  the 
partiality  of  an  unjust  judge:  cp.  AclO^^ 
Gal  2  6  Eph69  Col  3  25  Jas2i. 

12-16.  All  men  are  under  a  law  of  some 
kind,  whether  revealed  law  or  the  light  of 
nature  ;  and  by  the  law  that  they  have  they 
will  be  judged. 

Paraphrase.  '  (12)  I  say  God  is  impartial,  for 
He  will  punish  every  man  who  sins  against  the 


light,  whether,  a?  with  Gentiles,  it  be  the  light 
of  conscience,  or,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Jews,  the 
light  of  law.  (13)  It  is  not  because  a  man  has 
a  law,  but  because  he  keeps  it  that  he  vnll  be 
justified.  (14)  This  applies  to  Gentiles  as  well 
as  Jews.  For  Gentiles  have  an  inner  law  of 
nature,  as  is  shown  by  their  good  deeds,  (16) 
which  testify  to  a  sense  of  right  and  wrong  ; 
their  conscience  shows  the  same  thing  ;  and 
so  does  the  fact  that  they  blame  or  praise  one 
another's  actions.  (16)  By  this  law  they  will 
be  judged  at  the  last.' 

12.  Without  law]  i.e.  without  a  revealed 
law  of  right  and  wrong.  In  the  law]  RV 
'  under  law.'  By  the  law]  RV  '  by  law.'  The 
expression  '  the  law  '  means  the  Law  of  Moses  ; 
'  law,'  without  the  article,  means  law  in  general, 
'  the  will  of  God  for  man's  conduct.'  St. 
Paul  regards  the  pre-Messianic  period  as 
essentially  a  period  of  law,  both  for  Jew  and 
for  Gentile  '  (San day  and  Headlam).  13.  The 
law]  RV  '  a  law.'  Justified]  i.e.  declared 
righteous  at  the  Judgment.  14.  Not  the  law] 
RV  '  no  law.'  By  nature]  i.e.  without  a 
revelation. 

15.  Which]  RV  '  in  that  they.'  The  work 
of  the  law]  i.e.  the  effect  of  the  law  in 
marking  what  is  right  from  what  is  wrong. 

Conscience]  the  faculty  by  which  we  reflect 
upon  the  character  of  our  actions.  It  may  be 
more  or  less  enlightened,  cp.  1  CorS'^'i^o*-  ;  it 
may  become  corrupt  through  sin,  cp.  Tit  1^5^ 
and  give  no  light,  cp.  Mt623.  Therefore  a 
man's  appeal  to  conscience  is  not  decisive, 
unless  he  has  taken  pains  to  inform  it  and 
keep  it  pure.  16.  My  gospel]  i.e.  the  mes- 
sage I  am  commissioned  to  preach  :  cp.  1625 
2  Tim  2  8.  Judgment  by  Christ  is  a  distinctive 
doctrine  of  the  gospel  :  cp.  Mt253if-  Ac  17^1 
lCor45  2Cor5io. 

17-24.  Here,  first,  the  Jew  is  expressly 
addressed.  He  relied  upon  God's  favour  and 
his  knowledge  of  God's  will.  Yet  his  wicked- 
ness was  a  matter  of  common  knowledge.  (St. 
Paul  is  speaking  generally  ;  there  were  bright 
exceptions.) 

Paraphrase.  '  (17)  I  turn  to  the  Jew,  proud 
of  his  religious  superiority,  (18)  and  of  the 
knowledge  of  God's  will  and  the  high  ideal  of 
conduct  which  he  derives  from  the  Law  of  Moses, 
(19,  20)  thinking  that  he  is  in  the  light  and 
all  other  peoples  in  darkness.  (21-23)  How 
shameful,  then,  is  the  conduct  which  is  so 
contrary  to  his  profession,  (24)  and  which 
brings  such  dishonour  upon  the  name  of  God 
among  the  heathen  ! ' 

17.  Jew]  the  national  name.  Restest  in] 
RV  '  restest  upon,'  i.e.  feeling  secure  of  God's 
favour  from  the  mere  possession  of  the  Law. 

Of  God]   i.e.  as  peculiarly  bound  to  the  Jew. 

18.  Approvest,  etc.]  i.e.  able  to  distinguish 
delicately  between  the  more  and  the  less  good. 


867 


2.  20 


ROMANS 


3.  19 


20.  Form]   i.e.  perfect  embodiment. 

21.  Cp.  Mt37  Mkl240  Jn8'^.  22.  Commit 
sacrilege]   RV  'rob  temples'  :  cp.  AclO^i'. 

24.  Cp.  Isa525Ezk362if. 

25-29.  The  Jew  thought  that  because  he 
was  circumcised,  i.e.  a  member  of  the  covenant 
people,  he  was  sure  of  God's  favour.  But 
circumcision  implied  a  surrendered  life,  which 
is  the  only  thing  acceptable  to  God. 

Paraphrase.  '  (25)  You  trust  in  circum- 
cision, and  it  is  good  to  be  a  Jew  ;  but  if  you 
are  not  obedient  to  God's  Law,  you  are  no 
better  than  an  uncircumcised  heathen,  (26) 
while  a  heathen  who,  according  to  his  lights, 
does  what  your  law  requires  will  be  accepted 
by  God  although  he  is  uncircumcised,  (27) 
and  will  be  in  a  superior  position  to  you,  seeing 
that  you  break  the  Law  in  spite  of  your 
advantages.  (28)  For  the  true  people  of  God 
are  those  who  are  so,  not  by  race  or  profes- 
sion only,  (29)  but  by  obedience  of  heart  and 
life.  They  may  not  be  called  Jews,  but  they 
are  praised  by  God.' 

25.  Profiteth]  cp.  S^*-  91*-  Keep]  i.e.  as  a 
habit,  opposed  to  habitual  transgression. 

26.  The  uncircumcision]  i.e.  the  uncircum- 
cised man.  Righteousness]  RV  '  ordinances  '  : 
cp.  AclO^s.  27.  Judge]  cp.  v.  1.  By  the 
letter]  RV  '  with  the  letter,'  i.e.  with  written 
law.  28.  Cp.  96f.  Phil  33.  29.  Heart]  cp. 
DtlOi*^  Ac  7  51.  Letter]  i.e.  outward  con- 
formity to  the  literal  command,  contrasted 
with  the  spiritual  change  which  it  represented. 

Praise]  The  word  '  Jew '  is  derived  from 
'  Judah,'  which  means  'praised'  :  cp.  Gn2935. 

CHAPTER  3 

The  New  Way  op  Acceptance  with 
God 

In  chs.  1  and  2  St.  Paul  has  shown  that 
both  Gentile  and  Jew  have  sinned  wilfully, 
and  are  under  God's  condemnation.  He  now 
digresses  to  Jewish  objections  against  the 
gospel,  which  he  had,  no  doubt,  heard  urged 
in  synagogues  (vv.  1-8).  Retm-ning  to  the 
main  subject,  he  clinches  his  indictment  of 
the  Jew  out  of  the  Scriptures,  and  concludes 
that  all  the  world  is  '  under  the  judgment  of 
God '  (vv.  9-20). 

Having  thus  shown  that  man  is  sinful  and 
lost,  he  now  proceeds  to  set  forth  the  gospel. 
God  has  provided  a  way  by  which  acceptance, 
springing  from  God's  love,  and  secured  by  the 
redemptive  work  of  Christ,  is  granted  to  all 
who  have  faith  in  Christ  (vv.  21-26).  Thus 
acceptance  depends  upon  faith,  not  upon 
human  merit  (vv.  27,  28),  and  is  open  to  all 
(vv.  29,  30).  At  the  same  time,  faith  leads 
to  true  obedience  (v.  31). 

1-8.  Jewish  objections  answered. 

Paraphrase.  '  (1)  You  may  say  :  If  those 
only  are  God's  people  who  are  so  inwardly 


and  spiritually,  what  advantage  is  it  to  be  a 
Jew  ?  (2)  I  reply  :  Much  ;  to  begin  with, 
God's  Word  with  its  precious  promises  was 
entrusted  to  them.  (3)  And  since  that  is  so, 
will  God  break  His  word  because  some  have 
shown  their  want  of  faith  by  rejecting  Christ  ? 
(4)  Impossible  !  Whoever  be  false,  God  will 
be  found  true.  His  promises  will  be  justified 
and  His  conduct  vindicated.  (5)  You  may 
say  :  If  this  be  so,  our  sin  in  rejecting  Christ 
has  made  God's  faithfulness  to  His  promises 
clear,  and  it  is  unjust  of  Him  (humanly 
speaking)  to  punish  us.  (6)  I  reply  :  Horrible  ! 
On  your  gi-ounds  no  sin  would  be  punished. 
(7)  If  you  plead  :  This  is  an  exceptional  case. 
My  sin  has  glorified  God  by  showing  how  He 
keeps  His  word  :  (8)  why  should  I  not  be 
accepted  by  Him  equally  with  the  Christians, 
who  say,  as  I  say,  let  us  do  evil  that  good 
may  come  ?  I  can  only  reply  :  Such  a 
principle  is  to  be  condemned,  and  to  impute 
it  to  us  is  slanderous.' 

2.  Much]  cp.  9*f.  Oracles]  i.e.  the  utter- 
ances of  God  in  the  OT.  3.  Did  not  believe] 
RV  '  were  without  faith.'  Unbelief]  RV  '  want 
of  faith.'  Faith]  RV  '  faithfulness.'  4.  God 
forbid]  lit.  'let  it  not  be.'  'Written]  PsSl'*. 
Art  judged]  RV  '  comest  into  judgment.' 

5.  Taketh  vengeance]  RV  '  visiteth  with 
wrath.'  As  a  man]  RV  '  after  the  manner  of 
men,'  i.e.  speaking  of  the  dealings  of  God  as  if 
they  were  the  dealings  of  men  :  cp.  GalS^^. 

7.  For]  RV  '  but.'^  8.  Evil]  St.  Paul  said, 
'  We  are  not  justified  because  of  what  we  do.' 
His  adversaries  represented  him  as  saying, 
'It  does  not  matter  what  we  do '  :  cp.  v.  31, 
gi,i5_  Whose,  etc.]  i.e.  those  who  hold  such 
a  principle  as  'let  us  do  evil,'  etc.,  will  be 
condemned,  and  that  justly.  Damnation]  RV 
'  condemnation.' 

9-20.  Jewish  Scriptures  testify  to  Jewish 
sin. 

Paraphrase.  '  (9)  What  follows  then  ?  We 
Jews  have  advantages  over  the  Gentles,  but 
are  we  better  than  they  ?  By  no  means.  The 
charge  I  laid  was  against  Jew  as  well  as  Gentile, 
that  both  are  under  the  power  of  sin.  (10-18) 
The  Scriptures  make  the  same  charge.  Psalmist 
andProphet  alike  speak  of  universal  corruption. 
(19)  Such  passages  exclude  self -justification  on 
the  part  of  the  Jews,  and  prove  the  guilt  of 
mankind  against  God.  (20)  This  must  always 
be  so ;  weak,  sinful  man  can  never  attain  to 
acceptance  with  God  through  obedience  to  law  ; 
law,  since  it  is  never  kept,  cannot  secure  right- 
eousness, it  can  only  convict  of  sin.' 

9.   Proved]   RV  '  laid  to  the  charge.' 

10-18.  From  Pss59  10^  14if-  36i  1403 
Isa59"f. 

19.  Them  who  are  under  the  law]  i.e. 
the  Jews.  Become  guilty  before]  RV  '  be 
brought  under  the  judgment  of.' 


868 


3.  20 


ROMANS 


3.  30 


20,  Therefore]  RV  '  because.'  The  deeds 
of  the  law]  RM  '  works  of  law,'  i.e.  done  to 
merit  salvation  by  fulfilling  an  appointed  task  : 
cp.  ?''■*•  Gal 3 19' ^1.  'Law  is  a  factor  in  the 
moral  life  fitted  to  acquaint  the  intellect  with 
the  divine  standard  of  conduct,  but  incapable 
of  bringing  the  life  of  man  into  harmony  with 
its  precepts '  (Robertson,  HDB.).  No  flesh] 
cp.  Psl432. 

21-26.  The  way  of  acceptance  declared  in 
the  Christian  message  is  independent  of  law 
(v.  21),  a  free  gift  from  God  through  faith  in 
Christ  (vv.  22-24),  and  made  possible  because 
Christ's  death  was  propitiatory  (vv.  25,  26). 

Paraphrase.  '(21)  We  have  seen  that  by 
obedience  to  law  none  can  enter  into  accept- 
ance with  God  because  none  have  rendered  it. 
Now  a  way  of  acceptance  has  been  revealed 
which  has  nothing  to  do  with  law,  to  which 
both  Law  and  Prophets  bear  witness.  (22)  God 
accepts  all,  without  distinction,  who  have  de- 
voted their  hearts  to  Jesus  Christ.  (23)  I  say 
all,  and  the  want  is  universal.  All  alike  have 
sinned,  and  feel  far  ofE  from  God.  (24)  But 
God's  gracious  favour  is  such,  that  He  accepts 
them  without  question  of  merit,  through  the 
deliverance  from  sin  and  its  penalty  which 
Christ  purchased,  and  which  we  receive  by 
union  with  Him.  (25)  For  on  the  Cross  He 
offered  up  His  life,  to  restore  to  the  favour  of 
God  all  who  by  faith  appropriate  that  offering. 
In  that  awful  spectacle  God  manifested  His 
righteous  displeasure  against  sin,  forbidding 
us  to  attribute  to  indifference  the  forbearance 
by  which  He  passed  over,  without  adequate 
punishment,  sins  committed  before  Christ  came. 
(26)  In  the  death  of  Christ  He  so  then  dis- 
played, I  say.  His  judgment  against  sin,  that 
now  the  perfect  holiness  of  His  character  is 
vindicated,  and  He  can  also  accept  those  who 
have  faith  in  Jesus.' 

21,  Now]  i.e.  under  the  gospel.  The  right- 
eousness, etc.]  RV  '  apart  from  the  law  a 
righteousness  of  God  hath  been  manifested '  : 
cp.  11'^.  'A  righteousness  of  God,'  i.e.  a  way 
of  acceptance  which  God  has  provided.  Mani- 
fested] i.e.  in  the  Person  and  work  of  Christ : 
cp.  2 Tim  1^0.  Witnessed]  i.e.  by  types  and 
promises.  22.  Faith  of]  RV  '  faith  in '  :  cp. 
Gal 2 16.  This  further  defines  the  'righteous- 
ness '  spoken  of.  The  means  by  which  it  is 
received  is  faith  in  Christ,  and  it  is  given  to 
all  who  have  such  faith.  Faith  is  'man's  trust- 
ful acceptance  of  God's  gift,  rising  to  absolute 
self-surrender,  culminating  in  personal  union 
with  Christ,  working  within  .  .  as  a  spirit  of 
new  life '  (Farrar,  '  St.  Paul,'  p.  473).  Differ- 
ence]  RV  '  distinction.' 

23.  Come  short]  The  Gk.  word,  which 
means  "  to  feel  one's  need,'  is  that  used  in  Lk 
151^  of  the  Prodigal.  Glory  of  God]  i.e.  the 
divine  perfection,  which  is  manifested  in  Christ 


(cp.  2  Cor  4  6),  and  which  shines  upon  man  and 
transfigures  him  into  the  likeness  of  Ckrist, 
partially  now,  and  completely  hereafter :  cp. 
8IS  2Cor3is  lJn32. 

24.  Justified]  i.e.  declared  or  accounted 
righteous,  as  by  a  judge  ;  accepted :  refers  to 
'  them  that  believe,'  v.  22.  God  can  justly 
declare  a  sinner  righteous  who  has  faith  in 
Ckrist  because  his  face  is  turned  to  the  light ; 
he  is  in  sympathy  with  Christ,  and  desires  to 
follow  His  example.  Grace]  see  on  1  ^.  Re- 
demption] '  Redemption '  means,  (1)  deliverance 
from  bondage  by  payment  of  ransom  :  cp.  Lv 
25 ■IS;  (2)  deliverance  in  general,  as  of  Israel 
from  Egypt :  cp.  Ex  6  '^.  Christ  redeemed  us 
from  sin  and  its  penalties  :  cp.  8  ^3  Eph  1  ^  Col 
1 1"^.  The  ransom  was  His  life,  not  considered 
as  paid  to  any  one,  but  as  the  price  which  it  cost 
Him  to  procure  our  deliverance  (cp.  MklO'*^ 
1  Tim  2  6)  and  to  restore  us  to  God :  cp.  1  Cor  6  20 
722f.  In  Christ  Jesus]  see  paraphrase.  The 
form  '  Ckrist  Jesus '  (not '  Jesus  Christ ')  always 
refers  to  the  glorified  Christ. 

25.  Propitiation]  i.e.  that  which  makes  it 
possible  for  God  to  be  propitious,  or  favour- 
able to  man.  In  his  blood]  RV  '  by  his  blood,' 
i.e.  Ckrist  became  a  propitiation  by  shedding 
His  blood.  Declare]  RV  '  shew,'  for,  other- 
wise, it  might  have  been  doubted.  For  the 
remission,  etc.]  RV  'because  of  the  passing 
over  of  the  sins  done  aforetime '  :  cp.  AclT^^^ 
'Passing  over,'  i.e.  temporary  suspension  of 
punishment  (Sanday  and  Headlam). 

Forbearance]  i.e.  temporary  suspension  of 
anger. 

27-31.  Since  salvation  is  by  faith,  it  follows 
that  no  claim  can  be  made  on  the  ground  of 
human  merit  (vv.  27,  28),  that  Jew  and  Gentile 
are  on  the  same  footing  (vv.  29,  30),  and  that 
law  becomes  fulfilled  at  last  (v.  31). 

Paraphrase.  '  (27)  It  is  plain  that  the  gospel 
way  of  salvation  by  faith  leaves  no  room  for 
reliance  upon  privilege  or  merits,  (28)  for  man 
is  accepted  through  reliance  upon  his  Saviour, 
not  upon  himself.  (29)  It  is  also  plain  that 
Jew  and  Gentile  are  on  the  same  footing  before 
God,  (30)  for  there  is  one  God  for  all,  and  He 
accepts  all  men  on  the  same  condition,  viz. 
faith.  (31)  Some  say  that  by  preaching  salva- 
tion througk  faitk  alone  we  abolish  law.  On 
the  contrary,  we  set  the  principle  that  God's 
will  must  be  done  on  a  firmer  basis.' 

27.  Boasting]  cp.  21.  23.  The  law]  RV  '  a 
law,'  i.e.  system.     28.   Therefore]  RM  'for.' 

Without]  RV  '  apart  from.'  30.  Circum- 
cision] i.e.  Jews.    Uncircumcision]  i.e.  Gentiles. 

By .  .  through]  The  Judaistic  Christians  seem 
to  have  held  that  they  were  justified  on  account 
of  ('  by ')  circumcision  and  obedience  to  the  Law, 
if  they  had  faith  ('  through  faith ')  ;  but  that 
Gentiles  were  justified  on  account  of  ('  by ') 
faith,  if,  in  addition,  they  were  circumcised  and 


869 


3.31 


ROMANS 


4.  13 


obeyed  the  Law  ('through  law').  St.  Paul  re- 
joins that  justification  depends  on  faith  alone  ; 
Jew  and  Gentile  alike  are  justified  both  '  by '  and 
'through'  faith:  cp.  v.  28,  Gal2i6.  31.  The 
law]  RM  '  law.'  God's  will  is  brought  out 
more  fully  in  the  gospel  (cp.  Mt  Si"*-)-  and 
the  believer  is  enabled  to  fulfil  it :  cp.  6,  8  ^ 
Gal  2 19  f. 

CHAPTER   4 

Acceptance  by  Faith   foreshadowed   in 
THE  OLD  Dispensation 

In  32if-  St.  Paul  set  forth  the  great  truth  of 
acceptance  by  faith.  A  Jew  might  object 
that  it  was  new,  and  therefore  not  true.  In 
3  31  St.  Paul  answered  that  in  the  Law  and  in 
faith  there  is  the  same  moral  and  religious 
ideal,  which  is  more  completely  developed  and 
more  perfectly  fulfilled  by  faith.  Now  he 
turns  to  the  past,  to  show  that  acceptance  by 
faith  is  not  a  new  idea.  It  was  faith  for 
which  Abraham  was  accepted,  not  works  (vv. 
1-8),  nor  circumcision  (vv.  9-12),  nor  on  ac- 
count of  obedience  to  the  Law  (vv.  13-17). 
The  history  shows  the  nature  of  the  faith 
which  God  accepts  (vv.  18-22),  in  our  case  as 
well  as  in  Abraham's. 

1-8.  It  was  faith,  not  works,  for  which 
Abraham  was  accepted. 

Paraphrase.  '(1)  Take,  e.g.,  the  case  of 
Abraham.  His  descendants  should  readily 
admit  the  force  of  his  case,  which  shows  that 
acceptance  by  faith  is  no  new  principle.  (2) 
If  he  had  been  accepted  on  account  of  his 
deeds,  he  would  have  had  something  to  be 
proud  of  in  man's  sight.  And  we  men  do 
honour  him,  and  rightly.  Yet  even  then  he 
could  not  claim  merit  before  God.  (3)  For 
the  Scripture  says  that  it  was  on  account  of  his 
faith  that  he  was  reckoned  as  righteous.  (4) 
Now  reward  for  work  would  not  be  so  spoken 
of.  There  is  no  favour  in  paying  wages  that 
are  due.  (5)  Such  an  expression  as  "  his  faith 
is  reckoned  for  righteousness  "  is  only  properly 
used  of  one  who  makes  no  claim  for  work 
done,  but  simply  puts  faith  in  God.  (6-8) 
Notice,  too,  how  David  pronounced  a  man 
happy,  although  he  had  sinned  deeply,  simply 
because  God  forgave  him  and  reckoned  him  as 
righteous.' 

1.  What.  .  then]  refers  to  327f.  That] 
RM  '  of.'  As  pertaining  to  the  flesh]  i.e.  by 
natural  descent.  The  question  is  put  in  the 
mouth  of  a  Jew.  Therefore  it  does  not 
follow  that  the  Roman  Cbxistians  were  chiefly 
Jews.  Cp.  also  1  Cor  10 1,  '  our  fathers,'  though 
the  Corinthian  Christians  were  mostly  Gentile. 

Hath  found]   RM  omits. 

2.  Abraham]  St.  James  also  refers  to  Gn 
156,  but  concludes  '  that  by  works  a  man  is 
justified,  and  not  by  faith  only,'  Jas223f.  St. 
James  wrote  of  mere  intellectual  belief:  cp. 


Jas  2 19.  St.  Paul  meant  by  '  faith  '  a  complete 
change  of  relation  towards  God,  which  would 
afEect  the  believer's  actions:  cp.  c.  6.  GnlS^ 
was  a  common  text  for  discussion  among  the 
Jews.  Possibly  St.  James  was  thinking  of  per- 
versions of  St.  Paul's  teaching.    Glory]  cp.  3^7. 

3,  5.  Counted]  RV  '  reckoned.'  4.  Work- 
eth]  i.e.  a  workman  in  daily  life.  5.  Worketh 
not]  i.e.  as  ground  of  acceptance.  Ungodly] 
not  meant  of  Abraham  ;  the  extreme  case  is 
put:  cp.  5*^.  6.  Describeth,  etc.]  RV  '  pro- 
nounceth  blessing  upon.'  Imputeth]  RV 
'  reckoneth.'     Without]    RV  '  apart  from.' 

7.    Blessed]  i.e.  happy  ;  from  Ps  321*. 

9-12.  The  blessing  was  not  dependent  upon 
circumcision,  to  which  as  signifying  admission 
to  covenant  with  God,  the  Jews  attach  such 
importance. 

Paraphrase.  '  (9)  Again.  The  blessing  was 
irrespective  of  circumcision.  (10)  For  at  the 
time  that  Abraham's  faith  was  reckoned  for 
righteousness,  he  was  uncircumcised.  (11) 
His  circumcision  was  but  a  token,  by  which 
God  sealed  that  acceptance  which  was  his  as  a 
believing  man.  Hence,  all  Gentiles  who  be- 
lieve are  his  spiritual  children,  and  have 
righteousness  reckoned  to  them.  (12)  And 
those  Jews  are  his  children  who  are  not 
merely  circumcised,  but  believe  as  he  be- 
lieved.' 

9.  Cometh^  RV  '  Is  this  blessing  then 
pronounced.'  10.  Abraham's  faith  preceded 
circumcision  by  many  years:  cp.  Gnl5^ 
1710,24.  II.  Sign]  cp.  Gnl7ii,  'a  token 
of  the  covenant.'  Seal]  ratifying  his  accept- 
ance.    Imputed]  RV  '  reckoned.' 

13-17.  The  promise  was  independent  of 
any  system  of  law. 

Paraphrase.  '  (13)  Again.  The  promise  to 
Abraham  of  world-wide  inheritance  was  not 
to  take  effect  by  obedience  to  law.  (14)  For 
if  the  inheritance  be  for  those  who  keep  a  law, 
then  faith  has  lost  its  value,  and  the  promise 
has  been  nullified.  (15)  For  the  effect  of  law, 
which  reveals  the  requirements  of  a  righteous 
God,  is  to  bring  about,  not  blessing,  but  con- 
sciousness of  sin  and  expectation  of  God's 
wrath ;  transgression  cannot  exist  without 
some  law  to  be  broken.  (16)  Therefore  ac- 
ceptance was  made  to  depend  upon  faith,  that 
it  might  proceed  from  God's  bounty  not  our 
merit,  and  that  all  Abraham's  descendants 
might  be  certain  of  obtaining  the  promise. 
And  by  his  descendants  I  mean,  not  Jews  only, 
but  all  those  who  have  the  faith  which  he  had. 
(17)  For  in  spite  of  his  old  age,  he  fully  be- 
lieved God  who  promised  him  seed,  and  God 
has  made  him  the  father  of  all  who  believe  in 
Jesus  Christ.' 

13.  Heir  of  the  world]  i.e.  by  the  univer- 
sality of  the  reign  of  Christ:  cp.  Gnl22' 
22i7f. 


870 


4.  14 


ROMANS 


5.5 


14.  Void]  because  an  opposite  condition 
would   have  been   brought   in  :   cp.   GalS^^. 

15.  Cp.  320.     For  where]  RV  '  but  where.' 

16.  By  grace]  RY  '  according  to  grace,'  i  e. 
on  the  principle  of  free  gift.  Sure]  because, 
(1)  not  depending  on  the  fulfilment  of  a  law 
which  would  certainly  be  broken,  and  (2)  ad- 
mitting Jew  and  Gentile  by  the  same  gate 
of  faith.     Of  the  law]  i.e.  believing  Jews. 

Abraham]  who  was  not  under  the  Law. 
Us  all]  i.e.  Christians,  from  'many  nations.' 

17.  Father]  cp.  Gnl7^.  Before  .  .  God]  i.e. 
God  regards  Abraham  as  father  of  all  believers. 

Quickeneth]  i.e.  makes  alive.  When  God 
promised  Isaac,  Abraham,  and  Sarah  were  as 
though  dead  :  cp.  v.  19.  Calleth]  i.e.  sum- 
mons.    Which  be  not]  i.e.  the  promised  seed. 

18-22.  It  was  because  Abraham's  faith  was 
so  unwavering,  that  it  was  reckoned  unto  him 
for  righteousness. 

Paraphrase.  '(18)  His  confident  faith,  when 
it  was  against  human  probability  that  God's 
promise  of  a  son  should  be  realised,  led 
to  the  fulfilment  of  the  promise.  (19)  His 
faith  did  not  fail  at  the  apparent  impossibility. 
(20)  Fixing  his  eye  on  God's  promise,  he 
received  fresh  youth,  acknowledging  God's 
power  and  truth  (21)  with  complete  certainty. 
(22)  And  because  his  faith  was  unwavering,  God 
accepted  it  as  though  it  were  righteousness.' 

18.  Believed  in  hope]  i.e.  had  confident  faith. 
That  he  might]   RV  '  to  the  end  that  he 

might.'     So]    i.e.  as  the  stars  :  cp.  Gnl5^. 

19.  Being  not  weak]  RY  '  without  being 
weakened.'  Considered  not]  RY 'considered,' 
i.e.  he  realised  his  weakness,  but  still  believed. 

Dead]  RY  '  as  good  as  dead.'  20.  RY  '  yea, 
looking  unto  the  promise  of  God,  he  wavered 
not  through  unbelief ,  but  waxed  strong  through 
faith.'     21.   Persuaded]   RY  '  assured.' 

22.   Imputed]  RY  '  reckoned.' 

23-25.  Abraham's  faith  is  the  pattern  of 
ours. 

Paraphrase.  '  (23)  Thus  the  history  of 
Abraham's  justification  teaches  us  the  principle 
on  which  God  proceeds.  (24)  As  Abraham 
trusted  in  God  to  bring  Isaac  as  it  were  from 
death  to  fulfil  His  promise,  so,  if  we  believe 
on  Him  who  raised  up  Jesus  to  fulfil  His  pur- 
pose, om-  faith  will  be  accepted.  (25)  For 
Christ,  who  died  because  we  had  offended,  was 
raised  to  bring  about  our  acceptance.' 

23,24.  Imputed]  RY 'reckoned.'  24.  Us] 
RY  '  our  sake '  :  cp.  15^  1  Cor  9 10.  If  we  be- 
lieve] RY  '  who  believe.'  25.  Delivered]  RY 
'delivered  up,'  i.e.  by  the  Father:  cp.  8^2; 
equally  by  Himself  :  cp.  Gal  2  20  EphS^.  Our 
justification]  The  Resurrection  brings  about 
our  justification,  because  (1)  it  shows  the 
divinity  of  Christ,  and  therefore  the  value  of 
His  death  :  cp.  1  Cor  1 5  ^'^  ;  (2)  through  the 
Eesurrection,  faith  in  the  Atonement  became 


871 


possible,  for  it  showed  that  the  Atonement 
was  complete  :  cp.  3 -5'-  6^0  ;  (3)  Christ  risen 
becomes  the  source  of  new  life  to  us  by 
our  union  with  Him  :  cp.   61^. 

CHAPTER  5 

God's  Salvation  and  the  Results  of 

ITS  Acceptance 

St.  Paul  completes  his  exposition  of  accept- 
ance by  faith  by  pointing  to  its  blessed  effects 
(vv.  1-11).  In  the  following  vv.  he  compares 
sin  and  acceptance,  as  to  which  he  has  shown 
that  all  men  have  sinned,  while  acceptance  is 
open  to  all,  and  declares  the  cause  of  this 
universality.  Sin  is  universal,  because  all  men 
derive  their  being  from  Adam.  But,  over 
against  Adam,  Christ  has  entered  into  our  race 
as  its  new  head  ;  and  from  Him,  all  who  be- 
come His  derive  righteousness  and  life,  which 
overpower  sin  and  death  (vv.  12-21). 

i-ii.  Acceptance  brings  about  triumphant 
hope  of  glory,  which  is  guaranteed  by  our 
assurance  of  the  love  of  God. 

Paraphrase.  '(1)  Blessed  effects  follow 
upon  acceptance,  and  we  should  realise  them. 
Such  are  reconciliation  to  God,  (2)  and  admis- 
sion to  His  gi-acious  favour,  with  triumphant 
expectation  of  future  glory.  (3)  Beyond  this, 
we  should  triumph  even  in  tribulations,  because 
their  bracing  effect  upon  the  character  (4) 
strengthens  our  expectation  of  glory,  (5)  and 
this  expectation  is  confirmed  by  a  sense  of 
God's   love    implanted   by   the    Holy   Ghost. 

(6)  We  are  right  in  trusting  utterly  to  such 
love  as  God  revealed  by  the  death  of  Christ. 

(7)  Its  like  has  never  been  known  among 
men,  for  we  were  not  good,  (8)  but  sinful,  when 
Christ  died  for  us.  (9)  In  view  of  this,  we 
may  trust  Him  to  save  us  to  the  end.  (10) 
For  if  God  sacrificed  His  Son  for  His  enemies. 
He  will  surely  save  His  friends.  (11)  Recon- 
ciled, therefore,  to  God,  we  triumph  continually 
in  His  abiding  love.' 

I.  Therefore]  cp.  424f.  Justified]  i.e.  ac- 
cepted. We  have]  RY 'let  us  have.'  2.  We 
have  accessj  RY  'we  have  had  our  access,'  as 
into  a  king's  palace  :  cp.  Gal  5  4.  Rejoice]  RY 
'  let  us  rejoice.'  Glory]  i.e.  the  future  and 
everlasting  presence  of  God  :  see  on  3  23. 

3.  We  glory,  etc.]  RY  '  let  us  also  rejoice 
in  our  tribulations'  :  cp.  Ac  1422.  Worketh] 
i.e.  brings  about.  Patience]  i.e.  bearing  up 
under  great  trials  without  losing  heart. 

4.  Experience]  RY  '  probation,'  i.e.  a  test  : 
here  the  character  of  one  who  has  come  through 
the  test  of  suffering  strong  and  ready  for  all 
things.  5.  Maketh  not  ashamed]  RY'putteth 
not  to  shame,'  i.e.  by  proving  mistaken.  Love 
of  God]  i.e.  to  us.  Is  given]  RY  '  was  given,' 
i.e.  at  a  definite  time  :  cp.  AclO**  192  st_ 
Paul  takes  it  for  granted  that  all  Christians 
have  had  a  definite  gift  of  the  Holy  Spirit, 


5.  6 


ROMANS 


which  followed  their  acceptance  of  Christ  (cp. 
Gal  3  2),  one  effect  of  which  was  to  fill  their 
hearts  with  a  sense  of  God's  love  to  them : 
cp.  8i5f. 

6.  Without  strength]  RY' weak,' i.e.  morally. 
In  due  time]  i.e.  when  the  need  was  greatest. 

7.  Righteous]  i.e.  just,  contrasted  with  the 
more  lovable  '  good  man.'  8.  Commendeth] 
i.e.  shows  its  excellence  :  cp.  3  5.  9.  Wrath] 
EV  '  the  wrath  of  God '  :  see  on  1  is. 

10.  Enemies]  i.e.  opposing  God's  truth 
and  will:  cp.  8'^  Coll-i.  Reconciled]  cp. 
2  Cor  5 18'.  Saved  by  his  life]  RM  '  in  his  life,' 
i.e.  saved  from  the  power  of  sin  now,  and  from 
death  and  God's  wrath  hereafter,  through 
our  union  with  the  life  of  the  risen  Christ  : 
cp.  G^f-  310^  II.  Joy]  RV  'rejoice,'  referring 
to  vv.  2  f.  In  God]  i.e.  in  His  love  and  father- 
hood. No'w]  i.e.  under  the  gospel.  Atone- 
ment] i.e.  at-one-ment ;  RV  '  reconciliation.' 

12-14.  Thus  Christ  is  the  head  and  repre- 
sentative of  humanity,  and  we  ^derive  accept- 
ance and  life  from  Christ,  as  the  OT.  shows 
that  we  derive  sin  and  death  from  Adam. 

Paraphrase.  '(12)  Thus  there  are  two 
heads,  from  whom  the  human  race  derives 
inheritance.  From  Adam  all  inherited  a  sinful 
tendency,  which  became  active,  so  that  all  died. 

(13)  When  there  is  no  law  to  be  broken,  there 
can  be  no  guilt,  yet  even  before  the  Law  came, 

(14)  death  was  universal,  and  those  who  had 
not  broken  any  express  command  nevertheless 
died.  Therefore  sin  and  death  are  derived 
from  Adam  ;  and  in  this  respect  Christ,  from 
whom,  by  union  with  Him,  we  derive  righteous- 
ness and  life,  is  Adam's  counterpart.' 

12.  Wherefore]  refers  to  vv.  9-11.  As  .  . 
by  sin]  sentence  broken  off ;  would  continue, 
'  so  by  one  man  righteousness  and  life  entered.' 

By  one  man]  cp.  1  Cor  152if-45.  Death]  i.e. 
physical.  Upon]  RV  '  unto.'  For  that]  i.e. 
because.     Have  sinned]  RV  '  sinned.' 

13.  Was  in  the  world]  as  proved  by  human 
history.  Not  imputed]  i.e.  as  guilty  of  wilful 
transgression  of  law :  cp.  4.  14.  After  the 
similitude]  RV  '  likeness,'  i.e.  by  consciously 
breaking  law. 

15-21.  But  our  inheritance  from  Christ 
more  than  repairs  the  ruin  of  the  Fall. 

Paraphrase.  '  ( 1  f))  But  the  inheritances  from 
Adam  and  from  Christ  differ  in  degree  and  in 
kind.  For  if  Adam's  Fall  was  so  powerful 
for  harm,  God's  favour,  shown  through  Christ, 
is  much  more  powerful  for  good.  (16)  Again, 
sin  is  so  terrible,  that  one  sin  led  to  man's 
condemnation.  But  God's  favom-  is  still 
mightier,  for  it  offers  pardon  to  all  sins.  (17) 
So  mighty  is  it  that,  while  we  know  that 
Adam's  sin  brought  death,  it  is  much  more 
easy  to  conceive  that  those  who  welcome 
God's  bounty  will  attain  to  life  and  glory 
through  Christ.     (18)    To  sum  up ;  one  sin 


brought  condemnation  to  all,  but,  over  against 
this,  one  verdict  of  acquittal  has  brought 
acceptance  and  life  within  the  reach  of  all. 
(19)  For  the  obedience  of  the  second  head  of 
humanity  reverses  the  effect  of  the  disobedience 
of  the  fii'st.  (20)  The  Law  has  a  subordinate 
place  ;  it  was  meant  to  convert  the  unconscious 
sin  of  the  world  into  definite  transgression, 
that  men  might  learn  how  far  they  are  from 
doing  God's  will.  But  God's  favour  was  so 
stupendously  manifested  as  to  overwhelm 
even  this  multiplied  sin,  (21)  that  the 
power  of  His  gracious  favour  might  prevail 
over  that  of  sin,  and  bring  man,  through  the 
work  of  Christ,  to  acceptance  and  to  eternal 
life.' 

15.  Offence]  RV 'trespass.'  The  Gk.  word 
means  a  'fall.'     Free  gift]  i.e.  of  acceptance. 

One]  RV  'the  one,'  i.e.  Adam.  Many]  RV 
'  the  many,'  i.e.  mankind.  Be  dead]  RV  '  died,' 
i.e.  became  liable  to  death  through  sin.  Grace] 
see  on  l^.  By  grace,  etc.]  RV  '  by  the  grace 
of  the  one  man.'  Abounded]  i.e.  in  power  for 
good.  16.  As  it  tvas  by  one]  RV  'as  through 
one.'  To  condemnation]  i.e.  leading  to  con- 
demnation. Offences]  RV  'trespasses.'  Unto 
justification]  i.e.  leading  to  a  sentence  of  ac- 
quittal.     17.  By  one]  RV  '  through  the  one.' 

Abundance]  refers  to  'abounded,'  v.  15. 

Righteousness]  i.e.  acceptance.  Reign]  i.e. 
enjoy  glory,  and  liberty  from  sin  and  death. 

Life]  i.e.  heavenly  life.  18.  By  the  offence 
of  one]  RV  '  through  one  trespass.'  To  con- 
demnation] i.e.  leading  to  condemnation. 

Righteousness  of  one]  better,  '  one  sentence 
of  acquittal,'  passed  by  God  in  consequence  of 
Christ's  obedience  :  cp.  v.  19.  Unto  justifi- 
cation of  life]  i.e.  leading  to  acceptance  which 
results  in  life.     19.  One]  RV  '  the  one.' 

Many]  RV  '  the  many.'  Were  made  sin- 
ners] in  the  sense  of  vv.  12-14.  Shall  many 
be  made]  i.e.  as  generation  after  generation 
arises.  20.  Entered]  RV  '  came  in  beside '  : 
cp.  Gal 3 19.  Off"ence]  RV  'trespass,'  i.e. 
Adam's.     Abound]   i.e.  multiply:  cp.  320712. 

Much  more  abound]  overpowering  the  sin. 

21.  Sin,  etc.]  RV  'sin  reigned  in  death,' 
i.e.  sin  had  power  which  was  death-bringing : 
cp.  Isa32i.  Unto  .  .  life]  i.e.  resulting  in. . 
life. 

CHAPTERS   6-8 

St.  Paul  has  finished  his  exposition  of  Justi- 
fication (319-5^1),  and  now  passes  to  Sancti- 
fication.  In  other  words,  having  shown  how 
the  believer  is  delivered  from  the  guilt  of  sin, 
he  goes  on  to  show  how  he  is  delivered  from 
its  power. 

C.  6  shows  the  Christian  abiding  in  living 
union  with  the  risen  Christ  by  the  power  of 
faith.  C.  7  describes  the  failure  of  the  most 
earnest  life  apart  from  Christ.     C.  8  shows 


872 


6.  1 


ROMANS 


6.7 


Christ  abiding  in  the  Christian  by  the  power 
of  the  spirit  :  cp.  Jnl5*. 

CHAPTER   6 

The  New  Righteousness  in  Union  with 
Christ 

St.  Paul's  begins  by  repeating  an  objection 
he  must  often  have  heard  from  Jewish  adver- 
saries (cp.  3^),  and  suggested  here  by  5^0 — 
'  Does  not  this  teaching  of  pardon  by  God's 
free  favour  practically  encourage  sin  ?  '  The 
objection  is  stated  in  two  forms  (vv.  1,  15). 
The  Apostle  not  only  answers  his  opponents  : 
he  is  still  more  concerned  to  build  up  his 
readers  in  a  holy  life.  He  opposes  to  the 
objection  the  fact  of  the  believer's  union  with 
Christ.  Faith  in  Christ  means  devotion  to 
Christ's  Person.  The  Christian  is  so  vitally 
joined  to  Christ  that  he  is  dead  with  Him  to 
sin,  and  risen  with  Him  to  a  new  state  in 
which  sin  has  no  place  (w.  1-14).  The 
Apostle  then  presents  the  same  truth  in  a  form 
more  easily  grasped.  In  coming  to  Chi-ist, 
the  Christian  has  experienced  a  change  of 
service  ;  he  is  freed  from  Sin  and  bound  to 
serve  Righteousness  (vv.  15-23). 

1-14.  The  Christian  life  should  be  like 
Christ's  risen  life,  i.e.  it  should  be  lived  in 
God's  loving  Presence.  Sin  belonged  to  the  old 
state,  to  which  the  Christian  died  in  baptism. 

Paraphrase.  '  (1)  It  is  objected  that  by 
"  Justification  by  Faith "  men  are  encour- 
aged to  continue  in  sin,  since  the  greater 
the  sin,  the  greater  the  opportunity  that  is 
afforded  for  the  manifestation  of  God's  pardon- 
ing love  to  sinners.  (2)  But  our  baptism 
implied  such  a  breaking-away  from  the  old 
sinful  life  as  may  be  compared  to  death. 
Therefore,  to  say  that  a  Christian  may  live  in 
sin  is  a  contradiction.  (3)  For  our  baptism 
signified  an  identification  of  our  hearts  and 
wills  with  Christ  which  amounted  to  a  real 
union  with  Him,  so  that,  while  we  look  to  His 
death  as  the  ground  of  our  acceptance,  we  also 
identify  ourselves  with  that  alienation  from 
the  sin  of  the  world  which  crucified  Him,  of 
which  His  death  was  the  final  stage.  (4) 
Therefore,  our  immersion  beneath  the  waters 
of  baptism  signified  death  and  burial  with 
Christ  from  the  sinful  life  of  the  world.  But 
it  is  not  only  His  death  that  is  ours.  We 
came  up  out  of  the  water,  as  He  rose  from 
the  dead,  that  we  might  begin  to  live  in  a 
new  condition  animated  by  His  risen  life.  (5) 
This  necessarily  follows.  For  if  we  are  united 
with  Him  in  dying,  we  must  be  united  with 
Him  in  new  life,  morally  and  spiritually  now, 
and  physically  hereafter.  (6)  Make  no  mis- 
take :  by  His  death,  Christ  finally  sealed  His 
life-long  refusal  of  sin,  and  showed  that  His 
followers  must  do  the  same.  We,  therefore, 
being  like-minded  with  Him  through  our  faith 


873 


in  Him,  also  repudiated  sin  at  our  baptism, 
slaying  om-  old  sinful  selves.  Therefore,  we 
should  realise  that  the  rule  of  sin  over  our 
earthly  natures  is  ended  ;  (7)  just  as  a  master's 
rule  over  a  dead  slave  is  ended.  (8)  If  so, 
then  life  with  Christ  follows,  (9)  because  we 
are  one  with  Him,  and  He  lives  a  life  in  which 
death  cannot  touch  Him  any  more.  (10)  This 
is  certain,  for  His  death  ended  that  earthly 
state  in  which  He  had  contact  with  sin,  and 
His  life  is  now  one  of  unbroken  communion 
with  God.  (11)  Do  you,  then,  look  upon 
yourselves  also  as  dead  in  regard  to  sin,  but 
alive  to  God's  presence  and  love  and  claims 
by  your  union  with  Christ.  (12)  Therefore, 
treat  even  your  bodies  as  redeemed  from  sin, 
and  do  not  yield  to  the  lusts  (13)  which  would 
use  the  parts  and  powers  of  your  body  to 
conquer  j'ou  again  for  sin.  Rather  devote 
yourselves  to  God  once  for  all,  as  if  you  had 
risen  from  the  dead,  and  let  all  the  powers  of 
your  bodies  be  weapons  for  the  good  fight  in 
God's  service.  (14)  Do  not  fear  failure.  The 
power  which  sin  has  over  those  who  are  under 
law  cannot  exist  in  the  life-giving  atmosphere 
of  the  redeeming  love  of  God  in  which  vou 
live.'  ^ 

2,  Are  dead]  rather,  '  died,'  i.e.  in  baptism. 
Those  addressed  had  been  adult  converts. 
Their  baptism  had  been  a  definite  act  of 
attachment  to  Christ  and  of  detachment  from 
the  sinful  world.  Although  to  crucify  sinful 
and  selfish  desires  is  painful,  it  is  done  even 
joyfully  by  those  who  are  inspired  to  the 
imitation  of  Christ  by  the  perfect  beauty  and 
goodness  of  His  sacrifice,  for  they  have  '  that 
mind'  in  them  'which  was  also  in  Christ 
Jesus.'  This,  which  is  part  of  the  inner 
meaning  of  baptism,  is  the  spirit  in  which  the 
true  Christian  will  live  his  life. 

3.  Cp.  Gal  3  27.  So  many  of  us  as]  RV 
'all  we  who.'  4.  Are  buried]  rather,  'were 
buried'  :  cp.  Col 2 12.  into  death]  i.e.  into  a 
state  of  death  as  regards  sin.  Glory]  i.e. 
manifestation  of  love  and  power  :  cp.  Jnll^o. 

Newness  of  life]  i.e.  a  newness  consisting  in 
life  :  cp.  Jn33»5  iQio  173  R082  Col33f. 

5.  Been  planted,  etc.]  RM  'become  united 
with  the  likeness  ..  with  the  likeness,'  as  a 
slip  is  united  with  the  tree  to  which  it  is 
grafted.  6.  Is  crucified]  rather,  'was  cruci- 
fied,' i.e.  potentially,  when  Christ  was  crucified  ; 
actually,  in  faith  and  baptism:  cp.  MtlSS*- 
Gal  2  20.  Body  of  sin]  i.e.  the  body  as  the 
servant  of  sin  :  cp.  Col  2 11*.  Destroyed]  i.e. 
as  regards  sin. 

7.  Is  freed  from  sin]  As  a  dead  slave  has 
completely  escaped  from  his  master's  power, 
so  one  who  has  so  believed  in  Christ  as  to  be 
joined  with  Him  in  His  death  to  the  sin  of 
the  world,  should  remember  that  sin  has  no 
more,  legitimately,  to-do  with  him.     So  far  as 


6.8 


ROMANS 


7.5 


its  appeal  to  him  is  concerned,  he  should  be 
dead.  8.  Be  dead]  rather,  '  died.'  lo.  In 
that  he  died,  etc.]  RV  '  the  death  that  he  died 
.  .  the  life  that  he  liveth.'  Once]  RM  '  once 
for  all.'  II.  Through  Jesus  Christ  our  Lord] 
RV  '  in  Christ  Jesus,'  a  phrase  by  which  St. 
Paul  often  expresses  our  union  with  the 
glorified  Chi-ist.  12.  Obey  .  .  lusts]  RY  '  obey 
the  lusts.'     13.  Yield]  RV  present.' 

Instruments]  RM  '  weapons.'  14.  Under  the 
law]  RV  'under  law.'  A  code  of  precepts 
gives  no  power  of  fulfilment.  It  only  (1) 
shows  what  is  right,  (2)  reveals  man's  sinful- 
ness, (3)  stimulates  him  to  opposition  :  cp. 
c.  7  1  Cor  15 56  Gal 4 5.  ^  To  be  "under  the 
law,"  in  St.  Paul's  language,  means  to  avoid 
sin  from  fear  of  penalties  attached  to  sin  by 
the  law.  This  principle  of  fear  is  not  strong 
enough  to  keep  men  in  the  path  of  duty. 
Union  with  Chi'ist  can  alone  give  man  the 
mastery  over  sin '  (Conybeare  and  Howson). 

15-23.  The  Christian  is  to  regard  sin  as  a 
master  from  whom  death  has  freed  him.  He 
is  now  the  bondservant  of  righteousness. 

Paraphrase.  '(15)  Some  assert  that  if  they 
are  no  longer  under  law  they  may  indulge  in 
sin.  (16)  Impossible  !  You  belong  either  to 
sin  or  to  God  ;  you  cannot  belong  to  both. 
(17)  And  although  you  were  the  servants  of 
sin  once,  you  have  now  taken  the  Christian 
teaching  as  your  rule  of  life,  (18)  thus 
exchanging  the  service  of  Sin  for  the  service 
of  Righteousness.  (19)  The  illustration  is 
inadequate,  for  you  are  better  than  slaves,  you 
are  God's  children.  But  I  want  you  to  see 
that  you  must  now  devote  your  bodies  to 
righteousness  and  sanctification  as  unreservedly 
as  once  you  devoted  them  to  impm-ity  and 
licence.  (20)  Formerly,  you  served  sin  only, 
(21)  and  the  only  reward  you  had  to  look  for 
was  eternal  death.  (22)  Now  you  serve 
God  only,  a  service  leading  to  sanctification, 
with  everlasting  life  in  prospect.  (23)  Make 
no  mistake.  Those  who  serve  sin  receive  the 
death  they  have  deserved.  But  God  gives  to 
His  servants  what  they  could  never  earn,  even 
everlasting  life  in  union  with  Christ.' 

15.  The  law]  RV  '  law  '  :   cp.  Gal  513. 

16.  Cp.  Mt624.     Unto]  i.e.  resulting  in. 
Obedience]    personified  ;    the  mark  of  the 

lives    both    of    the    Redeemer    and    of    the 
redeemed  :  cp.  Phil  28  Heb58f-  10 'f. 

17.  That  form,  etc.]  RV  'that  form  of 
teaching  whereunto  ye  were  delivered,'  i.e. 
simple  instruction  in  Christian  truth  and 
morality  :  cp.  Ac  2  ^2,  19.  After  the  manner 
of  men]  i.e.  I  use  an  illustration  drawn  from 
human  affairs,  because  you  have  not  had  that 
deep  spiritual  experience  to  which  I  might 
appeal  differently  :  cp.  3 5.  Flesh]  i.e.  un- 
spiritual  human  natm-e.  Have  yielded]  RV 
'  presented.'    Iniquity]  lit. '  lawlessness.'     Unto 


iniquity]  i.e.  iniquity  leading  to  iniquity  with 
the  result  of  a  lawless  life.  Yield]  RV 
'  present.'  Holiness]  RV  '  sanctification,'  i.e. 
growth  in  holiness.  20.  From]  RV '  in  regard 
of.'     22.   Holiness]  RV  '  sanctification.' 

Everlasting  life]  i.e.  future  bliss.  23.  Gift] 
RV  '  free  gift.'  Through]  RV  '  in' :  cp.  v.  11, 
lJn5ii*. 

CHAPTER  7 
The  Inadequacy  of  the  Law  to  save 
1-6.  St.  Paul  had  spoken  of  the  Law  in  a 
way  which  would  offend  an  earnest  Jew  :  cp. 
3  20, 21 4 15  5  20.  In  this  c.  (vv.  7-25)  he  shows  that 
the  Law  is  divine  in  its  character  and  bene- 
ficent in  its  work,  but  unable  to  free  a  man 
from  the  power  of  sin.  Indeed,  though  not 
the  cause,  it  is  the  occasion  of  sin.  But  first, 
in  w.  1-6,  the  statement  in  G^^,  that  Christians 
are  not  under  law,  is  enforced  and  explained. 
Law  which  governs  one  state  of  life  is  often 
not  applicable  to  another.  Of  this  the  marriage 
law  is  an  example.  And  the  Christian,  by  the 
death  of  his  old  self,  has  passed  into  another 
state,  one  in  which  the  Law  no  longer  has 
force. 

Paraphrase.  '  (1)  Does  any  one  hesitate  at 
my  statement  (6 1*)  that  we  "  are  not  under 
law  "  ?  Let  me  remind  him  that  the  power  of 
any  law  over  a  man  ends  at  his  death.  And 
we  have  died  with  Christ  to  the  old  state  of 
sin  in  which  law  applies,  and  risen  with  Him 
to  a  new  life.  (2)  Or  the  change  in  our  con- 
dition may  be  compared  to  the  remarriage  of 
a  woman  after  the  death  of  her  husband.  By 
his  death,  the  legal  ties  which  bound  her  to 
him  were  annulled  ;  (3)  for  now  the  Law  has 
no  power  to  condemn  the  woman,  although  it 
condemned  a  second  union  while  the  husband 
lived.  (4)  In  like  manner,  the  Law  which  applied 
to  us  when  we  were  wedded  to  our  old  self,  had 
no  more  to  do  with  us  when  om*  old  self  was 
crucified  with  Christ.  So  we  were  free  to 
wed  the  risen  Christ,  that  through  union  with 
Him  we  might  bring  forth  fruit  for  God  our 
Master.  (5)  The  state  in  which  our  fleshly 
nature  ruled  was  not  of  such  a  character  that 
we  should  desire  to  return  to  it.  For  the  sin- 
ful passions  which  the  Law  revealed,  and  by 
revealing  stimulated,  caused  us  to  bring  forth 
fruit  for  Death  as  our  master.  (6)  But,  as  it 
is,  the  Law  has  ceased  to  affect  us.  This  does 
not  mean  that  we  are  free  to  sin,  but  that  now 
we  serve  God  from  inward  impulse,  instead  of 
because  we  are  told  to  do  so  by  a  law.' 

I.  Know  the  law]  lit.  '  know  law,'  i.e. 
probably  law  in  general  :  all  know  that  law 
ceases  to  be  concerned  with  people  when  they 
are  dead.  2.  Loosed]  RV  '  discharged  '  :  cp. 
V.  6.  Law  of  her  husband]  i.e.  the  marriage 
law.  4.  By  the  body  of  Christ]  i.e.  through 
your  union  with  Christ  crucified.     5.  Motions 


874 


7.6 


ROMANS 


8. 


of  sins]  RV  '  sinful  passions.'  '  Passions '  = 
passive  feelings,  e.g.  hunger  ;  sinful,  when 
they  control  the  will.  By  the  law]  cp.  vv. 
7-25,  620,  and  on  Gi-i.  6.  Delivered]  RV 
'  discharged.'  That  being  dead]  RV  '  having 
died  to  that,'  i.e.  to  the  Law.  Spirit]  RV 
'  the  spirit.'  In  the  new  state,  the  spiritual 
part  of  the  man  has  been  emancipated,  and 
has  become  the  predominant  part  of  him.  He 
lives,  as  it  were,  in  a  spiritual  world,  and  has 
become  a  spiritual  person  ;  and  therefore 
desires  to  carry  out  God's  will  freely  and  fully. 
In  the  old  state,  his  obedience  was  constrained, 
and  therefore  limited,  by  a  written  code. 

7-13.  Although,  in  order  that  we  might 
truly  serve  God,  it  was  necessary  that  we 
should  be  set  free  from  the  Law  (vv.  1-6),  yet 
the  Law  is  not  evil.  On  the  contrary,  it  does 
God's  work,  for  it  detects  the  sinfulness 
hidden  in  the  soul,  and  exposes  it  in  its  true 
nature. 

Paraphrase,  '  (7)  Are  we  to  infer  (e.g.  from 
V.  5)  that  the  Law  is  evil  ?  Not  so  :  the  Law 
brings  sin  to  light.  For  example,  the  tenth 
commandment  made  me  conscious  of  the  sin 
of  coveting.  (8)  Not  only  so,  but  my  sin 
became  active  when  there  was  a  conunandment 
to  resist,  so  that  I  coveted  all  the  more  be- 
cause coveting  is  forbidden.  Without  law, 
sin  is  dormant.  (9)  So  it  was  with  me  ;  my 
conscience  was  untroubled  until  I  realised  the 
commandment,  then  sin  sprang  to  life,  and  I 
knew  myself  to  be  dead  before  God.  (10) 
How  startling  a  consequence  of  a  command- 
ment which  pointed  the  way  to  spiritual  life  ! 
(11)  But  it  was  the  fault  of  sin  within,  which 
persuaded  me  to  love  that  which  I  knew  the 
commandment  forbade,  not  the  fault  of  the 
commandment,  (12)  which  is  holy  and  right- 
eous and  beneficent.  (13)  Thus  I  realised  the 
exceeding  wickedness  of  the  sin  within  me, 
for  it  not  only  brought  me  to  death,  but  did 
so  by  preventing  the  beneficent  commandment 
from  having  any  other  effect  than  that  of 
awakening  my  resistance.' 

7.  Lust]  RV  '  coveting.'  St.  Paul  instances 
the  most  searching  and  comprehensive  com- 
mandment of  the  second  table.  8.  Taking 
occasion]  RV  '  finding  occasion.'  By  the 
commandment,  etc.]  RV  '  wrought  in  me 
through  the  commandment  all  manner  of 
coveting.'  Without]  RV  '  apart  from.'  9.  I 
was  alive]  'I' emphatic.  10.  0)-da'me(T\  RV 
omits.  II.  Deceived]  RV  'beguiled':  cp. 
Gn  3 13.  '  AH  sin  is  committed  under  a  decep- 
tion, momentary  at  least,  as  to  (1)  the  satis- 
faction to  be  found  in  it,  (2)  the  excuse  to  be 
made  for  it,  (3)  the  probability  of  its  punish- 
ment '  (Vaughan).  13.  But  sin]  Understand 
'  became  death  unto  me.'  Working]  RV  '  by 
working.' 

14-25.   St.    Paul,  taking   his   own   case    as 


typical,  shows  that  spiritual  death  (yv.  11-13) 
is  due,  not  to  the  Law,  nor  to  the  free  choice 
of  his  true  self,  which  approves  the  Law  (vv. 
14-16,  22),  but  to  the  power  of  sin  within 
(vv.  17,  20  f.).  In  doing  so,  he  draws  a  picture 
of  conflict,  in  which  he  does  evil  unwillingly, 
and  is  unable  to  do  the  good  he  wishes  (vv. 
15-20).  His  personality  includes  two  parts — 
'  flesh  '  (the  lower  animal  nature)  and  '  mind  ' 
or  '  inward  man '  (i.e.  the  part  which  thinks 
and  reasons).  The  '  mind  '  reverences  God's 
Law,  but  is  conquered  by  the  'flesh,'  which  sin 
controls.     He  needs  a  deliverer  (vv.  21-25). 

The  state  described  is  that  of  one  who  has 
been  awakened  to  the  claim  of  God's  Law  and 
to  hate  sin,  but  is  not  under  the  power  of  the 
Spirit  of  Christ  (c.  8).  It  probably  describes 
St.  Paul's  experience  for  some  length  of  time 
before  his  conversion. 

Paraphrase.  '  (14)  The  Law  appeals  to 
man's  spiritual  nature,  and  that  is  why  I  can- 
not keep  it,  for  the  fleshly  nature,  over  which 
sin  rules,  predominates  in  me.  (15)  I  am  like 
a  slave,  who  works  out  his  master's  thoughts 
without  sharing  them.  I  do  not  what  I  wish, 
but  what  I  hate,  (16)  thus  acknov^'ledging 
the  moral  excellence  of  the  Law  even  while  I 
break  it.  (17)  It  follows  that  the  sin  which 
dwells  within  me  is  the  real  agent  of  my 
wrong-doing.  (18)  Tor  I  know  that  no  good 
dwells  in  my  fleshly  nature,  because  my  good 
wishes  are  ineffectual,  (19)  and  I  do  the 
evil  I  wish  to  avoid.  (20)  But  if  I  do  it 
against  my  will,  the  sin  which  dwells  within 
me  is  the  real  agent.  (21)  Thus  I  am  not 
free.  Although  I  wish  to  do  the  good,  sin 
says,  "  Thou  shalt  not  do  good,  thou  shalt  do 
evil,"  and  I  am  obliged  to  obey.  (22)  My 
reason  and  conscience  delight  in  the  Law  of 
God,  (23)  but  the  law  of  sin  (v.  21).  which 
rules  my  body,  wars  against  the  dictates  of  my 
reason  and  conscience  and  robs  me  of  my 
liberty.  (24)  I  need  a  deliverer  from  this 
reign  of  sin  in  my  body '  (cp.  6  ^  '  body  of  sin  '), 
'(25)  whom  I  find  in  Christ.  The  sum  of  the 
matter  is  that,  left  to  myself,  I  am  divided, 
serving  a  law  of  God  with  my  reason  and 
conscience,  but  a  law  of  sin  with  my  fleshly 
nature.' 

15.  Allow]   RV  'know.' 

24.  The  body  of  this  death]  Sin  and  death 
go  together.  The  body  which  is  under  the 
power  of  sin  is  also  given  over  to  death. 

CHAPTER  8 
The  New  Life  in  Christ  in  relation 

TO  God  and  the  Spirit 
It  was  shown  in  S^^f.  that  condemnation  for 
the  (juiU  of  sin  is  done  away  by  justification 
thi-ough  faith  in  Christ.  The  question  as  to 
the  jmver  of  sin  then  arose,  answered  by  the 
doctrine  of  sanctification  in  chs.  6-8.     In  c.  6 


875 


8.  1 


ROMANS 


8.  14 


it  is  asserted  that  the  union  of  the  Christian 
with  Christ  is  a  new  condition,  which  involves 
death  with  Him  to  sin  and  resurrection  to 
newness  of  life.     In  c.  7  it  is  made  clear  that 
there  is  no  force  in  the  Law  to  break  the 
power  of  sin.     Now,  in  c.  8,  St.  Paul  brings 
forward  the  truth  of  the  indwelling  of  the 
Holy  Spirit,  which   accompanies  union  with 
Christ,  conquering  sin  and  death  in  the  Chris- 
tian (vv.  1-11),  and  bearing  witness  that  he  is 
child  and  heir  of  God  (vv.   12-17).     Hence 
the  Christian  has  such  hope  of  glory  that  he 
can  bear  his  sufferings  (vv.  18-25),  in  which 
the  Spirit  helps  him  by  intercession  (vv.  26,  27), 
and  which  are  bringing  about  God's  purpose 
of  good  (vv.  28-30).     In  the  security  of  that 
purpose  he  triumphs  (vv.  31-39). 

i-ii.  The  Christian  is  sanctified  as  well  as 
justified.  In  Christ  he  receives  the  Spirit,  who 
frees  him  from  the  power  of  sin  and  of  death 
(vv.  1,  2).  The  object  of  the  death  of  Christ 
was  not  only  to  win  pardon  for  man,  but  also 
to  produce  right  character  and  conduct  (vv. 
3,  4).  This  is  essential,  and  is  brought  about 
by  the  indwelling  of  the  Spirit  (vv.  5-9).  The 
change  means  life,  of  spirit  now  and  of  body 
hereafter  (vv.   10,   11). 

Paraphrase.  '  (1)  The  deliverance  spoken  of 
(cp.  7  25)  for  those  who  are  united  to  Christ  (2) 
is  brought  about  by  the  power  of  the  life-giving 
Spirit,   whom   they  received   by  union   with 
Christ,  which  freed  them  from  the  power  of 
sin  and  death.     (3)  The  Law  could  not  over- 
come sin,  because  man's  fleshly  natm-e  could 
not  respond  to  its  demands.     But  God,  by  the 
incarnation  and  atonement  of  His  Son,  sealed 
the  death-warrant  of  sin  in  the  flesh,  (4)  with 
the  object  of  producing  in  us  that  character 
and   conduct    which   the    Law    requires,    by 
enabling  us  to  live  by  the  rule  of  the  renewed 
spiritual  nature.     (5)  There  are  two  states  of 
life,  the  difference   between   which  is  wide. 
According  as  the  fleshly  or  the  spiritual  nature 
is  the  ruling   power,  so   are  men   engrossed 
either  with  fleshly  or  with  spiritual  things  ; 
(6)  either  they  are  in  a  state  of  separation  from 
God,  which  ends  in  death  both  of  soul  and 
body,  or  they  have  joyful    communion  with 
God  and  a  happy  sense  of  reconciliation  with 
Him.     (7)  Death  must  be  the  portion  of  the 
mind  set   on  fleshly  things,   because  such  a 
mind  is  in  a  state  of  hostility  to  God,  being 
rebellious  against  His  Law.     (8)  They,  there- 
fore over  whom  the  fleshly  nature  rules  cannot 
be  acceptable  to  God.     (9)  But  you,  who  are 
in  Christ,  are  not  so.     ISTot  the  fleshly,  but  the 
spiritual  nature  rules  over  you,  if  the  Spirit  of 
God  dwells  in  you.    And  unless  you  have  Him 
you  are  not  Christ's,  for  it  is  by  the   Spirit 
that  Christ  comes  to  you.     (10)  But  if  Christ 
does  dwell  in  you,  although  your  body  must 
die  because  of  tjie  curse  of  sin,  your  spirit  has 


already  risen  into  new  life  because  you  are 
acQepted  in  Christ.  (11)  And  the  Spirit 
within  you  is  a  pledge  that  God  .will  cause 
your  bodies  also  to  participate  in  Christ's 
Resurrection.' 

I.  Who  walk,  etc.]  RY  omits  :  probably 
borrowed  from  v.  4.  2.  Law  of  sin,  etc.]  cp. 
7  23, 24_  2.  Likeness  of,  etc.]  Christ  took  real 
'  flesh,'  i.e.  human  nature,  cp.  Jn  1 1"*,  but  with- 
out its  sinfulness,  cp.  Heb4i5.  For  sin]  RV 
'  as  an  offering  for  sin.'  Condemned  sin  in  the 
flesh]  (1)  Christ  proved,  by  a  sinless  human 
life,  that  sin  is  not  necessary  to  human  natm-e  ; 

(2)  Christ  made  expiation  for  sin  on  our  behalf  ; 

(3)  Christ  made  it  possible  for  us  to  die  with 
Him  to  sin  and  rise  with  Him  to  newness  of 
life,  by  union  in  love  with  Him,  and  by  the 
power  of  the  Spirit.  4.  Righteousness]  RV 
'  ordinance.'  5.  Things  of  the  flesh]  i.e. 
things  merely  human:  cp.  MtlG^^;  merely 
earthly:  cp.  Mk4i9  Phil3i9  ;  or  absolutely 
sinful :  cp.  Gal  5 1^*.  6.  To  be  carnally  minded 
.  .  spiritually  minded]  RV  '  the  mind  of  the 
flesh  .  .  the  mind  of  the  spirit.'  7.  Carnal 
mind]  RV  '  mind  of  the  flesh.'  8.  In  the  flesh] 
cp.  75.  Please  God]  cp.  Mal34.  9.  Dwell] 
cp.  Jnl4i7.  Spirit  of  Christ]  The  Spirit  of 
God  is  the  Spirit  of  Christ,  because  He  comes 
from  the  Son  as  well  as  from  the  Father. 
Also  His  Presence  is  in  effect  the  Presence  of 
Christ :  cp.  v.  10  Jnl4i6f.  Gal  4". 

12-17.  Let  us  live  in  accordance  with  the 
high  position  which  the  Spirit  testifies  is  ours, 
namely,  that  we  are  God's  sons  and  heirs  with 
Christ  of  glory. 

Paraphrase.  '(12)  Such  a  destiny  involves 
the  duty  (13)  of  putting  to  death  the  impulses 
of  the  fleshly  nature,  by  submitting  yourself  to 
yoiir  renewed  spiritual  nature.  If  you  do  so, 
you  will  live  eternally,  (14)  an  amazing  destiny, 
but  yours  as  sons  of  God.  For  you  are  shown 
to  be  sons  of  God  by  your  following  the  guid- 
ance of  God's  Spirit,  (15)  and  by  the  testimony 
of  your  own  spirits,  which,  when  you  became 
Christians,  no  longer  regarded  God  with  the 
slavish  fear  the  Law  produced,  but  received 
such  a  consciousness  of  sonship  that  the  prayer 
of  our  hearts  is  "  our  Father."  (16)  And  this 
consciousness  is  caused  by  the  Holy  Spirit  Him- 
self, who  thus  unites  with  our  own  spirits  in 
bearing  witness  that  we  are  children  of  God. 
(17)  Well,  then,  if  we  are  God's  children,  we  are 
heirs  of  His  glory,  and  shall  share  it  with  Christ 
hereafter  if  we  share  in  Christ's  sufferings 
now.' 

13.  Shall  die]  RV  '  must  die,'  i.e.  spiritually. 
Deeds  of  the  body]  i.e.  so  far  as  the  body  is 

not  under  the  dominion  of  the  spirit. 

14.  Sons]  cp.  V.  16, 'children.'  'Children' 
denotes  '  community  of  nature,'  '  sons '  denotes 
'  dignity  of  heirship '  (Westcott)  :  cp.  Jn  1 12  Gal 
324f.  4if      The  privilege  of  sonship  must  be 


876 


8.  15 


ROMANS 


8.  29 


appropriated  by  faithful  obedience  to  become 
actual.  15.  Adoption]  cp.  Gal  4  5, 6.  Abba, 
Father]  cp.  Mkl43t3  Gal4«.  -Abba'  is  an 
Aramaic  word,  meaning  '  Father.'  Probably 
Christ  used  it  in  the  Lord's  Prayer,  and  per- 
haps it  came  to  be  used  as  a  divine  name, 
'  Father  Abba.'  17.  Heirs]  Under  Roman 
law,  'a  will  that  left  the  property  away  from 
the  children  was  invalid'  (Ramsay).  If  so  be, 
etc.]  cp.  2 Tim 2 11 S  and  MkS^^f.  Coll 24  IPet 
4 13.  Christ  is  '  the  Way  '  ;  the  main  features 
of  His  life  must  be  reproduced  in  the  lives  of 
His  people. 

18-25.  The  glory  to  come  will  far  outweigh 
the  sufferings  we  must  bear  now.  All  creation 
is  moving  on  through  the  mystery  of  pain  to 
full  redemption,  om-  hope  of  which  is  so  sure 
that  we  can  wait  in  patience. 

Paraphrase.  '  (18)  I  said  we  must  suffer  with 
Christ.  Suffering  belongs  to  this  passing  season, 
but  it  is  not  worth  a  thought  in  view  of  the 
coming  glory  (19)  in  which  the  sons  of  God 
will  stand  revealed.  Even  nature,  animate 
and  inanimate,  eagerly  expects  that  blessed 
future.  (20)  Although  God  subjected  her  to 
imperfection  and  decay,  to  further  His  pur- 
poses, it  was  not  to  be  for  ever.  He  gave  her 
a  sure  hope  (21)  of  future  deliverance  from 
the  law  of  decay,  and  of  sharing  the  freedom 
from  all  evil  which  God's  children  will  have  in 
glory.  (22)  She  groans,  indeed,  but  in  the 
birth-throes  of  a  better  order  of  things.  (23) 
And  even  we  Christians,  though  we  have  the 
Spirit  as  a  foretaste  of  blessedness,  groan  under 
the  weakness  and  imperfections  of  our  bodies  ; 
but  we  await  the  full  dignity  of  our  sonship, 
when  our  bodies  shall  be  delivered  from  death. 
(24)  When  we  became  Christ's  we  looked  to 
the  future  for  perfect  happiness  ;  we  cannot 
expect  to  have  it  now.  (25)  But  we  have 
certain  hope  of  it,  and,  therefore,  wait  and 
endure.' 

18.  Inus]  RVtousward.'  19,20,21.  Crea- 
ture] RV  'creation,'  i.e.  the  irrational  creation: 
cp.  GnS^'^'-  St.  Paul  represents  nature 
poetically,  as  feeling  that  dissatisfaction  with 
its  pain  and  failure  which  exists  in  man's 
mind.  There  was  a  general  expectation  among 
the  Jews,  based  on  such  passages  as  IsaGS^'''^-, 
that  the  Messianic  times  would  usher  in  a 
renovation  of  nature.  This  expectation  is 
taken  up  in  the  NT.:  cp.  Ac3i9f.  Coll 20 
2  Pet  3 13  Rev  2 11.  In  what  way  it  will  be 
fulfilled  is  beyond  our  knowledge.  19.  Mani- 
festation] RV  'revealing':  cp.  1  Cor  15^1  *• 
1  Th  4 1*5'.  20.  Vanity]  i.e.  transitoriness,  frus- 
tration :  cp.  Eccl  1  2.  Him]  i.e.  God  :  cp.  Gn 
317.  20,  21.  Hath  subjected,  etc.]  RV  'sub- 
jected it,  in  hope  that  the  creation,'  etc. 

21.  Glorious  liberty]  RV  '  liberty  of  the 
glory.'  23.  Firstfruits]  cp.  Lv23io  2  Cor  1  22 
Ephlisf.     Groan]  cp.  2Cor52f.     24.  We  are 


saved]  RV  •  by  hope  were  we  saved  '  ;  better, 
'  in  hope,'  etc.  :  see  on  1 16.  Hope  that  is  seen] 
here  '  hope '  means  that  which  is  hoped  for. 

For  what,  etc.]  RV  '  for  who  hopeth  for 
that  which  he  seeth  ? '  25.  Patience]  i.e. 
patient  endurance. 

26-30.  While  the  Christian  endures  his 
sufferings  in  hope,  the  Spirit  within  is  praying 
for  him,  better  than  he  can  pray  himself  (vv. 
26,  27).  Meanwhile  he  knows  that  his  suffer- 
ings are  helping  to  bring  about  that  great  and 
good  purpose,  in  fulfilment  of  which  God  has 
brought  him  into  a  state  of  salvation  (vv. 
28-30). 

Paraphrase.  '  (26)  Thus  we  both  groan 
and  hope.  We  cannot  pray  definitely  for  the 
removal  of  our  sufferings,  because  we  do  not 
know  what  is  best.  But  the  Spirit  prays  within 
us  in  inexpressible  longings,  (27)  which  God 
•understands,  and  which  are  (as  our  words 
might  not  be)  in  accordance  with  His  will. 
(28)  And  this  we  do  know,  that  all  things, 
even  our  sufferings,  are  helping  to  fulfil  a  plan 
by  which  God  is  bringing  about  good  to  them 
that  love  Him.  We  know  this,  because  it  was 
in  pursuance  of  His  purpose  that  He  called 
them  to  become  Christians ;  (29)  and  the 
whole  course  of  their  salvation  is  due  to  His 
purpose  ;  by  which  in  eternity  He  regarded 
them  with  favour,  and  appointed  them  to  attain 
to  the  likeness  of  His  Son,  that  He  might  be 
the  eldest  in  a  glorious  family,  (30)  then  called 
them  to  be  His,  accepted  them  as  righteous, 
and  brought  them  to  glory.' 

26.  Infirmities]  RV  '  infirmity,'  i.e.  '  our 
ignorance  in  asking.'  What .  .  for]  RV  '  how 
we  should  pray':  cp.  Phil  1 22 f.  Itself]  RV 
'himself;  spoken  of  as  a  Person  and  distinct 
from  the  Father. 

27.  Because]  RM  '  that.'  Saints]  i.e.  God's 
people  :  see  on  1 7. 

28.  Called]  see  on  1^.  According  to  his 
purpose]  cp.  911. 

St.  Paul  does  not  say  that  God's  purpose  is 
to  save  some  and  reject  others,  but  '  that  he 
might  have  mercy  upon  all'  (1132).  j^  p^j.. 
suance  of  this  purpose  first  the  Jews,  and 
then  Christians,  specially  Gentile  Christians, 
were  called  to  hold  and  spread  the  divine 
knowledge.  Among  those  who  had  been 
called  were  those  to  whom  the  Epistle  was 
addressed.  St.  Paul  encourages  them  in  their 
trials  by  the  thought  that  God  would  not  for- 
sake those  who  had  been  so  called  by  Him, 
and  that,  as  to  His  favour,  they  were  safe.  On 
the  other  hand,  he  does  not  say  that  they  could 
not  rebel  against  God  or  forsake  Him.  On 
the  contrary,  he  warns  them  against  such 
presumptuous  thoughts  (11  20  f.) 

29.  Foreknow]  For  paraphrase  cp.  Psl6 
Am 3 2  Mt723.  Did  predestinate]  RV  'fore- 
ordained': cp.  Ac  4  28  lCor27Ephl5.n. 


877 


8.30 


ROMANS 


9.  4 


Conformed]  i.e.  in  essential  type  :  cp.  Phil 
26.  Image]  cp.  1  Cor  1549  2  Cor 3  is  Phil  3  21 
IJn 3 2.     Brethren]  cp.  Heb 2 10 f. 

30.   Did  predestinate]  RV  '  foreordained.' 

Glorified]  That  which  to  us  is  future,  is 
already  complete  in  G-od's  mind:  cp.  Eph2'*^ 

31-39.  Since  the  Christian  is  the  object  of 
the  divine  love  and  work  spoken  of  in  the 
last  section,  he  need  fear  no  evil. 

Paraphrase.  '  (31)  We  may,  therefore,  face 
the  future  triumphantly,  for  God  is  on  our 
side,  (32)  and  the  love  which  sacrificed  His 
own  Son  will  withhold  from  us  nothing.  (33) 
God's  chosen  need  fear  no  accuser.  Since  He 
has  acquitted,  (34)  none  can  condemn  them. 
Since  Christ,  in  His  death  and  life  and  glory, 
has  proved  His  love  for  them,  (35)  neither 
suffering  nor  death  can  part  us  from  that  love. 
(36)  Even  though  we  be  martyred,  like  the 
faithful  few  of  old,  (37)  His  love  will  make 
martyrdom  a  surpassing  victory.  (38,  39)  In 
short,  no  power  in  the  universe  will  be  able  to 
part  us  from  the  divine  love  Christ  has  for  us.' 

32.  Spared]  allusion  to  Gn  221*5,  -where 
LXX  has  the  same  word.  33.  Elect]  i.e. 
chosen,  practically  =  '  called.'  //  is  God]  cp. 
Isa50^*.  34.  Intercession]  cp.  Heb7'"5  1  Tim 
21.  36.  Quotation  from  Ps4422.  38.  Prin- 
cipalities, powers]  Jewish  titles  of  angels, 
here  evil  angels:  cp.  EphGi^  1  Pet 3 22. 

39.  In  Christ]  Christ's  love  is  a  manifesta- 
tion of  God's  love. 

CHAPTERS  9-11 

It  was  obvious  that  the  Church  of  Christ 
was  coming  to  be  almost  entirely  a  Gentile 
Church,  and  that  the  Jews  as  a  whole  were 
refusing  to  accept  Jesus  as  their  Messiah. 
The  Jew  argued  from  this  fact  that  Christianity 
could  not  be  true.  For  if  the  Christian  Church 
were  really  the  fulfilment  of  the  promised 
Messianic  kingdom,  and  if  the  Jews  were  shut 
out  from  it,  then  God's  promises  to  the  Jews 
in  the  OT.  would  have  been  broken,  which 
could  not  be  imagined. 

In  chs.  9-11,  St.  Paul  grapples  with  this 
objection  : — 

(1)  He  points  out  that  in  previous  epochs 
God  had  narrowed  His  choice,  making  a  fresh 
selection  out  of  those  akeady  selected  ;  and 
He  may  be  acting  so  again  (9  i-i3). 

(2)  God  is  supreme.  He  may  choose  His 
instruments  as  He  will,  and  we  have  no  right 
to  criticise  (9i*-33). 

(3)  If  the  Jews  have  failed,  it  is  because  of 
their  unbelief  (c.  10). 

(4)  After  all,  there  may  be  more  faithful 
Jews  than  is  supposed,  as  in  the  time  of 
Elijah  (1 1 1-10). 

(5)  Seeing  the  reception  of  the  Gentiles,  the 
Jews  themselves  may  be  stirred  up  to  accept 
Christ.     God  has  forgotten  neither  them  nor 


His  promises,  and  His  gracious  purpose  will 
not  fail  (1111-36). 

It  should  be  noted  that  these  chs.  mainly 
treat  of  the  selection  by  God  of  nations  and 
Churches  to  spiritual  functions  and  responsi- 
bilities. They  have  nothing  to  do  with  the 
predestination  of  individuals  to  salvation  or 
condemnation,  and  the  argument  closes  with  the 
statement  that  what  God  has  done  has  been  with 
the  purpose  of  having  mercy  upon  all  (1132). 
While  these  chs.  assume  that  God  chooses 
His  instruments  for  reasons  which  we  cannot 
fathom,  and  which  are  independent  of  human 
merit  and  of  birth  or  nationality,  at  the 
same  time  there  are  conditions  which  must  be 
fulfilled  on  man's  part.  Those  who  have  been 
chosen  or  elected,  are  free  to  fall  away  ;  they 
have  done  so  in  the  case  of  the  Jewish  nation 
— they  may  do  so  in  the  case  of  the  Gentile 
Church.  They  can  only  retain  their  position 
by  '  faith,'  i.e.  here,  by  submitting  themselves 
to  God's  purpose  (1020f.). 

CHAPTER   9 
The  Rejection  of  Israel  no  Disparage- 
ment OR  Disproof  of  the  Gospel 

The  Apostle  sorrows  over  the  exclusion  of 
Israel  (vv.  1-5),  but  their  exclusion  does  not 
involve  any  breach  of  God's  promises,  for  He 
always  made  a  selection,  even  among  the 
members  of  the  chosen  family  (vv.  6-13). 
This  cannot  be  unjust,  for  God  has  stated  it 
to  be  His  method  (vv.  14-18).  We  should 
have  no  right  to  cavil,  even  if  God  seemed  to 
use  us  sternly  (vv.  19-21).  But  He  has  acted 
with  mercy  (vv.  22-29),  and  Israel  has  fallen 
through  want  of  faith  (vv.  30-33). 

1-5.  It  is  with  the  deepest  sorrow  that  St. 
Paul  sees  the  Jews  outside  the  kingdom,  for 
he  loves  them  as  brethren  and  remembers 
their  privileges. 

Paraphrase.  '  (1)  It  is  the  solemn  truth 
(2)  that  my  heart  aches  (3)  over  my 
brethren  of  Israel,  so  that  I  could  wish  to 
give  my  soul  for  their  salvation.  (4)  How 
terrible  is  the  fall  of  those  who  had  such 
privileges  from  God,  (5)  who  are  descended 
from  the  patriarchs,  and  from  whom,  on  the 
human  side,  has  come  the  Messiah,  He  who  is 
almighty  and  divine  ! ' 

I.  In  Christ]  see  on  fin  Col 3 9.  In  the 
Holy  Ghost]  i.e.  under  His  influence.  3.  I 
could  wish]  i.e.  if  it  were  lawful  and  possible. 

Accursed]  RV  '  anathema,'  reproducing  the 
Gk. :  cp.  1  Cor  12 3  1622  Galisf.  The  word  is 
used  in  LXX  of  that  which  is  devoted  to 
God,  either  as  an  offering  (cp.  Lv  2728 *•),  or 
for  destruction  as  evil  :  cp.  Josh  617^. 

4.  Israelites]  '  Israel '  being  the  name  given 
by  God  to  Jacob,  '  Israelite '  described  the 
Jew  as  the  inheritor  of  God's  promises  :  cp. 
Ill  2 Cor  11 22.     Adoption]    i.e.  of  Israel  by 


878 


9.  5 


ROMANS 


9.19 


God  as  first-born  son  among  other  nations  : 
cp.  Ex  4  22.  Glory]  i.e.  the  Hght  by  which 
God's  presence  was  manifested:  cp.  ExlG^*^ 
40  3^*.  Covenants]  with  Abraham,  Isaac,  and 
Jacob.  Service]  i.e.  of  Tabernacle  and 
Temple.     Promises]   i.e.  of  the  Messiah. 

5.  Of  whom,  etc.]  RV  '  of  whom  is  Christ 
as  concerning  the  flesh.'  God]  cp.  Jnl^  lO^o 
Col  2  9. 

6-13.  Jewish  opponents  argued  that  the 
privileges  enumerated  in  the  last  section  were 
guaranteed  to  them  as  a  nation,  unless  God 
broke  His  word.  St.  Paul  replies  that  God  is 
not  bound  to  the  whole  nation.  There  had 
been  from  the  first  a  process  of  selection,  by 
which  some  had  been  rejected.  The  same 
process  of  selection  and  rejection  might  be 
expected  now. 

Paraphrase.  '  (6)  Yet  it  does  not  follow 
that  God's  promises  have  failed  because  some 
have  rejected  them.  Heirship  of  the  promise 
does  not  belong  to  mere  natural  descent  from 
Jacob.  (7)  For  consider  the  case  of  Abraham. 
Ishmael  was  his  elder  son,  yet  Isaac  was  selected 
to  be  the  father  of  the  chosen  race  ;  (8)  which 
shows  that  a  position  of  privilege  with  God 
is  a  matter  not  of  accident  of  birth,  but  of 
special  promise  and  choice  ;  (9)  in  fact,  Isaac 
was  born  on  purpose  to  inherit  the  promise. 
(10)  Take  a  plainer  example.  Esau  and  Jacob 
had  the  same  parents  and  were  twins  ;  (11) 
yet  in  their  case  also  God  showed  that  He 
carries  out  His  purpose  by  selecting  whom  He 
chooses,  for  before  their  birth  (12)  He  destined 
Jacob's  line  for  privilege,  (13)  as  Malachi 
recognises.' 

6.  RV  '  But  it  is  not  as  though  the  word 
of  God  hath  come  to  nought.'  Israel]  in 
the  sense  of  inheritors  of  the  promise.  Of 
Israel]   i.e.  by  physical  descent  from  Jacob. 

7.  Seed  of  Abraham]  i.e.  by  natural  descent. 
Children]  i.e.  inheriting  privilege.    In  Isaac, 

etc.]  from  Gn21i2.  8.  Children  of  the  flesh] 
i.e.  those  born  into  the  family  in  the  course 
of  nature.  Children  of  God]  i.e.  partaking  of 
the  '  adoption '  to  special  privilege  spoken 
of  in  V.  4.  Of  the  promise]  i.e.  born  in  ful- 
filment of  a  promise  :  cp.  Gal  4 -3. 

9.  The  word]  RY  '  a  word.'  At  this  time] 
i.e.  at  this  season  next  year  (Gnl8iO). 

II.  The  purpose]  i.e.  the  purpose  of  salva- 
tion which  existed  in  God's  mind  before  crea- 
tion :  cp.  Ro828  Ephl9*-  2 Tim  19.  Accord- 
ing to  election]  i.e.  the  method  by  which  God 
carries  out  His  purpose  is  the  selection  of 
individuals  and  nations  to  be  its  instruments. 
So  the  Jews  were  selected  to  preserve  the 
knowledge  of  God  in  the  world,  and  to  pre- 
pare for  the  call  of  the  Gentiles.  The  selec- 
tion is  not  to  assured  salvation,  but  to  the 
privilege  of  helping  to  carry  out  God's  plan 
of  salvation  for  the  world.     Not  of  works]  a 


further  thought.     God's  choice  proceeds  from 
unmerited  bounty.      12.   From  Gn2623. 

13.  Loved  .  .  hated]  cp.  Mall  2^-,  which 
refers  to  the  nations  of  Israel  and  Edom,  and 
expresses  the  historical  fact  that  Israel  had 
privileges  which  were  denied  to  Edom. 
'  Hated '  implies  decided  rejection,  but  not 
vindictiveness  :  cp.  Lkl42«  with  MtlO^''. 
There  is  no  reference  to  eternal  salvation  or 
rejection. 

14-18.  It  is  objected  that  the  freedom  of 
choice,  which  St.  Paul  attributes  to  God,  would 
be  unjust.  This  cannot  be,  for  in  the  OT. 
God  claims  the  same  freedom.  And,  if  then, 
so  also  now. 

Paraphrase.  '  (14)  The  objector  argues  that 
such  apparently  arbitrary  selection  would  be 
unjust.  Far  from  it.  (15)  The  Jew  admits 
that  all  God  does  is  just  ;  here,  then,  are  two 
passages  in  which  God  claims  this  freedom  of 
choice.  First,  He  told  Moses,  leader  of  the 
chosen  people,  that  not  even  he  could  lay  claim 
as  a  right  to  the  favour  about  to  be  shown.  (16) 
Therefore,  human  desire  and  striving  are  not 
the  cause  of  God's  choice  of  any,  but  His  sove- 
reign will  and  mercy  alone.  (17)  Secondly, 
the  words  addressed  to  Pharaoh  show  that 
God  did  not  punish  him  because  he  was  an 
Egyptian,  but  for  special  reasons.  (18)  So, 
then,  God  is  seen  to  show  mercy  or  to  harden 
according  to  His  own  will.' 

15.  From  Ex  33 19.  16.  Runneth]  i.e.  as  a 
racer  strives.  17.  From  Ex  9 1''.  Raised  thee 
up]  i.e.  as  king.  St.  Paul  quotes  Scripture 
to  show  that  it  was  simply  due  to  God's  choice 
that  Pharaoh,  not  some  one  else,  was  to  be  a 
world-wide  example  of  God's  power  in 
punishment.  It  was  not  because  of  Pharaoh's 
nationality.  The  Apostle  confines  himself, 
here,  to  one  point.  It  is  that  a  Jew  must 
admit  that  what  God  is  shown,  in  the  OT.,  to 
have  done,  cannot  be  unjust.  He  is  not 
speaking,  here,  of  eternal  life  or  death.  And 
he  says  nothing  of  Pharaoh's  deserts  or 
conduct,  because  that  is  not  his  point  here. 
Presently  he  will  assert  (1)  that  those  whom 
God  has  rejected  have  been  rejected  by  their 
own  fault  after  long  forbearance  ;  and  (2) 
that  it  is  God's  will  to  have  mercy  upon  all  men. 

18.  Hardeneth]  cp.  Ex  4  21.  God  is  said  to 
harden,  because  He  has  made  man  so  that,  by 
the  constitution  of  his  nature,  hardening 
follows  persistent  disobedience. 

19-29.  It  is  now  objected  that  if  God's 
will  is  irresistible.  He  ought  not  to  blame  the 
Jews.  The  answer  is  that,  first,  it  is  pre- 
sumptuous of  man  to  criticise  his  Maker  ; 
and,  secondly,  that  God  has  been  longsuffering 
with  the  Jews,  as  well  as  merciful  to  the 
Gentiles. 

Paraphrase.  '(19)  Another  objection.  If 
those  who  resist  God's  will,  do  so  because  He 


879 


9.  20 


ROMANS 


10.  1 


has  hardened  them,  and  so  fulfil  His  purpose, 
how  can  they  be  guilty  ?  (20)  The  answer  is 
twofold.  First,  we  are  not  competent  to 
criticise  our  Maker.  (21)  It  is  His  right  to 
mould  each  nation  of  mankind  for  whatever 
purpose  He  chooses.  (22)  But  secondly,  as  a 
matter  of  fact,  God  has  not  been  arbitrary. 
Although  He  is  determined  to  punish  sin,  yet 
when  the  Jews  have  proved  unfit  for  high 
purposes,  He  has  borne  long  with  them  ;  (23) 
not  only  for  their  sakes,  but  that  by  their 
means  He  might  be  able  to  show  mercy  upon 
those  prepared  from  the  beginning,  (24)  even 
upon  us,  called — such  is  His  mercy — from 
Gentiles  as  well  as  Jews.  (25,  26)  His  word 
confirms  this  again  :  the  call  of  the  Gentiles 
was  foretold  by  Hosea,  (27-29)  and  the  fact 
that  only  a  remnant  of  Israel  would  enter  the 
kingdom  was  prophesied  by  Isaiah.' 

20.  Shall  the  thing]  cp.  Isa29i6  459. 

21.  Power]  RV  '  a  right'  :  cp.  Isa648  Jer 
18  6.  Honour ..  dishonour]  not  referring  to 
final  salvation  or  condemnation,  but  to  the 
inequalities  of  life.  Nations  as  well  as  in- 
dividuals are  called  to  duties  and  positions  of 
greater  or  less  honour  :  cp.  2  Tim  2  20. 

22.  Longsuffering]  cp.  2*;  Vessels]  the 
metaphor  of  the  potter  continued.  Of  wrath] 
i.e.  deserving  wrath.  Fitted]  St.  Paul  does 
not  say,  '  God  had  made  them  fit  for  destruc- 
tion '  (contrast  '  afore  prepared,'  v.  23).  They 
had  become  '  fitted  for  destruction,'  because, 
being  intractable  under  the  moulder's  hand, 
they  were  of  no  use  for  His  purpose. 

23.  Might  make  known]  cp.  llii^  Of 
mercy]  i.e.  experiencing  mercy.  Prepared] 
cp.  828*.  25,  26.  From  Hoslio  223,  pas- 
sages used  freely  and  typically  ;  originally 
speaking  of  the  restoration  of  the  Ten  Tribes, 
who  had  become  like  those  who  were  not 
God's  people.     27,  28,  29.   From  Isal^  1022f. 

27.  A  remnant]  RV  '  it  is  the  remnant  that 
shall  be  saved.'  28.  RV  '  for  the  Lord  will 
execute  his  word '  (i.e.  sentence)  '  upon  the 
earth,  finishing  it  and  cutting  it  short,'  i.e. 
making  it  conclusive  and  brief. 

30-33.  The  Jews  have  been  rejected  because 
they  sought  acceptance  with  God  in  their  own  and  vainly  seek  to  win  acceptance  by  their 
way  by  meritorious  works.  They  had  not  merits,  (4)  whereas  faith  in  Christ  has  taken 
that  faith  which  would  make  them  attentive  the  place  of  obedience  to  law  as  the  motive 
to  hear  and  do  God's  will,  and  so  could  not  ful-  and  inspiration  of  life  and  the  condition  of 
fil  His  purpose  (see  v.  22  paraphrase).  Stereo-  acceptance  with  God.  (5)  The  old  system  of 
typed  in  a  conventional  religion,  they  were  works  called  for  an  obedience  beyond  human 
unable,  for  want   of  living   faith,  to   receive     power  to  give.    (6)  But  acceptance  by  faith  in 


on  God  to  learn  what  His  will  for  them  was, 
they  fixed  their  attention  on  observances. 
Hence  they  refused  the  Messiah,  fulfilling 
Isaiah's  prophecy  that  the  stone,  the  strength 
of  those  who  should  have  faith  in  Him,  would 
cause  the  fall  of  the  unbeliever. 

30.  Followed  .  .  attained]  as  a  runner  in  a 
race  :  cp.  Phil  312.    31.  The  law]  RV  '  a  law.' 

32.  By  the  works  of  the  law]  RV  'by 
works.'  For]  RV  omits.  Stumbling  stone] 
cp.  1  Cor  1 23.  33.  A  combination  of  two 
passages.  In  Isa  28 1^  the  prophet  spoke  of  a 
foundation  stone  which  God  was  laying,  and 
which  would  give  a  sense  of  security  to  those 
who  trusted  His  promise.  In  Isa  8 1*  the  prophet 
spoke  of  Jehovah  as  being  a  stumbling-block 
to  the  unbeliever.  St.  Paul  combines  the  two 
passages  to  show  that  Christ,  who  is  strength  and 
support  to  those  who  trust  in  Him,  has  been  a 
stumbling-block  to  the  faithless  Jews.  The 
'  stone  '  of  Psll822  was  interpreted  by  Christ 
of  Himself,  Mt2142,  etc.,  and  from  this,  proba- 
bly, the  '  stone '  of  other  passages  was  inter- 
preted of  Him.  '  The  stone  '  may  have  been 
a  Jewish  title  for  the  Messiah. 

CHAPTER    10 
Israel  rejected  through  lack  of  Faith 

In  c.  9  St.  Paul,  defending  the  gospel 
against  objections  founded  upon  the  fact  that 
it  had  been  rejected  by  the  Jews  as  a  whole, 
showed  that  God  had  never  bound  Himself  to 
the  Israelitish  race,  but  had  always  kept  Him- 
self free  to  choose  His  own  instruments.  In 
c.  10  he  declares  that  Israel  have  caused  their 
rejection  by  failure  to  recognise  God's  methods, 
and  by  obstinate  rebellion  in  spite  of  the 
patience  of  His  love. 

i-iS-  The  zeal  of  the  Jews  is  useless, 
because  they  follow  their  own  way  instead  of 
God's  (vv.  1-4),  although  God's  way  of  salva- 
tion is  so  easy  (vv.  5-11),  and  open  to  all 
(vv.  12,  13),  and  made  known  to  all  (vv.  14, 15). 

Paraphrase.  '(1)1  pray  for  the  salvation  of 
my  people,  (2)  for  they  still  are  zealous  for 
God,  though  with  such  lack  of  insight  (3)  that 
they  are  blind  to  His  free  offer  of  salvation, 


the  Messiah 

Paraphrase.  '(30)  We  conclude  that  Gen- 
tiles, who  were  not  seeking  acceptance  with 
God,  won  acceptance  given  to  those  who  have 
faith,  (31)  while  Israel,  who  was  seeking  to  be 
accepted  because  of  meritorious  works,  has 
failed.  (32)  The  reason  is  that  instead  of 
living  by  faith  in  God,  i.e.  instead  of  waiting 


880 


Christ  makes  no  impracticable  demand.  Christ 
has  brought  Himself  within  our  reach  by  His 
Incarnation  which  made  Him  man  among  men, 
(7)  and  by  His  Resurrection  which  restored 
Him  to  us  for  ever  ;  (8)  so  that  the  faith  the 
gospel  asks  for  is  a  simple  thing,  (9)  only  to 
acknowledge  publicly  that  Jesus  is  Lord  and 
really  to  believe  in   His  Resurrection.     (10) 


10.  1 


ROMANS 


11.  1 


All  that  is  required  can  be  done  by  human 
hearts  and  human  lips,  (11)  even  as  Isaiah 
promises  complete  security  to  every  one  who 
has  faith  in  the  Christ.  (12)  The  promise  is 
for  all,  for  Christ's  Lordship  extends  over  all 
races  of  men,  and  He  has  love  enough  for  all 
who  worship  Him  (13)  as  Joel  testifies  ;  (14, 
15)  and  God  has  made  His  offer  known  by 
commissioned  preachers,  so  that  the  Jews 
have  no  excuse  for  unbelief.' 

I.  Might]  RV'may.'  2.  Zeal]  which  St. 
Paul  had  shared  :  cp.  Gal  1  ^^  Phil  3  6.  Of]  RY 
'  for.'  Knowledge]  i.e.  insight  into  God's  will : 
cp.  Col  1 9.  3.  God's  righteousness]  i.e.  His 
gift  of  free  acceptance  on  condition  of  faith. 

Going  about]  RV  '  seeking.'  4.  End]  i.e. 
termination.  Law,  as  the  means  of  winning 
favour  with  God  by  its  fulfilment,  has  been 
brought  to  an  end  now  Christ  has  come  :  cp. 
Gal3io.i3  C0I214.  For]  RV  'unto,'  i.e.  so 
that  every  one  who  has  faith  may  be  accepted. 

5.  RV  '  For  Moses  writeth  that  the  man 
that  doeth  the  righteousness  .  .  of  the  law,'  i.e. 
all  the  Law  requires,  '  shall  live  thereby '  :  from 
Lvl85.  6.  Speaketh]  The  words  that  follow 
are  selected  from  Dt30ii^-,  where  they  refer  to 
the  accessibility  of  the  Law.  St.  Paul  applies 
them  to  the  gospel,  as  opposed  to  the  Law, 
not  as  formal  quotation  of  Scripture,  but  as 
adapting  familiar  language.  Yet  the  passage 
is  one  of  several  which  show  that  holy  men 
under  the  Law  looked  forward  to  the  spirit 
of  the  gospel :  cp.  Ps51i6f.  Hos66  Mic68. 

7.  Deep]  RV  '  abyss,'  i.e.  Hades,  the  abode 
of  the  dead  :  cp.  Ac  2  27  1  Pet  319  46.  3.  The 
word  of  faith]  i.e.  which  announces  faith  as 
the  method  of  salvation. 

9.  Confess]  i.e.  at  baptism  ;  in  daily  life  ; 
and  in  persecution:  cp.  Mtl032.  The  Lord 
Jesus]  RV  '  Jesus  as  Lord,'  i.e.  as  King  and 
God:  see  on  v.  12,  and  Jn2028  lCorl23 
2  Cor  4  5.  Raised]  cp.  4  24  f.  The  Resurrection 
is  spoken  of  as  the  object  of  faith,  because,  if 
not  risen,  Christ  would  be  no  Lord  and  no 
Saviour,  and  union  with  Him  would  be  impossi- 
ble. 10.  Unto]  i.e.  resulting  in.  Salvation] 
i.e.  final  salvation.  '  Confession  '  represents 
the  whole  life  of  devotion  to  Clu-ist  which 
springs  from  faith. 

II.  FromIsa28i'5:  cp.Ro933.  12.  Difference] 
RV  'distinction'  :  cp.  322.  Greek]  i.e.  Gen- 
tile. The  same  Lord]  i.e.  Christ  :  cp.  AclO^s 
Ro  9  5.  Over  all]  RV '  is  Lord  of  all.'  Rich]  cp. 
Eph  3  ^.  Call  upon  him]  i.e.  as  His  worshippers  : 
cp.  1  Cor  1 2.  From  the  custom  of  beginning 
prayer  with  the  name  of  the  deity,  the  expres- 
sion '  to  call  upon  the  name  of  '  came  to  signify 
'  to  be  a  worshipper  of.'  Hence,  this  verse 
implies  the  Divinity  of  Christ.  In  the  next 
verse,  the  name  '  Jehovah  '  ('  Lord  ')  is  applied 
to  Him  :  cp.  Jnl24i.      13.  From  Joel  2^2. 

14.  Not    heard  ?]    supply,   '  but  they  have 


56 


881 


heard.'  Without  a  preacher  ?]  supply,  '  but 
there  are  preachers.'  15.  Sent]  The  Gk.  word 
is  that  from  which  '  Apostle '  is  derived. 
Supply,  '  but  apostles  have  been  sent.'  How 
beautiful]  from  Isa527. 

16-21.  The  Jews  have  had  every  oppor- 
tunity, and  their  fall  is  due  to  their  own 
obstinate  wilfulness. 

Paraphrase.  '(16)  It  is  no  argument  against 
the  message  to  say  it  has  only  partially  suc- 
ceeded, for  Isaiah  lamented  that  the  Jews 
would  not  listen  to  it,  (17)  in  words  which 
imply  that  there  would  be  a  Divine  message 
about  Christ  meant  to  call  forth  faith.  (18) 
Nor  can  any  one  say  that  the  Jews  have  not 
heard  the  message,  for  it  has  been  preached 
everywhere.  (19)  Nor  can  it  be  said  that  the 
nation  which  had  received  the  Scriptures  did 
not  know  that  the  Gentiles  were  to  be  included 
in  God's  favour.  Even  so  far  back  as  Moses 
they  were  warned  that  it  would  be  so  ;  (20) 
and  Isaiah  uses  the  plainest  language.  (21)  No 
excuse  can  be  made  for  them.  Their  fall  is 
due  to  the  same  stubborn  rejection  of  God's 
unwearied  love  which  Isaiah  saw  in  his  day.' 

16.  Lord,  etc.]  FromIsa53i.  17.  Hearing] 
The  same  Gk.  word  as  that  translated  '  report ' 
inv.  16.  18.  Their  sound,  etc.]  from  Psl94, 
i.e.  the  gospel  message  was  diffused  as  widely 
as  the  declaration  by  the  heavens  of  the  glory 
of  God.  Not  literally  so,  but  probably  every 
considerable  Jewish  colony  had  heard  the 
gospel :  cp.  Col  16,23  ig_  i  ^n  provoke,  etc.] 
FromDt322i.  20.  FromIsa65i.  21.  From 
Isa  652.     Gainsaying]   i.e.  contradicting. 

CHAPTER   11 

Israel's  Rejection  not  final.     A 
Warning  to  the  Gentiles 

In  this  c.  St.  Paul  brings  to  an  end  his  great 
exposition  of  God's  dealings  with  the  Jews. 
He  has  shown  in  c.  9  that  God  is  free  to 
choose  or  reject  individuals  or  nations  as  the 
instruments  of  His  purpose  ;  and,  in  c.  10,  that 
the  Jews  have  deserved  their  rejection.  Now 
he  declares  that,  in  spite  of  all  this,  God  has 
not  cast  off  His  ancient  people.  He  has  seen 
fit,  in  His  mercy,  to  preserve  a  portion  of  them 
faithful  to  His  will,  and  the  remainder  are 
still  loved  by  Him.  Their  having  fallen  away 
for  a  time  has  given  an  opportunity  for  the 
conversion  of  the  Gentiles.  When  the  Gentiles 
have  been  gathered  into  His  kingdom,  the  Jews 
will  be  stirred  up  by  their  example  and  return 
to  God. 

1-12.  God  did  not  utterly  reject  the  Jews 
as  a  nation  (vv.  1,  2).  Their  failure  is  partial 
(vv.  2-10),  and,  as  in  former  days,  there  is  a 
faithful  remnant  ;  their  failiu-e  is  used  by  God 
for  good,  and  is  temporary  (vv.  11,  12). 

Paraphrase.  '  (1)  Does  it  follow  that  God 
has  finally  rejected  those  He  made  His  own 


11.1 


ROMANS 


11.17 


people  ?  I,  who  am  proud  to  be  one  of  them, 
cannot  believe  it.  (2)  And  it  is  impossible, 
for  from  all  eternity  He  marked  them  to  be 
His  instruments,  and  He  is  unchanging.  They 
are  no  more  rejected  tha,n  they  were  in  Elijah's 
day,  (3)  when,  although  Israel  was  rebellious, 
(4)  Grod  preserved  a  faithful  remnant.  (5)  So 
also  now  there  is  such  a  remnant,  selected  out 
of  the  mass  by  God's  undeserved  favour,  (6)  not 
for  any  merit  of  their  own.  (7)  Thus,  a  select 
portion  of  Israel,  having  minds  open  to  God's 
will  and  believing  in  Christ,  has  obtained 
acceptance,  which  the  rest,  by  seeking  it  in 
self-righteousness,  have  lost,  incurring  instead 
that  hardening  which  follows  self-will,  (8)  that 
heavy  deafness  and  blindness  toward  God 
which  Isaiah  perceived,  (9)  that  ruin  caused 
by  misuse  of  blessings  (10)  of  which  David 
spoke.  (11)  But  although  the  majority  have 
stumbled,  even  they  have  not  fallen  for  ever. 
Their  refusal  of  Christ  has  occasioned  an 
earlier  preaching  to  the  Gentiles,  and  so  has 
been  the  means  of  bringing  salvation  to  them, 
and  this,  in  turn,  is  meant  to  stir  the  Jews  up 
to  accept  Christ,  and  thus  regain  their  old 
privilege.  (12)  Thus  they  still  are  used  by 
God,  for  their  failure  has  been  a  means  of 
blessing  to  the  world,  and  much  greater  blessing 
will  result  from  their  complete  conversion.' 

I.  Cast  away]  cp.  Ps94i4  IS  1222.  Ben- 
jamin] the  tribe  which,  with  Judah,  followed 
the  house  of  David,  and  in  whose  territory 
Jerusalem  stood.  2.  People]  i.e.  the  nation 
as  a  whole.     Foreknew]  see  on  829  and  v.  29. 

Wot]  i.e.  know.  Of  Elias]  lit.  'in  Elijah'  ; 
i.e.  in  the  section  of  the  Scriptures  concerning 
Elijah  :  cp.  Mk  1 2  26  (R V).  3.  Lord,  etc.]  from 
IK  19 10.  4.  Reserved  to]  RV  left  for.'  To 
the  image  of  Baal]  RV  '  to  Baal.'  6.  But  if  it 
he  of  works,  etc.]  RV  omits  this  latter  half  of 
the  V.  7.  Election]  i.e.  the  chosen  remnant 
who  have  believed  in  Christ.  Blinded]  RV 
'hardened,'  i.e.  by  God,  in  punishment  :  see 
next  V.     Those  who  will  not,  at  last  cannot. 

8.  From  Dt294  Isa29io.  The  spirit  of 
slumber]  RV  '  a  spirit  of  stupor.'  Unto  this 
day]  part  of  the  quotation  from  Deuteronomy. 

9.  From  Ps6922'.  10.  Bow  down  their 
back]  i.e.  in  weakness  and  dejection. 

II.  Stumbled]  cp.  9^2.  Fall]  i.e.  so  as  not 
to  rise  again.  Come  unto  the  Gentiles]  It  was 
only  when  the  Jews  rejected  the  gospel  that 
the  Apostle  turned  to  the  Gentiles  :  cp.  Ac  1 3  *5  * • 
28  28.  A  Church  nationally  Jewish  would  pro- 
bably have  been  a  hindrance  to  the  complete 
evangelisation  of  the  Gentiles.  12.  Diminish- 
ing] RV  '  loss.'  As  a  defeated  army  suffers 
loss  in  battle,  so  the  majority  of  the  Jews  had 
fallen  away  into  unbelief.  St.  Paul  anticipates 
great  blessing  to  the  world  when  the  '  fulness,' 
i.e.  the  entire  nation,  of  the  Jews  believes. 

13-24.   St.  Paul  now  addresses  the  Gentiles. 


They  should  hope  for  the  restoration  of  Israel, 
because  of  the  blessing  it  will  bring  the  world, 
and  because  Israel  still  bears  God's  name 
(vv.  13-16).  They  should  not  despise  Israel 
(vv.  17,  18),  nor  boast  of  preference  (vv.  19,  20), 
for,  if  unfaithful,  they  too  will  fall  (vv.  21,  22), 
whereas  the  Jews  will  be  restored  if  they  give 
up  their  unbelief  (vv.  23,  24). 

Paraphrase.  '  (13)  In  this  which  I  write, 
I  am  not  disregarding  my  mission  to  you 
Gentiles.  And  you  know  my  heart  is  in  my 
work  among  you  Gentiles.  (14)  If,  then,  I  am 
always  hoping  that  your  conversion  may  stir  up 
the  Jews  to  yearn  after  their  lost  privileges, 
it  is  not  only  because  I  am  a  Jew,  (15)  but 
also  because  I  am  sure  that  as  their  rejection 
brought  you  to  God,  so  their  restoration  will 
fill  the  nations  of  the  earth  with  spiritual  life. 
(16)  And  their  restoration  may  certainly  be 
expected,  for  the  nation  still  retains  the  con- 
secration it  received  in  the  patriarchs.  (17) 
Again,  although  you  have  taken  the  place  of 
some  of  them  in  God's  kingdom,  (18)  do  not 
think  yourselves  superior  to  them.  Remember 
that  you  have  been  admitted  into  their  king- 
dom, not  they  into  yours.  (19)  If  God  re- 
jected them  for  you,  it  was  not  because  He 
preferred  you.  (20)  Unbelief  lost  them  their 
place,  and  faith  alone  preserves  you.  (21)  The 
facts  do  not  warrant  self-satisfaction  in  you, 
but  warn  you  against  it.  (22)  Thus  we  see 
manifested  both  God's  goodness  and  His 
severity.  His  goodness  is  upon  you,  but  only 
so  long  as  you  are  faithful.  His  severity  is 
upon  the  Jews,  (23)  yet,  if  they  give  up  their 
unbelief.  He  will  receive  them  again.  And 
their  restoration  is  quite  possible,  (24)  for  they 
have  more  in  common  with  the  kingdom  than 
you  had  as  heathen.' 

13.  RV  '  But  I  speak  to  you  that  are  Gentiles. 
Inasmuch  then  as  I  am  an  apostle  of  Gentiles, 
I  glorify  my  ministry.'  As  the  Jews  have  been 
spoken  of  in  the  third  person,  we  infer  that 
the  Roman  Christians  were  chiefly  Gentiles. 

14.  Emulation]  RV  'jealousy':  cp.  v.  11, 
10^9.  15.  Reconciling  of  the  world]  In  the 
bringing  in  of  the  Gentiles,  the  world  began 
to  enjoy  that  reconciliation  which  Chi'ist  gained 
for  it  by  dying  for  all  mankind  :  cp.  2  Cor  5^9 
Eph2i3f.  16.  Firstfruit]  metaphor  from  Nu 
1 5 19  ^  The  '  firstfruit '  and  '  root '  represent  the 
patriarchs  :  cp.  v.  28,  9-5.  Holy]  i.e.  separated 
as  God's  people  for  His  purposes.  No  reference 
to  the  salvation  of  individuals  :  cp.  Mt39. 

17.  The  Church  of  God,  both  before  and 
after  Christ,  regarded  by  St.  Paul  as  one  and 
the  same,  is  here  likened  to  an  olive  tree  :  cp. 
Jer  1 1 16  Hos  146.  Graffed  in]  The  usual  prac- 
tice would  be  to  graft  the  cultivated  olive 
upon  the  wild  stock.  St.  Paul  reverses  the 
process  in  his  allegory,  to  enforce  the  lesson 
that  the  Jews  were  the  original  Church,  and 


882 


11.  18 


ROMANS 


12. 


honourable.  i8.  Boast .  .  boast]  EY  'glory  . . 
gloriest.'  19.  See  on  vv.  11,  12,  15.  24.  How- 
much  more]  We  may  see  indications  of  the 
purpose  of  God  for  the  Jews  in  the  per- 
manence of  their  race  and  in  their  devoted 
adherence  to  the  God  of  their  fathers. 

25-36.  That  Israel  will  be  converted  has 
been  directly  revealed  by  God  (vv.  25-27). 
God's  purpose  of  favour  to  them  has  not 
changed  (vv.  28,  29).  Their  disobedience  is 
reckoned  with  in  God's  plan  of  mercy  for  both 
Jew  and  Gentile  (vv.  30-32).  This  view  of 
God's  dealings  calls  forth  wonder  and  praise 
(vv.  33-36). 

Paraphrase.  '  (25)  Learn,  then,  in  humble 
silence,  God's  revealed  will.  A  partial  and 
temporary  hardening  of  Israel  has  been  per- 
mitted. But  when  the  Gentiles  as  a  whole 
have  entered  the  kingdom,  (26)  Israel,  too, 
will  accept  the  Messiah.  So  Isaiah  foretold 
that  the  Redeemer  would  remove  their  ungod- 
liness, (27)  and  that  their  sins  would  be  for- 
given, and  thus  God's  covenant  with  them 
would  be  carried  out.  (28)  Although  they  are 
shut  out  from  the  blessings  of  the  gospel,  that 
the  gospel  may  come  to  you,  yet  they  are  still 
beloved  by  God  for  the  sake  of  the  patriarchs 
whom  He  chose,  (29)  for  God,  who  granted 
them  His  favour,  has  not  changed  His  mind, 
(30)  but,  having  first  used  their  disobedience  as 
the  means  of  bringing  you  from  disobedience 
to  mercy,  (31)  He  intends  them  so  to  be  stirred 
up  by  the  mercy  you  have  obtained,  as  to  give 
up  their  disobedience  and  find  mercy  in  their 
turn.  (32)  Thus  one  cannot  boast  over  the 
other.  By  giving  Gentile  and  Jew,  respectively, 
the  laws  of  conscience  and  of  revelation,  God 
compelled  the  sinful  nature  of  both  to  shoAV 
itself  in  disobedience,  that  both  might  receive 
His  mercy  as  the  sole  cause  of  their  salvation. 
(33)  So  we  are  forced  to  wonder  at  God's  pro- 
found love  and  wisdom,  and  the  mystery  of 
His  working.  (34)  Into  His  thoughts  no  one 
can  enter,  no  one  share  the  shaping  of  His 
plans.  (35)  His  bounty  is  unmerited.  (36)  He 
is  source  and  guide  and  goal  of  all  things.' 

25.  Mystery]  Among  the  Greeks,  a  '  mystery ' 
meant  a  secret  of  religion  revealed  only  to  the 
initiated.  St.  Paul  uses  the  word  to  express  a 
truth  once  hidden,  but  now  revealed  by  God  : 
cp.  1 6  25  1  Cor  2  7, 10  Eph  1 9  3  4.  Blindness]  R V 
'  a  hardening ' :  cp.  v.  7.  In  part]  i.e.  not  affect- 
ing the  '  remnant '  who  have  accepted  Christ. 

Fulness]  i.e.  the  full  number  :  cp.  v.  12. 

26.  All  Israel]  i.e.  the  .Jewish  race  will  enter 
the  Christian  Church.  There  shall  come,  etc.] 
from  Isa  59  ^o.     27.  From  Isa  27  9. 

29.  Calling-]  cp.  1*^^-  8  30.  Without  repent- 
ance] i.e.  God's  promises  are  changeless,  because 
He  could  never  do  that  for  which  afterwards 
He  was  sorry.  He  is  sometimes  said,  in  OT., 
to  '  repent,'  e.g.  Gn  6  '^  Joel  2 1^.    What  is  meant 


in  such  passages  is,  not  that  He  changes  His 
purposes  or  principles,  but  that,  because  His 
principles  are  changeless,  therefore  His  action 
or  methods  alter  as  men  alter.  Such  OT. 
language  is  figurative,  belonging  to  the  sim- 
plicity of  less-developed  religion.  Because, 
with  men,  change  of  action  is  caused  by  change 
of  mind,  therefore,  in  OT.,  when  God  changes 
His  action,  He  is  i<aid  to  change  His  mind. 

30.  Have  not  believed]  RV  '  were  disobedient 
to.'  Unbelief]  RV  '  disobedience.'  31.  Not 
believed]  RV  '  been  disobedient.'  Your  mercy] 
RV  '  the  mercy  shewn  to  you.'  32.  Concluded] 
RY  '  shut  up,'  i.e.  without  power  of  escape  : 
cp.  Gal  3  22.  In  unbelief]  RV  '  unto  disobedi- 
ence ' :  cp.  chs.  2,  7.  Upon  all]  i.e.  who  do  not 
reject  His  mercy.  34.  From  Isa  40 1^.  35.  From 
Job 41 11.  36.  To  him]  RV  'unto  him';  i.e. 
all  things  arc  created  to  serve  and  praise  God. 


CHAPTER  12 

The  Consecrated  Life. 
OF  Love 


The  Law 


The  doctrinal  part  of  the  Epistle  being 
finished,  St.  Paul  now  turns  to  practical 
exhortation.  God's  mercy,  shown  in  the  gos- 
pel set  forth  in  the  previous  chapters,  calls 
for  the  sacrifice  of  ourselves  to  do  His  will 
(vv.  1,2),  by  the  humble  and  devoted  use  of 
God's  Spiritual  gifts  (vv.  3-8),  and  in  love 
(vv.  9-21). 

1-21.  Paraphrase.  '  (1)  God's  redeeming 
love  should  be  answered  by  the  true  sacrifice 
and  spiritual  ritual  service  of  a  life  of  purity 
and  self-denial  and  work  for  God.  (2)  Do  not 
follow  the  fashions  and  customs  of  the  worldly 
society  around  you,  but  let  your  ways  of 
thinking  be  so  changed  by  the  Holy  Spirit  that 
you  look  for  and  recognise  God's  will,  and  love 
to  do  it.  (3)  So,  although  the  world  does  not 
value  humility,  as  God's  Apostle  I  charge 
every  one  of  you  to  be  contented  to  do  that 
work  in  the  Church  for  which  God  has  fitted 
him.  (4,  5)  The  Christian  Society  is  like  a 
body ;  each  individual  has  his  particular 
function  ;  while  the  welfare  of  the  whole 
depends  upon  how  he  performs  it.  (6)  Let 
us  all  learn,  then,  from  our  different  gifts, 
what  it  is  God's  will  that  we  should  do.  If  your 
gift  is  prophecy,  speak  what  God  Himself  has 
taught  you  ;  (7,  8)  and  whatever  your  gift, 
use  it  to  the  best  of  your  power.  (9)  As  to 
other  matters  of  conduct  ;  let  your  love  be 
sincere  ;  have  strong  moral  principles  ;  (10) 
as  one  family  in  Christ  be  affectionate  to  one 
another  ;  let  each  regard  others  as  more  fit 
for  honours  than  himself  ;  (11)  be  diligent, 
fervent,  devoted  to  the  Lord's  work,  (12)  joy- 
fully expectant  of  future  glory,  brave  in  afflic- 
tion, unflagging  in  prayer,  (13)  generous  and 
hospitable.  (14)  Bless  your  persecutors  ;  (15) 
be  sympathising;  (16)  enter  into  one  another's 


88S 


12.1 


ROMANS 


13.  11 


desires  and  aims ;  do  not  aim  at  high  place  or 
honour  for  yourself,  but  be  content  with  the 
humble  duties  that  come  in  your  way.  (17) 
Never  retaliate.  Avoid  even  the  appearance  of 
dishonourable  conduct.  (18)  Live  at  peace 
with  every  one,  so  far  as  peace  is  in  your  own 
power.  (19)  If  any  man  wrong  you,  leave  it 
to  God  to  punish  him.  (20)  Do  him  good, 
and  you  will  make  him  ashamed  of  his  enmity. 
(21)  Do  not  let  the  wickedness  of  others  pro- 
voke evil  passions  in  you,  but  conquer  their 
wickedness  by  doing  them  good.' 

I.  Living  sacrifice]  as  opposed  to  the  sacri- 
fice of  a  slain  beast  :  cp.  6 1^.  Reasonable]  i.e. 
an  act  of  the  reason.  2.  Conformed  to]  RV 
'  fashioned  according  to.'  '  Fashion  '  implies 
external  resemblance,  'form,'  essential  nature : 
cp.  Phil 2 6.  World]  lit.  '  ^on,'  or  'age.'  The 
Jews  called  the  Messianic  age  'the  age  to  come,' 
as  contrasted  with  'this  age'  :  cp.  Mtl232 
Lk20^^  Ephl2i.  At  present,  considered  as 
the  kingdoms  of  Christ  and  of  the  world,  the 
two  ages  co-exist.  3.  Grace]  cp.  1 5.  Faith] 
Faith  is  God's  gift,  and  is  of  differing  power 
and  character,  carrying  with  it  differing  '  gifts ' 
(v.  6),  i.e.  capacities  of   Christian  service. 

5.  One  body]  cp.  1  Cor  12 12  f.  Eph4i5f. 
Col  1 18. 

6.  Gifts]  see  on  1 13.  Is]  R V '  was,'  i.e.  when 
the  Holy  Spirit  was  received.  Prophecy]  i.e. 
inspired  speaking,  whether  foretelling  the 
future,  or  unfolding  spiritual  truth :  cp.  Ac  1 1  2S 
1  Cor  12 28  141  Eph220  35  4 n.  Proportion  of 
faith]  RV  '  proportion  of  om*  faith,'  i.e.  in 
proportion  to  the  revelation  the  prophet's  faith 
has  received.  7.  Ministry]  i.e.  the  service  of 
others  :  cp.  MklO'*^  ;  sometimes  any  Christian 
office :  cp.  1 1 13  ;  sometimes,  as  here,  attendance 
on  temporal  wants :  cp.  Ac  6 1  1  Cor  1 6 1^  2  Cor  8*. 

8.  Simplicity]  i.e.  without  selfish  aim  ;  RV 
'  liberality.'  Ruleth]  lit.  '  presideth,'  i.e.  in 
the  Church  or  the  family  :  cp.  1  Th5i2  1  Tim 
34f-  517. 

9.  Dissimulation]  RV  '  hypocrisy.  10.  RV 
'  In  love  of  the  brethren  be  tenderly  affectioned 
one  to  another.'  11.  RV  'In  diligence  not 
slothful '  ;  '  diligence  '  =  zeal,  moral  earnestness, 
not  merely  in  temporal  affairs.  12.  Instant] 
RV  '  stedfastly.'  13.  Distributing]  RV  '  com- 
municating,' i.e.  sharing  your  goods  :  cp.  Ac  2 42. 

Saints]  RV  •  the  saints,'  i.e.  Christians,  God's 
people.  Hospitality]  The  various  Churches 
were  linked  by  the  visits  of  accredited  messen- 
gers :  cp.  Heb  13  2  1  Tim  32  lPet49  2.JnlO 
3Jn5f.  14.  Cp.  Mt544.  16.  Men  of  low 
estate]  RV  'things  that  are  lowly.'  17.  Pro- 
vide] RV  'take  thought  for.'  Honest]  RV 
'  honourable.'  19.  Give  place  unto  wrath]  i.e. 
leave  room  for  God's  wrath  to  execute  the 
vengeance  deserved.  Do  not  usurp  the  prerog- 
ative of  God.  Wrath]  i.e.  the  wrath  of  God  : 
cp.  5  9.    Written]  Dt  32  35.  20.  From  Prov  25  21. 


Coals  of  fire]  i.e.  melt  him  into  shame,  as  a 
furnace  melts  metals. 

CHAPTER  13 

The  Christian's  Duty  to  the  State  and 

TO  HIS  Neighbour 

St.  Paul  now  passes  to  the  duties  of 
Christians  to  the  State.  In  1 2 1^  he  had  con- 
demned revenge  ;  but  he  asserts  here  that  the 
State  may  rightly  punish,  as  God's  agent  in 
temporal  affairs.  He  enforces  obedience  to 
government,  i.e.  to  social  order,  not  to  any 
special  form  of  government.  He  gives  no 
directions  as  to  what  is  to  be  done  when  there 
is  a  conflict  of  civil  authority  (vv.  1-7).  Our 
behaviour  to  men  in  general  is  to  be  regulated 
by  love  (vv.  8-10).  The  nearness  of  Christ's 
coming  is  a  motive  for  holiness  of  life  (vv. 
11-14). 

1-14.  Paraphrase.  '  (1)  Obey  civil  rulers,  for 
they  are  divinely  ordained,  (2)  and  therefore 
God  will  punish  disobedience.  (3,  4)  They  do 
God's  work,  rewarding  the  good  and  punish- 
ing the  evil.  (5)  Therefore  obey,  not  only  for 
fear  of  punishment,  but  because  it  is  right, 
(6)  as  is  implied  by  our  rule  that  Christians  are 
to  pay  taxes.  (7)  To  sum  up,  give  all  author- 
ities their  due.  (8)  Owe  no  debt  but  that  of 
love,  which  you  can  never  adequately  discharge, 
(9)  for  love  sums  up  and  includes  all  the  com- 
mandments, (10)  and,  by  loving,  you  fulfil 
them.  (11)  Let  the  thought  of  Christ's  coming 
awaken  you  to  these  duties.  (12,  13)  Let  us 
put  off  all  evil  ways,  and  conduct  ourselves  as 
those  who  belong  to  the  kingdom  of  light. 
(14)  Provide  for  your  spiritual  nature  by 
clothing  yourselves  with  the  likeness  and 
power  of  Christ,  but  pay  no  attention  to  the 
wrong  desires  of  your  fleshly  nature.' 

1.  Of  God]  i.e.  having  its  source  in  God. 

2.  Damnation]  RV  '  judgment.'  4.  Re- 
venger] RV  '  avenger.'  Wrath]  i.e.  God's 
anger  against  evil-doing.  5.  For  wrath]  RV 
'  because  of  the  wrath.'  6.  Tribute]  i.e.  taxes 
paid  by  subject  races.  The  Christians  obeyed 
Christ's  direction,  Lk2020f.  7.  Custom]  i.e. 
ordinary  taxes.  Fear]  i.e.  scrupulous  obedi- 
ence. 8.  Another]  RV  '  his  neighbour.'  Hath 
fulfilled]  i.e.  hath  fully  met  its  requirements  : 
cp.  Mt  22  40.  For  the  Christian,  faith  and  love 
have  taken  the  place  of  law.  9.  The  Ninth 
Commandment   is  omitted  in  the   best  texts. 

Thou  Shalt  love]  cp.  Lvl9i8  Lkl027  Jas28. 

ID.  Worketh  no  ill]  cp.  1  Cor  134*.  No  one 
who  truly  loves  his  fellow-man  will  injure 
him. 

II.  And  that]  RV  'and  this,' i.e.  and  do 
this:  cp.  lCor66>8.     Time]  RV  'season.' 

Salvation]  i.e.  complete  salvation.  Nearer] 
However  long  Christ  tarry,  death  brings  Him 
near  to  each.  But  the  first  Christians  evidently 
expected  His  return  in  their  own  time.  Sanday 


884 


13.  12 


ROMANS 


14.  1 


and  Headlam  point  out  that  this  belief  proved 
beneficial,  by  quickening  the  zeal  of  the  Chui-ch 
for  its  difficult  task,  and  by  preventing  the 
apostles  from  laying  down  minute  regulations 
for  the  future.     Believed]  RV  '  first  believed.' 

12.   The  day]  i.e.  of  Christ's  appearing. 

Armour  of  light]  cp.  Eph6i3^  13.  Walk] 
i.e.  along  the  path  of  daily  life.  Honestly]  or, 
'becomingly.'     Envying]  RY  'jealousy.' 

14,  Put  ye  on]  Christ  is  put  on  in  baptism, 
cp.  6  2  Gal  3  ^"  ;  but  the  union  must  be  realised. 

The  reading  of  these  last  vv.  marked  the 
turning-point  in  St.  Augustine's  life  :  see  his 
'  Confessions,'  bk.  8,  c.  12. 

CHAPTER  14 
The  Duty  of  Syiupathy  and  Toleration 

In  c.  13i2f.  st_  Paul  urged  his  readers,  by 
their  expectation  of  Christ's  coming,  to  avoid 
the  licence  and  immorality  of  the  heathen. 
Now  he  turns  to  the  opposite  extreme,  and 
deals  with  the  ascetic  scrupulousness  of  certain 
Christians. 

Under  the  Jewish  Law  there  was  a  dis- 
tinction between  clean  and  unclean  meats. 
Tliis  distinction,  which  perpetuated  the  separ- 
ation between  Jew  and  Gentile,  Christ  abol- 
ished (Mk  7  ^^  R^)i  f-s  was  afterwards  revealed 
to  Peter  (Ac  1 0  ^S),  and  decided  by  the  Council 
of  Jerusalem  (Ac  1 5  '^^  ^■).  The  Council,  how- 
ever, directed  the  Gentile  Chi-istians  in  Antioch, 
Syria,  and  Cilicia  to  abstain  from  meat  which 
had  been  offered  to  idols,  or  which  had  not 
been  killed  in  the  Jewish  manner,  out  of  con- 
sideration for  the  feelings  of  the  Jewish 
Christians  and  to  preserve  unity.  Afterwards 
the  question  arose  at  Corinth  how  far  the 
Gentile  Christians  could  join  with  their  heathen 
acquaintances  in  meals  when  the  meat  had 
been  offered  to  idols.  St.  Paul  decided  that 
as  the  meat  was  God's  gift  it  might  be  eaten, 
but  that  when  it  was  avowedly  connected  with 
idolatrous  worship,  it  should  be  abstained  from, 
for  the  sake  of  the  consciences  of  those  who 
thought  it  wrong  to  eat  such  meat. 

It  would  seem  that  at  Rome  a  minority  of 
the  Christians  scrupled  to  partake  of  meat  or 
wine  in  any  form.  They  were  probably  Jew- 
ish Christians,  for  such  ascetic  practices  were 
held  by  certain  religious  Jews.  St.  Paul  did 
not  approve  of  their  scruples.  He  called  such 
Christians  '  weak  in  faith,'  i.e.  without  that 
strong  and  clear  conviction  of  Christian  liberty 
which  he  held  to  be  in  accordance  with  the 
truth.  But  such  brethren  were  to  be  welcomed 
and  allowed  to  follow  their  convictions  ;  and 
if  there  were  any  danger  of  wounding  their 
consciences,  the  '  strong '  brethren  were  to 
abstain  themselves  for  the  sake  of  Christian 
love. 

Although  the  Apostle  so  urged  toleration, 
yet,  when  a  vital  principle  was  at   stake,  he 


allowed  no  compromise  :  cp.  1  Cor  6, 11 1^  I5i2f. 
Gal  1 8. 

1-12.  The  'strong'  and  the  'weak'  are 
lovingly  to  tolerate  one  another,  remembering 
that  Christ  is  master  of  each,  and  that  each 
will  be  judged  by  God.  13-23.  It  would  be 
better  that  the  strong  should  forego  his  right, 
if  its  exercise  would  injure  his  brother. 

Paraphrase.  '  (1)  Some  Christians  have  not 
grasped  the  principle  that  acceptance  by  God 
depends  upon  faith  alone,  and  are  in  conse- 
quence scrupulous  about  unessential  observ- 
ances. Admit  them  to  Christian  fellowship, 
and  abstain  from  criticising  their  scruples. 
(2)  For  example,  one  man  is  confident  that  he 
may  eat  any  kind  of  food,  while  another  re- 
frains from  meat.  (3)  Let  not  him  who  eats 
meat  despise  the  other  as  superstitious.  And 
let  not  the  other  condemn  him  who  eats  as 
unspiritual  and  worldly,  for  God  imposed  no 
rule  about  food  upon  him.  (4)  It  is  not  for 
you  to  say  that  what  Christ  allows  His  servants 
is  dangerous  for  them  :  their  Master  will  keep 
them  safe.  (5)  Again,  one  man  observes  the 
Jewish  distinctions  of  days,  while  another  does 
not.  Let  each  man  be  faithful  to  his  own 
conscience,  (6)  and  recognise  that  the  aim  of 
men  of  both  opinions  is  to  please  Christ. 
(7,  8)  For  His  will  is  our  law,  in  this  life  and 
in  the  world  of  death,  (9)  as  is  right,  seeing 
that  He  is  Master  in  both  states  of  existence. 
(10,  11)  It  does  not  befit  those  who  must  all 
stand  before  God's  judgment  seat,  to  pass 
judgment  upon  one  another.  (12)  The  ac- 
count that  each  will  have  to  give  of  himself  is 
enough  for  each  to  think  of.  (13)  Therefore, 
instead  of  judging  one  another,  determine  not 
to  hinder  your  brother  in  his   Christian  life. 

(14)  For  while  in  itself  no  food  is  sinful,  it  is 
sinful   to  those  whose   consciences   forbid  it, 

(15)  and  therefore  to  insist  upon  your  right 
might  injure  your  brother,  which  would  be  a 
breach  of  love.  If  Christ  gave  up  His  life 
for  your  brother,  can  you  not  give  up  some 
particular  food  ?  (16)  Do  not  bring  reproach 
upon  the  truth  you  hold,  (17)  by  making  it 
seem  that  you  regard  a  well-spread  table  as 
more  important  than  spiritual  graces  and  unity, 
(18)  for  it  is  the  practice  of  such  graces  which 
makes  the  service  of  Christ  approved  by  God 
and  man.  (19)  Let  it  be  our  aim  to  bring 
about  peace  and  the  welfare  of  the  Christian 
community.  (20)  It  would  be  monstrous  to 
destroy  God's  Church  for  the  sake  of  food. 
To  eat  any  particular  food  is  not  in  itself 
wrong  ;  but  it  becomes  wrong  if  by  doing  so 
you  harm  your  brother;  (21)  while  it  is  a 
noble  thing  to  give  up  your  own  right  for  his 
sake.  (22)  Cherish  your  own  convictions,  but 
do  not  seek  to  impose  them  upon  every  one 
else.  You  have  the  great  blessing  of  an  un- 
doubting   conscience,   be    satisfied  with   that. 


885 


14.  1 


ROMANS 


15.  1 


(23)  and  do  not  tempt  another  to  eat,  when 
the  fact  that  he  is  not  sure  whether  he  is 
doing  rigkt  condemns  him  ;  for  it  is  always 
sinful  for  a  man  to  do  what  his  conscience 
does  not  approve.' 

1.  The  faith]  RY  '  faith.'  To  doubtful  dis- 
putations] EM  '  for  decisions  of  doubts.' 

2.  Believeth  that  he  may]  RV  '  hath  faith 
to '  ;  i.e.  has  such  a  grasp  of  the  gospel  of 
Christ  that  he  recognises  the  indifference  of 
these  matters.  3.  Despise]  cp.  MtS^^.  Hath 
received]  i.e.  into  the  Church.  4.  God]  RV 
'  the  Lord,'  i.e.  Christ. 

5.  One  day  above  another]  The  reference  is, 
no  doubt,  to  Jewish  observances :  cp.  Gal  4 10 
Col  2 16.  The  principle  is  that  salvation  does 
not  depend  upon  the  observance  of  special 
days  and  seasons.  These  are  indifferent  in 
themselves,  although  to  set  apart  special  days 
may  be  practically  useful.  St.  Paul  would 
probably  have  included  in  this  the  keeping  of 
Sunday.  But  he  would  have  said  that  Sunday 
is  no  different  from  other  days,  because  all 
days  should  be  holy,  not  because  all  days  are 
common.  The  six  days  should  approximate 
as  far  as  possible  to  Sunday,  not  Sunday  to 
the  six  days.  Hence  the  inestimable  value  of 
Sunday  to  maintain  the  level  of  spiritual  life, 
quite  apart  from  the  benefit  of  its  rest.  Per- 
suaded] RV  'assured.'  6.  And  he  that  re- 
gardeth  not  the  day,  to  the  Lord  he  doth  not 
regard  it]  RV  omits.  Eateth]  i.e.  eateth 
flesh.  Thanks]  cp.  Mtl536  Ac2735  1  CorlO^o 
1124  iTim44f. 

9.  RV  '  For  to  this  end  Christ  died,  and 
lived  again.'  '  He  who,  to  save  them,  had 
dwelt  in  both  worlds,  was  their  Master  in 
both  '  (Moule).  10.  RV  '  But  thou,  why  dost 
thou  judge  thy  brother  ?  or  thou,  again,  why 
dost  thou,'  etc.  All]  emphatic.  Christ]  RV 
'  God.'  '  It  is  important  to  notice  how  easily 
St.  Paul  passes  from  "Christ"  to  "God"' 
(Sanday  and  Headlam).  11.  From  Isa4523. 
Confess]  i.e.  God's  sovereignty.  12.  Himself] 
emphatic.  13.  Stumblingblock]  cp.  Mtl8'^f- 
1  Cor  8  y  *.  14.  By  the  Lord]  RV  '  in  the  Lord,' 
i.e.  in  communion  with  Christ.  Unclean]  lit. 
'  common  ' :  cp.  Ac  10 1*-  28.  But]  RV  '  save 
that. '  '  Mistaken  conscience  calls  for  correction 
by  better  light,  but  never  for  violation.  To 
follow  conscience  is,  by  itself,  no  security  that 
we  are  doing  what  is  in  itself  right  ;  but  to 
violate  conscience,  which  is  our  actual  view  of 
right  and  wrong,  is  always  wrong'  (Moule). 

17.  Kingdom  of  God]  i.e.  the  Messianic 
kingdom,  expected  by  the  Jews  as  an  earthly 
kingdom,  but  really  the  reign  of  Christ  over 
man,  whether  in  grace  or  glory  :  cp.  1  Cor  4  20. 
Righteousness]  i.e.  here,  right  dealing  in 
relation  to  others.  Peace]  i.e.  with  one 
another.  Joy]  i.e.  of  the  united  Christian 
brotherhood.     In  the  Holy  Ghost]  i.e.  through 


His  indwelling.  18.  In  these  things]  RV 
'  herein '  ;  i.e.  in  the  exercise  of  such  a  life  of 
Christian  love.  19.  Edify]  i.e.  build  up  the 
Christian  society,  which  is  called  in  the  next 
V.  '  the  work  of  God.'  20.  RV  '  overthrow 
not  for  meat's  sake.'  Pure]  RV  '  clean '  :  cp. 
1  Cor  1023.     With  offence]  i.e.  to  others. 

21.  Nor  a?ty  th'mrj]  RV  'nor  to  do  anything'  : 
cp.  1  Cor  8 13.  Or  is  offended,  or  is  made  weak] 
RV  omits. 

22.  Hast  thou  faith?]  RV  'The  faith  which 
thou  hast.'  Have  it  to  thyself]  i.e.  do  not 
force  it  upon  others ;  respect  the  scruples  of 
the  weak.  Condemneth]  RV  '  judgeth.'  Allow- 
eth]  RV  'approveth.'  23.  Damned]  RV  con- 
demned.' Faith]  here  =  strong  conviction. 
'  The  words  do  not  apply  to  those  who  are  not 
Christians,  nor  to  the  works  of  those  who  are 
Christians  done  before  they  became  such,  but 
to  the  conduct  of  believing  Christians  ;  and 
faith  is  used  somewhat  in  the  way  we  should 
speak  of  a  "good  conscience";  everything 
which  is  not  done  with  a  clear  conscience  is 
sin  '  (Sanday  and  Headlam). 

CHAPTER  15 

Jew  and  Gentile  alike  the  Object  of 
God's  Love.     The  Apostle's  Plans 

1-13.  The  subject  of  c.  14  is  continued. 
'  Strength  '  should  be  displayed  in  helping  the 
'  weak '  after  Christ's  example  (vv.  1-4).  Let 
both  sections  be  united  in  God's  praise,  wel- 
coming one  another  as  Christ  welcomed  them 
(vv.  5-7).  As  the  divergence  of  views  origin- 
ated in  the  difference  between  Jew  and  Gen- 
tile, let  both  remember  that  Christ  became  a 
Jew  for  the  salvation  of  both  (vv.  8-13). 

Paraphrase.  '  (1)  Since  the  weak  are  thus 
in  danger,  the  strong  should  be  patient  with 
their  scruples,  and  not  indulge  their  own 
liberty.  (2)  Each  should  be  tender  to  his 
neighbour's  feelings,  and  seek  to  promote  his 
good,  (3)  following  the  example  of  Christ, 
depicted  in  the  OT.,  (4)  which  we  should  read 
to  learn  lessons  of  endurance  and  to  receive 
encouragement  which  will  help  us  confidently 
to  look  to  future  glory.  (5)  May  God  teach 
you  these  lessons,  enabling  you  to  bear  with 
one  another,  and  to  be  so  united  in  aims  and 
hopes  and  feelings,  after  the  pattern  of  Christ, 
(6)  that  you  may  join  as  one  body  in  the  praise 
of  God.  (7)  Therefore  let  both  sections  wel- 
come one  another,  as  Christ  welcomed  both. 
A  Church  so  united  in  brotherhood  will  re- 
dound to  the  glory  of  God.  (8)  Let  the 
Gentile  especially  remember  that  Christ  became 
a  Jew,  to  secure. to  the  Jews  the  fulfilment  of 
God's  promises,  (9)  and  to  welcome  the  Gen- 
tiles through  God's  pure  mercy,  (10,  11,  12) 
that  Jew  and  Gentile  miglit  unite  in  His  praise, 
as  Psalmist  and  Prophet  foretold.  (13)  May 
God  grant  that  your  believing  in  Christ  may 


886 


15.  1 


ROMANS 


15.  28 


fill  you  with  such  joy  and  peace  that  you  may 
look  for  Christ  in  glory  with  the  triumphant 
confidence  of  those  who  are  possessed  by  the 
might  of  the  Holy  Spirit.' 

I.  Bear]  cp.  GalG^.  2.  To  edification] 
The  words  define  the  kind  of  good  to  be 
sought,  i.e.  the  building-up  of  the  Church,  not 
of  any  particular  member.  The  individual 
is  to  be  willing  to  sacrifice  himself  for  the 
good  of  the  whole  body  :  cp.  14 19  1  Cor  10^3. 
Contr.  Gal  1  '^^,  where  '  pleasing '  would  not  be 
for  edification.  3.  From  Ps699  :  cp.  2  Cor  8  ^ 
Phil  2  6.  The  Psalm  describes  the  sufferings 
at  the  hands  of  the  wicked  of  the  righteous 
man.  The  words,  therefore,  are  applicable  to 
Christ  above  all.  4.  Learning]  i.e.  '  instruc- 
tion '  :  cp.  2Tim3i'5.  5.  Consolation]  RV 
'  comfort.'  Likerainded]  RV  '  of  the  same 
mind.'  Towards]  RV  '  with.'  6.  RV  '  that 
with  one  accord  ye  may  with  one  mouth  glorify 
the  God  and  Father,'  etc.     7.   Us]  RV  '  you.' 

8.  Now]  RV  '  for,'  introducing  proof  of 
V.  7''.     Was]  RV  '  hath  been  made.' 

Minister  of  the  circumcision]  i.e.  Christ  lived 
and  worked  under  the  Old  Covenant  marked 
by  circumcision  :  cp.  Gal  4***-  2  Cor  3  6. 

9.  Quotation  from  PslS^s.  Confess]  RV 
'give  praise.'  10.  From  Dt 32 ^3  n.  From 
Psll7i.     12.  From  Isa  11 10.     In]  RV  '  on.' 

Trust]  RV  '  hope.'     13.  Through]  RV  '  in.' 

14-33.  The  Apostle  approaches  the  end  of 
the  Epistle  with  personal  references. 

14-21.  His  tone  of  authority  is  warranted 
by  his  commission  as  apostle  to  the  Gentiles, 
and  by  the  way  in  which  Christ  has  owned  and 
blessed  his  work. 

Paraphrase.  '  (14)  Do  not  suppose  I  think 
you  lacking  either  in  goodness  or  in  grasp  of 
Christian  principles.  (15)  But  I  have  re- 
minded you  of  these  things  somewhat  boldly, 
because  God  appointed  me  (16)  apostle  of  the 
Gentiles  to  bring  them  to  Him.  (17)  I  speak 
with  authority,  therefore,  not  because  of  my- 
self, but  because  I  am  Christ's  minister,  (18) 
and  because  He  has  worked  tlu-ough  me  (19) 
with  miracles  and  spiritual  power,  so  that  I 
have  preached  the  gospel  widely  ;  (20,  21) 
always  seeking  the  honour  of  preaching  only 
where  Christ  has  not  yet  been  preached.' 

14.  Ye  also]  RV  '  ye  yourselves.' 

Goodness]  i.e.  goodness  of  heart  toward 
others.  15.  In  some  sort]  better,  'in  part' 
(of  the  Epistle),  e.g.  61^*-  111''-  14. 

Is  given]   RV  '  was  given '  :  cp.  1  ^. 

16.  The  minister]  RV  'a  mmister.'  The 
Gk.  word,  the  original  of  the  word  '  liturgy,' 
is  used  in  LXX  of  priests  and  Levites,  and 
denotes  one  who  ministers  in  sacred  things. 

Ministering]  RM  '  ministering  in  sacrifice.' 
He  was  called  to  offer  the  Gentiles  as  a  sacri- 
fice to  God.  He  did  this  by  preaching  the 
gospel.     Offering]  cp.  IsaGGi^f.     17.  Where- 


of I  may  glory]  RV  'my  glorying.'  18.  The 
only  thing  he  will  boast  of  is  the  work  Christ 
has  done  through  him  for  the  conversion  of 
the   Gentiles.      Obedient]    i.e.    in   faith  :    cp. 

19.  Through  mighty  signs]  RV  'in  the 
power  of  signs,'  i.e.  the  power  which  miracles 
have  upon  those  who  behold  them  :  cp.  2  Cor 
12 12.  He  speaks  of  his  miracles  as  well  known 
and  indubitable.  Round  about]  He  had  evan- 
gelised on  either  side  of  the  route  from  Jeru- 
salem to  Illyricum.  lUyricum]  On  the  E. 
coast  of  the  Adriatic,  and  NW.  of  Macedonia. 
It  was  approached,  and  may  have  been  visited, 
in  the  journey  mentioned  Ac20i'2.  Fully 
preached]  i.e.  in  the  chief  centres,  founding 
Churches  which  might  carry  on  the  work. 

20.  RV  '  yea,  making  it  my  aim,  so  to 
preach,'  etc.  Lest  I  should  build]  cp.  2  Cor 
10i2f.     21.  From  Isa  52 16. 

22-33.  He  hopes,  after  a  journey  to  Jeru- 
salem, to  visit  Rome  on  his  way  to  Spain 
(vv.  22-29).  He  desires  their  prayers  (vv. 
30-33). 

Paraphrase.  '  (22)  My  work  has  often  pre- 
vented me  from  coming  to  you,  (23)  but  now 
that  my  work  here  is  finished,  (24)  I  hope  to 
visit  you  on  my  way  to  Spain.  (25)  Mean- 
while I  am  starting  for  Jerusalem,  (26)  to 
convey  to  the  Christian  poor  there  a  contribu- 
tion from  Macedonia  and  Achaia,  (27)  which 
is  an  acknowledgment  of  the  debt  the  Gentiles 
owe  to  the  Jews  in  spiritual  things.  (28) 
Afterwards  I  will  travel  by  you  into  Spain, 
(29)  and  I  feel  sure  that  visit  will  be  the  oc- 
casion of  much  blessing.  (30)  Wrestle  in 
prayer,  (31)  that  I  may  be  delivered  from  the 
Jews,  and  that  the  Jewish  Christians  may  ac- 
cept the  peace  offering  which  I  bring,  (32) 
that  I  may  come  joyfully  to  you  and  find 
repose.  (33)  May  God  bless  you  with  His 
peace  ! ' 

22.  RV  '  Wherefore  also  I  was  hindered 
these  many  times  ' :  cp.  1  io>  13.  24.  Brought 
on  my  way]  cp.  Ac  153  2815  1  Cor  16  "5.  25.  Cp. 
Ac  1921  203. 

26.  Poor  saints]  RV  '  poor  among  the 
saints.'  There  was  much  poverty  among 
the  Christians  at  Jerusalem,  increased,  per- 
haps, by  the  ill-will  of  the  rich  Sadducees. 
St.  Paul  had  been  intreated  to  '  remember  the 
poor '  (Gal  2  lO).  At  the  same  time  there  was 
mistrust  at  Jerusalem  of  him  and  his  work. 
Therefore  he  had  instituted  a  collection  among 
the  Gentile  Churches,  which,  he  hoped,  would 
di'aw  together  the  Gentile  and  Jewish  Chris- 
tians :cp.  Ac  24  lU  Cor  16  !*•  2  Cor  8, 9.  27.  Min- 
ister] same  Gk.  word  as  '  minister  '  in  v.  IG. 

Carnal]  i.e.  belonging  to  this  earthly  life  : 
no  bad  association  here. 

28.  Sealed]  i.e.  marked  it  as  their  property  ; 
made    it  over   to   them.     To   them]   i.e.   the 


887 


15.29 


ROMANS 


16.26 


Jerusalem  Christians.  Fruit]  i.e.  the  contribu- 
tion would  be  evidence  to  the  Jewish  Christians 
of  the  real  faith  and  love  of  the  Gentiles. 

Into  Spain]  St.  Paul  may  have  visited  Spain 
after  he  was  released  from  Rome,  though 
there  is  no  evidence  of  his  having  done  so. 
Clement  of  Rome  (about  9G  a.d.)  says  he 
went  '  to  the  extremity  of  the  West.' 

29.  Though  St.  Paul  did  not  come  to  Rome 
in  the  way  he  anticipated,  his  coming  was 
brought  about  by  God's  Providence  for  '  the 
furtherance  of  the  gospel '  :  cp.  1 11  ^-  Phil  1 13. 

30.  Of  the  Spirit]  i.e.  awakened  by  the 
Spirit:  cp.  Gal 5^2. 

CHAPTER  16 
Greetings  and  "Warnings 

1-16.   Commendation  and  greetings. 

Observe  the  number  of  women  to  whom  the 
Apostle  sends  greeting.  The  fact  is  indicative 
of  the  change  wrought  in  the  position  of 
women  by  the  gospel,  and  of  the  honourable 
place  taken  by  them  in  the  Christian  Church. 
Observe  also  the  difference  of  nationality  in- 
dicated by  the  names.  St.  Paul,  a  Hebrew, 
sends  salutation  to  Greeks.  Romans,  and  per- 
haps Asiatics,  many  of  them  probably  slaves — 
marking  the  universality  of  the  gospel :  cp.  Gal 
328  Col  3 11. 

I.  Commend]  i.e.  introduce:  cp.  1213  2 Cor 
31.  Apparently,  Phoebe  was  the  bearer  of  the 
Epistle.  Servant]  lit.  '  deacon,'  RM  '  dea- 
coness '  :  translated  'deacon'  in  Philli,  etc., 
but  'minister'  in  EphS'''  6 21,  etc.  Either 
Phoebe  had  been  definitely  appointed  to  min- 
ister to  women  (cp.  1  Tim  5  3*-),  or  she  is  called 
'  minister '  because  she  voluntarily  devoted 
herself  to  good  works.  Cenchrea]  the  eastern 
port  of  Corinth.  2.  Succourer]  or,  'patron- 
ess.' The  Gk.  word  is  used  for  an  influential 
friend  or  protector.  3.  Priscilla]  RY  '  Prisca.' 
For  the  history  of  Aquila  and  Prisca  cp.  Ac  18, 

1  Cor  1619  2  Tim  4 19.  4.  Laid  down,  etc.]  Per- 
haps they  risked  their  lives  at  Ephesus  :  cp. 
Ac  19.  5.  In  their  house]  i.e.  meeting  in  their 
house:  cp.  Ac  12 12  1  Cor  1619  Col 4 is  Phile- 
mon V.  2. 

Firstfruits]  i.e.  an  early  convert.  Achaia] 
RY  '  Asia,'  i.e.  the  Roman  province  of  which 
Ephesus  was  the  chief  city. 

7.  Junia]  RY  '  Junias.'  Kinsmen]  i.e.  Jews 
belonging  to  the  same  '  Tribe  '  of  citizens  of 
Tarsus  as  St.  Paul.  Of  note  among  the  apo- 
stles] i.e.  distinguished  apostles.  '  Apostle  ' 
means  '  one  sent  on  a  mission  and  representing 
the    sender.'      '  Apostles    of    Churches,'   cp. 

2  Cor  8  23  (RM)  Phil  2  25  (RM),  were  men  sent 
on  special  missions  by  particular  Churches. 


But,  specially,  '  apostles  '  means  '  apostles  of 
Christ,'  cp.  1  Th  2  6,  i.e.  men  sent  to  be 
Christ's  witnesses  everywhere.  Such  were  the 
Twelve;  Paul  and  Barnabas,  cp.  Acl4i4; 
James,  1  Cor  15  '^  Gal  1 19  ;  and  Andronicus  and 
Junias.  'Apostles  of  Christ  '  must  have  seen 
the  Lord,  cp.  Lk  24*8  Ac  1 «.  22  1  Cor  9 1 ;  have 
shown  spiritual  power,  cp.  1  Cor  9  2  2  Cor  12 12  ; 
and  have  received  a  call  from  God,  cp.  1  Cor 
1228Eph4ii. 

9.   Urbane]  RY  '  Urbanus.' 

12.  Persis]  the  name  of  a  woman. 

13.  Rufus]  cp.  Mkl52i.  St.  Mark  probably 
wrote  his  Gospel  at  Rome. 

Mine]  i.e.  St.  Paul  felt  for  her  the  affection 
of  a  son. 

17-20.  Warning  against  false  teachers,  pro- 
bably Judaistic,  whose  doctrines  St.  Paul  has 
dealt  with  in  the  Epistle.  They  may  not  have 
appeared  at  Rome  as  yet :  cp.  Phil  1 1^  *•  (writ- 
ten from  Rome). 

17.   Offences]  RY  '  occasions  of  stumbling.' 

Avoid]  RY  'turn  away  from.'  18.  Their 
own  belly]  i.e.  they  seek  their  own  interests, 
and  their  religious  ideas  are  low  and  material- 
istic:  cp.  Phil  3 17  f-  Col  2  20 f. 

19.  For]  i.e.  'But  they  ought  not  to  deceive 
you,  for,'  etc.  Simple]  i.e.  harmless  :  cp. 
MtlOi<5.  20.  Bruise  Satan]  by  defeating  the 
false  teaching:  cp.  2 Cor  11 12*. 

21-23.  Greetings  from  St.  Paul's  com- 
panions. 

21.  Lucius]  cp.  Acl3i.    Jason]  cp.  Acl?^*. 
Sosipater]  cp.  Ac20ii.     Kinsmen]  cp.  v.  7. 

22.  Wrote]  RY  'write.'  St.  Paul's  habit 
was  to  dictate  his  letters:  cp.  1  Cor  16 21  Col 
4 18  2  Th  3 17  Gal  6  n.     23.  Gains]  cp.  1  Cor  1 14. 

Of  the  whole  church]  i.e.  the  meetings  were 
held  in  his  house.  A  brother]  R  Y  '  the  brother,' 
i.e.  the  Christian.     24.  RY  omits  :  see  Intro. 

25-27.  Concluding  doxology,  summing  up 
the  main  points  of  the  Epistle. 

25.  My  gospel]  i.e.  his  special  teaching  of 
acceptance  by  faith  for  Jew  and  Gentile.  Of 
Jesus  Christ]  i.e.  the  object  of  his  preaching 
was  to  bring  about  faith  in  Jesus  the  Mes- 
siah:  cp.  108'.  According  to  the  revelation, 
etc.]  i.e.  the  preaching  of  Jesus  Christ  explains 
God's  purpose,  which  had  been  hidden  :  cp. 
chs.  9-11,  lCor26f. 

Secret]  RY  '  in  silence.'  Since  the  world 
began]  RY  '  through  times  eternal.'  26.  By 
the  scriptures]  cp.  li*-32i.  For  the]  RY 
'  unto,'  i.e.  leading  to  the  obedience  which 
faith  implies  :  cp.  1 5. 

Subscription.  The  subscriptions  to  the 
Epistles  are  said  to  have  been  the  work  of 
Euthalius,  a  bishop  of  the  5th  cent. 


888 


1  CORINTHIANS 


INTRODUCTION 


I.  The  Corinthian  Church. 

(a)  '  Corinth  was  in  many  respects  the  most 
important  city  in  Greece  under  the  Eoman 
Empire.  Whereas  Athens  was  the  educational 
centre,  the  seat  of  the  greatest  university  in 
the  world  at  that  time,  and  the  city  to  which 
the  memories  of  Greek  freedom  and  older 
history  clung  most  persistently,  Corinth  was 
the  capital  of  the  Roman  province,  the  centre 
of  government  and  commerce,  of  actual  life 
and  development  in  the  country  '  (HDB). 

It  was  situated  on  the  narrow  isthmus 
which  connected  Macedonia  and  Achaia,  and 
possessed  two  great  harbours,  Lechseum  look- 
ing towards  the  Adriatic  Sea  and  Italy,  and 
Cenchrese  (AclSis  RolGi)  looking  towards 
the  ^gean  and  Asia.  Though  it  lay  a  little 
inland  it  had  all  the  advantages  of  a  seaport, 
and,  occupying  as  it  did  a  central  position  on 
the  lines  of  communication  between  Rome 
and  the  East,  it  was  a  great  commercial  clear- 
ing-house. Small  ships  were  hauled  across 
the  isthmus  by  a  prepared  way  to  avoid  the 
voyage  round  the  Cape,  and  travellers  from 
Italy  to  the  East  landed  at  Lechseum  and  re- 
embarked  at  Cenchreae.  It  was  thus  a  place 
where  traders  and  officials  were  constantly 
coming  and  going.  Its  population  was  com- 
posed of  Greeks  and  Romans,  Jews  and 
Orientals.  Merchants  and  sailors  were  its 
most  frequent  visitors,  staying  for  short 
periods  on  their  voyages,  and  bringing  to  it 
the  civilisation  and  the  customs  of  many  lands. 

Corinth  in  St.  Paul's  day  was  a  Roman 
colony.  Two  centuries  earlier  the  famous 
Greek  city  on  the  same  site  had  been  destroyed 
by  the  Roman  armies  ;  but  after  lying  in  ruins 
for  a  hundred  years  it  had  been  refounded  by 
Julius  Caesar  in  46  B.C.,  and  had  speedily 
regained  more  than  its  former  greatness. 

Besides  its  commercial  importance  Corinth 
was  famous  as  the  scene  of  the  great  Isthmian 
games,  which  every  second  year  attracted  a  mul- 
titude of  people  to  the  city  ;  and  it  was  noted 
as  the  centre  of  the  abominable  worship  of  the 
goddess  Aphrodite,  in  whose  worship  virgins 
sacrificed  their  chastity.  The  Corinthians  were 
notorious  even  in  the  world  of  that  time  for 
their  drunkenness  and  sensuality.  They  were 
also  much  given  to  faction  and  strife,  being 
always  anxious  to  discuss  philosophical  and 
moral  problems,  and  to  debate  the  qualifica- 
tions and  drawbacks  of  their  public  teachers. 


It  is  a  significant  commentary  on  their  way  of 
life  that  a  man  of  Corinth  was  usually  intro- 
duced on  the  stage  in  a  state  of  intoxication, 
and  that '  to  live  like  a  Corinthian '  had  become  a 
proverb  to  express  a  life  of  luxury  and  licence. 

(b)  The  Founding-  of  the  Church.  St.  Paul's 
first  visit  to  Corinth  was  made  in  the  course 
of  his  second  missionary  journey,  and  lasted 
eighteen  months  (Acl8).  After  his  failure  to 
make  any  deep  impression  at  Athens,  the 
Apostle  passed  on  to  Corinth  ;  probably  in  the 
autumn  of  50  a.d.,  but  possibly  a  year  or  two 
later,  as  the  dates  are  uncertain.  On  his 
arrival  he  met  with  Aquila  and  his  wife 
Priscilla,  Jews  lately  expelled  from  Rome  on 
account  of  their  race  and  religion.  They  were 
tentmakers,  like  himself,  so  he  wrought  with 
them  and  stayed  in  their  house.  At  fii'st,  ac- 
cording to  his  custom  (cp.  AclS^'i"*  14 1  17 2), 
he  preached  in  the  synagogue,  and  endeavoured 
to  persuade  the  Jews  and  the  Greek  proselytes 
that  Jesus  was  the  Christ.  The  arrival  of 
Silas  and  Timothy  reinforced  him,  and  the 
work  was  not  without  effect,  for  several  Jews 
believed,  among  them  being  Crispus,  the 
ruler  of  the  synagogue,  and  Titius  Justus, 
one  of  their  proselytes.  The  majority,  how- 
ever, remained  obdurate,  and  the  Apostle  had 
to  withdraw  from  the  synagogue.  Eventually 
the  wrath  of  the  Jews  culminated  in  an 
attempt  to  convict  him  before  Gallio,  the 
governor  of  the  province,  of  teaching  an 
illegal  religion.  The  governor,  however,  dis- 
missed the  case,  because  the  Apostle  had  not 
broken  any  Roman  law,  and  the  Greeks  who 
were  present  gave  a  rough  approval  of  his 
decision  by  beating  Sosthenes,  the  new  ruler 
of  the  synagogue,  in  sight  of  the  judgment- 
seat.  Thus  protected  by  the  law,  St.  Paul 
continued  his  work  until  the  spring  of  52  a.d., 
when  he  sailed  for  Ephesus  and  Jerusalem,  to 
celebrate  the  Passover. 

After  his  departure  from  Ephesus,  Apollos, 
a  learned  Jew  of  Alexandria,  who  had  em- 
braced Christianity,  arrived  there,  and  made 
himself  known  to  the  Church.  His  knowledge 
of  Christ  was  somewhat  imperfect,  but  having 
been  instructed  more  fully  by  Aquila  and 
Priscilla,  who  had  accompanied  St.  Paul  to 
Ephesus,  he  became  of  gi-eat  assistance  in  the 
work  of  the  Lord.  It  was  his  desire  to  go  to 
Corinth,  and  after  a  time  the  brethren  in 
Ephesus  commended  him  to  the  community 


889 


INTRO. 


1  CORINTHIANS 


INTRO. 


across  the  sea  (Ac  18  27  2  Cor  3 1).  In  Corinth 
his  preaching  was  very  successful  (Ac  18^"), 
and  his  arguments  proved  attractive  to  many 
of  the  Corinthians,  who  preferred  a  more 
philosophical  style  to  the  plain  words  of  St. 
Paul. 

(c)  Composition  of  the  Church.  The  Church 
at  Corinth  was  composed  to  some  extent  of  Jews 
(Ac  1 8  8  1  Cor  7  IS  1 U  32  2  Cor  11  22),  but  chiefly  of 
Gentiles  (Ac  18^1  Cor  122).  The  members  were 
of  all  classes.  Gains,  '  the  host  of  the  whole 
Church,'  and  Erastus,  'the  chamberlain  of  the 
city'  (Ro  1623 — the  Epistle  to  the  Romans  was 
written  from  Corinth),  were  among  the  better 
class,  as  was,  perhaps,  also  Stephanas, '  the  first- 
fruits  of  Achaia '  (1 G  ^^).  But  others  were  poor 
(126-28)^  and  others  were  slaves  (722).  Jt  is 
certain  that  here  as  elsewhere  *  not  many 
wise  men  after  the  flesh,  not  many  mighty,, 
not  many  noble '  were  called  ( 1 2<3).  The 
majority  seem  to  have  been  of  humble  station 
(1 27, 28)^  and  had  to  work  hard  for  their 
living.  Some  of  these  Christian  converts 
being  of  Jewish  origin  attached  importance  to 
Jewish  rites  (920),  others  prided  themselves 
on  their  liberal  views  (8^,9  1025>27)  ;  many  had 
been  redeemed  from  vicious  habits  (6  ^'^^),  and 
had    to   keep    strict    watch   over   their    lives 

(612,13,20). 

(d)  The  Rise  of  Parties  in  the  Church.  In 
order  to  understand  the  situation  referred  to 
in  our  Epistle,  it  is  necessary  to  give  a  brief 
account  of  the  factions  which  arose  in  the 
Church  after  the  Apostle's  departure  (1 12). 

Four  parties  are  there  named — called  by  the 
names  of  the  leaders  they  had  adopted — a 
party  of  Paul,  a  party  of  Apollos,  a  party  of 
Cephas,  and  a  party  of  Christ.  The  followers 
of  Paul  were  those  who  had  remained  faithful 
to  the  teaching  of  the  founder  of  the  Church, 
and  probably  included  the  earliest  converts 
who  had  felt  the  power  of  his  personal  in- 
fluence ;  but  they  made  the  mistake  of  opposing 
him  to  other  teachers,  and,  perhaps,  especially 
at  first  to  Apollos,  hence  they  received  a  special 
rebuke  (1 13). 

The  party  of  Apollos  evidently  consisted  of 
those  who  admired  that  eloquent  speaker's 
ability  in  the  use  of  argument  and  language. 
Apollos  seems  to  have  captivated  a  number  of 
the  converts  by  his  skill  in  harmonising  the 
teaching  of  the  OT.  with  the  ciurent  philo- 
sophy, and  his  ingenuity  in  using  the  allegorical 
method  of  interpretation  in  applying  the 
Hebrew  Scriptures  to  prove  that  Jesus  was 
the  Messiah.  St.  Paul  may  be  contrasting 
the  methods  of  Apollos  with  his  own  simpler 
style  of  teaching  the  Corinthians  when  he 
speaks  of  '  wisdom  '  and  '  foolishness '  in  1 17-31 
21-13.  The  nucleus  of  the  party  of  Apollos 
would  be  composed  of  those  whom  he  himself 
had  converted ;  others  would  be  attracted  to  it 


who  were  easily  impressed  by  a  flowing  style 
and  a  philosophic  presentation  of  the  truth. 
The  differences  between  the  parties  of  Paul 
and  Apollos  arose  half -unconsciously,  hence 
their  hostility  would  not  be  very  pronounced. 

The  other  two  parties  had  a  different  origin. 
It  would  appear  that,  some  time  after  St.  Paul's 
departure,  representatives  of  that  party  in  the 
Church  at  Jerusalem  which  maintained  that 
acceptance  of  Christianity  involved  acceptance 
of  circumcision  and  other  Jewish  rites,  also 
came  to  Corinth.  These  Judaisers,  as  they 
are  called,  were  always  hostile  to  the  wider 
developments  of  Christianity.  They  found 
fault  with  St.  Peter  for  his  liberal  views  and 
his  attitude  to  the  Gentiles  (Ac  11 2)  at  an 
early  period  of  the  Church's  history.  St. 
Paul,  however,  was  the  principal  object  of 
their  aversion  and  ill-will-  It  is  possible  that 
they  had  never  forgiven  his  persecution  of  the 
Chi'istians  in  his  unconverted  days,  and  cer- 
tainly from  the  date  of  his  return  to  Antioch, 
after  his  first  mission  to  Galatia,  they  opposed 
his  admission  of  uncircumcised  heathen  to  the 
fellowship  of  the  Church  ( Ac  1 6 1  Gal  2  4).  We 
find  them  sending  emissaries  in  his  track  to 
alienate  the  Jewish  converts  from  allegiance 
to  him  and  bring  the  Gentile  brethren  into 
bondage  to  the  Mosaic  Law  (Gal  17  2i2,i3  31 
52  612  Phil  3  2).  Some  of  these  Jewish 
Christians  had  brought  letters  of  commenda- 
tion (2  Cor  3 1)  to  Corinth,  and  had  been  re- 
ceived by  the  Church.  They  took  occasion  to 
exalt  St.  Peter  (Cephas)  as  the  chief  of 
the  Apostles,  and  tried  to  undermine  the 
authority  of  St.  Paul,  insisting  that  he  was 
not  an  Apostle,  and  that  he  lacked  the  quali- 
fication of  having  seen  Jesus  (Qi). 

Thus  was  formed  the  party  of  Cephas,  con- 
sisting, probably,  of  some  of  the  Jews  who  had 
joined  the  Church,  and,  perhaps,  of  some  of 
the  proselytes,  who,  having  first  adopted  the 
Jewish  religion  and  rites,  would  be  the  more 
easily  persuaded. 

The  party  of  Christ  may  have  arisen  as  a 
protest  against  these  three  sections,  whose 
members  adopted  the  names  of  Apostles  as 
party  watchwords,  or  even  as  a  separate  and 
stricter  Jewish  party,  maintaining  the  duty  of 
all  disciples  of  Christ  to  follow  Him  in  His  ful- 
filment of  the  rites  of  the  Law  (Lk227  Jn5i, 
etc.).  Its  members  seem  to  have  become  more 
extreme  and  fanatical  as  the  strife  went  on,  and 
to  have  maintained  the  strictest  Judaistic 
principles  :  see  further  remarks  in  Intro,  to 
2  Cor,  1  (J).  We  find  in  the  Second  Epistle 
that  some  of  its  members  withstood  St.  Paul's 
authority  and  denied  his  right  to  interfere  in 
the  discipline  of  the  Church,  and  that  it  was 
with  great  difficulty  that  the  Apostle  asserted 
his  position  and  regained  his  influence  (2  Cor 

107  li  13-15.  21,22^  etc.). 


890 


MTRO. 


1  CORINTHIANS 


INTEO. 


2.  The  First  Epistle. 

(a)  Circumstances  of  its  Origin,  and  Date. 

Our  First  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians  is  one, 
and  that  not  the  first,  of  a  series  of  letters 
written  by  St.  Paul  to  the  Corinthian  Church, 
in  view  of  the  party  quarrels  which  rent  it,  and 
the  difficulties  of  belief  and  conduct  which 
perplexed  its  members.  In  the  interval  be- 
tween St.  Paul's  departure  from  Corinth, 
after  founding  the  Church,  and  the  date  of 
this  letter,  he  had  revisited  the  Churches  of 
Galatia  and  Plii>ygia  (Acl8^3)^  and  from  there 
had  come  to  Ephesus  (Acl9i).  At  Ephesus 
he  remained  for  more  than  two  years  (Ac 
19S-10),  reaching  the  city  perhaps  in  63  or  54 
A.D.,  and  leaving  it  late  in  56  or  57  a.d. 
During  his  residence  there  he  seems  to  have 
received  tidings  from  Corinth  that  some  of 
the  Christians  had  fallen  back  into  immoral 
habits,  and  he  wrote  a  letter  to  the  Church,  in 
which  he  directed  the  members  to  exercise 
discipline  upon  the  offenders.  To  this  letter 
(which  is  not  now  extant)  he  refers  in  5  9, 
'  I  wrote  unto  you  in  my  epistle  to  have  no 
company  with  fornicators  '  (B,V).  This  letter 
was  not  well  received  by  the  Corinthians. 
Some  of  them,  misunderstanding  the  counsel, 
declared  that  it  was  impossible  to  follow  it 
without  going  out  of  the  world  (510),  and 
others  flatly  denied  his  right  to  interfere  at  all 
(415,18, 19)_  In  reply  they  wrote  a  letter,  fre- 
quently alluded  to  and  even  quoted  from  in 
the  canonical  First  Epistle  (5io  7i  8i-io  1025 
112),  in  which  they  temporised  in  regard  to 
the  cases  of  immorality,  asking  for  further 
information,  and  submitted  a  number  of  prob- 
lems on  which  they  requested  his  opinion. 
This  letter  was  probably  brought  by  three  of 
their  number,  Stephanas  and  Fortunatus  and 
Achaicus  (16^"^). 

Meanwhile,  however,  St.  Paul  had  also 
heard  of  the  factions  in  the  Church.  The 
news  had  been  brought  by  servants  of  Chloe 
(111),  a  lady  evidently  well  known  to  the 
Corinthians,  though  whether  she  was  herself  a 
Christian  does  not  appear.  The  tidings  caused 
the  Apostle  much  pain  and  anxiety.  He  sent 
Timothy  to  Corinth  by  way  of  Macedonia 
(Ac  19  22  1  Cor  4 1")  to  '  bring  them  into  remem- 
brance of  his  ways  in  Christ.'  About  the 
same  time  he  wrote  the  First  Epistle  and  sent 
it — perhaps  by  the  hands  of  Titus  and  the 
brother  mentioned  in  2  Cor  1 2  is — by  the  shorter 
sea  route,  that  it  might  arrive  before  his  young 
comrade,  whom  he  commends  to  their  care 
(1610).  The  letter  contains  first  of  all  a  re- 
monstrance regarding  their  divisions  and  an 
exhortation  to  unity,  and  secondly  detailed 
answers  to  the  problems  and  questions  sub- 
mitted in  the  Epistle  from  the  Church.  It 
was  probably  written  and  despatched  early 
in  55  or  56  a.d. 


(i)  Synopsis  of  Contents. 

Introduction  1 1-9.    Greeting  and  thanksgiving. 
I_      iio_g-20.     Problems    suggested     by    the 

reports  of  Chloe's  people, 
(rt)  110-421.     Parties  and  party  spirit  in  the 

Church. 
(J)  51-13.  The  case  of  immorality, 

(c)   61-11.  Christians  and  litigation. 

^((•^  g  12-20.  The  obligation  of  purity. 

II.     7 1-1 6  4.      Problems    submitted     in    the 
letter  from  Corinth. 

(a)  7 1-40.  Marriage,  divorce,  and  celibacy. 

(b)  81-111.      Food  offered  to  idols : 

(i)  8 1-13.    The    principle   of 

self-denial ; 
(ii)  91-27.     St.    Paul's     own 

example  ; 
(iii)  10 1-1 11.  Historical  illus- 
trations and   practical 
advice. 

(c)  112-16.         The    veiling     of     women     in 

Church. 
(cl)  1 1 17-34.       The  proper  observance  of  the 

Lord's  Supper, 
(e)  121-1440.    Spiritual  gifts  : 

(i)  121-31.    Their  nature  and 

relations  ; 
(ii)  131-13.    The    most  excel- 
lent gift  of  charity  ; 
(iii)  141-40.    The      gift      of 
tongues  subordinate  to 
prophecy. 
(/)  151-58.        The  fact  and  the  doctrine  of 

the  Resurrection. 
(g)  161-4.  The    collection    for   the    poor 

Christians  in  Jerusalem. 
{h)  16^-24.        Personal    messages    and   con- 
clusion. 

(c)  Outline  of  the  Epistle.  After  saluting 
the  Church  and  giving  thanks  for  their  Chris- 
tian graces  (li-^)  the  Apostle  deals  with  the 
evils  of  which  he  has  heard.  First  of  all 
(1  io_43i)  he  points  out  the  scandal  and  danger 
of  party  spirit  in  the  Church,  reminding  them 
that  Christ  is  the  only  Master,  the  Apostles 
being  only  preachers  of  Christ.  He  shows 
them  that  the  preaching  of  the  Cross  is  power- 
ful to  accomplish  their  salvation,  and  that  it  is 
the  only  true  wisdom  to  those  who  have  under- 
standing. The  Corinthians,  however,  are  still 
carnal,  and  do  not  know  the  truth,  as  is  shown 
by  their  partisanship.  Let  them  realise  that 
Christian  teachers  are  fellow-workers  with  God, 
servants  of  Christ,  and  let  them  give  up  this 
strife  and  rancour.  The  Apostle  then  passes 
on  (c.  5)  to  deal  with  the  case  of  incestuous 
marriage,  and  bids  the  Church  put  out  of  its 
membership  the  man  who  has  caused  the  scandal. 
Litigation  before  heathen  judges  is  forbidden 
(6 1-9)  because  it  is  both  foolish  and  morally 
wrong,  exhibiting  the  spirit  of  their  uncon- 


891 


INTRO. 


1  CORINTHIANS 


INTRO. 


verted  past,  rather  than  the  new  spirit  of  love 
and  peace,  and  then  the  Apostle  urges  them 
again  ((jio-^O)  to  purity  of  life. 

The  rest  of  the  Epistle  seems  to  deal  with 
problems  of  Church  life  suggested  by  questions 
in  a  letter  from  the  Corinthians  to  St.  Paul. 
The  subject  of  marriage  is  dealt  with  first  (c.  7), 
the  Apostle  commending  the  married  state  to 
all  who  prefer  it,  and  forbidding  divorce  on 
grounds  of  difference  in  religion.  Meats  offered 
to  idols  formed  a  cause  of  scandal  to  many, 
and  the  Apostle  (c.  8)  points  out  that  while  a 
man  might  well  enough  eat  such  meat  with  a 
pure  conscience,  his  action  might  give  offence 
to  another  who  regarded  the  eating  of  such 
food  as  sin,  in  which  case  it  was  far  better  to 
avoid  it.  This  suggests  a  reference  to  his  own 
example  (c.  9)  of  self-denial.  He  has  the 
right  to  look  for  material  aid  from  the  Church, 
but  he  refuses  to  exercise  it,  and  practises  the 
same  self-denial  in  this  respect  as  in  respect  of 
his  bodily  appetites.  He  then  (c.  10)  returns 
to  the  subject  of  idolatry,  showing  its  dangers 
by  reference  to  Jewish  history,  and  urging  his 
converts  to  keep  from  its  degrading  influence. 

The  next  subject  taken  up  (11 2-16)  is  the 
place  of  women  in  the  worship  of  the  Church, 
after  which  the  Apostle  deals  with  the  observ- 
ance of  the  Lord's  Supper  (lli'-^-i),  reproving 
the  abuses  which  disfigure  their  sacred  feast, 
reminding  them  of  the  manner  of  its  institution 
by  the  Lord  Jesus,  and  exhorting  them  to 
reverence  in  its  use.  The  use  and  abuse  of 
such  spiritual  gifts  as  prophesying  and  speaking 
with  tongues  is  dealt  with  in  its  turn  (chs.  12-1 4), 
and  the  Apostle,  while  commending  the  moder- 
ate and  careful  use  of  all  the  gifts,  bids  them 
cultivate  above  all  (c.  13)  the  most  excellent 
gift  of  charity.  Then  follows  his  teaching  as 
to  the  fact  and  the  doctrine  of  the  Resurrec- 
tion, in  which  he  shows  how  intimately  belief 
in  the  Resurrection  of  Christ  (and  consequently 
of  the  dead,  of  whom  He  is  the  first-fruits)  is 
bound  up  with  their  Christian  faith  and  new 
obedience,  and  how  all  their  Christian  prac- 
tices and  actions  and  aspirations  were  in- 
separably connected  with  it.  Turning  next  to 
the  manner  of  the  Resurrection,  he  points  out 
that  as  it  is  with  the  seed  sown  and  the  wheat 
reaped,  so  is  it  with  the  mortal  body  and  the 
spiritual  body.  Through  the  grave  man's  body 
passes  into  a  new  and  higher  form,  and  then 
'  when  this  corruptible  has  put  on  incorruption, 
and  this  mortal  has  put  on  immortality,  then 
shall  be  brought  to  pass  the  saying  that  is 
written.  Death  is  swallowed  up  in  victory.' 
The  letter  concludes  (c.  16)  with  directions 
about  a  collection  for  the  poor  in  Jerusalem,  the 
Mother-Church,  and  with  personal  messages 
to  various  friends  of  the  writer. 

(d)  Authenticity.  Tliis  Epistle  is  accepted 
as  St.  Paul's  by  almost  all  schools  of  biblical 


892 


criticism,  including  those  often  regarded  l_ 
sceptical  and  extreme.  The  internal  and  the 
external  evidences  are  both  exceptionally 
good.  The  Epistle  accords  with  the  circum- 
stances under  which  it  is  presumed  to  have 
been  written,  and  presents  a  true  picture  of  the 
nature  and  habits  of  the  Corinthians.  Its  tone 
is  real,  its  exhortations  and  counsels  arise 
naturally  out  of  the  circumstances,  and  it 
reveals  the  Apostle  in  many  characteristic 
moods.  As  regards  the  witness  borne  to  this 
letter  in  early  Church  history,  it  is  sufficient  to 
say  that  Clement  of  Rome,  writing  to  this 
same  Church  of  Corinth  about  97  a.d.,  quotes 
from  it  and  bids  them  read  it  again  for  their 
guidance. 

(e)  The  Master-thought  of  this  Epistle  and 
of  the  Second  Epistle  is  the  union  of  Christ 
and  the  Christian.  '  I  am  crucified  with 
Christ,'  he  says  (Gal 2 20)  ;  'nevertheless  I  live  ; 
yet  not  I,  but  Christ  liveth  in  me  :  and  the 
hfe  which  I  now  live  in  the  flesh  I  live  by  the 
faith  of  the  Son  of  God,  who  loved  me,  and 
gave  himself  for  me.'  Christ  and  the  Apostle 
are  so  united  in  mind  and  spirit  that  the  very 
life  of  Christ,  so  to  speak,  pulsates  in  Him. 
He  has  yielded  Himself  so  completely  to 
Christ's  influence,  and  drunk  so  deeply  of  His 
spirit,  that  he  acts,  speaks,  thinks,  and  suffers 
'  in  Christ.'  The  sense  of  personal  union  with 
Christ  sustains  him  in  all  his  efforts,  and  he 
desires  to  realise  Christ's  presence  abiding 
with  him  in  increasing  degree. 

'  Flow  on  my  soul,  thou  Spirit,  and  renew  me, 
Fill  with  Thyself,  and  let  the  jest  be  far '  (Myers). 

What  he  has  thus  experienced  in  his  own 
life,  he  assumes  that  his  converts  have  in  some 
degree  experienced  also  (6  is  8 12  2  Cor  1 21 
5  !''■).  He  realises  indeed  that  their  union  with 
Christ  is  but  imperfect  and  dimly  realised  by 
themselves  ;  he  can  treat  them  only  as  '  babes 
in  Christ'  (3i).  But  though  they  do  not 
comprehend  this  fact  of  their  spiritual  life,  he 
is  assured  that  Christ  is  indeed  already  dwelling 
in  them  (2  Cor  13  5)  ;  and  he  desires  that  they 
may  receive  more  and  more  of  the  influence  of 
Christ,  until  they  live  in  complete  and  con- 
scious union  with  Him.  From  this  controlling 
thought  of  the  union  of  Christ  and  the  Chris- 
tian the  Apostle  deduces  the  two  dominant 
ideas — the  necessity  of  union  with  one  another, 
and  the  necessity  of  purity  of  life  (see  paraph. 
2  Cor  4 13-15). 

(/)  Special  Teaching  of  the  Epistle.  There 
are  many  points  of  Christian  belief  and 
practice  which  this  Epistle  sets  in  a  unique 
light,  (a)  One  most  important  feature  is  the 
independent  witness  it  bears  to  the  facts  of 
Christ's  life  and  death  and  resurrection. 
Especially  does  the  Apostle  dwell  upon  the 
Crucifixion     and     the     Resurrection     (22  5^ 


INTRO. 


1  CORINTHIANS 


1.2 


620  811  153-8,20,23,57^  etc.).  The  letter  was 
written  before  our  Gospels,  within  about 
twenty-five  years  of  the  death  of  Christ,  and 
in  all  matters  of  fact  it  confirms  the  state- 
ments of  the  Gospels. 

We  learn  from  it  too  that  the  sacraments 
were  duly  celebrated,  although  some  disorder 
was  mingled  with  the  observance  of  the  Lord's 
Supper.  Baptism  was  administered  to  those 
who  confessed  their  faith  in  Christ  (112-16  gii 
1213),  and  the  Lord's  Supper  was  observed 
by  the  breaking  of  the  bread  and  the  giving  of 
the  cup,  and  was  to  be  prepared  for  by 
self-examination  (1123-29).  Associated  with 
the  Holy  Communion  and  prior  to  its  cele- 
bration was  the  agape  or  common  meal,  at 
which  the  members  of  the  Church  shared  the 
food  which  each  had  brought,  and  ate  together 
in  token  of  their  unity  as  members  of  one 
family.  It  was  in  connexion  with  the  agape 
that  the  abuses  had  arisen  which  St.  Paul 
condemns  in  c.  11. 

The  doctrines  of  Christianity  are  not  set 
forth  here  in  a  formal  way,  but  are  brought 
forward  incidentally  as  they  bear  on  Christian 
life  and  practice.  Belief  in  God  the  Father 
(86),  in  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ  (8^  111),  and  in 
the  Holy  Spirit  (12  3),  is  the  foundation  of  the 
faith.  Christ  crucified  is  the  great  subject  of 
preaching  (1 23).  Christ  has  ransomed  man 
(gi9,20)  .  He  has  died  for  their  sins  according 
to  prophecy  (153)  ;  He  is  the  perfect  example 
for  them  to  follow  (Hi),  and  the  chief  object 
of  their  love  (1622).  Christ's  death  is  the 
power  of  God  unto  salvation  (12'^),  and  the 
great  motive  to  holiness  of  life  (S^iS).  His 
Resurrection  is  the  basis  of  belief  in  the 
resurrection  of  the  dead  (151^)  ;  the  ground  of 
the  hope  of  immortality  (15 1^)  ;  and  the 
pledge  of  the  forgiveness  of  sins  (151'^). 

The  Epistle  bears  witness  also  to  the  ideal 
unity  of  the  Church  of  Christ  (12,i3  311  nis)^ 
to  the  fact  of  forgiveness  bestowed  by  Christ 
(15  3),  to  the  great  Christian  doctrines  of 
the  resurrection  of  the  body  (15^2-44)^  and 
of  the  life  everlasting  (15^3-57).  Closely 
connected  with  doctrine  is  duty  ;  and  the 
Christian  virtues  of  self-denial  (813),  unity 
(1 10),  love  (c.  13),  and  purity  (.3 1''^  17),  are  incul- 
cated in  many  passages,  of  which  those  indi- 
cated are  mere  specimens.  What  is  insisted 
upon  throughout  is  that  the  whole  purpose  of 
the  death  of  Christ  was  to  produce  the  life  of 
the  Spirit  in  the  souls  of  men  (130  22-5  520  723^ 
etc.). 

The  public  worship  described  is  sponta- 
neous and  unrestrained.  Each  one  prayed  or 
sang  or  exhorted  as  the  Spirit  moved  him, 
sometimes  in  a  sort  of  raptured  utterance 
which  was  unintelligible  to  the  others  (1412-17). 
We  can  understand  that  while  such  worship 
was  often  hearty  and  helpful  and  productive 


of  deep  impressions  (1425),  jt  -^vas  liable  to 
much  abuse,  and  was  in  fact  frequently  spoiled 
by  rivalry  and  disorder,  and  even  by  blasphemy 
(123  1411,16,23,30).  The  Apostle  lays  down 
strict  rules  for  its  proper  conduct  on  the 
principle  that  all  things  should  be  done  unto 
edifying  (1426-40).  There  seems  to  have  been 
little  or  no  organisation  in  the  Corinthian 
Church  at  that  early  stage.  Had  there  been 
responsible  heads  of  the  Church  some  of  the 
causes  of  disorder  could  not  have  been  present. 
Perhaps  we  may  see  an  attempt  on  the  Apostle's 
part  to  get  such  recognised  '  elders '  or  '  bishops ' 
appointed  (cp.  Phil  1 1),  in  his  advice  to  the 
Corinthians  to  submit  themselves  to  such  as 
the  house  of  Stephanas  (1615.16).  The  prin- 
ciple of  discipline  was  recognised  in  the 
Church,  and  the  penalty  for  gross  sin  was 
expulsion  by  a  solemn  service  (53-5.ii).  But 
there  seems  to  have  been  some  diiference  of 
opinion  as  to  the  authority  by  which  the 
sentence  was  to  be  pronounced  when  the  case 
arose  :  this  caused  delay,  and  the  Apostle  had 
to  assert  his  right  to  exercise  discipline  when 
the  Church  as  a  whole  was  lax. 

It  is  mainly  the  dark  side  of  the  Church  life 
which  is  disclosed  in  this  Epistle  ;  but  there 
was  also  a  bright  side.  There  was  life  in  the 
Church  ;  its  members  possessed  the  gifts  of 
the  spirit  ;  they  were  growing  in  grace 
and  in  the  knowledge  of  God  (1^'^),  and 
the  Apostle  could  give  thanks  in  spite  of  all 
drawbacks  for  the  many  aspirations  and  efforts 
and  achievements  which  gave  promise  of 
better  things  to  come  (1"*'^). 

CHAPTER    1 

Greeting  and  Thanksgiving.  Partisan- 
ship IN  THE  Church 

St.  Paul,  after  greeting  the  Church  and 
giving  thanks  for  its  spiritual  gifts,  rebukes 
the  preference  for  various  teachers  which  was 
prevalent  among  them  ;  such  a  spirit  lost  sight 
of  Christ  crucified,  the  one  subject  of  all 
Christian  teachers. 

1-9.   Greeting  and  Thanksgiving. 

1.  Called  to  be  an  apostle]  chosen  by  God, 
not  self-appointed  :  see  Ac  2217-21.  Sosthenes] 
This  may  be  the  ruler  of  the  synagogue  of 
Ac  18 17,  converted  since  that  time. 

2.  Sanctified  in  Christ  Jesus]  consecrated 
to  God  through  faith  in  Christ,  having  Christ 
living  in  them  and  His  influence  moulding 
them.  Called  to  be  saints]  lit.  '  called  saints '  ; 
because  consecrated  to  Christ.  They  bore 
the  name  and  should  also  show  the  nature  of 
saints.  The  holiness  of  the  Church  is  con- 
tinually suggested  in  this  Epistle.  With  all 
that  in  every  place  call]  The  greeting  is  ex- 
tended to  include  all  Christians  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood. There  was  a  branch  of  the  Church 
at    Cenchreae,    the  eastern   port   of    Corinth 


893 


1.3 


1  CORINTHIANS 


1.  18 


(2  Cor  1 1  Ro  1 6 1).  Call  upon  the  name]  Prayer 
was  offered  to  Christ  by  all  Christians  from 
the  time  of  the  Ascension,  and  this  is  one  of 
the  clearest  proofs  that  He  was  regarded  as 
truly  divine  (Ac  7^9  92i).  3.  Grace  he  unto 
you,  and  peace]  St.  Paul's  invariable  greeting 
to  the  Churches.  Grace  is  the  favour  of  God, 
and  peace  the  result  of  the  enjoyment  of  that 
favour. 

4-9.  Paraphrase.  '  I  praise  God  continually 
because  through  your  spiritual  union  with 
Christ  you  have  received  the  gifts  of  His 
grace.  (5)  I  am  especially  thankful  because 
your  knowledge  of  the  truth  and  your  ability 
to  give  it  expression  have  increased  (6)  with 
the  increasing  response  of  your  spirits  to  the 
gospel  of  Christ.  (7)  You  are  thus  on  an 
equality  with  other  Churches  in  respect  of 
spiritual  gifts  ;  and  you  wait  and  watch  for 
the  coming  of  the  Lord,  (8)  who  will  keep 
you  faithful,  so  that  none  shall  reproach  you.' 

4.  I  thank  my  God]  St.  Paul  regarded  the 
Corinthian  Church,  in  spite  of  its  sins  and 
faults,  as  a  true  and  living  Church.  5.  Are 
enriched]  RV  '  were  enriched.'  In  all  utter- 
ance, and  'm  all  knowledge]  The  fact  that  they 
abused  these  gifts  (123  131,2  142-13)  did  not 
lead  the  Apostle  to  undervalue  them.  6.  The 
testimony  of  Christ]  The  Apostle's  witness  to 
Christ's  person  and  power  and  saving  work 
was  verified  by  its  effects  upon  the  Corinthians. 

7.  The  coming  of  our  Lord]  cp.  4^  7^9 
15^1  lTh4i5  2Pet3-i.i^.  8.  Confirm  you] 
keep  you  steadfast.  9.  The  fellowship  of 
his  Son]  i.e.  union  with  Him.  This  is  the 
keynote  of  the  Epistle,  and  leads  to  the  thought 
suggested  in  the  next  paragraph,  that  they  who 
are  united  to  Christ  should  be  united  to  one 
another. 

Division  I.     jio-g^o.  Problems  suggested 

BY  THE  Report  of  Chloe's  People 

(a)  1IO-421.  Parties  and  Party  Spirit  in 

the  Church 

10-17.  Paraphrase.  '  Brethi-en,  I  implore 
you  by  the  Holy  Name  of  Jesus  to  abstain 
from  strife  and  party  spirit.  I  have  heard  of 
your  disputes  and  of  your  use  of  the  names  of 
Apostles  and  even  of  Christ's  Holy  Name  as 
party  watchwords.  (13-16)  Can  Christ  be 
claimed  as  the  property  of  a  faction !  And 
are  you  putting  my  name  on  a  level  with  His 
Sacred  Name  ?  I  am  thankful  that  I  baptised 
so  very  few  of  you  that  none  can  say  I  bap- 
tised in  my  own  name.  (17)  Preaching  was 
my  work,  not  baptism — the  preaching  of  sal- 
vation through  the  Cross  of  Christ.' 

10.  By  the  name  of  our  Lord]  The  Apostle 
appeals  to  them  by  the  Holy  Name  of  Jesus, 
which  itself  should  remind  them  of  their  one- 
ness as  His  followers,  since  they  had  all  been 
baptised  into  it.     Speak  the  same  thing]  i.e. 


agree  in  calling  Christ  your  only  leader.  Per- 
fectly joined,  etc.]  lit.  '  adjusted  in  the  same 
mind  and  in  the  same  view.'  They  should 
be  reconciled,  and  try  to  be  of  the  same 
spirit. 

11.  Chloe]  We  know  nothing  of  her  but 
her  name.  '  Those  of  her  house  '  may  have 
been  sons  or  brothers  or  servants.  Conten- 
tions] The  '  divisions  '  of  v.  10  had  produced 
disputes  probably  at  the  meetings  for  worship. 

12.  This  I  say]  The  Corinthian  Christians 
were  divided  into  parties  (see  Intro.),  each 
professing  to  follow  the  teaching  and  example 
of  a  favourite  teacher.  These  parties  had  not 
yet  separated  into  opposing  sects,  but  their 
existence  deprived  the  Church  of  the  power  of 
united  action  arising  from  united  feeling. 

13.  Is  Christ  divided,  etc.]  see  paraphrase. 
St.  Paul  reminds  the  Corinthians  indirectly  but 
emphatically  of  the  crucifixion  of  Christ  for 
them  and  of  their  baptism  into  His  name. 
By  the  one  they  had  been  redeemed  from  sin  ; 
by  the  other  they  had  been  dedicated  to  Christ's 
service,  and  had  entered  into  communion  with 
Him.  How  then  could  they  put  others  side 
by  side  with  their  crucified  Lord  ? 

Baptized  in  (RV  '  into  ')  the  name  of  Paul] 
Their  baptism  did  not  dedicate  them  to  Paul's 
service.  14.  Crispus]  the  ruler  of  the  syna- 
gogue (Ac  18  s).     Gaius]  see  Ro  16  23, 

15.  Lest  any  should  say]  This  does  not 
mean  that  the  Apostle  refrained  from  baptising 
because  he  had  this  danger  in  view,  but  only 
that  because  of  the  fact  that  a  party  had  been 
formed  in  his  name,  it  was  well  that  he  had 
not  baptised,  and  so  laid  himself  open  to  mis- 
representation. 16.  Stephanas]  was  now  with 
St.  Paul  (1617).  He  had  been  the  first  Cor- 
inthian convert  (16 1^).  17.  Not  to  baptize] 
The  Apostle  reserved  himself  as  far  as  possible 
for  the  work  of  preaching,  and  left  baptism 
for  the  most  part  to  his  companions.  Not 
with  wisdom  of  words]  i.e.  paying  attention, 
not  to  the  manner  of  presenting  the  truth,  but 
to  the  substance  of  the  truth  itself. 

18-25.  The  gospel  of  the  crucified  Chi'ist  is 
no  foolishness  to  those  who  know  its  power. 
The  wisdom  of  the  world  has  been  shown  to  be 
mere  folly  by  the  wisdom  of  God  in  Christ. 
Men  in  their  wisdom  wandered  away  from 
God,  and  it  is  by  this  so-called  folly  of  preach- 
ing that  those  who  believe,  both  Jews  and 
Greeks,  have  been  saved. 

18.  Foolishness]  Christ's  self-sacrificing 
death  produces  no  response  in  some  hearts : 
cp.  2  Cor  2 15, 16  434.  Perish  .  .  are  saved]  RV 
'  are  perishing  .  .  are  being  saved.'  Salvation 
is  here  spoken  of  as  present  and  progressive. 
The  Apostle  is  thinking  of  the  work  of  Christ 
in  sanctifying  those  who  believe.  The  power  i 
of  God]  Because  the  lives  of  those  who  receive  | 
it  are  transformed  by  the  influence  of  Christ 


894 


1.  19 


1  CORINTHIANS 


2. 


dwelling  in  them  by  His  Spirit  and  moulding 
them  to  His  will. 

19,  20.  Paraphrase.  '  For  God  still  works 
in  the  same  way  as  when  overruling  the  course 
of  history  He  confounded  those  who  in  their 
boasted  wisdom  doubted  His  protection,  and 
sought  alliance  with  Egypt  against  Assyria. 
(20)  Has  He  not  confounded  the  wise,  both 
learned  Jew  and  keen-witted  Greek,  by  reveal- 
ing how  little  their  learning  and  eloquence 
have  done  to  save  men  from  sin  ? ' 

19.  It  is  written]  Quoted  from  the  LXX 
version  of  Isa29 1*.  21.  By  wisdom]  TheGreeks 
learned  nothing  of  His  character  from  nature 
or  speculation,  and  the  Jews  failed  to  recognise 
the  truth  taught  in  their  history  and  in  their 
law  (cp.  Ro  1 ,  2).  The  foolishness  of  preaching] 
St.  Paul,  of  course,  is  writing  sarcastically. 
Yes  !  you  call  it  folly ;  but  it  is  wiser  than 
all  your  wisdom  ! 

22-24.  Paraphrase.  '  And  this  is  true,  as 
the  facts  declare.  The  Jews  will  not  believe 
unless  a  miracle  is  wrought  before  their  eyes  ; 
the  Greeks  will  accept  no  truth  that  is  not 
commended  by  philosophical  speculation  ;  (23) 
but  the  subject  of  our  preaching  is  salvation 
through  the  crucified  Christ — who  has  by  His 
death  set  us  free  from  the  bondage  and  from 
the  power  of  sin — a  doctrine  which  moves  the 
Jews  to  anger  and  the  Greeks  to  mirth,  (24) 
but  which  is  true  wisdom  to  us,  because  we 
have  been  delivered  from  sin  and  brought  to 
God  by  the  transforming  power  of  Christ.' 

23,  A  stumblingblock]  The  idea  of  a  crucified 
Messiah  was  repugnant  to  the  Jews.  Foolish- 
ness] The  Greeks  made  a  jest  of  such  a  re- 
ligion. As  an  illustration  the  raillery  of 
Lucian  in  a  later  age  may  be  cited.  24.  Them 
which  are  called]  those  whom  the  message  has 
found  responsive.  Christ  the  power .  .  and  the 
wisdom  of  God]  He  is  the  power  of  God 
because  He  enables  the  sinner  to  overcome  his 
sin  ;  and  the  wisdom  of  God  because  He  re- 
veals the  mind  of  God  and  the  practicable  way 
of  salvation.  25.  The  foolishness  of  God] 
This  method  of  salvation  by  the  Cross  of 
Christ  in  point  of  fact  saved  men  from  their 
sins.  And  thus  the  so-called  foolishness  of 
God  was  proved  in  practice  to  be  wiser  than 
the  wise  methods  of  men. 

26-31.  Paraphrase.  'Look  at  the  state  of 
matters  in  your  own  Church.  There  are  few 
among  you  eminent  in  the  eyes  of  the  world. 
(27-29)  But  it  is  just  what  is  weak  and  lowly 
and  of  no  account  according  to  worldly  stand- 
ards that  God  has  chosen  to  shame  what  is 
strong  and  lofty  and  worldly-wise  ;  that  no  man 
may  boast  or  compare  his  work  with  God's.  (30) 
And  you  Corinthians  are  the  evidences  of  the 
work  of  God  in  Christ  who  has  saved  you  from 
your  sins  ;  (31)  and  so  the  word  of  prophecy 
has  been  fulfilled  that  if   any  one  wishes  to 


boast  let  him  boast  of  what  God  has  wrought 
for  him.' 

26.  Ye  see  your  calling]  RV  '  Behold  your 

calling.'  Calling]  Not  'worldly  station,'  but 
God's  invitation  given  through  Christ.  Not 
many  wise,  etc.]  The  Corinthian  Church  was 
composed  chiefly  of  people  who  from  the 
worldly  standpoint  were  of  little  account. 
There  were  probably  many  freedmen  and  slaves 
in  the  Church,  the  former  being  chiefly  engaged 
in  trade.  Prof.  Ramsay  says  that  the  names 
Fortunatus,  Achaicus  (16 1'''),  Gains  (P^Ro 
16  23),  Tertius  (Ro  1 6  22),  and  Quartus  (Ro  16  23), 
were  those  of  freedmen,  i.e.  former  slaves,  who 
had  been  set  free  or  redeemed.  '  Gains  was  prob- 
ably a  rich  freedman  to  whom  the  honourable 
duty  of  entertaining  the  guests  of  the  Church 
was  assigned.'     Noble]  i.e.  of  noble  birth. 

28.  Base]  i.e.  of  low  birth.  Things  which 
are  not]  i.e.  mere  nonentities  :  cp.  Mtll^,  26_ 

Hath  God  chosen]  Thrice  emphatically  re- 
peated, to  mark  the  fact  that  all  is  due  to  God. 

29.  That  no  flesh  should  glory]  because 
God's  call  is  not  given  on  account  of  any  earthly 
position  or  advantage. 

30.  Who  of  God  is  made  unto  us  vrisdom, 
and  righteousness,  etc.]  RM  '  Who  was  made 
unto  us  wisdom  from  God,  both  righteousness 
and  sanctification  and  redemption,'  etc.  There 
are  only  three  co-ordinate  terms  in  the  sen- 
tence. Righteousness,  sanctification  and  re- 
demption are  subordinate  to  wisdom  and 
descriptive  or  explanatory  of  it.  Christ  is  the 
true  wisdom  of  God,  the  expression  of  His 
desire  for  our  salvation  and  of  His  power  in 
accomplishing  it.  That  wisdom  is  shown  in 
Christ  as  He  first  forgives  our  sins  and  accepts 
us  as  righteous,  then  goes  on  to  make  us  pure 
and  holy  by  His  indwelling  influence,  and 
finally  promises  to  give  us  ultimate  victory 
over  sin  and  death,  and  to  raise  us  to  life 
eternal.  31.  He  that  glorieth]  There  was 
nothing  of  which  human  wisdom  could  boast. 
Philosophy  had  helped  a  few  intellectual  minds, 
but  had  never  touched  the  ordinary  man.  But 
the  Cross  made  its  appeal  to  the  lowly  as  well 
as  to  the  noble,  and  '  the  foolishness  of  God  ' 
transformed  human  lives,  delivering  them  from 
the  bondage  of  sin  and  making  them  '  new 
creatures '  in  Christ.  Therefore  let  them 
glory  in  God  alone. 

CHAPTER   2 

The  Nature  of  St.  Paul's  Preaching 
1-5.  Paraphrase.  '  When  I  visited  you  in 
Corinth  I  made  no  attempt  to  reconcile  my 
message  with  your  Greek  philosophy,  (2)  but 
kept  to  the  proclamation  of  the  facts  of  Christ's 
life  and  death  upon  the  Cross.  (3)  It  was 
with  much  anxiety  and  self-distrust  that  I 
preached  the  gospel  to  you  ;  (4)  and  the  suc- 
cess I  obtained  was    due   not  to  my  way  of 


895 


2.  1 


1  CORINTHIANS 


2.12 


commending  the  truth,  but  solely  to  the  spirit 
and  power  which  animated  me  ;  (5)  and  so 
God's  purpose  was  fulfilled,  that  your  faith 
should  be  based  not  upon  the  eloquence  of 
man,  but  upon  the  grace  of  God.' 

1.  When  I  came]  i.e.  on  his  first  visit  some 
five  years  before  (Ac  18  I'll).  Not  with  ex- 
cellency of  speech  or  of  wisdom]  St.  Paul  did 
not  try  to  win  the  Corinthians  to  the  gospel 
either  by  the  eloquence  of  his  speech  in  pre- 
senting it,  or  by  his  adroitness  in  showing 
its  connexion  with  some  of  the  philosophical 
ideas  which  were  popular  at  the  time.  Testi- 
mony] i.e.  which  God  sent  me  to  give  about 
Christ.  RV,  following  another  reading,  has 
'  mystery,'  i.e.  the  hidden  counsel  and  will  of 
God  revealed  in  Christ  :  cp.  E,ol625,26_ 

2.  Save  Jesus  Christ,  etc.]  The  Apostle  re- 
lied for  their  conversion  upon  his  witness  to 
the  great  facts  of  Christ's  life  and  death.  The 
Crucifixion  he  dwelt  upon  all  the  more  em- 
phatically that  he  knew  it  must  be  an  un- 
attractive doctrine  to  many.  3.  In  weakness] 
His  first  visit  was  paid  at  a  time  when  he 
was  either  sick  in  body  from  his  recurrent 
malady  (2  Cor  12'''),  or  sick  at  heart  from  his 
failure  at  Athens  (Ac  17^2^,  and  dreading  lest 
he  were  again  to  fail  among  these  argumenta- 
tive Greeks.  Fear  and  . .  much  trembling]  The 
Apostle  frequently  uses  this  expression  to 
indicate  an  overpowering  anxiety  for  the 
performance  of  duty,  culminating  in  a  supreme 
efPort :  cp.  2  Cor  7  is  Eph  6  ^  Phil  2 12. 

4.  The  success  of  the  Apostle's  preaching 
was  the  result  of  his  own  possession  of  the 
divine  Spirit,  and  the  power  that  resided  in 
his  message  to  arrest  and  convince  the  hearer. 

6-16.  Paraphrase.  '  There  is  indeed  a  wis- 
dom with  whieh  the  facts  of  the  gospel  are  in 
harmony  and  which  we  declare  to  those  who 
are  ripe  to  receive  it.  (7,  8)  It  is  not  the 
wisdom  of  this  world,  for  that  led  its  pos- 
sessors to  crucify  the  Lord  ;  but  the  wisdom 
which  God  has  long  kept  secret  (9)  as  the 
Scriptures  confirm.  (10)  This  secret  wisdom 
God  has  revealed  to  us  by  His  Spirit ;  (11)  for 
just  as  man's  spirit  alone  knows  his  secret 
thoughts,  so  only  the  Spirit  of  God  knows 
God's  deep  designs.  (12)  And  that  Spirit  of 
God  has  revealed  these  designs  to  us,  (13)  and 
we  preach  them  in  words  suited  to  convey 
their  spiritual  message.  (14)  Now  to  the  man 
who  has  not  been  enlightened  by  the  Spirit  of 
God  these  truths  make  no  appeal  ;  (15)  but 
he  whose  mind  has  been  thus  enlightened  is 
able  to  estimate  them  rightly,  and  he  himself 
in  his  turn  cannot  be  understood  by  the  un- 
spiritual.  (16)  For  no  one  can  know  the  mind 
of  the  Lord  so  as  to  instruct  Him  ;  but  we  are 
in  sympathy  with  the  mind  of  Christ,  and  so 
can  understand  these  spiritual  truths  which 
are  revealed  in  Him.' 


896 


6.  Wisdom]  Christianity  has  a  wisdom  of 
its  own.  While  it  is  centred  in  a  Person,  it 
is  capable  of  being  expressed  in  the  terms  of 
philosophy,  and  is  in  harmony  with  all  that  is 
best  in  human  reasoning  and  speculation. 

Perfect]  St.  Paul  divides  Christians  into 
two  classes,  the  beginners  and  the  advanced.  | 
The  former  must  be  taught  the  simple  truths 
of  the  gospel  and  grounded  in  its  facts  :  the 
latter  are  able  to  receive  teaching  regarding 
God's  plan  in  redemption  and  His  purpose  as 
it  is  revealed  in  Christ  and  illustrated  in  the 
history  of  the  world.  '  Perfect '  means  '  mature,' 
'  fuU-giown,'  and  is  applied  to  Christians  of 
ripe  experience  and  character.  It  is  often  used 
in  this  sense  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews : 
cp.  Eph  4 13  Col  12s  Heb2io  5  9.1*  99  10 1,  etc. 

The  princes  of  this  world]  '  The  men  of 
light  and  leading  '  (Dods).  They  showed  utter 
ignorance  of  God's  mind  :  cp.  v.  8. 

7.  In  a  mystery]  Mystery  means  something 
formerly  hidden  in  the  counsels  of  God,  but 
now  revealed.  The  '  mystery '  here  is  the 
reasoned  account  of  the  redemption  brought 
by  Christ.  Theology  is  necessary  if  we  are 
to  understand  our  religion.  Unto  our  glory] 
cp.  Mt2534.  8.  The  Lord  of  glory]  The  glory 
is  His  ;  and  He  came  to  bestow  it  upon  us,  to 
bring  us  to  the  perfection  of  our  nature.  9.  Eye 
hath  not  seen]  A  free  quotation,  perhaps  from 
memory,  of  Isa644;  with  the  addition  of 
'  neither  have  entered  into  the  heart  of  man,' 
in  order  to  emphasise  the  fact  that  man  has 
had  no  share  in  the  discovery.  The  things 
which  God  hath  prepared]  The  spiritual  bless- 
ings and  comforts  and  enlightenment  revealed 
in  Christ.  10.  Searcheth]  i.e.  explores,  fa- 
thoms :  Ps  1 39 1  Ro  8  27.  The  deep  things]  lit. 
'  the  depths  of  God ' :  i.e.  His  counsels.  11.  The 
spirit  of  man  .  .  the  Spirit  of  God]  The  two  ex- 
pressions are  exactly  parallel.  The  spirit  of 
man  is  man's  conscious  self  in  thought  :  and 
the  Spirit  of  God  is  His  conscious  Self  in 
thought. 

12,  13.  Render,  'Now  when  we  accepted 
the  salvation  of  the  gospel  our  minds  were 
enlightened  not  by  any  worldly  wisdom,  but 
by  the  wisdom  which  God's  Spirit  bestows 
upon  the  spiritually-minded  and  which  enables 
us  to  understand  and  appreciate  the  blessings 
given  us  through  Christ.  (13)  And  these 
blessings  we  explain  to  you  in  terms  sug- 
gested by  no  human  philosophy,  but  by  God's 
Spirit,  interpreting  spiritual  truths  in  spiritual 
language.' 

12.  The  spirit  of  the  world]  i.e.  the  wisdom 
falsely  so  called,  which  brought  men  no  bless- 
ing. The  spirit  which  is  of  God]  i.e.  true 
spiritual  insight,  which  God  gives  by  bestowing 
upon  us  a  portion  of  His  own  Spirit,  sending 
forth  into  our  minds  His  light  and  truth 
(Ps433).     The  things  that  are  freely  given] 


2.  13 


1  CORINTHIANS 


3.  15 


The    spiritual    blessings   brought    by    Christ, 
forgiveness,  sanctification,  redemption  (1^*^). 

13.  We  speak]  Our  language  no  less  than 
oui-  truths  are  the  result  of  the  spiritual  in- 
sight with  which  God  has  enlightened  our 
minds.  Comparing  spiritual  things  with  spirit- 
ual] The  phrase  should  be  translated  either, 
(1)  '  interpreting  spiritual  truths  in  spiritual 
language,'  or,  (2)  as  in  RM,  '  interpreting 
spiritual  things  to  spiritual  men.'  The  former 
connects  it  with  the  context  of  this  v.,  the 
latter  with  v.  14.  With  the  former  also 
cp.  V.  4. 

14.  The  natural  man]  i.e.  man  as  he  is  by 
nature  before  he  has  come  under  the  influence 
of  God's  grace.  He  may  have  all  the  intel- 
lectual qualities  necessary  to  comprehend  the 
wisdom  of  man,  but  he  cannot  understand 
the  wisdom  of  God  without  the  spiritual 
qualities  which  come  only  from  acceptance  of 
the  gospel,  e.g.  humility,  purity  of  heart,  and 
submission  to  the  influence  of  Christ.  15.  Is 
judged  of  no  man]  The  unregenerate  man 
cannot  estimate  the  spiritual  man's  experiences 
and  aspirations  :  he  is  only  bewildered  when 
he  hears  these  things  mentioned.  16.  Who 
hath  known]  adapted  from  Isa40i3.  No  man 
untouched  by  God's  Spirit  can  know  anything 
of  His  mind.  His  truth  is  only  revealed  to 
those  in  sympathy  with  the  spirit  and  character 
of  Christ. 

CHAPTER   3 
The  Fault  of  Party  Spirit 

The  immaturity  of  the  Corinthian  converts 
and  their  unfitness  for  anything  but  element- 
ary instruction  in  the  faith  is  proved  by  their 
mutual  jealousies  and  their  disagreements 
about  their  teachers. 

1-9.  Paraphrase.  '  Ye  yourselves,  brethren, 
are  an  illustration  of  what  I  say.  (2)  I  have 
treated  you  as  beginners  and  given  you  ele- 
mentary Christian  teaching,  for  hitherto  you 
have  been  unfit  for  any  other.  (3,  4)  You 
are  still  but  immature  Christians,  as  the  strife 
and  division  about  your  teachers  show.  (5-7) 
We  apostles  are  but  insttuments  in  the  hands 
of  God  to  secure  your  salvation  ;  we  are 
powerless  of  ourselves.  (8,  9)  Both  of  us 
are  alike  in  this  respect,  and  all  we  are  con- 
cerned with  is  the  faithfulness  of  our  work. 
For  we  co-operate  to  carry  out  God's  purpose 
in  tilling  the  field  of  your  spiritual  life,  or,  as 
we  may  put  it,  in  contributing  to  the  building 
of  your  Christian  character.' 

I.  Not .  .  as  unto  spiritual]  The  hidden 
wisdom  of  which  the  Apostle  has  been  writing 
is  not  for  them.  Carnal]  The  Gk.  means 
'  fleshy,'  and  points  to  the  fact  that  they  were 
mere  infants,  so  to  speak.  It  is  interpreted 
by  the  words  which  follow.  2.  Milk]  the 
rudiments   of    the   gospel ;    the   alphabet   of 


57 


897 


Christianity.     We  find  samples  of  it  in  Paul's 
preaching  (Acl3i'i-43  17  2. 3  1 8  22-31  192-4). 

Meat]  more  advanced  teaching  regarding 
the  pm-pose  of  Christ's  coming  and  the  faith 
and  hope  of  Christians,  such  as  is  presented 
in  the  Epistles  to  the  Romans,  Colossians,  and 
Ephesians.  3.  Carnal]  The  Gk.  here  is  dif- 
ferent from  that  in  v.  1,  and  means  'fleshly,' 
i.e.  walking  in  the  lusts  of  the  flesh. 

4.  Carnal]  The  Gk.  is  again  different  from 
vv.  1  and  3.  and  means,  as  RV,   '  men.' 

5.  Ministers]  i.e.  servants  who  ministered 
to  your  needs.  Even  as  the  Lord  gave]  i.e. 
according  to  the  ability  given  by  God.  6.  I 
have  planted]  St.  Paul  founded  the  Church 
at  Corinth  (AclSi-i^).  ApoUos  watered]  Ac 
1827.  8.  One]  lit.  'one  thing,'  i.e.  having 
a  common  aim.  9.  Labourers  together  with 
God]  RV  '  God's  fellow-workers.'  Perhaps, 
better,  '  fellow- workers  for  God,'  the  em- 
phasis all  through  being  on  God's  power  and 
work.  The  Apostles  were  fellow-workers  with 
one  another,  but  not  fellow-workers  with  God 
in  quite  the  same  sense.  Husbandry]  i.e. 
tilled  field.  Building]  The  Apostle  in  the 
next  few  vv.  develops  the  illustration  taken 
from  building,  with  which  as  a  frequenter  of 
cities  he  was  more  familiar.  I' or  this  meta- 
phor cp.  Eph  2  20-22  Col  2  7. 

10-15.  Paraphrase.  '  Let  me  remind  you 
that  by  the  favour  of  God  I  was  the  founder 
of  your  Church.  Those  who  followed  me  took 
up  my  work.  (11)  The  foundation  I  laid  was 
faith  in  Jesus  Christ.  (12)  No  one  can  lay 
any  other  ;  but  every  builder  is  responsible 
for  what  he  builds  upon  it.  (13)  The  tests 
applied  to  the  spiritual  life  and  character  of 
the  Church  will  prove  his  faithfulness  or  his 
un worthiness  in  the  day  when  the  Lord  returns 
in  judgment.  (14,  15)  If  the  spiritual  life  of 
his  converts  be  healthy  and  their  growth  in 
goodness  evident,  he  will  be  rewarded  ;  but  if 
not,  he  will  lose  his  reward  and  barely  secure 
his  own  salvation.' 

10.  Another  buildeth]  Apollos  and  others 
carried  on  the  work  begun  by  St.  Paul.  How 
he  buildeth]  The  Apostle  indicates  the  great 
responsibilities  of  Christian  ministers  and 
teachers.  11,  12.  Other  foundation]  Faith  in 
Christ  as  Saviour  and  willing  submission  to 
His  influence  are  the  foundation  on  which 
Christian  character  must  be  built.  If  these  are 
set  aside,  the  character  is  not  based  on  Christ, 
and  all  teaching  which  does  not  begin  from 
the  statement  of  these  principles  and  retain 
them  as  its  basis  is  not  in  any  true  sense 
Christian. 

13.  The  day]  i.e.  the  day  of  judgment  or 
the  day  of  the  Lord.  The  imagery  of  fire 
testing  the  building  is  both  natural  and 
suggested  by  the  OT.  accounts  of  the  mani- 
festations of  Jehovah.     15.  Saved]   because 


3.  16 


1  CORINTHIANS 


4.7 


of  his  own  Christian  life.  Yet  so  as  by  fire] 
As  the  builder  may  escape  with  his  life  while 
the  flames  destroy  the  building  on  which  he  is 
engaged,  so  the  Christian  teacher  may  be  saved 
himself,  though  his  teaching  be  proved  worth- 
less for  edification.  '  Sincerity  does  not  verify 
doctrine,  but  it  saves  the  man '  (F.  W.  Kobei-t- 
son). 

1 6,  17.  Woe  to  the  teacher  who  by  per- 
nicious teaching  or  example  injiu-es  or  destroys 
the  spiritual  life  of  members  of  the  Church  of 
Christ :  God  shall  do  even  so  to  him.  If  any 
man  defile]  A  worse  case  than  v.  15.  There 
the  merely  unprofitable  teacher  himself  escapes  ; 
here  the  positively  hurtful  is  punished.  Holy] 
i.e.  sacred,  not  to  be  injured  with  impunity. 

Which  temj)le  ye  are]  RV  '  and  such  are  ye,' 
i.e.  holy. 

18-23.  Paraphrase.  '  Do  not  deceive  your- 
selves ;  but  if  there  be  any  of  you  priding 
himself  on  his  worldly  wisdom  let  him  quickly 
unlearn  it,  that  he  may  learn  the  true  wisdom. 
(19,  20)  For  as  Holy  Scripture  teaches,  worldly 
wisdom  is  but  folly  in  God's  sight.  (21-23) 
Do  not,  therefore,  use  the  names  of  your 
teachers  as  party  watchwords,  boasting  about 
your  devotion  to  this  or  that  one.  Learn 
what  is  good  from  them  all,  for  they  all  alike 
belong  to  you.  And  not  only  do  they  belong 
to  you,  but  all  things  belong  to  you  ;  and  you 
belong  to  Christ  ;  and  Christ  Himself  belongs 
to  God.' 

19.  The  wisdom  of  this  world]  The  conceit 
and  vanity  of  men  are  folly  with  God.  The 
results  of  this  folly  in  Christian  teachers 
are  indicated  in  vv.  15,  17.  It  is  written] 
Job  5 13. 

20.  And  again]  Ps94ii.  21.  Glory  in  men] 
boast  of  their  preference  for  this  or  that 
teacher,   as  they  had  been  doing  (l^^). 

21.  All  things  are  yours]  To  him  who  is 
united  to  Christ  all  things  belong,  contributing 
to  the  growth  of  his  Christian  character  and 
the  increasing  perfection  of  his  spiritual  life. 
He  learns  from  all  teachers  ;  the  world  pro- 
vides him  with  the  means  of  growth  in  grace, 
for  all  his  experiences  in  its  possessions  and 
work  influence  his  spiritual  life  ;  life  is  full  of 
divine  meaning  and  purpose  ;  death  is  revealed 
to  him  as  the  gate  of  life  ;  he  is  delivered 
from  any  danger  to  his  spirit  arising  from  the 
perplexities  of  the  present  or  the  problems 
of  the  future  (things  to  come).  23.  Ye  are 
Christ's]  i.e.  you  belong  to  Christ,  not  to  Paul 
or  ApoUos  or  Cephas.     And  Christ  in  God's] 

Ni.e.  God  is  over  all  ;  even  Christ  belongs  to 
Him.  And  as  we  are  Christ's,  we  belong  to 
Gr^od.  Theodoret  remarks,  '  Christ  belongs  to 
Gotd,  not  as  God's  creature,  but  as  God's 
Son^  Perhaps  the  Apostle  simply  desires  to 
assert  that  God  is  supreme  over  all :  cp.  Ib'^'^ 
Jn434.\ 


CHAPTER  4 

Christian  Teachers  only  the  Instru- 
ments OF  God 

The  folly  and  sin  of  quarrelling  about 
different  teachers  who  are  but  servants  of 
Christ  and  responsible  to  Him. 

1-5.  Paraphrase.  '  You  have  been  engaged 
in  strife  about  the  merits  and  position  of  your 
teachers.  Consider  for  a  moment  what  they 
are.  They  have  no  authority  of  their  own  ; 
they  only  bear  Christ's  messages.  (2-4)  Ser- 
vants are  responsible  to  their  master  ;  and  so 
I  am  responsible  not  to  you  or  to  any  man, 
but  to  Christ.  (5)  Have  patience  until  Christ 
comes,  when  every  man  will  be  rewarded  as 
he  has  deserved.' 

I.  Ministers]  rather,  subordinates. 
Stewards]  dispensing  the  truths  entrusted 
to  them,  not  giving  of  their  own.  Mysteries 
of  God]  the  spiritual  truths  revealed  by  Christ, 
and  by  His  Spirit  in  Christian  experience  (Jn 
1612,13).  2.  Required  in  stewards]  cp.  Mt 
24  45-51  Lk  1 6 1'  2.  4.  I  know  nothing  by  myself] 
RV  '  against  myself.'  The  idea  is  the  same 
as  in  Ac24i''.  5.  Before  the  time]  i.e.  of 
Christ's  return.  St.  Paul  evidently  expected 
the  advent  of  Christ  within  the  lifetime  of 
himself  and  his  converts,  though  the  exact 
time  was  uncertain  :  cp.  15^1. 

The  hidden  things  of  darkness]  the  things 
that  are  at  present  unknown.  There  is  no 
suggestion  of  evil  in  the  phrase.  Along  with 
the  counsels  of  the  hearts  it  denotes  all  the 
materials  for  forming  a  just  judgment. 

6-13.  Paraphrase.  '  In  speaking  of  the  folly 
of  these  divisions  I  have  used  only  the  names 
of  Apollos  and  myself  ;  but  the  same  princi- 
ples apply  to  your  attitude  to  all  your  teachers. 
(7)  Why  do  some  of  you  pride  yourselves  on 
being  better  than  others  ?  None  of  you  has 
anything  that  he  did  not  receive.  (8)  You 
boast  as  if  you  had  all  possible  wisdom. 
Would  that  it  were  so,  that  we  might  share  it. 
(9)  It  looks  as  if  we  who  are  Apostles  were  the 
least  worthy  of  all  God's  servants,  a  spectacle 
for  men  and  angels.  (10)  You  are  wise  and 
honourable  ;  we  are  foolish  and  contemptible. 
(11-13)  We  suffer  and  toil,  returning  blessing 
for  cursing  ;  and  are  looked  upon  as  outcasts 
to  this  day.' 

6.  Not  to  think  of  men  above  that  which  is 
written]  RV  '  not  to  go  beyond  the  things 
which  are  written.'  The  expression  is  am- 
biguous to  us  :  it  may  refer  either  to  what  St. 
Paul  has  already  written  or  to  the  general 
teaching  of  the  OT.  Perhaps  it  was  a  familiar 
quotation,  '  Do  nothing  beyond  the  injunctions 
of  Holy  Writ.'  Be  puffed  up  for  one  against 
another]  lit.  '  Be  puffed  up  the  one  in  favour 
of  one  (say,  Paul)  against  the  other  (say, 
Apollos).'      7.  Who  maketh  thee   to   differ] 


898 


4.8 


1  COKINTHIANS 


5.  1 


better,   '  who  make th  thee  (who  art  puffed  up)     which  we  have  in  2  Cor  10-1 3.      See   Intro. 


superior  ? '  That  thou  didst  not  receive]  i.e. 
from  us  (whom  ye  now  despise),  as  is  shown 
by  V.  8.  8.  Now  ye  are  full]  The  Apostle 
now  returns  to  the  use  of  sarcasm,  the  weapon 
he  has  already  wielded  with  effect.  The 
several  sentences  are  either  interrogative  or 
exclamatory,  and  should  have  marks  of  inter- 
rogation or  exclamation.  He  expresses  with 
bitter  irony  their  own  estimate  of  themselves 
as  having  reached  perfection,  '  come  into  their 
kingdom,'  so  to  speak,  and  needing  to  learn 
nothing  more.  Would  to  God  you  did  reign] 
How  little  they  knew  their  true  spiritual  posi- 
tion :  cp.  Rev  3 1".  g.  The  Corinthians'  fancied 
position  is  contrasted  with  the  Apostle's  actual 
position.  Last,  as  it  were  appointed  to  death] 
RV  '  last  of  all,  as  men  doomed  to  death.'  He 
likens  the  Apostles  to  criminals  condemned  to 
fight  to  the  death  in  the  arena.  For  the  meta- 
phor cp.  15^^.  A  few  years  later  Christians 
were  often  so  put  to  death.  Spectacle]  Gk. 
'theatre.'  lo.  The  sarcasm  is  continued.  We 
are  fools]  in  preaching  the  foolishness  of  the 
Cross.     Ye  are  wise]  i.e.  shrewd,  clever. 

12.  Working  with  our  ovm  hands]  St. 
Paul's  constant  practice  :  cp.  AclS^  20^"*  1  Cor 
915  iTh29  2Th38. 

14-21.  Paraphrase.  'I write  not  to  shame 
you,  but  to  admonish  you  ;  and  I  have  the 
right  to  do  so,  for  I  am  your  spiritual  father. 
(16,  17)  Follow  my  example,  therefore  ;  and 
attend  to  the  instructions  of  Timothy  whom  I 
sent  to  remind  you  of  my  teaching  and  prac- 
tice. (18)  Some  of  you  have  been  pluming 
yourselves  on  your  attainments,  and  posing  as 
authorities,  as  if  I  were  never  to  return  to  you. 
(19,  20)  Do  not  deceive  yourselves.  I  shall 
soon  be  with  you  to  test  not  the  words  of 
these  authorities,  but  their  power  :  for  the 
kingdom  of  God  is  advanced  not  by  empty 
words,  but  by  spiritual  power.  (21)  The  spirit 
in  which  I  shall  come  depends  upon  your- 
selves. If  you  continue  in  your  evil  courses  I 
shall  act  with  severity  :  if  you  repent  I  shall 
be  gentle  and  encouraging.' 

15.  Instructors]  RV  'tutors'  :  those  who 
succeeded  St.  Paul  at  Corinth.  Begotten  you 
through  the  gospel]  St.  Paul  had  been  the 
means  of  their  conversion.  He  had  given 
them  the  new  life. 

17.  Timothy.  See  Intro.  My  ways  which 
be  in  Christ]  i.e.  my  manner  and  conduct  as  a 
teacher  in  Christ's  service.  In  every  church] 
He  constantly  appeals  to  the  practice  of  other 
Churches  as  a  check  to  the  spirit  of  individual- 
ism and  separation  so  prevalent  at  Corinth  : 
cp.  717  lliti  1433,36.  18.  Puffed  up]  Some  of 
the  Corinthian  converts  conceived  themselves 
so  '  wise '  as  to  be  able  to  despise  St.  Paul's 
authority.  Their  opposition  developed  later 
on,  and  drew  from  St.  Paul  the  '  severe  '  letter 


899 


2  Cor.  As  though  I  would  not  come]  R V  '  as 
though  I  were  not  coming.'  They  seem  to 
have  thought  that  as  he  had  remained  so  long 
in  Ephesus  he  would  not  return  to  Corinth. 

19.  Shortly]  cp  16^.  For  his  plans  and 
their  ultimate  fulfilment  see  Intro.  2  Cor. 

20.  Not  in  word,  but  in  power]  The  exten- 
sion of  God's  kingdom  is  promoted  not  by  elo- 
quence of  speech  but  by  spiritual  influence 
proceeding  from  Christ's  followers,  and  becom- 
ing a  power  in  men's  lives  :  cp.  Rol4i''. 

CHAPTER   5 

(b)  5 1-13.  The  Case  of  Immorality 
The  Apostle  had  written  (4  21)  of  coming  to 
exercise  authority.  Here  was  a  case  in  which 
it  was  needed.  A  man  had  created  a  scandal 
by  marrying  his  stepmother,  and  the  Corinth- 
ians had  done  nothing.  They  had  allowed 
him  to  retain  his  membership  in  the  Church. 
St.  Paul  instructs  them  to  excommunicate  the 
offender,  and  keep  the  Church  pure. 

1-8.  Paraphrase.  '  A  rumour  has  reached  me 
that  unchastity  exists  among  you,  and  that  one 
of  your  number  has  taken  his  stepmother  as 
his  wife,  an  act  which  the  very  heathen  abhor. 

(2)  How  can  you  maintain  your  attitude  of 
self-satisfaction  in  presence  of  this  scandal  ? 
Why  do  you  not  rather  humiliate  yourselves 
and  remove  the  sinner  from  your  fellowship  ? 

(3)  For  I  who  am  at  a  distance  feel  the  dis- 
grace as  though  I  were  among  you,  and  have 
already  decided  what  must  be  done,  as  if  I 
were  in  your  assembly.  (4,  5)  When  you  are 
gathered  together,  I  being  present  with  you  in 
spirit,  proceed  to  pass  sentence  of  excommuni- 
cation on  this  man,  delivering  him  solemnly  to 
Satan  in  the  name  of  Jesus  our  Lord,  that 
his  soul  may  be  saved  even  if  his  body  perish. 

(6)  How  senseless  is  your  self-conceit  in  pre- 
sence of  this  impurity.  Do  ye  not  realise  that 
you  are  all  in  danger  of  being  degraded  by  it  ? 

(7)  Put  away  this  leaven  of  unholiness,  then, 
and  remain  free  from  it.  Remember  how  at 
the  Passover  all  leaven  was  put  away  ;  and 
now  that  our  Paschal  Lamb  Christ  Jesus  has 
been  sacrificed,  and  our  feast  of  unleavened 
bread  begun,  (8)  let  us  celebrate  our  Passover 
by  putting  away  the  leaven  of  vice  and  sin  and 
using  only  the  unleavened  bread  of  purity  and 
truth.' 

I.  It  is  reported  commonly]  RV  '  It  is  actu- 
ally reported.'  His  father's  vsrife]  The  father 
may  have  been  dead  or  separated  from  his 
wife  :  the  stepson  had  then  married  her.  The 
Corinthian  Church  was  evidently  unconscious 
that  there  was  anything  sinful  in  such  a  union. 
Had  the  man  and  woman  been  living  in  sin 
without  marriage  the  Church  could  scarcely 
have  made  even  a  show  of  defending  their 
conduct.     The  persons  referred  to  in  2  Cor  7 12 


5.2 


1  CORINTHIANS 


6.  2 


have  no  connexion  with  this  incident :  see 
notes  there.  2.  Puffed  up]  This  is  probably 
to  be  taken  generally  as  referring  to  their 
boastfulness  about  their  spiritual  privileges 
and  attainments:  cp.  •Jt'^-i^.  The  Apostle  ex- 
presses surprise  that  the  scandal  among  them 
did  not  humble  their  pride.  3.  Have  judged 
already]  taking  their  concurrence  for  granted  ; 
or  giving  them  a  suggestion  trusting  that  they 
would  follow  it  at  once.  He  here  asserts  his 
authority  to  guide  them  in  matters  of  dis- 
cipline ;  and  it  was  over  this  question  of 
authority,  and  not  over  that  of  the  offender's 
conduct,  that  the  dispute  between  St.  Paul  and 
the  Church  arose.  4.  In  the  name  of  our  Lord 
Jesus]  Placed  emphatically  at  the  beginning, 
to  indicate  the  Church's  final  authority  for 
taking  this  step  to  enforce  discipline  :  cp.Mt 
1818,20^  When  ye  are  gathered  together,  etc.] 
St.  Paul  did  not  take  discipline  out  of  the 
hands  of  the  Church.  He  stepped  in  when 
the  Church  had  failed  in  duty,  pointing  out  the 
duty  and  leaving  the  Church  to  perform  it. 

My  spirit]  They  were  to  think  of  him  as 
present  in  spirit,  and  to  let  his  influence  mould 
their  deliberations.  5.  To  deliver  .  .  unto  Satan] 
The  offender  was  to  be  solemnly  excom- 
municated and  handed  over  to  Satan,  who 
had  power  to  cause  disease,  in  the  belief 
that  sufferings  of  body  would  assail  him  and 
work  repentance  and  salvation  in  him,  even  if 
they  ended  in  bodily  death  :  cp.LklS^^  2  Cor 
12".  6.  Your  glorying]  see  on  v.  2.  A  little 
leaven]  Leaven  is  here  used  of  corrupting 
influences  as  elsewhere  in  the  NT.,  except  in 
our  Lord's  parable  of  the  leaven  :  cp.  Mt  1 6  '^'  i- 
Mk  8 15  Lk  1 2 1  Gal  5  9.  A  low  ideal  of  conduct 
even  in  one  case  has  far-reaching  effects  upon 
the  whole  community.  7.  The  old  leaven]  Not 
(or,  at  any  rate,  not  only)  the  unchaste  sinner, 
but  the  spirit  in  the  Church  which  is  indiffer- 
ent to  the  sin.  Christ  our  Passover]  The 
mention  of  leaven,  which  was  associated  with 
the  Passover,  causes  the  Apostle  to  think  of 
that  institution  ;  and  leads  him  to  speak  of 
Christ  in  allegorical  fashion  as  the  Christian 
Church's  Passover.  As  Christ  has  been  sacri- 
ficed the  days  of  the  spiritual  feast  of  unleavened 
bread  have  begun ;  and  consequently  every 
vestige  of  impurity  and  malice  and  sin  must  be 
rigorously  excluded. 

9-13.  Paraphrase.  '  This  is  just  what  I  wrote 
to  you  in  my  former  letter — that  you  were  to 
have  no  connexion  with  men  of  impure  life. 
(10)  I  did  not  mean  that  you  were  to  have 
nothing  to  do  with  the  heathen,  who  are  greedy 
and  covetous  and  idolaters,  in  matters  of  busi- 
ness and  such  like,  for  that  is  impossible.  (11) 
But  I  meant  that  if  any  professing  Christian 
were  guilty  of  such  wickedness  as  impurity  or 
drunkenness  or  evil  speaking  or  greed,  you 
were  to  have  no  fellowship  with  him.    (12, 13) 


I  have  nothing  to  do,  so  far  as  judgment  is 
concerned,  with  the  world  at  large.  We  have 
to  judge  those  in  the  Church  ;  whereas  the 
judgment  of  the  world  we  leave  to  Grod. 
Therefore,  excommunicate  that  wicked  man.' 

9.  In  an  epistle]  This  clearly  refers  to  a 
previous  letter  no  longer  extant  and  prior  to 
any  of  our  Epistles  to  the  Corinthians.  See 
Intro.  II.  But  now  I  have  written]  RM  'As 
it  is,  I  wrote.'  The  meaning  is, '  What  I  wrote 
was,'  etc.  The  Corinthians  probably  asked  St. 
Paul  in  their  letter  in  reply  to  his  first  one, 
what  they  were  to  do  when  they  met  non- 
Christians  in  business  and  society.  Not  to  eat] 
They  might  be  compelled  to  meet  with  such 
men  and  to  have  some  business  or  social  rela- 
tions with  them,  but  they  were  not  to  have  any 
association  with  them  but  what  was  absolutely 
unavoidable.  12.  Them. .  that  are  without]  i.e. 
the  heathen  generally  ;  all  outside  the  Church. 

Do  not  ye]  They  exercised  discipline  in  some 
cases  though  they  had  not  recognised  its  neces- 
sity in  this  one. 

CHAPTER   6 
(c)  61-11.  Christians  and  Litigation 

St.  Paul  reproves  the  Corinthians  for  re- 
ferring their  disputes  about  ordinary  affairs 
to  heathen  judges.  The  subject  was  suggested 
by  rumours  he  had  heard  ;  and  the  mention 
of  'judgment'  in  v.  13  of  the  previous  c. 
prompted  its  treatment  at  this  stage. 

1-6.  Paraphrase.  '  How  is  it  that  when 
you  quarrel  with  one  another  you  go  before 
heathen  judges  and  do  not  let  some  of  the 
brethren  decide  your  matter?  (2)  You  spoke 
of  the  saints  judging  the  world,  why  not  allow 
them  to  settle  these  trifles  ?  (3)  You  spoke 
of  Christians  as  looking  to  sit  in  judgment 
on  angels  ;  why  not  then  let  them  deal  with 
the  ordinary  affairs  of  life  ?  (4)  And  if  you 
must  have  these  things  settled  formally,  make 
umpires  of  unimportant  Church  members 
rather  than  heathen.  (5)  I  write  thus  to 
make  you  ashamed.  Is  there  really  no  wise 
man  among  you  who  can  be  trusted  to  judge 
between  his  brethren,  (6)  and  to  prevent  this 
unseemly  practice  of  calling  in  unbelievers  to 
settle  your  disputes  ? ' 

1.  Dare  any  of  you]  Such  action  was  an- 
tagonistic to  the  Christian  spirit.  The  unjust] 
RV  '  the  unrighteous,'  i.e.  the  heathen.  The 
name  is  used  in  irony  for  '  unbelievers  '  (v.  6). 
'  Do  you  call  the  heathen  unjust,  and  yet  dare 
to  go  to  them  alone  for  justice  ?'  Saints]  i.e. 
Christians. 

2.  That  the  saints  shall  judge  the  world] 
This  V.  and  the  two  following  vv.  are  written 
sarcastically.  They  appeal  to  the  '  knowledge ' 
of  the  Corinthians,  and  it  is  probable  that  they 
were  suggested  by  expressions  in  the  letter 
sent  by  the   Corinthians  to  St.  Paul.     They 


800 


6.6 


1  CORINTHIANS 


6.  13 


were  puffed  up  with  spiritual  pride  (5  2),  and 
in  their  conceit  and  vanity  had  spoken  of  their 
hope  to  judge  both  men  (S^^  6  2)  and  angels 
(6  3).  If  this  be  their  expectation,  says  the 
Apostle,  sm-ely  they  are  capable,  even  the 
meanest  of  them,  of  judging  in  matters  of 
daily  life.  To  take  these  expressions,  about 
the  saints  judging  the  world  and  angels,  seri- 
ously, is  to  miss  the  point  of  the  Apostle's 
argument.  Besides,  he  has  already  said  that 
the  Christians  (both  he  and  they)  had  nothing 
to  do  with  judging  the  world,  which  was  God's 
part  (5 12' 12).  (See  Ramsay,  'Hist.  Com.  on 
Corinthians,'  in  '  Expositor,'  YI.  4,  p.  278.) 

6.  Before  the  unbelievers]  The  Corinthian 
converts  referred  their  disputes  about  matters 
of  daily  life,  such  as  '  prices  and  ownership ' 
(Ramsay),  to  heathen  judges  or  arbitrators. 
St.  Paul  urges  them,  if  quarrel  they  must,  to 
choose  arbitrators  from  among  the  bretliren. 

7-1 1.  Paraphrase.  '  But  the  fault  lies  deeper 
than  this,  for  you  should  have  no  such  disputes 
at  all.  Far  better  be  wronged  and  defrauded 
(8)  than  wrong  and  defraud  your  brethren. 
(9,  10)  After  all,  in  the  end  the  unrighteous 
shall  not  inherit  the  kingdom  of  God.  And 
who  are  the  unrighteous  but  the  unchaste,  the 
greedy,  the  drunken,  and  the  extortionate,  none 
of  whom  have  any  part  in  that  kingdom  ? 
(11)  Such  indeed  were  some  of  you  Corinth- 
ians ;  but  since  your  baptism  you  have  pro- 
fessed that  you  are  seeking  to  become  pure 
and  holy  through  the  influence  of  Christ  and 
the  working  of  the  Holy  Spirit.' 

7.  There  is  utterly  a  fault]  RV  'Already 
it  is  altogether  a  defect  in  you.'  St.  Paul  here 
ceases  to  employ  raillery,  the  weapon  he  has 
used  so  effectively  in  the  previous  vv.,  and 
remonstrates  with  them  in  the  most  serious 
fashion.  The  real  fault  was  not  in  going  to 
heathen  judges  to  get  their  disputes  arranged, 
but  in  having  occasion  to  call  in  any  one  at  all. 

9.  Shall  not  inherit  the  kingdom]  i.e.  have 
no  share  in  its  present  'privileges  and  future 
blessings.  The  kingdom  of  God  is  a  spiritual 
kingdom  (Jn  18^6)  ;  its  blessings  and  privileges 
are  spiritual ;  how  then  could  such  unspiritual 
men  as  those  enumerated,  whose  conduct 
tended  to  harden  the  heart  and  dull  the  spirit- 
ual insight,  have  any  part  in  it  ?  cp.  Ac  8^1. 

II.  Ye  are  washed]  RM  'ye  washed 
yourselves,'  i.e.  submitted  to  baptism  as  the 
sign  of  the  washing  away  of  your   sin. 

Sanctified]  set  apart,  dedicated  to  God's 
service.     Justified]  accepted  as   righteous. 

In  the  name  of  the  Lord]  i.e.  through 
spiritual  union  with  Him  and  continual  sub- 
mission to  His  influence. 

(d)  612-20.  The  Obligation  of  Purity 

The  Corinthians  seemed  to  have  claimed 
that   they   were    free    to    satisfy    all    bodily 


901 


desires  now  that  the  gospel  had  set  them 
free  from  the  association  of  eating  with 
idolatry. 

St.  Paul  points  out,  first,  that  there  are 
qualifications  of  this  freedom  even  in  things 
that  are  morally  indifferent,  and  then  that 
fornication  is  not  one  of  these  things.  The 
subject  arises  naturally  out  of  what  he  has 
said  in  vv.  9,  10. 

12-20.  Paraphrase.  '  It  is  true  as  you  sug- 
gest that  "all  things  are  lawful"  ;  but  this  is 
not  an  absolute  but  a  relative  principle.  You 
must  not  argue  that  the  existence  of  appetites 
proves  the  lawfulness  of  their  gratification  : 
you  must  take  care  that  what  is  lawful  is  also 
wise,  and  that  appetite  does  not  make  you  its 
slave.  (13,  14)  Both  food  and  the  organ  which 
digests  it  are  perishable.  But  the  body  has 
an  eternal  element,  and  unchastity  harms  that 
eternal  element,  designed  as  it  is  for  the  service 
of  Christ  and  participation  in  the  Resurrection. 
(15-17)  You  know  that  your  bodies  partake 
in  the  mystic  union  that  exists  between  Christ 
and  His  people.  How  shameful  is  it,  therefore, 
to  violate  this  union  by  acts  of  immorality. 
Such  acts  cause  a  carnal  union  between  those 
who  participate  in  them,  just  as  Scripture 
speaks  of  husband  and  wife  being  ''one  flesh"  : 
whereas  the  Christian  is  united  to  Christ  in  a 
spiritual  union.  And  the  immoral  union  is 
destructive  of  the  spiritual  union.  (18,  19) 
Therefore  keep  yourselves  unspotted  by  this 
sin  ;  for  there  is  none  that  defiles  the  body 
like  this  and  makes  it  unfit  for  the  dwelling- 
place  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  (20)  Remember 
that  you  are  not  your  own  possession  ;  you 
have  been  purchased  by  Christ  who  has  given 
His  life  for  you  ;  therefore,  see  that  you 
honour  Him  by  consecrating  your  very  bodies 
to  His  service.' 

12.  All  things  are  lawful]  cp.  10  23.  St.  Paul 
seems  to  have  stated  this  as  a  principle  in 
regard  to  the  use  of  certain  kinds  of  food  (e.g. 
meats  offered  to  idols,  1025.27)^  and  the  Cor- 
inthians had  applied  it  generally  to  sensual 
indulgences.  The  Apostles,  therefore,  while 
still  asserting  the  principle,  points  out  two 
qualifications  of  it  ;  (a)  that  what  is  lawful 
should  also  be  beneficial,  and  (b)  that  no  one 
should  become  a  slave  even  to  a  lawful  habit. 
We  shall  best  understand  the  principle  and  its 
application  if  we  think  of  it  in  relation  to 
some  such  modern  practice  as,  e.g.,  the  use  of 
strong  drink.  13.  Meats]  An  instance  of 
things  indifferent  :  cp.  chs.  8-10,  where  this 
matter  is  treated  at  length.  St.  Paul  gi-ants 
liberty  in  respect  of  meats  ;  but  the  liberty 
does  not  excuse  violating  another  man's  con- 
science or  becoming  a  slave  to  gluttony.  Now 
the  body  is  not,  etc.]  The  Corinthians  regarded 
the  use  of  food  and  fornication  as  exactly  on 
the  same  level,  as  both  satisfying  appetites  : 


6.  14 


1  CORINTHIANS 


7.12 


they  held  that  the  existence  of  bodily  appetites 
justified  their  gratification.  St.  Paul,  on  the 
contrary,  draws  a  sharp  line  of  distinction 
between  these  two  things. 

14.  Will  also  raise  up  us]  St.  Paul's  argu- 
ment in  the  whole  passage  is  based  on  his 
view  of  the  Resurrection  which  he  explained 
in  c.  15  :  see  esp.  vv.  35-53.  Man's  body  is 
eternal  ;  death  and  the  grave  do  not  destroy 
but  purify  and  change  it,  as  the  earth  removes 
the  husk  and  glorifies  the  corn  cast  into  it. 

16.  Saith  he]  i.e.  God  in  Scripture  (Gn2  24). 

One  flesh]  The  words  spoken  first  of  mar- 
riage are  applied  here  to  an  unholy  union.  St. 
Paul  does  not  place  the  two  on  the  same  plane, 
but  only  points  out  that  in  this  one  respect 
they  are  similar.  17.  One  spirit]  i.e.  he  shares 
in  the  life  of  the  Lord  :  cp.  Jn  15  ^'5. 

18.  Without  the  body]  i.e.  outside  it  ;  do 
not  affect  its  spiritual  nature  and  destiny  in 
the  same  way  as  this  sin.  Sinneth  against  his 
own  body]  see  on  v.  14.  19.  The  temple]  i.e. 
the  shrine  wherein  He  dwells  :  cp.  3 1'^  2  Cor  6 1*^. 

Ye  are  not  your  own]  The  best  of  all  reasons 
for  not  defiling  the  body.  20.  Bought  with  a 
price]  Christ  has  given  Himself  for  you,  and 
you  are  His  ;  yea,  God  has  given  Christ  for 
you,  and  you  belong  to  God  through  Him. 

Glorify  God  in  your  body]  RV  omits  the 
rest.  St.  Paul  is  dwelling  on  the  necessity  of 
bodily  purity,  and  appropriately  concludes  with 
this  appeal. 

Division  II.    71-16*.  Problems  submitted 
IN  THE  Letter  prom  Corinth 

CHAPTER  7 
(a)  Answer  to  Questions  about  Marriage 

The  Corinthians  had  in  their  letter  (7i) 
asked  St.  Paul's  opinion  on  several  points 
connected  with  marriage.  His  language  in  reply 
is  guarded  ;  he  speaks  with  some  diffidence  ; 
he  constantly  admits  exceptions  and  lays  down 
restrictions.  This  makes  his  meaning  some- 
times obscure  ;  but  the  general  drift  is  that 
celibacy,  though  a  good  thing  in  itself,  is  not 
suited  to  the  needs  of  many,  especially  in  cir- 
cumstances like  theirs  ;  and  marriage,  though 
not  obligatory,  is  not  only  sinless,  but  good  in 
itself  ;  and  those  married,  even  to  heathen 
spouses,  should  not  separate  without  necessity. 

1-7.  Celibacy  is  good,  but  marriage  is  usually 
advisable  ;  only  let  it  be  real  and  complete. 

Paraphrase.  '  (1)  In  answer  to  your  ques- 
tions— Celibacy  is  a  good  thing.  (2)  But 
because  of  the  profligacy  around  you,  it  is 
well  that  each  should  marry.  (3,  4)  But  the 
marriage  must  be  a  real  one,  each  giving  the 
other  conjugal  rights.  (5)  Let  there  be  separa- 
tion only  by  mutual  consent,  for  a  given  time, 
for  purposes  of  devotion.  (6)  But  I  say  all 
this  as  a  concession  to  your  circumstances,  not 


as  a  command.  (7)  I  should  like  all  to  be  like 
myself.  But  all  have  not  the  same  gifts  from 
God.' 

I.  The  things  whereof  ye  -wrote]  Probably 
most  of  the  rest  of  the  Epistle  is  taken  up 
with  answers  to  these  questions,  and  consider- 
ations arising  out  of  them.  It  is  not  clear 
whether  the  letter  from  the  Corinthians  sug- 
gested that  celibacy  ought  to  be  universal,  or 
deprecated  it  as  unnatural,  or  asked,  as  Ramsay 
thinks,  whether  it  was  '  incumbent  on  Christians 
to  marry,  as  the  Jews  and  Roman  law  main- 
tained.' Good]  i.e.  celibacy  is  an  excellent 
thing  (the  reasons  for  this  are  given,  vv.  26,  32), 
but  marriage  is  often  the  safer  course.  2.  To 
avoid  fornication]  which  was  very  prevalent 
at  Corinth.  St.  Paul  treats  of  the  higher  aspect 
of  marriage  elsewhere  (Eph5"S>^^).  Every 
(RV  '  each  ')  .  .  his  own]  Concubinage  and 
polygamy  are  forbidden.  3.  Due  benevolence] 
RV  '  her  due  '  ;  i.e.  primarily,  cohabitation. 

5.  To  fasting  and  prayer]  RY 'unto  prayer,' 
omitting  '  fasting  '  on  the  authority  of  the  best 
MSS.  So  Mk  9  29.  For  your  incontinency]  i.e. 
through  your  lack  of  self-control.  6.  This] 
Perhaps  v.  5  ;  more  probably,  all  he  has  said 
in  recommendation  of  marriage  from  v.  2 
onwards.  7.  Even  as  I  myself]  i.e.  able 
through  self-control  to  lead  a  celibate  life. 

His  proper  gift]  He  to  whom  God  has  denied 
this  ability,  has  received  some  other  gift  from 
Him.  St.  Paul  must  have  been  unman-ied,  or, 
just  possibly,  a  widower. 

8-16.  Consequent  advice  or  commands, 
(a)  8,  9.  To  the  unmarried  and  widows — to 
remain  so,  unless  they  have  an  overmastering 
desire.  (&)  10,  11.  To  the  married  Christians. 
The  Lord's  command  is  against  separation  ;  if 
such  take  place,  the  separated  party  is  to  re- 
main unmarried,  (c)  12-14.  In  cases  of  mixed 
marriages  St.  Paul's  opinion  is  that  the  two 
should  continue  to  live  together  if  the  heathen 
partner  is  willing  ;  for  the  fact  that  the  one 
is  a  Christian  brings  the  other  also  into  the 
Christian  sphere,  as  is  the  case  with  the 
childi'en.  15,  16.  But  if  the  heathen  partner 
wants  to  separate,  he  or  she  may  do  so,  and 
the  Christian  is  then  set  free.  But  domestic 
peace  is  what  God  desires  ;  the  heathen  partner 
may  possibly  be  converted. 

8.  Even  as  I]  i.e.  unmarried  and  without 
desire  for  marriage.  10.  Not  I,  but  the  Lord] 
This  exhortation  is  confirmed  by  the  Lord's 
own  authority  (MtS^^  194-9)  which  forbids 
divorce.  This  is  one  of  the  passages  which 
show  St.  Paul's  acquaintance  with  Christ's 
teaching,  and  the  supreme  authority  he 
attached  to  it:  cp.  lTim63.  12.  I,  not  the 
Lord]  Christ  had  said  nothing  about  mixed 
marriages  ;  the  Apostle  is  left  to  his  own 
judgment  :  cp.  v.  40.  He  does  not  encourage 
mixed  marriages  (2  Cor  6 1*),  but  is  thinking  of 


902 


4 


7.14 


1  CORINTHIANS 


7.28 


cases  where  husband  or  wife  has  been  con- 
verted since  marriage.  14.  Is  sanctified]  i.e. 
brought  into  the  Christian  sphere,  under 
Christian  influences.  Now  are  they  holy]  i.e. 
regarded  as  Christian  children  ;  as  are  still 
more  evidently  the  children  of  two  Christian 
parents.  This  phrase  '  enunciates  the  principles 
which  leads  to  infant  baptism,  viz.  that  the 
child  of  Christian  parents  shall  be  counted  as 
a  Christian  '  (J.  Lightfoot).  15.  A  brother  or  a 
sister]  the  Christian  partner.  Not  under  bond- 
age] i.e.  is  not  bound  to  continue  with  the  other. 

IS,  16.  God  hath  called  us  to  (RV  'in') 
peace. .  save  thy  wife]  v.  16  either  (a)  con- 
tinues the  thought  of  v.  15 — God's  aim  for  us 
is  peace,  which  will  here  be  best  secured  by 
separation  ;  and  the  possibility  of  saving  the 
heathen  partner  by  remaining  is,  after  all, 
uncertain — but  more  probably,  (h)  it  continues 
the  main  thought  of  vv.  12-14,  v.  15  being 
parenthetical,  '  But  God  desires  that  the  married 
should  live  in  peace  together,  and  this  may  re- 
sult in  the  conversion  of  the  heathen  partner.' 

17-24.  The  general  principle  ;  let  each  re- 
main as  he  was  when  God  called  him  (vv.  17,  20, 
24).  This  holds  good,  (a)  of  circumcision  and 
uncircumcision.  Let  each  keep  as  he  is  ;  the 
one  important  thing  is  to  keep  God's  com- 
mandments, (h)  Of  slavery  and  freedom.  A 
slave  should  not  mind  his  position  (though  he 
may  avail  himself  of  an  opportunity  to  become 
free).  The  Christian  slave  is  Christ's  freed- 
man  ;  the  Christian  freeman,  Christ's  bond- 
servant, owing  service  to  Him,  not  to  men. 

17.  But]  RV  '  only  '  ;  I  only  lay  down  the 
general  rule.  Hath  distributed]  i.e.  his  con- 
dition and  circumstances  of  life.  18.  Circum- 
cised .  ,  uncircumcised]  Used  metaphorically, 
'  If  any  Jew  has  been  converted,  let  him  remain 
a  Christian  Jew  ;  if  a  Gentile  is  converted,  let 
him  not  seek  to  become  a  Jew,  but  remain  a 
Christian  Gentile.'  19.  Circumcision  is  nothing] 
cp.  Gal  5  6  6 15  Ro  2  25-29.  '  Not  nationality  but 
obedience  to  God  determines  Christian  char- 
acter' (Stevens).  20.  Calling]  not  'occupation 
in  life.'  but  '  condition  in  which  God's  call 
found  him.'  St.  Paul  lays  this  down,  not  as  a 
universal,  but  as  a  good  general  rule  :  cp.  vv. 
9,  15,  28. 

21.  But  if  thou  mayest  be  made  free, 
use  it  rather]  an  ambiguous  sentence,  like  v. 
16.  '  It '  may  mean  '  slavery  '  or  '  freedom.' 
Either  '  even  if  you  have  an  opportunity  of 
freedom,  remain  a  slave  ' — this  suits  the 
immediate  context — or,  '  but  if  you  have  an 
opportunity  of  freedom,  take  it.'  This  would 
be  a  parenthetical  piece  of  advice.  This  is 
favoured  by  St.  Paul's  thought  elsewhere.  He 
was  proud  of  his  citizenship  ;  he  prefers  celi- 
bacy because  it  gives  greater  freedom  to  serve 
God.  So  does  liberty  compared  with  slavery. 
Slavery  was  an  essential  part  of  the  social  con- 


903 


ditions  of  the  time.  The  Apostle  accepts  it  as 
such,  but  lays  down  a  principle  which  under- 
mines it,  viz.  that  Christ  makes  no  difference 
between  bond  and  free.  He  insists,  not  on 
the  rights  of  slaves,  but  on  the  duties  of 
masters  towards  their  Christian  brethren  (Eph 
6  5-9  Col  3  22-4 1  1  Tim  6  L  2,  and  especially  Phi- 
lemon). The  spread  of  the  Christian  spirit 
swept  away  the  worst  evils  of  slavery,  before 
abolishing  slavery  itself. 

22.  Freeman]  RV  '  freedman '  ;  set  free 
from  sin  (Jn  8  34-36  R082  Gal  51),  but  still 
owing  service  to  Him  who  freed  him.  Christ's 
servant]  R V  '  bondservant '  ;  bought  by  Him 
'  whose  service  is  perfect  freedom.'  23.  Bought 
with  a  price]  cp.  620.  Servants]  (RV  '  bond- 
servants ')  of  men]  i.e.  slavishly  yielding  to  their 
desires  ;  slaves  to  custom  or  public  opinion  : 
cp.  2  Cor  11 20.  24.  With  God]  i.e.  in  His 
presence,  consciously  doing  His  will. 

25-38.  Marriage  of  virgins.  The  Cor- 
inthians seem  to  have  asked  particularly 
whether  fathers  ought  to  give  their  daughters 
in  marriage.  St.  Paul  now  comes  to  this 
point,  first,  however,  going  into  the  question 
of  marriage  generally,  and  giving  reasons  for 
preferring  celibacy.  He  says  he  cannot  appeal 
to  any  commandment  of  the  Lord,  so  simply 
gives  his  own  opinion,  assured  that  he  deserves 
their  confidence.  He  repeats  the  general  rule 
(cp.  V.  17)  that  it  is  best  for  each  to  remain  as 
he  is,  considering  the  early  coming  of  the 
Lord  and  the  distress  preceding  it  ;  so  that 
while  there  is  no  sin  in  marriage,  yet  celibacy 
is  best,  (a)  because  the  married  will  meet  with 
greater  troubles  ;  (6)  because  the  shortness  of 
the  time  before  the  Lord's  coming  bids  all  to 
sit  loose  to  worldly  things  ;  (c)  because  the 
unmarried  is  freer  from  distraction,  and  able 
to  serve  the  Lord  more  completely.  However, 
he  does  not  want  to  constrain  tljeip,  but  merely 
to  advise  for  the  best.  If  a  man  considers  it 
right  to  give  his  daughter  in  marriage,  let  him 
do  so  ;  but  he  who,  feeling  no  such  necessity, 
resolves  to  keep  her  unmarried,  does  better. 

25.  Virgins]  i.e.  unmarried  daughters.  The 
Roman  law  endeavoured  to  make  marriage 
universal  ;  and  the  Jewish  view  was  similar. 

No  commandment  of  the  Lord]  either  laid 
down  by  Him  while  on  earth  (see  on  vv.  10-12), 
or  imparted  by  special  revelation.  To  be 
faithful]  i.e.  to  give  a  trustworthy  opinion, 
one  deserving  of  confidence,  as  a  steward  of 
the  mysteries  of  God  (4 1-2).  26.  The  present 
distress]  Perhaps  persecution,  which,  however, 
is  not  elsewhere  mentioned  in  this  Epistle  ; 
more  probably  the  '  distress '  Christ  had  said 
would  precede  His  return  (Lk  21  23),  which  was 
thought  to  be  near  (v.  29).  So  to  be]  RV  '  to 
be  as  he  is.'  27.  Art  thou  loosed]  i.e.  un- 
married. 28.  Trouble  in  the  flesh]  i.e.  in 
their  earthly  circumstances.     Trouble  would 


7.29 


1  CORINTHIANS 


8. 


fall  not  only  on  themselves,  but  on  those  dear 
to  them.  St.  Paul  wants  to  save  them  such 
suffering  (RV  '  and  I  would  spare  you  '). 

29.  The  time  is-  short :  it  remaineth,  that,  etc.] 
RV  '  the  time  is  shortened  that  henceforth,'  etc. 
The  thought  of  the  nearness  of  the  Lord's 
coming,  when  earthly  things  would  pass  away, 
should  keep  them  from  being  engrossed  in 
present  interests.  31.  Abusing]  RM  '  using 
it  to  the  full,'  as  if  the  sole  source  of  enjoy- 
ment:  cp.  lJn2i5-i7. 

32.  Without  carefulness]  RY  'free  from 
cares.'  33,  34.  The  exact  words  and  punc- 
tuation are  doubtful  (cp.  RM)  ;  but  this  does 
not  affect  the  general  sense,  viz.  that  the  un- 
married are  less  subject  to  worldly  distractions 
and  anxieties  than  the  married.  35.  Cast  a 
snare  (or,  '  halter ')  upon  you]  i.e.  not  deprive 
you  of  liberty  ;  force  you  into  this  course. 

Comely]  RV  '  seemly.'  36.  Any  man]  i.e. 
parent  or  guardian.  Uncomely]  i.e.  unfairly, 
in  not  seeing  her  married.  His  virgin] 
daughter  or  ward.  Let  them]  i.e.  the  maiden 
and  her  suitor.  37.  Hath  power  over  (RV 
'  as  touching ')  his  own  will]  i.e.  is  able  to 
carry  it  out.  The  whole  v.  shows  the  need  of 
careful  deliberation  in  the  matter ;  no  hasty 
resolve.  Throughout,  according  to  the  social 
and  legal  conditions  of  the  time,  no  account  is 
made  of  the  maiden's  own  wishes.  This  is 
probably  due  also  to  the  precise  question  St. 
Paul  had  to  answer. 

In  applying  this  c.  to  the  present  day  we 
have  to  remember,  (1)  the  altered  social  con- 
ditions, (2)  that  St.  Paul's  advice  is  influenced 
by  his  regarding  the  Lord's  coming  as  very 
near. 

39,  40.  Remarriage  of  widows.  A  widow 
may  remarry  after  her  husband's  death,  pro- 
vided it  be  a  Christian  marriage  ;  but  St.  Paul's 
opinion  is,  she  will  do  better  to  remain  a  widow. 
39,  In  the  Lord]  This  forbids  marriage 
from  unchristian,  worldly  motives  ;  and,  prac- 
tically, marriage  with  a  heathen.  40.  So  abide] 
RV  'abide  as  she  is':  cp.  1  TimS^-io,  for 
widows  on  the  Church  roll.  Have  the  Spirit 
of  God]  am  guided  by  Him  in  what  I  say, 
not  merely  expressing  my  personal  inclinations. 

CHAPTERS  81-111 
(h)  Food  offered  to  Idols 
In  these  chs.  St.  Paul  answers  another 
question  of  the  Corinthians — as  to  the  lawful- 
ness of  eating  food  which  had  been  offered  in 
sacrifice  to  idols.  This  was  a  very  urgent 
question.  The  whole  worship  of  the  heathen 
was  sacrificial,  and  sacrifices  were  offered  by 
them  whenever  a  birthday  or  marriage  was 
celebrated.  Only  part  of  the  animal  was 
consumed  on  the  altar.  Of  the  remainder, 
part  became  the  priest's  perquisite,  and  the 
rest  was  returned  to  the  sacrificer,  and  he  and 


his  friends  commonly  feasted  upon  it,  often  in 
the  precincts  of  the  temple.  Again,  the  bond 
of  union  between  members  of  a  Greek  club,  or 
guild,  was  a  feast  following  a  sacrifice.  Much, 
too,  of  the  meat  in  the  market  would  have  been 
offered  in  sacrifice,  and  sold  by  either  priest 
or  offerer.  Thus  a  Corinthian  Christian  at  a 
feast  given  by  a  heathen  friend  would  probably 
have  before  him  meat  which  had  been  offered 
in  sacrifice  ;  this  might  be  the  case  even  with 
meat  bought  in  the  market  ;  and  continued 
membership  of  these  guilds  meant  joining  in 
their  sacrificial  meals. 

The  Corinthians  found  this  problem  con- 
tinually confronting  them,  and  had  asked  St. 
Paul's  advice.  Their  letter  seems  to  have 
suggested  that  as  an  idol  did  not  represent  a 
real  deity,  food  could  not  be  polluted  by  being 
offered  to  it,  and  so  might  lawfully  be  eaten. 
St.  Paul,  however,  admitting  the  truth  of  their 
view  of  idols,  tells  them  that  (1)  knowledge 
must  be  tempered  by  love,  care  being  taken  to 
avoid  injuring  another's  conscience  ;  and  (2) 
they  must  beware  of  idolatry. 

In  c.  8  he  deals  with  the  general  principle, 
giving  caution  (1)  above.  In  c.  9  he  appeals 
to  his  own  example,  in  forbearing,  for  the 
sake  of  others,  to  exercise  rights  he  actually 
possessed,  and  in  guarding  against  self-in- 
dulgence in  his  own  life.  In  c.  10  he  warns 
them  against  the  danger  of  idolatry,  reminding 
them  of  the  sin  and  fate  of  the  Israelites,  and 
that  the  idol  feasts  mean  fellowship  with 
demons  (idolatry  being  a  suggestion  of  the 
powers  of  evil),  which  is  inconsistent  with  the 
fellowship  with  and  in  Christ,  bestowed  in  the 
Lord's  Supper.  Finally,  he  gives  the  practical 
advice,  not  to  be  needlessly  scrupulous  oneself, 
but  to  respect  the  scruples  of  others. 

At  the  Council  of  Jerusalem,  Gentile  con- 
verts were  directed  to  abstain  from  things 
sacrificed  to  idols  (Ac  15^9).  St.  Paul  had 
himself  published  these  decrees  in  Syria,  etc., 
but  does  not  mention  them  here,  though  he 
says  nothing  inconsistent  with  them.  Possibly 
he  saw  the  Corinthians  would  be  more  in- 
fluenced by  argument  than  by  appeal  to  au- 
thority, seeing  that  they  prided  themselves  on 
their  wisdom  (3 1^)  and  their  ability  to  discern 
spiritual  truth  (2i3-i5  31). 

CHAPTER  8 

{V)  Food  offered  to  Idols  :  (i)  The 
Principle  of  Self-denial 

Knowledge  must  be  tempered  by  love. 
More  enlightened  Christians  must  respect  the 
scruples  of  their  weaker  brethren  in  the  matter 
of  eating  meat  which  had  been  offered  to  idols. 

1-13.  Paraphrase.  '  Your  next  question 
relates  to  meat  offered  in  sacrifice  to  idols, 
asking  whether  it  is  permissible  for  a  Chris- 
tian to  partake  of  it.     "We  all  know,  as  you 


904 


8.  1 


1  CORINTHIANS 


9. 


remark,  that  such  food  is  absolutely  harmless 
to  a  man's  spiritual  life  ;  but  we  must  have 
regard  for  the  feelings  of  others,  and  let  love 
regulate  our  attitude.  (2)  Any  one  who 
prides  himself  on  his  knowledge  is  but  a  be- 
ginner in  learning  ;  (3)  but  if  a  man  loves 
God,  He  receives  His  divine  approval.  (4)  We 
know,  of  course,  that  an  idol  represents  no 
real  deity,  for  there  is  but  one  God.  (5,  6)  The 
heathen,  doubtless,  speak  of  many  deities  and 
demigods,  but  we  know  that  these  have  no 
actual  existence  :  we  believe  in  God  the  Fa- 
ther and  the  Creator  and  in  Jesus  Christ  His 
Son.  (7)  There  are  many  Christians,  however, 
not  so  well  instructed  as  we  are,  who  still 
think,  as  they  have  been  accustom,ed,  of  an 
idol  as  representing  an  existing  deity,  and  are 
shocked  at  the  idea  of  eating  meat  which  has 
been  offered  to  it  in  sacrifice.  (8,  9)  Now  it 
is  quite  true  that  whether  we  eat  it  or  not  is, 
in  the  abstract,  a  matter  of  indifference  ;  it 
will  make  us  neither  better  nor  worse  in  the 
sight  of  God.  But,  at  the  same  time,  you 
must  take  care  to  do  nothing  that  will  shock 
another's  feelings  or  wound  his  conscience. 
(10)  If  a  man  who  thinks  he  cannot  as  a  Chris- 
tian eat  in  an  idol's  temple,  sees  one  of  you 
doing  so,  he  may  be  led  to  follow  your  ex- 
ample ;  although  his  conscience,  which  is  not 
so  enlightened  as  yours,  tells  him  he  is  doing 
wrong.  (11)  He  is  thus  led  to  act  against  and 
stifle  his  conscience ;  and  so  the  man  for  whom 
Christ  died  is  brought  to  moral  ruin  by  your 
self-confidence  and  bravado.  (12)  If  you  act 
in  this  way,  offending  the  consciences  of  less 
self-reliant  brethren  and  leading  them  into 
temptation,  you  sin  directly  against  Christ. 
(13)  Rather  than  thus  do  the  weakest  of  my 
brethi'en  spiritual  injury,  I  would  eat  no  flesh 
as  long  as  I  live,  if  to  eat  it  is  to  harm  another 
soul.' 

I.  We  all  have  knowledge]  This  remark  is 
probably  quoted  from  the  letter  of  the  Cor- 
inthians. Vv.  2,  3  are  St.  Paul's  comment  on 
it.  Charity]  RV  '  love.'  3.  Known  of  him] 
'  We  can  only  know  God  by  love.  .  .  They  who 
love  Him  are  kiiown  of  Him  because  they 
have  intercourse  with  Him,  and  this  mutual 
intercourse  enables  them  to  know  him  per- 
sonally'  (Sadler):  cp.  Gal 4 9.  4.  An  idol  is 
nothing]  i.e.  has  no  spiritual  reality  behind  it. 

6.  '  For  us  there  is  but  one  God  the  Father, 
the  Source  of  all  things,  for  whose  service  we 
exist,  and  one  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  by  whose 
agency  all  things  were  created,  and  we  Chris- 
tians created  anew.'  7.  With  conscience  of 
the  idol  unto  this  hour]  RY  '  being  used  until 
now  to  the  idol'  ;  i.e.  not  having  yet  been  able 
to  shake  off  the  idea  that  it  represents  some 
spiritual  power.  Their  conscience  being  weak 
is  defiled]  i.e.  they  have  a  sense  of  moral  de- 
filement, because  their  conscience  is  not  pro- 


perly enlightened.  8.  But  meat,  etc.]  It  is 
not  such  matters  that  make  us  well-pleasing 
to  God.  9.  This  liberty  of  yours]  i.e.  freedom 
to  eat. 

10.  See  thee  .  .  sit  at  meat  in  the  idol's 
temple]  This  was  what  their  boasted  liberty 
had  brought  them  to.  Some  of  the  Christians 
had  actually  partaken  of  a  feast  held  in  hon- 
om-  of  some  of  the  heathen  deities.  This  was 
a  more  serious  matter  than  merely  eating  (at 
home  or  at  a  friend's  house)  of  meat  which 
had  been  offered  to  an  idol,  and  more  fraught 
with  danger  to  others.  For  it  involved  some 
sort  of  recognition  of  the  heathen  deity — at 
least,  the  weak  brethren  would  naturally  think 
so.  Knowledge]  enlightenment,  consciousness 
that  idols  do  not  represent  a  real  deity. 

11.  Perish]  The  result  of  acting  against 
conscience  :  cp.  Rol423.  '  Whatsoever  is  not 
of  faith '  (i.e.  done  without  thorough  convic- 
tion that  it  is  right)  '  is  sin.'  12.  Sin  against 
Christ]  who  identifies  Himself  with  His  breth- 
ren (Ac  9^  Mt25-i0).  13.  Probably  this  ab- 
staining from  flesh  would  be  practised  by  St. 
Paul  only  where  circumstances  required  it,  as 
at  Corinth. 

CHAPTER  9 

(b)  Food  offered  to  Idols 

(ii)  St.  Paul's  own  Example 

St.  Paul  has  appealed  to  the  '  enlightened ' 
converts  at  Corinth  to  give  up  for  the  sake  of 
others  a  practice  which  they  might  otherwise 
have  had  no  hesitation  in  indulging.  He  now 
strengthens  this  appeal  by  pointing  to  his  own 
example  of  self-denial.  As  an  Apostle  he  had 
the  right  to  maintenance  from  the  Church, 
but  had  refrained  from  exercising  it,  lest  he 
might  be  suspected  of  preaching  for  gain. 

Since  his  opponents  declared  that  he  main- 
tained himself  by  his  own  work  simply  because 
he  knew  he  was  no  true  Apostle,  he  begins  by 
proving  (vv.  1-3)  his  claim  to  the  Apostleship, 
and  so  (vv.  4-6)  to  the  rights  enjoyed  by  other 
Apostles.  He  defends  this  right  (vv.  7-14)  by 
a  number  of  arguments.  Then  he  gives  (vv. 
15-22)  his  reasons  for  not  exercising  it.  His 
whole  conduct  has  been  influenced  by  the  aim 
of  causing  no  hindrance  to  the  gospel,  but  of 
commending  it  to  every  man. 

1-6.  His  claim  to  Apostleship,  and  conse- 
quent right  to  maintenance. 

Paraphrase.  '(1)  Am  not  I  myself  free 
from  outward  authority  ?  For  am  I  not  an 
Apostle,  having  seen  Jesus  our  Lord  ?  (2,  3) 
Why,  your  very  existence  as  a  Christian  Church 
should  be  to  you  a  sufficient  proof  of  my 
Apostleship.  (4-6)  Now  other  Apostles,  the 
Lord's  brethren,  and  Peter  himself,  are  sup- 
ported as  well  as  their  wives,  by  the  Churches 
they  visit  ;  have  n^t  Barnabas  and  myself  this 
same  right  ? ' 


905 


9.1 


1  CORINTHIANS 


9.21 


I.  Am  I  not  free]  (RV  puts  this  question 
first)  i.e.  being  an  Apostle,  I  am  free  from 
man's  authority,  and  could  do  many  things  I 
abstain  from  doing  for  your  sakes  :  cp.  v.  19. 

Have  I  not  seen  Jesus]  An  Apostle's  work 
was  to  be  a  witness  of  the  Resurrection  (Ac  1  ^2 
2  32) ;  therefore  he  must  have  seen  the  risen 
Lord.  This  St.  Paul  had  done  at  his  conver- 
sion (Ac  22 14  1  Cor  15  8. 9).  2.  Unto  others]  in 
their  opinion.  The  seal]  That  which  authenti- 
cates, or  proves  true.  The  existence  of  the 
Corinthian  Church  was  a  proof  of  St.  Paul's 
apostolic  power.  V.  3  probably  refers  to  this, 
not  to  what  follows,  '  If  you  want  a  proof  of 
my  apostleship,  look  around  you  ! '  4.  Power] 
RV  '  right.'  To  eat  and  to  drink]  as  guests 
of  the  Church.  5.  To  lead  about  a  sister,  a 
wife]  RV  '  a  wife  that  is  a  believer ' ;  i.e.  to 
claim  support  on  his  journeys  for  his  wife  as 
well  as  himself.  It  is  implied  that  the  Apostles 
were  mostly  married  ;  Peter's  wife's  mother  is 
mentioned  MtS^*.  No  doubt  their  wives  were 
of  great  service  in  getting  access  to  the  women 
of  Eastern  cities.  Lead]  as  the  companion  of 
his  travels.  He  asserts  that  he  could  reason- 
ably claim  not  only  support  for  a  wife,  but  also 
payment  of  her  travelling  expenses  as  well  as 
his  own.  The  brethren  of  the  Lord]  cp.  Mt  1246 
J355_  They  seem  here  included  among  the 
Apostles  ;  but  the  title  of  Apostle  was  not 
limited  to  the  Twelve.  6.  Barnabas]  was  like 
St.  Paul,  an  Apostle  (Ac  141*),  and  like  him, 
but  unlike  the  rest,  he  maintained  himself 
by  his  own  labour.  They  may  have  jointly 
adopted  this  course  on  their  missionary  jour- 
neys (Ac  13,  14).  We  see  that  Barnabas  was 
known  to  the  Corinthians,  and  still  working 
as  a  missionary.  For  St.  Paul's  self-support 
see  on  41^. 

7-14.  Proof  of  this  right.  This  right  is 
proved  (v.  7)  from  the  analogy  of  soldiers, 
husbandmen,  shepherds;  (vv.  8-10)  from  the 
direction  in  the  Law  that  the  ox  should  not  be 
muzzled -(vv.  11,  12)  on  grounds  of  common 
fairness  and  gratitude  ;  (vv.  13,  14)  from  the 
example  of  the  Jewish  priesthood. 

7.  Who  goeth  a  warfare]  The  Apostles  were 
spiritual  soldiers,  husbandmen,  shepherds. 

8.  As  a  man]  RV  '  after  the  manner  of 
men';  i.e.  reasoning  only  from  analogies  of 
common  life.  9.  For  it  is  written  in  the  law^] 
RV  '  Is  it  not  also  written  in  the  law  ?  '  Thou 
shalt  not  muzzle  the.  .  ox]  Dt254.  The  ox 
threshed  out  the  corn  either  by  simply  walking 
upon  it,  or  by  dragging  a  heavy  sledge  over  it. 

Doth  God  take  care  for  oxen  ?]  RV  '  Is  it  for 
the  oxen  that  God  careth  ? '  i.e.  He  did  not 
make  this  law  merely  for  their  sake  ;  He  meant 
the  principle  to  go  much  further,  to  be  applied 
to  men.  This  is  an  instance  of  St.  Paul's  use 
of  the  allegorical  method  of  interpretation  : 
cp.   2  Cor  3 13    Gal  4  22.      10.    Altogether]    or, 


'  really,'  '  certainly.'  He  that  thresheth  in  hope, 
etc.]  RV  '  He  that  thresheth  to  thresh  in  hope 
of  partaking.'  The  same  principle  which  ap 
plies  to  oxen  holds  good  of  human  labourers, 
and  so  of  spiritual  labourers.  11.  Carnal 
things]  i.e.  earthly  material  support  :  cp.  Ro 
15 -'^.  12.  If  others  be  partakers]  This  shows 
that  there  were  some  persons  receiving  support 
from  the  Corinthian  Church  :  cp.  2  Cor  1 1 20. 

Power]  RV  '  right.'  Rather]  RV '  yet  more ' ; 
i.e.  as  the  instruments  of  your  conversion. 

Suffer]  RV  '  bear.'  Hinder  the  gospel]  by 
being  suspected  of  self-interest.  13.  Live 
(RV  '  eat ')  of  the  thiiigx  of  the  temple]  i.e.  its 
tithes  and  offerings.  Partakers  with  the  altar] 
Part  of  the  offering  was  burnt  on  the  altar  ; 
part  fell  to  the  priest  :  cp.  Nul8  Dtl8i-3. 

14.  Hath  the  Lord  ordained]  MtlOiOLklO^. 
15-23.  His  own  reason  for  not  exercising 

this  right. 

Paraphrase.  '(15)  But  I  am  resolved  to 
maintain  my  independence.  (16-18)  It  is  the 
one  thing  I  can  boast  of.  I  cannot  boast  of 
my  preaching  the  gospel,  for  I  am  compelled 
to  preach  the  gospel  ;  I  have  no  choice  in  the 
matter  ;  but  this  self-support  is  of  my  own 
free  will,  and  I  find  its  reward  in  increased 
opportunities  and  success.  (19-23)  To  obtain 
such,  I  have  also  been  in  the  habit  of  adapting 
myself  to  the  position  and  circumstances  of 
every  class  of  men  in  turn.' 

15.  I  have  used  none  of  these  things]  The 
Apostle  was  the  more  free  to  advocate  the 
principle  '  that  they  who  preach  the  gospel 
should  live  of  the  gospel,'  because  his  own 
refusal  of  support  kept  him  free  from  personal 
bias.  These  things]  i.e.  these  rights.  Make 
my  glorjring  void]  deprive  me  (by  supporting 
me)  of  my  boast  of  preaching  the  gospel  freely. 

17.  Willingly .  .  against  my  will]  RV  '  of 
mine  own  will .  .  not  of  mine  own  will.'  He 
preached  under  the  constraining  influence  of 
the  love  of  Christ.  Reward]  answers  to 
'  glorying ' :  cp.  Ro  4  2-5.  A  voluntary  action 
admits  of  '  glorying,'  and  calls  for  '  reward.' 
So  it  was  with  St.  Paul's  self-support  ;  not 
with  his  gospel-preaching.  Dispensation]  RV 
'  stewardship.'  18.  That  I  abuse  not  my  power] 
RV  '  so  as  not  to  use  to  the  full  my  rights  ' ; 
viz.  of  claiming  maintenance  from  his  people. 

19.  Free  from  all  /«e?<]  Under  authority  or 
obligation  to  no  man.  Servant  unto  all]  Ac- 
commodating myself  to  their  desires  and  pre- 
judices as  far  as  possible. 

20.  I  became  as  a  Jew]  preaching  first  in 
their  synagogues  ;  appealing  to  their  Scrip- 
tures, e.g.  Ac  13 14,  etc.  As  under  the  law]  e.g. 
circumcising  Timothy,  who  was  half  a  Jew 
(Ac  1(3 1-3);  helping  the  men  who  had  taken 
the  Nazirite  vow  (2123-26)  ^  keeping  the  feasts 
(2016).  RV  inserts,  'not  being  myself  under 
the  law ':  cp.  Gal2ii-i9.    21.  To  them  that  are 


906 


9.  22 


1  CORINTHIANS 


10.5 


without  law]  i.e.  Gentiles  :  cp.  Ro2i2-io.  To 
them  he  became  as  without  law  ;  e.g.  refusing 
to  have  Titus,  a  Gentile,  circumcised  (Gal  23-5)  ; 
mixing  freely  with  Gentiles  ;  using  arguments 
from  natural  religion  and  from  Greek  litera- 
ture and  philosophy,  as  at  Lystra  (Ac  1415-17) 
and  Athens  (17^^-31).  Being  not  without  law 
to  God]  Liberty  did  not  mean  licence  ;  though 
free  from  bondage  to  the  Law  of  Moses,  he 
yielded  obedience  to  the  moral  law  of  God  as 
revealed  in  Christ.  22.  The  weak]  cp.  S^^ 
Eol4,  15.  By  all  means]  some  in  one  way, 
some  in  another.  23.  Partaker  thereof  with 
you]  RV  'joint  partaker  thereof,'  i.e.  share 
with  my  converts  in  its  blessings  and  salvation. 
This  v.  forms  the  transition  to  the  next  para- 
graph. St.  Paul  practised  self-denial  for  his 
own  sake  also. 

24-27.  The  importance  of  self- discipline.  St. 
Paul  illustrates  the  need  of  this  self-denial 
which  he  has  been  inculcating  from  the  Greek 
games  or  athletic  sports,  some  of  the  most 
noted  of  which  (the  Isthmian)  were  held  near 
Corinth  every  two  years.  The  prize  was  a 
mere  wreath  (at  Corinth,  formed  of  parsley, 
afterwards  of  pine),  but  the  winner  was  wel- 
comed home  to  his  native  city  with  the  honours 
of  a  victorious  general ;  his  statue  was  erected; 
his  victory  was  celebrated  by  a  leading  poet ;  a 
front  seat  was  assigned  him  at  all  festivals  and 
spectacles;  he  was  frequently  relieved  from 
taxation.  St.  Paul  draws  lessons  for  his  con- 
verts from  the  earnestness  and  self -discipline 
needed  in  these  contests  :  cp.  Phil3i3,i4  2  Tim 
25  47Hebl2i. 

24.  Not  all  who  start  in  a  race,  win ;  only 
the  best.  In  the  Christian  race  there  is  a 
crown  for  all  who  run  their  best,  but  only  for 
such.  25.  Striveth  for  the  mastery]  RV 
'striveth  in  the  games.'  Temperate  in  all 
things]  i.e.  under  strict  '  training '  as  to  food, 
drink,  and  exercise.  An  incorruptible]  'a 
crown  of  glory  that  fadeth  not  away '  (1  Pet  5  4). 

26.  Not  as  uncertainly]  not  hesitating,  look- 
ing back.  Not  as  one  that  beateth  the  air] 
but  aiming  my  blows  well.  The  metaphor 
changes  from  running  to  boxing. 

27.  Keep  under,  etc.]  RV '  I  bufEet  my  body 
and  bring  it  into  bondage.'  The  body  is  the 
seat  of  temptation  to  self-indulgence.  One 
great  object  of  fasting  and  abstinence  is  to 
secure  this  control  over  our  bodies,  so  that 
'  the  flesh  may  be  subdued  to  the  spirit.'  The 
illness  to  which  St.  Paul  was  subject,  his  '  thorn 
in  the  flesh'  (2Cor  127),  must  have  tempted 
him  often  to  seek  his  own  ease  and  comfort 
and  to  live  a  more  self-indulgent  and  less 
laborious  life  ;  and  this  temptation  he  fought 
against  unceasingly.  Preached  to  others]  like 
the  herald  who  proclaimed  the  conditions  of 
the  contest  and  its  prizes,  and  summoned  the 
competitors.       A  castaway]    RV  'rejected'; 


disqualified.  '  No  amount  of  usefulness  to 
others  will  save  us  if  we  ourselves  live  not 
the  life  of  God '  (Woodford). 

CHAPTER    10 

(b)  Food  offered  to  Idols 

(iii)  Historical  Illustrations  and 

Practical  Advice 

St.  Paul  has  been  speaking  of  the  need  of 
earnestness  and  self-discipline,  and  the  danger 
of  failure  ;  he  now  holds  out  the  fate  of  the 
Israelites  as  a  warning  against  self-confidence. 
The  Corinthians  were  tempted  to  the  very 
same  sins  for  which  Israel  suffered. 

All  of  the  Israelites  received  great  blessings 
from  God,  types  of  the  sacramental  privileges 
Christians  enjoy,  yet  most  of  them  perished 
in  the  wilderness  because  of  sin.  They  ac- 
cepted the  privilege  of  their  high  calling,  but 
renounced  its  responsibility.  Their  fate  should 
warn  his  converts  against  setting  their  heart 
on  evil  things,  idolatry,  impurity,  presuming 
on  God's  patience,  murmuring. 

I.  All  our  fathers]  Though  most  of  the 
Corinthians  were  Gentiles,  yet  the  Israelites 
were  their  spiritual  forefathers  ;  the  Christian 
Church  is  a  continuation  of  the  Jewish. 

The  cloud.,  the  sea]  see  Ex  1.3  21, 22  14. 
The  cloud  denoting  the  presence  of  God  was 
over  them,  the  water  of  the  Red  Sea  on  either 
side  of  them.  Their  passage  through  the  sea 
was  a  break  with  their  old  life  in  Egypt  ;  it 
definitely  committed  them  to  Moses'  guidance, 
was  in  effect  a  profession  of  discipleship  to 
him  (Ex  14  31);  they  were  thus  baptized  unto 
Moses.  This  typified  our  baptism,  which  is, 
(1)  deliverance  from  the  bondage  of  sin  and 
entrance  upon  a  new  life;  (2)  discipleship  to 
Christ  and  union  with  Him.  So  the  spiritual 
meat  (the  '  manna,'  Ex  16)  and  spiritual  drink 
(water  from  the  rock,  Ex  17  Nu20)  by  which 
their  life  was  sustained,  were  types  of  the 
Body  and  Blood  of  Christ,  by  which  our  souls 
are  nourished.  Our  Lord  Himself  made  the 
manna  a  type  of  Himself,  the  Living  Bread 
(Jn  6  31-35).  Here  only  in  the  NT.  are  the  two 
Sacraments  mentioned  side  by  side.  This  food 
and  drink  are  called  'spiritual'  because,  (1) 
miraculous,  (2)  typical,  (3)  assuring  the  people 
of  God's  presence,  strengthening  their  faith. 

4.  That  (RV  '  a ')  spiritual  Rock  that  followed 
them  :  and  that  Rock  was  Christ]  The  several 
visible  rocks  from  which  water  came  were 
symbols  of  the  one  invisible  Rock  who 
accompanied  them  and  bestowed  these 
blessings.  God  is  often  called  a  Rock  in  the 
OT.,  e.g.  Dt  32 15-18  Psl82,3i.  We  see  St. 
Paul's  recognition  of  Christ's  pre-existence  ; 
the  divine  power  which  sustained  the  Israelites 
was  the  power  of  Christ  working  on  earth 
before  His  Incarnation  :  cp.  also  Jn737,38 

5.  Many]    RV  '  most.'      All  shared  these 


907 


10.  6 


1  CORINTHIANS 


10.  22 


same  blessings,  yet  most,  all,  in  fact,  except 
Caleb  and  Joshua,  perished  in  the  wilderness. 
So  our  sacramental  privileges  will  not  save  us 
if  we  live  a  careless  life.  6.  Examples]  to  be 
avoided  :  cp.  Heb3 ''-42.  They  .  .  lusted]  after 
the  flesh-pots  of  Egypt  (Nu  11);  the  Corinthians 
were  inclined  to  hanker  after  heathen  pleasures. 
7.  The  people  sat  down,  etc.]  in  honour 
of  the  golden  calf  (Ex  32  *>).  Play]  revelling 
accompanying  the  idol-worship.  8.  Some  of 
them  committed]  Nu25.  Fornication  was  a 
temptation  to  the  Corinthians  (c.  6).  It  was 
closely  associated  with  idolatry ;  at  Corinth 
there  were  a  great  number  of  women  attached 
to  the  temple  of  Aphrodite  (Venus)  and 
devoted  to  her  shameful  service.  9.  Tempt 
Christ]  (RY  '  the  Lord';  with  AV,  see  on  v.  4) 
i.e.  try  His  patience.  Destroyed  of  serpents] 
Nu215,6.  10,  Murmur]  as  some  might  at 
losing  their  old  heathen  pleasures.  Destroyed 
of  the  destroyer]  i.e.  the  destroying  angel 
inflicting    pestilence    (Ex  1223    2S24i5>i6  Nu 

1641-49). 

II.  For  ensamples]  RV  'by  way  of  ex- 
ample.' Written  for  our  admonition]  not 
merely  as  ancient  history:  cp.  RolS*.  The 
ends  of  the  world]  RV  '  of  the  ages.'  Chris- 
tians are  'the  heirs  of  all  the  ages,'  living  in 
the  final  dispensation:  cp.  Hebl2  13.  Such 
as  is  common  to  man]  RV  'such as  man  can 
bear.'  God  /.s  faithful]  He  will  not  fail  you 
(1^);  so  endure,  assured  that  He  will  support 
and  finally  deliver  (make  a  way  to  escape). 

14-22.  Partaking  of  the  Holy  Communion 
is  morally  incompatible  with  partaking  of 
idolatrous  feasts.  By  partaking  of  the  Eucha- 
rist they  showed  themselves  Christians  having 
communion  with  Christ,  and  in  Him  with  one 
another  ;  by  sharing  in  sacrificial  feasts  in 
honour  of  idols  they  made  themselves  pagans, 
recognising  the  existence  of  false  gods  and 
forming  a  brotherhood  with  idol-worshippers. 
The  two  were  morally  incompatible,  an  offence 
against  the  Lord,  who  required  their  whole 
allegiance. 

Paraphrase.  '(14)  Therefore  avoid  all 
connexion  with  idolatry.  (5)  Judge  for  your- 
selves, ye  that  are  sensible  men.  (16)  The 
Cup  that  we  bless,  the  Bread  that  we  break, 
do  they  not  mean  fellowship  with  Christ 
through  sharing  in  Christ's  Blood  and  Body  ? 

(17)  And  we  are  all  made  one  body  in  fellow- 
ship together   by  partaking  of  the   one  Bread. 

(18)  So  among  the  Jews,  eating  of  the  sacrifice 
means  communion  with  God  through  (or  with) 
the  altar.  (19)  Now  though  an  idol  is  a  mere 
nothing,  (20)  yet  we  cannot  help  regarding 
heathen  sacrifices  as  offered  to  evil  spirits, 
(21)  and  it  is  morally  impossible  to  share  both 
in  the  Table  and  Cup  of  the  Lord,  and  in 
those  of  evil  spirits  ;  (22)  we  cannot  afford  to 
provoke  the  Lord  to  jealousy.' 


908 


14.  Flee  from  idolatry]  do  not  run  into 
temptation  by  attending  these  sacrificial  feasts. 

15.  As  to  wise  men]  such  as  the  Corinth- 
ians prided  themselves  on  being:  cp.  318  46 
810.  They  could  judge  how  incongruous  it 
was,  after  having  by  the  Eucharist  been  made 
partakers  of  Christ,  to  share  in  idol  sacrifices, 
and  so  enter  into  fellowship  with  evil  spirits. 

16.  Cup  of  blessing]  the  cup  of  wine  upon 
which  a  blessing  was  pronounced.  We  bless] 
i.e.  consecrate  by  thanksgiving  and  prayer. 

Communion  of  the  blood  of  Christ]  In  c.  11 
St.  Paul  presents  the  Eucharist  under  the 
aspect  of  a  memorial  of  Christ's  death;  here 
under  that  of  communion  with  Him  ;  hence 
om-  term  '  Holy  Communion  '  for  this  Sacra- 
ment. Partaking  of  the  Cup  bestows  spiritual 
communion  with  Christ,  helping  those  who 
have  faith  to  receive  more  and  more  of  His 
spirit  and  influence.  So  partaking  of  the  Bread 
brings  the  same  spiritual  blessings.  Both  form 
one  act  of  communion,  the  only  difference 
being  that  while  partaking  of  the  Cup  their 
thoughts  are  fixed  on  Christ's  Blood  shed  for 
many,  and  while  partaking  of  the  Bread,  upon 
His  broken  Body.  We  break]  following 
Christ's  own  institution  (Mt  26  26, 27).  The 
Church  is  spoken  of  as  doing  what  was  actually 
done  by  its  president  (Ac20ii).  17.  For  we 
being  many]  better,  RM  '  Seeing  that  there  is 
one  bread,  we  who  are  many  are  one  body.'  It 
is  a  Sacrament  of  unity  in  Christ;  partakers  of 
the  one  Bread,  broken  and  distributed  to  each, 
we  all  partake  sacramentally  of  Christ's  Body, 
and  are  thus  '  members  incorporate  in  His 
mystical  Body,  the  blessed  company  of  all 
faithful  people.' 

18.  Israel  after  the  flesh]  the  natural  Israel. 
We  Christians  are  the  true  Israel,  who  do 
God's  will  (Gal  6 16).  Partakers  of  (RV 
'have  communion  with')  the  altar]  i.e.  with 
God,  whose  share  was  offered  on  it:  see  on 
913.  Or,  '  communion  (with  God)  in  (by)  the 
altar.'  '  The  altar  on  which  the  victim  was 
given  to  Jehovah,  and  from  which  it  was  given 
back  to  the  offerers,  was  a  meeting-place  of 
communion  between  God  and  His  people  ' 
(Evans).  19.  That  the  idol  is  any  thing] 
no  contradiction  of  8  •*. ".  20.  They  sacrifice 
to  devils  (lit.  'demons'),  and  not  to  God]  an 
echo  of  Dt  32 17.  St.  Paul  means  that  while 
particular  heathen  gods  have  no  real  existence, 
yet  idolatrous  worship  is  the  invention  of  evil 
spirits,  who  instigate  the  excesses  connected 
with  it.  To  join  in  idolatrous  feasts  is  to  come 
into  contact  and  fellowship  with  these  spirits. 

21.  Cannot]  It  is  morally  impossible ;  to 
indulge  in  the  latter  makes  the  former  a  mere 
mockery. 

22.  Provoke  the  Lord  to  jealousy]  (from  Dt 
3216,21  ;  cp.  Ex  20  5)  by  dividing  an  allegiance. 

Are  we  stronger  than  he  ?]  This  was  really 


10.  23 


1  CORINTHIANS 


11.3 


what  the  conduct  of  those  who  frequented 
idol-feasts  amounted  to — a  challenge  to  God. 
How  absurd  their  conduct  when  thus  analysed  ! 

10 -3-1 1 1.  Practical  directions.  St.  Paul 
has  shown  the  moral  danger  of  joining  in  what 
was  avowedly  a  sacrificial,  idolatrous  feast. 
He  now  comes  to  cases  where  it  was  lawful  to 
eat  meat  that  had  been  offered  in  sacrifice  to 
idols,  provided  the  feelings  of  others  were 
considered. 

Paraphrase.  '  (23,  24)  In  dealing  with  the 
limits  within  which  Christian  liberty  may  be 
exercised,  we  have  to  consider  not  merely 
whether  a  thing  is  permissible,  but  whether  it 
is  helpful  to  others,  as  well  as  to  ourselves. 
(25,  26)  You  may  freely  eat,  without  asking 
questions,  any  meat  you  buy  in  the  market, 
for  all  that  is  in  the  world  is  from  God,  and 
therefore  good.  (27)  And  if  you  go  to  a 
feast  at  a  friend's  house,  eat,  without  ques- 
tioning, whatever  is  placed  before  you  ;  (28, 
29)  but  if  told  that  anything  has  been  offered 
in  sacrifice,  abstain  from  it,  so  as  not  to  wound 
the  conscience  of  your  informant.  (29,  30) 
Remember  it  is  entirely  for  his  sake  that  you 
abstain  ;  for  in  the  abstract  it  is  not  well  that 
another's  conscience  should  be  scandalised  by 
the  liberty  I  exercise,  or  that  what  I  receive 
as  God's  good  gift  should  cause  me  to  be 
maligned.  (31)  So  not  only  eat  and  drink,  but 
do  everything,  to  God's  glory  ;  (32)  and 
avoid  giving  offence  to  men,  whether  Jews,  or 
heathen,  or  fellow-Christians.  (33)  Remem- 
ber that  I  always  seek  to  deny  myself  for 
others  with  a  view  to  their  profit  and  salva- 
tion. (1 1 1)  Follow  my  example  in  this  respect 
as  I  follow  Christ's.' 

23.  All  things  (i.e.  things  indifferent)  are 
lawful]  see  on  6 1->  i^.  Edify]  lit.  '  build  up  ' 
the  Christian  character.  24.  Another's  wealth'] 
RV  '  his  neighbour's  good.'  '  Wealth  '  is  old 
English  for  '  welfare.'  25.  Shambles]  the 
meat  market.  Asking  no  question  for  con- 
science sake]  i.e.  so  as  not  to  trouble  your 
conscience,  or,  not  stopping  to  consult  con- 
science. St.  Paul  does  not  want  to  encour- 
age unhealthy  scruples.  26.  The  earth  is  the 
Lord's,  and  the  fulness  thereof]  i.e.  all  its 
contents  (Ps24i)  ;  said  to  have  been  a  Jewish 
grace  before  meat.  RV  omits  these  words 
at  end  of  v.  28.  29.  Of  another]  RV  '  by 
another.'  Stevens  paraphrases  the  v.,  '  Such 
action  would  have  its  entire  reason  in  the 
weakness  of  the  scrupulous  man,  for,  in  itself 
considered,  one's  liberty  is  not  determined  by 
some  one  else's  conscience,  but  by  his  own.' 

30.  If  I  by  grace  be  a  partaker]  RM,  better, 
'  If  I  partake  with  thankfulness  '  :  cp.  1  Tim 
43-5  Evil  spoken  of]  Heathens,  or  weak 
Christians,  would  think  it  grossly  inconsistent 
to  thank  God  for  food  offered  to  idols. 

31.  Do  all  to  the  glory  of  God]  The  prin- 


ciple the  Apostle  has  been  inculcating  in 
respect  of  meats  has  a  universal  application. 

32.  None  offence]  RV  'no  occasion  of 
stumbling.'  33.  I  please  all  ineii]  cp.  9^2,  and 
especially  RolS^'^,  'Let  every  one  of  us 
please  his  neighbour  for  his  good  to  edifica- 
tion '  :  contrast  Gal  1 10. 

C.  II.  I.  Be  ye  followers  of  me]  cp.  iifj. 
For  Christ's  example  cp.  Phil  2*  Ro  153, 
'  even  Christ  pleased  not  himself.'  This  v.  is 
closely  joined  to  the  preceding  ;  11 2  begins  a 
new  section. 

CHAPTER  11 
Disorders  in  Worship 

2-16.  (c)  The  Veiling  op  Women  in 
Church 

2.  Now  I  praise  you]  This  v.  introduces 
the  two  following  sections.  The  Apostle 
begins  by  praising  them,  perhaps  echoing 
words  from  their  own  letter,  for  keeping  the 
rules  and  teaching  he  had  given  ;  but  goes  on 
to  rebuke  faults  that  have  come  to  his  know- 
ledge. Keep  the  ordinances]  RV  '  hold  fast 
the  traditions'  :  cp.  2Th2i5.  i  delivered ^Aew 
to  you]  1123  153_  Probably  here  rules  for 
worship  are  specially  meant. 

3-16.  Dress  of  women  in  public  worship. 
In  Greek,  as  well  as  in  Eastern  cities,  it 
was  customary  for  women,  except  those  of 
bad  character,  to  cover  their  heads  in  public. 
Some  of  the  female  Corinthian  converts  had 
discontinued  this  practice  in  Christian  worship, 
thus  practically  claiming  equality  with  men. 
Now  St.  Paul  himself  taught  that  '  there  can 
be  no  male  and  female  :  for  ye  are  all  one  in 
Christ  Jesus  '  (Gal  3  28^  written  either  shortly 
before  or  shortly  after  1  Cor).  By  this  he 
meant  that  salvation  is  offered  to  all  alike, 
all  are  alike  in  spiritual  position  ;  but  these 
women  had  taken  such  teaching  to  mean  that 
all  social  subordination  to  men  was  also  done 
away.  But  just  as  in  the  case  of  slavery  (see 
on  7  21),  Christianity  did  not  come  to  abolish 
existing  social  conditions.  It  has  done  much 
to  improve  the  condition  of  women,  but  has 
done  so  gradually.  And  when  all  is  said, 
there  remains  a  natural  subordination  of 
women  to  men  ;  and  the  conduct  of  these 
women  in  the  prevailing  circumstances  of 
the  age  was  likely  to  bring  reproach  on 
Christianity. 

St.  Paul  first  lays  down  the  principle  of 
subordination.  He  then  speaks  of  the  un- 
seemliness of  the  practice  in  question,  and 
of  its  converse,  namely,  men  covering  their 
heads  ;  and  shows  how  this  matter  comes 
under  the  above  principle,  while  women  are 
not  degraded  by  this  subordination.  He  next 
uses  corroboratory  arguments  from  nature, 
and  finally  appeals  to  the  practice  of  all  other 
Churches. 


909 


11.5 


1  CORINTHIANS 


11.  17 


Paraphrase.  '  (3)  Every  man  is  subordinate 
to  Christ  ;  woman,  on  the  other  hand,  is  sub- 
ordinate to  man,  just  as  Christ  is  subordinate 
to  God.  (4)  Now,  on  this  principle,  if  neces- 
sary, if  any  man  were  to  worship  with  covered 
head  he  would  disgrace  himself,  because  the 
covered  head  is  the  symbol  of  inferior  position. 

(5)  In  the  same  way  every  woman  who  wor- 
ships without  her  veil,  thus  violating  the 
custom  among  women  of  good  character,  acts 
discreditably  and  brings  shame  upon  herself. 

(6)  Indeed,  she  might  as  well  have  her  hair 
cut  short  ;  and  she  knows  the  shame  attaching 
to  that.  (7-9)  The  man,  therefore,  as  receiv- 
ing his  authority  directly  from  God,  ought  to 
keep  his  head  uncovered  in  worship  ;  whereas 
the  woman  should  veil  her  head  as  the  sign 
that  her  authority  is  derived  from  man.  (10) 
And  this  is  the  more  necessary  when  we  re- 
member that  the  angels  are  witnesses  of 
Christian  worship.  (11,  12)  But,  after  all, 
in  the  Christian  life  man  and  woman  are 
dependent  upon  each  other,  just  as  they  are 
in  natural  life,  and  in  all  things  they  are 
dependent  upon  God.  (13-15)  Now,  just  say 
yourselves  if  it  is  seemly  for  a  woman  to  wor- 
ship unveiled.  Why,  even  nature,  by  giving 
her  long  hair  for  a  natural  veil,  asserts  the 
contrary.  (16)  But  if  any  one  is  still  uncon- 
vinced, let  me  say,  once  for  all,  that  this  practice 
of  the  unveiling  of  women  is  unknown  to  us  and 
to  the  Churches  of  God.' 

3.  The  head  of  every  man  is  Christ]  as  the 
Son  of  man,  the  second  Adam  ;  and  so  the 
head  of  all  men:  cp.  Eph4i5.  The  head  of 
the  woman]  cp.  Eph522. 23_  Woman  was 
socially  subordinate  to  man,  and  this  was  to 
be  recognised  in  her  behaviour  at  public  wor- 
ship. The  head  of  Christ  is  God]  He  is  sub- 
ordinate to  the  Father  (a)  in  His  humanity, 
His  mediatorial  work,  (6)  as  deriving  His 
nature  from  the  Father  :  see  on  3  23.  4.  Pro- 
phesying] i.e.  uttering  a  revelation  of  God's 
will.  Dishonoureth  his  head]  because  he  is  wear- 
ing the  mark  of  dependence.  5.  Dishonoureth 
her  head]  through  not  wearing  the  symbol  of 
dependence.  As  if  she  were  shaven]  i.e.  it  is 
as  shameful  as  if  her  hair  were  cut  off.  6.  Be 
shorn]  be  like  men  in  this  also.  A  shame]  it 
was  the  punishment  of  an  adulteress.  7.  Image 
and  glory  of  God]  displaying  most  fully  the 
divine  perfections  (Gn  1  2<J).  The  v/oman  is 
the  glory  of  the  man]  The  meaning  is  that 
while  man's  authority  is  derived  directly  from 
God,  woman's  authority  is  derived  from  man. 
She  thus  receives  not  immediate  but  reflected 
light,  so  to  speak.  8,  9.  Of  the  man .  .  for  the 
man]  cp.  Gn 218-23,  jo.  Power]  RV  'a  sign 
of  authority,'  i.e.  that  she  is  under  authority. 

Because  of  the  angels]  The  angels  were  con- 
ceived to  be  present  as  witnesses  of  and  sharers 
in  Christian  worship.     The  recollection  of  this 


should  make  the  worshippers  more  reverential : 
cp.  '  With  angels  and  archangels  .  .  we  laud  and 
magnify  thy  glorious  name.'  11,12.  See  out- 
line. 14.  Nature]  i.e.  the  natural  order  of 
things,  and  man's  sense  of  its  fitness.  For 
such  guidance,  cp.  Ilo2i'i. 

15.  The  argument  is  that  God,  by  providing 
woman  with  a  natural  veil,  has  taught  that  she 
ought  to  cover  her  head  before  Him. 

16.  Contentious]  argumentative  ;  not  open 
to  conviction.  No  such  custom]  i.e.  that 
women  should  be  unveiled.  For  similar  ap- 
peal to  the  example  of  other  Churches,  see  on 
417  717  1433-36;  cp.  with  the  whole  passage 
vv.  3-16,  Eph522-24  lTim28-i5. 

17-34.  (fZ)  The  Proper  Observance  op 
THE  Lord's  Supper 

Like  other  societies  and  guilds  in  Greek 
cities,  the  early  Christians  used  to  have  a 
common  meal,  to  which  all  contributed  accord- 
ing to  their  power,  the  rich  helping  their  poorer 
brethren.  Being  thus  a  token  of  brotherly 
love  and  Cbristian  fellowship,  it  was  called  a 
'  Love  Feast '  (Gk.  agape,  see  Jude  v.  12 
RV).  In  the  earliest  times  the  Eucharist 
was  connected  with  it,  as  at  the  institution  of 
the  Lord's  Supper,  from  which  perhaps  this 
feast  was  copied.  But  later  on,  perhaps  in 
consequence  of  such  disorders  as  those  here 
mentioned,  the  two  were  separated,  the  Eu- 
charist being  held  in  the  morning,  the  Love 
Feast  in  the  evening  ;  and  the  latter  gradually 
died  out.  Here  the  two  are  clearly  united, 
and  it  is  not  clear  whether  '  the  Lord's  Supper ' 
means  the  whole  feast  or  the  memorial  service 
preceding  or  following  the  '  Love  Feast.' 

This  feast  had  been  greatly  abused  by  the 
selfishness  and  individualism  so  prevalent  at 
Corinth.  Each  individual  or  small  clique 
began  at  once  to  consume  the  food  and  wine 
brought  by  themselves  without  waiting  for  the 
whole  community  to  assemble,  and  without 
letting  the  poorer  brethren  share  with  them. 
What  ought  to  have  been  an  evidence  of 
brotherly  love  had  become  an  exhibition  of 
selfish  greed  ;  and  under  these  circumstances  it 
was  impossible  to  have  an  orderly  and  reverent 
administration  of  Holy  Communion.  See  also 
art.  '  The  Church  in  the  Apostolic  Age.' 

St.  Paul  in  this  passage  denounces  this  con- 
duct (vv.  17-19).  He  blames  them  for  the 
divisions  and  abuses  which  desecrated  their 
religious  meetings,  and  shows  (vv.  20-22)  how 
this  spirit  is  fatal  to  the  proper  observance  of 
the  Lord's  Supper.  He  reminds  them  of  the 
institution  and  meaning  of  the  Eucharist  (w. 
23-26),  of  the  need  of  partaking  in  a  right 
spirit,  and  the  sin  and  penalty  of  doing  other- 
wise (vv.  27-32).  He  concludes  (vv.  33,  34) 
with  practical  recommendations,  which  he  will 
supplement  when  he  comes. 


910 


11.17 


1  CORINTHIANS 


11.  25 


17-34.  Paraphrase.  'I  wrote  of  praising 
you  for  keeping  my  ordinances,  but  I  cannot 
praise  you  with  regard  to  your  Church  meet- 
ings, which,  as  now  conducted,  do  you  more 
harm  than  good.  (18)  First  I  hear  of  there 
being  factions  among  you  there,  and  1  think 
there  must  be  some  truth  in  the  report.  (19) 
The  existence  of  such  parties  serves,  at  all 
events,  to  make  known  true  Christians.  (20) 
But  the  result  of  this  factious  spirit  is  that 
in  your  meetings  there  is  no  proper  observ- 
ance of  the  Lord's  Supper  ;  (21)  each  cares 
only  for  himself  ;  some  get  too  little,  some 
too  much.  (22)  Cannot  you  satisfy  your 
hunger  at  home  ?  Do  you  dare  to  treat  with 
contempt  the  Church  of  God  and  your  poorer 
brethren?  (23-25)  Call  to  mind  what  I 
taught  you,  as  I  myself  received  it  from  the 
Lord,  about  the  most  solemn  institution  of 
this  Sacrament.  (26)  The  observance  of  it  is 
a  constant  proclamation  of  the  Lord's  death 
for  man  till  His  return  ;  (27)  to  partake  of  it 
unworthily  is  to  be  guilty  of  insult  to  the 
Lord's  Body  and  Blood  offered  for  us.  (28) 
Let  every  one,  then,  first  examine  his  motives 
for  coming.  (29)  Any  one  not  realising  the 
presence  of  the  Lord's  Body  in  this  Sacrament 
brings  a  judgment  on  himself,  (30)  hence  the 
prevalence  of  sickness  and  death  among  you. 
(31,  32)  If  we  would  but  judge  ourselves,  we 
should  not  be  so  judged  ;  but  this  judgment  is 
the  Lord's  chastening,  to  save  us  from  final 
condemnation  with  the  world.  (33)  Therefore 
avoid  this  greedy  selfishness,  (34)  and  satisfy 
your  appetite  at  home,  that  your  meetings 
may  not  bring  down  a  judgment  upon  you. 
Other  matters  I  will  settle  when  I  come.' 

17.  The  Apostle  had  praised  them  (v.  2)  for 
keeping  his  instructions  ;  and  had  gone  on  to 
instruct  them  further  regarding  the  veiling  of 
women,  a  subject  he  had  probably  not  needed 
to  mention  before.  He  now  tells  them  that 
his  praise  is  qualified.  In  this]  RV  '  in  giving 
you  this  charge.'  Ye  come  together]  for  Church 
meetings.  Not  for  the  better]  which  ought  to 
be  the  result  of  all  religious  meetings.  18.  In 
the  church]  i.e.  as  always  in  the  NT.,  not 
the  building,  but  the  assembly  ;  EM  '  in  con- 
gregation.' Divisions]  or,  'schisms,'  lit.  'splits.' 
They  split  up  at  their  meeting  into  different 
sets.  19.  There  must  be  also  heresies]  cp. 
Mtl8'^,  '  It  must  needs  be  that  offences  come,' 
i.e.  owing  to  human  weakness  and  sinfulness. 

Heresies]  RM  'factions'  :  cp.  Gal 5 20.  The 
word  (lit.  '  choice,'  then  '  chosen  opinions,'  or 
'  a  party  holding  opinions  of  their  own ')  is 
repeatedly  used  of  the  sects  of  the  Jews.  That 
they  which  are  approved,  etc.]  i.e.  these  parties 
'  are  a  magnet  attracting  unsound  and  unsettled 
minds,  and  leaving  genuine  believers  to  stand 
out  approved   by  their  constancy  '  (Findlay). 

20.   This  is  not  to  eat]  RV  '  it  is  not  possible 


91 


to  eat.'  Their  selfishness  (v.  21)  was  fatal  to 
the  proper  spirit  of  devotion  and  brotherly 
love  ;  it  became  no  more  than  an  ordinary 
meal.  The  Lord's  supper]  This  name  occurs 
only  here  in  the  NT.  ;  it  is  uncertain  whether 
it  refers  here  to  the  Eucharist  alone,  or  to  the 
whole  supper,  or  Love  Feast.  21.  Every  one 
taketh,  etc.]  corrected,  v.  33.  See  introduc- 
tory remarks  on  vv.  17-34.  22.  Have  ye  not 
houses]  cp.  V.  34.  Despise  ye  the  church  of 
God]  i.e.  by  thinking  only  of  yourselves,  and 
not  of  the  welfare  of  the  whole  household  of 
God.  Them  that  have  not  (RV  '  nothing  ')]  i.e. 
the  poor,  who  have  no  food  to  bring.  I  praise 
you  not]  cp.  v.  2.  They  had  not  kept  this 
'  tradition  he  had  delivered  them.' 

23.  I  have  received  of  the  Lord]  It  is  doubt- 
ful whether  this  must  mean  '  by  direct  rela- 
tion,' or  whether  it  may  be  '  through  instruc- 
tion from  others':  cp.  15 3.  Probably  the 
facts  were  learnt  from  older  Christians,  but 
their  full  significance  was  directly  revealed  to 
him  by  the  Lord.  St.  Paul  contrasts  here  the 
solemn  circumstances  of  the  institution  of  the 
Sacrament  with  the  disorderly  scenes  accom- 
panying its  frequent  celebration  at  Corinth. 
Which  also  I  delivered  unto  you]  Instruction 
about  this  Sacrament  formed  part  of  St.  Paul's 
earliest  teaching  to  his  converts.  The  same 
night  in  vw^hich  he  was  betrayed]  The  mention 
of  this  calls  to  mind  all  the  circumstances  of 
the  Passion,  which  we  see  St.  Paul  and  his  readers 
must  have  fully  known,  and  so  gives  force  to 
His  last  command.  The  account  here  of  the 
Institution  of  the  Eucharist  agrees  closely 
with  that  given  by  St.  Luke,  who  may  have 
been  familiar  with  the  words  St.  Paul  used 
when  consecrating  ;  and  differs  slightly  from 
the  accounts  of  St.  Matthew  and  St.  Mark. 
The  one  phrase  found  only  here  is,  '  This  do 
ye,  as  oft  as  ye  drink  it,  in  remembrance  of 
me.'  24.  Take,  eat]  RV  omits.  In  the  MSS 
which  have  this  reading  the  copyists  probably 
supplied  it  from  St.  Matthew's  Gospel,  for  the 
sake  of  securing  uniformity  in  the  accounts  of 
the  institution. 

Is  broken  for  you]  RV  'is  for  you.'  St. 
Luke  says,  '  which  is  given  for  you.'  This  do 
in  remembrance  of  me]  So  Lk,  not  Mt,  Mk. 

This  do]  i.e.  all  that  was  done  then — '  Take, 
bless,  break,  distribute,'  eat.  In  remembrance 
of  me]  or,  '  as  a  memorial  of  Me  '  and  of  My 
atoning  death  (v.  20) — one  great  aspect  of 
the  Eucharist.  25.  When  he  had  supped] 
RV  '  after  supper.'  The  bread  was  taken  and 
distributed  by  our  Lord  during  the  Passover 
feast  :  cp.  Mt2626  ;  the  cup  was  given  at  the 
close  of  the  feast,  and  may  have  been  the  or- 
dinary cup  of  thanksgiving  taken  at  the  con- 
clusion of  the  Passover  feast,  set  apart  by 
Christ  to  this  special  purpose  henceforth.  This 
cup  is  the  new  testament  (RV  '  covenant ')  in 
I 


11.26 


1  CORLNTHIANS 


12.  10 


my  blood]  SoLk,  Mt,  Mk,  '  this  is  my  blood  of 
the  covenant.'  Christ's  Blood  establishes  a 
new  covenant  between  God  and  man,  one  of 
forgiveness  and  grace  :  cp.  Heb8*^-i3  gisf. 
The  cup  is  a  seal  or  assurance  of  our  being  in- 
cluded within  this  covenant.  26.  Ye  do  show 
the  Lord's  death]  The  celebration  is  '  a  living 
sermon.' 

27.  Eat .  .  and  drink]  RV  '  eat .  .  or  drink.' 
This  suggests  a  possible  interval  between  the 
two  :  see  on  v.  25.  Unworthily]  i.e.  carelessly, 
irreverently,  as  if  an  ordinary  meal,  regardless 
of  its  sacred  meaning.  Guilty  of  the  body  and 
blood]  i.e.  he  sins  against  them  ;  by  insulting 
the  Sign,  he  insults  the  thing  signified.  28.  Let 
a  man  examine  (RV  '  prove  ')  himself]  i.e.  see 
that  he  understands  the  sacrament,  and  is  in 
a  fit  moral  condition  to  receive  it.  29.  Un- 
worthily] RV  omits  here,  and  for  not  discern- 
ing reads,  '  if  he  discern  not  the  body,'  i.e.  if 
he  does  not  realise  that  it  is  not  mere  bread, 
but  the  Lord's  Body  that  is  given  under  the 
symbol,  and  if  while  he  partakes  of  the  bread 
he  does  not  also  receive  inwardly  of  Christ's 
spirit  and  increase  in  consciousness  of  union 
with  Him.  Damnation]  RV  '  judgment,'  not 
final  condemnation,  but  God's  chastening 
punishment  intended  to  bring  to  repentance, 
and  so  save  from  the  final  condemnation  of 
the  ungodly  world  (v.  32).  So  vv.  31,  34, 
where  RV  reads  '  judgment '  for  '  condemna- 
tion.' 30.  For  this  cause]  Their  irreverence 
had  led  God  to  punish  them  by  disease  and 
death  (sleep,  i.e.  '  in  death ').  They  had  been 
visited  with  sickness,  and  St.  Paul  was  enlight- 
ened by  God  to  see  in  this  the  punishment  of 
this  irreverence.  It  is  possible,  however,  that 
the  words  may  be  used  in  the  spiritual  sense, 
and  may  refer  to  the  moral  condition  of  the 
Corinthians.  31.  Judge  ourselves]  realise  our 
true  condition.  33,  34.  These  vv.  correct 
abuses  described  vv.  21,  22. 

St.  Paul  regards  the  Eucharist  as,  (1)  a 
means  of  communion  with  Christ  (10^*''^''')  ; 
(2)  a  sign  of  brotherhood  by  which  all  Chris- 
tians are  united  together  (lO^'')  ;  (3)  a  memorial 
of  Christ  and  of  His  death  for  man  (1124-26)  ; 
and  he  records  Christ's  words  which  describe 
it  as  (4)  the  Seal  of  the  New  Covenant.  From 
these  chs.  we  get  the  phrases  '  Holy  Com- 
munion,' 'Lord's  Table,'  'Lord's  Supper.' 

CHAPTERS  12-14 
(e)  Spiritual  Gifts 
In  the  early  Church  various  powers,  facul- 
ties, and  graces  were  bestowed  on  individual 
Christians  by  the  Holy  Spirit.  Some  of  these 
were  distinctly  miraculous,  such  as  prophecy, 
tongues,  power  to  work  miracles  ;  others  were 
less  extraordinary  gifts,  such  as  teaching  or 
wisdom  ;  or  special  graces  of  Christian  char- 
acter, such  as  love.      The  Apostle  does  not 


distinguish  between  these  classes  ;  all  alike 
come  from  the  same  Source,  and  are  to  be 
exercised  for  the  good  of  all.  The  Corinthians 
were  inclined  to  overvalue  the  more  showy 
gifts,  especially  that  of  tongues.  Those  pos- 
sessing this  gift  were  tempted  to  use  it  for 
mere  display  ;  those  not  possessing  it  envied 
these  others,  and  undervalued  their  own  gifts. 
St.  Paul  first  (c.  12)  shows  that  all  these 
gifts  come  from  the  same  Spirit,  and  all  alike 
contribute  to  the  well-being  of  the  Church. 
But  love  (c.  13)  surpasses  them  all  ;  without 
it  they  are  of  no  avail.  Of  these  gifts, 
prophecy  (i.e.  inspired  preaching,  revelation 
of  God's  will)  is  better  than  tongues  because 
it  builds  up  the  Church,  and  produces  a  better 
effect  upon  unbelievers  (c.  14).  But  the  exer- 
cise of  both  gifts  must  be  so  regulated  that 
all  things  may  be  done,  (a)  '  to  edifying '  ;  (b) 
'  decently  and  in  order.' 

CHAPTER  12 

(e)  Spiritual  Gifts 
(i)  Their  Nature  and  Relations 

1-3.  The  test  of  the  Spirit's  presence  is  the 
confession  of  Jesus  as  the  Lord.  It  would 
seem  that  some  members  of  the  Church,  carried 
away  by  their  excitement  when  speaking  in 
the  congregation  under  the  power  of  the 
Spirit,  as  they  said,  had  called  Jesus  accursed, 
as  if  they  had  been  unbelievers.  No  such 
utterance,  says  the  Apostle,  can  proceed  from 
any  one  who  speaks  by  the  Spirit. 

2.  Gentiles]  and  so  ignorant  of  all  spiritual 
gifts,  and  requiring  guidance  now.  3.  Where- 
fore] i.e.  because  these  gifts  differ  from  any 
experience  you  had  when  heathens.  Calleth 
Jesus  accursed]  RV  '  saith,  Jesus  is  anathema,' 
as  unbelieving  Jews  would  say.  Jesus  is  the 
Lord]  cp.Ro  lO^(RV).  This  sincere  confes.sion 
is  the  essence  of  Christianity,  and  proves  the 
presence  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  the  possession  of 
a  gift  from  Him.  For  a  similar  test  cp.  1  Jn 
2 1-3.  Prof.  Stevens  paraphrases  thus  :  '  The 
very  first  thing  to  be  understood  is  that  the 
confession  of  Jesus  Christ  as  Lord  is  the  key- 
note of  all  inspired  speech.  The  primary  test 
of  the  Spirit's  inspiration  is  :  Do  you  acknow- 
ledge the  Lordship  of  Christ  ?  ' 

4-1 1.  There  are  many  gifts,  but  all  are 
bestowed  by  one  Spirit. 

4,  5,  6.  Spirit .  .  Lord  .  .  God]  The  doctrine 
of  the  Holy  Trinity  is  implied  here.  Adminis- 
trations] RV  '  ministrations  '  ;  ways  in  which 
the  Lord  is  served.  Operations]  RV  '  work- 
ings.' Which  worketh  all  in  all]  i.e.  who  is  the 
author  and  instigator  of  all  these  activities  in 
all  who  possess  them.  7.  The  gift  by  which 
the  Spirit  manifests  His  presence  is  given  to 
each  for  the  common  good  of  all.  9.  Faith] 
i.e.  (probably)  a  great  wonder-working  faith 
(13  2  Hebliss).     10.   Prophecy]    i.e.   inspired 


912 


12.  11 


1  CORINTHIANS 


13.. 


utterance  of  God's  mind  ;  not  only  '  fore- 
telling.'but '  forth-telling  ':  see  on  14 1.  Dis- 
cerning of  spirits]  power  to  recognise  whether 
a  man  were  a  true  or  a  false  prophet.  Tongues 
.  .  interpretation]  cp.  intro.  to  c.  14.  ii.  As 
he  will]  Notice  the  personality  and  the  freedom 
of  the  Spirit. 

12-31.  The  Church  is  like  the  human  body. 
It  consists  of  many  members,  with  different 
functions,  but  all  intended  to  promote  the 
good  of  the  whole.  Thus  there  is  no  room  for 
selfish  display,  envy  of  others'  gifts,  contempt 
of  one's  own  :  cp.  Ro  12  *.  ^  Eph  4 1^,  I6  ;  and  the 
Roman  fable  of  the  belly  and  the  members. 

12,  13.  Stevens  paraphrases  thus  :  '  The 
unity  of  those  who  possess  the  various  gifts  is 
analogous  to  the  unity  of  the  body  ;  they  are 
all  one  in  Christ.  Their  baptism  into  Christ 
signifies  their  unity  in  Him,  whatever  their 
nationality  or  social  condition.'  12.  Are]  i.e. 
constitute  one  body.  So  also  /.s  Christ]  Christ 
is  regarded  here  as  the  personality  whose  body 
is  the  Church.  He  is  so  closely  connected  with 
the  Church  that  He  is  almost  identified  with 
it.  He  infuses  His  Spirit  into  it,  and  His 
Presence  interpenetrates  it.  Every  Christian 
is  a  member  of  Christ's  body — head,  hand, 
foot,  eye,  ear,  or  some  other  equally  essential 
member.  13.  Into  one  body]  i.e.  so  as  to  be- 
come one  body  :  cp.  Eph4'i.  Have  been  all 
made  to  drink  into  (RV  '  of ')  one  Spirit]  or, 
perhaps,  '  been  watered  with  one  Spirit.'  He 
has  poured  His  gifts  into  us  all.  15.  A 
warning  against  being  envious  of  others'  gifts, 
negligent  of  our  own.  Is  it  therefore  not  of 
the  body  ?]  RV  '  it  is  not  therefore  not  of  the 
body '  ;  it  does  not  on  this  account  cease  to 
belong  to  it. 

17*.  If  the  whole  body]  Just  as  the  differ- 
ences of  powers  and  functions  are  a  great 
advantage  to  the  body,  so  the  existence  of 
different  gifts  benefits  the  Church.  The 
position  of  each  individual,  his  possession  of 
this  or  that  gift,  has  been  ordered  by  God. 

21.  I  have  no  need  of  thee]  a  rebuke  to 
those  who  despised  those  not  possessing  their 
gifts.  23.  Bestow  more  abundant  honour]  i.e. 
by  clothing  them.     24.  No  need]  of  clothing. 

Tempered  .  .  together]  wrought  all  into 
harmony.  Given  more  abundant  honour]  by 
implanting  in  men  the  instinct  of  v.  23. 

25.  No  schism]  contrast  1 10  11 1^^  where  see 
note.  26.  All  the  members  suffer  with  it] 
What  is  true  of  the  human  body,  through  the 
nervous  connexion  of  all  its  parts,  should  be 
true  of  the  Church  :  cp.  Rol'i^. 

27-31.  Application.  The  various  offices 
and  functions  in  the  Church,  Christ's  Body. 
These  are  by  God's  assignment  ;  all  do  not 
possess  the  same  gift.  27.  Ye  are  the  body  of 
Christ]  true  of  individual  Churches,  as  here  ; 
and  of  the  Church  universal  (Eph  1 23). 


58 


913 


Members  in  particular]  i.e.  each  in  his  place  ; 
RV  '  severally  members  thereof.'  28.  First 
apostles,  etc.]  cp.  similar  list,  Eph 4^1.  It  is 
a  list  not  so  much  of  distinct  offices  as  of 
functions  and  gifts,  some  of  which  may  be 
combined  in  the  same  man.  St.  Paul  was 
Apostle,  prophet,  teacher  (Acl3i),  worked 
miracles,  and  spoke  with  tongues  (1  Cor  1418). 

Apostles]  commissioned  witnesses  of  Christ's 
Resurrection,  founders  or  organisers  of 
Churches.  Prophets]  cp.  v.  10,  inspired  re- 
vealers  of  God's  mind.  Teachers]  who  gave 
instruction  regarding  the  faith  and  the  bearing 
of  religion  upon  life  and  conduct  (v.  8). 

Helps]  including  the  original  work  of  dea- 
cons, ministration  to  the  poor  and  sick. 

Governments]  i.e.  powers  of  organisation 
and  administration,  including  much  of  the  work 
of  presbyters.  Tongues]  are  perhaps  put  last, 
because  overvalued  at  Corinth. 

30.  Interpret]  i.e.  the  tongues  (v.  10). 

31.  Covet  (RV  'desire  ')  earnestly  the  best 
(RV  '  greater  ')  gifts]  The  lowest  have  their 
place,  but  it  is  right  to  aim  at  possessing  the 
higher.  And  yet  shew  I  unto  you  a  more 
excellent  way]  RV  '  a  still  more  excellent  way 
show  I  unto  you,'  i.e.  in  which  to  possess  and 
use  them.  "To  have  them  is  good,  but  it  is 
still  more  important  to  use  them  in  a  spirit  of 
love. 

CHAPTER  13 

(e)  Spiritual  Gifts 
(ii)  The  most  excellent  Gift  of  Charity 

In  this  c.  we  enter  into  the  purest  at- 
mosphere and  breathe  the  most  fragrant 
odours.  Passing  from  the  previous  chs. 
with  their  tale  of  faction  and  scandal  and 
shame  to  this  passage  with  its  description  of 
Christian  love  is  like  passing  from  the  en- 
chanted ground  of  the  '  Pilgi-im's  Progress '  to 
the  land  of  Beulah  within  sight  of  the  Celestial 
Gate. 

The  Revised  Version  reads  '  love  '  for  charity 
throughout  the  c.  The  Gk.  word  is  translated 
'  love  '  in  most  places  of  the  NT.,  so  is  the 
corresponding  verb  always.  The  RV  change 
(1)  is  desirable  for  consistency  ;  (2)  gives  the 
Apostle's  meaning  better — love  being  much 
more  than  almsgiving  or  kindly  judgment, 
which  are  now  the  usual  meaning  of  '  charity  '  ; 
(3)  shows  St.  Paul  and  St.  John  are  agreed  in 
attaching  the  highest  value  to  love,  thus 
enforcing  the  '  great  commandment  of  the 
Law '  as  declared  by  our  Lord.  The  Gk. 
word  translated  '  charity  '  in  AV  does  not 
exist  in  classical  Greek.  It  is  found  first  in 
the  Septuagint.  The  corresponding  verb 
means  to  desire  the  good  of  one  whom  you 
esteem  ;  and  the  noun  is  appropriately  applied 
to  the  spirit  which  seeks  not  its  own  but 
others'  good,  and  sacrifices  itself  for  others. 


13.1 


1  CORINTHIANS 


14.  1 


1-3.  Great  gifts  (e.g.  tongues,  prophecy, 
knowledge,  faith)  and  even  good  deeds  are  of 
no  avail  without  love  :  cp.  Mt7^2_  What  a 
man  is,  is  more  important  than  what  he 
has. 

I.  Tongues]  the  gift  the  Corinthians  most 
valued.  Have  not  charity]  do  not  use  the 
gift  in  a  spirit  of  love.  Sounding  brass]  i.e. 
merely  so  much  noise.  2.  All  faith]  see  on 
129.  Remove  mountains]  Mt  I720  2121.  St. 
Paul  may  have  our  Lord's  words  in  mind  ; 
but  it  was  a  proverbial  expression.  3.  These 
actions  would  seem  works  of  love,  but  may 
spring  merely  from  ostentation  or  vainglory. 

Give  my  body]  A  still  greater  instance  of 
self-devotion.  To  be  burned]  Some  MSS  have, 
'  give  my  body  that  I  may  boast,'  in  self- 
approval. 

4-7.   The  character  and  actions  of  Love. 

4.  Vaunteth  not  itself]  does  not  make  a 
display.  Puffed  up]  i.e.  conceited.  5.  Seeketh 
not  her  own]  i.e.  her  own  advantage  (1024,33) 

Thinketh  no  evil]  RV  '  taketh  not  account 
of  evil '  ;    does  not  reckon  up  her  grievances. 

6.  Rejoiceth  not  in  iniquity]  i.e.  in  hearing 
or  telling  of  others'  faults  or  follies.  In  (RV 
'  with  ')  the  truth]  i.e.  in  the  spread  and  victory 
of  truth  and  right.  7.  Beareth]  without  break- 
ing down.  Believeth  all  things]  is  not  sus- 
picious ;  puts  the  best  construction  on  things. 

Endureth]  without  giving  up. 

8-13.  Love  is  eternal.  Other  gifts,  know- 
ledge, prophecy,  tongues  serve  but  a  temporary 
purpose.  'They  are  only  means  towards  an 
end.  Love  remains  the  completion  and  per- 
fection of  our  human  being'  (F.  W.  Robertson). 

9.  In  part]  partially,  imperfectly.  11.  When 
I  was  a  child]  an  illustration  of  v.  10.  Under- 
stood] RV  '  felt.'  12.  Through  a  glass]  RV 
'  in  a  mirror,'  seeing  only  a  reflection,  not  the 
actual  reality.  Ancient  mirrors  were  of  metal 
(cp.  Ex  .38  8),  often  reflecting  imperfectly. 

Darkly]  lit.  '  in  a  riddle,'  taught  by  hints 
and  metaphors.  Our  knowledge  of  divine 
things  is  necessarily  imperfect  ;  much  is  not 
revealed,  much  only  partially ;  we  have  to 
use  earthly  and  human  figures  and  language 
to  express  eternal  truths.  Know  even  as  also 
I  am  known]  '  Then  shall  I  plainly  know 
spiritual  things  with  a  knowledge  like  that  of 
God '  (Stevens)  ;  or, '  even  as  God  knows 
me.' 

15.  Now  abideth]  Probably  meaning  not 
'  these  three  exist  now,  but  finally  love  alone 
will  remain  ' ;  but,  '  the  fact  is  that  these  three 
alone  are  eternal.'  Faith  (confidence  in  God) 
will  continue  in  the  next  life  :  so  will  hope 
(expectation  of  future  good)  ;  for  that  life 
will  be  one  of  progress  not  stagnation.  The 
greatest  of  these  is  charity]  RV  '  love.'  For 
love  is  the  mainspring  of  faith  and  hope  ;  and 
'  God  is  love.' 


CHAPTER  14 

(e)  Spiritual  Gifts 

(iii)  The  Gift  of  Tongues  subordinate 
TO  Prophecy 

The  Apostle  in  this  c.  deals  with  the  abuse 
of  the  gift  of  tongues  which  characterised  the 
Corinthians,  and  declares  that  it  is  inferior  to 
the  gift  of  prophecy,  though  valuable  enough 
in  itself  if  kept  in  proper  control.  Speaking 
with  tongues  is  a  phenomenon  we  meet  with 
in  the  NT.  only  here  and  in  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles.  The  gift  as  recorded  in  Ac  2 
seems  to  have  been  the  power  to  speak 
in  foreign  languages.  We  are  told  that 
Parthians,  Medes,  and  Elamites,  as  well  as 
dwellers  in  Asia  Minor,  Egypt,  Rome,  Crete, 
and  Arabia  heard  their  own  languages  spoken 
by  the  disciples  on  the  day  of  Pentecost.  In 
the  Corinthian  Church  the  gift  of  tongues 
seems  to  have  been  manifested  in  a  different 
way.  It  took  the  form  of  ecstatic  utterance. 
Those  who  possessed  it  often  burst  forth 
during  public  worship  in  a  rhapsody  of  words, 
unintelligible  to  others  and  often  to  them- 
selves. There  were  others  who  had  the  gift 
of  interpreting  these  utterances  and  explaining 
them  to  the  congregation.  But  often  there 
was  no  interpreter  present  ;  and  the  unedify- 
ing  spectacle  was  witnessed  of  several  wor- 
shippers speaking  at  once,  and  no  one  under- 
standing a  syllable  of  what  was  said.  This 
gift,  too,  as  it  attracted  attention  and  appealed 
to  the  Greek  belief  in  prophetic  ecstasy  and 
love  of  display,  was  held  in  high  estimation 
and  anxiously  sought  after  :  but  as  the  results 
proved,  it  was  capable  of  grievous  abuse. 

The  Apostle  here  points  out  that  the  gift 
of  tongues  while  it  is  of  value  to  the  person 
who  possesses  it  (v.  4),  and  of  importance  as 
attracting  the  notice  of  unbelievers  (v.  22),  is 
of  no  benefit  to  the  Chiu"ch,  because  it  provides 
no  edification  (vv.  2,  5,  11,  12).  On  the  other 
hand,  the  gift  of  prophecy  is  a  benefit  to 
others,  for  by  it  the  Church  receives  edifying  ; 
because  the  speaker  declares  the  secrets  of 
God's  dealing  with  men  and  reveals  to  men 
their  need  of  God's  grace,  speaking  so  that  all 
can  understand  him.  Therefore  the  Apostle, 
though  himself  possessed  of  the  gift  of  tongues 
in  a  high  degree  (v.  18)  and  desiring  that 
others  should  have  it  also  (v.  6),  declares  that 
prophecy  is  a  far  higher  gift,  because  far  more 
useful  to  the  Church  (v.  5,  22,  24,  25). 

1-19.  The  gift  of  prophecy  is  better  than 
that  of  tongues,  because  it  edifies  believers. 

I.  Follow  after  charity]  Seek  a  loving 
spirit  before  all  things.  And  desire]  RV  '  yet 
desire  earnestly '  (cp.  1 2  ^i) ;  do  not  neglect  other 
gifts.  But  rather  that]  and  more  especially 
that.  Prophesy]  inspired  preaching  ;  declar- 
ing God's  mind.     A  prophet  in  Scripture  does 


914 


14.  2 


1  CORINTHIANS 


14.  25 


not  simply  foretell  the  future  ;  he  tells  forth 
the  will  of  God,  and  speaks  for  God  as  His 
mouthpiece. 

Paraphrase.  '  (2-4)  One  who  has  the  gift 
of  tongues  speaks  only  to  God  ;  he  does  not 
communicate  to  others  the  mysterious  truths 
of  which  he  is  conscious  ;  he  cultivates  only 
his  own  spiritual  life.  But  a  prophet  builds 
up  the  spiritual  life  of  the  Church  by  his 
words  of  exhortation  and  encouragement.  (5) 
I  do  not  disparage  tongues  ;  I  should  like  you 
all  to  possess  that  gift  ;  but  it  is  inferior  to 
prophecy  unless  the  speaker  can  interpret  and 
so  build  up  the  Church.  (6)  I  myself  could 
do  you  no  good  by  speaking  in  a  tongue, 
unless  I  added  interpretation  and  teaching. 
(7)  The  melody  played  upon  a  musical  in- 
strument cannot  be  recognised  unless  the 
notes  are  distinct  ;  (8)  the  bugle-call  must  be 
clear  if  it  is  to  bring  men  to  battle.  (9) 
Similarly,  unless  it  is  possible  to  understand 
what  you  say,  of  what  value  are  your  words  ? 
(10,  11)  Every  language  in  the  world  has  a 
meaning  ;  but  the  hearer  must  understand  the 
speaker's  language,  if  they  are  to  communicate 
with  one  another.  (12)  Seek  then  for  the 
spiritual  gifts  which  are  most  useful  in  edify- 
ing the  Church.  (13)  Let  him  who  has  the 
gift  of  tongues  seek  also  the  gift  of  interpreta- 
tion, (14,  15)  so  that  his  understanding  may 
have  its  part  in  his  prayer  and  praise,  as  well 
as  his  spirit.  (16,  17)  How  can  the  ordinary 
worshipper  say  "  Amen  "  when  you  give  thanks, 
if  he  does  not  understand  what  you  say  ? 
Your  thanksgiving  may  be  earnest  and  heart- 
felt, but  it  is  valueless  for  his  comfort  and 
encouragement.  (18,  19)  I  am  thankful  that 
I  am  highly  endowed  with  this  gift  ;  but  I 
would  rather  in  your  gatherings  for  worship 
say  five  words  that  would  be  helpful  to  your 
spiritual  life  than  ten  thousand  which  no  one 
could  understand.' 

2.  An  unknovyn  tongue]  R V  omits '  unknown ' : 
so  throughout  the  c.  In  AV  it  is  in  italics, 
merely  added  as  an  explanation  or  interpreta- 
tion. 4.  Edifieth  (RM  '  buildeth  up  ')  himself] 
by  conscious  communion  with  God.  6.  Except 
I  shall  speak  to  you]  i.e.  in  addition  to  (or  in- 
stead of)  speaking  with  tongues.  A  rhapsody 
of  praise  imparts  little  truth  to  others. 

9.  By  the  tongue]  i.e.  with  your  tongue, 
the  instrument  of  speech.  lo,  11.  Kinds 
of  voices]  i.e.  languages.  Barbarian]  i.e. 
foreigner.  12.  Excel]  RV  'abound,'  i.e.  in 
these  gifts.  13.  Pray  that  he  may  interpret] 
i.e.  pray  for  the  ability  to  make  known  to 
others  the  meaning  of  the  impassioned  words 
in  which  he  has  poured  out  his  spirit. 

14.  Is  unfruitful]  is  of  no  use  to  myself  or 
to  any  one  else.  16.  Bless  .  .  giving  of  thanks] 
Probably  no  special  reference  to  the  Eucharist. 
It  ia  clear  that  public  worship  was  largely  at 


least  extempore.  Every  member  who  was 
moved  to  do  so,  contributed  to  the  edification 
of  the  congregation,  by  psalm,  or  prayer,  or 
exhortation,  or  explanation  :  cp.  v.  26. 

Occupieth  the  room  (RV  '  filleth  the  place  ') 
of  the  unlearned]  RM  'him  that  is  without 
gifts '  ;  probably  here,  '  any  one  not  under- 
standing your  "  tongue."  '  The  (RV)  Amen] 
the  close  of  prayers  and  thanksgivings  among 
both  Jews  and  Christians,  expressing  the 
assent  of  the  congregation  (NehS*^  Psl06*^.) 

19.  In  the  church]  i.e.  at  a  Church  assembly. 
St.  Paul  insists  upon  Church  worship  being 
really  '  common  praj^er,'  each  worshipper 
joining  intelligently  in  what  is  said. 

20-25.  Prophecy  is  better  than  '  tongues ' 
for  convincing  unbelievers. 

Paraphrase.  '  (20)  Do  not  reason  like 
children,  but  like  grown  men  :  it  is  only 
in  regard  to  knowledge  of  evil  that  I  wish 
you  to  be  childlike.  So  do  not  overestimate 
the  more  pretentious  gift.  (21)  The  history 
of  God's  dealings  with  Israel  suggests  a  lesson 
regarding  the  use  of  unintelligible  speech. 
The  warning  of  impending  judgment  was 
brought  home  to  the  people  of  Judah  when 
they  heard  the  strange  accents  of  the  Assyrians 
among  them.  (22)  And  what  is  suggested 
to  us  is  that  the  utterances  of  those  who  have 
received  this  gift  ar6  a  sign  to  attract  the 
attention  of  unbelievers  and  warn  them  of  the 
presence  of  the  Spirit  :  whereas,  on  the  other 
hand,  prophecy  makes  its  appeal  rather  to  be- 
lievers. (23)  But  if  an  unbeliever  comes  into 
your  assembly  and  hears  only  words  uttered 
in  ecstasy  without  interpretation,  will  he 
not  suspect  you  all  of  madness  ?  (24,  25) 
Whereas  if  he  comes  in  and  finds  you  pro- 
phesying, he  is  likely  to  be  impressed  and 
converted.' 

20.  Be  not  children]  who  seek  the  showy 
rather  than  the  useful  :  cp.  MtlOi<5  Rol6i9. 

21.  In  the  law]  i.e.  theOT.  (Isa28 11.12).  As 
God  confounded  the  unbelieving  Jews  who 
rejected  Isaiah's  plain  warnings  as  folly,  by 
bringing  upon  them  invaders  (Assyrians)  of 
unintelligible  speech,  so  tongues  are  meant  to 
impress  unbelievers,  as  a  sign  of  the  existence 
of  spiritual  influences  ;  but,  as  of  old,  many 
will  be  confirmed  by  them  in  their  unbelief. 

22.  Tongues]  were  valuable  to  unbelievers 
as  a  sign  of  the  Spirit's  presence,  but  not  for 
believers,  who  already  were  convinced  of  it, 
and  who  could  appreciate  prophecy.  23.  All 
speak  with  tongues]  Not  necessarily  all  at 
once,  but  one  after  another,  leaving  space  for 
nothing  else.  Unlearned]  cp.  v.  16 ;  any  one  not 
understanding  this  gift. 

24.  He  is  convinced  of  all]  '  His  conscience 
is  aroused  and  awed  by  this  united  testimony 
to  truth'  (Massie). 

25.  In  you  of  a  truth]  '  among  you  indeed.' 


915 


14.26 


1  CORINTHIANS 


15. 


26-33.  Regulations  for  the  exercise  of  the 

various  gifts. 

Paraphrase.  '  (26)  Now,  brethren,  I  hear 
that  there  is  much  disorder  in  your  worship, 
each  of  you  being  eager  to  utter  his  psalm,  or 
lesson,  or  rhapsody,  or  interpretation,  or  ex- 
hortation, and  apt  to  interrupt  the  other.  Let 
this  disorder  cease,  and  everything  be  done 
with  a  view  to  strengthening  your  faith  and 
deepening  your  spiritual  life.  (27,  28)  Let 
no  more  than  two  or  three  speak  with  tongues 
at  any  meeting,  and  let  them  speak  in  succes- 
sion, what  they  say  being  interpreted.  But  if 
there  be  no  one  present  to  interpret,  let  them 
engage  in  silent  prayer  and  worship.  (29-31) 
So  also  with  the  prophets :  let  two  or  three 
speak  in  succession ;  and  if  some  one  be 
moved  to  speak  at  any  time,  let  him  who  is 
addressing  you  make  way.  In  this  way,  you 
will  all  get  an  opportunity  of  edifying  and 
being  edified  by  one  another.  (32,  33)  The 
prophet  who  is  truly  inspired  is  to  be  recog- 
nised by  his  self-restraint ;  for  God  does  not 
inspire  men  to  bring  disorder  into  the  Church, 
but  prompts  them  to  do  the  things  that  make 
for  peace.' 

26.  Every  one  of  you]  The  right  of  taking 
the  lead  in  public  worship  was  practically  un- 
restrained at  Corinth  ;  and  the  need  of  regu- 
lation is  here  made  very  manifest.  Hath  a 
psalm]  i.e.  to  sing  (cp.  Eph  5 1^)  ;  either  from 
the  OT.,  or  else  impromptu:  cp.  the  Magnificat, 
Benedictus,  Nunc  Dimittis.  Doctrine,  reve- 
lation] cp.  V.  6,  1228.  27.  By  two]  i.e.  two  or, 
at  most,  three  may  speak  in  succession,  if  there 
is  an  interpreter.  28.  Speak  to  himself,  and 
to  God]  i.e.  use  this  gift  at  home,  not  in 
public  worship.  29.  Let  the  other  (RV 
'  others  ')  judge]  whether  the  speakers  have 
a  message  from  God  :  cp.  1210.  30.  Be  re- 
vealed to  another]  The  speaker  is  to  conclude 
if  he  perceive  another  has  received  a  sudden 
revelation.  31.  Comforted]  i.e.  encouraged, 
exhorted.  32.  The  spirits  of  the  prophet, 
etc.]  So  let  none  maintain  he  must  speak,  or 
cannot  stop.  33.  Tlie  author']  RV  'a  God.'' 
Not  confusion,  but  peace,  is  to  His  mind  :  cp. 
R0I533.  As  in  all  churches  of  the  saints] 
i.e.  all  Christian  communities.  This  clause 
belongs  to  the  whole  preceding  paragraph, 
'  Such  arrangements  are  in  force  elsewhere, 
and  you  also  ought  to  adopt  them ' :  cp.  1 1 1<5 
41"  note. 

34-36.  Women  are  not  to  speak  in  Church 
assemblies  :  cp.  113-16  lTim2ii-i5.  In  lis 
St.  Paul  seems  to  allow,  provided  the  head  be 
covered,  what  he  forbids  here.  Either  (a)  on 
second  thoughts  he  now  forbids  it  altogether  ; 
or,  (i)  here  he  is  thinking  of  public  services  ; 
there,  of  more  private  gatherings  :  cp.  Ac 
18  20,  where  Priscilla  is  associated  with  Aquila 
in  the  teaching  of  Apollos.     See  also  161^. 


34.  As  also  saith  the  law]  Gn  3 1^ :  cp. 
1  Tim  2 13, 14.  35.  If  they  will  learn  any  thing] 
Perhaps  some  had  expressed  their  own  opinions 
under  cover  of  seeking  information.  Their 
husbands]  Most  would  be  married  ;  speaking 
would  be  still  more  unsuitable  for  the  un- 
married. 36.  Came  the  word  of  God  out  from 
you  ?]  RV  '  Was  it  from  you  that  the  word 
of  God  went  forth?  or  came  it  unto  you 
alone  ? ' ;  i.e.  you  are  neither  the  original  nor 
the  only  Church  ;  what  are  you  that  you  di- 
verge from  the  general  practice  and  set  up  a 
standard  of  your  own  ?  The  Apostle  here 
falls  back  again  on  the  weapon  of  sarcasm. 

37-40.   Conclusion  of  subject. 

Paraphrase.  '(37)  To  sum  up,  then,  let 
those  who  claim  to  have  these  spiritual  gifts 
attend  to  these  regulations,  for  they  express 
the  will  of  the  Lord.  (38)  But  if  any  one 
refuse  to  learn,  let  him  just  abide  in  his  ig- 
norance. (39)  Do  not  forbid  the  exercise  of 
ecstatic  utterance ;  but  encourage  prophecy. 
(40)  See  that  above  all  you  have  all  orderly 
and  seemly  worship.' 

37.   Spiritual]  i.e.  possessing  spiritual  gifts. 

Let  him  acknowledge]  If  their  claim  to 
have  the  Spirit  is  true,  they  will  recognise  the 
authority  of  these  regulations.  The  com- 
mandments of  the  Lord]  cp.  7 1^ ;  contrast 
7  25,  40.  38.  Let  him  be  ignorant]  RM  '  If  any 
man  knoweth  not,  he  is  not  known,'  i.e.  God 
does  not  recognise  him.  But  perhaps  the 
Apostle  means, '  If  any  man  will  not  learn,  then 
he  must  just  abide  in  his  ignorance,  with  all  its 
inevitable  loss':  cp.  Rev 22 n.  39.  Covet  to 
prophesy]  This  is  to  be  '  earnestly  desired ' 
(RV);  tongues   are  merely   allowed. 

40.  Decently]  i.  e.  in  a  becoming  and  proper 
way. 

The  principles  St.  Paul  keeps  steadily  in 
view  are,  (1)  Public  worship  must  be  edifying 
to  all ;  (2)  it  must  be  conducted  in  good 
order. 

CHAPTER  15 

(/)  The  Fact  and  the  Doctrine  of  the 
Resurrection  of  the  Dead 
Some  Corinthians  disbelieved  in  the  resur- 
rection of  the  dead — not,  apparently,  in  Christ's 
Resurrection,  though  St.  Paul  felt  this  would 
soon  follow,  but  in  their  own  future  resur- 
rection. This  occasioned  him  to  write  this 
grand  chapter,  which  has  cheered  the  hearts 
of  so  many  mourners,  read,  as  the  greater  part 
of  it  is,  at  the  burial  of  the  dead.  He  first 
(vv.  1-11)  repeats  the  historical  evidence  for 
Christ's  Resurrection,  a  truth  taught  by  all 
Christian  teachers  to  all  their  converts  ;  then 
shows  (vv.  12-19)  that  the  denial  of  theresiir- 
rection  of  the  dead  leads  logically  to  the 
denial  of  Christ's  Resurrection,  thus  over- 
throwing the  whole  Christian  faith.     He  next 


916 


i 


15. 


1  CORINTHIANS 


15.6 


(vv.  20-28)  speaks  of  the  consequences  of 
Christ's  Resurrection  :  and  (vv.  29-34)  the 
influence  of  the  hope  of  resurrection  upon 
Christian  life  and  practice. 

He  then  thiDws  light  on  the  nature  of  the 
resurrection-body  (w.  .35-44),  by  using  the 
analogy  of  seed  and  plant,  and  reminding  his 
readers  of  the  differences  now  existing  between 
various  bodies.  So  the  resurrection-body 
will  spring  from  the  earthly  one,  but  be  far 
more  glorious,  a  spiritual  body,  not  like 
Adam's  earthly  body,  but  like  Christ's  glorified 
one  (vv.  45-49).  The  bodies  of  the  living 
(vv.  50-52)  will  experience  a  similar  change. 
This  resurrection  change  is  the  final  victory 
over  sin  and  death  (vv.  53-58).  The  Apostle's 
teaching  is  to  be  distinguished  from  the  doc- 
trine of  the  immortality  of  the  soul  taught  by 
the  great  heathen  thinkers  like  Socrates  and 
Plato.  It  includes  that  doctrine,  but  adds  to 
it  the  doctrine  of  the  redemption  of  the  body 
(Ro  8  '^3) ;  and  bases  the  whole  doctrine  of  the 
resurrection-life  upon  the  fact  that  Christ  is 
risen  from  the  dead. 

The  doctrine  of  resurrection  and  future 
life  was  not  clearly  revealed  in  OT.  times. 
Death  was  commonly  regarded  not  as  the  end 
of  all  things,  but  as  followed  by  a  shadowy 
existence,  not  worth  calling  a  life,  cut  off 
from  all  its  joys  and  even  from  God  Himself 
(Ps65  885'12  isa38i8).  So  the  rewards  and 
punishments  set  before  Israel  in  the  Law  were 
temporal  ones  (Dt28).  But  God  gi-adually 
led  His  people  on  to  clearer  light.     (1)  Their 


former  '  natural '  body  (Jn  20  27) ;  capable  of 
receiving  food  (Lk24't3),  and  of  being  recog- 
nised by  those  who  had  formerly  known  Him, 
though  apparently  only  when  He  willed  to  be 
recognised  :  cp.  Lk24i5,  i6,3i.  Yet  it  could  be 
transported  mysteriously  from  place  to  place, 
passing  even  through  the  closed  doors.  St. 
Paul  uses  the  analogy  of  plant  and  seed  to 
explain  the  relation  of  the  resurrection-body 
to  the  present  one.  We  may  infer  that  the 
glorified  body  will  have  some  relation  to  the 
natural  body,  thus  preserving  personal  identity; 
but  will  not  be  composed  of  the  identical 
material  particles  of  the  body  laid  to  rest ;  it 
will  be  free  from  its  limitations  and  imper- 
fections, a  fit  abode  for  the  perfected  spirit. 

i-ii.  The  historical  evidence  for  Christ's 
Resurrection.  St.  Paul  reminds  his  converts 
of  his  original  teaching  at  Corinth — how  the 
Resurrection  was  one  of  the  essentials  of  his 
gospel  message.  As  at  Athens  (AclT^^)  he 
preached  'Jesus  and  the  Resurrection,'  and 
their  position  as  Christians  rests  upon  their 
adherence  to  this  truth.  His  great  message 
to  them  was  Christ's  atoning  death,  His  burial, 
and  His  return  from  the  grave.  He  mentions 
five  separate  appearances  of  Christ  after  His 
Resurrection,  and  finally  mentions  the  Lord's 
appearance  to  himself.  He  reminds  them 
that,  although  unworthy  to  be  called  an  Apostle 
on  account  of  His  former  persecution  of  the 
Church,  God's  grace  has  made  him  a  true 
Apostle.  And  he  concludes  by  pointing  out 
that  in  the  matter  of  proclaiming  the  Resm*- 


consciousness    of  communion   with    God  was     rection  of  Christ  he  and  the  other  Apostles 
so  strong  that  they  felt  death  could  not  end     are  at  one. 


it  (Ps  73  24-26).  (2)  They  felt  a  future  life 
was  required  to  vindicate  God's  justice. 
Isaiah  (26  ^9)  speaks  of  a  national  resurrection 
(cp.  Ezk37);  Daniel  (122)  of  an  individual 
one.  The  hope  gradually  grew  stronger  ;  in 
our  Lord's  day  the  Pharisees  held  to  it  firmly, 
though  the  Sadducees  denied  it  (2  Maccabees 
and  the  Psalms  of  Solomon,  probably  written 
by  Pharisees  about  45  B.C.,  show  the  preva- 
lence of  this  hope).  But  our  Lord's  Resur- 
rection changed  what  was  previously  only 
partially  revealed  into  a  '  sure  and  certain 
hope':  cp.  2  Tim  110.  Not  only  did  it  (1) 
prove  the  truth  of  His  claim  to  be  the  Son  of 
God  (Ro  1 4),  and  (2)  assure  men  that  His 
sacrifice  had  been  accepted  (Ro  4  25) ;  it  is 
(3)  appealed  to  by  St.  Paul  as  a  call  to  Chris- 
tians, in  virtue  of  their  mystical  union  with 
Christ,  to  live  no  longer  to  sin,  but  to  God 
(Ro  6  4,  etc.)  ;  and  (4)  it  is  the  pledge  that  we  too 
shall  rise  again  (here,  and  2  Cor  4 1*  Ro  8  ii,  etc.). 
And  what  we  gather  as  to  the  nature  of  Christ's 
resurrection-body  (Lk24  Jn20)  throws  light 
upon  the  change  in  ours,  which  will  be  con- 
formed to  the  body  of  His  glory  (Phil  3  21  RV). 
It  was  a  real  body,  bearing  the  marks  of  His 


917 


2.  Are  saved]  i.e.  are  in  the  way  of  salvation 
(see  on  1  is),  by  faith  in  the  crucified  and  risen 
Saviour.     Keep  in  memory]   RV  'hold  fast.' 

Have  believed  (RV  '  believed,'  i.e.  at  your 
conversion  and  baptism)  in  vain]  i.e.  without 
consideration,  and  so  without  stability.  3.  I 
delivered  .  .  which  I  received]  see  on  11 2, 23. 
Probably  he  '  received '  the  accounts  of  these 
appearances  of  the  risen  Lord  on  his  visit  to 
Jerusalem  (Ac927,28  Q-al  1  is.i9),  when  he  saw 
Peter  and  James.  First  of  all]  As  most  im- 
portant.     For  our  sins]  i.e.  to  atone  for  them. 

According  to  the  scriptures]  Not  by  accident, 
but  in  fulfilment  of  God's  plan  :  cp.  Isa53  Lk 
2444-46.  4,  Buried]  This  proves  the  reality  of 
both  Death  and  Resurrection.  5.  He  was 
seen]  RV  'appeared  to.'  Not  a  complete 
list.  Mary  Magdalene,  e.g.,  and  the  two  at 
Emmaus  (Lk24)  are  omitted.  He  mentions 
those  personally  known  to  himself,  and  whose 
authority  would  have  weight  at  Corinth. 

Cephas,  then  of  the  twelve]   Lk  24  33-36. 

6.  Above  five  hundred  brethren  at  once] 
probably  on  the  mountain  in  Galilee  (Mt 
2816,17).  Some  are  fallen  asleep]  i.e.  dead. 
Twenty-five  years  at  least  had  elapsed.      Sleep 


15.7 


1  CORINTHIANS 


15.21 


is  used  of  death  often  in  OT.  (e.g.  lK2io),  but 
Christ,  by  using  it  of  those  He  was  about  to 
restore  to  life  (Mt924  Jnlin-is),  and  by  His 
own  Resurrection,  which  is  the  assurance  of 
ours,  has  given  new  meaning  to  it,  viz.  not  merely 
cessation  of  the  work  of  life,  but  a  sleep  from 
which  we  shall  awake  to  new  life.  7.  James] 
The  Lord's  brother  (Gal  119  Ac  15 13).  This 
appearance  is  not  mentioned  in  the  Gospels. 

All  the  apostles]  probably  just  before  the 
Ascension,  Ac  1  ■^. 

The  present  passage  is  the  oldest  account 
of  the  appearances  of  the  risen  Lord,  written 
years  before  any  of  our  Gospels,  and  only 
about  twenty-five  years  after  the  events,  while 
hundreds  of  witnesses  were  still  living.  It  is 
thus  a  most  valuable  piece  of  evidence  as  to 
the  certainty  of  our  Lord's  Resurrection, 
which  would  remain  firmly  attested  even  if  the 
authenticity  of  our  Gospels  were  denied. 

8.  Of  me  also]  on  the  road  to  Damascus,  at 
his  conversion  (Ac  9).  Born  out  of  due  time] 
Suddenly,  without  the  gradual  training  of  the 
rest  ;  as  inferior  as  an  immature  birth  is  to  a 
mature  one.  9.  The  least  of  the  apostles]  cp. 
1  Tim  1 12-16.  10.  I  am  what  I  am]  i.e.  an 
Apostle.  Not  in  vain]  i.e.  was  justified  by  its 
results.  His  apostolic  work,  as  well  as  his 
apostleship  itself,  was  due  to  the  grace  of 
God.  II.  Or  they]  i.e.  the  other  Apostles  ; 
Christ's  Resurrection  was  taught  by  all  Chris- 
tian preachers,  accepted  by  all  believers. 

12-19.  Denial  of  the  resurrection  of  the  dead 
logically  involves  the  denial  of  Christ's  Resur- 
rection, vyhich  would  overthrow  the  whole 
Christian  Faith.  The  belief  in  the  resur- 
rection of  the  dead  is  bound  up  with  the 
Resurrection  of  Christ.  But  His  Resurrection 
shows  that  resurrection  is  not  an  impossibility, 
and  as  He  is  Son  of  man,  '  the  spiritual  head 
of  humanity,'  His  Resurrection  does  not 
stand  by  itself  ;  it  is  man's  resurrection  also. 
The  Corinthians  accepted  the  truth  of  the 
Resurrection  of  Christ,  and  the  Apostle  asks 
them  how  they  can  logically  deny  the .  truth 
of  the  resurrection  of  the  dead.  He  then 
proceeds  to  establish  the  truth  of  the  resur- 
rection of  the  dead  by  the  method  of  indirect 
proof,  showing  the  awful  consequences  which 
would  result  from  its  denial.  The  first  of 
these  impossible  consequences  is  that  Christ 
is  not  risen  ;  another  is  that  they  are  still 
unforgiven  sinners,  their  faith  being  useless  ; 
,a  third  is  that  the  Apostles  are  proclaim- 
ing falsehoods  ;  and  a  fourth  is  that  their 
beloved  dead  are  hopelessly  lost  to  them.  He 
concludes,  therefore,  that  if  their  hope  in 
Christ  has  reference  only  to  the  present  life 
they  are  in  a  pitiable  state,  for  they  are 
cherishing  a  mere  delusion,  if  there  be  no 
truth  in  the  resurrection  of  the  dead. 

12.   How  say  some  among  you,  etc.]   Their 


unbelief  probably  sprang  from  the  philosophical 
idea  that  the  matter  was  essentially  evil,  so 
that  the  soul  would  be  better  off  when  set 
free  from  the  body  ;  thus  the  doctrine  of  the 
Resurrection  was  to  them  a  needless  difficulty  : 
cp.  also  2  Tim  2 17.  The  Corinthians,  however, 
accepted  the  Resurrection  of  Christ  as  a  fact,  I 
and  the  Apostle  argues  that  they  cannot  logi- 
cally deny  the  fact  of  the  resurrection  of  the 
dead,  as  Christ's  Resun-ection  is  a  particular 
case  of  it.  13.  Then  is  Christ  not  risen]  For 
if  a  thing  be  altogether  impossible,  there  cannot 
be  even  one  instance  of  it.  In  this  and  the  ' 
following  vv.  (see  summary)  the  Apostle 
shows  the  logical  consequences  of  disbelief  in 
the  resurrection,  or,  rather,  the  consequences 
that  would  follow  were  there  no  resurrection. 
These  consequences,  he  concludes,  are  unthink- 
able or  absurd,  and,  therefore,  he  argues  that  i 
the  premises  which  produce  them  are  false. 

14.  Vain]  i.e.  there  is  nothing  in  it. 

15.  False  witnesses]  not  merely  empty 
talkers,  but  positive  liars.  No  thoughtful 
sceptic  now-a-days  regards  the  Apostles  as- 
impostors.  Their  character,  as  well  as  their 
sufferings,  forbids  this  ;  but  he  would  say  they 
were  victims  of  a  mistake — merely  imagined 
they  saw  the  risen  Lord.  But  the  idea  of 
this  never  enters  St.  Paul's  mind  ;  it  was  to 
him  perfectly  impossible  that  they  could  have 
been  mistaken.  17.  Yet  in  your  sins]  not 
justified  from  them  (Ro22S);  unforgiven, 
unrenewed.  '  Christ's  Resurrection  is  the  seal 
of  our  justification  and  the  spring  of  our 
sanctification '  (Findlay).  If  there  be  no 
resurrection,  of  what  avail  are  forgiveness 
and  salvation  ?  18.  They  also  which  are 
fallen  asleep]  The  Apostle  here  argues  from 
the  natural  affections  of  the  human  heart.  It 
is  impossible  to  believe  that  those  who  died 
in  faith  in  Christ  perished  utterly.  The  in- 
ference is  :  '  But  we  are  sure  these  things 
are  not  so  ;  therefore  Christ  has  risen  ;  there- 
fore the  resurrection  is  possible.'  He  argues 
from  Christian  experience.  19.  If  in  this  life 
only  we  have  hope  in  Christ]  If  our  hope  in 
Him  does  not  reach  beyond  this  life,  we  are 
most  miserable  (RV  '  pitiable '),  because  the 
hope  of  future  joy  and  blessing  which  inspires 
our  toils  and  sufferings  is  a  mere  delusion. 

20-28.   The  fact  and  the  consequences  of 
Christ's  Resurrection.     Christ  is  risen  as  the  , 
firstfruits  of  those  who  sleep.     As  death  came  j 
on    all    through    Adam,    so    resurrection-life' 
will  come  to  all  through  Him.     But  this  will 
only  be  at  His  coming,  which  will  be  followed 
by  His  handing  over  the  Mediatorial  Kingdom 
to  the  Father,  now  that  all  things,  even  death 
itself,  have  been  subjected  to  Him. 

20.  The  firstfruits]  The  first  sheaf  accepted 
by  God  is  a  pledge  of  the  coming  harvest  : 
cp.  Lv23io>ii.      21,  22.    The  Apostle,  as  in 


918 


i 


15.  23 


1  CORINTHIANS 


15.  35 


Ro5,  contrasts  Adam,  from  whom  by  natural 
descent  we  all  derive  a  corrupt  nature,  with 
Christ  the  second  Adam,  the  Son  of  man,  our 
spiritual  head,  by  union  with  whom  we  receive 
spiritual  life.  All .  .  all]  The  first  '  all '  means, 
of  course,  all  mankind.  The  second  may  mean 
the  same,  in  which  case  shall  be  made  alive 
simply  refers  to  resurrection,  whether  to  life 
or  to  judgment  (Jn  5  2s,  29  ;  cp.  Dan  12  2  Ac  24  is). 
But  perhaps  more  probably  it  means  only, '  all 
those  who  are  Christ's '  (v.  23),  who  shall  enjoy 
the  '  resurrection  of  life.'  Cp.  v.  23,  '  Christ 
the  firstfruits  :  then  they  that  are  Christ's.' 

23.  In  his  own  order]  i.e.  rank,  or  place. 
Christ  comes  first,  the  rest  long  after. 

24.  Then  co/iieth  the  end]  Christ's  Advent 
and  the  Resurrection  conclude  this  dispensa- 
tion. When  he  shall  have  delivered  up  the 
kingdom]  The  purpose  of  the  Incarnation  will 
have  been  accomplished  ;  Chi-ist  will  have  re- 
covered for  His  Father  the  dominion  over  all 
things.  '  This  is  no  ceasing  of  Christ's  rule, 
but  the  inauguration  of  God's  eternal  king- 
dom '  (Findlay).  All  rule]  i.e.  every  opposing 
power.  25.  He  must  reign]  according  to 
prophecy  (PsllO^).  26.  The  last  enemy] 
'  The  first  enemy  of  Christ  and  of  Christians 
is  the  devil,  who  was  conquered  by  Christ  on 
the  Cross  ;  the  second  is  sin,  which  through 
the  grace  of  Christ  is  conquered  by  Christians 
in  this  life  ;  the  third  is  death,  which,  as  the 
last  of  all,  will  be  conquered  at  the  Resur- 
rection '  (quoted  by  Sadler).  27.  For  he  (God) 
hath  put  all  things  under  his  (Christ's)  feet]  cp. 
Ps8«  Heb28  Phil29-ii.  The  Father  has  be- 
stowed upon  Him  as  Son  of  man  dominion  over 
the  whole  universe.  When  he  saith,  etc.]  RM 
'  when  he  shall  have  said.  All  things  are  put  in 
subjection  (evidently  excepting  him  that  did 
subject  all  things  unto  him),  when,  /  say,  all 
things,'  etc.  ;  i.e.  when  Christ  announces  His 
complete  victory,  which  is  no  infringement  of 
God's  sovereignty.  28.  Then  shall  the  Son 
also  himself  be  subject]  see  on  v.  24.  The 
Son  will  continue  to  be  subordinate  to  the 
Father,  as  now.  This  is  involved  in  the  very 
idea  of  Sonship  :  cp.  323  us.  That  God  may 
be  all  in  all]  The  universe,  with  all  it  com- 
prises, will  wholly  answer  to  God's  will  and 
reflect  His  mind. 

29-34.  The  practical  effects  of  the  doctrine 
of  the  Resurrection.  The  Resurrection  alone 
gives  an  adequate  motive  for  (a)  baptism  for 
the  dead  ;  (b)  running  risk  of  death  in  Christian 
work  ;  or  indeed  (c)  abstaining  from  a  life  of 
self-indulgence. 

29.  Baptized  for  the  dead]  a  very  obscure 
allusion.  There  was  somewhat  later  a  practice, 
among  certain  sects  of  vicarious  baptism  ;  when 
a  man  died  unbaptised,  a  friend  would  receive 
baptism  in  his  stead.  This  may  have  already 
existed  and  be  meant  here.     St.  Paul  mentions 


'  baptism  for  the  dead,'  without  expressing  his 
approval  ;  but  some  think  the  practice  sprang 
up  later  from  a  perversion  of  this  passage. 
Two  other  views  seem  possible.  (1)  That  of 
St.  Chrysostom  ;  '  Before  baptism  we  confess 
our  faith  in  "  the  resurrection  of  the  dead," 
and  are  baptised  in  hope  of  this  resurrection.' 
(2)  That  of  Godet,  who  regards  the  baptism 
as  the  baptism  of  suffering,  the  baptism  with 
which  those  were  baptised  who  have  by 
martyrdom  entered  the  Church  invisible.  But 
it  can  scarcely  be  denied  that,  as  Dr.  Dods 
says,  '  the  plain  meaning  of  the  words  seems 
to  point  to  a  vicarious  baptism,  in  which  a 
living  friend  received  baptism  for  a  person 
who  had  died  without  baptism.' 

31.  By  your  rejoicing]  RV  '  by  that  glorying 
in  you,'  i.e.  as  surely  as  I  am  proud  of  you  : 
cp.  lTh2i9'20.  I  die  daily]  am  daily  in  danger 
of  death,  and  my  daily  sufferings  must  end  in  it : 
cp.  2  Cor  1 1 23.  32.  After  the  manner  of  men] 
i.e.  from  ordinary  human  motives,  for  applause 
or  money  ;  and  with  no  hope  of  reward  in  the 
resurrection  life.  I  have  fought  with  beasts] 
probably  a  strong  metaphor  (cp.  4  9)  for  some 
plot  of  the  Jews  or  attack  of  the  mob.  His 
Roman  citizenship  and  influential  friends 
(Ac  19  31)  would  have  saved  him  from  actually 
having  to  fight  wild  beasts  in  the  theatre  ;  and 
this,  if  it  had  really  happened,  would  probably 
have  been  specially  mentioned  (2Cor  11  23f.). 

If  the  dead  rise  not]  RV  takes  this  with  the 
next  sentence.  Let  us  eat  and  drink]  Isa  22 13. 
The  natural  though  not  the  necessary  con- 
sequence of  disbelief  in  a  future  life  is  to  care 
only  for  self -gratification. 

33,  34.  Do  not  associate  with  those  who 
deny  this  vital  truth.  You  are  in  great  danger 
of  being  corrupted  by  them.  Be  aroused  to  a 
sense  of  your  condition,  and  cease  from  sin. 
I  trust  that  my  words  will  shame  you  out  of 
your  folly. 

33.  Evil  communications]  RV  '  evil  com- 
pany, '  a  quotation  from  a  Gi'eek  poet,  Menander, 
warning  the  Corinthians  against  the  influence 
of  heathen  ideas  about  the  future  life.  The 
line  had  probably  in  St.  Paul's  day  become  a 
proverb,  as  it  is  still.  34  Some  have  not  the 
knowledge  of  God]  hence  both  unbelief  in 
resurrection,  and  low  moral  tone.  To  your 
shame]  i.e.  to  shame  you  ;  for  you  ought  to 
surpass  the  heathen. 

35-44.  The  nature  of  the  Resurrection  and 
the  Resurrection  body.  St.  Paul  here  uses 
several  illustrations  of  (a)  the  possibility  (i) 
the  nature  of  the  resurrection  change.  The 
seed  sown  in  the  ground  decays,  but  gives  birth 
to  a  new  plant.  So  from  the  body  laid  in  the 
grave  a  nobler  one  will  arise.  There  are  in 
the  world  many  varieties  of  animal  life,  each 
suited  to  its  surroundings,  and,  moreover, 
bodies  of  heavenly  beings  as  well  as  earthly 


919 


15.36 


1  CORINTHIANS 


16. 


far  more  glorious  than  they.  Moreover,  sun, 
moon,  and  various  stars  have  different  degrees 
of  brightness.  So  our  resurrection  body  will 
be  far  more  glorious,  adapted  to  its  surround- 
ings. Our  body  sovra  in  corruption,  dishonour, 
weakness — a  mere  natural  body — will  be  raised 
in  incorruption,  honour,  power — a  spiritual 
body  :  see  intro.  to  this  c. 

36.  Thou  fool]  EV '  thou  foolish  one.'  The 
Apostle  is  somewhat  impatient  of  objections 
to  his  doctrine  of  the  Resurrection,  which 
the  analogies  of  nature  readily  refute.  That 
which]  i.e.  the  seed  which.  Is  not  quickened, 
except  it  die]  cp.  Jnl224.  In  nature,  death 
leads  to  higher  life.  37.  Not  that  body  that 
shall  be,  but  bare  (RV  '  a  bare ')  grain]  The 
actual  seed  sown  does  not  reappear,  but  some- 
thing higher,  a  complete  plant,  springs  from 
it.  38.  His  own  body]  RV  '  a  body  of  its 
own,'  i.e.  a  plant  of  the  same  kind  as  the  seed. 

39.  There  are  many  different  forms  of 
animal  life  ;  so  there  may  be  of  human  life. 

40.  Celestial  bodies]  probably  this  refers  to 
angels,  not  to  sun  and  moon,  etc.  But  this 
leads  him  in  the  next  v.  to  speak  of  degrees  of 
glory.  Bodies  terrestrial]  i.e.  creatures  of  the 
earth.  41.  One  star  differeth]  The  primary 
meaning  is  the  literal  one.  Some  stars  are 
brighter  than  others.  There  are  great  differ- 
ences between  things  of  the  same  class  ;  so 
also  between  the  natural  and  the  spiritual  body. 

44.  A  natural  body]  (cp.  214,  'the  natural 
man  ')  endowed  with  natural  life  and  fitted  for 
an  earthly  existence.  The  spiritual  body  will 
be  filled  with  spiritual  life  and  adapted  for  a 
spiritual  existence.  The  word  '  natural '  is 
literally  '  soulish,'  and  suggests  the  possession 
of  an  ordinary  human  personality  ;  while  the 
word  '  spiritual '  suggests  a  relation  to  the  divine. 
Man  possesses  the  spiritual  life  through  his 
union  with  Christ,  and  the  Apostle  asserts  that 
there  is  a  spiritual  body  fitted  for  the  require- 
ments of  this  spiritual  life,  and  that  he  will 
come  into  possession  of  it  in  the  resurrection 
life 

45-49.  Our  bodies  will  be  like  Christ's,  no 
longer  like  Adam's.  Adam,  made  from  the 
earth,  became  '  a  living  soul '  ;  Christ,  who  is 
from  heaven,  is  constituted  a  life-giving  Spirit. 
We  belong  to  both,  and  so  share  the  nature  of 
both  ;  we  have  borne  the  image  of  the  earthly 
man,  we  shall  bear  that  of  the  heavenly  Man. 

45.  Was  made  a  living  soul]  (Gn  2  '^).  Life 
was  given  to  him,  while  Christ  is  the  G-iver 
of  life.  The  last  Adam  was  made]  RV '  be- 
came '  (i.e.  at  His  Resurrection).  A  quicken- 
ing (RV  '  lifegiving  ')  spirit]  bestowing  resur- 
rection as  well  as  spiritual  life:  cp.  Jn 5 21-29 
1126,26.  The  last  Adam]  the  new  Head  of 
the  human  race  :  cp.  vv.  21,  22,  Ro5.  47.  Of 
the  earth,  earthy]  hence  subject  to  decay  and 
death:   cp.  Gn3i9,  'out  of  it'  (the  ground) 


920 


'  wast  thou  taken  ;  for  dust  thou  art,  and  unto 
dust  shalt  thou  return.'  From  heaven]  and 
so,  spiritual  and  eternal.  49.  Have  borne  the 
image]  i.e.  have  been  made  like.  Our  present 
body  is  like  Adam's,  but  it  will  be  conformed 
to  the  body  of  Christ's  glory  (Phil  3  21). 

50-53.  The  necessity  of  this  change,  in 
which  the  living  will  share.  Our  earthly 
perishable  nature  cannot  take  possession  of 
God's  imperishable  kingdom.  All  men  will 
not  pass  through  death,  but  all  alike  will  be 
instantaneously  transformed.  Our  mortal 
nature  must  clothe  itself  with  immortality. 

50.  Flesh  and  blood]  i.e.  human  nature 
in  its  present  material  and  perishable  condi- 
tion. Inherit]  take  possession  of  ;  have  right- 
ful entrance  upon.  The  argument  is,  that 
such  a  spiritual  body  as  he  has  been  speaking 
of  is  absolutely  necessary  in  the  kingdom  of 
God.  51.  Not  all  sleep]  for  some  will  be 
living  when  Christ  comes  again.  52.  At  the 
last  trump]  cp.  Mt243i  lTh4i6— a  signal 
which  all  will  hear:  cp.  also  Ex  1913.  We] 
i.e.  those  still  living ;  the  quick. 

Shall  be  changed]  The  Apostle  hoped  Christ 
would  return  in  his  lifetime.  53.  This  mortal 
(body)  must  put  on  immortality]  cp.  2  Cor 5 1-^. 

54-58.  The  Resurrection  is  the  final  triumph 
over  sin  and  death.  When  this  glorious  body 
has  been  received,  then  will  be  the  end  of 
death  and  the  grave.  Sin,  too,  shall  have 
disappeared,  and  the  Law  will  be  no  longer 
necessary.  Over  all  God  gives  us  the  victory 
through  Christ.  Let  us  therefore  praise  Him, 
and  seek  to  abound  in  His  work,  which  is  not 
in  vain  if  done  in  Christ. 

S4>  55-  Death  is  swallowed  up,  etc.]  Isa 
258.  O  death,  where  /x  thy  sting,  etc.]  from 
H0SI314.  56.  The  sting  of  death  is  sin] 
which  brought  death  into  the  world  (Ro5i2), 
and  gives  it  its  bitterness  :  cp.  Heb  2 14>  15.  And 
the  strength  of  sin  is  the  law]  which  reveals 
sin  and,  indeed,  '  intensifies  its  power,'  without 
giving  power  to  overcome  it  (Ro  7  7-13  8  2, 3). 
But  God  giveth  us  the  victoiy  over  sin  now 
(R08I.2),  and  hereafter  over  death  (RoS"). 

Through  our  Lord]  because  Christ  has  over- 
come sin,  and  through  faith  in  Him  we,  in- 
spired by  His  Spirit,  overcome  it  also. 

58.  Unmoveable]  not  shaken  by  false  teach- 
ing. Not  in  vain]  contrast  vv.  16-19.  In  the 
Lord]  Christ  is  regarded  as  the  atmosphere,  so 
to  speak,  in  which  their  work  is  done.  It  is 
inspired  by  Him  and  done  for  Hi  sake  :  cp. 
91. 

CHAPTER  16 
The  Collection.     Personal  Messages 

AND   Conclusion 
The  Apostle  in  this  c.  instructs  the  Corinth- 
ians to  make  a  collection  for  the  poor  Christians 
in  Judtea,  intimates  his  intention  of  visiting 


16.  1 


1  CORINTHIANS 


16.  24 


them  at  an  early  date  by  way  of  Macedonia, 
and  concludes  with  kind  messages  of  brotherly 
love.  In  V.  8  he  mentions  his  intention  to 
stay  in  Ephesus  till  Pentecost.  He  probably 
stayed  much  longer,  owing  to  the  troubles  that 
arose  in  Corinth ;  for  in  our  Second  Epistle 
(2  Cor  9  2)  he  speaks  of  the  collection  which 
he  here  appoints  to  be  made,  being  ready  a 
year  ago.  Meanwhile  he  had  probably  made 
the  Corinthians  a  short  visit  by  sea  from 
Ephesus,  and  returned  disappointed.  He 
finally  visited  them  by  way  of  Macedonia, 
according  to  his  original  intention,  announced 
in  this  c.  after  their  repentance.  On  the  whole 
circumstances  see  Intro,  to  2  Cor. 

{g)  i6i-*.  The  Collection 

The  collection  for  the  Church  in  Jerusalem 
was  made  at  St.  Paul's  request  by  all  the 
Churches  he  had  founded  in  the  Gentile  world, 
as  we  learn  from  his  letters  and  from  the  list 
of  delegates  sent  by  these  Churches  to  Jeru- 
salem (Ac  20  4).  The  Church  in  Jerusalem 
included  many  poor  (Ac6i),  and  the  Gentile 
Churches  were  enabled  to  show  alike  their 
gratitude  to  and  their  sympathy  with  the 
Mother-Church  by  material  aid  from  their 
more  ample  resources. 

I.  The  collection  for  the  saints]  cp.  2  Cor 8 
and  9,  Ro  1 5  2'5-'-2s. 

To  the  churches  of  Galatia]  either  by  mes- 
senger, or  by  a  letter  not  preserved  ;  not  in  our 
Epistle  to  the  Galatians.  The  Churches  of 
Galatia  were  those  he  had  established  in 
Pisidian  Antioch,  Iconium,  Derbe,  and  Lyatra: 
see  Acl3 1^-14 23.  2.  The  first  dan  oif  the 
week]  viz.  Sunday,  already  the  day  for  Chris- 
tian assemblies  (Ac  20 '')  ;  a  fit  time  for  an 
act  of  Christian  love.  This  v.  is  the  great 
scriptural  justification  of  the  weekly  ofi^ertory. 

That  there  be  no  gatherings  (RV  'that  no 
collections  be  made  ')  when  I  come]  i.e.  that  it 
may  be  all  your  own  doing,  not  mine.  3.  By 
your  letters]  of  commendation  to  the  Christians 
at  Jerusalem  :  cp.  2  Cor  3 1.  Delegates  would 
go  from  Corinth  to  avoid  all  suspicion  of  mis- 
appropriation of  the  money  (2Cor8i9"2i). 

Qi)  16 5-21.  Personal  Messages  and 
Conclusion 

5.  I  do  pass  through  Macedonia]  i.e.  this  is 
my  present  intention.  His  original  plan  had 
been  to  go  direct  to  Corinth  (2  Cor  1  is,  i6)^  biit 
only  for  a  passing  visit.  6.  Yea,  and  winter] 
RV  '  or  even  winter.'  He  stayed  three  months 
in  Greece  (Ac  20  2. 3)^  when  at  length  he  carried 
out  his  plan.  Bring  me  on  my  journey]  cp. 
Rol52'i  Tit  3 13.  8.  Pentecost]  one  of  the 
three  great  Jewish  feasts,  associated  under 
Christianity  with  the  descent  of  the  Holy 
Spirit.    9.  A  great  door  and  effectual  is  opened] 


921 


cp.  2  Cor  2 12  Col  4  3  Rev  3  ».  '  I  have  good  open- 
ings, and  must  make  full  use  of  them.'  Many 
adversaries]  Ac  20 1^,  also  19  23. 

10.  If  Timotheus  (RV  'Timothy')  come] 
cp.  417.  It  is  not  quite  certain  whether  or  not 
he  reached  Corinth  :  see  Intro.  2  Cor.  He  was 
young  (cp.  1  Tim  4 12),  and  seems  to  have  been 
timid.  II.  With  the  brethren]  the  bearers  of 
this  letter.  12.  Apollos]  Perhaps  the  Corinth- 
ians had  asked  that  he  might  visit  them.  His 
refusal  may  have  arisen  from  fear  of  rekindling 
the  party  feeling  at  Corinth.  13,  14.  These 
vv.  sum  up  the  practical  teaching  of  the  Epistle. 
They  needed  to  avoid  carelessness,  fickleness, 
and  moral  feebleness,  and  to  cultivate  a  spirit 
of  Christian  love.  15.  The  house  of  Stepha- 
nas] baptised  by  the  Apostle  himself  (1 1*^). 

The  firstfruits  of  Achaia]  There  were  con- 
verts at  Athens  (Ac  17  34)^  therefore  Achaia 
must  be  used  in  the  narrower  sense  of  Southern 
Greece  ;  or  else  these  were  the  firstfruits  as 
a  household.  Addicted  themselves  to  the 
ministry]  RV  '  have  set  themselves  to  minister.' 

16.  Submit  yourselves  unto  such]  '  esteem- 
ing them  very  highly  in  love  for  their  work's 
sake'  (lTh5i3).  17.  Stephanas  and  Fortu- 
natus  and  Achaicus]  who  had  probably  brought 
the  letter  from  the  Corinthians  (7i).  That 
which  was  lacking  on  your  part  they  have 
supplied]  i.e.  their  visit  has  made  up  for  yom- 
absence.  18.  And  yours]  for  you  will  be  glad 
to  hear  of  my  gladness.  19.  Asia]  i.e.  the 
Roman  province,  of  which  Ephesus  was  the 
capital — the  western  part  of  Asia  Minor  or 
Turkey  in  Asia  :  cp.  Ac  19 10. 26  Rev  in. 

Aquila  and  Priscilla]  cp.  Ac  18  2>  3;  at  Ephesus, 
Ac  18 18. 19. 2(3.  The  church  that  is  in  their  house] 
Those  Christians  who  assemble  there. 

20.  An  holy  kiss]  a  token  of  Christian 
brotherhood:  cp.  RolGi'^.  21.  With  mine 
own  hand]  This  signature  authenticated  the 
letter,  which  was  written  by  a  secretary, 
perhaps  Sosthenes  (li):  cp.  R0I622  2Th 
317. 

22.  If  any  man  love  not  the  Lord]  Without 
this  love,  religion  is  a  delusion  or  mockery  ; 
where  this  love  is  the  man  cannot  go  far 
wrong.  And  love  is  shown  by  obedience  (Jn 
1415).  Anathema]  a  Gk.  word,  meaning  '  ac- 
cursed,' 'cut  off  from  God.'  Maran-atha] 
This  expression  stands  by  itself  and  is  not 
joined  to  anathema  as  in  AV.  It  is  two 
Aramaic  words,  meaning  either  '  the  Lord  has 
come '  (cp.  1  Jn  5  20),  or  '  our  Lord  cometh  ' 
(RM),  or  perhaps  'Lord,  come':  cp.  Phil 4 ^ 
Rev  22  20. 

24.  My  love  he  with  you  all]  though  I  have 
had  to  reprove  severely,  and  though  some 
prefer  other  leaders.  In  Christ  Jesus]  who  in- 
spires all  Christian  love. 

For  the"  subscription  see  Intro.  :  v.  8  shows 
that  the  Epistle  was  written  from  Ephesus. 


2  CORINTHIANS 


INTRODUCTION 


The  problems  presented  by  the  Second 
Epistle  to  the  Corinthians  are  more  numer- 
ous and  complex  than  those  of  the  First.  In 
opening  this  Epistle  we  find  ourselves  at 
once  in  a  different  atmosphere  from  that 
of  the  previous  one.  St.  Paul  writes  in 
a  different  tone.  He  alludes  to  matters  of 
which  there  is  no  mention  in  the  earlier  letter. 
He  indicates  that  a  momentous  crisis  in  the 
relations  between  himself  and  the  Church  has 
been  safely  passed.  And  in  reconstructing 
the  situation  for  ourselves  we  have  nothing 
but  hints  and  allusions  and  references  to  past 
events  in  the  letter  itself  to  guide  us.  The 
difficulties,  however,  largely  disappear  if  we 
assume  what  is  regarded  by  many  scholars  as 
proved,  viz.  that  chs.  10-13  were  a  letter 
written  some  time  after  1  Cor.,  and  that  chs.  1-9 
were  a  third  letter  written  when  the  Apostle 
learned  the  effect  produced  by  chs.  10-13 
in  the  Corinthian  Church. 

I.  Events  between  the  First  and  Second 
Epistles. 

(rt)  The  reception  of  the  First  Epistle  at 
Corinth.  As  was  mentioned  in  the  Intro,  to  the 
First  Epistle,  when  the  Apostle  heard  of  the 
irregularities  in  doctrine  and  morals  that  had 
arisen  in  the  Church,  he  announced  that 
Timothy  would  visit  Corinth  after  he  had  per- 
formed the  work  entrusted  to  him  in  Macedonia, 
to  bring  them  into  remembrance  of  his  ways  in 
Christ  (1  Cor  4 171 6  lO).  About  the  same  time  he 
sent  the  First  Epistle  by  the  shorter  sea  route 
to  Corinth,  perhaps  by  the  hands  of  Titus  and 
another  of  his  companions  (1218),  to  whom 
was  also  given  the  duty  of  organising  the 
collection  (1  Cor  161-2).  The  mission  of  Timo- 
thy was  in  the  first  instance  to  the  Churches 
of  Macedonia,  and  it  is  uncertain  whether  or 
not  he  ever  reached  Corinth.  Meanwhile  the 
work  of  organising  the  collection,  whether  by 
Titus  or  by  others,  went  on  apace,  and  such 
favourable  reports  of  the  success  of  the  move- 
ment reached  St.  Paul,  that  he  afterwards 
quoted  the  Corinthians  to  the  converts  of 
Macedonia  as  an  example  of  liberality  (9  2). 
On  the  completion  of  these  arrangements  Titus 
probably  returned  to  St.  Paul  at  Ephesus  and 
reported  the  progress  made. 

(h)  The  increasing  influence  of  the  'Christ' 
party.  Very  soon  after  these  events  there 
seems  to  have  taken  place  a  considerable  increase 


in  the  influence  of  the  party  of  Christ,  which 
is  just  mentioned  in  the  First  Epistle  (1  Cor 
1 12).     An  attempt,  which  for  a  time  threatened 
to  prove  successful,  was  made  by  them  to  im- 
pose upon  the  Corinthian  Church  the  require- 
ments of  the  Jewish  law,  and  undermine  the 
influence  of  St.  Paul.    We  gather  the  informa- 
tion about  this  movement,  not  from  any  direct 
statements  on  the  subject,  but  mainly  from  the 
Apostle's  defence  of  his  apostleship,  and  the 
points  on    which    he  dwells    in    refuting  the 
charges  brought  against  him.     The  leaders  of 
this    party— perhaps   recently    arrived    from 
Jerusalem — claimed  to  speak  for  Christ  in  a 
way   in  which  they  said  that  St.  Paul  could 
not  speak.     They  were  Hebrews  (11 22)  ;  they 
called   themselves   apostles   and  ministers  of 
Christ  (11 1*^>  23)  ;  they  taught  another  gospel, 
inculcated  another  spirit,  preached  even  an- 
other Jesus  (11*).     St.  Paul  calls  them  false 
apostles   (11  13),  deceitful  workers  (ib.),  minis- 
ters of  Satan  (11 1^).     It  would  seem  that  they 
set  up  Judaism  as  the  entrance  to  Christianity. 
They  may  not  have  insisted  upon  the  imposi- 
tion of  the  rite  of  circumcision,  but  they  prob- 
ably demanded   obedience  to   the  ceremonial 
law,  taking  their  stand  upon  the  teaching  and 
example  of  Jesus  Himself   (e.g.  MtSi^  5i7), 
and    insisting   upon    the  maintenance  of  the 
legal  standard    of  righteousness.     They  thus 
naturally   came   into   conflict    with    St.  Paul, 
whose  doctrine  of  justification  by  faith    (cp. 
E,o4,  5)  seemed  to  them  to  be  destructive  of 
the  Law;  and  perhaps  being  incensed   at  the 
lax  morals  of  some  of  the  Corinthian  converts, 
they  traced  the  irregularities  to  his  teaching, 
and  denounced  him  as  a  false  apostle.     Not 
content  with  this,  they  attributed  to  him  vacil- 
lation  and   cowardice    (10  lO),   pointed    to  his 
refusal  of   sustenance  as  a  proof  of  his  lack 
of  authority   (11 7),  and  declared  that  he  was 
afraid  to  exercise  the  power  he  boasted  of  in 
his  letters  (132.  lO).     They  charged  him  with 
cheating   his    converts  (1214-1S),  said   that  he 
was  puffed  up  with  vanity  (10 1*),  end  even 
called  him  a  fool  (11 16>  21,  23). 

In  this  way  these  Judaising  teachers  sought 
to  discredit  the  Apostle.  They  probably 
attracted  those  who  had  been  of  the  party  of 
Peter,  and  those  who  had  been  of  the  party  of 
Christ  at  an  earlier  date,  and  united  them 
in  one  strong  body  which  influenced  or  over- 


922 


INTEO. 


2  CORINTHIANS 


INTRO. 


awed  the  whole  Church.  They  called  them- 
selves Clirist's  men,  preached  Christ  as  the 
Messiah  according  to  the  flesh,  and  gloried  in 
their  connexion  with  those  who  had  actually 
seen  the  Lord  (10  7  1123  12 1). 

That  they  met  with  great  success  is  evident 
from  the  Second  Epistle.  They  turned  the 
Church  as  a  whole  against  St.  Paul.  The  Cor- 
inthians received  them  without  suspicion,  lis- 
tened readily  to  their  charges,  and  as  the  result 
renounced  their  allegiance  to  their  spiritual 
father  (72113,4132,  lO).  They  submitted  even 
to  be  victimised  by  these  intruders,  and  allowed 
them  to  do  with  impunity  the  very  things  they 
counted  wrong  in  St.  Paul.  The  members  of 
the  Church  were  so  infatuated  with  their  new 
teachers  that  they  permitted  themselves  to  be 
'  brought  into  bondage,  devoured,  robbed,  struck 
in  the  face  '  (1 1 20).  The  more  the  new  apostles 
demanded,  the  better  they  were  pleased  with 
them.  All  that  St.  Paul  had  done  for  them 
was  for  the  time  forgotten,  and  their  allegiance 
transferred  to  the  new-comers,  who  denounced 
him  as  no  minister  of  Christ  at  all. 

(c)  St.  Paul's  brief  (unrecorded)  visit  to 
Corinth. 

It  was  not  long  before  the  news  of  the  re- 
volt reached  St.  Paul.  It  may  be  that  Timothy 
coming  south  to  Corinth  as  the  Apostle  indi- 
cated in  the  First  Epistle  (lCor4i7)  found 
the  Church  already  in  revolt,  and  that  on  at- 
tempting to  deliver  a  message  from  his  master 
he  was  insulted  and  put  to  silence  (7 12.  Here 
'  his  cause  that  suffered  wrong '  may  refer  to 


by  sea.  The  Apostle's  appearance  at  Corinth, 
however,  had  not  the  expected  effect.  The 
influence  of  the  Judaisers  was  still  supreme  : 
an  attack  of  the  illness  to  which  he  was  subject 
prostrated  him,  and  it  was  interpreted  by  his 
enemies  as  a  mark  of  divine  disfavour,  and 
used  to  discredit  his  apostleship  (127-1 0)_  He 
had  to  retire  to  Ephesus  baffled  and  dis- 
heartened, having  perhaps  been  insulted  and 
denounced  to  his  face  in  presence  of  the  Church 
by  some  violent  member  (7  ^2,  if  the  reference 
is  not  to  Timothy  but  to  himself.  But  see 
note). 

(d)  The  visit  of  Titus  vnth  the  '  severe ' 
letter. 

On  reaching  Ephesus  again  St.  Paul  wrote 
a  letter  to  the  recalcitrant  Church,  in  which 
he  sought  to  bring  the  members  to  a  sense  of 
their  position.  This  letter  is  referred  to  in 
2  3>  4  7  8_  It  was  written  '  in  much  affliction  with 
many  tears ' ;  it  was  stern  and  severe  in  its 
tone  ;  and  it  was  designed  to  make  them  sorry 
and  bring  them  to  repentance.  So  strong  were 
its  terms,  indeed,  that  St.  Paul  for  a  time  re- 
gretted having  written  it.  The  greater  portion 
of  this  '  severe '  letter,  in  the  view  of  an  increas- 
ing number  of  scholars,  is  preserved  in  chs. 
10-13.  This  theory  solves  many  of  the  prob- 
lems raised  by  2  Corinthians,  and  best  explains 
the  facts  as  we  know  them.  (For  reasons  see 
below,  under  2.) 

The  'severe'  letter  was  dispatched  from 
Ephesus  by  the  hands  of  Titus,  who  seems  to 
have  been  regarded  by  St.  Paul  as  better  able 


Timothy).  Or  it  may  be  that  the  Apostle  to  deal  with  the  situation  than  Timothy.  On 
heard  of  the  state  of  matters  in  some  other  receiving  it  the  Corinthians  were  stung  by  the 
way,  as   he    had   heard   of    their  contentions     reproaches   of   conscience,   and    repenting    of 

their  treatment  of  St.  Paul,  cast  out  of  the 
Church  by  a  majority  the  man  who  had  given 
offence  by  his  attack  on  the  Apostle  or  his 
messenger  (26),  and  acknowledged  their  founder 
once  more  (7").  Titus  seems  to  have  aided 
materially  in  bringing  about  the  happy  change; 
and,  having  from  the  outset  realised  the  re- 
sponsibility of  the  charge  committed  to  him, 
he  was  overjoyed  at  the  issue  of  his  visit  (76. 7). 
(e)  St.  Paul's  meeting  with  Titus. 
Meanwhile  St.  Paul  left  Ephesus  and  crossed 
the  sea  to  Philippi,  sailing  along  the  coast  to 
Troas,  and  thence  taking  ship  for  Europe. 
Troas  offered  him  a  good  field  for  mission 
work  (212);  but,  when  Titus  did  not  appear 


before  writing  the  First  Epistle  (ICorlH) 
In  any  case,  he  felt  that  he  must  take  prompt 
and  resolute  action,  and  accordingly  he  paid  a 
short  visit  to  Corinth  in  order  to  restore  his 
authority  and  win  the  Corinthians  back  to  their 
allegiance. 

This  visit  is  not  recorded  in  the  book  of 
Acts,  nor  is  its  occurrence  related  in  so  many 
words  in  St.  Paul's  letters  ;  but  it  is  frequently 
referred  to  in  2  Corinthians  and  implied  in 
several  of  the  Apostle's  statements.  In  2i 
he  distinctly  alludes  to  a  visit  which  he  had 
paid  to  the  Church  'in  sorrow.'  In  1214  131 
he  announces  that  he  is  coming  to  them  the 
third  time.     And  as  the  only  visit  recorded  in 


the  Acts  or  in  1  Corinthians  is  the  visit  made  ^.  as  he  expected,  anxiety  about  the  Corinthians 
when  founding  the  Church,  it  is  obvious  thatj  'drove  him  onwards  to  meet  him.     At  last  in 


a  second  visit  must  have  been  paid  in  the 
interval  before  these  passages  were  penned. 
In  13  2  indeed  he  distinctly  mentions  this  second 
visit,  and  reminds  them  that  he  told  them  on 
that  occasion  that  if  he  came  again  and  found 
them  unrepentant  he  would  not  spare  them. 
This  visit  was  probably  paid  as  soon  as  he  re- 
ceived the  bad  news,  the  journey  being  made 


923 


^Macedonia  (perhaps  at  Philippi)  he  encountered 
his  messenger  (2 13  7  5. 6),  and  was  relieved  and 
gladdened  by  the  good  news  he  brought.  In 
his  delight  at  the  return  of  the  Corinthians  to 
their  faithfulness,  he  proceeded  to  carry  out  his 
purpose  of  visiting  them  as  announced  in  the 
Fn-st  Epistle  (1  Cor  16  5),  and  first  of  all  sent 
Titus  back  to  them  with  a  letter  expressive 


INTRO. 


2  CORINTHIANS 


INTRO. 


of  his   relief  and   joy — the    Second   Epistle, 
chs.  1-9. 

This  plan  of  visiting  Corinth  after  passing 
through  Macedonia  was  ultimately  carried  out 
according  to  his  original  intention  ;  but  at  one 
period  St.  Paul  had  in  mind  another  plan, 
which  he  afterwards  disclosed  to  the  Cor- 
inthians. This  was  to  cross  by  the  direct 
route  from  Ephesus  to  Corinth,  and  from 
thence  to  visit  Macedonia,  returning  again  to 
Corinth  on  the  way  to  Jerusalem,  thus  giving 
the  Corinthians  '  a  double  benefit '  (1 1^>  16).  Cir- 
cumstances, however,  caused  him  to  revert  to 
his  original  intention,  and  pay  the  visit  to 
Macedonia  before  going  south  to  Corinth. 

(J)  The   'thankful'   letter. 

Chs.  1-9  of  the  Second  Epistle  seem  to 
constitute  the  letter  written  by  the  Apostle 
after  receiving  the  good  news.  This  letter 
was  sent  by  Titus,  who  is  repeatedly  referred 
to  in  it  (213  76,13,14  86,16,23)^  and  with  him 
were  sent  other  two — 'the  brother  whose  praise 
is  in  the  gospel  throughout  all  the  churches  ' 
(8 1^),  and  '  our  brother  whom  we  have  often- 
times proved  diligent  in  many  things '  (8  2-). 
Besides  the  conveyance  of  the  letter  they  were 
entrusted  with  the  reorganisation  of  the  col- 
lection for  the  saints  at  Jerusalem,  which  had 
promised  well  when  it  was  begun,  but  had 
probably  fallen  into  abeyance  while  the  trouble 
lasted  (92-5).  Following  in  their  footsteps, 
St.  Paul  soon  afterwards  himself  arrived  at 
Corinth  to  complete  the  reconciliation. 

2.  The  Authenticity,  Unity,  and  Date  of  the 
Epistle. 

(a)  That  the  Second  Epistle  is  a  genuine 
work  of  St.  Paul  has  seldom  been  seriously 
disputed.  Allusions  to  passages  in  it  are 
found  early  in  the  second  century  in  the 
letters  of  Polycarp,  and  it-  is  quoted  by  the 
early  Christian  writers,  Irenteus,  Athenagoras, 
and  Clement  of  Alexandria.  The  evidence 
from  the  Epistle  itself  is  stronger.  In  par- 
ticular, the  personal  allusions  and  references, 
the  details  of  the  Apostle's  life  and  work,  the 
intensely  earnest  character  of  its  thanksgivings 
and  appeals,  confirm  its  own  testimony  to  the 
authorship  of  St.  Paul. 

(&)  The  theory  that  portions  of  more  than 
one  letter  of  St.  Paul  to  the  Corinthians  are  to 
be  detected  in  the  Second  Epistle  is  supported 
by  the  following  amongst  other  arguments  : 

(1)  The  thoughtful  reader  of  2  Corinthians 
can  hardly  fail  to  notice  the  remarkable 
change  in  tone  between  chs.  1-9  and  10- 
13.  In  chs.  1-9  the  breach  between  St.  Paul 
and  the  Corinthians  seems  to  be  completely 
healed.  The  section  abounds  in  expressions 
of  love  and  goodwill,  of  thanksgiving  and 
confidence  :  cp.  23,io  32  74.7,9,11  8  7  9i3,i4. 
In  chs.  10-13,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  evi- 
dent that  the  breach  is  not  yet  healed.     He 


there  meets  charges  brought  against  him 
(102,10  11 1^,  7^  etc.),  defends  his  apostJeship  by 
an  appeal  to  his  work  and  sufferings  (1121-33)^ 
declares  himself  to  be  in  no  way  '  behind  the 
very  chiefest  apostles'  (12 n),  and  thi-eatens  to 
visit  them  in  severity  and  not  to  spare  (132). 
The  circumstances  to  which  the  writer  has 
regard  in  chs.  1-9  are  different  from  those  to 
which  he  looks  in  chs.  10-13.  No  explanation 
is  so  satisfactory  as  that  which  dates  chs.  10-13 
before,  and  chs.  1-9  after,  the  causes  of  strife 
had  been  removed. 

(2)  There  are  passages  in  chs.  1-9  which 
seem  to  refer  to  passages  in  chs.  10-13,  and 
are  best  explained  in  the  light  of  them. 
Cp.  132,  '  If  I  come  again,  I  will  not  spare,' 
with  1 23,  '  To  spare  you  I  forbore  to  come 
to  Corinth '  ;  and  1 3 10,  '  I  write  these  things 
while  absent,  that  I  may  not  when  present 
deal  sharply,'  with  23,  '  I  wrote  this  very 
thing,  lest,  when  I  came,  I  should  have  sorrow ' : 
cp. also  10 2  with  8 22,10 6  with  2 9,  and  115,18,23 
with  31  512. 

(3)  In  chs.  1-9  there  are  four  references  to 
a  former  letter  apparently  severe  in  tone, 
(a)  It  was  written  '  out  of  much  affliction 
and  anguish  of  heart  with  many  tears  '  (2  *)  ; 
(h)  after  sending  it  away  the  Apostle  re- 
pented of  his  action  (7^)  ;  (c)  in  it  he  had 
commended  himself  '  again  '  (3 1  5 12)  ;  (d)  the 
Apostle  was  at  the  time  of  writing  the  former 
letter  meditating  a  visit  to  deal  sharply  with 
them,  which,  however,  in  mercy  he  did  not 
pay  (123  21).  These  points  describe  the  letter 
chs.  10-13,  and  apply  to  no  other  letter  of  the 
Apostle  now  extant  ;  e.g.  (a)  and  (J)  cannot 
refer  to  the  First  Epistle,  and  (c)  does  not 
apply  either  to  the  First  Epistle  or  to  any 
passage  in  2  Cor  before  3i,  where  he  speaks  of 
commending  himself  'again.' 

(4)  Chs.  1-9  were  written  from  Macedonia 
(213  75  92).  while  1016  indicates  that  the 
geographical  position  of  the  writer  of  that 
passage — which  speaks  of  his  hope  to  preach 
the  gospel  in  the  regions  beyond  them — was  on 
the  E.  of  Corinth  rather  than  on  the  N.,  for 
we  know  that  St.  Paul's  plan  was  to  visit 
Rome.  This  suggests  that  chs.  10-13  were 
written  from  Ephesus,  and  affords  another 
hint  of  identification  between  chs.  10-13  and 
the  '  severe '  letter  of  2  4  7  s.  [ ^  fuH  discussion 
of  the  question  is  given  in  Dr.  J.  H.  Kennedy's 
'  The  Second  and  Third  Epistles  to  the  Corinth- 
ians,' from  which  the  above  sections  are  mainly 
drawn.] 

(c)  The  dates  of  the  two  parts  of  the  Second 
Epistle  remains  to  be  fixed.  According  to 
the  evidence  afforded  by  First  and  Second  Cor- 
inthians themselves,  the  latter  was  written 
about  eighteen  months  after  the  former.  In 
1  Cor  16  St.  Paul  gives  directions  about  the 
collection  for   the  poor   in  Jerusalem,  men- 


924 


INTRO. 


2  CORINTHIANS 


INTRO. 


tioning  such  details  about  the  method  to  be 
adopted  in  gathering  it  as  lead  us  to  the  con- 
clusion that  a   beginning  was  now  only  being 
made  with  it.    As  the  offerings  were  to  be  made 
weekly,  and  as  many  of  the  converts  were  poor 
(ICorl-'^),   it   is   obvious    that   some   months 
would  have  to  elapse  before  the  contributions 
amounted  to  such  a  sum  as  the  Church  would 
like  to   send.     In  9^,  however,  the  Apostle 
commends  them  for  being  ready  with   their 
contribution  '  a  year  ago  '  :  cp.  8  ^0.     It  there- 
fore follows  that  some  months  more  than  a 
year  separate  the  First   Epistle    from   these 
passages   in    the    Second.     If,   therefore,  the 
First  Epistle  was  written  in  the  spring  of  55 
or  56,  it  follows  that  chs,l-9  of  the  Second  were 
written  in  the  autumn  of  56  or  57.     Chs.  10-13 
were  written  in  any  case  only  a  month  or  six 
weeks  before  chs.  1-9.     That  about  eisrhteen 
months   thus  separated  the  First  and  Second 
Epistles  is  confirmed  by  the  recollection  of  the 
number  of  events  which  took  place  between 
them.     We  have  to  allow  time  for  the  trans- 
mission of  the  First  Epistle,  for  the  develop- 
ment of  the  rebellion  against  St.  Paul's  author- 
ity, for  the    news    to  reach    the    Apostle    at 
Ephesus,  for  his  visit  to  Corinth  and  return,  for 


(e)    72-16. 


The  Apostle's  joy  in  the  Cor- 
inthians' repentance. 

The  collection  for  the  poor  in 
Jerusalem. 

The  example  of  the  Macedonian 
Churches. 

The  principles  of  Christian 
liberality. 

Exhortations  to  generous  giv- 
ing. 

(5)   Chs.   10-13.     The    'severe'    letter.     Si. 
Paul's  defence  of  his  ministry. 

Answer  to  the  charge  of  feeble- 
ness and  cowardice. 

Defence  of  his  gospel  and  his 
independence. 

The  evidences  of  his  apostle- 
ship  in  suffering  and  service. 

Warnings  against  evil  and  ex- 
hortations to  holiness. 

Conclusion  and  benediction. 


II.  81-915. 

(a)  81-9. 

(b)  810-24. 

(c)  91-15. 


(a)  101-18. 

(b)  111-15. 

(c)  111*5-1218, 

(cl)  1219-1310, 


(e)   1311-14. 

4.   Outline  of  the  Epistle, 

Chs.  1-9.  The  Apostle  sends  his  salutation 
to  the  Corinthian  Church,  and  gives  thanks  for 
the  comfort  which  comes  through  suffering  and 
for  the  power  of  sympathy  it  confers  (1  i-H), 


the  dispatch  of  the  '  severe  '  letter  by  Titus,  and :   He  then  passes  to  the  crisis  through  which  the 
for  St.  Paul's  journey  to  Philippi.   Two  lines  of     Church  had  passed,  and  gives  some  thoughts 


proof  thus  converge  upon  the  same  conclusion. 

It  may  be  briefly  mentioned  here  that  some 
scholars  regard  the  passage  6 14-7 1  as  an  inter- 
polation, and  hold  that  it  is  really  part  of  the 
first  (lost)  letter  of  St.  Paul  to  Corinth.  The 
contents  of  the  passage  certainly  correspond 
with  what  the  Apostle  tells  us  was  contained 
in  that  lost  letter  (1  Cor  5  9);  and  they  break 
the  natiu-al  connexion  between  6 1^  and  7  2. 
But  the  case  for  eliminating  the  vv,  can  hardly 
be  said  to  be  proved. 

3.  Synopsis  of  Contents, 

(A)  Chs.  1-9.     The  thankful  letter. 

Introduction  1  i-n.  Salutation  and  thanksgiving. 

I,  1 12-7 1'^.  Thoughts  suggested  by  the  re- 
cent crisis. 

(a)  112-22.  The  sincerity  of  St.  Paul's  in- 
tention to  visit  the  Church. 

(6)  23-13.  The  object  and  result  of  the 

'  severe '  letter. 

(c)  214-519.     The  glory,  the  comfort,  and  the 

inspiration  of  the  ministry. 
(i)  2 14-3  6.   The  Apostle's  true 
letter  of  recommenda- 
tion. 

(ii)  37-46.    The  glory  of  the 
gospel. 

(iii)  47-510.  The  sources  of  his 
comfort. 

(iv)  511-19.   The  love  of  Christ 
his  inspiration. 

(d)  520-71.      Appeal  for  purity  of  life. 


925 


suggested   by   it.      He    asserts    the    sincenty 
of    his    intentions    to    pay    the    Corinthians 
another  visit,  although  he  has  been  obliged  to 
change   his    plans  ;    and    he   shows   that   such 
changes  of  his  plans  as  he  had  made,  were  made 
with  a  view  to  their  benefit  (1 12-22).     He  had, 
indeed,  written   them    a   severe   letter   which 
caused  them  pain  ;  but  he  could  not  regret  it 
because  it  had  brought  them  to  repentance  and 
secured  the  purity  of  the  Church,  and  enabled 
him    to    forgive    the    now   penitent    offender 
(2  3-13).     Next  he  enlarges  upon  the  joy  attend- 
ing the  successful   preaching    of    the    gospel 
(214-17).     He    sees    in   his    converts    his    true 
letters  of  commendation — even,  so  to  speak 
letters  of  Christ  Himself,  bearing  His  signature 
and  witnessing  to  His  influence  (3i-4).      He 
remembers,  indeed,  the  great  responsibility  of 
his  work,  but  finds  comfort  in  recalling  the 
unfailing  supply  of  strength  from  God  ;  and 
he  contrasts  the  old  ministry  of  the  law  with 
the    new    ministry   of   reconciliation    through 
Christ   (35-46).      The    glory    of    the    gospel 
remmds  him  of  the  weakness  of  those  to  whom 
its  message  is  entrusted.     In  themselves  they 
are  feeble  ;    but  their  faith  prevails  over  all 
difficulties  as  they  look,  not  on  the  seen  and 
temporal,  but  on  the  unseen  and  eternal  (4  7-18). 
They  know  too  that  death  overtakes  the  mortal 
body,    but    they    know   that    God    has    pro- 
vided   them    with    an    immortal    body,    and 
has  given  them  the  pledge  of  eternal  fife  in 
the    gift    of     His    indwelling    Spirit    (51-5), 


INTRO. 


2  CORINTHIANS 


INTRO. 


They  are  therefore  always  faithful  to  the 
trust  committed  to  them,  being  constrained  by 
the  love  of  Christ  to  plead  with  men  to  be 
reconciled  to  G-od  and  to  become  new  creatures 
in  Christ  (S^-^i).  The  Apostle  goes  on  to 
point  to  his  own  conduct  as  the  proof  of  his 
claims  to  be  a  minister  of  God,  and  beseeches 
the  Corinthians  to  live  unspotted  from  the 
world  (61-71).  He  appeals  to  them  by  his 
affection  for  them  to  be  reconciled  to  him, 
and  rejoices  anew  in  their  repentance  (7  '^'^^). 

The  Apostle  then  calls  their  attention  to 
the  collection  for  the  poor  in  Jerusalem, 
telling  them  of  the  example  set  by  the  Churches 
of  Macedonia  (8  ^-^),  enunciating  the  principles 
of  Christian  liberality,  and  reminding  them  of 
the  self-sacrifice  of  Christ  (8io-24)^  and  finally 
exhorting  them  to  generous  and  cheerful 
giving  (91-15). 

Chs.  10-13.  St.  Paul  defends  his  ministry 
from  the  attacks  of  enemies,  and  vindicates  his 
apostleship.  A  charge  of  vacillation  and 
cowardice  had  been  made  against  him,  and 
he  assures  the  Corinthians  that  if  strong 
measures  are  really  necessary  to  bring  them  to 
a  right  way  of  thinking,  he  will  not  shrink 
from  taking  them  (10 1"!^).  He  does  not  wish 
to  boast  of  his  position  in  reply  to  his  enemies, 
but  he  points  out  that  he  had  maintained  his 
independence  among  them,  and  had  never  been 
a  burden  to  them  (lli-i^).  Those  who  speak 
against  him  and  boast  of  their  zeal  are  no  true 
apostles  ;  in  spite  of  their  talk  of  righteousness 
they  are  as  false  as  their  master,  Satan  (1 1  n-i^). 
But  seeing  that  boasting  is  the  fashion,  he  also 
will  boast — he  will  boast  of  his  labours,  his 
sufferings,  his  anxieties,  his  visions  and  revela- 
tions, nay,  his  very  thorn  in  the  flesh,  in  all 
which  he  rejoices  for  Christ's  sake  (11 16-1210). 
He  goes  on  to  apologise  for  this  boasting,  and 
for  his  refusal  to  receive  gifts  from  them. 
But  he  is  glad  he  has  maintained  his  independ- 
ence, because  none  can  say  that  he  made  his 
converts  a  source  of  gain  (1212-21).  Jjg  finally 
assures  them  of  his  approaching  visit,  warning 
them  that  if  need  be  he  will  exercise  his 
authority,  but  pleading  rather  for  their  repent- 
ance and  submission  (c.  l.S). 

5.  Teaching  of  the  Epistle. 

(a)  Chs.  1-9.  (1)  The  teaching  of  this 
Epistle  is  based,  like  the  teaching  of  the  First 
Epistle,  on  the  great  thought  of  the  union  of 
Christ  and  the  believer.  The  sufferings  of  St. 
Paul  which  he  endures  for  the  gospel's  sake 
are '  the  sufferings  of  Christ '  (1  ^).  and  the  conso- 
lation he  receives  '  aboundeth  by  Christ '  (1  5). 
Those  whom  he  forgives,  he  forgives  '  in  Christ ' 
(2 10)  ;  and  the  gospel  he  preaches,  he  preaches 
'in  the  sight  of  God  in  Christ'  (2i7).  He 
bears  about  in  his  body  '  the  dying  of  the  Lord 
Jesus,'  and  he  is  '  delivered  unto  death  for 
Jesus'  sake,  that  the  life  also  of  Jesus  might 


be  manifest '  in  his  own  life  (4 10.  H).  This 
union  with  Christ,  in  which  he  lives  himself,  is 
the  union  he  desires  for  others.  '  If  any  man 
be  in  Christ  he  is  a  new  creature  '  (5 1'^),  and 
they  themselves  are  established  with  him  '  in 
Christ '  (1 21). 

On  the  basis  of  this  doctrine  he  urges  them 
to  forgiveness  (2  lO),  encourages  them  to  perse- 
verance (4:15),  beseeches  them  to  be  reconciled 
to  God  (5  20),  and  exhorts  them  to  a  life  of 
purity  and  holiness  (7 1). 

(2)  A  considerable  portion  of  the  letter  is 
occupied  with  the  collection.  This  collection 
is  mentioned  first  in  1  Cor  1 6.  Its  purpose 
was  to  provide  assistance  for  the  poor  Chris- 
tians in  Jerusalem,  of  whom  there  had  been 
many  from  the  beginning  (Ac  6 1>  3).  St.  Paul 
regarded  the  Church  at  Jerusalem  as  the 
Mother- Church,  and  sought  to  interest  his 
converts  in  the  head-quarters  of  their  faith. 
The  collection  also  enabled  the  members  of 
the  Churches  in  Galatia  (1  Cor  16 1),  Macedonia 
(2  Cor  81),  and  Achaia,  to  realise  their  unity 
as  members  of  one  Church,  as  well  as  to 
give  evidence  of  their  sympathy  with  their 
brethren.  The  offerings  were  to  be  laid  aside 
week  by  week  upon  the  Lord's  Day  (1  Cor  1 6  2), 
and  to  be  finished  before  the  Apostle  arrived. 
At  the  end  of  the  time,  under  his  own  superin- 
tendence, they  were  to  be  dispatched  to  Jeru- 
salem by  men  chosen  by  the  Church  (1  Cor  163). 
In  exhorting  the  Corinthians  to  lilDerality  he 
quotes  to  them  the  example  of  the  Macedonian 
Churches,  which  in  this  matter  (8  2, 3),  as  well 
as  in  others  (Phil  4 10-17)^  were  distinguished 
for  generosity  :  and  reminds  them  of  the  ex- 
ample of  Christ  (8  9),  who  '  though  he  was 
rich  yet  for  your  sakes  became  poor.'  He 
urges  them  to  give  cheerfully  (9  '^)  and  liberally 
(9*5),  according  to  their  means  (8i3;i4)  ;  not 
holding  back  through  indifference  or  greed 
(8  lOj  11),  nor  feeling  compelled  to  give  in  such 
a  way  as  to  make  the  offering  a  burden  (8 13), 
but  presenting  their  gifts  out  of  a  willing 
mind  (8 12),  and  remembering  that  they  may 
need  some  help  themselves  in  their  day  of 
necessity,  which  would  be  gladly  given  (81*). 
And  he  tells  them  that  this  offering  has  not 
only  a  material,  but  also  a  religious  value  ;  for 
it  causes  the  recipients  of  it  to  give  thanks  to 
God,  recognising  in  it  a  gift  from  Him  (9 12), 
and  it  is  a  powerful  witness  to  the  Christian 
faith  and  obedience  of  those  who  so  freely 
bestow  it  (913). 

(6)  Chs.  10-13.  These  chs.  are  wholly  occu- 
pied with  St.  Paul's  reply  to  his  enemies' 
attack,  and  are  chiefly  interesting  for  the  in- 
formation they  give  us  about  the  doings  of  the 
troublers  of  the  Church,  and  about  the  life  of 
the  Apostle  himself.  The  former  subject  has 
already  been  touched  upon  (see  I  (6))  ;  the 
latter  may  now  be  noticed.     In  11 22-83  gt.  Paul 


926 


INTRO. 


2  CORINTHIANS 


1.12 


mentions  several  incidents  in  his  career  which 
are  not  recorded  in  the  sketch  of  his  mission- 
ary career  given  in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles. 
He  speaks  of  five  floggings  at  the  hands  of  the 
Jews,  none  of  which  are  mentioned  elsewhere. 
Of  the  three  beatings  with  rods  only  one  is  re- 
corded (Ac  16  23).  Of  the  shipwrecks  we  know 
nothing,  as  the  events  recorded  in  Ac  27  did 
not  occur  until  a  later  date.  It  was  evidently 
on  the  occasion  of  one  of  these  that  he  spent 
a  night  and  a  day  in  the  deep,  probably  on  a 
raft  or  on  wreckage.  He  tells  us  also  of  his 
escape  from  Damascus,  which  is  also  recorded 
in  Acts  (9^5),  affording  confirmation  of  the 
narrative  there.  These  incidental  hints  sug- 
gest the  intensely  interesting  career  which  full 
knowledge  of  the  Apostle's  travels  would  have 
revealed,  and  show  us  in  some  slight  degree 
the  privations  and  dangers  and  afflictions  sum- 
med up  in  that  phrase  '  the  sufferings  of 
Christ'  (15). 

CHAPTEE  1 

Introductory  Section 

1 1-11.  Salutation  and  Thanksgiving 

After  the  usual  epistolary  introduction,  St. 

Paul    makes   pointed   reference    to   a   severe 

trouble  he  has  lately  endured,  and  gives  thanks 

to  God  for  deliverance  from  it. 

1.  By  the  will  of  God]  He  asserts  his  divine 
call  to  office  in  presence  of  opposition  :  cp. 
1  Cor  1 1  Gal  1 1,  and  contrast  Phil  1 1  1  Th  1 1,  in 
cases  where  his  relations  to  the  Church  were 
happy.  Saints]  A  common  designation  of  the 
Christian  converts.  It  reminded  them  of  the 
life  to  which  they  were  consecrated  at  baptism. 
Achaia]  probably  used  in  a  loose  popular  sense 
for  the  country  around  Corinth  :  cp.  1  Cor  1  2. 

2.  Grace .  .  and  peace]  i.e.  all  good  wishes 
for  spiritual  blessings. 

3-7.  Paraphrase.  '  We  give  thanks  to  God, 
the  Father  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  the 
Fount  of  all  blessing  and  comfort,  (4)  for 
the  comfort  and  courage  He  gives  us  in  our 
trials,  whereby  we  are  enabled  to  comfort  and 
encourage  others.  (5)  For  as  we  are  brought 
into  union  with  Chi-ist  by  our  sufferings  for 
His  sake,  so  are  we  brought  into  union  with 
you  by  the  comfort  we  receive  from  Christ. 
(6)  And  all  our  experiences  both  of  ^^trial  and 
of  comfort  are  for  your  spiritual  benefit.  (7) 
And  we  are  confident  that  as  ye  now  suffer  as 
we  did,  so  you  will  receive  the  blessing  we 
received.' 

5.  The  sufferings  of  Christ]  Because  they 
are  met  in  Christ's  service  and  borne  in  Christ's 
spirit:  cp.  PhilSi*^.  6.  And  whether,  etc.] 
RV  '  But  whether  we  be  afflicted,  it  is  for  your 
comfort  and  salvation  ;  or  whether  we  be  com- 
forted, it  is  for  your  comfort,  which  worketh 
in  the  patient  endurance  of  the  same  sufferings 
which  we  also  suffer.'     His  sufferings  caused 


them  to  repent  (cp.  77-9),  and  his  joy  at  their 
repentance  gave  them  courage  to  persevere. 

8-1 1.  Paraphrase.  'For  it  is  right,  my 
friends,  that  you  should  know  that  I  had  to 
undergo  very  severe  suffering  in  Ephesus,  and 
was  even  at  death's  door.  (9)  This  great  danger 
taught  me  that  my  life  is  in  the  hand  of  God, 
(10)  for  He  saved  me  from  the  danger,  as  He 
saves  me  continually,  (11)  even  while  you 
prayed  for  me,  that  you  and  many  might  give 
thanks  for  my  preservation.' 

8.  Pressed,  etc.]  RV  '  weighed  down  exceed- 
ingly.' Our  trouble .  .  life]  The  nature  of  this 
trouble  is  not  exactly  known.  A  serious  illness 
in  Ephesus,  aggravated  at  a  critical  stage  by 
the  startling  news  of  the  defection  at  Corinth, 
seems  best  to  explain  the  hints  and  allusions 
in  this  passage.  9.  The  sentence  of  death]  RV 
'the  answer  of  death.'  When  he  wondered 
whether  the  issue  would  be  life  or  death,  his 
own  heart  answered,  '  Death.'  That  we  should 
not  trust]  His  recovery  taught  him  a  stronger 
faith  in  God.  10.  So  great  a  death]  i.e.  death 
with  the  consciousness  that  his  work  in  Corinth 
had  been  a  failure.  Doth  deliver]  RV  '  will 
deliver '  :  i.e.  in  future  dangers  which  he 
already  foresaw. 

II.  You  also  helping  by  prayer.  St.  Paul 
asks  the  prayers  of  the  Corinthians,  and  tells 
them  that  they  will  thus  help  in  his  recovery. 
The  Apostle  always  attached  great  importance 
to  the  prayers  of  others  on  his  behalf  (Ro  IS^o 
lTh525  2Th3i),  and  made  a  practice  himself 
of  praying  for  others  (1  Cor  1 3  Phil  1 4  1  Th  1 2). 
He  knows,  too,  that,  when  praying  for  him, 
the  Corinthians  will  be  furthering  the  work 
he  has  at  heart. 

Division  I.    iis-^ie.  Thoughts  Suggested 

BY  THE  Recent  Crisis 

(a)  1 12-2  2.  The   Sincerity  of  St.  Paul's 

Intention  to  visit  the  Church 

12-16.  Paraphrase.  '  The  Apostle  bases  his 
expectation  of  receiving  their  prayers  on  the 
purity  and  sincerity  of  his  conduct,  especially 
in  respect  of  his  treatment  of  them.  (13)  He 
asserts  that  he  writes  nothing  to  them  but 
what  is  common  property,  namely,  that  they 
mutually  understand  and  glory  in  one  another. 
(14)  Some  of  them  have  acknowledged  this  all 
along,  and  he  trusts  that  they  will  increasingly 
understand  and  sympathise  with  one  another 
until  their  relations  be  perfected  at  the  coming 
of  Christ.  (15)  With  this  purpose  in  view  he 
had  planned  at  one  time  to  make  two  visits  to 
Corinth,  (16)  one  on  his  way  to  Macedonia, 
and  the  other  on  his  return  to  Asia  by  the 
same  route.' 

12.  Simplicity]  RV  '  holiness.'  Fleshly 
wisdom]  mere  cunning.  Had  our  conversa- 
tion] RV  '  behaved  ourselves.'  13.  None 
other  things]  St.  Paul   seems  to  have  been 


927 


1.15 


2  CORINTHIANS 


2.3 


suspected  of  writing  to  individual  members  of 
the  Church  that  he  was  not  so  satisfied  with 
their  conduct  and  attitude  as  he  professed  to 
be  in  his  public  letters.  Read  or  acknow- 
ledge] or,  perhaps,  '  acknowledge  and  even 
maintain,'  i.e.  that  he  was  now  perfectly 
satisfied  with  them,  and  they  with  him.  14.  In 
part]  Some  had  been  faithful  all  the  time. 

The  day  of  the  Lord  Jesus]  the  second 
coming  (cp.  1  Cor  313  iTh2i9),  which  the 
Christians  believed  to  be  at  hand. 

15,  16.  The  Apostle  after  his  second  visit 
to  Corinth  (the  visit  in  sorrow,  2^)  had  in- 
tended to  pay  another  visit  to  Europe  from 
Ephesus,  in  the  course  of  which  he  would  come 
to  Corinth  twice.  His  plan  had  been  to  sail 
from  Ephesus  to  Corinth,  and  from  there  to 
go  N.  to  Macedonia,  then  to  turn  and  retrace 
his  steps  back  to  Corinth,  and  sail  thence  to 
Palestine  in  charge  of  the  collection  in  time 
for  the  Passover.  The  Corinthians  would  thus 
have  received  a  second  benefit,  i.e.  two  visits 
in  the  same  journey. 

17-24.  Paraphrase.  '  When  you  find  me  now 
writing  from  Macedonia  before  you  have  had 
a  visit  at  all,  you  may  think  me  changeable 
and  capricious.  (18)  But  I  assure  you  solemnly 
I  am  not  easily  turned  from  my  purposes. 
(19)  You  know  that  the  Christ  I  preach  is 
true  and  faithful,  (20)  for  the  promises  of  God 
which  He  brought  to  the  world  are  unchange- 
able and  sure.  (21)  Well,  then,  it  is  G-od 
who  has  appointed  us  to  proclaim  these 
promises  (22),  and  has  marked  us  for  his  own 
by  the  gift  of  His  Spirit.  (2.3)  As  He  is 
steadfast  in  purpose,  so  are  we  His  messengers. 
(24)  For  I  have  no  desire  to  lord  it  over  you, 
but  only  to  help  yoiu'  Christian  life.' 

17.  Lightness]  RY  '  fickleness.'  According 
to  the  flesh]  deceitfully.  Two  charges  had  been 
brought  against  the  Apostle  :  (1)  that  in 
changing  his  plans  he  showed  himself  fickle, 
and  (2)  that  he  had  said  one  thing  while  he 
pm-posed  another.  18,  19.  His  word  was  not 
deceitful,  but  was  as  trustworthy  as  his  gospel. 

18.  Yea  and  nay]  i.e.  the  use  of  words  with 
a  double  meaning.  19.  He  appeals  to  his 
solemn  preaching  of  Christ  as  the  pledge  of 
his  sincerity.     Silvanus]  Silas  (Ac  18  5). 

20.  In  him  are  yea  and  .  .  Amen]  Christ  is 
the  affirmation  (the  yea)  and  the  fulfilment 
(the  Amen)  of  God's  promises.  Amen]  For 
the  general  Amen  see  1  Cor  1 4^6.  By  us]  as 
the  instruments. 

21.  Paraphrase.  '  Well,  then,  it  is  God 
who  is  continually  strengthening  the  spiritual 
bond  which  unites  both  us  and  you  to  Christ, 
and  who  has  set  us  apart  to  declare  His 
message.' 

21.  The  fact  that  St.  Paul  (like  the 
Corinthians)  was  consecrated  to  God  was  the 
guarantee  that  he  would  be  faithful  in  all  his 


dealings  with  them.  Stablisheth  us  -mth  you 
in  Christ]  The  underlying  thought  is  that  of 
the  union  of  Christ  and  the  Christian  :  cp. 
Gal  2  20  RoG3-5,  and  Intro.  Anointed]  sacra- 
mentally  set  apart  to  office.  22.  Sealed] 
marked  us  for  His  own.  Given  the  earnest  of  ' 
the  Spirit]  bestowed  the  gift  of  the  Spirit  as  j 
the  pledge  and  sample  of  all  spiritual  blessings 
to  come  :  cp.  Ro8"3  Ephli*. 

23.  Moreover  .  .  Corinth]  Another  reason 
for  the  Apostle's  change  of  plan  was  con- 
sideration for  their  feelings.  Record]  RY 
'  witness.'  To  spare  you]  i.e.  from  censure. 
This  refers  to  13^,  'If  I  come  again,  I  will 
not  spare  '  ;  chs.  10-13  being  the  earlier  severe 
letter  (see  Intro.).  Came  not  as  yet]  RY 
'  forbare  to  come.'  24.  Dominion]  probably 
refers  to  an  accusation  made  by  the  Judaisers 
that  St.  Paul  was  lording  it  over  them.  By 
faith  ye  stand]  A  difficult  phrase  ;  perhaps  it 
means,  '  You  need  no  master  over  you,  for 
you  are  grounded  in  the  faith,'  or,  '  Your  faith 
is  a  sufficient  strength,  security,  and  support.' 

C.  2.  I,  2.  Continuation  of  explanation  re- 
garding his  proposed  visit. 

1 ,  2.  Paraphrase.  '  It  was  therefore  because 
I  desired  to  spare  your  feelings  that  I  resolved 
not  to  pay  you  another  visit.  (2)  For  such  a 
visit  would  be  painful  to  us  both,  because 
my  joy  could  only  be  attained  through  your 
sorrowful  repentance.' 

I.  Again .  .  in  heaviness]  a  clear  reference 
to  a  visit  to  Corinth,  which  gave  him  much 
pain,  subsequent  to  his  writing  the  First 
Epistle  (see  Intro.). 

CHAPTER  2 

(5)  23-13.  The  Object  and  Results  of 
the  severe  letter 

The  Apostle  reminds  them  that  to  produce 
this  godly  sorrow  was  the  object  of  the  letter 
he  wrote  before.  He  then  speaks  of  one  man 
who  has  caused  him  pain,  asking  them  to 
remit  i;he  punishment  inflicted  already  and  for- 
give him,  and  telling  them  that  he  had  written 
also  to  ascertain  the  extent  of  their  obedience, 
and  that  if  they  were  willing  to  forgive 
now,  so  was  he.  He  then  relates  his  anxious 
desire  to  hear  what  had  occurred  on  their 
receipt  of  his  letter — a  desire  so  great  that  he 
had  to  push  southwards  to  meet  Titus  and  get 
the  news. 

3,  4.  Paraphrase.  '  My  reason  for  writing 
sternly  rather  than  paying  another  painful  visit 
was  that  I  wished  to  have  happiness  and  not 
sorrow  when  I  came.  (4)  I  wrote  the  severe 
rebukes  and  exhortations  with  suffering  and 
tears,  not  that  I  wished  wilfully  to  gi-ieve  you, 
but  that  I  hoped  you  would  realise  the  love  I 
bear  you.' 

3.  I  wrote]  i.e.  the  painful  letter  of  which 
chs.  10-13  of  the  Second  Epistle  are  probably 


928 


%  5 


2  CORINTHIANS 


2.  17 


a  portion  (see  Intro.).  In  you  all]  He  speaks 
thus  generously  now  tliat  he  has  found  his 
confidence  not  misplaced. 

5-9.  Paraphrase.  '  Now  with  regard  to  the 
person  who  has  been  the  occasion  of  this  grief, 
he  has  grieved  not  me  only,  but  to  some  ex- 
tent (not  to  be  too  harsh)  the  Church.  (6) 
And  the  sentence  pronounced  by  the  majority 
is  quite  sufficient  punishment  for  him.  (7) 
Do  not  inflict  any  further  punishment,  but 
forgive  and  encourage  him,  lest  he  be  driven 
to  despair.  (8)  Show  him  that  you  are  actu- 
ated by  Christian  love.  (9)  For  the  main  pur- 
pose of  my  letter  has  been  accomplished  now 
j  that  you  have  given  proof  of  your  readiness  to 
obey  me.' 

5.  Any]  A  definite  person  is  meant,  but  now 
that  punishment  has  brought  him  to  repent- 
ance the  Apostle  merely  hints  at  him.  The 
same  person  is  indicated  in  7^2,  where  see 
note.  6.  Punishment]  probably  excommuni- 
cation :  cp.  1  Cor  5  ■*>  s  (a  different  case).  Of 
many]  i.e.  by  the  majority.  7.  Overmuch 
sorrow]  The  offender  had  now  realised  the 
heinousness  of  his  offence,  and  the  continu- 
ance of  punishment  would  serve  no  good  pur- 
pose, and  might  even  do  harm.  8.  Confirm 
I  your  love]  by  restoring  him  to  the  Church. 

9.  The  Apostle  valued  the  act  of  discipline 
as  much  for  the  proof  it  afforded  of  the  Cor- 
inthians' loyalty  as  for  its  effect  upon  the 
offender. 

10-13.  Paraphrase.  '  I  forgive  any  one  whom 
you  forgive  ;  for  I  have  no  personal  feeling  in 
the  matter,  and  it  is  only  for  your  sakes  that  I 
speak  of  forgiveness  at  all,  and  I  forgive  in 
the  spirit  of  Christ.  (11)  I  forgive  this  man 
lest  he  be  tempted  by  Satan  to  deny  the  faith, 
for  we  know  that  the  adversary  seeks  to  pre- 
vail against  us.  (12)  I  was  so  anxious  to  hear 
what  you  had  done  while  I  was  engaged  in 
successful  work  for  Christ  in  Troas,  (13)  that 
I  could  not  remain  there  when  Titus  did  not 
come,  but  pushed  on  to  Macedonia  to  meet 
him.' 

ID.  In  the  person  of  Christ]  either  (1)  as  in 
His  sight,  or  (2)  as  in  His  place,  or  (3)  as  hav- 
ing Christ  living  in  me  :  cp.  1  21  217.  n.  Get 
an  advantage]  by  the  man  being  lost  to  Christ, 


(c) 


(c)i.. 


Glory,    the  Joy,    the 
THE  Inspiration  of  his 


the    preaching    of    the    gospel    found   ready 
acceptance. 

2 14-5  21.    The 

Comfort,  and 

Ministry 

214-36.  The  Apostle's  True  Letter 
OF  Recommendation 
The  return  of  Titus  with  joyful  news  sug- 
gests thanksgiving  to  God,  who  has  made  the 
Apostle  the  means  of  spreading  abroad  the 
gospel  message.  St.  Paul  and  his  fellow- 
workers  proclaim  the  gospel  both  to  those 
who  accept  and  to  those  who  reject  it.  To 
the  former  it  is  a  message  of  life  ;  to  the 
latter,  of  death.  And  no  one  can  bear  such  a 
burden  of  responsibility  unless  he  preaches 
with  a  pure  purpose,  and  under  a  deep  sense 
of  accountability  to  God. 

14.  Causeth  us  to  triumph]  RV  '  leadeth  us 
in  triumph.'  The  language  is  suggested  by  the 
triumphal  procession  of  a  Roman  general.  St. 
Paul  thinks  of  himself  as  being  a  willing  cap- 
tive in  Christ's  train  (cp.  10  5),  and  as  spreading 
abroad  the  knowledge  of  Him  like  the  per- 
vading scent  of  the  incense  scattered  as  the 
procession  moves  onward.  16.  The  figure  of 
the  triumphal  procession  is  continued.  '  Some 
of  the  conquered  enemies  were  put  to  death 
when  the  procession  reached  the  Capitol;  to 
them  the  smell  of  the  incense  was  "  an  odour 
of  death  unto  death  "  ;  to  the  rest,  who  were 
spared,  "  an  odour  of  life  unto  life  "  '  (Cony- 
beare  and  Howson's  '  Life  of  St.  Paul ').  For 
the  thought  suggested  in  these  verses  cp 
Jn  1 11, 12  9  39  1  Pet  2  7, 8  Re V  22  n.  Who  is  suf- 
ficient] the  great  responsibility  of  the  preacher. 
The  answer  to  the  question  is  suggested 
in  V.  17. 

17.  Many]  RV  'the  many';  i.e.  those 
Judaising  preachers  of  whom  they  had  ex- 
perience. These  men  had  stirred  up  strife  in 
the  Church  at  Corinth  by  denying  St.  Paul's 
authority,  accusing  him  of  personal  interest  in 
the  collection,  and  (what  he  resented  most) 
impugning  his  doctrine.  They  insisted  on  the 
observance  of  the  Jewish  Law,  and  as  St.  Paul 
preached  the  gospel  to  the  Gentiles  without 
reference  to  the  Law,  they  carried  on  a  mission 


w  _,     .  4.    J!  .1      A        ,,         -,  ,,   '     -"r  ""^  ■"'^"'' ^"^J  *^»^^^«<J  on  a  mission 

or  by  the  estrangement  of  the  Apostle  and  the     against  him  in  the  cities  he  visited,  seeking  to 


Corinthians 
12,  13.   St 


perhaps  both. 
,    ^  Paul  had  gone  from  Ephesus  to 

Troas  on  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor  a  short  time 
after  dispatching  the  severe  letter  to  Corinth 
by  Titus.  He  had  expected  Titus  to  meet 
him  there  with  the  news  of  the  condition  of 
the  Church  and  of  the  way  in  which  his  letter 
had  been  received  ;  but  not  finding  him  he  be- 
came anxious  and  hastened  on  to  Macedonia, 
where,  probably  at  Philippi,  he  met  Titus 
bringing  good  news.  Troas]  for  other  visits 
there  see  Acl 6 8-10  206-12 

59 


gam  his  converts  over  to  their  own  narrow 

views  and  Jewish  prejudices.     It  was  a  critical 

period  for  the  Church  both  in  Corinth  and  in 

other   places   (cp.   Gal  16-9  31-4).     <  tj^^   ^^^^ 

question  was  no  less  than  this  :  whether  the 

Catholic    Church    should   be  dwarfed   into  a 

Jewish   sect  ;  whether  the   religion   of  spirit 

and    of   truth    should   be   supplanted   by  the 

worship  of  letter  and  of  form  '  (Conybeare  and 

Howson).     Corrupt]   Make  the  gospel  a  means 

.  -.  ^     ^^  personal  gain.     The  opponents  of  St.  Paul 

A  door  was  opened]     seem  to  have  made  personal  profit  out  of  the 

929 


3.  1 


2  CORINTHIANS 


3.  10 


Corinthians  (1 1 20)  ;  and  at  the  same  time  to 
have  charged  the  Apostle  with  having  a  personal 
interest  in  the  money  he  was  raising  for  the 
poor  at  Jerusalem  :  cp.  8^0  12i''>i8. 

As  of  God]  i.e.  as  Grod's  true  servants.  In 
Christ]  i.e.  in  union  with  Christ.  St.  Paul 
was  so  entirely  submissive  to  Christ's  influence 
and  inspired  by  His  spirit  that  he  spoke  of 
Christ  living  in  him,  and  of  himself  as  living 
in  Christ  :  cp.  1 21  and  ref . 

CHAPTER  3 

This  c.  is  closely  connected  with  what  goes 
before,  and  carries  on  the  vindication  of  the 
Apostle's  conduct. 

1-6.  Paraphrase.  'In  speaking  thus  highly 
of  my  motives  1  am  not  writing  a  letter  to 
commend  myself,  nor  do  I  need  (like  these 
opponents  of  mine)  letters  of  recommendation 
either  to  you  or  from  you.  (2)  You,  my  con- 
verts, are  my  best  recommendation,  for  I 
think  of  you  with  gratitude  as  do  all  who 
know  your  faith  and  works.  (3)  You  are, 
indeed,  a  very  letter  of  Christ  who  has  used 
me  as  His  amanuensis,  and  bear  the  Avriting 
of  the  Spirit  on  your  hearts.  (4)  It  is  such  a 
result  of  my  work  as  I  see  in  you  that  assures 
me  that  God  is  using  me  as  an  instrument  of 
Christ,  (5)  not  that  I  trust  in  my  personal 
ability,  but  that  I  look  to  God  for  help  ;  (G) 
for  it  is  He  who  has  given  me  any  ability  I 
possess  to  proclaim  the  gospel  of  Christ. ' 

1.  Again]  probably  refers  to  the  passages 
in  the  severe  letter  (chs.  10-13)  in  which  he 
defended  himself  and  stated  his  claims  to 
recognition  :  see  especially  11  22-33  121-5  i2i'5-io. 

As  some]  The  Judaising  leaders  had  pro- 
bably brought  letters  from  Palestine  and 
charged  St.  Paul  with  having  no  such  recom- 
mendations. Epistles  of  commendation]  Such 
Epistles  were  commonly  used  in  the  early 
Church  to  introduce  strangers;  for  examples  see 
R0I6  and  Philemon,  and  cp.  Acl523-27  1827. 

2.  Our  epistle]  i.e.  of  commendation. 

Known  and  read]  better,  known  and  ac- 
knowledged :  the  Church  was  an  unmistakable 
witness  to  the  Apostle's  labours.  3.  Forai^- 
mitch  as  ye  are'\  omitted  in  RV.  Ministered 
by  us]  The  Apostle  regards  himself  as  the 
scribe  of  Christ  who  wrote  Christ's  words  on 
their  hearts.  Not  with  ink,  etc.]  In  this  v. 
the  figure  is  slightly  changed  ;  the  writing  is 
now  that  of  the  Spirit  of  God  on  their  own 
hearts.  It  is  no  mere  matter  of  paper  and 
ink,  but  the  work  of  the  finger  of  God  ;  it  is 
written  not  like  the  old  Law  upon  tables  of 
stone,  but  upon  living,  human  hearts.  4.  Such 
trust]  i.e.  such  confidence  in  you  as  our  letters 
of  commendation.  Through  Christ  to  God- 
ward]  my  confidence  is  not  in  myself,  but 
through  Christ  in  God  :  i.e.  I  look  to  Him  for 
strength  and    grace    through    Christ.     5.  To 


think   any   thing   as   of  ourselves]   RY    '  To 

account  any  thing  as  from  ourselves.' 

6.  Paraphrase.  '  All  my  power  in  saving 
men  comes  fi'om  God,  who  has  given  me  grace 
to  proclaim  a  new  covenant  between  Himself 
and  His  people — a  covenant  which  is  not  a 
formal  legal  system,  but  an  indwelling,  spiritual 
power,  for  while  the  old  covenant  could  only 
condemn  the  sinner  to  death  owing  to  his 
inability  to  perform  its  demands,  the  new 
covenant  inspires  to  faith  and  life.' 

Sufficiency]  i.e.  ability.  The  new  testa- 
ment] not  the  book,  but,  as  RY,  '  a  new  cove- 
nant ' — a  new  arrangement  made  by  God  for 
man's  welfare  to  which  he  must  submit  him- 
self. The  letter  killeth,  etc.]  The  Law  sets  up 
an  external  standard,  which,  because  we  are 
unable  to  attain  to  it,  puts  us  out  of  heart  and 
makes  us  despair  of  success  ;  the  Gospel  of 
Christ  proclaiming  pardon,  and  bringing  us 
under  Christ's  influence,  calls  forth  our  faith 
and  love,  and  inspires  us  ever  upward  and 
onward  :  cp.  Ro7,  8.  The  spirit  is  contrasted 
with  the  letter.  It  means  the  inward  inspiring 
power  of  the  Gospel. 

(c)  ii.  3 '''-4^.    The  Glory  of  the  Gospel. 

The  mention  of  the  new  covenant  suggests 
a  contrast  between  it  and  the  old.  The  Gospel 
is  more  glorious  than  the  Law,  for  it  is  not  a 
lifeless  Law  but  a  life-giving  Spirit.  Therefore 
its  apostles  are  eager  to  proclaim  it  to  all. 
Those  who  cling  to  the  Law  are  blind  to  the 
truth.  But  those  who  receive  the  Gospel  are 
changed  into  the  likeness  of  Christ. 

7-1 1.  Paraphrase.  '  Now  if  the  system  which 
could  only  declare  the  sentence  of  death  upon 
sin  was  glorious  (and  glorious  it  was,  for  at  its 
giving  the  very  face  of  Moses  was  transfigured), 
(8)  the  system  which  brings  life  and  inspir- 
ation is  more  glorious  still.  (9)  I  repeat,  if 
the  Law  was  glorious,  the  Gospel  is  far  more 
so.  (10)  For  the  glory  of  the  Gospel  puts  the 
glory  of  the  Law  into  shadow.  (11)  For  if  the 
transient  be  glorious,  how  much  more  glorious 
is  the  permanent  ! ' 

7.  The  ministration  of  death]  i.e.  the  Law  of 
Moses.  Engraven]  Ex  32 1«  3428.  The  face 
of  Moses]  The  transfiguration  of  Moses'  face 
(Ex  34  29)  is  given  as  an  example  of  the  glory 
attending  the  giving  of  the  Law.  To  be  done 
away]  The  fading  of  the  glory  typified  the 
transitoriness  of  the  Law,  which  was  to  give 
place  to  the  Gospel.  8.  Rather  glorious]  The 
Gospel  was  more  glorious  than  the  Law  because 
it  was  a  message  of  forgiveness  and  not  of 
condemnation,  and  because  it  was  not  a  mere 
legal  system,  but  an  inspiring  summons. 

9.  Ministration  of  righteousness]  better,  '  of 
acquittal,'  in  contrast  to  'of  condemnation.' 
The  gospel  message  is  one  of  pardon  and 
reconciliation.     10.  That  excelleth]  The  glory 


930 


3.  12 


2  CORINTHIANS 


4.  6 


of  the  Law  is  completely  eclipsed  by  that  of 

the  Gospel,  which  offers  forgiveness  instead  of 

condemnation,     ii.  That  which  is  done  away, 

etc.]  another  aspect  of  the  truth  stated  in  v.  10. 
1 2-1 8.   Paraphrase.     '  Since    our   hopes  of 

the    future  of  the  gospel  are  so    great,    we 

speak  frankly  and   boldly.     (13)  We  do  not 

seek  to  conceal  anything  as  Moses  concealed 

his  face  with  a  veil  lest  the  people    should 

see    the    glory   fading   from   it.     (14)  Those 

who  looked  upon  the  giving  of  the  Law  did 

not      understand    that    it    was  a    temporary 

measure  to  convince  them  of  sin  ;  and  even 

now  their  successors  do  not  realise  that  it  has 

been  superseded  by  Christ,  (15)  but  think  that 

it  still  remains  in  forCe.  (16)  When,  how- 
ever, they  receive  Clu-ist  into  their  hearts,  they 

will  know  the  truth.     (17)  For  Christ  is  the 

life-giving  Spirit  who  leads  men  to  the  truth 

and  sets  them  free  from  bondage.  (18)  And 
all  we  who  have  received  Him,  gazing  as  into 
a  mirror  on  the  glorious  Personality  of  the 

Lord,  are  transfigured  into  His  likeness  in 
spirit  and  character  in  ever-increasing  degrees 
of  perfection,  through  the  influence  of  the 
Lord  who  is  the  Spirit.' 

12  f.  The  whole  of  this  contrast  between  the 
glory  of  the  new  and  the  glory  of  the  old  dis- 
pensation seems  aimed  at  the  retrograde  teach- 
ing of  the  Judaisers  in  Corinth.     They  sought 

to  retain  the  rites  and  restrictions  of  the  Law,         _  

and  to  conceal  the  full  truth  of  the  Gospel     understood  by  any,  it  is  only  by  those  (4)  whose 
which  does  away  with  the  old  legal  system.  minds  are  dulled  by  sin.     (5)  For  the  subject 

13.  Li  this  and  the  next  two  vv.  we  have  a  of  our  preaching  is  not  ourselves,  but  Christ, 
good  example  of  St.  Paul's  habit  of  blending  (6)  As  God  at  first  created  light,  so  has  He 
the  allegoi-ical  with  the  historical  interpretation     created  spiritual  light  in  our  hearts,  that  we 


Spirit.  Liberty]  freedom  from  the  bondage  of 
the  Law  is  the  primary  meaning  ;  but  perhaps 
freedom  from  sin  is  included  :  cp.  Jn83i>32. 

18,  He  who  keeps  the  memory  and  the 
example  of  Christ  ever  before  his  mind's  eye, 
and  tries  to  follow  Him  in  his  life,  will  gradu- 
ally come  to  show  in  his  own  character  and 
life  an  increasing  likeness  to  his  Lord. 

CHAPTER  4 

1-6.  The  messengers  of  this  gospel  are  not 
afraid  to  proclaim  it,  for  they  preach  Chi'ist, 
who  has  revealed  the  glory  of  God. 

I,  2.  Paraphrase.  'Having  this  glorious 
gospel  to  preach,  we  proclaim  it  boldly.  (2)  We 
have  nothing  to  do  with  methods  and  practices 
which  cannot  bear  the  light  (like  those  of  your 
false  teachers),  for  we  neither  seek  to  undo 
another's  work  by  unscrupulous  hints  and  dis- 
graceful insinuations,  nor  try  to  gain  the  favour 
of  the  Jewish  Christians  by  false  teaching  about 
the  relation  of  Christ  and  the  Gospel  to  the 
Law  of  Moses.  On  the  contrary,  we  proclaim 
the  simple  truth,  and  make  our  appeal  to  the 
conscience  as  in  the  sight  of  God.' 

I.  As  we  have  received  mercy]  in  his  conver- 
sion from  the  blindness  of  Judaism.  2.  The 
hidden  things  of  dishonesty]  i.e.  the  disgraceful 
methods  of  gaining  adherents  used  by  the  false 
teachers  :  see  on  2^"^. 

3-6.    Paraphrase.     'If   our   gospel    is    not 


of  the  OT.  :  see  also  Gal  4  2-^-3i.  The  reference 
here  is  to  Ex.3433.  Could  not]  RV  '  should 
not.'  The  end  of  that  which  is  abolished]  i.e. 
the  gloi-y  fading  from  his  face.  14.  Blinded] 
RV  'hardened.'  The  same  vail]  Note  the 
quick  transition  from  history  to  allegory.  The 
veil  with  which  Moses  covered  his  face  to  keep 
the  Israelites  from  seeing  the  glory  fading  is 
typical  of  the  spiritual  veil  which  keeps  Jews 
and  Judaising  Christians  from  seeing  that  the 
Law  is  transitory.  Done  away  in  Christ]  i.e. 
when  they  will  truly  come  under  Christ's 
influence  and  power  they  will  see  that  He  has 
made  the  Law  unnecessary,  because  they  will 
experience  the  new  spirit  He  bestows. 

15.  When  Moses  is  read]  i.e.  when  the 
Law  is  read:  cp.  Ac  15-1.  16.  It]  i.e.  their 
heart.  The  Law  is  incomprehensible  without 
Christ. 

17.  The  Lord  is  that  Spirit]  RV  '  The  Lord 
is  the  Spirit.'  Christ  is  the  life-giving  Spirit. 
There  is  perhaps  a  reference  to  '  the  ministra- 
tion of  the  Spirit'  in  v.  8.  The  Spirit  is 
Christ's  Spirit :  cp.  Ac  1 6  7  (RV)  Ro  8  9  1  Pet  1  n. 
What  is  meant  is  that  he  who  turns  to  Christ 
shall  receive  the  illuminating  and  quickening 


might  reflect  His  light,  even  the  knowledge  of 
His  love  revealed  in  Christ.' 

3.  Are  lost]  RV  '  are  perishing.'  If  some 
will  not  let  the  light  of  the  gospel  shine  into 
their  hearts,  it  is  their  own  fault.  4.  The 
God  of  this  world]  cp.  Jn  123i  1430.  Worldly 
men  make  the  devil  their  god  by  serving  him, 
and  thus  serving  him  become  even  more 
worldly.  Lest  the  light,  etc.]  For  the  thought, 
cp.  Mt  13 13-15.  Image  of  God]  Christ  is  the 
expression  of  God's  character  of  love  and 
holiness.  5.  Not  ourselves]  as  do  the  false 
teachers.  For  Jesus'  sake]  Love  to  Jesus  ia 
his  motive  in  seeking  to  serve  the  Corinthians. 

6.  For  God  .  .  hath  shined]  RV  '  Seeing  it  is 
God  that  said.  Light  shall  shine  out  of  dark- 
ness, who  shined  in  our  hearts.'  The  refer- 
ence is  to  Gn  1 3.  He  who  gave  natural  light 
gave  also  spiritual  light. 

(iii)  4 '''-5 10.  The  Sources  OF  THE  Apostle's 
coxmfort  in  the  ministry,  and  the 
Hopes  that  give  him  Courage 

7-18.  This  glorious  gospel  is  entrusted 
indeed  to  frail  and  suffering  messengers,  but 
that  is  in  order  that  the  glory  may  be  given 


931 


4.7 


2  CORINTHIANS 


5. 


1 


not  to  man  but  to  God.  Life  is  a  continual 
afiaiction  and  danger,  but  it  enables  the  Apostle 
to  learn  how  to  comfort  and  edify  the  Cor- 
inthian converts,  and  he  gladly  suffers  that 
many  may  learn  the  salvation  of  God  and 
glorify  His  holy  name,  while  he  is  upheld  by 
the  hope  of  the  resurrection  life. 

7.  This  treasure]  i.e.  the  work  of  the 
ministry.  In  earthen  vessels]  i.e.  in  a  weakly 
body.  Herodotus  tells  us  that  Darius  Hystas- 
pis  melted  his  gold  into  earthen  pots,  which 
could  be  broken  when  it  was  wanted.  8.  We 
are  troubled,  etc.]  Images  are  heaped  one 
upon  another  iu  picturesque  accumulation  to 
express  the  fact  that,  in  spite  of  many  great 
trials  (cp.  1126  1210),  the  Apostle  has  grace 
given  him  to  persevere. 

10-12.  Paraphrase.  'In  suffering  for  Christ's 
sake  we  are  drawn  into  close  communion  with 
Him  who  suffered  and  died  on  our  behalf  ; 
and  thus  sharing  His  experience  and  "  having 
this  mind  in  us  which  was  also  in  Him,"  we 
are  enabled  to  show  forth  in  our  life  the  power 
of  Christ,  whose  indwelling  influence  gives  us 
the  victory  over  the  temptations  which  these 
trials  bring.  (11)  Indeed,  it  is  for  this  very 
purpose  that  we  are  constantly  brought  into 
peril  and  aflfliction  ;  (12)  and  the  result  is  that, 
while  we  suffer  and  draw  near  even  to  death 
itself,  your  spiritual  life  is  strengthened  by 
the  spectacle  of  our  spiritual  victory.' 

ID.  Bearing  about,  etc.]  He  '  dies  daily,' 
he  '  stands  in  jeopardy  every  hoiu- '  (1  Cor 
1530,31)  for  Chi-ist's  cause,  and  thus  he  has 
learnt  '  the  fellowship  of  his  sufferings  '  (Phil 
3 10  Col  1 24).     In  the  body]  cp.  1 5  Gal  Q  i7. 

II.  Explaining  and  emphasising  v.  10. 

13-15.  Paraphrase.  '  (13)  Our  faith  is  like 
that  of  the  Psalmist,  who  spoke  out  of  the 
depths  of  his  inward  conviction,  and  we  speak 
what  we  verily  believe.  (14)  For  we  are  con- 
fident that  God  who  raised  Jesus  our  Lord 
from  the  dead  will  raise  us  also  and  unite  us 
with  you  in  the  blessings  of  the  resurrection 
life.  (15)  And  all  my  experiences  are  a  source 
of  blessing  to  you,  because  as  the  gi-ace  of  God 
enables  me  to  overcome  my  difficulties,  many 
of  you  are  inspired  by  my  testimony  to  rise 
to  higher  levels  of  Christian  life,  and  to  give 
thanks  to  God  for  so  many  mercies.' 

13.  The  reference  is  to  PsllG^o.  14.  By- 
Jesus]  RV  '  with  Jesus.'  15.  The  AV  is  here 
inaccurate.  RV  '  For  all  things  are  for  your 
sakes.  that  the  grace  being  multiplied  through 
the  many,  may  cause  the  thanksgiving  to 
abound  unto  the  glory  of  God.' 

16-18.  St.  Paul  goes  on  to  speak  of  the 
things  that  comfort  him  in  the  presence  of 
his  trials.  These  are  the  strengthening  of  his 
spirit,  the  thought  that  the  temporal  is  tran- 
sient, and  the  assurance  of  a  future  life. 

16.  Though  our  outward  man  perish,  etc.] 


932 


These  afflictions  may  weaken  the  body,  but 
through  them  the  spirit  is  strengthened.  Ex- 
perience shows  us  the  truth  of  this  in  many 
cases  ;  e.g.  bodily  weakness  often  produces 
beauty  of  character,  and  grey  hairs  bring  wis- 
dom :  cp.  for  the  thought,  Jnl52  Hebl2il. 

17.  Our  light  affliction,  etc.]  The  affliction 
is  light,  and  vastly  outweighed  by  the  glory 
which  it  helps  to  secure  ;  seen  in  its  true  per- 
spective, too,  it  is  but  momentary,  while  the 
glory  is  eternal.  18.  We  look  not]  If  we 
look  at  these  afflictions  they  will  loom  so  large 
in  our  view  as  to  shut  out  the  prospect  be- 
yond;  therefore  we  look  past  them.  The 
things  which  are  seen]  the  material,  including 
ftiese  afflictions.  The  things .  .  not  seen]  the 
spiritual,  including  the  results  of  these  afflic- 
tions in  character  and  spiritual  life. 

CHAPTER   5 

The  subject  of  c.  4  is  continued.  St.  Paul 
has  been  pointing  out  that  amid  bodily  weak- 
ness and  decay  he  is  encouraged  by  the  thought 
that  the  temporal  is  transient,  while  the  spirit- 
ual is  eternal.  He  now  goes  on  to  speak  more 
particularly  of  the  great  prospect  that  sustains 
him — the  replacement  of  the  earthly  material 
body  by  an  eternal  heavenly  one.  He  hopes 
to  survive  till  Christ's  coming,  and  receive  the 
heavenly  body  without  passing  through  the 
experience  of  death  :  but,  if  it  should  be 
ordered  otherwise,  he  has  no  fear  of  being  left 
by  death  in  the  disembodied  condition  so  re- 
pugnant to  the  Hebrew  mind,  for  the  eternal, 
spiritual  body  will  still  be  given  him,  in  which 
he  will  be  presented  to  the  Lord. 

1-5.  Paraphrase.  '  A  further  reason  for  my 
courage  in  presence  of  difficulty  and  affliction 
consists  in  my  knowledge  that  if  my  body 
undergo  the  dissolution  of  death,  I  shall  be 
endowed  by  God  with  an  unperishable  heavenly 
body.  (2)  My  hope,  however,  and  desire  is 
that  while  still  alive  and  in  possession  of  this 
earthly  body  I  may  simply  be  transformed  at 
the  coming  of  the  Lord,  (3)  since,  if  I  receive 
it  thus,  I  shall  not  be  left  a  disembodied  spirit 
in  the  state  of  death.  (4)  Our  material  body 
is  a  burden  under  which  betimes  we  groan  ; 
but,  however  we  may  be  called  to  part  with 
it,  we  may  confidently  cherish  the  expectation 
of  being  endued  with  something  better  in  its 
place,  i.e.  we  may  hope  to  be  clothed  with  the 
heavenly,  resurrection  body,  and  not  left 
naked  spirits.  (5)  It  is  for  this  very  purpose 
God  has  wrought  in  us  :  besides,  He  has  given 
us  His  Spirit  as  the  pledge  and  instalment  of 
the  resurrection  life.' 

I.  For]  introduces  an  additional  reason  for 
courage.  Even  if  his  earthly  tent  be  taken 
down,  if  his  body  be  broken  up  by  death,  God 
has  prepared  a  heavenly  mansion  for  him,  a 
resurrection  body  which  is  eternal.     Taber- 


5.  2 


2  CORINTHIANS 


5.  14 


nacle]  rather,  '  tent.'  Building]  contrasted 
with  the  temporary  tent  to  which  the  earthly- 
body  is  compared.     Of  God]  RV  '  from  God.' 

2.  In  this]  i.e.  in  this  present  body.  Clothed 
upon]  St.  Paul's  idea  was  that  the  heavenly 
body  would  be  superimposed  upon  the  earthly 
one,  at  the  same  time  transforming  it.  Cony- 
beare  and  Howson  render  thus  :  '  Desiring  to 
cover  my  earthly  raiment  with  the  robes  of 
my  heavenly  mansion  '  :  cp.  1  Cor  1 5  ^^■^■i. 

3.  If  so  be,  etc.]  This  is  a  parenthesis  ex- 
plaining clothed  upon  in  the  previous  verse. 
AV  and  EV  are  both  rather  obscure  :  better, 
'  Since,  once  this  heavenly  body  is  assumed, 
we  shall  be  in  no  danger  of  being  found  disem- 
bodied by  death.'  Naked]  i.e.  disembodied 
spirits.  The  shrinking  of  the  ancients,  both  Jews 
and  Greeks,  fi-om  the  disembodied  state  as  they 
conceived  it,  is  well  known  from  its  expres- 
sions in  their  literature.  See,  for  example, 
the  dreariness  of  the  spirit-world  portrayed 
in  the  eleventh  book  of  the  '  Odyssey.'  4.  Bur- 
dened] by  the  anxiety  of  uncertainty.  Not .  . 
unclothed]  The  Apostle's  desire  was  to  gain 
the  resurrection  life  without  dying.  He  looked 
on  Christ's  coming  as  comparatively  near  at 
hand:  cp.  1  Cor 4 5  lTh4i5.  5.  He  that  hath 
wrought  us]  St.  Paul  here  argues  for  immor- 
tality and  the  resurrection  life  from  the  in- 
stinctive longings  of  the  human  heart.  God 
has  planted  these  longings  there ;  He  has 
confirmed  them  by  the  pledge  of  His  Spirit  in 
conscience,  aspiration,  and  all  spiritual  bless- 
ings ;  and  He  will  not  in  the  end  disappoint 
us  :  cp.  '  Thou  wilt  not  suffer  thine  Holy  One 
to  see  corruption'  (Psl6iO) — 

'  Thou  wilt  not  leave  us  in  the  dust : 

Thou  madest  man,  he  knows  not  why: 
He  thinks  he  was  not  made  to  die  ; 
And  Thou  hast  made  him  :  Thou  art  just.' 

(Tennyson. ) 

6-8.  Paraphrase.  '  With  this  hope  in  our 
hearts  we  are  always  courageous.  We  know 
that  while  we  live  in  this  mortal  body  we 
are  away  from  the  Lord,  and  that  when  we 
put  off  this  body  we  shall  be  in  His  presence ; 
(7)  (for  we  live  in  anticipation,  not  yet  having 
realised  the  vision  of  Christ.)  (8)  We  are 
courageous,  I  repeat  ;  and  are  even  ready  to 
put  off  this  mortal  body  and  to  be  at  home  in 
the  presence  of  the  Lord.' 

8.  Absent  from  the  body]  St.  Paul  here 
grapples  with  the  possibility  of  death  before 
the  second  coming  of  Christ.  To  die  was  '  to 
be  with  Christ  which  is  far  better  '  (Phil  1  23). 
Even  death  could  not  separate  him  from  the 
love  of  Christ.  If  he  did  not  then  gain  the 
full  resurrection  life,  he  would  still  be  in 
Christ's  presence.  Perhaps  his  idea  is  that 
suggested  in  Rev  69-11. 

9.  Present  or  absent]    i.e.  living  or  dead. 
Accepted]  RV 'well-pleasing.'    10.  Appear] 


RV  '  be  made  manifest ' ;  our  conduct  and 
character  being  disclosed.  Receive  the  things] 
i.e.  the  recompense  of  them:  cp.  Mtl627 
Rev  22  12. 

(iv)  5 11-19.  The   Love   of  Christ   the 
Apostle's  Inspiration 

In  the  recollection  of  this  judgment  the 
Apostle  preaches.  His  motive  is  wholly  un- 
selfish. It  is  the  love  of  Christ  which  con- 
strains him.  For  the  love  of  Christ  was  shown 
in  His  dying  for  all  men  in  order  to  transform 
them  into  a  new  life.  If  any  man,  therefore, 
be  in  Christ,  he  lives  a  new  life  through  the 
mercy  of  God,  who  has  reconciled  us  to  Him- 
self by  sending  His  Son  to  be  om-  Saviour, 
and  has  given  to  His  Apostles  the  message  of 
reconciliation. 

ii-iS-  Paraphrase.  'Seeing,  then,  that  we 
realise  the  awe  inspired  by  Christ  our  judge, 
we  try  to  convince  men  of  our  faithfulness 
and  unselfishness :  to  God,  indeed,  our  sincerity 
is  already  manifest,  and  also,  I  trust,  to  you 
in  your  secret  thoughts.  (12)  Do  not  think 
that  this  is  mere  self-conmiendation.  Look 
upon  it  rather  as  suggesting  the  answer  you 
may  make  to  our  enemies  when  they  try  to 
belittle  our  work  and  boast  of  their  external 
advantages.  (13)  For  if  in  our  enthusiasm  we 
are  mad  (as  they  say),  it  is  for  God's  glory  ;  or, 
if  we  are  sensible,  it  is  for  your  benefit.  (14) 
For  the  love  of  Christ  to  men  is  our  incentive  ; 
because  we  are  convinced  that  in  Christ's  death 
for  the  sin  of  all  we  all  received  power  to  die  to 
sin,  (15)  so  that  we  should  live  a  new  and  trans- 
formed life,  thinking  not  of  our  own  desires, 
but  of  His  will  who  died  for  us  and  rose  again.' 

II.  Terror]  the  reverence  or  fear  inspired 
by  the  thought  that  Christ  is  judge  (v.  10). 

We  persuade  men]  i.e.  of  om-  sincerity,  with 
a  view  to  winning  them.  In  your  consciences] 
The  Corinthians  as  a  Church  believed  in  the 
Apostle.  12.  Glory  in  appearance]  The  false 
teachers  boasted  of  external  advantages  (per- 
haps of  having  seen  the  Lord),  which  were  no 
evidence  of  character  and  spiritual  life. 

13.  Beside  ourselves]  His  enemies  declared 
that  he  was  mad  ;  probably  owing  to  his  en- 
thusiasm and    vehemence   in    preaching :    cd 
Ac2624.  "^  ^       ^ 

14.  The  love  of  Christ]  i.e.  the  love  Christ 
has  shown  towards  us.  Judge]  i.e.  have  come 
to  this  conclusion.  One  died  for  all]  i.e.  as 
the  head  and  representative  of  the  race.  '  In 
Christ's  saving  death  the  moral  transforma- 
tion of  all,  which  I  may  call  death  to  sin, 
was  included,  and  his  saving  death  had  this 
meaning  and  purpose  ;  namely,  that  they  who 
are  quickened  into  a  holy  life  in  Him  should 
not  live  selfishly,  but  should  give  themselves 
up  to  His  service  who  died  and  rose  to  save 
them '  (Stevens). 


933 


5.  16 


2  CORINTHIANS 


6.^ 


16-19.  Paraphrase.  '  Since,  therefore,  it  is 
holiness  alone  that  is  of  importance,  we,  unlike 
our  opponents,  pay  no  attention  to  men's  out- 
ward appearance  and  circumstances  ;  even  in 
the  case  of  Christ,  though  I  once  regarded  Him 
as  merely  a  man  and  a  Jew,  yet  I  look  at  Him 
in  this  way  no  longer,  but  rather  as  my  Saviour 
and  Risen  Lord.  (17)  Whoever  then  knows 
Christ  in  this  higher  way  is  indeed  a  new  man. 
He  looks  on  life  from  a  higher  point  of  view. 
His  ideals  and  aspirations  have  been  trans- 
formed :  all  things  are  new  to  him.  (18)  And 
this  change  is  due  to  God,  who  removed  the 
barrier  sin  had  made  between  Himself  and  us, 
and  gave  to  us  his  Apostles  the  message  of 
His  saving  grace.  (19)  And  that  message  is 
this,  that  in  Chi'ist's  life  and  work  we  see  God 
casting  down  the  barrier  that  divided  us  from 
Him,  and  proclaiming  forgiveness  and  love 
to  all  mankind  :  and  this  is  the  message  of 
reconciliation  which  He  committed  to  us.' 

16.  After  the  flesh]  i.e.  have  regard  to  what 
is  outward  rather  than  to  what  is  inward,  to 
circumstances  and  position  rather  than  to  char- 
acter and  personality.  Known  Christ  after  the 
flesh]  St.  Paul  once  looked  for  a  Messiah  as  a 
Jewish  conqueror,  and  in  the  light  of  this  ex- 
pectation regarded  Jesus  as  (at  best)  a  prophet 
who  had  made  claims  which  he  was  unable  to 
substantiate,  and  whose  career  had  terminated 
(perhaps  deservedly)  at  Calvary  ;  but  now  he 
looks  on  Jesus  in  the  light  of  His  atoning 
death  and  glorious  resurrection,  and  sees  in 
Him  the  Christ  of  God. 

17.  A  new  creature]  or,  as  we  would  say,  a 
new  man.  He  looks  on  things  from  a  different 
standpoint,  tries  them  by  a  different  standard, 
because  he  is  united  to  Christ  in  such  a  way 
that  he  lives  always  under  Christ's  indwelling, 
purifying,  and  transforming  influence.  Are 
become  new]  A  new  world  opens  to  the  new 
man.      18.   All  things]  i.e.  all  these  changes. 

The  ministry  of  reconciliation]  the  whole 
message  of  the  gospel  conveyed  by  preaching, 
teaching,  the  sacraments,  and  the  example  of 
Christians,  assuring  men  of  God's  love  and 
leading  them  to  accept  the  will  of  God  as 
revealed  in  Christ  as  their  own.  19.  God  was 
in  Christ,  etc.]  When  we  see  Christ  teaching, 
healing,  forgiving,  comforting,  and  dying  for 
men,  we  are  to  see  there  the  expression  of 
God's  love  and  deep  desire.  In  this  atoning 
work  Christ  was  '  the  express  image  of  His 
Person.'  Reconciling  the  world  unto  himself] 
The  desire  for  reconciliation  came  from  God. 

(d)  520-71.  Appeal  for  Purity  op  Life 

As  an  ambassador  of  Christ  St.  Paul  en- 
treats them  to  be  reconciled  to  God.  And  not 
only  does  he  make  this  entreaty  in  words  ;  he 
appeals  to  them  by  his  life  and  conduct  in  all 
the  varied  experiences  through  which  he  has 


to  pass.  He  asks  them  for  greater  affection 
towards  himself,  and  reminding  them  of  God's 
promises  to  the  pure,  bids  themkeep  themselves 
'  unspotted  from  the  world.' 

20,21.  Paraphrase.  '  We,  then,  are  ambassa- 
dors in  Christ's  place,  conveying  to  you  God's 
message  and  desire  ;  we  ask  you,  speaking  in 
Christ's  name,  to  accept  this  great  salvation. 
(21)  It  was  to  secure  our  salvation  that  God 
gave  up  His  sinless  Son  to  death,  making  Him 
bear  the  penalty  of  our  guilt,  that  we  might 
be  made  partakers  of  His  divine  nature  by 
submitting  ourselves  wholly  to  Christ's  trans- 
forming influence. 

20.  Be  ye  reconciled  to  God]  It  is  not  God 
who  needs  to  be  reconciled  to  man,  but  man 
who  needs  to  be  reconciled  to  God.  21.  Made 
him  to  be  sin  for  us]  Christ  had  to  bear  not 
the  guilt,  but  the  burden  of  sin.  He  bore  its 
penalty  not  as  a  punishment,  but  as  the  inno- 
cent suffers  for  the  guilty  ;  feeling  all  its  shame 
and  horror,  but  free  from  the  sense  of  guilt 
and  degi-adation.  Hence  St.  Paul  says  not, 
'  He  hath  made  Him  to  be  a  sinner,'  but  '  He 
hath  made  Him  to  be  sin.'  The  spectacle  of 
Christ  thus  bearing  our  penalty  touches  the 
heart  and  conscience,  and  makes  us  respond 
to  the  love  wherewith  He  hath  loved  us  :  cp. 
Ro83.4. 

CHAPTER  6 

1 ,  2.  Paraphrase.  '  Now  it  is  as  cooperators 
with  God  in  this  work  that  we  exhort  you  not 
to  make  the  grace  of  God  fruitless  in  your  life 
by  continuing  in  sin.  (2)  For  God  has  told 
us  in  Scripture  of  a  time  of  grace  and  of  a 
day  of  salvation  ;  and  this  is  that  blessed  time 
of  grace  and  that  day  of  salvation.' 

1.  Workers  together  v:it?i  him']  For  the 
idea  cp.  lCor3^.  In  vain]  i.e.  by  an  unholy 
life. 

2,  He  (i.e.  God)  saith]  The  v.  is  a  parenthe- 
sis. The  reference  is  to  Isa49S,  God's  words 
of  comfort  to  His  Suffering  Servant.  Behold, 
now,  etc.]  This  is  St.  Paul's  comment  on  the 
quotation.  Accepted  time]  RV  '  acceptable 
time.' 

3-10.  Paraphrase.  '  We  avoid  all  conduct 
which  might  bring  reproach  upon  our  ministry  ; 
(4)  and  try,  on  the  contrary,  to  commend  our- 
selves by  acting  as  true  ministers  of  God.  (5) 
This  is  our  aim  in  all  the  trials  and  persecu- 
tions we  endure,  (6,  7)  for  we  seek  to  exhibit 
all  the  Christian  graces  both  in  our  life 
and  in  our  teaching.  (8)  Whether  we  are 
held  in  honour  or  defamed  our  object  is 
the  same  :  (9)  we  are  looked  upon  as  deceivers, 
but  we  remain  true  ;  we  are  obscure,  but 
known  by  our  work  ;  we  are  often  at  death's 
door,  but  through  God's  grace  we  live  ;  (10) 
we  are  cast  down,  but  are  enabled  to  rejoice 
through    Christ ;    in   our  poverty  we  enrich 


9.' 


6.  3 


2  CORINTHIANS 


7.4 


many  with  spiritual  blessings  ;  though  having 
nothing  of  ourselves  we  have  all  through  Christ.' 

3.  Giving-  no  offence]  The  main  sentence 
beginning  in  v.  1  is  here  resumed,  these  words 
being  in  apposition  with  '  we  as  workers  to- 
gether with  him.'  4.  Approving  ourselves] 
B,V  '  commending  om-selves,'  i.e.  by  our  con- 
duct in  the  various  circumstances  detailed. 

In  much  patience,  etc.]  The  Apostle's  desire 
to  commend  himself  is  shown  (a)  in  endurance 
of  hardship  and  trouble  (v.  4)  ;  (h)  in  the 
persecutions  and  dangers  incidental  to  a 
missionary  life  (v.  5)  ;  (c)  in  the  purity  and 
sincerity  of  his  Christian  life  (vv.  6,  7)  ;  ('I) 
by  his  conduct  in  presence  of  friends  and 
enemies  (v.  8)  ;  (e)  by  the  manner  in  which 
he  met  the  ordinary  experiences  of  his  life 
(vv.  9, 10).    5.  Stripes]  cp.  Ac  16  23  2  Cor  11 23-35. 

Imprisonments]  Ac  1 6  23  2  Cor  1 1 23.  Tumults] 
Acl3^f  145.19  1812  1923. 

6.  By]  RV  '  in.'  The  preposition  '  in  '  is 
unchanged  until  the  last  clause  of  v.  7,  '  by 
the  armour,'  etc. 

The  Holy  Ghost]  the  translation,  '  in  a  holy 
spirit,'  is  tempting,  as  it  brings  the  clause  into 
parallelism  with  the  others.  7.  By  the  word 
of  truth]  i.e.  in  the  preaching  of  the  gospel. 

By  the  povyer  of  God]  i.e.  in  his  exercise  of 
all  the  powers  entrusted  to  him  by  Grod.  The 
armour  of  righteousness,  etc.]  The  right-hand 
weapon  was  the  sword  for  attack,  the  left  the 
shield  for  defence.  The  Apostle's  methods 
were  fair  and  open,  whether  in  attacking 
idolatry  and  vice  or  in  defending  himself 
against  traducers.  8.  As  deceivers]  probably 
refers  to  the  charges  of  his  opponents. 

10.   Making  many  rich]   i.e.  with  spiritual 
gifts.     Possessing  all  things]  i.e.  all  things  of 
value  for  life  and  character  in  this  world  and 
a  rich  inheritance  in  the  world  to  come  :   cp 
lCor322,23  2Cor4i8  5i. 

11-13.  The  Apostle  assures  them  of  his 
deep  affection  for  them  before  he  lays  upon 
them  the  strict  injunctions  which  might  prove 
unwelcome.  12.  Ye  are  not  straitened,  etc.] 
i.e.  there  is  abundant  room  in  my  heart  for 
you,  but  too  little  hitherto  in  yours  for  me. 

Bowels]  RV  '  aifections  '  ;  as  frequently  in 
Scripture.  13.  A  recompence  in  the  same]  A 
return  for  his  affection. 

14-16.  Paraphrase.  '  Do  not  become  en- 
tangled in  alliances  of  any  kind  with  unbelievers 
to  your  spiritual  hurt.  There  is  no  relation 
possible  between  holiness  and  sin,  between 
light  and  darkness,  (15)  between  Christ  and 
Satan,  between  the  true  and  the  untrue,  (16) 
between  the  worship  of  God  and  the  worship 
of  idols  :  for  we  are  indeed  the  very  temple  of 
the  living  God  ;  and  it  is  of  us  that  He  speaks 
in  His  "Word,  promising  to  dwell  in  us  and  to 
commune  with  us,  making  us  His  peculiar 
people,  and  calling  us  to  purify  ourselves  and 


935 


become  worthy  children  of  our  heavenly 
Father.' 

14.  Unequally  yoked  together  with  unbe- 
lievers] The  ever-present  and  ever-pressing 
temptation  and  danger  was  that  they  might  be 
led  into  immorality  through  the  abominable 
rites  of  idol-worship  :  cp.  1  CorS^'H  6^5  gio.n 
10 1*.      Unequally]  better,  'incongruously.' 

15.  Christ  with  Belial]  For  the  idea  cp.  Mt  6  24. 
Belial]    Here   used  as  a  synonym  for  the 

devil.  The  meaning  of  this  name  is  doubtful. 
There  is  no  trace  of  the  worship  of  any  god 
under  this  name.  It  is  used  in  the  OT.  in 
such  expressions  as  'sons  of  Belial,'  'men  of 
Belial,'  meaning  '  wicked  men'  :  1  S212  251m 25 
2  S  20 1  1 K  2 1 10.  1 6.  The  temple  of  the  living 
God]  cp.  1  Cor  3 16. 17.  Ye]  RV  '  we,'  according 
to  the  best  Gk.  MSS.  God  hath  said]  i.e.  in 
the  Scriptures:  see  on  Lv26i2.  17.  Saith 
the  Lord]  The  words  quoted  are  from  Isa52ii, 
freely  rendered  (v.  17),  with  echoes  of  other 
OT.  passages  (v.  18)  like  2S7S  Isa436  Hoslio. 

C.  7.     I.  These  promises]   given  in  61*5-18. 

Filthiness]  RV  '  defilement.'  Of  the  flesh 
and  spirit]  cp.  Ps244.  Perfecting  holiness]  For 
the  thought  cp.  3  is  Heb6i  121^. 

CHAPTER  7 

(e)  7  2-16.   The  Apostle's  Joy  in  the 
Corinthians'  Repentance 

St.  Paul  goes  on  to  ask  them  to  give 
him  their  affection,  and  renews  his  assurance 
of  purity  of  deed  and  motive.  He  tells 
them  of  the  suspense  in  which  he  had 
awaited  their  response  to  his  'severe'  letter, 
and  his  joy  at  the  return  of  Titus  with  good 
news.  He  is  now  glad  that  he  vexed  them  by 
that  letter — though  he  was  inclined  to  regret 
his  action  for  a  time — because  of  its  happy 
results  in  their  attitude  and  conduct  ;  and  he 
concludes  by  expressing  anew  his  affection  for 
them,  and  his  joy  that  mutual  confidence  has 
been  restored. 

2-4.  Paraphrase.  '  Give  us  your  affection  ; 
we  have  done  no  man  any  injury  either  in  influ- 
ence or  in  character  or  in  pocket.  (3)  I  am  not 
returning  to  this  subject  to  blame  you  again, 
for  whether  I  live  or  die  I  have  the  deepest 
affection  for  you.  (4)  I  speak  freely  to  you 
as  I  boast  of  you  freely  to  others  ;  I  am 
greatly  comforted,  and  rejoice  exceedingly  amid 
all  my  sufferings.' 

2.  Receive  us]  RV  'Open  your  hearts  to 
us.'  We  have  wronged  .  .  corrupted  .  .  de- 
frauded no  man]  St.  Paul  is  referring  to 
charges  that  had  been  brought  against  him. 
For  hints  as  to  these,  cp.  114,7,8,9  1214, 1(5, 17. 

4.  Glorying  of  you]  i.e.  boasting  about  you  : 
cp.  92,3. 

Paraphrase.  '  (5)  For  when  I  came  to  Mace- 
donia looking  for  your  answer  to  my  letter,  I 
was  troubled  both  by  conflicts  with  enemies 


7.  5 


2  CORINTHIANS 


8.  5 


and  by  forebodings  about  you.  (6)  But  God, 
who  comforts  those  who  are  in  trouble,  com- 
forted me  by  the  arrival  of  my  friend  Titus. 
(7)  Not  only  was  I  cheered  by  his  presence, 
but  by  the  comfort  he  communicated  to  me, 
which  he  had  derived  from  your  sorrow  for 
yoiu"  faults  and  your  affection  for  me  ;  so  that 
my  anxiety  was  transformed  into  joy.' 

5.  '  When  I  came  to  Macedonia  ' :  see  Intro. 

6.  God,  that  comforteth]  cp.  l^.^.Titus]  was 
the  bearer  of  the  letter  to  the  Corinthians  men- 
tioned in  V.  8  :  see  Intro.  7.  The  conso- 
lation wherewith,  etc.]  Titus  was  comforted 
by  their  repentance,  and  this  comfort  he  passed 
on  to  St.  Paul  when  he  gave  him  the  good 
news. 

8.  Though  I  did  repent]  The  Apostle  for  a 
time  feared  his  previous  letter  had  been  too 
severe.  The  letter  was  probably  that  of  which 
chs.  10-13  of  the  Second  Epistle  form  the 
chief  part  :  see  Intro.  10.  Godly  sorrow^,  etc.] 
The  contrast  is  between  repentance  and  re- 
morse, between  sorrow  for  sin  and  sorrow  for 
its  consequences  :  cp.  St.  Peter  and  Judas. 

Repentance  to  salvation]  cp.  '  Heart-sorrow 
and  a  clear  life  ensuing  '  (Shakespeare).  The 
sorrow^  of  the  world]  i.e.  grief  that  regrets  not 
the  sin,  but  the  fact  of  being  found  out. 

Death]  Moral  and  spiritual  ruin. 

11,  12.  Paraphrase.  '  Your  own  repentance 
is  a  case  in  point.  Yours  was  a  godly  sorrow,  as 
the  results  proclaim  ;  for  it  made  you  earnest 
to  amend  your  ways,  anxious  to  clear  your- 
selves, indignant  that  you  had  been  misled, 
afraid  of  the  results  of  your  conduct,  anxious 
to  see  me,  zealous  for  truth  and  justice, 
resolute  in  purifying  the  Church.  In  every 
respect  you  showed  that  you  had  no  share  in  the 
offender's  guilt,  and  no  desire  to  shield  him. 
(12)  And  this  was  the  very  purpose  of  that 
severe  letter,  not  to  secure  the  punishment  of 
the  offender,  or  to  satisfy  the  resentment  of 
the  injured,  but  to  cause  you  to  recognise 
before  God  the  feelings  of  affection  and  devo- 
tion with  which  you  really  regarded  me.' 

12.  For  his  cause  that  had  done  the  wrong 
. .  for  his  cause  that  suffered  wrong]  The  re- 
ference, of  course,  was  obvious  to  the  readers 
without  particulars  ;  but  we  are  ignorant  of 
some  of  the  facts.  It  would  seem  that  on  the 
occasion  of  his  brief  visit  St.  Paul  had  been 
attacked  and  denounced  by  some  leader  of  the 
disaffection  in  the  Church,  or  else  that  Timothy 
on  the  occasion  of  his  visit  had  been  the  object 
of  vituperation  ;  and  that  in  either  case  St. 
Paul  had  insisted  upon  the  punishment  of  the 
offender.  This  had  now  been  done.  The 
doer  of  the  wrong  here  is  this  leader  of  re- 
bellion, and  the  sufferer  either  St.  Paul  or 
Timothy.  This  seems  the  most  probable  solu- 
tion of  the  problem  from  the  knowledge  we 
possess.     Our  care  for  you]  RY  '  your  earnest 


care  for  us.'  The  reading  of  E.Y  is  best 
attested  by  the  MSS,  and  is  more  in  harmony 
with  the  train  of  thought  in  v.  11.  His  letter 
was  written  to  let  them  see  the  real  feelings 
they  had  towards  him,  which  were  concealed 
for  the  moment  by  their  irritation. 

13-16.  Paraphrase.  '  Now  that  all  has  ended 
well,  I  am  thankful  ;  and  my  joy  is  increased 
because  Titus  also  rejoices  at  your  attitude. 
(14)  For  all  that  I  said  to  him  in  your  praise 
has  been  justified,  and  I  am  not  ashamed  of  my 
boasting  ;  (15)  and  the  affection  of  Titus  for 
you  has  increased  since  he  visited  you  and  saw 
your  anxiety  to  do  well.  (16)  I  rejoice,  there- 
fore, that  I  have  every  confidence  in  you.' 

14.  Our  boasting,  etc.]  Titus  had  evidently 
been  rather  despondent  about  the  result  of  his 
mission  with  the  letter  when  he  started  ;  but 
St.  Paul  had  encouraged  him  by  confident 
forecasts  of  the  Corinthians'  repentance. 

15.  With  fear  and  trembling]  not  dread 
of  punishment,  but  anxiety  to  fulfil  their 
obedience  :  cp.  Phil2'i2. 

Division  II.     8I-915.  The  Collection 

FOR  THE  Poor  in  Jerusalem 

CHAPTER  8 

(a)  31-9.  The  Example  of  Macedonia 
1-5.  Paraphrase.  '  I  wish  you  to  know 
how  liberally  and  spontaneously  the  Churches 
of  Macedonia  have  contributed  to  the  relief 
of  their  fellow-disciples  in  Jerusalem,  having 
first  of  all  presented  themselves  to  God's 
service.' 

I.  Do  you  to  "wit]  RY  'make  known  to 
you.'  The  grace  of  God]  the  inspiration  to 
give  liberally.  The  churches  of  Macedonia] 
i.e.  Philippi,  Beroea,  and  Thessalonica,  with, 
perhaps,  others  unknown  to  us  :  cp.  Ac 
1612-1714  201  2.  Their  deep  poverty]  The 
Christians  of  Macedonia  were  very  poor,  and 
so  their  liberality  was  all  the  more  marked. 

3.  Beyond  their  power  .  .  of  themselves] 
Their  giving  was  bountiful  and  spontaneous. 

4.  The  RY  gives  a  better  meaning  :  '  Be- 
seeching us  with  much  intreaty  in  regard  of 
this  grace  and  the  fellowship  in  the  minister- 
ing to  the  saints.'  They  desired  the  privi- 
leges (1)  of  being  allowed  to  give,  and  (2)  of 
making  common  cause  in  this  ministry  of 
kindness.  4.  The  ministering]  On  the  collec- 
tion see  Intro.  5.  First  gave,  etc.]  the 
best  of  all  giving.  They  surrendered  them- 
selves (not  their  money  only)  to  God's  will 
first,  and  then  to  the  Apostle's  guidance. 

6-9.  Paraphrase.  '  The  collection  prospered 
so  well  here  that  we  asked  Titus  to  complete 
this  work  of  charity  which  he  organised  on  his 
former  visit.  (7)  See,  therefore,  that  you 
manifest  this  gift  in  the  same  degree  as  the 
others  in  which  you  abound.  (8)  I  am  not 
laying  commands  upon  you  ;  I  am  only  telling 


936 


8.6 


2  CORINTHIANS 


9.1 


you  what  has  been  suggested  by  the  liberality 
of  others  in  order  to  give  you  the  chance 
of  proving  your  sincerity.  (9)  But  let  me 
remind  you  of  the  great  love  of  Christ,  who 
divested  Himself  of  the  riches  of  His  glory 
and  became  poor  for  your  sakes,  that  by  His 
self-denial  and  humility  you  might  inherit 
eternal  salvation.' 

6.  Titus]  He  organised  the  collection  after 

I     the  arrival  of  our  First  Epistle,  which  con- 

j     tained    instructions   about    it:    cp.    ICorlG^ 

I     2  Cor  12 18.     7.  This  grace  also]   Liberality  is 

a  Christian  grace  as  much  as  these  others. 

9.  The  grace  of  our  Lord]  the  crowning 
example  of  liberality  :  cp.  Phil  2  5-8. 

(b)  810-2*.   The  Principles  of  Christian 
Liberality 

The  Apostle  counsels  them  to  complete 
their  good  work,  tells  them  that  the  purpose 
of  the  collection  is  mutual  sympathy  and  aid, 
and  commends  to  their  care  Titus  and  two 
brethren  who  go  with  him. 

10-15.  Paraphrase.  '  In  saying  this  I  am  not 
laying  a  command  upon  you,  for  you  have 
already  manifested  the  spirit  and  practised 
the  duty  of  giving  this  twelvemonth  past. 
(11)  Complete  the  offering  according  to 
your  means,  (12)  for  the  willing  mind  is 
shown  by  gifts  in  accordance  with  your 
ability,  and  not  by  foolish  prodigality  beyond 
it.  (13)  My  purpose  is  not  to  make  others  a 
burden  upon  you,  (14)  but  to  get  you  to 
supply  what  they  lack,  and  them  to  supply 
what  you  lack  ;  (15)  thus  acting  on  the  prin- 
ciple of  equality  illustrated  in  the  bestowal  of 
the  manna  in  bygone  days,  that  none  should 
have  too  much,  and  none  too  little.' 

ID.  Advice]  or,  '  opinion,'  i.e.  as  opposed  to 
'  command.'  A  command  was  not  needed  in 
their  case  :  cp.  1  Cor  7  ^'  '^^.  A  year  ago]  A 
year  had  elapsed  since  they  had  first  responded 
to  the  Apostle's  suggestion  of  the  collection. 

11.  Perform]  better,   '  make  perfect.' 

12.  According  to  that  a  man  hath]  the  true 
principle  of  Christian  giving.  The  best  com- 
mentary on  it  is  Lk21i-i.  14.  Their  abund- 
ance, etc.]  A  time  might  come  when  the  rela- 
tive positions  of  the  Christians  in  the  two 
cities  would  be  reversed.  15.  The  reference 
is  to  Ex  16 18,  but  the  meaning  is  somewhat 
different  in  the  two  cases.  There  the  equality 
is  the  result  of  a  miracle  ;  here  it  is  the  result 
of  mutual  love  and  generosity. 

16-24.  Paraphrase.  '  The  zeal  of  Titus  on 
your  account  causes  us  great  thankfulness  to 
God,  (17)  for  he  did  not  need  my  suggestion, 
but  was  eager  to  return  to  you.  (18)  With 
him  we  send  our  fellow-labourer,  whose  work 
in  spreading  the  gospel  is  spoken  of  in  all  the 
Churches,  (19)  and  who  was  chosen  by  those 
of  Macedonia  to  accompany  us  in  charge  of 


937 


this  gift,  to  promote  Christ's  glory  and  to 
satisfy  our  own  desire.  (20)  And  his  presence 
wards  off  all  suspicion  of  our  motives,  and 
silences  all  criticism  of  the  manner  in  which 
we  distribute  the  funds  collected  ;  (21)  for 
we  desire  to  do  what  is  honourable  both  in 
the  sight  of  God  and  in  the  sight  of  men. 
(22)  We  also  send  with  Titus  and  his  fellow- 
disciple  another  brother  whom  we  have  learned 
to  trust  from  much  experience,  and  who  is  more 
zealous  than  ever  since  he  has  heard  of  your 
enthusiasm.  (23)  If  any  one  asks  about  Titus, 
speak  of  him  as  my  fellow-labourer  among 
you  ;  or  if  any  one  asks  of  the  other  brethren, 
they  are  sent  by  the  Churches,  and  show  forth 
in  their  lives  the  love  of  Christ.  (24)  Show, 
therefore,  to  them  and  through  them  to  the 
Churches  the  proof  of  your  love  and  the  justi- 
fication of  my  boast  of  you.' 

18.  The  brother]  His  identity  is  uncertain, 
but  we  may  look  for  him  in  the  list  given  in 
Ac  20  4  of  those  who  accompanied  St.  Paul  to 
Jerusalem,  excluding  the  delegates  from  Asia 
and  including  St.  Luke,  who  joined  them  at 
Troas  (Ac  20  5, 0).  Sopater  has  been  suggested, 
as  he  is  mentioned  first  in  that  list,  though 
the  representative  of  the  smallest  Church. 

19.  This  grace]  the  collection.  To  the 
glory,  etc.]  The  Apostle  keeps  in  view  that  in 
aiding  the  poor  he  is  furthering  Christ's  glory. 

Declaration  of  your  ready  mind]  RY  '  to  shew 
our  readiness.'  The  meaning  is,  '  in  accordance 
with  our  strongly  expressed  desire.'  The 
reason  of  the  desire  is  indicated  in  v.  20. 

20.  That  no  man,  etc.]  Charges  of  this 
kind  had  already  been  made  against  St.  Paul. 
He  replied  to  them  in  121'''.  is,  -Rrhich  was 
written  previous  to  this :  see  Intro.  This 
abundance]  RV  ^  the  matter  o/this  bounty.' 

21.  Providing  for  honest  things]  RV  'For 
we  take  thought  for  things  honourable.' 

22.  Our  brother]  perhaps  St.  Luke,  if  he 
is  not  'the  brother'  of  v.  18.  /  have']  RV 
'  he  hath.' 

CHAPTER  9 

(c)  9 1-15.  Exhortations  to  Generous 
Giving 

There  is  no  need  to  write  to  you  about  the 
purpose  and  necessity  of  the  collection,  for 
your  zeal  in  the  matter  is  well  known,  and  has 
been  used  by  me  as  a  stimulus  to  the  Mace- 
donians. I  send  our  friends  to  you  only  to 
make  sure  that  our  boast  of  you  has  not  been 
vain.  Remember  that  the  blessing  you  receive 
will  be  in  proportion  to  your  giving,  and  that 
much  spiritual  benefit  will  come  both  to  you 
and  to  them  by  this  interchange  of  sympathy. 

I.  The  ministering]  St.  Paul  had  already 
written  on  the  collection  in  general  (1  Cor  16 1-4), 
and  had  sent  instructions  by  Titus  on  his  first 
visit  (1218).     The  saints]   the   Christiana  in 


9.^ 


2  CORINTHIANS 


10.1 


Jerusalem.  2.  The  fonvardness  of  your 
mind]  RV  'your  readiness.'  A  year  ago] 
see  on  S^^.     Provoked]  RV  '  stirred  up.' 

4.  We  (that  we  say  not,  ye)]  He  bids  them 
realise  how  much  he  would  be  ashamed  before 
the  Macedonian  delegates  if  they  were  unpre- 
pared :  at  the  same  time  he  suggests  in  passing 
that  he  is  sure  their  own  shame  would  not  be 
less  than  his. 

5.  Year  bounty,  whereof  ye  had  notice  be- 
fore]  RV  '  your  aforepromised  bounty.' 

Bounty,  and  not .  .  covetousness]  He  desired 
their  gift  to  be  ready  before  he  came,  that  it 
might  be  evident  to  the  delegates  that  they 
had  given  it  of  their  own  free-will,  and  did 
not  need  to  have  it  dragged  out  of  them 
through  shame  in  his  presence.  7.  As  he 
purposeth  in  his  heart,  so  let  him  give,  etc.]  i.e. 
do  not  let  a  man  give  what  he  grudges  or  be- 
cause he  feels  that  he  must  do  as  the  others  ; 
let  the  open  hand  correspond  to  the  willing 
spirit. 

8-1 1.  Paraphrase.  '  And  God  has  power  to 
enrich  you  with  all  earthly  blessings,  that  ye 
may  have  sufficient  for  yourselves  and  the 
means  of  helping  those  who  need,  (9)  and  so 
experience  the  fulfilment  of  the  promise  of 
God's  Word.  (10)  Now  God,  who  supplies 
seed  to  the  sower  and  bread  for  food,  will  both 
provide  for  your  wants  and  abundantly  bless 
your  charity  and  make  it  fruitful  for  good  ; 
(11)  for  your  willingness  to  give  freely  of 
what  you  have  freely  received  will  cause  those 
to  whom  we  bear  your  bounty  to  give  thanks 
to  God  for  your  thoughtful  love.' 

8.  All  grace]  every  earthly  blessing  that 
will  give  them  opportunity  of  blessing  others. 

That  ye .  .  may  abound]  The  purpose  of 
God's  gifts  to  them  is  that  they  may  share 
them  with  others :  cp.  for  the  thought  1  '*. 

9.  As  it  is  written]  Psll29.  His  righteous- 
ness remaineth]  In  return  for  his  generosity, 
God  will  give  him  continually  the  disposition 
to  be  generous ;  the  charitable  man  has  his 
reward  in  becoming  more  charitable — a  true 
spiritual  blessing. 

12-15.  Paraphrase.  '  For  this  charity  has  a 
twofold  benefit :  it  supplies  the  needs  of  the 
brethren  in  Jerusalem,  and  it  makes  them 
give  thanks  and  praise  to  God.  (13)  They 
give  glory  to  God  because  they  see  in  this 
bounty  the  proof  of  your  obedience  to  Christ, 
and  they  praise  Him  for  your  generous  gift 
to  them  and  to  others,  (14)  while  they  express 
in  prayer  their  fervent  longing  that  all  bless- 
ings may  be  yours.  (15)  God  be  praised  for 
this  great  boon,  whose  blessedness  no  tongue 
can  tell.' 

12.  The  exercise  of  the  gift  of  charity  had 
both  a  material  and  a  religious  value. 

13.  Whiles  by  the  experiment  of  this  minis- 
tration] RV  '  Seeing  that  through  the  proving 


of  you  by  this  ministration.'  The  reception 
of  the  collection  would  be  proof  to  the 
Church  in  Jerusalem  of  the  true  Christianity 
of  those  who  called  themselves  Christians  in 
Corinth:  cp.  lJn420.  15.  His  unspeakable 
gift]  The  establishment  of  these  happy  rela- 
tions between  the  Churches,  each  giving  thanks 
for  the  others  and  praying  for  their  growth 
in  all  goodness,  was  a  blessing  from  God 
beyond  the  power  of  words  to  express. 

{B)  CHAPTERS  10-13 
St.  Paul's  Defence  of  his  Ministry 
As  explained  in  the  Introduction,  this  sec- 
tion is  regarded  as  part  of  the  intermediate 
letter,  referred  to  in  23,-*  and  7^,  in  which 
the  Apostle  rebuked  his  converts,  and  sought 
to  bring  them  to  repentance.  It  is,  therefore, 
to  be  taken  as  earlier  in  time  than  chs.  1-9, 
which  were  written  as  the  result  of  the  Corinth- 
ians' reception  of  the  intermediate  or 'severe' 
letter. 

Here  the  Apostle  answers  the  charges  of 
weakness  and  cowardice  that  have  been 
brought  against  him,  defends  his  preaching 
and  his  independence,  points  to  the  proofs  of 
his  apostleship  in  suffering  and  service,  and 
finally  warns  them  against  evil  and  exhorts 
them  to  live  a  pure  and  holy  life. 

CHAPTER  10 

(a)  10I-18.  Answer  to  the  Charge  of 
Feebleness  and  Cowardice 

The  Apostle  beseeches  the  Corinthians  to 
act  in  such  a  way  that  he  will  not  need  to 
resort  to  extreme  measures  on  the  occasion  of 
his  forthcoming  visit.  He  points  out  that  his 
purpose  is  to  make  every  man's  thoughts  sub- 
ject to  the  power  of  Christ,  and  that  he  will 
punish  any  who  are  rebellious  when  the  Church 
as  a  whole  shall  have  returned  to  its  obedience. 
He  goes  on  to  say  that  those  who  have  been 
accusing  him  of  cowardice  will  soon  find  them- 
selves mistaken.  He  will  make  no  boast  that 
his  record  cannot  justify,  and  he  will  boast 
chiefly  of  his  success  in  converting  the 
Corinthians  themselves.  This  was  a  field  of 
labour  the  Apostle  had  made  peculiarly  his 
own  ;  and  he  hoped  for  the  assistance  of  the 
Church  in  carrying  the  gospel  further  west. 
But  let  them  not  forget  that  the  only  glorying 
that  was  safe  was  that  which  came  through 
seeking  the  approval  of  the  Lord. 

I .  Now  I  Paul]  If  this  is  not  the  beginning 
of  the  'severe'  letter,  it  is  evidently  the 
beginning  of  a  new  subject.  Possibly  one 
leaf  of  the  MS  containing  this  letter  was 
lost  at  an  early  date  ;  and  this  loss  led  to 
the  remaining  portion  being  attached  in 
course  of  time  to  the  longer  Epistle  con- 
sisting of  chs.  1-9.  By  the  meekness  and 
gentleness  of  Christ]  cp.  Phil  2 1.     He  invokes 


938 


10.  2 


g  CORINTHIANS 


10.16 


Christ's    meekness   to  indicate  the    spirit   in 
which  he  wishes  to  deal  with  his  opponents. 

In  presence  a/n  base,  etc.]  This  was  their 
story,  by  which  they  sought  to  prejudice  him 
in  the  eyes  of  the  Church. 

2.  According  to  the  flesh]  i.e.  in  a  worldly 
spirit.  His  enemies  declared  that  he  was  one 
who  sought  his  own  advantage  and  tried  to 
gain  popularity  by  whatever  methods  seemed 
best  at  the  moment.  When  he  was  at  a  dis- 
tance, he  issued  commands  and  declared  his 
authority  over  the  Church  ;  but  when  he 
came  they  found  him  a  poor  creature  who 
was  overawed  by  the  firmness  of  the  Church 
against  him. 

3-6.  Paraphrase.  '  We  live  in  the  flesh,  and 
are  subject  to  its  weaknesses  and  temptations, 
like  others  ;  but  we  are  not  prompted  by 
fleshly  motives,  such  as  dread  of  giving  offence, 
or  desire  of  popularity.  (4)  For  we  fight  not 
in  our  own  strength,  but  in  the  strength  of 
Grod,  and  this  reliance  upon  Him  enables  us 
to  prevail  against  all  opposition  and  prejudice, 
however  strong  or  deep-rooted.  (5)  In  this 
strength  we  shatter  the  false  reasonings  and 
assertions  of  our  opponents,  and  bring  back 
your  rebellious  thoughts  into  obedience  to 
Christ,  (6)  while  after  we  secure  yom-  sub- 
mission, we  shall  certainly  punish  any  who  may 
still  resist  His  will.' 

4.  Carnal]  RV  'of  the  flesh.'  Through 
God]  RV  'before  God.'  5.  Imaginations] 
the  false  reasonings  of  his  enemies.  Every 
high  thing]  All  the  pride  and  self-satisfaction 
and  self-delusion  which  made  the  Corinthians 
rebel  against  him.  Bringing  into  captivity] 
The  Apostle  describes  the  Corinthians  in  a 
metaphor  as  rebels  in  possession  of  a  castle 
(v.  4)  with  battlements  and  high  towers,  (v.  6) 
which  he  must  attack  in  order  to  capture  the 
defenders.  6.  Disobedience]  There  may  be 
some  contumacious  to  the  bitter  end. 

7-10.  Paraphrase.  '  You  are  too  much  influ- 
enced by  appearances.  My  opponents  say 
that  I  do  not  act  as  an  Apostle  of  Christ,  do 
they  ?  Be  sure  that  I  am  just  as  devoted  a 
servant  of  Christ  as  any  who  assert  their 
superiority.  (8)  Even  if  I  boasted  of  my 
authority  which  Christ  has  given  me,  I  should 
still  be  justified.  (9)  I  write  this  to  show 
that  I  am  not  seeking  to  terrify  you  by  empty 
threats,  (10)  for,  according  to  my  opponents, 
my  presence  among  you  and  my  appeals  were 
alike  ineffective.' 

7.  Do  ye  look,  etc.]  RV  '  Ye  look  at  the 
things  that  are  before  your  face.'  As  he  is 
Christ's,  even  so  are  we]  St.  Paul  claims  that 
his  relation  to  Christ  is  as  close  as  that  of  any 
of  his  opponents  :  cp.  l.S^.'i.  For  the  Chi-ist 
party  see  Intro.  1  (b).  Some  think  that  the 
leaders  of  this  party  claimed  to  have  known 
Christ  during  His  earthly  life.    10.  His  letters] 


They  had  at  this  date  received  at  least  two 
from  St.  Paul,  (1)  that  mentioned  in  lCor5^, 
and  (2)  our  First  Epistle.  His  bodily  presence 
is  weak]  i.e.  his  action  is  feeble  when  he  is 
present.  His  speech  contemptible]  RV  'of 
no  account '  ;  i.e.  produced  no  effect.  Possibly 
the  Apostle  pleaded  with  them  rather  than 
asserted  his  authority.  He  was  an  eloquent 
speaker  (Ac  14 12).  n.  Will  ive  be]  RV  'are 
we.'  12.  We  dare  not]  RV  '  we  are  not 
bold '  :  cp.  V.  2.  His  confidence  was  not 
based  on  comparison  with  his  opponents.  Not 
•wise]  RV  '  without  understanding.'  Such  a 
method  of  self-commendation  is  useless  and 
foolish. 

13-18.  Paraphrase.  'Others  may  boast  with- 
out reason,  but  we  will  make  no  boast  which 
cannot  be  justified  by  our  work — a  work  which 
includes  your  conversion.  (14)  For  in  claim- 
ing you  as  our  converts  we  are  not  making 
too  great  a  boast.  (15)  And  we  are  not  taking 
credit  for  other  men's  labours  as  our  opponents 
are  for  ours,  but  are  rather  hoping  that  as 
your  faith  increases  so  also  will  our  influence, 

(16)  that  we  may  be  aided  to  preach  the 
gospel  in  districts  beyond  your  city,  and  not 
seek,  as  some  are  doing,  to  claim  credit  for 
success  where  others  have  laboured  before  us. 

(17)  The  only  safe  rule  about  boasting  of 
success  is  this  :  He  that  glorieth,  let  him  glory 
in  the  Lord.  (18)  For  self-praise  is  no  attest- 
ation of  the  work  that  is  done  ;  that  attest- 
ation is  only  shown  when  God's  blessing 
attends  and  prospers  it.' 

13.  Without  our  measure]  outside  our  pro- 
vince. He  will  only  boast  of  work  done  by 
himself,  and  that  included  preaching  the 
gospel  in  Corinth.  The  measure  of  the  rule, 
etc.]  RV  '  The  measure  of  the  province  which 
God  apportioned  to  us  as  a  measure,  to  reach 
even  unto  you.'  St.  Paul's  province  was 
heathendom,  and  that  included  Corinth. 

14.  We  are  come]  He  was  the  first  to 
preach  Christ  'in  Corinth.  15.  Not  boasting, 
etc.]  RV  '  not  glorying  beyond  our  measure, 
that  is,  in  other  men's  labours  ;  but  having 
hope  that  as  your  faith  groweth,  we  shall  be 
magnified  in  you  according  to  our  province 
unto  further  abundance.'  Of  other  men's 
labours]  The  suggestion  is  that  his  opponents 
do  so.  We  shall  be  enlarged]  As  their  faith 
increased  and  their  Christian  life  became 
more  manifest,  his  name  would  become  better 
known,  his  influence  would  increase,  and  his 
sphere  of  service  would  be  much  extended, 
according  to  his  rule  of  making  a  Church  the 
starting-point  for  further  efforts. 

16.  The  regions  beyond  you]  These  chs. 
were  written  in  Ephesus  ;  hence  this  would 
refer  to  Rome,  and  perhaps  Spain.  Rome 
was  already  in  his  mind  (Ac  19^1),  and  soon 
after  this  date  he  wrote  of  going  to  Spain 


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2  CORINTHIANS 


11.  14 


(B,ol524.28)_  Not  to  boast  in  another  man's 
line  of  things  made  ready]  RV  '  not  to  glory 
in  another's  province  in  regard  of  things 
ready.'  17.  Cp.  Jer  9  23  1  Cor  1 31.  In  the  Lord] 
The  only  boasting  is  to  be  of  Him  who  gives 
the  blessing.  18.  Not  he  that  commendeth 
himself]  Contrast  between  himself  and  his 
accusers  is  implied.  The  true  test  is  the 
success  of  the  work,  not  the  self-advertisement 
of  the  workers. 

CHAPTER    11 

(b)  1 1 1-15.   Defence  of  his  Gtospel  and 

OF  HIS  Independence 
St.  Paul  says  that  he  also  will  now  boast  a 
little,  for  he  is  as  much  an  Apostle  as  those 
whom  they  prefer.  If  he  refuses  monetary 
support  from  them,  it  is  in  order  to  prevent 
these  false  teachers  charging  him  with  making 
gain  of  the  ministry. 

Paraphrase.     '  (1)  Bear  with  me  a  little  if 

1  begin  to  boast  foolishly  ?  Yes  ;  do  bear  with 
me.  (2)  My  affection  for  you  makes  me 
apprehensive,  even  as  I  may  say  that  God  also 
is  apprehensive  regarding  you  ;  for  I  have  as  it 
were  betrothed  you  to  Christ,  and  cannot  endure 
that  you  should  be  unfaithful  to  your  troth. 
(3)  I  fear  lest  these  false  teachers  corrupt 
your  minds,  even  as  Satan  with  his  smooth 
tongue  corrupted  Eve. ' 

I.  In  ?Hy  folly]  Spoken  in  irony.  They  bear 
with  others ;  why  not  with  him  ?  Possibly 
they  had  spoken  of  his  words  when  with  them 
as  folly.  2.  Godly  jealousy]  lit.  '  the  jealousy 
of  God.'     I  have  espoused  you]   cp.  EphS^^-sT 

2  Jn  1. 13  Rev  19^2122217.  3.  The  simplicity 
that  is  in  Christ]  i.e.  the  pure  gospel  that 
salvation  is  by  faith  in  Christ  alone. 

4-6.  Paraphrase.  '  And  my  fear  is  not  with- 
out reason,  for  you  are  certainly  very  favour- 
ably inclined  towards  those  who  bring  quite  a 
different  gospel  from  that  which  I  preached. 
(5)  But  if  you  tolerate  them,  you  can  surely 
tolerate  me,  for  I  venture  to  think  that  I  am 
quite  as  good  in  every  way  as  these  very 
eminent  apostles  of  yours.  (6)  I  may  know 
little  of  the  art  of  speaking  (as  they  say),  but 
at  least  I  know  something  of  divine  truth,  as 
is  abundantly  clear  from  my  work  among 
you.' 

4.  He  that  cometh]  i.e.  any  new  arrival 
claiming  to  be  an  Apostle.  Preacheth  another 
Jesus]  These  preachers,  who  were  hostile  to 
St.  Paul,  proclaimed  Jesus  as  a  Jewish  teacher 
who  demanded  strict  adherence  to  the  Law, 
and  declared  that  those  who  became  His 
followers  must  observe  the  rites  of  Judaism. 
This  was  their  other  gospel,  which  showed 
another  spirit  than  that  of  St.  Paul — the  spirit 
of  prejudice  and  exclusiveness.  Ye  might  well 
bear]  rather,  'ye  bear  with  him  nobly.'  The 
Apostle  writes  ironically.     5.  The  very  chiefest 


apostles]  RM  '  those  preeminent  apostles '  ; 
i.e.  of  course  not  the  members  of  the  apostolic 
band  like  St.  Peter  and  St.  John,  but  the 
false  teachers  to  whom  he  is  constantly  re- 
ferring. 6.  Rude  in  speech]  Evidently  a  stock 
charge  of  his  enemies  :  cp.  lO^o, 

7-9.  Paraphrase.  '  Is  it  a  fault  in  your  eyes 
that  I  took  nothing  from  you  while  labouring 
for  your  spiritual  benefit,  but  gave  you  the 
gospel  gratuitously  ?  (8)  I  took  more  than 
their  due  from  others  to  promote  my  mission 
to  you,  (9)  and  anything  I  wanted  when 
among  you  I  received  not  from  any  of  you, 
but  from  the  brethren  who  came  from  Mace- 
donia. Hitherto  I  have  been  independent  of 
your  gifts,  and  so  I  intend  to  remain.' 

7.  An  oifence]  His  very  independence  had 
been  used  against  him.  For  his  practice  cp. 
1  Th  2  9  2  Th  3  s.  8.  Other  churches]  especially 
the  Philippian  Church  (Phil  4  is,  I6). 

9.  Wanted]  RV 'was  in  want.'  His  supplies 
gave  out.  The  brethren]  perhaps  Silas  and 
Timothy  (AclSLS). 

10-15.  Paraphrase.  'I  assure  you,  by  the 
truth  of  Christ  within  me,  that  I  shall  permit  no 
one  to  interfere  with  the  grounds  of  this  boast  in 
the  district  of  Achaia.  (1 1)  And  that,  too,  not 
because  I  despise  you  and  contemn  your  gifts, 
(12)  but  because  I  am  determined  that  my 
opponents  shall  have  no  occasion  to  charge  me 
with  selfishness,  but  that  they  may  show  them- 
selves as  disinterested  as  I  am.  (13)  For  they 
are  really  hypocrites  and  deceivers,  pretending 
to  be  apostles  of  Christ.  (14)  Their  master, 
Satan,  is  accustomed  to  masquerade  as  an  angel 
to  further  his  base  designs.  (15)  We  cannot 
wonder,  therefore,  if  his  servants  pretend  to 
be  servants  of  God  ;  but  their  punishment 
shall  be  suited  to  their  actions.' 

ID.  As  the  truth  of  Christ  is  in  me]  an  ad- 
juration calculated  to  impress  them  :  cp.  Ro  9  ^. 

This  boasting]  of  preaching  the  gospel  with- 
out cost  to  them.  11.  Because  I  love  you  not  ?] 
This  was  the  reason  his  enemies  gave  for 
his  independence  of  the  Corinthians.  God 
knoweth]  that  I  love  you.  12.  That  wherein 
they  glory,  they  may  be  found  even  as  we]  The 
'  false  apostles,'  or  Judaisers,  received  support 
(v.  20)  as  due  to  their  apostleship.  Had  St. 
Paul  done  so  they  would  have  charged  him 
with  greed  ;  but  he  is  determined  not  to  give 
them  the  opportunity.  And  by  refusing  sup- 
port he  hopes  to  force  them  to  refuse  it  also, 
and  thus  to  cause  their  other  charge — that 
he  feared  to  take  it  because  he  doubted  his 
apostleship — to  recoil  upon  themselves. 

13.  False  apostles]  He  now  exposes  them 
in  plain  terms.  Transforming  themselves]  RV 
'  fashioning  themselves,'  and  so  in  next  v. 

14.  Satan  himself.  .  into  an  angel  of  light] 
tempting  men  by  making  evil  seem  good, 
'  making  the  worse  appear  the  better  reason.' 


940 


11.  16 


2  CORINTHIANS 


12. 


(c)  II 16-1218.  The  Evidences  of  his  Apo- 

STLESHIP   IN    SUFFEKINa   AND    SERVICE 

The  Apostle  goes  on  to  show  that  if  he 
begins  to  boast,  he  has  far  more  to  boast  of 
than  the  Judaising  teachers.  In  nationality 
he  is  their  equal,  in  labours  carried  on  and 
sufferings  endured  for  the  gospel  he  is  far 
their  superior  ;  he  has  had  visions  and  revela- 
tions of  the  Lord  which  they  cannot  claim. 
The  only  thing  in  which  they  might  find  fault 
with  him  was  his  refusal  of  support  from 
them.  But  in  that  lay  his  safety  in  dealing 
with  his  enemies  :  no  one  could  say  that  either 
he,  or  any  one  sent  by  him,  had  made  any 
profit  out  of  the  Church. 

Paraphrase.  '(16)  Again  I  say.  Do  not 
think  me  a  fool ;  or,  if  you  do  think  me  a 
fool,  let  me  indulge,  like  your  other  apostles, 
in  a  fool's  boasting.  (17)  I  am  not  speaking 
now  under  the  inspiration  of  Christ ;  I  am 
only  answering  fools  according  to  their  folly. 

(18)  Since  many  other  teachers  are  boasting 
of  their  qualifications,  I  shall  boast  of  mine. 

(19)  For  you  who  are  so  wise  yourselves,  have 
a  great  appreciation  for  fools.  (20)  You  are 
very  patient  with  people  who  delude  and  cheat 
you,  and  who  insult  and  injm-e  you.' 

1 6.  A  fool]  The  repetition  of  this  word  so 
frequently  suggests  that  he  had  been  jeered  at 
as  a  fool  among  the  members  of  the  Church. 
This  whole  passage  (vv.  16-20)  is  full  of  irony. 

17.  Not  after  the  Lord]  entirely  on  his  own 
responsibility.  He  is  very  jealous  of  Christ's 
honour.  18.  After  the  flesh]  i.e.  of  their  worldly 
advantages :  cp.  vv.  22,  23.  19.  Suffer]  RV 
'  bear  with.'  20.  If  a  man]  i.e.  any  of  his 
Jewish  opponents.  Bring  you  into  bondage] 
to  the  Ceremonial  Law:  cp.  Gal 2-1.  Devour] 
make  money  out  of  you  :  cp.  Mkl2'to  Lk22"i7. 

Takeufyou^  RY 'take thy ou captive.'  Smite 
you]  may  be  literal,  but  is  more  probably 
figurative,  denoting  the  extreme  of  insult  and 
impudence. 

21-29.  Paraphrase.  '  I  confess  to  my  shame 
I  was  far  too  weak,  as  they  call  it,  to  act  in 
that  way.  But  if  there  is  to  be  boasting,  I  am 
a  fool  and  can  boast  too.  (22)  Ai-e  they  of  the 
chosen  race  claiming  Abraham  as  their  ancestor? 
I  am  on  an  equal  footing  with  them.  (23)  Do 
they  boast  of  their  missionary  service  ?  I  am 
ready  to  compare  my  service  with  theirs,  and 
the  comparison  will  not  be  in  their  favour 
(though,  of  course,  all  such  boasting  is  mad- 
ness). I  have  been  in  far  more  trials  and 
punishments  and  dangers  than  they.  (24)  How 
often  have  I  been  beaten,  (25)  scourged,  stoned, 
in  danger  of  my  life  by  shipwreck  !  (26)  How 
many  risks  have  I  run  in  the  course  of  my 
wanderings  !  (27)  How  much  suffering  and 
privation  have  I  endured  !  (28)  And  do  not 
forget  my  daily  burden  of  anxiety  in  the  over- 


sight of  all  the  Churches  ;  (29)  for  I  enter 
into  the  feelings  of  my  tempted  and  sinning 
brethren.' 

21.  As  concerning  reproach]  RY  'by  way  of 
disparagement.'  '  I  admit  to  my  own  shame 
that  I  was  incapable  of  acting  as  such  an  one.' 
The  words  are,  of  course,  ironical.  22.  He- 
brews]  by  descent.     Israelites]  in  privilege. 

The  seed  of  Abraham]  in  respect  of  pro- 
mised blessings.  There  is  probably  a  climax 
in  the  order.  23.  I  am  more]  i.e.  in  a  higher 
degree,  as  I  can  easily  prove.  In  deaths]  in 
danger  of  death  :  cp.  Ac  14 19.  24.  Forty  atripes 
save  one]  A  Jewish  punishment;  cp.  Dt253. 
Only  thirty-nine  were  given  lest  by  a  miscount 
the  number  were  exceeded.  None  of  the  five 
cases  is  mentioned  in  Acts.  25.  With  rods] 
A  Roman  scourging,  as  at  Philippi  (Ac  16  22). 

Stoned]  at  Lystra  (Acl4i9).  Shipwreck] 
The  only  instance  recorded  in  Acts  was  later 
than  this.  In  the  deep]  floating  on  wreckage 
or  on  a  raft.  28.  Beside  those  things  that  are 
without]  i.e.  besides  these  exceptional  troubles, 
there  is  the  daily  anxiety  for  the  Churches. 
Or,  as  others  suggest,  '  besides  all  the  rest 
which  I  do  not  mention.'  29.  And  I  am  not 
weak]  The  Apostle  shares  the  sufferings  of 
others  by  sympathy.  Offended]  RY  '  made  to 
stumble,'  i.e.  led  into  sin.  Burn]  i.e.  with 
anger. 

30-33-  Paraphrase.  'If,  however,  I  must 
boast  in  self-defence,  I  shall  boast  about  my 
weakness  and  helplessness ;  for  I  shall  thus  make 
it  plain  what  Christ  has  done  by  means  of  such 
a  feeble  servant.  (31)  And  God  is  my  witness 
that  I  speak  the  truth.  (32)  From  the  very  out- 
set I  have  endured  ignominy  ;  for  in  Damascus 
the  governor  sought  my  life,  (33)  and  I  had  to 
make  my  escape  through  the  window  of  a 
house  built  on  the  city  wall,  being  lowered  in 
a  basket' by  night.' 

32.  Damascus]  This  event  in  his  career  hap- 
pened either  immediately  after  his  conversion, 
or  after  his  return  from  his  subsequent  sojourn 
in  Arabia:  cp.  Ac  1 9  9  and  Gal  1 1^.  Aretas]  This 
king  (Aretas  lY)  ruled  Arabia  Petrtea  from 
9  B.C.  to  40  A.D.  Damascus  was  taken  by  the 
Romans  in  65  B.C.,  and  was  retained  by  them 
until  about  the  time  here  mentioned,  when  it 
seems  to  have  been  restored  to  Aretas  from 
motives  of  policy. 

CHAPTER    12 
His  Privileges  and  Trials 

The  Apostle  imwillingly  resumes  his  boast- 
ing and  tells  of  a  revelation  he  received  from 
God  ;  but  returns  again  to  dwell  on  his  weak- 
nesses, and  especially  on  his  bodily  infirmity, 
through  which  Christ's  grace  was  manifested. 

Paraphrase.  '  (1)  It  is  not  expedient  for  me 
to  boast  again  :  I  have  really  been  compelled 
to  do  it.     I  will  now  mention  my  experiences 


941 


12.1 


2  CORINTHIANS 


12.  14 


of  divine  visions  and  revelations.  (2)  Four- 
teen years  ago  I  experienced  such  a  divine 
ecstasy  that  I  knew  not  whether  I  was  still  in 
the  flesh  or  whether  I  had  been  translated 
to  another  sphere.  (3)  I  repeat,  I  did  not 
know  in  what  state  of  being  I  was  ;  (4)  but  I 
had  a  divine  revelation  which  caused  me  un- 
speakable joy  and  taught  me  truths  too  deep 
for  words  to  express.' 

I.  It  is  not  expedient,  etc.]  RY  'I  must 
needs  glory  though  it  is  not  expedient '  ;  i.e. 
in  self-defence.  2.  I  knew  (RV  'know')  a 
man]  St.  Paul  is  speaking  of  himself,  of  course, 
as  V.  7  shows.  In  Christ]  so  much  devoted  to 
Christ  and  under  His  influence,  that  Christ 
completely  dominated  him  and,  as  it  were, 
lived  in  him.  Whether  in  the  body . .  out  of 
the  body]  The  Apostle  was  in  a  trance  or 
ecstatic  state  in  which  consciousness  of  the 
outer  world  was  for  the  time  suspended  :  sight, 
hearing,  feeling  were  gone,  and  he  was  lost  in 
contemplation  of  the  divine.  His  reference  to 
the  experience  is  too  vague  for  us  to  draw  any 
conclusions  from  it  :  it  must  be  remembered 
that  he  was  not  givmg  information  about  his 
revelations,  but  only  mentioning  the  facts  to 
prove  that  he  was  '  not  a  whit  behind  the  very 
chief  est  Apostles.'  The  third  heaven]  the 
highest  state  of  bliss.  3.  And  I  knew]  re- 
petition of  V.  2  for  emphasis.  4.  Into  para- 
dise] Paradise  is  used  as  a  synonym  for  the 
third  heaven  of  v.  2.  The  word  is  used  in  the 
NT.  for  the  abode  of  the  blessed  after  death  : 
op.  Lk23 -^^  Rev  2  7.    Lawful]  better,  '  possible.' 

5,  6.  Paraphrase.  '  I  can  boast  of  these  ex- 
periences, for  they  were  due  to  no  labours  or 
merits  of  my  own  ;  but  I  will  not  boast  of  any- 
thing I  have  done  myself,  though  I  may  speak 
of  my  weaknesses  through  which  Grod's  grace 
toward  me  has  been  manifested.  (6)  For  even 
if  I  wanted  to  boast  of  all  the  privileges  I 
have  received,  I  should  be  justified,  for  my 
words  would  be  true  ;  but  I  am  unwilling  that 
any  one  should  be  led  to  think  of  me  more 
highly  than  my  services  warrant.' 

5.  Of  such  an  one]  He  can  boast  of  these 
experiences  because  they  do  not  glorify  him  as 
an  individual.  Of  myself]  He  will  not  boast, 
as  he  might,  of  what  he  has  done. 

7-10,  Paraphrase.  'And  lest  I  should  be 
uplifted  by  spiritual  pride  as  the  result  of  these 
revelations,  a  painful  bodily  weakness — the 
very  work  of  Satan — was  inflicted  upon  me. 
(8)  I  prayed  earnestly  for  the  removal  of  this 
affliction  ;  (9)  but  the  Lord  answered  me  say- 
ing, "  My  grace  is  sufficient  for  thee,  for  my 
strength  is  made  perfect  in  weakness."  And 
therefore  I  rejoice  in  my  sufferings,  because  it 
is  in  enduring  them  that  I  realise  most  clearly 
that  Christ  is  helping  me.  (10)  I  am  glad 
when  trials  and  persecutions  for  Christ's  sake 
are  my  lot,  for  in  my  moments   of   gi'eatest 


weakness  I  am  strengthened  with  power  from 
on  high.' 

7.  A  thorn  in  the  flesh]  some  extremely 
painful  bodily  disease  whose  symptoms  recur- 
red at  intervals.  Some,  like  Lightfoot,  sug- 
gest epilepsy  ;  others,  like  Farrar,  ophthalmia  ; 
and  Ramsay  holds  that  it  was  malarial  fever  : 
cp.  Gal  4 13-15.  The  messenger  of  Satan]  R V 
'  a  messenger  of  Satan.'  For  the  idea,  cp.  Job 
25-7Lkl3i'5  Acl038. 

8.  The  Lord]  Christ,  as  v.  9  shows.  Thrice] 
He  probably  made  this  '  thorn '  the  subject  of 
earnest  prayer  on  three  special  occasions  :  cp. 
Mt26^. 

9.  My  grace,  etc.]  '  It  is  enough  for  thee 
that  thou  hast  my  gi-ace  ;  my  power  makes  it- 
self felt  when  there  is  no  other  support ' 
(Stevens).  For  the  thought,  cp.  Lk22-*3  Pss 
20*5  138  3.  The  best  answer  to  prayer  is  the 
consciousness  of  the  support  of  the  unseen 
Hand.     Rest  upon]  RV  '  cover.' 

II,  12.  Paraphrase.  'Well  now,  you  have 
compelled  me  to  boast  like  a  fool.  I  should 
not  have  needed  to  do  so,  for  you  ought  to  have 
spoken  in  my  defence  ;  but  I  think  I  have 
shown  that  insignificant  though  I  be,  I  am  at 
least  on  an  equality  with  these  preeminent 
apostles  of  yours.  (12)  You  certainly  had  all 
the  proofs  of  my  true  apostleship  in  the  work 
I  did  and  the  conduct  I  exhibited  among  you. 
(13)  For  wherein  did  I  treat  you  differently 
from  other  Chm-ches  except  in  my  refusal  of 
support  from  you?  Pray  forgive  me  this  great 
injury.' 

II.  I  ought  to  have  been  commended]  In- 
stead of  listening  to  his  detractors  they  should 
have  vigorously  defended  him.  Though  I  be 
nothing]  i.e.  as  my  enemies  say.  12.  Signs, 
and  wonders,  and  mighty  deeds]  muacles  in 
various  aspects.  That  St.  Paul  claimed  to 
have  wi'ought  miracles  is  evident  also  from 
Ro  1 5 18. 1'^  :  cp.  Gal  3  5.  13.  Forgive  me]  The 
verse  is  ironical. 

14-18.  Paraphrase.  '  I  am  now  about  to  pay 
you  a  third  visit,  and,  as  on  former  occasions, 
I  shall  accept  nothing  for  my  support.  It  is 
not  your  possessions  but  your  very  selves 
that  I  want ;  for  you  are  my  spiritual  children, 
and  it  is  not  customary  for  children  to  lay  by 
wealth  for  their  parents,  but  rather  for  parents 
to  lay  by  for  their  children.  (15)  And  I  am 
ready  to  give  all  I  possess  to  win  your  souls. 
Are  you  going  to  continue  indifferent  to  my 
love  for  you  ?  (16)  But  some  have  been  saying 
that  while  I  took  nothing  from  you  directly,  I 
was   cunning    enough    to  rob  you  indirectly. 

(17)  Well,  I  appeal  to  yourselves.  Did  any 
of  the  brethren  I  sent  take  anything  from  you  ? 

(18)  When  Titus  and  his  companion  visited 
you,  did  they  not  live  and  act  exactly  as  I  had 
done  ? ' 

14.  The  third  time]  His  former  visits  were, 


942 


i 


12.  15 


2  CORINTHIANS 


13. 


(1)  the  visit  recorded  in  Ac  18,  when  he  founded 
the  Church,  and  (2)  the  short  visit  'in  sorrow,' 
not  mentioned  in  Acts,  but  referred  to  in  2 1  : 
see  Intro.  1  (c).  I  will  not  be  burdensome]  see 
on  11  "-12.  Not  yours,  but  you]  cp.  8  5.  The 
parents  for  the  children]  He  wished  to  act 
towards  them  as  a  self-denying  parent  :  cp. 
1  Cor  4  !■*>  15.  15.  Though  the  more  abundantly 
I  love  you,  the  less  I  be  loved]  R  V  '  If  I  love 
you  more  abundantly,  am  I  loved  the  less  ? ' 

16.  But  be  it  so]  He  now  meets  another 
insinuation  :  this  one  is  disposed  of. 

18.  I  desired  (EV  '  exhorted  ')  Titus]  This 
visit  of  Titus  must  have  been  made  at  an  earlier 
period  than  that  referred  to  in  2 1^  and  7  ^  and 
that  intimated  in  8  '^>  17  as  about  to  be  made. 
There  were  evidently  three  visits  of  Titus  to 
Corinth  :  (1)  that  here  mentioned  and  referred 
to  in  8  6  ('  as  he  had  begun  '),  during  which  he 
seems  to  have  organised  the  collection  ;  (2) 
that  referred  to  in  213  76^  when  he  went  to 
quell  the  rebellion,  bearing  this  very  letter 
(chs.  10-13);  (3)  that  referred  to  in  86.n, 
when  he  conveyed  chs.  1-9.     See  Intro. 

((l)  12 19-13 10.  Warnings  against  Evil  and 
Exhortations  to  Holiness 

The  Apostle  reminds  them  that  he  is  not 
pleading  his  cause  before  them,  but  writing  for 
their  edification. 

Paraphrase.  '(19)  Do  you  think  that  all  I 
have  been  writing  is  a  defence  of  my  conduct 
to  satisfy  you  ?  It  is  not  you,  but  God,  who 
will  judge  me.  What  I  have  written  is  for 
the  purpose  of  helping  you  to  strengthen 
character  and  raise  the  standard  of  Christian 
life.  (20)  I  am  afraid  lest  when  I  visit  you  I 
find  you  unrepentant  and  obstinate,  and  I 
have  to  use  severity.  I  am  afraid  lest  the 
dark  passions  and  vices  I  reproved  still  dis- 
figure the  Church,  (21)  and  lest  I  be  distressed 
and  humiliated  by  the  impenitence  and  shame - 
lessness  of  those  who  were  given  to  sensual 
sins  and  still  continue  their  evil  habits.' 

19.  Again,  think  ye]  RV  '  Ye  think  all  this 
time  that  we  are  excusing  ourselves,'  i.e.  plead- 
ing our  cause.  In  Christ]  as  inspired  by 
Christ's  Spirit  through  living  in  union  with 
him.  For  your  edifying]  He  seeks  not  their 
favourable  verdict,  but  their  growth  in  good- 
ness. 21.  When  I  come  again]  The  'again' 
should  be  joined  with  the  next  clause,  '  God 
will  again  humble  me.'  He  had  been  humbled 
at  his  last  visit — the  visit  '  in  heaviness ' 
referred  to  in  2i. 

CHAPTER    13 

The  Apostle  announces  a  third  visit,  and 
exhorts  them  to  repentance.  He  expresses 
his  desire  for  their  growth  in  grace. 

Paraphrase.  '(1)  This  is  the  third  visit  I 
am  about  to  pay  you.     On  this  occasion  I  shall 


proceed  to  punish  these  gross  sinners  aftei 
hearing  all  the  evidence.  (2)  I  repeat  nov 
what  I  said  on  my  second  visit,  that  thos( 
who  persist  in  sin  will  find  me  stern  in  punish' 
ment.  (3)  And  why  am  I  thus  severe  ?  Be- 
cause you  demand  proof  that  I  possess  Christ's 
authority,  though  that  proof  should  be  found 
in  your  own  experience.  (4)  Christ  indeed  as 
a  helpless  man  submitted  to  the  death  of  the 
Cross,  but  in  the  power  of  God  He  still  lives  ; 
and  in  the  same  way,  in  the  Spirit  of  Christ, 
we  have  shown  a  forbearance  which  you  mis- 
took for  weakness  ;  but  in  the  power  of  God 
we  shall  exhibit  our  strength  when  we  come.' 

1.  The  third  time']  see  on  12i'i.  Two  or 
three  witnesses]  Quoted  from  Dtl95.  It 
seems  to  mean  '  in  accordance  with  the  prin- 
ciples of  justice  I  will  act.'  But  some  think 
the  three  witnesses  mean  the  Apostle's  three 
visits,  and  that  he  is  interpreting  the  quotation 
allegorically,  in  accordance  with  his  custom 
elsewhere:  cp.  312-I8  Gal 4 22-31.  Thus  Prof. 
Stevens  paraphrases  :  '  I  shall  visit  you  a  third 
time,  and  thus  I  shall  have  concerning  you  a 
threefold  testimony,  such  as  the  Law  requires 
to  establish  a  cause.' 

2.  Which  heretofore  have  sinned]  i.e.  old 
offenders  still  impenitent.  All  other]  RV 
'  all  the  rest.'  3.  Which  to  you-ward  is  not 
weak]  Chi-ist's  power  had  already  been  made 
manifest  among  them  :  cp.  1  Cor  1  ^-8. 

4.  Through  weakness]  i.e.  in  the  human 
weakness  he  assumed  of  his  own  accord  :  cp. 
Phil  2  6-8. 

5.  Paraphrase.  '  Do  not  be  so  anxious  to 
test  me.  Test  yourselves.  Do  you  not  know 
that  Christ's  Spirit  is  in  you,  guiding  your  life, 
unless  you  are  false  disciples  ?  I  hope,  at 
any  rate,  that  you  will  learn  that  I  am  no 
false  Apostle.' 

5.  Examine  yourselves]  i.e.  not  me.  Repro- 
bates] counterfeits. 

7-10.  Paraphrase.  'We  pray  to  God  that 
you  may  lead  a  pure  and  holy  life,  not  to  do  us 
credit,  but  because  it  is  right,  even  though  we 
be  like  false  apostles.  (8)  For  our  authority 
is  given  us  to  advance  what  is  right,  and  not 
to  hinder  it.  (9)  We  rejoice  when  we  have 
no  need  to  reprove  you,  for  then  your  Chris- 
tian life  is  healthy  ;  and  this  is  what  we  most 
earnestly  wish,  that  you  become  more  and 
more  perfect  in  all  Christian  graces.  (10)  It 
is,  believe  me,  for  this  reason  that  I  have 
written  to  you  these  earnest  remonstrances, 
because  I  do  not  wish  to  visit  you  in  anger 
and  severity.  I  have  no  desire  to  use  the 
authority  that  Christ  has  given  me  in  degrad- 
ing and  punishing  you  ;  for  its  true  purpose 
is  to  strengthen  my  hands  in  helping  you  to 
become  increasingly  pure  and  holy  in  spirit 
and  character.' 

7.    As  reprobates]    i.e.   as   if  we   had  no 


943 


13.8 


2  CORINTHIANS— GALATIANS 


INTRO. 


authority,  because  we  shall  not  need  to  show 
it.  8.  Against  the  truth]  He  has  no  pleasure 
in  their  evil-doing,  although  it  gives  him 
opportunity  to  exercise  his  authority. 

9.  When  w^e  are  weak]  i.e.  when  our 
authority  is  in  abeyance  :  cp.  v.  4.  10.  To 
edification,  and  not  to  destruction]  B,V  '  for 
building  up,  and  not  for  casting  down.' 

(e)  13 11-14.  Conclusion  and  Benediction 

The  Apostle  gives  them  his  parting  greeting, 
and  bids  them  try  to  live  a  pure  and  holy  life. 
He  sends  greetings  from  their  Christian 
brethren,  and  invokes  the  blessing  of  God 
upon  them. 

II.    Farewell]  KM   'rejoice.'     A  cheerful 


parting  message.  12.  An  holy  kiss]  the 
token  of  brotherhood  in  the  early  Church  : 
cp.  E0I6I6  1  Cor  1620  iTh526  IPetSi*. 

14.  The  grace,  etc.]  the  fullest  of  St. 
Paul's  benedictions.  The  grace  of  the  Lord 
Jesus  Christ]  see  8  ^.  The  love  of  God]  Per- 
haps including  both  the  sense  of  His  love  for 
us  and  the  love  which  He  inspires  in  us.  The 
communion  of  the  Holy  Ghost]  the  sense  of 
His  presence  and  guidance.  Be  with  you  all] 
The  prayer  is  for  all,  those  who  rebelled  as 
well  as  those  who  continued  faithful. 

The  subscription  in  AV,  '  The  second 
Epistle  .  .  was  written  from  Philippi,'  etc.,  is 
of  no  authority  whatever.  For  the  places 
where  the  two  parts  were  written  see  Intro. 


GALATIANS 


INTRODUCTION 


1.  Authenticity.  The  Epistle  to  the  Gala- 
tians  is  almost  universally  recognised  as  a 
genuine  letter  of  St.  Paul.  The  few  recent 
attempts  to  discredit  it  have  met  with  little 
favour,  and  still  leave  it  practically  unchal- 
lenged. It  belongs  in  spirit,  and  probably  in 
time,  to  the  great  doctrinal  or  argumentative 
group  of  Pauline  letters,  which  includes  1  and 
2  Corinthians  and  Romans.  Internally  it 
bears  the  stamp  of  the  Apostle's  personality, 
and  fits  in  with  the  course  of  his  life  and 
thought.  External  evidence  of  its  authen- 
ticity is  to  be  found  in  Polycarp,  Irenseus, 
Clemens  Alexandrinus,  and  Justin  Martyr. 
The  first-named  quotes  4^6  and  6'^,  though 
without  mentioning  the  source  ;  the  others 
definitely  cite  the  Epistle  as  the  work  of  St. 
Paul. 

2.  The  persons  addressed.  This  question 
has  given  rise  to  considerable  controversy,  and 
is  even  yet  being  discussed  to  some  extent. 
(1)  Some  scholars,  taking  Galatia  to  be  the 
pre-Roman  kingdom  of  that  name,  in  the 
NE.  of  Asia  Minor,  maintain  that  the  Epistle 
was  written  to  Churches  founded  by  St. 
Paul  during  his  Second  Missionary  Journey 
(Ac  16  "3)  in  its  chief  cities,  Ancyra,  Tavium, 
and  Pessinus.  Something  may  be  said  for 
this  theory,  but  it  is  open  to  many  objections  : 
for  instance,  there  is  no  mention  of  any  of 
these  places  in  the  account  of  St.  Paul's 
travels  in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  and  no 
record  of  the  existence  of  Churches  there 
until  about  a  century  and  a  half  later.     (2)  It 


may  be  safer,  therefore,  to  take  the  view  of 
others,  that  Galatia  is  the  Roman  province  of 
that  name.  In  St.  Paul's  time  it  included, 
besides  the  former  kingdom  properly  so  called, 
Paphlagonia,  Phrygia,  Isauria,  and  parts  of 
Lycaonia  and  Pontus.  In  the  southern  por- 
tion of  that  large  province  lay  the  cities  of 
Pisidian  Antioch.  Iconium,  Derbe,  and  Lystra. 
These  cities  had  been  visited  by  St.  Paul, 
and  Christian  communities  founded  in  them, 
during  his  First  Missionary  Journey  (Ac  IS^^- 
1425)  .  at  the  beginning  of  his  Second  Jour- 
ney he  had  revisited  them,  and  confirmed  his 
converts  in  their  faith.  It  is  assumed,  there- 
fore, that  the  Epistle  to  the  Galatians  was 
addressed  to  them.  Confirmation  of  this  view 
is  given  in  2  5,  where  the  Apostle  says  that  he 
had  contended  against  the  false  brethren  '  that 
the  truth  of  the  gospel  might  continue  with 
you.'  The  only  part  of  Galatia  in  which  we 
know  him  to  have  been  before  this  time  is 
that  which  contained  the  cities  mentioned  in 
Ac  13,  14  ;  consequently  the  reference  is 
believed  to  be  to  them. 

The  population  of  these  cities  was  almost 
entirely  heathen  (4^),  and  consisted  partly  of 
natives  of  the  country,  and  partly  of  Greek 
and  Roman  colonists.  The  proportion  of  Jews 
was  small  (Ac  1344-48  141).  At  Lystra,  on  the 
Apostle's  first  visit,  Barnabas  was  taken  for 
Jupiter,  and  Paul  for  Mercury  (Ac  14  n- 12). 
The  heathen  priests  dominated  the  people,  and 
bound  them  to  the  practices  of  a  ceremonial 
law,  as  hard  as  that  of  the  Jews.     St.  Paul 


944 


d 


INTRO. 


GALATIANS 


IXTRO. 


refers  to  this  in  his  Epistle  (4  8),  and  bids  them 
take  care  not  to  be  entangled  again  with  the 
yoke  of  bondage  (5^). 

The  history  of  the  Galatian  Churches  is  as 
follows.  On  his  First  Missionary  Journey  St. 
Paul,  accompanied  by  Barnabas  and  John  Mark 
(Ac  132. 5),  after  visiting  Cyprus,  sailed  to  Perga 
in  Pamphylia.  At  this  point  John  left  them, 
and  during  the  rest  of  the  tour  they  were 
alone.  They  did  not  preach  in  Pamphylia,  as 
seems  to  have  been  their  original  intention 
(Acl3i2),  but,  owing  to  an  illness  which  be- 
fell St.  Paul  (413)^  left  the  coast  and  went  up 
to  the  higher  ground  in  the  interior,  visiting 
in  succession  and  founding  Churches  in  Pisidian 
Antioch  (AclSi'*),  Iconium  (AclS^i),  Lystra 
(Ac  146),  and  Derbe  (Ac  1 4  20).  On  their  return 
journey  they  visited  these  cities  in  the  reverse 
order,  giving  some  organisation  to  the  infant 
Churches,  appointing  elders  over  them  to  watch 
over  their  interests  and  guide  them  (Ac  14  23), 
and  exhorting  the  disciples  to  faithfulness  and 
constancy,  especially  in  presence  of  suffering 
and  danger  (Ac  14^2).  On  his  Second  Journey 
St.  Paul,  accompanied  this  time  by  Silas,  again 
visited  these  Churches.  He  had  just  come  from 
the  apostolic  council  at  Jerusalem  (Ac  1 5  •^"2^), 
which  declared  the  Gentiles  free  from  the 
obligations  of  the  Jewish  ceremonial  Law.  He 
conveyed  the  message  of  the  council  to  the 
Galatian  Churches,  and  infused  new  life  and 
strength  into  their  members  (Ac  1 6  ^"^).  During 
this  visit  the  Apostle  saw  reasons  for  anxiety 
about  the  future  of  these  ardent  but  unstable 
Christians,  and  warned  them  carefully  against 
their  besetting  dangers  and  the  temptations 
which  he  foresaw  would  assail  them  (1^  5  2). 
A  third  visit  to  Galatia  is  mentioned  in  a  word 
in  Acl823,  at  the  beginning  of  his  third  great 
journey.  The  First  Epistle  of  St.  Peter  is 
addressed  to  the  elect  in  Galatia,  as  well  as  in 
other  parts  of  Asia  Minor. 

3.  Occasion  of  the  Letter.  Throughout  the 
Church,  the  question  was  being  keenly  can- 
vassed as  to  whether  or  not  the  observance  of 
the  Jewish  Law  was  binding  upon  the  Gentiles 
who  became  disciples  of  Christ.  For  the  most 
part,  of  course,  discussion  was  confined  to  the 
necessity  of  circumcision  ;  for  this  rite  was 
the  outward  sign  of  the  adoption  of  Judaism, 
and  the  acceptance  of  it  accordingly  imposed 
the  obligation  of  keeping  the  whole  Law.  The 
Churches  of  Galatia  had  early  felt  the  stress 
of  this  controversy.  There  was  trouble  in 
them  from  the  very  beginning  (Acl3,  14).  It 
became  greatly  accentuated,  however,  after 
either  the  second  or  third  visit  of  St.  Paul. 
Certain  Jewish  Christians,  or  Judaisers,  as  they 
are  called,  appeared  amongst  them,  insisting 
upon  the  keeping  of  the  Law,  and  especially 
upon  circumcision,  as  necessary  to  salvation. 
These  seem  to  have  been  men  of  importance, 


60 


,     945 


at  least  in  the  eyes  of  the  Galatians  (5  ^O),  over 
whom  they  soon  acquired  considerable  influ- 
ence (31  5'^).  They  disparaged  the  teaching 
and  work  of  St.  Paul  (1^^),  and  asserted  his 
dependence  upon  other  Apostles  for  his  know- 
ledge and  authority  (2^,8, 9)_  xhe  Galatians 
yielded  to  their  representations,  and  began  to 
think  of  adopting  circumcision  (5  2' 2),  and  ob- 
serving Jewish  fasts  and  feasts  (4'''i0)  To 
St.  Paul  this  was  a  practical  denial  of  the 
efficacy  of  faith  in  Christ,  and  the  substitution 
of  a  doctrine  of  justification  by  the  works  of 
the  Law  for  the  gi-eat  truth  of  justification  by 
faith  alone  (2 1^.  213554. 6).  Immediately  upon 
the  receipt  of  the  news  of  the  apostasy  of  the 
Galatians,  the  Apostle  wrote  his  letter  to  them. 

4.  Characteristics.  In  the  writing  of  his 
letters  St.  Paul  usually  employed  an  amanuen- 
sis (E.0 1 6  22),  and  wrote  only  the  concluding 
salutation  himself  (1  Cor  16 21  Col 4 is  2  Th3 17). 
The  Epistle  to  the  Galatians  he  penned  with 
his  own  hand  (GH  RV).  It  is  written  with 
feeling  and  vehemence.  The  Apostle's  anger 
at  the  seducers,  and  his  anxiety  for  the  seduced, 
stand  out  in  every  sentence.  It  is  the  most 
biographical  of  his  letters,  for  the  charges 
brought  against  his  apostleship  lead  him  to 
justify  his  authority  by  an  account  of  his  career 
as  a  Christian,  and  of  his  relations  with  the 
other  Apostles  (115-214).  Doctrinally,  the 
Epistle  is  related  most  closely  to  Romans.  In 
both,  the  great  ideas  of  St.  Paul's  theology 
are  prominent.  The  doctrine  of  justification 
by  faith  is  the  common  corner-stone  of  their 
argument:  cp.  2 16,21  32,5,11  ^ith  Roli7  51. 9 
81' 2  10 11' 12.  There  is  the  same  doctrine  of 
adoption  :  cp.  4*5  with  RoSi^.  The  strife  of 
the  flesh  with  the  Spirit  is  referred  to  alike  in 
517  and  Ro  7 14-25.  The  illustration  of  Abra- 
ham's faith  is  used  both  in  c.  3  and  Ro4. 

5.  Time  of  Writing.  Various  dates  are  given 
by  different  scholars.  If  it  was  after  St.  Paul's 
second  visit  that  the  trouble  arose  in  the  Gala- 
tian Churches,  he  may  have  heard  of  it  on  his 
arrival  at  Antioch  at  the  close  of  that  journey 
(Ac  18  22),  in  which  case  the  letter  would  be 
written  from  there,  probably  in  53  A.D.  On 
the  other  hand,  if  it  was  not  until  after  the 
third  visit  (Ac  18  23)  that  the  defection  took 
place,  the  Apostle  probably  heard  of  it  during 
his  residence  in  Ephesus(Acl9i'22),  and  wrote 
the  letter  from  there,  while  Timothy  was  on 
the  visit  to  Corinth  which  ended  so  disastrously, 
in  55  or  56.  Either  of  these  dates  may  be 
accepted.  Some,  however,  place  it  as  early  as 
the  close  of  St.  Paul's  first  journey  in  49,  50, 
and  others  after  2  Corinthians,  or  even  after 
Romans,  in  57,  58  ;  but  neither  of  these  dates 
is  so  probable. 

6.  Teaching-.  The  great  subject  of  the 
Epistle  is  the  superiority  of  the  Gospel  to 
the  Law.     The  Jewish  teachers,  who  sought 


INTRO. 


GALATIANS 


1.1 


to  pervert  the  Galatians,  had  themselves  em- 
braced Christianity  without  slackening  their 
grasp  of  their  old  religion.  To  their  mind, 
Jesus  was  the  Messiah  and  Saviour  of  the 
Jewish  race,  not  of  the  world  in  general;  hence 
the  Gentiles  must  become  Jewish  proselytes 
before  they  could  receive  the  blessings  of 
Christ.  St.  Paul's  teaching  was  developed  in 
opposition  to  this  doctrine.  He  shows  that 
the  Law  (i.e.  the  Old  Testament  revelation 
with  its  rules  and  sanctions)  failed  to  make 
men  righteous  (2 1*5  3ii),  because  it  did  not 
supply  a  principle  of  life  (3^1),  but  rather 
paralysed  men's  hearts  by  its  rigorous  demands 
(3 10).  At  the  same  time  it  had  its  uses,  and 
fulfilled  a  purpose.  It  educated  and  disciplined 
men  for  a  better  revelation  (3  2*)  ;  it  made 
them  realise  their  sin  (3  ^0)  ;  it  caused  them  to 
feel  their  bondage  (4  3);  and  so  prepared  them 
to  become  sons  of  God  (4  &'  '^).  The  Gospel  of 
Chi-ist,  on  the  other  hand,  brought  men  a  new 
principle  of  life.  That  principle  is  faith. 
Through  it,  the  righteousness  is  obtained  which 
the  Law  could  not  give  (2 1'^).  It  unites  a  man 
to  Christ,  whose  righteousness  is  thereby  im- 
parted to  him,  for  Christ  lives  in  him,  and  he 
in  Christ  (220).  He  is  justified  by  faith  in 
Christ,  as  he  could  not  be  by  the  works  of  the 
Law  ;  indeed,  the  effort  to  live  by  the  Law 
only  weakens  his  spiritual  life  by  slackening 
his  hold  upon  Christ  (52-*).  The  Gospel  sup- 
plies the  spiritual  principle,  even  the  moral 
motive  power,  lacking  in  the  Law.  The  im- 
pulse derived  from  the  indwelling  Christ  leads 
men  to  love  their  fellows  {b'^)  ;  to  renounce 
the  works  of  the  flesh  (516,20,24)  .  to  bring 
forth  the  fruits  of  the  Spirit  (422,25). 

Besides  justification  by  faith,  other  great 
truths  of  Christianity  are  mentioned  incident- 
ally :  the  Incarnation  in  4-*  ;  the  Crucifixion 
in  *6 12, 14 ;  the  gift  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  as  the 
experience  of  the  Galatians,  in  3  2. 3, 5  5  25_ 

7.  Summary.  The  Epistle  falls  naturally 
into  three  divisions.  (1)  An  apologetic  section 
(li_22i)^  in  which  the  Apostle  defends  the 
validity  of  his  apostleship,  by  showing  that 
his  call  was  directly  from  Christ,  and  that  he 
was  absolutely  independent  of  the  other  Apo- 
stles, both  as  to  his  teaching  and  commission. 
(2)  A  polemical  section  (31-512),  in  which  he 
contrasts  faith  and  works  as  means  of  salvation, 
and  proves  even  from  the  Old  Testament  that 
faith  is  all-sufficient.  (3)  A  hortatory  section 
(5 13_6 18)^  in  which  he  applies  the  truth  he  has 
been  establishing  to  the  different  relations  and 
duties  of  life. 

The    detailed    sequence   of   thought   is  as 
follows  : 
I.  11-5.        Salutation. 

16-16.  St.  Paul's  independence  of  other 
Apostles  shown  by  the  nature  of 
his  conversion, 


1  i7-2i .  And  by  his  movements  thereafter, 
2 1-10.  As  well  as  by  the  action  of  the 
Judsean  Apostles  at  Jerusalem 
on  his  second  visit, 
211-21.  And  by  his  reproof  of  the  incon- 
sistent attitude  of  St.  Peter  at 
Antioch. 

II.  3 1-5.         That  the  new  principle  of  life  in 

the  Spirit  comes  through  faith  is 

proved  by  their  own  experience, 
36-10.        And  by  the  case  of  Abraham. 
3 11-14.       The  Law  brings  a  curse,  from  which 

Christ  redeems  us. 
3 15_4  7.    The  temporary  purpose  of  the  Law 

shown  and  illustrated. 
4  8-20.         An  appeal  to  the  Galatians  not  to 

turn  from  liberty  to  bondage. 
4  21-31 .       The  witness  borne  by  the  Law  itself 

to  the  liberty  of  the  Gospel:  an 

allegory. 
5 1"12.       A  further  appeal  to  them  to  keep 

their  liberty. 

III.  5 12-6 10.  The  application  of  the  principle  of 

liberty  to  common  duties. 
6 11-18.       A  final  appeal  for  the  liberty  of 
faith. 

CHAPTER  1 

St.  Paul  maintains  the  Validity  of 
HIS  Apostleship  and  the  Truth  of 
his  Gospel 

1-5.  The  Apostle  sends  greetings  from 
himself  and  the  brethren  with  him  to  the 
Churches  of  Gala,tia,  reminding  them  at  the 
same  time  that  his  apostolic  authority  was  not 
of  human  but  of  divine  origin. 

Paraphrase.  '(1)  I,  Paul, — no  self-consti- 
tuted or  humanly  appointed  missionary,  but 
an  Apostle  divinely  called  by  Christ  and  by 
God,  who  raised  Him  from  the  dead — (2)  send 
greetings  to  the  Churches  of  Galatia,  in  which 
all  the  brethren  who  are  with  me  join.  (3) 
May  all  spiritual  blessings  be  yours  from  God 
and  from  Christ,  (4)  who  offered  Himself  a 
living  sacrifice  for  our  sins,  in  order  to  save  us 
from  the  spiritual  bondage  of  this  world  and 
its  lusts.  (5)  May  all  praise  and  glory  be 
ascribed  to  Him  eternally.     Amen.' 

I.  An  apostle]  The  title  is  used  in  the 
technical  sense,  and  is  introduced  by  St.  Paul 
to  assert  his  equality  with  the  Twelve  which 
had  been  challenged.  It  is  always  used  by 
him  in  letters  to  Churches  where  his  authority 
was  questioned  or  to  which  he  was  unknown 
in  person  (Ro  1 1  1  Cor  1 1  2  Cor  1 1  Eph  1 1  Col 
1 1)  ;  whereas  in  the  cases  where  the  Churches 
were  thoroughly  devoted  to  him  he  drops  it 
altogether  (Phil  1 1  1  Th  1 1  2  Th  1 1).  Not  of 
men,  as  source,  neither  by  (RV  '  through ')  man, 
as  medium.  Sanday  suggests  the  illuminative 
analogy  of  the  Sovereign  as  the  fount  of 
honour,  and  the  ministry  as  the  channel  through 


946 


1.2 


GALATIANS 


1.16 


which  the  honour  is  conferred.  But  by  (RV 
'  through ')  Jesus  Christ,  and  God  the  Father] 
Both  his  conversion  (Ac9'*-'5  Gral  1 15)  and  his 
call  to  missionary  work  (AclS-;  cp.  Ac 22  21) 
were  directly  from  God  and  Jesus  Christ. 

Who  raised  him]  It  is  the  risen  Christ  from 
whom  St.  Paul  derives  his  authority. 

2.  All  the  brethren  which  are  with  me]  Some 
think  this  refers  to  the  Apostle's  travelling 
companions.  Others  hold  that  it  includes  the 
whole  Church.  If  the  letter  was  written 
from  Antioch,  it  would  thus  convey  the  greet- 
ing of  the  Church  which  was  the  Mother- 
Church  of  the  Galatian  communities,  as  from 
it  St.  Paul  proceeded  to  them.  If  it  was 
written  from  Ephesus,  it  would  inform  them 
of  the  interest  of  that  Church  in  their  welfare. 

Unto  the  churches]  There  is  no  commend- 
ation of  them,  as  is  usual  in  his  letters  (Ro 
18  lCorl'iPhill3). 

4.  Who  gave  himself  up  to  death  for  our 
sins]  cp.  1  Cor  153 ;  on  account  of  them,  to 
atone  for  them,  and  to  i-escue  us  from  their 
power.  That  he  might  deliver  (recover)  us 
from  the  evil  which  characterises  this  present 
evil  world  (age),  according-,  etc.]  connect 
with  '  gave  himself.'  5.  (The)  glory  due  to 
Him  for  His  gracious  action  in  salvation.  Amen] 
=  truly,  may  it  be  so. 

6-10.  A  sharp  rebuke  for  their  speedy 
departure  from  the  truth  (of  salvation  by 
grace)  under  the  influence  of  false  teaching. 
There  is  but  one  true  gospel ;  all  rival  teach- 
ings, whether  proclaimed  by  man  or  angel,  are 
false.  Hence  the  Apostle's  boldness  and 
confidence. 

Paraphrase.  '  (6)  I  am  surprised  that  you 
should  so  soon  have  deserted  the  truth  which 
I  taught  you  for  a  spurious  gospel.  (7)  This 
perversion  is  due  to  false  teachers.  (8,  9)  But 
if  we  Apostles  even — yes,  if  an  angel  from 
heaven — should  proclaim  any  teaching  con- 
trary to  the  doctrine  of  salvation  by  grace  and 
faith,  I  pronounce  a  curse  upon  him.  (10)  I 
make  this  strong  assertion — and  I  repeat  it — 
in  the  knowledge  that  in  my  teaching  I  am 
not  seeking  man's  favour,  but  obeying  God's 
will  in  the  service  of  Christ.' 

6.  So  soon]  after  their  conversion  ;  or 
better,  after  the  Apostle's  last  visit.  Him 
that  called]  that  is,  God.  Another  gospel] 
RV  'a  different  gospel '  ;  a  (pretended) 
gospel  of  a  different  kind  (from  mine), 
that  is,  false.  7.  Which  is  not  another]  i.e. 
in  addition  to  the  true  one,  since,  in  the 
nature  of  the  case,  there  can  be  but  one.  But 
there  be]  RV  '  Only  there  are '  ;  these  heralds 
of  a  different  doctrine  are  Jewish  Christians 
who  believe  that  observance  of  the  Mosaic 
Law  is  necessary  to  salvation,  and  are  mislead- 
ing you  through  misconceiving  and  misrepre- 
senting the  gospel.    8.  Accursed]  the  strongest 

947 


possible  form  of  condemnation:  cp.  Ac23i* 
R093  1  Cor  123  1622.  9.  We]  the  epistolary 
plural,  as  also  in  v.  8  ;  on  repetition  it  becomes 
the  emphatic  '  I.'  Said  before]  in  his  personal 
teaching  when  with  them.  Now  again]  em- 
phatic and  solemn  repetition. 

11-17.  The  gospel  which  St.  Paul  preached 
not  of  human  origin.  Twofold  proof  of  the 
fact :  (1)  the  Apostle's  whole  course  of  life 
until  his  conversion  was  intensely  Jewish,  and 
only  by  a  divine  revelation  was  he  made  a 
messenger  of  Christ ;  and  (2)  after  his  conver- 
sion he  remained  aloof  from  the  men  from 
whom  he  might  have  been  supposed  to  receive 
his  message. 

Paraphrase.  '(11,  12)  I  solemnly  assure 
you  that  the  doctrine  which  I  have  taught  was 
not  a  human  product  or  derived  from  any 
human  source,  but  that  it  came  to  me  by 
revelation  from  Christ  Himself.  (13,  U)  In 
proof  of  this,  consider  how  unlikely  it  is  that 
I,  an  intense  Jewish  zealot  and  a  fierce  perse- 
cutor of  the  Church,  should  have  been  trans- 
formed into  a  preacher  of  Christ  by  any 
merely  human  means.  (15,  16)  But  when 
God,  who  had  chosen  me  from  my  birth  and 
graciously  called  me,  disclosed  Christ  to  my 
heart  and  designated  me  as  His  messenger,  I 
did  not  resort  to  human  authorities  in  order 
to  learn  what  my  message  was  to  be  ;  (17)  I 
did  not  visit  the  primitive  Apostles  to  learn 
anything  from  them,  but  went  away  into  the 
seclusion  of  Arabia,  and  thence  returned,  not 
to  Jerusalem,  but  to  Damascus.' 

II.  Certify]  RV  'make  known';  urge  and 
impress  upon  you.  The  gospel]  the  doctrine 
of  salvation  by  gi-ace  through  faith.  Not  after 
man]  not  human,  but  divine,  in  origin  and 
character.  12.  I  neither  received  it  of  man, 
any  more  than  the  original  Twelve  received 
it  from  man  (but  from  Christ)  ;  but  I  received 
it  through  (RV)  the  revelation  of  Jesus  Christ] 
His  conversion  was  a  disclosure  to  him  of  the 
Messiahship  and  Saviourhood  of  Christ. 

13.  Ye  have  heard]  a  notorious  fact.  Be- 
yond measure]  Saul  killed,  as  well  as  disturbed 
(Ac  1 9  -'1  22 ^).  14.  Profited]  RV  '  I  advanced ' : 
cp.  Ac  22  3.  Saul  was  more  devoted  than 
most  of  his  compeers  to  the  customs  and 
traditions  of  his  people  and  his  sect  (the 
Pharisees). 

15.  Who  separated]  God  determined  upon 
him  as  an  Apostle  from  the  time  of  his  birth  : 
cp.  Isa49i  Jeris.  And  called]  in  his  experi- 
ence on  the  Damascus  road.  16.  To  reveal, 
etc.]  to  disclose  in  my  consciousness — to  my 
soul — the  real  meaning  and  saving  power  of 
Christ.  That  I  might,  etc.]  This  revelation 
carried  with  it  this  result.  St.  Paul  seems  to 
have  been  absent  from  Jerusalem  during  the 
ministry  of  Christ,  and  to  have  had  no  direct 
knowledge  of  Him  before  the  vision  on  the 


1.  17 


GALATIANS 


2.  1 


road  to  Damascus.  17.  Neither  went  I,  etc.] 
I  did  not  visit  the  seat  of  apostolic  influence, 
as  might  have  been  expected.  Arabia]  This 
is  not  mentioned  in  Acts,  as  St.  Luke  does  not 
deal  with  St.  Paul's  private  life  except  in  so 
far  as  is  necessary  to  explain  movements  in 
prosecution  of  his  vrork.  The  Apostle  retired 
to  the  wilderness  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Damascus  (which  was  at  that  time  subject  to 
the  king  of  Ai-abia)  for  thought  and  prayer. 
Perhaps  it  was  there  that  he  saw  some  of 
those  visions  and  revelations  of  the  Lord  to 
which  he  refers  in  2  Cor  12.  Damascus]  see 
also  Ac 9 25  2  Cor  11 22, 23^  and  notes. 

18-24.  It  was  a  long  time  before  St.  Paul 
saw  any  of  the  original  Apostles.  When  he 
did  at  length  visit  Jerusalem  he  saw  only 
Peter  and  James.  Then  he  departed  to 
regions  remote  from  Jerusalem.  The  Judaean 
Christians  did  not  even  know  him  by  sight. 

Paraphrase.  '{18,  19)  After  my  conver- 
sion my  course  was  such  as  to  prove  my  inde- 
pendence of  human  teachers.  It  was  three 
years  before  I  visited  Jerusalem  ;  then  I  went 
to  interview  Peter,  and  my  stay  was  a  short 
one.  Of  the  other  Apostles  I  saw  only  James. 
(20)  I  solemnly  assert  the  truth  of  these  state- 
ments. (21)  I  next  travelled  through  Syria 
and  Cilicia  to  my  native  province.  (22-24) 
Up  to  this  time  I  was  personally  quite  un- 
known to  the  Judagan  believers  ;  they  had 
merely  heard  that  I,  the  fierce  persecutor,  had 
now  become  a  preacher  of  the  gospel,  and 
they  gave  thanks  to  God  for  my  conversion.' 

18.  After  three  years]  a  long  time  (though 
it  probably  does  not  mean,  '  at  the  end  of 
three  years,'  but  rather,  '  in  the  third  year '), 
during  which  he  could  not  have  received  in- 
struction from  the  original  Apostles.  To  see] 
RV  '  to  visit  Cephas '  (Peter) — to  make  his 
acquaintance  and  hear  his  story.,  Fifteen  days] 
So  short  a  sojourn  could  not  have  served  for  a 
course  of  instruction  in  the  gospel.  Ac  9  26-30 
must  be  read  in  the  light  of  the  first-hand 
information  given  here  by  St.  Paul. 

19.  James]  here  called  an  Apostle  in  the 
secondary  sense:  cp.  1  Cor  15''.  Barnabas 
(Ac  141*)  and  Paul  were  also  Apostles,  though 
not  of  the  Twelve.  20.  To  this  solemn  itera- 
tion he  is  moved,  no  doubt,  by  the  thought  of 
the  aspersions  of  his  enemies.  21.  St.  Luke 
says  (Ac  9  ^O)  that  he  went  from  Jerusalem  to 
Caesarea  (Roman  capital  of  Jud^a)  and  Tarsus 
— a  more  specific  statement.  By  Syria  and 
Cilicia  is  meant  the  Roman  province  of  that 
name  in  which  Tarsus  was  situated.  22.  Un- 
known] though  he  had  preached  in  and  about 
Jerusalem  (Ac  9  28),  since  his  labours  there 
had  been  among  the  Greek-speaking  Jews. 

The  Churches  .  .  which  were  in  Christ]  not 
merely  '  the  Christian  Churches '  as  opposed 
to    the    Jewish  ;    but    the    Churches    whose 


members  were  in  a  living  relation  to  Christ, 
who  fulfilled  the  command,  '  Abide  in  me.' 

23.  They  had  heard  only]  that  was  all  the 
knowledge  they  had  of  me.  Preacheth  the 
faith]  proclaims  the  necessity  of  trust  in 
Christ  as  the  sole  essential  to  salvation. 

24.  They  glorified,  etc.]  They  considered 
Saul's  conversion  not  as  a  great  gain  to  the 
Church,  but  as  a  great  victory  of  grace.  In 
me]  in  my  case. 

CHAPTER  2 
His     Authority     recognised      by     the 
Apostles    at    Jerusalem    and    main- 
tained IN  HIS  Conflict  with  St.  Peter 

i-io.  It  was  not  until  upon  the  occasion 
of  a  subsequent  visit  to  Jerusalem  fourteen 
years  later  that  St.  Paul  had  laid  his  gospel 
before  the  chief  authorities  there,  and  they 
had  approved  of  all  that  he  had  done  and 
taught. 

Paraphrase.  '  (1)  It  was  fourteen  years 
before  I  again  visited  Jerusalem,  in  company 
with  Barnabas  and  Titus.  (2)  It  was  an 
impulse  from  the  Spirit  which  led  me  to  go 
and  explain  my  teaching  to  the  leaders  there, 
that  I  might  see  whether  they  approved  it. 
(3)  That  they  did  so  was  shown  by  the  fact 
that  they  did  not  demand  the  circumcision 
of  my  companion,  Titus,  Gentile  though 
he  was.  (4)  Some,  no  doubt,  desired  it,  but 
on  account  of  the  Judaisers,  who  were  trying 
to  bind  the  burdens  of  the  Law  upon  us,  (5) 
I  utterly  refused,  because  by  allowing  it  I 
should  have  comprom.ised  the  truth  of  the 
gospel.  (6)  But  the  most  influential  leaders 
of  the  Jerusalem  Church — let  their  authority 
be  what  it  may,  that  does  not  concern  the 
truth  or  divine  approval  of  my  teaching — had 
no  desire  to  correct  or  supplement  my  views, 
(7)  but  recognised  that  I  had  my  sphere  of 
labour  among  the  Gentiles  as  truly  as  Peter 
had  his  among  the  Jews,  (8)  and  that  each 
was  successful  in  his  own  sphere.  (9)  Not 
only  so,  but  these  leaders,  James,  Peter,  and 
John,  gave  us  the  right  hand  of  fellowship  in 
token  of  their  approval  and  sympathy,  and 
bade  us  God-speed  in  our  foreign  mission, 
while  they  themselves  sought  to  evangelise 
the  Jews,  (10)  only  asking  us  to  send  contri- 
butions for  the  poor  at  Jerusalem,  which 
indeed  we  were  eager  to  do.' 

I.  Fourteen  years  after]  i.e.  after  his  con- 
version ( 1  ^•^),  from  which  the  various  subsequent 
events  are  dated  :  cp.  Ii6'^^'2i.  Again]  There 
is  much  difference  of  opinion  as  to  which  of 
St.  Paul's  visits  to  Jerusalem,  as  recorded  in 
the  Acts,  he  here  refers.  Many  scholars  hold 
that  this  visit  corresponds  to  that  recorded  in  Ac 
1 5  at  the  close  of  the  First  Missionary  Journey. 
Others,  especially  Ramsay,  identify  this  visit 
with   that   recorded   in   Ac  11 27-30   and    1225 


948 


2.  2 


GALATIANS 


2.  11 


Barnabas  was  his  companion  on  both  occasions. 
Certainly  that  mentioned  in  Ac  1 1  '-"-^o — his 
second  visit — was  caused  by  a  revelation — that 
to  Agabus — but  the  third  visit  (Acl5),  the 
direct  occasion  of  which  was  about  the  Mosaic 
Law,  seems,  from  what  follows,  the  one 
to  which  the  Apostle  alludes.  Barnabas]  cp. 
Ac  4  36, 37  1122  132.  Titus]  was  perhaps  the 
most  trusted  of  all  St.  Paul's  companions  and 
emissaries.  When  any  specially  delicate  work 
had  to  be  done  requiring  experience  and  tact, 
Titus  was  chosen  for  the  purpose  :  cp.  2  Cor 
76  8*5,17,18^  and  notes  there.  It  is  remarkable 
that  his  name  is  never  mentioned  in  Acts. 

2.  By  revelation]  in  response  to  a  prophetic 
inspiration.      Them  .  .  of  reputation]   cp.  v.  9. 

Last,  etc.]  that  it  might  be  evident  that 
even  in   their   view  he  was  not  labouring  in 


vani. 


3.  But  neither  (RV  '  not  even ')  Titus  .  . 
was  compelled]  This  was  a  crucial  instance  of 
the  application  of  the  principle  at  stake.  A 
demand  was  made  by  the  rigid  Judaists  that 
Titus  should  be  circumcised.  The  demand 
raised  the  whole  question  of  the  obligation  of 
the  Gentiles  to  observe  the  Jewish  Law,  and 
St.  Paul  peremptorily  refused  it.     There  is  an 


6.  But  of  those,  etc.]  RY  '  But  from  those 
who  were  reputed  to  be  somewhat '  ;  those 
to  whom  was  accorded  the  greatest  influence. 

Maketh  no  matter]  does  not  affect  the  merits 
of  my  claim.  In  conference  added  (RV  '  im- 
parted ')  nothing]  did  not  propose  any  correc- 
tion or  addition  to  my  teaching.  7.  The  re- 
ference is  not  to  two  different  doctrines,  but 
to  two  different  spheres  of  the  Gospel's  opera- 
tion. 8.  God  gave  to  me  success  in  my  work, 
as  He  had  given  to  Peter  success  in  his. 

10.  Only  they  icould']  they  made  this  one 
stipulation.  The  poor]  cp.  Ac  1 1 29, 30  24 17 
1  Cor  16  3.  I  also  was  forward]  RV  '  zealous ' ; 
I  was  as  eager  to  do  this  as  they  were  to  have 
me. 

11-16.  Not  only  was  St.  Paul's  independ- 
ence of  the  Twelve  established  by  the  circum- 
stances already  mentioned,  but  on  one  memor- 
able occasion  he  had  felt  obliged  to  rebuke 
Peter  for  inconsistent  action  (thereby  assert- 
ing his  own  independent  authority),  and  at 
the  same  time  to  remind  him  that  it  was  by 
faith  they  themselves  had  been  saved. 

Paraphrase.  '(11)  On  another  occasion,  at 
Antioch,  I  similarly  maintained  my  independ- 
ence of  the  Judaean  Apostles,  for  I  testified 


apparent  inconsistency  between  the  Apostle's     against  Peter's  unworthy  action  there  to  his 
rejection  of  the  demand -in  this  case  and  his     face.     (12)  When  he  came  at  first  among  the 


consent  to  the  circumcision  of  Timothy  at 
Lystra  (Ac  16 3)  'because  of  the  Jews  which 
were  in  these  parts.'  The  inconsistency,  how- 
ever, is  only  apparent.  In  the  case  of  Titus 
St.  Paul  was  opposing  the  principle  that  observ- 
ance of  the  Jewish  Law  (and  circumcision  as  the 
sign  of  it)  was  necessary  to  salvation.  This  was 
the  doctrine  of  the  Jewish- Christian  party,  and 
St.  Paul  gave  no  place  to  them,  '  no,  not  for 
an  hour.'  In  the  case  of  Timothy  there  was 
no  such  principle  at  stake.  There  were  no 
Jewish  Christians  in  question,  only  Jews,  who 
evidently  thought  that  Timothy,  being  of 
Jewish  nationality  on  his  mother's  side,  should 
bear  the  outward  sign  of  his  nationality.  As 
the  matter  had  only  a  racial,  not  a  religious, 
significance,  St.  Paul  circumcised  Timothy  on 
grounds  of  expediency.  We  may  compare  his 
own  personal  attitude  in  similar  matters  (Ac 


brethren  there  he  joined  freely  in  the  love- 
feasts  with  the  Gentile  converts  ;  but  on  the 
arrival  of  some  Jewish  Christians  from  Jeru- 
salem he  dissociated  himself  from  the  Gentiles 
owing  to  a  weak  dread  of  criticism.  (13) 
Other  Jews,  including  even  Barnabas,  were 
led  away  by  his  example.  (14)  In  view  of 
this  inconsistency,  I  publicly  challenged  Peter 
thus  :  If  hitherto  you  have  been  content  to 
associate  freely  with  the  Gentiles  and  conform 
to  their  way  of  life,  why  do  you  now  keep 
aloof  as  if  these  brethren  ought  to  adopt  the 
Mosaic  Law  before  you  can  admit  them  to 
your  company  ?  (15)  You  and  I,  Jews  as  we 
are,  and  not  Gentile  outcasts,  (16)  know  from 
our  own  experience  that  it  is  by  faith  in 
Christ  that  men  are  saved,  and  not  by  works 
of  Law.' 

1 1.  Peter]  RV  '  Cephas.'    To  Antioch]  Those 


i  -    V —  --.-  -  «*,w.j  JL.V  »      v^vy^ixcio.       X  u  xxiiuiucn    JL  nosG 

1818  2016  2123)  as  showing  that  he  continued     who  hold  that  the  previous  passage  (vv.  1-10) 


to  practise  some  of  the  Jewish  customs,  even 
in  religious  observances,  though  he  did  not  re- 
gard them  as  necessary  to  salvation,  or  think 
of  imposing  them  upon  others.  It  is  to  be 
remembered  also  that  while  Timothy  was  half 
a  Jew,   Titus  was  a  pure   Gentile,    and   the 


refers  to  St.  Paul's  second  visit  to  Jerusalem 
(Ac  11 29, 30)^  of  course  place  this  visit  of  Peter 
to  Antioch  after  St.  Paul's  return  there,  i.e. 
between  Ac  12  25  and  13 1.  Those  who  take 
1 1-10  as  referring  to  the  Apostle's  third  visit 
(Ac  15),  for  the  most  part  date  this  occurrence 


^  ;  -     V— --y, -v.-  -"- "'"OK  jjtiiu  utitc  una  occurrence 

question  at  issue  involved  the  Christian  hberty     after  the  council  of  Jerusalem,  i.e.  during  the 


of   the    Gentiles.     4.   Liberty]   i.e.    from   the 
requirements  of  the  Mosaic  Law. 

5.  We  maintained  our  position  firmly  in 
order  to  preserve  for  you  (and  for  all  like  you) 
the  distinctive  truth  of  the  gospel,  viz.  that 
faith  in  Christ  is  the  one  condition  of  salvation. 


949 


interval  mentioned  in  Acl535  ;  though  some 
hold  that  St.  Paul  in  this  passage  is  not  men- 
tioning a  later  instance  of  his  independence, 
but  merely  another  illustration  of  it  which  was 
earlier  in  time  than  that  mentioned  in  vv.  1-10. 
Because  he  was  to  be  blamed]  RY  '  because 


2.  12 


GALATIANS 


S.  1 


he  stood  condemned,'  i.e.  by  the  very  incon- 
sistency of  his  acts.  I2.  He  did  not  eat  with 
the  Gentiles]  He  would  thus  be  defiled  accord- 
ing to  the  Jewish  Law.  Withdrew]  i.e.  refused 
any  longer  to  sit  with  the  Gentile  Christians 
at  the  love-feasts,  and  perhaps  also  in  their 
houses.  Peter  had  evidently  forgotten  the 
lesson  of  his  vision  at  Joppa  (AclO^-^''),  and 
if  this  action  of  his  was  done  after  the  decision 
of  the  council  at  Jerusalem  (AclS^'^-^i),  his 
conduct  is  placed  in  a  still  more  unfavourable 
light.  13.  Barnabas  also]  RV '  even  Barnabas,' 
whom  the  G-alatians  knew  as  fellow-missionary 
with  St.  Paul. 

15.  Sinners  of  the  Gentiles]  St.  Paul  is  here 
adopting  for  argument's  sake  the  rigid  Jew's 
contemptuous  description  of  the  Gentiles. 

16.  Even  we]  i.e.  with  all  our  Jewish  privi- 
leges we  are  no  better  than  the  Gentiles  we 
despise,  but  must  equally  with  them  seek 
salvation  by  faith  in  Christ. 

17-21.    St.  Paul  seems   here    quite  imper- 
ceptibly to  pass  from  his  rebuke  to  Peter  to 
'  the  broader  question  of  the  obligation  of  the 
Law  and  to  the  impassioned  statement  of  his 
own  living  faith. 

Paraphrase.   '(17)  But  some  one  says  that 
in    spite  of  their  trust  in   Christ  some  have 
fallen   into   sin    (and    therefore   require    the 
guidance    of   the    Law).     Is    Christ  then,  or 
the  Gospel,  the  cause  of   their  sin  ?     What- 
ever  conclusion  we   may   draw,  that   one    is 
manifestly  absurd.  (18)  But  whoever  goes  back 
to  the  Law  for  guidance,  after  having  left  it  and 
put  his  trust  in  Christ,  is  the  real  transgressor. 
(19)  I  was  led  by  the  Law  to  know  my  sin  and 
put  my  trust  in  Christ,  that  I  might  live  unto 
God  ;  delivered  by  Him  from  sin,  I  was  done 
with  the  Law — as  much  so  as  if  I  had  been 
dead.     (20)    Through  the  power  of    Christ's 
Cross  I  died  to  my  old  life  ;  and  yet  I  live  in  a 
truer  sense  than  before  :  rather  I  should  say 
that  it  is  no  longer  I  who  live,  it  is  Christ  who 
lives  in  me  ;  and  if  I  can  speak  of  living  at  all, 
it  is  in  so  far  as  I  live  by  faith  in  the  Son  of 
God,  who  is  the  source  and  support  of  my  life, 
the  indwelling  power  of  a  new  righteousness. 
(21)  I  do  not  thus  make  the  grace  of  God  of 
no  effect,  as  I  would  if  I  clung  to  the  Law  ; 
for  if  we  could  be  made  righteous  by  the  Law, 
Christ  need  not  have  died  for  our  salvation.' 

17.  But  if,  etc.]  This  is  a  difficult  passage. 
It  seems  to  state  an  objection  of  the  Judaising 
party,  that  faith  in  Christ  is  insufficient  to 
keep  men  from  sin.  Or  possibly  it  deals  with 
an  argument  put  forth  by  the  Galatians  them- 
selves, that  their  faith  in  Christ  was  insufficient 
to  enable  them  to  withstand  their  temptations, 
and  that  adoption  of  the  Law  would  be  a  help. 
In  any  case  St.  Paul  pushes  the  argument  to 
its  logical  conclusion,  and  shows  its  absurdity. 
God  forbid]  lit.  '  be  it  not  so,'  '  far  be  it '  ; 


St.    Paul's   usual    formula    for   rebutting   an 
argument  :  cp.  321  Ro34.6>3i  6  2,  is,  etc. 

19.  Dead]  ethically  ;  broke  relations  with 
the  Law  system  as  by  a  death.  That  I  might 
live]  I  died  to  the  old  life  and  relations  in 
order  to  live  to  the  new. 

20.  St.  Paul  passes  from  the  inability  of  the 
Law  to  the  ability  of  Christ  to  save  him. 

Crucified  with  Christ]  He  identifies  himself 
with  Christ  in  His  death.  Christ's  death 
means  to  him  the  cessation  of  the  old  life  of 
sin  as  well  as  of  legal  justification  :  cp.  6I* 
Eo  6 1-11  2  Cor  5 1*  Col  3  3.  Nevertheless  I  live] 
EM  •  and  it  is  no  longer  I  that  live  '  ;  my  real 
life  is  not  this  natural  life,  but  the  life  of  faith 
in  union  with  Christ.  By  the  faith  of]  EV 
'  in  faith,  the  faith  which  is  in  the  Son  of  God.' 
St.  Paul  here  enunciates  his  doctrine  of  mystic 
union  with  Christ.  He  is  so  entirely  under 
the  influence  of  Christ  that  he  regards  his 
thoughts  and  words  and  deeds  as  prompted  by 
the  Saviour.  All  that  he  is  he  owes  to  Christ 
who  abides  in  Him.  The  spiritual  relation 
between  Christ  and  himself  is  so  intimate  that 
he  can  only  describe  it  as  Christ  living  in  him  : 
cp.  Eo6i-ii. 

CHAPTER  3 

Justification  is  by  Faith,  not  Works 
1-14.  The  Apostle  upbraids  the  Galatians 
with  their  speedy  change  from  faith  to  legal 
observances,  reminding  them  of  the  fact  that 
their  reception  of  the  Spirit  had  not  been 
through  the  works  of  the  Law,  but  through 
faith,  and  appealing  both  to  the  testimony  of 
their  own  consciences  and  to  the  teaching  of 
sacred  history  in  the  parallel  case  of  Abraham. 
Paraphrase.  '  ( 1 )  You  thoughtless  Galatians 
have  surely  been  bewitched.  I  told  you  plainly 
of  Christ  dying  for  your  sins,  and  you  accepted 
this  sah'ation  for  your  own.  Why  have  you 
turned  away  from  the  Saviour  ?  (2)  Was  it 
by  obeying  the  Jewish  Law,  or  by  trusting  in 
Christ,  that  you  received  those  gifts  of  the 
Spirit  which  were  so  manifest  among  you  when 
you  first  believed  ?  (3)  What  folly,  then,  to 
desert  the  life  of  the  Spirit  for  that  of  out- 
ward observance  !  (4)  Why  endure  persecu- 
tions for  the  Gospel  if  you  so  lightly  esteem 
it  ?  (5)  Have  not  all  your  spiritual  gifts  and 
the  miraculous  powers  which  are  manifest 
among  you  been  due  entirely  to  your  faith  ? 
(6)  You  read  in  the  Scriptures  that  Abraham 
was  accounted  righteous  on  account  of  his  faith, 
and  your  experience  is  an  illustration  of  the 
same  principle.  (7)  You  want  to  be  sons  of 
Abraham.  I  tell  you  that  his  true  spiritual 
children  are  those  who  have  a  faith  like  his. 
(8)  In  the  promise  made  to  him,  because  of  his 
faith,  you  hear  the  principle  of  the  Gospel  an- 
nounced in  advance.  (9)  It  is,  therefore,  those 
who  base  their  lives  on  faith  who  share  the 


950 


] 


3.  1 


GALATIANS 


3.  15 


blessing  assured  to  him.  (10)  The  Law,  on  the 
other  hand,  has  no  power  to  bless,  but  only  to 
curse  ;  for  it  pronounces  a  curse  upon  all 
who  do  not  obey  it  in  every  detail.  (11)  How 
impossible  salvation  is  on  this  principle  the 
Scriptures  plainly  declare.  (12)  The  Law  does 
not  rest  on  faith.  It  only  justifies  those  who 
fulfil  its  works.  (13)  But  Christ  has  come  to 
redeem  us  from  the  curse  which  the  Law  pro- 
nounces ;  and  He  has  accomplished  that  by 
taking  the  curse  upon  Himself,  as  His  cruci- 
fixion makes  evident.  (14)  And  the  purpose 
of  His  saving  death  was  to  secure  that  the 
Gentiles  might  receive  through  their  faith  the 
blessing  which  Abraham  received  through  his, 
and  gain  the  gift  of  the  Spirit.' 

I.  Foolish]  thoughtless,  undisceming,  in- 
consistent.    Bewitched]  and  so  perverted  you. 

Before  whose  eyes]  Paul  had  vividly  (evi- 
dently, RV  '  openly  ')  portrayed  the  crucified 
Christ  as  Saviour.  2.  This  only]  one  ques- 
tion will  reveal  your  error  and  inconsistency. 

Received  ye,  etc.]  Of  course  the  latter  was 
the  case.  3.  Spirit  and  flesh  denote  the  char- 
acteristics of  Gospel  and  Law  respectively — the 
spheres  to  which  they  belong  :  cp.  6 12.  The 
Galatians  had  begun  by  putting  their  trust  in 
Christ,  and  living  a  new  life  under  His  abiding 
influence.  To  forget  this  beginning  and  to 
aim  not  at  living  according  to  the  mind  of 
Christ,  but  at  fulfilling  the  demands  of  a  law, 
was  to  forsake  the  spiritual  for  the  merely 
human  or  carnal.  4.  Have  ye  suffered  . .  in  vain] 
It  was  all  for  naught,  and  might  better  not 
have  been  endured,  unless  the  gospel  is  de- 
serving of  their  consistent  adherence.  If  it  be 
yet  in  vain]  There  was  still  hope  that  they 
might  be  reached  and  convinced  by  the  appeal 
now  made  to  them. 

5.  He  that,  etc.]  i.e.  God.  Miracles]  cp. 
ICor  12.  Doeth  he  it,  etc.]  Of  com-se,  in  the 
latter  way,  or  on  the  latter  condition.  6.  As 
Abraham]  a  typical  case,  which  the  Judaisers 
could  not  gainsay  :  cp.  Gnl5^.  St.  Paul 
declares  :  Our  Jewish  sacred  Scriptures  teach 
salvation  by  faith.  Abraham  was  blessed  be- 
cause he  trusted  in  God  absolutely,  and  did 
His  will,  before  the  Law  even  existed.  So  men 
are  now  to  trust  in  Christ  the  Son  of  God, 
living  according  to  His  will  and  having  His 
life  in  them,  now  that  He  has  made  the  Law 
unnecessary.  7.  Sonship  to  Abraham,  there- 
fore (in  the  spiritual  sense),  is  determined  by 
faith.  8.  Preached  before  (RV '  beforehand')] 
proclaimed  long  in  advance  the  central  prin- 
ciple of  the  Christian  gospel.  9.  The  con- 
clusion which  follows  from  vv.  2,  5.  10.  "Why 
men  cannot  be  saved  by  legal  works  of  merit ; 
they  must  be  perfect  and  complete,  or  they 
never  can  be  :  cp.  Dt  27  26  Ro  2 13  3  20  4  4, 5  g  3  10  5. 

II,  12.  Further  scriptural  confirmation  :  cp. 
Hab2'*.    Even   under   the   Law   a   man   was 


951 


counted  righteous  not  because  he  fulfilled  the 
demands  of  the  Law,  but  because  he  trusted  in 
God,  of  whose  will  the  Law  was  the  imperfect 
expression. 

13.  Redeemed]  a  figure  drawn  from  the 
analogy  of  ransoming  captives.    Us]  i.e.  Jews. 

The  curse]  the  condemnation  pronounced  by 
the  Law  upon  sin.  Being  made]  by  submittifig 
to  the  shame  of  being  crucified  :  cp.  Dt2123. 
The  Law  declared  that  any  one  who  died  a 
criminal's  death  upon  a  cross  was  accursed. 
Christ  died  thus,  and  so  was  accursed.  St. 
Paul  associates  this  curse  arising  from  cere- 
monial defilement  with  the  curse  which  rests 
upon  man  for  sins,  and  regards  Christ  as  thus 
bearing  the  curse  on  man's  behalf.  Christ's 
death  in  some  way  availed  to  ransom  men 
from  the  curse  of  the  Law.  God  for  Christ's 
sake  then  bestowed  the  blessing  of  His  Spirit 
on  all  who  put  their  trust  in  His  Son,  and 
sought  to  live  in  union  with  Him.  The  Law 
was  a  mere  outward  command,  seeking  to  gain 
man's  obedience  by  promises  of  reward  and 
threats  of  punishment.  Christ  substituted  loy- 
alty to  Himself  for  obedience  to  Law ;  and  by 
thus  introducing  the  personal  element  of  love 
brought  a  powerful  influence  to  bear  upon  His 
people,  and  inspired  them  with  a  new  power 
to  overcome  the  sin  that  beset  them. 

15-22.  The  principle  of  the  Gospel — sal- 
vation by  grace  on  condition  of  faith — ante- 
dates and  underlies  the  Law. 

Paraphrase.  '  (15)  To  take  a  familiar  illus- 
tration :  even  a  man's  will,  when  ratified, 
no  third  party  may  annul  or  supplement.  (16) 
Now  God's  gracious  promise  to  Abraham  and 
his  descendants  is  realised  only  in  and  through 
Christ,  in  whom  all  believers  are  one.  (17) 
The  Law  system,  which  arose  long  after  the 
promise  was  made  to  Abraham,  cannot  change 
or  nullify  that  promise  ;  (18)  and  as  salvation 
(the  promised  inheritance)  must  be  either  by 
obedience  to  the  Law  or  by  grace,  the  case  of 
Abraham  proves  that  it  is  by  grace.  (19)  If, 
then,  the  Law  could  not  save,  what  purpose 
did  it  serve  ?  It  had  a  temporary  and  educa- 
tional purpose.  It  was  designed  to  excite  in 
men's  hearts  the  consciousness  of  sin,  which 
shows  men  their  need  of  salvation,  and  so  to 
point  them  to  Christ  ;  it  was  a  system  given 
not  directly  by  God  to  the  people,  but  indi- 
rectly through  angels  to  Moses,  who  in  his 
turn  gave  it  to  the  nation.  (20)  Now  when  a 
mediator  is  employed,  it  means  that  there  are 
two  parties  making  a  bargain  ;  but  in  the  case 
of  Abraham  there  was  but  one  party — God — 
making  a  promise  out  of  His  own  free-will. 
(21)  It  is  evident,  then,  that  the  Law  cannot 
affect  God's  promise.  The  Law  is  subordinate 
to  the  Gospel,  but  it  serves  the  ends  of  the 
Gospel — otherwise  it  would  have  been  suffi- 
cient of  itself,   and  the   Gospel  need   never 


3.  15 


GALATIANS 


3.  29 


have  been  given.  (22)  And  the  way  in  which 
it  serves  the  ends  of  the  Gospel  is  by  convicting 
men  of  sin,  and  forcing  them  to  realise  that 
they  can  only  be  saved  by  God's  mercy  through 
faith  in  Christ.' 

15.  Covenant]  better  as  mg.  '  testament,' 
or  will.  It  is  an  '  inheritance  '  that  is  in  ques- 
tion (v.  18).  According  to  Ramsay,  this  word 
'  will '  as  understood  in  the  Galatian  cities 
meant  '  a  provision  to  maintain  the  family 
with  its  religious  obligations.  .  .  The  appoint- 
ment of  an  heir  was  the  adoption  of  a  son, 
and  was  final  and  irrevocable  in  the  Galatian 
territory.'  16.  Thy  seed,  which  is  Christ] 
St.  Paul  here  argues  from  the  fact  that  the 
singular  number  is  used — '  seed,'  not  '  seeds ' ; 
but  the  verbal  reasoning  does  not  affect  the 
argument.  The  word  is  collective.  He  re- 
gards Christ  as  including  all  who  are  united 
to  Him  by  faith,  who  are  the  true  seed  of 
Abraham.  17.  The  law ,.  cannot  disannul]  the 
will  of  God  is  irrevocable  (as  is  seen  even  in 
the  case  of  the  wills  of  men)  ;  the  Law, 
therefore,  cannot  be  contrary  to  it,  but  must 
be  explained  in  some  other  way.  Four  hun- 
dred and  thirty  years]  The  giving  of  the 
Law  is  dated  430  years  after  Abraham's  so- 
journ in  Canaan.  According  to  another  pas- 
sage (Ac  7  6),  the  sojourn  in  Egypt  alone  was 
to  be  400  years.  But  the  length  of  the  time 
which  had  elapsed  is  immaterial  to  the  argu- 
ment. 18.  The  inheritance]  the  blessings 
promised  to  Abraham,  here  understood  in  the 
sense  of  the  spiritual  blessing  of  salvation 
through  Christ.  Of  the  law .  .  of  promise] 
two  contrasted  dispensations  ;  salvation  cannot 
be  by  both.  Scripture  is  explicit  in  favour  of 
the  latter.  It  is  better  to  depend  upon  a 
promise  of  God  made  unconditionally,  and  to 
read  all  subsequent  happenings  in  the  light  of 
that  promise,  than  to  rest  everything  upon  a 
contract  made  between  God  and  man. 

19.  Inferior  character  of  the  Law  shown 
(1)  by  its  aim  to  make  transgressions  abound, 
cp.  Ro  3  20  4 15  520  7  7  ;  and  (2)  by  its  mediation 
through  the  angels  and  Moses  :  cp.  Dt332 
Ac  7  53.  Ordained  by  angels]  an  addition  of  the 
rabbis  to  Scripture.  St.  Paul  is  justified  in 
bringing  it  into  his  argument,  as  he  is  dealing 
with  those  who  accepted  the  addition. 

20.  There  is  no  place  for  a  mediator  where 
there  is  but  one  party  to  a  transaction.  Now, 
in  issuing  His  promise  to  Abraham,  God 
stands  forth  independent  and  alone.  The 
point  is  the  contrast  between  the  conditions 
of  the  giving  of  the  Law  and  of  the  promise. 
The  former  depends  upon  the  fulfilling  of  a 
contract — and  that  man  failed  to  do ;  the 
other  is  no  contract,  but  the  free  gift  of 
God.  21.  It  does  not  follow  because  the  Law 
and  the  promise  are  of  different  rank  that 
they  are  contrary. 


22.  Concluded  all]  RV  '  shut  up  all  things.' 
The  OT.  teaches  what  the  Gospel  teaches, 
that  all  need  a  gracious  salvation.  Both  Law 
and  Gospel  contemplate  the  same  ultimate  end. 
'  The  connexion  of  the  argument  is,  that  if  the 
Law  could  give  men  spiritual  life,  and  so  enable 
them  to  fulfil  its  precepts,  it  would  give  them 
righteousness  ;  but  it  does  not  pretend  to  do 
this  ;  on  the  contrary,  it  shows  the  impotence 
of  their  nature  by  the  contrast  of  their  re- 
quirements with  their  performance '  (Conybeare 
and  Howson)  :  cp.  Ro  1 1  ^2. 

23-29.  The  Law  had  a  preparatory  and 
disciplinary  office,  but  it  was  now  being  fulfilled 
in  the  Gospel. 

Paraphrase.  '  (23)  Before  Christ's  coming 
it  was  the  office  of  the  Law  to  imprison  men 
by  its  condemnation  of  sin  until  they  should 
be  set  free  by  believing  on  Him.  (24)  Thus 
the  Law  was  like  a  stern  disciplinarian  who 
made  us  willing  and  eager  to  receive  the  grace 
of  God  in  the  Gospel.  (25)  But  now,  in  the 
freedom  of  faith  and  of  sonship  to  God, 
we  are  exempt  from  the  Law's  bondage  and 
discipline.  (26,  27)  Through  faith  we  are 
united  to  Christ  and  are  become  God's  chil- 
dren, and  this  is  symbolised  by  our  baptism. 
(28)  In  Him  distinctions  of  nationality  and 
social  condition  disappear  ;  (29)  in  Him  all 
believers  alike  become  heirs  of  the  gracious 
promise  made  to  Abraham,  the  man  of  faith.' 

23.  Faith]  i.e.  the  Gospel,  whose  principle 
is  faith.  Both  Faith  and  Law  are  here  per- 
sonified. Kept]  RV  '  kept  in  ward,'  impri- 
soned by  the  Law's  verdict  upon  sin,  awaiting 
the  time  of  our  deliverance  through  Christ. 

24.  Schoolmaster]  cp.  Ro7'^^.  Tutor,  or 
trainer,  who  by  his  chastisement  for  our  faults 
made  us  see  our  need  of  grace  and  pardon. 
St.  Paul  may  have  been  thinking  of  the  Jewish 
custom  of  fathers  daily  conducting  their  sons 
to  school.  25.  The  Law  is  the  stern  jailer  or 
disciplinarian  ;  Faith  the  liberator  from  bond- 
age and  chastisement.     We]  i.e.  the  Jews. 

26.  Ye  .  .  all]  whether  Jews  or  Gentiles, 
are  no  longer  bondsmen  (cp.  Ro  8  !**•)»  but 
sons  :  see  v.  16.  Vv.  17-25  are  a  kind  of 
parenthesis. 

27.  Baptized  into  Christ]  entered  by  bap- 
tism into  the  relation  of  fellowship  with 
Christ.  The  argument  is :  Baptism  means 
union  with  Christ,  and  union  with  Christ  means 
the  liberty  of  sonship  to  God.  28.  Such  dis- 
tinctions do  not  separate  true  believers.  There 
is  a  unity  in  Christ  which  is  deeper  than 
differences  of  nationality,  condition,  or  sex. 
The  Greek  is  the  Galatian.  St.  Paul  shows 
his  tact  in  using  that  name,  as  the  more  refined 
natives  would  probably  like  it.  29.  Abraham's 
seed]  his  spiritual  descendants.  Not  lineal 
descent  from  Abraham,  but  spiritual  kinship 
to  him  through  a  faith  like  his,  determines 


952 


J 


4.1 


GALATIANS 


4.  12 


Freedom 


whether  we  are  heirs  of  the  promise  made  to     eludes  wins  our   love,  and  for  His  sake  we 

overcome  sin.  7,  Thou  art]  application  of 
the  conclusion  to  the  individual.  An  heir  of 
God]  RV  '  an  heir  through '  (the  adopting  act 
of)  '  God.' 

8-1 1.  In  the  past  the  Galatians  had  been 
idolaters,  in  bondage  to  gods  that  were  '  no 
gods  '  at  all.  Now  they  are  going  back  again 
to  a  similar  bondage. 

Paraphrase.  •  (8)  Before  your  conversion 
you  Gentiles  were  victims  of  idol-worship  ;  (9) 
but  now,  since  the  true  God  has  revealed  Him- 
self to  you  in  Christ,  how  can  you  desire  to 
return  again  to  a  lower  plane  of  religious 
knowledge  and  practice  ?  (10)  This  you  are 
doing  in  taking  up  the  observance  of  Jewish 
feast-days  and  ceremonies.  (11)  This  action 
causes  me  to  fear  lest  my  labours  on  your 
behalf  should  prove  to  have  been  in  vain.' 

8.  Howbeit  then]  RV  '  At  that  time,'  when 
they  were  yet  unconverted  heathen.  No 
gods]  cp.  1  Cor  8  5  10  20  ;  the  so-called  divinities 
of  the  heathen.  9.  Their  lapse  into  Judaism 
is  a  return,  not,  indeed,  into  idolatry,  but  into 
an  imperfect  and  rudimentary  religion.  In 
this  point  of  view  only  does  the  Apostle  class 
heathenism  and  Judaism  together.  The  Law 
is  weak,  etc.,  as  being  powerless  to  justify  and 
give  the  assurance  of  sonship.  Known  God, 
or  rather  are  known  of  God]  i.e.  now  that  ye 
have  come  to  know  the  nature  and  love  of 
God,  or  rather  that  God  has  recognised  you 
and  bestowed  upon  you  His  gifts.  10.  Days] 
Jewish  feast-  or  fast-days.  Months]  new  moons  : 
cp.  Col  2 1<5.  Times]  RV  '  seasons,'  such  as  Pass- 
over, Pentecost,  etc.  Years]  e.g.  sabbatic  years. 
These  observances  are  '  weak  and  beggarly 
elements'  (v.  9),  because  they  are  matters 
of  dry  routine,  customs  which  the  Gentiles 
would  adopt  without  understanding  their 
meaning  or  catching  anything  of  the  spirit 
which  lay  behind  them.  They  were  of  no 
avail  for  salvation.  11.  Afraid]  anxiously 
solicitous  lest  they  should  repudiate  their 
Christian  profession. 

12-20.  The  Apostle  appeals  to  his  readers 
to  return  to  their  former  allegiance  to  the 
gospel. 

Paraphrase.  '(12)  I  plead  with  you  to 
come  to  my  point  of  view,  even  as  I  in  re- 
nouncing slavery  to  the  Law,  have  become  as  a 
Gentile  to  you  Gentiles.  (13)  I  hope  for  this 
result  on  the  ground  of  your  former  kindness 
to  me  ;  you  remember  that  it  was  in  con- 
sequence of  an  illness  that  I  was  led  to  become 
your  Christian  teacher,  (14)  but  you  did  not 
consider  the  care  of  me  at  that  time  burden- 
some, but  I'eceived  and  treated  me  with  the 
greatest  honour  and  deference.  (15)  How 
great  is  the  change  in  you  since  that  time  when 
you  would  have  made  any  sacrifice  for  me  ! 
(16)  Do  you  now  regard  me  as  hostile  to  you 


him. 

CHAPTER  4 

The  Bondage  of  the  Law. 
IN  Christ 

1-7.  Under  the  Law  we  were  in  bondage  ; 
under  the  Gospel  we  have  received  the  freedom 
of  sons. 

Paraphrase.  '  (1)  The  heir  before  he  comes 
of  age  can  no  more  enter  upon  his  inheritance 
than  a  servant  in  the  family  can  possess  him- 
self of  it,  (2)  but  must  continue,  until  the  set 
time,  in  a  subordinate  position,  and  under  the 
authority  and  training  of  others.  (3)  So,  when 
we  were  under  the  elementary  Law  system,  we 
were  in  a  position  like  that  of  the  heir  in  his 
minority  ;  (4)  but  when  the  appointed  time 
arrived,  God  sent  His  Son,  subject  not  only  to 
human  conditions,  but  also  to  the  Jewish  Law, 
(5)  in  order  that  He  might  set  free  all  who 
were  in  bondage  to  the  Law  and  put  them  in 
possession  of  full  liberty  and  all  the  rights  of 
the  sons  of  God.  (6)  And  God  also  gave  us 
the  Spirit  of  His  Son,  and  imparted  to  us  the 
sense  of  sonship,  (7)  so  that  we  now  know  our- 
selves as  no  longer  bondmen  to  the  Law,  but 
freemen,  and  heirs  of  the  salvation  which  is 
our  rightful,  destined  possession.' 

I.  The  heir]  is,  of  course,  a  son,  as  v.  2 
shows.     A  child]  i.e.  under  age  ;  a  minor. 

Differeth  nothing]  as  respects  the  control  of 
his  destined  possessions,  though,  in  prospect, 
lord  of  all.  2.  Tutors]  RV  '  guardians  '  ;  the 
regular  term  for  the  guardian  of  a  minor. 

Governors]  RV  '  stewards,'  who  have  the 
management  of  his  prospective  property.  Time 
(RV  '  term ')  appointed]  the  time  of  reaching 
his  majority.  Ramsay  points  out  that  under 
the  Syrian  law,  which  prevailed  in  S.  Galatia, 
a  child  was  subject  to  a  '  tutor  '  until  he  was 
14,  after  that  he  could  make  a  will  and  dis- 
pose of  his  property  ;  but  the  management  of 
his  estate  was  under  a  '  governor '  or  curator 
until  he  reached  the  age  of  25.  3.  Children] 
in  a  state  of  tutelage  under  the  Law.  Ele- 
ments] RV  'rudiments'  (cp.  4 9  Col28)  ;  ele- 
mentary religious  observances  belonging  to 
the  outward,  visible  world. 

4.  Cp.  3 19. 24  Ro  5  20, 21.  Made]  RV  '  born ' ; 
entering  fully  into  our  human  lot.  5.  Redeem] 
i.e.  save  ms  fnrom  our  bondage  in  sin  under  the 
Law,  and  introduce  us  into  full  sonship  to 
God.  Under  the  la'w]  and  therefore  bound  to 
obey  it,  and  yet  guilty  of  infringing  it.  Adop- 
tion] Redemption  is  followed  by  the  admission 
of  the  sinner  among  the  children  of  gi-ace. 

6.  This  emancipation  being  accomplished,  a 
new  sense  of  sonship  fills  the  heart.  Abba] 
an  Aramaic  word  commonly  used  in  prayer, 
meaning  '  Father.'  Christ's  love  for  us  ex- 
hibited in  His  incarnation  and  all  that  it  in- 


953 


4.  12 


GALATIANS 


4.25 


because  I  urge  you  to  loyalty  to  Christ  ?  (17) 
The  Judaisers  are  courting  your  favour  only 
that  they  may  make  you  their  partisans  and 
supporters.  (18)  It  is  well  to  be  the  object 
of  others'  interest  in  a  good  cause — and  that 
at  all  times  and  not  merely  when  I  am  with 
you.  (19,  20)  I  assure  you  my  desire  that  you 
should  be  moulded  after  Christ's  pattern  is 
intense  ;  and  I  would  fain  visit  you  and  adopt 
a  less  censorious  tone  in  the  hope  of  winning 
you  back.' 

12.  As  I  aTTi]  loyal  to  Christ  :  op.  iCorll^. 
I  am  as  ye  are]   cp.  1  Cor  9 19-23.     EY  puts  a 

period  after  '  ye  are^'  and  then  reads  '  Ye  did 
me  no  wrong  ;  but  ye  know  that  because  of  an 
infirmity,'  etc.  Ye  have  not  injured  me]  i.e. 
I  am  not  personally  offended. 

13.  The  first]  lit.  as  RM  '  the  former  time.' 
The  Gk.  word,  accurately  interpreted,  indicates 
that  St.  Paul  had  paid  the  Galatians  two  visits 
before  the  date  of  this  letter.  This  '  former ' 
visit  is  of  course  that  recorded  in  Ac  13 1'^-14  2*. 
St.  Paul  probably  intended  preaching  at  Perga 
when  he  landed  there  ;  but  being  seized  by 
illness  was  compelled  to  leave  the  low  ground 
of  Pamphylia  and  seek  health  and  strength  on 
the  high  plateau  further  inland.  His  journey 
brought  him  first  to  Pisidian  Antioch,  then  to 
Iconium,  Lystra,  and  Derbe.  On  his  return 
to  Perga,  on  his  way  back  to  Antioch  in  Syria, 
he  preached  the  gospel  there,  as  he  had  not 
been  able  to  do  it  on  his  outward  way  :  cp. 
Ac  13 13. 14  with  1425. 

14.  My  temptation  which  was  in  my  flesh] 
RV  '  That  which  was  a  temptation  to  you  in 
my  flesh.'  The  bodily  infirmity  which  had 
attacked  him  had  left  such  traces  that  they 
might  have  been  excused  for  rejecting  one  whose 
'  bodily  presence  was  weak '  :  see  2  Cor  12  7  and 
note  there.  As  an  angel]  with  even  excessive 
reverence.  This  spirit  had  been  exhibited 
towards  him  in  Lystra,  even  by  the  heathen 
(Ac  14 13);  and,  indeed,  in  all  the  cities  of 
Galatia  by  those  who  had  received  his  message 
and  become  followers  of  Christ. 

15.  Blessedness]  RV  '  Gratulation,'  your 
felicitation  of  yourselves  in  my  teaching. 

Plucked  .  .  eyes]  made  any  sacrifice  for  me, 
so  great  was  your  former  kindness.  17.  RV 
'  They  zealously  seek  you  in  no  good  way  ; 
nay,  they  desire  to  shut  you  out  that  ye  may 
seek  them.'     They]   the  Jewish  extremists. 

Not  well]  i.e.  in  a  party  spirit.  Exclude 
you]  from  the  influence  of  other  teachers, 
especially  from  my  own.  Affect  (RV  '  seek  ') 
them]  cling  zealously  to  them  as  partisan 
adherents.  18.  RV  'But  it  is  good  to  be 
zealously  sought  in  a  good  matter  at  all  times.' 
I  am  glad  that  you  are  the  objects  of  others' 
zeal  and  interest,  whether  I  am  present  or 
absent,  provided  your  favour  is  courted  in  a 
good  cause.     19.  I  travail  in  birth  again]  RV 


'  I  am  again  in  travail.'     In  his  anxiety  and 
distress  he  would  reconvert  them  to  Christ. 

20.  Desire]  RV  '  could  wish,'  i.e.  if  such  a 
thing  were  possible.  Change  my  voice]  i.e. 
change  my  tone,  speak  more  mildly. 

21-31.  This  passage  is  an  example  of  the 
rabbinical  method  of  interpretation,  which 
found  a  hidden  sense,  embodied  and  intended, 
in  many  parts  of  Scripture.  Here  a  historical 
narrative  is  taken  as  revealing  the  truth  that 
those  who  adhere  to  the  Law  are  in  bondage, 
and  those  living  by  faith  in  Christ,  free. 

Paraphrase.  '  (21)  You  who  are  so  zealous 
for  the  Law  will  surely  take  a  lesson  from  the 
Law  itself.  (22)  You  know  the  story  of  Abra- 
ham's two  children,  Ishmael  and  Isaac,  (23) 
the  former  the  child  of  the  bondwoman,  Hagar, 
the  latter  of  Sarah,  born  in  accordance  with  a 
divine  promise.  (24)  These  two  women  repre- 
sent, in  the  allegorical  application,  two  cove- 
nants, the  old  and  the  new.  Hagar  represents 
the  Law,  whose  symbol  is  Mt.  Sinai,  since  her 
descendants,  like  the  adherents  of  this  old 
covenant,  are  born  into  a  state  of  bondage. 
(25)  Indeed,  Hagar  is  a  name  of  Mt.  Sinai 
in  Arabia,  and  corresponds  to  Jerusalem,  the 
sacred  seat  of  the  Law  system,  which,  again, 
is  a  symbol  of  bondage.  (26)  But  the  spiritual 
Jerusalem,  answering  to  Sarah,  is,  like  her,  the 
mother  of  freemen.  (27,  28)  For  our  spirit- 
ual mother  has  fulfilled  the  promise  of  Scrip- 
ture to  the  childless,  by  making  us  like  Isaac, 
the  heirs  of  God's  gracious  promise.  (29)  But 
just  as  then,  so  now,  the  unspiritual  per- 
secutes the  spiritual.  (30)  And  as  then  the 
Ishmaelites  were  rejected  from  the  heirship 
of  the  promises,  so  now  God  will  reject  the 
slaves  of  the  Law.  (31)  It  is  the  Christian 
believers  who  are  God's  true  freemen  and 
heirs  of  His  promises.'  * 

21.  The  very  Law  in  which  the  Judaisers 
trust  is  shown  to  be  against  their  contentions. 

22.  One  son,  from  the  circumstances  of  his 
birth,  typifies  bondage  ;  the  other,  freedom  :  cp. 
Gn  16,  21.  It  is  written]  This  does  not  intro- 
duce a  quotation  here,  but  simply  indicates  the 
facts  as  recorded  in  the  Scripture  history. 

23.  One  was  bom  in  a  relation  merely 
carnal,  the  other  in  fulfilment  of  a  special 
promise  of  God  :  cp.  Heb  1 1  H'  12.  24.  Are 
(RV  '  contain ')  an  allegory]  i.e.  are  spoken 
allegorically.  An  allegory  is  a  narrative  where 
the  literal  sense  '  half  reveals  and  half  conceals ' 
a  spiritual  meaning.  The  best  example  of  alle- 
gory in  the  English  language  is  Bunyan's 
'Pilgrim's  Progress.'  Hagar  and  Sarah  repre- 
sent, respectively,  the  Law  and  the  Gospel — 
bondage  and  freedom.  Of  the  former,  Sinai, 
as  the  place  where  the  Law  was  given,  is  the 
symbol. 

25.  Hagar]  Some  MSS  of  the  Epistle  omit 
this  word  here,  in  which  case  we  should  render  : 


954 


GALATIANS 


5.  8 


'  Sinai  is  a  mountain  in  Arabia '  (so  RM) — the 
land  of  Hagar's  descendants.  Sinai  and  Jeru- 
salem mean  the  same  thing — law  and  bondage  ; 
Hagar  typifies  both.  On  St.  Paul's  use  of 
allegorical  interpretation,  cp.  1  Cor  9  9. 1°  Gal 
3  iij  2  Cor  3 13, 14.  As  Hagar  corresponds  to 
(Mount  Sinai,  which  is  now  represented  by) 
the  earthly  Jerusalem,  so  Sarah  corresponds 
to  the  ideal  Jerusalem  which  is  in  heaven,  of 
which  all  true  Christians  are  citizens.  With 
the  whole  passage  cp.  Heb  1218-24. 

26.  Jerusalem .  .  above]  the  spiritual  com- 
monwealth or  city  of  God,  of  which  believers 
are  citizens.  The  mother  of  us  all]  RY  '  our 
mother,'  prefigured  by  Sarah.  27.  This  v.  in 
its  original  context  (Isa54i)  had  no  reference 
to  the  Jerusalem  above,  only  to  the  actual 
Jerusalem.  It  is  quite  in  the  rabbinical  style 
for  St.  Paul  to  give  it  another,  more  spiritual 
application.  28.  Conclusion  and  application. 
We  believers  stand  in  a  relation  to  God's 
promise  and  favour  analogous  to  the  descend- 
ants of  Sarah,  while  the  Judaisers  take  the 
place  of  the  Ishmaelites. 

29.  Cp.Gn219.  The  '  mocking '  there  men- 
tioned hardly  amounts  to  persecution.  Per- 
haps the  general  hostility  of  Hagar's  descend- 
ants to  Israel  is  referred  to  :  cp.  Ps  83  <5  1  Ch 
510,19.  History  was  now  repeating  itself  in 
the  persecution  of  the  Christians  of  Galatia  by 
Jews  and  Judaisers.  30.  Cast  out]  cp.  Gn 
2110,12.  Hagar's  spiritual  descendants  are  the 
Jews  and  the  Judaisers,  who  are  the  natural 
descendants  of  Sarah  ;  while  the  heathen  who 
have  accepted  Christ  are  the  spiritual  descend- 
ants of  Sarah,  and  inherit  the  blessings  pro- 
mised to  her  children.  For  similar  ideas  in 
the  teaching  of  Jesus  cp.  Jn  8  31-43.  31,  So 
then]  RV  '  Wherefore '  ;  since  this  rejection 
does  not  apply  to  us  ;  we  belong  to  a  higher 
lineage  and  order.  And  as  we  are  thus  spirit- 
ually free  (51)^  let  us  take  care  to  maintain  our 
freedom. 

CHAPTER  5 

The  Nature  of  Christian  Liberty 
1-12.   The  futility  of  seeking  justification 
by  attempting  to  comply  with  the  demands  of 
the  Mosaic  Law  ;  the  inconsistency  of  works 
and  faith  as  methods  of  salvation. 

Paraphrase.  '  (1)  Since  Christ  has  freed  us 
from  the  necessity  of  obeying  these  legal  de- 
mands and  customs,  let  us  consistently  main- 
tain and  use  our  liberty.  (2)  To  receive 
circumcision  as  necessary  to  salvation  is  to 
renounce  allegiance  to  Christ,  (3)  since  sub- 
mission to  this  rite  commits  one  to  the  ob- 
servance of  the  whole  legal  system.  (4)  In 
taking  such  a  step  you  would  be  repudiating 
the  free  grace  of  God  ;  (5)  for  it  is  through 
the  operation  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  not  through 
symbols  in  our  flesh,  and  in  consequence  of 


our  faith  in  Christ  and  not  of  works  we  per- 
form, that  we  hope  for  justification  before 
God.  (6)  Circumcision  is  wholly  unimport- 
ant ;  the  only  condition  of  salvation  is  a  faith 
which  evinces  its  vital  power  in  love.  (7)  You 
were  making  good  progress  in  the  Christian 
life  ;  who  has  misled  you  into  disloyalty  to 
the  gospel  ?  (8)  This  teaching  by  which 
you  have  been  led  astray  is  not  of  God ; 
(9)  and  though  it  has  so  far  done  only  a  little 
mischief,  it  will  spread  like  leaven.  (10)  I 
have  good  hope,  however,  that  you  will  now 
heed  my  exhortation  ;  but  the  leader  of  this 
sedition   will    receive    a    heavy    punishment. 

(11)  As  for  the  accusation  that  I  myself  some- 
times commend  circumcision,  were  that  the 
case  would  the  Jews  still  persecute  me  ?  If 
that  were  true  I  should  no  longer  be  giving 
them  offence  through  my  preaching  of  the 
crucified   Christ  as    the   author   of    salvation. 

(12)  But  enough  !  I  wish  that  these  men  who 
are  perverting  your  faith  by  insisting  upon 
circumcision  would  mutilate  themselves  com- 
pletely.' 

I.  Connected  closely  with  preceding  section. 

Bondage]  to  legal  observances.  Christ  hath 
made  us  free]  by  fulfilling  the  Law,  and  so 
teaching  us  to  obey  it,  not  in  the  letter  but  in 
the  spirit,  which  we  shall  do  best  by  living  by 
faith  in  Him,  and  having  the  same  mind  in  us 
as  was  also  in  Him-c  cp.  Mt5  I'^'-^s.  2.  Be  cir- 
cumcised] RV  '  Receive  circumcision '  as  essen- 
tial to  salvation.  Christ .  .  profit .  .  nothing] 
because  you  thereby  reject  Him  as  sole  and 
sufficient  Saviour.  3.  Circumcision  is  the 
sign  of  the  system  of  which  it  is  a  part,  and 
its  practice  indicates  that  a  complete  observ- 
ance of  all  the  Law's  requirements  is  obliga- 
tory. 4.  Christ  is  become,  etc.]  RV  '  Ye  are 
severed  from  Christ,  ye  who  would  be  justi- 
fied,' etc.  By  resorting  to  the  Law  for  salva- 
tion, as  if  Christ  were  not  sufficient,  you  are 
no  longer  Christ's  people.  Fallen,  etc.]  fallen 
down  from  the  higher  plane  of  grace  upon 
the  lower  plane  of  Law.  To  us  now  the 
bondage  of  the  Law  has  little  meaning ;  but  if 
we  come  into  bondage  to  sin,  we  fall  from 
grace  as  surely  as  did  the  Galatians.  Christ 
has  given  us  power  to  keep  from  the  love 
of  sin  and  to  resist  its  power  ;  He  has  liber- 
ated us  from  its  bondage  and  given  us  the 
liberty  of  the  Spirit  ;  and  it  is  ours  to  maintain 
that  liberty,  and  not  to  return  to  the  works  of 
the  flesh,  which  bring  us  to  slavery. 

5.  The  true  mode  of  salvation,  viz.  by  the 
agency  of  the  Spirit,  on  condition  of  faith 
alone.  6.  Availeth]  for  salvation.  Faith  which 
worketh]  an  active,  energetic  faith  :  cp.  Jas 
214-26.  17.  Run  well]  before  the  Judaisers 
misled  you.  Who  did  hinder]  a  rhetorical 
question.  8.  Cometh']  RV  'came.'  This  dis- 
suasion from  loyalty  to  Christ  to  which  you 


955 


5.9 


GALATIANS 


.1 


have  yielded  does  not  emanate  from  God,  but 
is  contrary  to  His  will. 

9.  A  little  leaven]  It  would  seem  that  only 
a  few  of  the  Galatian  converts  were  affected 
by  the  false  teaching  ;  but  their  influence  would 
soon  prove  far-reaching  and  pernicious  :  cp. 
1  Cor  1533.  Leaven  is  always  used  in  NT.  as 
a  symbol  of  influence.  Our  Lord  uses  it  to 
illustrate  the  influence  of  the  kingdom  of  God 
(Mk  8 15  and  parallels).  St.  Paul  uses  it  to  de- 
scribe the  penetrating  and  poisonous  power  of 
evil  influence  :  cp.  ICorS'^'"'^. 

1 0.  The  Apostle  now  adopts  a  more  hopeful 
tone,  and  turns  from  reproof  to  encourage- 
ment. None  otherwise  minded]  than  as  I  have 
taught  you.  11.  Then  is  the  offence  of  the 
cross  ceased]  K,V  '  then  has  the  stumbling- 
block  of  the  cross  been  done  away.'  The  Juda- 
isers  who  had  '  troubled '  the  Galatians  had 
evidently  brought  against  the  Apostle  the 
charge  that  he  still  preached  circumcision  him- 
self, although  he  had  dispensed  with  it  in  the 
case  of  the  Galatians.  The  accusation  may 
have  been  based  on  the  fact  mentioned  in  Ac 
16  3,  that  on  his  second  visit  to  Galatia  he  had 
circumcised  Timothy  at  Lystra  :  see  on  Gal  2  3. 
He  shows  that  this  accusation  is  inconsistent 
with  the  other  charge  of  abolishing  the  Law,  for 
which  they  constantly  attacked  him.  If  he 
preached  circumcision,  why  did  they  persecute 
him  ?  12.  Were  even  cut  off]  RV  '  would 
even  cut  themselves  off,'  RM  '  would  even 
mutilate  themselves ' ;  i.e.  would  even  go  beyond 
circumcision,  like  the  priests  of  Cybele,  whom 
the  Galatians  had  formerly  worshipped.  A 
bitterly  satirical  wish.  The  Apostle  was  evi- 
dently carried  away  by  his  righteous  wrath  at 
the  bitterness  of  the  Judaisers. 

13-15.  Freedom  from  the  requirements  of 
the  Law  does  not  mean  disobedience  to  its 
spirit,  which  is  that  of  love  to  others. 

Paraphrase.  '  (13)  Cling,  then,  to  your 
freedom  from  legal  rules  and  customs ;  but 
remember  that  freedom  means  not  licence,  but 
loving  service.  (14)  For  love  is  the  essence 
of  God's  Law,  (15)  whereas  mutual  backbiting 
and  hatred  can  only  end  in  the  destruction  of 
one  another's  spiritual  life.' 

13.  A  caution  against  an  easy  and  common 
misunderstanding  of  Christian  freedom :  cp. 
R0615.  14,  The  real  moral  substance  of  the 
Mosaic  Law  was  the  gospel  principle  of  love  : 
cp.  Mt2240  E0I.310.  15.  Bite  and  devour]  in 
party  strife.  Consumed]  as  respects  your  per- 
sonal and  collective  Christian  life. 

16-26.  The  spiritual  and  the  carnal  life  con- 
trasted. 

Paraphrase.  '(16)  In  the  life  which  is 
fostered  by  the  Spirit  you  will  find  your  true 
safety  against  the  evils  of  which  I  am  warning 
you.  (17)  For  between  the  pure  aspirations  of 
the  Spirit  and  the  sinful  impulses  of  the  flesh 


there  is  a  sharp,  irrepressible  conflict.  (18)  If 
you  live  under  the  influence  of  the  Spirit  of 
God,  you  have  no  need  to  seek  the  guidance  of 
law.  (19-20)  Contrast  the  sins  which  spring 
from  the  carnal  impulses  (21-24)  with  the 
virtues  which  spring  from  the  Spirit's  guidance. 
The  former  exclude  from  God's  kingdom  ;  the 
Christian  must  abjure  them  ;  but  the  latter  are 
not  condemned  by  any  law.  (25)  If,  then,  we 
possess  the  Spirit  in  our  hearts,  let  our  out- 
ward action  be  under  His  guidance,  and  (26)  let 
us  avoid  factious  boasting  and  all  attempts  to 
incite  others  to  rivalry  and  jealousy.' 

16.  The  Spirit]  the  sanctifying  Spirit  of 
God.  Shall  not  fulfil]  because  the  Spirit  and 
the  flesh  are  contrary  principles.  The  flesh]  a 
general  name  for  the  sinful  impulses.  17.  The 
carnal  desires  are  opposed  to  the  Spirit,  and 
the  impulses  from  the  Spirit  are  contrary  to 
these  desires.  18.  Not  under  the  law]  Those 
who  live  under  the  guidance  of  the  Spirit  of 
God  are  in  no  need  of  the  Law.  They  do  what 
is  right  not  because  the  Law  commands  it,  or 
because  the  Law  penalises  wrong-doing,  but 
because  they  live  under  the  influence  of  Christ 
and  have  His  Spirit  in  them  ;  e.g.  they  refrain 
from  injuring  others  not  because  the  Law  says 
'  Thou  shalt  not  kill,'  but  because  they  love 
their  neighbours  in  the  Spirit  of  Christ.  And 
so,  for  the  ideal  Christian  who  is  perfectly 
changed  into  Christ's  likeness,  the  Law  might 
just  as  well  not  exist,  for  he  has  no  need 
of  it. 

19-21.  Works  of  the  flesh  include  not  merely 
carnal  sins,  such  as  the  first  three  in  the  list, 
but  evil  passions  like  strife  and  jealousy  and 
their  social  effects,  such  as  factions  and  divisions. 

22,  23.  Against  such  (virtues)  there  is  no 
law]  hence  there  can  be  no  condemnation  for 
those  who  possess  them.  But  even  the  Law 
condemns  the  works  of  the  flesh.  24.  Have 
crucified]  in  the  act  of  uniting  themselves  to 
Christ  by  faith:  cp.  Gal 2 20  Ro 6 2.  25.  The 
inner  life  should  rule  the  outer  life.  26.  Vain- 
glory] indulging  in  rivalry  and  jealousy.  Pro- 
voking] to  strifes  of  opinion.  Envying]  cherish- 
ing grudges. 

CHAPTER  6 

Practical  Exhortations.  The  Apostle's 
Glorying 

1-5.  The  nature  and  requirements  of  the 
law  of  love. 

Paraphrase.  '(1)  If  sin  overcome  one  of 
your  number,  try  to  correct  the  fault  in  a 
temper  of  gentleness,  remembering  that  you 
yourselves  may  some  time  need  a  similar  for- 
giveness. (2)  Share  each  other's  cares  and 
sorrows,  and  so  fulfil  Christ's  law  of  love. 
(3)  Shun  the  self-deception  which  springs 
from  pride  ;  (4,  5)  let  each  man  test  his 
actions   on    their    own    merits    and    not   by 


956 


6.1 


GALATIANS 


6.  18 


comparison  with  other  men,  for  each  must  bear 
his  own  load  of  responsibility.' 

1.  Overtaken]  as  if  pursued  and  caught. 
Fault]     RY     '  trespass,'     or     transgression, 

such  as  the  error  into  which  the  readers 
had  been  beguiled.  Spiritual]  as  opposed  to 
'  natural '  or  '  carnal '  :  cp.  1  Cor  2 1*  3 1-*. 

Spirit]  i.e.  temper.  Lest  thou,  etc.]  in 
similar  circumstances  need  a  similar  sympathy. 

2.  Cp.  E0I51.  Bear]  in  sympathy.  Law 
of  Christ]  cp.  Mt8i7.  St.  Paul  has  warned 
them  against  law  ;  but  there  is  a  law  to 
which  they  owe  obedience  and  devotion — the 
new  commandment  of  Christ — the  royal  law 
of  love  :  cp.  Jas28.  3.  The  real  greatness  of 
the  Christian  is  found  in  service  :  cp.  Mt  20  26. 

4.  Prove]  test,  to  see  whether  it  is  morally 
real  and  genuine.     Work]  life  and  conduct. 

Rejoicing]  a  ground  of  satisfaction. 

5.  Burden]  of  accountability.  The  word  is 
different  from  that  used  in  v.  2. 

6-10.   The  principle  of  the  spiritual  harvest. 

Paraphrase.  '  (6)  Share  with  your  teach- 
ers. (7,  8)  If  you  refuse  to  obey  the  law  of 
love,  the  result  will  be  a  debased  moral  life  ;  its 
observance  conducts  to  a  blessed  existence. 
(9,  10)  Our  reward  is  sure  if  we  discharge  the 
obligations  of  love  to  all  men,  especially  to 
our  Christian  brethren.' 

6.  Communicate]  i.e.  share,  either  in 
general  sympathy  and  friendship,  or,  more 
specifically,  in  contributions  to  the  support  of 
the  teacher.  7.  None  can  escape  the  applica- 
tion of  God's  law  of  the  spiritual  harvest. 

8.  He  who  tills  the  field  of  the  carnal  life 
or  that  of  the  spiritual  life  reaps,  in  each  case, 
his  appropriate  fruitage.  Corruption]  '  a 
harvest  doomed  to  perish '  (Conybeare  and 
Howson).  Life  everlasting]  the  harvest  of 
which  the  Spirit  gives  us  the  pledge  in  this 
life,  and  of  which  we  shall  receive  the  fruition 
in  the  life  to  come.  9.  An  encouragement  to 
persistent  spiritual  sowing  and  cultivation. 

10.  A  conclusion  from  the  certainty  of 
reaping  if  we  faint  not.  Of  the  household  of 
faith]  members  of  the  Christian  family  whose 
bond  of  union  is  faith. 

11-18,   The  true  ground  of  glorying. 

Paraphrase.  '(11)  Look  at  my  own  bold 
handwriting  in  which  I  have  written  this  letter 
as  the  proof  of  my  longing  for  your  salva- 
tion. (12)  To  sum  up  :  Those  who  are  insist- 
ing on  your  circumcision  are  doing  so  in  order 
to  curry  favour  with  the  Jews,  for  (13)  as 


Christians  they  do  not  themselves  consistently 
observe  the  Law,  but  are  making  a  show  of 
zeal  for  it  by  inducing  you  to  assume  its 
burdens.  (14)  But  the  only  true  ground  of 
glorying  is  the  cross  by  which  I  have  been 
put  to  death  to  the  sinful  world.  (15)  The 
question  of  circumcision  is  indifferent  ;  new 
life  in  Christ  is  the  one  important  thing.  (16) 
God's  favour  be  upon  all  such  as  test  their 
lives  by  this  principle,  thereby  proving  them- 
selves true  Israelites.  (17,  18)  Let  me  hear 
no  more  accusations  !  The  proof  that  I  am 
Christ's  Apostle  is  found  in  the  scars  which  I 
have  received  in  His  service.  May  blessings 
from  Him  fill  your  heart  ! ' 

11.  Ye  see  how  large  a  letter]  RY  'See 
with  how  large  letters.'  Have  written]  pro- 
bably an  allusion  to  the  writing  of  the  fore- 
going letter.  St.  Paul  usually  dictated  his 
letters,  adding  only  the  closing  salutation  in 
his  own  hand  :  cp.  RolG^^  1  Cor  16  21  2Th3i7. 

12.  In  the  flesh]  the  sphere  to  which  cir- 
cumcision belongs.  Lest  they  should  suffer, 
etc.]  RY  '  that  they  may  not,'  etc. — a  pru- 
dential motive  underlies  their  zeal.  It  must 
be  borne  in  mind  that  St.  Paul  is  writing  to  a 
Church  composed  chiefly  of  Gentiles.  Tliey 
were  Christians,  having  been  converted  by 
the  Apostle,  but  they  had  been  influenced  by 
teachers  who  had  strong  Jewish  sympathies 
and  maintained  that  tl^e  Law  was  obligatory 
on  all  Christians. 

14.  St.  Paul,  on  the  contrary,  will  glory 
only  in  salvation  through  sacrifice  and  self- 
giving.  By  whom]  RY  '  through  which,'  etc. ; 
because  he  died  to  sin  with  Christ  on  His 
cross  :  cp.  Ro  6  2>  s  Col  2  20.  15.  A  new  creature] 
RM  '  a  new  creation.'  Salvation  is  newness 
of  life  in  Christ,  and  is  in  no  way  dependent 
upon  the  question  of  circumcision.  16.  This 
rule]  the  test  of  acceptance  with  God  men- 
tioned in  the  previous  v.  Israel]  the  true 
spiritual  Israel  :  cp.  3-' Ro4i3-i6_  ^^^  Let  no 
man,  etc.]  Let  these  annoying  insinuations 
concerning  my  apostleship  cease.  I  bear  in 
my  body,  etc.]  RY  '  I  bear  branded  on  my 
body  the  marks  of  Jesus  '  :  cp.  2  Cor  1 1  23-28^ 
evidences  of  the  genuineness  of  his  consecra- 
tion to  Christ. 

18.  The  absence  of  commendation  and  the 
severe  tone  of  the  letter  are  noticeable  ; 
yet,  quite  exceptionally,  he  adds  to  the  bene- 
diction an  appellation  of  personal  affection 
(brethren). 


957 


EPHESIANS 


INTRODUCTION 


Four  questions  have  to  be  considered  in  an 
Introduction  to  this  Epistle  :  Author,  Recipi- 
ents, Circumstances,  and  Contents.  And  it 
will  be  best  to  take  the  questions  in  that  order. 
The  answers  respecting  the  recipients  and  the 
circumstances  depend  to  a  very  great  extent 
upon  the  answer  respecting  authorship. 

I.  The  Author  of  the  Epistle.  If  the  author- 
ship of  this  letter  had  not  been  disputed  by 
competent  scholars,  it  would  not  be  necessary 
to  spend  much  time  upon  this  point.  And  the 
necessity  for  discussion  depends  much  more 
upon  the  weight  of  the  authority  of  the  critics 
who  question  or  deny  the  Pauline  authorship 
than  upon  the  weight  of  the  arguments  which 
they  employ.  Some  consideration  of  their 
arguments  is  required  :  but  the  result  of  such 
consideration  will  be  to  confirm  us  in  what 
was  the  unanimous  belief  of  Christians  for 
many  centuries,  that  in  this  Epistle  we  have 
what  perhaps  may  be  called  the  richest  and 
most  glorious  product  of  the  active  mind  of 
St.  Paul.  The  only  other  Epistle  of  which 
that  might  with  reason  be  said  is  the  Epistle 
to  the  Romans ;  and  the  fifteenth  chapter  of 
that  great  letter  is  left  incomplete  until  the 
Epistle  to  the  Ephesians  is  added  to  it.  Here 
we  have  a  full  statement  of  the  unity  of  man- 
kind in  Christ,  as  sons  of  Him  who  is  their 
Father  and  His  Father,  and  of  God's  purpose 
for  the  world  through  the  Church.  This  com- 
pletion is  worthy  of  '  Paul  the  Master-builder.' 
And  it  would  seem  that  the  objections  to  the 
Pauline  authorship  are  being  felt  to  be  less 
serious  than  they  were  supposed  to  be  ten  or 
twenty  years  ago.  The  Epistle  has  fewer  op- 
ponents and  more  defenders  of  the  first  rank 
than  used  to  be  the  case :  and  it  is  remarkable 
that  Dr.  Armitage  Robinson  in  his  admirable 
commentary  does  not  think  it  necessary  to 
discuss  the  question  of  authorship,  because  he 
considers  that  the  Epistle  has  already,  by  Dr. 
Hort  and  others,  been  sufficiently  shown  to  be 
the  work  of  St.  Paul.  One  reason  for  the 
decrease  in  important  objectors  to  the  Epistle 
lies  very  near  the  surface.  It  has  been  found 
more  and  more  difficult  to  accept  the  other 
Epistles  to  which  Ephesians  is  inseparably 
linked  as  writings  of  St.  JPaul  and  yet  deny 


the  Pauline  authorship  of  Ephesians.  Philip- 
pians,  Colossians,  Philemon,  and  Ephesians 
form  a  closely  connected  group.  To  doubt 
that  the  Apostle  wrote  the  exquisite  and  purely 
personal  letter  to  Philemon  is  generally  recog- 
nised as  irrational  scepticism  ;  and  most  of  the 
critics  who  doubt  or  deny  the  Apostolic  author- 
ship of  some  of  the  Pauline  Epistles,  admit 
Philippians  also  to  be  genuine.  If  Philippians 
and  Philemon  are  accepted  as  St.  Paul's,  some 
violent  hypotheses  are  needed  in  order  to  make 
it  tenable  that  Colossians  is  not  by  him.*  And 
if  Philippians,  Philemon,  and  Colossians  are 
all  allowed  to  be  his,  then  the  difficulty  of 
excluding  Ephesians  becomes  very  great  indeed. 

The  external  evidence  in  favour  of  Ephe- 
sians is  very  strong.  As  Renan  says,  among 
the  Pauline  Epistles  it  '  is  perhaps  the  one  of 
which  there  are  most  early  quotations  as  the 
composition  of  the  Apostle  of  the  Gentiles.' 
Not  only  the  witnesses  between  170  and  220 
(Irenseus,  Clement  of  Alexandria,  Tertullian, 
Miiratorian  Canon)  treat  it  as  unquestionably 
Pauline,  but  also  those  who  wrote  about  a 
century  earlier.  Marcion  (circ.  130)  included  it 
in  his  collection  of  St.  Paul's  writings.  It  is 
quoted  in  the  Second  Epistle  of  Clement,  which 
may  be  later  than  Marcion,  and  in  the  '  Shep- 
herd of  Hermas,'  which  may  be  earlier.  It  is 
quoted  by  Polycarp  (circ.  120)  and  almost  cer- 
tainly by  Ignatius,  who  is  a  little  earlier. 
Clement  of  Rome  evidently  knew  the  Epistle, 
and  he  takes  us  into  the  first  century  (95), 
within  the  lifetime  of  St.  John.  Above  all, 
it  seems  to  have  been  known  to  St.  Peter  and 
to  St.  John,  for  there  are  striking  parallels 
between  Ephesians  and  1  Peter,  and  between 
Ephesians  and  the  Revelation.  This  constitutes 
a  very  strong  case. 

It  is  the  internal  evidence  which  has  been 
supposed  to  tell  against  the  Epistle,  and  that 
mainly  on  two  grounds:  (1)  the  resemblance 
to  Colossians;  one  Epistle  is  suspected  of  being 
copied  from  the  other  by  some  unknown  writer ; 
(2)  the  form  of  doctrine.  (1)  Not  much  can 
be  made  out  of  the  first  point.  That  two  letters 
carried  by  the  same  messenger  (Tychicus),  to 
Churches  in  the  same  part  of  the  world,  should 
often  have  the  same  thoughts,  and  not  seldom 


•  For  instance,  Holtzmann  has  sugsrested  that  some  parts  of  Colossians  are  genuine  ;  and  he  puts  together  what  he 
supposes  to  liave  been  the  original  letter.  Some  forger  took  this  little  letter  and  expanded  it  into  our  E]ii.stle  to  the 
Ephesians.  Then  he  was  so  jdeased  with  the  result,  that  he  worked  similar  additions  here  and  there  into  the  original 
letter  to  the  Colossians.  Tliis  patchwork  was  thought  so  very  superior  that  it  passed  at  once  as  St.  Paul's,  and  the 
genuine  letter  was  lost. 

968 


INTRO. 


EPHESIANS 


TNTKO. 


the  same  language,  is  just  what  we  might  ex- 
pect ;  the  salutations,  the  structure,  and  the 
subjects  of  the  two  Epistles  are  very  similar  ; 
and  there  are  nearly  80  coincidences  of  expres- 
sion in  the  155  vv.  Compare  Huxley's  letters 
written  about  the  same  time  to  different  cor- 
respondents. On  the  other  hand,  assume  that 
only  one  of  the  two  Epistles  is  genuine,  and 
that  the  other  is  made  up  from  it,  and  it  is 
impossible  to  determine  which  is  the  original 
and  which  is  the  copy;  for  in  one  place  Ephe- 
sians,  and  in  another  place  Colossians  appears 
clearly  to  be  original.  If  both  are  original, 
there  is  no  difficulty.  (2)  Nor  is  much  serious 
difficulty  to  be  found  in  the  second  point.  We 
are  told  that  the  kind  of  Pauline  teaching 
which  we  find  in  Ephesians  is  of  a  more  de- 
veloped character  than  the  teaching  of  St. 
Paul,  and  therefore  belongs  to  a  later  age  :  it 
reveals  a  doctrinal  standpoint  which  a  disciple 
of  the  Apostle  might  reach,  but  not  St.  Paul 
himself.  The  doctrine  of  all  Christians  mak- 
ing one  Church  of  which  Christ  is  the  Head, 
and  of  its  being  through  the  Spirit  (2  22)  that 
Christ  abides  and  works  in  the  Church,  is 
thought  to  be  beyond  the  earlier  teaching  of 
the  Apostle.  This  attempt  to  put  a  limit  to 
the  amount  of  growth  that  would  be  possible 
for  such  a  mind  as  that  of  St.  Paul  is  arbitrary 
and  uncritical.  The  advance,  as  compared  with 
Romans,  is  not  so  extraordinary.  The  equality 
of  Gentiles  with  Jews  in  the  Church  is  main- 
tained in  both  Epistles  (Ro  21-29  Ephin-is), 
and  in  both  the  universality  of  the  previous 
corruption  is  made  an  argument  for  the  univer- 
sality of  salvation  (Ro  39-31  Eph2i-22).  An 
advance  is  made  in  Ephesians,  in  that  here  for 
the  first  time  all  Christians  are  regarded  as 
forming  one  Ecclesia,  or  Assembly  of  God,  or 
Church,  of  which  Christ  is  the  Head  (4^.  4, 12, 
13, 15)_  This  development  was  very  natural  in 
one  who  was  writing  from  Rome,  the  centre  of 
the  civilised  world.  It  does  not  imply  that 
there  are  a  number  of  local  Churches  which 
all  make  up  one  universal  Church:  that  idea 
might  be  evidence  of  a  later  age :  but  that, 
throughout  the  world,  there  are  many  Christian 
individuals,  who  are  members  of  a  Body,  whose 
Head  is  Jesus  Christ. 

2.  The  Recipients  of  the  Epistle.  There 
is  little  doubt  that  Beza  was  right  in  supposing 
that  this  letter  was  addressed,  not  to  the 
Ephesians  alone,  but  to  other  Churches  of  Asia 
also  ;  and  that  Archbishop  Ussher  got  still 
nearer  to  the  truth  in  regarding  it  as  an  en- 
cyclical letter,  which  Tychicus  was  to  take  first 
to  Ephesus  and  then  to  other  Churches,  of 
which  Laodicea  was  one.  Our  Epistle  to  the 
Ephesians  is  probably  '  the  Epistle  from  Lao- 
dicea,' which  the  Colossians  were  to  read,  while 
their  own  Epistle  was  to  be  read  at  Laodicea 
(Col  4 16).     Our  two  best  MSS  (S,  B)  and  the 


959 


well-informed  corrector  of  another  (67)  omit 
'  at  Ephesus  '  in  Eph  1 1.  Origen  shows  that 
his  text  did  not  contain  '  at  Ephesus  '  ;  and 
St.  Basil  states  that  '  at  Ephesus  '  was  omitted 
both  by  predecessors  of  his  and  in  the  older 
MSS.  Marcion  cannot  have  had  the  words. 
Evidently,  from  early  in  the  second  century, 
there  were  copies  of  the  Epistle  in  which  there 
was  a  blank  after  '  to  the  saints  which  are,' 
and  the  bearer  of  the  letter  would  fill  in  the 
blank  according  to  the  place  in  which  he  was 
at  the  time.  Probably  each  Church  made  a 
copy  of  the  letter  for  its  own  use  before  it 
was  sent  on,  and  so  large  a  Church  as  that  of 
Ephesus  would  multiply  copies,  each  of  them 
with  the  words  '  at  Ephesus  '  filled  in.  This 
explanation  of  the  omission  of  '  at  Ephesus  '  in 
such  very  early  authorities  is  strongly  confirmed 
by  the  character  of  the  Epistle  itself.  It  has  no 
local  colour,  no  allusions  to  special  difficulties 
or  dangers,  no  mention  of  individuals  other 
than  the  bearer  of  the  letter.  When  we  con- 
sider that  St.  Paul  had  lived  for  three  years  at 
Ephesus  (Ac  20  31),  that  he  must  have  been 
most  intimate  with  the  Christians  there  and 
their  needs,  and  that  not  only  in  earlier  letters 
(as  Thessalonians  and  Corinthians),  but  also  in 
letters  written  at  the  same  time  as  Ephesians 
(as  Colossians  and  Philemon),  he  exhibits  the 
keenest  interest  in  local  requirements  and 
persons,  then  the  omission  of  all  such  things  in 
this  Epistle  would  be  inexplicable,  if  it  were 
addressed  to  the  Ephesians  only.  If  it  is  ad- 
dressed to  Ephesus  and  several  other  Churches, 
in  some  of  which  there  were  persons  who  were 
unknown  to  him,  then  the  absence  of  local 
featiu-es  is  not  only  natural  but  necessary. 
In  1 15  3  2  4  21  he  seems  to  be  thinking  of  people 
who  have  not  seen  him,  and  perhaps  do  not 
know  much  about  him. 

3.  The  Circumstances  of  the  Epistle.  St.  Paul 
wrote  it  when  he  was  '  the  prisoner  of  Christ 
Jesus  '  (3 1),  '  the  prisoner  in  the  Lord '  (4 1). 
Does  this  refer  to  the  two  years'  imprisonment 
at  Csesarea,  the  civil  capital  of  Palestine,  or 
to  the  two  years'  imprisonment  (which  began 
soon  afterwards)  at  Rome,  the  capital  of  the 
empire  ?  Such  evidence  as  we  have  decides 
for  the  latter.  (1)  At  Cassarea  the  Apostle 
was  in  rather  close  confinement,  and  strangers 
would  not  be  likely  to  come  in  contact  with 
him.  At  Rome  he  lived  '  in  a  hired  lodging 
of  his  own  and  received  all  that  went  in  unto 
him,  preaching  the  gospel  of  God  . .  with  all 
boldness,  none  forbidding  him  '  (Ac  28  30, 3i)_ 
Here  Onesimus  could  easily  hear  him  and  be 
won  over  to  Christianity.  Moreover,  a  run- 
away slave  would  be  more  likelj'  to  take  refuge 
in  Rome  than  at  Caesarea.  And  the  imprison- 
ment in  which  St.  Paul  converted  Onesimus  is 
the  imprisonment  in  which  he  wrote  our  Epistle. 
(2)  The  whole  tone  of  the  Epistle  is  imperial. 


INTRO. 


EPHESIANS 


INTRO. 


Christ  is  the  Ruler  of  a  world-wide  empire,  in 
which  every  Christian,  Jew  or  Gentile,  has 
equal  rights  and  duties.  Such  a  conception 
of  the  Christian  commonwealth  would  arise 
much  more  readily  in  the  metropolis  of  the 
world,  and  close  to  the  palace  of  the  Csesars, 
than  in  a  provincial  town  like  Caesarea.  The 
providential  purpose  of  the  Roman  empire 
suggests  the  providential  purpose  of  the  Chris- 
tian Revelation.  And  thus  he  writes,  not 
merely  to  one  Christian,  as  Philemon,  and  to 
one  particular  Church,  as  Colossi,  but  also 
urhi  et  orhi,  to  the  whole  body  of  Christians  ; 
and  one  and  the  same  messenger  (probably  in 
63  A. p.)  carries  these  three  proofs  of  the  ver- 
satility of  the  Apostle  to  the  Churches  of  the 
East. 

4.  The  Contents  of  the  Epistle.  After  the 
usual  Salutation  (1 1'  2),  Thanksgiving  (1 3-14)^  ^e 
have  a  corresponding  Prayer  (11^-210)^  and  a 
Contrast  between  the  unconverted  and  the 
converted  G-entiles  (211-22).  The  Apostle's 
special  interest  in  the  Conversion  of  the  G-en- 
tiles (31-13)  leads  to  a  retui-n  to  Prayer  for 
them  and  a  Doxology  (3  i*'2i),  and  then  to  Ex- 
hortations respecting  the  Unity  of  the  Catholic 
Church  (41-'^)  and  the  Duties  of  its  Members 
(4  7-6  9),  who  must  be  Spiritual  Warriors  ar- 
rayed in  the  armour  of  God  (610-20).  The 
Mission  of  Tychicus  (6  21. 22)  and  the  Benedic- 
tion (6  23-  24)  form  the  conclusion.  Let  us  look 
at  these  subjects  more  closely. 

While  Colossians  sets  forth  Christ's  glory  as 
Head  of  the  Church  and  of  the  Universe, 
Ephesians  sets  forth  the  glory  of  the  Church 
itself,  and  draws  practical  conclusions  from  it. 
The  main  idea  is  the  unity  of  Christians  as 
forming  one  body  with  Christ  as  its  unseen 
Head.  All  men,  whether  Jews  or  Gentiles, 
are  one  in  the  Church,  which  is  the  holy 
Temple  of  God  (220-22)  and  the  spotless  Bride 
of  Christ  (525-28).  The  existing  Church  has 
many  imperfections,  but  the  full  measure  of 
perfection  will  at  last  be  realised  (413).  ^n(j 
each  Christian  must  labour  for  this,  especially 
through  purified  family  life  (5 1-6  9)  ;  for  the 
life  of  the  family  is  a  symbol  of  the  life  of  the 
Church.  Each  individual  member  must  have 
this  ideal  before  him — the  perfecting  of  the 
unity  of  the  whole  body  :  unless  the  unity  is 
realised,  perfection  is  impossible.  This  is 
what  is  meant  by  saying  that  in  this  Epistle 
'  St.  Paul  has  given  to  his  teaching  a  new 
centre,'  viz.  the  existence  of  the  Church. 
Round  this  the  teaching  in  the  Epistle  revolves. 
This  new  centre  is  all  the  more  appropriate, 
when  we  remember  fhat  the  Epistle  was  not 
addressed  to  the  Ephesians  only,  but  was  an 
open  letter  to  be  sent  to  several  Churches  in 
succession. 

The  Epistle  opens  with  the  grand  idea  of 
the   unity  of  Creation,  which  was  in   God's 


mind  from  the  first  (1*>9.10).  And  this  idea  is 
emphasised  by  the  wonderful  fact,  that  the 
two  divisions  of  the  human  race,  the  Jews  and 
the  Gentiles,  who  had  hitherto  been  so  bitterly 
opposed,  are  henceforth  to  be  blended  into  one 
body,  with  one  Head,  and  one  God  and  Father 
of  all  (2 11-22).  The  gospel  is  not  for  any  one 
favoured  race,  but  for  all  mankind.  This 
mystery  of  the  universality  of  the  gospel  and 
of  salvation  has  been  revealed  to  the  Apostle 
(3 1-13),  who  prays  that  those  who  accept  it  may 
be  able  to  understand  it  (Si'i-iQ).  The  very 
thought  of  such  a  consummation  causes  the 
Apostle  to  burst  out  into  fervent  praise  of 
God,  whose  glory  in  the  Church  and  in  Christ 
will  continue  to  gi'ow  in  successive  generations 
through  countless  ages  (320>2i). 

To  this  magnificent  idea  of  unity  the  Chris- 
tian life  must  correspond,  by  the  rightly 
proportioned  and  harmonious  development  of 
the  members  of  the  Christian  community,  in 
the  body  of  which  Christ  is  the  Head  (43-15). 
It  was  not  always  thus  harmonious  :  the  old 
heathen  life  (417-19)  was  very  diiferent  from 
the  new  Christian  life  (420-24)  Just  consider 
these  particular  marks  of  change  for  the 
better  ;  they  are  a  revolution.  There  is 
truthfulness  (425),  control  of  temper  (426,27)^ 
honest  and  generous  labour  (4  28),  avoidance 
of  bad  language  and  bitterness  (4  29-32),  loving- 
kindness  (5i'2),  horror  of  impurity  in  act  or 
word  (53-6).  In  short,  Christians  must  be  at 
home,  not  in  darkness  and  deeds  of  shame, 
but  in  the  light  which  is  shed  by  the  presence 
of  Christ  (57-14).  This  will  produce  a  wise 
sobriety,  in  a  spirit  of  thankfulness  to  God, 
and   of    good   feeling   towards   one    another 

(515-21). 

Let  us  come  down  to  the  details  of  family 
life  ;  for  the  family  is  the  unit  of  society. 
Out  of  families,  rather  than  out  of  individuals, 
the  Church  is  built  up.  There  is  the  duty  of 
wives  to  husbands  and  of  husband  to  wives, 
symbolising  the  relation  between  Christ  and 
the  Church,  just  as  the  family  sjrmbolises  the 
Church  (522-33).  There  is  the  duty  of  children 
to  parents  and  of  parents  to  children  (6i-4). 
And  there  is  the  duty  of  servants  to  masters 
and  of  masters  to  servants  (6  5-9).  In  all  these 
three  elements  of  family  life  the  idea  of  unity 
is  found  once  more.  Husband  and  wife,  in  a 
mysterious  way,  are  '  one  flesh.'  The  relation- 
ship of  parent  and  child,  with  affectionate 
education  on  the  one  side  and  affectionate 
obedience  on  the  other,  is  '  in  the  Lord '  ; 
each  is  a  member  of  Christ.  Both  servants 
and  masters  have  one  and  the  same  Master  in  i 
heaven.  And  in  all  three  cases  there  is  '  one 
God  and  Father  of  all,  who  is  over  all,  and 
through  all,  and  in  all.' 

But  the  peacefulness  of  the  family  gives 
only  one  side  of  the  Christian  life  ;  on  another 


960 


INTRO. 


EPHESIANS 


1.  14 


side  it  is  a  perpetual  warfare  against  great 
and  unseen  powers.  Against  these  spiritual 
hosts  of  wickedness  the  Christian  must  always 
be  fully  armed  with  weapons  equal  to  the 
conflict  ;  and  there  is  a  divine  equipment  of 
truth  and  righteousness,  faith  and  salvation, 
the  gospel  and  the  word  of  God,  always  at 
his  disposal  (G^o-^^).  But  he  must  not  be 
absorbed  in  his  own  contest  ;  he  must  remem- 
ber to  pray  for  all  other  Christians.  Especially 
let  him  remember  the  prisoner  that  writes 
this  letter,  and  pray,  not  that  he  may  be  set 
free,  but  that  even  in  chains  he  may  have 
courage  to  preach  the  gospel.  Tychicus  will 
tell  you  all  about  him  ;  and  may  God  give  all 
of  you  His  grace  and  love,  together  with  faith 
to  accept  these  gifts  (618-24). 

The  earliest  form  of  the  title  is  '  To  the 
Ephesians ' ;  but  even  this  is  not  original. 
Whoever  first  placed  it  at  the  head  of  the 
Epistle  either  made  a  good  guess  as  to  its 
destination  or  had  '  at  Ephesus  '  (1 1)  in  his 
copy.     Marcion  called  it  '  To  the  Laodicenes.' 

CHAPTER  1 

Thanksgiving  for  Blessings  and 

Prayer  for  Wisdom 

1,2.   The  salutation,      i.   In  the  Salutations 

to  the  Colossians  and  to  Philemon,  written  at 

the     same    time,    '  Timothy   the    brother '    is 

coupled  with  St.  Paul.     He  is  omitted  here 

because  of  the  general  character  of  the  letter. 

At     Ephesus     was     omitted     for    the    same 

reason  (see  Intro.).      The  Apostle  takes  the 

whole  responsibility  of  instructing  Christians  at 

large  respecting  '  the  whole  counsel  of  God  ' 

(Ac  20  27). 

2.  This  is  the  usual  salutation  in  the 
Pauline,  as  in  the  Petrine  Epistles  ;  1  and  2 
Timothy  are  exceptions. 

3-14-  This  doxology  or  thanksgiving 
should  be  compared  with  that  in  2  Cor  1 3-ii. 
That  is  for  a  special  deliverance  ;  this  is  for 
God's  general  mercy  in  revealing  His  purpose 
to  sum  up  all  things  in  Christ.  '  We  Jews 
have  long  had  this  promise  ;  but  ye  Gentiles 
also  have  been  sealed  with  the  Holy  Spirit  as 
an  earnest  of  the  inheritance.'  The  long  sen- 
tence, with  its  accumulated  richness  of  lan- 
guage, shows  how  difficult  St.  Paul  finds  it  to 
express  in  words  the  majestic  thoughts  of 
which  his  mind  is  so  full .  '  I  bless  God,  who 
has  blessed  us  with  the  best  of  blessings,  in 
virtue  of  our  union  with  Christ.  For  this 
end  He  selected  us  from  all  eternity  to  live 
in  His  presence  in  holiness  and  love.  All 
along  He  destined  us  to  be  His  sons  through 
the  work  of  Jesus  Christ.  He  did  this  simply 
out  of  His  good-will,  and  to  call  forth  our 
adoring  gratitude.  This  was  His  grace  to  us 
in  Him  who  is  the  Beloved,  who  redeemed  us 
by  His  death,  and  freed  us  from  our   sins. 


61 


961 


What  a  wealth  of  grace  is  this  !  It  conveys 
wisdom  and  understanding  ;  for  He  has  let 
us  know  His  secret  purpose,  which  directs  and 
explains  the  course  of  ages,  to  bring  all  things, 
both  in  heaven  and  on  earth,  into  harmony 
in  Chi'ist.  In  Christ,  I  say,  in  whom  we  have 
been  chosen  as  God's  portion  ;  for  all  along 
He  destined  us,  according  to  His  all-wise  will, 
that  we  Jews,  who  had  fixed  our  hopes  on 
Christ,  should  live  to  His  glory.  And  with 
us  Jews,  you  Gentiles  also  are  now  associated 
by  faith  in  the  gospel,  and  have  received  the 
Spirit  as  a  pledge  that  you  are  His  portion, 
and  that  His  work  of  redemption  is  complete 
and  redounds  to  His  glory.' 

3.  With  the  God  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ 
cp.  1 17  Heb  1  9  Jn  20 17  Rev  1 «  3  2, 12.  With  all 
spiritual  blessings]  RV  '  with  every  spiritual 
blessing.'  Something  much  higher  than  the 
material,  temporal  blessings  promised  in  the 
OT.  In  heavenly ^j/ace.s]  RV  'in  the  heavenly 
places.''  The  pkrase  is  found  in  four  other 
places  in  Ephesians  (1  20  2  6  3 10  6 12)^  and  nowhere 
else.  There  is  no  substantive  in  the  Gk.,  and 
we  may  render,  '  among  the  heavenly  things '  ; 
the  unseen  world,  in  which  lie  the  spiritual 
forces  which  oppose  us  and  which  help  us. 
Here  are  the  true  realities. 

4.  In  history  God  selected  the  Jews  first, 
and  then  the  Gentiles  ;  but  the  selection  of 
both  was  made  in  eternity,  independently  of 
time,  and  through  Christ.  In  love]  man's  love 
to  God  and  his  fellows,  not  God's  love  to  man 
(317  42,15,16  52).  5.  All  are  God's  children 
by  creation  ;  but  He  adopted  first  the  Jews 
(Ro  9  4),  and  then  believers  (Ro  8  is  Gal  4  5),  into 
a  special  sonship.  St.  Paul  is  the  only  NT. 
writer  who  uses  this  metaphor  of  adoption, 
taken  from  Roman  law.  6.  To  the  praise 
of  the  glory]  This  phrase  comes  thrice,  as  a 
sort  of  refrain  :  cp.  vv.  12,  14.  God's  amazing 
bounty  is  a  glory  to  be  ceaselessly  praised. 

7.  Israel  had  been  redeemed  by  Jehovah  from 
bondage  ;  Israelites  and  Gentiles  are  redeemed 
by  Christ  from  sin.  8.  Wisdom  and  prudence] 
These  are  the  fruits  of  God's  grace  in  us  ;  in- 
sight into  His  counsels  and  consequent  wise  con- 
duct :  in  all  =  in  giving  us  all,  etc.  9.  Mystery] 
In  the  NT.  this  means  a  secret  that  has  been 
revealed  ;  a  favourite  word  with  St.  Paul 
(33,4,9  532  619,  etc.)  :  cp.  2Esdrl236. 

10.  '  For  carrying  out  a  dispensation  which 
was  carried  out  in  the  fulness  of  the  seasons, 
so  as  to  gather  up  in  one  all  things  in  Christ.' 
When  all  the  seasons  had  run  out,  the  final 
revelation  came  :  cp.  2  Esdr  4  37.  Dispensation] 
=  (1)  office  of  steward,  (2)  household  manage- 
ment, (3)  any  provision  or  arrangement. 

13.  Ye  also]  'ye  Gentiles  as  well  as  we 
Jews.'  Sealed  with]  'received  the  Holy  Spirit 
as  a  pledge  that  your  deliverance  should  be 
complete.'     14.   An  earnest  =  Scotch  'arles,' 


1.  15 


EPHESIANS 


3.  2 


is  more  than  a  '  pledge '  ;  it  is  an  instalment 
handed  over  in  advance,  as  a  guarantee  that 
the  remainder  will  follow  (2  Cor  1 22  55).  it  is 
part  of  the  whole  to  be  delivered.  Redemption 
of  the  purchased  possession]  '  the  emancipa- 
tion of  all  that  (jrod  has  made  His  own.' 

15-C.  2 10.  The  doxology  shades  off  into 
prayer  that  his  readers  may  have  wisdom  to 
understand  the  glory  of  their  inheritance  and 
the  great  power  of  God,  a  power  manifested  in 
raising  and  exalting  Christ  (vv.  20-28),  and  in 
raising  and  exalting  us  (2  i-^O).  How  great  it 
must  be  ! 

15.  Heard]  This  looks  as  if  there  were 
some  whom  St.  Paul  had  not  seen,  i.e.  others 
besides  Ephesians.     17.   Cp.  2Esdr  I422-25. 

21.  The  Apostle  partly  adopts  and  partly 
rejects  Jewish  phraseology  about  unseen 
powers.  '  Call  them  what  you  please,  Christ 
is  above  them  all.'  22.  An  echo  of  Ps  8  ^-s.  If 
that  could  be  said  of  man,  how  much  more  of 
Christ  !  23.  Cp.  the  Vine  and  the  branches 
(Jnl5^)  ;  Christ  is  the  source  of  the  life  and 
completeness  of  the  Church.  But  St.  Paul 
seems  to  mean  that  Christ  is,  in  a  sense,  in- 
complete without  the  Church.  The  very  idea 
of  Head  implies  a  body.  It  is  doubtful  whether 
the  Gk.  can  mean  'that  fiUeth  all  in  all.' 
Eather,  '  who  all  in  all  is  being  fulfilled,  made 
complete':  cp.  Coll 24. 

CHAPTER  2 

Gentiles  and  Jews  are  now  One 

IN  Christ 

i-io.  Further  illustration  of  God's  power. 
He  raised  both  Gentiles  and  Jews  from  the 
death  of  sin  and  exalted  them  to  Christ's  side. 

2.  The  prince  of  the  power  of  the  air]  Jewish 
phraseology,  as  in  1 21.  The  air  is  regarded  as 
full  of  evil  powers,  with  Satan  as  their  prince 
(612  Lk2253  Ac2(3i8  Colfi^).  3.  Also  we] 
'  we  Jews  were  as  dead  in  sins  as  you  Gentiles, 
and  were  thus  objects  of  God's  wrath '  (5  0). 

Had  our  conversation]  RV  '  lived.' 

5.  Quickened  us .  .  with  Christ]  '  made  us, 
who  were  morally  dead,  to  share  the  life  of 
Christ.'  6,  8,  9.  'No  merit  of  our  own  has 
saved  us  ;  it  is  all  God's  free  gift. '  10.  Created 
in  Christ  Jesus]  He  means  the  new  creation, 
by  which  the  whole  human  race,  reunited  in 
Christ,  makes  a  fresh  start  (2"  424  G-al6i5). 
Mankind  began  as  one  race  ;  it  was  split  in 
two  ;  it  is  now  one  again. 

11-22.  'Ye  Gentiles  were  formerly  cut  off 
from  Israel  and  from  God's  promises.  But 
now  Christ's  death  has  broken  down  the 
barrier  between  Gentile  and  Jew,  and  reconciled 
both  as  one  body  to  God.  There  are  now  no 
strangers  :  all  are  fellow-citizens  ;  all  are  parts 
of  a  spiritual  temple,  in  which  God,  in  His 
Spirit,  dwells.' 

II.  In  the  flesh]    repeated  for  emphasis  ; 


it  was  in  the  flesh  that  the  difference  between 
Jew  and  Gentile  was  marked.  Called]  not 
contemptuous  in  either  place  ;  not  '  so-called.' 
The  distinction  was  real  enough,  but  it  has 
been  done  away.  12.  Without  God]  'Atheists'; 
the  only  place  where  the  word  occurs  in  the 
Bible  :  the  heathen  were  'godless.'  13.  But 
now]  The  blessed  contrast  is  enlarged  upon  at 
four  times  the  length  (vv.  13-22)  of  the  original 
sad  condition  (vv.  11,  12). 

14.  He  is  our  peace]  emphatic  pronoun  ; 
'  it  is  He  who  is  our  peace.'  The  middle  w^all  of 
partition  is  perhaps  an  allusion  to  the  warning 
barrier  which  marked  off  the  Court  of  the 
Gentiles  from  the  higher  level  of  the  Court  of 
the  Women  in  the  Temple.  It  was  death  for 
a  Gentile  to  pass  the  barrier.  15,  The  Fall 
of  man  introduced  discord  between  God  and 
man,  and  between  man  and  man.  The  Law 
revealed  this  discord.  Christ  in  His  humanity 
fulfilled  the  Law  for  man,  and  set  an  example 
of  perfect  obedience.  His  humanity  united 
all  mankind  ;  His  obedience  united  mankind 
to  God.  16.  A  paradox  :  the  Slain  slays,  and 
a  bloody  death,  which  commonly  provokes 
enmity,  slays  it.  17.  Exulting  repetition  of 
'  peace,'  four  times  in  four  vv.  :  cp.  IsaST^^. 

1 8.  Quite  incidentally  the  recognition  of  Son, 
Spirit,  and  Father,  comes  to  the  surface : 
cp.  44-6  1  Cor  124-6  2 Cor  13 14.  The  Apostle 
habitually  thinks  of  the  Godhead  as  three- 
fold. 

19.  From  the  idea  of  'Father'  he  easily 
passes  to  that  of  '  household,'  and  thence  to 
that  of  '  a  house.'  20.  They  are  not  merely 
members  of  the  family  ;  they  are  stones  in  the 
structure  of  the  home,  in  which  God  Himself 
dwells  :  see  on  3-^.  21.  All  the  building]  This 
is  the  right  meaning  :  only  one  building  is  in 
the  Apostle's  mind,  as  the  preceding  vv.  show. 
The  RVs  accuracy  is  here  misleading  :  cp. 
'air  in  18  Col 4 12.  22.  Throug:h  the  Spirit] 
RV  '  in  the  Spirit.'  It  is  in  the  Spirit's 
dwelling  in  us  that  God  dwells  in  us. 


Reasons  for 


CHAPTER  3 

renewing  the  Prayer  for 
Wisdom 
1-13.  A  digression,  which,  however,  could 
not  be  spared.    As  in  1  is,  he  begins  to  speak  of 
himself,  and  this  time  he  explains  his  unique 
interest    in   the    conversion  of   the   Gentiles.   ■ 
'  Many  of  his  readers  had  not  seen  him,  but  | 
they  must  have  heard  of   the   special   work 
assigned  to  him  by  God,  of  making  known  to 
all   the   mystery  of   the   ages,  so   that   even 
angelic  powers  learn  through  the  Church  the 
manysidedness  of  the  Divine  counsels." 

1.  'It  was  worth  while  becoming  a  prisoner 
in  such  a  cause '  (Philemon  v.  9,  2Timl8). 

2.  Again  the  sentence  is  broken :  cp.  1 13 
44>5.     His  being  a  prisoner  on  their  behalf 


962 


I 


3.3 


EPHESIANS 


4.  11 


suggests  a  fresh  train  of  thought.  If  he  had 
been  writing  to  Ephesians  only,  he  could  not 
have  said  '  if.'  Ephesians  had  heard  himself  : 
cp.  Col  1 25.  3.  Afore  in  few  words]  in  the 
first  two  chs.  5.  '  The  revelation  is  quite 
new  ;  it  has  been  hidden  for  many  generations.' 
The  Apostles  and  prophets  are  holy,  as  the 
readers  are  saints  (1 1),  as  being  set  apart  for 
God's  service  ;  they  had  accepted  St.  Paul's 
doctrine  of  salvation  for  the  Gentiles.  The 
prophets  are  the  NT.  prophets,  as  in  2^0  411 
1  Cor  1228-31.  6  This  is  the  mystery  that  has 
been  revealed. 

7.  The  Apostle  of  the  Gentiles  enlarges  on 
the  greatness  of  his  special  mission.  Thrice 
here  he  calls  it  a  grace  given  to  him  :  cp.  Gal 
27-9  Coll 24.  8.  Unsearchable]  inexplorable  ; 
that  cannot  be  traced  out.  Riches]  the  com- 
prehensiveness and  power  of  the  gospel. 

9.  '  That  which  for  ages  has  been  kept  secret 
from  the  wisest  and  holiest  is  now  brought  to 
light  for  all  to  see.'  10.  It  is  an  amazing 
thought  that,  by  means  of  the  Church,  God's 
varied  wisdom  in  the  scheme  of  redemption  is 
made  known  to  heavenly  beings.  '  Angels 
desire  to  look  into  '  '  the  manifold  gi'ace  of 
God'  (1  Pet  112  4  10).  II,  12.  God's  eternal 
purpose  accomplished  in  Christ,  through  faith 
in  whom  we  have  courage  to  draw  near  to 
God.     12.  A  repetition  of  2^8  ;  cp.  Ro83S>39_ 

13.  That  ye  faint  not]  It  might  mean  '  that 
I  may  not  faint.'  But  St.  Paul  is  not  afraid 
of  losing  heart  ;  he  rejoiced  in  tribulations 
(Ro5^),  and  took  pleasure  in  weaknesses 
(2  Cor  12 10).  He  is  afraid  that  the  Gentiles 
may  lose  heart,  when  they  see  him  persecuted 
for  helping  them  :  they  ought  rather  to  glory 
in  this. 

Now  he  returns  to  v.  1  after  his  magnificent 
digression,  and  at  last  gives  in  fulness  the 
prayer  for  their  enlightenment  which  he 
began  1 1'''.     It  is  a  very  bold  intercession. 

14-21.  Prayer  and  doxology.  'May  they 
have  great  spiritual  power,  may  Christ  dwell 
in  their  hearts,  may  they  know  His  incompre- 
hensible love,  and  be  filled  up  to  the  measure 
of  God's  fulness.  To  Him,  who  can  give  in 
abundance  blessings  which  we  cannot  even 
imagine,  be  glory  for  ever.' 

14.  For  this  cause]  because  of  their  union 
with  the  Jews  in  Christ  (2 13-'22).  The  Jews  stood 
to  pray  (MtTiS  LklSH-i^),  prostration  being 
exceptional  ;  but  Christians  are  said  to  kneel 
(Ac760  940  2036  215),  perhaps  after  Lk224i. 

15.  'All  fatherhood,  whether  earthly  or 
celestial,  derives  its  name  from  the  Fatherhood 
of  God.'  16.  The  inner  man]  is  the  immaterial 
part  of  man's  nature,  the  soul  and  spirit  ;  '  the 
outward  man  '  (2  Cor  411^)  being  the  flesh. 

18.  May  be  able]  '  may  have/w?/  strength  to 
comprehend  what  is  really  incomprehensible.' 
The  four  dimensions  represent  the  vadness  of 


the  love  of  Christ  towards  us.  19.  An  auda- 
cious paradox  :  '  that  ye  may  be  filled  up  to 
all  the  fulness  of  God,'  i.e.  to  the  perfection  of 
the  Divine  attributes  (MtS^S). 

20.  The  doxology  explains  the  audacity  of 
the  prayer.  God  can  give  superabundantly 
quite  inconceivable  boons.  21.  In  the  Church 
by  Christ  Jesus]  RV  '  in  the  Church  and  in 
Christ  Jesus,'  in  the  Body  and  in  the  Head. 
The  Church  in  this  Epistle  is  always  the 
Church  universal,  never  a  local  Church.  This 
Church  completes  the  Christ  (1 23)^  reveals 
God's  wisdom  to  the  angels  (31°),  is,  with 
Christ,  the  sphere  in  which  God  is  glorified. 
It  is  indeed  a  glorious  Church  (5  27). 

CHAPTER   4 

Unity  of  the  New^  Life.     Rules  for 
THE  New  Life 

The  Apostle  passes,  as  usual,  from  doctrinal 
statements  to  practical  exhortations  ;  but 
doctrine  is  here  and  there  introduced  to 
support  exhortation. 

1-6.  '  Live  in  humility,  in  loving  forbear- 
ance, and  in  unity,  for  we  have  one  Body,  one 
Head,  and  one  Heavenly  Father.'  i.  Prisoner] 
This  looks  back  to  31.  'He  can  no  longer 
superintend  them  :  they  must  walk  alone. 
He  lost  his  liberty  in  their  service  :  they  will 
do  what  he  asks.'  2.  To  a  Greek,  meekness 
was  a  second-rate  virtue,  and  lowliness  no 
virtue  at  all.  The  gospel  gives  both  qualities 
their  true  position.  The  nearer  man  comes  to 
God,  the  more  he  feels  his  own  worthlessness, 
and  the  member  of  a  vast  Church  knows  his 
own  insignificance.  4,  '  One  Body,  animated 
by  one  Spirit,  and  cheered  by  one  Hope.' 

5.  '  One  Head,  to  which  each  member  is 
united  by  one  Faith  and  one  Baptism.' 

6.  '  One  God,  the  supreme  Source  and  Sus- 
tainer.'  In  you  all]  RV  '  in  all.'  Throughout 
the  V.  the  '  all '  is  vague  and  may  be  neuter  : 
we  must  leave  it  vague.  Note  the  Trinitarian 
background  :  Spirit,  Lord,  Father. 

7-16.  '  But  the  various  members  have 
various  gifts  and  functions.' 

8.  He  saith]  There  is  no  pronoun  in  the 
Greek,  and  the  nominative  may  be  'it,'  '  the 
Scripture,'  viz.  Ps68i8.  The  important  parts 
of  the  quotation  are  '  He  ascended  '  and  '  gave 
gifts.'  Led  captivity  captive]  i.e.  led  many 
captives  in  His  train.  These  He  used  as 
ministers.  9,  10.  The  meaning  of  this  obscure 
passage  seems  to  be  this.  '  Christ  ascended, 
not  to  leave  His  Chm-ch  an  orphan  (Jn  14iS), 
but  in  order  to  return  to  it  with  the  rich  gifts 
of  His  spiritual  presence.  The  ascent  without 
this  subsequent  descent  would  be  incompre- 
hensible.' The  descent  is  placed  after  the 
ascent,  and  can  hardly  refer  to  either  the  burial 
or  the  descent  into  Hades.     RV  omits  first. 

II.   He  gave]  'He'  is  emphatic;  '  He  it  is 


963 


4.  12 


EPHESIANS 


5.  13 


who  gave.'  Some,  apostles]  RV  '  some  to  he 
apostles  ';  '  some  as  Apostles.'  '  Some  '  is  accu- 
sative, not  dative.  St.  Paul  is  spetiking  of  the 
Church  as  a  whole,  and  does  not  mention 
bishops,  presbyters,  or  deacons,  which  were 
local  ministers  :  cp.  1  Cor  12  2S  Ro  12  ^'-s. 

12.  For  .  .  for  .  .  for]  There  is  a  change  of 
preposition,  which  should  be  marked  in  English 
—for  .  .  unto  .  .  unto;  and  there  should  be  no 
comma  after  'saints.'  The  saints  are  per- 
fected with  a  view  to  their  ministering,  to  their 
building  up  of  the  Church.  13,  Come  in  the 
unity]  RV  '  attain  unto  the  unity.'  A  more 
mature  and  perfect  unity  than  the  Church  had 
at  first  (2 15),  an  ideal  to  work  for,  resulting  in 
a  mature  and  perfect  humanity,  endowed  with 
the  fulness  which  Christ,  in  union  with  the 
Church  (1 23),  has. 

14.  '  In  order  to  reach  this  united  manhood, 
we  must  cease  to  be  a  number  of  unstable 
children,  at  the  mercy  of  every  scheming 
teacher.'  15.  Speaking  the  truth  in  love] 
upholding  truth  without  bitterness. 

16.  Language  cannot  express  the  full  truth. 
Christ  is  the  Head.  He  is  also  the  whole 
organism.  He  is  also  the  source  of  its  unity, 
growth,  and  energy.  Consistency  of  thought 
and  language  is  lost  in  this  divine  physiology. 

17-24.  '  How  different  are  the  believing 
Gentiles  from  the  unbelieving  !  Believers 
must  beware  of  retaining  anything  of  the 
vanity,  ignorance,  or  impurity  of  the  old 
heathen  life.' 

17.  Walk]  He  returns  from  the  lofty  pane- 
gyric of  Christian  unity  to  the  lower  but  neces- 
sary topic  of  the  Chi-istian  '  walk.'  He  began 
with  '  do  '  (4I)  ;  here  it  is  nearly  all  '  do  not.' 

18.  Pagans,  '  being  darkened  in  their  under- 
standing,' must  be  alienated  from  Him  in 
whom  is  no  darkness  (1  Jn  1 5).  RV  substitutes 
'  hardening  '  for  blindness  ;  perhaps  wrongly. 

19.  Being  past  feeling]  they  ceased  to 
notice  the  pricks  of  conscience,  and  became 
reckless.  In  Ro  121-24  y^Q  have  the  same  se- 
quence :  vanity,  darkness,  uncleanness. 

21.  Heard  him]  He  is  not  thinking  of  the 
possibility  that  some  of  them  had  heard  Christ 
teach  :  they  '  heard  Him '  in  listening  to  the 
gospel ;  heard  what  He  taught  on  earth. 

In  Jesus]  St.  Paul  rarely  uses  this  name  by 
itself  ;  when  he  does,  he  is  thinking  of  the 
earthly  life,  death,  and  rising  again.  To  him 
Christ  is  the  glorified  Christ,  '  Jesus  Christ,' 
'  Christ  Jesus,'  '  the  Lord  Jesus,'  or '  the  Lord 
Jesus  Christ.'  22.  Put  off]  Like  filthy,  worn- 
out  clothes,  the  old  self  had  to  be  put  away. 
Conversation  has  the  old  meaning  of  'man- 
ner of  life  '  (Shakespeare, '  2  Hen.  lY,'  v.  5)  : 
cp.  1  Pet  322  Pet  2  7.  24.  The  new  man  which 
after  God  hath  been  created  is  that  fresh 
form  of  humanity,  after  the  first  divine  pat- 
tern,   which   redemption   has    produced.      In 


righteousness  and  true  holiness]  RV  '  in  right- 
eousness and  holiness  of  truth.'  '  Of  truth  ' 
belongs  to  both  substantives. 

25-32.  Illustrations  of  the  old  man  :  false- 
hood, vindictiveness,  theft,  bad  language,  bad 
temper  ;  and,  by  contrast,  of  the  new. 

25.  From  Zech  8 1*^.  '  How  monstrous  that 
members  of  the  same  body  should  deceive  one 
another  !  and  members  of  Christ  !  '  26.  From 
Ps  4  *.  '  Anger  may  be  righteous,  but  beware 
of  nursing  it.'  27.  Give  place  to  means  '  give 
him  an  opening.'  28.  '  Instead  of  robbing 
others,  earn  something  to  share  with  others." 

29.  Corrupt  communication]  bad  language 
of  any  kind.  To  the  use  of  edifying]  RV  '  for 
edifying  as  the  need  may  be,'  i.e.  for  building 
up  the  social  fabric  as  occasion  may  require, 
that  it  may  benefit  them  that  hear.  30.  '  The 
Spirit,  who  sealed  us  as  His  own,  is  pained 
when  our  tongues  rebel.'  32.  '  The  merciful- 
ness of  God  forbids  our  being  unmerciful  to 
our  brethren  :  become  kind.' 

CHAPTER  5 

The  old  Darkness  and  new  Light. 
Rules  for  the  Married 

I,  2.  In  close  connexion  with  what  precedes. 
'  It  is  the  mark  of  beloved  children  to  become 
imitators  of  a  loving  Father  ;  practise  the 
self-sacrifice  of  Christ,  which  shows  how  He 
loved  us  and  the  Father.' 

3-14.  Special  exhortation  against  covetous- 
ness  and  impurity. 

3.  But]  "The  five  sins  mentioned  in  425-32 
are  to  be  put  away  ;  these  two  are  not  even 
to  be  mentioned  :  '  saints  '  are  set  apart  from 
such  subjects,  being  consecrated  to  God.  4.  '  Do 
not  get  near  these  topics  for  the  sake  of  being 
amusing.'  '  Thanksgiving '  is  not  an  obvious 
contrast  to  '  jesting,'  but  in  Gk.  there  is  an 
alliteration  ;  not  //;oughtlessness,  but  thanks- 
giving. Convenient]  RV 'befitting.'  5.  '  Those 
who  do  these  things  can  have  no  inheritance 
in  Christ's  kingdom.'  6.  '  Sophists  tell  you 
that  these  things  are  "  natural,"  "  venial," 
"peccadillos."  It  is  just  these  sins  which 
incur  God's  wrath.' 

7,  8.  '  Do  not  return  to  your  old  darkness 
(4 18)  ;  ye  are  now  light  to  illuminate  others.' 

9.  Fruit  of  the  Spirit]  This  comes  from 
Gal 5 22:  'fruit  of  the  light'  is  right  here 
(RV).  10.  '  Those  who  walk  as  children  of 
light  fiaid  out  by  experience  what  God's  will 
is  :  light  is  always  a  test.'  11.  Light  has 
'  fruit '  (v.  9),  but  darkness  has  only  '  fruitless 
works'  :  cp.  Gal 5 1^- 22.  Rather  reprove 
theni]  '  rather  even  expose  them,'  as  light  is 
sure  to  do.  '  Reprove  them '  is  hardly  con- 
sistent with  the  context.  In  Jn  3  20  '  reproved  ' 
should  be  'exposed'  :  cp.  1  Cor  1424.  Things 
so  shameful  ought  not  to  be  passed  over. 

13.   '  But  all  things  when  they  are  exposed 


964 


I 


5.  14 


EPHESIANS 


6.9 


by  the  light  are  made  manifest  ;  for  whatso- 
ever is  made  manifest  is  light.'  Light  turns 
darkness  into  light  :  this  had  happened  to  his 
readers  (v.  8).  14.  He  saith]  rather,  '  it  saith  ' 
=  'it  is  said.'  The  quotation  is  probably 
from  a  Christian  hymn,  based  on  IsaGO^  :  cp. 
1  Tim  3 16. 

15-21.  '  Be  most  careful  then  in  conduct. 
Beware  of  folly  ;  in  particular  of  drunkenness. 
Prefer  spiritual  exaltation  and  an  orderly  life, 
each  in  his  own  place.' 

15.  Then  or  'therefore'  marks  the  return 
to  exhortation,  and  ■walk  refers  back  to  vv. 
2,  8.  RV  is  everywhere  better  :  '  Look  there- 
fore carefully  how  ye  walk,  not  as  unwise,  but 
as  wise.'  16.  Redeeming]  'buying  up  for 
yourselves  the  opportunity.'  17.  'Wherefore 
do  not  show  yourselves  fools,  but  understand.' 

18.  Excess]  RV  '  riot '  (as  Tit  16  1  Pet  4*), 
and  'riotous  living'  (LklS^S).  With  the 
Spirit]  RM  '  in  spirit '  ;  '  not  your  bodies,  but 
your  souls  should  be  full.'  19.  The  primitive 
Church  was  emphatically  a  Church  of  enthu- 
siasm and  spiritual  emotion  (Ac  2  ■^3-47  g  8  16-5; 
cp.  Col 3 16).  21.  But  everything  is  to  'be 
done  decently  and  in  order '  :  enthusiasm  is 
not  to  lead  to  anarchy.  St.  Paul  ceaselessly 
preaches  '  submission '  or  '  subjection '  to 
authority  (Ro  131-7  1  Cor  14 32, 34  iQie  Tit3i). 

22-33.  First  illustration  of  orderly  subor- 
dination ;  the  relation  between  wives  and 
husbands. 

22.  As  unto  the  Lord]  with  '  the  fear  of 
Christ'  (v.  21)  as  their  motive.  23.  Once 
more  (3i^)  a  mystical  connexion  between 
heavenly  and  earthly  relationships  is  traced. 
The  forethought  of  the  head  preserves  the 
body  :  control  implies  obligation  to  protect. 

24.  Accepting  protection  implies  subm.ission. 
25-33.   The  love  of  husbands  to  their  wives 

corresponds  to  Christ's  love  to  His  Church, 
for  which  He  sacrificed  Himself,  to  hallow  it, 
to  present  it  to  Himself,  and  to  krej)  it  holy. 
Christ  and  the  Church  are  one  in  body  ;  hus- 
band and  wife  are  one  in  body  ;  hence  Christ's 
love  for  His  Church  is  that  of  husband  for 
bride.  Of  marriage  it  is  wonderfully  said 
that  two  become  one.  This  is  true  of  Christ 
and  the  Church.  And  as  the  Church  responds 
to  Christ's  love  with  reverential  fear,  so  let 
the  wife  have  reverential  fear  of  her  husband. 

25.  Government  must  be  unselfish — for  the 
good  of  the  governed  :  cp.  v.  2.  26.  Washing 
of  water]  Christian  baptism,  with  perhaps  a 
reference  to  the  bride's  bath  before  marriage. 

By  the  word]  RV  '  with  the  word,'  to  be 
taken  with  '  the  washing  of  water '  and  mean- 
ing the  baptismal  formula.  27.  '  That  He 
might  Himself  to  Himself  present  the  Church 
all-glorious':  cp.  2 Cor  11 2,  of  St.  Paul's  pre- 
senting the  Corinthian  Church  to  Christ. 

28.  RV  '  Even  so  ought  husbands  also  to 


love  their  own  wives  as  [being]  their  own 
bodies.'  Not  '  as  much  as,'  or  '  as  if  they 
were  ' :  their  wives  are  their  own  bodies. 

29.  The  change  from  '  body  '  to  '  flesh'  pre- 
pares for  what  is  coming.  30.  '  Christ  cher- 
ishes the  Church,  because  its  members  are  His.' 
The  words  '  of  His  flesh  and  of  His  bones ' 
are  an  interpolation  from  Gn'2-^. 

32.  This  is  a  great  mystery]  RV  '  This 
mystery  is  great.'  'It  has  a  deep,  wide-reach- 
ing meaning ;  but  I  am  employing  it  of  Christ 
and  the  Church.'  33.  Reverence]  RV  '  fear.' 
He  returns  to  the  motive  stated  at  the  outset, 
'  the  fear  of  Christ'  (v.  21).  Reverential  fear, 
as  that  of  the  Church  to  her  Lord,  is  meant. 
Subjection  without  reverence  would  be  servile. 

CHAPTER  6 

Rules  foe  the  Family.     The  Chkistian's 
Armour 

1-4.  Second  illustration  of  orderly  subor- 
dination :  the  relation  between  children  and 
parents. 

I.  As  before,  those  who  have  to  obey  and 
submit  are  taken  first.  Cp.  in  the  Lord 
here  with  '  unto  the  Lord '  (5  22)  and  '  unto 
Christ '  (v.  5).  Right]  both  nature  and  the 
express  Law  of  God  enjoin  it.  2.  With  pro- 
mise] the  first  which  is  accompanied  with  a 
promise  :  cp.  '  vnth  the  word '  (5  ^6).  We 
might  punctuate,  '  the  first  commandment, 
with  promise  that  it  may  be  well,'  etc.  3.  On 
the  other  hand,  disobedience  to  parents  is 
very  heinous  (Ro  l^o  2Tim32).  4.  And]  'Pa- 
rents also  have  their  obligations  :  they  must  (1) 
not  be  unreasonable  in  their  demands  on  their 
children  ;  (2)  give  godly  discipline.'  He  says 
'  fathers,'  because  mothers  would  be  less  likely 
to  be  too  severe  or  to  control  the  education. 

Nurture]  RV '  chastening'  (Hebl25,7,s,n). 
in  2  Tim  3 16,  '  instruction.'  Of  the  Lord  means 
'such  as  God  would  provide':  cp. '  of  God,'  v. 11. 

5-9.  Third  illustration  :  the  relation  be- 
tween servants  and  masters. 

5.  Servants]  All  servants  then  were  slaves  ; 
and  St.  Paul  says  '  slaves '  :  '  be  obedient  to  ' 
might  be  '  obey,'  as  in  v.  1  :  '  according  to  the 
flesh  '  =  earthly.  With  fear  and  trembling] 
'  very  anxious  to  do  well '  :  it  does  not  imply 
a  harsh  master  (2  Cor  7  is  Phil  2 12).  6.  Chris- 
tianity gives  no  sanction  to  rebellion  :  it  elevates 
and  intensifies  the  duty  of  obedience.  From 
the  heart]  These  words  may  be  taken  with 
what  follows  ;  '  from  the  soul  with  good-will 
doing  service.'  7.  '  Obedience  must  be  not 
only  thorough,  but  hearty  :  temper  is  all- 
important.'  8.  '  Good  conduct,  whether  of 
slave  or  lord,  will  be  fully  requited  by  Him 
who  is  Lord  of  both.'  9.  '  Masters,  like  hus- 
bands and  parents,  have  tlieii-  obligations  ; 
they  also  must  have  good-temper  and  good- 
will, and  be  God-fearing.'     St.  Paul  does  not 


965 


6.10 


EPHESIANS 


6.  24 


tell  them  to  emancipate  their  slaves ;  but  he 
tells  them  to  love  them  as  brethren  (Philemon 
V.  16).  This  does  not  free  the  slave,  but  it 
frees  slavery  of  its  evils. 

10-20.  The  final  charge  is,  '  Be  strong,  and 
find  your  strength  in  the  Lord.  Be  armed 
with  God's  armour  ;  for  we  have  to  contend, 
not  with  earthly  foes,  but  with  spiritual 
powers  of  great  wickedness.  Watch  and  pray 
ceaselessly  for  the  whole  Church  and  for  me, 
that  I  may  be  a  courageous  missionary,  even 
in  prison.' 

10.  My  brethren]  an  insertion  from  Phil 
31;  cp.  2  Cor  13  ^  Phil  3 1  2  Th  3 1.  Be  strong-] 
lit.  'be  strengthened'  (Ro420).  n.  Whole 
armour]  '  Nothing  must  be  missing  of  the  full 
provision  which  God  makes  for  our  safety.' 
St.  Paul  omits  the  spear  or  pike  and  the 
greaves  of  the  Roman  soldier,  yet  mentions 
being  girded  and  shod,  which  most  men  are, 
but  soldiers  must  be.  I2.  The  malignant 
powers,  by  which  the  wiles  or  stratagems  of 
the  devil  are  carried  out,  are  specified.  The 
passage  is  tinged  by  Jewish  ideas  about  the 
unseen  world.  The  rulers  of  the  darkness  of 
this  world]  This  fairly  represents  the  Gk., 
which  means  powers  of  darkness,  that  are 
rulers  of  this  world,  but  not  rulers  of  the 
universe:  cp.  1 21  3^0  Coll  i^^  2i5.  In  the 
heavenly  places  (RV)]  '  In  the  spiritual  world '  : 
but  the  Jews  contemplated  the  possibility  of 
evil  in  some  of  their  seven  heavens. 

13.  '  Against  these  superhuman  powers  no- 
thing less  than  the  whole  armour  of  God  will 
suflice  ;  but  with  that  the  Christian  warrior 
is  safe.'  14.  The  Septuagint  of  Isall^  and 
591'''  is  in  the  Apostle's  mind:  there  it  is  Je- 
hovah who  wears  the  panoply.  15.  The  pre- 
paration] '  readiness '  to  preach  the  good- 
tidings  of  peace  :  cp.  Isa  52  7.  The  Christian 
warrior  fights  to  bring  peace.  16.  '  Fire-tipt 
darts'  is  a  metaphor  for  fierce  temptations 
coming  from  the  outside.  Faith  in  God  is  a 
sure  protection  against  them.  17.  Take] 
'  Receive  from  God  who  supplies  the  panoply, 
and  whose  Spirit  furnishes  the  sword,  the 
helmet  that  is  salvation.'  He  is  thinking  of 
Isa  114:  cp.  Heb4i2.  18.  The  thought  of 
the    sword    furnished    by    the   Spirit,    'who 


maketh  intercession  for  us '  (Ro  8  26),  naturally 
leads  on  to  the  thought  of  prayer :  '  receive 
this  sword,  with  all  prayer  and  supplication 
praying  in  every  season  (IThS^'^)  in  the 
Spirit.'  Watching]  as  a  trusty  warrior  should 
(Lk2136).  19.  For  me]  RV  'on  my  behalf,' 
there  being  a  change  of  preposition  in  the 
Gk. :  cp.  Col  4  2, 3.  Boldly]  This  probably  be- 
longs to  what  follows,  as  RV  '  that  utterance 
may  be  given  unto  me  in  opening  my  mouth, 
to  make  known  with  boldness,'  etc.  '  Pray 
that  all  this  may  be  granted  to  me.'  20.  Am 
an  ambassador  in  bonds]  RV  '  in  chains  ' :  mg. 
'  in  a  chain.'  The  singular  may  refer  to  the 
coupling-chain  by  which  he  could  be  attached 
to  the  soldier  that  guarded  him.  In  any  case, 
that  an  ambassador,  whose  person  was  invio- 
late, should  be  chained,  was  a  paradox. 

21,  22.  The  Mission  of  Tychicus :  almost 
verbatim  as  Col  4  7- 8.  Tychicus  is  the  bearer 
of  both  letters,  and  of  that  to  Philemon  :  cp. 
Ac '20  4  2  Tim  4 12  Tit  3 12.  By  long  service  he 
well  earned  the  title  of  '  faithful  minister. ' 

23,  24.   Concluding  Benediction. 

Note  the  omission  of  all  personal  saluta- 
tions and  similar  details,  of  which  we  have 
eight  vv.  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Colossians. 
This  is  a  circular  letter  to  several  Churches, 
and  hence  no  individuals  are  mentioned.  Note 
also  the  change  to  the  third  person,  '  to  the 
brethren  .  .  all  them  that  love  our  Lord.'  In 
Colossians,  as  elsewhere,  he  says  '  you.'  In 
two  other  points  this  benediction  differs  from 
that  in  other  letters.  It  is  twofold,  not  single  ; 
Peace  be  to,  Grace  be  -with  ;  and  '  Peace '  is 
placed  before,  not  after  '  Grace.'  Contrast 
Rol7  lCorl3  2Corl2Gall3  C0II2,  etc.  An 
imitator  would  have  copied  other  Epistles. 

24.  Sincerity]  It  is  doubtful  whether  the 
Gk.  can  mean  this  ;  better,  '  incorruption ' 
( 1  Cor  1 5  42, 50, 53, 54)  or  '  incorruptibility. '  It  is 
those  who  love  with  an  imperishable  love  that 
are  meant :  there  must  be  neither  decrease 
nor  decay.  '  Those  who  were  "  chosen  in  Him 
before  the  foundation  of  the  world"  (1^)  re- 
tain their  love  for  Him  undiminished  after 
the  world  itself  has  passed  away.' 

A  worthy  conclusion  to  this  immortal 
Epistle  1 


9B6 


PHILIPPIANS 


INTRODUCTION 


I.  Writer  and  Readers.  The  community 
of  '  the  saints  in  Christ  Jesus '  at  Philippi  had 
existed  ten  years  or  more  when  this  letter 
was  addressed  to  them,  in  61  or  62  a.d.  It 
was  founded  by  the  two  '  servants  of  Christ 
Jesus '  whose  names  head  the  letter,  along  with 
St.  Silas  (Silvanus,  IThli,  etc.),  St.  Paul's 
colleague  on  the  second  of  his  great  missionary 
journeys  (49-53  a.d.  :  see  Ac  153*5-18-1). 

The  graphic  story  of  the  coming  of  the  gospel 
to  Philippi  in  Ac  1 6  is  from  the  pen  of  an  eye- 
witness ;  from  v.  10  to  v.  16  the  narrative  runs 
in  the  first  person  plural,  which  reappears  in 
20^'^  at  a  point  six  years  later,  when  St.  Luke, 
presumably,  re-joined  the  Apostle  at  Philippi. 

Philippi  (in  form  a  Gk.  plural) — earlier 
Crenides — bore  the  name  of  Philip,  father  of 
Alexander  the  Great,  who  gave  the  place  im- 
portance. It  guarded  the  eastern  frontier  of 
Macedonia,  and  commanded  the  pass  leading 
from  the  interior  plains  to  the  ^gean  Sea  at 
Neapolis  (AcUi^i).  This  was  the  first  station 
for  a  traveller  from  the  E.  along  the  Via 
Egnatia,  the  Roman  highway  across  the  Balkan 
peninsula ;  here  St.  Paul  first  halted  in  his 
invasion  of  Europe,  and  the  Philippian  Church 
was  the  earliest  fruit  of  his  labours  in  our 
continent.  The  town  had  given  its  name  to 
the  famous  battle,  fought  in  42  B.C.,  in  which 
Antony  and  Octavian  crushed  the  Republicans 
of  Rome  under  Brutus  and  Cassius.  In  com- 
memoration of  that  victory  Philippi  was  raised 
to  the  rank  of  a  military  '  colony,'  a  body  of 
discharged  soldiers  being  settled  there.  The 
colonists  were  free  citizens,  enjoying  exemp- 
tion from  poll-tax  and  tribute,  and  the  right 
of  holding  the  land  in  full  ownership.  Such 
communities  were  regarded  as  detached  por- 
tions of  the  Roman  State,  and  took  no  little 
pride  in  their  connexion  with  the  imperial 
city.  The  Philippian  officials  are  designated, 
in  Roman  style,  '  praetors  '  and  '  lictors '  in 
Ac  1 6  ( A V  '  magistrates  '  and  '  Serjeants  ')  ; 
they  beat  the  prisoners  with  the  Roman  '  rods.' 
'  Being  Romans,'  the  people  of  Philippi  resent 
the  introduction  of  '  unlawful '  Jewish  '  cus- 
toms '  (Ac  1 6  "-^0,  '-'1).  Hence  also  the  emphasis 
and  effect  with  which  the  Apostle  and  his  com- 
panion assert  here  their  Roman  citizenship. 
Though  but  a  fraction  of  the  Church  may  have 
belonged  to  the  privileged  class  holding  the 
Italian  franchise,  the  civil  status  of  the  '  colony ' 
affected  all  its  inhabitants  ;  the  meanest  Philip- 


967 


plan  was  sensible  of  the  dignity  of  his  city. 
Twice  in  this  letter  St.  Paul  describes  the 
Christian  status  as  a  'citizenship'  (127320; 
see  RV,  and  mg.).  The  '  colonial '  sentiment 
of  Philippi  doubtless  heightened  the  interest 
with  which  the  readers  watched  the  course  of 
their  Apostle's  trial  and  entered  into  his  ex- 
periences at  Rome. 

Behind  the  offended  civic  pride  of  Philippi 
there  lay  the  vulgar  motive  of  '  gain '  (Ac  16^^), 
which  in  the  first  instance  awakened  hostility 
to  the  Christian  teaching  in  this  place.  Wherever 
the  gospel  won  heathen  converts,  it  injured  the 
vested  interests  of  paganism.  In  Philippi  St. 
Paul  silenced  a  soothsaying  slave-girl,  and 
her  masters,  seeing  their  unholy  property 
spoilt,  dragged  the  offenders  before  the 
rulers  and  roused  the  populace  against  them. 
The  indignities  which  SS.  Paul  and  Silas  suf- 
fered under  this  attack  (cp.  1  Th  2  ^  with  Ac  16), 
were  the  beginning  of  a  persecution  that  has 
continued  to  the  time  of  writing ;  in  such 
experience  the  Church  is  identified  with  its 
Apostle  :  see  Phil  1 5, 29, 30  2  is,  and  cp.  2  Cor  8 1'2. 
From  the  first  it  has  had  to  '  struggle  for  the 
faith  of  the  gospel '  (1  27). 

Judaism  counted  for  little  in  Philippi.  In- 
stead of  a  synagogue,  there  was  only  aproseucha 
('  praying-place  ') — probably  a  retired  open- 
au-  resort — by  the  river-banks  outside  the  town, 
where  the  missionaries  found  a  company  of 
women  assembled  on  the  sabbath  (Ac  1613). 
Out  of  this  band  the  first  Christian  disciple, 
Lydia  of  Thyatira,  was  gained,  and  probably 
the  women  named  in  42,3  (gge  note).  The 
circle,  it  may  be  presumed,  was  Jewish  only 
in  part.  St.  Paul  gathered  his  converts  and 
helpers  largely  from  the  constituency  of  intel- 
ligent and  pious  Gentiles  (more  often  women 
than  men)  who  frequented  Jewish  worship  as 
'  proselytes  '  or  '  fearers  of  God,'  and  had  been 
grounded  in  the  OT.  Women  took  a  leading 
part  in  the  Philippian  Church  at  the  outset ; 
Macedonia  was  distinguished  in  Greek  society 
by  the  greater  freedom  and  influence  allowed 
to  their  sex. 

Since  the  events  of  Ac  16  and  17,  St.  Paul  had 
twice  traversed  Macedonia,  and  accordingly 
visited  Philippi :  first  on  his  way  from  Ephesus, 
through  Troas,  to  Corinth  toward  the  end  of 
the  Third  Missionary  Tour  in  the  spring  of 
the  year  56  (1  Corl6''') ;  and  again  on  leaving 
Corinth  in  the  following  spring,  when  he  kept 


INTRO. 


PHILIPPIANS 


INTRO. 


Easter  there  (Ac  20 1-6).  From  2  Cor  1  s-n  2 12, 13 
74-12  yfQ  gather  that  the  Apostle  was  at  the 
period  of  the  former  of  these  two  visits  in 
great  trouble,  suffering  from  prostrating  bodily 
sickness  and  from  anxiety  about  the  Corinthian 
and  (probably)  the  Galatian  Churches,  whose 
loyalty  at  that  juncture  hung  in  doubt :  see 
Gall 6-9  31.4-20  52.  cp.  2 Cor  11 28.  Arriving 
in  such  a  plight  in  Macedonia,  Philippi  would 
be  his  harbour  of  refuge  ;  there,  we  imagine, 
he  passed  the  crisis  of  his  illness,  under  St. 
Luke's  skilful  care  (see  par.  2  above).  These 
intervening  visits,  though  not  recalled  in  the 
Epistle,  help  to  account  for  the  intimacy  it 
reveals  between  writer  and  readers  ;  they  serve 
to  justify  the  words  of  1^  implying  a  con- 
tinuous intercourse,  and  give  a  fuller  meaning 
to  the  language  of  2 1,  which  speaks  of  mutual 
'  consolation  '  and  '  compassions.' 

Although '  Timothy '  figures  along  with '  Paul ' 
in  the  Address — for  the  former  is  with  the 
Apostle  at  the  time  of  writing  and  is  well 
known  to  the  readers  (2  22),  and  therefore  shares 
in  the  Salutation — the  letter  proceeds  from 
St.  Paul  alone,  running  in  the  first  person 
singular  throughout  (otherwise  than  in  1  Th 
and  2  Cor  1-7)  ;  St.  Timothy  is  referred  to  in 
the  course  of  the  letter  (219-23),  just  like 
Epaphroditus,  in  the  third  person. 

The  writer  is  a  prisoner  awaiting  trial,  and 
at  Rome  ;  he  is  in  sight  of  the  end  of  his  cap- 
tivity there,  which  extended  over  two  years 
(62  A.D.  :  see  Ac2830,3i).  His  'appeal  to 
Caesar'  is  at  last  to  be  decided  (I20  223,24). 
The  Apostle  has  been  long  enough  in  Rome, 
and  free  enough  despite  his  'bonds'  (as  Ac 
2815,16,30,31  intimates),  to  make  his  influence 
widely  felt  in  various  directions  (112-16  422). 
If  '  in  the  prsetorium  '  (1 13  ;  see  note)  means 
'  amongst  the  praetorian  troops,'  the  impression 
made  on  the  army  is  accounted  for  by  the  suc- 
cession of  guards  put  in  charge  of  the  prisoner 
at  his  lodging  ;  if  it  means,  as  Sir  W.  M.  Ramsay 
suggests,  'in  the  praetorian  court,'  then  the 
judicial  trial  is  proceeding,  and  the  accused 
has  been  removed  to  prison-quarters. 

2.  Occasion  of  the  Letter.  Beyond  others, 
the  Philippians  were  grateful  and  devoted  to 
the  Apostle  Paul  (l^  4i5).  Lydia's  insistent 
hospitality  at  the  beginning  (AclGis)  was 
typical  of  this  Church's  character:  cp.  2 Cor 
81-4.  Twice  it  had  sent  aid  to  St.  Paiil  in 
Thessalonica  on  his  first  departure,  and  subse- 
quently when  he  left  Macedonia  for  Achaia  ; 
now  their  care  for  him  has  '  blossomed  anew  '  ; 
Epaphroditus  had  been  dispatched  with  a  sum 
of  money  for  his  necessities,  under  instructions 
to  stay  and  assist  the  Apostle  in  Rome  (225,30 
4 10-18).  The  good  man  fell  dangerously  ill 
upon  his  errand,  and  after  his  recovery  is  long- 
ing for  home  ;  St.  Paul  sends  him  back  there- 
fore, and  this  letter  with  hun.     Epaphroditus 


brought  tidings  from  the  Philippians  in  con- 
veying their  gift ;  and  further  communications 
had  taken  place  since  his  arrival,  for  the  Philip- 
pians have  heard  of  the  illness  of  their  deputy 
and  he  is  informed  of  their  grief  over  this 
(2  26).  They  seem  to  have  written  quite  re- 
cently to  St.  Paul,  expressing  their  anxiety 
about  his  trial,  betraying  also — to  judge  from 
the  tone  of  his  reply — some  despondency  under 
the  protracted  aflflictions  falling  on  themselves, 
and  some  concern  about  the  manner  in  which 
their  present  had  been  received  :  see  on  4 10. 
We  must  bear  in  mind  that  the  extant  Epistles 
are  extracts  from  a  larger  correspondence  ;  to 
read  them  properly,  we  need  to  hear  the  other 
side  and  to  reproduce  by  imagination,  between 
the  lines,  the  messages  and  requests  to  which 
the  writer  is  replying. 

There  was  no  error  of  doctrine,  no  grave 
faultiness  of  life  to  reprove  in  this  Church — 
only  a  certain  want  of  harmony  amongst  its 
leading  members  (42,3)  .  -the  removal  of  this 
defect  will  'fill  up'  the  Apostle's  'joy'  (22-5). 
The  prayer  of  1 9, 10  and  the  exhortation  of 
48  (see  notes)  hint  at  a  deficiency  in  moral 
enlightenment  and  appreciation,  such  as  not 
unfrequently  accompanies  religious  zeal  and 
lively  affections.  The  warning  against  Jewish 
intriguers  in  .3  2-11  was  prompted  by  the  writer's 
present  experience  and  by  the  general  peril 
from  this  cause,  rather  than  by  any  Judaising 
tendency  on  the  part  of  the  readers :  see 
on  31^ 

3.  Contents  of  the  Letter.  The  Epistle  to 
the  Philippians  was  strictly  a  letter,  the  un- 
constrained outflow  of  St.  Paul's  heart.  Hence 
its  delightful  desultoriness.  It  has  no  burning 
controversy,  no  absorbing  doctrinal  theme,  no 
difficult  moral  problems  to  deal  with.  The 
recent  communications  from  Philippi  supply 
the  starting-point,  and  are  glanced  at  as  occa- 
sion serves  ;  but  they  scarcely  control  the  com- 
position. The  Epistle  does  not  admit  therefore 
of  formal  analysis  ;  its  links  of  association  are 
those  of  feeling  and  of  memory,  not  of  logic. 
The  opening  phrase  of  c.  3  divides  the  writing 
into  its  two  parts — principal  (chs.  1,  2)  and 
supplementary  (chs.  3,  4).  The  latter  section 
runs,  beyond  the  writer's  intention,  to  a  length 
equalling  that  of  the  former  :  the  repetition 
of  the  '  Finally '  of  3i  in  4^  indicates  that  his 
thought  has  made  an  excursion. 

The  division  of  the  first  and  main  half  of 
the  letter  falls  at  v.  26  of  c.  1.  After  the  pre- 
fatory thanksgiving  and  prayer  (13-ii),  the 
Apostle  begins  by  reassuring  the  Philippians 
about  his  own  situation  ,(vv.  12-26)  ;  with  v. 
27  he  turns  from  himself  to  them,  exhorting 
them  to  the  behaviour  that  will  cheer  him,  and 
ensure  their  victory  in  the  common  conflict. 
The  above  three  divisions — 13-ii  112-26  127_ 
2 18 — are  linked  by  the  thought  of  '  the  gospel,' 


968 


INTRO. 


PHILIPPIANS 


INTROo 


■which  is  the  ground  of  union  between  writer 
and  readers  :  see  1 5, 12, 27  2 16   ('  word  of  life '). 

Having  told  the  Philippians  what  they  wish 
to  hear  about  him  (1  ^^■^),  and  what  he  wishes 
to  see  in  them  (127-218),  the  Apostle  further 
states  what  he  intends  to  do  for  them,  by  send- 
ing Epaphi-oditus,  and  then  Timothy,  hoping 
himself  to  come  ere  long,  so  that  their  hearts 
and  his  may  be  mutually  refreshed  (2  iy-30). 

At  31  the  Epistle  seems  to  be  concluding. 
Had  the  writer  proceeded  at  once  from  this 
point  to  c.  4,  32-21  would  never  have  been 
missed.  This  long  passage  is  an  unpremedi- 
tated outburst — by  a  few  critics  mistakenly 
regarded  as  an  editorial  interpolation  from 
another  letter,  by  others  attributed  to  some 
provocation  that  interrupted  the  Apostle  in 
the  act  of  writing.  Three  distinct  classes  of 
errorists  appear  to  be  stigmatised  in  c.  3 — the 
first  and  last  being  of  a  virulent  type.  Vv.  2,  3 
denounce  St.  Paul's  old  enemies,  the  zealots 
for  Jewish  Law  ;  vv.  17-21  combat  the  Gen- 
tile tendency  to  sensual  licence.  The  common 
reference  to  the  writer's  personal  example 
binds  these  denunciatory  paragraphs  together 
(see  also  4  9)  :  against  legalist  pretensions  he 
sets  forth  his  experience  as  a  Jewish  Christian 
believer  (vv.  4-11)  ;  the  sensualists  are  shamed 
by  the  purity  and  loftiness  of  the  Christian 
life  exhibited  in  himself  and  those  like-minded 
(vv.  17-21).  The  bearing  of  the  intervening 
paragraph  (vv.  12-16)  is  more  difficult  to  seize  : 
the  Judaists  are,  seemingly,  forgotten,  the 
Antinomians  not  yet  in  sight  ;  the  Apostle  at 
this  point  is  contrasting  himself  with  pre- 
tenders to  perfection,  with  Christians  who 
deem  themselves  already  at  the  goal,  denying 
the  future  resurrection  (v.  11),  and  renouncing 
the  aspirations  after  the  heavenly  state  that 
were  so  strongly  cherished  by  St.  Paul  :  see  on 
vv.  3,  12,  15.  Nothing  could  show  more  affiect- 
ingly  the  Apostle's  deep  communion  with  the 
readers  and  the  ascendency  of  his  character, 
than  this  frank  unlocking  of  his  heart  to  them 
and  the  use  he  makes  for  their  benefit  of  his 
most  sacred  experiences.  So  the  after-thought 
forms  the  most  precious  part  of  this  Epistle. 

The  actual  conclusion  in  c.  4  consists  of  a 
brief  homily,  partly  personal,  partly  general  in 
scope  (vv.  4-9) ;  followed  by  an  acknowledg- 
ment of  the  Philippian  bounty  (vv.  10-20) 
— probably  the  chief  subject  in  the  writer's 
mind  when  he  intended  finishing  the  letter  at 
31  ;  and  the  final  good  wishes  (vv.  21-23). 
The  scheme  of  the  Epistle  on  which  this  ex- 
position is  based  is  as  follows  : — 

§  1.  Address  and  Salutation  (l^-^). 
I.  Act  of  Praise  and  Prayer. 

§  2.  Thanksgiving  for  Fellowship  in  the 
Grospel  (3-8).  §  3.  Prayer  for  the  perfecting 
of  Love  in  Knowledge  (9-11). 


II.  About  Paul's  Affairs. 
§  4.   The  Gospel  furthered  by  his  Troubles 
(12-18'^).      §  5.  The  Twofold  Issue  confront- 
ing him  (18'^-26). 

III.  How  Paul's  Comrades  may  support 
Him. 
§  6.  By  brave  Loyalty  in  face  of  Persecu- 
tion (27-30).  §  7.  By  a  self-effacing  Love  to 
each  other,  fashioned  after  that  of  Christ 
(21-11).  §  8.  By  working  out  in  his  Absence 
their  Salvation,  so  that  his  Ministry  may  be 
crowned  with  Joy  (12-18). 

IV.  The  Approaching  Yisits. 
§  9.  The  speedy  Coming  of  Timothy — pro- 
bably of  Paul  himself  after  a  while  (19-24). 
§  10.  The  immediate  Return  of  Epaphroditus 
(25-30). 

V.  Interjected  Warnings. 

§  11.  St.  Paul  and  his  Jewish  Rivals  (31-6). 
§  12.  Losing  all,  to  win  Christ  (7-11).  §  13. 
The  Christian  Goal  (12-16).  §14.  The  earth- 
ward and  the  heavenward-bent  Mind  (17-21). 

VI.  Closing  Exhortations. 

§  15.  Personal  Differences  in  the  Church 
(41-a).  §  16.  The  Christian  Temper  (4-7). 
§  17.  The  Largeness  of  Christian  Ethics  (8,  9). 

VII.  Acknowledgment  op  the  Contribu- 
tion  FROM  PhILIPPI. 

§  18.  A  Bounty  welcome  to  the  Apostle, 
notwithstanding  his  Independence  (10-16). 
§  19.  St.  Paul's  Reflexions  upon  the  Gift 
(17-20).  §  20.  Salutations  from  Rome,  and 
Benediction  (21-23). 

4.  Character  of  the  Letter,  and  its  place 
among-  St.  Paul's  Writings.  This  Epistle  is 
a  letter  of  friendship,  full  of  affection,  confi- 
dence, good  counsel  and  good  cheer.  It  is 
the  happiest  of  St.  Paul's  writings,  for  the 
Philippians  were  the  dearest  of  his  children  in 
the  faith :  '  Summa  epistolae,'  writes  Bengel, 
'  Gaudeo,  gaudete  '  (One  word  sums  up  the 
Epistle  :  I  rejoice  ;  do  you  rejoice  !  ).  '  From 
the  first  day  until  now '  the  communion  be- 
tween the  writer  and  his  '  beloved  and  longed- 
for  '  has  been  unbroken  and  unclouded. 

The  letter  is,  therefore,  one  of  self -revela- 
tion ;  it  is  a  classic  of  spiritual  autobiography. 
St.  Paul  writes  here  at  his  ease  ;  he  makes 
those  spontaneous  disclosures  of  the  inner  self 
which  only  the  tenderest  sympathy  can  elicit. 
While  2  Corinthians  displays  the  agitations 
which  rent  the  Apostle's  heart  in  the  crucial 
conflict  of  his  ministry,  Philippians  reveals  the 
spring  of  his  inward  peace  and  strength.  It 
admits  us  to  St.  Paul's  prison  meditations  and 
communings  with  his  Master.  We  watch  his 
spirit  ripening  thi-ough  the  autumn  hours  when 
patience  fulfilled  in  him  its  perfect  work.  This 
Epistle  holds  a  cardinal  place  in  the  history  of 


969 


INTRO. 


PHILIPPIANS 


1.1 


St.  Paul's  character,  such  as  Galatians  holds  in     and  2  Corinthians,  Galatians)  as  amongst  the 


the  history  of  his  doctrine.  It  exhibits  an  un- 
surpassed picture  of  selfless  devotion,  manly 
fortitude,  and  joyous  Christian  hope  ;  well 
may  the  writer  say,  '  I  can  do  all  things  in 
Him  that  enables  me  ! ' 

While  kindred  in  language  and  thought  to 
the  other  Letters  of  the  First  Roman  Captivity 
— Ephesians,Colossians,andPhilemon — Philip- 
pians  stands  somewhat  apart  from  these  three ; 
the  question  of  priority  as  between  it  and  them 
is  disputed.  From  the  fact  that  it  was  written 
toward  the  close  of  the  imprisonment  when 
the  Apostle  had  been  for  a  considerable  time 
in  Rome  (see  last  par.  of  I  above),  and  from 
other  indications,  we  judge  that  Philippians 
was  the  latest  of  the  group.  The  opening 
prayer  recalls  those  of  Ephesians  and  Colos- 
sians,  which  also  turn  on  the  connexion  of 
knoidedge  and  love;  vv.  12-16  of  ch.  3  (see 
notes)  are  best  understood  as  alluding  to 
notions  kindred  to  the  Colossian  error.  The 
Christological  passage  of  Phil  2  ^-i^  comes  from 
a  mind  full  of  the  gi-and  conception  of  the 
glory  of  Christ  that  St.  Paul  has  developed  in 
Colossians.  This  paragraph,  and  the  sentence 
concerning  Justification  by  Faith  in  3  9,  go  to 
show  that  the  characteristic  doctrines  of  St. 
Paul's  Epistles  were  as  far  as  possible  from 
being  abstract  theorems  or  passing  phases  of 
thought  due  to  controversial  exigencies.  The 
ideas  they  express  present  themselves  in  a 
spontaneous,  unstudied  fashion  ;  for  they  be- 
longed to  the  staple  of  the  writer's  thought, 
and  were  the  outcome  of  his  vital  experience 
of  salvation  through  Chi'ist. 

C.  3  reminds  us  rather  of  the  Letters  of  the 
Second  Group:  vv.  14,  17, 18,  21  of  1  Cor;  vv. 
4-6  of  2 Cor;  vv.  2,  16  of  Gal;  and,  above  all, 
vv.  9-1 1  of  Ro.  It  is  for  this  reason  chiefly 
that  some  leading  scholars  place  Philippians 
first  in  the  Third  Group  of  the  Epistles, 
nearest  to  those  just  mentioned.  The  resem- 
blance is  explained  by  the  consideration  that 
when  touching  upon  Judaistic  questions  St. 
Paul's  mind  inevitably  fell  into  the  vein  of 
Romans  and  Galatians. 

The  expressions  of  1^3  and  2i6, 17^  anticipat- 
ing the  writer's  death,  are  in  the  vein  of 
2  Tim,  the  Apostle's  farewell  letter  ;  while 
the  simplicity  and  cordiality  pervading  Philip- 
pians recall  the  strain  of  his  earliest,  the 
First  to  the  (Macedonian)  Thessalonians. 
Thus  Philippians  combines  traits  of  most  of 
the  other  Epistles  ;  it  mirrors  the  lohole  Paul. 
At  once  it  touches  the  summits  of  his  loftiest 
doctrine,  and  sounds  the  depths  of  his  mystic 
consciousness. 

The  writing  and  the  man  are  inseparably  one. 
By  a  consent  in  which  the  severest  criticism 
shares,  Philippians  is  ranged  with  the  great 
quaternion  of  the   Second  Group  (Romans,  1 


things  most  certainly  genuine  and  Pauline. 
Erasmus'  sentence  is  a  sufficient  verdict  on 
opinions  to  the  contrary  :  '  Nemo  potest  Pau- 
linum  pectus  efiingere '  (One  cannot  feign  a 
heart  like  Paul's  !  ). 

5.   St.   Polycarp  and  St.  Paul.     Some  fifty 
years  later  the  Philippian  Church  received  a 
letter,  that  it  has  preserved,  from  Polycarp, 
the  martyr-bishop  of  Smyrna,  in  which  this  re- 
markable   testimony  is   found  (3  2)  :  '  Neither 
I    nor   any    one    like    me    can    follow  up  the 
wisdom   of  the    blessed   and    glorious  Paul, 
who  when  he  was  amongst  you,  confronting 
the  men   of  that  day,  taught  with  exactness 
and  sureness   the  doctrine   concerning  truth  ; 
who  also  when  absent  wrote  [a]  letter[s]  to 
you,  by  the  close  study  of  which  you  will  be 
able  to  build  yourselves  up  in  the  faith  that 
was  given  you.'     St.  Polycarp  seems  to  refer, 
in  speaking  of  letters^  to  more  than  one  Epistle 
of  St.  Paul  as  then  extant  and  used  at  Philippi 
— though   it  is  possible,  grammatically,  that 
the  Gk.  plural  bore  (like   Utterce  in  Latin)  a 
singular  sense.     It  is  more  than  likely  that  the 
Apostle  wrote  repeatedly  to  the  Philippians  ; 
and  if  so,  several  of  his  letters  may  well  have 
survived  into  the  2nd  cent.,  though  but  one 
of  these  found  a  place  in  the  canonical  collec- 
tion.    More  important  is  it   to  observe   the 
reverence    paid    to    St.    Paul  by    one   whom 
tradition  associates    with  the    school  of    the 
Apostle  John,  and  whose  cast  of   mind  was 
far    from    Pauline,    and    the    sense  diffused 
thi'ough  the  Church  in  the  generation  following 
St.  Paul  of  the  unique  inspiration  and  authority 
that  attached   to  his  written  word:  cp.  2 Pet 
3 15, 16 ;  also  the  Epistle  of  Clement  to  the  Cor- 
inthians, chs.  5   and  47  ;  of    Ignatius  to  the 
Ephesians,   12.2,   and  to    the  Romans,   4.  3. 
Polycarp's  gracious  Epistle  to  the  Philippians 
reads  like  an  echo  of  the  NT. ;  Paul's  Epistle 
to  the  Philippians  breathes  in  every  line  the 
freshness  and  power  of  the  original  Christian 
inspiration. 

[Note.  The  writer  comments  usually  on 
the  revised  Text,  which  is  accordingly  printed 
in  heavy  type.] 

CHAPTER  1 

The  Prisoner  Apostle  in  Rome 
§  1.  Address  and  Salutation  (P'^). 
1 1'  2.  The  form  of  gi-eeting  in  1 1>  2  is  that 
common  to  the  Epistles  of  the  third  gi-oup. 
I.   To  all  the  saints]   holy  persons — conse- 
crated to  God  as  all   Christian  believers  are. 
This  and  similar  emphatic  expressions  (in  vv. 
3,  4,  7,  8,  25,  c.  42)  show  that  the  entire  Church, 
despite  differences  between  its  members  (22,3 
42),  has  the  Apostle's  confidence.     Only  in  this 
Epistle  are  the  Church  officers  singled  out  in 
the  address  ;  probably  because  they  figured  in 


970 


1.1 


PHILIPPIANS 


1.14 


the  letter  of  the  Church,  to  which  St.  Paul  is 
replying  :  see  Intro.  Bishops  and  deacons] 
'  overseers '  and  '  attendants  ' — associated  here 
for  the  first  time  in  NT. — are  the  superior  and 
subordinate  officers  of  the  local  Church. 
'  Bishops  '  appear  to  be  the  same  as  the  '  presi- 
dents '  ('  those  that  are  over  you ')  of  1  ThS^^, 
the  '  pastors '  of  Eph4ii  (cp.  1  Pet  2  25),  and  the 
more  familiar  'elders'  of  Acl423  ITimS^'^"^^ 
Tit  1 5-JJ,  etc. :  see  Ac  20  i7,2S  (r y),  and  1  Pet  5  ^S 
for  the  identity.  The  same  persons  might 
be  called  '  elders '  in  respect  of  status,  and 
'  overseers  '  in  respect  of  duty.  At  this  early 
stage  of  development,  there  was  no  strict 
uniformity  of  title  or  function  in  the  offices 
held  in  various  Churches.  Epishopos  (bishop) 
was  a  name  for  persons  charged  with  adminis- 
trative or  financial  responsibility  in  Greek 
communities  ;  and  this  title  may  have  been 
adopted  by  the  Hellenic  Churches.  '  Deacon ' 
(diakonos)  represents  the  every-day  word  for 
'  servant,' '  attendant,'  as  in  Mt  20  26  Ro  13  -i,  etc. 
For  further  elucidation,  see  notes  on  these 
words  in  the  Pastoral  Epistles.  2.  Grace]  is 
God's  forgiving  and  redeeming  love  to  men  : 
see  Eo  4  24-5  2, 17-21  Ephl*5,7  27,8,  etc. 

I.  Act  of  Praise  and  Prayer  (1^"^^) 

§  2.  1 3-8.  The  characteristically  Pauline 
Thanksgiving,  vv.  3-6,  runs  into  a  chain  of 
participial  sentences  loaded  with  adverbial 
clauses,  the  connexion  of  which  is  not  always 
certain.  V.  5  accounts  for  the  joy  attend- 
ing St.  Paul's  supplications  for  his  readers  as 
due  to  their  unbroken  fellowship  with  him  ; 
and  V.  6  declares  the  assurance  of  complete 
success  that  animates  his  prayers.  The  render- 
ing of  this  very  thing-,  in  v.  6,  is  difficult  to 
justify ;  say  rather,  '  being  confident  on  this 
very  account — viz.  because  of  your  steadfast 
fellowship  with  me — that  God  will  consum- 
mate in  you  what  He  has  so  signally  begun.' 

7.  The  assurance  above  expressed  is  sup- 
ported by  the  reflexion  that  it  is  right  to 
cherish  these  thoughts — of  thankfulness,  joy, 
trust — about  you  all,  since  I  hold  you  in  my 
heart .  .  as  being  all  of  you  fellow-partakers 
with  me  in  grace:  i.e.  the  Philippians  are  so 
entirely  bound  up  with  the  Apostle  in  the  cause 
of  the  gospel,  that  it  would  be  wrong  and  an  ill- 
requital  of  their  devotion  to  entertain  any  other 
thoughts  of  them.  He  is  conscious  of  their  com- 
munion both  in  his  bonds,  which  they  share  by 
sympathy  and  by  the  presence  of  Epaphroditus 
(2  25, 30),  and  in  the  defence  and  confirmation  of 
the  gospel — the  negative  and  positive  sides  of 
his  ministry  in  Rome,  where  he  both  vindicates 
the  cause  of  Christ  and  demonstrates  its  saving 
power  :  cp.  Eph  G^^'^o.  8.  A  solemn  attesta- 
tion of  the  heart-union  just  declared.  To 
yearn  over  one  in  the  heart  of  Christ  Jesus 
is  to  love  him  with  the  depth  and  tenderness 


971 


of  His  affection:  cp.  JnlS^*,  and  on  41. 
Bowels]  RV  '  tender  mercies.' 

§3.  1 9-11,  The  Prayer  of  vv.  9-11  recog- 
nises the  love  exhibited  in  the  'fellowship' 
of  the  readers  with  St.  Paul  (v.  5),  desiring  that 
it  may  be  enriched  by  intelligence  and  moral 
tact.  The  Gk.  term  here  used  for  knowledge, 
characteristic  of  the  letters  of  this  group,  signi- 
fies '  advanced,  thorough  knowledge '  ;  the  word 
rendered  discernment  (RV) — here  only  in 
NT. — containing  the  rootof  'sesthetics,'  belongs 
to  the  region  of  taste,  rather  than  judgment 
( AV).  Strong  in  affection  and  zeal,  the  Philip- 
pians needed  a  more  enlightened  conscience 
(see  on  4  8),  in  order  to  prove  the  things  that 
differ  (RM  :  cp.  lTh52i  Heb5i2). 

Sincere]  ( =  clear,  translucent)  implies 
purity  of  disposition  ;  void  of  offence,  f  aultless- 
ness  of  conduct  :  for  attaining  such  perfection, 
approved  at  the  day  of  Christ,  a  fine  moral 
intelligence,  as  well  as  a  right  intention,  is 
needful.  The  emphasis  of  v.  11  rests  on  filled 
(made  complete)  ;  and  fruit  of  righteousness 
embraces  all  the  moral  issues  of  the  right- 
eousness of  faith  (see  3  9),  abounding  to  the 
glory  .  .  of  God  (cp.  Jn  16  s). 

II.  A^oux  Patjl's  Affairs  (1 12-26) 
§  4.  1 12-18  a_  The  supreme  interest  of  writer 
and  readers  alike  (cp.  vv.  5-7)  lies  in  '  the 
progress  of  the  gospel.'  The  news  from 
Rome  about  St.  Paul  troubled  the  Philippians 
on  this  account,  and  their  alarm  had  been 
expressed  in  their  recent  letter :  see  Intro. 
He  hastens  to  reassure  them  :  the  things  that 
have  befallen  me  have  turned  out  rather  to  the 
progress  of  the  gospel.  13.  My  bonds  have 
become  manifest  in  Christ]  means  that  the 
writer,  instead  of  being  thrust  out  of  sight, 
as  the  Philippians  fear,  is  conspicuous  at 
Rome  as  Christ's  messenger  :  cp.  Eph  6  20. 
His  prison-lodging  has  become  a  vantage- 
ground  :  see  Ac  28  ^o,  3i .  ^jg  trial  is  favourably 
advertising  the  gospel.  The  whole  Praetorian 
guard]  ('  all  the  palace,'  wrongly,  AV ;  RM 
'the  whole  Prsetorium')  the  corps  of  troops 
attached  to  the  imperial  head-quarters — had 
heard  of  it,  presumably  through  the  men  told 
off  in  turn  to  guard  the  prisoner,  who  was 
chained  by  the  wrist  to  his  keeper  night 
and  day  ;  all  the  rest  signifies  the  Roman 
public,  who  freely  visited  the  distinguished 
prisoner. 

Vv.  14-18  describe  the  effect  of  this  turn 
of  events  on  the  Roman  Church.  Some  of 
its  members  may  have  been  discouraged  ;  but 
most  of  the  brethren  in  the  Lord  .  .  are  more 
abundantly  bold,  etc.  St.  Paul's  cheerful 
confidence,  at  the  same  time  the  respect 
shown  to  him  in  his  captivity  and  the  likeli- 
hood of  his  acquittal,  encouraged  the  majority; 
his  trial,  so  far,  went  to  clear  Chi-istianity  of 


1.  15 


PHILIPPIANS 


1.  28 


anything  criminal  in  the  eyes  of  the  State. 
Hence  the  Roman  Christians,  beyond  expect- 
ation, have  gained  confidence  by  his  bonds. 

St.  Paul's  presence  stimulates  Christian 
work  at  Rome  in  two  opposite  ways.  1 5.  Some 
in  their  bolder  testimony  are  actuated  by 
envy  and  strife  ;  some  by  good  will — he  rejoices 
in  the  activity  of  both  parties!  (v.  IS'').  Both, 
it  is  clear,  are  proclaiming  a  true  gospel, 
and  the  Apostle's  ill-wishers  cannot  have  been 
preaching  the  '  other  (Judaising)  gospel '  con- 
demned in  Gall 6.  Personal  dislike  actuated 
the  latter  ;  they  were  jealous  of  St.  Paul's 
ascendency,  and  regarded  him  as  an  interloper 
— a  disposition  only  too  natural  in  a  Church  of 
which  he  was  not  the  founder:  cp.  Ro  1.51-5-18. 
These  rivals  meanly  think  to  add  affliction 
to  his  bonds — supposing  that  he  would  be 
chagrined  by  their  success  !  They  proclaim 
Christ  therefore  not  sincerely  (not  in  a  pure 
spirit),  but  in  pretence  (w.  16,  18)  ;  and  St. 
Paul,  though  glad  that  their  work  is  making 
Christ's  name  more  widely  known,  censures 
its  motives.  The  better  sort  preach  of  love 
and  in  truth  (with  consistent  motives),  recog- 
nising in  the  prisoner-apostle  the  champion  of 
the  gospel.  Observe  the  reversal  in  vv.  16, 
17,  according  to  RV,  of  the  order  of  the  two 
parties  distinguished  in  v.  16. 

§  5.  ii8i>-26.  With  the  last  clause  of  v.  18 
(before  which  it  is  better  to  place  a  full  stop) 
St.  Paul  turns  from  the  present  to  the  future : 
Yes,  and  I  will  rejoice ;  for  I  know,  etc. 
This  (v.  19),  like  therein  (v.  18),  embraces 
the  whole  situation  described  in  vv.  12-18, 
which  while  furthering  the  gospel  (v.  12) 
vrill  turn  to  St.  Paul's  final  salvation :  cp. 
1  Cor  9  23  2  Tim  4  IS.  In  his  humility,  the 
Apostle  regards  this  issue  as  depending  on 
your  supplication  and  ministry  of  the  Spirit  of 
Jesus  Christ  (cp.  Gal  3  5),  of  whose  influence 
his  friends'  prayers  bring  him  richer  supplies : 
cp.  2Th3ii.  20.  The  above  result  accords 
with  the  writer's  eager  expectation  and  hope, 
that  in  any  event  Christ  will  be  magnified  in  his 
person  as  hitherto  :  he  lives,  and  will  die,  for 
this  alone.  Whatever  happens  to  my  body, 
the  essential  interests  are  safe. 

Vv.  21-26  weigh  the  alternatives  of  life  or 
death  (v.  20)  depending  on  the  verdict  awaited 
at  Caesar's  bar.  21.  To  live]  as  distinguished 
from  to  live  in  the  flesh  (v.  22),  means  '  life 
essential'  :  cp.  lTim6i9.  Col 31-*  is  the  true 
commentary  on  v.  21  =^ :  '  Your  life  is  hid  with 
Chi-ist  in  God ' — '  Christ,  who  is  our  life.' 

For  to  me,  to  live  is  Christ]  i.e.  life  consists 
of  and  is  rooted  in  Him  :  see  Ro  8  35-39  Gal  2  20. 
Hence,  to  die  is  gain ;  for  dying  would  bring 
the  Apostle  nearer  to  Christ :  see  v.  28  and  2  Cor 
5^-^.  (How  the  expectation  of  being  with 
Christ  immediately  after  death  agrees  with  the 
conception  of  an  intermediate  state,  indicated 


in  1  Th4i4.i6  and  1  Cor  1551.52,  is  not  evident ; 
our  best  notions  of  the  other  world  are  dim 
and  confused:  see  1  Cor  1312.) 

22.  There  is  gain  also  on  the  opposite  side  : 
If  to  live  in  the  flesh  be  my  lot  (RM  ;  the 
Gk.  is  highly  elliptical,  as  Paul's  language 
often  becomes  under  excitement),  this  means 
for  me  fruit  of  work,  i.e.  continued  labour  and 
a  richer  reward.  The  writer  knov/s  not  which 
he  shall  choose  ;  advantages  are  balanced. 

23,  24.  His  heart  prompts  the  wish  to  go  ;  his 
judgment,  guided  by  his  friends'  need,  advises 
staying  ;  that  he  will  so  abide  in  the  flesh  for 
their  progress  and  joy  in  the  faith,  St.  Paul 
is  persuaded  (vv.  26,  26).  This  outcome  of 
the  pending  trial  will  bring  exceeding  joy, 
as  well  as  spiritual  benefit,  to  the  Philippians. 
The  peculiar  Gk.  word  for  depart  (v.  23),  also 
used  in  2  Tim 4*5,  means  '  loosing  the  tent-peg'  : 
cp.  the  metaphor  of  2  Cor  61.  The  glorying 
(AV '  rejoicing  ')  anticipated  in  v. 26  is  the  exult- 
ation of  the  Philippians  in  the  Apostle's  escape 
and  the  resulting  gain  to  the  Christian  cause. 

III.  How  Paul's   Comrades   may  support 
Him  (127-218) 

§6.1 2T-30.  With  V.  27  the  Apostle  turns 
upon  his  readers,  as  much  as  to  say,  '  I  have 
told  you  how  it  fares  with  me  ;  what  about 
yourselves  ?     My  happiness  depends  on  you.' 

The  transitional  Only  implies  a  possible 
qualification — a  cloud  that  might  darken  the 
bright  prospect  of  vv.  25,  26  :  cp.  IThS^. 

The  manner  of  life  (A V  '  conversation ') 
expected  is  defined  by  a  Gk.  term  familiar  to 
'colonials'  (see  Intro.),  which  recurs  in  321 : 
hold  your  citizenship  in  a  manner  worthy  of  the 
gospel  of  Christ :  cp.  Eph  2 19.  '  The  gospel ' 
supplies  in  itself  the  motives  for  a  worthy  life  ; 
the  Apostle's  presence  or  absence  should  not 
affect  his  fellow-believers'  loyalty.  Steadfast- 
ness is  the  chief  quality  desired  in  them,  that 
ye  stand  fast — -a  characteristic  of  the  citizen- 
soldier.  In  one  spirit  signifies  unity  of  religious 
principles  and  purpose  ;  w^ith  one  soul  (RV), 
unity  of  feeling  and  effort.  The  faith  of  the 
gospel  does  not  mean  Christian  doctrine,  the 
contents  of  faith,  but  faith  as  a  conscious  power 
in  the  soul,  '  striving  like  one  man  to  maintain 
and  carry  into  effect  your  faith  in  the  gospel '  : 
cp.  Jude  V.  3. 

28.  Steadfastness  meant,  especially  for  this 
Church,  not  to  be  daunted  by  persecution. 
They  are  Paul's  comrades  in  the  conflict  which 
he  underwent  at  Philippi  formerly,  and  now 
endures  in  Rome  (v.  30).  Let  them  understand 
that  their  courage  is  itself  a  token  of  their  ad- 
versaries' perdition  (ruin)  and  their  salvation — 
a  sign  that  God  is  with  them  (cp.  vv.  19,  20.  in 
this  connexion)  ;  for  indeed  (v.  29)  their  suffer- 
ings are  a  bounty  of  divine  grace  (cp.  Mt5i2 
1  Pet  4 11-13)  shared  with  their  Apostle  (cp.  v.  7  ; 


972 


2.  1 


PHILIPPIANS 


2.  10 


also  Col  1 24  Eph  3 1-  I3)_a  favour  directly  con- 
sequent on  their  believing'  in  Christ.  To  suffer 
in  His  behalf,  as  representing  Christ  amid  an 
evil  world  (cp.  JnlS^^'-O),  is  indeed  an  honour. 

CHAPTER  2 
The  Mutual  Service  of  Paul  and  the 
Philippian  Church 
§  7.  21-11.  In  view  of  what  has  just  been 
said,  therefore  the  Apostle  entreats  his  readers, 
under  all  the  obligations  arising  from  past 
fellowship  (v.  1),  to  make  his  joy  complete 
by  a  thorough  concord  (v.  2).  This  will  be 
attained  through  self-effacing  regard  for  each 
other  (vv.  3,  4),  of  which  Christ  is  the  ground 
and  example  (vv.  5-8). 

1.  St.  Paul  invokes  four  bonds  of  friend- 
ship :  exhortation  (i.e.  encouragement)  in 
Christ,  given  on  his  part  ;  consolation  of  love, 
fellowship  in  the  Spirit  (cp.  1 1^),  tender  mercies 
and  compassions,  mutually  exhibited  ;  if  there 
be  any  such  things — or  if  they  count  for  any- 
thing as  between  us  (the  sentence  is  elliptical, 
and  the  text  a  little  doubtful) — this  entreaty 
will  prevail. 

2.  That  ye  be  of  the  same  mind  (v.  2)  imports 
oneness  of  sentiment  and  aim,  to  be  realised  in 
having  the  same  love — i.e.  cherishing  a  uniform 
reciprocal  affection — as  men  conjoined  in  soul 
('  of  one  accord,'  RV  ;  cp.  1 27,  'with  one  soul'), 
minding  the  one  thing  (cp.  Col  3  2  RV).  In 
rendering  the  last  clause  of  one  mind,  AV 
ignores  the  Gk.  definite  article  :  St.  Paul's  '  one 
thing  needful'  (cp.  Lkl042)  ig  nothing  else 
than  'the  gospel'  (see  15>8.27)  .  concentration 
upon  this  is  the  guarantee  of  unity. 

3.  4.  Such  oneness  of  soul  means  doing 
nothing  in  a  factious  or  vainglorious  way,  each 
man  in  lowliness  of  mind  counting  the  other 
better  than  himself,  and  keeping  an  eye  not  for 
his  own  interests  but  for  those  of  his  neighbour. 
In  short,  love  and  humility  together  overcome 
all  divisive  influences,  and  bring  about  the 
perfect  socialism  of  the  Spirit. 

V.  5  goes  on  to  say  that  this  altruism  is  the 
proper  Christian  way  of  thinking  :  Have  this 
mind  in  you,  which  is  indeed  (the  mind)  in 
Christ  Jesus — i.e.  the  mind  grounded  in  Him. 
The  Pauline  phrase  "  in  Christ  Jesus  '  signifies 
the  mystical  union  :  not  the  Jesus  Christ 
who  '  was '  (the  verb  of  AV  is  wanting  in  the 
Gk.),  but  the  Christ  Jesus  who  '  is,'  inspires 
this  way  of  thinking. 

Vv.  6-8  lead  back  from  the  present  to  the 
past,  exhibiting  the  Christian  altruistic  mind 
as  it  wrought  first  in  the  Founder  ;  St.  Paul 
relates  the  experience  of  the  Head  to  teach 
the  members  a  lowly,  self -renouncing  love. 
For  this  purpose  he  must  show  how  much 
Christ  had  to  forgo  and  to  what  lengths  His 
abnegation  went.  The  difficult  expressions 
of  this  profound  passage  are,  especially,  the 


synonymous  connected  phrases  form  (of  God, 
of  a  bondman),  on  an  equality  (with  God), 
likeness  (of  men),  in  fashion  (as  a  man),  which 
denote  resemblance  in  different  aspects  or 
degrees.  The  first  signifies  essential  form, 
the  mode  of  existence  proper  to  the  person  in 
question  ;  the  second,  the  footing  on  which 
he  stands,  or  might  stand  ;  the  third,  his 
visible  features  ;  the  fourth,  the  guise,  or 
habit  of  life,  in  which  he  moves.  The  verbs  of 
vv.  7,  8 — emptied  (RV),  and  humbled  Himself 
— affirm  respectively  a  negative  self-depriva- 
tion or  depotentiation,  and  a  positive  self- 
humiliation  based  upon  the  former  ;  the  latter 
act  has  its  antithesis  in  the  exalting  of  Christ 
by  God  spoken  of  in  v.  9,  and  the  former  in 
the  granting  to  Him  of  the  name  above  every 
name.  The  rare  verbal  noun  of  v.  6,  (counted 
it  not)  a  prize  (RV  ;  AV  '  robbery '),  meant  first 
'  the  act  of  grasping '  or  '  clutching,'  and  then 
'  a  thing  to  be  clutched.'  We  take  the  sense 
of  the  passage  to  be,  that  Christ,  while  divine 
in  His  proper  nature,  did  not,  when  the  call 
came  to  serve  others,  hold  fast  in  self-asser- 
tion His  God-like  state,  but  divested  Himself 
of  this  by  assuming  a  servant's  form  (adding 
to  His  divine  a  human  being,  which  eclipsed 
the  Godhead  in  Him)  and  leading  an  earthly 
life  such  as  our  own  (vv.  6,  7*^).  But  He 
went  lower  still  ;  having  stooped  from  His 
Godhead  to  man's  condition,  He  traversed 
all  the  stages  of  obedience  down  to  the 
humiliation  of  death  (cp.  321),  and  of  death 
in  its  uttermost  shame  (vv.  7*",  8).  Such  was 
the  devotion  of  the  Son  of  God  to  men  ;  and 
every  man  who  is  in  Christ  Jesus  shares  this 
mind. 

The  verb  '  emptied '  in  v.  7  supplies  the 
theological  term  Tcenosis  for  the  deprivation  of 
divine  attributes  or  powers  involved  in  the 
incarnation  of  our  Lord.  However  far  this 
diminution  went — and  we  cannot  pretend  to 
define  its  limits — since  it  was  a  se//'-emptying, 
an  act  of  our  Lord's  sovereignty,  it  involved 
no  forfeiture  of  intrinsic  Deity. 

At  V.  8  the  illustration  properly  ends  ;  but 
St.  Paul  cannot  leave  his  Master  on  the  cross, 
nor  have  it  supposed  that  self-abnegation  is 
real  loss:  cp.  MtlO^Q  Jnl224.  By  a  divine 
recompense,  Christ  was  lifted  up  from  the 
death  of  the  cross  to  the  Messianic  dominion, 
with  glory  added  to  His  primal  glory  (vv. 
9-11)  :  Wherefore  indeed  God  more  highly 
exalted  him,  and  granted  to  him  the  name 
that  is  above  every  name  :  cp.  Eph  1  20-22  This 
'name'  is  the  completed  title.  The  Lord 
Jesus  Christ,  under  which  our  Saviour  will 
be  adored  throughout  the  universe.  Things 
under  the  earth  was  a  Gk.  euphemism  for  the 
dead:  cp.  Ro  14 9  Eph 4 9. 

Vv.  10,  1 1  appropriate  for  Jesus  the  language 
of  Isa4523,  which  foretold  the  worship  to  be 


973 


2.  12 


PHILIPPIANS 


3.1 


paid  to  Israel's  G-od  by  all  mankind.  The 
glory  of  the  Father  will  be  realised  in  the 
universal  acknowledgment  of  the  Lordship  of 
the  Son  whom  He  enthroned  :  cp.  1  Cor  1 5  24-28_ 

§  8.  2i-^-i8.  The  connexion  of  the  third 
exhortation,  to  thoroughness  in  the  pursuit  of 
salvation  (vv.  12-18).  with  the  two  foregoing 
paragraphs  may  be  brought  out  thus  :  And  so, 
my  beloved — since  Christ's  triumph,  won  by 
self -forgetting  love,  is  sure  (§  7),  and  since  you 
are  my  fellow-soldiers  in  His  war  (§  6) — as  you 
have  always  answered  to  my  challenge,  I 
expect  that  now  in  my  absence — when  you 
depend  on  yourselves — much  more  than  in 
my  presence,  vrith  fear  and  trembling  you 
■will  prosecute  the  work  of  your  salvation ; 
for  God  is  he  that  w^orketh  in  you  both  the 
willing  and  the  working  (contrast  RoT^S), 
for  his  good-pleasure's  sake  (v.  13).  God's 
working  in  the  Philippians  is  alleged  not  to 
enforce  the  fear  and  trembling  (which  St.  Paul 
assumes  and  approves  in  them),  but  as  a  strong 
encouragement :  '  Whatever  human  aid  is  want- 
ing, God  is  with  you — in  you  ! '  cp.  1 6'  ^8  ;  also 
Eph320  Col  129  Ac  20  32.  That  God  is  thus 
working  in  the  readers  in  the  interests  of  His 
good  pleasure,  implies  that  their  life-work  is 
taken  into  God's  plan  for  the  kingdom  of  His 
Son;  see  vv.  9-11,129;  also  Lk  1232  2  Thl  11.12. 

14.  The  consciousness  of  God's  sovereign 
grace  operating  in  the  Philippian  Christians 
will  prevent  their  work  being  marred  by  mur- 
murings  and  reasonings  against  their  lot  (cp. 
129  4<3;  also  1  Pet  4 12-14);  in  this  confidence 
they  will  bear  themselves  as  God's  children 
(vv.  15, lO'^)  amid  an  evil  world,  where  they  are 
set  to  shine  as  luminaries,  holding  forth  in 
its  lustre  the  word  of  life:  cp.  IThl^-iO;  also 
Mt 514-16  Jul 6-8  535.  For  salvation-seeking 
is  not  egoism  ;  Christian  excellence  is  that  of  a 
lamp,  the  more  radiant  as  it  is  better  trimmed. 

16''.  The  writer,  too,  will  gain  much  by  the 
advancing  salvation  and  luminous  witness  of 
his  converts  :  this  will  be  for  a  glorying  to 
myself  against  the  day  of  Christ,  as  showing 
that  I  have  not  run  in  vain  nor  toiled  in 
vain:  cp.  IThS^  Gal 2 2. 

17,  18.  Supposing  the  worst  fears  of  the 
Philippians  realised  by  his  condemnation  to 
death,  their  faith  will  turn  this  into  a  glad 
offering  on  the  Apostle's  part  to  God.  Even 
in  this  issue,  he  joys  and  rejoices  with  them, 
and  calls  on  them  to  joy  and  rejoice  with 
him  !  While  he  and  they  are  true  to  Christ, 
nothing  can  take  away  their  common  joy  :  cp. 
120  Ro  8  31-39.  St.  Paul  represents  his  death 
under  the  figm-e  of  a  libation,  or  drink-offering 
(RM)  :  his  blood,  shed  for  the  salvation  of  the 
Gentiles  (Ro  1 5 1"  Col  1 24,  etc.),  would  be  poured 
out  over  the  sacrifice  and  service  rendered  to 
God  by  the  faith  of  his  Churches — a  shower 
that  will  feed  the  sacrificial  flame. 


IV.  The  Approaching  Visits  (2i9-30) 

§  9.  219-24.  The  Apostle  hopes  however 
in  the  Lord  Jesus  (under  His  sovereign  direc- 
tion) that  events  will  take  a  different  course  ; 
he  will  send  Timothy  forthwith  to  Philippi,  so 
soon  as  the  outlook  is  clear,  piirposing  him- 
self to  follow  when  free  (vv.  23,  24)  :  cp.  1 25, 26. 
The  motive  for  sending  is,  that  I  too  (as 
well  as  you)  may  be  of  good  cheer  through 
learning  the  news  about  you  (as  you  through 
hearing  about  me)  ;  and  the  reasons  for  send- 
ing Timothy  are,  on  the  one  hand,  his  genuine 
care  for  the  Philippians  and  the  absence  of 
any  one  else  like-minded  (lit.  '  equal-souled '), 
and  on  the  other  hand  the  knowledge  the 
Philippians  have  of  his  character  and  intimacy 
with  his  master  (v.  22).  In  the  hard  saying, 
they  all  seek  their  ovm,  not  the  things  of  Jesus 
Christ  (RV),  '  all  '  is  limited  by  the  context, 
and  by  the  Gk.  definite  article,  to  St.  Paul's 
available  helpers.  Some  of  his  companions 
were  busy  elsewhere  ;  others  decline  the 
errand  through  motives  that  he  regards  as 
selfish  (vv.  20,  21). 

§  10.  2  25-30  Epaphroditus  returns  forthwith, 
carrying  this  letter  (v.  25) ;  see  Intro.  The 
Apostle  heaps  commendation  upon  him,  appre- 
hending seemingly  that  he  might  have  a  cool 
reception  (see  vv.  29,  30),  since  he  is  going 
home  prematurely  and  without  having  ren- 
dered all  the  service  expected.  To  St.  Paul 
he  has  proved  my  brother  and  fellow-worker 
and  fellov7-soldier,  having  shared  the  Apostle's 
toils  and  labours  to  the  best  of  his  power ; 
on  behalf  of  the  Philippians,  your  apostle 
(deputy -messenger)  and  minister  (minister-in- 
sacred-things  :  this  word  is  repeated  in  the 
service  of  v.  30)  to  my  need.  The  Apostle 
sends  him  back  thus  early  because  of  his  home- 
sickness, which  was  aggravated  by  news  of  the 
grief  of  his  friends  at  his  recent  illness  (v.  26) — 
an  illness  threatening  death,  which  God  had 
averted  in  mercy  both  to  himself  and  to  Paul ; 
his  immediate  return,  under  these  circumstances, 
is  happier  for  all  parties  (vv.  27,  28)  :  Epaphro- 
ditus, it  seems,  had  fallen  into  sickness  through 
some  venture,  beyond  the  common  risks  of 
travel,  in  which  he  had  hazarded  (the  rare 
Gk.  verb  means  '  gambling  with ')  his  life — 
'  setting  his  life  upon  a  cast ' — to  serve  the 
Apostle  on  behalf  of  the  Philippians  in  pro- 
moting the  work  of  Christ  (v.  30).  How  this 
came  about,  it  is  idle  to  conjecture. 

CHAPTER  3 

Dangers    and    Hopes    of    the    Present 

Situation 

V.  Interjected  Warnings  (3i-2i) 

§  11.  31-6.   Finally  (lit.  'For  the  rest'),  my 

brethren,   brings    the    close    of    the   letter  in 

sight  (see  Intro.)  ;  the  Apostle  has  only  a  few 


974 


3.2 


PHILIPPIANS 


3.  10 


supplementary  counsels  to  give — prefaced  by 
the  Rejoice  in  the  Lord,  which  is  the  preva- 
lent note  of  the  Epistle  (1  *.  is.  26  2  2, 17,  i8)_and 
to  make  acknowledgment  of  the  contribution 
sent  through  Epaphroditus.  But  the  admoni- 
tion of  V.  2  strikes  a  chord  of  feeling  in  his 
breast  which  vibrates  too  strongly  to  be  soon 
arrested.  From  v.  4  onwards,  c.  3  is  a  diver- 
sion in  the  Epistle,  but  such  as  answers  its 
underlying  purpose,  since  it  opens  St.  Paul's 
heart  to  his  readers  and  makes  them  more 
than  ever  'partakers  of  his  'grace'  (I'''). 

The  observation  of  v.  1^  relates  to  vv.  2,  3  ; 
St.  Paul  is  writing  the  same  things  about  the 
seductions  of  Judaism  that  he  has  said  or 
written  before  :  this  was  a  chronic  danger  to 
his  Churches.  Though  Philippi  contained  few 
Jewish  settlers,  its  situation  (see  Intro.)  ex- 
posed this  Church  to  the  visits  of  Jewish  emis- 
saries. The  dogs,  the  evil  workers,  the  con- 
cision (mutilation)  form  one  class  of  adversaries, 
who  receive  the  last  epithet  by  way  of  scornful 
play  upon  the  boasted  name  of  '  the  circum- 
cision.' The  Abrahamic  covenant-seal  has 
become  null  and  void  for  rejecters  of  Christ,  and 
no  better  than  any  other  '  cutting  '  of  the  body  ; 
so  the  Apostle  transfers  its  name  to  the  Church, 
upon  which  the  OT.  inheritance  devolves  :  see 
Ro 2 25-29  4^2  1117  Gal37  616  Eph2ii-i9  36  Col 
2 11-13  ;  also  Mt  21  "^3,  These  same  men  are  dogs, 
raging  against  and  ready  to  devour  the  Apostle 
of  the  Gentiles  (cp.  Ps22i6,20)  ;  iU-workers, 
because  of  their  mischievous  and  unscrupulous 
activity  :  cp.  2  Cor  1 1  is.  As  in  1  Th  2 1'i-ie,  un- 
believing Jews  are  here  intended,  radically 
opposed  to  the  gospel ;  not,  as  in  Galatians  and 
2  Corinthians,  Christian  Jews  who  pervert  it. 
Jewish  hostility  was  violent  beyond  measure 
in  Macedonia  :  see  Ac  17. 

3.  By  contrast  with  anti-Christian  Jews,  we 
are  the  circumcision,  who  worship  by  the  Spirit 
of  God  (whose  worship  is  inspired  by  the  Holy 
Spirit),  and  glory  in  Christ  Jesus  (not  in  Moses, 
the  Temple,  etc.),  and  have  no  confidence  in 
flesh  (in  any  external  privilege  or  perform- 
ance). Here  the  Apostle  strikes  into  the  cur- 
rent of  his  own  experience,  which  carries  him 
away  for  the  rest  of  the  c.  4.  Though  I  (one 
of  the  emphasised  '  we '  of  v.  3)  might  have 
confidence  indeed  in  the  flesh — who  had  a  better 
right  to  presume  upon  outward  prerogative  ? 
Amongst  the  seven  points  of  superiority  enu- 
merated in  vv.  5,  6,  four  came  to  Saul  by  birth, 
three  by  acquisition.  The  eighth  day  was  the 
proper  date  for  the  infant's  circumcision  (Gn 
17 12)  ;  Israel,  the  covenant-name  of  Jehovah's 
people  ;  Benjamin,  the  tribe  eminent  as  supply- 
ing the  first  king  of  Israel,  and  subsequently 
remaining  faithful  to  the  throne  of  David  ; 
a  Hebrew  sprung  from  Hebrews,  one  whose 
family  preserved  the  home-language  :  see  Ac 
2140.     The  fact  that  he  had  been  a  persecutor 


of  the  Church,  combined  with  his  Pharisaic 
professions  and  legal  blamelessness,  raised 
Saul's  reputation  to  the  highest  pitch :  cp. 
2  Cor  11 22  Gal  113, 14  Ac  22  3-5. 

§  12.  3 '^■11.  The  treasured  gains  of  Saul 
of  Tarsus,  Paul  the  Apostle  has  counted  loss 
because  of  the  Christ,  content  to  lose  them  if 
he  might  gain  Christ  (cp.  Gal  6 1*)  ;  there  is  no 
treasure  that  he  would  not  hold  cheap  in  this 
exchange — I  count  all  things  to  be  loss  for  the 
surpassing  worth  of  the  knowledge  of  Christ 
Jesus  my  Lord  (v.  8).  And  this  is  no  untried 
vaunt :  For  whose  sake  I  have  suff'ered  the 
loss  of  all  things — home,  ease,  honour,  every- 
thing that  men  count  dear  (cp.  Ac  20  24) — and 
count  them  refuse  !  So  contemptible  had  the 
world's  wealth  become  to  him  through  know- 
ing Christ  ;  he  wins  infinite  riches  in  exchange 
for  dross  ! 

The  last  clause  of  v.  8  is  completed  by  v.  9, 
which  unfolds  St.  Paul's  distinctive  conception 
of  the  believer's  relation  to  his  Saviour :  that 
I  may  gain  Christ  and  be  found  in  him,  not 
having  a  righteousness  of  my  own,  that  which 
comes  of  law,  but  that  w^hich  comes  through 
faith  in  Christ,  the  righteousness  which  is  of 
God,  resting  upon  faith.  These  words  sum  up 
the  doctrine  of  salvation  taught  in  Romans 
and  Galatians  :  the  Apostle  has  not  '  gained 
Christ '  as  an  outward  possession,  but  so  as  to 
be  planted  in  Him  and  recognised  as  one  with 
Him  ;  so  that  even  his  '  righteousness  ' — the 
moral  worth  that  gives  value  to  his  existence 
— is  not  claimed  for  his  own,  as  though  it  had 
been  won  by  law-keeping,  for  it  accrues  to 
him  through  faith  in  Christ,  and  thus  has  its 
fountain  in  God  ;  it  is  built  not,  like  the  Phari- 
see's righteousness,  upon  human  efforts  and 
strivings,  but  upon  faith  in  God  and   Christ. 

Vv.  10,  11  are  parallel  to  v.  9,  setting  forth 
objectively,  as  that  defined  subjectively,  the 
Apostle's  '  gain  '  in  Christ.  As  v.  9  expanded 
the  for  whom  of  v.  8,  so  vv.  10,  11  take  up 
and  enlarge  upon  the  foregoing  phrase,  the 
knowledge  of  Christ  Jesus  my  Lord  ;  the 
entire  sentence  (vv.  8-11)  is  symmetrical: 

I  count  all  things  to  he  loss,  for  the  excellency  of 
the  knowledge  of  Christ  Jesus  my  Lord, 

For  whom  I  suffered  the  loss  of  all  things,  etc., 
That  I  may  gain  Christ,  and  be  found  in  Him, 
etc., 
So  that  I  may  know  Him,  and  the  power  of  His 
resurrection,  etc. 

10,  II.  Three  points  are  specified  in  St. 
Paul's  '  knowledge  of  Christ ' :  (a)  The  power  of 
His  resurrection,  which  came  on  Saul  in  the  Da- 
mascus revelation.  The  resurrection  of  Jesus 
Christ  which  manifested  Him  as  the  Son  of 
God,  at  the  same  time  revealed  in  Him  '  the 
power  of  God  '  working  '  unto  salvation  ' :  see 
Ro  1 4, 16  4  24, 25  Eph  1 19>  20.  The  whole  faith  of 
the  gospel  turned  upon  Christ's  resurrection 


976 


3.11 


PHILIPPIANS 


3.20 


(see  1  Cor  15 1-4. 12-25  Eol09);  the  new  life  of 
the  believer  springs  from  His  opened  grave 
(EoG't-ii  1  Cor  15  20, 21, 45-49).  (5)  In  contrast 
with  the  power  of  the  Lord's  resurrection-life 
stands  the  fellowship  of  His  sufferings  (2  Cor 
13*),  to  which  St.  Paul  was  admitted  from  the 
outset :  see  Ac  9 1''.  The  present  situation  sets 
his  ministry  in  this  light :  see  Col  124  EphS^^ 
2  Cor  4 10  2  Tim  2 11. 12,  and  op.  Mtl624  20  22,23. 
This  fellowship  goes  to  the  length  of  being 
conformed  to  His  death  (a  continued  process)  ; 
for  the  disciple  is  following  his  cross-bearing 
Master  (MtlO^s,  etc.),  and  his  daily  course  is 
as  a  march  to  Calvary  :  cp.  1  Cor  15^  2Cor4io 
Gal  2 19, 20  614.  (c)  St.  Paul's  knowledge  of 
Christ  will  culminate  in  his  attaining  unto 
(arriving  at)  the  full  (or  final)  resurrection  from 
the  dead  ;  hitherto  he  '  knows  in  part,'  then  he 
will  'know  as'  he  'is  known'  (1  Cor IS^-H). 
If  by  any  means  bespeaks  humility  rather  than 
misgiving  ;  St.  Paul  cannot  look  with  steady 
eye  on  the  dazzling  prospect:  cp.  320  lJn32. 
For  '  resurrection  '  a  unique  intensive  Gk. 
compound  is  here  used,  signifying  complete- 
ness, finality — a  resurrection  that  leaves 
mortality  for  ever  behind  :  cp.  2  Cor  5  4. 

§  13.  312-I6  The  goal  of  the  Apostle's  career 
lies  beyond  this  world  ;  hence  he  proceeds  : 
Not  that  I  have  already  obtained  the  '  gain ' 
secured  to  me  in  Christ  (cp.  1 21 ),  or  am  already 
made  perfect  ;  but  I  am  pressing  on,  if  so  be 
that  I  may  apprehend  (lay  fast  hold  of)  that  for 
w^hich  I  was  apprehended  (laid  fast  hold  of)  by 
Christ  Jesus.  In  this  disclaimer,  emphatically 
resumed  in  v.  13,  St.  Paul  contrasts  himself 
with  Christians  holding  mistaken  notions  of 
perfection  similar,  probably,  to  those  attributed 
to  'Hymenaius  and  Philetus '  in  2Tim2i<5-i8, 
who  taught  that  '  the  resun-ection  is  already 
past '  (scil.  in  the  regeneration  of  the  soul)  and 
denied  '  the  redemption  of  the  body  '  with  all 
that  this  implies  :  see  Ro  8 1^-23  ;  cp.  1  Cor  15 12. 
Challenging  these  perfectionists,  who  imagined 
that  Christ  in  their  present  state  had  reached 
the  goal  of  His  work  of  redemption,  St.  Paul 
protests  :  Brethren,  for  my  part  I  do  not  reckon 
myself  as  yet  to  have  apprehended  ;  but  one 
thing —  !  (v.  13)  Here  he  breaks  off  ;  '  one 
thing  /  do  '  ( A V)  supplies  the  aposiopesis  :  for- 
getting the  things  behind  and  straining  out  unto 
the  things  before,  I  press  on  towards  the  mark, 
to  reach  the  prize  of  the  upward  calling  of 
God  in  Christ  Jesus  (v.  14)  :  cp.  Heb3i  1  Th 
2 12.  '  The  prize  '  is  the  heavenly  life  of  the 
redeemed  (vv.  11,  20,  21), — 'our  perfect  con- 
summation and  bliss  both  in  body  and  soul '  ; 
'  God  calls '  men  to  this  in  Christ  Jesus,  since 
Christ  conveys  the  call  and  supplies  in  His 
person  its  mark  (v.  21  ;  cp.  Eo829).  The 
Apostle  depicts  himself  as  a  racer  straining 
every  nerve  to  reach  the  goal  and  wasting  not 
an  instant  in  looking  backward. 


The  Gk.  adjective  perfect  (i.e.  '  full-grown,' 
'mature  '  :  see  1  Cor  14 20  Eph 4 13)  appearing  in 
vv.  12  and  15,  was  used  of  initiates  into  the 
religious  '  mysteries '  of  the  time,  at  the  final 
stage  of  qualification  ;  the  party  in  view 
claimed,  under  this  designation,  to  have 
acquired  an  esoteric  '  knowledge '  of  Chris- 
tianity going  deeper  than  simple  '  faith  '  :  see 
Col  2  4, 8  1  Tim  6  20, 21.  This  Gnosticising  tend- 
ency, so  strongly  evidenced  by  the  Colossian 
heresy,  was  widespread  and  manifold  in  form  ; 
it  greatly  exercised  the  Apostle's  mind  at  this 
time.  15.  Let  us,  so  many  as  be  perfect  (the 
true  '  initiates,'  in  contrast  with  those  alluded 
to  in  V.  12),  be  thus  minded — as  much  as  to  say, 
'  Those  really  deep  in  Christian  knowledge  will 
think  in  this  way '  (vv.  10-14).  The  perfect 
recognise  the  distance  of  the  goal  ;  they  are 
the  last  to  count  themselves  perfect  :  cp. 
the  treatment  of  Gk.  conceit  of  wisdom  in 
1  Cor  2  6-10  81,2  1437,38. 

1^,  16.  Some  members  of  this  Church  are 
otherwise  minded — unable  to  follow  what  St. 
Paul  has  just  said  ;  knowing  their  loyalty,  he 
can  wait  confidently  for  their  enlightenment — 
God  will  reveal  this  also  unto  you  (cp.  1  Cor 
210-15) — provided  that  they  faithfully  practise 
the  truth  already  grasped  :  whereunto  we  have 
attained,  by  that  same  rule  let  us  walk  (R  V) :  cp. 
Gal  6 16  Jn7i7.    Omit  '  let  us  mind,'  etc.  (AV). 

§  14.  3i''-2i.  Against  the  third  class  of  op- 
ponents (see  Intro.) — in  some  instances  identical 
with  the  second,  for  spiritual  conceit  and 
moral  depravity  may  be  found  together  (see 
1  Tim  6  3-5) — St.  Paul  adduces  his  example  and 
that  of  others  of  like  behaviour,  as  against 
the  two  former  he  cited  his  religious  expe- 
rience. 18,  19.  Their  character  is  notorious  : 
the  Apostle  has  spoken  of  them  often,  and  weeps 
over  them  as  he  writes  now.  These  are  pecu- 
liarly the  enemies  of  the  cross  of  Christ — not 
Jews  who  '  stumble  at '  the  cross  (Gal  6 12 
1  Cor  1 23),  but  professed  Christians  whose 
walk  tends  to  its  subversion  ;  men  ■whose 
end  is  perdition — like  that  of  '  the  adversaries ' 
of  12s  (see  2  Cor  11 15  2Pet2i-3)— for  their 
god  is  the  belly  (they  honour  sensual  appetite 
like  a  god  :  see  Rol3i3,i4  16  is  2  Tim  3  4),  and 
their  glory  is  in  their  shame  (they  pride  them- 
selves on  sensuality  :  see  Eph4i9  Rol32  2  Pet 
2 13, 14) ;  who  mind  earthly  things  !  (cp.  Ro 
85-7) — the  delineation  ends  in  amazement. 
These  men  are  Antinomians,  accepting  Paul's 
gospel  only  to  '  continue  in  sin  that  grace  may 
abound,'  and  '  using  liberty  for  an  occasion  to 
the  flesh '  (see  Ro  6 1, 12  Gal  5 13  Jude  v.  4).  They 
were  the  reproach  and  grief  of  the  Apostle's 
ministry.  One  hardly  supposes  that  the  writer 
has  such  enemies  amongst  the  Philippians  (see 
1  3-S)  ;  but  libertine  Christians  were  numerous, 
and  might  travel  that  way. 

20,  21.  Against  the  earthly  is  set  the  heavenly 


976 


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PHILIPPIANS 


4.  8 


mind  and  walk,  described  by  a  word  appealing 
t(f  the  Philippian  civic  consciousness  (see  Intro., 
and  cp.  1  '^") :  our  citizenship  (AV  '  conversa- 
tion')  is  in  heaven!  (cp.  Rev 21 2).  As  the 
distant  Philippian  '  colonus '  belonged  to  Rome, 
so  the  Christian  sojourning  on  earth  is  a  citizen 
of  heaven  ;  his  home  lies  '  where  Christ  is ' 
(Col 3 1-3  Eph2i9  2Cor5i-f  Heblli3-i6  MtG^i 
Jnl42,3).  From  this  region,  ours  already  by 
affinity,  we  await  a  Saviour  (see  1  Th  1  lo  4  it^,  i7 
1  Cor  1  7  1 5  23)  .  .  who  will  re-fashion  the  body  of 
our  humiliation  ('  vile  body,'  AV,  is  a  mistransla- 
tion), that  it  may  be  conformable  to  the  body 
of  his  glory.  The  Gk.  adjective  rendered 
'  conformable  '  appeared  in  Ro  8  29  — '  con- 
formed to  the  image  of  Grod's  Son '  :  con- 
formity of  bodily  state  completes  conformity 
of  character.  Upon  this  metamorphosis,  see 
lCorl55i-5i  and  lTh4i^-i7.  The  Apostle 
keenly  felt  the  '  humiliation '  of  man's  mortal 
state  :  see  2  Cor  4  7-5  5.  The  idea  of  '  the  body 
of  glory '  was  given  him  by  the  form  of 
heavenly  splendour  in  which  he  had  seen  the 
Lord  Jesus  on  the  Damascus  road  :  cp.  2  Cor 
44-6,  also  Rev  1 13-17. 

This  transformation  of  the  saints  will  be 
the  supreme  act  of  that  mighty  working  in 
which  Jesus  displays  His  power,  as  Lord  of 
God's  kingdom,  to  subjugate  all  things  unto 
Himself  :  cp.  2 10,  n  and  Mt  28  is.  The  human 
body  is,  from  first  to  last,  the  object  of  His 
miracles.    Read  1  Cor  15  24-28  in  this  connexion. 

CHAPTER  4 

Final  Charge.     Acknowledgment  of 

Philippian  Bounty 

VI.  Closing  Exhortations  (4i-9) 

§  15.  4 1-3.  With  heightened  feeling  St.  Paul 

resumes  the  vein  of  exhortation  commenced 

in  31  :  Wherefore  (in  view  of  the  grand  hope 

of  our  calling)  .  .  so  stand  fast  in  the  Lord  (see 

1 27) — '  so,'  i.e.  in  '  imitating  '  the  Apostle  and 

'  marking  those  '   of  like   '  walk  '   (3 1^)  ;   this 

appeal  sums  up  the  foregoing   homily.     For 

the  endearing  epithets  accumulated  here,  cp. 

13-8  216,17,  also  lTh2i9.20. 

2.  The  entreaty  to  Euodia  and  Syntyche  to 
be  of  one  mind  in  the  Lord,  is  a  pointed  appli- 
cation of  1 27  and  2 1-^  ;  they  have  a  serious 
difference  of  judgment  in  carrying  out  the  will 
of  Christ.  These  ladies  bear  good  Greek  names ; 
one  of  them  is,  possibly,  the  same  as  the  Lydia 
of  Ac  16,  the  latter  name  in  that  case  being 
an  ethnic  appellation  ('  the  Lydian ').  As  at 
Thessalonica  (Acl?*),  women  were  conspicu- 
ous amongst  the  earliest  converts  in  Philippi : 
see  Intro. 

3.  The  Gk.  '  Synzygos  '  (yoke-fellow)  is  bet- 
ter read  as  a  proper  name,  on  which  the  Apo- 
stle plays,  as  upon  'Oncsimus'  (serviceable) 
in  Philemon  v.  1 1  :  Yea,  I  ask  also  thee,  true 
Synzygos — worthy  of  thy  name — help  them 


(Euodia  and  Syntyche)  to  come  to  an  under- 
standing. Others  suppose  Epaphroditus  to  be 
addi-essed  as  '  yokefellow  ' :  cp.  2  25.  The  dis- 
agreeing women  had  shared  St.  Paul's  struggles 
(this  Gk.  verb  is  rendered  striving  together  in 
1 27)  in  the  gospel, — a  fact  which  makes  him 
specially  anxious  for  then'  reconciliation.  With 
these  former  comrades  St.  Paul  associates  a 
certain  Clement  otherwise  unknown  (hardly 
the  Clement  of  Rome,  famous  a  generation 
later),  and  the  rest  of  my  fellow-workers,  whose 
names  are  in  the  book  of  life  (see  Rev  3^,  etc., 
Lkl020  Hebl2  23),_and  therefore  need  not 
be  enumerated  here. 

§  16.  44-7.  Joy  in  the  Lord,  and  the  peace  of 
God,  are  the  sovereign  factors  in  the  Christian 
temper  (vv.  4,  7)  ;  these  manifest  themselves 
in  gentleness  (RM  ;  AV  '  moderation  ')  toward 
men,  and  serenity  (In  nothing  be  anxious,  RV) 
in  all  events,  maintained  by  continual  prayer 
and  thanksgiving.  V.  4  repeats,  with  resolute 
emphasis,  the  command  of   31;  see  note. 

5.  Gentleness  (ascribed,  under  the  same  word, 
to  Christ  in  2  Cor  1 0 1)  is  the  opposite  of  self- 
assertion  and  rivalry.  Like  '  patience '  in  Jas  5  ^, 
it  is  enforced  by  the  nearness  of  the  Lord's 
advent,  the  prospect  of  which  quenches  worldly 
passions:  cp.  1  Cor 7 29-31  Lk  12  29-10.  Though 
we  may  not  think  of  the  second  coming  of 
Christ  as  at  hand  in  the  sense  in  which  the 
first  Christians  did,  our  appearance  at  His  judg- 
ment-seat is  no  less  certain,  and  the  thought 
of  it  should  affect  us  in  the  same  way. 

6.  Anxiety  is  precluded  by  the  direction,  let 
your  requests  be  made  known  unto  God — since 
'he  careth  for  you'  (lPet57;  cp.  Mt63i>32). 
Prayer  is  devout  address  to  God  in  general, 
supplication  the  specific  appeal  for  nelp,  and 
request  the  particular  petition  made.  In  every- 
thing includes  temporal  with  spiritual  needs, 
covering  all  occasions  of  anxiety. 

7.  The  peace  of  God  is  that  which  ensues  on 
reconciliation  through  Christ  and  the  bestow- 
ment  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  who  breathes  the 
Father's  love  into  the  heart:  see  Ro5i>2,8-ii 
Eph  2 13-18.  The  consciousness  of  this  fortifies 
the  mind  against  trouble  :  it  shall  guard  (or 
garrison)  your  hearts  and  your  thoughts  in  Christ 
Jesus.  God's  peace  surpasses  (A V  '  passes  ' : 
the  same  word  was  rendered  '  better  than  '  in 
2  3,  and  '  excellency '  in  3  S)  all  reason  (Gk.  nous) 
in  its  fortifying  power.  Greek  philosophy 
sought  in  Reason  the  prophylactic  against  care 
and  fear  ;  the  true  remedy  is  found  in  Christ. 

§  17.  4*'9.  The  real  Finally  is  now  reached : 
see  on  31.  The  list  of  virtues  here  com- 
mended is  unique  in  St.  Paul's  writings, 
resembling  the  catalogues  of  Greek  moralists; 
its  items  belong  to  natural  ethics.  These 
things,  St.  Paul  says,  take  account  of  (RM) ; 
i.e.  reckon  and  allow  for  (the  verb  of  313 
1  Cor  41  13^,  etc.) :  he  desiderates  in  the  readers 


62 


977 


4.  9 


PHILIPPIANS 


4.  20 


a  larger  appreciation  of  goodness,  a  catholic 
moral  taste — mark  the  reiterated  whatsoever. 
This  Church  was  intensely  devoted,  but  in- 
tellectually narrow  (see  on  1^), — a  defect 
naturally  aggravated  by  persecution.  Hence 
the  stress  laid  on  '  gentleness  '  in  v.  5,  and 
on  the  amenities  of  life  in  v.  8.  Things  true 
and  honourable  (to  be  revered)  constitute  the 
integrities  of  personal  character  ;  things  pure 
and  just  represent  the  moralities,  and  things 
amiable  and  winning  the  graces,  of  social  life. 
The  further  expressions,  if  there  be  any  virtue 
and  if  there  be  any  praise  (aught  to  be  praised), 
bring  in  every  conceivable  form  and  instance 
of  moral  excellence.  Virtue — the  ruling  cate- 
gory of  heathen  ethics — figures  only  in  this 
passage  of  St.  Paul ;  the  Apostle  is  seeking  com- 
mon ethical  ground  as  between  the  Church 
and  Gentile  society.  The  Christian  man 
must  prize  every  fragment  of  human  worth, 
claiming  it  for  God. 

9.  So  much  for  reflexion  and  appreciation;  for 
practice,  the  writer  points  once  more,  as  in  c. 
3,  to  himself, — to  his  personal  teaching  (what 
things  you  both  learned  and  received)  and  be- 
haviour (and  heard  of  and  saw  in  me).  The  God 
of  peace  shall  be  with  you  is  a  virtual  repetition  of 
V.  7 :  men  of  large-hearted  charity  and  steadfast 
loyalty  dwell  in  God's  peace  amidst  all  storms. 

VII.  Acknowledgment  of  the  Contri- 
bution  FROM   PhILIPPI   (410-20) 

§  18.  410-16.  With  the  Benediction  of  v. 
9  (cp.  R0I533)  the  letter  might  have  ended  ; 
but  St.  Paul  in  sending  back  Epaphroditus 
(225-30)  desires  to  make  ample  recognition  of 
the  gift  conveyed  by  him,  and  has  reserved 
this  matter  to  the  last.  The  remittance  had 
surely  been  acknowledged  earlier;  communica- 
tions had  been  exchanged  since  Epaphroditus' 
arrival  in  Rome :  see  Intro.  It  looks  as 
though  the  Philippians  had  been  grieved  in 
some  way  over  the  reception  of  their  con- 
tribution. Perhaps  the  Apostle's  former 
acknowledgment  through  its  brevity  was  open 
to  misconstruction.  With  care  and  earnest- 
ness he  now  endeavours  to  set  himself  right 
with  his  friends  : — 

'  Greatly  was  I  gladdened,'  he  writes,  '  that 
now  once  again  you  have  blossomed  out  in  your 
thoughtfulness  for  me  ;  indeed,  you  were  think- 
ing of  me  in  this  way  before,  but  you  lacked 
opportunity  to  show  it.'  The  recent  gift  was 
the  revival  of  the  care  for  the  Apostle's  wants 
shown  by  the  Philippians  at  an  earlier  time  ; 
no  other  Church  had  so  markedly  proved  its 
gratitude  in  this  kind  (v.  15).  The  readers 
are  aware  of  this  fact  (Moreover  ye  your- 
selves know,  ye  Philippians);  they  had  proba- 
bly referred  to  it,  in  their  Church  letter,  with 
pardonable  pride.  In  the  beginning  of  the 
gospel  means  at  the  time  of    its  coming  to 


these  regions  (cp.  1 5)  ;  in  the  matter  of  giving 
and  receiving  (RV)  might  be  rendered  'byway 
of  credit  and  debit  account '  (cp.  1  Cor  9  n  Gal  6  ^ 
Philemon  vv.  18,  19) — a  mercantile  idiom. 
When  I  wrent  out  from  Macedonia  refers  to 
contributions  sent  to  the  writer  at  Athens  or 
Corinth  (see  2  Cor  11 '''■lO) ;  even  before  this, 
during  the  short  time  he  stayed  in  Thessalo- 
nica,  they  had  helped  him  once  and  again  (v.  1 6). 

In  the  intervening  passage  (vv.  11-14)  St. 
Paul  explains  his  attitude.  He  does  not 
speak  as  though  in  want  and  dependent 
on  such  support  ;  he  has  learned  to  be  self- 
sufficient  (content)  under  all  conditions.  I 
know,  he  continues,  how  to  be  abased  (by 
poverty :  see  1  Cor  4  n  2  Cor  1 1 9. 27  Ac  20  s-i), 
and  I  know  also  how  to  be  in  affluence  ;  in 
every  variety  of  state  and  circumstance,  I  have 
become  versed  (lit.  '  initiated  ')  both  in  feasting 
and  hungering,  both  in  affluence  and  destitution. 
Thrice  St.  Paul  speaks  of  his  '  abundance ' 
(vv.  12  and  18)  ;  and  this  bears  out  the  con- 
jecture of  Sir  W.  M.  Ramsay,  suggested  by  the 
heavy  cost  entailed  in  the  '  appeal  to  Caesar ' 
(Ac  25 11' 12)  and  the  unlikelihood  of  his  taxing 
the  Churches  for  this  purpose,  that  he  had  by 
this  time  come  into  the  inheritance  of  property 
and  is  no  longer  a  poor  man.  If  this  was  so, 
then  St.  Paul  is  thinking  of  the  trials  of  both 
estates  when  he  says,  I  am  equal  to  every- 
thing, in  him  that  enables  me  (v.  13):  cp.  2  Cor 
12  9. 10  Eph  3  20  Col  1 29.  He  rejoices,  therefore, 
in  the  gift  of  the  Philippians  for  their  sake 
rather  than  his  own  (v.  1 4) :  Howbeit  ye  did  well, 
that  ye  had  fellowship  with  my  affliction  (showed 
sympathy  with  my  persecuted  condition) — not, 
as  'in  Thessalonica,'  with  'my  need'  (v.  16). 

§  19.  41^-20.  Hence  the  Apostle  was  not 
eager  for  the  gift  (as  a  boon  to  himself),  but 
for  the  evidence  it  afforded  of  God's  grace  in 
the  givers  (cp.  1  ii2Cor96-ii  Eph  5  9)— the  fruit 
that  increaseth  to  your  account.  But  I  have 
enough  and  to  spare ;  I  am  filled  full — in  satis- 
faction of  mind  as  of  bodily  wants  (cp.  22 
2  Cor  7  4) — -now  that  I  have  received  from  Epa- 
phroditus what  you  have  sent, — a  fragrant 
savour,  an  acceptable  sacrifice,  w^ell-pleasing  to 
God  (cp.  Heb  13 1*^):  the  religious,  not  the  mate- 
rial value  of  the  gift  weighs  with  its  receiver. 

19.  Since  the  offering  is  a  sacrifice  to  God, 
He  will  recompense  it  (cp.  Heb  6 10  Prov  191^)  : 
my  God  will  fill  up  every  need  of  yours — as  you 
have  striven  to  meet  His  servant's  need — 
according  to  his  riches.  Temporal  and  spirit- 
ual needs  are  together  included  in  the  promise ; 
God's  '  wealth  '  contains  all  kinds  of  treasure. 
In  glory  points  to  the  heavenly  consummation 
(cp.  Ro24,7  Eph  17,18)^  in  Christ  Jesus  to  the 
ground  and  channel  of  divine  supplies. 

20.  The  Doxology  (cp.  2  Cor  9 1^,  in  relation 
to  its  context)  magnifies  the  bountiful  Giver 
as  our  Father :  see  Mt  6  S'  32. 


978 


4.21 


PHILIPPIANS— COLOSSIANS 


§  20.  421-23.  In  conclusion,  the  Apostle  bids 
a  greeting  to  every  saint  in  Christ  Jesus — his 
good  will  knows  no  exception:  see  11)4,7,8^ 
With  his  own  he  sends  greetings  from  his 
companions,  from  the  whole  Roman  Church, 
and  particularly  from  those  of  Caesar's  house- 
hold (to  think  of  Christians  in  Neivs  house  !  ) 
— the  latter  singled  out  because  their  saluta- 


INTRO. 

tion  would  peculiarly  touch  the  Philippians :  see 
Intro.  The  circumstances  of  his  captivity  and 
trial  brought  the  Apostle  into  contact  with  the 
palace  and  the  imperial  attendants  ;  friends  in 
that  quarter  were  specially  serviceable  to  him. 
23.   The  Benediction  (RV)  is  nearly  identi- 


cal   with   that 
2  Timothy. 


of    Galatians,  Philemon,  and 


COLOSSIANS 


INTRODUCTION 


I.  CoLOSSiE  was  a  town  of  Phrygia  in  Asia 
Minor,  situated  upon  the  S.  bank  of  the 
Lycus,  a  tributary  of  the  Maeander.  Laodicea 
(21  413,15,16  Rev  111  314)  and  Hierapolis  (4i3) 
were  distant  from  it  eleven  and  thirteen  miles 
respectively.  As  these  cities  grew,  Colossse 
seems  to  have  declined  ;  for,  though  Herodotus 
speaks   of   it   as  'a  city  of   great   size,'  and 


day  ;  it  laid  down  certain  restrictions  as  to 
meats  and  drinks,  made  much  of  circumcision 
and  the  Law,  and  gave  an  important  place  to 
the  tradition  of  men.  It  insisted  on  severity 
to  the  body,  and  perhaps  claimed  to  rest  upon 
vision.  By  its  worship  of  the  angels  it  de- 
graded Christ  from  His  true  position  as  the 
Head  of  the  body.     While  the  teachers  thought 


Xenophon  as  '  a  populous  city,  prosperous  and     too  meanly  of  themselves  to  seek  fellowship 
great,'   about  the   beginning  of  the   Christian     with  God,  and  therefore  worshipped  the  angels 


era  it  is  mentioned  by  Strabo  as  '  a  small 
town.'  In  St.  Paul's  time,  Pliny  classes  it 
among  the  '  most  famous  towns '  of  the  district ; 
but  he  was  probably  thinking  mostly  of  its  past 
consequence.  It  is  to  the  Christians  in  this 
town  that  the  present  Epistle  is  addressed  ; 
and  some  discussion  has  arisen  as  to  St.  Paul's 
previous  relations  with  them.  He  seems  to 
have  written  an  earlier  letter  to  them  (4  lO)  to 
which  Epaphras  had  brought  a  reply  (1  '^)  ;  but 
whether  he  had  himself  actually  visited  Colossae 
at  any  time  is  a  matter  of  doubt.  He  may 
have  done  so  on  his  Third  Missionary  Journey, 
when  '  he  went  over  all  the  country  of  Galatia 
and  Phrygia  in  order  '  (Ac  1 8  ^3),  or  even  during 
his  three  years'  stay  at  Ephesus,  when  '  all 
they  which  dwelt  in  Asia  heard  the  word ' 
(Ac  1 9 1*^),  but  it  is  tolerably  clear  that  he  had 
never  made  a  prolonged  stay  in  Colossse,  and 
was  not  directly  the  founder  of  its  Church 
(1*2 1).  Christianity  was  probably  introduced 
into    Colossae    by    one    of    his    converts,   and 


they  were  puffed  up  with  conceit  towards  men, 
professing  to  put  a  philosophical  view  of  re- 
ligion in  place  of  the  elementary  teaching  the 
Colossians  had  received  (2 16-23)_ 

The  modern  reader  will  find  the  Epistle 
easier  to  understand  if  he  gains  some  acquaint- 
ance with  the  doctrine  of  angels  current  in  the 
Judaism  of  St.  Paul's  time.  This  doctrine  had 
received  a  great  development  in  the  centuries 
immediately  preceding  the  birth  of  Christ. 
The  world  was  imagined  to  be  full  of  angels 
and  demons,  who  presided  over  all  the  opera- 
tions of  nature  and  entered  into  the  closest 
relations  with  the  life  of  man.  Every  blade  of 
grass  had  its  angel,  much  more  the  mightier 
forces  and  elements  of  nature.  Each  nation 
had  its  angel,  who  guided  its  destiny  and  fought 
its  battles.  The  common  view  that  the  angels 
are  sinless  was  unknown,  and  even  the  best 
were  not  regarded  as  free  from  moral  imper- 
fections. Owing  to  the  distance  which  later 
Jewish  theology   set   between    God   and  the 


Epaphras  {V  4 12, 13)  generally  has  the  honour  world,  it  was   natural  that  many  should  turn 

accorded  to  him.  for  help  to  the  angels,  who  were  ever  close  at 

2.  Occasion   of  the    Epistle.     The  present  hand  and  were  the  actual  controllers  of  the 

letter,  which  was  taken  by  Tychicus,  who  was  ordinary  course  of  nature  and  human  affairs. 


accompanied  by  Onesimus,  Philemon's  runaway 
slave  (4'i^>9),  was  called  forth  by  a  serious  dan- 
ger that  threatened  the  faith  of  the  Colossian 
Church.  The  danger  arose  from  a  type  of 
false  teaching,  essentially  Jewish  in  character. 
It  emphasised  the  importance  of  sacred  sea- 
sons, the  sabbath,  the  new  moon,   the  feast 


979 


It  IS  probable  that  by  '  the  elements  of  the 
world  '  (2  8, 20  R  V)  St.  Paul  means  the  elemental 
spirits,  and  he  considers  the  whole  race  of 
man,  both  Jewish  and  Gentile,  to  have  been  in 
subjection  to  these  'elements,'  '  which  by  nature 
were  no  gods'  (Gal43-i0).  This  angelic  rule 
found    one  expression  in  the  life   of  Israel 


INTRO. 


COLOSSIANS 


1.1 


which  is  of  great  importance  for  our  purpose. 
It  was  a  tenet  of  Judaism,  endorsed  also  in 
the  New  Testament  (Ac  7  53  ;  cp.AcT^s  Gal 
319  Heb22),  that  the  Law  had  been  given 
through  the  angels  ;  accordingly  subjection  to 
it  meant  subjection  to  them. 

A  large  section  of  Epaphras'  converts  at 
ColossaB  had  given  then-  adhesion  to  the  false 
teaching,  and  no  doubt  the  sounder  portion 
had  written  for  advice  to  Epaphras  or  even  to 
St.  Paul,  and  hence  the  Epistle  before  us. 

St.  Paul  does  not  meet  the  Colossian  heresy 
by  an  appeal  to  the   Old  Testament,  which 
might  have  been  set  aside  by  allegorical  inter- 
pretation.    He  meets  it  by  an  appeal  to  their 
own  experience,   and  by  a  statement  of  the 
Person  and  work  of  Christ,  the  Son  of  God  and 
all-sufficient  Saviour,  and  he  dwells  on  them  as 
contradictory  to  and   incompatible    with   the 
conceptions  entertained  by  the  false  teachers. 
In  the  Son,  who  had  condescended  to  become 
man,  there  resides,  he  says,  the  totality  of  the 
divine  qualities  and  powers.     Of  Himself  He 
is  sufficient  to  form  the  link  uniting  God  and 
man  together.      Where,  then,  is  there  room  for 
angelic  and  other  mediators  intruding  between 
the  lowliness  of  man  and  the  majesty  of  God  ? 
Christ  suffices  to  bridge  the  chasm.     And  how 
insufficient  are  angelic  beings  for  such  an  end  ! 
Christ,  acting  for  His  Father,  has  created  the 
universe  and  is  its  Head — not  any  angel.     The 
angels  were  indeed  His  creatures.     Christ — 
not  any  angel — is  also  the  Head  of  the  Church. 
The  Old  Dispensation,  indeed,  had  been   '  or- 
dained by  angels '  (Gal  3 1^),  and  was  under  their 
supervision.     But  their  Dispensation,  with  its 
ordinances  and  rules  and  observances,  was  done 
away  with  (Eph2i5).     Christ  had   taken  the 
bond  of  the  Old  Dispensation  (and  of  every 
other  religion  which  founds  itself  on  outward 
observances)  and  had  nailed  it  to  His  Cross, 
superseding  by  His  own  operation  the  inferior 
work  which  had  been  entrusted  to  the  agency 
of  angels.     How  can  it  be  right  to  descend  to 
the  adoration  of  angels  from  the  worship  of 
the  Lord  and  Creator  of  angels,  who  had  shown 
His    superiority   to    their  '  principalities    and 
powers,'  and  had  '  openly  triumphed  '  over  the 
Dispensation  which  they  had  been  allowed  to 
superintend,  by  the  Dispensation  inaugurated 
by  the  Cross  (214>15).     Such  an  adoration  is 
no  sign  of  humility,  but  a  superstition  dishon- 
ouring to  the  gospel  and  arising  from  an  in- 
ability to  realise  the  true  relation  between  God 
and  man,  as  man  is  reconciled  and  adopted  in 
Christ  (218).     As  to  the  rules  of  outward  ob- 
servances in  which  Judaism  delighted,  and  the 
injunctions   of  asceticism  which  perhaps  fol- 
lowed from  the  misapprehension  of  the  nature 
of  matter,  they  are  of  no  use  as  restraints  to 
the  flesh,  and  only  lead  to  a  self-conceit  which 
applauds  itself  for  its  humility. 


The  overmastering  idea  of  the  greatness  of 
Christ  gives  their  form  to  some  of  the  practical 
exhortations  which  succeed  to  the  argument — 
'  Christ  sitteth  upon  the  right  hand  of  God '  : 
'  your  life  is  hid  with  Christ  in  God '  :  '  Christ 
our  life  '  :  '  Christ  is  all  in  all '  :  '  as  is  fit  in 
the  Lord '  :  'as  to  the  Lord,  and  not  unto 
men  '  :  '  the  Lord  Christ '  :  '  the  mystery  of 
Christ '  :  '  Epaphras,  a  servant  of  Christ'  (3^'^> 

4,11,18,23,24  43,12)_ 

3.  Authorship.  There  need  be  no  misgiving 
in  accepting  the  Pauline  authorship  of  the 
Epistle.  The  doubts  formerly  entertained  by 
critics  have  largely  disappeared,  and  the  num- 
ber continually  increases  of  those  who  fully 
admit  its  genuineness.  The  time  is  probably 
not  far  distant  when  this  will  be  regarded  as 
settled  by  common  consent.  It  used  to  be 
said  that  the  false  teaching  alluded  to  by  St. 
Paul  was  a  form  of  that  large  class  of  beliefs 
grfOuped  together  under  the  name  of  Gnos- 
ticism, and  therefore  that  it  could  not  be  earlier 
than  the  second  century.  The  present  writer 
is  convinced  that  there  is  not  a  trace  of  specific 
Gnosticism  in  the  Epistle,  but  even  if  there 
were  we  have  good  reason  to  believe  that  the 
Gnostic  systems  of  the  second  century  struck 
their  roots  into  a  much  earlier  time.  He  also 
believes  that  the  Essene  features  found  by 
many  scholars  in  the  false  teaching  are  quite 
imaginary.  There  is  absolutely  nothing  in 
that  teaching  which  could  not  have  been  given 
in  Colossse  by  59  a.d.  or  even  earlier.  Nor  is 
there  anything  in  the  writer's  own  exposition 
that  contradicts  Pauline  authorship.  His  doc- 
trine of  Christ  and  the  angels  can  be  matched 
in  nearly  every  point  from  St.  Paul's  generally 
accepted  Epistles.  The  style,  it  is  true,  differs 
from  that  of  Galatians,  Corinthians,  and 
Romans,  but  a  letter  written  in  the  meditative 
seclusion  of  a  prison  is  not  likely  to  have  the 
same  rapidity  of  movement  or  passionate 
intensity  as  a  letter  like  Galatians,  dashed  off 
at  white  heat  by  a  missionary  immersed  in  the 
most  distracting  activities  and  fighting  with 
his  back  to  the  wall  in  defence  of  the  gospel. 
The  Epistle  was  written  at  the  same  time  as 
Ephesians  and  Philemon,  possibly  during  the 
Apostle's  imprisonment  at  Caesarea,  but  much 
more  probably  at  Rome.  It  was  in  the  earlier 
part  of  his  imprisonment,  and  also,  we  may  say 
with  tolerable  confidence,  before  the  compo- 
sition of  Philippians.  The  precise  date  is 
uncertain,  probably  59  a.d.  is  not  far  from  the 
mark. 

CHAPTER  1 

The  Supremacy  and  All-Sufficiency  of 
Christ 
1-8.  Salutation  to  the  Colossian  Christians, 
and  thanksgiving  for  the  news  of  their  spiritual 

state. 


980 


1. 1 


COLOSSIANS 


1.  16 


Paraphrase.  '  (1,  2)  Paul  and  Timothy 
salute  the  saints  and  believers  in  Colossi. 
(3-5)  We  always  thank  God,  when  we  pray 
for  you,  on  account  of  your  faith  and  the  love 
you  display  in  hope  of  the  heavenly  reward,  of 
which  you  heard  when  the  gospel  was  first 
proclaimed  to  you.  (6-8)  This  gospel  is  the 
word  of  truth  which  approves  itself  by  its 
universal  diffusion  and  success,  and  has  from 
the  very  first  achieved  a  similar  success  among 
yourselves,  taught  you  as  it  has  been  in  its 
genuine  reality  by  Epaphras,  who  has  minis- 
tered to  you  in  my  place  and  has  made  known 
your  love  to  me.' 

2.  Faithful]  better,  'believing.'  And  the 
Lord  Jesus  Christ]  RV  rightly  omits. 

3.  Better,  '  We  always  give  thanks  to  God 
the  Father  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  when  we 
pray  for  you.'  5.  For  the  hope]  i.e.  based  on 
the  hope.  6,  7.  It  is  the  gospel  as  Epaphras 
taught  it  them,  not  that  urged  on  them  by  the 
false  teachers,  which  is  exercising  this  world- 
wide influence.  The  universal  corrects  the 
local.  7^.  RV  '  who  is  a  faithful  minister  of 
Christ  on  our  behalf '  is  probably  right.  The 
Apostle  of  the  Gentiles  could  not  himself  visit 
Colossse.  Epaphras  has  done  this  part  of  his 
work  for  him.  Epaphras  is  not  to  be  identi- 
fied with  Epaphroditus  (Phil  2  25-30  418). 

9-14.  St.  Paul's  prayer  that  the  Colossians 
may  be  filled  with  wisdom,  strength,  and 
thanksgiving. 

Paraphrase.  '  (9)  Since  we  heard  the  glad 
report,  as  you  pray  for  us  so  we  pray  without 
ceasing  for  you,  that  you  may  be  filled  with  a 
knowledge  of  God's  will  touching  your  conduct, 
a  knowledge  characterised  by  wisdom  and  in- 
sight. (10)  Such  knowledge  is  not  indeed  an 
end  in  itself.  It  must  lead  to  a  life  well 
pleasing  to  Christ ;  you  must  bear  fruit  and 
increase  in  every  good  work  by  means  of  your 
knowledge  of  God.  (11)  This  you  can  do 
only  as  God  Himself  strengthens  you,  and  this 
He  will  do  not  simply  according  to  your  need, 
but  in  the  measure  of  His  own  power.  Thus 
you  will  be  strengthened  for  the  supreme  test, 
the  trial  of  steadfastness  and  forbearance, 
which  you  will  meet  with  joy.  (12-14)  Give 
thanks  also  to  the  Father,  who  qualified  you 
to  share  in  the  lot  of  the  saints  which  is  situ- 
ated in  the  realm  of  light,  by  rescuing  you 
from  the  dominion  of  darkness  and  translating 
you  into  the  kingdom  of  that  Son  on  whom 
His  love  rests,  in  whom  we  possess  deliverance, 
the  forgiveness  of  our  sins.' 

9.  In  all  wisdom,  etc.]  RV  '  in  all  spiritual 
wisdom  and  understanding.'  10.  RM  '  by  the 
knowledge.'  12.  Made  us  meet]  better, 
'qualified  you.'  Usually  the  saints  in  light  is 
taken  as  a  single  phrase  meaning  '  saints  in 
heaven.'  But  '  in  light '  should  be  connected 
with  '  the  lot.'    It  defines  its  situation.    '  The 


lot '  (AV  inheritance)  '  of  the  saints '  is  the 
blessedness  awaiting  them.  13.  His  dear  Son] 
RV  'the  Son  of  his  love.'  14.  Redemption] 
The  view  that  the  word  means  ransom  is  very 
dubious.  '  Deliverance '  is  the  best  translation. 
Omit  through  his  blood. 

15-23.  The  supremacy  of  the  Son  in  the 
universe  and  the  Church. 

Paraphrase.  '(15)  This  Son  of  God's  love, 
in  whom  we  have  our  deliverance,  the  pardon 
of  our  sins,  is  the  exact  image  of  God,  so  that 
while  God  is  the  invisible,  He  is  manifested 
to  ^^s  in  His  Son.  (16)  The  Son  also  possesses 
the  first-born's  dominion  over  every  creature 
in  virtue  of  the  fact  that  the  creation  of  all 
things  depended  on  Him,  whether  in  heaven 
or  on  earth,  whether  visible  or  invisible.  Let 
it  be  specially  observed  that  in  the  '  all  things ' 
thus  created  must  be  included  the  Angelic 
powers  of  the  loftiest  orders.  All  things  I 
say  have  come  into  existence  by  His  agency, 
and  He  is  the  goal  for  which  they  have  been 
created.  (17)  He  is  before  all  things  and  the 
principle  of  their  cohesion.  (18)  And  this 
preeminence  in  the  universe  is  matched  by  His 
preeminence  in  the  Church.  He  is  the  Head 
of  the  body,  inasmuch  as  He  is  the  ruler  who 
has  passed  to  His  dominion  from  the  dead,  in 
order  that  He  who  is  from  the  first  supreme 
in  the  universe  may  become  supreme  in  the 
Church,  and  thus  be  supreme  in  every  sphere. 
(19,  20)  This  position  He  attained  because 
God  was  well  pleased  that  all  the  fulness  of 
His  Grace  should  dwell  in  His  Son,  and  thus 
reconcile  through  Him  all  things  to  Himself. 
It  was  thi'ough  the  blood  shed  on  His  Cross 
that  peace  was  thus  made.  And  the  scope  of 
this  reconciliation  was  universal,  it  embraced 
not  things  in  earth  alone,  but  those  in  the 
heavens  ;  (21)  aye,  and  you  Colossians,  too, 
once  estranged  from  God  and  hostile  to  Him 
though  you  were.  (22,  23)  Now  you  have 
been  reconciled  in  the  Son's  fleshly  body 
through  His  death,  to  present  yourselves 
blameless  before  God,  if  you  stand  unshaken 
in  the  Gospel.' 

The  aim  of  this  great  exposition  of  the 
nature  and  work  of  the  Son  is  to  accord  to 
Him  the  supreme  position  alike  in  the  world 
and  the  Church,  and  sweep  away  the  false 
teaching  which  assigned  to  angelic  mediators 
the  position  and  functions  of  the  Son.  He 
and  not  they  created,  sustains,  and  rules  the 
universe  ;  they,  even  the  loftiest,  are  merely 
His  creatures.  He,  and  not  they,  is  the 
Redeemer,  they  are  among  the  redeemed. 

15.  The  image  perfectly  resembles  and 
reveals  the  original.  First  born]  The  word 
expresses  priority  to  and  then  supremacy  over. 
Probably  the  latter  only  is  meant  here.  Every 
creature]   better  than  RV  '  all  creation.' 

16.  By  him]   RV  '  in  him.'     Thrones,  etc.] 


981 


1.17 


COLOSSIANS 


2.4 


various  ranks  of  higher  angels.  17.  Consist] 
RM  '  That  is,  hold  together.'  The  Son  is 
the  centre  of  unity  for  the  universe.  19.  RV 
'  For  it  was  the  good  pleasure  of  the  Father 
that  in  him  should  all  the  fulness  dwell.'  A 
very  difficult  v.,  but  probably  this  is  more 
correct  than  RM,  '  For  the  whole  fulness  of 
God  was  pleased  to  dwell  in  him.'  The  ful- 
ness is  not  as  in  2  9,  the  fulness  of  Godhead, 
but  the  fulness  of  grace  possessed  by  the  Son 
in  His  incarnate  state.  20.  The  Son's  atoning 
death  availed  for  the  whole  angelic  world,  as 
well  as  for  the  world  of  men,  since  the  Son  is 
Head  of  both. 

20-22.  Very  difficult,  but  probably  a  full 
stop  should  be  placed  at  the  end  of  v.  21.  We 
may  translate,  '  And  through  him  to  reconcile 
all  things  unto  himself,  having  made  peace 
through  the  blood  of  his  Cross,  through  him, 
whether  the  things  on  earth  or  the  things  in  the 
heavens,  you  also  who  once  were  alienated  and 
enemies  in  mind  in  evil  works.  But  now  ye 
have  been  reconciled  in  the  body  of  his  flesh,' 
etc.  22.  Body  of  his  flesh]  as  against  the 
false  teachers  who  thought  non-incarnate 
angels  could  redeem. 

24 — C.  23.  Paul's  sufferings,  labours,  and 
anxieties  for  the  Church. 

Paraphrase.  '(24-26)  I  rejoice  in  the  suffer- 
ings I  endure  for  your  sake,  and  fill  up  the 
measure  of  afflictions  Christ  has  still  to  endure 
in  my  flesh  on  behalf  of  His  body,  the  Church, 
which  I  serve  in  my  office  of  stewardship  en- 
trusted to  me  by  God,  to  set  forth  the  gospel 
in  its  universal  scope,  that  secret  hidden  from 
eternity  but  now  revealed  to  His  saints.  (27) 
To  them  God  has  willed  to  make  known  how 
rich  is  the  glory  of  this  mystery  among  the 
Gentiles  which  is  none  other  than  the  in- 
dwelling Christ,  the  pledge  of  your  participa- 
tion in  the  heavenly  glory.  (28,  29)  This 
Christ  we  proclaim  to  all,  that  we  may  present 
each  perfect  in  Him — an  end  to  which  I 
devote  all  the  energy  which  He  has  made  to 
work  so  mightily  in  me.  (C.  2.  1-3)  For  let 
me  assure  you  how  intense  is  my  inward 
struggle  for  you  and  the  Laodiceans,  personally 
unknown  to  me  though  you  are,  that  you  may 
be  strengthened  and  knit  together  in  love  to 
attain  all  rich  fulness  of  insight,  a  full  know- 
ledge of  Christ  the  divine  mystery,  in  whom 
exist  all  the  treasures  of  wisdom  and  know- 
ledge, not  on  the  surface,  but  concealed  where 
they  must  be  discovered  by  earnest  search.' 

24.  Christ  suffers  in  His  members  in  virtue 
of  their  union  with  Him,  and  the  afflictions 
Paul  undergoes  in  prison  are  filling  up  the 
measure  of  suffering  Christ  has  still  to  endure 
in  him. 

25.  Dispensation]  RM  '  stewardship.' 

26.  Mystery]  truth  not  to  be  discovered  by 
man's  unaided  power,  and  therefore  known 


only  through  divine  revelation.  This  mystery 
was  concealed  from  the  ages  before  the  world 
and  the  generations  of  mankind,  in  other  words 
from  angels  and  from  men. 

C.  2.  I .  Paul  was  personally  imknown  both 
to  the  Colossians  and  the  Laodiceans. 

2.  Full  assurance]  RM  '  fulness.'  To  the 
acknowledgement,  etc.]  RV,  better, '  that  they 
may  know  the  mystery  of  God,  even  Christ.' 
The  wealth  of  full  understanding  consists  in 
knowledge  of  the  mystery  of  God,  and  this 
mystery  of  God  is  no  other  than  Christ  Himself, 
since  in  Him  God's  eternal  purpose  is  realised 
and  revealed.  They  need  not  go  to  other 
sources  as  the  false  teachers  advise,  all  is 
contained  in  Christ. 

CHAPTER  2 
The  False  Teaching  and  its  Refutation 

4-15.  Hold  fast  to  Christ  the  All-sufficient 
Saviour. 

Paraphrase.  '  (4)  I  emphasise  these  truths 
about  Christ  lest  you  should  be  beguiled  by 
plausible  persuasions.  (5)  While  I  am  physi- 
cally absent  from  you,  I  am  with  you  in  spirit, 
rejoicing  with  you  and  beholding  your  order 
and  the  firm  foundation  of  your  faith  in  Christ. 
(6,  7)  Let  your  moral  life  in  Christ  Jesus  be 
in  harmony  with  the  teaching  through  which 
you  received  Him  as  Lord  ;  be  firmly  rooted 
and  built  up  in  Him,  established  in  faith  as 
you  were  taught,  abounding  in  thankfulness. 
(8)  Let  no  one  lead  you  away  as  his  prey  by 
any  empty  sham  that  he  may  recommend  as 
'  philosophy '  drawn  from  human  tradition, 
with  the  elemental  spirits  of  the  world  and 
not  Christ  for  its  content.  (9,  10)  For  it  is 
in  Christ,  not  in  them,  that  all  the  fulness  of 
Godhead  dwells,  and  dwells  as  an  organic 
whole  ;  and  it  is  in  Him  that  you  find  every 
spiritual  need  completely  met,  in  Him  the 
Head  of  the  angelic  powers.  (11)  You  need 
no  physical  circumcision,  for  in  your  conversion 
you  received  a  spiritual  circumcision,  not  the 
mere  cutting  away  of  a  fragment  of  the  body, 
but  the  removal  of  the  whole  carnal  nature. 
Really  this  went  back  to  the  death  of  Christ 
in  which  He  underwent  this  spiritual  circum- 
cision ;  (12)  and  you  have  not  only  shared 
Christ's  burial  in  baptism,  but  also  His  resur- 
rection through  faith  in  the  working  of  God 
who  raised  Him  from  the  dead.  (13)  You 
too,  though  spiritually  dead  by  reason  of 
your  trespasses  with  your  carnal  nature 
unremoved  by  spiritual  circumcision  ;  you 
did  God  quicken  along  with  Christ,  forgiv- 
ing us  all  our  trespasses  (I  say  '  us,'  not 
'  you,'  for  I  cannot  be  silent  about  God's  for- 
giving love  to  me),  because  He  had  cancelled 
the  bond  which  was  against  us  by  its  ordinances, 
the  Law  which  was  hostile  to  us.  (14)  And 
He  has  taken  it  out  of  the  way,  annulling  it 


982 


2.8 


COLOSSIANS 


2.  20 


by  nailing  it  to  Christ's  Cross  that  it  might  be 
put  to  death  with  Him.  (15)  He  despoiled 
the  angelic  forces,  and  showed  them  frankly  in 
their  true  position  as  givers  of  an  abrogated 
Law,  and  rulers  of  elements  to  which  Christians 
have  died,  triumphing  over  them  on  the  Cross.' 

8.  Paul  is  not  condemning  philosophy 
properly  so  called,  but  the  empty  doctrines 
which  the  false  teachers  dignified  by  that 
name.  Spoil]  RV  '  maketh  spoil  of  you  '  ;  the 
word  means  to  lead  away  as  prey.  The 
rudiments  of  the  world]  better,  as  mg.,  '  the 
elements  of  the  world.'  This  cannot  be  the 
first  principles  of  religion,  which  could  not  be 
well  called  '  weak  and  beggarly  '  (Gal  4  9),  were 
not  strictly  common  to  Jews  and  heathen,  nor 
an  apt  description  of  the  false  teaching  which 
was  something  very  different.  Here  they  are 
contrasted  with  Christ;  in  Gal4S'9  they  are 
identified  with  those  who  by  nature  are  not 
gods  ;  and  in  Gal  4  ^  compared  with  '  guardians 
and  stewards.'  They  must  then  be  personal 
beings,  not  however  the  spirits  of  the  stars, 
but  the  elemental  spirits  that  animate  the 
material  world.  The  false  '  philosophy '  had 
these  angels  not  Christ  for  its  subject-matter. 

9.  The  reference  is  to  the  exalted  Christ. 
Bodily]  usually  explained  to  mean  in  bodily 

fashion.  Probably  we  should  render  '  in  the 
form  of  a  body,'  and  explain  it  to  mean  as  an 
organic  whole.  The  fulness  of  the  Godhead  is 
not  distributed  among  the  angels,  but  exists  in 
all  its  completeness  in  Christ.  11.  The  body 
of  the  sins  of  the  flesh]  RY  '  the  body  of  the 
flesh.'  The  carnal  nature,  the  old  self,  is 
meant.  The  circumcision  of  Christ]  prob- 
ably an  expression  for  the  death  of  Christ, 
in  which  the  Christian  ideally  died  to  sin. 

12.  RV  'Through  faith  in  the  working  of 
God.'  13.  The  uncircumcision  of  your  flesh]  not 
physical,  as  if  he  meant, '  because  you  were  un- 
circumcised  Gentiles,'  for  the  circumcised  Jews 
also  were,  in  Paul's  judgment,  spiritually  dead. 
He  means  the  spiritual  uncircumcision,  which 
consisted  in  the  possession  of  a  carnal  nature. 

Forgiven  you]  RV  '  forgiven  us.'  Paul 
cannot  leave  himself  out.  14.  Handwriting  of 
ordinances,  that  was  against  us]  RM  '  the  bond 
that  was  against  us  by  its  ordinances.' 

15.  Principalities  and  power]  mean  here 
precisely  what  they  mean  elsewhere  in  this 
Epistle.  They  are  not  evil  spirits,  but  the 
angels  who  gave  the  Law  that  brought  Christ 
to  His  death,  and  that  rule  over  the  material 
elements.  God  is  the  subject  throughout  the 
passage. 

16-23.  Hold  fast  the  treasure  of  which  the 
false  teachers  would  rob  you. 

Paraphrase.  '(16)  Since  then  the  Law  no 
longer  exists  for  you,  and  the  angels  have 
been  deposed  from  their  rule,  let  no  one  pass 
judgment  on  you  in  the  matter  of   food  or 


sacred  seasons.  (17)  These  things  are  a  mere 
shadow  ;  it  is  Christ  who  possesses  the  substance. 
(18)  Let  no  one  give  judgment  against  you  in 
the  matter  of  gratuitous  humility  and  angel 
worship,  vainly  speculating  and  inflated  with 
fleshly  pride.  (19)  Such  a  man  has  no  firm 
grasp  of  Christ  the  Head,  from  whom  the 
whole  body  of  the  Church  draws  and  maintains 
its  unity  by  the  joints  and  ligaments  and 
grows  with  such  growth  as  God  requires. 
(20)  If  your  conversion  meant  that  in  union 
with  Christ  you  died  to  the  elemental  spirits 
that  ruled  the  old  order,  why  do  you  act  as  if  you 
still  belonged  to  it  and  were  subject  to  them, 
and  permit  yourselves  to  be  dictated  to  in 
such  terms  as  these,  (21)  '  You  must  not  handle 
nor  taste  nor  even  touch  '  ?  (22)  What  folly, 
when  every  one  of  the  things  prohibited  is  so 
unimportant  that  we  annihilate  it  in  the  very 
act  of  use  !  These  prohibitions  have  their 
source  not  in  divine,  but  in  human  precepts 
and  teachings.  (23)  They  confer,  it  is  true,  a 
reputation  for  wisdom  in  respect  of  gratuitous 
worship  of  the  angels  and  humility  and  ascetic 
severity  to  the  body,  but  confer  no  true  honour, 
and  tend  to  the  indulgence  of  the  flesh.' 

16.  The  Jewish  character  of  the  false 
teaching  comes  very  plainly  into  view  here. 

17.  In  Christ  they  have  all  in  reality  which 
they  think  they  have  in  Judaism.  This  v. 
might  almost  serve  as  a  text  for  the  Epistle  to 
the  Hebrews,  which  sees  in  Christianity  the 
religion  of  eternity  realised  in  time  in  the 
person  and  work  of  Jesus,  but  casting  its 
shadow  before  it  into  the  world  in  the  form 
of  Judaism. 

18.  Text  and  translation  are  alike  very 
uncertain.  We  should  probably  correct  the 
text  and  render  :  '  Let  no  one  give  judgment 
against  you  in  voluntary  humility  and  worship 
of  the  angels,  treading  the  void  of  air,  ground- 
lessly  puffed  up  by  the  mind  of  his  flesh.' 

Intruding  into]  If  the  text  is  right,  '  inves- 
tigating' would  be  a  better  rendering.  Which 
he  hath  not  seen]  The  negative  should  certainly 
be  omitted  with  the  best  MSS.  If  the  text  is 
right,  the  meaning  of  the  clause  seems  to  be, 
'  investigating  his  visions,'  but  the  text  is 
probably  incorrect,  and  we  should  read  with  a 
very  slight  alteration  of  the  Gk.,  '  treading  the 
void  of  air.'  They  leave  the  solid  ground 
of  fact  and  experience  for  the  insubstantial 
bubbles  of  speculation.  Fleshly  mind]  a  sharp 
warning  to  men  who  fancied  they  were  achiev- 
ing the  destruction  of  the  flesh  by  worshipping 
angels  and  severity  to  the  body  ;  these  prac- 
tices had  their  origin  in  the  flesh,  which  domi- 
nated their  whole  nature,  mind  and  all. 

19.  Severance  from  the  Head  cuts  oif  the 
supply  of  spiritual  life.  20.  Death  with 
Christ  is  death  to  the  old  order  of  things,  to 
the  world  and  the  Law  and  the  angels  who 


983 


2.  21 


COLOSSIANS 


4.  18 


ruled  them  both.  The  false  teachers  would 
have  them  revert  to  a  stage  they  have  left 
below  them.  2i.  Precepts  of  the  false  teachers. 
23.  Shew  of  wisdom]  better,  '  reputation  for 
wisdom.'  Will  worship]  a  worship  not  required 
of  them,  the  worship  of  angels.  Neglecting 
of]  RV  '  severity  to.'  Not  in  any  honour,  etc.] 
This  clause  is  extremely  difficult,  and  no  satis- 
factory explanation  has  been  given.  The  RV 
rendering,  '  but  are  not  of  any  value  against 
the  indulgence  of  the  flesh,'  is  highly  question- 
able. Hort,  our  chief  textual  critic,  and 
Haupt,  the  best  commentator  on  the  Epistle, 
are  agreed  that  the  text  is  corrupt.  Perhaps 
some  words  have  been  accidentally  omitted. 

CHAPTER  3 

The  Christian's  Risen  Life  and  the 
Duties  it  entails 

1-4.  Resurrection  with  Christ  and  the 
heavenly  life. 

Paraphrase]  '  (1)  Seeing  then  that  at  your 
conversion  you  shared  not  Christ's  death  only, 
but  His  resurrection,  go  on  to  participate  in 
His  heavenly  life,  in  that  heaven  where  He  is, 
and  where  He  sits  at  God's  right  hand.  (2) 
Let  your  whole  thought  be  set  on  heavenly, 
not  on  earthly  things.  (3)  For  you  died  with 
Christ,  and  your  life  in  union  with  Him  is  a 
hidden  life  in  Cod.  (4)  It  is  not  always  to 
remain  hidden,  for  at  Christ's  second  coming 
it  will  be  revealed  ;  for  Christ  is  our  very  life, 
so  that  His  manifestation  involves  ours.' 

2.  Affection]  RV  'mind.'  3.  For  ye  are 
dead]   RV  '  Ye  died,'  i.e.  at  conversion. 

5-16.   The  moral  life  of  the  Christian. 

Paraphrase.  '  (5,  6)  Since  you  died  and  rose 
with  Christ  and  your  life  is  hidden  with  Him 
in  God,  realise  these  experiences  already  ideally 
yours  in  putting  your  sins  to  death,  impurity 
and  covetousness,  (7)  those  heathen  vices  which 
draw  down  God's  wrath,  which  you  also  once 
practised.  (8)  Put  away  anger,  malice,  abusive 
speech,  (9)  lying,  for  the  old  self  has  been  dis- 
carded, (10)  and  the  new  self  has  been  put  on, 
which  is  being  renewed  with  a  view  to  deeper 
knowledge  in  conformity  to  the  Creator's 
image.  (11)  Where  there  is  such  a  new  nature, 
all  distinctions  of  race,  social  position,  and 
religion  are  annulled,  and  Christ  is  all  and  in 
all  the  relations  of  life.  (12-14)  Be  kind, 
forbearing,  and  forgiving  as  Christ  forgave 


you,  and  let  love,  which  binds  all  Christians  in 
one,  do  its  perfect  work.  (15)  Let  the  peace 
of  Christ  control  your  life,  do  nothing  to 
ruffle  it,  and  be  thankful.  (16)  Let  the  gospel 
dwell  within  you,  wisely  teach  and  warn  each 
other  in  songs  of  praise,  let  all  your  life  be 
lived  in  Christ's  name,  and  express  through  | 
Him  your  thankfulness  to  God.' 

8.  Blasphemy]  RV  'railing.'  Filthy  com- 
munication] rather,  'abusive  speech.'  10.  In 
knowledge]  RV  'unto  knowledge.'  11.  Is] 
RV  '  cannot  be.'  Scythian]  the  extreme  bar- 
barian. 14.  Charity]  RV  'love.'  Bond  of 
perfectness]  the  bond  in  which  perfection  con- 
sists. Love  is  the  bond,  in  the  sense  that  it 
binds  Christians  together  (not  the  virtues). 

18-C.  4I.  Reciprocal  duties  of  wives  and 
husbands,  children  and  fathers,  slaves  and 
masters. 

22.  The  case  of  slaves  is  treated  more  fully, 
since  the  case  of  Onesimus  was  engaging  Paul's 
attention.  But  he  wished  to  keep  the  gospel 
clear  of  any  attempt  to  revolutionise  society. 
It  was  to  be  leaven,  not  dynamite.  Eye- 
service]  i.e.  service  most  zealously  performed 
when  the  slave  is  under  observation.  25.  The 
meaning  is  probably  that  the  Christian  slave 
must  not  suppose,  because  he  is  a  Christian, 
that  God  will  deal  leniently  with  his  mis- 
conduct. 

CHAPTER   4 

Exhortation  and  Greeting 

2-6.  Exhortation  to  prayer  and  wisdom  in 
dealing  with  heathen. 

6.  Grace,  not  divine  grace,  but  graciousness. 
Their  speech  must  be  winning  and  wise,  sea- 
soned with  salt. 

7-18.  Commendation  of  bearers  of  the 
letter,  and  salutations. 

8.   I  have  sent]  i.e.  I  am  (now)  sending. 

He  might  know  your  estate]  RV  'that  ye 
may  know  our  estate.'  10.  Sister's  son]  RV 
'  cousin.'  They  must  have  received  these 
commands  at  an  earlier  time.  14.  From  this 
v.,  compared  with  v.  11,  it  is  clear  that  Luke 
was  a  Gentile.  15.  Probably  we  should  sub- 
stitute '  Nymphas  '  and  '  her  house.'  16.  The 
einstle  from  Laodicea]  perhaps  om-  Epistle  to 
the  Ephesians. 

18.  Paul  dictated  the  letter,  as  was  his 
custom,  and  signed  it  with  his  chained  hand. 

Remember]  in  your  prayers. 


984 


1  AND  2  THESSALONIANS 


INTRODUCTION 


The  Epistles  of  St.  Paul  fall  naturally  into 
four  groups,  each  divided  from  the  others  by 
a  considerable  interval  of  time.  In  the  earliest 
of  these  groups,  written  during  the  Second 
Missionary  Journey,  the  great  central  thought 
is  the  coming  of  Christ  to  judge  the  world.  The 
second  group  (1  and  2  Corinthians,  Galatians, 
Romans),  written  during  the  Third  Missionary 
Journey,  has  for  its  leading  theme  the  recon- 
ciliation of  man  with  God  and  with  his  fellow- 
man  by  means  of  the  Cross  of  Christ.  The 
third  gi'oup  (Philippians,  Colossians,  Ephe- 
sians,  Philemon),  written  during  the  first 
Roman  captivity,  dwells  on  the  thought  of 
Christ  as  the  great  King  and  Head  of  the 
Church.  The  fourth  group  (1  and  2  Timothy, 
Titus),  written  at  the  close  of  the  Apostle's 
life,  deals  with  practical  questions  of  Church 
organisation.  The  two  Epistles  to  the  Thes- 
salonians  together  form  the  first  group.  In 
them  we  have  the  earliest  of  St.  Paul's 
writings,  and,  with  the  probable  exception  of 
the  Epistle  of  St.  James,  the  earliest  books  of 
the  New  Testament. 

I.  The  Persons  Addressed.  The  Thes- 
salonians  inhabited  the  chief  city  of  Mace- 
donia. Macedonia  was  the  first  European 
country  in  which  St.  Paul  preached,  and  he 
always  regarded  it  with  peculiar  affection.  In 
Ac  16,  17  we  have  St.  Luke's  wonderfully 
vivid  narrative  of  the  bringing  of  the  Gospel 
to  Macedonia.  After  some  stay  at  Philippi 
the  Apostle  went  through  Amphipolis  and 
Apollonia  to  Thessalonica,  where  he  stayed  for 
some  six  months  (AclT^-^),  preaching  first  to 
the  Jews  as  usual,  and  afterwards  winning  many 
converts  among  Gentile  proselytes  and  women 
as  well  as  among  the  heathen.  Jewish  intrigue 
at  length  drove  him  away.  This  famous  city 
of  Thessalonica,  originally  called  Therma,  had 
been  re-founded  by  Cassander  about  315  B.C., 
and,  owing  to  its  natural  advantages,  had 
grown  and  flourished.  After  the  Roman  con- 
quest the  great  military  road,  the  Via  Egnatia, 
connected  it  with  Italy  and  the  East,  while  its 
fine  harbour  made  it  a  great  commercial 
centre.  It  was  made  a  Free  City  by  Augustus, 
with  the  privilege  of  self-government  (Ac  17*5). 
At  the  present  time,  under  the  slightly  altered 
name  of  Saloniki,  it  is  the  second  city  of  the 
Turkish  empire,  with  a  population  of  70,000. 
It  contained  (and  still  contains)  a  consider- 
able number  of  Jews,  and  had  a  large  native 


985 


population.  It  was  from  this  latter  class  that 
St.  Paul's  converts  were  chiefly  drawn  (cp. 
lThl9  2i4,  and  observe  the  absence  of  OT. 
quotations),  and  it  is  plain  that  they  had  the 
characteristic  virtues,  as  well  as  some  of  the 
characteristic  defects,  of  their  race,  which  was 
brave,  independent,  persevering,  and  liberty- 
loving.  But  the  Thessalonian  converts  some- 
times allowed  their  independence  to  degenerate 
into  undue  self-assertion  and  disregard  of 
authority  (IThS^^  2Th36,7).  Yet,  on  the 
whole,  St.  Paul  was  proud  and  fond  of  them. 
Notwithstanding  terrible  persecution,  they 
had  remained  firm  (lThl«  28.14  2Thl4-7). 
Though  poor  they  were  generous  (2  Cor  8 1-^). 
Their  influence  was  felt  throughout  Mace- 
donia and  Greece  (IThl^).  Their  faith, 
hope,  and  love  filled  the  Apostle's  heart  with 
joy  (lThl2,3). 

2.  Time  and  Place  of  Writing.  The  First 
Epistle  was  written  towards  the  close  of  the 
Second  Missionary  Journey  (?  51  a.d.),  some 
time  about  the  middle  of  the  eighteen  months' 
stay  at  Corinth  (Ac  18).  St.  Paul  had  not 
long  left  Thessalonica  (1  Th2i'')^  but  had  had 
time  to  visit  Athens  (1  Th3i).  Timothy  had 
been  to  Macedonia  and  back  (lTh3''),  and 
Silas  (Silvanus)  who  is  never  mentioned  after 
the  Second  Missionary  Journey,  is  now  the 
Apostle's  companion  (1  Th  1 1).  There  had 
been  time  for  the  influence  of  the  Thessalonian 
Church  to  make  itself  felt  (1  Th  1  ^-8).  Some 
members  of  the  Christian  community  had  died 
(lTh4i3).  The  Second  Epistle  must  have 
been  wi'itten  towards  the  close  of  the  same 
Corinthian  stay,  when  St.  Paul  had  received 
news  that  the  teaching  of  his  first  letter  had 
been  misrepresented  and  misunderstood  (2  Th 
22).  Silvanus  and  Timothy  were  still  with 
him  (2Thli).  Persecution  was  still  raging 
(2  Th  1 ''),  and  there  was  much  excitement  and 
increasing  disorder  on  account  of  expectation 
of  an  immediate  coming  of  Christ  (2Th22,3)_ 

3.  Reception  in  the  Church.  These  Epistles 
are  quoted  or  alluded  to  from  very  early  times. 
Ignatius,  Polycarp,  Irenaeus,  Justin  Martyr, 
and  Tertullian  refer  to  them.  They  are  in- 
cluded in  Marcion's  Canon  (circ.  140  a.d.),  and 
are  found  in  the  early  list  of  the  books  of  the 
NT.  known  as  the  Muratorian  Canon  (circ. 
190  A.D.).  The  internal  evidence  is  also 
strong.  Passages  like  1  Th  1  •'''-9  21-12  415  527 
2Th38.9,  and  the  style  and  language,  the  per- 


INTRO. 


1  AND  2  THESSALONIANS 


INTRO. 


sonal  touches,  the  intercessions  and  requests 
for  the  prayers  of  the  Thessalonians,  are 
characteristically  Pauline.  The  only  serious 
objections  to  the  genuineness  of  the  Epistles 
are  connected  with  the  section  about  the  Man 
of  Sin  (2  Th  2  i-i2),  which  is  said  by  some  to  be 
un-Pauline  and  founded  on  the  Revelation  of 
St.  John.  But  when  we  remember  the  large 
place  occupied  by  Apocalyptic  questions  in 
Jewish  and  early  Christian  thought,  the  evident 
interest  which  they  had  for  the  Thessalonians, 
and  the  great  prophecy  of  His  coming  uttered 
by  our  Lord  Himself,  we  shall  have  no  diffi- 
culty in  coming  to  the  conclusion  that  St.  Paul 
would  naturally  deal  with  the  subject  quite 
independently  of  St.  John  or  any  other  NT. 
writer. 

4.  Value  and  Importance.  These  earliest  of 
St.  Paul's  Epistles,  short  as  they  are,  contain 
much  of  extreme  interest  to  Bible  students. 
They  show  us  how  St.  Paul  presented  the 
gospel  to  heathen  converts.  They  give  us  a 
vivid  picture  of  Christian  life  in  the  first  days 
before  dissensions  and  false  beliefs  had  vexed 
the  peace  of  the  Church,  when  teachers  and 
taught  loved  each  other,  and  faith  and  zeal 
were  yet  glowing.  Incidentally  they  reveal  to 
us  much  of  the  writer's  mind  and  character 
(ITh  3  5-10, 11-13  2  Th  3  7-12).  But,  most  im- 
portant of  all,  they  tell  us  what  were  the 
doctrines  held  and  taught  some  twenty  years 
after  the  Ascension,  (a)  Christ  is  frequently 
called  '  the  Lord,'  '  our  Lord.'  He  is  addressed 
in  prayer  (1  Th  3  n  2  Th  2 16. 17).  He  died  (1  Th 
215),  rose  again  (IThliO),  is  in  Heaven 
(lTh4i6),  and  shall  come  to  judge  the  world 
(1  Th4i'*-i^).  He  is  the  Redeemer  and  Deliverer 
(lTh59'iO).  (i)  The  Holy  Spirit  is  given  to 
Christians  (1  Th  1 5, 6  4  §  5 19).  (c)  The  Church 
is  already  organised.  The  Apostles  have  au- 
thority (1  Th  5  27  2  Th  3 14).  There  is  a  regular 
ministry  (lTh5i2,i3).  Baptism  may  be  alluded 
to  in  lTh48.  There  were  already  meetings, 
probably  for  communion,  where  the  '  holy  kiss' 
was  used  (lTh52<3.27,  Justin's  'Apology,'  I. 
65).  The  local  Church  was  united  in  bonds  of 
brotherhood  with  other  Churches  (IThl^  21^ 
4 10),  and  with  the  faithful  departed  (1  Th  4 13, 17). 
Thus,  these  Epistles,  besides  giving  a  picture 
of  Church  life  in  early  days,  testify  to  the 
main  articles  of  the  Creed. 

5.  Analysis.  First  Epistle.  Two  main  divi- 
sions :  (a)  Personal,  11-313;  (i)  Hortatory, 
4 1_5  28.  1 1-10^  Salutation  and  thanksgiving  for 
their  conversion  and  progress.  21-12,  Sketch 
of  the  Apostle's  own  work  at  Thessalonica  :  cp. 
Ac  17 1-10.  2 13-16,  A  second  thanksgiving,  with 
special  reference  to  their  persecutions.  2 17-3 10, 
His  anxiety  about  the  Thessalonians,  and  the 
joy  with  which  he  had  received  the  good  news 
about  them  brought  by  Timothy.  3ii-i3,  A 
solemn   prayer  for   them   to  Christ  as  God. 


41-12,  Exhortations  to  purity  of  life,  brotherly 
love,  quietness  and  industry.  413-511,  The 
chief  subject  of  the  Epistle  (alluded  to  in  1 10 
and  313),  the  Second  Advent.  The  faithful 
departed,  about  whom  the  Thessalonians  were 
anxious,  shall  rise  by  virtue  of  their  union 
with  Christ,  and  shall  rise  before  those  who 
are  now  alive.  But  the  time  is  imcertain 
('Watch,  therefore,  and  be  sober').  512-22, 
Practical  exhortation  :  (a)  vv.  12-15,  Social 
duties  ;  (&)  vv.  16-22,  Spiritual  duties  (joy, 
prayer,  thanksgiving,  etc.).  523-28^  Concluding 
prayer,  injunctions,  and  benediction. 

Second  Epistle.  1 1-*,  Salutation  and  thanks- 
giving. 1 5-2 14,  The  Second  Advent.  '  You 
have  suffered  persecution,  but  God  is  just,  and 
will  requite  both  you  and  your  enemies  at  the 
coming  of  Chi'ist.  I  pray  you  may  be  found  ready 
for  it.  But  this  coming  will  not  be  till  after  the 
gi-eat  Apostasy  and  the  revelation  and  destruc- 
tion of  the  Man  of  Sin  and  all  those  whom  he 
has  deceived.  I  thank  God  you  have  been  saved 
from  this  fate.'  2i5-i7,  'Hold  fast  the  Faith. 
I  pray  Christ  and  God  the  Father  to  comfort 
and  strengthen  you.'  3i-i5,  Exhortation  to 
intercessory  prayer  (cp.  1  Th525),  hopes  for  their 
progress,  rebukes  to  the  idle  and  disorderly. 
3 16-18^  Concluding  prayer  and  benediction. 

The  Second  Epistle  presupposes  the  First  : 
cp.  2  Th  2 15  3  6  with  1  Th  4  i-s.  n  ;  and  there  is  a 
great  similarity  in  structure  between  the  two 
(lThli.2   311523  2Thli-3   2i«  316). 

6.  The  chief  subject  of  the  Epistle  is,  as 
has  been  said,  the  Coming  (or,  as  St.  Paul  calls 
it,  the  Presence)  of  Christ — the  Second  Ad- 
vent. And  although  he  nowhere  speaks  defi- 
nitely as  to  the  time  of  this  Coming  (which  no 
man  knows,  Mt  24  36),  he  certainly  uses  language 
which  suggests  that  '  there  was  a  reasonable 
expectation  of  the  Lord's  appearing  soon.' 
The  expectation  is  doubtless  based  on  our 
Lord's  great  prophecy  of  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem  and  of  Judaism  found  in  Mt24  and 
elsewhere.  In  the  Second  Epistle  especially 
the  language  used  often  recalls  that  of  our 
Lord    (2  Th  2 1-4, 7,9     Mt  24  6.  io-i3,  is,  24)^     and 

the  final  Coming  seems  to  be  closely  connected 
in  St.  Paul's  mind  with  the  overthrow  of 
Judaism.  In  so  far  as  he  expected  that  these 
two  events  would  happen  together,  or  that  the 
Final  Coming  would  be  soon  after  the  over- 
throw of  Judaism,  he  was  doubtless  mistaken. 
But  it  is  to  be  observed  that  (a)  the  overthrow 
of  Judaism  by  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem 
and  the  Temple  was  in  very  truth  a  Coming 
of  Christ  to  Judgment.  '  The  destruction 
of  Jerusalem  was  an  event  which  has  no 
parallel  in  history.  It  was  the  outward  and 
visible  sign  of  a  great  epoch  in  the  divine 
government  of  the  world.  It  marked  the 
inauguration  of  a  new  order  of  things.  The 
Messianic  kingdom  was  now  fully  come.     The 


986 


INTRO. 


1  AND  2  THESSALONIANS— 1  THESSALONIANS 


2.  19 


final  act  of  the  King  was  to  sit  upon  the 
throne  of  His  glory  and  judge  His  people.' 
(b)  St.  Paul's  mistake,  if  mistake  it  be,  does 
not  in  the  least  affect  the  value  of  his  ethical 
teaching  on  the  subject.  For  he  points 
out  to  the  Thessalonians  the  true  way  of 
preparing  for  the  Final  Advent  which  Christ 


meant  His  Church  to  expect.  They  were 
to  make  ready  for  it,  not  by  feverish  excite- 
ment and  restlessness,  but  by  the  quiet,  steady 
performance  of  everyday  duty  as  in  His  sight, 
with  the  assurance  that  His  followers,  whether 
living  or  asleep  in  Him,  were  in  His  safe 
keeping. 


1  THESSALONIANS 


CHAPTEE  1 

Salutation  and  TnANKsaiviNG 

1.  Salutation.  For  Silvanus  (Silas)  see 
Acl522  1620,37,38.  Timothy  was  one  of  St. 
Paul's  most  constant  companions  (Ac  1 6  ^ 
Rol62i  1  Cor 4 1-1-17  2Corli9  Philli  219-24 
2  Tim  1 5  3 14).  The  church  .  .  lohich  is  in  God, 
etc.]  a  phrase  peculiar  to  this  Epistle.  The 
Church  is  in  living  union  with  God  and  Christ 
(Col  2 19). 

2-10.  Fervent  thanksgiving  for  their  con- 
version and  growth  in  grace. 

4.  Better,  '  Knowing,  brethren  beloved  of 
God,  your  election,  how  that,'  etc.  '  Elec- 
tion,' i.e.  to  Christian  and  Church  privileges 
(2 Tim  210).  5.  Assurance]  RVmg.  'fulness.' 
They  preached  with  deep  conviction  of  the 
truth  and  power  of  the  message  entrusted 
to  them.  6.  Affliction]  referring  to  the  per- 
secution and  suffering  recorded  in  Acl7io-i3. 

Joy  of]  i.e.'  joy  inspired  by  the  Holy  Ghost. 

7.  In  Macedonia]  of  which  Thessalonica 
was  the  capital.  And  Achaia]  of  which 
Corinth,  where  the  Apostle  was,  was   capital. 

Achaia,  the  Roman  province  (=  Greece). 

8.  To  speak  anything]  i.e.  to  recount  their 
faith.  9.  They  themselves]  i.e.  the  dwellers 
in  all  the  places  the  Apostle  and  his  com- 
panions had  visited  or  heard  from.  The  living 
and  true  God]  better,  '  a  living  and  true  God.' 
The  Thessalonian  converts  had,  as  a  rule,  been 
heathens,  though  some  were  proselytes  (i.e. 
Jews  by  religion),  Acl?*.  10.  To  vvait]  to 
look  for  the  Second  Coming.  Jesus,  which 
delivered  us  from  the  wrath  to  come]  better, 
'  delivereth  us  from  the  wrath  which  is 
approaching.' 

CHAPTER  2 

The  nature  op  St.  Paul's  Life  and 
Work  at  Thessalonica 

2.  The  persecution  at  the  Roman  garrison- 
town  of  Philippi  made  a  deep  impression  on 
St.  Paul  the  Roman  citizen  (Acl6i9-i»  Phil 
1 30).     It  was  the  indignity  that  hurt  him. 

Contention]  better,  '  conflict.'  3.  It  would 
seem  that  St.  Paul  was  at  first  looked  upon 


by  some  as  an  impostor,  seeking  his  own  ends. 
He  declares  that  he  came  with  a  sincere  desire 
for  their  salvation  only.  Deceit]  better, 
'  error.'  Uncleanness]  Impurity  was  often 
associated  with  heathen  worship,  and  this 
was  especially  the  case  at  Thessalonica  and 
Corinth. 

4.  Allowed]  better,  '  approved.'  5.  Cloke 
of  covetousness]  i.e.  covering  to  conceal  avarice. 

6- II.  St.  Paul  says  that  he  might  have 
made  a  display  of  apostolic  authority  and  have 
demanded  pecuniary  support:  see  lCor9. 
But  he  was  like  a  babe  (better  than  '  gentle  '), 
or  like  a  mother  who  nurses  her  own  children, 
or  a  father  who  guides  and  directs  his  son. 
At  the  same  time  he  supported  himself  by 
tentmaking  (AclS^  2034). 

13-16.  A  second  thanksgiving  for  their 
faith  and  patience  under  persecution. 

14.  The  (Gentile)  Thessalonian  Church  had 
suffered  much  at  the  hands  of  their  fellow- 
countrymen,  just  as  the  Jewish  Church  had 
suffered  from  the  unbelieving  Jews.  Here  was 
a  bond  of  union  and  sympathy  between  the 
two.  15,  16.  A  characteristic  outburst.  The 
Jews  had  followed  St.  Paul  with  unceasing 
hostility  in  Europe  as  well  as  in  Asia.  They 
have  driven  him  from  Thessalonica  and  Beroea, 
and  were  doing  their  utmost  against  him  at 
Corinth.  Their  narrow  exclusiveness  (for- 
bidding us  to  speak  to  the  Gentiles)  and  hatred 
of  other  nations  (contrary  to  all  men)  were  a 
bitter  trial  to  a  patriot  like  St.  Paul.  To  the 
uttermost]  i.e.  there  was  no  longer  any  hope 
of  their  repentance  or  escape  from  their  doom 
(Mt2332).     The  end  was  close  at  hand. 

17-C.  3I6.  '  Till  Timothy's  good  report  of 
you  reached  us,  we  were  anxious  about  you, 
but  now  we  rejoice  and  bless  God  for  the 
news  he  brings,  that  you  have  stood  firm 
under  persecution.'  18.  St.  Paul  generally 
uses  the  1st  person  plural  in  these  Epistles, 
including  Silvanus  and  Timothy  with  himself. 
Here,  however,  he  speaks  for  himself.  The 
hindrance  may  have  been  an  illness — probably 
malarial  fever  (2  Cor  1 2  "),  or  Jewish  hostility. 
To  St.  Paul  Satan  is  a  real  person  (R0I620 
2  Cor  11 14  1  Tim  120).      19.  The   prospect   of 


987 


3.  1 


1  THESSALONIANS 


5.  8 


presenting    his    converts   to    Christ   fills   the 
Apostle  with  joy. 

CHAPTER  3 

The  Apostle's  Anxiety  about  his 
Converts 

1.  Forbear]  better,  '  endure  the  suspense.' 

2.  Our  fellow-labourer]  better,  '  God's  fel- 
low-worker '  or  '  minister,'  RV.  3.  Should 
be  moved]  better,  '  led  astray.'  Afflictions]  at 
the  hands  of  Jews  and  Gentiles  :  see  Acl?^^ 

6.  Now  when]  better,  '  as  soon  as.'  Char- 
ity] RV  '  love.'  8.  We  live]  it  puts  new  life 
in  us.  If  ye  stand  fast]  better,  '  if  only  ye 
stand  fast.'  The  Gk.  expresses  some  doubt 
and  anxiety.  10.  'I  pray  unceasingly  and 
urgently  to  the  end  that  I  may  see  you  again 
and  correct  your  shortcomings.'  The  prayer 
was  answered  after  some  years  (Ac20i'2). 

11-13.  A  prayer  to  Christ  as  co-equal  with 
the.  Father,  with  which  the  first  section  of  the 
Epistle  ends  :  cp.  2Th2i6. 

II.  The  verb  is  in  the  singular,  empha- 
sising the  reference  to  Christ,  who  is  also 
called  'the  Lord'  in  v.  12.  The  key-note  of 
these  Epistles  is  again  struck  at  the  concluding 
words  of  the  prayer, '  at  the  coming '  (lit. '  pres- 
ence ')  '  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  with  all  His 
saints '  (cp.  2 19). 

CHAPTER  4 

Exhortation  to  Purity  and  Brotherly 
Love.     The  Second  Advent 
I.   '  You  are  already  walking  in   the  right 
path.     I  want    you    to    advance    in  it  more 
and  more.' 

3.  4.  Translate,  'For  this  is  a  thing  willed 
by  God,  even  your  sanctification,  that  ye  shall 
abstain  from  fornication  (cp.  Ac  15-0),  that 
each  one  of  you  should  learn  to  win  his  body 
to  a  state  of  purity  and  honour.'  Vessel]  i.e. 
body.  Some  think  the  word  means  'wife,' 
but  this  is  not  so  likely.  5.  Lust  of  con- 
cupiscence] RY  '  passion  of  lust.'  6.  Go  be- 
yond and  defraud]  RY  '  overreach  (mg.),  and 
wrong  '  (i.e.  by  his  sin).  A/n/]  should  certainly 
be 'this.'  7.  Better,  'For  God  called  us  not 
f or  uncleanness,  but  to  be  in  a  state  of  purity.' 

Who  hath  also  given]  better,  'who  is  ever 
giving  '  (present  tense). 

This  passage  (vv.  3-8)  contains  in  brief  a 
statement  of  the  Christian  doctrine  of  purity. 
Impurity  is,  (1)  (from  the  point  of  view  of 
the  man  himself)  a  dishonouring  of  the  temple 
of  the  Holy  Ghost  (1  CorS^^)  :  since  He  takes 
up  His  abode  in  it,  and  since  Christ  has  become 
incarnate,  and  the  body  is  to  rise  again,  we 
must  honour  the  body,  not  defile  it;  (2)  (from 
the  point  of  view  of  our  brothers  and  sisters) 
a  violation  of  the  law  of  love — a  fraud  and  a 
cheat.  Sins  of  the  flesh  were  very  lightly 
regarded  by  the  heathen  world. 


988 


9.  Brotherly  love]  better,  'love  of  the 
brethren '  ;  i.e.  the  special  love  to  be  shown 
towards  all  the  members  of  the  Church. 

ID.  In  all  Macedonia]  These  words  imply 
that  there  were  other  Churches  there  besides 
those  of  which  we  read  in  the  Acts.  They 
also  show  that  these  Churches  were  not  iso- 
lated. The  idea  of  a  Catholic  Church  is  gi-ow- 
ing.  II.  Study]  better,  'strive  earnestly.' 
Religious  excitement,  especially  in  view  of  the 
expected  coming  of  Christ,  was  a  danger  to 
the  Thessalonian  Church  (2  Th  3 12).  It  caused 
neglect  of  '  the  duty  of  every  day.'  12.  Work 
would  give  them,  (1)  respect  in  the  eyes  of 
their  heathen  neighbours  (them  that  are  with- 
out) ;  (2)  independence  (Eph428).  Honestly] 
or,  as  we  should  now  say,  '  honourably.' 

4 13-5 11.  The  Second  Advent.  The  dead 
in  Christ  will  rise  before  the  living,  and  both 
alike  will  share  in  the  life  everlasting.  But 
the  time  of  the  Advent  is  uncertain.  Let  us 
therefore  watch  and  be  sober. 

13.  Are  asleep]  better,  'are  lying  asleep.' 
The  Thessalonians  were  anxious  as  to  the 
part  which  those  who  had  died  in  the  Faith 
would  take  in  the  Second  Advent,  which  was 
believed  to  be  near  at  hand.  Others]  better, 
'  all  the  rest,'  i.e.  the  heathen  who,  even  if 
they  believed  in  some  sort  of  an  existence 
after  death,  had  no  hope  of  immortality. 

14.  V/hich  sleep  in  Jesus]  better,  '  that  are 
fallen  asleep  through  Jesus,'  i.e.  in  communion 
with  Him.  15.  Prevent]  better,  'be  before,' 
i.e.  the  dead,  about  whom  you  are  anxious, 
will  be  at  no  disadvantage  at  the  Advent,  so 
far  as  its  blessedness  is  concerned. 

16.  Cp.  Mt  24  30, 31.  At  the  Resurrection  of 
the  Just  the  dead  will  rise  before  the  living  : 
see  1  Corl5Si>52  regarding  the  spiritual  body. 

CHAPTER  5 

The  Need  of  Watchfulness.     Final 
Injunctions 

I.  Times  and  seasons]  St.  Paul  always  lays 
stress  on  the  uncertaintv  as  to  the  time  of  the 
Advent  (2 Th22  ;  cp.  2 Pet 3 3, 4).  3.  When 
they  shall  say]  i.e.  when  people  are  saying. 

4,  5.  Thief]  better,  '  as  thieves.'  Thieves 
work  in  darkness.  You  are  all  children  of  light. 
Live  up  to  your  birthright.  6.  Let  us  not 
sleep]  i.e.  in  carelessness  and  sin.  Others] 
better,  '  the  others.' 

8-10.  Mason  paraphrases,  '  Let  us  arm 
ourselves  with  a  brave  hope  of  our  salvation, 
for  it  will  be  against  God's  will  if  we  perish. 
He  means  us  to  save  ourselves  by  union  with 
Him  who  put  an  end  to  death  for  us  by  dying, 
and  made  all  who  wait  for  His  coming  to  live, 
whether  they  be  in  the  world's  sense  dead  or 
alive.' 

8.  A  new  metaphor  (cp.  Eph6i3-i7  Isa59i'^), 
but  suggested  by  the  idea  of  watchfulness. 


5.9 


1  THESSALONIANS— 2  THESSALONIANS 


9.  To  obtain  salvation]  (Phil  2 12,  i3)  or,  per- 
haps, '  for  the  adoption  which  consists  in  salva- 
tion '  :  cp.  2Th2i4.  10.  Whether  we  wake 
or  sleep]  i.e.  whether  we  are  alive  or  dead  at 
the  Advent. 

11.  Edify]  better,  'build  up.'  As  also  ye 
do]  St.  Paul  always  praises  and  encourages 
where  he  can. 

12-28.  Exhortations  to  respect  for  their 
clergy,  orderly  living,  prayer  and  other  spirit- 
ual duties,  and  conclusion. 

12.  Know]  better,  '  value.'  The  probable 
reference  is  to  the  presbyters  sometimes  called 
(in  allusion  to  their  duties)  'overseers'  (ITim 
517).     14.  Feebleminded]  better, 'fainthearted.' 

The  weak]  i.e.  in  faith,  Ro  I51.  15.  Cp.  Mt 
5  39  1  Pet  3  8. 9.  16.  Evermore]  better, '  always. ' 
Joy  is  a  necessary  part  of  the  Christian  char- 
acter (R0I417  Phil  2 18  31  44),  and  a  Christian 
duty.  18.  Cp.  Eph520.  Prayer  is  put  be- 
tween joy  and  thanksgiving,  because  it  is  only 
by  constant  prayer  that  we  are  enabled  to  feel 
true  joy  or  gratitude.  G-od's  will  towards  us 
is  that  we  should  be  always  joyful,  prayerful, 
grateful,  and  (3  3)  pure  in  life. 

20.  The  Christian  prophets  were  an  order 
of  men  specially  inspired  to  reveal  the  will  of 
God  to  others  ('  mission-preachers  '),  who  might 


2.3 

sometimes  (Ac  11 27, 28  21 10,11)  be  charged  to 
foretell  the  future:  see  1  Cor  114,5  145  Eph 
411  35  ITim  118  414.  'Prophets'  are  also 
mentioned  in  the  early  Christian  tract  known 
as  the  '  Didache,'  or  '  Teaching  of  the  Twelve 
Apostles.'  The  Thessalonians  seem  to  have 
been  disposed  to  check  enthusiasm.  21.  Prove] 
better,  '  test. '  You  must  test  all  these  thoughts 
by  spiritual  standards,  since  there  is  an  inspir- 
ation which  is  false  (lJn4i).  22.  All  appear- 
ance] better,  'every  form.'  Good  is  one; 
evil  is  manifold. 

23,  May  your  spirit  (by  which  man  maintains 
communion  with  God)  and  soul  (the  feelings 
and  emotions)  and  body  (which  is  to  rise  again) 
be  preserved  entire  and  without  blame,  and  be 
so  found  at  the  Advent.  24.  Will  do  it]  i.e. 
will  preserve  your  spirit,  soul,  and  body. 

25, 26.  The  duty  of  intercessory  prayer 
(?  especially  at  the  Eucharist,  where  the  holy 
kiss  was  a  part  of  the  rites  from  very  early 
times).  27.  I  charge]  better,  'I  adjure.' 
The  reading  was  probably  to  be  at  the 
Eucharist  (Justin  Martyr,  'Apol.'  1.  65-67). 
St.  Paul  wishes  his  earliest  letter  to  be  read  to 
all  without  any  suppression  or  omissions, 
otherwise  a  wrong  use  might  be  made  of  his 
authority. 


2  THESSALONIANS 


CHAPTER  1 

Salutations.     The  Second  Advent 

1-4.  Greeting  and  thanksgiving  for  their 
constant  faith  and  love  and  patience  under 
persecution  :  cp.  1  Th  1 3. 

5-C.  2 17,  The  Coming  of  Christ  to  judg- 
ment.    Much  is  to  happen  before  Christ  comes. 

5.  A  manifest  token]  The  words  refer  to 
their  sufferings  and  their  patience.  If  God 
is  righteous  there  must  come  a  time  when 
wrongs  such  as  theirs  shall  be  righted,  and 
patience  like  theirs  be  rewarded.  Thus  the 
sufferings  and  patience  of  the  Thessalonians 
become  a  proof  that  there  is  a  judgment  to 
come(Phill8).  7.  Rest]  better, 'relief.'  The 
true  rest  and  relief  comes  to  the  faithful  when 
Christ  comes. 

8.  Taking  vengeance]  better,  'awarding 
retribution.'  Them  that  know  not  God,  and 
that  obey  not]  better,  (1)  'them  that  know 
not,  and  (2)  them  that  obey  not.'  Possibly 
(1)  Gentiles  and  (2)  Jews. 

9.  The  everlasting  destruction  (only  here) 
consists  in  exclusion  from  God's  presence 

II.  Calling]  cp.  Phil 3 14,  Heb 31.  All  the 
good  pleasure  of  his  goodness]  better,  'all 
delight  in  well-doing.' 


989 


CHAPTER  2 

The  Great  Apostasy 
2.  Spirit]  i.e.  a  pretended  revelation  uttered 
by  a  false  prophet.     Letter  as  from  us]  perhaps 
a  forged  letter  (the  probable  meaning),  cp.  317, 
or  a  misunderstanding  of  the  First  Epistle. 

3-10.  It  will  be  convenient  to  treat  this 
difficult  passage  as  a  whole.  Literally  trans- 
lated, it  runs  thus  :  '  Let  no  man  deceive  you 
m  any  wise :  for  [the  Final  Presence  of  our 
Lord  shall  not  be]  except  (or  till)  the  falling 
away  come  first  and  the  Man  of  Lawlessness 
be  revealed,  the  son  of  perdition,  he  that  op- 
poseth  and  exalted  himself  against  all  that  is 
called  God  or  an  object  of  worship,  so  that  he 
sitteth  in  the  Sanctuary  of  God,  setting  him- 
self forth- as  God  (Do  ye  not  remember  that, 
when  I  was  yet  with  you,  I  told  you  these 
thmgs  ?)  And  now  ye  know  about  that  (power) 
which  restraineth,  to  the  end  that  he  may  be 
revealed  to  his  own  season.  For  the  mystery 
of  lawlessness  is  already  working,  only  there 
is  one  that  restraineth  now  till  he  be  taken 
out  of  the  way.  And  then  shall  the  Lawless 
one  be  revealed,  whom  the  Lord  Jesus  shall 
slay  with  the  breath  of  His  mouth,  and  bring 
to  naught  by  the  Epiphany  of  His  Presence— 


2.3 


2  THESSALONIANS 


3.17 


even  him  whose  presence  is  according  to  the 
working  of  Satan,  in  all  power  and  signs  and 
wonders  of  falsehood,  and  in  every  deceit  of 
unrighteousness  for  the  ruin  of  those  who  are 
perishing  because  they  received  not  the  love  of 
the  truth,  that  they  might  be  saved.' 

In  the  first  place,  we  must  remember  that 
St.  Paul  is  here  speaking  of  something  which 
is  already  at  work,  and  the  overthrow  of  which 
is  to  precede  that  Final  Presence  of  the  Lord 
which  the  Thessalonians  thought  to  be  immedi- 
ately impending.     Realising  this,  we  shall  at 
once    reject    all    those    interpretations  which 
see    in    the   Man  of    Sin  (Lawlessness)  some 
historical  character  (e.g.  one  of  the  Popes,  or 
of  Napoleon  I)  who  lived  after  St.  Paul's  time. 
"We  must  also  remember  that  the  Thessalonians 
had  the  key  to  the  interpretation  of  the  pas- 
sage which  we  do  not  possess,  since  they  had 
been  orally  instructed  by  St.  Paul  on  the  sub- 
ject.   But,  though  certainty  is  now  impossible, 
we  may  be  guided  to  a  probable  solution  by 
studying  the  passage  in  connexion   with   the 
Revelation  of  St.  John,  and  (especially)  our 
Lord's  great  prophecy  recorded  in  Mt  24  Mk  13 
and  Lk21.    When,  further,  we  remember  how 
bitterly  St.   Paul  felt  the  opposition   of  his 
fellow-countrymen  to  Christ  (lTh2i5,i6)^  and 
how  full  the  Gospels  are  of  denunciation  of 
Jewish  sins,  we  shall  be  led  to  the  conclusion 
that '  the  Apostasy  '  is  the  Jewish  apostasy,  and 
that  the  '  Man  of  Sin  (Lawlessness) '  is  either 
some  false  Christ  (Mt242i),  many  of  whom 
appeared  among  the  Jews  about  this  time,  or 
(more  probably)  the  spirit  of  Judaism  personi- 
fied.   (A  somewhat  similar  personification  may 
be  found  in  Rev  2,  3,  where  '  the  angel '  of  each 
of  the  seven  churches  seems  to  denote,  not 
any  official,  but  the  Church  itself.)    The  Jews 
had  been  chosen  of  God  to  bear  witness  to 
Him,  and  they  had  betrayed  their  trust.    Their 
worship  was  a  lie  (Mt  23 16-22).     They  were  '  a 
synagogue  of  Satan'  (Rev 2 9  39).     They  had 
made  the  Temple  a  den  of  robbers  (Mt21i3). 
Some  of  them  could  perform  lying  wonders 
(Mt  12  2T  Mk  13  22  Ac  19 13).     They  were  perse- 
cuting the  Church  of  Christ  and  opposing  the 
truth  (Ac  136,45   1419  175-13  1812  2222  2312). 
And  so  their  apostasy  was  to  be  revealed  and 
punished  by  the  utter  (but  not  final,  Ro  1 1 25-27) 
overthrow  of  Judaism,  and  the  destruction  of 
the  Holy  City  and  the  Temple  in  70  a.d.  by 
'  the  Romans.     This  great  event  would  come 
before  the  final  advent,  which  the  Thessalonians 
were    expecting   immediately.       The    further 
question  who,  or  what,  is  the  Person  or  Power 
that  restrains  the  Man  of  Lawlessness,  is  one 
of  considerable  difficulty.     The  usual  answer  is 
'  the  authority  of  the  Roman  empire,  or  perhaps 
the  reigning  Roman  Emperor  Claudius'  (41- 
54  A.D.).     In  the  very  earliest  days  of  Chris- 
tianity  the    Romans   did  protect  the   Chris- 


tians from  Jewish  violence  (AclSi^-i^  2323,24 
25 14-21).  But  soon,  under  the  Emperor  Nero, 
this  attitude  was  exchanged  for  one  of  hostility, 
after  the  fire  at  Rome  in  64  a.d.  And  it  is 
hard  to  see  how  the  words  '  until  he  be  taken 
out  of  the  way '  can  apply  to  a  Roman 
emperor  or  to  the  Roman  empire  in  its  deal- 
ings with  Judaism.  It  is  possible  that  by 
the  Restrainer  St.  Paul  means  the  Christian 
Chvu-ch  in  Jerusalem — the  Mother-Church 
of  which  the  Thessalonians  '  became  imitators  ' 
(1  Th  2 14).  We  know  that  St.  James,  the  head 
of  that  Church,  had  great  influence  over  his 
unbelieving  fellow-countrymen,  and  may  well 
have  exercised  a  restraining  power  over  them. 
Some  Jews  even  appear  to  have  seen  in  the 
siege  of  Jerusalem  the  punishment  for  his 
murder  by  the  high  priest  Ananus.  It  is  to 
be  noted  that  the  Jerusalem  Church,  obeying 
the  Lord's  command  (Mt  2415.16),  left  the 
doomed  city  on  the  approach  of  the  Roman 
army  and  fled  to  Pella.  Thus  she  might  be 
said  to  be  '  taken  out  of  the  way '  of  the  evil 
to  come. 

3.  Falling  away]  Gk.  '  apostasy.' 

4.  The  reference  is  to  the  pretensions  of  a 
false  Messiah. 

7.  Mystery]  This  word  in  NT.  always  de- 
notes something  once  hidden,  but  now  revealed, 
or  soon  to  be  revealed  (lCor4i  Col  2  2  4  3 
Eph6i9).  8.  Brightness,  etc.]  rather,  'mani- 
festation of  His  presence.'  11.  Strong  delu- 
sion] better,  '  inner  working  of  error.'  Those 
who  obstinately  refuse  the  truth  at  last  become 
incapable  of  receiving  it.  12.  Damned]  RV 
'judged.'  13.  From  the  beginning]  perhaps 
(with  the  oldest  MS),  '  as  firstfruits.'  15.  The 
traditions]  i.e.  the  truths  taught,  whether  orally 
or  by  writing. 

CHAPTER  3 

Exhortations,  Rebukes,  and  Benediction 
2.  Unreasonable] almost 'outrageous.'  Faith] 
better,  '  the  Faith.'  3.  Evil]  RV  '  the  evil 
one!  5.  Patient  waiting  for]  better,  '  the 
patience  of.'  6.  Evidently  disorder  in  the 
Church  had  increased  since  the  First  Epistle  was 
written.     Withdraw  yourselves]  or,  '  shun.' 

8.  Cp.  lTh29.  9.  Power]  better, 'the right.' 
We  have  the  right  to  be  supported,  but  for 
the  sake  of  example  we  waived  it  in  your  case 
(1  Cor  9  3-18).  II.  Working  not  at  all .  .  busy- 
bodies]  i.e.  neglecting  their  own  work  (in  view 
of  a  supposed  immediate  Advent),  but  interfer- 
ing with  that  of  others.  16.  By  all  means] 
better, '  in  all  places,'  or, '  in  all  ways.'  17.  St. 
Paul  wrote  the  body  of  his  letters  through  a 
secretary,  but  he  added  a  few  words  in  his  own 
large  handwriting,  in  order  that  his  corre- 
spondents might  know  them  to  be  genuine  (1 
Cor  1 6  21  2  Th  2  2  Col  4  is).  So  I  write]  better, 
'  this  is  my  handwriting.' 


990 


THE  PASTORAL  EPISTLES 


GENERAL   INTRODUCTION 


The  two  Epistles  to  Timothy  and  the 
Epistle  to  Titus  constitute  a  group  by  them- 
selves, and  are  usually  called  '  The  Pastoral 
Epistles,'  because  they  deal  to  a  large  extent 
with  matters  of  Church  organisation  and 
government.  That  they  were  all  written  by 
one  author  is  generally  agreed,  not  only  by 
those  who  accept  the  tradition  that  St.  Paul 
was  the  writer,  but  also  by  those  who  reject  it. 
It  will  be  convenient,  therefore,  to  discuss  the 
points  common  to  all  three,  before  dealing 
with  each  in  detail. 

I.  Authorship.  The  authorship  of  these 
Epistles  is  one  of  the  questions  of  NT. 
criticism  upon  which  scholars  are  sharply 
divided.  The  objections  urged  against  the 
Pauline  authorship  are  of  different  kinds  and 
varying  degrees  of  weight,  and  may  be  briefly 
enumerated  as  follows  :  (a)  Historical  diffi- 
culties ;  (b)  References  to  heresies  ;  (c)  Church 
organisation  ;  {d)  The  description  of  St.  Paul 
in  the  salutations  ;  (fi)  Language  and  style. 

(a)  Historical  Difficulties.  It  is  impossible 
to  find  a  place  for  these  Epistles  in  the  scheme 
of  St.  Paul's  life,  which  is  derived  from 
the  narrative  in  Acts  and  the  references  in 
the  acknowledged  Epistles.  The  journeys  to 
which  the  Apostle  makes  reference  are  incon- 
sistent with  his  movements  as  recorded  in 
Acts.  According  to  1  Tim  1 3,  Timothy  had 
been  left  at  Ephesus  while  Paul  proceeded  to 
Macedonia;  but  in  Acl9^"^  20^  Timothy  was 
sent  from  Ephesus  to  Macedonia  in  advance 
of  St.  Paul.  In  1  Tim  3 14  the  Apostle  in- 
tended to  return  to  Timothy  at  Ephesus  ; 
but  in  Ac  20  4  Timothy  was  with  him  in 
Greece,  and  in  20i4,i7  St.  Paul  did  not 
go  to  Ephesus,  but  sent  for  the  Ephesian 
elders  to  meet  him  at  Miletus.  So  in  2  Tim 
420  the  reference  to  Trophimus  cannot  relate 
to  the  journey  recoi-ded  in  Ac20i'i'-21 8,  for 
Trophimus  accompanied  the  Apostle  to  Jeru- 
salem (Ac  2 129).  Again,  the  references  in 
Tit  15  312^  where  St.  Paul  speaks  of  leaving 
Titus  in  Crete  and  asks  him  to  meet  him  at 
Nicopolis,  cannot  be  connected  with  the  only 
occasion  on  which  the  Apostle  visited  Crete 
according  to  Acts  (27  S),  viz.  when  he  was 
a  prisoner  en  route  for  Rome,  where  Acts 
leaves  him  still  under  arrest. 

These  difficulties,  however,  are  obviated 
when  the  tradition  is  accepted  that  St.  Paul 
after  his  first  imprisonment  (Ac  28^0  pj^ii  ii3) 


991 


was  set  free  in  62  or  63  a.d.,  and  arrested 
again  in  66  or  67.  In  the  First  Epistle  of 
Clement  of  Rome  to  the  Corinthians  (about 
97  A.D.)  the  writer  speaks  of  St.  Paul  having 
'  gone  to  the  extreme  limit  of  the  west.'  This 
expression  in  a  letter  written  at  Rome  seems 
to  point  to  Spain.  St.  Paul  had  once  hoped 
to  visit  that  country  (Rol524);  and  in  the 
'Muratorian  Fragment,'  a  document  of  date 
about  200  A.D.,  it  is  indicated  that  he  had 
done  so  :  a  tradition  which  is  mentioned  later 
by  Eusebius  in  the  4th  cent.,  and  Chrysostom  in 
the  5th  cent.  If  the  genuineness  of  the  Pastoral 
Epistles  is  established  on  other  grounds,  they 
give  powerful  testimony  to  St.  Paul's  activity 
during  the  period  after  Acts. 

(b)  References  to  Heresies.  Many  critics 
see  in  these  Epistles,  and  especially  in  1  Tim 
(14  41-3  620)^  references  to  heresies  which  pre- 
vailed widely  in  the  Church  during  the  2nd 
cent.,  and  are  classed  under  the  name  of 
Gnosticism.  These  heresies  dealt  with  solu- 
tions of  the  problem  of  evil  ;  they  combined 
ideas  from  Jewish  and  heathen  sources  with 
Christian  truth  ;  they  tended  to  represent 
Christ's  earthly  career  and  sufferings  as  only 
seeming,  not  real  (Docetism)  ;  and  they  exalted 
knowledge  {g?iosis,  whence  the  name)  as  a 
special  privilege  of  the  few,  and  superior  to 
faith,  the  possession  of  the  many. 

The  references  to  heresies  in  the  Pastoral 
Epistles,  however,  are  extremely  vague  and 
indefinite.  There  is  no  reference  to  Docetism, 
such  as  we  find  in  1  John  (4 1-3),  supposed  to 
have  been  written  at  Ephesus  before  100  a.d.  ; 
and  the  references  to  false  doctrines  in  1  Tim 
4 1-4  6  20  do  not  seem  to  require  a  2nd-cent.  date, 
or  to  conflict  with  the  Pauline  authorship  any 
more  than  the  references  to  heresies  in  Col 
2  8,18,23  require  that  Epistle  to  be  denied  to  St. 
Paul,  and  assigned  to  the  2nd  cent.  In  the  early 
Church,  composed,  as  almost  every  congrega- 
tion was,  of  elements  diverse  in  race,  education, 
and  religion,  it  is  not  surprising  to  find  the  germs 
of  false  doctrine  from  the  beginning,  showing 
themselves  sometimes  in  tendencies  towards 
Jewish  legalism  (1  Tim  17  Tit  114  39)^  as  was 
the  case  among  the  Galatians  at  an  earlier  date  ; 
sometimes  in  philosophical  speculations  drawn 
from  heathen  sources  (1  Tim  4  7  6  20)^  as  was 
previously  the  case  among  the  Colossians.  The 
heresies  indicated  in  the  Pastoral  Epistles  seem 
largely  Jewish  in  origin.     They  are  specula- 


GEN.  INTRO. 


THE   PASTORAL  EPISTLES 


GEN.  INTRO. 


tions  about  the  Law  (1  Tim  1 7-io  ;  cp.  2  Tim 
314-17),  about  genealogies  (ITiml^  Tit  39), 
about  Jewish  fables  (Tit  1 1*^  and  probably  also 
1  Tim  1447);  and  while  the  ascetic  practices 
(1  Tim  4 1-4)  which  some  taught  may  have  had 
some  heathen  elements,  they  are  quite  as  likely 
to  have  been  suggested  by  exaggerations  of 
Jewish  ceremonialism:  see  Rol43  ICorS 
Cor2i6,  and  cp.  1  Tim  4  4  with  AclQU-is. 

(c)  Church  Organisation.  It  has  been 
objected  to  St.  Paul's  authorship  of  these 
letters  that  the  indications  of  Church  organisa- 
sion  are  such  as  point  to  a  time  later  than  that 
of  St.  Paul.  Titus  was  appointed  to  '  ordain 
elders  in  every  city'  (1^)  in  Crete  ;  and  both 
he  and  Timothy  were  instructed  as  to  the 
qualifications  of  'the  bishop'  (Tit  17-9  1  Tim 
31-7).  Timothy  was  also  given  instructions 
regarding  the  deacons  (lTim38-iO).  The 
organisation,  however,  does  not  seem  when 
examined  to  be  more  developed  than  was 
necessary  in  the  Churches  almost  from  the 
beginning.  Deacons  had  to  be  appointed  at  a 
very  early  date  in  the  Church  at  Jerusalem — 
although  the  name  was  not  then  given  them, 
the  corresponding  verb  is  used  of  their  work 
— (Ac  6  4)  ;  and  elders  were  appointed  by 
St.  Paul  in  every  Church  in  Galatia  on  his 
first  missionary  journey  (Acl423)  ;  while  at 
Ephesus,  at  the  end  of  his  third  journey,  they 
were  evidently  a  recognised  body  (Ac20i'7) 
entrusted  with  the  duties  of  overseeing  and 
teaching  the  flock  (2028).  Nor  is  the  term 
'the  bishop'  (1  Tim 3 2  Tit  17)  necessarily  an 
indication  of  a  post-apostolic  date.  For  (1) 
it  is  largely  held  that  the  terms  '  bishop ' 
{e.piscopos)  and  '  elder '  (presbideros)  are 
used  synonymously  in  these  Epistles,  as  they 
undoubtedly  were  at  an  earlier  period  (Ac 
20  28  ;  cp.  Phil  1 1)  ;  and  (2)  even  if,  as  is  also 
influentially  maintained,  '  the  bishop '  here 
means  the  principal  minister  of  the  Church, 
it  would  still  be  hazardous  to  pronounce  the 
Epistles  non-Pauline.  Many  good  authorities 
trace  back  the  beginnings  of  episcopacy  to  the 
apostolic  age,  and  so  it  is  by  no  means  impos- 
sible that  in  an  apostolic  Epistle,  written  as 
late  as  65-67  a.d.,  the  term  'bishop'  might 
occur  in  its  later  sense. 

(d)  Paul  an  Apostle.  Another  objection  has 
been  found  in  the  fact  that,  in  letters  written 
to  intimate  friends  and  disciples,  the  writer 
should  emphatically  assert  his  apostleship. 
This  trait,  it  is  said,  indicates  that  they  were 
written  by  some  one  who  was  using  the 
Apostle's  name  at  a  later  time,  as  the  Apostle 
himself  did  not  mention  his  apostleship  in 
letters  written  to  those  with  whom  he  was  on 
friendly  terms,  whether  churches  or  individuals 
(Phil  1 1  Philemon  v.  1).  But  these  Pastoral 
Epistles  are  not,  properly  speaking,  private 
letters.     They  were  probably  intended  to  be 


read  to  the  Churches  :  '  the  author  is  writing 
with  his  eye  on  the  community ' ;  and  the  fact 
that  heresy  and  incipient  faction  were  to 
be  guarded  against,  sufficiently  explains  the 
assertion  of  apostolic  dignity. 

(e)  Language  and  Style.  The  difference  in 
language  and  style  which  exists  between  these 
Epistles  and  the  undoubted  letters  of  the 
Apostle  is  felt  by  many  to  be  a  serious  objection 
to  their  genuineness.  It  is  impossible  here  to 
enter  into  details  ;  but  there  are  a  great  many 
words  and  phrases  found  in  these  books,  which 
are  absent  from  the  other  writings  of  St. 
Paul,  and  there  are  over  a  hundred  and  seventy 
words  used  which  are  not  elsewhere  present 
in  NT,  A  number  of  these  words  are,  of 
course,  necessitated  by  the  fact  that  new  sub- 
jects are  here  discussed ;  but  there  are  many 
which  cannot  be  thus  explained.  And  on 
this  ground  alone  many  refer  the  Epistles  to 
a  later  writer,  who,  according  to  some,  has 
incorporated  in  them  (especially  in  2  Tim) 
fragments  of  genuine  lost  letters  of  St.  Paul. 

The  argument  from  language,  however,  is 
by  no  means  conclusive.  The  differences 
from  the  other  Pauline  Epistles  in  language 
and  style  may  be  the  consequence  of  lapse 
of  time.  As  the  Apostle  became  older  and 
travelled  over  new  ground,  meeting  with  new 
experiences,  and  making  new  converts,  it 
would  not  be  wonderful  if  he  gained  a  wider 
command  of  language,  and  adopted  a  different 
mode  of  expression,  according  to  the  neces- 
sities of  the  case.  As  Farrar  points  out  ('  St. 
Paul'  :  Excursus  27),  '  St.  Paul  was  the  main 
creator  of  theological  language.'  He  '  had 
to  find  the  correct  and  adequate  expression 
for  conceptions  which  as  yet  were  extremely 
unfamiliar.  Every  year  would  add  to  the 
vocabulary,  and  the  harvest  of  new  expres- 
sions would  always  be  most  rich  where  truths 
already  familiar  were  brought  into  collision 
with  heresies  altogether  new.' 

It  has  recently  been  ascertained  by  an  ex- 
amination in  detail  of  about  two  hundred 
words  which  are  not  elsewhere  found  in  the 
NT.  that  none  of  them  had  its  origin  later 
than  St.  Paul,  that  nearly  half  of  them  are 
found  in  the  Septuagint,  that  over  fifty 
are  found  in  classical  writers  and  writers 
who  flourished  not  later  than  St.  Paul,  and 
that  almost  all  the  rest  can  be  explained  as 
necessitated  by  new  subjects,  or  formed  from 
Pauline  or  biblical  words,  or  as  otherwise 
consistent  with  the  apostolic  authorship.  The 
argument  from  language  would  be  valid  and 
conclusive  had  it  been  shown  that  a  number 
of  words  used  in  these  Epistles  did  not  come 
into  use  until  after  St.  Paul's  day.  The  fact 
that  none  can  be  shown  to  be  of  later  date, 
but  that  almost  all  can  be  proved  to  be  con- 
temporaneous with  the  Apostle,  indicates  that 


992 


GEN.  INTRO. 


THE   PASTORAL   EPISTLES 


there  is  nothing  in  the   language  of  the  Pas- 
torals to  conflict  with  their  claims  to  be  St. 
Paul's.     It  may  be  added  that   even    critics 
adverse  to  the  Pauline  authorship  recognise  in 
these  letters  the  reflexions  of    thoughts  and 
ideas  characteristic  of    the    Apostle.      Many 
think  they  see  incorporated  in  them  reminis- 
cences of    the  Apostle  and  private  notes  he 
had  written  to   companions  and  friends  (e  g 
2  Tim  115-18  46-22  Tit  3 12, 13),  and  describe  them 
as  Pauline,  though  not  by  the  Apostle  him- 
self.    Advocates  of    a    2nd-cent.  date  admit 
that  a  detailed  comparison  of    the  Pastorals 
with  the  letters  of  Clement  of  Rome,  Ignatius, 
and  Polycarp,  exhibits  the  former  as  '  astonish- 
ingly   superior':    and   acknowledge    that    the 
writer  was  saturated  with  the  contents  of  the 
genuine  Epistles  of    St.  Paul.     Apart,   there- 
fore, from  the  historical  and  internal  difficulties 
which  have  been  dealt  with,  the  Epistles  sug- 
gest the  apostolic  authorship,  and   bear    the 
marks  of  St.  Paul's  personality  ;  and  as  these 
difficulties  seem  all  to  be  capable  of  explana- 
tion, we  need  have  little  hesitation  in  receiving 
them  for  what  they  profess  to  be. 

2.  The  External  Evidence  for  the  Pastorals 
is  both  early  and  good.     They  were  probably 
made  use  of  in  the  Epistles  of  Ignatius  and 
Polycarp    in    the    first    quarter    of    the    2nd 
cent.  ;    Irenajus  (circ.  180)  quotes  from  1  Tim 
as  a  genuine  letter  of  St.  Paul  ;    and  they 
seemed  to  have  been  known  to  the  writer  of 
the  letter  from  Vienne  and  Lyons  about  the 
same  date.     Tertullian  and  Clement  of  Alex- 
andria, the  African  contemporaries  of  Ireneeus, 
also  speak  of  them  as  St.  Paul's.     Clement  of 
Eome,  who  flourished  in  the  end  of  the  1st 
and  beginning   of  the    2nd  cent.,   has   many 
parallels  to  passages  in  the  Pastorals  ;  and, 
though    some  scholars  think  that  this  arises 
from  their  origin  in  a  similar  atmosphere,  and 
amid   a   common    phraseology,  it  is   quite   as 
likely  that  the  similarities  are  due  to  Clement's 
acquaintance  with  the  contents  of  these  letters. 
Marcion,    the    Gnostic    of    the     2nd    cent., 
omits   these  Epistles   from  his  collection  of 
authoritative  Christian  writings,  and  that,  too, 
although  he  was  '  a  Pauline  enthusiast,'  accept- 
ing only  St.  Luke's  Gospel,  and  the  other  ten 
Epistles  of  St.  Paul.    But  Marcion  was  bound 
to  reject  these  letters,  if  he  was  to  save  his 


GEN.  INTRO. 

Rome.    The  Apostle  arrived  in  Rome  (Ac  28 16) 
probably   early  in    the   year  59.     He    was   a 
prisoner   there,    dwelling    in    his    own    hired 
house  (Ac  28 1«.  30)  for  two  years.      There  the 
Acts  of  the  Apostles  leaves  him.     His  appeal, 
however,   seems   to  have   been  sustained  and 
himself    afterwards    set   at    liberty.       If    he 
visited  Spain,  it  must  have  been  immediately 
after  his  release.     Subsequently  he  revisited 
the  scene  of  his  earlier  labours  in  Macedonia, 
and  possibly  in  Ephesus  (1  Tim  1 3).     Timothy 
had  been  in  Ephesus  for  some  time,  and  the 
Apostle  asked  him  to  remain  there  for  a  longer 
period.     To  instruct  him  further  regarding  his 
action  in  the  difficult  situation  he  had  to  face 
St.  Paul  wrote  the  First  Epistle  to  him  from 
Macedonia,    perhaps    in    65    or    66.     About 
the  same   time,  or  very  soon  after,  he  wrote 
the  Epistle  to  Titus.     From  it  we  learn  that 
Titus  was  in  Crete,  where  he  had  been  left  by 
the  Apostle  (15),  who  had  visited  the  island 
probably  on  his  way  to  Macedonia.     St.  Paul 
asked  him  to  join  him  in  the  winter  of   the 
same  year  at  Nicopolis,     From  Nicopolis  St. 
Paul  returned  to  Rome,  whether  under  arrest 
or  of  his  own  will  we  cannot  tell  ;  but  if  he 
arrived  a  free  man  he  was  very  soon  a  prisoner. 
From  prison  he  wrote  the  Second  Epistle  to 
Timothy   asking   him    to   come    to   him  (49). 
Where    Timothy  was  at  that  time  does  not 
appear.     He  seems  to  have  left  Ephesus,  other- 
wise   he   would   have    known   of    Trophimus 
having  been  invalided  at  Miletus,  which  was 
close   by,   and  also   of  the   visit  of   Tychicus 
(2Tim4i2>20).     The  Apostle  felt  that  he  was 
nearmg  his  end  (4  6, 7)  .  he  had  already  appeared 
befora    his    judges    (4i«),    but    he    evidently 
expected    to    be    condemned.      The    Second 
Epistle  to  Timothy  was  thus  written  shortly 
before  the  Apostle's  martyrdom  in  67  or  68. 

4.  Church  Organisation.  The  state  of  Church 
organisation  exhibited  in  these  Epistles  is 
exactly  what  might  be  expected  to  have  existed 
in  the  later  years  of  St.  Paul's  life.  When 
the  Apostle  in  his  first  missionary  operations 
had  made  a  number  of  converts  in  any  town 
or  district  sufficient  to  constitute  a  congrega- 
tion, he  appointed  presbyters  to  minister  and 
rule  m  it  (Ac  14  23),  perhaps  also,  as  many 
maintain,  a  leading  or  presiding  presbyter 
(episcoj)os)     with     special     authority— all     of 


j^„,  •  v,-i,+u  J  ^  -~  ~„  ™.^  „.o  yc^,.:,vuj,u.-,j  wiia  special  autnority — all  of 
doctrine  which  they  condemned  by  implication,  them  looking  to  the  Apostle  as  their  superior 
root  and  branch:    and    no  ar(/nmpn+   nrTn;,ic+     ix7-u„„  k„  i.r ^       ,    '^^  ^"«  '  '"jperior. 


root  and  branch  ;  and  no  argument  against 
their  genuineness  can  be  based  upon  the 
evidence  of  so  interested  and  so  prejudiced  a 
witness.  The  external  evidence  therefore 
goes  to  support  the  view  that  St.  Paul  was  the 
author. 

3.  Date.  Accepting  the  Pauline  authorship, 
we  may  conclude  that  these  Epistles  were 
written  during  the  interval  between  the  first 
and  the  second  imprisonment    of  St.  Paul  at 


63 


993 


When  he,  however,  was  no  longer  able  himself 
to  visit  and  control  the  various  presbyters,  and 
set  in  order  the  things  that  might  be  amisL,  he 
selected  one  of  his  companions  and  assistants 
to  act  in  his  stead.  This  was  the  state  of 
things  in  Ephesus  (1  Tim  13)  and  Crete 
(Tit  1 5).  St.  Paul  had  appointed  Timothy  and 
Titus  to  be  his  delegates  in  these  places, 
though  their  duty  in  that  capacity  may  only 
have  been  temporary  (2Tim49.2i  Tit3i2) 


THE   PASTORAL  EPISTLES— 1  TIMOTHY 


GEN.   INTRO. 

One  of  their  duties  was  to  appoint  presbyters 
(elders)  and  (if  presiding  presbyters  had  been 
already  introduced)  bishops  in  these  Churches 
(1  Tim  3 1-7  Tit  13-9),  ^ho  were  to  bear  rule 
over  the  brethren  (ITimSi''),  and  to  teach 
and  preach  (1  Tim  5 17  Tit  1 9).  The  functions 
of  these  officers,  however,  are  not  minutely 
detailed  :  it  is  their  character  upon  which  the 
Apostle  dwells.  The  qualities  in  which  they 
are  to  be  preeminent  are  moral  qualities,  and 
they  are  to  be  held  in  honour  in  proportion  to 
their  diligence  in  duty  and  faithfulness  in 
teaching  (1  Tim5i7). 

Besides  them,  there  were  to  be  deacons 
appointed,  whose  duties  would  be  much  the 
same  as  those  of  the  deacons  appointed  in 
Jerusalem  in  the  earliest  days  of  the  Church 
(Ac  6 1-*').  They  would  have  charge  of  the 
temporal  affairs  of  the  Church,  but  might,  like 
Stephen,  also  have  part  in  purely  spiritual 
work.  The  Apostle  in  their  case  also  dwells 
not  upon  their  functions,  but  upon  their 
character  (1  Tim  3  8).  Perhaps  also  deaconesses 
were  appointed,  charged  with  the  care  of  the 
women  in  the  Church  and  with  the  duty  of 
commending  the  gospel  to  women  outside  its 
pale  (1  Tim 3 11,  where  many  translate  'their 
wives,'  RV  '  women,'  as  '  deaconesses  '  :  see 
note  there). 

5.  Christian  Doctrine.  Much  stress  is  laid 
by  the  Apostle  upon  the  proclamation  of  the 
true  faith.  Exception  has  been  taken  to  the 
genuineness  of  the  Epistle  on  the  ground  of 
the  Apostle's  insistence  upon  sound  doctrine. 


INTRO. 


But  nothing  could  be  more  natural,  as  nothing 
was  more  necessary,  than  that  emphasis  should 
belaid  upon  doctrine,  when  heresy  was  rampant, 
and  that  the  importance  of  the  truth  should  be 
asserted  in  presence  of  false  teaching.    In  any 
case,  the  doctrines  taught  are  doctrines  which 
St.  Paul  was  continually  insisting  upon  :  God's 
desire    that    all   men    should    be    saved    (cp. 
lTim24  with  R0329  1012);  Christ's  manifest- 
ation as  our  Saviour,  and  His  giving  Himself 
as    a    ransom    (1  Tim  2  6);     His     death     and 
resurrection    (2Tim2S.ii    48).    our   spiritual 
union  with  Him  (2  Tim  2 11.12  3  H)  ;  salvation 
not  of  works,  but  of  free  grace  (Tit  3  5),  etc. 
So  in  characteristically  Pauline  fashion  prac- 
tical    teaching     is    closely     connected     with 
doctrinal,  and  the    moral   aspect   of  faith   in 
Christ  is  impressed  upon  the  recipients  of  the 
letters.     It  is  doubtless   important  to  'hold 
fast  the  form  of  sound  words,'  but  it  is  because 
the  results  of  'sound  doctrine'  are  manifest 
in    life    and    conduct    (1  Tim  19, 10    2  Tim  4  3 
Tit  2 1.2).     A  feature  of   the  Epistles  is  the 
recurrence    of    the    phrase    '  Faithful    is   the 
saying,'  used  to  introduce  maxims  of  truth  or 
duty.     This  expression  occurs  five  times,  viz. 
ITimlis   31  49  2Tim2ii   Tit38.     It   would 
seem  to  point  to  the  fact  that  favourite  sayings  or 
watchwords  were  current  among  the  Christians 
by  this  time — jverhaps  extracts  from  manuals 
of  instruction,  which  had  already  begun  to  be 
prepared    for    the    use    of   the   presbyters  in 
preparing  converts  for  baptism — which  were 
quoted  by  the  Apostle. 


1  TIMOTHY 


INTRODUCTION 


I.  Authenticity.  The  First  Epistle  to  Timo- 
thy is  the  first  letter  of  the  group  called  the 
Pastoral  Epistles.  Until  the  beginning  of 
the  19th  cent,  no  doubt  was  ever  expressed 
as  to  the  Epistle  being  written  by  St.  Paul, 
except  by  the  Gnostics ;  who,  as  is  stated  by 
Tertullian  C  Adv.  Marc,'  v.  21),  Clement  of 
Alexandi-ia  ('  Strom.'  ii,  1 1),  and  Jerome  ('  Prol. 
ad  Titum '),  rejected  all  the  Pastoral  Epistles 
simply  because  the  teaching  contained  in  them 
was  opposed  to  their  peculiar  doctrines.  The 
external  evidence,  therefore,  may  be  regarded 
as  perfectly  satisfactory,  passages  being  quoted 
from  it  or  alluded  to  by  Clement  of  Rome, 
Hegesippus,  Athenagoras,  Theophilus,  and 
the  Pauline  authorship  directly  declared  by 
Irenaeus,  Clement  of  Alexandria,  and  Tertullian, 


and  accepted  without  demur  till  a  hundred 
years  ago,  when  T.  E.  C.  Schmid  for  the  first 
time  (1804),  followed  by  Schleiermacher (1807), 
Eichhorn  (1812),  De  Witte  (1826),  Baur  (1835), 
denied  its  genuineness,  arguing  entirely  from 
internal  evidence. 

The  internal  evidence  to  which  the  opponents 
of  the  authenticity  of  the  Epistles  have  ap- 
pealed is  the  character  of  the  heresies  contro- 
verted in  them,  which,  they  say,  were  of  a  later 
date  than  St.  Paul,  and  the  use  of  a  number  of 
words  and  phrases  not  employed  by  St.  Paul 
in  his  other  Epistles.  The  answer  to  these 
objections  is  that  the  writers  in  question  are 
mistaken  in  identifying  the  heresies  denounced 
by  St.  Paul  with  the  full-grown  Gnostic  system 
of  the  2nd  cent. :  and  that  it  is  natural  that 


994 


INTEO. 


1  TIMOTHY 


1.1 


a  man  writing  a  letter  or  letters  many  years 
after  his  earlier  letters,  and  on  a  different 
subject,  should  use  words  which  do  not  occur 
in  those  earlier  letters. 

2.  Reader.  Timothy,  or  Timotheus.  Timo- 
thy was  possibly  converted  to  Christianity  by 
St.  Paul  in  his  First  Missionary  Journey,  when 
he  visited  Lystra,  47  A.D.  He  was  the  son  of  a 
Jewess  named  Eunice  (AclG^  2 Tim  1 5),  who 
was  married  to  a  Greek  husband,  and  was  her- 
self also  a  convert  to  Christianity  together 
with  her  mother  Lois.  We  first  hear  of  him 
at  Lystra  on  St.  Paul's  Second  Missionary 
Journey,  when  he  is  described  as  already  a 
disciple  (AclG^).  St.  Paul  took  him  as  his 
companion  from  Lystra  as  far  as  Beroea,  where 
he  remained  with  Silas  for  a  short  time  after 
St.  Paul's  departure  (AclT^^),  and  later  on 
rejoined  the  Apostle  at  Corinth  (Ac  18  5).  It 
is  probable  that  he  accompanied  St.  Paul  on 
his  return  journey  as  far  as  Ephesus,  where  we 
find  him  '  ministering '  to  St.  Paul  in  his  Third 
Missionary  Journey,  55  a.d.  From  thence  he 
was  sent  forward  by  St.  Paul  to  Macedonia  (Ac 
19^2)^  where  the  Apostle  joined  him  shortly 
afterwards ;  and  he  was  one  of  those  who 
accompanied  his  master  on  his  last  visit  to 
Jerusalem  (Ac  20'').  Later  he  was  with  St. 
Paul  in  Rome  during  his  imprisonment,  and 
is  associated  with  him  in  the  Epistles  to  the , 
Colossians  and  Philippians.  According  to  this 
Epistle,  St.  Paul  seems  to  have  paid  another 
visit  to  Ephesus,  65  a.d.,  and  on  his  departure 
left  Timothy  in  charge  of  the  Church  of 
Ephesus  as  his  deputy  (ITiml^),  and  soon 
afterwards  wrote  to  him  the  First  Epistle  to 
instruct  him  fully  in  his  duties.  In  the  follow- 
ing year  he  addressed  to  him  the  pathetic  letter 
known  as  the  Second  Epistle,  begging  him  to 
come  and  be  with  him  in  his  last  imprisonment. 
Whether  he  was  able  to  fulfil  this  longing  of 
his  master  we  do  not  know.  Tradition  says 
that  the  rest  of  his  life  was  spent  at  Ephesus 
as  its  bishop,  subject  to  the  apostolic  authority 
of  St.  John  exercised  throughout  proconsular 
Asia.  We  find  from  the  book  of  the  Revelation 
that  the  Church  of  Ephesus  had  striven  man- 
fully against  those  '  which  say  that  they  are 
apostles  and  are  not '  in  fulfilment  of  St.  Paul's 
last  injunctions,  but  had  now  '  left  its  first  love ' 
(Rev  2^).  We  may  well  suppose  that  Timothy's 
ministry  was  marked  by  the  first  characteristic, 
and  that  it  was  on  his  death  that  the  Ephesian 
Christians  fell  from  their  first  love.  We  learn 
from  the  two  Epistles  that  Timothy  was  or- 
dained by  the  laying  on  of  hands  of  St.  Paul 
and  some  presbyters,  but  when  this  occurred 
we  do  not  know. 

3.  Date  and  Place  of  Composition.  It  was 
either  written  from  Macedonia  or  some  other 
point  in  the  Apostle's  last  journey,  65  or  66  a.d. 
(1  Tim  13). 


995 


4.  Contents  and  Purpose.  The  Epistle  may 
be  regarded  as  an  Apostolic  Charge.  Its 
chief  purpose  is  to  instruct  Timothy  as  to  his 
attitude  to  the  forms  of  heresy  which  were 
prevalent,  and  to  direct  him  in  his  choice  of 
presbyters.  The  immediate  assailants  of  the 
faith  were  a  sect,  the  growth  of  which  we  can 
trace  through  St.  Paul's  Epistles.  When  he 
wrote  the  Epistle  to  the  Galatians,  55  a.d.,  his 
adversaries  were  Jews  proper,  who  had  em- 
braced Christianity  but  desired  to  combine 
with  the  gospel  the  practices  and  tenets  of 
Judaism.  When  he  wrote  to  the  Colossians, 
60  A.D.,  the  sect  had  imbibed  a  number  of 
speculative  opinions,  known  later  as  Gnostic, 
which  were  derogatory  to  Christ,  and  added 
them  to  their  previous  tenets.  When  we  reach 
the  date  of  the  Pastoral  Epistles,  67  a.d.,  the 
Jewish  basis  still  remained,  but  the  most 
prominent  feature  of  the  belief  was  a  more 
developed  form  of  the  Colossian  heresy,  which 
departed  from  faith  in  Christ  and  attached 
importance  to  'knowledge  falsely  so  called.' 
After  the  fall  of  Jerusalem,  70  a.d.,  the  Jewish 
element  grew  weaker  and  weaker  till  it  was  either 
eliminated  or  merged  in  pure  Gnosticism  (from 
Gk.  g7iosis,  '  knowledge  '),  which  was  a  philo- 
sophy which  attempted  to  explain  the  existence 
of  evil  by  declaring  evil  to  be  a  necessary 
quality  of  matter,  denied  the  reality  of  Christ's 
sufferings,  and  too  often  found  excuses  for  and 
was  associated  with  a  low  state  of  morality. 
St.  Paul  here  instructs  Timothy  to  be  bold  in 
his  opposition  to  the  false  teachers,  whose 
doctrine  at  this  time  was  evidently  destructive 
of  both  faith  and  morals. 

A  secondary  object  of  the  Epistle  is  to  give 
Timothy  instructions  as  to  the  organisation  of 
the  Church,  and  as  to  the  kind  of  men  whom 
he  should  ordain  as  presbyters  and  deacons. 

Its  contents  are  nine  charges  to  Timothy, 
interspersed  with  exhortations  to  him. 

CHAPTER  1 

Timothy  reminded  of  his  Commission, 

and  exhorted  to  earnestness 
I,  2.  Salutation.  An  apostle]  St.  Peter 
and  St.  John,  with  regard  to  whose  position 
no  question  was  raised,  are  content  to  call 
themselves  presbyters  (2  and  3  John,  1  Pet5i), 
but  St.  Paul  usually  designates  himself  as  an 
Apostle  owing  to  the  peculiarity  of  his  call  to 
the  apostleship  which  led  his  adversaries  to 
deny  him  the  title  ;  and  for  the  same  reason 
he  claims  that  he  holds  his  apostleship  by  the 
commandment  of  God  the  Father  and  the 
Lord  Jesus  Christ.  God  our  Saviour]  The  full 
force  that  the  Apostle  assigned  to  the  ex- 
pression is  shown  in  2  ^  :  '  God  our  Saviour, 
who  willeth  that  all  men  should  be  saved  and 
come  to  the  knowledge  of  the  truth.'  Christ, 
v)hich  is  our  hope]  so  designated  because  it  is 


1.3 


1  TIMOTHY 


1.  20 


through  Christ  that  we  have  the  hope  of  future 
salvation.  2.  My  own  son  in  the  faith]  see 
3 13  and  Tit  1  *.  St.  Paul  speaks  of  Onesimus 
in  like  terms  as  '  my  son  whom  I  have  begotten 
in  my  bonds'  (Philemon  v.  10). 

3-20.  The  first  charge  to  Timothy.  To  re- 
member and  act  upon  the  instructions  already 
given  him  by  St.  Paul,  which  were  to  be  firm 
in  resisting  the  heterodox  teachers  in  Ephesus, 
as  the  Apostle  had  been  himself,  and  to  pro- 
mote love,  pui'ity,  uprightness,  and  faith. 

3.  As  I  besought  thee]  The  words  'so  do ' 
(i.e.  remember  and  act  upon  my  instructions), 
or  '  so  I  do  now,'  RV,  i.e.  '  I  repeat  my  .charge 
to  you,'  must  be  supplied.  When  I  went] 
RV  '  when  I  was  going.'  It  is  probable  that 
the  charge  was  given  to  Timothy  by  St.  Paul 
in  Ephesus  when  he  left  that  city  himself. 
This  journey  he  took  in  the  interval  between 
his  first  and  second  imprisonment.  That  they 
teach  no  other  doctrine]  RV  '  not  to  teach  a 
different  doctrine '  ;  better,  '  not  to  teach 
heterodox  doctrine.'  4.  Fables  and  endless 
genealogies]  not  the  Gnostic  stories  of  emana- 
tions and  aeons,  but  idle  Jewish  legends  and 
genealogical  claims,  as  is  shown  by  Titl  1*  3^. 

Minister  questions,  rather  than  godly  edifica- 
tion] RV  '  minister  questions  rather  ihan  a 
dispensation  of  God.'  This  would  mean  one 
of  two  things,  either  that  the  heterodox  teach- 
ing led  to  futile  speculation  and  not  to  the 
spread  of  the  knowledge  of  the  dispensation 
of  the  gospel,  or  that  it  made  men  idle  dis- 
putants instead  of  faithful  dispensers  of  God's 
truth. 

5-7.  The  end  of  the  commandment]  RV  '  the 
end  of  the  charge,'  i.e.  the  aim  of  all  true  teaching 
as  contrasted  with  '  fables  and  endless  genealo- 
gies.' The  gospel  which  Timothy  had  to 
preach  consists  of  charity  or  'love,'  RV,  spring- 
ing from  purity  of  heart,  an  enlightened  con- 
science, and  a  sure  faith.  This  was  not  the 
gospel  preached  by  the  heterodox  teachers, 
whose  doctrine  consisted  in  quibbling  subtle- 
ties, like  those  of  the  rabbis,  and  misrepre- 
sentations of  the  Law,  the  meaning  of  which 
they  did  not  understand. 

8-1 1.  St.  Paul  guards  himself  against  seem- 
ing to  minimise  the  value  of  the  Law.  Pro- 
perly understood,  it  was  of  the  utmost  use  as 
a  restraint  of  evil-doers.  This  he  preached 
'  according  to  the  gospel  committed  to  his 
trust,'  i.e.  as  a  part  of  Christian  teaching. 

12-17.  That  the  preaching  of  the  gospel 
had  been  committed  to  him,  leads  him  to  offer 
a  fervent  thanksgiving  for  the  grace  so  be- 
stowed upon  him,  unworthy  as  he  was. 

12.  Putting  me  into  the  ministry]  RV 
'appointing  me  to  his  service.'  13.  I  did  it 
ignorantly]  St.  Paul's  is  an  instance  of  that 
form  of  ignorance  which  excuses  acts  done 
through   it,  i.e.  ignorance   of   fact,    not   of  a 


moral  principle.  14.  Grace  ..  was  ..  abun  ■ 
dant  with  faith  and  love]  The  act  of  God 
(grace)  is  accompanied  and  supplemented  by 
man's  loving  acceptance  of  it  in  faith. 

15.  This  h  a  faithful  saying]  For  this  for- 
mula, peculiar  to  the  Pastoral  Epistles  (cp.  1  Tim 
4931  2 Tim 2 11  Tit 3 8),  see  General  Intro. 
St.  Paul's  case  is  covered  by  the  general  prin- 
ciple that  Christ  came  to  save  sinners. 

16.  First]  St.  Paul  was  in  his  own  estima- 
tion first  in  sinfulness  (v.  15),  and  first  for- 
given, as  an  example  to  other  sinners  to  hope 
for  pardon.  17.  A  doxology  of  thanks  to 
God  for  what  He  had  done  for  him  :  cp.  Ro 
1625.  King]  This  title  is  applied  to  God  only 
here  and  in  ITimGi^  and  Mt535.  Eternal] 
lit.  '  of  the  ages,'  but  meaning  '  eternal.'  The 
original  has  '  king  of  the  aeons.'  Had  the 
doctrine  of  the  Gnostic  ^ons  been  in  existence 
when  the  Epistle  was  written,  this  expression 
would  not  have  been  used  without  some  con- 
tradiction of  that  theory  or  explanation  of  the 
words.  This  is  an  incidental  proof  of  the 
early  date  of  the  Epistle. 

18-20.  He  returns  from  the  digression  re- 
specting himself  to  the  subject  of  the  charge 
previously  given  to  Timothy,  to  resist  heresy 
(v.  3),  and  to  promote  charity,  purity,  upright- 
ness, and  faith  (v.  5). 

18.  I  commit  unto  thee]  The  duty  of  main- 
taining the  truth  whereby  to  resist  heresy  is  a 
trust  committed  to  Timothy  :  see  1  Tim  6  ^0 
2  Tim  1 1^.  According  to  the  prophecies]  This 
trust  he  would  fulfil  in  pursuance  of  declara- 
tions made  respecting  him  by  the  '  prophets ' 
of  the  Church  at  the  time  of  his  ordination. 
The  '  prophets '  are  very  prominent  in  the 
Apostolic  Age  :  see  Ac  13  ^  1  Cor  12.  By  them] 
in  accordance  with  the  anticipation  of  the 
'  prophets.'  19.  Which]  the  guidance  of  their 
conscience.  Concerning  faith,  etc.]  RV. '  made 
shipwreck  concerning  the  faith '  ;  not  their 
own  belief,  but  the  substance  of  the  revealed 
truth. 

20.  There  are  two  instances  of  excommuni- 
cation in  Scripture,  (1)  that  of  the  Corinthian 
for  immorality  (lCor5),  (2)  of  Hymenaeus 
and  Alexander  for  heresy.  We  learn  from 
2  Tim  2 19  that  Philetus  was  one  of  Hymenaeus' 
associates,  but  whether  Timothy  followed  St. 
Paul's  example  and  excommunicated  him,  we 
do  not  know.  It  is  probable  that  the  Alex- 
ander here  mentioned  is  the  same  as  '  Alex- 
ander the  coppersmith  '  of  2  Tim  4 1*,  who  may 
have  '  done  '  St.  Paul  '  much  evil '  at  Rome 
during  his  trial,  in  consequence  of  the  excom- 
munication pronounced  upon  him  by  the 
Apostle  at  Ephesus.  He  may  also  have  been 
the  Alexander  of  Ac  1933.  Delivered  unto 
Satan]  because  relegated  from  the  Church  to 
the  world,  from  the  kingdom  of  God  on  earth 
to  the  empire  of  Satan  (Ac26iS). 


996 


2. 1 


1  TIMOTHY 


8.  2 


CHAPTER  2 

Concerning  Prayer,   THANicsGiviNa,  and 
THE  Place  of  Women 

1-8.   The  second    charge   to   Timothy — to 

teach    those    over   whom    he   was   set   to   use 
public  prayer  and  intercession. 

I.  Therefore]  in  the  sense  of  '  well  then.' 

First  of  all]  His  first  exhortation  as  to 
Christian  men  is  that  they  should  pray.  Sup-* 
plications,  prayers,  intercessions,  thanksgiv- 
ings] The  duty  of  the  Christian  Church  in 
the  matter  of  intercession  is  to  offer  prayers 
for  others,  and  to  give  thanks  for  good  things 
happening  to  others,  and  for  events  relating 
to  others  which  may  be  a  blessing  to  herself. 

For  all  men]  Christian  charity  and  good-will 
excludes  none.  2.  For  kings]  Nero  was  at 
this  time  emperor.  The  Apostle's  instruction, 
therefore,  shows  that  the  prayers  of  the 
Church  are  to  be  offered  for  bad  rulers  as 
well  as  good.  For  all  that  are  in  authority] 
that  they  may  be  so  directed  as  to  further  the 
peace  and  prosperity  of  Christ's  Church. 

That  we  may  lead  a  quiet  and  peaceable  life 
in  all  godliness]  cp.  the  Prayer  for  the  Church 
Militant,  '  that  under  him  we  may  be  godly 
and  quietly  governed.'  3.  This  h  good]  that 
is,  the  public  offering  of  intercessory  prayers. 

God  our  Saviour]  see  1 1.  4.  Will  have, 
etc.]  RV  '  willeth  that  all  men  should.' 

5-7.  A  summary  statement  of  the  gospel 
which  St.  Paul  preached.  It  is  introduced 
in  connexion  with  the  doctrine  of  God's  will 
that  all  men  should  be  saved.  Surely  that  is 
His  will,  is  the  Apostle's  argument,  for  He  is 
the  God  of  all  (there  is  no  other),  and  Christ, 
Himself  Man,  is  the  Mediator  of  all  (there  is 
no  other),  and  He  is  the  Redeemer  of  all, 
as  was  shown  to  be  the  case,  when  the  due 
time  came,  by  the  means  appointed  by  God, 
one  of  which  means  was  St.  Paul's  own  preach- 
ing and  his  apostleship  of  the  Gentiles.  7.  I 
speak  the  truth]  St.  Paul  does  not  forget  that 
his  apostleship  had  been  denied,  and  takes 
occasion  to  reaffirm  it :  see  1  Cor9i  2  Cor  12 12. 

Teacher  of  the  Gentiles]  Gal  2  9.  In  faith 
and  verity]  The  faith,  which  was  also  the 
truth,  was  the  subject  of  his  teaching  to  the 
Gentiles. 

8.  As  to  men  (contrasted  with  women,  about 
whom  he  is  about  to  give  a  different  charge), 
they  are  not  to  quarrel  and  dispute,  but, 
wherever  they  are,  they  are  to  pray.  Men] 
RV  '  the  men,'  that  is,  the  male  members  of 
the  Church.  Doubting]  RV  '  disputing.'  Lift- 
ing up  holy  hands]  the  gesture  of  the  early 
Christians,  and  perhaps  the  most  natural  ges- 
ture in  very  earnest  prayer. 

9-15.  The  third  charge  to  Timothy,  as  to 
the  comely  behaviour  of  women,  and  their 
place  in  the  Church. 


997 


9,  10.  In  like  manner]  rather,  'so  also'; 
there  is  no  likeness  in  the  conduct  enjoined 
on  women  to  what  has  gone  before.  The  first 
rule  is,  that  their  ornament  is  not  to  be  braid- 
ing of  hair  or  wearing  of  jewels  or  fine  dresses, 
but  good  works  and  modesty  and  serenity  of 
life.  There  is  no  prohibition  of  women  wear- 
ing jewels  and  head-dresses  and  handsome 
gowns  here,  but  they  are  not  to  regard  them 
as  their  real  ornaments  in  comparison  with 
good  life.  II,  12.  The  second  rule  is,  that 
they  are  not  to  teach  in  the  congregation,  and 
are  to  be  submissive.  13,  14.  Two  reasons 
which  show,  not  cause,  inferiority  on  the  part 
of  the  woman.  Man  was  created  before 
woman,  who  was  formed  to  be  a  helpmeet  for 
him  ;  and  woman  was  the  first  transgressor, 
showing  that  her  weakness  more  readily  yielded 
to  temptation.  15.  In  childbearing]  i.e.  by 
keeping  faithfully  and  simply  to  her  allotted 
sphere  as  wife  and  mother. 

CHAPTER   3 

Concerning  the  Officers  of  the  Church 
1-7-  The  fourth  charge  to  Timothy,  in  re- 
spect to  presbyters. 

1.  Desireth  a  good  work]  i.e.  a  noble  occu- 
pation. 

2.  A  bishop]  RV  '  the  bishop,'  RM  '  over- 
seer.' Some  think  (see  General  Intro.)  that 
the  terms  '  bishop  '  and  '  elder  '  are  used  inter- 
changeably in  these  Epistles,  as  they  seem  to 
have  been  at  an  earlier  date  (Ac20'-8  Philli). 
Others,  however,  think  that,  at  the  close  of 
the  apostolic  age,  to  which  these  Epistles  be- 
long, the  term  '  bishop '  was  coming  into  use 
in  the  sense  of  a  chief  ruler  of  the  Church,  or 
presiding  elder,  and  that  that  is  the  meaning 
here.  In  favour  of  the  latter  view  it  is  urged 
that  '  bishop  '  in  these  Epistles  occurs  only  in 
the  singular,  and  always  with  the  definite  article 
('  the  bishop '  :  see  RV  Tit  1 '),  whereas  'elder ' 
is  found  in  the  plural,  and  where  it  occurs  in 
the  singular  has  no  article  (1  Tim5i>i'',i9  Tit 
15).  The  question,  however,  requires  to  be 
handled  with  caution,  owing  to  the  limited  and 
imperfect  knowledge  we  have  of  the  develop- 
ment of  Church  organisation  in  the  first 
century. 

The  husband  of  one  wife]  lit.  '  a  man  of  one 
woman.'  Four  meanings  have  been  attached  to 
the  words  :  (a)  The  presbyter  is  not  to  be  a 
Christianised  Jew,  who,  in  accordance  with  the 
Law  of  Moses,  had  previously  taken  two  wives. 
(6)  He  is  not  to  take  a  second  wife  after  the 
death  of  the  first,  (c)  He  is  not  to  marry 
again  while  his  divorced  wife  lives,  (c/)  He  is 
to  be  faithful  to  his  wife,  '  a  man  of  one 
woman,'  and  '  keep  himself  only  unto  her  so 
long  as  they  both  should  live,'  whether  it  were 
a  first  wife  or  a  second  wife.  The  last  is  pro- 
bably   the   right   exposition,  as  set  forth   by 


3.4 


1  TIMOTHY 


4.9 


Theodore  of  Mopsuestia  and  Theodoret.  In 
any  case  the  presbyter  or  bishop  is  contem- 
plated as  a  man-ied  man.  Given  to  hospitality] 
This  injunction  was  most  necessary  for  the 
sake  of  travellers  when  inns  in  the  modern 
sense  did  not  exist  :  see  3  Jn  v.  5. 

4.  Having  his  children  in  subjection]  more 
exactly,  '  having  children  (who  are)  in  subjec- 
tion.' 6.  Novice]  i.e.  a  recent  convert.  A 
'  bishop  '  or  '  presbyter  '  must  have  Christian 
experience.  Lifted  up]  The  young  presbyter's 
danger  is  the  pride  which  led  to  the  condemna- 
tion of  the  devil,  and  is  the  snare  laid  for  him 
by  the  devil. 

8-13.  Fifth  charge  to  Timothy — as  to  deacons 
and  deaconesses. 

8.  Greedy  of  filthy  lucre]  Part  of  the  office 
of  the  deacon  was  to  '  serve  tables '  and  ad- 
minister relief  to  the  poor,  so  that  he  had 
opportunity  for  peculation  and  base  gains. 

9.  The  mystery  of  the  faith]  the  Christian 
faith,  which,  having  once  been  hidden,  is  now 
revealed  :  cp.  v.  16. 

11.  Their  wives]  RV  'women':  but  in- 
structions about  women  in  general  would  not 
be  thus  parenthetically  inserted.  Both  Light- 
foot  and  Ellicott  translate  '  deaconesses.' 
Such  an  order,  which,  it  is  certain,  came 
into  existence  at  a  very  early  date,  was 
especially  necessary  in  the  East  owing  to 
the  strict  seclusion  of  the  female  sex,  who 
were  thus  debarred  from  the  ministrations 
of  men.  Deaconesses  were  admitted  to  their 
order  by  the  laying  on  of  the  bishop's  hands 
('  Apost.  Const.'  iii.  15,  viii.  19).  They  were 
not  allowed  to  marry  (Can.  15  of  Chalcedon). 
Their  duties  were  to  minister  generally  to 
women,  to  assist  at  the  baptism  of  women,  to 
stand  at  the  women's  door  of  the  church,  to 
act  as  go-between  between  the  clergy  and 
women  ('  Apost.  Const.'  iii.  15,  ii.  26,  ii. 
57,  ii.  26).  There  were  40  deaconesses  at- 
tached to  the  great  Church  of  Constantinople 
in  the  time  of  St.  Chrysostom.  The  order  prac- 
tically became  extinct  in  the  "West,  perhaps 
very  gradually,  after  the  tenth  century,  and 
lingered  on  rather  longer  in  the  East.  But  in 
the  West  it  ncA^er  completely  died  out  in  the 
Church  of  France,  where  to  this  day  Benedic- 
tine abbesses  receive  the  ordination  of  a  deacon- 
ess. Both  in  England  and  Scotland  it  is  now 
revived,  and  forms  a  most  wholesome  and 
scriptural  channel  through  which  organised 
women's  work  can  be  carried  on. 

12.  Husbands  of  one  vinfe]  see  on  v.  2. 

13.  Purchase]  RV  '  gain.'  A  good  degree] 
RV  '  standing,'  a  high  position  in  estimation 
and  influence. 

14-16.  Importance  of  the  above  charges, 
for  the  purpose  of  instructing  Timothy  how 
to  act  as  a  minister  of  God's  Church — an 
institution  which  God  has  established  to  hold 


up  the  truth  as  a  pillar  supports  a  roof,  and 
to  keep  it  unshaken  as  a  finn  foundation  gives 
security  to  a  building.  Were  it  not  for  the 
support  and  steadiness  given  to  tnith  by  the 
society  of  faithful  men  which  maintains  it,  it 
would  ere  now  have  vanished  from  the  earth. 
16.  Without  controversy]  rather,  '  as  we 
confess '  ;  and  then  the  Apostle  quotes  some 
words  of  an  early  confession  of  the  Christian 
'faith  : '  He  who  was  incarnate  ;  whose  righteous- 
ness was  made  manifest ;  who  was  an  object  of 
open  vision  to  angels  ;  whom  the  Apostles 
preached  to  the  world  ;  whom  the  faithful 
believed  in  ;  who  at  the  end  of  His  ministry 
was  taken  up  into  heaven.'  The  reading  is 
apparently  not  God  was  manifest  (AV),  but 
'  He  who  was  manifest '  (RV).  Mystery]  The 
hidden  secret  now  revealed  in  Christ,  which  is 
the  basis  of  holiness  :  cp.  v.  9. 

CHAPTER  4 
Various  Directions  and  Exhortations 

i-io.  A  return  to,  and  emphatic  reiteration 
of,  the  first  charge  to  Timothy  (l^-^O)  against 
heterodoxy  and  in  favour  of  true  godliness. 
This  form  of  heterodoxy  which  he  would  have 
to  oppose  was  an  asceticism  which  taught  that 
there  was  merit  in  abstaining  from  meats,  and 
forbade  conjugal  intercom-se  as  on  a  lower 
moral  level  than  celibacy. 

I.  The  Spirit  speaketh  (RV '  saith ')]  possibly 
in  some  definite  prophecy  of  OT.,  or  of  our 
Lord,  or  of  the  Apostles,  but  more  probably  in 
the  general  prophetic  testimony  of  the  Church, 
and  particularly  in  the  present  and  former 
words  of  St.  Paul  himself  (cp.  Ac  20  ^9).  In  the 
latter  times]  RV  'in  later  times.'  2.  Seared] 
RV  '  branded.'  Their  consciences  were  not 
made  incapable  of  feeling,  but  false  principles 
were  bm-nt  into  them.  3.  From  meats]  cp. 
Col  2 1'^.  4.  If  we  partake  of  food  and  accept 
other  such  blessings  with  gratitude  to  the 
Giver,  which  naturally  shows  itself  in  words 
of  thanksgiving,  that  food  and  those  blessings 
are  thereby  hallowed  to  us ;  so  that  it  is  not 
only  a  mistake,  but  a  sin,  to  refuse  them. 

6.  Minister]  The  word  cUacoims  is  still  used 
in  its  general  sense  (cp.  EphS'i')  as  well  as 
specifically  (3^).  7.  Old  wives'  fables]  such 
as  those  which  are  recorded  in  the  apocryphal 
books  of  the  2nd  cent.,  and  became  the 
mythology  of  the  Middle  Ages. 

8.  We  are  to  train  the  body  and  exercise 
self-denial,  which  will  help  us  to  control  our 
lower  nature,  and  is  often  necessary  to  be  prac- 
tised that  we  may  help  others.  It  is  '  profit- 
able for  a  little  '  (RV) — that  is,  up  to  a  certain 
point — as  it  is  a  help  towards,  and  a  part  of, 
piety  ;  but  it  does  not  lay  iip  merit  for  us,  and 
it  does  not  procure  for  us  the  blessedness  which 
is  the  promised  result  of  piety  in  this  and  in 
the  future  life.     9.  This  v.  is  parenthetical. 


998 


n 


4.  10 


1  TIMOTHY 


5.21 


There  was  a  Christian  '  saying,  the  Apostle 
reminds  Timothy,  to  the  same  effect  as  what 
he  had  written  in  the  last  verse.  lO.  For]  This 
word  refers  us  back  to  the  promise  of  the 
future  life  in  v.  8  :  '  For,'  says  the  Apostle, 
'it  is  in  hope  of  the  future  salvation,  offered 
by  God  to  all  and  attained  by  believers,  that 
we  bear  toil  and  suffering.' 

11-16.  Sixth  charge  to  Timothy — personal 
to  himself. 

12.  Thy  youth]  Timothy  was  probably  at 
this  time  between  35  and  40 — an  early  age  to 
be  placed  over  other  presbyters,  all  of  whom 
were  comparatively  elderly  men,  as  St.  Paul's 
deputy.  St.  Paul  was  called  a  young  man 
when  his  age  was  about  the  same  (AcT^'^). 

13.  Reading  .  .  exhortation  .  .  doctrine]  i.e. 
the  public  reading  of  Scripture  in  church 
and  sermons  hortative  and  doctrinal.  14.  By 
prophecy]  thi-ough  the  medium  of  prophecy  : 
cp.  Ac  13 1' 2  for  a  parallel.  This  is  a  second 
reference  to  Timothy's  ordination,  and  we  see 
that  in  it  the  '  prophets '  (preachers),  presby- 
ters, and  St.  Paul  took  part  (1  is  2  Tim  1 15). 
It  is  probably  owing  to  this  precedent  that 
the  presbytery  alone,  or  in  association  with  the 
bishop,  according  to  the  form  of  Church  polity 
in  use,  has  to  do  with  laying  hands  on  a  presby- 
ter at  his  ordination.  16.  Thou  shalt .  .  save] 
i.e.  be  the  salvation  of,  or  the  means  of,  saving. 

CHAPTER  5 

Regarding  Widows  and  Accusations 
AGAINST  Elders 

I.  Rebuke]  This  shows  the  authority  which 
Timothy  exercised.  An  elder]  i.e.  an  elderly 
man,  not  one  officially  so  named. 

3-16.  The  seventh  charge  to  Timothy — as 
to  widows. 

3.  Widowrs  indeed]  Each  local  Church  kept 
a  list  of  the  widows  belonging  to  the  congrega- 
tion, who  were  supported  by  the  alms  of  the 
faithful  if  they  were  widows  indeed,  that  is, 
if  they  had  none  to  help  them  (vv.  4,  5).  In 
return,  they  did  what  services  they  could  to 
the  brethren.  4.  Nephews]  RV  '  grand- 
children,' whose  duty  it  was  to  take  charge  of 
their  relations.  Them]  i.e.  the  children  or 
nephews.  7.  Blameless]  RV '  without  reproach,' 
that  the  Church  widows  may  not  be  spoken  ill 
of  as  women  whom  their  relatives  ought  to 
support.  9,  10.  The  qualifications  for  being 
put  on  the  widows'  list,  besides  being  destitute, 
are,  (1)  to  be  60  years  of  age  ;  (2)  to  have 
been  faithful  to  her  husband  or  husbands  (a 
'  woman  of  one  man  ')  ;  (3)  to  be  of  good 
reputation  ;  (4)  to  have  brought  up  her  chil- 
di-en  well  ;  (5)  to  have  shown  hospitality  to 
strangers  (cp.  3  Jn  v.  5)  ;  (6)  to  have  washed 
the  saints'  feet  (i.e.  humbly  ministered  to  her 
fellow-Christians  ;  (7)  helped  any  in  distress ; 
(8)  to  be  fruitful  of  good  works. 


11-15.  Reasons  against  admitting  younger 
widows.  After  devoting  themselves  to  the 
service  of  Christ  in  their  first  grief,  they  may 
afterwards  marry  and  give  up  their  work,  in 
spite  of  the  promise  they  made  at  the  begin- 
ning, and  if  not  that,  they  may  become  gossips 
and  scandal-mongers.  It  is  better  that  they 
should  marry  again,  and  occupy  themselves 
with  the  cares  of  a  household.  From  this  we 
see  that  St.  Paul  was  no  enemy  to  second  mar- 
riages, and  he  would  not,  therefore,  have  ex- 
cluded elderly  women  from  the  widows' 
company  because  they  had  been  twice  married. 
This  view  confirms  the  meaning  already  given 
to  '  wife  of  one  man  '  (v.  9). 

12.  Having  damnation]  or,  'condemnation'; 
rather,  '  incurring  severe  judgment.' 

15.  Some]  i.e.  some  widows.  The  enthusiasm 
with  which  they  had  embraced  Christianity  and 
received  St.  Paul's  gospel  had  already  worn  off. 
With  some  temperaments  it  takes  but  a  short 
time  for  this  to  occur — a  shorter  time  gener- 
ally in  women  than  in  men.  They  had  turned 
aside  out  of  the  right  path,  and  were,  there- 
fore, going  after  Satan.  16.  Any  man  or  woman 
that  believeth]  RV  '  any  woman  that  believeth.' 
Not  only  children  and  gi-andchildren,  but  other 
relatives  likewise,  are  to  support  aged  widows, 
and  so  spare  the  Church's  fund.  The  in- 
junction must  apply  to  men  as  well  as  women, 
though  the  RV  reading  stands  on  the  better 
authority  of  MSS. 

17-25.  Resumption  of  charge  to  Timothy  as 
to  presbj'ters.  (1)  Presbyters  distinguished 
by  their  zeal,  specially  those  distinguished 
in  preaching  and  catechising,  are  to  have 
higher  honour  and  a  larger  stipend  than  the 
rest.  (2)  An  accusation  against  presbyters  is 
not  to  be  entertained  by  their  superior  officer 
(apostolic  deputy,  possibly  bishop)  sitting  by 
himself  and  hstening  to  reports,  but  only 
before  (AV),  '  at  the  mouth  of  '  (RV),  two  or 
three  witnesses,  who  would  confirm  each 
other's  statements  (DtlO^S),  and  also  make 
the  case  to  be  publicly  known  to  the  Church. 
(3)  Presbyters  must  not  be  appointed  hastily, 
or  those  who  admit  them  into  the  ministry 
will  be  answerable  for  their  ill-doing. 

17.  Elders]  In  v.  1  this  word  had  meant 
elderly  men  ;  here  it  means  presbyters.  This 
order  of  the  ministry  consisted  at  the  time  of 
elderly  men,  whence  they  had  the  name  of 
elders  or  presbyters.  18.  Thou  shalt  not 
muzzle  the  ox]  Dt2.'')^  1  Cor  9  9  And,  The 
labourer  it:  worthy  of  his  hire]  read,  '  And  the,' 
etc.  The  words  seem  St.  Paul's,  not  a  quota- 
tion. 20.  Them  that  sin]  Their  punishment 
is  to  be  public,  not  kept  secret  for  fear  of 
scandal. 

21.  The  solemnity  of  St.  Paul's  words  em- 
phasises the  responsibility  of  imposing  penal- 
ties on  a  presbyter.     The  elect  angels]   not  a 


m 


1  TIMOTHY 


6.  19 


particular  class  of  angels,  but  the  angels  who 
are  chosen  by  God  as  His  ministers.  22.  Lay 
hands]  It  was  Timothy's  office  now,  as  it  had 
been  St.  Paul's  previously  (2  Tim  1 6),  and  that 
of  the  presbytery  or  bishops  (at  least  after- 
wards), to  appoint  presbyters  by  the  laying  on 
of  hands.  Some  find  here  a  reference  to  the 
absolution  of  offenders  or  heretics. 

23.  A  continuation  of  the  personal  charge 
to  Timothy.  St.  Paul  seems  to  have  been  re- 
minded to  give  the  present  injunction  by  the 
evident  necessity  of  Timothy's  taking  care  of 
his  bodily  health,  if  he  is  to  carry  out  the 
work  of  "his  office  satisfactorily.  He,  there- 
fore, inserts  it  parenthetically.  It  teaches  us 
that  if  the  body  needs  the  stimulant  of  wine, 
it  is  right  to  take  it  in  moderation. 

24,  25.  Some  men's  sins]  Eeturn  to  the 
subject  of  laying  on  of  hands.  Some  can- 
didates for  ordination  have  characters  so  evi- 
dently bad  that  their  unfitness  is  plain  before 
probation  ;  in  others  it  comes  out  later.  And 
the  same  may  be  said  of  worthy  candidates  ; 
some  are  plainly  fit  at  first  sight,  others  will 
be  found  fit  on  looking  below  the  surface.  So 
that  Timothy  must  exercise  his  judicial  func- 
tions on  presbyters  and  candidates  for  orders 
very  cautiously.  25.  They  that  are  otherwise] 
The  character  of  those  who  differ  from  the 
class  just  mentioned  by  their  goodness  not 
being  self-evident,  will  yet  certainly  come  out 
in  a  short  time. 

CHAPTER  6 

Concerning  Servants,  the  Rich,  and 
CORRUPT  Teachers 

1,  2.  The  eighth  charge  to  Timothy,  as  to 
bondservants  or  slaves.  We  have  here  an 
indication  of  the  way  in  which  Christianity 
abolished  slavery — not  by  denouncing  it,  but 
by  implanting  the  idea  of  Christian  brother- 
hood, which  was  incompatible  with  it  :  see 
Intro,  to  Philemon.  If  a  Christian  were  the 
slave  of  an  unbeliever,  his  submissiveness 
was  to  be  such  as  to  earn  credit  for  his  pro- 
fession. If  he  had  a  Christian  master,  he  was 
to  be  the  more  zealous  in  his  service,  inasmuch 
as  his  master,  who  derived  benefit  from  it,  was 
a  believer  like  himself,  and  therefore  an  object 
of  love. 

2.  Because  they  are  faithful  and  beloved, 
partakers  of  the  benefit]  RV  'because  they 
that  partake  of  the  benefit  of  their  service 
are  believing  and  beloved.' 

3-ro.  Resumption  of  the  charge  against 
heterodox  teachers.  They  had  all  the  faults 
already  mentioned,  and  in  addition  they  made 
use  of  religion  as  a  means  of  getting  money, 
or,  as  they  expressed  it,  of  '  gain.'  Reproving 
them,  St.  Paul  points  out  in  what  sense  re- 
ligion is  a  'gain,'  namely,  that  it  produces 
resignation  and  contentment  of  mind,  which 


prevent  the  disquieting  effects  of  covetous- 
ness,  whereas  the  desire  of  '  gain,'  in  the  sense 
of  money-getting,  leads  to  every  kind  of 
evil-doing. 

3.  Wholesome  words]  RV  '  sound  words.' 
Even  the  words  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ]  His 
teaching  in  the  Gospels.  5.  Supposing  that 
gain  is  godliness]  RV  '  supposing  that  god- 
liness is  a  way  of  gain.'  8.  Raiment]  RV 
'  covering.'  Houses  may  be  included  as  well 
as  clothes.  9,  10.  Similarly  Seneca,  '  Ep.'  87, 
'  While  we  wish  to  gain  riches  we  fall  into 
many  evils.' 

1 1 -1 6.  Resumption  of  personal  charge  to 
Timothy.  Timothy's  conduct  was  to  be  in 
absolute  contrast  with  that  of  the  heterodox 
teachers,  who  valued  religion  as  a  source  of 
gain.  He  must  be  faithful,  as  he  had  promised 
when  he  made  his  confession  of  faith,  and  as 
Christ  faithfully  made  His  confession  before 
Pontius  Pilate.  This  faithfulness  Timothy 
was  especially  to  show  in  keeping  safe  the 
truth  committed  to  him  by  St.  Paul,  which  he 
was  to  do  his  part  in  maintaining  uncorrupted 
till  the  Second  Coming  of  Christ,  which  God 
would  manifest  at  His  own  time. 

11.  Oman  of  God]  cp.  1  S2  27  1K12  22. 

12.  Art .  .  called]  RV  '  wast  called.'  A  good 
confession]  RV  '  the  good  confession,'  made 
when  he  was  admitted  into  the  Church,  or 
possibly  when  he  was  brought  before  a  Roman 
magistrate  to  answer  for  his  faith  (Heb  1323). 

14.  This  commandment]  i.e.  the  sum  of  the 
charges  contained  in  the  Epistle.  Without 
spot,  unrebukeable]  Timothy's  faith  is  to  be 
without  spot,  so  that  he  should  be  without 
reproach.  Until  the  appearing]  These  words 
do  not  necessarily  indicate  a  belief  on  St. 
Paul's  part  th  t  the  Coming  of  the  Lord  would 
be  in  Timothy's  lifetime.  It  might  be,  and 
then  Timothy  would  have  kept  his  deposit  to 
the  end  if  he  were  faithful;  it  might  be  later, 
and  then  he  would  have  done  his  part  in  keep- 
ing it  in  his  generation.  The  Return  of  the 
Lord  is  to  take  place  in  God's  time,  which  '  He 
hath  placed  in  His  own  power  '  (Ac  1 7). 

15,  16.  Probably  an  ascription  of  praise  in 
use  in  the  Apostolic  Church. 

17-19.  The  ninth  charge  to  Timothy,  arising 
out  of  vv.  6-10,  respecting  the  rich.  He  is  to 
instruct  them  not  to  trust  in  their  riches  and 
grow  conceited,  but  to  be  ready  to  give  to 
others,  so  laying  up  for  themselves  a  treasure 
in  heaven.  The  right  use  of  wealth,  as  of  all 
othe:^f"  God's  gifts,  while  it  will  not  earn 
eterfial  life,  will  yet  conduce  to  our  attainment 
of  it,  good  works  not  being  the  cause,  but  being 
nevertheless,  in  adults,  a  condition  of  salvation. 

18.  Ready.,  to  communicate]  i.e.  to  con- 
tribute generously  of  their  substance. 

19.  Laying  up  in  store]  see  Mt6i9  LklG^. 
Eternal  life]  RV  '  life  indeed,'  following  a 


J 


1000 


J 


6.  20 


1  TIMOTHY— 2  TIMOTHY 


reading  which  has  slightly  the  better  authority 
of  the  two. 

20-22.    Final   and   impassioned   appeal    to 

Timothy.    The  faith  is  a  '  deposit '  (R  V)  which 

St.   Paul   has  committed  to   Timothy    (2  Tim 

1 13, 14)^  and  which  it  is  his  office,  as  it  is  now 

the  office  of  the  Church,  to  keep  safe  and  un- 

corrupted   for  the  salvation   of  the  world  in 

spite  of  gnostic   or  agnostic  speculations  and 

theories.      '  Who  at  this  day,'  says  Vincentius 

Lerinensis,    '  is  Timothy  but  either  generally 

the   whole   Church,    or   especially    the  whole 

body  of  prelates,  who  ought  either  themselves 

to  have  a  sound  knowledge  of  divine  relio-ion 

or  to  infuse  it  into  others  ?     What  is  meant 

by  keeping   the    depositum?     Keep  it,  quoth 

he,  for  fear  of  thieves,  for  danger  of  enemies, 

lest  when  men  be  asleep  they  oversow  cockle 

among  that  good  seed  of  wheat  which  the  Son 

of  man    hath    sowed    in    His    field.       Keep, 

quoth  he,  the  depositum.     What  is  meant  by 

this  depositum  f     It  is  that  which  is  committed 

to  them,  not  that  which  is  invented  by  thee  ; 

that  which  thou  hast  received,  not  that  which 

thou  hast  devised  ;  a  thing  not  of  wit,  but  of 


INTRO. 

learning;  not  of  private  assumption,  but  of 
public  tradition  ;  a  thing  brought  to  thee,  not 
brought  forth  of  thee  ;  wherein  thou  must 
not  be  an  author,  but  a  keeper  ;  not  a  founder, 
but  an  observer ;  not  a  leader,  but  a  follower. 
Keep  the  depositum^  quoth  he  ;  preserve  the 
talent  of  the  Catholic  Faith  safe  and  undi- 
minished;  that  which  is  committed  to  thee, 
let  that  remain  with  thee,  and  that  deliver! 
Thou  hast  received  gold,  render  thou  gold  ; 
I  will  not  have  one  thing  for  another.  O 
Timothy,  0  Priest,  0  Teacher,  0  Doctor,  if 
God's  gift  hath  made  thee  meet  and  suffi- 
cient, for  thy  wit,  exercise,  and  learning., 
let  them  that  come  after  you  rejoice  at  ar- 
riving at  the  understanding  of  that,  by  thy 
means,  which  antiquity,  without  that  under- 
standing, had  in  veneration.  Yet  for  all 
this,  in  such  sort  deliver  the  same  things 
which  thou  hast  learnt,  that  albeit  thou 
teachest  after  a  new  manner,  yet  thou  never 
teach  new  things'  (c.  22).  No  one  has 
better  grasped  and  expressed  the  underlying 
thought  and  purpose  of  St.  Paul's  appeal  to 
Timothy  than  Vincentius. 


2  TIMOTHY 


INTRODUCTION 


1.  Authorship.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that 
the  author  of  1  Timothy  is  the  author  of 
2  Timothy.  The  evidence,  external  and  inter- 
nal, is  almost  the  same  for  each,  and  the 
similarity  of  style  and  subject  is  unmistak- 
able. If,  therefore,  St.  Paul  is  the  author  of 
1  Timothy,  he  is  the  author  of  2  Timothy. 

2.  Reader.  Undoubtedly  the  same  as  in 
the  case  of  1  Timothy. 

3.  Date  and  place  of  composition.  It  was 
written  shortly  before  the  Apostle's  martyr- 
dom from  his  prison  in  Rome,  probably  in  the 
early  part  of  67  or  68  a.d. 

4.  Contents  and  purpose.  The  Apostle's 
primary  object  in  the  Epistle  is  to  beg  Timothy 
to  come  to  him,  as  he  was  in  prison  and  for- 
lorn, most  of  his  ordinary  companions  being 
gone  elsewhere,  and  he  needed  the  human 
comfort  of  a  friend.  The  secondary  purpose 
of  the  Epistle  is  to  urge  Timothy,  once  again, 
to  maintain  the  faith  entrusted  to  him  for  safe 


faith,  or  subtractions  from  it,  or  any  re- 
arrangement of  it  which  should  throw  the 
truths  insisted  upon  by  the  Apostles  into  the 
background,  and  open  the  way  for  new  dogmas. 
A  third  object  of  the  Epistle  is  to  give 
further  instructions  as  to  Church  organisation, 
similar  in  kind  to  those  already  given  in  the 
earlier  letter.  The  position  of  Timothy  and 
Titus  was  such  as  peculiarly  to  demand  these 
apostolic  instructions.  They  are  the  link  be- 
tween the  Apostles  and  the  local  Church  officers, 
and  their  appointment  may  be  regarded  as 
indicating  a  transition  stage  between  govern- 
ment by  Apostles  and  government  by  diocesan 
bishops.  Episcopacy  seems  to  have  arisen  in 
two  ways  :  (1)  From  within  the  body  of 
presbyters,  by  the  appointment  of  a  permanent 
president,  to  whom  the  title  of  '  bishop  '  or 
'  overseer,'  originally  shared  by  all  the  pres- 
byters (Ac 20 28  Philli),  was  gradually  re- 
stricted.     Whether    this    development    took 


custody.  It  may  be  argued  that  the  teaching  place  within  the  apostolic  age,  or  .a  little  later 
of  the  two  Epistles  IS  compatible  with  a  theory  is  a  disputed  question.  It  was,  at  any  rate' 
of  legitimate  development,  but  it  certainly  is  well  advanced  by  the  beginning  of  the  second 
not  wih  any  theory  which  would  justify  century.  (2)  By  the  gradual  settlement  "n 
external  additions  to  the  once  for  all  delivered     local    Churches  of   apostles,  prophets    eU 

1001 


2  TIMOTHY 


INTEO. 

gelists,  and  other  apostolic  men,  naturally  more 
highly  regarded  than  presbyters.  Thus  St. 
John  is  said  to  have  settled  in  Asia,  St.  Mark 
at  Alexandria,  Titus  in  Crete.  The  '  Didache,' 
which  belongs  to  the  first,  or  early  part  of  the 
second,  century,  contemplates  the  possibility  of 
the  settlement  of  a  '  prophet '  in  a  local  Church, 
where  he  was  honoured  as  a  '  chief  priest,' 
and  received  the  first-fruits  of  all  produce 
(ch.  xiii).  If  this  dual  origin  of  the  episcopate 
be  admitted,  it  furnishes  an  explanation  of  the 
fact  that  there  was  some  hesitation  in  the 
early  Church  as  to  whether  bishops  were  an 
order  completely  distinct  from  presbyters.  In 
those  Churches  in  which  the  episcopate  had  its 
origin  within  the  presbyterate,  there  would  be 
a  tendency  to  regard  the  bishop  as  of  one 
order  with  the  presbyters,  and  of  comparatively 
limited  authority  ;  but  in  those  Churches  in 
which  the  episcopate  had  originated  in  the 
settlement  of  an  apostle  or  apostolic  man  such 
as  Timothy  or  Titus,  there  would  be  a  tendency 
to  regard  the  bishop  as  of  a  higher  order  than 
the  presbyters,  and  to  assign  to  him  a  distinctive 
position  and  authority. 

CHAPTER    1 

Expressions  of  Affection  and  Exhorta- 
tions TO  Faithfulness 

I,  2.  Salutation.  According  to  the  promise 
of  life]  St.  Paul  declares  himself  appointed  an 
Apostle  with  the  view  of  his  spreading  the 
knowledge  of  the  life  which  had  been  pro- 
mised and  was  now  being  enjoyed  by  Christians 
adopted  in  Christ. 

3-5.  The  happy  assurance  of  Timothy's 
faithfulness  which  St.  Paul's  recollections  of 
past  years  supply  him  with.  3.  I  thank  God] 
The  construction  is  involved.  What  St.  Paul 
thanks  God  for  is  Timothy's  unfeigned  faith 
which  he  remembers  night  and  day,  thinking 
of  their  last  sad  parting  and  hoping  to  see  him 
again.  5.  Eunice]  is  simply  described  in  Ac 
16 1  as  'a  woman  that  was  a  Jewess.'  She  was 
Lois'  daughter.    Timothy's  father  was  a  Greek. 

6-14.  Exhortation  to  firmness  in  his  glorious 
calling. 

6.  Stir  up]  as  a  fire  that  is  beginning  to 
die  down.  The  gift  of  God]  which  he  received 
at  his  ordination  by  the  laying  on  of  the  hands 
of  St.  Paul  and  the  presbyters  of  Ephesus 
(lTim4i-i).  y.  Fear]  indicating  a  certain 
timidity  in  Timothy,  like  the  '  Be  not  ashamed ' 
of  V.  8.  A  sound  mind]  EV  '  discipline.'  It 
means  self-discipline,  self-control.  8.  His 
prisoner]  St.  Paul  was  now  undergoing  his  last 
imprisonment  in  Rome.  He  refers  in  like 
manner  to  his  first  imprisonment  in  Eph  3 1  4 1 
Philemon  v.  9.  Partaker  of  the  afflictions  of 
the  gospel]  RV  '  suffer  hardship  with  the 
gospel ' ;  better,  '  suffer  hardship  with  me  for 
the  gospeL' 


1.15 


9.  Hath  saved]  RV,  more  exactly,  '  saved.' 
God  by  His  free  grace  and  mercy  called,  and 
still  calls  us  into  a  state  of  salvation,  not  for 
our  work's  sake  (wliich  is  a  false  view  of 
justification),  but  according  to  His  own  pur- 
pose and  by  the  gi-ace  of  adoption  given  us  in 
Christ  in  eternity.  How  can  the  grace  of  our 
adoption  be  said  to  have  been  given  us  in 
eternity  ?  Because  what  God  determines  is 
regarded  as  done.  That  grace  and  pm-pose, 
resolved  on  in  eternity,  was  first  exhibited  to 
the  world  at  the  manifestation  of  Christ  in 
the  flesh,  who  by  His  death  and  resurrection 
made  death  as  a  power  of  no  effect,  and  threw 
new  light  upon  life  and  immortality  by  His 
gospel.  10.  Abolished  death]  The  resur- 
rection of  Chi-ist  showed  that  death  was 
under  control,  and  delivered  believers  from 
its  fear.  12.  I  .  .  suffer  these  things]  this  im- 
prisonment, etc.  Whom  I  have  believed]  i.e. 
trusted.  That  which  I  have  committed  unto 
him]  himself  and  all  his  hopes. 

13,  14.  As  God  will  keep  safe  that  which 
is  committed  to  Him,  so  Timothy  is  by  the 
help  of  the  Holy  Ghost  to  keep  the  good  thing 
committed  unto  thee,  and  that  good  thing  is 
the  form  of  sound  words,  which  thou  hast 
heard  of  (from)  me.  There  is  nothing  so  near 
the  heart  of  the  aged  Apostle,  who  knew 
that  he  was  himself  about  to  depart  from  the 
world,  as  that  the  faith  which  he  had  himself 
received  and  preached  should  be  regarded  and 
treasured  as  a  sacred  deposit,  left  in  charge  of 
the  Church  for  the- salvation  of  mankind.  The 
First  Epistle  ends  with  an  earnest  appeal  to 
keep  the  deposit,  and  the  Second  Epistle  begins 
with  the  same  charge.  For  it  is  one  of  the 
chief  duties  of  bishops  and  rulers  of  the 
Church  to  recall  their  clergy,  straying  into 
en-or,  to  the  primitive  'pattern'  (RV)  of 
doctrine  which  is  set  before  us  in  the  sound 
words  of  the  gospel. 

15-18.  Urging  Timothy  to  be  faithful  to 
what  he  had  taught  him,  St.  Paul  points  to 
two  cases,  in  the  first  of  which  his  converts 
had  shown  unfaithfulness,  and  in  the  second 
courage.  The  Asiatic  Christians,  that  is,  some 
— in  his  bitter  disappointment  St.  Paul  says 
all— of  those  who  li\-ed  in  proconsular  Asia, 
represented  by  Phygelus  (this  seems  to  have 
been  the  spelling  of  the  name)  and  Hermo- 
genes,  of  whom  we  know  nothing  more,  had 
repudiated  St.  Paul's  authority.  On  the  other 
hand,  Onesiphorus  had  bravely  ministered  to 
him  in  his  imprisonment  in  Rome,  and  before 
that  at  Ephesus.  In  memory  of  his  kindness 
St.  Paul  prays  that  God  may  bless  his  family 
and  utters  an  aspiration  that  mercy  may  be 
shown  to  him  at  the  last  day.  From  the  form 
of  the  expression,  and  the  fact  that  both  here 
and  in  4i-'  only  the  household  of  Onesiphorus 
is  mentioned,  it  has  been  inferred  with  con- 


1002 


2.  1 


2  TIMOTHY 


8.1 


siderable  probability  that  Onesiphorus  was 
dead.  On  this  supposition  many  Protestant 
scholars  find  in  the  utterance  of  St.  Paul  an 
instance  of  prayer  for  a  deceased  person,  but 
others  regard  it  only  as  a  pious  hope  or  wish. 

CHAPTER  2 

Exhortations  to  Firmness,  Unconten- 

tiousness,  and  perseverance 

1-26.  The  duties  of  God's  ministers  are,  (1) 
to  maintain  the  faith  against  assailants  and 
seducers  (vv.  1,  2,  14-21,  26),  and,  (2)  to  be 
brave  and  patient  (vv.  3-13,  22-25). 

I.  Therefore]  will  then.  Be  strong]  show 
the  strength  which  is  yours  as  a  Christian  and 
as  a  minister  of  Christ.  2.  The  Apostle  refers 
especially  to  the  charge  that  he  had  given  to 
Timothy  at  his  ordination  in  the  presence  of 
the  presbyters  and  others  who  assisted  at  it. 
This  charge  contained  a  summary  of  the  faith, 
which  in  turn  Timothy  was  to  hand  on  to 
others.  Teach  others]  probably,  '  teach  them 
to  others.'  They  have  now  been  stereotyped 
in  the  Scriptures  of  the  NT.  and  in  the  Creeds. 

3-6.  Endure  hardness]  RV  '  suffer  hardship 
with  me.'  A  good  soldier]  The  soldier's  virtue 
is  to  be  shown  in  resisting,  (1)  the  enemies  of 
the  faith,  (2)  all  evil  ;  and  with  this  end  in 
view  he  will  not  devote  himself  to  other  occu- 
pations, but  observes  the  rules  of  his  service. 
God's  minister  must  be  like  him,  and  like  the 
labourer  who  works  hard  in  the  field.  In 
which  case,  St.  Paul  adds,  he  has,  like  the 
husbandman,  a  right  to  a  living  wage. 

7.  If  Timothy  thinks  it  over,  he  will  see 
that  it  is  only  reasonable  that  the  presbyter 
should  be  supported  by  a  stipend,  answering 
to  the  labourer's  wages.  8.  'Timothy  is  to  be 
firm  and  unflinching  in  maintaining  the  doc- 
trines of  the  Incarnation  and  Resurrection  of 
Christ,  which  his  adversaries  denied. 

9,  10.  As  an  evil  doer]  St.  Paul  was  now  pro- 
bably imprisoned  on  the  charge  of  setting  fire 
to  Rome  with  the  other  Christians.  He  was 
willing  to  endure  that  or  anything  else  pro- 
vided that  so  he  might  make  known  the  sal- 
vation in  Christ  to  those  whom  God  had  chosen 
to  know  it  ;  if  the  preacher  was  in  chains,  the 
word  he  preached  was  unfettered  and  had  free 
course.  St.  Paul  says  this  in  part  as  an  en- 
couragement to  Timothy  to  suffer  with  him 
(v.  3). 

11-13.  The  Apostle  quotes  a  saj'ing  or 
hymn  in  use  among  Christians,  which  is  applic- 
able from  its  reference  to  endurance.  11.  A 
faithful  saying]  1  Tim  15  49.  13.  He  abideth 
faithful]  We  have  been  admitted  into  cove- 
nant with  Him,  and  whatever  we  may  do,  He 
will  observe  the  terms  of  the  agreement, 
whether  they  bring  us  good  or  evil. 

14-21.  Urgent  charge  to  Timothy  to  resist 
the  heterodox  teaching. 


15.  Rightly  dividing  the  word  of  truth] 
The  original  word  means  either  cutting  a 
straight  path  for  it,  or  dealing  in  a  straight- 
forward way  with  it.  16.  They]  the  hetero- 
dox teachers. 

17,18.  Hymenasus]  1  Tim  1 20.  Of  Philetus 
nothing  more  is  known.  Their  heresy  may 
have  been  an  allegorical  explanation  of  the 
Resurrection  as  the  new  life  of  the  soul  which 
had  been  imparted  to  it  by  faith  in  Christ. 
The  belief  that  '  the  resurrection  is  past 
already '  may  have  been  that  Christ's  Resur- 
rection was  the  only  one  that  was  to  be.  A 
belief  like  this  seems  to  have  prevailed  at 
Corinth  :  cp.  1  Cor  15 12,  I6, 20.  ip.  The  doctrine 
of  the  Resurrection  is  the  sure  foundation  of 
God,  which  stands  as  a  fundamental  article  of 
the  Christian  faith.  When  the  time  comes, 
the  Lord  will  show  that  He  knoweth  them 
that  are  his,  who  will  be  those  that  during 
their  life  on  earth  have,  as  Christians,  departed 
from  iniquity.  This  seal]  the  inscription 
stamped  upon  the  foundation  stone  of  the  faith. 

20,  21.  In  the  visible  Church  there  would 
be  some  hearts  of  gold  incapable  of  being 
seduced,  but  there  would  also  be  some  of  less 
precious  material  liable  to  be  led  away  by  the 
heterodox  teachers  ;  if  the  latter  purged  them- 
selves from  their  false  teachers  by  rejecting 
their  doctrine  and  ministry,  they  too  would 
become  vessels  unto  honour. 

22-25.   Personal  to  Timothy. 

22.  Flee .  .  youthful  lusts]  avoid  a  young 
man's  desires  after  novelty  in  teaching.  (There 
is  apparently  no  reference  to  the  desires  of 
the  flesh.)  Avoid  foolish  questions  or  specu- 
lations which  gender  strife,  and  pursue  a  stead- 
fast course  of  piety  with  sincere  believers,  not 
entering  into  controversial  disputations,  but 
correcting  opponents  with  gentleness  and 
meekness,  not  for  the  sake  of  victory, 
for  their  good.  Also]  RV  '  but.'  26. 
Paul's  thought  passes  from  Timothy's 
haviour  towards  the  heterodox  to  what 


but 
St. 
be- 

may 


of  it  to  themselves    namely 


REGARDINa 


be    the   results 
their  recovery. 

CHAPTER   3 

Warnings  and  Exhortations 
THE  LAST  Days 
1-9.  In  the  days  immediately  preceding 
the  Second  Coming,  the  Lord  had  taught  that 
iniquity  would  abound.  St.  Paul  reminds 
Timothy  of  this  truth  as  a  warning  to  him, 
for  when  those  days  would  come  neither  he 
nor  any  one  on  earth  knew  ;  they  might  be 
close   at  hand,   and   the    existing  wickedness 


might 


be 


1003 


the  commencement  of  the  final 
iniquity.  The  depravity  then  would  be 
terrible,  and  already  in  its  degree  it  existed, 
and  must  be  resisted. 

I.   In  the  last  days]  '  But  of  that  day  and 


3.  5 


2  TIMOTHY 


4.  9 


that  hour  knoweth  no  man'  (MklS^^),  not 
a  St.  Paul,  not  a  St.  John  (Ijn2i8).  5.  A 
form  of  godliness]  an  outside  appearance  of 
it.  Denying  the  power  thereof]  the  outward 
form  of  piety  not  having  power  to  influence 
their  lives  for  good.  6.  Creep  into  houses] 
the  constant  habit  of  proselytisers  to  evil, 
who  do  not  shrink  from  crooked  and  base 
means  of  accomplishing  their  purpose.  Lead 
captive]  having  lost  all  freedom  of  will,  like 
prisoners  taken  in  war.  7.  Ever  learning, 
and  never  able  to  come  to  the  knowledge  of 
the  truth]  an  exquisite  description  of  that 
restlessness  of  mind,  which  leads  to  excessive 
curiosity  upon  religious  subjects,  but  does  not 
minister  to  genuine  knowledge  or  faith. 

8.  These]  the  teachers  who  are  leading  men 
and  women  on  to  this  depravity  and  weakness. 

Jannes  and  Jambres]  the  names  of  the 
Egyptian  magicians  in  Ex  7 11-22,  according  to 
Jewish  tradition.  9.  They  shall  proceed  no 
further]  they  shall  not  be  able  to  continue  to 
resist  Timothy  with  success,  any  more  than 
the  magicians  were  capable  of  finally  resisting 
Moses  (Ex  8 18  QH). 

10-17.  Exhortation.  Timothy  was  well 
instructed  in  the  OT.  and  in  the  gospel  preached 
by  St.  Paul,  and  he  must  '  abide  in  the  things 
that  he  had  learnt  and  been  assured  of.' 

10.  Hast  fully  known]   RV  '  didst  follow.' 

11.  Timothy  was  well  acquainted  with  all 
that  happened  to  St.  Paul  at  Antioch  of 
Pisidia,  Iconium,  and  Lystra  in  his  First  Mis- 
sionary Journey,  when  he  was  himself  con- 
verted to  Christianity  (Acl 3 50  161).  14.  Of 
whom  thou  hast  learned  fhrm'\  From  Eunice 
and  Lois.  15.  The  holy  scriptures]  RV  'the 
sacred  writings,'  i.e.  the  OT.,  which,  when  read 
in  the  light  of  the  faith  of  Christ  Jesus  and 
with  trust  in  Him,  gave  sufficient  instruction 
for  his  salvation. 

16.  All  scripture]  RV  '  every  scripture.' 
The  AV  is  right,  because  St.  Paul  is  here  con- 
templating the  OT.  not  as  a  work  made  up  of 
many  writings,  but  as  one  book.  So  in  Eph 
3 15,  '  the  whole  family  in  heaven '  (A V)  is 
right,  not  'every  family'  (RV)  ;  Eph 2 21,  'all 
the  building  groweth  '  (AV),  not  '  each  several 
building'  (RV);  Ac 2 36,  'Let  all  the  house 
of  Israel  know'  (AV  and  RV)  ;  Ac 7 22,  'all 
the  wisdom  of  the  Egyptians '  (AV  and  RV), 
because  contemplated  as  one  subject  ;  Mt23, 
'  all  Jerusalem  '  (AV  and  RV).  All  scripture] 
In  this  passage  the  '  scripture  '  denoted  is  the 
OT.  only,  but  when  the  expression  is  afterwards 
applied  to  the  NT.  (2Pet3i<5),  it  implies  that 
the  same  characteristics  will  be  found  in  the 
NT.  as  are  here  enumerated  in  reference  to 
the  OT.  Scripture  /s-  given  by  inspiration  of 
God,  and  is  profitable]  RV  '  scripture  inspired 
of  God  is  also  profitable.'  There  is  nothing 
whatever  to  show  which  of  these  renderings  is 


the  better.  The  profitableness  of  Scripture 
consists  in  its  teaching,  convicting,  correcting, 
training.  It  is  profitable  both  for  faith  and 
piety. 

The  assurance  which  St.  Paul  has  of 
Timothy's  piety  leads  up  to  his  final  appeal  in 
the  next  chapter. 

CHAPTER  4 

St.  Paul's  last  Messages  and  Counsels 

1-8.  The  Apostle,  knowing  that  his  days 
are  fast  drawing  to  a  close,  exhorts  Timothy 
to  increased  diligence  and  earnestness  in  his 
teaching,  in  view  of  the  imminence  of  a  time 
of  error  and  excitement.  He  refers  to  his  ap- 
proaching martyrdom,  expressing  his  readiness 
for  whatever  may  await  him,  and  his  confidence 
in  the  reward  of  his  faithfulness. 

I.  I  charge  thee']  cp.  1  Tim 5 21.  And  the 
Lord  Jesus  Christ]  RV  '  and  of  Christ  Jesus.' 

At  his  appearing,  etc.]  RV  '  and  by  his 
appearing  and  his  kingdom.'  The  Second 
Coming  and  the  glorious  kingdom  of  Christ 
are  invoked  to  remind  Timothy  of  the  great- 
ness of  his  responsibility.  2.  In  season,  out 
of  season]  This  has  been  well  rendered,  '  Take 
opportunity,  or  make  it.'  With  all  longsuffer- 
ing  and  doctrine]  i.e.  ever  patient  and  ready 
to  teach. 

3.  False  views  of  Christian  truth  would  gain 
credence  in  the  future  as  they  had  done  in  the 
past  (cp.  2  Cor  11 4, 12-15  Col  2  8. 18)  ;  and  it  would 
be  well  that  the  converts  should  be  prepared 
against  the  day  of  trial.  After  their  own  lusts] 
They  would  prefer  teaching  which  agreed  with 
their  selfish  desires  to  the  pure  truth  of  the 
gospel  condemning  their  evil  habits  and 
awakening  their  consciences  :  cp.  JerS^i. 

5.  The  v/ork  of  an  evangelist]  i.e.  of 
preaching  the  gospel.  Make  full  proof  of  thy 
ministry]    i.e.  neglect  no  aspect  of  the  work. 

6.  For  I,  etc.]  The  '  I '  is  emphatic,  in 
contrast  to  the  '  Thou '  of  v.  5.  St.  Paul's 
day  is  almost  over,  Timothy  must  wage  his 
warfare  alone.  Ready  to  be  offered]  lit.  '  being 
poured  out  as  a  drink  offering '  :  a  reference 
to  the  shedding  of  his  own  blood  in  his  ap- 
proaching martyr's  death  :  cp.  Phil  21''',  where 
the  same  word  is  used.  7.  A  good  fight]  rather, 
'  I  have  contested  the  good  contest.'  The 
reference  is  not  to  a  battle,  but  to  a  contest  in 
the  games:  cp.  1  Cor 9 26.  Kept  the  faith] 
'  The  faith '  is  here  regarded  as  a  precious 
treasure  entrusted  to  him  :  cp.  1  Tim  in  6  20 
2 Tim  1 13, H.  8.  A  crown]  RV  'the  crown,' 
the  reward  for  righteousness.  St.  Paul  here 
carries  on  the  metaphor  of  the  contest  in  the 
games,  which  he  had  dropped  for  the  moment 
in  the  last  clause  of  v.  7.  At  that  day]  i.e. 
the  day  of  judgment. 

9-15.  St.  Paul  bids  Timothy  endeavour  to 
come  to  him  quickly,  for  some  of  his  com- 


1004 


4.  10 


2  TIMOTHY— TITUS 


panions  have  left  him  and  others  have  been 
sent  on  missions  to  the  Churches.  He  asks 
him  to  bring  some  things  of  which  he  is  in 
want,  and  warns  him  against  an  enemy  who 
has  done  the  Apostle  much  harm. 

10.  Demas]  mentioned  as  a  companion  of 
St.  Paul  in  Col  4 1'*  Philemon  v.  24.  Crescens] 
nowhere  else  mentioned  in  NT.  Titus]  fre- 
quently mentioned  in  2  Cor  and  elsewhere  as 
one  of  the  Apostle's  most  trusted  lieutenants. 
He  had  evidently  gone  to  Dalmatia  on  the 
E.  coast  of  the  Adriatic  on  a  mission  from 
St.  Paul. 

11.  Luke]  'the  beloved  physician,'  Col4i4. 
Mark]  was  with   the   Apostle  on   his  First 

Missionary  Journey  (Ac  1 2  ^5),  but  St.  Paul  lost 
confidence  in  him  and  refused  to  take  him  on 
the  Second  Journey  (Acl63"-i0).  Mark,  how- 
ever, afterwards  redeemed  his  reputation,  and 
we  find  him  with  the  Apostle  in  Rome  when  the 
Epistle  to  the  Colossians  was  written  (Col  410). 

12.  Tychicus]  see  Ac  22  5  Eph62i  Col  4  7. 

13.  Thecloke]  Probably  a  long  thick  mantle 
which  the  approach  of  winter  (v.  21)  would 
render  necessary  to  the  Apostle  in  prison. 

The  books]  It  is  impossible  to  conjecture 
what  these  were.  The  parchments]  may  have 
been  some  of  the  books  of  Scripture. 


INTRO. 

14.  Alexander]  may  be  the  same  as  the 
Alexander  mentioned  (1  Tim  1 20)  in  conjimc- 
tion  with  Hymenseus.  He  had  evidently  been 
an  opponent  of  St.  Paul's  teaching. 

16-22.  The  Apostle  mentions  the  circum- 
stances of  his  first  appearance  before  his  judges, 
declares  his  abiding  trust  in  the  Lord,  sends 
salutations  to  friends,  and  prays  for  a  blessing 
on  Timothy. 

16.  My  first  answer]  It  would  seem  that  St. 
Paul's  case  had  been  partly  heard,  but  the 
evidence  had  been  insufficient  for  condemna- 
tion, and  the  hearing  had  been  adjourned. 

19.  Prisca  and  Aquila]  see  Ac  18  2.  One- 
siphorus]  cp.  2 Timlin. 

20.  Erastus]  perhaps  'the  chamberlain  of 
the  city'  of  Corinth  mentioned  in  RolG^s  :  see 
also  Ac  1 9  22.     Trophimus]   see  Ac  20  *  2 1  29. 

21.  The  names  in  this  v.  are  those  of  mem- 
bers of  the  Church  in  Rome.  Linus]  There 
was  a  Linus  bishop  of  the  Church  of  Rome 
a  little  later,  and  this  is  probably  the  same 
person. 

22.  The  first  blessing  is  for  Timothy  :  the 
second  for  him  and  all  who  are  with  him  (you 
being  plural). 

The  subscription  has  no  authority,  though 
possibly  quite  correct. 


TITUS 


INTRODUCTION 


1.  Contents.  The  writer,  professing  to  be 
Paul  the  Apostle  and  maintaining  his  right  to 
be  an  Apostle,  sends  an  affectionate  gi-eeting 
to  his  son  in  the  faith,  Titus  (l^-^).  He  re- 
minds Titus  that  he  left  him  in  Crete  to  perfect 
the  organisation  of  the  Church  in  the  island, 
by  ordaining  presbyters  ;  and  he  now  dwells 
on  the  moral  qualifications  and  loyalty  to  the 
faith  which  these  Church  officers  must  have 
(1  <J-3).  He  points  out  that  the  Cretans,  a  vola- 
tile folk,  need  sharp  teaching  to  keep  them 
accurate  in  speech  and  pure  in  life  (1 10-I6) 
The  old  should  preserve  a  Christian  dignity,     that  the  chief  value  of  the  Epistle  lies  in  its 


duty  also  to  the  un-Christian  world  about 
them  ;  they  must  be  good  citizens  and  good 
neighbours  (31.2)  ;  foj.  ^s,  by  no  merit  of  ours, 
God  raised  us  from  a  heathen  to  a  Christian 
life,  so  we  should  try  by  an  attractive  goodness 
to  win  others  (S^-S).  He  urges  Titus  not  to 
argue,  but  if  a  man  is  a  '  heretic,'  to  give  him 
two  warnings,  and  then  shun  him  (3  ^-n).  With 
a  few  personal  words  about  his  own  plans,  a 
final  word  of  advice,  and  a  reverent  farewell, 
the  letter  closes. 

2.  Value  of  the  Epistle.     It  will  be  seen 


not  only  for  their  own  sake,  but  also  as  a 
sound  example  for  the  young,  that  they  too 
may  be  good  and  true  (2i-tJ).  Nor  should 
Titus  forget  that  his  own  example  is  para- 
mount (2  ">  8).  Servants  must  find  in  obedience 
to  their  earthly  masters  a  way  to  obey  God 
(29.10).  All  need  to  be  on  their  guard,  for  all 
alike  are  waiting  for  the  quick  return  of  Christ, 
the  Redeemer  (2ii-i5).  Titus  must  further 
remind  the  Cretan  Christians  that  they  have  a 


common-sense  and  spirituality,  and  is  not  de- 
pendent upon  date  or  authorship.  Even  those 
critics  who  believe  it  pseudonymous  explain 
that,  in  an  age  of  different  literary  ethics  from 
ours,  a  pupil  honoured  his  master  by  writing 
in  his  name  what  he  believed  his  master  would 
write  were  he  still  alive.  As  the  Epistle  has, 
all  through  Christian  history,  been  a  store-house 
of  good  advice  for  Church  officers,  so  it  must 
continue  to  be,  whatever  the  outcome  of  modern 


1005 


INTRO. 


TITUS 


INTRO. 


scholarship  about  it.  We  catch  a  glimpse  of 
the  development  of  the  ministry,  and  of  a 
growing  insistence  on  orthodoxy,  which  seem 
to  some  recent  scholars  beyond  what  we  see 
in  former  writings  of  St.  Paul.  This  con- 
tention cannot  be  granted  without  serious 
qualification  ;  for  even  those  most  willing  to 
question  the  early  crystallisation  of  Christian 
tradition  are  now  more  and  more  tending  to 
admit  that,  before  the  last  decades  of  the  1st 
cent.,  Christianity  was  definitely  organised  ; 
and  the  movement  towards  an  intellectual  basis 
for  faith  was  certainly'  well  within  St.  Paul's 
active  career — even  if  '  faith '  to  him  was 
ordinarily  '  a  firm  hold  upon  spiritual  realities,' 
it  often  stood  squarely  for  '  the  Christian 
system,'  whether  doctrinal  or  institutional 
(e.g.  Eo  15  Gall 23  Phil  1 2T  ;  cp.  also  Ac 6 " 
138  1422  165  2424).  Moreover,  even  in  this 
Epistle,  soundness  in  doctrine  means  soundness 
in  morality  rather  than  soundness  in  creed 
(see  on  2i).  However,  though  we  grant  the 
most  radical  view  of  this  advance  of  organisa- 
tion and  doctrine,  the  questions  arising  from 
it  are  no  longer  of  first  importance  ;  because 
those  who  look  to  primitive  authority  for 
ministry  and  creed  are  increasingly  assured 
that  the  development  as  well  as  the  inception 
of  Christianity  is  a  divine  act,  so  that  for  them 
the  divine  authority  of  ministry  and  creed  is 
not  weakened  if  a  document  be  proved  of 
somewhat  later  date  than  it  was  formerly 
thought  to  be.  For  all  readers,  therefore, 
the  interest  of  the  Epistle  is  not  so  much 
historical  or  controversial,  as  practical  and 
spiritual.  Once  admitted  to  canonical  Scrip- 
ture, it  holds  its  place  on  its  own  merits. 

3.  Authorship  and  Date.  Till  recent  times, 
with  essential  unanimity,  this  Epistle  was 
ascribed  to  St.  Paul.  It  is  true  that  the 
heretic  Marcion  omitted  it  from  his  list  of  St. 
Paul's  Epistles,  but  his  doctrinal  reasons  for 
this  are  so  evident  as  to  rob  his  omission  of 
significance.  In  the  last  cent.,  when  biblical 
criticism  began,  Titus  was  set  down  as  a 
forgery  of  the  2nd  cent.  To-day  critics  are 
finding  in  it  what  they  believe  undoubted 
fragments  of  St.  Paul,  and  are  calling  it  '  sub- 
Pauline,'  with  a  date  between  90  and  120  a.d. 
The    trend   even   among   radical    scholars 


IS, 


therefore,    toward    the    traditional    view    of 
authorship. 

The  authorship  is  wisely  left  more  or  less 
open.  The  discovery  of  a  few  pages  of  early 
Christian  MS  might  turn  the  question  one 
way  or  the  other.  A  few  points  are  becoming 
clear  ;  the  first  of  which  is  that  if  St.  Paul  is 
the  author,  he  was  released  from  his  first 
Roman  imprisonment,  and,  in  the  interval 
before  his  final  imprisonment,  visited  some  of 
his  Churches.  We  may  safely  say  that  if  the 
Epistle  is  his,  he  wrote  it  about  64  a.d.     If 


authentic,  this  Epistle  (with  1  and  2  Tim) 
practically  proves  that  St.  Paul  was  released 
after  the  imprisonment  recorded  in  the 
Acts.  There  is  much  in  known  Roman 
procedure  to  commend  such  a  theory ;  the 
argument  from  silence  is  the  most  formidable 
obstacle. 

The  difficulties  attending  the  ascription  of 
the  Epistle  to  St.  Paul  are  important  in  the 
aggregate  rather  than  separately.  A  fairly 
good  answer  can  be  made  to  each  objection. 
(1)  Writing  personally  to  an  intimate  friend, 
the  author  asserts  his  apostleship  too  strenu- 
ously ;  but  St.  Paul  was  old  and  worn,  and 
one  who,  younger,  wrote  G-alatians,  would,  even 
to  an  intimate,  be  apt  to  say  what  we  find  in 
the  opening  words  of  Titus  :  old  men  much 
in  the  public  eye  are  always  quite  aware  that 
private  correspondence,  not  strictly  confiden- 
tial, is  wont  to  reach  many  persons.  •  (2)  If 
the  author  was  St.  Paul,  he  put  an  emphasis 
upon  organisation  and  orthodoxy  quite  unlike 
himself  in  his  other  Epistles.  But  St.  Paul 
was  older,  new  experiences  drive  to  new 
moods,  the  exigencies  of  the  Church  created 
new  needs,  therefore  there  would  be  reason 
for  conservatism.  Men  now,  with  sense  of 
responsibility,  tend  to  become  conservative  in 
age,  however  radical  in  youth.  Besides, 
organisation  and  orthodoxy  in  this  Epistle  are 
stressed  only  for  moral  and  spiritual  ends  : 
they  seem  to  have  little  value  in  themselves. 
There  is  only  slight  advance  upon  St.  Paul's 
other  Epistles  here.  (.3)  The  facts  of  Church 
organisation  implied  in  both  Titus  and  1  and 
2  Timothy  seem  too  far  beyond  the  facts 
revealed  in  St.  Paul's  earlier  Epistles  ;  but  the 
most  ardent  believer  in  organisation  can  find 
in  these  Epistles  only  a  still  indefinite  organ- 
isation, the  functions  of  the  officers  are  not 
clear,  and  the  bishop  seems  at  most  only 
emerging  from  among  the  presbyters ;  cer- 
tainly he  is  very  far  from  the  official  described 
by  Ignatius.  Knowing  the  development  that 
came  later,  we  should  expect  the  ministry  in 
the  year  64  to  be  much  like  this  fluid  picture 
in  the  Pastoral  Epistles.  (4)  The  most  serious 
difficulty  is  the  change  in  language  and  style 
from  St.  Paul's  former  modes  of  expression. 
In  46  verses  are  26  words  not  used  in  any 
other  known  Epistles  of  St.  Paul.  Favourite 
words  and  particles  are  quite  absent,  and 
other  expressions  and  turns  (common  to  Titus 
and  1  and  2  Timothy)  take  their  place.  Even 
the  lapse  of  several  years  seems  inadequate  to 
explain  the  change  of  style  ;  but  the  spirit  of 
St.  Paul,  more  subtle  than  language,  is  evident ; 
so  that  the  best  explanation  if  we  ascribe  the 
Epistle  to  St.  Paul,  is  to  say  that  he  left 
unusual  liberty  to  his  amanuensis.  For  a 
fuller  discussion  see  '  General  Intro,  to  the 
Pastoral  Epistles.' 


1006 


I 


1.1 


TITUS 


2.1 


CHAPTER  1 


Greeting.    Directions  for  Organising 
THE  Cretan  Church 

i-i6.  '  Paul  an  Apostle,  to  Titus  his  own 
son  in  the  faith.  In  appointing  elders  in  the 
towns  of  Crete,  see  to  their  character,  and  be 
sure  that  they  keep  the  faith.  There  are 
Judaisers  in  the  island,  and  the  Cretans  are 
liars  ;  so  Church  officers  must  be  especially 
careful  that  their  discourse  may  be  sound.' 

1.  Paul,  a  servant  of  God]  St.  Paul  does 
not  elsewhere  use  this  designation  in  his 
superscriptions  ;  so  an  imitator  would  be  un- 
likely to  use  it.  According  to  the  faith,  etc.] 
i.e.  to  promote  the  true  faith.  Which  is  after 
godliness]  i.e.  which  leads  to  godliness. 

2.  That  cannot  lie]  A  bad  translation.  The 
single  Gk.  word  means  '  absolutely  truthful.' 
It  is  irreverent  to  say  of  the  One  Self-deter- 
mined Being,  '  cannot '  ;  '  will  not '  is  sufficient 
and  final.  Here  AV  and  RV  both  add  an  idea 
not  in  the  original,  borrowing,  doubtless,  from 
Heb6i8:  cp.  Ro3*  and  ICorl'-*.  Before  the 
world  began]  lit.  (as  RV)  '  Before  times  eter- 
nal.' 3.  RV  '  But  in  his  own  seasons  manifested 
his  word  in  the  message '  (proclamation) 
'  wherewith  I  was  entrusted,'  etc.  His  word] 
To  the  Hebrew,  '  word  '  or  '  name  '  stood  for 
the  being  whose  it  was  ;  so  we  might  safely 
translate,  '  himself.'  St.  Augustine  interpreted 
it  definitely  '  Christ.' 

4.  Son  after  the  common  faith]  i.e.  his  pupil 
in  the  faith  which  they  shared  together.  Titus 
is  not  mentioned  in  Acts,  but  from  St.  Paul's 
Epistles  we  gather  the  following  details :  he 
was  a  Greek  (Gal  2  3)  ;  neither  at  his  conver- 
sion nor  (probably)  later  was  he  circumcised 
(ib.);  he  went  on  missionary  journeys  with 
and  for  St.  Paul  (Gal  2 1  2  Cor  7  6*- 1^-^^  8  6,  le-is). 
We  know  nothing  more  till  we  find  him  here. 

5.  Though  in  a  personal  letter,  these  words 
are  so  explicit  that,  should  the  Cretans  resist 
Titus'  authority,  he  might  read  to  them  what 
the  great  master  himself  had  said.  We  are 
wont  to  say,  '  If  you  have  trouble,  show  this 
letter.'     St.  Paul,'  perhaps,  implied  this  here. 

Left  I  thee  in  Crete]  This  cannot  be  identi- 
fied with  the  only  visit  of  St.  Paul  to  Crete 
elsewhere  recorded  (Ac27  7f-).  The  visit 
when  he  left  Titus  there  was  after  the 
Roman  imprisonment  :  see  Intro.  There 
were  many  Jews  in  Crete,  and  there  were 
Cretans  in  Jerusalem  at  Pentecost  (Ac2ii), 
but  we  do  not  know  how  Christianity  was 
planted  in  the  island.  Elders]  Gk.  'pres- 
byters.' Rectors,  or  pastors,  we  should  say 
to-day.  6.  The  husband  of  one  wife]  not 
necessarily  of  any  wife,  but  of  not  more  than 
one.  Probably  not  an  objection  to  polygamy, 
which  was  rare,  but  to  divorce  and  remarriage, 
which  was  common.     It  is  hardly  likely  that 


remarriage,  after  the  death  of  a  first  wife,  was 
to  be  a  disqualification  for  office  :  cp.  1  Tim  3  2. 
Faithful  children]  i.e.  brought  up  as  Chris- 
tians.    7.  A  bishop]  This  officer  seems  simply 
to  be  one  of  the  '  elders '  in  v.  5  :  though  the 
difference  in  name  and  number  may  suggest 
the  beginning  of  a  distinction  between  them. 
At  any  rate,  the  Church  is  here  more  highly 
organised  than  when  St.  Paul  wrote,  e.g.  1  Cor, 
but  not  nearly  so  much  so  as  when  Ignatius 
wrote,  e.g.  to  the  Ephesians,  circ.  115  A.D.  : 
cp.  1  Tim  31.     8.   Lover  of  good  men]   better 
(as  RV),  '  lover  of  good,'  including  both  men 
and  things.     9.  As  he  hath  been  taught]  RV 
(which   is  lit.)  '  according   to  the    teaching ' ; 
i.e.  the  teaching  which  he  has  received,  per- 
haps referring  to  a  gradually  forming  state- 
ment of  the  essentials  of  the  faith,  such  as 
culminated,  in  the  2nd  cent.,  in  the  'Roman 
symbol,'  or  early  form  of  the  Apostles'  Creed. 
ID.  Here  begins  the  arraignment  of  the  false 
teachings  which  the  elders  will  have  to  meet 
(vv.  10-16).    They  of  the  circumcision]  i.e  Jew- 
ish converts  who  insisted  that  to  be  a  Christian 
one  must  also  submit  to  Jewish  ordinances. 

12.  One  of  themselves]  i.e.  one  of  the  Cre- 
tans. The  reference  is  to  Epimenides,  a  poet, 
circ.  600  B.C.  St.  Paul  calls  him  a  prophet 
because,  (1)  poets  and  prophets  were  apt  to 
be  classed  together,  and  (2)  his  '  witness  '  was 
still  true  in  St.  Paul's  day.  One  reason  why 
the  Cretans  were  called  liars  was  because  they 
said  that  Zeus  was  bm-ied  in  Crete.  Slow 
bellies]  i.e.  gross  and  corpulent  through  self- 
indulgence.  14.  Jewish  fables]  e.g.  the  sort 
of  rules,  for  maintaining  which  our  Lord 
condemned  the  Pharisees  (Mtl5,  23,  etc.). 

15.  Unto  the  pure  all  things  are  pure]  St. 
Chrysostom  said,  '  God  made  nothing  impure.' 
Used,  not  abused,  all  things  are  right ;  abused, 
the  seemingly  innocent  thing  is  sin.  St.  Paul 
does  not  mean  to  limit  this  principle  to  cere- 
monial distinctions  (about  meats,  etc.),  with 
which  the  Judaisers  would  be  apt  to  vex  the 
Cretans.  Their  mind  and  conscience  is  defiled] 
cp.  Mtl5*-8.  16.  They  profess]  Not  mere 
pretence,  but  blatant  self-confidence. 

CHAPTER  2 

Various  Instructions  for  Christian 
Life  and  Doctrine 

1-15.  '  In  giving  sound  doctrine,  to  offset 
false  teaching,  put  the  first  emphasis  on  the 
need  of  character,  because  Christ  is  our  reward, 
and  very  soon.  And  do  thou,  Titus,  set  a  good 
example,  and  maintain  thine  own  authority.' 

I.  Sound  doctrine]  cp.  2 2,  'sound  in  faith.' 
The  context  shows  that  this  is  soundness  not 
in  intellectual  opinions,  but  in  the  inculca- 
tion of  uprightness  of  life.  In  Christ's  day 
'faith'  was  always  regarded  as  spiritual ;  in  the 
apostolic  age,  nearly  always  so ;    but  in  the 


1007 


%  2 


TITUS 


a  10 


apostolic  age  the  tendency  unquestionably 
began  to  identify  '  faith '  with  a  system.  It  is 
important  to  mark  that  faith  and  doctrine  as 
used  in  this  Epistle  are  not  far  from  the  earlier 
use  :  cp.  Intro.  §  2. 

2.  The  aged  men]  Not  the  elders  in  an 
official  sense,  but  simply  the  old  men.  3.  Be- 
haviour] All  outward  deportment ;  not  simply 
dress  on  the  one  hand  ;  not  inner  thoughts  on 
the  other.  Not  given  to  much  wine]  RV  '  en- 
slaved to  much  wine.'  Cretans,  both  men  and 
women,  were  notorious  drinkers  :  cp.  1 12. 

4.  Teach]  RV  '  train,'  a  much  better 
word. 

5.  Keepers  at  home]  Another  Gk.  text 
(adopted  in  RV)  gives  '  workers  at  home.' 

Blasphemed]  The  Cretans  would  say,  '  See 
how  they  treat  their  husbands,  that  is  Christi- 
anity ! ' 

7.  St.  Paul  now  turns  to  Titus  personally. 
Even  if  he  had  recently  seen  him,  it  was  not 
unnatural  to  press  a  warning  upon  '  his  child 
in  the  faith.'  Sincerity]  Rightly  omitted  in 
RV,  since  it  is  lacking  in  the  best  MSS. 

9.  Servants]  i.e.  '  slaves.'  Slaves  made  up 
a  considerable  proportion  of  early  Christian 
congregations  ;  and,  often  being  more  intelli- 
gent than  their  masters,  could  influence  them 
in  spiritual  things.  11.  The  RV  is  again  more 
accurate  than  AV :  '  For  the  grace  of  God 
hath  appeared,  bringing  salvation  to  all  men.' 

12.  Teaching]  better,  '  disciplining,'  or  even 
(as  Luther),  '  chastising.'  That]  purpose,  '  in 
order  that.'  This  present  world]  lit.  '  this 
present  age';  i.e.  before  Christ's  reappearing. 

13.  The  blessed  hope  is  '  the  appearing.' 
The  apostolic  age  cannot  be  understood  with- 
out constantly  keeping  in  mind  that  the  Chris- 
tians expected  Christ's  return  in  glory  within 
their  generation.  Glorious  appearing]  This 
should  be  (as  in  RV),  '  appearing  of  the  glory.' 
The  '  glory '  is  the  visible  majesty  of  the  divine. 
The  Jews  called  it  the  '  shekinah.'  The  great 
God  and  our  Saviour  Jesus  Christ]  RV  '  our 
great  God  and  Saviour  Jesus  Christ.'  Scholars 
have  always  been  divided  whether  the  Father 
and  Christ  both  are  meant,  or  only  Christ. 
The  most  skilful  escape  from  the  difficulty  is 
to  say  that  Christ  will  appear  in  both  His  own 
glory  and  His  Father's.  If  it  is  to  be  inter- 
preted '  our  God  .  .  Christ,'  the  expression  is 
unique  in  the  NT.,  unless  we  take  RM  for 
Jn  1 18^  '  God  only  begotten.'  14.  For  us]  Not 
'  in  our  stead,'  but  '  for  our  sake.'  However, 
the  next  words  suggest  both  meanings.  Re- 
deem] lit.  '  set  free  by  means  of  a  ransom.'  A 
peculiar  people]  An  OT.  expression  :  '  a  chosen, 
favoured,  superior  people.'  '  Hia  oion  people  ' 
is  perhaps  the  best  tendering.  15.  Let  no 
man  despise  thee]  i.e.  push  these  counsels 
home  so  gravely  and  thoroughly  that  men  will 
heed  thee  :  cp.  1  Tim  4 12. 


CHAPTER  3 

The   Substance  and  Manner  of   the 
Teaching  to  be  given.     Farewell 

1-15.  '  Remind  the  Cretans  to  be  loyal 
citizens,  good  neighbours.  As,  through  no  merit 
of  ours,  God  won  us  to  Himself,  so  we  must  live 
good  lives.  Never  argue  with  stubborn- 
hearted  people.  Warn  a  heretic  twice  ;  then 
drop  him.  Come  to  me  at  Nicopolis,  when 
Artemas  or  Tychicus  leaves  me,  and  see  that 
Zenas  and  Apollos  get  well  started  on  their 
missionary  journey.     We  all  greet  you  all.' 

I.  To  principalities  and  powers]  better  (as 
RV),  '  to  rulers,  to  authorities.'  We  should 
be  apt  to  say,  '  to  the  government.'  To  obey 
magistrates]  The  original  meaning  of  the  Gk. 
word  is  '  to  obey  one's  superiors  '  :  '  to  obey  ' 
or  '  to  be  obedient '  (RV)  is,  therefore,  a  better 
translation.  3.  We  ourselves]  i.e.  we  Chris- 
tians. Were  sometimes]  '  Were '  (standing 
first  in  the  Gk.  sentence  is  emphatic)  '  at  one 
time  '  (RV  '  aforetime  '). 

4.  Alford  translates  this  v.,  '  But  when  the 
goodness  and  love-toward-men '  (one  Gk. 
word)  '  of  our  Saviom*,  God,  was  manifested.' 

God  our  Saviour]  the  Father.  Appeared] 
'  was  manifested '  ;  i.e.  in  the  coming,  life, 
and  death  of  Christ.  5.  By  the  washing  of 
regeneration]  For  '  washing,'  '  laver '  (i.e.  place 
where  the  washing  took  place)  is  better. 
Baptism  is  referred  to  here.  Renewing  of 
the  Holy  Ghost]  The  baptism  to  be  efficient 
must  be  both  by  water  and  by  the  Spirit.  It 
is  not  a  mere  outward  act.  6.  Which  he  shed 
on  us]  When  ?  At  Pentecost,  or,  generally, 
to  each  individual  ?  Probably  both  meanings 
should  be  included.  7.  Heirs  according  to 
the  hope  of  eternal  life]  better  (as  RM),  '  heirs, 
according  to  hope,  of  eternal  life.' 

8.  Faithful  saying]  i.e.  a  condensed  reflec- 
tion, an  axiom  in  rhythmical  form,  a  Christian 
proverb.  Scholars  disagree  whether  the 
'  faithful  saying '  here  includes  vv.  4-7  or 
only  V.  7.  The  presence  of  '  faithful  sayings ' 
shows  that  a  religious  movement  is  no  longer 
in  its  infancy  :  men  have  reflected  about  it 
for  some  time  :  cp.  ITimlis  31  48  2 Tim 2 n. 

Believed  in  God]  better  (as  RV),  '  believed 
God '  ;  i.e.  trusted  His  word. 

9.  Every  Christian  minister  learns  the 
futility  of  arguments  to  persuade  the  preju- 
diced. Living  reasonable  lives,  teaching  posi- 
tively and  reasonably,  we  convince  men  ;  not 
otherwise. 

10.  Heretick]  A  heretic,  to  St.  Paul,  was 
never  one  who  held  erroneous  opinions  only, 
but  one  whose  error  sprang  from  moral 
crookedness,  issuing  at  last  in  evil  life.  There 
seems  always  a  sensual  element  in  what  St. 
Paul  calls  heresy  ;  for  he  classes  it  with  the 
sins  of  the  flesh  (GalS^O).     The  heresies  of 


1008 


{ 


3.  12 


TITUS— PHILEMON 


INTRO. 


the  Corinthian  Church  were  moral  rather  than 
intellectual  ( 1  Cor  11 19).  Eph  4  is  f •  exactly  de- 
scribes heresy,  though  the  word  itself  is  not 
mentioned.  It  is  not  important,  but  in- 
teresting to  note  that  the  word  '  heretic ' 
occurs  only  here  in  the  NT.  '  Heresy '  is 
common.  Reject]  This  is  not  excommuni- 
cation. '  Refuse,'  '  avoid,'  '  shun,'  '  decline  to 
have  intercourse  with,'  have  been  suggested 
as  better  translations. 

12.  Artemas]  Nothing  is  known  of  him  be- 
yond this  mention.  Tradition  says  that  he  was 
later  bishop  of  Lystra.  Tychicus]  cp.  Ac204 
EphlV'^i  Col  4  7  2  Tim  4 12.  Nicopolis]  Several 
towns  had  this  name.  This  may  be  the  one 
in  Epirus.     13.  Zenas  .  .  and  Apollos]  Perhaps 


the  bearers  of  the  Epistle.  Zenas  was  pro- 
bably a  Jewish  scribe.  For  Apollos  see  Ac 
1824  1  Cor  112  1612.  The  mingling  of  old 
names  with  new  is  a  strong  critical  argument 
for  the  Pauline  authorship  ;  a  pupil  wishing 
to  imitate  would  hardly  be  apt  to  mention 
any  but  well-known  names.  14.  Our's]  'our 
people '  (RV)  ;  i.e.  the  Christian  community 
in  Crete.  For  necessary  uses]  i.e.  for  helping 
such  persons  as  Zenas  and  Apollos  to  give 
their  time  to  Church  extension.  We  should 
say,  '  See  that  the  people  of  the  different 
congregations  give  good  missionary  offerings.' 

15.   In  the  faith]  lit.  '  in  faith.' 

The  subscription  appended  to  the  Epistle 
in  the  AV  is  certainly  spurious. 


PHILEMON 


INTRODUCTION 


The  Epistle  of  Paul  to  Philemon  is  a  per- 
sonal letter  to  a  friend,  called  out  by  a  situa- 
tion probably  not  infrequent  in  antiquity.  A 
letter  of  Pliny  on  a  similar  occasion  ('Ep.'  ix.  21, 
see  translation  in  Lightfoot,  '  Comm.  on  Phile- 
mon,' pp.  316  f.)  has  been  preserved. 

I.  Recipients  and  Occasion.  Philemon  was  a 
resident  of  Colossse  in  Phrygia  (cp.  Col  4  9  with 
Philemon  v.  11).  He  owed  his  conversion  to 
Paul  (v.  19),  having  perhaps  heard  the  gospel 
on  some  visit  to  Ephesus  during  the  three  years 
of  Paul's  stay  there  (Ac  19).  A  man  of  wealth, 
he  had  distinguished  himself  by  deeds  of  char- 
ity (vv.  5-7),  as  well  as  by  zeal  in  spreading 
the  gospel  (v.  1),  and  his  house  was  the  habit- 
ual meeting-place  of  a  group  of  Colossian 
Christians  (v.  2).  He  may  be  compared  with 
Stephanas  of  Corinth  (1  Cor  1615-18).  Apphia 
(v.  2),  also  a  Christian,  bearing  a  characteristic 
native  Phrygian  name,  was  doubtless  Phile- 
mon's wife,  and  the  subject  of  the  letter  con- 
cerned her  too.  Archippus  may  have  been 
their  son.  He  had  a  '  ministry '  (perhaps  as 
presbyter  or  evangelist)  at  Laodicea  (Col  4 15-17). 
Onesimus  (a  name  often  borne  by  Greek 
slaves  at  this  period)  was  a  slave  (doubt- 
less a  house-slave)  of  Philemon,  who  had  run 
away,  probably  robbing  his  master  at  the  same 
time.  Reaching  Rome  (or,  according  to  some, 
Csesarea),  he  had  somehow  found  his  master's 
friend  Paul.  Such  a  chance  would  not  be  sur- 
prising in  a  great  and  compactly  populated 
city.  In  his  desperate  case,  liable  to  arrest 
and  the  severest  punishment,  he  may  have 
voluntarily  sought  the  Apostle's  aid.     At  any 


rate  he  met  with  kindness,  was  brought  to 
faith  in  Christ,  and  served  Paul  with  grateful 
devotion.  When  Tychicus  went  to  Asia  Minor 
(Col  4  7-9),  Paul  took  the  occasion  to  send  back 
Onesimus,  now  '  the  faithful  and  beloved  bro- 
ther,' with  general  commendation  to  the  Colos- 
sian Christians,  and  with  this  special  letter  of 
intercession  to  Philemon. 

The  letter  was  thus  written  in  the  same  cir- 
cumstances, and  sent  at  the  same  time,  as 
Colossians  (cp.  Col  4  9  with  vv.  12,  17)  :  see, 
however.  Col  4 10,  and  on  v.  23.  The  place  of 
writing  was  probably  Rome,  where  Paul  was 
imprisoned.  The  escaped  slave  may  well  have 
tried  to  lose  himself  in  the  throngs  of  the 
capital,  and  would  have  been  at  least  as  well 
able  to  secure  transportation  thither  as  to 
Caesarea. 

2.  Attitude  to  Slavery.  Paul  in  this  letter 
is  in  accord  with  early  Christianity  generally 
in  accepting  slavery  without  criticism,  and  he 
assumes  the  property  right  of  the  slave-owner  ; 
but  he  recognises  the  slave  as  a  brother  in 
Christ,  to  whom  is  due  not  merely  forgiveness 
but  Christian  friendship.  Compare  what  he 
says  of  a  sphere  of  life  in  which  neither  bond- 
age nor  freedom  has  any  place  (1  Cor  7  20-24 
1213  Gal  3  28  Col  3 11  ),  and  his  directions  to 
masters  and  slaves  in  Eph  6^-9  and  Col  3  22-41. 
Whether  or  not  in  1  Cor  7  21  he  meant  to  advise 
a  slave  to  use  lawful  opportunities  of  secur- 
ing his  freedom,  is  a  disputed  question.  The 
effect  of  Jesus  Christ's  principle  of  the  essen- 
tial worth  of  the  human  soul  (Mt620f.  lO^Of. 
1212  Lkl5)  a  principle  which  Paul  recognised, 


64 


1009 


INTRO. 


PHILEMON 


is  to  be  seen  in  the  attitude  of  the  modem  Chris- 
tian world  toward  slavery  itself.  On  ancient 
slavery,  which,  especially  under  Roman  law,  gave 
the  owner  absolute  authority  over  the  person 
and  life  of  the  slave,  and  was  full  of  cruelty, 
vice,  and  every  horror,  see  Becker,  '  G-allus  '  ; 
Lecky,  '  History  of  European  Morals,'  chs.  ii. 
and  iv.  ;  Vincent,  '  Commentary  on  Philemon,' 
pp.  162-168. 

3.  Genuineness.  Philemon  was  included  in 
Marcion's  collection  of  Pauline  Epistles,  circ. 
150  A.D.  Its  perfect  adaptation  to  the  con- 
crete situation  everywhere  consistently  pre- 
supposed, its  freshness  and  charm,  and  the  rare 
delicacy  and  tact  which  it  reveals  are  good 
grounds  for  holding  it  genuine  ;  and  when  to 
these  considerations  is  added  its  close  resem- 
blance in  style  and  expression  to  the  other 
Epistles  of  Paul,  the  evidence  supporting  its 
own  claim  (v.  1)  to  Pauline  authorship  is 
conclusive.  On  this  view,  the  interest  of  this 
beautiful  little  Epistle  is  immensely  increased, 
as  affording  a  glimpse  into  the  Apostle's 
private  life,  and  exhibiting  his  great  tenderness 
and  delicacy  of  feeling. 

The  intimate  connexion  of  Philemon  with 
Colossians  has  led  some  scholars  to  deny  its 
genuineness,  but  neither  by  the  frigid  alle- 
gories suggested  (e.g.  '  What  man  loses  in  this 
world  he  regains  for  ever  in  Christianity  '),  nor 
by  the  theory  that  it  is  an  ethical  tract  on 
slavery,  has  it  been  possible  satisfactorily  to 
explain  the  origin  of  the  Epistle.  For  an 
account  of  such  views  see  art.  '  Philemon, 
Epistle  to,'  in  '  Encyclopaedia  Biblicac' 

4.  Contents. 

I.  Vv.  1-3.  Greeting. 

II.  Yv.  4-7.  Epistolary  thanksgiving  (for 
Philemon's  faith  and  love)  and  prayer  (that 
these  may  be  crowned  with  understanding  of 
the  significance  of  God's  gift  to  men). 

III.  Vv.  8-21.  Request  for  kind  treatment 
to  Onesimus. 

IV.  V.  22.  Paul  hopes  to  be  set  free  and  to 
visit  Colossje. 

v.  Vv.  2.5,  24.  Salutations  from  friends, 
VI.  V.  25.  Farewell  benediction. 

I.  A  prisoner  of  Christ  Jesus]  Paul  thus 
describes  himself  because  his  bonds  (which 
are  to  be  here  understood  literally)  have 
been  incurred  in  the  service  of  Christ  : 
cp.  V.  9  (and  v.  23)  and  Eph3i  4i.  The 
usual  claim  to  be  an  Apostle  is  here  unneces- 
sary ;  so  Phil  1 1,  in  that  Epistle  of  Paul 
which  stands  next  to  Philemon  in  its  tender 
intimacy. 

Timothy]  with  Paul  in  Ephesus  (Ac  19  22), 
and  doubtless  known  to  Philemon  :  cp.  Phil  1 1 
2 19  Col  1 1.  Our  brother]  '  my  fellow-Christian' : 
cp.  1  Cor 5 11,  also  2Corli  Colli  lTh3  2. 
So  V.  2,  'sister':  cp.  R0I6I.     Beloved]  as  in 


the  English  epistolary  '  My  dear.'  Here  prob- 
ably with  a  certain  emphasis:  cp.  3  Jn  v,  1. 

Fellowlabourer]  RV  '  fellow-worker '  :  i.e. 
in  the  gospel  :  cp.  vv.  2,  24,  Rol63  2Cor823 
Phil 2 25,  etc.  2.  Fellowsoldier]  i.e.  of  Christ: 
cp.  Phil  2  25  and  2  Tim  2  3.  The  church  in  thy 
house]  see  on  Rol65  1  CorlGi^  Col 4 is  (Lao- 
dicea),  Ac  12 12.  A  constituent  part  of  the 
body  mentioned  in  Col  1 2.  3.  Paul's  usual 
greeting  :  see  on  Ro  1  '^.  You]  the  whole 
group  of  vv.  1,  2  :  cp.  vv.  22,  25.  Note 
vv.  4-23, 'thee,'  'thy,'  'thou,'  referring  to 
Philemon  only. 

4.  I  thank  my  God . .  always,  etc.]  the 
usual  thanksgiving,  congratulation,  and  prayer: 

cp.    RolSf-  Eph  13, 15-17  Phil  13-5,9    Coll  3  f.,  9  f., 

etc. ;  and  see  on  v.  20.  For  illustrations  of  this 
conventional  element  of  a  Greek  letter,  see  J. 
R.  Harris, '  A  Study  in  Letter-writing,'  '  Expo- 
sitor,' 5th  series,  vol.  viii.  1898,  pp.  161-167. 

5.  Hearing']  introduces  the  special  reasons 
for  thanksgiving,  viz.  Philemon's  love  and 
faith.  Of  thy  love  and  faith]  RM  '  of  thy 
love,  and  of  the  faith '  is  a  better  rendering. 
The  faith  is  toward  the  Lord  Jesus,  the  love 
toward  all  the  saints.  The  order  of  clauses  is 
inverted  (as  in  Gal 4 4 f.):  cp.  Gal 5 6  Eph  lis 
Col  1 4  1  Th  1 3  3  6.  Faith  .  .  toward]  the  same 
as  '  faith  in.' 

6.  That]  introduces  mention  of  that  for 
which  Paul  prays  (v.  4),  viz.  recognition  by 
Philemon  of  the  greatness  of  God's  gift  to 
men.  The  communication  (RV  '  fellowship ' ) 
of  thy  faith  is  perhaps  best  taken  in  the 
sense,  '  the  generous  charity  which  has  pro- 
ceeded from  thy  faith.'  So  in  Phill9  love  is 
to  culminate  in  knowledge;  and  in  the  parallel 
to  om-  V.  in  Col  1  ^-n,  references  to  conduct  and 
to  knowledge  are  interwoven :  cp.  Col  3 1*^.  The 
word  for  fellowship  (koindnia)  is  used  of  a 
charitable  contribution  :  cp.  Ro  1 5  26  2  Cor 
84  913  Heb  13 16.  In  'the  fellowship  of  thy 
faith '  both  the  love  and  the  faith  of  v.  5  are 
included.  The  love  is  emphasised  again  in  v.  7. 
Another  possible  rendering  is,  'thy  participa- 
tion (i.e.  with  us  and  all  Christians)  in  our 
(Gk.  '  the  ')  faith '  :  cp.  v.  17.  Effectual  by 
the  acknowledging  (RV  '  in  the  knowledge  '), 
etc.]  means,  '  effectual  in  leading  to  the  recog- 
nition on  Philemon's  part  of  all  the  blessings 
which  Christians  have.'  '  In  you  '  (or,  better, 
RM  '  in  us ')  includes  both  '  already  in  your 
possession '  and  '  within  your  reach.'  What 
Paul  has  in  mind  is  made  clear  by  the  parallel, 
Ephlisf-:  cp.  Eph  3 18*-,  also  Phill^f-  Col  19. 
An  understanding  of  how  exalted  is  the  privilege 
of  salvation  through  Christ  is  the  crown  and 
culmination  of  faith,  and  involves  a  knowledge 
of  the  deeper  mysteries  of  God.  It  is,  more- 
over, essential  to  soundness  of  Christian  life 
and  to  the  Christian  enthusiasm  on  which  se- 
curity  against  temptation  depends.     In  (RV 


1010 


PHILEMON 


25 


'  unto  ')  Christ]  loosely  added,  without  exact 
indication  of  relation  to  the  preceding,  in  order 
to  point  out  that  as  the  object  of  faith  is 
Christ,  so  only  through  a  relation  to  Christ 
is  love  active  or  knowledge  possible,  or  '  every 
good  thing,'  which  is  the  object  of  knowledge, 
to  be  valued.  7.  For]  introduces  another  state- 
ment of  Paul's  reason  for  thanking  God  (v.  4). 

Bowels . .  are  refreshed]  RV  '  Hearts . .  have 
been  refreshed';  i.e.  through  the  charitable 
acts  prompted  by  Philemon's  '  love.'  The 
'  heart '  (Gk.  '  bowels ')  is  the  seat  of  grief  and 
despondency  and  of  joy  and  courage  :  cp.  v.  20. 

The  Saints]  means  merely  '  the  Christians,' 
without  regard  to  eminent  attainments  in 
character. 

8.  Wherefore]  In  view  of  this  evidence  of 
faith  and  love  Paul  adopts  a  tone  of  request, 
not  of  command.  All  (Gk.  '  much ')  boldness 
in  Christ]  means,  '  abundant  readiness  to  adopt 
freedom  of  speech,  by  reason  of  my  own  and 
of  thy  relation  to  Christ  and  so  of  our  rela- 
tion to  each  other.'  9.  For  love's  sake]  or, 
'  in  the  name  of  love.'  Philemon's  response 
is  to  be  a  matter  of  love,  not  of  mere  obedi- 
ence. Paul  chooses  to  put  the  matter  on  the 
highest  possible  plane.  Paul  the  aged]  Paul 
may  have  been  over  sixty  years  old  at  this 
time.  At  the  time  of  his  conversion,  about 
thirty  yeai^s  earlier,  he  is  called  a  '  young 
man'  (Ac7*s),  a  term  applied  to  persons  be- 
tween the  ages  of  twenty-four  and  forty. 
With  this  rendering  these  and  the  following 
words  have  a  touch  of  pathos  befitting  the 
whole  tone  of  the  passage.  If  the  rendering 
of  RM  '  an  ambassador '  is  preferred  (cp.  Eph 
6-0),  the  words  would  seem  to  imply  an  atti- 
tude of  command.  Also  a  prisoner  of  Christ 
Jesus]  cp.  V.  1.  10.  My  son]  RV  'my child'; 
cp.  1  Cor  4 14, 15, 17  Gal  4 19.  Cp.  Mishna,  '  San- 
hedrim,' fol.  19,  2,  '  If  one  teaches  the  son  of 
his  neighbour  the  law.  the  Scripture  reckons 
this  the  same  as  though  he  had  begotten  him.' 

II.  Unprofitable  ..  profitable]  A  play  on 
the  name  Onesimus,  which  means  '  helpful,' 
'  profitable.'  To  me]  valuable  to  Paul,  as  to 
Philemon,  because  of  both  his  personal  service 
(v.  I'd)  and  his  Christian  friendship.  12.  I 
have  sent]  better,  '  I  send,'  as  the  same  tense 
is  translated  in  vv.  19,  21,  '  I  write.'  13.  In 
thy  stead  (RV  '  behalf ')]  Since  Onesimus  was 
Philemon's  slave,  his  service  to  Paul  was  a 
gift  from  Philemon.  '  In  thy  behalf '  does 
not  mean  '  in  thy  place.'  In  the  bonds  of 
the  gospel]  '  in  this  imprisonment  incurred 
through  preaching  the  gospel':  cp.  vv.  1,  9,  23. 
14.  Without  thy  mind]  a  common  Greek 
expression  for  '  without  thy  consent.'  As . .  of 
necessity]  Paul  shrinks  from  saying  out- 
right  that    if   he    had    kept    Onesimus    that 


would  have  been  extracting  from  Philemon 
an  obligation  which  he  would  have  resented 
or  grudged. 

15.  For]  introduces  a  further  consideration 
in  favour  of  sending  the  slave  back.  He  there- 
fore departed]  RV  '  was  therefore  parted  from 
thee '  ;  in  the  providence  of  God  :  cp.  (so 
Chrysostom)  Gn45^'8.  '  Therefore  '  refers  to 
the  divine  purpose,  '  that  thou  shouldest  have 
him  for  ever.'  For  ever]  an  eternal  possession, 
not  by  legal  bond,  but  by  Christian  friendship. 

16.  Servant]  '  slave.'  In  the  flesh] '  in  human 
relations':  cp.  Rol^  Eph 6 5  Col 3 22.  This 
seems  to  imply  that  in  the  past  Onesimus  had 
had  kindly  treatment  and  friendship.  These 
old  associations  should  now,  in  his  repentance, 
make  him  even  more  dear  to  Philemon  than 
he  can  be  to  Paul.  This  is  said  in  order  to 
make  bitterness  toward  the  former  ungrateful 
runaway  an  impossibility.  In  the  Lord] 
'  through  your  common  relation  to  Christ.' 

17.  A  partner]  one  who  shares  :  cp.  2  Cor  8  23. 
This  partnership  is  further  described  in  1  Cor 
1 9, '  partnership  in  common  relation  to  His  Son 
Jesus  Chi-ist '  ;  2  Cor  13  ^^^  '  participation  in  the 
Holy  Spirit '  ;  Phil 2 1  IJn  1 3, 7. 

19.  I  Paul  have  w?^ritten  it  with  mine  o^wn 
hand]  This  formal  language  is  meant  to  sug- 
gest the  phraseology  of  a  legally  binding  note. 
'  I  Paul '  corresponds  to  the  usual  method  of 
an  ancient  signature:  cp.  1  Cor  16 21  Col 4^8 
2  Th  3 1'''.  The  whole  letter  was  probably  an 
autogi'aph  :  see  on  Gal  6 11.  20.  Let  me  have 
joy  of  thee]  a  somewhat  common  Greek  expres- 
sion, especially  with  reference  to  children  and 
friends.  Here  in  the  Lord  marks  the  relation 
as  a  Christian  one.  So  in  Christ,  v.  23.  Re- 
fresh my  bowels  (RV  '  heart ')]  see  on  verse  7. 

21.  Do  more  than  I  say]  RV  '  even  beyond 
what  I  say.'  This  need  not  imply  the  actual 
releasing  of  Onesimus  from  slavery. 

22.  A  lodging]  cp.  Phil  125  224  for  Paul's 
plan  for  a  journey  to  the  East.  The  '  lodging ' 
might  be  at  Philemon's  house  or  at  an  inn. 

Through  your  prayers]  cp   2  Cor  1  n. 

23.  Epaphras,  my  fellow-prisoner]  in  Col  4 10 
Aristarchus  was  Paul's  fellow-prisoner.  Ap- 
parently his  friends  took  turns  in  sharmg  his  im- 
prisonment and  ministering  to  his  needs.  Epa- 
phras (Col  4 12)  was  of  Colossae,  and  had  brought 
the  gospel  to  that  city  (Col  1  '^).  24.  Mark, 
Aristarchus,  Demas,  Luke]  cp.  Col  4 10. 1'l.  Jesus 
Justus,  perhaps  as  not  personally  known  to 
Philemon  and  his  circle,  is  here  passed  over. 
For  Mark,  cp.  also  Ac  12 12, 25  135,13  1537-39 
2  Tim  4 11  1  Pet  5 13;  Ai-istarchus  (of  Thes- 
salonica),  Ac  19 29  204  27  2;  Demas,  Luke, 
2Tim4i0ili.     My  fellowlabourers]  see  on  v.  1. 

25.  Farewell  benediction.  r\Gal6i8Phil 
423;  also  2  Tim  4  22. 


1011 


HEBREWS 


INTRODUCTION 


I.  Authorship.  The  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  is 
an  anonymous  work.  It  is  ascribed  to  St.  Paul 
in  our  English  Bibles — even  in  the  Revised 
Version  unfortunately  ;  but  this  is  only  in  the 
title,  which  was  not  a  part  of  the  original 
autograph.  All  St.  Paul's  acknowledged  Epi- 
stles have  his  name  as  part  of  the  opening 
salutation  according  to  the  usual  custom  with 
ancient  letters  ;  but  that  is  not  the  case  with 
this  Epistle,  which  begins  without  any  saluta- 
tion. Therefore,  if  we  do  not  ascribe  it  to 
the  Apostle  that  is  not  to  charge  the  author 
with  '  forgery,'  nor  in  the  milder  modern 
phrase  with  '  pseudepigraphy.'  There  is  no 
evidence  that  he  ever  intended  to  have  St. 
Paul's  name  associated  with  it.  The  title  in 
the  oldest  MSS  is  simply  '  To  the  Hebrews.' 

How,  then,  does  the  Epistle  come  to  bear 
St.  Paul's  name  in  our  English  Bibles  ?     The 
reason  is  that  the  fuller  title  is  found  in  the 
later  Gk.  MSS,  from  some  of  which  it  passed 
into  the  Latin  Bible,  the  Vulgate.     We  can 
easily  understand  how  this  came  about.    There 
was  a  tendency  in  the  early  Church  to  inscribe 
great  names  on  anonymous  works  in  order  to 
further  their  currency.     No  greater  name  than 
that  of  the  Apostle  to  the  Gentiles  could  be 
found  for  this  letter  to  the  Hebrews,  which 
might  well  be  accounted  worthy  of  no  less  a 
personage.      And   if   it   was   to    be    brought 
within  the  circle  of  the  chief  inspired  teachings 
of  the  apostolic  age,  this  narrowed  the  pos- 
sibilities of  authorship  to  a  comparatively  small 
group.     Then,    like  St.    Paul,    the    writer    is 
emancipated  from  the  Jewish  Law  ;  he  exalts 
Christ   specifically   as  the  '  Son  of  God,'   St. 
Paul's  most  significant  name  for  our  Lord  ;  he 
elaborates  the  thought  of  the  Atonement  by 
the  death  of  Christ  ;  he  glorifies  faith.     On 
the  other  hand,  his  style  and  diction  are  quite 
unlike    St.    Paul's  ;  instead  of  the  Apostle's 
simple,  direct,  rugged   speech,   we  have  here 
rhetorical  phraseology  in  rounded  periods.    Of 
more  importance  is  the  theological  attitude  of 
the  writer,  which  is  very  different  from  that 
of  St.  Paul.     The  Apostle  combats  legalism, 
but  in   the  interest    of   justification — a  legal 
condition  ;  our  author  is  concerned  with  the 
Tabernacle  ritual  of  the  Old  Testament,  and 
his  aim  is  to  show  the  way  of  approach  to  God 
through  purification,   so    that   while   St.  Paul 
treats  of  the  gospel  in  opposition  to  the  Phari- 
sees and  their  casuistry,  the  unknown  author 


of  Hebrews  is  interested  in  its  relation  to  the 
priests  and  their  sacrifices. 

The  authorship  of  this  Epistle  was  much 
discussed  in  early  ages  ;  but  Origen,  the  most 
learned  of  the  early  teachers,  concluded  his  ex- 
amination of  the  question  with  the  words, '  Who 
wrote  the  Epistle  God  only  knows.'  About 
the  same  time  another  Church  father,  Ter- 
tullian,  referred  to  it  as  '  the  Epistle  of  Bar- 
nabas,' taking  for  granted  that  Barnabas  was 
its  author.  It  is  a  significant  fact  that  this  is 
the  oldest  positive  and  definite  ascription  of 
any  name  to  it  that  has  reached  us  ;  and  there 
is  much  in  the  character  and  position  of  Bar- 
nabas to  agree  with  it.  Others  have  suggested 
Apollos,  Clement  of  Rome,  St.  Luke.  The 
latest  proposal  is  the  brilliant  suggestion  of 
Harnack  that  the  author  was  Priscilla.  If  it 
were  written  by  a  woman  it  might  have  been 
thought  in  that  unenlightened  age  not  wise  to 
give  her  name.  Priscilla  was  the  chief  teacher 
of  Apollos,  an  Alexandrian,  and  there  is  evi- 
dence of  Alexandrian  influences  in  the  con- 
tents of  the  Epistle.  But  the  question  cannot 
be  definitely  determined. 

2.  Alexandrian  Influences.  This  point  is  of 
great  interest  for  our  right  understanding  of 
the  Epistle,  as  well  as  with  regard  to  the  pro-  ' 
blem  of  its  authorship.  There  can  be  no 
question  that  the  author  was  more  or  less 
imbued  with  the  literary  and  theological 
methods  pursued  by  Jewish  scholars  at  Alex- 
andria. Those  methods  included  a  highly 
allegorical  treatment  of  the  Old  Testament,  , 
and  it  is  quite  Alexandrian  for  our  author  to  |{ 
regard  the  Levitical  dispensation  as  a  shadow 
of  the  spiritual  realities  that  are  to  be  found 
in  the  heavenly  tabernacle  and  its  ordinances. 
The  very  forms  of  introduction  in  which  pas- 
sages from  the  Old  Testament  are  quoted  are 
precisely  those  used  by  Philo,  the  famous 
Alexandrian  Jewish  philosopher,  but  quite 
unlike  the  forms  employed  by  St.  Paul  or  any 
other  New  Testament  writer.  Elsewhere  we 
meet  with  such  expressions  as,  '  it  is  written,' 
'  the  Scripture  says,'  '  David  says,'  '  Moses 
says,'  '  Isaiah  says.'  These  expressions  are 
never  met  with  in  Hebrews,  where,  as  in 
Philo,  no  human  authors  are  named — although 
in  a  single  instance  we  have  the  periphrasis  '  one 
hath  somewhere  testified  '  (26)  ;  but  the  utter- 
ances cited  are  attributed  immediately  to  God 
or  the  Holy  Spirit,  in  such  terms  as,  '  He  saith' 


1012 


i 


INTRO. 


HEBREWS 


INTRO. 


(17),  'the  Holy  Ghost  saith'(37).  Further, 
there  are  certain  phrases  and  images  found 
nowhere  else  in  the  Bible  which  Hebrews 
shares  with  Alexandrian  writers.  Thus  the 
rare  form  rendered  '  at  sundry  times  '  (1 1),  or, 
better,  as  in  the  Revised  Yersion,  '  in  divers 
portions,'  is  also  in  the  book  of  Wisdom  (722) 
—an  Alexandrian  work.  Then  the  peculiar 
expression  '  eifulgence,'  applied  to  God's  glory 
in  Hebrews  (1^),  is  referred  to  "Wisdom  in  the 
book  of  that  name  (Wisd  7  ^6),  and  it  is  quite 
a  favourite  word  with  Philo.  Again,  the 
word  rendered  '  substance '  in  the  same  v.  of 
Hebrews  is  also  found  in  "Wisd  16  21,  prob- 
ably in  the  same  sense,  though  here  the  read- 
ing, and  therefore  the  rendering,  is  doubtful. 
Lastly,  the  rare  expression  for  death  rendered 
'the  issue  of  their  life'  in  Hebrews  (13 '7) 
can  be  traced  to  "Wisd  21".  But  we  are  not 
left  to  depend  on  such  comparisons  of  words 
and  phrases.  The  whole  spirit  and  atmo- 
sphere of  Hebrews  is  Alexandrian  rather  than 
Palestinian. 

3.   Recipients  and  probable  Date.    Brushing 
aside   less  probable   conjectures — as   that   the 
Alexandrianism  of  the  Epistle  implies  that  it 
was  destined  for  Alexandria,  a  curious  inver- 
sion of  ideas — we  have  two  contending  theories 
of  its  destination — one  pointing  to  a  Palestinian 
Church,  the  other  claiming  Rome  as  the  resid- 
ence of  the  recipients.     "We  should  expect  an 
Epistle  to  Hebrews  to  go  to  the  district  where 
Hebrew  (or,  rather,  Aramaic)  speaking  Jews 
lived,  and  the  whole  argument  on  the  Levitical 
system  would   seem  to    indicate    this  region. 
Jerusalem  could  not  be  the  place,  because  the 
readers  were  not  the  first  gospel  converts  (2  3), 
and   perhaps,   too,   because    Jerusalem  was  a 
poor  Church  needing  help  from  the  more  pros- 
perous Churches,   whereas    the    Church   here 
addressed   is    praised    for    its    bountifulness 
(10  2'*)      Caesarea  and  Antioch  have  been  sug- 
gested as   possible  places  for   the  Epistle  to 
have  been  directed  to.     But  there  is  a  strong 
inclination  to  locate  the  Church  addressed  at 
Rome,  where  there  was  a  large  Jewish  com- 
munity,  and    where    Clement    (95   A.D.)    was 
familiar  with  it.     Some  think  the  sufferings 
referred  to  in  1032-35  were  those  of  Nero's  per- 
secution.     Rome    would    be    interested    in   a 
salutation  from  Italians  ( 1 3  24).    A  more  serious 
question  is  as  to  the  nationality  of  the  reci- 
pients.     It  has  been  denied  that   they  were 
Jews,  chiefly  because  their  apostasy  is  described 
as    departure    from    '  the    living    God ' — not 
merely  from   Christ.     But  the  author  might 
well  think  that  to  abandon  the  faith  of  Christ 
was  for  Christians  to   give   up  everything — 
God  and  all.     On  the  other  hand,  the  minute 
discussion  of  the  tabernacle  ritual  points  most 
probably  to  Jews.     The  date  cannot  be  fixed 
with  certainty.     But  since  the  writer,  while 


arguing  for  the  temporary  character  of  the 
Levitical  system,  makes  no  reference  to  the 
destruction  of  Jerusalem — the  vast  cataclysm 
in  which  that  system  was  swept  away — it  is  to 
be  inferred  that  an  event  which  would  so  im- 
mensely have  strengthened  his  position  if  he 
had  appealed  to  it  could  not  have  happened 
before  he  was  writing.  Perhaps  we  may 
assign  the  Epistle  to  about  68  a.d.,  when 
Jewish  zealots  would  be  urging  all  men  of 
Hebrew  blood  to  make  common  cause  with 
the  defenders  of  the  ancient  faith  against  the 
Roman  enemy. 

4.  Aim  and   Object.     It   must  be  clear  to 
every    careful    reader   that    this   Epistle    was 
written  with  one  definite  end  in  view.     There 
is  a  unity  in  its  composition  that  we  do  not 
recognise  in  any  other  NT.  book.     The  author 
makes  straight  for  his  goal  from  start  to  finish. 
Even  the  exhortations  that  are  so  characteristic 
of  the  work,  while  they  break  the  thread  of 
the  argument,  are   not   digressions   from   the 
main    object,    but    rather    direct    means   for 
attaining  it.     They  are   applications   of  each 
stage  of  the  discussion  to  the  one  great  aim 
that  is  kept  steadily  in  view  throughout.     It 
is   in    these    exhortations    that    we    see    most 
clearly   what    that    idm    is.      The    Christians 
addressed  are   evidently  in  danger  of  falling 
away  from  their  faith  and  apostatising  alto- 
gether.     So    desperate    does    their    condition 
appear  to  the  author,  that  he  feels  it  necessary 
to  expostulate  in  the  gravest  terms.     It  is  no 
fascination   of    the   world   luring   them  away 
from  their  original  consecration  that  occasions 
this  danger.     The  Hebrews  are  discouraged  to 
almost  the  extent  of  despair,  because  they  do 
not  see  how   the  gospel  can  oifer  them  any- 
thing like  compensation  for  what  they  have 
lost  in  being  cast   out  of   the  synagogue   on 
account  of  their  confession  of  the  Nazarene. 
This  is  the  condition  that  the  Epistle  has  to 
face.     The  method  of  meeting  it  is  to  boldly 
challenge  the  vaunted,  venerable  Judaism  in 
its  very  citadel,  the  Levitical  Law.    The  author 
institutes  a  comparison  between   Christianity 
and  Judaism,   or  rather  between   Christ  and 
the   chief    personages   of    Judaism — for  with 
him  '  Christianity  is  Christ ' — in  order  to  show 
that    Christ    is   their    superior   in    their    very 
points  of  excellency,  and  that  the  gospel  gives 
us  the  very  things  that  the  Law  professed  to* 
give,  but  much  more  effectually.     It  has  all 
that  Judaism  had  ;  and  it  has  this  in  a  higher 
form,  in  a  larger  measure  ;  nay,  it  alone  really 
has  this,   for  Judaism  failed — Judaism  could 
not  do  what  it  was  relied  upon  to  accomplish. 
The  reason  for  this  failure  was  that  it  had  no 
substance.     It  was  only  the  earthly  shadow  of 
those  heavenly  realities  that  Jesus  Christ  came 
to  establish  and  bring  within  our  reach.     This 
position  being  proved  all  along  the  line,  point 


1013 


INTRO. 


HEBREWS 


INTRO. 


by  point,  the  conclusion  is  that  it  would  be 
fatal  folly  to  return  from  Christ  to  Judaism, 
and  thus  the  readers  are  urged  to  be  loyal  to  the 
New  Covenant  with  its  paramount  privileges. 
5.  Theology.  The  author  assumes  the 
Jewish  faith  in  Grod,  but  advances  to  the 
richer  Christian  ideas  of  the  divine  nature. 
The  holiness  of  G-od  is  profoundly  felt  as  the 
reason  for  a  more  effective  cleansing  before 
approaching  Him  than  Judaism  provided,  and 
the  gravity  of  apostasy  is  emphasised  by  the 
thought  that  we  dare  not  trifle  with  God's 
demands,  since  He  is  a  '  consuming  fire'  (1229j. 
On  the  other  hand,  it  is  also  taken  for  granted 
that  to  come  near  to  God  is  the  one  thing  to 
be  supremely  sought  after  in  religion  (4i*^). 
The  Epistle  reaches  a  climax  in  showing  how 
this  may  be  done  through  Christ  as  it  could 
not  be  done  by  means  of  the  Levitical  system 
(1019-22).  Then  the  Fatherhood  of  God  is 
expounded  with  a  fulness  and  emphasis  that 
we  meet  with  nowhere  else  except  in  the 
teachings  of  Jesus  Christ  (12^-^^).  There  is  a 
very  lofty  conception  of  our  Lord  as  specifically 
'  the  Son  '  who  as  such  is  higher  than  all  other 
beings,  angels  as  well  as  men,  and  also  ex- 
presses to  us  the  character  and  the  very  being 
of  God  (12,3).  Nevertheless  the  Incarnation 
was  a  reality,  and  our  Epistle  uses  language  of 
remarkable  strength  and  clearness  concerning 
the  human  experience  of  Christ  (6"^-^).  In 
His  work  He  is  chiefly  regarded  as  the  High 
Priest  of  the  Heavenly  Tabernacle  (3i).  He- 
brews is  the  only  New  Testament  book  that  gives 
us  a  distinct  conception  of  the  priesthood  of 
Christ.  This  is  exercised  after  His  Resurrection 
and  Ascension.  His  sacrifice  on  the  Cross  is 
actually  presented  to  God  in  heaven.  To  our 
author  the  whole  present  interest  in  Christ  is 
in  that  later  sphere  of  His  heavenly  life — in 
what  He  is  now  as  our  priest  and  intercessor, 
though  that  rests  on  what  He  was  on  earth  in 
His  obedience  and  sacrifice.  The  death  of 
Christ  is  the  one  sacrifice  for  sin  (9 12).  This 
is  not  discussed  under  the  figure  of  acquittal 
in  a  court  of  law,  after  the  manner  of  St.  Paul ; 
it  is  treated  with  reference  to  the  tabernacle 
worshipper  who  knows  himself  to  be  unfit  to 
enter  the  presence  of  God  owing  to  defilement 
(9 19).  Christ's  sacrifice  removes  this  defilement 
(1022).  The  sacrifice  consists  in  His  offering 
'  Himself  to  God  in  death  by  '  the  Eternal 
Spirit'  (91*),  i.e.  apparently,  in  virtue  of  His 
divine  spiritual  natm'e,  which  being  eternal 
confers  eternal  efficacy.  The  essence  of  the 
sacrifice  consists  in  the  attitude  of  Christ's  will, 
namely  in  His  delighting  to  obey  God's  will, 
even  to  the  extent  of  dying  when  the  course 
of  obedience  involves  that  extremity.  It  is 
not  too  much  to  say  that  we  have  the  clearest 
New  Testament  exposition  of  the  very  heart 
and-  essence  of  the  Atonement  in  the  statement 


of  this  truth  (IQS-iO).  Lastly,  His  gi-eat  act  of 
obedience  in  death  was  offered  as  the  deed,  not 
of  a  man,  but  of  the  leader  and  high  priest  of 
men,  whereby  He  enables  us  to  participate  with 
Himself  in  doing  the  will  of  God,  in  which 
will  our  sanctification  stands.  Still,  this  is 
only  to  be  enjoyed  on  condition  of  trust  and 
fidelity  ;  and  the  counterpart  to  Christ's 
sacrifice  is  His  people's  faith,  the  triumphs  of 
which  are  celebrated  as  a  conclusion  of  the 
whole  argument  (c.  11).  Thus  the  New  Cove- 
nant predicted  by  Jeremiah  is  established  by 
Christ. 

6.  Analysis  of  the  Epistle. 

11-3.  The  two  Methods  of  Revelation 
contrasted 
Judaism  rested  on  the  OT.  as  its  authority ; 
Christianity  rests  on  the  revelation  in  Christ. 
The  earlier  revelation  was  fragmentary,  and 
limited  by  the  limited  human  nature  of  the 
prophets  through  whom  it  came  ;  the  later 
revelation  is  a  unity  coming  through  that  one 
Person  in  whom  Sonship  to  God  has  been 
perfected,  and  who  therefore  most  adequately 
represents  the  divine  nature. 

14_4i3.  The  Supremacy  of  Christ 
The  OT.  itself  testifies  to  His  supremacy  as 
God's  Son  over  its  chief  personages — first,  the 
angels,  through  whom  the  Jews  believed  that 
creation  had  been  effected  and  the  law  given 
(14_24).  nevertheless  Jesus,  though  thus 
really  superior  to  the  angels  by  nature,  is 
temporarily  in  a  lower  state  that  He  may 
learn  sympathy  with  us,  taking  our  nature 
upon  Him  in  order  to  become  our  adequate 
High  Priest  (25-18).  Jesus  is  also  superior 
to  Moses,  the  founder  of  the  national  religion, 
yet  only  a  servant,  while  He  is  the  Son  (.3 1-'^)  ; 
Christ  has  a  rest  to  give  which  we  are  warned 
not  to  miss  by  unfaithfulness  as  Israel  missed 
its  rest  by  provoking  God  in  the  wilderness 
(.3  "-4  7).  This  promised  rest  which  Joshua,  the 
Jesus  of  the  OT.,  could  not  give  remains  for 
another  to  confer.  We  therefore  must  labour 
to  enter  into  it,  considering  how  penetrating  is 
God's  word  which  promises  the  rest  but  also 
threatens  punishment  for  unfaithfulness  (4  8-13). 
Again  turning  to  the  high-priesthood  of  Christ, 
who  is  Jesus  the  Saviour  indeed,  the  author 
prepares  for  his  full  discussion  of  it  by  a 
reference  to  the   privilege   it  confers  on  us 

(414-16). 

5-7*10.  The  High  Priesthood  of  Christ 
The  introduction  of  the  High  Priest  ends 
the  historical  survey  which  had  been  brought 
down  from  the  creation,  through  Moses  and 
then  Joshua.  At  this  point  the  argument 
resolves  itself  into  a  discussion  of  Christ's 
priesthood  in  comparison  with  the  Levitical 
priesthood,  which  is  developed  as  the  dominant 


1014 


I 


INTRO. 


HEBREWS 


INTRO. 


theme  of  the  Epistle.     First  we  have  Christ's 
resemblance  to  Aaron  briefly  stated,  so  as  to 
show   that   He    is   at   least  as  true  a  priest. 
Christ   fulfilled   the  two  requisite   conditions 
that  were  seen  in  the  case  of  Aaron — human 
brotherhood,   essential   to   the   representative 
character    of    priesthood    (51-3),    and    divine 
appointment,  essential  to  its  authority  (5-*' 5). 
A  quotation  from  Ps  1 10  referred  to  as  proof  of 
Grod's  appointment  of  Christ  to  the  priesthood 
introduces    the    name    of    Melchizedek   (5<5). 
This  starts  a  fruitful  line  of  suggestions.     In 
His  humanity  Jesus  suffered  grievously,  but, 
by  teaching  Him  obedience,  that  awful  suffer- 
ing perfected  Him  as  a  priest  '  after  the  order 
of  Melchizedek,'  so  that  He  became  the  author 
of  eternal  salvation  to  those  who  obey  Him 
(5  7-10).     Realising  that  his  discussion  is  becom- 
ing difficult,  the  author  breaks  off  to  deplore 
the  dulness  of  his  readers  and  their  infantile 
backwardness.     They  can  only  take  milk  ;  they 
are  not  yet  fit  for  strong  men's  meat  (S^^-i'^). 
But  he  feels  that  not  to  advance  is  to  be  in 
danger   of    going   back,   and   therefore   while 
encouraging  diligent  progress  he    points    out 
the    di-eadful    condition    to    which    apostasy 
reduces  men  (6 1-^"^),  over  against  which  he  sets 
the  encouragement  of  God's  promise  to  Abra- 
ham, confirmed  by  oath  (6 13-20).     This  brings 
us   back   to   Melchizedek,  who    is  now  more 
minutely  studied  as  he  appears  in  the  Genesis 
narrative.     In  his  high  titles  and  his  uniqueness 
of  kingly  priesthood,  independent  of  priestly 
descent  as  in  the  case  of  the  Levitical  priest- 
hood,  he  is  like   Christ  (7 1-^).     He  must  be 
reckoned    gi-eater  than    the   Levitical    priests 
because  he  took  tithes — the  priests'  privilege 
under  the  Law — from  no  less  a  personage  than 
their  ancestor  Abraham.     The  conclusion  to 
which  all  this  points  is  that  since  Melchizedek 
is  so  superior  to  the  Levitical  priests,  Christ, 
who  is  of  the  order  of  Melchizedek,  must  also 
be  superior  in  His  high-priesthood  (T-^-iO). 


]S 


7ii_8i3.  The  New  Covenant 
The  argument  now   takes   a   further 


step 


forward.  Since  God  promised  a  new  priesthood 
(in  Ps  100),  this  must  supersede  and  abolish 
the  old  priesthood,  which  had  failed  through 
not  effecting  its  purpose,  which  was  to  secure 
perfection  ;  but  that  implies  that  the  con- 
ditions of  the  old  covenant,  from  which  the 
Levitical  priesthood  derived  its  authority, 
are  also  annulled,  and  that  conditions  of  .  a 
new  covenant  are  introduced  to  take  its  place, 
with  Jesus  as  its  surety.  This  covenant  and 
its  priesthood  will  never  in  its  turn  be  super- 
seded by  yet  another  ;  because  the  eternity  of 
the  priest,  indicated  by  PsllO*,  secured  the 
eternity  of  the  covenant,  rich  privileges  on 
which   the    author    enthusiastically   enlarges 

(7 11-28). 


It 

appears 


under  the  new  covenant  that  Jesus 
as  a  priest,  for  He  could  claim  no 
pnesthood  under  the  old  law.  This  covenant 
is  superior  to  and  supersedes  that  of  the 
Levitical  system,  because  it  concerns  priest- 
hood in  the  heavenly  tabernacle,  which  was 
the  pattern  for  the  merely  earthly  tabernacle 
that  Moses  saw  on  the  Mount  (S^-'').  It 
is  confirmed  by  Jeremiah's  great  prophecy 
(88-13). 

9i_1039.  The  Sacrifice  of  Christ 

We  now  approach  the  very  heart   of  the 
Epistle    and    its  most    profound    teachings. 
Under  the  first  covenant  there  was  a  variety  of 
Temple  furniture  and  an  elaborate    ceremo- 
nial, with    a    continual    series    of    sacrifices. 
This  reached  a  climax  in  the  annual  visit  of 
the  high  priest  to   the  inner   chamber  of  the 
tabernacle  with  sacrificial   blood.      The   very 
ceremony    of    reconciliation    signified    God's 
separation  from  the  people.     All  these   cere- 
monies were  unable  to  make  the    worshipper 
'  perfect,'  i.e.  like   a   fully  initiated   person  fit 
to   participate  in  the  mysteries   (yi-i*^).     But 
now,  what  those   mere    animal    sacrifices,    so 
often  repeated,  could   never   effect,  Jesus   ac- 
complished  when  He    entered    the    heavenly 
tabernacle  with  His  own  blood,  i.e.  when  He 
presented   Himself  in   the   presence    of    God 
after  His  crucifixion.    A  covenant  is  designated 
in  the  Bible   by  a  Gk.  word  (diatheke)  which 
in  the  classics  means  a  'will.'     Now,   a  will 
only  comes   into  effect  through  the  death  of 
the  testator.     Similarly,  the  new  covenant  is 
like  Chi-ist's  will;  its  validity  is  due   to   His 
death.      This  death  being  by  voluntary  sur- 
render of  His  life,  as  a  free  act  of  His  spirit, 
is  of  real  value   in  the  sight  of  God  (9 11-22). 
It  is  enough  for  such  a  sacrifice  to   be  offered 
once  for  all  (923-28).     Thus  over  against  the 
failure  of  the  old,  proved  by  the  necessity  of 
repetition,  is  the  success  of  the  new.     This  is 
illustrated  by  a  passage   from    Ps  40,  which 
shows  us  that  the  essence  of  sacrifice  is  obedi- 
ence to  the  will  of    God  (IQi-is).      On   the 
ground  of    the    cleansing   thus  accomplished 
by  Christ  follow  exhortations  (10 19-25),  admoni- 
tions (1026-31),  and  encouragements  (1032-39). 

C.  11.  The  Achievements  of  Faith 
These  are  illustrated   from  the   annals  of 
Israel,    beginning    with   the    patriarchs    and 
coming  down  to  the  martyrs. 

The  recital  is  introduced  by  a  description  of 
faith  as  giving  assurance  for  hope  and  proving 
the  reality  of  the  unseen,  and  so  accounting  for 
the  success  of  the  ancients  of  Israel  (vv.  1,  2). 
It  enables  us  to  see  the  divine  source  of  crea- 
tion (v.  3).  Abel,  Enoch,  Noah,  Abraham,  Sara, 
all  succeeded  through  faith  (vv.  4-12).  The 
reason  was  their  pilgrim  attitude  in  seeking  for 


1015 


HEBREWS 


mTRO. 

a  better  country  (vv.  13-16).  Resuming  the 
survey  we  see  faith  in  Abraham  offering  Isaac, 
in  Isaac,  Jacob,  Moses,  and  the  conduct  of  the 
exodus  ;  in  the  fall  of  Jericho,  and  the  con- 
duct of  Eahab  ;  in  the  heroism  of  the  judges, 
and  the  endurance  of  the  martyrs  (vv.  17-40). 

121-end.    Further  Encouragement 
AND  Warnings 

The  heroes  of  faith  are  witnesses  of  our 
race,  the  thought  of  whom  should  stimulate  us, 
while  we  look  to  our  leader,  Jesus,  for  the 
beginning  and  ending  of  our  faith  (121-3). 

Suffering   should  be  borne  patiently,  since 


1.  5 


it  is  God's  fatherly  discipline.  If  we  did  not 
have  it  this  would  be  a  sign  that  we  were  not 
true  sons  (12*-i3);  care  must  be  taken  not  to 
fall  like  Esau  (12 1'*-!");  our  greater  privileges 
entail  greater  responsibilities  than  those  of  the 
Israelites  at  Sinai  (1 2  is-28).  Therefore,  brotherly 
love  and  pure  living  should  be  cultivated 
(13 1-*^);  respect  for  the  rulers  of  the  Church 
is  enjoined,  and  courage  to  break  away  from 
even  the  dearest  ties  for  Christ's  sake  and  in 
union  with  Him  (13'^-^'').  Final  exhorta- 
tions, benedictions,  and  salutations  bring  the 
Epistle — which  did  not  open  as  such — to  the 
usual  conclusion  of  a  letter. 


CHAPTERS  1-413 

The  Supremacy  of  Christ.  The  OT.  itself 
testifies  to  His  supremacy  as  G-od's  Son  over 
its  own  chief  personages  :  (a)  first  the  angels, 
through  whom  the  Jews  believed  that  creation 
had  been  effected  and  the  Law  given  (1^2is). 

He  is  also  superior  (b)  to  Moses,  the  founder 
of  the  national  religion,  yet  only  a  servant, 
whereas  He  is  a  Son  (3i-6).  He  is  superior 
(c)  to  Joshua.  He  has  rest  to  give,  which 
Christians  are  warned  not  to  miss  by  unfaith- 
fulness, as  Israel  missed  the  rest  of  Canaan, 
which  was  a  type  of  the  true  rest  of  Christ's 
kingdom,  and  which  they  lost  by  provoking 
God  in  the  wilderness.  For  there  is  no  escape 
from  God's  judgments  (3 '^-413). 

CHAPTER  1 
The  Final  Revelation  in  the  Son 
1-4.  Introduction.  God  of  old  revealed 
Himself  to  the  fathers  of  the  race,  but  the 
revelation  was  not  complete  or  final.  In  our 
own  day  He  has  given  a  direct  revelation  in 
the  person  of  His  own  Son,  the  Lord  and 
Creator  of  the  universe,  the  perfect  expression 
of  the  divine  nature,  who  after  His  temporary 
humiliation  upon  earth,  now  occupies  the 
highest  place  in  the  heavenly  courts. 

I.  At  sundry  times  and  in  divers  manners] 
RV  '  by  divers  portions  and  in  divers  manners.' 
The  first  clause  refers  to  the  fragmentariness 
of  the  previous  revelation  at  any  one  time  ;  it 
was  given  bit  by  bit  ;  the  second  to  the  various 
forms  in  which  it  was  conveyed,  such  as  com- 
mandment, prophecy,  ceremonial,  etc.  By  the 
prophets]  RV  '  in  the  prophets,'  a  general  term 
including  the  whole  of  the  OT.  2.  In  these 
last  days]  RV  '  At  the  end  of  these  days.' 
The  phrase  that  in  OT.  commonly  indicates 
the  Messianic  age,  is  here  varied  so  as  to 
imply  that  the  gospel  times  were  the  transition 
to  that  age.  By  his  son]  lit.  '  in  a  Son '  ;  i.e. 
in  One  who  is  by  nature  a  Son  :  cp.  36  5^ 
728.  Heir  of  all  things]  cp.  28.  The  lordship 
of   Christ  over  the   universe  was  determined 


1016 


'before  all  worlds,'  and  though  it  is  not  yet 
fully  realised  (28*-),  His  session  now  at  the 
right  hand  of  God  is  the  pledge  of  its  ultimate 
realisation.  Made  the  worlds]  lit.  '  the  ages,' 
but  not  to  be  distinguished  from  '  all  things  '  : 
cp.  Col  1 16.  The  expression,  however,  im- 
plies the  idea  of  an  historical  manifestation  of 
the  creative  energy. 

3.  Brightness]  RV '  effulgence.'  A  favourite 
word  in  the  language  of  philosophical  schools 
of  Alexandria:  cp.  Wisd7  25*.  It  contains 
the  double  notion  of  derivation  and  manifesta- 
tion. 

Express  image  of  his  person]  RV  '  very 
image  of  His  substance.'  The  word  rendered 
'  image  '  is  the  Gk.  word  '  character,'  meaning 
an  impression  such  as  a  seal  leaves  on  wax,  an 
exact  reproduction  of  the  original.  The  word 
'  substance '  implies  nothing  material,  but  is 
nearly  equivalent  to  '  nature '  or  '  essence.' 
Christ  is  the  exact  reproduction  of  the  Divine 
Essence.  He  is  the  counterpart  or  facsimile 
of  the  Father.  Being  .  .  upholding]  Both  par- 
ticiples seem  most  properly  to  refer  to  the 
pre-incarnate  life  of  the  Son.  On  the  right 
hand]  the  place  of  dignity  and  authority  :  cp. 
81  Mt28i8.  The  '  sitting  '  indicates  the  com- 
pletion of  the  earthly  course  of  the  redemptive 
work.  The  solemnity  of  the  introductory 
paragraph  is  heightened  by  the  use  of  the  , 
phrase 'the  Majesty  on  high.'  4.  Being  made]  | 
RV  '  having  become,'  i.e.  by  His  exaltation. 

Better]  a  characteristic  word  of  the  whole 
Epistle,  which  is  designed  to  show  the  supe- 
riority in  all  points  of  the  new  dispensation  to 
the  old.  Cp.  a  'better  hope,'  71^;  'better 
covenant,'  '  better  ministry,'  '  better  promises,' 
8.6;  '  better  tabernacle,' 9 11 ;  '  better  sacrifices,' 
9  23  ;  '  better  possession,'  103-i ;  '  better  country,' 
1116;  'better  resurrection,'  1135;  'better 
thing,'  11*0  ;  'better  things,'  1224. 

5-14.  Christ  is  superior  to  the  angels.  They 
are  not  addressed  by  God  as  '  sens,'  but  are 
expressly  commanded  to  worship  the  Son.  The 
angels  are  servants  doing  the  will  of  God  in 
the  lower  sphere  of  the  material  world,  and 


i 


1.  5 


HEBREWS 


2.  10 


ministering  to  those  who  shall  inherit  salvation. 
And  their  power  and  dignity  are  not,  as  His, 
changeless  and  eternal. 

5.  Unto  which  of  the  angels]  Angels  are 
sometimes  in  the  OT.  called  '  sons  of  Elohim,' 
e.g.  in  Job  1 ",  i.e.  belonging  to  the  class  '  Elo- 
him': cp.  'sons  of  the  prophets,'  i.e.  members 
of  the  prophetical  class.  '  Elohim,'  at  first  a 
plural,  meaning  spiritual  beings,  was  used  as 
a  singular  to  signify  the  one  God.  As  used  of 
the  angels,  the  term  does  not  imply  sonship  in 
the  unique  sense  in  which  it  is  used  of  Christ. 
The  first  citation  is  from  Ps  2  7,  commonly  in- 
terpreted as  Messianic,  and  accepted  as  such 
by  the  writer  and  his  readers.  The  second  is 
from  2S714  and  Ps8926.  God's  promise  to 
the  line  of  Davidic  kings  is  here  applied  to 
Messiah,  as  Son  of  David. 

6.  RV  '  When  he  again  bringeth  in ' ;  or, 
rather,  '  shall  have  brought  in.'  The  position 
of  the  adverb  again  indicates  that  it  is  to  be 
connected  with  the  verb,  and  is  not  a  rhetorical 
particle  introducing  a  new  quotation.  The 
reference  is  to  a  future  event,  evidently  the 
Second  Advent.  7.  From  PslOi*,  according 
to  LXX.  The  angels  are  not  sons  but  servants, 
'  doing  His  pleasure  '  in  the  material  world. 

8.  From  Ps  45  ^' ",  here  interpreted  Messianic- 
ally.  The  dominion  of  Christ,  unlike  that  of 
the  angels,  is  eternal.  The  Son  is  addressed 
as  '  God,'  but  there  is  some  difficulty  in  regard 
to  the  exact  reading  of  the  first  clause  in  the 
original.  Some  propose  to  read,  '  Thy  throne 
is  God  for  ever  and  ever.'  But  this  is  harsh, 
and  in  any  case  the  writer  means  to  assert  the 
unity  of  the  Son  with  God. 

9.  Anointed]  i.e.  set  in  royal  dignity.  Thy 
fellows]  The  angels  are  meant  here.  As  '  sons 
of  Elohim  '  (see  on  v.  5),  they  consort  with 
the  Son,  though  immeasurably  inferior  to  Him. 

10-12.  From  Psl0225f.  The  Son  is  the 
Creator  of  the  world  (cp.  v.  2),  and  is  above 
all  change  and  decay.  The  reference  to  the 
material  world  here  is  perhaps  facilitated  by 
the  close  connexion  of  the  angels  with  material 
phenomena  (see  v.  7),  and  by  the  statement  in 
V.  2  that  the  worlds  were  created  by  the  Son. 

13,  14.  The  climax  of  the  argument  in  vv. 
4-12,  and  the  scriptural  corroboration  of  the 
statement  in  v.  3  f .  that  Christ  is  Lord  of  all, 
and  shares  the  dignity  of  the  throne  of  God. 

Ministering  spirits]  The  angels  do  not  rule  ; 
they  only  '  stand  and  wait.'  They  are  the 
servants  of  God  and  of  Christ,  and  that  for 
the  sake  of  all  in  OT.  or  NT.  times  who  were 
to  be  heirs  of  salvation.  The  Son  is  the  Author 
of  the  salvation  to  which  Christians  are  des- 
tined ;  the  angels  are  His  agents  and  ministers. 

'     CHAPTER  2 

Jesus  Exalted  in  Humiliation  " 
1-4.   The  former  dispensation,  even  though 


mediated  by  comparatively  inferior  beings  such 
as  the  angels,  was  yet  so  sacred  that  all  neglect 
of  it  was  severely  punished.  This  being  so,  a 
far  more  terrible  fate  must  now  be  theirs  who 
neglect  the  revelation  brought  by  the  Son  of 
God  Himself,  delivered  to  us  by  eye-witnesses, 
and  authenticated  by  miracles  and  gifts  of  the 
Holy  Ghost. 

I.  Let  them  slip]  RV  '  drift  away  from  them,' 
as  a  ship  from  its  moorings.  This  was  what 
the  readers  were  in  danger  of  doing :  see 
Intro.  'Aim  and  Object.'  2.  Spoken  by  angels] 
RV  '  through  angels.'  Angels  were  the  media- 
tors of  the  Law :  see  Dt332  Ac  7  53  Gal3i9. 

Was  stedfast]  RV '  proved  stedfast,'  i.e.  was 
authoritative  while  it  lasted.  4.  Gifts]  RM 
'  distributions.'  The  word  implies  variety  of 
spiritual  endowments:  cp.  1  Cor  124-11  Ro  12 6 
Eph47. 

5-18.  It  is  no  objection  to  the  supremacy 
of  Christ  to  say  that  by  assuming  human  nature 
He  became  therefore  lower  than  the  angels. 
His  humiliation  was  temporary,  and  undergone 
for  purposes  of  redemption,  His  sufferings  and 
death  constituting  Him  an  adequate  High 
Priest  through  His  oneness  with  humanity. 
And  it  is  man  (not  angels)  who  is  lord  of  the 
world  to  come.  The  lordship  of  humanity  is 
not  yet  indeed  realised,  but  the  exaltation  of 
Christ  is  the  pledge  of  it. 

5.  RV  '  not  unto  angels  did  he  subject.' 
The  position  of  the  negative  is  emphatic. 

The  world  to  come,  whereof  we  speak]  i.e. 
the  new  dispensation,  which  is  the  theme  of 
our  Epistle.  In  the  world  to  come  the  rule 
of  the  angels  is  ended.  6.  The  quotation  is 
from  PsS'i-e.  7.  A  little  lower]  This  is  the 
meaning  of  the  Heb.,  but  the  rendering  '  for 
a  little  lower '  (RM)  seems  to  be  required  for 
the  argument.  Man's  inferiority  to  ihe  angels 
is  only  temporary.  8.  He  left  nothing]  no- 
thing will  be  left  for  angels  to  rule  over. 

9.  Jesus  .  .  made  a  little  lower  than  the 
angels]  The  words  imply  the  doctrine  of  the 
Incarnation  of  One  who  was  essentially  and 
previously  higher  than  the  angels.  For  the 
suffering  of  death]  RV  '  because  of.'  The 
clause  is  to  be  connected  with  what  follows. 
The  exaltation  seems  to  be  regarded  here  as 
the  consequence  or  reward  of  the  humiliation. 
Cp.  Phil 2 6-11,  and  especially  v.  9,  'wherefore 
God  highly  exalted  him'  :  see  on  122.  Taste 
death]  i.e.  experience  its  full  bitterness :  see 
on  64. 

10.  It  became  him  (sc.  God)]  i.e.  it  was  in 
accordance  with  His  gi-acious  nature  :  cp.  v.  9, 
'  by  the  grace  of  God.'  Captain  of  their  sal- 
vation] lit.  '  leader,'  i.e.  not  only  originator, 
but  the  sharer  of  their  lot,  leading  the  way  to 
glory.  Make  .  .  perfect]  a  characteristic  word 
of  the  Epistle.  In  the  new  dispensation 
everything  is  perfect.      The  word  means,  to 


1017 


2.  11 


HEBREWS 


3.  16 


bring  to  its  destined  or  appropriate  consum- 
mation. Here  the  thought  is,  that  by  sharing 
the  sufferings  of  humanity  Christ  was  enabled 
to  effect  a  perfect  salvation  for  the  sons  of 
Grod,  and  attain  that  supremacy  which  is  right- 
fully His:  cp.  13  29.  II.  Of  one]  i.e.  God. 
Christ  and  Chi-istians,  the  Captain  and  the 
host  whom  He  leads  to  glory,  are  all  sons  of 
the  one  Father — He  by  nature,  they  by  grace. 
Hence  he  calls  them  brethren. 

14.  Destroy]  RV  'bring  to  nought,'  i.e. 
render  powerless.  Death  and  the  devil  still 
exist,  but  their  power  is  broken.  The  power 
of  death]  Death  being  the  direct  consequence 
of  sin  (Ro  5126  -3),  the  devil  may  be  said  to 
have  the  power  of  death  in  so  far  as  he  tempts 
men  to  sin,  and  so  keeps  sharp  the  sting  of 
death  (ICorlS^e).  16.  RV  'not  of  angels 
doth  he  take  hold.'  The  word  does  not  mean 
(as  in  AV)  to  assume  the  nature  of,  but 
to  put  out  a  hand  in  order  to  support  or 
help.  '  Christ  took  in  hand  to  save  not  angels 
but  you,  my  Hebrew  brethren  '  (Bruce).  The 
seed  of  Abraham  are  the  Hebrew  race,  the 
representative  or  priestly  race,  through  which 
Jesus  came  to  redeem  mankind  :  cp.  Ro  9  ^. 
The  writer  believes,  at  the  same  time,  that 
Christ  tasted  death  '  for  every  man '  (v.  5). 

17.  In  all  things]  i.e.  in  participation  of 
flesh  and  blood  and  experience  of  death. 

^That  he  might  be]  Gk.  'might  become.' 
Christ  became  High  Priest  when  He  offered 
His  sacrifice,  which  He  did  by  His  death  on 
the  Cross:  cp.  924,25_  Merciful]  cp.  5^.  Re- 
conciliation] RV  'propitiation':  cp.  5 3.  To 
'  purge  sins '  and  to  '  make  propitiation  for 
sins '  describe  the  same  act  from  different 
points  of  view.  In  the  former  case  what  is  in 
view  is  the  removal  of  uncleanness  ;  in  the 
latter,  of  the  alienation  from  God  caused  by 
sin. 

18.  RM  'having  been  himself  tempted  in 
that  wherein  he  hath  suffered.'  This  is  the 
simplest  rendering  of  a  difficult  passage. 
Christ's  temptations  arose  out  of  His  sufferings 
(not  conversely,  as  AV  seems  to  suggest)  ; 
hence  He  is  able  to  succour  the  Hebrews  who 
are  tempted  by  their  hardships  :  see  12  ^f.  As 
High  Priest  Christ,  therefore,  not  only  effects 
reconciliation  between  God  and  man,  but 
brings  men  safe  through  all  hardships  to  the 
inheritance  appointed  for  them.  Cp.  for  the 
same  combination  of  propitiation  and  succour, 
Ps799. 

CHAPTER  3 

Jesus  Christ,  Lord  of  the  Household 
or  God 
(b)  Christ  is  superior  also  to  Moses ;  for  He 
is  Son  over  the  house  of  God,  whereas  Moses 
was  only  a  servant  in  it. 

I,  Wherefore]  A  new  section  begins  here, 


in  which  argument  and  exhortation  are  blended. 
The  connexion  with  the  preceding  is  not 
quite  plain.  It  may  lie  in  the  fact  that  Christ 
has  been  described  (2  lO)  as  a  Leader  of  salva- 
tion, conducting  God's  children  to  glory, 
suggesting  a  similar  function  performed  by 
Moses,  the  Leader  of  God's  people  to  the  rest 
of  Canaan.  Christ  is  the  Apostle  and  High 
Priest  of  the  new  profession,  as  Moses  was  of 
the  old.  But  all  those  who  set  out  under  the 
leadership  of  Moses  did  not  enter  into  the 
promised  rest.  Hence  the  warning  against 
unbelief  and  falling  away  from  the  living  God 
(v.  12:  cp.  21-3).  Holy  brethren]  They  are  con- 
secrated to  God,  as  Israel  was:  cp.  Exl9*5; 
and  see  on  2  n.  The  heavenly  calling]  RV  '  a 
heavenly  calling,'  as  distinguished  from  the 
calling  of  Israel  to  an  earthly  Canaan.  Apostle 
and  High  Priest]  Christ  is  both  the  messenger 
(cp.  1  -)  or  representative  of  God  to  man,  and 
the  representative  of  man  before  God. 

2.  In  all  his  house]  i.e.  God's  house  :  see 
Nu  12'^.  Christ  and  Moses  both  set  an  exam- 
ple of  faithfulness,  which  the  Hebrews  will  do 
well  to  copy  ;  but  Christ's  sphere  is  higher 
than  that  of  Moses,  for  while  Moses  was  a 
servant  in  the  house,  Christ,  as  Son  of  God, 
made  the  house  :  cp.  1 2.  5,  For  a  testimony] 
i.e.  to  be^r  testimony  to  the  revelation  after- 
wards made  in  the  Law  :  cp.  1 1.  6.  If  "we 
hold  fast]  Transition  to  the  warning  in  v. 
7-413.  The  condition  of  remaining  in  the 
house  of  God  is  steadfast  faith.  7.  Wherefore] 
In  AV  the  long  quotation  from  Ps95  is  treated 
as  a  parenthesis,  and  '  Wherefore  '  is  connected 
with  '  Take  heed'  in  v.  12.  This  is  probably 
correct,  but  owing  to  the  length  of  the  paren- 
thesis, the  connexion  becomes  broken  and  a 
new  sentence  begins  at  v.  12.  The  Holy 
Ghost  saith]  cp.  10 1^  Ac  1  le  2  Pet  1 21.  8.  Pro- 
vocation and  temptation  are  translations  of 
the  Heb.  proper  names,  Massah  and  Meribah. 
For  the  instances  of  unbelief  and  apostasy 
connected  with  these  places  see  Exl?!-''^  Nu 
20;i-i3  Dt338.  9.  Proved  me]  RV '  by  proving 
me,'  i.e.  by  presumptuously  putting  to  the 
proof.  Saw  my  works]  '  my  works  of  judg- 
ment following  on  their  unbelief,'  or,  more 
probably,  '  in  spite  of  their  experience  of  my 
works  of  deliverance  and  mercy.' 

13.  Deceitfulness  of  sin]  The  sin  in  view  is 
unbelief  culminating  in  apostasy,  for  which 
no  doubt  many  specious  reasons  were  forth- 
coming. 15.  While  it  is  said]  This  is  best 
taken  in  connexion  with  the  preceding  v.  to 
mean  '  in  view  of  the  saying,'  '  seeing  we  have 
received  this  warning.' 

16.  RV  rightly  takes  this  v.,  like  the  two 
following,  interrogatively.  '  For  who,  when 
they  heard,  did  provoke  ?  Nay,  did  not  all 
they  that  came  out  of  Egypt  by  Moses  ?  And 
with  whom  was  he  displeased  forty  years  ? 


1018 


J 


4.  1 


HEBREWS 


5.2 


Was  it  not  with  them  that  sinned  .  .  ?  And 
to  whom  sware  he  .  .  but  to  them  that  were 
disobedient  ?  '  Israel's  apostasy  was  universal 
in  spite  of  the  fact  that  they  had  heard  the 
words  and  seen  the  works  of  the  Lord,  and 
had  such  a  leader  as  Moses.  The  inference 
is  the  same  as  in  2i-3. 

CHAPTER  4 
Jesus    Christ,    Giver    of    the   Promised 

Rest,  and  High  Priest  to  bring  Men 

TO  God 
1-13.  Israel  through  unbelief  failed  to 
enter  into  the  promised  rest.  The  rest,  there- 
fore, remains  open  and  a  promise  of  entrance 
is  made  to  us.  Let  us  not  make  the  same  mis- 
take and  fail  to  enter  in  because  of  unbelief. 
For  by  no  possibility  can  the  most  secret  un- 
belief escape  the  searching  eye  of  the  living 
God. 

1.  Being  left]  God's  promise  of  rest  cannot 
fail.  Israel  having  failed  to  enter  into  it,  the 
promise  remains  unfulfilled,  and  therefore  it 
is  open  for  us  to  enter  in,  if  we  keep  the 
faith.  Should  seem]  either  a  milder  form  of 
expression,  or,  as  the  words  may  be  rendered, 
'  should  be  found  to  have  come  short,'  when 
the  time  comes.  The  latter  is  the  more 
forcible  interpretation. 

2.  The  gospel]  RV  'Good  tidings,'  i.e.  a 
promise  of  the  rest  of  God.     Not  being  mixed 


remaining  ;  hence,  '  there  remaineth  a  rest  for 
the  people  of  God.'  9.  A  rest]  RV  '  a  sabbath 
rest.'  The  rest  that  remaineth  is  also  of  a 
different  character  from  the  rest  of  Canaan. 
It  is  God's  rest,  a  holy  and  eternal  satisfac- 
tion. 10.  His  rest]  i.e.  God's  rest.  12.  Quick, 
and  powerful]  RV  'living,  and  active.'  It 
does  not  die  when  uttered,  but  continues  vital 
and  operative,  and,  like  a  sharp  sword,  pene- 
trates to  the  inmost  recesses  of  the  heart  and 
life-  A  discerner]  RV  '  quick  to  discern,'  lit. 
'  critical,'  i.e.  able  to  judge. 

14-16.  A  summary  of  what  has  been  said, 
forming  a  transition  to  the  treatment  of  Christ's 
supremacy  as  High  Priest,  which  takes  up  the 
main  body  of  the  Epistle. 

14.  Seeing  then]  The  connexion  is  with  2i7 
3 1.  Into  the  heavens]  RV  '  through  the  heavens.' 
In  Jewish  theology  there  were  several  heavens  : 
cp.  2  Cor  1 2  2.  Jesus  has  passed  through  all  the 
outer  courts  into  the  Holy  of  Holies  :  cp.  9  24. 
He  occupies  the  highest  place  in  heaven  (13). 

15.  However  highly  Christ  is  exalted  He 
sympathises  with  us,  having  experienced  the 
trials  and  temptations  of  humanity.  This 
combination  in  Him  of  suffering  and  sinless- 
ness  is  the  ground  of  our  confidence  in  Him  : 
cp.  726.  Yet  without  sin]  i.e.  His  trials  and 
temptations  never  resulted  in  sin.  16.  Come 
boldly]  RV  'draw  near.'  This  privilege  of 
access  is  one  of  many  points  of  superiority  in 


-it.  r  -i-i-T    T^TT     J     X     *tV  , ^  """™  .vv.^v,oo  xo  wixc  K,x  i^a,i^y  puuius  ox  superiority  in 

wnth  faith]    RV  adopts  AVmg.  'because  they  the  new  dispensation  as  compared  with  the 

were    not    united    by    faith   with    them   that  -^-^  ■  —    iaiq.w  imoo,  tt,   ,  ^,„  ,„ 
heard,'  which  is  the  rendering  of  a  well-attested 


various  reading.  This  makes  a  distinction  be 
tween  '  those  who  heard '  (i.e.  believed  and 
obeyed),  who  must  be  Joshua  and  Caleb,  and 
those  who  believed  not.  But  in  3^^  it  is 
assumed  that  all  believed  not.  The  rendering 
of  AV  gives  good  sense.     Faith  is  the  means 


old:  cp.  1019-22  1218-24  Eph2i3,i8. 

CHAPTER   5 
Human  Brotherhood  and  Divine 

Appointment 
The  High  Priesthood  of  Christ.     The  argu- 
ment now  resolves  itself  into  a  discussion  of 
Christ's   priesthood    in    comparison    with  the 


whereby  the    word   that   is    heard    is    vitally  Levitical  priesthood,  which  is  developed  as  the 

appropriated  and  realised  in  action.     3.   The  dominant  theme  of  the  Epistle.     Christ's  quali- 

promise  of  rest  applies  to  us  who  are  Chris-  fications  as  our  High  Priest  are  noted.     First 

tians,  seeing  that  those  to  whom  the  promise  we  have    His   resemblance    to  Aaron  briefly 

was  made  failed  to  attain  to  it.     And  their  stated  so  as  to  show  that  He  was  at  least  as 

failure  was  not  due  to  the  fact  that  the  rest  true  a  priest.     Christ  fulfilled  the  two  requisite 

was  not  prepared,  because  it  existed  since  the  conditions  that  were  seen  in  the  case  of  Aaron, 

day  that  God  finished   His  work  of  creation,  viz.  human  brotherhood,  essential  to  the  repre- 

This  is  proved  by  the  words  '  and  God  rested  '  sentative  character  of  priesthood  (vv.  1-3)  and 


in  one  place,  and  the  words  '  my  rest '  in 
another.  God's  rest  is  therefore  a  fact,  and 
it  is  clearly  His  purpose  that  some  shall  enter 
into  it. 

7.  After  so  long  a  time]  i.e.  the  time  between 
Moses  and  David.  In  David's  time  the  rest 
continued  open,  and  therefore  it  is  concluded 
that  it  is  open  still.  8.  Jesus]  RV,  rightly, 
'  Joshua.'  The  Gk.  for  both  names  is  the 
same.  If  the  entry  into  Canaan  under  Joshua 
had  been  the  fulfilment  of  the  divine  promise 
of  rest,  there  would  have  been  no  mention 
centuries  later  in  the  Psalm  of  a  rest  still 


1019 


divine  appointment,  essential  to  its  authority, 
as  evidenced  by  Ps  110  (vv.  4-6).  In  His 
humanity,  too,  Jesus  suffered  grievously,  but 
by  teaching  Him  obedience  that  awful  suffer- 
ing perfected  Him  as  a  priest,  so  that  He 
became  the  author  of  eternal  salvation  to 
those  who  obey  Him  (vv.  7-10). 

1-3.  First  qualification — human  brotherhood. 

I.  Gifts  and  sacrifices]  The  former  are  the 
vegetable,  the  latter  the  animal,  sacrifices. 
Together  they  describe  all  kinds  of  offer- 
ings. 2.  Have  compassion]  RV  '  bear  gently.' 
The  word  means  to  be  moderate  in  the  passions, 


5.3 


HEBREWS 


6.6 


to  have  well-balanced  emotions.  Ignorant . . 
out  of  the  way]  EV  'ignorant  and  erring.' 
For  high-handed  sins  against  the  covenant  no 
atonement  was  provided  in  the  Law  :  see  Lv 
5i4f.  Nul530,  and  see  on  10  "^'5.  3.  gee  Lv 
166,11.  In  this  respect  Christ  might  not  seem 
to  resemble  the  Levitical  priest.  Yet  as  He 
took  our  sin  upon  Him,  there  is  a  sense  in 
which  He  offered  sacrifice  for  Himself  with  us. 
4-6.  The  second  qualification — divine  ap- 
pointment. 6.  This  is  developed  in  c.  7  :  see 
notes  there. 

7-10.  The  way  in  which  Christ  was  per- 
fected as  a  priest,  the  way  of  suffering  and 
obedience. 

7.  Days  of  his  flesh]  The  expression  denotes, 
of  course,  His  earthly  life,  but  with  the  implied 
suggestion  of  humiliation  and  weakness. 

Prayers  and  supplications]  The  reference  is 
clearly  to  the  Agony  in  Gethsemane.  To  save 
him  from  death]  lit.  '  out  of  death.'  If  Jesus 
prayed  to  be  saved  from  death,  it  could  not  be 
said  that  His  petition  was  granted.  He  prayed 
to  be  saved  '  out  of  death,'  and  the  answer  to 
His  prayer  consisted  in  His  victory  over  death — 
His  resurrection.  In  that  he  feared]  RV  '  for 
his  godly  fear,'  lit.  '  from  His  fear.'  The  state- 
ment that  Christ  '  was  heard  from  His  fear  '  is 
taken  by  some  as  a  pregnant  construction 
equivalent  to  '  was  heard  and  delivered  from 
His  fear  (of  death).'  But  this  sense  of  the 
word  rendered  '  fear '  is  unusual  ;  it  means 
reverence  or  piety  ;  and  if  the  interpretation 
of  the  prayer  given  above  is  accepted,  Christ 
showed  His  godly  fear  in  His  submission,  ex- 
pressed in  the  words,  '  Not  My  will,  but  Thine 
be  done.'  8.  Learned  he  obedience]  The  phrase 
does  not  imply  any  previous  unwillingness  to 
obey  ;  but  His  obedience  grew  deeper  and 
deeper,  till  it  reached  perfection  on  the  Cross  : 
cp.  Lk  2  ^0  Phil  2  8.  9.  Being  made  perfect]  see 
on  2 10.  Eternal  salvation]  as  distinguished  from 
the  temporary  deliverance  from  the  results  of 
sin  effected  by  the  Levitical  Law  :  cp.  9 1^. 

11-14.  The  author  recognises  the  difficulty 
of  his  subject,  and  breaks  off  to  deplore  the 
inattention  and  childish  ignorance  of  his 
readers.  But  he  feels  that  not  to  advance 
is  to  be  in  danger  of  going  back,  and  there- 
fore, while  encouraging  diligent  progress, 
he  points  out  the  dreadful  condition  to  which 
apostasy  reduces  men  (6  i-i2),  and  sets  before 
them  God's  promise  to  Abraham,  confirmed 
by  oath,  to  persuade  them  to  constancy 
(613-20). 

12.  For  the  time]  i.e.  considering  the  length 
of  time  they  had  been  Christians  :  cp.  10^2. 

Oracles  of  God]  not,  as  commonly,  the  reve- 
lation contained  in  the  OT.,  but  the  doctrines 
of  the  Christian  faith.     The  '  first  principles ' 
are  probably  those  enumerated  in  61-2. 
Strong   meat]  RV    'solid  food':  cp.  1  Cor 


31.2.  13.  Unskilful  in]  RV  'without  expe- 
rience of.'  It  is  uncertain  what  precisely  is 
meant  by  the  word  of  righteousness.  It 
may  mean  correct  or  rational  discourse  in 
general,  or  Christian  truth  in  particular,  or, 
since  the  same  Gk.  word  means  '  word '  and 
'  reason,'  something  like  '  the  reason  of  the 
hope  that  is  in'  Christians  may  be  implied. 

CHAPTER   6 
Warning  and  Encouragement 

I.  Leaving ..  let  us  go  on]  RV  'let  us 
cease  to  speak  of  .  •  and  press  on.'  The  words 
are  either  an  exhortation  to  the  readers  to 
advance  beyond  the  elementary  stage  of  Chris- 
tian doctrine,  or  a  resolution  on  the  part  of 
the  writer  to  omit  the  discussion  of  rudiment- 
ary truths  and  to  proceed  to  more  advanced 
subjects.  The  latter  is  probably  correct,  in 
which  case  the  '  us '  is  that  of  authorship. 
But  though  he  determines  to  omit  the  treat- 
ment of  elementary  doctrines,  he  mentions 
what  they  are  under  six  headings  arranged  in 
three  pairs.  The  first  are  '  repentance  from 
dead  works  and  faith  toward  God,'  the. first 
steps  to  be  taken  in  the  Christian  life  :  cp. 
Mkfis  Ac  20  21  17  30;  see  on  91-1.  Dead 
works]  i.e.  sinful  works,  the  wages  of  which 
is  death  (Ro  6  23).  2.  The  second  pair  com- 
prises the  '  teaching  of  baptisms  and  of  laying 
on  of  hands,'  which  constitute  the  next  step 
in  the  Christian  life.  Baptism  is  for  the  re- 
mission of  sins,  and  laying  on  of  hands  for  the 
reception  of  the  Holy  Ghost  :  see  Ac  2  38 
816,17.  The  plural  ('baptisms')  is  employed 
probably  because  instruction  with  regard  to 
Christian  baptism  would  necessitate  a  com- 
parison with  Jewish  baptism  and  other  cere- 
monial washings.  The  third  pair  is  '  resur- 
rection and  eternal  judgment,'  also  fundamental 
doctrines  of  the  Clmstian  faith,  and  dealt 
with  in  apostolic  preaching  :  see  Ac  4  2, 33  IQ4-2 
1731    2425. 

4-8.  Any  attempt  to  lay  the  foundations 
of  Christian  doctrine  afresh  for  those  who,  after 
accepting  them,  have  rejected  them  and  are 
in  a  hopeless  condition,  is  (to  the  author  and 
his  readers  at  any  rate)  in  vain  :  see  on  12  1''. 

4.  Tasted]  i.e.  had  full  experience  of : 
cp.  29.  The  heavenly  gift,  if  it  is  not  a 
general  expression  denoting  the  whole  con- 
tents of  the  grace  of  God,  will  mean 
either  the  forgiveness  of  sin  or  the  gift  of 
the  Holy  Ghost.  Of  these  two  the  former  is 
the  most  probable,  seeing  the  latter  is  expressly 
mentioned  in  the  next  clause.  5.  Powers  of 
the  age  to  come]  so  RV.  Either  the  miracu- 
lous gifts  referred  to  in  2  4,  or  more  probably 
the  fortifying  influences  of  God's  sure  pro- 
mises concerning  the  future. 

6.  Crucify .  .  afresh]  They  take  the  part  of 
those  unbelieving  Jews  who  rejected   Christ 


1020 


6.  7 


HEBREWS 


7.4 


and  openly  reviled  Him:  cp.  lO^f.  7.  The 
earth]  rather,  '  the  land  '  or  '  the  field  '  that 
makes  a  good  use  of  God's  gift  of  rain  is 
blessed  by  Him  ;  but  '  the  field '  that  responds 
to  His  goodness  with  a  crop  of  thorns  and 
thistles  is  destroyed.  The  parable  is  a  warning 
against  the  wiliul  misuse  of  those  gifts  of 
God  referred  to  in  vv.  4,  5  :  cp.  B,o24-9. 

9.  Beloved]  only  used  here  in  this  Epistle. 
The  word  expresses  the  writer's  solicitude  for 
his  readers  in  view  of  even  the  remote  possibility 
in  their  case  of  such  an  awful  fate  as  has  been 
described.  Accompany  salvation]  are  inti- 
mately connected  with  it,  leading  to  it. 

II.  The  same  diligence]  i.e.  be  as  zealous 
in  maintaining  the  fulness  of  their  own  hope 
as  they  have  been  in  ministering  to  their 
brethren.  12.  Inherit]  i.e.  enter  into  posses- 
sion of  what  is  promised.  The  verb  is  in  the 
participial  mood,  and  refers  equally  to  the 
past  and  present.  The  writer  is  thinking  of 
the  class  of  persons  who  may  be  described  as 
'  inheritors  of  the  promises.'  Patience]  means 
patient  waiting. 

13-20.  The  example  of  Abraham  is  an  en- 
couragement in  this  respect.  God's  promise 
to  him  was  confirmed  by  an  oath,  and  the 
Christian  hope  is  no  less  sure,  because  not 
only  has  God  given  promise  of  the  heavenly 
inheritance,  but  Christ  has  entered  within  the 
veil  as  High  Priest  and  Forerunner. 

13.  See  Gn22i<5,i7,  j^.  He  obtained  the 
promise]  i.e  had  the  promise  made  to  him  :  cp. 
Gn22i*5f.  What  Abraham  actually  saw  in  his 
lifetime  was  only  the  beginning  of  the  fulfil- 
ment :  cp.  1139,40  i5_  JJY  'and  in  every 
dispute  of  theirs  the  oath  is  final  for  confirma- 
tion.' 17.  Wherein]  i.e.  this  being  the  case 
among  men.  Confirmed  //  by  an  oath]  E.V 
'  interposed  '  (RM  '  mediated  ')  '  with  an 
oath.'  The  idea  is  that  as  there  was  no  greater 
who  could  be  called  in  as  a  third  party  or 
surety  for  the  fulfilment  of  the  promise,  God 
made  Himself  the  surety  by  means  of  the  oath 
by  Himself.  18.  Two  immutable  things]  viz. 
the  promise,  which,  because  it  was  God's 
promise,  was  immutable,  and  the  oath,  which, 
though  not  necessary  in  this  case,  was  added 
for  confirmation  of  men's  faith.  Consolation] 
RV  '  encouragement.' 

19.  Sure  and  stedfast,  and  which  entereth] 
RV  inserts  '  a  hope  '  before  these  adjectival 
terms,  thus  confining  the  metaphor  of  the 
anchor  to  the  one  clause,  '  as  an  anchor  of  the 
soul,'  and  taking  the  three  expressions  as  de- 
scriptive not  of  the  anchor,  but  of  the  hope. 
This  simplifies  matters  in  so  far  as  it  gets  rid 
of  the  somewhat  incongruous  idea  of  an  anchor 
entering  within  the  veil.  There  may  be,  how- 
ever, a  mingling  of  fact  and  figure.  The  first  two 
epithets  are  certainly  suggested  by  the  anchor, 
if  they  do  not  directly  apply  to  it.     The  general 


idea  is  sufficiently  clear.  The  Christian  hope 
is  infallible,  because  it  is  fixed  on  Christ,  who, 
as  High  Priest  and  Forerunner,  is  now  within 
the  veil.  The  veil]  The  entry  of  the  High 
Priest  through  the  veil  into  the  Holy  of  Holies 
was  the  climax  of  his  ministry  on  the  Da.y  of 
Atonement  :  see  LvlG^.  i2f_ 

20.  The  discussion  is  brought  round  to  the 
point  where  it  was  interrupted  (S^O)  by  the 
warning  against  the  danger  of  spiritual  dulness 
and  apostasy. 

CHAPTER  7 
Priesthood  after  the  Order  of  Aaron 

AND    of    MeLCHIZEDEK 

The  theme  of  Christ's  superiority  to  the 
Levitical  priesthood  is  here  resumed.  In  5  ^'^^ 
it  has  been  shown  that  Christ  possesses  all  the 
characteristics  of  a  true  High  Priest,  and 
moreover  that  He  is  called  of  God  '  an  High 
Priest  for  ever  after  the  order  of  Melchisedec' 
Now  the  priesthood  of  Melchizedek  was  per- 
petual, and  in  this  respect  he  is  a  type  of  Christ. 
His  greatness  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  he 
received  tithes  from  Abraham,  and  as  Levi 
was  descended  from  Abraham,  it  follows  by 
implication  that  the  Melchizedek  priesthood  is 
superior  to  the  Levitical  (7  i-^O). 

1-3.  Melchisedec]  a  type  of  Christ  in  his 
high  titles,  independence  of  priestly  descent, 
and  especially  in  respect  that  his  priesthood  is 
eternal. 

I.  The  main  statement  is,  '  This  Melchi- 
sedec .  .  abideth  a  priest  continually.'  Every 
feature  in  his  history  as  recorded  in  Gn  14  is 
turned  to  account  in  the  comparison  instituted 
here  between  him  and  Christ.  He  is  King 
of  Salem,  i.e.  Jerusalem.  But  Salem  means 
'  peace,'  and  Christ  is  Prince  of  Peace  (Isa 
9  '^).  His  name  Melchizedek  means  '  King  of 
Righteousness,'  and  righteousness  is  a  charac- 
teristic of  Christ's  kingdom  (Ps62i2  Isa  9  7 
32 1  :  see  on  1 8>  9).  Unlike  the  Levitical  priest 
who  must  be  able  to  trace  his  descent  from 
Levi,  Melchizedek  is  without  genealogy,  con- 
nected with  no  priestly  family,  and  he  has  no 
successor.     He  is  '  a  priest  for  ever.' 

3.  Without  father,  without  mother,  without 
descent  (RV  '  genealogy  ')]  The  writer  bases 
his  argument  on  the  silentc  of  Scripture  with 
regard  to  Melchizedek's  oi'igin.  He  appears 
suddenly  in  the  narrative  of  Gnl4,  and  dis- 
appears in  a  similarly  mysterious  way.  In 
respect  that  his  priesthood  does  not  rest  on 
his  pedigi-ee,  he  stands  in  emphatic  contrast 
with  the  Levitical  priests.  He  is  '  made  like 
unto  the  Son  of  God,'  i.e.  is  described  in  the 
narrative  in  such  terms  that  they  suggest  the 
eternal  Son  who  exists  from  eternity  and 
lives  for  ever  (12- 10-12). 

4.  Melchizedek  was  superior  to  Abraham, 
because  he  took  tithes  from  Abraham  (Gn  14  20)^ 


1021 


7.5 


HEBREWS 


8. 


and  he  also  gave  him  his  priestly  benediction 
(Gn  14 19. 20). 

5-7.  He  is  much  more  superior  to  the 
Levitical  priests  who  take  tithes  from  their 
Israelite  brethren,  but  who,  in  Abraham  their 
progenitor,  paid  tithes  to  Melchizedek  (v v.  9 , 1 0). 

8.  He  is  superior  to  them,  f  m-ther,  in  respect 
that  the  Levitical  priests  are  men  who  die. 
What  Scripture  witnesses  to  concerning  Mel- 
chizedek is  just  his  life.  Its  silence  as  to  his 
family  and  death  points  to  the  endless  life  of 
the  divine  inheritor  of  his  priesthood. 

11-28.  The  argument  now  takes  a  further 
step  forward.  Since  God  promised  a  new 
priesthood  (in  Ps  110),  this  must  supersede  and 
abolish  the  old.  But  this  substitution  would 
not  have  been  made  were  it  not  that  the  old 
priesthood  had  failed  to  accomplish  its  pur- 
pose, viz.  to  reconcile  man  to  God.  A  new 
covenant  is  therefore  introduced,  with  Jesus 
as  the  surety  for  its  fulfilment.  It  is  eternal 
because  He  is  eternal ;  and  it  secures  salvation 
to  the  uttermost,  because  the  Priest  is  One  who 
ever  liveth  to  intercede  for  those  who  draw 
near  to  God  through  Him. 

11-19.  The  introduction  of  a  new  priest- 
hood, and  consequently  of  a  new  law,  implies 
the  imperfection  of  the  old. 

II.  If  therefore]  RV'Nowif:  the  beginning 
of  a  new  argument.  The  priesthood  is  de- 
signed to  reconcile  men  to  God  by  removing 
the  barrier  between  them,  viz.  sin.  Not .  .  after 
the  order  of  Aaron]   but  after  the  order  of 


the  whole  Law,  which  made  nothing  perfect, 
i.e.  failed  in  every  respect  to  attain  its  object, 
viz.  to  bring  men  near  to  God  in  reconciliation. 

20.  The  fact  that  Jesus  was  made  priest 
with  an  oath  guarantees  that  the  covenant  He 
mediates  is  better  than  the  former  (in  which 
there  was  no  such  oath),  and  also  that  it  is 
eternal:  cp.  GK^i^.  22.  Surety]  The  word 
is  not  found  elsewhere  in  the  Greek  canonical 
Scriptures.  It  means  one  who  gives  security 
for  the  fulfilment  of  an  agi-eement  between 
two  other  parties,  a  guarantor  or  sponsor. 
The  word  usually  employed  is  that  rendered 
'  mediator  '  in  8  '5. 

23.  The  Levitical  priesthood  was  a  succes- 
sion of  different  priests,  because  those  filling 
the  office  were  mortal  men.  Christ's  priesthood 
does  not  pass  to  any  other ;  it  is  continuous 
and  unchangeable  ;  hence  '  He  is  able  to  save 
to  the  uttermost.'  Were  not  suffered]  RV 
'  are  hindered.'  24.  Unchangeable]  lit.  '  that 
does  not  pass  by  succession  from  one  to  another.' 

25.  To  the  uttermost]  Either  of  time, '  from 
one  generation  to  another'  ;  or,  more  probably, 
of  extent,  '  perfectly.'  Come  unto  God]  RV 
'  draw  near  unto  God  through  Him,'  i.e.  avail 
themselves  of  His  mediating  agency  as  High 
Priest.  The  object  of  all  priesthood  is  to  bring 
men  to  God  in  spiritual  communion.  What 
the  Levitical  priesthood  was  unable  to  effect 
(v.  18),  Christ,  the  Melchizedek-High-Priest, 
has  completely  secured.  Make  intercession] 
not  offering,  which  has  been  made  once  for  all. 


Melchizedek,  who  was  independent  of  Levitical     but  a  contmual  representation  on  the  gi-ound 
descent,  being  anterior  to  it.     13.  He  of  whom     of  the  completed  offenng 


these  things  (i.e.  Ps  110  *)  are  spoken  is  Jesus, 
who  belonged  to  the  tribe  of  Judah,  in  which 
the  old  Law  recognises  no  priests.  15.  RV 
'And  what  we  say  is  yet  more  abundantly 
evident,'  viz.  the  statement  that  a  change  of 
law  is  involved  in  a  change  of  priesthood. 

16.  Under  the  old  Law  priesthood  was  a 
matter  of  physical  descent — it  was  the  law 
of  a  carnal  commandment  ;  but  the  priesthood 
of  Jesus  rests  on  the  power  of  an  indissoluble 
life  (so  RV).  What  constitutes  Him  priest 
is  not  an  external  commandment,  but  a  power 
inherent  in  Him  as  the  eternal  Son,  who, 
though  as  incarnate  He  died,  nevertheless  rose 
from  the  dead  and  liveth  for  ever  (vv.  24,  25). 
His  qualifications  were  personal,  not  official. 

18,  19.  Read,  '  For  there  is  a  disannulling  of 
a  preliminary  [or,  provisional]  commandment 
[viz.  that  constituting  the  Levitical  priesthood] 
on  account  of  its  weakness  and  unprofitable- 
ness [i.e.  its  inability  to  effect  atonement  for 
men's  sins]  (for  the  law  made  nothing  perfect), 
and  there  is  the  subsequent  introduction  of  a 
better  hope  through  which  we  draw  near  to 
God.'  The  words  '  for  the  law  made  nothing 
perfect '  are  a  parenthesis.  The  particular 
commandment  in  question  was  of  a  piece  with 


26-28.  A  summary  of  the  characteristics  of 
Christ  as  High  Priest,  which  make  Him  such 
an  adequate  High  Priest  as  we  need. 

26.   Became  us]  i.e.  suited  our  condition. 

Holy]  denotes  His  relation  to  God,  conse- 
crated. Harmless]  denotes  His  personal 
character;  the  word  usually  means  'without 
guile.'  Undefiled]  denotes  His  official  quali- 
fication, having  no  ceremonial  flaw  or  impedi- 
ment :  cp.  Lv  2 1 21.  Separate]  R V  '  separated,' 
not  by  sinlessness  (as  AV  seems  to  suggest), 
but  by  being  withdrawn  from  men  and  exalted 
to  the  right  hand  of  the  Majesty  on  high. 
The  clause  is  to  be  taken  along  with  the 
following  :  cp.  414.  27.  First  for  his  own  sins] 
see  Lv  16 5' '5, 11, 15^  and  see  on  53.  Once]  i.e. 
once  for  all.  He  offered  up  himself]  see  on 
911-14,25-28  1011-14.  28.  Since  the  law]  RV 
'  after  the  law,'  and  disannulling  it  :  cp.  vv. 
18,  19.  The  Son]  rather, '  a  Son,'  i.e.  one  who 
is  a  Son,  perfected  for  evermore  :  see  2 10  b^'^. 

CHAPTER  8 
The    High    Priest    of    the    Heavenly 
Sanctuary    and    the    fulfilment    of 
Jeremiah's  Prophecy 
Christ,   as  Melchizedek-High-Priest,   has  a 


1022 


8.1 


HEBREWS 


9. 


higher  ministry  than  the  Levitical  priesthood, 
because  He  ministers  in  the  true  Tabernacle 
in  heaven  which  indeed  was  the  pattern  for 
the  earthly  tabernacle  (vv.  1-5).  Besides  He 
is  superior  in  proportion  as  the  new  covenant 
is  better  than  the  first  (vv.  6-13). 

1.  The  sum]  RV  '  the  chief  point.' 

2.  A  minister]  i.e.  an  officiating  high  priest. 

The  sanctuary]  corresponds  to  the  inner- 
most chamber  of  the  tabernacle,  which  is  a 
general  name  for  the  whole  place  of  ministry. 
It  is  called  the  '  true  '  tabernacle,  i.e.  authentic 
or  primary,  that  on  earth  being  secondary,  a 
copy  of  the  heavenly  (v.  5).  3.  Gifts  and 
sacrifices]  see  on  5^.  A  high  priest  implies 
an  oifering,  and  this  Christ  has  :  see  on  7^7 
and  references  there. 

4.  The  connexion  is  with  v.  2.  Christ's 
ministry  must  be  in  the  heavenly  tabernacle, 
for  there  is  already  a  priesthood  on  earth  ;  the 
office  on  earth  is  preoccupied.  '  He  would 
not  be  a  priest  at  all '  (so  RV),  much  less  a 
high  priest.  It  has  been  inferred  from  this 
v.  that  the  Epistle  was  written  while  the 
Levitical  priesthood  was  still  in  existence,  i.e. 
before  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem :  see 
Intro.  §  3,  '  Recipients  and  Probable  Date.' 
Otherwise  it  must  be  supposed  that  the  writer 
is  speaking  generally  from  the  view-point  of 
the  OT. 

5.  Example]  RV  'copy,'  implying  that 
there  is  an  original  in  heaven.  Observe  that 
the  heavenly  is  the  real  ;  the  earthly  is  the 
copy  and  shadow.  The  reference  is  to  Ex  25  ^^  : 
cp.  Ac  7  44.  6.  Now]  is  logical,  not  temporal, 
and  means, '  this  being  so.'  Better  promises] 
see  vv.  10-12. 

8-12.  The  promise  is  taken  from  Jer  31 31-34. 

9.  Regarded  them  not]  i.e.  rejected  them 
after  they  had  broken  the  covenant  ;  or,  let 
them  alone  :  cp.  Mt2338  RM. 

10-12.  The  second  covenant  is  better  than 
the  first,  because,  (1)  it  is  an  internal  principle 
instead  of  an  external  code  ;  (2)  it  is  universally 
realised;  every  member  of  the  covenant  is  in 
direct  and  personal  communion  with  Ood  ;  (3) 
it  secures  real  righteousness.  This  is  the 
ground  of  the  two  preceding  promises. 

13.  Even  in  the  time  of  Jeremiah  mention 
was  made  of  a  new  covenant,  showing  that  the 
first  was  destined  to  be  superseded.  Since 
then  it  has  actually  vanished  away. 

CHAPTER  9 
Thf-  New  Covenant  and  the  Sacrifice 

OF    ClIKIST 

()i_io39.  The  writer  now  proceeds  to  elabo- 
rate in  greater  detail  the  contrast  between  the 
old  covenant  and  the  new.  The  old  covenant 
had  its  tabernacle  with  furniture  and  elaborate 
ceremonial  and  continual  series  of  sacrifices, 
culminating  in  the  annual  visit  of  the  high 


priest  to  the  inner  chamber  of  the  tabernacle 
with  sacrificial  blood.  But  these  very  cere- 
monies implied  the  impossibility  of  communion 
with  God,  and  were  unable  to  make  the  wor- 
shipper '  perfect,'  i.e.  fit  to  participate  in  the 
mysteries  (9 1-^^).  But  now,  what  these  mere 
animal  sacrifices,  the  ineffectiveness  of  which 
was  signified  by  the  necessity  of  their  repeti- 
tion, failed  to  do,  Jesus  accomplished  when 
He  entered  the  heavenly  tabernacle  with  His 
own  blood,  i.e.  when  He  presented  Himself  in 
the  presence  of  God  after  His  crucifixion, 
having  obtained  eternal  redemption.  As 
Mediator  of  a  new  covenant  He  does  this  by 
His  death.  For  a  covenant,  or  will,  only 
comes  into  effect  through  the  death  of  the 
testator.  Similarly,  the  new  covenant  becomes 
valid  through  the  death  of  Christ,  which,  being 
a  voluntary  surrender  of  His  life,  as  a  free  act 
of  His  Spirit,  is  of  real  value  in  the  sight  of 
God  (9 11-22).  It  is  enough  for  such  a  sacrifice 
to  be  offered  once  for  all  (9  23-28).  Thus  over 
against  the  failure  of  the  old,  proved  by  the 
necessity  of  repetition,  is  the  success  of  the 
new.  This  is  illustrated  by  a  passage  from 
Ps  40,  which  shows  that  the  essence  of  sacrifice 
is  obedience  to  the  will  of  God  (10 1'^^).  On 
the  ground  of  the  cleansing  thus  accomplished 
by  Christ  follow  exhortations  (1019-25),  ad- 
monitions    (10  26-31)^      and      encouragements 

(1032-39). 

i-io.   The  Tabernacle  Ministry. 

I.  A  worldly  sanctuary]  RV  'its  sanctuary, 
a  sanctuary  of  this  world,'  and  therefore  in- 
ferior to  the  '  true  '  tabernacle  in  the  heavens 
(8  2),  of  which  it  was  but  a  copy.  2.  A  taber- 
nacle] This  term  is  applied  to  each  of  the  two 
chambers  into  which  the  whole  tent  was 
divided  ;  the  outer  chamber  being  the  Holy 
Place,  the  inner  being  the  Holy  of  HoUes  : 
see  Ex  26.  Candlestick]  or  lampstand  :  see 
Ex  25  31-40.  The  table]  see  Ex  25  23-30.  The 
shewbread]  see  Ex  2530  Lv245-9.  3.  The 
second  veil]  so  called  because  a  veil  hung  also 
before  the  Holy  Place.  Elsewhere  the  second 
veil  is  called  simply  'the  veil'  :  see  10 20,  and 
cp.  Ex  26  31-33.  Holiest  of  all]  i.e.  according  to 
a  Hebrew  idiom,  the  Most  Holy  Place. 

4.  Censer]  The  word  may  mean  '  altar  of 
incense  '  (Ex  30  i-io).  This,  however,  stood  in 
the  Holy  Place,  though  the  writer  did  not 
mention  it  among  the  furniture  in  v.  2.  But 
as  the  Most  Holy  Place  was  never  entered 
without  incense  (Lv  1612)  it  might  be  described 
as  '  having  the  altar  of  incense.'  Ark  of  the 
covenant]  the  chest  containing  the  tables  of 
the  Law  :  Ex  25 10-22.  Pot .  .  manna]  see 
Ex  16  32-34.     On  Aaron's  rod,  see  Nu  17 1-10. 

5.  Cherubims]  RV  '  cherubim,'  the  Heb. 
plural  of  '  cherub  '  :  see  Ex  251 '-22  37  c-^.  The 
mercy-seat,  or  propitiatory,  was  the  golden 
lid  of  the  ark  (Ex  25 1^.21)  on  which  the  blood 


1023 


9.7 


HEBREWS 


9.  23 


was  sprinkled  on  the  Day  of  Atonement  : 
Lv  1 6  i-t.  15.     Particularly]  RV  '  severally.' 

7,  8.  The  point  is,  that  entrance  into  the 
presence  of  Grod  was  restricted  to  the  high 
priest  alone,  and  that  only  once  a  year,  and 
that  it  was  altogether  denied  to  the  people 
and  even  to  the  ordinary  priests.  The  argu- 
ment of  this  whole  section  is  that  the  Levitical 
system  did  not  and  could  not  provide  real 
access  to  God.  Holiest  of  all]  RV  '  the  holy 
place,'  meaning  here,  probably,  the  real  pres- 
ence of  God,  the  heavenly  sanctuary,  as  in 
V.  12.  9.  Which  (i.e.  the  Holy  Place)  was  a 
figure  for  the  time  then  present]  meaning  that 
it  pointed  the  worshippers  of  that  time  forward 
to  the  dawning  of  a  better  time  to  come. 

Figure]  RV  '  parable.'  In  which]  RV  '  Ac- 
cording to  which,'  sc.  parable.  Him  that  did 
the  service]   RV  '  the  worshipper.' 

1 1-14.  The  superiority  of  Christ's  Ministry, 
which  does  cleanse  the  conscience,  being  dis- 
charged in  a  heavenly  tabernacle  (v.  11)  and 
mediated  through  the  sacrifice  of  Himself 
(vv.  12-14). 

II.  Not  of  this  building]  RV  'not  of  this 
creation,'  i.e.  of  this  material  creation,  but  a 
heavenly  sanctuary.  12.  Once]  i.e.  once  for 
all,  unlike  the  high  priest  in  the  earthly  taber- 
nacle who  entered  once  a  year  (v.  7).  Repeti- 
tion is  unnecessary,  seeing  the  redemption  he 
obtained  is  an  '  eternal  redemption,'  being 
effectual  for  ever.  The  word  obtained  implies 
the  expenditure  of  effort. 

13.  Bulls  and  goats]  refer  to  the  sacrifices 
offered  on  the  Day  of  Atonement  (Lvl6), 
heifer  to  the  ceremonial  described  in  Nul9 

Purifying  of  the  flesh]  i.e.  the  removal  of 
ceremonial  defilement,  so  as  to  permit  the 
worshipper  to  take  part  again  in  the  services  of 
the  tabernacle.  It  is  admitted  that  a  limited 
efficacy  is  possessed  by  the  Levitical  sacrifices, 
and  therefore  Christ's  offering,  being  im- 
measurably nobler  and  being  voluntary,  has 
immeasurably  greater  efficacy. 

14.  Through  the  eternal  Spirit]  So  AV  and 
RV,  suggesting  that  the  Third  Person  of  the 
Trinity  is  referred  to.  In  the  original  the 
article  is  wanting,  which  emphasises  the  opera- 
tion rather  than  the  personal  being  of  the 
Spirit.  The  spirit  is  Christ's  own  spirit,  or 
the  Holy  Spirit  in  Christ,  and  the  closest 
parallels  to  the  expression  used  here  are  in 
7 16  and  lPet4<5  (see  note  there).  The  word 
'  spirit '  is  employed  to  contrast  the  nature  and 
sphere  of  the  operation  of  Christ's  offering 
with  those  of  the  Levitical  sacrifices.  The 
latter  operate  in  the  region  of  the  flesh  (cp. 
V.  13),  and  are  temporary  in  their  effect  (see 
on  V.  12)  ;  the  former  belongs  to  the  sphere 
of  the  spirit  and  will,  effects  an  inner  cleans- 
ing of  the  conscience,  and  is  eternal.  Offered 
himself]  '  Himself '  is  emphatic,  being  one  of 


the  points  of  contrast.  What  He  offered  was 
His  own  body  on  the  Cross:  see  on  10 10.  Dead 
works]  see  on  6I.  To  cleanse  from  dead 
works  is  to  cleanse  from  the  defilement  (and 
the  consequences  of  it)  caused  by  such  works, 
and  so  to  enable  the  sinner  to  engage  in  the 
service  of  God. 

15.  '  By  offering  Himself  Christ  has  become 
the  Mediator  of  a  new  covenant,  in  order  that 
those  who  have  been  called  may  receive  the 
eternal  inheritance  that  is  promised,  and  the 
necessary  condition  of  this  was  the  redemption 
of  the  transgressions  that  were  under  the  first 
covenant  by  means  of  a  death.'  Christ's  sacri- 
fice is  here  represented  as  having  a  retrospec- 
tive efficacy,  operating  not  merely  on  the  past 
sins  of  the  Hebrew  Christians,  but  on  the  sins 
of  the  OT.  saints  who  lived  under  the  first 
covenant,  and  who  could  not  inherit  the 
promises  because  the  first  covenant  could  not 
remove  their  transgressions. 

16.  Testament]  The  Gk.  word  (diathehe) 
means  either  covenant  or  testament  (i.e.  will), 
and  in  this  v.  the  writer  passes  from  the  former 
to  the  latter  sense.  For  the  operation  of  the 
terms  of  a  testament  the  death  of  the  testator 
is  undoubtedly  necessary.  Is  it  also  necessary 
in  the  case  of  a  covenant  ?  So  the  writer 
asserts  in  vv.  18-20,  where  he  reverts  to  the 
former  sense  of  diatheke  as  covenant.  He  says 
that  any  diathehe  involves  death,  and  cites  the 
Mosaic  covenant  as  an  instance.  This  must  be 
on  the  supposition  that  the  covenanter  is  re- 
presented by  the  victim  which  died  in  the  sacri- 
fice which  usually  accompanied  any  serious 
covenant.  The  death  of  the  victim  represented 
the  inability  of  the  covenanter  to  retract.  It 
was  the  solemn  ratification  of  the  terms  of  the 
covenant. 

17.  After  men  are  dead]  RV  'where  there 
hath  been  a  death.'    The  Gk.  is  lit.  '  over  dead.' 

18.  Whereupon]  RV  '  wherefore.'  Neither 
the  first]  RV  '  even  the  first .  .  not,'  imperfect 
and  temporary  though  it  was.  19,  20.  See  Ex 
243-8.  20.  Testament]  RV  'covenant':  see 
onv.  16.  21.  This  is  not  recorded  m  Exodus, 
but  is  mentioned  by  Josephus.  It  rested  prob- 
ably on  some  Jewish  tradition. 

23.  Patterns]  RV  '  copies,'  i.e.  the  earthly 
things  which  were  made  according  to  the  pat- 
tern of  the  heavenly  :  see  8  ^.  In  the  view  of 
the  writer,  the  heavenly  original  needed  purify- 
ing just  as  the  earthly  copies,  only  with  better 
sacrifices.  It  is  not  necessary  to  supply  a  dif- 
ferent predicate  in  the  second  clause,  such  as 
'  should  be  dedicated.'  To  enable  men  to  draw 
near  to  God,  however  imperfectly,  on  earth,  it 
was  necessary  that  both  they  and  the  tabernacle 
be  sprinkled  with  the  blood  of  sacrifice  ;  and 
the  inference  is  that  in  order  to  enable  men 
perfectly  to  hold  communion  with  God  above, 
both  they  and  the  heavenly  places  must  in  like 


1024 


9.24 


HEBREWS 


10.22 


manner  be  sprinkled  with  the  blood  of  a  better 
sr  orifice,  viz.  that  of  Christ. 

24.  To  appear]  lit.  '  to  be  manifested  before 
the  face  of  God,'  i.e.  to  show  Himself  to  God  : 
cp.  7^^.  The  earthly  '  copy  '  of  this  act  is  that 
of  the  high  priest  who  once  a  year  presented 
himself  before  God  in  the  Holy  of  Holies  on 
behalf  of  the  people.  In  the  OT.  to  '  appear 
before  God '  means  to  go  into  the  Temple  to 
worship  Him  :  cp.  Ex  23 17  Pss422  84  7. 

26.  End  of  the  world]  The  Second  Coming 
is  regarded  as  imminent :  cp.  10  ^7.  Appeared] 
lit.  '  been  manifested,'  i.e.  in  the  flesh  to  men  : 
cp.  V.  24,  where  the  verb,  though  diiferent,  is 
from  the  same  root. 

27.  In  the  case  of  men,  death  is  a  single 
event,  the  definite  close  of  a  stage  in  their 
career.  So  Christ's  death  is  one  final  achieve- 
ment. And  as  in  the  former  case  death  is 
followed  by  judgment,  so  Christ's  death  is 
followed  by  His  reappearing  for  the  salvation 
of  His  people.  Moreover,  as  death  and  judg- 
ment are  connected  as  cause  and  effect,  so 
Christ's  death  and  His  people's  salvation  are 
similarly  connected :  cp.  Ro  5 1^.  28.  Apart 
from  sin]  So  RV.  His  First  Coming  was  in 
connexion  with  sin  ;  He  came  because  of  sin, 
and  bearing  sin  to  put  it  away  (v.  26)  ;  but 
His  Second  Coming  will  be  '  apart  from  sin,' 
since  in  dying  He  did  put  away  sin,  actually 
for  Himself,  for  men  by  anticipation  in  faith. 

Them  that  look  for  him]  RV  '  that  wait  for 
him.'  The  reappearing  of  the  high  priest 
from  out  the  Holy  of  Holies  on  the  Day  of 
Atonement  would  be  waited  for  with  anxious 
expectancy  by  the  people  as  the  sign  that  all 
that  was  needful  for  their  reconciliation  with 
God  had  been  done,  and  that  the  offering  had 
been  accepted  by  Him  :  cp.  Lk  1  '-i,  and  see 
R0819.23   iCorl7   IThlio  2Tim48. 

CHAPTER  10 
Sacrifice   complete   in   the    fulfilment 

OF   God's  Will.     The   Open   Way  to 

God 
Recapitulation  and  close  of  the  argument. 
The  sacrifices  of  the  Law  were  ineffective 
to  cleanse  the  conscience,  as  shown  by  their 
continual  repetition  (vv.  1-4).  In  the  mind 
of  God  they  were  temporary.  But  the  offer- 
ing of  Christ  is  a  sacrifice  that  accomplishes 
the  will  of  God  and  consecrates  us  as  the 
people  of  a  new  covenant  (vv.  5-10).  That 
it  is  efficacious  and  final  is  also  proved  by  the 
session  of  Christ  at  God's  right  hand.  Unlike 
the  Levitical  priests,  who  continually  stand  to 
offer  sacrifices,  Christ  having  made  one  perfect 
sacrifice  is  now  set  down,  waiting  the  final 
triumph  over  all  His  foes  (vv.  11-14).  The 
finality  of  His  sacrifice  is  also  confirmed  by 
the  prophecy  which  foretells  that  under  the 
new  covenant  God  will  remember  the  people's 


65 


1025 


sins  no  more,  implying  that  sin  has  been  dealt 
with  finally  and  for  ever  (vv.  15-18). 

I .  The  shadow  is  unsubstantial,  lacking  all 
the  qualities  of  the  original  except  perhaps 
outlined  form  ;  the  very  image  is  an  exact  re- 
production of  the  original.  Continually]  is 
perhaps  best  taken  with  the  preceding  verb, 
'offered.'     Comers  thereunto]  see  on  725. 

2.  Conscience  of  sin]  i.e.  consciousness  of 
sin,  sense  of  guilt  :  cp.  9  9.  3.  The  continual 
repetition  of  the  sacrifices  served  only  to  re- 
mind the  worshippers  of  the  continuity  of  the 
need  of  cleansing. 

5.  The  quotation  is  from  Ps40^-8,  according 
to  the  LXX,  which  reads,  '  a  body  thou  hast 
prepared  for  me,'  where  the  Hebrew  has,  '  mine 
ears  thou  hast  opened,'  meaning  that  God  has 
opened  the  ears  of  His  servant  to  hear  and 
obey  His  will.  The  LXX  may  be  due  to  an 
early  corruption  of  the  text,  or  it  may  be  a 
free  reproduction  of  the  sense.  As  used  here 
the  words  refer  to  the  Incarnation,  and  are 
taken  to  indicate  the  superiority  of  Christ's 
sacrifice  over  the  animal  sacrifices  of  the  Law 
in  respect  that  His  offering  was  voluntary  and 
moral.  It  was  a  sacrifice  of  obedience  (v.  7), 
the  voluntary  and  glad  (cp.  12  2)  surrender  of  His 
own  life  to  God.  9.  Hetaketh  away]  i.e.  Christ 
supersedes  the  legal  and  ineffectual  mode  of 
reconciliation  by  His  own  sacrifice,  in  accord- 
ance with  God's  will.  10.  Sanctified]  i.e. 
cleansed  from  the  defilement  of  sin  and  enabled 
to  draw  near  to  God. 

1 1- 1 4.  Further  proof  of  the  finality  of 
Christ's  sacrifice  :  see  analysis  at  the  beginning 
of  this  chapter.  The  ineffectiveness  of  the 
legal  ordinances  is  brought  out  forcibly  by  the 
accumulation  of  the  words,  standeth  daily .  . 
oftentimes .  .  the  same  sacrifices.  There  is  no 
cessation,  no  '  sitting  down,'  as  in  the  case  of 
Christ.  I3>  14-  His  people  are  finally  sanc- 
tified ;  His  enemies  are  the  only  class  remain- 
ing to  be  dealt  with. 

15-18.   See  analysis  above. 

19-25.  Practical  exhortation  to  hold  fast 
the  superior  benefits  and  privileges  of  the  new 
covenant. 

19.  Boldness  to  enter  into  the  holiest]  a  privi- 
lege denied  to  the  worshipper  under  the  old 
covenant.  20.  The  way  is  new,  i.e.  lately 
opened  up,  and  it  is  living,  either  because  it  is 
effective  (cp.  4 12)^  or  because  Christ  is  living  : 
cp.  Jn  1 4  6,  where  Christ  says  that  He  is  the  Way, 
and  the  Truth ,  and  the  Life .  Through  the  veil  ] 
During  His  earthly  life  His  flesh  stood  be- 
tween Him  and  the  entrance  into  the  heavenly 
sanctuary.  By  the  rending  of  that  veil,  i.e. 
His  death.  He  has  entered  in,  opening  the  way 
for  His  people. 

22.  The  First  Exhortation.  Draw  near] 
i.e.  in  worship  and  service:  see  on  725. 

Bodies  washed]    There  may  be  here  a  re- 


10.23 


HEBREWS 


11.  4 


ference  to  baptism,  but  the  two  clauses  toge- 
ther denote  the  purification  of  the  whole  man, 
within  and  without  :  see  Ex  19^0  29*,  and  cp. 
Eph65'6.  23.  The  Second  Exhortation,  to 
'  hold  fast  the  confession  of  our  hope  '  (so  R V) : 
cp.  36,1*.  24.  The  Third  Exhortation,  to 
'  encourage  each  other  to  love  and  good  works.' 

Provoke]  The  word  is  used  in  the  good 
sense  equivalent  to  stimulate. 

25.  Assembling  of  ourselves]  i.e.  the  meeting 
of  Christians  which  gives  the  opportunity  to 
exercise  the  love  and  good  works  already  re- 
commended, and  also  to  make  the  confession 
of  the  Christian  faith  and  hope  which  is  to  be 
held  fast.  The  day]  is  the  Day  of  the  Lord, 
the  Day  of  His  Second  Coming  :  cp.  on  d'^*^. 

26-31.  A  warning  against  unbelief  and 
apostasy,  suggested  by  the  thought  that  the 
Day  of  the  Lord  which  is  approaching  will  be 
a  day  of  judgment  to  some,  especially  to  those 
who,  after  having  been  enlightened,  have  fallen 
away :  cp.  the  warning  in  6 1^^.  26.  Sin  vnl- 
fuUy]  The  participial  form  of  this  condition 
expresses  not  a  single  act,  but  a  deliberate  and 
persistent  state.  The  Levitical  Law  made  no 
provision  for  the  atonement  of  sins  done  with 
a  high  hand :  see  on  5  ^.  No  more  sacrifice] 
Christ's  sacrifice  is  final  :  see  on  vv.  13,  14. 

28-30.  For  the  form  of  the  argument  cp. 
21-*.  28.  Under]  RV  '  at  the  word  of  '  :  see 
Dtl72-V. 

32-39.  An  exhortation  to  exhibit  the  same 
steadfastness  under  the  present  trials  as  they 
had  shown  in  a  previous  time  of  affliction  :  cp. 
the  similar  change  from  a  tone  of  warning  to 
one  of  hope  of  better  things  in  6^^ 

32.  Were  illuminated]  RY  '  enlightened,' 
i.e.  became  Christians  :  cp.  6*.  Fight  of 
afflictions]  see  Intro.  §  3,  '  Recipients  and 
Probable  Date.'  33.  Companions]  i.e.  volun- 
tary partners  and  sympathisers  with  those  who 
suffered  :  cp.  6 10.  34.  R V  '  had  compas- 
sion on  them  that  were  in  bonds.'  This  is  the 
better  attested  reading,  though  the  other  has 
good  support.  In  yourselves]  It  is  possible 
to  render,  '  Knowing  that  ye  have  your  own 
selves  for  a  better  possession,'  a  similar  thought 
to  that  in  Lk925  21 19  RV,  and  in  v.  39. 

35.  Recompence  of  revs^ard]  cp.  the  other 
aspect  of  '  just  recompence  '  in  2  2. 

37.  A  quotation  from  Hab23,4^  with  the 
addition  of  the  introductory  clause  '  yet  a  little 
while,'  reminiscent  of  Isa2620.  In  Habak- 
kuk  the  idea  is  that  steadfast  adherence  to 
God  is  needed  by  the  righteous  man  in  view 
of  the  perplexing  anomalies  visible  at  present 
in  God's  method  of  providence.  Here  the 
idea  is  much  the  same ;  the  Coming  of  the 
Lord  being  regarded  as  the  chief  ground  why 
Christians  should  not  draw  back,  and  so  fail  to 
enter  upon  the  promised  inheritance.  38.  The 
just]  RV  '  my  righteous  one.'     The  Speaker 


is  God.  39.  But  we]  The  writer  is  unwilling 
to  believe  that  his  readers  will  abandon  their 
faith:  cp.  6 9.  The  saving]  lit.  'gaining,'  or 
'  winning ' :  see  on  v.  34. 

CHAPTER  11 
Heroes  of  Faith 
The  Achievements  of  Faith,  illustrated  from 
the  annals  of  Israel,  beginning  with  the  patri- 1 
archs  and  coming  down  to  the  martyrs.  The 
writer  has  already  mentioned  faith  as  a  neces- 
sary condition  of  a  righteous  life,  and  he  now 
proceeds  to  illustrate  the  fact  that  it  was  by 
faith  that  the  fathers  of  the  race  were  able  to 
work  righteousness  and  to  endure  their  trials. 
Their  heroic  example  ought  to  encourage  the 
Hebrews  to  stand  fast.  The  primary  purpose, 
therefore,  of  this  long  passage  is  a  practical 
one.  But  it  has  also  a  place  in  the  main  argu- 
ment of  the  Epistle.  It  has  been  shown  that 
the  earthly  and  visible  things  are  but  the  types, 
copies,  or  shadows  of  heavenly  realities : 
see  85  922,23  101.  The  underlying  thought 
of  the  preceding  chapters  is  that,  con- 
trary to  the  ordinary  way  of  thinking,  it  is 
the  heavenly  that  is  the  real.  But  how  are 
heavenly  and  invisible  things  to  be  realised 
with  any  assurance  ?  It  is  by  the  operation  of 
faith.  Faith  is  that  by  which  the  invisible  be- 
comes real  and  the  future  becomes  present. 
'  Faith  gives  a  reality  to  things  hoped  for,  and 
puts  to  the  test  things  for  the  present  unseen.' 
It  is  no  new  principle  in  the  world,  because  it 
was  faith  that  inspired  the  heroism  and  self- 
sacrifice  of  the  saints  who  lived  under  the  old 
dispensation.  We,  having  better  promises  and 
a  better  covenant  than  they,  ought  not  to  fall 
behind  in  the  exercise  of  the  same  faith  by 
which  they  lived. 

1.  RV  renders,  '  Now  faith  is  the  assurance 
of  things  hoped  for,  the  proving  of  things 
not  seen.'  The  word  represented  here  by 
'  assurance  '  is  rendered  '  substance  '  in  1 3  R V 
and  '  confidence  '  in  3 1*.  What  is  meant  is  that 
faith  is  that  which  gives  assurance  or  cer- 
tainty of  things  still  in  the  future.  They 
exist  apart  from  faith,  but  it  is  by  faith  that 
they  are  realised.  '  Proving '  means  testing 
resulting  in  conviction. 

2.  The  elders]  i.e.  the  faithful  men  under 
the  old  dispensation.  Obtained  a  good  report] 
RV  '  had  witness  borne  to  them,'  sc.  by  God  in 
the  Scriptures.  3.  Faith  enables  us  to  per- 
ceive the  invisible  cause  of  the  phenomenal 
world  :  cp.  Ro  120.  The  writer  begins  with 
Gn  1  before  proceeding  to  give  examples  of 
the  realising  faith  of  the  fathers.  4.  Abel] 
The  writer  says  that  the  greater  excellence  of 
Abel's  sacrifice  was  due  to  his  faith,  but  in 
what  particular  the  faith  was  manifested  he 
does  not  say.  It  may  have  been  a  '  fuller 
consciousness  of  the  claim  of  God  to  the  best.' 


1026 


11.  5 


HEBREWS 


12. 


Yet  speaketh]  '  Yet,'  i.e.  still  to  us.  The 
reference  is  to  Gn4io,  where  Abel's  blood 
is  represented  as  crying  from  the  ground  after 
his  death.     By  faith  he  overcame  death. 

5,  6.   Enoch]   The  wTiter  here  follows  the 
Greek  Version  of  the  OT.     Enoch's  faith  is  an 
inference  from  the  statement  in  Genesis  that 
he   '  walked   with  God  '  (Gk.  '  pleased  God  '), 
and   his  '  translation '  was  the  reward  of  his 
faith.       7.  Noah]  His  faith  rested  on  a  direct 
revelation  of  '  things  not  seen  as  yet,'  viz.  the 
destruction   of   the  world   and  the  means   of 
salvation.     Fear]  is  '  godly  fear,'  as  in  S''.     He 
condemned  the  world]   i.e.  either  because  he 
warned  the  world  of  the  impending  doom  (see 
1  Pet  3  20  2  Pet  2  s) ;  or  because  his  example  took 
away  from  them  any  ground  of  excuse  :  cp. 
Mtl24i.     8.   Abraham]   By  faith  he  realised 
the  promises,  and   made  a  great  surrender  in 
obedience  to  God's  call.  He  was  preeminently  a 
man  of  faith,  the  first  whose  faith  is  definitely 
mentioned   in  the    OT.  (Gnl56);  he    is  the 
'father   of    the    faithful.'      All    his    life   he 
'  sojourned,  dwelling  in  tents,'  i.e.  not  actually 
receiving  the  promises,  but  waiting  patiently 
for  their  fulfilment,  and  making  therefore  no 
attempt  to  settle  permanently  in  Canaan.     He 
looked  for  the  invisible  and  heavenly  '  city  of 
God,'  as  the  fulfilment  of  the  ideal  which  was 
to  him  the  real.     11.   Sara]  RV 'Even  Sarah 
herself,'  i.e.  in  spite  of  her  earlier  and  natural 
incredulity:  see  GnlSio-^^.      12.  Of  one]  i.e. 
Abraham. 

13.  The  promises]  i.e.  the  fulfilment  of 
them.  Persuaded  of  them^  and  embraced  them'] 
RV  '  greeted  them  from  afar.'  They  looked  for- 
ward by  faith  and  saw  the  promises  and  '  saluted 
them,'  or  hailed  them,  from  afar,  and  lived 
here  as  in  a  foreign  land,  conscious  that  their 
true  fatherland  was  not  here,  but  in  heaven. 
And  God  rewarded  their  faith  by  acknow- 
ledging them  as  His  people,  and  providing  a 
'  city  '  for  them  above. 

17.  Abraham's  faith  in  offering  Isaac :  see 
Gn22.  This  was  the  supreme  trial  of  Abra- 
ham's faith.  He  was  not  allowed  to  slay 
Isaac,  but  he  did  actually  offer  him,  i.e.  sur- 
render him  to  God,  although  he  was  the  '  only- 
begotten,'  the  child  of  promise  and  the  only  link 
in  the  chain  of  the  promise.  But  faith  in  God's 
promise  made  him  superior  to  all  seeming  im- 
possibilities in  the  way  of  realising  the  promises. 
20-22.  Isaac,  Jacob,  and  Joseph  were  all 
alike  in  the  fact  that  on  their  death-beds  they 
looked  by  faith  beyond  death,  and  were  con- 
fident of  the  future.  21.  Top  of  his  staff] 
The  Heb.  in  Gn473i  reads,  'the  head  of  his 
bed.'  The  difference  is  due  to  the  same  con- 
sonants being  read  with  different  vowels, 
mittah  being  '  bed,'  and  matteh  being  '  staff.' 
23-28.  The  faith  of  Moses  and  his  parents. 
23.  Proper]  i.e.  goodly  or  beautiful.     The 


appearance  of  the  child  is  said  here  to  have 
qiiickened  their  faith  in  God  that  He  had 
destined  the  child  for  some  great  purpose,  and 
their  faith  was  shown  in  their  daring  disregard 
of  the  king's  commandment  :  see  Ex  1 16-22_ 

24.  Moses'  faith  was  shown  in  his  renuncia- 
tion of  all  preferments  at  the  court  of  Pharaoh, 
and  in  his  espousing  the  cause  of  his  afflicted 
brethren.  The  pleasures  of  sin  were  not  vicious 
courses  in  themselves,  but  a  life  of  worldly 
success,  which  would  have  been  sin  for  him, 
conscious  as  he  was  of  a  call  to  a  higher  and 
harder  life  of  duty. 

26.  The  reproach  of  Christ]  cp.  13^3  Ro  15  3. 
The  same  reproach  as  Christ  suffered  in 
delivering  His  people  :  cp.  2 10.  There  may, 
however,  here  be  the  deeper  thought  not 
merely  of  similarity,  but  of  identity  of  suffer- 
ing. Christ,  who  was  from  all  eternity,  may 
be  conceived  as  actually  the  deliverer  of 
Israel  by  the  agency  of  Moses,  and  so  as 
suffering  Himself  what  Moses  had  to  endure. 

The  recompence  of  the  reward]  see  on  v.  1, 
and  cp.  the  next  v.  28.  The  keeping  of  the 
Passover  was  an  act  of  faith,  because  it  was 
the  appointed  means  of  deliverance  from  death, 
and  the  performance  of  it  implied  faith  in 
God's  promise  of  safety. 

31.  Them  that  believed  not]  i.e.  the  people 
of  Jericho  who  knew  what  Jehovah  had  done 
for  Israel  :  see  Josh  2  9, 10  33.  Obtained  pro- 
mises] cp.  6 1^.  35.  Raised  to  life  again]  RV 
'  by  a  resurrection.'  This  literal  rendering  of 
the  original  is  necessary  to  bring  out  the 
contrast  expressed  in  the  words  at  the  end  of 
the  v.,  '  a  better  resurrection,'  i.e.  one  to  a 
life  which  would  not,  as  in  the  former  case, 
be  again  interrupted  by  death.  39.  A  good 
report]  see  on  v.  2. 

40.  There  is  here  the  answer  to  an  implied 
objection,  that  the  faith  of  these  suffering 
heroes  was  all  in  vain,  seeing  they  did  not 
receive  the  fulfilment  of  the  promises.  But, 
the  writer  says,  this  is  a  wrong  inference,  the 
truth  being  that  God  has  merely  deferred  their 
reward  in  order  that  they  may  enter  along 
with  us  of  a  later  age  upon  the  realisation  of 
the  promised  inheritance.  They  are  waiting 
for  us  so  that  the  whole  number  of  the  faith- 
ful may  be  perfected  together.  Cp.  the  peti- 
tion in  the  Burial  Service,  '  beseeching  Thee 
.  .  shortly  to  accomplish  the  number  of  Thine 
elect,  and  to  hasten  Thy  kingdom  ;  that  we, 
with  all  those  that  are  departed  in  the  true 
faith  of  Thy  holy  Name,  may  have  our  perfect 
consummation  and  bliss.  .  .' 

CHAPTER    12 

The  Contest.    Endurance,  Holiness,  and 
Divine   Communion   proposed   to   the 
Sons  of  God 
Inspired  by  the  example  of  those  victorious 


1027 


12.  1 


HEBREWS 


12.  17 


heroes  of  faith  who  now  encompass  us,  we 
ought  to  run  our  race  patiently,  looking  to 
Jesus  the  supreme  example  of  patient  en- 
durance (vv.  1,  2).  The  present  sufferings  are 
the  discipline  of  a  loving  Father,  and  are 
actually  evidence  of  our  being  His  children. 
Be  brave,  therefore,  and  help  others  to  be  the 
same  (vv.  3-13).  Beware  of  strife  and  im- 
purity, taking  warning  from  the  case  of  Esau, 
who  irretrievably  forfeited  his  blessing  (vv. 
14-17).  Our  greater  privileges  entail  greater 
responsibilities  and  call  for  greater  watchful- 
ness (vv.  18-29). 

I.  Witnesses]  The  Gk.  word  is  martyres. 
The  word  means  primarily  '  one  who  bears 
witness '  to  something  he  has  seen  or  experi- 
enced. Here  the  witnesses  are  those  who 
have  borne  testimony  to  the  victorious  power 
of  faith.  But  the  word  passes  easily  over  to 
the  further  sense  of  '  spectators,'  which  is  also 
implied  in  this  whole  passage.  The  writer 
conceives  these  heroes  as  surrounding  in  a 
cloud,  or  dense  mass,  the  arena  in  which  the 
present  generation  of  God's  people  are  run- 
ning their  race.  Once  they  were  themselves 
runners  ;  now  they  are  promoted  to  the  rank 
of  spectators.  Their  presence  and  example 
ought  to  be  a  stimulus  to  those  running  now. 
Every  weight]  mg.  '  all  cumbrance.'  The 
word  may  refer  to  anything  that  impedes  free 
running,  such  as  loose  garments.  But  it  is 
used  in  a  special  sense  to  denote  the  super- 
fluous flesh  which  an  athlete  seeks  to  get  rid  of 
by  strict  training  :  cp.  1  CorO'-^-'-^". 

Which  doth  so  easily  beset  «.s]  The  meaning 
of  this  phrase,  represented  in  the  original  by 
a  single  adjective,  is  doubtful,  and  the  Revisers 
have  not  seen  fit  to  change  the  translation  in 
the  text.  But  they  give  in  the  margin  the 
two  other  possible  renderings  :  (1) 'that  doth 
closely  cling  to  us,'  i.e.  like  a  clinging  garment 
(cp.  the  common  Oriental  phrase,  '  to  gird  up 
the  loins,'  i.e.  to  tuck  the  loose  ends  of  the 
outer  flowing  robe  under  the  girdle  as  a  pre- 
paration for  any  exertion) ;  or  (2)  '  that  is 
admired  of  many,'  lit.  '  well-surrounded  '  by 
an  admiring  throng.  The  former,  which  is 
virtually  identical  with  the  accepted  rendering 
of  AV,  is  the  easier,  and  is  appropriate  to  the 
idea  of  a  runner  divesting  himself  of  all 
impedimenta.  It  is  to  be  observed  that  '  the 
sin  '  spoken  of  is  not  a  particular  sin  (as  the 
common  use  of  the  phrase  '  besetting  sin ' 
suggests),  but  sin  in  general,  all  sin,  the  defi- 
nite article  being  the  '  generic '  article. 

2.  Looking  unto]  The  Gk.  word  is  used  of 
an  artist  who  looks  at  his  model.  Jesus  is  the 
Great  Exemplar,  on  whom,  rather  than  on  the 
cloud  of  witnesses,  the  runners  are  to  fix  their 
eyes.  Author  and  perfecter]  so  B, V  :  cp.  2  lo, 
where  the  word  '  author  '  is  rendered  '  captain  ' 
in  AV.    Our  faith  suggests  a  system  of  Christian 


doctrine.  But  there  is  no  word  representing 
'  our  '  in  the  original.  Jesus  is  leader  in  the 
way  of  faith,  and  He  leads  to  the  very  end, 
exhibiting  the  perfection  and  triumph  of  faith. 
For  the  joy]  may  mean  '  instead  of  the  joy,' 
i.e.  renouncing  it;  but  more  likely  'in  view  of 
the  joy,'  i.e.  the  recompence  of  reward,  as  in 

1126  .    cp.   111. 

3.  Against  himself]  RV  'against  them- 
selves.' A  more  difficult,  but  well-attested 
reading.  If  correct,  it  will  mean  that  sinners 
sin  against  themselves,  either  by  wronging 
their  own  souls  (see  ProvS^S)  or  by  contra- 
dicting their  better  selves.  4.  The  struggle 
has  not  yet  been  severe.  A  mild  reproach 
of  faint-heartedness  is  implied  :  cp.  Prov 
24i0Jerl25.  5.  The  quotation  is  from  Prov 
3 11'  12_  y_  jjy  '  j^  js  I Qj,  chastening  ye  en- 
dure,' i.e.  your  sufferings  are  designed  as  a 
discipline  or  means  of  education.  God  dealeth 
with  you  as  with  sons.  8.  All  are  partakers] 
The  clause  refers  to  v.  6. 

II.  Peaceable  fruit  of  righteousness]  i.e. 
the  fruit  which  is  righteousness.  The  result 
of  discipline  is  called  '  peaceable,'  or  'peaceful,' 
in  contrast  to  the  '  painfulness '  of  the  pro- 
cess spoken  of  in  the  previous  part  of  the  v. 

13.  Straight  paths]  better,  'even'  or 
'smooth  paths,'  containing  no  stumbling-blocks 
that  may  injure  the  lame.  The  strong  are  to 
encourage  the  weak.  Turned  out  of  the  way] 
RM  'put  out  of  joint.'  The  reference  to 
lameness  and  healing  suggests  that  this  is  the 
right  rendering.  If  they  do  not  remove  the 
stumbling-blocks  from  the  paths,  lameness 
may  become  dislocation.  But  by  making  the 
paths  'even,'  the  lameness  may  be  healed. 

15.  Fail  of]  RV  '  fall  short  of.'  Root  of 
bitterness]  cp.  Dt29i8.  16.  Any  fornicator] 
In  the  OT.  apostasy  from  Jehovah  is  fre- 
quently described  as  adultery  or  fornication, 
being  a  breach  of  covenant  ;  but  here  the 
word  should  perhaps  be  understood  in  the 
literal  sense  :  cp.  13^.  Profane]  The  word  is 
the  antithesis  of  '  hallowed '  or  '  consecrated,' 
and  means  '  common,'  '  unspiritual,'  '  secular.' 
Esau's  defect  was  a  want  of  appreciation  of 
spiritual  blessings.  He  'despised  his  birth- 
right' (see  Gn2534),  which  implied  not  merely 
material  advantage,  but  the  spiritual  heritage 
of  the  covenant  promises.  17.  Would  have 
inherited]  The  RV  removes  the  ambiguity  of 
these  words  by  rendering  '  when  he  afterward 
desired  to  inherit.'  He  sought  it]  i.e.  the 
blessing,  not  the  repentance.  When  Esau  is 
said  to  have  'found  no  place  of  repentance,' 
this  does  not  mean  that  he  found  it  impossible 
to  repent — a  thing  contrary  to  all  the  doctrine 
of  Scripture.  In  6  4-6  the  author  does  not  say 
'  they  cannot  repent,'  but  '  we  cannot  make 
them  repent.'  What  is  meant  is  that  when  he 
afterward  wished  to  inherit  the  blessing  he 


1028 


12.  18 


HEBREWS 


13.15 


found  it  irretrievably  beyond  his  reach.  He 
found  no  way  of  undoing  the  consequence  of 
his  own  act  ;  see  Gn273'*"3*5_ 

18-24.  Appeal  for  greater  watchfulness 
based  on  a  contrast  between  the  new  covenant 
and  the  old  :  cp.  2 1-1  lO-S-si.    * 

18.  Unto  the  mount]  This  balances  the 
words  '  unto  mount  Zion  '  in  v.  22.  But  the 
best  MSS  omit  the  word  '  mount '  here,  and 
read  '  unto  a  palpable  (i.e.  material)  and 
kindled  fire.'  For  the  whole  description  of 
the  former  manifestation  see  Exl9i^'i2'is>^'' 
20 1^  Dt4ii.  The  old  revelation  was  given 
with  material  and  terrifying  accompaniments  ; 
the  new  is  a  revelation  of  grace  and  peace, 
introducing  its  recipients  to  a  spiritual  society 
with  spiritual  privileges.  But  so  much  the 
more  does  it  call  for  obedience  (v.  25)  and 
consecration  (v.  28).  Ye  are  not  come]  Even 
here  and  now  they  are  members  of  this 
heavenly  community  and  enjoy  these  spiritual 
privileges,  although  the  fulness  of  the  in- 
heritance is  reserved  for  the  future. 

22.  Mount  Sion]  the  heavenly  city,  the 
New  Jerusalem,  the  eternal  and  ideal  sphere, 
the  abode  of  Grod  and  the  angels  and  the 
spirits  of  the  OT.  saints.  23.  General  as- 
sembly] a  word  commonly  applied  to  the 
Greek  festal  assemblies,  such  as  at  the 
Olympian  Games.  Church  of  the  firstborn, 
who  are  enrolled  in  heaven]  so  RV.  See- 
ing that  human  beings  are  mentioned  at  the 
close  of  the  v.,  these  words  are  best  taken 
as  referring  to  the  angels,  who  were  created 
before  man  and  may  be  appropriately  de- 
scribed as  '  first-born ' :  cp.  Job  38 '''.  In  this 
case  the  word  '  church  '  is  used  in  its  original 
sense  of  'convocation,'  or  'congregation.' 

And  to  God]  whose  manifestation  is  direct 
and  immediate.  There  is  a  suggestion  of 
warning  in  the  epithet  Judge  of  all.  Just 
men]  i.e.  the  saints  of  the  OT.  dispensation, 
who  are  in  one  sense  '  perfected,'  though  in 
another  they  still  wait  their  final  consum- 
mation of  bliss :  see  1 1 40.  24.  To  Jesus]  whose 
mediating  has  assured  all  these  privileges. 

Speaketh  better  things]  Abel's  blood  cried 
for  vengeance  (see  on  ll**);  that  of  Jesus 
appeals  to  God  for  pardon  and  reconciliation. 

25.  Him  that  speaketh]  i.e.  God,  who  spoke 
both  at  Sinai  and  now  from  heaven  in  the  new 
manifestation.  26.  Then]  i.e.  at  the  giving 
of  the  Law:  see  Ex  1 9 1^.  The  quotation  is 
from  Hag  2  <5, 21^  which  is  here  applied  as  a 
prediction  of  the  Second  Coming,  regarded  as 
imminent.  27.  Yet  once  more]  i.e.  once  for 
all,  finally.  What  follows  the  shaking  and 
removal  of  the  created  and  sensible  world  will 
be  stable  and  imperishable.  28.  Let  us  have 
grace]   RM  '  thankfulness'  ;  but  cp.  v.  15. 

29.  A  consuming  fire]  cp.Dt  4  24.  A  solemn 
warning  against  presumption. 


CHAPTER  13 
Advice,  Memories,  Prayers,  Greetings 

The  Epistle  concludes  with  various  exhort- 
ations in  regard  to  the  social  life  (vv.  1-3), 
private  life  (vv.  4-6),  the  religious  life  (vv. 
7-17),  in  which  connexion  the  readers  are 
exhorted  to  follow  steadfastly  the  example 
and  doctrine  of  their  former  teachers  (vv. 
7-16),  and  to  respect  the  authority  of  their 
present  rulers  (v.  17).  The  writer  requests 
their  prayers  (vv.  18,  19)  ;  he  prays  himself 
on  their  behalf  (vv.  20,  21)  ;  he  sends  greet- 
ings, and  utters  his  benediction  (vv.  22-25). 

1-3.  Duties  of  social  life,  viz.  brotherly 
love,  hospitality,  and  sympathy  with  those  who 
suffer  for  Christ's  sake. 

2.  Strangers]  Christian  brethren  from 
other  places  are  meant:  cp.  6'^^.  Angels 
unawares]   cp.  Gnl8,  19  Jg6ii-24  132-23. 

3.  Yourselves  also  in  the  body]  and  liable 
therefore  to  the  same  sufferings:  cp.  1032-34_ 

4-6.  Duties  of  the  private  life,  viz.  chastity 
and  contentment. 

4.  Marriage  is]  RV  '  Let  marriage,'  etc. :  the 
words  are  an  exhortation.  5.  Conversation] 
i.e.  manner  of  life.  RV  simply,  '  be  ye  free 
from  the  love  of  money.' 

7-16.  Duty  of  steadfastly  adhering  to  the 
doctrine  of  their  departed  teachers. 

7.  Which  have  the  rule]  RV  '  that  had  th3 
rule  .  .  which  spake.'  The  words  end  of  their 
conversation  (see  v.  8)  indicate  that  they  were 
no  longer  living.  RV  renders,  '  issue  of  their 
life.'  8.  AV  suggests  that  the  'end  of  their 
conversation '  was  Jesus  Christ,  but  He  can 
hardly  be  called  the  '  issue  of  their  life.'  This 
V.  is  a  distinct  sentence,  and  is  introduced  as 
an  argument  for  steadfast  adherence  to  the 
faith  of  the  former  teachers.  Christ  is  the 
same  now  as  when  their  teachers  first  taught 
them,  so  that  they  have  no  reason  to  go  after 
divers  and  strange  teachings  (v.  9). 

9.  Carried  about]  RV  '  carried  away.'  The 
strange  doctrines  seem  to  have  been  connected 
with  the  ritual  of  '  meats,'  or  sacrificial  meals 
(V.  10). 

10-14.  We  Christians  have  certainly  an 
altar,  the  Cross  of  Christ,  but  as  on  the  Day 
of  Atonement  the  blood  of  the  sacrifice  was 
carried  into  the  Most  Holy  Place,  while  the 
flesh  of  the  victim  was  not  eaten  but  burned 
outside  the  camp,  so  those  who  wish  to  par- 
ticipate in  the  benefits  of  the  Christian  sacrifice 
must  not  remain  within  the  camp  of  Judaism, 
but  utterly  renounce  all  its  'carnal  ordinances,' 
even  though  that  entail  bearing  reproach  for 
Christ's  sake.  We  may  be  rendered  homeless 
here  below,  but  we  have  an  abiding  city  above 

(1110  1222). 

15,  16.  Christ  having  offered  Himself  once 
for  all  as  the  great  sacrifice  of  atonement,  the 


1029 


13.  17 


HEBREWS 


13.  ^5 


only  sacrifice  Christians  can  now  offer  is  that 
of  thanksgiving  (cp.  Psllfii^  lPet2  5.ii),  the 
fruit  of  lips  (cp.  Hosl4-)  which  make  confes- 
sion of  his  name,  and  also  that  of  mercy  with 
which  God  is  well  pleased  (HosG'^). 

The  sacrifice  of  praise  or  thanksgiving  had 
been  the  highest  form  of  peace-offering  under 
the  Levitical  Law  (LvT^^  2'Z^^  ;  the  words  in 
the  LXX  which  our  author  used  are  exactly 
quoted  by  him  here),  and  the  Psalmists  had 
adopted  the  term  to  describe  that  truly  spiritual 
worship  which  the  atoning  sacrifice  of  Christ 
does  not  supersede,  but  deepens  and  assures 
(Pssl072-  11617).  His  sacrifice  of  atonement 
shall  never  be  repeated ;  but  an  offering  to 
God  is,  in  its  highest  form,  sacrifice  or  sacred 
service,  whether  it  be  of  words  or  charity  (cp. 
Hosl4'-  6*^),  or  of  the  duties  of  ordinary  life 
(Rol2i:  cp.  1  Pet 2 5, 11).  Such  sacrifice  of 
thanksgiving  is  now  to  be  offered  continually, 
not  as  of  old  at  merely  ceremonial  times  or 
after  separate  acts  of  imperfect  atonement ; 
and  through  the  one  true  High  Priest,  who 
has  really  opened  the  way  for  such  worship  to 
be  brought  to  God,  by  the  one  real  sacrifice  of 
atonement  which  is  effectual  for  ever. 

17.   Duty  of  obedience  to  present  rulers. 

Watch  for  (i.e.  in  behalf  of)  your  souls]  like 
sleepless  shepherds  who  feel  their  responsi- 
bility to  God  for  the  flock.  Do  it  with  joy] 
i.e.  watch  with  joy,  feeling  their  duty  to  be  a 
delight  not  a  burden,  for  in  the  latter  case 
the  flock  would  suffer.  18.  Pray  for  us]  The 
plural  denotes  that  the  writer  identifies  him- 
self with  the  rulers  of  the  Church,  on  whom 
some  suspicion  has  fallen,  and  he  therefore  in 
their  name  protests  their  integrity.  19.  The 
singular  number  indicates  that  the  writer  stood 
in  some  special  relationship  to  his  readers  from 


whom  he  is  for  the  present  separated  for  some 
reason  not  given.  It  seems  not  to  have  been 
imprisonment  (see  v.  23),  and  the  separation  is 
regarded  as  only  temporary. 

20,  21.  Prayer  for  the  readers. 

20.  God  of  peace]  i.e.  the  God  who  makes 
peace  :  cp.  Ro  1 5  33  1 6  20  2  Cor  1 3  n  Phil  4  9,  and 
see  on  v.  14.  Brought .  .  from  the  dead]  The 
words  refer  not  so  much  to  the  Resurrection 
of  Christ  as  to  His  entrance  into  the  heavenly 
sanctuary  '  with  the  blood  of  the  everlasting 
covenant,'  and  His  exaltation  as  Head  over  the 
household  of  God  (3 1-^)  :  cp.  Isa  63  n.  21.  Cp. 
Phil  2 12, 13. 

22.  Word  of  exhortation]  the  whole  Epistle. 
The  apologetic  tone  indicates  some  doubt  as  to 
the  manner  of  its  reception  (cp.  v.  18),  and 
also  a  consciousness  that  the  subject  has  been 
treated  more  briefly  than  it  deserves  ('  in  few 
words '). 

23.  Our  brother  Timothy]  The  reference 
does  not  point  conclusively  to  St.  Paul  as  the 
writer,  but  indicates  that  he  was  intimately 
connected  with  the  Pauline  circle.  We  have 
no  other  knowledge  of  Timothy's  imprison- 
ment. If  he  come]  Timothy  is  elsewhere  at 
present. 

24.  The  salutation  shows  that  the  Epistle 
was  not  addressed  to  the  rulers,  but  primarily 
to  the  whole  community.  They  of  Italy]  i.e. 
those  from  Italy,  those  belonging  to  Italy. 
The  phrase  is  most  naturally  taken  to  indicate 
that  the  Epistle  was  written  outside  Italy  at 
some  place  where  Italian  Christians  had  settled. 
If  the  Epistle  was  sent  to  Rome,  these  Italian 
Christians  would  naturally  wish  to  join  in  the 
salutation.  See  Intro.  §  3,  '  Recipients  and 
Probable  Date.' 

25.  Cp.  Col  4 18  1  Tim  6  21  2  Tim  4  22  TitSis. 


1030 


JAMES 


INTRODUCTION 


I.  The  Author.  In  the  New  Testament  we 
meet  with  four  persons  named  James  (Jacob)  : 

(1)  the  father,  or,  possibly,  brother  of  Jude  ; 

(2)  the  son  of  Alphaeus ;  (3)  the  brother  of 
John  ;  (4)  the  brother  of  the  Lord  and  head  of 
the  Church  at  Jerusalem  (Acli4  ]  22-17  1513-21 
2118-25  Gal  119  212).  Of  these  four,  we  know 
nothing   but   the    names   about  (1)  and   (2) ; 

(3)  was  put  to  death  by  Herod  Agrippa  I  in 
44  A.D.,  some  time  before  the  earliest  date 
usually  assigned  to  our  Epistle.  We  are, 
therefore,  almost  driven  to  the  conclusion  that 
the  author  is  (4),  James  the  Lord's  brother, 
whom  we  meet  in  the  Acts  as  head  of  the 
Church  at  Jerusalem.  And  this  conclusion, 
reasonable  in  itself,  is  confirmed  by  all  the 
evidence  at  our  disposal.  Besides  the  positive 
statement  of  St.  Jerome  ('Vir.  111.'  2)  that 
'  James  called  the  brother  of  the  Lord '  wrote 
it,  we  have  the  striking  correspondence  in  the 
thoughts  and  language  of  the  Epistle  to  what 
we  know  of  the  character  of  the  head  of  the 
Jerusalem  Church.  In  the  first  place,  there 
is  the  tone  of  authority  which  we  find  in  the 
Epistle,  natural  to  one  in  the  position  of  St. 
James.  Then  there  are  the  frequent  refer- 
ences to  the  Old  Testament,  and  to  books  like 
the  Wisdom  of  Solomon  and  the  Wisdom  of 
Jesus  son  of  Sirach  (called  in  our  version 
'  Ecclesiasticus '),  which  to  a  devout  Jew  like 
St.  James  would  be  very  familiar.  [Observe 
the  allusions  to  Genesis  1  (1 1^),  Abraham 
(221),  Rahab  (225),  Deuteronomy  6*  (cp.  Jas 
219),  Job  (5 11),  Elijah  (S^"),  and  compare  Jas 

12-4,5-8,12-17,23-25  ^ithEcclusl2ti    21-15    7 10  1211 

1423  1511  Wisd7i8,  etc.  See  also  Job  28 12 
(Jas3i3),  Prov334  (Jas47-ii),  Provl0i2  (Jas 
5  20),  Isa407  (Jas  1 H).]  Then,  again,  the  lan- 
guage of  the  Epistle  is  similar  to  that  found 
in  the  speech  of  St.  James,  and  in  his  circular 
letter  (Ac  15).  We  conclude,  therefore,  that 
the  well-nigh  unanimous  opinion,  which 
assigns  the  Epistle  to  the  brother  of  the  Lord, 
is  the  only  reasonable  one.  For  the  relation- 
ship implied  by  '  brother  '  see  on  Mtl2*'5. 

Of  the  personality  of  this  great  man  we  can 
form  a  tolerably  clear  idea  from  the  New 
Testament  and  early  Church  tradition.  Re- 
fusing to  accept  Christ  as  Messiah  during  His 
earthly  life,  he  was  converted  by  a  special 
appearance  to  him  of  the  Risen  Lord  (1  Cor 
15 '7).  We  can  well  believe  that  in  the  Naza- 
reth home  he  was  carefully  trained  in  all  the 
precepts  and  practices  of  the  Jewish  faith, 
and  to  that  faith  he  clung  with  deep  devotion 
all  through  his  life.  We  must  pictm-e  him  to 
ourselves,   not   as  one   of   those   false   Jews 


whose  observances  were  merely  formal  and 
external,  but  as  one  of  those  true  and  earnest 
Jews  whose  obedience  to  the  Law  was  a  joy 
and  an  inspiration — whose  life  was  lived  in 
the  spirit  of  Psll9.  His  sincere  and  spiritual 
Judaism  would  be  a  guide  to  lead  him  to 
Christ,  the  '  fulfiller '  of  the  Law  (Mt5i7). 
The  good  Jew  would  make  a  good  Christian. 
And  in  those  early  days  it  was  possible  to 
combine  observance  of  the  Law  with  obe- 
dience to  the  '  Royal  Law '  of  Christ.  To  St. 
James  Christianity  presents  itself  primarily 
as  a  Law  (125  212  411,12).  This  idea  is  found 
elsewhere  in  the  New  Testament  (Ro82  Heb 
87-13).  The  time  had  not  yet  come  when  (as 
in  the  crisis  which  called  forth  the  Epistle  to 
the  Hebrews)  it  was  necessary  to  choose  be- 
tween Judaism  and  Christianity.  And  so, 
even  as  '  bishop '  of  Jerusalem,  St.  James 
went  on  keeping  the  whole  Law,  although  he 
was  ready  to  grant  the  fullest  liberty  to  those 
Gentile  converts  who  had  never  been  Jews  by 
religion  (Ac  15).  He  combined  strong  per- 
sonal convictions  with  the  widest  sympathy 
with  the  views  of  others.  Hence,  although 
himself  a  strict  Jew,  he  could  act  cordially 
with  St.  Paul,  the  champion  of  Gentile  liberty. 
At  the  end  of  each  of  his  three  missionary 
journeys  the  Apostle  of  the  Gentiles  went  up 
to  Jerusalem  to  report  progress  to  St.  James 
(Ac  15,  1822  2118),  and  it  was  at  his  sugges- 
tion that  St.  Paul  undertook  the  Nazirite  vow 
in  the  Temple  which  led  to  the  attack  on  him 
of  the  unbelieving  Jews.  At  this  point  the 
narrative  of  the  Acts  leaves  St.  James  ;  but 
from  the  Jewish  historian  Josephus,  and  the 
converted  Jew  Hegesippus,  we  get  accounts 
of  his  death  which,  though  they  differ  in  de- 
tails, agree  in  their  main  facts.  From  them 
we  learn  that  he  was  held  in  great  esteem  by 
his  fellow-countrymen,  and  even  permitted  to 
enter  the  Temple.  A  Sadducean  high  priest, 
Ananus,  brought  him  before  the  Sanhedrin, 
and  caused  him  to  be  put  to  death  by  stoning, 
spite  of  the  remonstrances  of  all  the  better 
sort  of  Jews.  James  '  the  Just '  (as  he  was 
called  by  his  fellow-countrymen)  died  praying, 
like  St.  Stephen,  for  his  murderers,  a  few 
years  before  the  final  overthrow  of  Judaism 
by  the  Romans.  In  very  truth  he  was  taken 
away  from  the  evil  to  come.  Some  have  seen 
in  St.  James  the  Restrainer  of  2Th27,  after 
whose  removal  the  Jewish  apostasy  would 
stand  revealed,  and  receive  its  due  reward  in 
the  overthrow  of  the  nation  and  the  religion 
of  the  Jews. 

2.  The  Readers.     The  Epistle  is  addressed 


1031 


INTRO. 


JAMES 


INTRO, 


'  to  the  twelve  tribes  which  are  scattered 
abroad,'  not  exclusively  to  Christian  Jews, 
nor  even  to  the  Jews  of  Jerusalem  or  Pales- 
tine only,  but  to  all  Jews  scattered  throughout 
the  world.  It  is  important  to  realise  this  at 
the  outset,  since  it  will  help  to  explain  what 
might  oiherwise  be  a  difficulty — the  absence 
from  the  Epistle  of  any  distinctively  Chi'istian 
doctrine.  Christianity  is  there  indeed.  St. 
James  is  '  the  servant  of  the  Lord  Jesus 
Christ.'  His  faith  is  '  the  faith  of  our  Lord 
Jesus  Christ.'  But  all  through  the  Epistle 
his  appeal  is  chiefly  to  that  which  was  common 
to  unconverted  Jews  and  Christian  Jews  alike 
— the  belief  in  one  God,  and  reverence  for  the 
Old  Testament  Scriptures.  No  doubt  there 
are  special  messages  of  consolation  and  en- 
couragement to  the  devout  remnant  who  had 
accepted  Christ  as  their  Saviour  and  Messiah  ; 
but  he  evidently  hoped  that  his  letter  would 
be  read  by  a  wider  circle,  and  that  it  would 
appeal  to  all  earnest  souls  among  his  fellow- 
countrymen.  The  sins  he  denounces  are  those 
to  which  Jews  were  specially  tempted — love 
of  money,  oppression  of  the  poor,  profession 
without  practice,  and  the  like.  The  tone  and 
atmosphere  of  the  Epistle  are  Jewish.  Even 
the  allusions  to  natural  phenomena  are  drawn 
from  those  of  Palestine. 

3.  Date.  This  Jewish  tone,  and  the  absence 
of  any  allusion  to  the  controversies  which 
afterwards  distracted  the  Church,  combined 
with  the  simplicity  of  thought  and  the  absence 
of  any  discussion  of  exclusively  Christian 
topics,  points  to  an  early  date,  somewhere 
between  45  A.D.  and  49  a.d.  If  that  con- 
clusion be  correct  we  shall  see  in  the  Epistle 
a  '  golden  bridge  connecting  the  Old  and  New 
Testaments.'  Some  scholars,  however,  have 
assigned  it  to  a  later  date  in  the  life  of  St. 
James,  i.e.  about  60  a.d.  or  a  little  later, 
chiefly  on  the  ground  that  in  certain  passages 
he  appears  to  be  correcting  an  exaggerated 
view  of  the  teaching  of  St.  Paul  contained  in 
Ro4  and  Gal 3.  Certainly  there  does  appear 
to  be  a  resemblance  between  these  chs.  and 
Jas2,  but  it  must  be  remembered,  (1)  that  the 
questions  discussed  were  common  subjects  of 
debate  among  the  Jews,  and  might  therefore 
be  dealt  with  by  the  two  writers  quite  inde- 
pendently of  one  another  ;  and  (2)  that  the 
resemblance  may  be  explained  on  the  theory 
that  St.  Paul  was  acquainted  with  our  Epistle. 
Professor  J.  B.  Mayer,  indeed,  considers  that 
in  passages  like  RoS^-^  7^3  St.  Paul  has 
borrowed  from  St.  James.  On  the  whole, 
therefore,  the  earlier  date  seems  the  more 
probable. 

4.  Reception  in  the  Church.  In  the  first 
ages  of  the  Church  our  Epistle  does  not  seem 
to  have  been  widely  known.  St.  Clement  of 
Rome  (about  95  a.d.)  appears  to  have   been 


1032 


acquainted  with  it,  and  Hermas  (130-160  a.d.) 
has  various  allusions  to  it.  The  ancient  Jew- 
Christian  tract  known  as  the  '  Didache  '  (?  100 
A.D.)  has  two  or  three  passages  which  may 
refer  to  it.  But  it  was  not  included  in  the 
list  of  books  of  the  New  Testament  known  as 
the  Muratorian  Canon  (?  180  A.D.),  and  Euse- 
bius  of  CaBsarea  (4th  cent.)  says  that,  although 
it  was  generally  received,  there  were  doubts 
about  its  genuineness.  In  the  East  it  was  (as 
we  should  expect)  well  known.  It  is  found 
in  the  ancient  Peshitta  Syriac  version  as  well 
as  in  the  oldest  Egyptian  versions.  St.  Jerome 
had  no  doubts  about  it,  and  eventually  it  was 
universally  accepted.  Any  hesitation  there, 
may  have  been  about  admitting  it  into  the 
Canon  of  the  New  Testament  is  easily  under- 
stood when  we  remember  that  it  was  a  short 
letter  addressed  to  Jews,  and  that  there  was 
in  some  quarters  an  idea,  plausible  but  false, 
that  there  was  antagonism  between  St.  Paul 
and  St.  James.  There  is,  therefore,  no  valid 
reason,  either  in  the  character  of  the  Epistle 
or  in  its  reception  by  the  Church,  for  doubting 
the  opinion  of  the  vast  majority  of  Christians 
that  it  is  the  genuine  work  of  the  brother  of 
the  Lord,  and,  probably,  the  earliest  of  the 
writings  of  the  New  Testament.  Even  those 
who  assign  to  it  a  somewhat  later  date 
would  agree  with  Dean  Stanley  in  his  remark 
that  it  is  '  the  earliest  in  spirit '  if  not  in 
time. 

5.  Character  and  Contents,  Allusion  has 
already  been  made  to  the  Jewish  tone  and 
undeveloped  theology  of  the  Epistle,  as  well 
as  to  the  numerous  references  to  the  Old 
Testament  and  the  Apocrypha  which  meet  us 
at  every  turn.  The  question  may  therefore 
be  asked,  "What  is  the  special  value  to  us  Chris- 
tians of  to-day  of  this  brief  Judaic  Epistle 
with  its  somewhat  narrow  range  and  limited 
outlook  ?  If  we  approach  the  study  of  it 
from  the  right  point  of  view,  not  regarding  it 
as  a  treatise  on  Christian  theology,  but  rather 
as  a  practical  letter  on  Christian  ethics  treated 
from  the  standpoint  of  a  devout  Jew,  we  shall 
find  it  both  interesting  and  deeply  instructive. 
It  occupies  somewhat  the  same  position  in 
regard  to  the  other  Epistles  as  the  teaching 
of  St.  John  Baptist  does  in  the  gospel  narra- 
tive :  cp.  Jas  122-27  215,16  51-6  with  Mt3S-i2 
Lk3ii.  It  is  a  call  to  repentance,  and  whole- 
heartedness  and  reality  in  religion.  But  it  goes 
further  than  this.  Everywhere  we  find  the 
teaching  of  Christ  reproduced,  often  in  almost 
the  very  words  of  the  Master  :  cp.,  for  in- 
stance, Mt  5  34-37  619  72,16  1022  1236  184  with 
Jas5i2  52>3  213  312  112  31,2  19-10.  Notice 
also  the  resemblance  between  the  Magnificat 
(Lk  150-53)  and  Jas46.  No  doubt  the  sins 
rebuked  are  those  to  which  outwardly  respect- 
able Jews  were  very  prone,  but  they  are  sins 


INTRO. 


JAMES 


INTRO. 


which  in  this  age  of  the  Church's  history  also 
seem  specially  prevalent.  The  dangers  of  the 
possession  of  wealth,  and  the  temptations 
which  easily  beset  the  rich  man,  the  perils  of 
half-heartedness  and  of  the  attempt  to  com- 
bine the  service  of  God  with  the  service  of 
the  world,  the  undue  respect  for  mere  rank 
and  wealth,  the  anxiety  to  teach  instead  of 
to  learn,  sins  of  speech,  and  harsh  and  hasty 
judgments  of  others— all  these  things  confront 
us  to-day  in  other,  but  not  less  dangerous,  forms 
than  those  which  St.  James  attacked.  So  that 
we  shall  find  that  the  Epistle  is  in  many 
respects  singularly  modern  in  tone,  and  speci- 
ally helpful  to  us  in  dealing  with  modern 
problems,  which  after  all  are  only  the  old 
problems  in  a  new  guise. 

6.  Analysis.  It  is  not  easy  to  give  an 
analysis  of  an  Epistle  which,  at  first  sight, 
seems  to  be  rather  a  collection  of  ethical  pre- 
cepts than  a  connected  whole.  But,  if  we  look 
closer,  we  shall  find  one  great  leading  thought 
underlying  the  whole  and  binding  together  its 
various  sections.  And  that  thought  is  the 
central  doctrine  of  the  Old  Testament,  '  Hear, 
O  Israel,  the  Lord  our  God  is  one  Lord '  (Dt 
6*).  That  was  the  creed  of  every  devout  Jew, 
and  that  is  the  text  of  St.  James's  homily.  If 
God  is  one — one  in  Himself  as  well  as  the 
one  true  God — then  His  children,  made  in  His 
image  (Gn  1 26),  must  strive  to  be  like  Him.  In 
God  there  is  no  change  (1 1"^).  He  is  '  the  same 
yesterday  and  to-day  and  for  ever'  (HeblS^). 
He  is  wholly  good.  He  demands  from  His 
children  complete  sincerity  and  whole-hearted 
love  and  obedience  ;  hence  the  heinousness  of 
sins  like  want  of  faith  (1  ^),  hearing  without 
doing  (1  22),  inconsistency  in  religious  observ- 
ances (126  91),  partial  obedience  ('2iO),  using 
the  tongue  for  cursing  as  well  as  blessing  (3  9), 
the  attempt  to  combine  the  service  of  God 
with  the  service  of  the  world  (4  2).  With  this 
clue  in  our  hands  we  can  proceed  to  an  analysis 
of  the  Epistle. 

(Probably  the  author  of  the  Epistle  to  the 
Hebrews  alludes  here  and  elsewhere  to  St. 
James:  cp.  HebU^i  12ii  with  JasS^s  225. 
Possibly  Hebll  starts  with  a  definition  of 
faith  because  of  the  difficulties  raised  by  Jas 
214-26  HeblS'^' is  supposed  by  many  to  con- 
tain an  allusion  to  the  death  of  St.  James.) 

C.l.  1.  Salutation.  2-8.  Trial  from  with- 
out, a  source  of  joy  to  the  man  of  prayer  and 
faith.  9-12.  Poverty  is  an  example  of  those 
trials  which  may  become  joys.  The  reward  of 
patient  endurance.  13-18.  Trial  from  within 
(=  temptation)  ;  not  from  God,  but  from  a 
man's  own  sinful  inclinations.  God,  our  Maker, 
the  author  of  good  and  never  of  evil.  19-25. 
We  must  be  ready  to  listen  and  to  receive  the 
Word.  But  we  must  not  be  mere  listeners  ; 
we  must  be  doers.     26,  27.  Our  religious  ser- 


vice must  be  real  and  practical.  We  must 
carry  our  worship  into  life  by  showing  love 
and  sympathy  to  others. 

C.  2.  1-7.  An  instance  of  that  inconsistency 
of  life  which  is  unworthy  of  a  child  of  God — 
undue  respect  for  wealth  and  position.  8-13. 
As  God  is  one,  so  is  His  Law  one.  You  can- 
not break  a  part  without  violating  the  whole 
Law.  14-26.  Another  instance  of  inconsist- 
ency— '  faith  '  without  practice,  which  is  really 
no  faith  at  all. 

C.  3.  1,  2.  Warning  against  the  excessive 
desire  to  become  teachers  of  others.  The 
teacher's  work  is  one  of  great  responsibility. 
3-12.  All  are  liable  to  err,  especially  in  speech. 
The  tongue  is  a  terrible  power  for  mischief, 
and  often  leads  to  inconsistency.  With  the 
same  tongue  we  bless  God  and  curse  men. 
13-18.  The  true  wisdom  contrasted  with  the 
false. 

C.  4.  1-4.  Stern  denunciation  of  those  who 
pursue  worldly  pleasure.  Such  pursuit  leads 
to  crime  and  marks  a  man  as  the  enemy  of 
God.  He  is  a  jealous  God.  5-10.  God  resists 
the  proud  and  gives  grace  to  the  humble. 
Therefore  surrender  your  wills  to  Him,  and 
in  His  strength  fight  the  devil.  Repent  of 
your  sins  and  inconsistency  of  life,  and  then 
God  will  exalt  you.  11,  12.  Show  humility 
by  refraining  from  speaking  evil  of  your 
brethren.  By  so  speaking  you  sit  in  judg- 
ment upon  and  condemn  the  Law  of  God,  and 
even  the  Lawgiver  Himself.  13-17.  Stern 
prophetic  denunciation  of  those  who  form 
schemes  of  money-getting  without  any  thought 
of  God. 

C.  5.  1-6.  Denunciation  of  the  tyranny  and 
injustice  of  the  rich.  7-11.  Exhortation  to 
the  Christian  Jews  to  be  patient  and  uncom- 
plaining. The  Judge  who  will  right  all  wrong 
is  at  hand.  12-20.  Postscript.  Warning 
against  swearing.  The  right  use  of  sorrow 
and  joy.  The  sick  man  is  to  confess  to  the 
'  elders  of  the  Church,'  who  will  intercede  for 
him  with  God.  The  value  of  intercessory 
prayer,  especially  for  the  diseases  of  the  soul. 
The  man  who  saves  a  soul  from  death  brings 
a  blessing  to  himself  as  well  as  to  others. 

[The  changes  of  tone  from  stern  denuncia- 
tion to  tenderness  in  the  last  chs.  are  most 
likely  due  to  the  fact  that  St.  James  is  some- 
times addressing  non- Christian  Jews  and 
sometimes  his  '  beloved  brethren '  in  Christ. 
It  is  to  be  observed  that  the  sections  of  greatest 
severity  (4  !•*>  13-17  5 1-6)  never  employ  the  words 
'  brethren,'  '  my  brethren,'  which  are  character- 
istic of  the  rest  of  the  Epistle.  In  the  little 
Christian  communities  of  the  East  there  would 
not  be  many  rich  men.  Indeed,  the  Church 
of  Jerusalem  was  notoriously  poor  (Ac  1 1 29 
R0I526  1  Cor  16 1-3).  Probably  many  of  the 
Jew- Christians   were  in  the  employment  of 


1033 


1. 1 


JAMES 


2.1 


their  rich  fellow-countrymen,  who  would  cheat 
them  of  their  wages  and  oppress  them  (2^  5^.)] 

CHAPTER  1 

The  Power  of  Faith  under  Temptation 

1.  Servant]  better,  '  slave.'  The  word  does 
not  suggest  any  degradation,  but  only  absolute 
surrender  to  the  Master.  St.  James's  humility 
prevents  the  mention  of  the  earthly  relation- 
ship. Scattered  abroad]  RV  '  of  the  Disper- 
sion.' Jews  were  found  (sometimes  in  great 
numbers)  in  all  the  cities  of  the  Roman  empire. 
They  kept  up  their  connexion  with  the 
mother-country  by  going  up  to  the  great  Jewish 
feasts.  Greeting]  better,  '  joy  be  with  you.' 
This  form  of  salutation  is  found  elsewhere 
only  in  AclS"^^. 

2.  Temptations]  better, '  trials '  (from  with- 
out). Trials,  rightly  borne,  bring  joy.  The 
Christian  is  bidden  to  pray  '  lead  us  not  into 
temptation'  (=  trial)  ;  but  for  him,  trial,  when 
it  comes,  may  be  made  to  yield  '  peaceable 
fruit'  (Hebl2ii).  Out  of  bitter  may  come 
sweet.  3.  Trying]  RV  '  proof,'  or  '  process 
of  testing.'  4.  Perfect  and  entire]  better,  '  full 
grown  '  (Eph4i3),  and  '  complete '(ITh 5 23). 

6.  Wavereth]  RV  '  doubteth.'  Wave]  RV 
'  surge.'  St.  James  is  thinking  of  the  sudden 
storms  on  the  lake  of  Galilee.  This  is  the 
first  of  the  eleven  metaphors  drawn  from  the 
natural  phenomena  of  Palestine  which  recall 
our  Lord's  earlier  parables,  and  show  St. 
James  as  a  keen  observer  of  nature.  8.  A 
double-minded  man  is  unstable]  better,  '  he  is  a 
double-minded  man,  unstable,'  etc.  '  Double- 
minded  '  is  one  of  the  key-words  of  the  Epistle. 
It  implies  half-hearted  allegiance — an  attempt 
to  combine  the  service  of  God  with  the  service 
of  self  and  the  world  (Mt62't). 

9.  Rejoice]  better,  '  exult.'  Poverty  is  an 
instance  of  those  trials  which  may  become  joys. 
The  poor  man  is  to  exult  in  his  high  estate  as 
a  Christian  :  the  rich  man  is  to  glory  in  the 
loss  of  those  riches  which  are  so  dangerous 
and  so  fleeting.  11.  Burning  heat]  better, 
'sirocco,'  the  hot  wind  of  Palestine  which 
parches  vegetation.  Ways]  better,  '  goings  '  ; 
perhaps  used  of  the  journeyings  of  rich  mer- 
chants (4 13).  12.  When  he  is  tried]  RV  '  when 
he  hath  been  approved.'  Crown]  the  wreath 
that  crowns  the  victor  (2  Tim  4  s  Rev2i0). 

13-15.  Trials  from  within  (=  temptations). 
The  Jews  seem  to  have  sometimes  believed 
(from  a  mistaken  interpretation  of  passages 
like  2S241)  that  God  sent  temptations,  and 
that  it  was  therefore  impossible  to  resist 
them  (Ro  9  i9).  This  error  was  fatal  alike  to 
any  true  conception  of  God  and  to  any  real- 
isation of  human  responsibility.  It  made  the 
one  God  inconsistent  with  Himself.  God  is 
insusceptible  to  evil,  and  never  tempts  to  sin, 
though  He  may  permit  temptation,  in  order 


that  we  may  be  made  stronger  by  resisting  it. 
Temptation  comes  from  a  man's  own  heart, 
with  its  evil  desire,  that  draws  him  from  the 
right  path.  Desire  becomes  the  mother  of 
sin.     Sin  grows  up  and  has  a  child — death. 

17.  God  is  the  source  of  good,  and  of  good 
only.  Every  good  gift  and  every  perfect  boon 
(not  '  gift,'  as  AV)  comes  from  Him,  who  is 
the  creator  of  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars.  But, 
while  they  change  and  vary,  and,  as  they  re- 
volve, are  sometimes  in  shadow,  He  is  always 
the  same.  Shadow  of  turning]  RV  '  shadow 
that  is  cast  by  turning.'  18.  Begat]  RV 
'  brought  forth.'  It  seems  at  first  sight  natural 
to  see  in  this  v.  a  reference  to  the  new  birth  of 
baptism,  or  to  the  regenerating  power  of  the 
gospel  (1  Pet  123).  But  such  ideas  are  foreign 
to  the  simplicity  of  St.  James's  theological 
thought.  The  word  of  truth  is  the  divine 
word  which  brought  about  the  creation  of  man 
in  God's  image  (Gn  1 26).     Firstfruits]  see  Nu 

1521  Dtl83.4Rolll6. 

19.  Wherefore]  RV  '  ye  know  this.' 

20.  The  bitter  words  and  angry  passions  of 
men  will  never  bring  about  that  righteous- 
ness— that  entire  and  loving  obedience  to  His 
divine  will — which  God  requires  from  His 
children. 

21.  Superfluity  of  naughtiness]  better,  'over- 
flowing of  malice.'  The  much-speaking  of  the 
Jews  often  ended  in  evil-speaking. 

Engrafted]  RV  '  implanted.'  The  Word  is 
like  a  seed  lying  in  the  heart,  which,  under 
favourable  conditions,  would  grow  and  bear 
fruit  in  life. 

22-25.  Hearing  without  doing  is  useless. 
A  mere  hearer  is  like  a  man  who  glances  at  his 
natural  face  in  a  mirror  (1  Cor  13^2),  and  then 
goes  away  and  at  once  forgets  what  he  looks 
like.  But  the  man  who  practises  as  well  as 
hears  stoops  down  and  gazes  into  the  perfect 
Law  of  Christ,  obedience  to  which  is  perfect 
freedom.  He  remembers  the  ideal  of  Christian 
manhood  he  sees  there,  and  strives  to  realise 
it  in  life.    Thus  he  wins  blessing.    See  on  2^2. 

26.  Religion]  better,  '  religious  observance, 
the  outward  service  of  God.'  In  order  that  the 
service  and  worship  of  God  may  be  acceptable, 
the  man  who  offers  it  must  (1)  show  practical 
love  and  sympathy,  and  (2)  strive  after  per- 
sonal holiness  (Pss406-8  51 16, 17  l3alio-20); 
otherwise  he  is  inconsistent. 

CHAPTER   2 

Warnings  against  Respect  op  Persons. 
Belief  and  Practice 
I.  Another  instance  of  inconsistency.  Jesus 
Christ  the  Lord  of  glory]  better,  '  Jesus  Christ 
the  glory,'  or  '  the  glorious  one.'  One  of  the 
rare  passages  in  which  St.  James  breaks 
through  his  habitual  reserve  in  speaking  of 
the  Master,  and  shows  us  something  of   his 


1034 


2.2 


JAMES 


3.  1 


devotion  to  Christ.  Such  reserve  was  natural 
to  a  Jew.  2.  In  the  Jewish-Christian  Church 
the  place  for  worship  is  still  the  synagogue 
(HeblO'^^).  At  first  strangers  would  be 
admitted  (1  Cor  1416).  4.  Partial]  better, 
'  divided  '  between  Christian  duty  and  worldly 
interests. 

Judges  of  evil  thoughts]  better,  '  evil- 
thinking  judges.'  By  showing  undue  prefer- 
ence to  the  rich  man  you  judge,  and  judge 
wrongly,  as  to  the  relative  merits  of  the  rich 
and  the  poor  man  (see  4ii).  God,  the  Just 
Judge,  gives  greater  honour  to  the  pious  poor 
man.     He  is  an  heir  of  the  kingdom  (1^). 

6.  Josephus  ('  Ant.'  28. 8)  speaks  of  the 
cruelty  of  the  rich  Sadducees  to  the  poor  in 
Jerusalem  :  cp.  also  IsaS^^  Am4i,  and  many 
other  passages  from  the  prophets  of  the  OT. 
denouncing  the  cruelty  and  oppression  of  the 
rich.  7.  Worthy  name]  E.V  '  honourable  name.' 
For  baptism  into  the  name  of  Christ  see  Ac 
238.  For  the  expression  cp.  Ac  5*1  (EY)  Phil 
2  9.  By  the  -which  ye  are  called]  better,  '  which 
was  called  over  you,'  i.e.  probably  at  baptism. 

8.   Royal  law]  see  Lviyis  and  Mt  5  43-47. 

10.  It  might  be  said  that,  even  if  a  man 
transgressed  the  Law  of  Christ  in  the  matter 
of  respect  of  persons,  he  was  only  breaking  a 
small  part  of  that  Law.  Not  so.  The  Law, 
like  the  Lawgiver,  is  one.  To  break  any  com- 
mandment is  to  violate  the  whole  Law  of 
love,  the  unity  of  which  is  marred  by  any  dis- 
obedience. 

12.  The  law  of  liberty]  better,  'a  law  of 
liberty.'  There  can  be  no  true  liberty  without 
obedience.  A  Law  of  liberty  is  one  which  a 
man  obeys  freely,  not  because  he  must,  but 
because  it  is  a  Law  of  love,  which  is  gladly 
obeyed.  To  serve  the  Master,  Christ,  is  '  per- 
fect freedom.'  To  St.  James  even  the  OT.  Law 
— though  imperfect — was  something  higher 
than  a  mere  code.  He  saw  in  it  the  under- 
lying principle  of  love.  Thus  he  was  led  on 
to  find  in  the  Law  of  Christ  the  fulfilment  of 
the  old  Law.  13.  The  meaning  of  the  last 
phrase  probably  is.  The  unmerciful  and  un- 
loving man  is  condemned  without  pity  (Mt 
1821-35)^  but  the  merciful  man  is  triumphantly 
acquitted.  The  man  who  loves  is  '  justified ' 
by  God. 

14.  A  third  instance  of  inconsistency — great 
profession  of  belief  without  practice.  In  order 
to  understand  this  passage  we  must  bear  in 
mind  that  St.  James  is  here  using  the  word 
'  faith '  in  a  sense  opposite  to  that  of  1 3>  6, 
and  different  also  from  that  in  which  St.  Paul 
uses  it.  To  St.  Paul  faith  is  always  living  and 
loving  belief  in  Christ.  To  St.  James  (in  this 
passage)  faith  is  a  kind  of  '  otiose  assent,'  or 
at  any  rate  a  '  barren  orthodoxy,  untouched  by 
love.'  Similarly,  to  St.  Paul  '  works '  are  the 
works  of  the  Law — the  fulfilment  of  certain 


obligations  quite  apart  from  faith.  To  St. 
James  '  works '  are  the  necessary  fruits  of 
Faith,  without  which  Faith  in  any  true  sense 
cannot  exist.  That  the  two  writers  are  in 
substantial  agreement  is  shown  by  passages 
like  2Cor98  Eph2io  2Th2i7  lTim2io  510 
6 18  2  Tim  3 17  Tit  2  7,  w  3  8.  (gt.  James's  '  faith ' 
would  be  represented  in  St.  Paul's  language 
by  '  knowledge,'  and  his  '  works  '  by  '  the  fruits 
of  the  Spirit.')  The  difference  is  'merely  a 
difference  in  method  of  stating  the  truth.'  The 
two  writers,  '  like  trains  on  different  pairs  of 
rails,  cannot  collide,  though  they  may  seem  to 
be  in  danger  of  doing  so.'  The  further  ques- 
tion whether,  if  either  was  acquainted  with 
the  writings  of  the  other,  he  would  have  used 
phrases  liable  to  be  misunderstood,  is  one  not 
easy  to  answer  with  certainty ;  but  at  least  we 
may  say  that  it  cannot  be  regarded  as  proved 
that  either  of  the  two  had  read  the  work  of 
the  other.  It  is,  at  any  rate,  unlikely  that 
St.  James  had  read  St.  Paul. 

15-17.  Faith  without  practical  love  of  the 
brethren  is  dead.  The  reference  may  be  to 
the  famine  of  Ac  11 28-30.  Being  alone]  RV 
'  in  itself.'  18.  If  you  have  '  faith  '  without 
active  piety  to  be  its  evidence,  it  is  impossible 
for  any  one  to  be  sure  that  you  have  faith  at 
all.  19.  Tremble]  better,  'shudder.'  Even 
the  evil  spirits  have  a  kind  of  '  faith '  ;  and 
their  faith  bears  fruit  of  a  sort.  It  causes 
them  profound  fear  :  Mk  1 24  Lk8  28.  No  doubt 
St.  James  has  in  his  mind  these  incidents 
recorded  in  the  Gospels. 

20-25.  The  appeal  to  Scripture.  Abra- 
ham's readiness  to  sacrifice  his  only  son  was 
the  crowning  act  of  a  life  of  faith  which 
began  when  he  left  home  and  country.  By 
that  faith  he  was  '  justified  '  (i.e.  acquitted  at 
the  bar  of  God's  judgment),  and  called  God's 
friend  (Isa418).  So  also,  when  Eahab  re- 
ceived Joshua's  spies  and  saved  their  lives, 
her  faith  was  practical  (Josh 2 7  Heblisi 
1  Clem  12).  Rahab,  though  a  Gentile  and  an 
outsider,  was  sure  that  the  God  of  Israel  was 
the  one  true  God,  and  that  His  people  would 
be  victorious.  And  she  had  the  courage  of 
her  convictions.  She  showed  in  a  practical 
way  that  she  was  on  the  Lord's  side,  and  so 
was  rewarded  by  becoming  an  ancestress  of 
Christ  Himself  after  the  flesh  (Mt  1 5). 

26.  Without]  better,  '  apart  from.' 

CHAPTER  3 

The  Control  of  the  Tongue 

I,  2.  Warning  against  undue  eagerness  to 
teach:  cp.  Mtl237  237  Ro2if>,20  i  Cor  12  28 
1426-40  Eph4ii.  Masters]  better,  'teachers.' 
The  position  of  a  teacher  is  one  of  great 
responsibility.  Greater  condemnation]  RV 
'heavier  judgement'  (Lkl24S).  We  all  fre- 
quently err  (RV  'stumble,'  better  than  AV 


1035 


3.  4 


JAMES 


4.  5 


offend).  There  is  no  such  thing  as  human  in- 
fallibility. That  which  is  most  likely  to  cause 
us  to  err  is  the  tongue  (vv.  3-1 2).  4,  Governor] 
E.Y  '  steersman.' 

5.  Great  power  is  exercised  by  small  things 
like  a  horse's  bridle  and  a  rudder.  So  also  the 
tongue,  although  small,  is  very  powerful,  and 
generally  for  evil  rather  than  for  good.  How 
great  a  matter]  better,  '  how  great  a  wood.' 
A  tiny  spark  can  set  on  fire  a  great  forest. 

6.  The  tongue  is . .  a  world  of  iniquity]  better, 
'  the  tongue  maketh  itself  (or,  becometh)  like 
the  wicked  world.'  The  idea  conveyed  in  this 
difficult  passage  seems  to  be  that,  while  other 
members  can  sin  only  to  a  limited  extent,  the 
tongue  can  inspire  and  cause  a  whole  cycle  of 
wickedness — a  whole  world  of  evil.  '  There  is 
no  divine  law  which  the  tongue  cannot  break ' 
(E.  W.  Dale,  'Epistle  of  James,'  94).  Course 
of  nature]  perhaps,  '  the  wheel  of  nature  ' — 
the  whole  circle  or  sphere  of  life. 

Set  on  fire  of  hell  (EV  '  by  hell ')]  i.e.  the 
source  from  which  this  evil  activity  of  the 
tongue  springs  is  hell,  the  Gehenna  of  Fire. 

8.  Unruly]  better,  'restless,'  'unstable,' 
'  never  still.' 

9-12.  '  The  tongue  is  not  only  mischievous, 
but  also  gives  rise  to  inconsistency.  With  it 
we  bless  the  God  of  love  (and  thereby  profess 
that  we  are  striving  to  be  like  Him),  and  in  the 
same  breath  curse  our  fellow-men,  made  in  His 
image.  Nature  should  teach  us  to  avoid  such 
inconsistency.  The  purposes  of  nature  are 
clear  and  single.  Fig  trees  bear  figs,  and  vines 
grapes.  Salt  water  does  not  yield  fresh.'  The 
last  clause  means  that,  just  as  a  fountain  of 
bitter  water  cannot  yield  any  that  is  sweet,  so 
the  man  who  speaks  bitter  words  against  his 
fellow-men  cannot  truly  praise  or  love  God 
(lJn420). 

13.  Here  St.  James  returns  from  the 
digression  of  vv.  3-12  to  the  subject  of  vv.  1,  2. 
His  readers  desired  to  become  teachers.  But 
the  first  qualification  for  a  teacher  is  wisdom. 
True  wisdom  defined,  and  contrasted  with  its 
counterfeit.  Out  of  a  good  conversation]  EV 
'  by  his  good  life.'  True  wisdom  is  practical 
and  gentle  ;  false  wisdom  shows  itself  in  strife 
and  party  spirit.  If  a  contentious  man  boasts 
of  his  wisdom  he  is  a  liar.  15.  Sensual]  better, 
'  carnal,'  '  belonging  to  the  natural  man ' 
(1  Cor 2 14  IS'i-i).  17.  Easy  to  be  intreated] 
better,  '  teachable,'  ready  to  welcome  truth 
from  whatever  quarter  it  may  come,  not  re- 
fusing the  guidance  of  others.  Without  par- 
tiality] better,  '  free  from  double-mindedness.' 

18.  Of  them  that  make  peace]  better,  '  by 
peacemakers.'  The  wise  man  is  a  peacemaker 
who  sows  good  seed  that  in  God's  time  will 
bear  precious  fruit. 

To  sum  up.  The  heavenly  wisdom  is,  (1) 
chaste,  pure  (in  relation  to  its  possessor)  ;  (2) 


1036 


peaceable  (in  its  relation  to  others),  (a)  actively, 
'reasonable,'  (b)  passively,  'easy  to  be  per- 
suaded '  ;  (3)  practical,  '  full  of  pity  and  good 
works '  ;  (4)  certain  of  itself,  '  without  doubt- 
fulness,' and  therefore  '  without  hypocrisy.' 
Wisdom,  in  St.  James's  view,  is  moral  rather 
than  an  intellectual  quality. 

CHAPTEE  4 
Denunciation  of  Greed  and  Love 

OF  Pleasure 
I.  Lusts]  better,  '  pleasures.'  2.  '  You 
eagerly  desire  something  which  another  has 
and  you  have  not.  This  unregulated  desire 
may  lead  to  hate  and  even  murder  (cp.  Ahab, 
1K21),  but  even  so  your  covetous  desires  go 
on  ;  they  grow  by  what  they  feed  on.  Still  you 
have  not  got  your  desire.  Then  comes  the 
wholesale  murder  of  unjust  war  ;  and  yet  you 
are  unsatisfied,  because  you  try  to  get  things 
for  yom-selves,  instead  of  asking  God  for 
them.'  The  chief  difficulty  of  this  passage  lies 
in  the  words  'ye  kill.'  It  has  been  argued 
that  the  words  as  they  stand  are  out  of  place, 
and  that  the  early  Christians  of  St.  James's 
time  could  not  have  been  guilty  of  murder. 
It  has  been  suggested  that  the  true  reading  is 
a  word  translated  '  ye  are  envious.'  But,  (1) 
while  a  Christian  in  these  first  days  might  not 
have  been  guilty  of  actual  murder,  he  might 
well  have  given  *vay  to  those  feelings  of  hate 
which  lead  to  murder  ('Whosoever  hateth 
his  brother  is  a  murderer,'  1  Jn3i5)  ;  and,  (2) 
the  Epistle  was  not  meant  exclusively  for 
Christian  Jews,  In  the  Jewish  society  of 
St.  James's  day  murder  was  frequently  the 
first  means  by  which  a  man  sought  to  gratify 
his  desu-es  (MklS^  Ac 2 138  2314).  With  a 
passionate  people  like  the  Jews  there  was 
always  a  danger  of  a  sudden  attack  and 
murder. 

4.  Adulterers  and  adulteresses]  EV  'adul- 
teresses '  (without  '  adulterers  and '),  meaning, 
of  course,  those  who  have  forsaken  God.  The 
thought  is  very  common  in  the  OT.  (Isa573-9 
Jer  3  20  Ezk  1 6  Hos  2).  It  is  also  found  in  Mt 
1239.  The  metaphor  of  the  Church  as  the 
bride  of  Christ  occurs  in  EphS^s  and  other 
passages  of  the  NT. 

5.  The  spirit  that  dwelleth  in  us  lusteth  to 
envy]  better,  'God  longeth  eagerly  for  the 
spirit  that  He  planted  in  us.'  St.  James  is 
here  alluding  to  several  passages  in  the  OT. 
rather  than  quoting  accurately.  The  thought 
is  found  in  Ex  20  5  341*  Dt  4  24.  «  Q-od  is  a 
jealous  God,  but  His  jealous  love  is  very 
different  from  that  of  man.  It  shows  itself 
in  the  good  gift  of  more  grace.  He  longs 
that  the  spirit  of  man  should  be  drawn  more 
closely  to  Him,  and  become  like  Him.'  The 
above  is  the  best  rendering  of  a  disputed  pas- 
sage.    Others  translate,    'The  (Holy)    Spirit 


4.7 


JAMES 


5.16 


which  He  made  to  dwell  in  us  yearns  for  us.' 
But  there  does  not  seem  to  be  any  specific 
reference  to  the  work  of  the  Holy  Spirit  in 
this  passage. 

7-12.  Duty  to  God — humility,  sincerity, 
repentance.  Duty  to  man — to  live  in  love, 
and  refrain  from  slander  and  fault-finding. 

8.  Double  minded]  Notice  the  recurrence  of 
the  key-note  struck  in  1®.  9.  Heaviness] 
better,  'dejection.'  11.  When  a  man  speaks 
against  his  brother  he  is  practically  condemn- 
ing the  Law  of  Love,  and  thus  arrogating  to 
himself  the  office  of  a  judge.  Li  criticising 
that  Law  he  is  virtually  criticising  the  divine 
Lawgiver. 

13-C.  5^.  Stern  denunciation  of  the  pre- 
sumption and  tyranny  of  the  rich.  From  the 
Old  and  NT.  it  may  be  gathered  that,  on  the 
whole,  wealth  was  misused  by  the  Jews,  and 
that  therefore  the  '  mammon  of  unrighteous- 
ness '  was  an  occasion  of  sin  and  a  terrible 
temptation.  St.  James's  teaching  about  wealth 
is  put  in  a'brief ,  uncompromising  form,  without 
limitations  or  exceptions.  The  possession  of 
riches  is  regarded  as  a  danger.  But  that  a 
Christian  might  possess  wealth,  if  only  he 
recognised  that  he  was  a  steward  of  it(Lk  16  i^i^), 
is  clear  from  passages  like  1  Tim  6  i"-i9.  Zac- 
chaeus  (Lkl9i-9)  and  Joseph  of  Arimathaea 
(Mt27^'^)  were  both  rich,  and  both  disciples. 

13.  Such  a  city]  RV  '  this  city.'  The  pre- 
sumption rebuked  is  that  of  the  rich  (?  non- 
Christian)  Jewish  merchant  who  travelled  for 
purposes  of  gain.  14.  What  is  your  life?  It 
is  even  a  vapour]  RY  '  Ye  are  a  vapour.' 

CHAPTER  S 
Rebuke  and  Encouragement 

2.  Are  corrupted,  etc.]  prophetic  tense,  in 
which  the  future  is  spoken  of  as  though  it 
were  already  come  to  pass.  3.  For  the  last 
days]  RV  '  in  the  last  days.'  The  warning 
was  fulfilled  during  the  siege  of  Jerusalem, 
when  many  rich  Jews  were  slain  by  Zealots 
(Jos.  'Wars,'  5.  10).  4.  Lord  of  Sabaoth]  an 
OT.  phrase  =  '  Lord  of  Hosts.'  It  is  not 
found  elsewhere  in  the  NT.,  except  once  in  a 
quotation  (Ro  9  29).  5.  As  in  a  day  of  slaughter] 
omit  '  as,'  and  cp.  Jerl23  2b^-^.  6.  The  just] 
RV  '  righteous  one,'  may  refer  (as  AcSi-*  7^-) 
to  our  Lord,  but  is  perhaps  a  general  state- 
ment, although  in  that  case  the  plural  rather 
than  the  singular  would  naturally  be  used. 

7-1 1.  A  message  of  patience  and  hope  to 
the  persecuted  Christians. 

7.  There  will  be  a  final  Judgment,  when 
justice  will  be  done.  Therefore  be  patient 
(better,  '  longsuif ering,'  Ro  2  *).  8.  The  coming 
of  the  Lord]  here  clearly  the  reference  is  to 
the  Lord  Christ,  to  whom  St.  James  applies 
the  sacred  Name  given  by  the  Jews  to  God  the 
Father.     To  a  Christian  Jew  the  promise  was 


fulfilled  in  the  siege  and  destruction  of  Jeru- 
salem. Early  and  latter  rain]  Another  illus- 
tration from  Palestine  (Dtlli4  Jer524  Joel 2 28 
ZechlQi).  9.  Do  not  let  your  irritation  and 
soreness  at  outside  oppression  vent  itself  in 
impatience  and  gi-umbling  towards  one  another. 

11.  Patience]  better,  'endurance.'  This  is 
the  only  NT.  reference  to  Job,  though  the 
book  is  quoted  iCorS^^.  End  of  the  Lord] 
In  the  end  God  turned  Job's  sorrow  into  joy, 
and  showed  that  He  is  full  of  compassion  and 
mercy. 

12.  See  MtS^^-s'''.  It  was  a  common  Jewish 
sin  to  confirm  statements  by  an  oath  or  curse 
(Mt23i6  Mkl47i).  The  question  of  judicial 
oaths  is  not  touched  either  here  or  in  the 
Gospels.  Above  all  things]  i.e.  in  your  con- 
troversies and  quarrels  (referring  back  to  v  9) 
'  avoid  especially  the  use  of  an  oath  to 
strengthen  your  assertions  in  ordinary  conver- 
sation.' The  use  of  oaths  when  seriously  taken 
as  in  the  presence  of  God  was  allowed  both  by 
the  Old  and  the  NT.  (Dt6i3  Ps63ii  Isa65i6 
Jer42Rol9  9i  2Corl23ii3i^  etc).  13.  The 
true  means  of  sanctifying  times  of  excitement, 
whether  joyful  or  sorrowful.  We  must 
make  the  worship  of  God  the  outlet  for  our 
emotion. 

14-16.  In  order  to  understand  this  passage, 
round  which  much  controversy  has  raged,  we 
must  remember  that  it  was,  and  is,  a  Jewish 
custom  for  a  sick  man  to  make  his  confession 
to  some  rabbi  or  rabbis.  Elaborate  rules  to 
guide  those  who  receive  such  clinical  confes- 
sions are  found  in  the  Talmud.  St.  James  is 
telling  his  readers  that  this  custom  was  to  be 
continued  by  Christian  Jews,  and  that  the  con- 
fession of  the  sick  man  was  to  be  made  to  the 
clergy  ('  presbyters ')  of  the  Church.  They  would 
then  (1)  pray  over  him  for  the  pardon  of  his 
sins,  and  (2)  anoint  him  with  oil  (the  recognised 
remedy,  Isal^  Mk6i3  Lkl034).  By  these 
means  he  would  obtain  forgiveness  of  his  sins, 
and  (if  it  were  God's  will)  recover  from  his  sick- 
ness. It  is  scarcelj'  necessary  to  point  out 
that  the  Roman  Catholic  doctrine  of  Extreme 
Unction  receives  no  justification  from  this  pas- 
sage. In  the  Prayer-Book  ('  Office  for  the 
Visitation  of  the  Sick  ')  the  lines  laid  down 
by  St.  James  are  closely  followed.  To  a 
Jew  sickness  and  sin  were  associated  (Jn92). 

16.  Confess  ?/oz<r  faults]  RV  '  Confess  ^/iere- 
fore  your  sins,'  referring  back  to  the  previous 
vv.  St.  James  is  tlu-oughout  talking  about  the 
confession  of  a  sick  man  to  the  elders.  He 
does  not  touch  upon  the  wider  question  of  the 
lawfulness  of  confession  generally. 

The  effectual  fervent  prayer  of  a  righteous 
man]  better,  '  the  supplication  of  a  just  man 
availeth  much  in  its  working.'     Once  more  St. 
James    draws   his  illustration    from   the    OT 
Elijah,  though  a  great  and  holy  man,  was  yet 


1037 


5.  19 


JAMES— 1  PETER 


INTRO. 


a  man  of  like  nature  with  any  other  man. 
But,  being  holy,  he  was  mighty  in  interces- 
sion. His  intercessions  not  only  removed  the 
national  trouble,  sent  as  a  punishment  for 
national  sins,  but  also  (for  the  time,  at  least), 
brought  about  a  national  repentance  and  there- 
fore the  divine  pardon.  The  supplication  of 
Elijah  for  the  sick  nation  is  analogous  to  the 
supplication  of  the  presbyter  for  the  sick 
man. 

19.  The  glorious  privilege  of  the  man  who 
brings  a  human  soul  to  repent  and  believe. 


He  saves  a  soul  from  spiritual  death,  and  is 
himself  blessed. 

20.  The  concluding  words  (quoted  from 
ProvlQi^  and  found  also  in  1  Pet 4 8)  are 
usually  referred  to  the  sinner.  But  passages 
like  Ecclus330  Dan  4  27  Tob4io  129  show  that 
the  later  Jews  held  that  good  deeds  blot  out 
the  sins  of  those  who  do  them.  Probably  St. 
James  has  these  passages  in  his  mind,  and 
teaches  that  he  who  waters  others  shall  be 
watered  also  himself — that,  in  covering  the  sins 
of  another  a  man  may  be  covering  his  own. 


1  PETER 


INTRODUCTION 


1.  Author.  The  author  describes  himself 
as  '  Peter  an  apostle  of  Jesus  Christ '  through- 
out, and  there  is  no  reason  to  doubt  the  truth 
of  his  claim.  The  Christian  writers  who 
lived  nearest  to  apostolic  times  knew  the 
Epistle,  and  did  not  question  its  authorship, 
and,  as  soon  as  collections  of  apostolic  books 
were  formed,  we  find  it  included  in  them. 
Only  in  modern  times  have  objections  been 
raised,  on  the  ground  that  such  widespread 
and  severe  persecution  as  the  letter  implies 
was  unknown  during  St.  Peter's  lifetime,  and 
that  the  author  is  more  indebted  to  St.  Paul's 
Epistles  than  St.  Peter  was  likely  to  be. 
These  objections  disappear  when  the  Epistle 
itself  and  the  relations  of  St.  Peter  to  St. 
Paul  are  carefully  studied. 

2.  Occasion  and  Contents.  That  both 
writer  and  readers  were  expecting  a  severe 
persecution  is  the  first  and  strongest  impression 
which  the  letter  leaves  on  us.  But  this  '  fiery 
trial '  is  only  expected  ;  it  is  not  even  certain 
that  it  will  come  at  all  (3i*-i7).  As  yet 
there  has  been  sufEering  from  slander  and 
isolation,  but  now  something  worse  is  certainly 
looked  for.  What  had  caused  this  expectation  ? 
In  64  A.D.  there  had  been  a  great  fire  at  Rome, 
which  the  Emperor  Nero  was  suspected  of 
having  caused.  He  directly  afterwards  put 
to  death  a  large  number  of  Christians  in  order 
to  quiet  the  people.  Trustworthy  tradition 
says  that  both  St.  Paul  and  St.  Peter  were 
slain  in  the  persecution  that  thus  began  ;  it  is, 
however,  not  improbable  that  St.  Paul  suffered 
some  years  before  St  Peter.  This  news  would 
soon  spread  to  the  Christians  in  all  parts  of  the 
empire,  who  would  naturally  begin  to  fear  for 
themselves.  The  Christians  to  whom  this 
Epistle  was  written  dwelt  in  districts  of  Asia 


Minor,  all  of  which  probably,  and  two  of  which 
certainly,  were  connected  with  St.  Paul.  It 
was  carried  by  Silvanus,  the  friend  of  St. 
Paul.  It  is  then  reasonable  to  suppose  that 
St.  Peter  wrote  to  these  people  soon  after  St. 
Paul's  martyrdom,  being  himself  at  the  time 
in  Rome,  surrounded  by  the  sorrows  and 
dangers  of  a  terrible  persecution,  to  encourage 
them  to  meet  the  trial  steadfastly,  if,  as  they 
feared,  it  should  reach  them.  Silvanus  would 
tell  them  all  there  was  to  tell  about  then- 
master  Paul.  The'  letter  from  St.  Peter 
would  show  that  they  were  still  cared  for  by 
an  Apostle,  to  whom  some  of  them  probably 
owed  their  conversion  on  the  first  Whit 
Sunday  :  cp.  Ac 2  9'-  and  1  Pet  1 1.  It  contained 
too  encouragement  of  a  deeper  kind.  St. 
Peter  begins  by  greeting  them  in  the  name  of 
the  Holy  Trinity  ;  reminds  them  that  all 
events  have  their  source  in  God's  foreknow- 
ledge ;  that  this  trial  is  part  of  His  eternal 
purpose,  and  that  they  are  therefore  sure  of 
His  protection  ;  that,  if  the  veil  were  lifted, 
as  one  day  it  will  be,  they  would  see  the 
divine  power  and  glory  surrounding  them  ; 
that  Christ's  work  was  done  through  suffering, 
and  that  suffering  is  the  proper  state  of  Chris- 
tians, and  the  condition  of  their  happiness  and 
hope,  for  safety  from  the  perils  of  this  life  is 
a  little  matter  to  those  who  are  heirs  of  eternal 
safety  ;  that  the  Holy  Spirit,  who  in  times 
past  gave  ancient  Israel  its  Messianic  hope,  is 
with  them  still,  making  them  the  people  of 
Christ,  the  manifested  Messiah,  binding  to- 
gether the  whole  brotherhood  throughout  the 
world  for  the  fulfilment  of  God's  single 
purpose,  and  enabling  them  to  live  as  a  con- 
secrated people  should.  '  In  quietness  and 
confidence  shall  be  your  strength  '  is  the  sum 


1038 


INTRO. 


1  PETER 


INTRO. 


of  his  encouragement.  Those  whom  the 
heathen  scorn  as  '  Christians  '  must  live,  and, 
if  need  be,  suffer,  as  men  would  who  are  like 
Christ,  being  holy,  gentle,  courteous,  loyal, 
giving  no  occasion  for  real  offence.  Even  the 
imperial  authority  is  to  be  respected  ;  what- 
ever Nero's  conduct  may  be,  his  office  is  of 
divine  appointment.  But  more  than  that  : 
Christ's  sufferings  were  sacrificial  ;  through 
them  He  saved  sinners,  and  through  death  the 
scope  of  His  redeeming  work  was  enlarged. 
So  through  their  sufferings — to  which  they 
have  been  consecrated  by  the  sprinkling  of 
Christ's  Blood — these  Christians  may  be  the 
means  of  bringing  even  their  persecutors  to 
salvation. 

3.  General  Remarks  on  the  Epistle.  No  one 
was  better  fitted  than  St.  Peter  to  write  such  an 
Epistle.  The  Lord  had  named  him  Peter  the 
Rock ;  and  though  his  conduct  in  gospel  days 
may  sometimes  have  seemed  to  belie  the  name, 
yet  his  later  life  showed  that  Christ  had  judged 
his  character  aright,  and  had  by  His  discipline 
'  stablished  and  strengthened '  his  steadfastness. 
He  stood  firm  in  Jerusalem  before  persecuting 
rulers,  and  knew  how  persecution  should  be 
met. 

His  speeches,  as  recorded  in  Acts,  show  that 
he  was  sustained  in  those  days  by  the  same 
kind  of  thoughts  as  he  expresses  in  this  Epistle 
— obedience  is  the  great  duty  ;  the  sufferings 
of  Christ  were  appointed  by  God,  and  were 
not  the  chance  triumph  of  His  enemies  ;  they 
involved  humiliation,  rejection,  and  the  curse 
of  the  Tree  ;  they  led  to  the  Resurrection  which 
was  due  to  the  act  of  the  Father,  and  is  the 
source  of  Christian  hope  ;  now  He  sits  supreme 
at  the  right  hand  of  God,  and  has  poured  forth 
upon  His  people  the  Holy  Spirit  of  whom  He 
had  received  the  promise  from  the  Father : 
from  thence  He  shall  come  at  the  time  of  the 
restoration  of  all  things  to  judge  the  quick  and 
dead.  Jesus  of  Nazareth  is  the  Messiah,  of 
whom  prophets  spoke,  and  for  whom  Israel 
hoped.  Forgiveness  and  repentance  come  from 
Him,  and  through  faith  in  His  name  is  safety 
and  salvation.  The  Apostles  are  His  witnesses, 
and  so  is  the  Holy  Spirit  in  His  people.  All 
that  has  happened  since  He  came  is  the  out- 
come of  past  history,  and  there  has  been  no 
break  in  the  life  of  the  people  who  are  God's 
peculiar  care  ;  among  them  the  believing  Gen- 
tiles are  also  reckoned. 

There  has  however  been  some  progress  in 
the  Apostle's  mind  between  the  speeches  and 
the  Epistle.  Christ's  sufferings,  once  his  stum- 
bling-block, had  become  reasonable  to  him 
after  the  Resurrection  ;  now  he  sees  that  they 
are  the  beginning  of  His  glory  and  the  great 
means  of  His  salvation.  Now  he  understands, 
as  he  scarcely  did  then,  their  sacrificial  char- 


did  on  the  Christian  privilege  of  suffering  for 
others,  and  aiding  to  advance  the  salvation  of 
the  world.  It  is  remarkable  that  Ac  2^1  is  the 
closest  parallel  that  can  be  found  in  NT.  to 
1  Pet  3 18*-,  but  that,  whereas  in  the  speech 
Christ's  continued  life  in  the  spirit  is  alone 
mentioned,  in  the  Epistle  the  subject  is  the 
extension  of  His  redeeming  work  to  those  who 
seemed  to  have  perished  beyond  hope. 

This  development  is  natural  in  an  Apostle 
who  had  for  years  been  testing  by  experience 
the  power  of  the  gospel,  but  it  is  likely  that 
St.  Paul  had  been  a  special  aid  to  him.  From 
Gal2ii-i'i  some  have  imagined  that  there  was 
the  same  continued  opposition  between  them  as 
there  was  between  St.  Paul  and  the  narrow  Ju- 
daising  conservatives  who  '  came  from  James.' 
But  the  broad  lesson  of  NT.  is  that  the  Apo- 
stles, in  spite  of  differences  of  training  and 
temperament,  were  agreed  on  all  important 
points,  and  were  strong  enough  to  overcome 
the  scruples  and  opposition  of  these  Judaisers. 

This  Epistle  seems  to  have  been  written  to 
Churches  which  were  mainly  composed  of 
Gentile  Christians  ;  but  the  old  disputes  about 
the  Law  have  long  ago  been  settled  ;  there  is 
no  trace  of  them  here  ;  the  Church  is  no  longer 
divided  ;  all  Christians  alike  are  simply  the 
inheritors  of  ancient  Israel.  There  is  then 
nothing  strange  in  finding,  as  we  certainly  do, 
that  St.  Peter  has  studied  Epistles  of  St.  Paul 
with  care.  With  Romans  and  Ephesians  in 
particular,  it  is  plain  that  he  is  thoroughly 
familiar.  To  quote  detached  verses  would 
hardly  be  convincing.  Most  of  the  parallels 
are  pointed  out  in  the  notes,  and  it  will  be 
seen  that  the  thoughts  of  whole  passages  are 
reproduced  with  just  that  kind  of  difference 
which  would  be  expected  if  the  resemblance 
were  due  to  memory,  not  copying.  St.  Peter 
has  borrowed  nothing  which  he  has  not  made 
his  own.  He  does  not  follow  St.  Paul  in  his 
use  of  •  flesh  '  for  man's  lower,  corrupt  nature, 
or  of  '  soul  '  for  that  part  of  man's  compound 
being  which  he  shares  with  all  that  lives,  but 
gives  to  these  words  the  simple  meaning  which 
they  bear  in  the  Gospels.  Nor  does  he  speak 
of  faith  quite  as  St.  Paul  does  ;  faith  in  this 
Epistle,  as  in  Hebrews,  is  akin  to  hope;  it  is 
belief  in  that  which  shall  at  last  be  revealed. 
He  twice  uses  the  phrase  '  in  Christ,'  but  does 
not,  like  St.  Paul,  make  it  the  very  centre  of 
his  theology.  The  doctrine  which  it  implies, 
and  which  was  derived  from  our  Lord  Himself, 
is  found  indeed  in  St.  Peter,  but  he  lays  on 
the  whole  more  stress  on  following  Christ  as 
a  leader  than  on  the  mystical  union  with  Christ, 
which  St.  Paul  realised  vividly.  In  Ephesians 
the  immediate  coming  of  Christ  seems  to  be 
no  longer  expected  ;  a  long  course  of  develop- 
ment in  the  Church  is  looked  for.     But  St. 


acter,  and  therefore  lays  more  stress  thaji  he     Peter,  with  the  fearful  signs  of  the  changed 

1039 


INTRO. 


1  PETER 


1.2 


time  before  him,  writes,  '  The  end  of  all  things 
is  at  hand.'  He  never  applies  the  title  of 
Church,  so  frequent  in  that  Epistle,  to  the 
Christian  community. 

That  the  Epistle  of  St.  James  had  been 
studied  also  by  St.  Peter  seems  certain,  and  if 
this  was  written  at  an  early  date  in  Palestine, 
he  may  have  done  so  in  his  Palestinian  days. 
Cp.  lPetl7,i2,244855with  Jasl3,ii,25  46520. 

He  presents  us  indeed  in  this  Epistle  with 
'Thoughts,    sometimes  new  and  rare,  but  chiefly 
di'awn 
Out  of  the  treasure-house  of  memories  dear,' 

and  the  dearest  of  those  memories  are  of  his 
Lord.  Christ's  sufferings;  the  new  life  of 
hope  which  began  with  the  Resurrection  ;  the 
restoration  of  the  fallen  Apostle  when  Christ 
bade  him  '  Feed,  tend,  My  sheep,  My  lambs'  ; 
the  .Saviour  washing  the  disciples'  feet  with 
the  towel  knotted  round  Him  ;  the  Apostle's 
own  confession  that  Jesus  was  the  Christ, 
and  the  Lord's  answer,' Happy  art  thou,  Simon' 
— these  are  some  of  the  gospel  memories 
which  he  unobtrusively  introduces  into  his 
letter,  and  all  through  it  we  perceive  his 
longing  to  see  his  beloved  Lord  again. 

4.  Two  points  remain  for  special  notice. 
(1)  If  St.  Peter  wrote  from  Rome  why  does 
he  say  '  She  that  is  in  Babylon  saluteth  you  ' 
(513  RV)  ?  In  Revelation  Babylon  means 
Rome.  It  is  not  unlikely  that  St.  Peter 
should  have  applied  the  name,  even  at  an 
earlier  time,  to  the  city  which  was  already 
being  stained  with  the  blood  of  the  saints. 
That  title  for  Rome  would  correspond  with 
the  Jewish  titles  which  he  gives  to  the 
Gentile  Christians.  There  is  no  trustworthy 
evidence  that  he  ever  went  to  the  real  Babylon. 
St.  Mark,  from  whom  greeting  is  sent,  was 
summoned  to  Rome  by  St.  Paul  just  before 
his  martyrdom  (2  Tim  4  H).  The  order  in 
which  the  districts  are  named  can  only  be 
explained  if  the  letter  was  sent  by  sea.  The 
two  Epistles  of  St.  Paul  which  have  particu- 
larly influenced  its  thought  and  language  were 
connected  with  Rome  ;  so  was,  probably,  the 
Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  which  has  much  in 
common  with  1  Pet.  Everything  points  in  the 
same  direction — that  by  Babylon  St.  Peter 
means  Rome,  and  probably  Rome  become  fear- 
ful by  Nero's  persecution.     See  also  on  5^2,13 

(2)  The  Epistle  is  written  in  remarkably 
good  Greek,  and  is  more  like  the  work  of  a 
careful  student  than  of  a  Galilean  fisherman. 
We  feel,  as  we  read  it,  the  same  surprise  as 
the  rulers  did  when  they  found  that  St.  Peter 
and  St.  John  were  'unlearned  and  ignorant 
men'  (Ac 4 13).  But  Greek  was  much  used  in 
Palestine,  and  even  a  fisherman  of  Galilee 
would  know  how  to  speak  it  tolerably.  The 
rulers  in  their  amazement  '  took  knowledge  of 
them  that  they  had  been  with  Jesus,'  and  the 


companionship  of  a  great  character  does  raise 
a  man's  style.  So  does  familiarity  with  such 
books  as  the  OT.  Scriptures  and  the  Epistles 
of  St.  Paul;  nor  does  the  greatness  of  his 
theme  itself  fail  to  affect  the  writer.  If 
further  explanation  is  needed,  it  may  perhaps 
be  found  in  IPetS^^,  where  the  meaning  may 
quite  well  be,  '  I  have  used  Silvanus  as  my 
secretary;  he  has,  I  am  sure,  given  my  thoughts 
faithfully,  though  he  has  written  them  out  in 
his  own  language.' 

CHAPTER  1 

Greeting  in  the  Name  of  the  Holy 

Trinity.    Encouragement  to  hope   in 

Faith  and  Obedience 

I,  2.  To  the  strangers  scattered  throughout 
.  .  elect]  RV  '  to  the  elect  who  are  sojourners 
of  the  Dispersion  in,'  etc.  The  RV  order  shows 
that  the  present  circumstances  of  his  readers, 
as  well  as  their  election  and  his  own  apostle- 
ship,  are  all  according  to  the  foreknowledge 
of  God.  Elect]  i.e.  chosen.  Christians,  like 
Israel  of  old,  are  God's  chosen  people.  The 
'  Dispersion  '  was  a  term  used  to  describe  the 
Jews  who  had  been  scattered  among  the 
nations  since  the  time  of  the  captivity  :  cp. 
Isalli2  ZephSio  Jn735  Jasli.  Pontus, 
Galatia,  etc.]  These  names  include  the  whole 
of  what  we  call  Asia  Minor,  N.  and  W.  of  the 
Taurus  range.  The  order  is  natural  if  we 
suppose  St.  Peter's  messenger  carried  the  letter 
from  Rome  to  a  port  of  Pontus,  then  made  a 
circuit  with  it,  and  returned  to  the  same  port. 
St.  Paul  had  preached  in  part  of  this  country  : 
cp.  Ac  1 6  *>.  There  were  men  from  Cappadocia, 
Pontus,  and  Asia  at  Jerusalem  on  the  day  of 
Pentecost  (Ac  2  9).  2.  The  foreknowledge  of 
God]  cp.  1 20  RY.  The  whole  course  of  events 
which  are  gradually  revealed  to  man  is  known 
to  God  from  everlasting  :  cp.  Ro  4  ^'^  and  8  29 
Heb  1 1 40  (RM)  Rev  4  n  (R V).  Through  sancti- 
fication]  RV  '  in  sanctification.'  God's  chosen 
people  are  surrounded  by  the  influences  of  the 
Holy  Spirit.  By  these  they  are  brought  to 
consecration  and  guided  afterwards  to  more 
and  more  perfect  obedience. 

Sprinkling  of  the  blood]  Sacrificial  sprinkling 
is  meant:  cp.  Heb9i3.i9.2i  10 22  1224.  The 
expression  is  peculiar  to  these  two  Epistles, 
and  the  reference  in  both  is  to  the  sacrifices  at 
the  giving  of  the  Law  at  Sinai  (Ex  24  3-8),  where 
sprinkling  with  the  blood  of  slain  victims  was 
the  means  of  purifying  and  consecrating  the 
people  for  entering  on  the  divine  covenant,  in 
which  they  were,  on  the  one  hand,  accepted  as 
Jehovah's  people,  on  the  other,  obliged  to 
obedience.  So  God's  foreknowledge,  working 
in  the  Spirit's  sanctification,  has  chosen  a 
people  to  be  consecrated  to  fellowship  and 
obedience  in  the  new  covenant.  But  the 
sprinkling  with  this  Blood  is  no  mere  symbol ; 


1040 


1.  3 


1  PETER 


1.9 


the  blood  is  the  life  which  has  been  made  per- 
fect by  death  (cp.  LvlT^i),  and  when  the 
Christian  is  sprinkled  with  Christ's  Blood,  he 
is  made  to  share  His  life,  and,  at  the  same  time, 
consecrated  to  an  obedience  which  may  have 
to  be  unto  death.  Grace .  .  and  peace]  An 
apostolic  salutation,  perhaps  suggested  by  the 
priestly  blessing  in  NuG^s-^'i'.  In  the  word 
'  grace  '  is  gathered  up  '  all  that  may  be  sup- 
posed to  be  expressed  in  the  smile  of  a 
heavenly  King  looking  down  upon  His  people ' 
(Hort). 

In  this  greeting  we  have,  as  it  were,  the 
ends  of  the  threads  which  are  presently  inter- 
woven to  make  the  texture  of  the  Epistle. 
'  Elect  who  are  sojourners '  sums  up  in  an 
epigram  the  contrast  between  the  outward 
uncertainty  which  was  the  occasion,  and  the 
inward  assurance  of  peace  and  duty  which  is 
the  teaching  of  the  whole  Epistle.  Thus  the 
doctrine  of  the  Holy  Trinity  on  which  the  greet- 
ing is  based,  becomes  the  text  of  the  Apostle's 
exhortations.  From  1  ^-2  lo  the  sanctification 
of  the  Spirit  issuing  in  the  Christian  life  of 
faith  and  obedience  is  the  main  theme.  From 
211-411  the  sufferings  of  Christ  are  presented 
as  the  example  and  purification  of  those  whose 
ordinary  lot  is  to  suffer.  From  4 1^-5  n  the 
special  and  fiercer  trial  which  is  about  to 
begin  is  shown  to  be  part  of  the  foreknowledge 
and  counsel  of  God. 

1 3-2 10.   The  first  division  of  the  letter  : 

A  (i),  1 3-9,  the  faith  of  Christians,  (ii),  1 10-12, 
its  connexion  with  the  faith  of  ancient  Israel ; 
B  (i),  1 13-21,  the  life  of  obedience  to  which 
their  faith  devotes  them  is  (ii),  122-25^  ^  new 
life,  (iii),  2  i-io,  which  is  nevertheless  the  fulfil- 
ment of  the  ideal  of  the  Jewish  Chm-ch. 

A  (i).  1 3-9.  '  Blessed  be  God  who  has  be- 
gotten us  to  a  living  hope  through  the  Resur- 
rection. Laying  hold  of  this  hope  by  faith, 
you  know  that  you  are  being  kept  safe,  though 
trials  beset  you.  These  trials  but  purify  your 
faith,  enriching  it  with  joyful  love  for  Jesus 
Christ,  the  earnest  of  the  perfect  salvation, 
which  shall  be  revealed  when  He  is  revealed.' 

3.  Hath  begotten]  RV  '  begat ' :  the  RV 
rendering  brings  the  moment  of  begetting 
before  us.  The  Resurrection  must  have  been 
to  all  the  Eleven,  and  to  St.  Peter  especially, 
such  a  change  from  despair  to  hope  as  could 
only  be  expressed  as  a  beginning  of  new  life  : 
cp.  Ro  6  4  Eph  2  5  Phil  3 10.  4.  Inheritance]  The 
land  of  promise  (Heb  11 9)  was  the  inheritance 
of  Israel.  During  all  their  wanderings  this 
was  reserved  for  them,  but  they  were  taught 
in  many  ways  that  it  was  a  type  of  a  better 
inheritance.  This  inheritance  is  reserved  for 
the  true  Israel  in  heaven.  It  cannot  be  cor- 
rupted, as  the  earth  was  in  the  days  of  Noah 
(Gn  6 11),  or  defiled  as  Canaan  was  by  abomina- 


tions (Lvl827  Dt2l23  Jer27),  and  the  Temple 
by  the  heathen  (Ps79i),  nor  do  its  flowers  or 
fruits  fade  away  (Isa  32 15  60 13,  BlU):  cp.  2Pet 
3 13.  5.  Kept]  RV  '  guarded ' :  cp.  Gal  3  23  Phil 
47.  Salvation]  RV  -a  salvation.'  The  Gk. 
means  '  safety,'  '  health,'  and  is  so  used  in 
Ac273i  Heb  11 7.  It  must  have  had  to  all 
early  Chi-istians  some  of  the  freshness  of  a 
metaphor  (cp.  The  Order  of  the  Visitation  of 
the  Sick  :  '  in  whom,  and  through  whom,  thou 
mayest  receive  health  and  salvation '),  and  here, 
as  in  Ac  4 12,  St.  Peter  seems  to  pass  from  the 
simple  to  the  deeper  significance.  In  the  last 
time]  The  Gk.  might  be  rendered, '  in  a  time  of 
extremity,'  i.e.  when  things  are  at  the  worst : 
cp.  Dan  121. 

6.  Ye  greatly  rejoice]  as  the  Lord  bade 
His  disciples  to  do  in  tribulation  (Jnl633; 
cp.  1511  1G2^).  Joyfulness  characterised  the 
earliest  disciples.     Temptations]  RM  '  trials.' 

7.  The  trial  of  your  faith]  RV '  The  proof 
of  your  faith.'  St.  Peter  means  it  is  worth  while 
to  purify  even  perishable  gold,  much  more 
your  faith  (cp.  Job 23 10  Ps66io  Provl73 
Zechl39,  and  especially  Isa48io  Ecclus25)  ; 
but  he  expresses  it  a  little  inaccurately,  as 
though  the  proof,  not  the  thing  proved,  were 
precious  :  cp.  Jas  1 2.  It  is  St.  Peter's  habit 
to  speak  somewhat  scornfully  of  gold  :  cp.  1 18 
33  52  Ac 3*5.  8.  A  generous  touch.  The 
Apostle  who  has  seen  admires  the  love  and 
joy  of  believers  who  have  not  seen  the  Lord  ; 
cp.  Jn2029.  Full  of  glory]  in  which  God 
dwells:  cp.  Ex3429f.  lTim6i6.  Faith  leads 
into  the  presence  of  God,  and  adds  to  joy 
something  which  is  unspeakable  and  divine  : 
cp.  Phil  4  7.  9.  The  end  of  your  faith]  i.e. 
the  final  result  of  it,  which  they  are  already 
in  process  of  receiving,  though  it  is  not  yet 
fully  theirs.  The  salvation  of  youi-  souls] 
There  is  no  word  for  '  your  '  in  the  Gk.  St. 
Peter  directs  the  thoughts  of  his  readers 
beyond  their  own  small  circle  :  cp.  5^  2  Pet  1  7 
(R  V).  Throughout  this  Epistle,  except  perhaps 
in  the  quotation  3  20, '  soul '  means  the  true  life, 
the  very  self:  cp.  I22  2ii>25  4i9  2  Pet  28.14. 

A  (ii).  1 10-12.  This  salvation  is  no  new 
thing.  The  prophets  knew  something  of  it, 
and  sought  to  learn  more.  In  them,  as  in 
kings  and  priests,  and  to  some  extent  in  the 
whole  nation,  there  was  the  Messianic  Spirit, 
and  they  understood  that  sufferings  and  glories 
were  destined  for  the  Messiah.  The  exact 
time  when  these  should  be  fulfilled  they  could 
not  tell,  but  so  much  at  least  was  revealed  to 
them — that  they  were  serving  God  for  gener- 
ations yet  to  come.  What  the  Spirit  in  them 
dimly  showed,  those  who  have  preached  to 
you  by  the  same  Spirit  have  plainly  an- 
nounced ;  what  is  still  to  follow,  angels  are 
looking  forth  from  heaven  to  see. 


66 


1041 


1.  10 


1  PETER 


1.  23 


10.  Searched  diligently]  studying  the  sacred 
writings  that  already  existed,  observing  the 
signs  of  the  times,  meditating  on  the  spiritual 
significance  of  worship,  and  trying  to  discern 
God's  true  will  in  the  inward  impulses  by 
which  they  were  themselves  moved  :  cp.  Jer 
1519.  Thus  they  'tested  things  not  seen' 
(Heblli  RM).  II.  What,  or  what  manner  of 
time]  the  second  expression  corrects  the  first. 
The  prophets  learnt  not  to  expect  too  definite 
a  message.  The  sufferings  of  Christ]  RM 
'  unto  Christ,'  i.e.  that  should  come  unto 
Christ.  12.  From  heaven]  as  in  v.  4,  repre- 
sented as  a  place.  The  visible  heavens  are 
a  symbol  of  the  spiritual  heaven,  which, 
without  such  a  symbol,  we  can  hardly  think 
of  at  all  ;  but  our  Lord's  words  in  LklT^i 
warn  us  not  to  press  human  language  too  far  : 
cp.  319.22.  To  look  into]  The  Gk.  word 
means  '  to  look  as  out  of  a  window.'  The 
angels  from  the  heights  of  heaven,  if  we  may 
thus  carry  on  the  symbolic  language,  have  a 
wider  view  than  ours,  and  watch  the  results 
of  Christ's  redeeming  work  coming  one  after 
another  into  view. 

B  (i).  1 13-22_  '  Such  faith  and  hope  belong  to 
your  life  of  sanctification  ;  but  so  does  obedi- 
ence. Sanctification  indeed  means  a  holy  life. 
Christ's  redemption  has  allowed  you  to  call 
the  Judge  of  all  men  Father  ;  but  you  may 
not  therefore  fear  Him  less ;  indeed,  life  be- 
comes more  awful  when  you  think  of  the 
price  and  mystery  of  that  redemption,  which 
has  been  designed  from  eternity  to  direct  your 
faith  and  hope  to  God  Himself.' 

13.  Gird  up  the  loins  of  your  mind]  in  pre- 
paration for  the  strenuous  life  of  obedience  : 
cp.  DtlOi«5  1K18;46.  Be  sober]  cp.  47  58  1  Th 
56.8.  Christians  among  heathen  must  be  self- 
restrained,  like  sober  men  among  drunkards. 

To  the  end]  or,  as  A V  mg.  and  R V, '  perfectly. ' 

14.  Obedient  children]  RV  '  children  of 
obedience,'  a  Hebrew  mode  of  expression  (cp. 
Eph2  2  5<3),  which  implies  that  obedience  was 
the  ruling  passion  of  their  lives. 

15.  Conversation]  RV  '  manner  of  life': 
cp.  V.  18  21^  31^-  316.  16.  Because  it  is 
written]  It  was  a  habit  of  St.  Peter  to  clench 
his  words  in  this  way.  From  the  sacred 
writings  he  recognised  no  appeal  :  cp.  1 24  2  6 

35,10     48,17    55    Acl20    217,25    322-24     1043.    cp. 

2  Pet  3  2.  The  words  quoted  occur  several 
times  in  Leviticus  (1144  192  2026).  The  latter 
half  of  the  quotation  shows  that  the  Law  was 
intended  to  produce  something  much  deeper 
than  mere  ceremonial  holiness.  The  Christian 
must  live  as  the  Jew  was  meant  to  live,  a 
consecrated  life. 

17.  Call  on  the  Father]  RV  '  call  on  him 
as  Father'  :  cp.  Jer3i9  and  Mt69,  which  is 
the  fulfilment  of  the  prophetic  promise. 


Without  respect  of  persons]  cp.  Ro2iO(.  and 
St.  Peter's  speech  at  Csesarea,  Ac  10  34  ;  also 
Jas2i.  But  the  expression  comes  from  the 
OT.,  Dtl0i7.  Judgeth]  a  real  present.  God 
is  judging  men  according  to  their  works  every 
day  :  cp.  Ps7ii  Jnl23i.  There  is  a  sense  in 
which  men  shall  be  judged  according  to  their 
works  at  the  last  day  :  see  Mt  1627  Eo  2  6  14 12 
2  Cor  5 10  Rev  2  23  20 12  2212.  Of  this  con- 
tinuous judgment  we  have  present  experience, 
of  the  last  judgment  Holy  Scripture  gives  us 
a  dim  outline.  Sometimes  God  is  spoken  of 
as  the  judge,  sometimes  Christ;  e.g.  Mtl627 
Acl042  1731  2Cor5iO:  cp.  Jn522-27.  The 
phrase  '  according  to  their  works  '  is  probably 
derived  from  OT.  (cp.  Ps62i2),  but  that  very 
passage  shows  that  it  does  not  exclude  God's 
mercy  through  Christ :  cp.  Ac  10^3.  What  is 
meant  is  what  St.  Peter  says  here,  and  St. 
James  insists  on  in  his  Epistle — God  is  no 
respecter  of  persons  ;  a  mere  profession  of 
faith  will  assure  no  man  of  salvation.  The 
very  idea  that  it  would,  becomes  impossible, 
as  soon  as  we  combine  what  is  said  in  Holy 
Scripture  about  the  continuous  present  judg- 
ment with  the  other  passages  in  which  a  future 
judgment  is  spoken  of.  A  man  who  has  been 
untrue  to  his  Christian  profession  knows  that 
he  is  being  judged  ;  he  knows  also,  however, 
that  he  may  again  pass  '  out  of  death  into 
life,'  and  so  not  '  come  into  judgment,'  Jn  524. 
God's  judgment  is  not  a  legal  process.  When- 
ever the  heart  is  wrong  judgment  must  ensue. 
It  is  to  be  noticed  that,  except  in  MklGK^,  it 
is  never  written  in  NT.  that  man  shall  be 
condemned  by  God,  though  it  appears  other- 
wise in  AV. 

18.  Cp.  V.  15.  Vain]  i.e.  empty,  purpose- 
less :  cp.  42f.  Eph4i7.  Received  by  tradition] 
Heathen  as  well  as  Jews  would  have  many 
traditions  to  break  with  when  they  became 
'obedient':  cp.  44.  19.  The ..  blood  of 
Christ]  is  here  regarded  as  a  precious  price 
paid  for  His  redeemed.  20.  In  these  last 
times]  RV  '  at  the  end  of  the  times.'  Christ 
came  at  the  end  of  the  old.  His  death  and 
Resurrection  began  the  new,  era  :  cp.  Heb  1 2  2^, 

B  (ii).  1 22-25_  '  Having  entered  on  the  sanc- 
tified life  of  obedience,  you  have  entered  a 
brotherhood  which  is  bound  together  by  a 
more  mysterious  and  eternal  relationship  than 
can  come  through  natural  generation.  Such 
brothers  must  indeed  love  one  another  sin- 
cerely. Their  life  is  the  lovely  and  eternal 
life  which  God  promises  through  the  prophet 
to  the  restored  Israel.' 

22.  Truth  is  the  substance  of  the  gospel 
(Gal  2  5, 14  Col  15  ;  cp.  2  Pet  112),  for  Christ  is 
the  Truth  (Jnl4'5),  and  sanctified  Himself 
that  His  people  might  be  '  sanctified  in  truth  ' 
(Jnl7i9).     23.  Being  born  again]  RV  'having 


1042 


1.  24 


1  PETER 


2.  10 


been  begotten  again '  :  cp.  v.  3.  Not  of  cor- 
ruptible seed,  but  of  incorruptible]  cp.  Jn  1  ^^  '• 
IJnS'-'.  By  the  word]  We  need  not  dis- 
cuss whether  '  the  word  '  means  Christ,  or  the 
word  of  the  gospel  preached  or  written  ;  or, 
again,  the  word  that  is  heard  in  each  man's 
conscience.  All  forms  of  God's  speech  are 
summed  up  in  Christ,  who  is  the  Truth  :  cp. 
Heb  1  'I  The  word  of  God,  which  liveth]  RM 
'or,  God  who  liveth'  :  cp.  Dan 6 26.  24.  For] 
Once  more  St.  Peter  clenches  his  argument  by 
the  authority  of  Scripture.  The  quotation  is 
taken  from  Isa40<^,  where  the  section  of  the 
book  of  Isaiah  begins,  in  which  the  new  life  of 
the  forgiven  and  restored  nation  is  proclaimed. 

CHAPTER  2 
New  Life  according  to  the  Ancient 
Promise,  and  after  the  Example  of 
Christ 
B  (iii).  21-10.  St.  Peter  considers  that  the 
Christian  is  the  continuation  of  the  Jewish 
Church.  Christ's  coming  has  been  a  time  of 
reformation  (Heb  9 1^),  but  there  has  been  no 
break  with  the  past.  After  setting  forth  the 
doctrine  of  salvation  (1 3-9),  he  went  on  to  show 
that  it  was  the  fulfilment  of  the  doctrine  of 
the  prophets  (1 10-12).  Now,  after  writing  about 
the  new  life  of  Christians  (1 13-22)^  and  showing 
that  it  also  had  been  promised  in  prophecy 
(1 24),  he  bids  his  readers  in  the  half -playful 
language  of  metaphor  (cp.  Heb5i2-i4)  to  live 
simply,  like  new-born  babes,  nourished  on 
simple,  spiritual  food,  which  the  Lord  Himself 
gives  them,  as  has  been  signified  in  OT.  (^i"^). 
He  then  shows  that  the  Lord  named  in  his 
quotation  has  been  manifested  in  Jesus  Christ, 
who  is  the  corner-stone,  spoken  of  in  the 
Psalm,  of  the  spiritual  Temple  which  is  being 
built  up  of  His  people  to  take  the  place  of  the 
old  Jewish  Temple  with  its  imperfect  sacri- 
fices (24-6).  Obedience  to  the  faith,  not  privi- 
lege of  race,  is  the  means  by  which  this  union 
with  Christ  in  the  new  Temple  is  effected  (2  7f-). 
Finally,  he  brings  title  after  title  of  the 
chosen  people  from  OT.,  and  applies  them  to 
his  readers,  teaching  them  how  their  new 
position  makes  them  God's  royal  priests  and 
prophets  to  the  world,  and  closes  with  a  quo- 
tation from  Hosea,  the  prophet  of  God's  loving- 
kindness,  which  must  touch  their  hearts,  and 
commend  all  that  he  has  said  (29*.). 

I.  Malice]  RV  'wickedness.'  A  general 
word,  as,  beginning  a  new  life,  they  must  turn 
from  worldly  vices  and  become  as  little  chil- 
dren (Mtl83).  With  this  and  the  following 
v.  cp.  Jasl^i.  2.  The  sincere  milk  of  the 
word]  RY  '  The  spiritual  milk  which  is  with- 
out guile.'  Grow  thereby]  RV  adds  '  unto 
salvation,'  which  was  omitted  in  the  MSS 
which  the  AV  translators  followed.  3.  If .  .  ye 
have  tasted,  etc.]    from  Ps348  :  cp.  Heb  6  5. 


The  Lord  in  the  Psalm  is  Jehovah.  As  in 
other  places  in  NT.,  words  spoken  of  Him  are 
applied  to  Christ,  through  whom  God  is  mani- 
fested to  man  (Heb  1  ^^).  4,  The  references  in 
this  v.,  as  in  v.  7,  are  to  Psll822:  cp.  St. 
Peter's  speech,  Ac  4 11.  In  v.  6  a  passage  from 
Isa28i*5,  on  the  same  subject,  is  quoted  from 
the  Septuagint.  Precious]  RM  'honourable,' 
in  contrast  to  '  disallowed.'  5.  Lively  stones] 
RV  'living  stones,'  as  in  v.  4.  The  whole 
process  of  salvation  is  a  process  of  life  :  cp. 
Jnl4  410  635  1125  146  R0I21  Heb  1020  and 

1  Pet  1 23  (RM).  Are  built  up]  i.e.  are  being 
built  up.     6.  Wherefore]  RV  '  because.' 

7.  Which  be  disobedient]  RV  '  disbelieve.' 

8.  The  reference  is  to  IsaS^**.  Whereunto 
also  they  were  appointed]  as  the  words  of 
Isaiah  show.  God  has  indeed  appointed  the 
disobedient  unto  stumbling,  but  also  His  royal 
priesthood  for  their  recovery.  9.  A  chosen 
generation]  R V  '  an  elect  race '  :  cp.  Isa  43  20. 

A  peculiar  people]  RV  '  a  people  for  God's 
own  possession'  :  cp.  Exl95f.  Praises]  RV 
'excellencies'  ;   AVmg.  'virtues'  :  cp.  Phil 4 8 

2  Pet  1 3. 5.  St.  Peter  repeats  the  teaching  of 
the  prophet  (cp.  Isa  43^1)  that  men  are  elect, 
not  for  their  own  sakes  only,  but  to  be  God's 
priests  and  prophets  to  the  world,  so  as  to  tell 
of  Him  to  others,  and  to  present,  as  spiritual 
sacrifices,  in  union  with  the  sacrifice  of  Christ, 
not  only  themselves  (Rol2i),  their  praise  and 
alms  (Heb  1 3 1^  f  • ),  but  also  the  heathen  (Ro  1 5 1*5 ; 
cp.  Phil  21"),  whom  they  win  for  God.  Into 
his  marvellous  light]  in  which  God  dwells. 
It  is  unapproachable  (ITimGi^),  yet  He,  with 
whom  all  things  are  possible,  has  called  us  into 
it:  cp.  Isa 67 15,  and  see  on  510.     10.  From 

HOS  16-9  21.23;    cp.  Ro925f. 

2II-4II.  With  the  word  '  beloved,'  St.  Peter 
begins  each  of  the  two  following  divisions  of 
his  letter.  The  keynote  to  this  division  is 
given  in  the  references  to  Christ  as  suffering 
patiently,  for  the  sake  of  others,  to  take  away 
sin,  and  as  having  triumphed  through  suffer- 
ing. He  is  the  example  and  protector  of  these 
sojourners,  whose  life  among  an  estranged 
population  is  one  of  constant  suffering,  under 
which  they  ought  to  be  patient,  gentle,  and 
good,  holding  faster  to  one  another  in  love, 
not,  however,  forgetting  that  they  live  and 
suffer  on  behalf  of  the  heathen  among  whom 
they  dwell. 

"The  whole  may  be  subdivided  into  four 
parts:  A,  2iif-,  introductory  ;.  5,  213-312, 
their  duty  as  subjects — as,  in  particular,  ser- 
vants, wives,  husbands  ;  and  again,  in  general, 
as  members  of  a  Christian  community  ;  C, 
313-46,  encouragement  for  their  dangers  and 
sufferings,  the  purpose  of  which  is  explained  ; 
jD,  4  "-11,  exhortation  to  a  sober,  spiritual,  and 
loving  Christian  life,  to  the  glory  of  God. 


1043 


2.11 


1  PETER 


3.4 


A.  2 11*.  Introduction,  which  sketches  the 
thought  of  the  whole  section. 

II.  Strangers  (RV  'sojourners')  and  pil- 
grims] from  Gn233  and  Ps39i2;  cp.  Heb 
1 1 13.  Fleshly  lusts]  the  desires  of  the  body, 
which,  though  innocent  when  under  restraint, 
were  always  a  source  of  temptation  among  the 
heathen.  I2.  Conversation  honest]  RV  '  be- 
haviour seemly '  :  cp.  1 1^.  In  the  day  of 
visitation]  (from  IsalO^)  when  God  shall  no 
longer  overlook  the  heathen  ignorance  :  cp. 
Ac  1 7  30.  Then  the  good  lives  of  the  Christians, 
even  though  seen  in  memory  only,  may  help 
them  at  last  to  glorify  God. 

B.  2 13-3 12.  The  duties  of  the  Christians, 
as  a  body  and  in  particular  classes. 

B  (i).  2 13-17.  '  You  are  all  subjects  of  the 
government,  and  must  live  as  such.  The 
government,  though  it  might  seem  to  be  a 
mere  human  institution,  is  really  created  by 
God,  and  you  see  God's  will  working  through 
it,  as  through  the  rest  of  the  creation.  God's 
will  is  that  you  should  do  well,  and  be  at  last 
delivered  from  the  misconstructions  of  your 
ignorant  neighbours.  The  government,  by  its 
repression  of  evil  and  encouragement  of  well- 
doing, is  acting  towards  both  these  ends. 
When  you  recognise  that  such  submission  is 
submission  to  God's  will,  then  submission 
becomes  part  of  that  freedom  to  which  you 
have  been  brought  by  redemption — a  freedom 
which  those  only  know  who  have  become 
slaves  of  God.  This  freedom  obliges  you  to 
have  a  wide  and  noble  rule  of  courtesy. 
Honour  all  men  :  only  so  can  you  keep  the 
private  rule  of  your  community  to  love  the 
brotherhood.  In  the  same  way  honour  to  the 
king  must  follow  fear  towards  God,  by  whom 
kings  rule  :  as  indeed  Holy  Scripture  teaches 
you.' 

With  this  paragraph  cp.  Rol3i-7  Tit 3 if. 

13.  Ordinance]  RM  '  Gr.  creation  ' :  cp.  41^. 
The  king]  i.e.  the  Roman  emperor. 

14.  Governors]  i.e.  of  provinces.  16.  The 
licence  of  the  heathen,  unlike  the  freedom  of 
the  Christian,  could  be  used  as  a  cloke,  or  pre- 
text, for  wickedness  (see  RY)  ;  they  would  do 
what  they  chose,  considering  it  no  one's  busi- 
ness but  their  own.  17.  Fear  God.  Honour 
the  king]  cp.  Prov242i. 

B  (ii).  2 18-25.  Another  ordinance  of  man, 
yet  also  of  God's  creation,  is  the  family, 
which  includes  servants,  wives,  and  husbands. 
Hitherto  in  this  section  St.  Peter  has  rather 
hinted  at  than  spoken  plainly  of  suffering. 
Now  he  comes  to  a  class  who  are  sufferers  in- 
deed— the  slaves  of  the  household.  He  makes 
no  more  complaint  against  slavery  than  against 
the  emperor,  but  his  tender  heart  goes  out  to 
these  ill-treated  slaves,  and  he  honours  them 


above  all  their  fellow- Christians  by  presenting 
to  them,  as  their  example  in  a  special  manner, 
Chi'ist  suffering  innocently,  patiently,  trust- 
fully, offering  Himself  in  His  sufferings  as  a 
sacrifice  for  the  sins  of  us  all.  Thus  these  slaves, 
who  are,  like  Christ,  '  despised  and  rejected,' 
have  a  glory  and  grace  which  is  specially  their 
own,  and  are  a  special  care  of  Christ. 

19.  Thankworthy]  RV  'acceptable';  RM 
'  Gr.  grace.'  The  Gk.  for  'grace  '  and  '  thank- 
fulness '  is  the  same.  As  joy  in  suffering  par- 
takes of  the  divine  glory  (cp.  1  '^),  so  thankful- 
ness and  cheerfulness  reflects  the  gracious 
light  of  God's  countenance :    see  on  1 2. 

22-25.  This  picture  of  Christ  is  taken  from 
the  description  of  the  suffering  servant  of 
Jehovah  in  Isa53.  24.  Bare  our  sins.,  on] 
RM  '  cai'ried  up  . .  to.'  A  sacrificial  term  is 
here  used:  cp.  Heb 7 27  928  1315.  The  tree] 
i.e.  the  Cross  :  cp.  Dt2122f.  Ac530  1039  1329 
Gal  3 13.  25.  Shepherd]  suggested  by  Isa  53  ^ : 
cp.  Isa  40 11  and  1  Pet  54.  Bishop]  RM  '  over- 
seer '  :  cp.  Ac  1 20  (AV  and  RM).  The  over- 
seer or  bishop  is  an  officer  of  the  Church  in 
the  Pastoral  Epistles:  cp.  Ac 20 28  Phill  1. 
Here  the  reference  may  be  to  the  officer  of 
the  household  who  is  set  over  the  servants 
(cp.  Lkl2'i2-46)  I  he  may  have  no  interest  in 
them  except  as  chattels,  but  they  have  an 
unseen  overseer  who  cares  for  their  very  selves. 

CHAPTER  3 

The  Blessedness  op  Christ's  People, 
though  they  should  suffer  like 
Christ 

B  (iii).  31-6.  Another  divinely  created  or- 
dinance of  man  is  marriage.  One  of  the  pur- 
poses of  Christianity  was  to  teach  chivalry 
towards  women  :  this  is  part  of  the  '  grace  ' 
which  men  can  exercise.  But  to  this  must 
correspond  the  modesty  and  graciousness  of 
women.  The  Israelites  had  already  been 
taught  that ;  and  women,  when  they  enter  the 
Christian  society,  become  daughters  of  Abra- 
ham, heirs  both  of  the  honour  and  of  the 
womanliness  of  the  women  of  the  Jewish 
Church.  A  quiet  and  holy  married  life  tends, 
like  all  other  parts  of  Christian  life,  to  the 
salvation  of  the  heathen. 

With  this  and  the  next  paragraph  cp.  Eph 
522-33  Col  3 18  f. 

I.  Likewise]  cp.  v.  7,  the  whole  household 
is  to  be  one  family;  the  subjection  of  servants 
to  masters  has  a  like  excellence  with  the  sub- 
jection of  wives  to  husbands.  Without  the 
word]  '  Perhaps  the  Spirit  of  Christ  pours 
itself  abroad  more  widely  than  our  interpreta- 
tions allow  '  (Erasmus).  4.  The  hidden  man 
of  the  heart]  cp.  Ro7  22  2  Cor  4 1-^  Eph3ic. 

In  that  ■which  is  not  corruptible,  even  the 
ornainoit  of  a  meek  and  quiet  spirit]  RV  'in 
the  incorruptible  aj^jxirel  of  a  meek  and  quiet 


1044 


3.5 


1  PETER 


8.18 


spirit.'  5.  Trusted]  RV  '  hoped.'  Hope,  the 
Messianic  spirit,  was  characteristic  of  the  OT. 
saints.     6.   Lord]  RV  'lord'  :  cp.  GnlSi^. 

Ye  are]  RV  '  ye  now  are  ' ;  RM  '  ye  are 
become.'  They  became  Abraham's  daughters 
when  they  became  Christians,  but,  if  they  are 
to  continue  such,  perseverance  is  required, 
which  the  coming  persecution  will  make  diffi- 
cult :  cp.  2  Pet  1 5  *.  Afraid  with  any  amaze- 
ment] R V  '  put  in  fear  by  any  terror ' :  cp. 
Prov325. 

B  (iv).  3'''.  Husbands,  in  like  manner,  must 
be  chivalrous  and  chaste.  Nature  itself  teaches 
all  men  that,  but  Christians  have  a  deeper 
insight  into  the  grace  and  dignity  of  life,  and 
an  eternal  hope  in  their  marriage. 

7,  The  weaker  vessel]  cp.  2Cor4'''  lTh44. 
It  would  appear  from  2Esdr4ii  and  7^^^] 
RV,  that  the  human  body  is  meant  by  '  the 
vessel.'  The  grace  of  life]  is  the  loveliness, 
partaking  of  the  divine,  which  God  adds  to 
His  servants'  life.  That  your  prayers  be  not 
hindered]  RV  'to  the  end  that,'  etc.  Prayer 
is  access  to  God,  which  is  the  aim  of  all  Chris- 
tian life.  All  faults  in  married  life  hinder  it : 
cp.  1  Cor  7  5  Col  3 19. 

B  (v).  3S-12.  The  general  behaviour  of  the 
whole  body  of  Christians  is  summed  up  in  the 
love  which  makes  them  consider  others  more 
than  themselves,  hold  fast  together  in  their 
brotherhood,and  be  patient  towards  those  with- 
out. By  peace-making  they  inherit  the  blessing 
which  was  promised  to  them  in  the  Psalm. 

With  this  paragraph  cp.  Ro  12 1'*-^!  and  Jas3. 

8.  Having  compassion  one  of  another]  RV 
'  compassionate  '  ;  RM  '  Gr.  sympathetic  '  :  cp. 
Heb4i5  lO^i,  Tenderness  towards  even  the 
feelings  of  others  is  implied. 

10-12.  Quoted  from  Ps34,  in  v.  8  of  which 
blessing  is  promised  to  the  man  that  trusts 
in  God.  The  whole  Psalm  promises  salvation 
in  persecution,  and  describes  just  the  situation 
in  which  St.  Peter's  faith  sees  his  readers 
placed — in  danger,  but  with  the  angel  of  the 
Lord  encamping  round  about  them,  and  all 
things  working  out  a  blessing  for  them  if  they 
trust  in  Him. 

II.  Eschew]  RV  '  turn  away  from.'  Ensue] 
RV  'pursue.'  12.  Over  .  .  against]  RV  'upon 
.  .  upon.'  God's  aspect  is  the  same  to  each, 
it  is  man  who  turns  '  grace  '  into  '  wrath  '  :  cp. 
Ex  1424. 

C  (i)  3 13-22,  deals  chiefly  with  faith,  (ii)  4I-6 
with  conduct.  It  brings  out  deeper  and 
deeper  doctrine  as  it  proceeds  about  the 
purpose  and  meaning  of  suffering.  '  Who 
will  harm  you  if  you  are  zealous  for  the  good  ? 
Even  if  you  should  suffer  for  the  righteous 
cause  you  would  be  blessed.    Take  the  ancient 


encouragement  of  Israel  to  yourselves.  Enter 
into  its  fullest  meaning  by  using  the  interpret- 
ation of  the  old  words  which  Christ's  life  has 
given,  and  sanctify  Him  in  your  hearts,  though 
in  visible  form  you  cannot  see  Him,  as  the 
Lord  of  whom  the  Psalmist  spoke.  Be  ready 
to  give  answer  to  any  one  that  asks  you  about 
this  hope  which  is  in  you,  and  which  seems 
so  strange  to  him  ;  but  answer  meekly,  and 
remember  that  though  you  need  not  fear  him, 
you  do  fear  God.  Have  therefore  a  good 
conscience.  Your  own  hope  will  die  away  if 
you  have  not  that,  but  with  it  you  will  find 
that  the  very  slanders  you  suffer  from  will 
turn  out  to  be  the  means  of  doing  good  to 
your  enemies.  Even  as  Christ  did,  for  He 
suffered,  the  just  for  the  unjust,  that  He 
might  thus  bring  us  who  were  among  the  un- 
just to  God.  His  sufferings  were  the  means 
of  His  doing  so.  Through  suffering  death  in 
His  flesh  He  entered  into  a  wider  life  in  His 
spirit,  and  went  a  journey  that  none  could  go 
in  the  flesh,  and  as  a  spirit  preached  to  spirits. 
For  us  another  way  of  salvation  is  appointed. 
The  time  when  those  spirits  lived  on  earth 
prefigured  the  times  of  Christ.  As  then  God 
prepared  a  place  of  safety  from  destruction, 
by  directing  Noah  to  build  an  ark  into  which 
eight  persons  were  brought  into  safety  through 
the  dangerous  waters  of  the  flood,  so  now  we 
have  the  fellowship  of  Chi-ist  into  which  we 
are  brought  by  baptism,  that  is,  through  the 
resurrection  of  Christ  which  was  the  outcome 
of  His  painful  death.  Baptism,  itself  a  pain- 
ful step  for  the  convert  in  a  heathen  land  to 
take,  is  indeed  our  sharing  in  Christ's  death 
and  resurrection  ;  not  so,  however,  if  we  look 
upon  it  as  a  mere  form,  but  truly  so,  if  we 
receive  it  with  a  good  conscience,  which,  as  we 
submit  to  the  symbolic  washing,  appeals  to 
God  to  accept  it  through  the  resurrection  of 
Jesus  Christ,  who  has  completed  His  redeem- 
ing work  by  ascending  into  heaven  in  the  per- 
fection of  His  human  and  divine  nature,  and 
sits  supreme,  as  the  Psalmist  prophesied,  at 
the  right  hand  of  God.' 

14.  If  ye  suffer]  RV  'if  ye  should  suffer.' 
The  persecution  has  not  yet  begun  :  cp.  v.  17. 

15.  Sanctify  the  Lord  God  in  your  hearts] 
RV  '  sanctify  in  your  hearts  Christ  as  Lord  '  : 
cp.  Isa  8 12  f .  1 7.  I  f  the  will  of  God  be  so]  R  V 
'  if  the  will  of  God  should  so  will ' — a  rugged 
but  emphatic  expression.  18.  Once]  i.e.  once 
for  all :  cp.  Heb926,28.  That  he  might  bring 
us  to  God]  cp.  Ro52.  Access  to  God  was  the 
end  to  which  all  the  Levitical  sacrifices  were 
directed,  but  till  Christ  offered  Himself  this 
end  was  never  attained  ;  as  the  Epistle  to  the 
Hebrews  teaches.  Quickened]  i.e.  made  to 
live.  By  the  Spirit]  RV  '  in  the  spirit.'  This 
fuller  life  came  to  Christ  through,  or  in  the 
sphere  of,  His  human  spirit :  cp.  4*5  Lk2346. 


1045 


3.  19 


1  PETER 


4.6 


19.  By  which]  RV  '  in  which.'  In  prison] 
cp.  Rev  20  7,  i.e.  the  place  where  such  dis- 
embodied spirits  were  kept  waiting  for  the  end 
of  the  present  order  of  things  :  see  on  '  heaven,' 
1*.  This  is  the  hell,  or  Sheol,  of  OT.  :  cp  Ps 
16 10  49 14  (E,Y)  isa  1 4  9.  Our  Lord  refers  to  it, 
Lk23'*3,  and  in  LklG'^^f.^  where  the  blessed 
dead  are  described  as  separated  from  the  '  dis- 
obedient.'    20.  Sometime]   RV  '  aforetime.' 

The  whole  passage  clearly  means  that  Christ, 
as  a  spirit,  preached  to  certain  spirits,  who  had 
been  disobedient  to  the  end  of  their  earthly 
life.  This  preaching  took  place  between  His 
death  and  resurrection,  and  its  purpose  was 
that,  by  hearing  the  gospel,  these  men  might 
have  an  opportunity  of  repentance.  St.  Peter 
does  not  say  that  a  place  of  repentance  is  still 
left  for  men  after  death.  That  is  neither 
affirmed  nor  denied  in  NT.  ;  but  this  passage 
makes  rather  against  than  for  such  a  hope  ; 
for  the  point  is  that  these  men  did  receive  such 
an  opportunity,  because  they  had  not  heard 
the  gospel  in  their  earthly  life.  St.  Peter 
considered  that  the  Jews,  unlike  the  men  of 
Noah's  time,  had  known  something  of  Christ  : 
cp.  l^o*.  It  should,  however,  be  noticed  that 
'  once,'  which  in  AV  seems  to  limit  the  refer- 
ence very  strictly,  is  omitted  in  RV,  and  per- 
haps that  time  is  specially  mentioned  because 
it  affords  a  type  of  baptism. 

Wherein  few . .  were  saved  by  water]  RM 
'  into  which  few .  .  were  brought  safely  through 
water.' 

21.  The  like  figure,  etc.]  RV  '  which  also 
after  a  true  likeness '  (RM  '  in  the  antitype ') 
'  doth  now  save  you,  even  baptism,  not  the 
putting  away  of  the  filth  of  the  flesh,  but  the 
interrogation  /  (RM  '  inquiry  or  appeal ')  '  of  a 
good  conscience  toward  God,  through  the 
resurrection.'  '  The  like  figure  '  =  Grk.  '  anti- 
type.' The  type  is  the  seal,  the  antitype  the 
impression.  Here  we  think  most  of  the  im- 
pression as  the  purpose  or  reality  of  the  seal, 
in  Heb  9  ^-^  of  the  seal  as  the  origin  of  the  im- 
pression. The  interrogation  (RV)  of  a  good 
conscience  may  refer  to  the  question  asked  of 
the  convert  before  baptism  :  cp.  Ac  8^7  (AV 
and  RM),  Hooker,  V.  Ixiii.  3  ;  but  RM  makes 
better  sense — the  appeal  of  the  convert  to 
God  might  be  expressed  in  the  gospel  words, 
'  I  believe,  help  thou  mine  unbelief ' :  cp.  1  Jn 
320.  By  (RV  'through')  the  resurrection 
should  be  taken  with  the  whole  v.,  not  with 
'  the  appeal '  nor  with  '  doth  save '  alone  :  cp. 
Ro6-**-  Col 2 12.  It  corresponds  to  'through 
water,'  v.  20  ;  in  each  case  that  which  seemed 
to  be  destruction  proved  the  means  of 
safety. 

22.  On  the  right  hand  of  God]  from  PsllQi. 
The  words  that  follow  show  that  St.  Peter  has 
Eph  1  '-Of.  in  his  mind.  Like  St.  Paul,  he  speaks 
in  general  terms  of  the  heavenly  powers,  which 


the  Jews  of  those  days  described  with  un- 
warrantable detail  :  cp.  Eph  1 21  Col  2 1^. 

CHAPTER  4 

The  security  of  the  Faithful  in  the 
approaching  judgment 

G  (ii).  4 1-*^.  '  This  is  your  faith  :  live  then 
in  accordance  with  it.  Arm  yourselves  against 
your  troubles  by  resolving  to  be  like  Christ  in 
suffering.  Suffering  gives  rest  from  sin,  and 
the  results  of  what  you  have  already  endured 
should  be  a  life  henceforth  in  accordance  with 
God's  will.  You  have  lived  the  heathen  life 
long  enough  in  the  past  to  have  learnt  its 
wretchedness.  The  heathen  are  surprised  now 
at  your  estrangement  from  them,  and  speak 
evil  of  you  and  of  God.  But  think  not  that 
it  is  as  they  say,  and  that  no  one  cares  how  a 
man  lives.  They  shall  give  account  to  Him 
who  is  judging  promptly  and  certainly  as  each 
man  makes  his  choice,  whether  he  be  living  or 
dead.  For  even  the  dead  have  had  their 
chance.  That  was  why  the  gospel  was  preached 
even  to  the  dead,  that  they  might  be  able 
through  judgment  to  enjoy  life.' 

I.  Hath  ceased  from  sin]  cp.  RoG^.n. 
Suffering  braces  a  man's  mind,  so  that  tempta- 
tion loses  its  power  over  him,  and  the  opposi- 
tion of  the  heathen  compelled  Christians 
to  be  strangers  to  their  mode  of  life  :  cp. 
Eccl73f. 

3.  Will]  RV  '  desire,'  contrasted  with  the 
will  of  God.  4.  Speaking  evil  of  you']  '  Of 
you,'  as  RV  shows,  is  not  in  the  Gk.  "These 
men  spoke  the  same  kind  of  blasphemy  as  the 
mockers  in  2 Pet 3 ^^ 

6.  This  V.  refers  back  to  5i9f.  The  dead 
are  the  same  persons  in  each  place.  Judgment 
does  not  mean  punishment,  but  separation, 
and  man,  by  choosing  His  side,  cooperates 
with  God's  judgment.  This  choice  and  separa- 
tion could  not,  St.  Peter  considers,  be  made 
until  the  gospel  had  been  heard.  Thus  the 
judgment  of  these  dead  men  did  not  take 
place  till  Christ  preached  in  the  spirit  to  them. 
Then  they  could  choose  their  side,  for  or 
against  Him.  St.  Peter,  however,  does  not 
claim  to  penetrate  the  depths  of  the  mystery 
of  judgment,  and  leaves  the  subject  with  a 
statement  containing,  like  that  of  St.  Paul  in 
Phil  2 12  f.,  two  parts  which  we  cannot  reconcile, 
but  which  he  assures  us  will  be  reconciled — 
they  must  be  judged  as  all  men  must,  in  the 
flesh,  i.e.  by  what  they  did  in  their  earthly 
life,  and  yet  they  may  live,  as  God  lives,  in 
the  spirit,  i.e.  by  the  choice  they  make  in 
their  disembodied  state. 

D.  4 '''•11.  'But  all  these  present  judgments 
are  about  to  be  completed  by  that  great  judg- 
ment which  is  the  end  of  the  whole  present 
order   of    things.      Be   then   sober,   diligent. 


1046 


4.7 


1  PETER 


5.  5 


devout,  aiming  in  all  things  at  God's  glory 
through  Jesus  Christ.' 

With  this  paragraph  cp.  Ro  123-21. 

7.  Prayer]  EM  '  Gr.  prayers.'  Neither  the 
sensible  conduct  of  affairs  nor  the  regular 
course  of  the  Church's  devotions  is  to  be 
changed.  8.  Have  fervent  charity]  RV  '  being 
fervent  in  your  love,'  lit.  '  intense '  ;  perse- 
verance and  vigour,  not  excitement,  is  implied. 

Shall  cover  the  multitude  of  sins]  '  covereth 
a  multitude  of  sins,'  from  ProvlO^^^  which  is 
also  quoted  Jas  5  ^'^.  St.  Peter  gives,  following 
our  Lord's  teaching  (cp.  LkT'*"),  a  deeper 
meaning  to  the  OT.  words.  If  the  Christians 
have  love,  they  are  not  likely  to  have  much 
sin  among  them  :  cp.  HebG^*-  11.  Let  him 
sj:)eak  as  the  oracles  of  God]  RV  '  speaking  as 
it  were  oracles  of  God,'  i.e.  God's  solemn 
utterances,  such  as  the  prophets  used  to  intro- 
duce by  '  thus  saith  the  Lord.'  God's  oracles 
had  always  been  entrusted  to  His  people  to 
minister  to  others  :   cp.  Ac  7  38  RoS^  HebS^^. 

Amen]  a  Heb.  word  used  by  our  Lord  (and 
translated  '  verily  ')  when  He  wished  to  assert 
anything  with  special  emphasis  :  cp.  Mt2634 
Lk23*3.  Such  sayings  might  be  called  His 
'  oracles.' 

4 12-5 14.  With  this  second  'Beloved'  the 
last  section  of  the  Epistle  begins.  In  it  the 
Apostle  encourages  the  readers  to  meet  with 
courage  and  trust  the  severer  persecution 
which  is  threatening  them.  As  good  discipline 
in  their  community  will  help  them  to  do  this, 
he  gives  precepts  for  rulers  and  ruled,  and 
then  brings  their  thoughts  back  to  God  the 
Father,  in  whose  keeping  their  lives  and  the 
course  of  the  whole  world  are  secure.  He 
adds  a  prayer  to  God  for  His  support,  and 
ends  with  greetings  and  a  blessing. 

The  section  falls  into  five  parts  :  A,  4i2-i9, 
the  fiery  trial  ;  B,  S^-^,  discipline  ;  C,  S^-n, 
trust  and  hope  in  God  ;  D,  5i2-l4»',  greetings  ; 
E,  514^,  blessing. 

A.  4 12-19.  *  Beloved,  the  trial  that  is  coming 
is  not  a  strange  one  for  Christians  to  endure, 
for  it  will  prove  you  as  God's  gold  must  be 
proved,  and  will  enable  you  to  share  Christ's 
sufferings  and  glory — that  glory  which  is  sur- 
rounding you  even  now,  though  you  cannot 
see  it  yet.  Suffering  and  reproach  for  the 
name  of  Christ  are  blessings  :  like  Israel  of  old 
you  thus  partake  in  the  lot  and  in  the  spirit 
of  God's  Anointed  One.  If  they  call  you 
Christians  in  mockery,  be  worthy  of  that  holy 
name,  and  give  them  no  more  real  cause  of 
offence.  Judgment  is  about  to  begin,  as  it 
did  at  the  fall  of  Jerusalem,  from  the  house 
of  God.  You  are  that  house,  do  not  risk  by 
disobedience  the  more  fearful  fate  of  those 
outside   it.     Those  who   suffer  according  to 


1047 


the  will  of  God  may  do  what  their  Lord  did 
when  He  suffered,  and  commit  their  souls  unto 
God,  confident  that  He  who  created  will  also 
support  :  but,  I  insist,  let  it  be  in  well-doing.' 
14.  If  ye  be  reproached]  RV  '  are  reproached.' 
This  part  of  their  trial  had  already  come.  Cp. 
Ps895i.  The  spirit  of  glory  and  of  God]  RV 
'  the  Spirit  of  glory  and  the  Spirit  of  God,' 
double  title  of  the  one  Spirit.  16.  Christian]  a 
name  which  the  heathen  first  gave  the  disciples  : 
see  Ac  1 1 26  26  28.  On  this  behalf]  R V  '  in  this 
name.'     17.   Cp.  Ezk9t5.     18.   Cp.  Provlisi. 

CHAPTER  5 

Encouragements  to  Shepherds  and  to 
Flock.  Promise  of  God's  Protection. 
Farewells 

B.  5 1-5.  '  To  behave  well  in  this  trial  you 
must  preserve  discipline.  Let  old  and  young, 
rulers  and  ruled,  do  their  duty  in  love  and 
humility,  as  men  who  have  an  eternal  hope 
and  a  supreme  invisible  Lord.' 

I.  Elders]  An  official  title  among  the  Jews 
and  in  the  early  Church.  From  the  Gk.  for 
'  elder '  '  priest '  is  derived,  and  from  the  Gk. 
for  '  overseer '  '  bishop.'  In  NT.  however 
elders  are  not  distinguished  from  bishops,  as 
they  soon  afterwards  were  :  cp.  Ac  201''' 28 
Tit  15, v.  A  witness]  Gk.  'martyr,'  not  merely 
one  who  has  seen,  but  one  who  bears  witness 
to  what  he  has  seen  :  cp.  Hebl2i.  The 
Apostles  were  to  be  witnesses  :  see  Ac  1  §,  22 
Jnl527;  cp.  Ac2220  26i6  Rev2i3  113  176  and 
Rev  1 5  3 14^  where  Jesus  Christ  Himself  is  called 
'  the  faithful  witness.'  2.  Feed]  RV  '  tend '  : 
cp.  Jn21i6  (RV).  3.  Being  lords  over]  RV 
'  lording  it  over ' :  cp.  Lk  22  25.  God's  heritage] 
RV  '  the  charge  allotted  to  you.'  From  the 
Gk.  word  '  clergy '  is  derived.  Being  ensamples] 
RV  '  making  yourselves,'  etc. 

4.  The  chief  Shepherd]  cp.  225  JnlO". 

A  crown]  RV  '  the  crown,'  i.e.  the  wreath 
with  which  victors  in  such  a  contest  as  these 
elders  expect  to  endure,  may  hope  to  be 
crowned  :  cp.  1  Cor  9  25  2  Tim  2  5  48  Rev  2 10. 

5.  Ye  younger .  .  the  elder]  in  the  early 
Christian  communities  their  actual  age  was  a 
reason  for  the  respect  which  the  clergy  re- 
ceived (1  Tim  4 12  5 1  Philemon  v.  9).  Be  subject 
one  to  another,  and  be  clothed  with  humility] 
RV  '  gird  yourselves  with  humility,  to  serve 
one  another.'  An  unusual  word  is  used  here, 
which  might  be  translated  '  knot  round  you.' 
Does  St.  Peter  remember  the  Lord  washing 
His  disciples'  feet  with  the  towel  knotted  round 
Him  (JnlS-tf)?  God  resisteth,  etc.]  from 
Prov334j  quoted  also  in  Jas  4  6. 

C.  S^-ii.  'Humble  yourselves,  therefore, 
under  the  hand  of  God,  whose  might  will  be 
proved  in  the  coming  trial.  Trust  is  part  of 
humility.     You  have  been  taught  to  cast  your 


5.  12 


1  PETER— 2  PETER  and  JUDE 


INTRO. 


burden  of  anxiety  upon  God  (cp.  Ps5522): 
cast  it  all.  Watch  well.  The  real  adversary 
you  have  to  guard  against  is  the  great  accuser, 
who  with  restless  activity  (cp.  Job  1  <"  2  2)  seeks 
to  terrify  you  into  your  ruin.  Resist  him 
bravely  in  the  trustful  faith  that  your 
brothers  throughout  this  world  are  joined 
with  you  in  accomplishing  the  one  divine 
purpose  of  all  these  sufferings.  The  trial, 
though  sharp,  is  short,  and  through  it  God, 
,?^hose  gracious  face  is  ever  turned  to  you, 
and  whose  supremacy  is  eternal,  shall  bring 
you  to  perfection  and  security.' 

D.  512, 13_  'By  Silvanus  I  have 'written 
this  letter  to  you.  I  recommend  him  to  you 
as  one  whom  I  account  worthy  to  be  called  the 
faithful  brother.  The  letter  is  a  short  one  ; 
for,  indeed,  my  affectionate  exhortation,  and 
my  testimony  as  an  Elder  and  Apostle  can  all 
be  put  thus  briefly.  The  true  grace  of  God 
is  manifested  in  the  faithful  conduct  I  have 
prescribed  for  you  :  stand  fast  therein.  The 
people  of  God  who  are  in  this  city  like  the 
captives  in  Babylon,  yet  in  the  purpose  of 
God  are  one  with  you,  send  greeting,  so  does 
Mark,  my  spiritual  son.     Salute  one  another 


with  the  kiss  which  is  the  symbol  of  our 
Christian  love.' 

12.  Silvanus]  called  Silas  in  Acts  ;  the 
friend  of  St.  Paul  :  see  Ac  15,  16,  17  and  18, 
2  Cor  1 19  1  Th  1 1  2  Th  1 1.  Wherein  ye  stand] 
E.V '  stand  ye  fast  therein  ' :  cp.  Gal  5 1.  13.  The 
cJnirch  that  is  at  Babylon]  RV  '  She  that  is  in 
Babylon  '  ;  RM  '  That  is.  The  church,  or,  The 
sister.'  The  community,  not  a  person,  is 
probably  meant:  cp.  2Jnl.  The  Gk.  has 
simply  'the.'  Marcus]  RV  'Mark.'  John 
Mark  the  evangelist  is  no  doubt  meant,  who 
became,  according  to  tradition,  St.  Peter's 
companion  and  interpreter.  My  son]  cp. 
lTiml2,i8  2Timl2  Gal4i9. 

14.  A  kiss  of  charity]  RV  'a  kiss  of 
love';  cp.  R0I6I6  lCorl620  2  Cor  13 12 
lTh526. 

E.  5 14.  Final  blessing  in  which  St.  Peter 
uses  the  old  Hebrew  prayer  for  peace.  This 
was  the  blessing  he  had  heard  his  Lord  use  : 
cp.  Mtl0i2f.  Mk534  Lk214,29  Jn  2019.21,' 26. 

In  Christ  Jesus]  RV  'Christ.'  'Christ 
Jesus,'  so  frequent  in  St.  Paul's  Epistles,  is 
not  used  by  St.  Peter.  For  '  in  Christ '  see 
Intro.     Amen]  RV  omits. 


2  PETER  AND  JUDE 


INTRODUCTION 


I.  Connexion  of  2  Peter  and  Jude,  and  dif- 
ference between  them.  These  Epistles  are 
closely  connected.  Both  were  written  to  meet 
a  sudden  danger  to  the  faith  which  had  arisen 
in  some  unnamed  Churches.  Both  authors 
seem  to  have  intended  to  write  an  ordinary 
pastoral  letter.  St.  Jude  says  so  (v.  3  RV), 
and  in  2  Pet  part  of  the  intended  letter  is 
given  (c.  3).  Both,  however,  have  been  com- 
pelled by  the  sudden  peril  to  send  a  special 
warning.  It  seems  plain  that  one  had  read  the 
letter  of  the  other,  or  even  that  the  first  letter 
had  opened  the  eyes  of  the  second  writer  to 
the  danger. 

Yet  the  one  Epistle  is  by  no  means  a  mere 
repetition  of  the  other.  St.  Jude  writes  with 
a  stern  sense  of  honour,  and  the  joy  of  a  theo- 
logian in  the  deep  mysteries  of  the  creed. 
'  Contend  for  the  faith  once  for  all  (RV)  de- 
livered '  is  his  command,  which,  however,  he 
softens  with  a  touch  of  pity  here  and  there 
for  those  who  are  falling.  The  enemies  of 
the  faith  he  scorns  too  much  to  allow  them 
the  name  of  teachers.     The  author  of  2  Pet 


has  a  simpler  mind,  though  by  no  means  a  less 
thorough  faith  in  Clmst  as  God.  '  Hope  on 
and  do  your  duty  more  and  more '  is  his  mes- 
sage. The  tone  of  almost  diffident  love  and 
admiration  with  w"hich  he  speaks  of  St.  Paul 
(3 15'  16)  gives  us  a  glimpse  into  a  very  gentle 
heart. 

2.  Connexion  between  2  Peter  and  i  Peter, 
Which  letter  was  written  first  ?  Most  say  St. 
Jude's.  This  is  partly  because  there  would 
otherwise  be  little  original  matter  in  hisEpistle; 
but  if  the  need  were  urgent  he  would  not  have 
delayed  in  order  to  be  original.  There  are, 
however,  some  things  in  2  Pet  which  tend  to 
raise  suspicion  that  it  is  not  only  founded  upon 
Jude,  but  is  a  much  later  piece,  written  not 
by,  but  only  in  the  name  of,  St.  Peter.  Thus 
the  prophecy  about  the  mockers  in  2  Pet  32'- 
looks  as  if  it  were  designed  as  an  imaginary 
explanation  of  the  reference  to  such  a  prophecy 
in  Jude  vv.  1 7  f .  But  the  passage  takes  another 
colour  in  RV :  it  is  itself  a  reference  to  a 
prophecy.  Again,  the  references  to  events  in 
the  life  of  St.  Peter  in  2Petl  (vv.  14, 16-18) 


1048 


INTRO. 


2  PETER  AND  JUDE 


INTRO. 


are  perhaps  more  obvious  than  natural :  yet  St. 
Peter  might  have  written  in  this  way.  The  style 
of  2  Pet  differs  from  that  of  1  Pet :  but  again, 
this  may  be  accomited  for  by  the  diflEerence  in 
subject,  or  perhaps  by  a  change  of  secretary. 
Resemblances  in  language  between  2  Pet  and 
1  Pet  must  not  be  pressed  too  much  in  either 
direction,  since  an  imitator  might  have  designed 
them ;  or,  if  St.  Peter  did  employ  secretaries 
to  shape  his  letters  for  him,  mere  resemblance 
in  language  would  not  be  important.  Resem- 
blances of  thought,  which  betray  the  mind  of 
the  author,  would  mean  more,  and  there  are 
such.  No  one  can  fail  to  notice  that,  while  in 
Jude  there  are  several  thoughts  and  expres- 
sions which  remind  us  of  the  deep  and  mysteri- 
ous mind  of  St.  Paul  ;  in  2  Pet,  as  in  1  Pet, 
spite  of  many  resemblances  to  St.  Paul  in 
words,  there  is  a  marked  difference  in  the 
habit  of  thought.  The  reference  to  St.  Paul 
at  the  end  of  2  Pet  is  just  what  the  author  of 
1  Pet  would  agree  with. 

3.  Ancient  Opinion  about  Authorship  of  2  Peter 
and  Jude.  Objections  to  Apostolic  Authorship, 
especially  of  2  Peter.  The  genuineness  of  both 
Epistles  has  been  questioned  even  in  early 
times.  But  the  wide  acceptance  of  Jude  at 
the  beginning  of  the  third  century,  justifies  us 
in  accepting  with  little  hesitation  the  final 
verdict  of  the  Church  in  its  favour,  especially 
as  there  is  really  nothing  in  it  which  might 
not  have  been  written  in  the  apostolic  age. 
It  is  not  quite  the  same  with  2  Pet.  Not  only 
were  doubts  expressed  in  various  places  for  a 
long  time  about  it,  but  no  certain  traces  of  its 
existence  can  be  found  in  Christian  literature 
before  the  end  of  the  second  century.  Yet  this 
could  be  explained  if  the  Epistle  had  but  a 
small  circulation  in  the  earliest  years,  and  in 
any  case  its  peculiar  subject  and  its  shortness 
would  prevent  its  being  often  quoted.  If  it 
could  be  proved  that  2  Pet  is  copied  in  Jude, 
the  whole  aspect  of  the  case  would  be  changed, 
and  the  apostolic  authorship  would  be  sup- 
ported by  practically  contemporary  evidence. 
This  cannot  be  proved,  and  a  comparison  of 
the  two  Epistles  leaves  a  different  impression 
on  different  minds.  This,  however,  may  be 
said.  When  one  document  is  founded  on 
another,  the  later  one  has  generally  been  made 
smoother  and  clearer,  and  some  rugged  but 
forcible  phrases  have  been  lost  in  the  process. 
It  looks  as  if  this  might  have  happened  in  the 
composition  of  Jude:  cp.,  for  instance,  2 Pet 
2^"^  with  Jude  vv.  12 f.  Here  Jude  is  certainly 
smoother  and  clearer,  but  the  fine  expression 
'  mists  driven  by  a  storm '  (RV)  is  wanting. 
In  2  Pet   the  sentence  ends   awkwardly  but 


forcibly  with  '  for  whom  the  blackness  of  dark- 
ness hath  been  reserved,'  where  the  antecedent 
to  '  whom  '  is  not  '  springs  '  or  '  mists,'  but 
'  these  men.'  In  Jude  this  fits  easily  and 
obviously  into  the  sentence  through  the  ad- 
dition of  '  wandering  stars.' 

Even  granting  this,  however,  we  should  still 
have  a  difficulty  about  the  date.  The  Jude 
who  wrote  the  Epistle  does  not  call  himself  an 
Apostle,  but  '  brother  of  James.'  He  was, 
therefore,  the  Jude  who  was  one  of  the  brothers 
of  the  Lord  (MtlS^s  Mk63).  He  may  have 
lived  till ,  about  80  a.d.  But  tradition  says 
that  St.  Peter  was  put  to  death  by  Nero  about 
the  same  time  as  St.  Paul.  Now  if  2  Pet  3  ^ — 
'  this  is  the  second  epistle  that  I  write  unto 
you  ' — is  really  a  reference  to  our  First  Epistle, 
and  if  1  Pet  was  written  during  the  Neronian 
persecution,  it  is  strange,  but  not  impossible, 
that  a  letter  so  different,  and  dealing  with  a 
danger  almost  incompatible  with  the  danger  of 
persecution  which  the  First  Epistle  foretells, 
should  have  been  written  almost  directly  after- 
wards to  the  same  readers.  We  do  not  know 
for  certain  that  St.  Peter  did  not  live  longer — 
even  much  longer,  and  we  cannot  be  sure  that 
the  reference  is  not  to  quite  another  Epistle, 
written  to  different  people,  earlier  in  St.  Peter's 
life.  Then  2  Pet  would  be  earlier  than  1  Pet, 
which,  however,  is  not  an  easy  supposition  to 
those  who  notice  affinities  between  2  Pet  and 
the  Pastoral  Epistles. 

4.  If  copied  from  Jude,  2  Peter  was  probably 
written  in  the  second  century,  yet  in  g-ood 
faith.  If  it  could  be  proved  that  2  Pet  was 
copied  from  Jude,  it  would  be  almost  necessary 
to  think  that  it  is  a  work  of  the  second  century, 
written  in  the  Apostle's  name.  No  fraud  need 
have  been  designed.  The  book  would  be  a 
kind  of  religious  fiction,  intended  for  the  in- 
struction of  readers  who  would  be  interested, 
but  not  deceived,  by  the  imaginary  setting.  It 
must  be  remembered  that  this  was  what  many 
in  the  early  Church  did  believe  it  to  be.  There 
are,  however,  many  such  works,  not  a  few  being 
in  St.  Peter's  name,  and  the  difference  in 
earnestness  and  spiritual  power  between  the 
best  of  them  and  2  Pet  is  remarkable.  If 
2  Pet  is  a  fiction,  it  alone  among  such  works 
caiTies  with  it  the  distinction  of  the  apostolic 
age.  The  question  cannot  be  decided  on  the 
limited  evidence  we  have.  The  doubts  of  the 
early  Church,  and  the  probable  silence  of 
the  first  and  second  centuries,  are  not  to  be 
disregarded  ;  on  the  other  hand,  the  critical 
suspicions  of  our  own  age  ought  not  by 
themselves  to  be  allowed  an  exaggerated  im- 
portance. 


1049 


1.1 


2  PETER 


2. 


2  PETER 


The  Epistle  falls  into  three  divisions:  c.  1, 
Introduction ;  c.  2,  warning  against  the  false 
teachers ;  c.  3,  answer  to  the  mockery  of  those 
who  denied  the  Second  Coming  of  Christ. 

CHAPTER  1 
Greeting.    Thanksgiving.     Exhortation 
TO  Progress   in   Righteousness  from 
One  who  remembers  Jesus  Christ 

C.  1  may  be  subdivided  into  two  parts  : 
(a)  vv.  1-11,  greeting  followed  by  a  declaration 
of  the  glory  and  virtue  of  the  Christian  life, 
which  is  a  life  of  continual  growth  and  pro- 
gress, and  requires  diligent  efEort  in  those  who 
would  lead  it;  (b)  vv.  12-21,  declaration  of 
the  Apostle's  care  and  authority  to  provide  for 
his  readers'  remembrance  of  these  truths — he, 
who  saw  the  glory  of  the  Transfiguration,  is 
certain  of  the  present  power  and  future  return 
of  Jesus  Christ,  and  his  testimony  completes 
the  testimony  of  prophecy. 

I.  Simon]  RM  '  Symeon,'  the  more  dis- 
tinctly Jewish  form  of  the  name :  cp.  Ac 
151*.  God  and  our  Saviour  Jesus  Christ]  RV 
'our  God  and  Saviour  Jesus  Christ.'  Both  titles 
are  given  to  Christ:  cp.  RoO^  Hebl^,  and 
Tit2i3(RY).  3.  His  divine  povyer]  i.e.  Christ's: 
cp.  116.  Him  that  hath  called  us]  i.e.  the 
Father,  as  in  IPetS^^.  To  glory  and  virtue] 
RM '  through  glory  and  virtue.'  The  Christian 
advances  towards  the  eternal  kingdom  through 
an  earthly  life  which  is  touched  with  the  divine 
glory  and  virtue.  4.  Whereby]  i.e.  by  glory  and 
virtue.  Might  be]  RV  '  may  become  ' ;  such 
partaking  is  not  yet  completed. 

5.  And  beside  this,  giving  all  diligence]  RY 
'  Yea,  and  for  this  very  cause  adding  on  your 
part  all  diligence.'  God  has  granted  all  things, 
and  for  that  very  reason  we  must  be  diligent : 
cp.  V.  10  and  Phil  2 12*.  Yirtue  must  answer 
to  glory,  duty  to  grace.  All  this  is  just  in  the 
spirit  of  1  Pet  1.  Add  to  your  faith  virtue]  RY 
'  in  your  faith  supply  virtue  ' :  cp.  v.  1 1  (R V). 
The  Christian  life  is  not  a  mere  adding  of 
qualities  together,  but  a  growth.  Yirtue  is  in 
faith,  as  the  flower  is  in  the  seed  ;  the  complete 
fruit  is  love  :  cp.  1  Tim  1  ^.  6.  Temperance] 
RM  '  self-control.'  7.  Brotherly  kindness]  RY 
'  love  of  the  brethren,'  i.e.  the  Christians  :  cp. 
1  Pet 3 8.  Charity]  RY 'love,' which  goes  be- 
yond the  Christian  circle  to  God  and  all  that 
He  has  made. 

9.  Blind,  and  cannot  see  far  off]  As  in  1  Pet 
1 11,  the  first  statement  is  less  exact  than  the 
second.  He  who  cares  not  to  progress  loses 
his  spiritual  vision  ;  the  cleansing  he  received 


in    baptism,    and   the   eternal   kingdom   into 
which  he  is  entering,  are  out  of  his  sight. 

1 1 .  An  entrance .  .  ministered  .  .  abundantly] 
RY  '  the  entrance  .  .  richly  supplied  '  :  cp.  Col 
1 13.  Life  is  a  progress  into  that  eternal  king- 
dom to  which  we  already  belong. 

12.  The  present  truth]  RV  '  the  truth 
which  is  with  you.^  13.  Tabernacle]  or  'tent,' 
i.e.  the  body  (cp.  2  Cor  5 1) — a  fit  thought  for 
those  who  are  sojourners  and  pilgrims  on 
earth:  cp.  IPetl^  2 11.  14.  Shortly  must  put 
off  this  my  tabernacle]  RV  'the  putting  off  of 
my  tabernacle  cometh  swiftly.'  His  death 
was  to  be  A^olent,  and  therefore  sudden :  cp. 
Jn21i8.  There  will  be  no  time  then  for  ad- 
monitions, therefore  he  will  be  diligent  now, 
and  will  leave  his  words  in  writing,  that  they 
may  help  the  readers  after  his  decease.  This 
word,  like  '  tabernacle,'  reminds  us  of  the 
Transfiguration  (cp.  LkD^i),  of  which  the 
Apostle  goes  on  to  speak.  The  reference  in 
V.  15  seems  to  be  to  more  than  this  one  letter. 
Tradition  says  that  St.  Mark  gave  St.  Peter's 
teaching  in  his  Gospel,  and  this  Gospel  may 
be  the  promised  means  of  remembrance. 

16.  Coming]  i.e.  Second  Coming,  in  that 
glory  of  which  a  glimpse  was  given  at  the 
Transfiguration. 

19.  We  have  also  a  more  sure  word  of  pro- 
phecy] RV  '  And  we  have  the  word  of  prophecy 
made  more  sure,'  i.e.  OT.  prophecy,  which  is 
confirmed  by  this  sight  and  sound  :  cp.  3  2. 

A  light  that  shineth  in  a  dark  place]  RM  '  a 
lamp  shining  in  a  squalid  place.'  The  word 
'  squalid '  prepares  the  reader  for  the  bad 
state  of  things  described  in  the  next  c.  Until 
the  day  dawn,  etc.]  cp.  Song  2^7  4  6.  The 
Second  Coming  of  Christ  is  meant. 

20  f.  God  gave  prophecy  of  old,  not  to  this 
or  that  man,  but  to  the  whole  Jewish  Church; 
so  now  it  belongs  to,  and  must  be  interpreted 
by,  the  whole  Church,  under  the  direction  of 
the  Holy  Spirit,  not  by  the  private,  contested 
opinions  of  individuals. 

CHAPTER  2 

Warning  against  a  threatened  Plague 
of  brutal  False  Teachers 
As  of  old  there  were  false  as  well  as  true 
prophets,  so  it  will  be  now.  This  leads  the 
Apostle  to  speak  about  the  false  teachers,  who 
— if  they  have  not  already  begun — he  expects 
will  trouble  his  readers.  Prophets  were  im- 
portant persons  in  the  early  Church  :  cp.  Ac 
1127  lCorl228f.  I429f.  Eph220  35  411.    These 

teachers,  who  had   doubtless   been  baptised, 


1050 


11 


^  PETER 


3. 


claimed,  it  would  seem,  to  be  prophets,  and 
therefore  to  be  outside  ordinary  rules  and 
discipline  :  they  put  a  '  private  interpretation' 
on  such  matters.  Hence  they  fell  into  the  sin 
of  pride,  and  rebelled  against  official  authority; 
and  of  lust  and  covetousness,  despising  the 
laws  of  morality.  The  Apostle  shows,  by  the 
example  of  the  angels  that  sinned,  and  of  the 
cities  of  Sodom  and  Gomorrah,  that  sure  pun- 
ishment is  ready  for  them,  but  that  God  will 
preserve  the  faithful  from  their  seductions. 
He  writes  in  strong  but  very  spiritual  language, 
and  is  in  accord  with  the  rest  of  the  NT.  in 
teaching  that  the  destruction  of  the  unre- 
pentant sinner  is  continuance  in  sin  :  see  vv. 
12  f.  (RV),  19f. ;  and  cp.  MkS^a  (EV)  Rol28 
2Th2iif-  (RV)Heb6«. 

This  c.  should  be  carefully  compared  with 
St.  Jude's  Epistle. 

I.  Damnable  heresies]  RV  'destructive 
heresies.'  The  word  '  heresy '  is  passing  here 
from  its  older  meaning  of  a  '  school '  or  '  sect ' 
(RM)  to  the  modern  meaning  of  '  false  doc- 
trine ' :  cp.  Ac  24 14  1  Cor  1 1 19  Gal  5  20.  Even 
denying  the  Lord]  RV  '  denying  even  the 
Master ' ;  their  evil  lives  were  a  denial  of 
Christ's  authority.  2.  Pernicious  ways]  RV 
'  lascivious  doings.'  3.  Damnation]  RV  '  de- 
struction': cp.  V.  12,  3'''.  With  the  rude  but 
vigorous  style  of  this  and  other  vv.  in  the  c. 
cp.  1  Pet  3 17.  St.  Jude  is  more  polished,  but 
less  strong. 

4,  The  Apostle  here  follows  Jewish  tradi- 
tion (cp.  Rev  20 1-3),  as  it  is  given  in  the  book 
of  Enoch,  from  which  St.  Jude  expressly 
quotes.  5.  Noah  the  eighth persoti]  RV  '  Noah 
with  seven  others  ' :  cp.  1  Pet  3  20.  6.  Neither 
here  nor  elsewhere  in  Holy  Scripture  is  it 
said  that  these  cities  were  submerged.  Zeph 
29  is  against  such  a  belief.  7.  Vexed  with 
the  filthy  conversation]  RV  '  sore  distressed 
by  the  lascivious  life.'  9.  Unto  the  day  of 
judgment  to  be  punished]  RV  '  under  punish- 
ment unto  the  day  of  judgement.'  God's 
punishment  is  remedial,  and  this  v.  gives  just 
a  gleam  of  hope  for  the  false  teachers. 

II.  Comparison  with  Jude  v.  9  would  sug- 
gest that  the  Apostle  is  here  too  referring  to 
an  apocryphal  book,  but  if  we  did  not  know 
that  Epistle  we  should  more  naturally  think 
of  Jobl  or  Zech3. 

12.  Natural  brute  beasts,  made  to  be  taken] 
RV  '  creatures  without  reason,  born  mere 
animals  to  be  taken.'  Shall  utterly  perish  in 
their  own  corruption,  and  shall  receive  the 
reward  of  unrighteousness]  RV  '  shall  in  their 
destroying  surely  be  destroyed,  suffering 
wrong  as  the  hire  of  wrongdoing.' 

13.  Sporting  themselves  with  their  own 
deceivings]  RV  'revelling  in  their  love-feasts.' 
Such  a  love-feast  or  common  meal  of  the 
Christians  is  described  in   1  Cor  1 1 20  f.      The 


1061 


abuses  for  which  the  Corinthians  were  rebuked 
led  to  the  separation  of  the  Holy  Communion 
from  such  feasts.  But  though  St.  Jude  has 
'  love-feasts  '  in  the  parallel  passage,  it  is  more 
than  possible  that  '  deceivings  '  of  AV  and 
RM  is  right  here.  The  Gk.  words  only  differ 
by  two  letters,  and  if  St.  Jude  used  this  Epistle 
he  might  well  correct  a  difficult  to  a  seemingly 
easy  expression. 

14.  Cursed  children]  RV  '  children  of  curs- 
ing,' a  Hebrew  mode  of  expression  :  cp. 
1  Pet  1  !■* ;  it  means  that  their  whole  character 
is  worthy  of  execration.  15.  Bosor]  RV 
'  Beor,' as  in  Nu225.  Balaam,  as  we  learn 
from  Rev  2 1'',  taught  Balak  to  try  and  ruin  the 
Israelites  by  tempting  them  to  uncleanness, 
and  Balak  had  already  offered  him  rewards 
(Nu22  7,i7).  Thus  he  was  like  the  false 
teachers  in  two  respects.  16.  Forbad]  RV 
'  stayed.' 

17.  Wells  without  water,  etc.]  RV  'springs 
without  water,  and  mists  driven  by  a  storm; 
for  whom  the  blackness  of  darkness  hath  been 
reserved.'  The  false  teachers  are  as  dis- 
appointing as  springs  without  water,  or  as 
mists  which  promise  moisture  but  are  scattered 
by  the  wind  :  cp.  Wisd24  and  Eph4i4.  The 
Day  of  the  Lord  will  come  to  them,  as  Joel 
saw  it  (Joel  2 1  *•),  '  with  clouds  and  thick  dark- 
ness ' — a  storm  which  will  truly  satisfy  the 
thirsty  land:  see  Intro. 

18.  Through  much  ■wantonness]  RV  'by 
lasciviousness.'  The  repetition  of  this  word 
points  to  the  character  of  the  false  teachers. 
Repetition  of  this  kind  is  frequent  in  1  Pet. 

Those  that  were  clean  escaped]  RV  '  those 
who  are  just  escaping '  ;  i.e.  those  who  have 
become  Christians,  but  are  not  far  advanced  in 
the  Christian  life  ;  '  new-born  babes,'  as  they 
are  called  in  1  Pet,  who  have  still  to  '  grow 
unto  salvation.'     19.   Cp.  Jn834  R06I6. 

20.  Knowledge  of  Christ  is  both  the  begin- 
ning and  the  end  of  Christian  life  :  cp.  is 
(RV).  Latter  end]  RV  '  last  state '  :  cp.  Mt 
1 2  45  and  Heb  6  4-o  1 0  2".  21.  Turn]  R V  '  turn 
back.'  22.  The  second  proverb  is  not  in  Holy 
Scripture  ;  the  first  comes  from  Prov26ii. 

CHAPTER   3 

Antidote  against  despising  the  Day 
OF  THE  Lord.     Exhortation.     Doxology 

C.  3  may  be  subdivided  into  three  parts  : 
(a)  vv.  1-7.  '  This  Second  Epistle  is  a  re- 
minder of  what  prophets  and  apostles  have 
said.  Those  who  would  understand  it  must 
first  know  that,  though  mockers  will  deny  this, 
there  will  be  an  end  of  the  present  world  by 
fire,  as  once  it  was  overwhelmed  by  water. 
This  will  be  a  day  of  judgment  and  destruc- 
tion for  the  ungodly,  (b)  vv.  8-13.  As  for 
the  delay,  which  induces  some  to  doubt  this, 
time  to  God  is  not  what  it  is  to  us,  and  His 


ai 


2  PETER 


3.  18 


delay  is  due  to  His  longsuffering  will  that  men 
should  be  saved.  When  the  day  does  come, 
it  will  be  sudden,  and  since  it  is  surely  ap- 
proaching, we  ought  to  be  preparing  the  way 
for  it  by  holy  living,  (c)  vv.  14-18.  Be  holy 
then,  and  consider  that  God's  longsuffering 
is  a  means  of  attaining  spiritual  health.  This 
is  the  teaching  of  St.  Paul's  letters,  though 
some  mischievously  pervert  their  meaning. 
Do  you  keep  free  from  error  and  grow  in 
grace  and  knowledge  of  Jesus  Christ,  to  whom 
be  glory  now  and  when  that  day  of  eternity 
shall  come.'  The  mockers  may  be  different 
persons,  but  are  probably  the  same  as  the 
false  teachers.  Here,  as  in  c.  2,  the  Apostle 
speaks  of  an  evil  which  is  expected  in  the 
future,  but  of  which  he  already  sees  the  signs  : 
cp.  Ac  20  30  1  Tim  4  i-s  2  Tim  3 1-9. 

I.  This  second  epistle.  .  I  now  ■write]  RV 
'  This  is  now  . .  the  second  epistle  that  I  write '  : 
sec  Intro.  Your  pure  minds  by  way  of  remem- 
brance] RV  '  your  sincere  mind  by  putting 
you  in  remembrance.'  2.  Us  the  apostles  of 
the  Lord  and  Saviour]  RV  '  of  the  Lord  and 
Saviour  through  your  apostles.'  Prophets  of 
old  and  Apostles  now  have  alike  uttered  the 
commandment  of  Christ  :  cp.  IPetlii^ 

3.  Shall  come .  .  scoffers]  RV  '  mockers  shall 
come  with  mockery,'  a  repetition  in  the  style 
of  1  Pet.  4.  The  fathers]  i.e.  the  men  of 
Old  Testament  times  :  cp.  Ro9^  Heb  1 1. 

5.  Willingly  are  ignorant  of]  RV  '  wilfully 
forget.'  That  by  the  word  of  God,  etc.]  RM 
'  that  there  were  heavens  from  of  old,  and  an 
earth  compacted  out  of  water  and  through 
water,  by  the  word  of  God '  (cp.  Gn  1 2)  ;  a 
thing  is  made  both  out  of  and  through  its 
material.  What  the  mockers  forgot  was 
that  God  who  made  can  also  break  up  what 
He  has  made  by  His  word.  Note  the  emphatic 
position  :  cp.  Heb  11 3.  6.  Whereby]  i.e.  by 
means  of  the  water  and  of  the  word  :  cp.  v.  7, 
'  word  '  and  '  fire.' 

8.  Be  not  ignorant]  RV  '  forget  not '  :  cp. 
v.  5.     Another  characteristic  repetition. 

That  one  day,  etc.]  from  Ps90^.  9.  Not 
willing]  RV  '  not  wishing  '  ;  in  spite  of  this 
different  word  we  are  reminded  of  1  Tim24. 

ID.  As  a  thief  in  the  night]  cp.  1  Th  5  2.  RV 
'as  a  thief  :  cp.  Mt2443.  AH  through  this 
passage  the  Apostle  has  in  mind  the  prophecy 
of  our  Lord  which  is  recorded  in  that  c.     The 


elements]  the  parts  into  which  we  might, 
roughly  speaking,  divide  the  world,  e.g.  earth, 
sea,  sky.  But  the  heavenly  bodies  (RM)  may 
be  meant.  The  works  that  are  therein]  i.e.  the 
processes  of  nature.  Hence  the  expression, 
'shall  be  discovered'  (RM),  is  quite  appropri- 
ate :  cp.  1  Pet  1 7. 

II.  Conversation]  RV  '  living.'  12.  Hasting 
unto]  RV  '  earnestly  desiring,'  RM  '  hasten- 
ing.' It  is  written  in  the  Talmud,  '  If  Jews 
exercised  penitence  for  one  day,  Messiah  would 
straightway  come.'  Wherein]  RV  '  by  reason 
of  which.'  The  Day  of  God  is  the  cause. 
'  There  will  be  a  judgment,'  not,  '  the  world 
will  come  to  an  end,'  is  the  point   of  this  c. 

13.  According  to  his  promise]  given  in  Isa 
65 1''.  After  all',  the  world  will  be  renewed 
rather  than  destroyed  :  cp.  Rev  21  s.  Wherein 
dwelleth  righteousness]  cp.  Rev  22  3.  14.  Such 
things]  RV  '  these  things,'  i.e.  new  heavens, 
new  earth,  righteousness. 

That  ye  may  be  found]  the  same  word  as 
that  which  is  translated  '  discovered  '  in  v.  10 
(RM).  There  may  be  a  reference  back  to  it  : 
whatever  the  earth  and  the  works  therein  may 
be  found  to  be,  take  care  that  you  are  found 
in  peace. 

15.  Hath  written]  RV  '  wrote.'  Such  teach- 
ing is  found  in  Romans  and  in  the  Pastoral 
Epistles  (Ro24;cp.  Ac  1730  1  Tim 2-1),  but  the 
letters  referred  to  in  this  v.  may  not  be  pre- 
served in  our  collection  of  St.  Paul's  Epistles. 
As  the  author  of  this  Epistle  has  noticed, 
patience  and  confidence  in  God's  patient  work- 
ing out  of  His  purpose  is  everywhere  char- 
acteristic of  St.  Paul. 

16.  The  other  Scriptures]  RV  ' . .  scriptures.' 
The  Scriptures  proper  of  the  Apostolic  Church 
were  the  books  of  the  OT.  But  the  letters  of 
the  Apostles  were  read  publicly  in  the  churches 
to  whom  they  were  addressed,  and  in  others  : 
see  CoHi'J.  Hence  they  would  gradually 
come  to  be  called  '  scriptures  '  also.  Here,  as 
perhaps  in  2  Tim  3 1'',  we  discern  the  beginning 
of  this  habit. 

18.  Grow  in  grace,  and  /;/  the  knowledge  of] 
RV  '  grow  in  the  grace  and  knowledge  of.' 
Grace  is  the  gift  of,  as  knowledge  is  directed 
towards,  Christ.  '  Grow '  sums  up  in  one  word 
the  admonitions  of  1  and  2  Pet.  For  ever] 
RM  '  unto  the  day  of  eternity.'  This  is  the 
goal  of  hope  in  both  Epistles. 


1052 


1  JOHN 


INTRODUCTION 


I.  Authorship.  The  question  is  bound  up 
with  that  of  the  authorship  of  the  other 
Johannine  books,  both  as  regards  internal 
and  external  evidence :  see  especially  Intro- 
ductions to  the  Grospel  and  to  the  Second  and 
Third  Epistles. 

(a)  Internal  Evidence.  The  witness  of  the 
book  itself  to  its  authorship  is  sufficiently 
strong.  The  writer  speaks  with  authority, 
as  an  Apostle  would.  He  claims  to  have  first- 
hand knowledge  of  the  facts  which  underlie 
the  gospel  message  (1^'^).  The  tone  and 
teaching  of  the  letter  suit  the  circumstances 
to  which  Christian  tradition  assigns  it  ;  they 
are  such  as  we  should  expect  from  the  aged 
St.  John,  writing  to  his  disciples  a  last  message 
regarding  the  truths  enshrined  in  his  Gospel. 

When  the  Epistle  is  compared  with  the  Gos- 
pel of  St.  John,  the  conclusion  that  the  two 
books  are  the  work  of  one  hand  is  well-nigh 
irresistible.  The  style,  the  language,  the 
thought  of  the  Epistle  reflect  the  features  of 
the  corresponding  elements  of  the  Gospel. 
The  resemblance  and  agreement  between  the 
two  are  so  great  and  so  consistent  as  to  estab- 
lish, to  the  satisfaction  of  most  minds,  an 
identity  of  authorship. 

Of  these  resemblances,  the  most  obvious 
are  certain  verbal  correspondences  of  language, 
of  which  the  following  examples  will  repay 
comparison.  (1)  Characteristic  words  used  in 
a  peculiar   sense:  'life'   (l^'^Si^;  cp.    Jnl^ 

633,51).       'light'     (15-V     28;      Cp.     Jn  14,  5, 7-9). 

'darkness'  (16  2ii;  cp.  Jn8i2  1235);  'world' 
(2 15-17  4  4, 5 ;  cp.  Jn  1 10 1 2  31 1 4 17).  (2)  Character- 
istic expressions:  'eternal  life'  (l^S^^;  cp. 
Jn3i5,i6  640173).  'a  new  commandment'  (28; 
cp.  Jn  1334)  ;  '  only  begotten  Son  '  (49  ;  cp. 
Jn  118  316);  'know  God'  (23,446;  cp.  Jn 
173,25).  'abide  in  Christ '  (2 6  3 24 ;  cp.  Jn656 
154,5.)  (3)  Identical  phrases  :  '  that  your  joy 
may  be  full  '(14;  cp.  Jn  1 6  2-1) ;  '  walketh  in  dark- 
ness, and  knoweth  not  whither  he  goeth '  (2  n  ; 
cp.  Jn  1 2  35) ;  (are)  '  passed  from  death  unto  life ' 
(3 14  ;  cp.  Jn  5  24)  ;  '  know  him  that  is  true '  (5  20 
(RV);  cp.  Jnl73).  Besides  these  and  other 
like  examples,  a  general  similarity  of  style  and 
thought  gives  evidence  almost  the  strongest  of 
its  kind  to  show  that  if  St.  John  wrote  the 
Gospel  which  bears  his  name,  he  wrote  the 
Epistle  also. 

(h)  External  Evidence.  The  witness  afforded 
by  the  book  itself  to  its  authorship  is  amply 


supported  by  the  testimony  of  aneient  writers. 
The  Epistle  is  evidently  quoted  (though  with- 
out mention  of  the  fact)  by  Polycarp  (116  a.d.), 
who  was,  according  to  Irenaius,  a  disciple  of 
St.  John.  It  was  used,  Eusebius  tells  us,  by 
Papias  (120  a.d.),  an  associate  of  Polycarp, 
also  said  to  have  been  a  hearer  of  St.  John. 
It  is  quoted  and  referred  to  as  St.  John's 
Epistle  by  Irenaeus  (180  A.D.),  Polycarp's 
disciple,  by  Clement  of  Alexandria  (190  a.d.), 
Tertullian  (200  a.d.),  Origen  (230  a.d.),  and 
others. 

2.  Date  and  Destination.  These  questions 
are  involved  in  more  uncertainty,  though  fairly 
satisfactory  inferences  regarding  them  may  be 
drawn  both  from  tradition  and  from  the  book 
itself. 

(a)  When  Twas  it  written  ?  St.  John  is  said 
to  have  written  his  Gospel  at  Ephesus  (Iren. 
'  Adv.  Hger.'  iii.  1,1),  probably  between  80  and 
90  A.D.  As  to  the  date  of  the  Epistle  we 
have  no  direct  evidence.  It  is  commonly 
believed,  however,  that  the  two  writings  are 
closely  connected  in  time,  the  prevailing 
opinion  perhaps  being  that  the  Epistle  was 
written  subsequently  to  the  Gospel,  whether 
as  a  supplement  or  as  an  independent  com- 
position. 

The  idea  of  an  original  connection  with  the 
Gospel  has  been  supposed  to  find  support 
from  the  place  which  the  Epistle  occupies  in 
the  Muratorian  Fragment  on  the  Canon  (circ. 
170),  a  witness  for  the  authenticity  of  the 
Epistle  not  included  in  the  authorities  men- 
tioned above.  In  this  document,  which  con- 
tains (incomplete  in  its  extant  form,  as  the 
name  implies)  an  annotated  list  of  the  books 
of  the  New  Testament,  the  First  Epistle  of  St. 
John  is  placed  directly  after  the  Gospel,  and 
not  with  the  two  minor  Epistles.  This,  it  has 
been  conjectured,  was  the  position  which  it 
originally  occupied  as  a  supplement  or  post- 
script to  the  Gospel,  and  from  which  it  was 
subsequently  removed  when  the  books  of  the 
New  Testament  were  grouped  in  their  present 
order.  However  this  may  be,  as  the  Epistle 
contains  no  reference  to  persecutions,  such  as 
took  place  during  the  reigns  of  Domitian  and 
Trajan,  it  can  hardly  have  been  issued  much 
later  than  90  a.d. 

(h)  For  what  Readers  was  it  intended?  In 
this  there  is  involved  a  prior  question  as  to 
the  character  of  the  composition  itself.     Is  it 


1053 


INTRO. 


1  JOHN 


INTRO. 


an  Epistle  at  all  ?  Of  all  the  New  Testament 
Epistles,  this  and  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews 
alone  begin  without  any  epistolary  form  of 
address.  Moreover,  this  contains  no  salutations 
or  messages  to  individuals,  such  as  are  found 
in  Hebrews  and  in  nearly  all  the  other  Epistles. 
Some,  therefore,  have  regarded  it  as  a  treatise 
rather  than  a  letter. 

While,  however,  this  book  is  not  written  in 
epistolary  form,  it  contains  the  substance  of 
an  Epistle.  Its  epistolary  character  is  also 
seen  in  the  constant  use  of  the  second  person 
(13  and  onwards),  the  terms  'little  children,' 
'  fathers,'  '  young  men,'  '  beloved,'  by  which 
the  readers  are  addressed,  and  the  frequent 
use  of  the  expression,  '  I  write  unto  you ' 
(212-14  32^  etc.).  The  opinion,  therefore,  is 
probably  not  far  wrong  which  regards  the 
work  as  a  pastoral  or  circular  letter,  addressed 
to  the  Chiirches  in  the  province  of  Asia  with 
which  St.  John  is  definitely  connected  in 
c.  1  of  the  Apocalypse,  and  having  reference 
primarily  to  the  peculiar  circumstances  of 
those  Churches  and  the  particular  spiritual 
dangers  to  which  they  were  exposed. 

At  the  same  time,  the  absence  of  local  colour 
makes  it  possible  that  a  wider  circle  is  addressed. 
It  is  most  natural,  however,  to  infer  a  distinctly 
Gentile  community,  as  well  from  the  warning 
against  idolatry  with  which  the  book  concludes 
as  from  the  absence  of  the  Hebrew  element  so 
manifest  throughout  the  Gospel,  and  of  any 
quotations  from  or  allusions  to  the  Old 
'Testament. 

3.  Contents.  The  theme  of  the  Epistle  is 
fellowship  with  God  ;  its  object,  to  bring  its 
readers  into  that  fellowship  and  to  secure 
them  against  losing  it. 

This  purpose  finds  expression  at  the  opening 
of  the  Epistle,  and  again  near  its  close.  '  That 
which  we  have  seen  and  heard  declare  we 
unto  you,  that  ye  also  may  have  fellowship 
with  us  :  and  truly  our  fellowship  is  with  the 
Father,  and  with  His  Son  Jesus  Christ.  And 
these  things  write  we  unto  you,  that  your  joy 
may  be  full'  (13,4).  'These  things  have  I 
written  unto  you  that  believe  on  the  name  of 
the  Son  of  God  ;  that  ye  may  know  that  ye 
have  eternal  life,  and  that  ye  may  believe  on 
the  name  of  the  Son  of  God '  (5i3).  There  is 
thus  a  distinct  difference  between  the  object 
of  the  Epistle  and  that  of  the  Gospel  (see 
Jn203i),  the  object  of  the  one  being  to  pro. 
mote  faith  in  Christ,  that  of  the  other  to 
confirm  the  faith  and  develop  the  religious 
life  of  those  who  already  believe. 

The  writer's  thought  revolves  about  certain 
fundamental  watchwords  regarding  the  nature 
of  God.  The  three  great  watchwords  which 
occupy  the  pivotal  places  in  the  plan  of  the 
Epistle  (see  analysis  below)  are,  '  God  is  light,' 
'  God   is    righteous,'    '  God   is    love.'     Corre- 


sponding to  these  are  the  Christian  graces  of 
faith,  obedience,  love,  and  the  Christian  duties 
of  confessing  Christ,  keeping  the  command- 
ments, and  loving  the  brethren.  Together 
with  the  positive  inculcation  of  these  truths 
and  duties  is  combined  a  recognition  of  their 
opposites.  Underlying  all  the  thought  of  the 
Epistle  is  the  conception  of  the  irreconcilable 
antagonism  which  exists  between  Christ  and 
the  world  ;  hence  the  statement  of  truth  or 
duty  is  strengthened  or  expanded  by  a  denial 
of  or  warning  against  its  opposite.  "The  active 
presence  of  error  and  evil  among  those  ad- 
dressed accounts  for  the  polemical  element  in 
the  Epistle,  and  the  warnings  against  evil 
influences  and  wrong  ways  of  thinking  and 
living  with  which  it  abounds. 

The  particular  heresy  which  the  writer 
combats  appears  to  have  been  an  incipient 
form  of  one  of  the  various  systems  which,  as 
developed  in  the  2nd  cent.,  are  included  under 
the  general  name  of  Gnosticism,  in  all  of  which 
there  was  involved  a  denial  of  the  reality  of 
the  Incarnation  :  cp.  4^  2  Jn  v.  7.  This  subject 
is  more  fully  treated  in  Intro,  to  Second  and 
Third  Epistles.  The  polemical  element  is, 
however,  subordinate  to  the  main  object  of  the 
Epistle,  which  is  to  promote  the  spiritual  life 
of  believers  by  bringing  them  into  a  living 
union  with  Christ  and  confirming  them  therein. 

The  plan  of  the  Epistle  is  difficult  to  follow, 
and  has  been  differently  understood,  some 
failing  to  recognise  any  regular  plan  at  all. 
In  the  following  Synopsis,  the  minor  sections 
are  grouped  about  the  three  fundamental 
statements  mentioned  above. 

1 1-*.  Introduction.    The  fundamental  scheme  of 
the  Epistle  :  God  manifested  in  Jesus 
Christ,  that  man  may  have  fellowship 
with  the  Father  through  the  Son. 
15_228.     i_  Qod   is    Light,    hence   fellowship 
with  Him  means  walking  in 
the  light  and  realising  a  sense 
of  brotherhood  and  the  for- 
giveness of  sins  (v.  7). 
(i)  This  involves,  (a)  confession  of 
sin    (vv.    8-10),    (b)    keeping 
His     commandments     (2  3-6), 
(c)    in    particular,   loving   the 
brethren  (vv.  7-11). 
(ii)  (a)    Reasons    for    writing,    as 
regards    the    spiritual    con- 
dition   of    the   readers   (vv. 
12-16). 
(6)  Things  and  persons  to  avoid. 
(1)  The  love  of  the  world 
(vv.  15-17).     (2)  Fellowship 
with     false     teachers     (vv. 
18-26). 
(c)  The  believer's  security  and 
hope  (vv.  27,  28). 


1054 


INTRO. 


1  JOHN 


2.  2 


2  29_4  6.  ji_  God  is  Righteous,  hence  fellowship 
with  Him  involves  doing 
righteousness,  and  this  is  an 
evidence  of  divine  sonship 
(v.  29). 
(i)  Sonship  a  motive  to  righteous- 
ness (3 1-9). 
(ii)  Sonship  the  root  of  brotherly 

love  (vv.  10-18). 
(iii)  Sonship   resulting    in    glorious 
privileges  : 
(a)   assurance    (vv.    19-21),    (b) 
answer  to  prayer  (v.  22),  (c) 
fellowship,    realised     through 
the  gift  of  the  Spirit  (v.  24), 
(cl)  discernment  of  truth  and 
error  (4 1"*^). 
4^-512.      III.  God  is   Love,   hence   fellowship 
with  Him  involves  walking  in 
love  (vv.  7,  8). 
(i)  How  God's  love  to  us  was  mani- 
fested (vv.  9,  10). 
(ii)  Our    rightful    response    to    it, 

brotherly  love  (vv.  11,  12). 
(iii)  The  proofs  of  fellowship,  (a) 
the  indwelling  Spirit  (v.  13), 
(6)  confessing  Jesus  (vv.  14, 
15),  (c)  abiding  in  love  (v.  16). 
(iv)  Perfect    love    casts    out    fear 

(vv.  17,  18). 
(v)  Brotherly  love  the  test  of  love 

to  God  (vv.  19-21). 
(vi)  Love  finds  expression  in  obedi- 
ence (5i~*). 
(vii)  Obedience  rests  on  faith  in  and 
fellowship   with    Christ    (vv. 
5-12). 
513-21^     Conclusion. 

(i)  Reason  for  writing  restated  in 

different  form  (v.  13). 
(ii)  The  assurance  which  believers 
may  have  :  (a)  of  the  efficacy 
of  prayer  (vv.  14-17),  (h)  of 
the  guardianship  of  God  (v. 
18),  (c)  of  divine  sonship 
(v.  19),  ((I)  of  the  reality  of 
the  divine  manifestation  and 
the  fellowship  resulting  from 
it  (v.  20). 
(iii)  Final  warning  (v.  21). 

CHAPTER    1 

Fellowship  with  God  in  Light 
I.  Observe  the  grammatical  form  of  vv. 
1-3.  In  V.  1  a  sentence  is  begun  which, 
interrupted  by  the  parenthesis  in  v.  2,  is  con- 
tinued in  V.  3.  The  sense  is,  '  We  declare 
unto  you  that  which  was  from  the  beginning, 
that  which  we  have  heard,  etc.,  concerning  the 
Word  of  Life.'  From  the  beginning]  cp.  Jn 
1 1.  Heard  .  .  handled]  the  evidence  of  eye- 
witness.    The  Docetists  taught  that  Christ  was 


a  mere  phantom :  cp.  Lk2439.  Of  the  Word  of 
life]  RV  '  concerning  the  Word  of  life  '  :  cp. 
'bread  of  life,'  JnG^s.  For  'the  Word' 
{Logos)  see  on  Jn  1 1. 

2.  This  V,  is  parenthetical,  reiterating  the 
fact  that  the  preexistent  Eternal  Word  was 
manifested  to  men.  In  v.  3  this  manifestation 
is  said  to  determine  man's  relation  to  God. 

3.  Declare  we  unto  you]   RV  adds  '  also.' 
Fellowship  with  us]    i.e.   iniion  with  us  in 

Christian  fellowship.  And  truly]  RV  '  yea, 
and.'  Fellowship  with  Christian  teachers 
involves  fellowship  with  God  in  Christ. 

4.  That  your  joy  may  be  full]  RV  '  that 
our  joy  may  be  fulfilled.'  '  Fellowship  with 
Christ  and  with  the  brethren  is  the  measure  of 
the  fulness  of  joy  '  (Westcott). 

5.  Light .  .  darkness]  The  one  suggests  truth 
and  goodness,  the  other  falsehood  and  evil. 
All  truth  and  goodness  emanate  from  God. 
To  walk  in  the  light,  therefore,  i.e.  to  possess 
and  practise  these,  is  to  have  fellowship  with 
Him.  On  the  other  hand,  to  be  without  these 
is  to  be  without  God  (v.  6).  7.  One  with 
another]  i.e.  with  other  Christians,  the  result 
of  fellowship  with  God.  The  blood  of  Jesus 
Christ]  RV  omits  '  Christ.'  Only  those  who 
'  walk  in  the  light '  can  appropriate  the  cleans- 
ing efficacy  of  the  life  laid  down  upon  the 
Cross.  Cleanseth]  The  present  tense  denotes 
a  continuous  process — the  progressive  sanctifi- 
cation  of  the  believer's  soul  :  cp.  JnlS^*^. 

8.  Deceive  ourselves]  lit.  '  lead  ourselves 
astray.'     9.   Just]  RV  '  righteous.' 

Forgive  .  .  cleanse]  '  Forgive  '  refers  to  the 
remission  of  punishment,  '  cleanse '  to  the 
removal  of  pollution. 

CHAPTER   2 

The  Advocacy  or  Christ  and  the 
Obligations  of  Believers 

1.  My  little  children]  The  diminutive  implies 
the  fatherly  care  which  the  aged  Apostle  felt 
for  his  disciples.  Advocate]  The  word  thus 
translated  is  used  by  St.  John  alone  of  the 
NT.  writers.  Elsewhere  ( Jn  1 4 16, 25  1 5  26  1 6  7) 
it  is  rendered  '  Comforter.'  Literally  it  means 
one  who  is  called  to  the  side  of  another  for 
counsel  and  help.  The  rendering  '  Advocate  ' 
suits  the  passages  in  the  Gospel  (see  RM  in 
loco).  The  Son  and  the  Holy  Spirit  both  act 
as  Advocate  with  the  Father:  cp.  Ro 8 26, 27, 34. 
The  Redeemer's  work  calls  for  the  mercy 
which  '  rejoiceth  against  judgment.' 

2.  Propitiation]  the  act  or  offering  which 
makes  an  injured  person  favourable  to  the 
offender.  Christ  is  the  propitiation  as  well 
as  the  propitiator  :  the  offering  itself  as  well 
as  the  sacrificing  priest  who  makes  it.  The 
whole  world]  cp.  Jn  1 2f»  424  1720-23.  The 
work  of  Christ  was  wrought  for  all,  not 
for  a  chosen  few.     There  are  none  who  may 


1055 


2.  5 


1  JOHN 


3.9 


not  share  its  benefits  if  they  will.  5.  The 
love  of  God]  i.e.  man's  love  to  Grod  :  cp.  412. 
An  ideal  condition  is  here  presented.  Perfect 
obedience  is  evidence  of  perfect  love. 

7.  An  old  commandment]  cp.  2  Jn  v.  5. 
Old,  because  they  have  known  it  from  the 
beginning  of  their  Christian  life.  Which  ye 
had  from  the  beginning]  RV  '  which  ye  heard.' 

8.  A  new  commandment]  The  command- 
ment of  love,  old  as  it  now  is  in  one  sense, 
is  in  another  new,  as  it  ever  gains  fresh  light 
and  meaning.  The  darkness,  etc.]  RV  '  the 
darkness  is  passing  away,  and  the  true  light 
already  shineth.'  10.  Occasion  of  stumbling] 
lit.  '  stumbling-block,'  that  which  may  cause 
himself  or  others  to  fall,  in  this  case  probably 
(see  next  v.)  himself.  Without  love  no  one 
can  walk  in  the  light  of  God's  truth. 

12-14.  In  these  vv,  the  readers  are  addressed, 
twice  over,  as(l)  'little  children,'  (2)  'fathers,' 
(3)  '  young  men.'  Probably  the  first  of  these 
is  the  term  of  endearment  already  used  (v.  1), 
including  the  whole  community.  Next,  the 
old  and  the  young  are  respectively  addressed 
as  '  fathers,'  '  young  men.'  Corresponding  to 
the  two  series  of  personal  addresses  is  a  change 
in  the  tense  of  the  verb  from  '  I  write  '  to  '  I 
wrote,'  or  '  I  have  written  '  :  see  RV,  noting 
change  in  v.  13.  Perhaps  '  I  write  '  refers  to 
the  Epistle.  '  I  wrote '  to  the  Gospel  ;  or  else 
the  change  is  made  for  variety,  the  present 
being  used  from  the  writer's  standpoint,  the  past 
from  that  of  the  readers,  when  the  message 
would  reach  them. 

.15.  Love  not  the  world]  The  'world'  here 
is  not  the  world  of  nature,  nor  the  world  of 
humanity  which  'God  so  loved'  (Jn3i'5).  It 
means  all  in  the  present  order  of  things  which 
appeals  to  the  soul  as  an  object  of  desire  apart 
from  and  in  rivalry  to  God.  16.  All  that  is 
thus  antagonistic  to  God  is  summed  up  under 
three  heads,  the  separate  avenues  through 
which  the  world-spirit  reaches  the  soul.  While 
the  classification  is  hardly  exhaustive,  as  a 
category  covering  all  kinds  of  evil  it  is  very 
comprehensive,  and  corresponds  to  the  three 
elements  which  appear  in  the  temptation  of 
Eve  (Gn36)  and  in  the  temptation  of  our 
Lord  (Lk43-12). 

18.  The  last  time]  RV  '  the  last  hour.'  The 
Apostles  undoubtedly  anticipated  a  coming  of 
Christ  in  the  near  future  as  a  vital  possibility, 
and  all  generations  are  enjoined  by  our  Lord's 
teaching  to  do  the  same.  The  dispensation  which 
immediately  precedes  that  great  event,  the  time 
of  which  is  known  only  to  the  Father  (Mk  1332)^ 
is  rightly  called,  whatever  its  length  may 
prove  to  be,  the  '  last  hour.'  Antichrist  shall 
come]  RV  '  Antichrist  cometh.'  The  hostile 
influence  described  as  Antichrist  is  further 
defined  in  v.  22,  43  2Jnv.7,  as  the  Spirit 
which  denies  the  Incarnation,  and  is  regarded 


as  a  sign  of  the  last  days  :  cp.  2  Th  2  3  -10.  The 
term  '  Antichrist '  suggests  the  ideas  of  oppo- 
sition and  rivalry  to  Chj-ist.  St.  John  re- 
gards as  embodiments  of  this  spirit  all  the  false 
teachers  who  had  already  (v.  19)  gone  out 
from  the  Church  because  they  did  not  really 
possess  the  Spirit  of  Christ. 

20.  An  unction]  RV  '  an  anointing '  :  cp. 
2  Cor  1  -1.  Oil  is  the  sacred  symbol  of  the 
Spirit's  operations.  The  anointing  here  repre- 
sents the  gift  of  the  Spirit,  whereby  believers 
are  endowed  with  spiritual  discernment  (Jn 
14  2(3  1G13).     The  Holy  one]   probably  Christ. 

23.  '  The  denial  of  the  Son  involves  the  loss 
of  the  Father,  not  only  because  the  ideas  of 
sonship  and  fatherhood  are  correlative,  but  be- 
cause the  Son  alone  can  reveal  the  Father.' 

28.  When  he  shall  appear]  RV  '  if  he  shall 
be  manifested.'  The  '  if '  implies  no  doubt  as 
to  the  fact,  but  only  uncertainty  as  to  the 
time.  Confidence]  RV  '  boldness,'  lit.  '  free- 
doai  or  readiness  of  speech.'  29.  Is  born  of 
him]  lit.  '  hath  been  begotten  from  him.' 
'  The  presence  of  righteous  action  is  the  sure  ( 
sign  of  the  reality  of  the  divine  birth' 
(Westcott). 

CHAPTER  3 

The  Righteousness  of  God  and  the 
Duties  and  Privileges  of  Sonship 
I.  The  sons  of  God]  RV  '  children  of 
God,'  adding  the  words,  '  and  such  we  are.' 
The  word  translated  '  children  '  here  is  charac- 
teristic of  St.  John,  and  implies  comm.unity  of 
nature,  whereas  the  term  '  sons '  as  used  by 
St.  Paul  suggests  the  privileged  condition  of 
heirship.  2.  Note  changes  in  RV.  3.  This 
hope]   of  being  hereafter  like  God  in  Christ. 

In  him]  RV  '  set  on  him.'  Purifieth  himself] 
'  He  who  looks  forward  to  becoming  like  God 
hereafter  must  strive  after  His  likeness  now  ' 
(Westcott). 

6.  Sinneth  not]  That  the  possibility  of  sin- 
lessness  in  present  experience  is  not  taught 
here  is  clear  from  18-9.  St.  John's  thought 
moves  in  the  region  of  the  ideal.  The  divine 
life  and  the  life  of  sin  are  in  idea  mutually 
exclusive.  Sin  in  the  Christian  is  either  in- 
voluntary or  in  acknowledged  contradiction 
to  the  ruling  principle  of  his  life.  The 
commission  of  it  is  to  that  extent  a  failure 
perfectly  to  abide  in  Christ.  8.  He  that  com- 
mitteth  sin]  RV  '  he  that  doeth  sin.'  The 
present  tense  implies  that  which  is  habitual, 
which  results  from  a  ruling  principle.  9.  RV 
'  Whosoever  is  begotten  of  God  doeth  no  sin, 
because  his  seed  abideth  in  him.'  The  same 
principles  of  interpretation  apply  here  as  in 
the  foregoing  vv.  A  perfect  realisation  of 
the  filial  relationship  to  God  excludes  sin.  His 
seed  remaineth  in  him]  The  germinal  principle 
from  which  his  new  life  has  sprung. 


1056 


3.  12 


1  JOHN 


5.  21 


12.  Cain]  The  typical  example  of  hatred, 
inspired  by  the  Evil  One,  and  resulting  in 
murder,  the  germ  of  which  is  hatred  (v.  16). 

1 6.  Hereby  perceive  we  the  love  of  God'\ 
RV  '  hereby  know  we  love,'  i.e.  what  love  is. 

He  .  .  we]  The  pronouns  are  emphatic. 

17.  This  world's  good]  RV  'the  world's 
goods,'  lit.  '  the  world's  life,'  i.e.  that  which 
supports  life. 

19.  Hereby]  i.e.  by  loving  in  deed  and 
truth.  20.  In  RV  v.  19  ends  with  a  comma, 
then  follows,  '  whereinsoever  our  heart  con- 
demn us  ;  because  God,'  etc.  God  is  greater] 
He  is  a  more  perfect  judge.  Are  these  words 
meant  to  inspire  awe  or  to  afford  consolation  ? 
Is  God  regarded  as  more  exacting  or  more 
merciful  than  conscience  ?  Opinion  is  much 
divided.  The  contrast  in  v.  21  suggests  the 
former  alternative,  but  the  whole  context 
rather  favours  the  latter.  '  We  shall  then 
still  our  heart  in  whatsoever  it  may  condemn 
us,  because  we  are  in  fellowship  with  God, 
and  that  fact  assures  us  of  His  sovereign 
mercy  '  (Westcott).     22.   See  5 1^. 

24.  The  spirit  which  he  hath  given  us]  RV 
'  the  Spirit  which  he  gave  us,'  i.e.  when  we 
became  Christians.  The  indwelling  Spirit, 
from  whom  springs  the  Christian's  love  to 
God  and  man,  is  his  assurance  of  fellowship 
with  God.  The  test  of  having  the  Spirit  of 
God,  and  not  the  spirit  of  Antichrist,  is  treated 
in  the  six  following  verses. 

CHAPTER  4 

Fellowship  with  God  in  Love 
I.  Try  the  spirits]  RV  '  Prove  the  spirits.' 
The  verb  is  used  of  testing  metals.  2,  3.  See 
on  2Jn  V.  7.  3.  Confesseth  not  that  Jesus 
Christ  is  come  in  the  flesh]  RV  '  confesseth 
not  Jesus.'  4.  He  that  is  in  the  world]  the 
Devil:  cp.  310  JnS'i*  12 3i.  5.  They]  the 
false  prophets.  6.  We]  the  Christian 
teachers. 

8.  God  is  love]  the  third  fundamental 
maxim  (see  Intro.).  Love  is  not  merely  an 
attribute  of  God,  it  is  His  very  Being.  Hence 
to  be  without  love  is  to  be  without  God  :  cp. 
V.  16.  9.  See  JnSi*^.  n.  We  ought  also] 
RV  'we  also  ought.'  12.  Hath  seen  God] 
RV  'hath  beheld  God.'  His  love]  i.e.  our 
love  to  Him.  If  we  love  one  another  we 
have  proof  both  of  His  presence  with  us  and 
of  our  love  to  Him. 

17.  Herein  is  our  love  made  perfect]  RV 
'  herein  is  love  made  perfect  with  us,'  i.e.  in 
the  double  communion  spoken  of  in  the  pre- 
ceding V.  As  he  is,  so  are  we]  We,  as  we 
are  in  this  world,  are  like  Christ,  who  shares 
our  human  nature.  The  sense  of  likeness  to 
Him  gives  us  confidence.  18.  No  fear  in  love] 
not  the  rightful  awe  which  pertains  to  rever- 
ence, but  servile  or  guilty  fear.     19.  We  love 


him]  RV  '  we  love.'     Possibly  the  verb  should 
be  rendered  '  let  us  love.' 

CHAPTER  5 
The  Love,  Obedience,  and  Assiieanc:^  of 
Believers 
I.  The  reason  for  brotherly  love.  2.  This 
is  the  converse  of  419-21.  Love  to  God  and 
love  to  the  brethren  being  inseparable,  each  is 
the  test  of  the  other.  4.  Whatsoever]  not 
'  whosoever.'  '  It  is  not  the  man,  but  his  birth 
from  God,  which  conquers '  (Plummer). 

6.  This  is  he  that  came  by  water  and 
blood]  According  to  the  most  generally  ac- 
cepted interpretation  of  this  difficult  passage, 
the  reference  is  primarily  to  our  Lord's  bap- 
tism in  Jordan  and  His  death  upon  the  Cross 
— the  baptism  of  water  and  the  baptism  of 
blood,  which  together  sum  up  His  redemptive 
work  and  represent  its  cleansing  and  atoning 
power.  There  is,  perhaps,  some  allusion  also 
to  the  '  blood  and  water '  to  which  St.  John 
bore  witness  at  the  Cross  (Jn  193-1),  besides  a 
symbolical  reference  to  the  two  sacraments. 

7,  8.  All  the  words  between  that  bear  record 
in  V.  7  and  the  spirit  in  v.  8  are  omitted  in 
RV.  It  is  quite  certain  that  these  words  did 
not  belong  to  the  original  text.  They  are 
found  in  noGk.  MS  earlier  than  the  14th  cent., 
and  az'e  quoted  by  none  of  the  Fathers  before 
the  middle  of  the  5th  cent.  The  Fathers  un- 
derstood the  passage  in  its  original  form  to 
symbolise  the  Trinity,  an  interpretation  which 
may  have  been  inserted  at  first  as  a  marginal 
note  and  afterwards  found  its  way  into  the 
text. 

14,  15.  The  prayer  of  faith  prevails  when 
it  is  in  accordance  with  God's  will.  Thus 
offered  it  is  surely  heard,  and,  though  it  may 
not  have  any  visible  effect,  receives  its  answer. 
He  who  trusts  God's  love  knows  that  the 
answer  he  receives  is  the  best. 

16,  17.  There  is  a  sin  unto  death]  RM 
'  There  is  sin  unto  death,'  not  any  special  sin 
which  can  be  recognised  as  '  unto  death.'  Sin 
cannot  be  divided  into  '  mortal '  and  '  venial ' 
on  the  authority  of  this  passage.  Sin  may 
be  of  such  a  character  as  to  lead  to  total  sepa- 
ration from  Christ,  which  is  spiritual  death. 
'  "  Sin  unto  death  "  is  not  any  act  of  sin,  how- 
ever heinous,  but  a  state  or  hahit  of  sin  wil- 
fully chosen  and  persisted  in  :  it  is  constant 
and  consummate  opposition  to  God '  (Plummer). 

18.  He  that  is  begotten  of  God  keepeth 
himself]  RV  '  he  that  was  begotten  of  God  (i.e. 
Christ)  keepeth  him.'  21.  Taken  compi-e- 
hensively,  this  warning  is  directed  against 
all  that  takes  the  place  of  God  in  man's 
affections. 

If,  as  seems  likely,  the  Epistle  is  St.  John's 
latest  work,  these  are,  in  point  of  time,  the 
last  words  of  Holy  Scripture. 


67 


1057 


2  AND  3  JOHN 


INTRODUCTION 


I.  Authorship.  The  majority  of  the  Epistles 
of  the  New  Testament  are  catholic,  that  is, 
they  are  addressed  not  to  individuals  but  to 
Churches  of  this  and  that  locality.  There  are 
references  to  letters  of  this  kind  which  are 
now  lost.  Thus  St.  Paul  says,  '  I  wrote  unto 
you  in  an  epistle  not  to  keep  company  with 
fornicators'  (1  Cor 5 9).  And  he  directs  the 
Colossian  Church  to  exchange  Epistles  with  the 
Church  at  Laodicea  (Col4i6);  this  being  the 
only  mention  we  have  of  a  Laodicean  Epistle. 
But  there  are  several  private  letters  in  the 
New  Testament,  each  bearing  the  vivid  stamp 
of  an  occasion.  And  these  must  have  consti- 
tuted but  a  small  part  of  the  correspondence 
of  the  early  Christian  writers.  St.  Paul 
speaks  of  '  epistles  of  commendation '  (2  Cor 
3  1),  personal  letters  of  introduction,  as  pass- 
ing frequently  among  the  Churches.  Un- 
doubtedly, then,  many  private  letters  by  the 
authors  of  the  New  Testament  have  been 
lost. 

This  adds  special  interest  to  the  Second  and 
Third  Epistles  of  St.  John  ;  for  here  we  have 
two  letters  of  unquestionably  early  date,  re- 
vealing each  a  section  of  the  Christian  com- 
munity in  the  colours  of  life.  They  are 
almost  universally  allowed  to  be  by  the  same 
hand  ;  by  the  hand,  most  commentators  add, 
of  John  the  Apostle.  The  direct  external 
evidence  for  their  authenticity  is  not  exten- 
sive. This  may  be  perhaps  on  account  of 
their  brevity  and  their  private  character, 
which  would  render  them  not  likely  to  be 
mentioned  frequently  by  the  Fathers.  Yet 
there  are  several  references  to  them  in  the 
first  four  centuries.  It  is  said  in  the  Mu- 
ratorian  Canon  (170  a.d.)  that  John  wrote 
at  least  two  Epistles.  Irenaeus  (180  a.d.) 
twice  ascribes  the  Second  Epistle  to  St. 
John.  The  Old  Italic  Version  (180  a.d.) 
has  both  Epistles.  Clement  of  Alexandria 
(190  A.D.)  refers  to  the  First  Epistle  as 
'  the  larger  Epistle,'  implying  that  he  knows 
another  which  is  shorter  ;  and  again  he 
speaks  of  a  Second  Epistle  of  John,  ad- 
dressed '  to  a  Babylonian  lady  by  name  Electa.' 
Both  Epistles,  the  Second  and  Third,  are 
mentioned  by  Origen  (230  a.d.),  and  by 
Dionysius  of  Alexandria  (245  A.D.).  Euse- 
bius  (325  A.D.)  in  speaking  of  them  places 
them  among  the  books  whose  right  to  a 
position  in  the  Canon  is  disputed.    The  Second 


Epistle  is  referred  to  by  Cyprian  (248  A.D.)  ; 
and  both  are  acknowledged  by  the  Councils  of 
Laodicea  (363  A.D.),  of  Hippo  (393  a.d.),  and 
the  Third  Council  of  Carthage  (397  a.d.). 

The  internal  evidence  is  stronger.  Accord- 
ing to  the  contents,  the  author  is  a  person  of 
apostolic,  or  at  least  authoritative,  position. 
There  is  no  ground  for  doubting  that  such 
was  the  case,  for  there  is  no  motive  conceiv- 
able for  forgery.  Moreover,  if  the  attempt 
had  been  made  to  pass  off  the  work  of  an 
obscure  author  for  that  of  a  prominent  one,  a 
more  definite  and  authority-giving  title  than 
that  which  heads  both  Epistles — '  the  Pres- 
byter ' — would  have  been  assigned  the  writer. 
Their  style,  form,  and  contents  are  so  alike 
that  their  unity  of  authorship  can  hardly  be 
questioned.  In  each  case  the  opening  address 
(cp.  2Jn  V.  1,  3  Jn  v.  1),  the  writer's  joy  in 
the  conduct  of  his  friends  (cp.  2Jn  v.  4, 
3  Jn  V.  4),  and  the  conclusion  (cp.  2  Jn  v.  12, 
3  Jn  w.  13,  14),  is  the  same.  Similarity  in 
the  words,  ideas,  style,  character,  binds  them 
also  to  the  First  Epistle.  '  Love  '  and  '  truth' 
glow  as  fundamental  conceptions  in  all  three. 
(Among  instances  of  similar  treatment  of  the 
same  themes,  are  the  following  :  cp.  2  Jn  vv. 
4,  6,  1  Jn67,  2Jn  vv.  6,  11  ;  cp.  2Jn  v.  5, 
lJn27;  cp.  2Jn  v.  6,  lJn53;  cp.  2Jn 
V.  7,  lJn222;  cp.  2Jn  v.  7,  1  Jn  4i-3  ;  cp. 
2Jn  v.  9,  lJn223;  cp.  2 Jn  v.  12,  IJnl^; 
cp.  3Jn  v.  11,  1  Jn  3^0.  Of  the  thirteen  vv. 
of  the  Second  Epistle  eight  are  thus  found  in 
essentially  the  same  form  in  the  First.)  In 
all  of  them  the  centre  of  Christianity  is  the 
recognition  of  Jesus  as  the  Christ  and  the 
authoritative  revealer  of  God,  and  walking  in 
love  and  truth  as  the  soul's  mode  of  union 
with  Him.  The  prominence  given  to  Christ 
leads  to  warnings  against  '  antichrist,'  an  ex- 
pression found  in  the  New  Testament  in  the 
First  and  Second  Epistles  of  John  only  (1  Jn 
218,22  43  2  Jn  V.  7).  The  First  Epistle  utters 
three  clear  and  weighty  warnings  against  the 
dangers  of  the  time — the  danger  of  denying  the 
true  Christ,  of  failing  in  love  to  the  brethren, 
and  of  not  observing  Christ's  commandments. 
These  same  three  warnings  constitute  the  body 
of  thought  of  the  Second  Epistle  (2  Jn  vv.  7, 
9,  5,  6).  The  connexion  between  the  First 
Epistle  and  the  Second  and  Third  is  so  close 
that  the  arguments  for  the  Johannine  author- 
ship of  the  last  two  are  in  the  main  the  same 


1058 


INTRO. 

as  for  the  First,  and  may  be  found  at  length 
in  commentaries  on  that  Epistle.  Whether 
this  connexion  involves  unity  of  authorship 
with  the  Fourth  Gospel  and  the  Revelation, 
is  a  question  too  large  to  be  entered  upon 

here. 

It  has  been  held  that  the  title  which  the 
author  of  the  Second  and  Third  Epistles  gives 
himself—'  the  Presbyter '  or  '  Elder  '—excludes 
Johannine  authorship.  For  this,  it  is  main- 
tained, is  the  official  designation  of  the  minister 


2  AND  S  JOHN 


INTRO. 


foundation  of  all  Oriental  religions — the  rela- 
tion of  finite  man  to  the  infinite  God.  How 
could  that  chasm  be  crossed  ?  how  had  it  been 
crossed  in  the  work  of  creation  ?  how  were 
spirit  and  matter  related  ?  how  did  evil  enter 
the  world,  and  what  was  evil  ?  Almost  all 
early  thinkers  were  driven  by  these  questions 
into  some  form  of  Dualism.  There  were,  they 
must  believe,  two  Powers  in  conflict.  Since 
spirit  was  the  higher,  matter  was  evil  ;  it  was 
the  work  of  the  inferior  god.     The  material. 


of  a  particular  Church,  and  therefore  cannot     the  natural,  was  therefore  to  be  fought  agamst  ; 


have  been  assumed  by  one  having  the  apostolic 
position  of  St.  John.     This  opinion  is  sup- 
ported  by  a  passage  in   Eusebius,  in  which 
Papias  is  quoted  as  mentioning  a  John  the 
Presbyter.     '  K  I  met  with  any  one  who  had 
been  a  follower  of  the  Presbyters,  I  made  it  a 
point  to  enquire  what  were  the  declarations  of 
the  Presbyters  ;  what  was  said  by  Andrew  or 
by  Peter  or  by  Philip  or  by  Thomas  or  by 
James  or  by  John  or  by  Matthew  or  any  of 
the  Lord's  disciples  ;  and  what  Aristion  and 
the  Presbyter  John,  the  disciples  of  the  Lord, 
say.'     Of  this  statement  of  Papias,  Eusebius 
says  :  '  It  is  proper  to  observe  that  the  name 
of  John  occurs  twice.     The  one  John  he  men- 
tions with  Peter  and  James  and  Matthew  and 
the  other  Apostles.     But  in  a  separate  part  of 
his  discom-se  he  ranks   the   other  John  with 
the  rest  not  included  in  the  number  of  the 
Apostles,  placing  Aristion  before   him.     He 
distinguishes    him    plainly   by    the    name    of 
Presbyter.'     Eusebius    therefore    infers   that 
there    were    two    Johns — John   the    Apostle 
and  John  the  Presbyter.     Cp.  Euseb.  'Hist. 
Eccles.,'  VII,  25.     But  apart  from  the  fact 
that  it  is  somewhat  uncertain  whether  Papias 
in  this  passage  refers  to  a  different  person 
from  John  the  Apostle,  this  is  the  only  place 
in    Christian    history    down   to    the    time    of 
Eusebius  in  which  such  a  person  as  John  the 
Presbyter  is  mentioned.     Moreover,  it  is  an 
assumption  that  '  the  Presbyter '  must  neces- 
sarily be  the  technical  and  official  title  of  the 
minister  of  a  special  Church  ;  for  in  the  very 
passage    quoted,   Papias    calls    seven   of    the 
Apostles   Presbyters.     It   is   more    probable, 
therefore,  that  'Presbyter,'  at  the  beginning 
of  the  Second  and  Third  Epistles  of  John,  is 
not  an  official  title,  but  a  descriptive  appellation, 
as  it  is  translated  in  both  AY  and  RV— '  the 
Elder.'     The  term  therefore  claims  for  the 
author  a  position    of    dignity    and   authority 
in  the  Christian  community  ;  not  necessarily 
implying  apostleship,  but  not  excluding  it. 

2.  Occasion.  We  have  said  that  the  back- 
ground of  thought  of  the  Second  and  Third 
Epistles  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  First,  and 
that  this  contained  three  warnings  against  the 
dangers  of  the  time.     These  dangers  resulted 


the  spiritual  man  could  have  nothing  to  do 
with  it.  Indeed,  so  far  as  he  was  truly  spiritual, 
he  was  already  freed  from  and  above  it. 
Hebrew  religion,  in  its  moments  of  clearest 
insight,  set  itself  against  this  Dualism.  The 
creation,  it  declared,  was  not  the  work  of  an 
inferior  deity  or  deities,  but  both  worlds,  ^ose 
of  spirit  and  matter,  were  called  into  being  by 
one  and  the  same  infinite  God.  '  In  the  begin- 
ning God  created  the  heaven  and  the  earth.' 
The  Prophet  of  the  Exile  was  so  daring  indeed 
in  his  proclamation  of  Monism,  that  he  did 
not  hesitate  to  declare  Jehovah  to  be  the 
author  of  evil  itself.  '  I  form  the  light  and 
create  darkness  ;  I  make  peace  and  create  evil. 
I,  the  Lord,  do  all  these  things'  (Isa46'''). 

Of  course  this  problem  laid  its  heaviest  grasp 
upon  the  early  Christians  in  relation  to  the 
person  and  work  of  Jesus   Christ.     Starting 
from  the  same  ground— the    essentially  evil 
nature    of   matter — two    opposite    schools   of 
thought  arose.     The  one — that  of  Cerinthus — 
held  that  Jesus,  as  the  true  son  of  Joseph  and 
Mary,  was,  like  His  fellow-men,  tainted  with 
sin,  though  more  righteous  than  others.     The 
divine  Logos,  however,  was  at  His  baptism 
joined  with  Him  ;  and  these  two  continued 
together  in  the  human  body  of  Jesus,  until  at 
His  death  He  cast  off  His  flesh  and  became 
pm-e  spirit.     Dualism  was  thus  seated  in  the 
very  person  of  Christ.     The  other  school,  that 
of  the  Docetists,  denied  altogether  the  fleshly, 
i.e.  evil,  nature  of  Jesus,  and  maintained  that 
He  was  human  in  appearance  only,  having  no 
real  human  nature,  but  a  wholly  spiritual  one. 
This  too  established  a  dualism  in  Christ,  through 
the  failure  of  the  different  elements  in  Him 
to  constitute  a  unity.     Round  this  problem, 
thus  insoluble — to  keep  Jesus  in  touch  with 
humanity,  to  assert  His   freedom   from    the 
taint  of  sin,  and  to  proclaim  at  the  same  time 
the  essential   distinction  between  human  and 
divine,  and  the  inherent  evil  of  the  human — 
over  and  about  this  the  cuiTents  of  thought 
flowed  for  centuries  hopelessly.  Ideas,  specula- 
tions, fancies,  from  sources  Christian,  Jewish, 
Oriental,  classical,  magical,  all  combined  in  the 
many  and  strange  systems  which  came  to  be 
known  as  Gnosticism.     Dualism  stamped  itself 


from  the  great  main  problem  which  lay  at  the     deep  even  upon  Christiamty,  and  it  came  to 

1059 


INTRO. 


2  AND  3  JOHN 


INTRO. 


be  taken  for  granted  that  there  was  a  necessary 
opposition  between  faith  and  reason,  grace  and 
nature,  supernatural  and  natural,  the  priest 
and  the  man,  the  Church  and  the  world. 

Such  opinions  could  not  remain  speculative 
only.  They  involved  a  denial  of  that  which  to 
St.  John  was  life's  most  precious  possession — 
the  conviction  that  Jesus  was  the  authentic 
revelation  of  the  infinite  God ;  and  this  denial 
again  gave  birth  to  a  disbelief  in  any  ultimate 
standard,  which  resulted  in  antinomianism  and 
immorality,  and  to  a  disregard  of  the  corporate 
nature  of  religion,  which  then  became  gross 
selfishness.  One  who  can  see  Jesus  Christ, 
and  yet  not  welcome  in  Him  the  ideal  of  God 
and  man,  can  do  so,  in  St.  John's  view,  only 
by  denying  his  own  moral  perceptions.  And 
so  the  Apostle  bursts  out  into  the  exclamation 
which  is  the  central  thought  of  all  his  Epistles, 
'  Who  is  a  liar  but  he  that  denieth  that  Jesus 
is  the  Christ!' (IJn 2-'^). 

3.  Date.  If  we  are  correct  in  assigning 
these  Epistles  to  St.  John,  they  belong  to  the 
last  quarter  of  the  1st  cent.  The  Christian 
Church  had  not  yet  attained  that  definiteness 
of  organisation  which  was  the  work  of  the 
2nd  cent.  The  Churches  of  diiferent  localities 
were  connected  by  ties  of  friendship  and 
spiritual  communion  rather  than  by  the  au- 
thoritative bonds  of  organised  ecclesiasticism. 
Yet  the  tendency  to  centralisation  had  begun. 
A  unified  system  not  only  of  belief,  but  of  con- 
duct, organisation,  and  discipline  was  growing 
up.  Importance  began  to  be  laid  on  doctrinal 
unity.  The  authority  of  some  prominent  man, 
one  of  the  Twelve  (1  Cor  1 12  3  Jn  v.  9),  or  of 
the  other  Apostles  (lCor7i7  RolG^),  would 
be  recognised  by  a  Church  or  group  of  Churches. 
He  would  often  give  letters  of  recommendation 
to  the  evangelists  or  messengers,  or  to  the 
brethren  travelling  on  private  business  from 
one  community  to  another.  To  receive  and 
entertain  these  was  a  duty  for  every  Church. 
An  interesting  document  of  the  next  century, 
'  The  Teaching  of  the  Twelve  Apostles '  (circ. 
120  A.D.),  lays  down  rules  for  the  prevention 
of  the  abuse  of  this  hospitality.  '  With  regard 
to  Apostles  and  prophets,  do  with  them  accord- 
ing to  the  ordinance  of  the  gospel.  Let  every 
Apostle  who  cometh  to  you  be  received  as  the 
Lord.  He  shall  not  overstay  one  day,  though, 
if  need  be,  the  next  ;  but  if  he  remain  three 
days,  he  is  a  false  prophet.  And  let  not  the 
Apostle,  on  departing,  take  aught  save  bread 
till  he  come  to  a  stopping-place  ;  and  if  he  ask 
money,  he  is  a  false  prophet.  And  the  prophet 
that  speaketh  in  the  spirit  you  shall  not  ques- 
tion nor  judge,  for  every  offence  shall  be  for- 
given, but  this  offence  shall  not  be  forgiven. 
Not  every  one  that  speaketh  in  the  spirit  is  a 
prophet,  unless  he  have  the  ways  of  the  Lord. 
By  their  ways,  then,  shall  the  false  prophet 


and  the  prophet  be  known.  And  no  prophet 
who  in  the  spirit  appointeth  a  feast  eateth 
thereof,  unless  he  be  a  false  prophet  ;  and  any 
prophet  who  teacheth  the  truth,  if  what  he 
teacheth  he  do  not,  is  a  false  prophet.  . .  And 
whoso  saith  in  the  spirit.  Give  me  moneys  or 
other  things,  you  shall  not  hearken  to  him  ; 
but  if  for  others  in  straits  he  say.  Give,  let  no 
one  judge  him.'  In  the  Second  and  Third 
Epistles  we  see  these  itinerant  teachers  and 
brethren  on  their  way  from  Church  to  Church 
(2  Jn  vv.  7,  9-12,  3  Jn  vv.  5,  6,  8-13).  We  find 
there  are  many  '  deceivers '  among  them  ;  while 
there  are  in  the  Churches  lordly  officials  inflated 
with  power,  refusing  recognition  to  the 
Apostle's  messengers,  and,  on  the  other  hand, 
warm-hearted  and  influential  laymen,  who  de- 
light to  serve  the  Christian  community  by 
entertaining  its  representatives.  We  see  the 
little  congregation  in  this  place  and  a  congre- 
gation of  strangers  distant  in  that  place  finding 
themselves  at  one  throtigh  loyalty  to  a  common 
Master.  We  see  the  knitting  of  those  ties 
which  are  soon  to  become  the  great  fellowship 
of  the  Christian  Church.  Short  as  these  two 
Epistles  are,  they  furnish  a  glimpse,  clear  and 
vivid,  of  the  life  of  the  Christian  community 
near  the  close  of  the  1st  cent.,  and  of  the  means 
for  securing  that  unity  of  belief  and  organisa- 
tion which  in  the  course  of  the  next  century 
was  to  develop  the  great  Catholic  Church. 

4.  Contents  of  the  Epistles.  In  the  Second 
Epistle  the  author  sends  his  greeting  to  '  the 
elect  lady '  and  her  children,  dwelling  upon 
the  ground  of  their  mutual  friendship — their 
fellowship  in  '  the  truth.'  He  has  met  with 
some  of  her  children  (or  some  members  of  the 
Church  addressed),  and  has  been  glad  to  find 
them  living  as  they  ought,  in  the  way  of  God's 
commandment.  This  commandment  is  nothing 
new,  but  is  as  old  as  religion  itself.  It  is 
simply  love  as  the  law  of  life.  The  writer 
gives  some  of  his  characteristic  definitions. 
The  commandment  is  to  love,  and  love  means 
to  keep  the  commandments.  Then  comes  a 
warning  against  false  teachers.  The  test  by 
which  the  true  teacher  may  be  known  is  his 
recognition  of  Jesus  Christ  as  historic  and 
authoritative,  and  his  following  of  the  teaching 
of  Christ.  '  Erroneous  ideas  '  on  this  subject 
are  not  to  be  tolerated,  and  kindness  shown  to 
any  one  who  does  not  meet  this  test  is  mistaken 
charity  and  participation  in  evil.  There  is 
much  more  which  the  author  has  in  mind  to 
say  ;  but  he  will  write  no  more  at  present,  for 
he  hopes  to  visit  his  readers  soon,  to  the  ful- 
filment of  their  mutual  satisfaction.  A  closing 
salutation  is  sent  to  the  recipient  of  the  letter 
by  the  children  of  her  elect  sister. 

The  Third  Epistle  opens  with  the  same  form 
of  greeting  as  the  Second.  In  this  case  it  is 
to  a  certain  Gains  ;  who  is  dear  to  the  writer 


1060 


INTRO. 


2  AND  3  JOHN— 2  JOHN 


as  a  member  of  the  Christian  community — he 
is  '  in  the  truth ' — and  for  his  own  large,  gen- 
erous character.  If  his  body  is  as  Adgorous  as 
his  soul,  the  writer  will  rejoice.  For  mes- 
sengers have  recently  come  from  the  Church 
to  which  Gaius  belongs,  and  reported  that  he 
is  conducting  himself  as  a  worthy  member  of 
the  fellowship  of  Christ — '  walking  in  the 
truth  ' — and  especially  that  he  is  most  hos- 
pitable to  all,  both  friends  and  strangers,  who 
are  serving  the  Cause.  Such  praiseworthy 
conduct  is  in  marked  contrast  with  that  of  an 
official  of  the  same  Church,  Diotrephes,  who 
had   recently   refused  to  receive  messengers 


with  a  letter  from  '  the  Elder,'  and  had  threat- 
ened excommunication  to  those  who  wished  to 
welcome  them.  The  members  of  the  Church 
are  warned  not  to  imitate  such  evil  conduct  ; 
which  suggests,  by  contrast,  that  of  a  certain 
Demetrius,  whom  the  writer  warmly  commends 
to  them.  This  man  has  the  threefold  witness 
— of  general  approval,  of  membership  in  '  the 
truth,'  and  that  of  the  Apostle  himself.  As 
in  the  preceding  letter,  further  discourse  is 
postponed  to  the  personal  meeting  which  he 
hopes  will  shortly  take  place.  The  Epistle 
closes  with  salutations  from  the  Apostle  and 
his  friends  to  Gaius  and  his  friends. 


2  JOHN 


I.  The  elder]  cp.  Intro. 

The  elect  lady]  Gk.  ehlehte  hurid.  The 
question  who  is  meant  by  this  designation  has 
given  rise  to  much  discussion.  The  various 
opinions  are  as  follows  :  (1)  Some  regard  the 
second  word  of  the  phrase  as  a  proper  name, 
and  translate,  '  To  the  lady  Electa.'  This  is 
not  likely  ;  because  if  it  had  been  intended, 
the  Greek  would  probably  have  been  different ; 
because  we  should  then  be  obliged  to  trans- 
late Electa  as  a  proper  name  in  v.  13  also,  in 
spite  of  the  unlikelihood  that  two  sisters 
would  have  the  same  name  ;  and  because  St. 
Paul  uses  the  word  (RolGi^)  plainly  not  as  a 
name,  but  as  a  descriptive  adjective.  (2)  The 
third  word  is  a  proper  name — '  the  elect  Kyria.' 
This  opinion  has  in  its  favour  the  fact  that 
Kyria  was  a  common  name  among  the  Greeks, 
being  the  feminine  of  '  Cyrus.'  The  analogy 
of  3  Jn  V.  1  is  also  in  favour  of  an  address  by 
name.  But  this  same  analogy  would  lead  us 
to  expect  a  different  order  of  words.  Again, 
if  Kyria  were  the  lady  addressed,  and  if  she 
was  known  and  loved  by  '  all  that  have  known 
the  truth '  (v.  1),  it  would  perhaps  be  strange 
that  we  have  no  other  mention  of  so  prominent 
a  person.  This,  with  other  considerations, 
has  led  to  the  opinion  (3)  that  not  a  person 
but  the  Church  in  general  is  meant.  This 
seems  inconsistent  with  the  Apostle's  expect- 
ation (v.  12)  of  visiting  her  and  seeing  her 
face  to  face.  Others  hold  (4)  that  it  is  not  the 
Church  universal,  but  some  particular  Church, 
to  which  the  Apostle  writes  of  his  approaching 
visit.  Others  still  find  here  no  proper  name 
and  no  metaphor,  but  translate  (5),  '  To  the 
elect  lady '  ;  while  some  who  agree  in  the 
main  with  this  position  point  out  (6)  that 
there  is  in  the  Greek  no  definite  article,  and 
therefore  translate,  '  To  an  elect  lady.'  The 
weight  of  evidence  seems  in  favour  of  the  last 
opinion  in  one  of  its  forms,  (5)  or  (6)  ;  though 
the  case  is  best  summed  up  in  the  words  of 


Bp.  Westcott  :  '  No  solution  of  the  problem 
offered  by  eklekte  kurid  is  satisfactory.' 

The  truth  in  this  and  the  following  Epistle 
has  come  to  have  almost  a  technical  meaning, 
implying  not  only  the  eternal  principle,  but 
also  the  organisation  which  embodies  it — the 
Church.  Cp.  in  Acts  the  use  of  '  the  Way  '  : 
Ac  9  2  199.23  224  2422.  3.  With  you]  The 
better  text  reads  '  with  us.'  Cp.  Westcott  and 
Hort.  4.  I  found  of  thy  children]  This  shows 
that  the  lady  must  have  had  at  least  three 
children.  Some  have  seen  in  it  a  sad,  gentle 
hint  that  there  were  others  of  her  children 
who  did  not  walk  in  the  truth. 

5-8.  Note  the  distinctively  Johannine  cha- 
racteristics here :  (1)  He  is  giving  his  hearers 
a  new  commandment:  cp.  Jnl334  15 12.  (2) 
The  commandment  is  to  love  one  another: 
cp.  Jnl335  lJn323.  (3)  Love  means  walk- 
ing according  to  the  commandments  of  God: 
cp.  Jn  14 15. 21  lJn25  53.  (4)  The  central 
fact  of  Christianity  is  the  recognition  of  Jesus 
as  the  Christ:  cp.  1  Jn2  22  42,3.  Note  also 
a  peculiarity  of  the  Johannine  (a)  thought  and 
(6)  style:  (a)  the  habit — logical,  un-Hebraic 
— of  giving  definitions,  e.g.  '  love,'  'the  com- 
mandment,' 'antichrist';  (i)  the  use  of  a 
demonstrative  pronoun  or  adverb  pointing 
forward  to  the  definition  coming  in  the  next 
clause ;  e.g.  This  is  love,  that  we  walk  after 
His  commandments.  This  is  the  commandment, 
That,  as  ye  have  heard  from  the  beginning, 
ye  should  walk  in  love.  Cp.  Jn  15^  173 
lJn23  316. 

6.  In  it] '  better  to  make  '  it '  refer  not  to 
the  nearest  noun,  '  commandment,'  but  to 
'  love.'  7.  Are  entered  into  the  world]  rather, 
'  are  gone  out  into  the  world':  cp.  RV;  i.e. 
they  were  formerly  members  of  the  Church, 
but  have  apostatised:  cp.  1  Jn2i9.  To  con- 
fess that  Jesus  Christ  is  come  in  the  flesh  is 
with  St.  John  the  central  fact  of  Christian 
belief.  Not  to  recognise  in  Jesus  the  authentic 


1061 


2  JOHN— 3  JOHN 


14 


revelation  of  the  infinite  God  and  the  highest 
ideal  of  humanity,  can,  in  his  opinion,  imply 
only  moral  depravity. 

9.  Whosoever,  not  transgresseth,  but '  has 
erroneous  ideas.'  No  claim  of  superior  know- 
ledge can  be  allowed  which  sets  aside  what 
Christ  taught.  Doctrine  in  the  NT.  is  never 
synonymous  with '  dogma,'  but  means '  teaching.' 

10.  '  This  verse  reminds  us  that  the  Gospel 
has  its  intolerance  as  well  as  tolerance  '  (Bp. 
Alexander).  Ordinary  courtesy  is  not  for- 
bidden, but  to  extend  the  right  hand  of  fellow- 
ship would  be  to  condone  and  further  false 
doctrine  and  to  share  the  guilt  of  disloyalty. 

11.  Biddeth  him  God  speed]  '  The  three  salu- 
tations are  eminently  characteristic  of  the 
general  view  of  life  and  its  aim  entertained 


by  the  three  races.  The  Roman,  to  whom 
health  and  strength  seemed  all  in  all,  said 
Salve,  "  health."  The  Greek,  whose  existence 
aimed  supremely  at  sweetness  and  light,  said 
Chaire^  looking  upon  "  joy  "  as  the  highest  aim. 
The  Hebrew,  who  had  a  revelation,  and  knew 
the  blessedness  of  reconciliation  with  God 
and  conscience,  said  Shalo?i,  "  peace  " '  (Bp. 
Alexander). 

13.  The  writer  may  have  been  staying  at 
this  second  matron's  house.  If  the  Epistle 
was  written  to  an  individual,  the  transmission 
of  this  trivial  message  from  children  to  an 
aunt  is  an  interesting  note  of  the  simplicity 
and  courtesy  of  the  writer  of  high  station — 
Elder,  Apostle,  personal  friend  of  Jesus, 
whoever  he  may  have  been. 


3  JOHN 


1.  Gains]  A  Gains  or  Caius — the  common 
Latin  form  of  the  name — is  mentioned  in 
four  other  places  in  the  NT.  (Ac  19  29  20*  Ro 
1623  1  Cor  114).  The  trait  of  character  in- 
dicated here  is  in  line  with  the  generous  hos- 
pitality referred  to  in  the  third  of  these 
passages.  It  is  hardly  likely,  however,  that 
one  who  wa|  sufficiently  prominent  in  the 
Church  of  Corinth  to  be  a  general  host  about 
the  year  50,  would  be  still  exercising  the 
same  function  some  thirty  years  later.  The 
identification  therefore  of  the  Gains  to  whom 
the  Third  Epistle  is  addressed,  with  St. 
Paul's  host,  or  with  any  of  the  others  men- 
tioned, is  more  than  doubtful.  In  the  truth] 
see  on  2  Jn  v.  1. 

2.  I  wish]  better,  '  I  pray.'  This  may  im- 
ply that  Gains  had  been  ill.  3.  Thou]  In 
the  Gk.,  emphatic;  in  contrast  with  others, 
like  Diotrephes,  of  whom  this  could  not  be 
said.  4.  Greater]  In  the  Gk.,  a  double  com- 
parative, as  in  English  '  betterer  '  would  be. 
This  may  indicate  that  the  author  was  not  a 
classical  Greek  scholar,  or  the  usage  may  be 
intentional,  for  emphasis,  like  the  comparative 
formed  on  a  superlative  in  Eph3^.  Cp.  also, 
'  How  much  more  elder  art  thou  than  thy 
looks  ! '  ('  Merchant  of  Venice,'  IV,  i). 

5.  Doest .  .  doest]  The  second  verb  is  differ- 
ent in  the  Gk.  from  the  first,  and  implies  more 
of  toilful  labour.  And  to  strangers]  Much 
stronger  in  the  best  text — '  and  that  too  to 
strangers.'  '  The  duty  of  entertaining  Chris- 
tians on  their  travels  was  of  peculiar  import- 
ance in  early  times,  (1)  from  the  length  of 
time  which  travelling  required,  (2)  from  the 
poverty  of  the  Christians,  (3)  from  the  kind  of 
society  they  would  meet  at  public  inns  '  (Sin- 
clair). 6.  Bring  forward]  i.e.  with  practical 
assistance — money,  provisions,  escort,  etc. 

7.  Taking   nothing   of  the   Gentiles]    The 


1062 


missionaries  whom  Gaiu&  had  entertained  had 
not  been  willing  to  receive  assistance  from  the 
non- Christians  among  whom  they  had  been 
labouring.  While  they  might  properly  receive 
from  those  who  had  long  been  Christians,  it 
would  be  of  great  importance  that  there  should 
be  not  the  least  suggestion  of  selling  the  truth. 

9.  I  wrote,  etc.]  The  Gk.  makes  the  state- 
ment more  exact  by  inserting  an  object  of  the 
verb — '  I  wrote  somewhat  to  the  Church.'  Of 
this  letter  we  have  no  fm'ther  knowledge. 
Possibly  a  part  of  the  offence  of  Diotrephes 
had  been  its  suppression  ;  so  that  this  may  be 
a  hint  to  Gaius  that  the  contents  of  this  letter 
at  least  should  be  made  known  to  the  Church. 

We  know  no  more  of  Diotrephes.  V.  10 
may  imply  that  he  had  the  power  of  excom- 
munication, and  therefore  was  the  ofl&cial 
head  of  the  Church  to  which  Gaius  belonged. 
It  may,  however,  only  imply  that  he  had  suffi- 
cient social  influence  to  exclude  the  brethren 
from  the  Christian  society  of  the  place.  His 
fondness  for  being  preeminent  had,  at  all 
events,  brought  him  a  certain  local  power. 

11.  Hath  not  seen  God]  a  truly  Johannine 
thought :  cp.  IJn  3  6. 

12.  Nothing  further  is  known  certainly  of 
Demetrius.  But  as  both  he  and  the  mob- 
leader  of  the  same  name  (Acl924)  lived  appa- 
rently in  or  near  Ephesus,  there  is  nothing 
impossible  in  the  suggestion  that  the  agitator 
had  become  a  disciple,  and  that  both  refer- 
ences, therefore,  are  to  the  same  person.  He 
may  have  been  the  bearer  of  this  Epistle.  The 
thought  of  a  threefold  witness — in  this  case, 
general  report,  the  truth,  and  the  Apostle 
himself — is  characteristic  of  St.  John :  cp. 
IJn  56-10. 

13.  14.  The  conclusion  is  the  same  as  that 
of  the  Second  Epistle.  Possibly  the  journey 
contemplated  in  both  is  the  same. 


JUDE 


See  General  Introduction  to  2  Peter  and 
Jude. 

Contents. 

I.  Vv.  1,  2.  Greeting. 

II.  Yv.  3-16.  The  ungodly  men. 

(a)  3,  4.  'I  was  writing  a  pastoral  letter  to 
you  when  the  news  that  certain  ungodly  men 
have  crept  in  obliged  me  to  address  you  with  a 
special  admonition.' 

(i)  5-7.  'I  would  remind  you — though  as 
Christians  jou  already  know  all  I  can  tell 
you — that  the  examples  of  Israel  and  of  the 
angels  prove  that  it  is  possible  to  fall  away 
from  grace,  and  that  a  punishment — of  which 
the  destruction  of  the  cities  of  the  plain  is  a 
visible  demonstration — assuredly  follows.' 

(c)  8-13.  '  So  it  is  with  these  men,  who  now 
show  themselves  so  insolent,  ignorant,  and 
bestial.  That  which  is  most  dreary,  desolate, 
and  disappointing  in  nature  is  a  type  of  their 
hypocrisy,  and,  like  wandering  comets,  they 
are  destined  for  darkness  at  last,  from  which 
they  shall  never  again  come  forth.' 

((I)  14-16.  '  It  is  to  them  that  Enoch's  pro- 
phecy of  judgment  applies — to  these  selfish 
schemers  who  abuse  the  gift  of  speech.' 

III.  Vv.  17-23.  'Remember  the  mockers 
of  whom  the  Apostle  forewarned  you.  Here 
they  are — these  unspiritual  men  who  make 
separations  among  the  believers.  Do  you 
abide  in  the  one  faith,  with  prayer  in  the  Holy 
Spirit,  trust  in  the  love  of  God,  and  hope  of 
Christ's  mercy.  And  in  that  hope  have  mercy 
yourselves  as  far  as  may  be  on  those  who  are 
falling  victims  to  this  plague  which  is  among 
yo'u.' 

IV.  Vv.  24,  25.  'May  the  only  God  our 
Saviour  keep  you  firm,  to  whom  be  glory 
through  Christ.' 

Greeting  which  intkoduces  a  Pastoral 
Letter  written   to  meet  an  Inroad 
OF  blasphemous  False  Teaching.    Ex- 
hortation.    DOXOLOGY 
I.  To  them  that  are  sanctified  by  God  the 
Father,  and   preserved   in   Jesus    Christ,  and 
called]   RV  '  to  them  that  are  called,  beloved 
in  God  the  Father,  and  kept  for  Jesus  Christ.' 
To  them  that  are  sanctified  (RV  '  called  ')] 
One  word  in  the  Gk.,  which,  like  'saints'  in 
V.  3,  is  used  as  a  name  for  Christians.     This 
greeting,  taken  together  with  vv.  20  f .,  shows 
that  our  most  holy  faith,  which  was  once  for 
all  delivered  unto  the  saints,  is  based  upon  the 
doctrine  of  the  Holy  Trinity.     The  Holy  Spirit 
is  not  expressly  named  in  the  greeting,  but  His 


agency  is  implied.  It  is  He  who  has  kept  and 
will  keep  the  readers  for  Christ  ;  He  makes 
them  live  in  the  Father,  who  is  the  source  of 
love,  as  Christ  is  of  mercy,  and  as  the  Holy 
Spirit  Himself  is  of  peace.  In  (RV)  God]  In 
Him  all  men  live  and  move  and  have  their  being 
(Acl72^),  and  in  Him  the  life  of  Christians  is 
hid  with  Christ  (Col  3  3).  God's  love  embraces 
in  Himself  those  whom  He  loves.  The  ex- 
pression is  difficult,  but  the  thought  is  deep. 
Here,  as  in  much  else  that  he  says,  St.  Jude 
shows  a  mind  near  akin  to  St.  Paul's.  2.  As 
St.  Paul  in  his  two  Epistles  to  Timothy,  so  St. 
Jude  adds  mercy  to  the  '  grace  and  peace '  of 
the  ordinary  apostolic  salutation. 

3.  When  I  gave .  .  it  vvas  needful]  RV 
'  while  I  was  giving  .  .  I  was  constrained '  :  see 
Intro.  Our  (RV)  common  salvation  is  the  re- 
sult of  Christ's  work,  which  is  a  fact  that 
nothing  can  alter,  on  which  all  alike,  Apostle 
and  disciple,  strong  and  weak,  may  base  their 
life  :  the  faith  which  was  once  for  all  (RV) 
delivered  to  the  saints  is  the  declaration  of  this 
fact,  and  must  be  defended,  or  it  may  be  for- 
gotten or  denied.  4.  From  this  v.  to  v.  19  this 
Epistle  must  be  compared  with  2  Pet.  The 
only  Lord  God,  and  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ] 
RV  '  our  only  Master  and  Lord,  Jesus  Christ.' 
These  men  did  not  refuse  to  believe  in  God, 
though  they  rebelled  against  Him,  and  by 
their  lasciviousness  abused  His  grace.  In 
Christ,  as  Master  and  Lord,  they  would 
not  believe.  Their  unbelief,  rebellion,  and 
lasciviousness  correspond  to  the  unbelief  of 
Israel,  the  rebellion  of  the  angels,  and  the 
lasciviousness  of  the  cities  of  the  plain  (vv.  5-7). 

5.  Though  ye  once  knew  this]  RV  'though 
ye  know  all  things  once  for  all,'  i.e.  because 
they  are  Christians,  and  have  learnt  the  whole 
Christian  creed  (cp.  Heb  6  2) ;  or  perhaps  (a 
deeper  thought)  because  they  have  as  Chris- 
tians '  the  Spirit  in  their  mind '  (cp.  Eph  4  !''•  23), 
and  '  need  not  that  any  man  teach  them ' 
(lJn227). 

A  curious  reading  of  some  MSS  is  noticed 
in  RM — '  Jesus  '  for  the  Lord.  It  recalls 
Heb  48,  as  the  rest  of  the  v.  does  HebS^^'-i^. 

6.  First  estate]  RV  '  principality.'  7.  Ven- 
geance] RV  '  punishment.'  The  fire  may  be 
called  eternal,  because  the  destruction  wrought 
by  it  remains.  The  Gk.,  however,  would 
allow  us  to  take  example  with  of  eternal 
fire—'  as  an  example  of  eternal  fire,  suffering 
punishment '  (RM). 

8.  Likewise]  RV  '  Yet,'  i.e.  in  spite  of  such 
a  warning.     Also  these  filthy   dreamers]    RV 


1063 


9 


JUDE 


25 


'  these  also  in  their  dreamings,'  i.e.  their  per- 
verted faith  and  life  is  like  a  dream,  senti- 
mental and  unpractical.  9.  With  this  v.  cp. 
2  Pet  2 11.  St.  Jude,  however,  does  not  say  at 
all  the  same  thing,  and  refers  to  a  certain 
apocryphal  Jewish  book  called  '  The  Assump- 
tion of  Moses'  ;  cp.  vv.  11,  14,  and  2Tim38. 
Though  he  refers  to  such  books,  he  does  not 
necessarily  imply  that  the  stories  he  read  in 
them  are  true.  Even  in  sermons  we  some- 
times hear  references  to  stories  or  speeches  in 
Shakespeare  or  Milton,  which  we  listen  to 
as  illustrations,  not  as  being  true  to  fact. 

10.  As  brute  beasts]  RV  '  like  the  creatures 
without  reason.'  11.  Cain]  The  Jews  spoke 
of  Cain  as  the  first  '  freethinker,'  and  these 
unbelievers  would  be  his  followers  in  that 
respect.  Holy  Scripture,  however,  tells  us 
that  Cain  destroyed  his  brother,  and  these 
men  were  doing  the  same.  The  mention  of 
Balaam  brings  in  a  new  fault — their  treacher- 
ous, hypocritical  greed.  Core]  RV  '  Korah '  : 
cp.  Nul6.  12.  Feasts  of  charity]  RV  '  love 
feasts':  cp.  2 Pet 213.  Feeding  themselves] 
RV  '  shepherds  that  feed  themselves '  :  cp. 
Ezk348.  Trees  whose  fruit  withereth]  RV 
'  autumn  trees '  ;  they  are  twice  dead,  for  the 
dying  year  is  a  symbol  of  death,  and  being 
plucked  up  by  the  roots  is  a  symbol  of  the 
second  death,  from  which  there  is  no  return 
to  life:  cp.  Rev 218.  i^.  Raging  waves] 
RV  '  wild  waves.'  Wandering  stars]  i.e. 
comets,  whose  return  no  man  sees. 

14.  Enoch  also .  .  prophesied  of  these]  RV 
'  To  these  also  Enoch  .  .  prophesied,'  i.e.  to 
these  as  well  as  to  the  men  to  whom  the 
prophecy  is  addressed  in  the  apocryphal  book 
of  Enoch.     Cometh]  RV  '  came.' 

Ten  thousands  of  his  saints]  RM  '  his  holy 


myriads':  cp.  Dt332  ZechU^.  15.  Con- 
vince] RV  'convict.'  16.  Having  men's 
persons  in  admiration  because  of  advantage] 
RV  '  shewing  respect  of  persons  for  the  sake 
of  advantage.' 

17.  Of  the  apostles]  RV  '  by  the  apostles '  : 
cp.  2  Pet  3  2  f.  19.  Separate  themselves]  RV 
'  make  separations,'  i.e.  they  break  up  the 
Church  into  parties  and  sects  :  cp.  1  Cor  1^2  f. 

Sensual]  RM  '  natural  or  animal '  :  cp.  v. 
10.     Spirit]   RV  '  Spirit,'  i.e.  the  Holy  Spirit. 

22,  23.  And  of  some,  etc.]  RV  '  and  on 
some  have  mercy,  who  are  in  doubt  ;  and 
some  save,  snatching  them  out  of  the  fire  ; 
and  on  some  have  mercy  with  fear'  ;  but  RM, 
'  the  G-reek  text  in  this  passage  ("  and .  . 
fire  ")  is  somewhat  uncertain.'  The  garment 
spotted  by  the  flesh]  cp.  Zech  3-^-  and  Lv 
1347-59.  There  is  contagion  in  their  error 
like  that  of  a  plague.  In  their  efforts  to  save 
others  they  must  beware  of  this. 

24.  Falling]  RV  '  stumbling '  :  cp.  Roll" 
1  Pet 2 8.  Faultless]  RV  'without  blemish': 
cp.  Ephl4  (RV)  Col  122  (RY)  Heb9i4  (RV) 
1  Pet  1 19.  25.  The  only  wise  God  our  Saviour] 
(cp.  Rol627  RV).  RV  'the  only  God  our 
Saviour.'  God  is  called  Saviour  elsewhere  in 
NT.  only  in  ITimli  23  410  Titl32i0  34^  and 
Lkl47  (from  OT.).  Now  and  ever]  RV  '  be- 
fore all  time,  and  now,  and  for  evermore.' 

The  word  for  '  be  '  is  not  expressed  in  the 
Gk.,  but  may  rightly  be  supplied,  though  at 
first  sight  it  does  not  seem  to  go  well  with 
'  before  all  time  '  (RV).  '  Is,'  however,  would 
be  less  forcible,  for  in  this  blessing  St.  Jude 
'  contends  for  the  faith  which  was  once  for  all 
delivered  to  the  saints.'  Whatever  ungodly 
men  may  think,  he  says,  '  Let  God's  proper 
glory  be  rendered  to  Him.' 


1064 


REVELATION 


INTRODUCTION 


I.  The  Title.  The  title  of  the  book  varies 
in  the  later  MSS,  though  all  ascribe  it  to  John. 
One  MS  of  the  11th  cent,  has  '  the  Revelation 
of  Jesus  Christ  given  to  the  theologian  John.' 
The  word  '  divine  '  in  AY  and  RV  is  used  in 
the  sense  of  '  theologian,'  '  one  who  writes  on 
God  and  the  divine  nature.'  The  title  in  the 
oldest  MSS  is  '  the  Revelation  (Gk.  Apocalypsis) 
of  John.'  The  writer  calls  the  book  '  Apoca- 
lypse,' or  '  Revelation,'  only  in  1 1.  Elsewhere 
he  speaks  of  it  as '  prophecy '  (cp.  1 3  22  ">  lo,  isf.)^ 
and  of  himself  as  a  '  prophet '  (cp.  10  ^^  226,9). 
Yet  the  form  which  the  prophecy  has  taken  is 
rightly  described  by  the  title  '  Apocalypse.' 

'Apocalypse'  (i.e.  'uncovering,'  'unveiling') 
is  a  technical  term  used  to  denote  a  particular 
kind  of  writing  which  sprang  up  among  the 
Jews  mainly  during  the  two  centuries  before 
Christ.  It  had  its  antecedents  in  such  escha- 
tological  passages  (i.e.  passages  foretelling  the 
end  of  the  present  order  of  things)  as  Isa  24-27, 
Joel,  and  Zech  1 2-1 4.  The  thoughts  and  images 
of  such  passages  as  these  were  dwelt  upon  and 
developed  in  later  times  into  apocalypses.  The 
book  of  Daniel  is  an  apocalypse.  Other  writings 
of  an  apocalyptic  kind  are,  the  'Apocalypse  of 
Baruch,'  the  Ethiopic  'Book  of  Enoch,'  the 
Slavonic  '  Book  of  Enoch,'  the  '  Ascension  of 
Isaiah,'  the  '  Book  of  Jubilees,'  the  '  Assump- 
tion of  Moses,'  the  '  Testaments  of  the  Twelve 
Patriarchs,'  the  '  Psalms  of  Solomon,'  the 
'  Sibylline  Oracles.' 

Apocalypses  were  written  at  times  when 
the  righteous  suffered  oppression  by  a  foreign 
power.  The  message  of  the  apocalypse  was 
that  deliverance  was  coming,  and  that  the 
righteous  were  to  wait  for  it  in  patience.  In 
this  sense  an  apocalypse  differed  from  pro- 
phecy, which,  for  the  most  part,  warned 
unfaithful  and  wicked  Israel  of  the  coming 
of  a  '  Day  of  the  Lord,'  and  called  for  repent- 
ance. Moreover,  the  apocalypse  saw  in  the 
evil  plight  of  the  righteous  a  sign  of  the  power 
of  Satan  in  the  world,  which  made  it  certain 
that  God  would  soon  intervene  to  overthrow 
the  evil.  Apocalypses  were  written  when  men 
were  troubled  because  the  promises  of  good 
made  by  the  prophets  seemed  to  be  unfulfilled. 
Accordingly,  the  apocalyptic  writer  set  out  to 
justify  the  dealings  of  God.  He  '  sketched  in 
outline  the  history  of  the  world  and  of  man- 
kind, the  origin  of  evil  and  its  course,  and  the 
consummation  of  all  things. .  .  The  righteous 


as  a  nation  should  yet  possess  the  earth,  either 
in  an  eternal  or  in  a  temporary  Messianic  king- 
dom, and  the  destiny  of  the  righteous  individual 
should  be  finally  determined  according  to  his 
works.  For  though  amid  the  world's  disorders 
he  might  perish  untimely,  he  would  not  fail  to 
attain  through  the  resurrection  the  recompense 
that  was  his  due,  in  the  Messianic  kingdom, 
or  in  heaven  itself '  (R.  H.  Charles,  HDB.). 

Apocalypses  were  characterised  by  strange 
and  mysterious  figures,  seen  in  visions  and 
explained  by  angels.  Sometimes  these  figures 
were  new,  and  shaped  to  represent  persons 
or  events  of  the  time.  Sometimes  they  were 
borrowed  or  adapted  from  older  apocalypses,  or 
from  the  OT.,  or  even  from  remote  tradition. 
It  is  thought  that  some  of  these  last  tradi- 
tionary figures  may  have  gradually  developed 
out  of  creation  myths. 

Apocalypses  were  pseudonymous,  i.e.  they 
were  given  forth  under  the  name  of  some 
great  person  of  the  past,  such  as  Enoch  or 
Moses.  It  has  been  suggested  that  this  was 
caused  by  the  general  feeling  of  despair  with 
which  the  times  were  viewed.  Prophecy  had 
ceased,  and  perhaps  no  living  person  could  hope 
for  a  hearing.  But  the  pseudonym  may  have 
had  a  better  justification.  The  figures  and 
traditions  which  were  used  may  have  been  so 
connected  with  those  old  great  names,  that  the 
apocalyptic  writer  looked  upon  his  writings 
as  proceeding  rather  from  the  heroic  saint  he 
reverenced  than  from  himself  (see  HDB.  arts. 
'  Apocalyptic  Literature  '  and  '  Revelation, 
Book  of '). 

But  although  the  book  we  call  '  the  Revela- 
tion of  St.  John '  is  one  of  a  class,  it  does 
not  follow  that  it  has  no  deeper  value  for  us 
than  the  others  of  its  class.  The  fact  that 
it  has  been  taken  into  the  Canon  of  Scripture, 
while  they  have  been  rejected,  shows  that  it 
outshines  them  all.  In  this  '  the  Revelation ' 
is  like  other  books  of  the  Bible.  The 
histories,  the  Psalms,  the  Wisdom  books  of 
the  OT.,  have  been  distinguished  from  others 
which  are  left  outside  the  Canon.  And  Lk  1 1 
shows  that  our  Gospels  were  not  the  only 
memoirs  of  the  life  of  Christ  which  existed 
in  the  earliest  Christian  age.  Again,  the  title 
of  the  book  is  evidence  that,  as  regards  other 
apocalypses,  it  claims  to  stand  above  them  all. 
Other  apocalypses,  as  has  been  said  above,  pro- 
fessed to  come  from  some  great  man  of  the 


1065 


INTRO. 


REVELATION 


INTRO. 


past,  as  Enoch,  and  we  know  that  only  in  a 
very  loose  sense  could  such  a  profession  be 
justified.  Our  Apocalypse  does  not  go  back 
to  some  far  distant  and  hardly  more  than 
nominal  author.  It  is  not  even,  as  in  the 
title,  the  Apocalypse  of  John,  for  that  title 
is  of  uncertain  date.  The  true  title  is  given 
in  1 1.  The  book  is  '  The  Revelation  of  Jesus 
Christ.'  The  book  claims  to  have  Jesus 
Christ  as  the  author  of  the  revelation  it 
contains.  The  place  St.  John  assigns  to 
himself  is  that  of  a  prophet  who  is  able  to 
receive  from  Christ  a  revelation  and  to  com- 
municate it  to  others.  Christian  believers 
may  be  unable  to  see  how  there  can  be  any 
true  connexion  between  Enoch  and  the  book 
which  bears  his  name.  But  they  do  not  doubt 
the  reality  of  the  gift  of  prophecy,  or  the  fact 
that  Christ  could  and  did  reveal  Himself  to 
His  Apostles. 

2.  Purpose.  The  Christians  in  the  western 
part  of  Asia  Minor,  for  whom,  during  the 
latter  part  of  the  1st  cent.,  the  book  was 
specially  written,  had  evidently  been  under- 
going great  trials.  The  purity  of  their 
Churches  was  sullied  by  teaching  which  con- 
doned immoral  and  heathen  practices,  and  by 
growing  worldliness  :  cp.  3  2'  i'^  '•  They  had 
experienced  persecution,  both  from  the  reli- 
gious hatred  of  the  Jews  (cp.  2  9  3  9)  and  from 
the  Roman  government.  Under  the  Roman 
government,  religion  had  become  largely  iden- 
tified with  Imperialism.  Temples  had  been 
dedicated,  in  various  places,  to  Rome  and  the 
emperor,  and  the  emperor  had  been  called 
'Lord  and  God.'  To  a  Christian,  worship 
such  as  this  was  blasphemy  (cp.  13 1>  12,  i4f.),  and, 
rather  than  join  in  it,  many  had  died  :  cp. 
213  (59  1315  176  1820.  The  book  was  written 
during  a  lull  in  the  persecution,  which  would, 
however,  be  temporary:  cp.  2 10  6 11  11 '''^ 
Thus  the  times  were  dark  and  threatening  for 
the  Christian  Church.  Christians  were  not 
only  shut  out  from  all  the  splendour  and  glory 
of  life,  from  the  honours  and  ambitions,  from 
the  riches  and  festivities  which  they  saw  daily 
in  surrounding  heathen  society,  but  which  they 
must  not  taste.  They  were  not  even  allowed 
to  live  their  simple  lives  in  their  own  way. 
All  the  power  of  the  empire  was  being  directed 
upon  them  in  inflexible  hostility,  and  if  they 
would  not  yield  it  seemed  as  if  they  must  be 
crushed.  Christ  had  promised  His  perpetual 
Presence,  but  they  felt  no  lifting  of  the  weight 
of  the  Roman  hand.  Christ  had  promised  to 
come  again,  and  they  yearned  for  His  coming 
that  He  might  deliver  them,  but  it  seemed  as 
if  they  yearned  in  vain.  And  in  this  strain 
and  stress  came  the  seducing  advice  of  '  Jeze- 
bels' (cp.  220),  who  bade  them  save  their  lives 
and  win  security  by  outward  conformity  to 
heathen  requirements  and  heathen  ways. 


So,  to  brace  them  to  endurance,  came  the 
message  of  the  Revelation.  The  things  which 
were  seen,  rich  and  mighty  though  they 
appeared,  were  temporal,  about  to  pass  away  ; 
but  the  things  which  were  not  seen  were 
eternal  and  to  abide  for  ever.  God  was  on 
His  throne,  and  the  future  of  the  world  was  in 
the  hand  of  Christ.  The  persecuting  empire 
was  inspired  and  supported  by  Satan,  but  God 
was  stronger  than  Satan.  Satan  had  already 
been  conquered,  essentially,  by  the  work  of 
Christ,  and  his  overthrow,  and  the  overthrow 
of  his  instruments,  would  soon  be  seen  openly 
on  earth.  Rome,  the  persecuting  empire,  the 
heathen  worship  and  priesthood,  and  the 
wicked  of  the  earth,  were  all  to  fall  before  the 
conquering  Christ.  Last  of  all  would  be  the 
general  judgment,  and  then  the  incomparable 
and  eternal  bliss  of  the  New  Jerusalem.  In 
these  ways  Christ  would  come,  and  come 
quickly. 

Therefore  let  Christians  bear  manfully  their 
perils  and  pains.  There  was  nothing  strange 
in  the  demand  that  was  made  upon  them. 
Christ  Himself  had  endured  before  them.  It 
was  by  death  that  He  had  won  His  victory, 
and  their  victory  was  to  be  won  in  the  same 
manner.  Therefore  death  for  Christ  was  not 
defeat  but  overcoming,  and  great  glory  with 
Christ  would  be  the  reward  of  those  who  so 
overcame. 

3.  Interpretation.  Our  interpretation  of 
Revelation  depends  upon  what  view  we  take  as 
to  the  period  of  the  Churches  history  to  which 
the  figures  and  scenes  preparatory  to  the 
climax  of  the  book  refer.  There  have  been 
three  chief  schools  of  interpretation.  One 
school  (called  the  '  Futurist ')  regards  the  book 
as  dealing  with  the  end  of  the  world,  and  with 
events  and  persons  which  will  immediately 
precede  that  end.  The  '  Historical '  school 
sees  in  the  book  a  summary  of  the  Church's 
history  from  early  days  until  the  end.  The 
'  Preterists '  look  back  to  the  past,  and  interpret 
the  book  as  having  to  do  with  the  times  in 
which  it  originated.  A  fourth  method  sees  in 
the  book  symbolical  representations  of  good 
and  evil  principles,  common  to  every  age,  and 
to  be  understood  spiritually.  According  to 
this  last  method,  the  New  Jerusalem,  e.g., 
would  be  explained  as  representing  the  blessed- 
ness, even  in  this  earthly  stixte,  of  true  believers 
whose  lives  are  hid  with  Christ  in  God. 

The  sketch  of  the  purpose  of  the  book  will 
have  shown  that  the  '  Preterist '  view  is  at  the 
basis  of  the  present  Commentary.  The  pro- 
bability of  this  view  is  supported  by  the  ana- 
logy of  other  apocalypses.  And  it  seems 
natural  to  suppose  that  the  book  would  be 
meant  to  be  intelligible  by  those  to  whom  it 
was  addressed,  and  would  have  arisen  out  of 
the  circumstances  of  their  state.     Moreover, 


1066 


INTRO. 


REVELATION 


INTRO. 


the  language  and  the  figures  of  the  book  are 
found  to  fit  the  condition  of  the  early  days  of 
Christianity,  and  to  yield,  on  this  system,  a 
consistent  and  unforced  interpretation.  The 
advocates  of  the  other  systems  have  differed 
widely  among  themselves,  e.g.  explaining  the 
woman  (c.  17)  and  the  beasts,  now  to  mean 
the  Roman  Church  and  the  Pope,  now  the 
Turks  and  Mohammed,  now  the  French  Re- 
volution and  Napoleon.  But  while  this  Com- 
mentary adapts  the  Preterist  view,  it  is  not 
denied  that,  the  principles  of  God's  govern- 
ment of  the  world  being  always  the  same, 
practical  use  may  be  made  of  visions  and 
figures  which  refer  to  past  circumstances  by 
applying  the  principles  which  they  reveal  to 
the  events  with  which  we  ourselves  have  to  do. 

The  question  remains  whether  those  predic- 
tions which  have  to  do  with  the  millennium, 
i.e.  the  thousand  years  during  which  Christ 
would  reign  on  earth  (cp.  20 ■^^■)^  were  meant 
to  be  xmderstood  literally  or  spiritually.  The 
earliest  interpretation  was  literal.  Those  who 
accepted  the  book  expected  a  literal  reign  of 
Christ  on  earth.  It  was  for  this  reason  that 
many,  not  believing  in  a  literal  millennium, 
would  not  accept  the  book  as  canonical.  It 
was  only  the  spread  of  spiritual  interpreta- 
tion, by  which  the  '  thousand  years  '  denoted 
the  present  period  of  the  Church,  the  view 
advocated  by  Jerome  and  Augustine,  that  en- 
abled the  Church  as  a  whole  to  receive  the 
book. 

4.   Unity.     The  structure  of  Revelation  is 
not  what  might  have  been  expected.    We  might 


figures  which  cannot  be  traced  to  OT.  sources 
may  have  been  derived  from  lost  or  traditional 
materials,  eg.  chs.  11  f.     We  can  see,  indeed, 
that   Jewish,   and    even    heathen,    ideas   and 
beliefs  were  so  used  by  the  writer,  and  were 
given  a    Christian     meaning  :    cp.   2^7   g^'-'^* 
133,18    165,7    17 16    202-4.      However,    if  this 
theory  be  true,  we  should  suppose  that  the 
writer's  use  of  such  materials  would  be  paral- 
lel to  his  use  of  the  OT.     He  never  slavishly 
copied    from    the    OT.,    but    employed    and 
adapted  OT.  language  and  figures  as  if  they 
were    so   familiar   to    him   that  he  naturally 
expressed  himself  by  their  means.     Similarly 
he  may  have  pondered  upon  existing  apocalyptic 
materials  until  they  had  become  part  of  the 
furniture  of  his  mind.     The  striking  parallels 
of   Rev.  with  Mt24  =  Mkl3  =  Lk21,  1720-37 
1235-48^  seem  to  show  the  dependence  of  the 
author  of  Rev.  upon  the  discourse  of  Christ 
on  the  Mount  of  Olives.     E.g.  cp  1 1,   '  which 
God  gave  unto  Him,'  with  Mt2436  ;  '  shortly 
come   to   pass,'  with  Mt2434  ;  while  chs.  2f. 
show  that  the  situation  foretold  in  Mt  249-14  is 
present.     Cp.  also  61-8  with  Mt243-H  ;  6i2-ir 
with  Mt  24  29-31  ;  81  with  Mt243i  ;  8^-12  with 
Mt2429  Lk2l25. 

5.  The  Visions.  Supposing  that  some  part 
of  the  theories  mentioned  in  the  last  section 
be  true,  how  can  it  be  said  that  St.  John 
received  the  contents  of  the  book  in  a  vision  ? 
The  answer  is  threefold.  (1)  It  is  not  neces- 
sary to  understand  the  book  as  claiming  to 
have  been  wholly  received,  as  it  stands,  in 
one  vision  at  one  time.     The  first  vision  was 


have  expected  a  prophecy    which  passed  on     received  in  Patmos.    Others  may  have  followed 


in  regular  course,  developing  evenly  from 
stage  to  stage  until  the  end  was  reached.  In- 
stead of  this  we  find  progression  indeed,  but 
of  a  rough  and  uneven  nature,  and  a  number 
of  dissimilar  and  abrupt  visions  and  figures, 
often  not  so  much  flowing  one  out  of  another 
as  piled  one  upon  another.  During  the  last 
twenty  years  some  critics  have  attempted  to 
account  for  these  features  by  supposing,  either 
that  the  book  is  composed  of  two  or  three 
earlier  apocalypses,  worked  over  and  fitted 
together  by  a  Christian  editor,  or  else  that  the 
author  drew  upon  various  older  materials, 
fragmentary  in  character,  which  he  has  used 
and  incorporated. 

The  former  of  these  theories  seems  to  be  im- 
probable. The  book  certainly  follows  out  a 
plan,  even  though  it  be  roughly.  And  critics 
have  not  agreed  in  the  results  of  their  attempts 
to  dissect  the  book  and  to  display  the  joints 
and  lines  of  union.  But  it  seems  more  likely 
that  the  writer  made  some  use  of  older 
materials.  It  is  certain  that  he  made  large 
use  of  the  OT.,  especially  of  Ezekiel  and 
Daniel,  e.g.  cp.  ps  4*3f.  1.3 if-  189'.  It  is  not, 
on  the  face  of  it,  unlikely  that  some  of  the 


at  subsequent  times.  (2)  It  is  not  necessary  to 
suppose  that  the  very  words  of  the  book  were 
taken  down,  as  if  from  dictation,  by  the  writer. 
The  writer  claims  to  be  a  prophet  (cp.  10  ^^ 
22*'>9),  and  in  the  exercise  of  his  gift  he  may 
have  developed  afterwards  the  facts  which 
were  revealed  to  him  by  vision.  (3)  The 
memory  of  previously  acquired  knowledge 
cannot  but  have  a  large  share  in  the  apprehen- 
sion of  truths  divinely  received.  Such  truths 
must  be  rendered  into  a  language  previously 
learned  ;  and  if  they  are  rendered  into  figures 
previously  assimilated,  that  is  only  another 
form  of  the  same  process.  And  the  vision 
itself  may,  perhaps,  be  divinely  adapted  to 
the  language  and  figures  which  are  already 
contained  in  the  mind  of  the  recipient  of  the 
vision. 

6.  Authorship.  The  writer  of  the  book 
calls  himself  'John':  cp.  li.4,9  22 8.  No 
other  description  or  definition  is  given.  To 
the  early  Christian  Church,  '  John '  would 
signify  John  the  Apostle.  Besides  this,  the 
writer  was  of  account  among  the  Churches  of 
the  Roman  province  of  Asia,  and  was  in  exile 
in  Patmos.     Early  Christian  tradition  asserts 


1067 


INTRO. 


REVELATION 


both  these  things  of  St.  John.  It  would  seem, 
therefore,  that  the  book  was  written  either  by 
the  Apostle,  or  by  some  one  who  wished  it  to 
be  thought  the  work  of  the  Apostle. 

The  external  evidence  for  the  apostolic  au- 
thorship is  very  strong,  coming  from  Fathers 
in  all  parts  of  the  Church.  The  earliest 
witnesses  are  Justin  Martyr  (circ.  140  a.d.), 
and  probably  Melito,  bishop  of  Sardis  (circ. 
170),  and  Theophilus,  bishop  of  Antioch  (circ. 
180).  Irenseus,  bishop  of  Lyons  (circ.  180), 
who  had  known  Polycarp  the  disciple  of  St. 
John,  distinctly  says  that  it  was  written  by 
the  Apostle.  The  apostolic  authorship  is  also 
witnessed  to  by  the  Muratorian  Fragment 
(circ.  200),  Tertullian  (circ.  220),  Hippolytus, 
bishop  of  Ostia  (circ.  240),  Clement  of  Alex- 
andria (circ.  200),  Origen  (circ.  233),  and 
Victorinus,  who  wrote  the  earliest  extant  com- 
mentary on  Rev.,  and  who  was  martyred  under 
Diocletian  (303). 

On  the  other  hand,  an  Asiatic  sect  of  the 
end  of  the  2nd  cent.,  known  as  the  '  Alogi,' 
rejected  all  the  writings  of  St.  John,  and 
among  them  Rev.  They  did  not  appeal  to 
any  knowledge  or  tradition  as  to  the  author- 
ship, but  said  that  they  found  the  book  un- 
profitable, and  that  there  was  no  Church  at 
Thyatira.  Their  rejection  of  St.  John's 
writings  was  probably  caused  by  their  doctrinal 
views.  Caius,  a  presbyter  of  Rome  (circ. 
200),  ascribed  the  book  to  Cerinthus,  a  here- 
tical teacher,  who  lived  at  Ephesus  in  the 
reign  of  Domitian,  in  whose  system  were 
combined  elements  derived  from  Judaism, 
Christianity,  and  Oriental  speculation,  and 
whose  tenets  seem  to  be  opposed  in  the  Gospel 
and  Epistles  of  St.  John.  Both  the  Alogi 
and  Caius  opposed  the  Montanists,  who  ap- 
pealed to  Rev.  in  support  of  their  views. 

Dionysius  of  Alexandria  (circ.  250)  denied 
the  apostolic  authorship,  but  wholly  on  critical 
grounds,  arguing  from  the  language  of  the 
book,  and  from  its  unlikeness  to  the  G-ospel 
and  to  the  First  Epistle.  He  thought  it  must 
have  been  written  by  another  John,  perhaps 
John  Mark,  and  said  that  he  had  heard  that 
there  were  two  tombs  at  Ephesus,  each  called 
that  of  John.  Eusebius  of  CaBsarea  tells  us 
that  Papias  spoke  of  a  '  John  the  Presbyter,' 
distinguishing  him  from  the  Apostle,  and  he 
hazards  a  guess  that  possibly  this  Presbyter  was 
the  John  of  Revelation. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  evidence  of  tradition 
is  altogether  in  favour  of  the  apostolic  author- 
ship of  the  book.  Those  who  rejected  it  did 
so  on  grounds  of  internal  evidence,  which  we 
are  as  competent  to  judge  as  they  were.  The 
internal  evidence,  i.e.  the  matter  and  style  of 
the  book,  does  at  first  sight  make  it  difficult  to 
accept  the  apostolic  authorship.  The  Greek 
of  the  other  writings  of  St.  John  in  the  NT. 


1068 


INTRO, 

is  smooth  and  free  from  barbarism,  while  that 
of  Rev.  is  the  reverse.  But  this  may  ba 
accounted  for  by  the  character  of  the  books. 
The  Gospel  and  Epistles  were  probably  written 
calmly  and  meditatively,  repeating  much  that 
the  Apostle  had  been  in  the  habit,  for  years, 
of  saying  to  his  flock  in  Greek-speaking 
Ephesus.  But  St.  John  was  a  Jew,  although 
a  Greek  dress  had  come  to  surround  his 
thought.  In  Rev.  he  is  borne  along  by  the 
rapture  of  his  visions,  and  the  Jew  that  he 
was  by  nature  and  by  upbringing  might,  not 
unnaturally,  have  burst  through  the  Greek 
veneer.  Besides  this,  it  is  plain  that  the 
writer's  mind,  at  the  time  of  writing,  was 
filled  with  the  Jewish  Scriptures,  and  with 
Jewish  apocalypses,  and  it  may  have  seemed 
to  him  fitting  that  the  style  of  the  new 
Apocalypse  he  was  producing  should  be  in  har- 
mony with  other  apocalypses  which  both  he 
and  his  first  readers  knew.  The  Hebraic  style 
may  have  seemed  to  him  to  be  almost  as  much 
a  necessity  for  an  apocalypse  as  the  symbolic 
and  figurative  material.  There  would  be 
nothing  forced  or  unreal  about  this,  for 
Hebrew  was  native  to  St.  John,  while  Greek 
must  have  been  to  him  always  more  or  less 
artificial.  This  consideration  will  increase 
in  force  if,  as  is  quite  likely,  eighteen  or 
twenty  years  were  spent  by  St.  John  in 
Greek-speaking  Ephesus  between  the  writing 
of  Revelation  and  the  writing  of  the  Gospel 
and  Epistles. 

As  to  the  language.  It  is  true  that  char- 
acteristic words  and  thoughts  of  the  Gospel 
do  not  appear  in  Rev.  On  the  other  hand,  it 
is  only  in  the  Gospel  and  First  Epistle  of 
St.  John  and  in  Rev.  that  Christ  is  called 
'the  Word  '  (cp.  Jn  1 1  Rev  1913).  The  title 
'  Lamb,'  so  frequently  applied  to  Christ  in 
Rev.,  reminds  us  of  Jn  1  29. 3(3^  though  the  form 
of  the  word  is  slightly  different ;  the  symbol  of 
the  Shepherd  applied  to  Christ  (cp.  Rev  7 17  Jn 
10  1'  27f.  21 16)^  and  the  figure  of  living  water,  or 
water  of  life,  are  common  to  Gospel  and  Rev.  ; 
and  there  are  other  striking  likenesses,  such  as 
the  words  translated  '  true  '  (Rev  3 '?,  etc.), '  over- 
come,' '  keep,'  '  witness,'  '  testimony.' 

On  the  whole,  the  difference  between  the 
style  of  the  Gospel  and  Rev.,  though  great, 
can  be  accounted  for,  and  does  not  seem  to 
outweigh  the  very  strong  and  early  testimony 
to   the  apostolic  authorship  of  Revelation. 

The  doctrinal  teaching  of  Rev.  may  be  re- 
garded as  that  of  the  Fourth  Gospel  at  an 
earlier  stage.  Westcott  pointed  out  that  '  the 
main  idea  of  both  is  the  same.  Both  present 
a  view  of  a  supreme  conflict  between  the 
powers  of  good  and  evil. .  .  In  the  Gospel  the 
opposing  forces  are  regarded  under  abstract 
forms,  as  light  and  darkness,  love  and  hatred  ; 
in    the  Apocalypse  under  concrete    and  de- 


INTRO. 


REVELATION 


INTRO. 


finite  forms ;  G  od,  Christ,  and  the  Church 
"warring  with  the  devil,  the  false  prophet,  and 
the  beast.'  In  both  books  history  and  vision 
lead  to  the  victory  of  Clu-ist,  and  His  Person 
and  work  are  the  ground  of  triumph.  Both 
books  lay  stress  on  personal  '  witness.'  Both 
present  the  abiding  of  God  with  man  as  the 
issue  of  Christ's  work  (Jnl423  Rev 3 20  213). 

But  there  are  important  contrasts.  In  Rev. 
Christ's  coming  is  outward  ;  while  in  the 
Gospel  it  is  spiritual,  and  judgment  is  self- 
executing.  In  Rev.  the  '  future  '  is  historical ; 
in  the  Gospel  it  is  present  and  eternal.  In 
Rev.  the  conception  of  God  follows  the  lines 
of  the  OT. ;  in  the  Gospel  God  is  revealed  as 
■the  Father,  and  specially  in  connexion  with 
the  work  of  redemption. 

The  portrayal  of  Christ  in  Rev.  is  in  har- 
mony with  that  in  the  Gospel.  His  humanity 
and  His  redemptive  work  are  recognised  (15,7 
55,9  714  118  1211  143 f.  22 16), followed  by  His 
exaltation.  Christ  is  wholly  separated  from 
creatures.  He  possesses  divine  knowledge 
(22,9,13,19,23)^  and  divine  power  (11 15  12 10 
1714  19 16)  'He  receives  divine  honour  (5 s*- 
206),  and  is  joined  with  God  (32  5i3  QWf.  710 
144  2122  221.3),  so  that  with  God  He  is  spoken 
of  as  one  (11 1^  20  6  223)  .  jje  shares  also  in 
part  the  divine  titles  (1"  37  19  H).'  His  pre- 
existence  is  recognised  in  passages  (li7  2®  31* 
1913)  in  which  we  have  an  earlier  form  of  the 
truth  unfolded  in  Jn  1 1*  :  seeWestcott,  '  Intro. 
St.  John,'  pp.  Ixxxiv  f . 

7.  Date.  The  state  of  the  Churches  at 
the  time  of  writing  (chs.  2*)  was  such  that 
we  should  suppose  that  some  considerable 
time  had  elapsed  since  their  foundation.  They 
were  infected  by  heresy  and  by  worldliness. 
The  connexion  of  St.  Paul  with  Ephesus 
seems  to  have  been  a  thing  of  the  past,  and 
his  martyrdom  is,  perhaps,  referred  to  in  1820. 
Persecution  had  been  violent,  Rome  was 
'  drunk  with  the  blood  of  the  saints  '(176);  and 
fiercer  persecution  was  expected  (3 10  137. 15  f.). 
All  this  seems  to  point  to  a  date  after  the 
persecution  of  Nero,  68  A.D.,  and  before  that 
of  Domitian,  95  a.d.  Professor  Ramsay  argues 
that  the  character  of  the  persecution  referred 
to  in  Rev.,  in  which  the  Christians  seem  to 
have  suffered,  not  under  accusation  of  specific 
crimes,  but  'for  the  Name'  (cp.  2i3  69  12ii 
176),  demands  that  Rev.  should  be  dated,  not 
under  Nero,  but  under  Domitian.  However, 
'  the  testimony  of  Jesus '  does  not  mean 
'  witness  borne  to  Him,'  but  '  the  revelation 
made  by  Him.'  The  use  probably  made  of 
the  popular  expectation  of  the  return  of  Nero 
from  hell  (13^  17^.11)  would  imply  that  some 
years  had  elapsed  since  Nero's  death. 

If  111*-  is  to  be  literally  understood,  the 
book  would  have  to  be  dated  before  the 
destruction   of   Jerusalem,  70  a.d.     But  the 


passage,  probably,  should  have,  in  its  present 
context,  another  interpretation  :  see  notes. 

C.  177-12  (see  notes)  seems  clearly  to  indi- 
cate that  the  book  was  written  in  the  reign  of 
Vespasian  (69-79).  With  this  most  of  the 
considerations  referred  to  above  agree.  We 
suppose,  therefore,  that  the  book  was  written 
about  77  A.D. 

On  the  other  hand,  primitive  tradition 
asserts  that  the  book  was  written  towards  the 
end  of  the  reign  of  Domitian,  circ.  95  A.D. 
This  tradition  probably  rests  on  the  state- 
ment of  Irenaeus,  circ.  180.  Either  Irenaeus 
was  mistaken,  or  else  in  c.  17  St.  John  was 
making  use  of  an  earlier  apocalypse,  perhaps 
that  which  was  the  original  of  part  of  c.  11. 

8.  Canonicity.  More  evidence  exists  for 
the  early  use  of  Rev.  than  for  any  other  book 
of  the  NT.  In  the  section  on  '  authorship ' 
early  authorities  have  been  quoted.  Besides 
these,  Papias,  a  friend  of  Polycarp  the  disciple 
of  St.  John,  bishop  of  Hierapolis  in  Phrygia 
in  the  early  part  of  the  2nd  cent.,  probably 
used  the  book.  Andreas,  a  bishop  of  the  9th 
cent.,  who  wrote  a  commentary  on  Rev., 
states  that  Papias  maintained  '  the  divine 
inspiration '  of  Rev.,  and  Eusebius  says  that 
Papias  expected  an  earthly  reign  of  Christ  for 
1,000  years, '  not  understanding  correctly  those 
matters  which  (the  apostolic  narrations)  pro- 
pounded mystically  in  their  representations ' 
(Euseb.  III.  39). 

The  Churches  in  Lyons  and  Vienne  (177) 
regarded  Rev.  as  Scripture.  Apollonius  (circ. 
210),  who  was  perhaps  a  bishop  of  Ephesus, 
is  said  by  Eusebius  to  have  made  use  of  testi- 
monies from  Revelation. 

But  while  the  Western  Church  always 
accepted  Rev.,  doubts  about  it  sprung  up  in 
the  Eastern  Church.  This  attitude  was  pro- 
bably influenced  by  opposition  to  the  advocates 
of  a  literal  millennium  (or  reign  of  Christ  on 
earth  for  1,000  years),  and  to  the  Montanists, 
all  of  whom  were  warm  upholders  of  the 
book.  Dionysius  of  Alexandria,  who  con- 
cluded on  critical  grounds  that  St.  John  was 
not  the  author  of  the  book,  has  been  referred 
to  above  ;  Eusebius  was  inclined  to  agree  with 
Dionysius.  '  The  first  Eastern  commentary 
belongs  to  the  5th  cent.,  the  next  to  the  9th. 
Each  begins  with  a  defence  against  doubts  as 
to  the  canonicity  of  the  book.' 

It  was  only  gradually  that  it  came  to  be 
received  generally,  and,  owing  to  the  diffi- 
culty of  its  interpretation,  its  reception  in 
modern  times  has  not  been  so  unqualified  as 
that  of  the  rest  of  the  NT.  Luther  was  at 
first  strongly  averse  from  the  book,  though, 
later,  he  printed  it  with  Hebrews,  James,  and 
Jude  in  an  appendix  to  his  NT.  Zwingli 
regarded  it  as  non-biblical,  and  Calvin  did 
not  comment  upon  it. 


1069 


INTRO. 


REVELATION 


INTRO. 


9.  Contents. 

11-3.  Introduction,  describing  the  contents 
of  the  book  as  an  apocalypse,  given  by  God 
to  Jesus  Christ,  and  signified  by  Him  to  J  ohn 
through  an  angel. 

14-8.  Salutation,  in  which  the  distressed 
Church  is  pointed  to  God. 

19-20.  Account  of  the  vision  of  the  glorified 
Christ,  who  bade  St.  John  write  to  the  Seven 
Churches  the  things  which  he  saw. 

Chs.  2,  3.  Letters  to  the  Seven  Churches. 
2^-'^.  The  Church  in  Ephesus  is  praised  for 
her  steadfastness  against  false  teachers  and 
heathen  persecutors,  but  called  upon  to  re- 
pent of  the  coldness  of  her  love.  2  ^-n.  The 
Church  in  Smyrna  is  about  to  sufl'er  persecu- 
tion. Let  her  endure  it  boldly,  for  it  cannot 
hurt  her  true  life.  2i2-i7.  The  Church  in 
Pergamum  has  been  faithful  in  persecution. 
But  she  has  been  tolerant  of  immoral  teachers, 
and  of  this  she  must  repent.  218-29.  The 
Church  in  Thyatira  is  increasing  in  faith  and 
endurance,  and  in  love  to  God  and  man.  But 
a  party  in  the  Church  have  led  unfaithful 
lives,  and  they  will  be  punished  unless  they 
repent.  Let  the  rest  of  the  Church  continue 
faithful. 

31-*^.  The  Church  in  Sardis  is  sternly  re- 
buked for  her  lack  of  earnestness.  Unless 
she  repents  she  must  endure  Christ's  judg- 
ment. The  few  in  Sardis  who  have  kept 
themselves  unspotted  from  the  world  shall 
enjoy  the  companionship  of  Christ  in  glory. 

37-13.  The  Church  in  Philadelphia  is  small 
and  weak.  But  she  has  been  faithful  in  per- 
secution, and  she  is  promised  many  converts, 
especially  from  among  the  Jews.  Christ  will 
guard  this  Church  from  the  time  of  trial  that 
is  coming. 

314-22.  The  Church  in  Laodiceais  lukewarm 
and  self-satisfied.  Let  her  see  herself  as  she 
is,  and  humbly  seek  from  Christ  the  supply 
of  her  needs.  If  she  does  so,  He  will  richly 
bless  her. 

Chs.  4,  5.  The  Lord  and  Ruler  of  all. 
41*.  Vision  of  the  Almighty,  enthroned  in 
glory  and  mercy,  receiving   the   worship   of 
heaven. 

5^^  The  course  of  the  future,  predeter- 
mined by  God  in  His  secret  counsel,  is  repre- 
sented by  a  book,  covered  with  writing  and 
close-sealed,  resting  on  the  outstretched  hand 
of  the  Almighty.  It  has  been  committed  to 
Christ  to  make  known  and  to  carry  out  God's 
will  for  the  future,  and  this  because  of  His 
death. 

C.  6.  The  Seals — Judgment  pictured. 

61-"^.  The  first  four  seals  are  opened.     The 

victorious  spread  of  the  gospel  is  shown,  and 

then  the  coming  of  war,  famine,  and  pestilence. 

6^-11.  The  fifth  seal.      Judgment  delayed, 

and  the  reason.     The  martyrs  are   not   for- 


gotten by  God.  He  gives  them  gladness  and 
rest.  But  His  judgment  will  fall  upon  the 
wicked  world  that  slew  them,  when  it  has 
fulfilled  its  wickedness  by  slaying  those  who 
are  yet  to  die  for  Christ.  61^-17.  The  sixth 
seal.  Judgment  at  last  on  the  point  of  fall- 
ing, at  the  day  of  the  wrath  of  God  and  of  the 
Lamb. 

C.  7.  Parenthesis — the  Church's  safety. 
71-8.  The  judgments  of  G^-^,  spoken  of  here 
as  '  the  four  winds,'  will  not  hurt  God's  elect, 
every  one  of  whom  is  marked  out  by  Him,  and 
their  full  number  known.  7^-17.  Neither  does 
the  great  persecution  hurt  God's  people,  for 
death  brings  them  to  glory. 

Chs.  8,  9.  The  Trumpets — Judgment  pro^ 
claimed. 

81'2.  The  seventh  seal  shows  the  trumpets 

which  herald  Judgment,  given  to  seven  angels. 

8  2-^.  The  prayers  of  the  saints  do  reach  God, 

and  the  Judgment  about  to  fall  on  the  earth 

is  His  answer. 

8  *5-i3.  The  first  four  trumpets  announce  con- 
vulsions of  nature,  which  portend  the  approach 
of  the  Day  of  Christ. 

91-12.  The  fifth  trumpet,  and  the  first  woe, 
by  the  figure  of  stinging  locusts  from  the 
abyss,  proclaims  that  the  wicked  world  shall 
suffer  the  spiritual  torment  which  follows 
sin. 

913-21.  The  sixth  trumpet,  and  second  woe, 
proclaims  ravages  upon  the  idolatrous  world 
by  devastating  armies. 

10 1-1 1 1*.  Parenthesis — the  Church's  safety. 

IQi*-  After  'seven  thunders,'  which  St.  John 

is  bidden  to  keep  secret,  he  receives  a  fresh 

revelation,   signified  by  a  little  book,  which 

probably  consists  of  c.   12f. 

1 1 1'  2.  The  Christian  Church,  represented  by 
the  Temple,  is  to  be  preserved,  although  Juda- 
ism, represented  by  the  outer  part  of  the 
Temple  buildings,  is  overthrown.  1 1 3-14.  Yet 
it  will  be  by  death  that  the  people  of  Christ, 
now  represented  by  two  witnesses,  will  be 
preserved.  The  Roman  power  will  persecute 
and  dishonour  them.  Yet  in  this  they  will  be 
like  Christ,  and  will  share  His  glorified  life. 

1115-19  The  seventh  trumpet,  proclaiming 
the  consummation  of  mercy  and  judgment. 

Chs.  12-14.  Parenthesis — the  Church's  ene- 
mies. 

121-6.  Under  the  figure  of  a  woman  opposed 
by  a  dragon,  it  is  shown  that  the  great  enemy 
of  the  Church  is  Satan,  and  that  it  is  his  power 
which  impels  the  Roman  empire  to  persecute. 
He  persecuted  the  Church  of  God  before  the 
birth  of  Christ,  he  persecuted  Christ,  and  he 
persecuted  the  young  Christian  Church  of 
Palestine.  But  Christ  and  His  Church  were 
preserved  by  God.  127-12.  By  the  figure  of  a 
war  in  heaven,  the  Church  is  assured  that  she 
need  not  fear  Satan,  for  by  the  work  of  Christ 


1070 


REVELATION 


INTRO. 

he  has  been  conquered.  1213-17.  The  persecu- 
tion of  the  Gentile  Church  is  the  natural 
sequence  of  Satan's  failure  against  the  Church 
in  Palestine. 

13 1-10.  The  second  great  enemy  of  the  Church 
is  the  Roman  power,  signified  by  a  beast.  The 
power  and  dominion  of  the  beast  come  from 
Satan,  yet  men  worship  both.  For  a  limited 
time  the  beast  is  allowed  by  God  to  triumph 
over  the  Church.  ISH-is.  The  third  enemy  of 
the  Church,  the  government  of  the  Province 
of  Asia,  both  civil  and  religious,  is  figured  by 
a  second  beast,  who  causes  all  who  will  not 
join  in  idolatrous  worship  to  be  put  to 
death. 

C.  14.  The  enemies  of  the  Church  have  been 
shown  in  the  true  evil  character  which  under- 
lay the  glory  and  power  of  the  empire.  Now 
the  Church  is  bid  to  contrast  with  the  false 
glory  of  the  empire  the  true  glory  of  Christ 
and  His  people  in  heaven  (vv.  1-5),  to  hearken 
to  the  good  news  of  the  approaching  manifesta- 
tion of  God,  and  of  the  fall  of  wicked  Rome 
(vv.  6-8),  and  to  beware  lest  any  fail  of  stead- 
fastness, and  fall  away  to  the  beast,  for  great 
will  be  the  misery  of  such,  while  those  who 
die  in  Christ  are  blessed  (vv.  9-13).  Christ 
will  gather  in  His  own  (vv.  14-16),  but  the 
wicked  will  perish  under  the  wrath  of  God 
(vv.  17-20). 

Chs.  15,  16.  The  Bowls— Judgment  poured 

out. 

151-5.  The  wrath  of  God  is  about  to  be  mani- 
fested. During  a  pause  before  it  is  launched, 
is  heard  the  triumphant  praise  of  those  who 
have  come  victorious  from  the  beast. 

156-8.  Then  the  seven  angels  file  forth  from 
the  heavenly  Temple  and  receive  seven  bowls, 
full  of  the  wrath  of  God,  which  they  are  to 
pour  out  on  the  earth. 

161-9.  The  first  four  bowls.  Convulsions  of 
nature  afflict  the  ungodly,  preliminary  to  the 
overthrow  of  the  enemies  of  Christ. 

1610,11.  The  fifth  bowl.  The  idolatrous 
people,  instead  of  repenting  at  God's  judg- 
ments, become  full  of  blasphemous  rebellion. 

1612-16.  The  sixth  bowl.  The  evil  influence 
of  the  dragon  and  of  the  two  beasts  stirs  up 
the  rulers  of  the  world  to  gather  to  battle 
against  Christ. 

1617-21.  The  seventh  bowl.  The  end  of 
the  preparatory  judgments  is  reached.  All 
earthly  powers  are  shaken,  as  the  wrath  of 
God  is  manifested  to  overwhelm  the  enemies 
of  Christ,  and,  first  among  them,  the  city  of 
Rome  (Babylon). 

Chs.  17,  18.  The  Overthrow  of  Rome. 

17 1^  The  city  of  Rome,  pictured  as  a 
harlot,  magnificently  attired,  enthroned  upon 
the  beast,  and  diunken  with  the  blood  of  the 
martyrs,  will  be  destroyed  and  burnt  by  the 
kings  of  the  earth  and  by  the  beast. 


INTRO. 


181-3.  The  Fall  of  Rome  is  announced. 
IB'i-s.  God's  people  are  warned  to  quit  her. 
189-19.    The   dirge   over  Babylon  of   those 
who  loved  her.     18^0.  The  exultation  of  those 
she   has    persecuted.     1821-24.  Renewed   pre- 
diction of  her  Fall. 

Chs.  19,  20.  The  overthrow  of  the  Empire 
and  its  Asian  idolatry,  and  of  Satan,  and  the 
last  Judgment  of  the  wicked. 

19 1-10.  Heaven  glorifies  God  because  of  the 
overthrow  of  wicked  Rome  (vv.  1-4),  and 
because  the  marriage  of  the  Lamb  is  come 
(vv.  5-10).  igii-ii^.  But  before  the  marriage 
Christ  comes  forth  to  triumph  over  His  re- 
maining enemies.  1917.18.  The  completeness 
of  Christ's  coming  victory  signified  by  a  cry  to 
the  vultures  to  gather  to  the  prey. 

19 19-21.  AH  the  power  of  the  Roman  empire 
is  concentrated  against  Christ,  and  the  Pagan 
empire  and  its  religion  are  overthrown. 

201-3.  The  devil  remains,  but  for  a  period 
of  rest  and  happiness  he  will  be  prevented 
from  inspiring  a  general  attack  upon  Chris- 
tianity. 204-6.  This  time  of  earthly  rest  was 
not  for  the  Christians  of  St.  John's  day.  Yet 
for  them  would  be  triumph  and  happiness  with 
Christ  after  death,  while  the  wicked  were  kept 
for  the  Last  Judgment.  207-10.  Once  more, 
in  the  future,  Satan's  power  will  break  forth 
in  a  final  attack  upon  the  Church.  For  the 
last  time  God  will  overthrow  these  enemies, 
and  then  the  power  of  Satan  will  perish  for 
ever.  2011-1^.  Then  will  come  the  last  Judg- 
ment of  the  wicked,  after  which  there  will  be 
no  more  death. 

211-225.  The  Eternal  Bliss  of  Heaven. 
211-8.  St.  John  sees,  as  if  from  a  distance, 
the  heavenly  home  of  the  Redeemed  coming 
down  upon  the  new  earth,  and  hears  a  de- 
scription of  its  blessedness.  21^-27.  He  is 
brought  near,  by  one  of  the  seven  angels,  to  the 
'  New  Jerusalem, '  the  Bride,  so  that  he  can 
view  her  in  her  security  and  beauty  and  holi- 
ness as  the  resting-place  of  God's  glory  and 
the  home  of  the  Church. 

22 1-5.  Finally  he  is  shown  the  inner  life  of 
the  heavenly  Jerusalem. 
226-21.  Closing  Section. 
226-9.  The  angel  affirms  the  truth  of  the 
visions.     22io-i5.  The  prophecy  now  completed 
is  to  be  used.     The  time  is  short.     Blessed 
are  they  who  shall  share  in  the  glories  revealed. 
2216,17.  Christ  declares  that  the  Revelation 
has   been   sent   by  Him  for  the  use  of   the 
Church.     The   Spirit  in  the  Church,  hearing 
Christ's  voice,  calls  for  His  Advent. 

22 18>  19.  St.  John  warns  those  who  hear  the 
book  read  in  the  services  of  the  Church  Ihat 
it  is  not  to  be  falsified.  22  20.  Christ  repeats 
the  promise  of  His  coming,  and  St.  John  prays 
for  it. 

2221.  Benedictory  prayer. 


1071 


1.1 


REVELATION 


1.  10 


CHAPTER  1 
The  Vision  of  the  Son  of  Man 

St.  John  addresses  '  the  seven  churches 
which  are  in  Asia,'  telling  them  of  a  vision 
of  Christ,  who  bade  him  write  in  a  book  what 
he  saw  and  send  it  to  them. 

1-3.  Introduction,  describing  the  book  as  an 
'  apocalypse,'  the  Gk.  word  which  signifies 
'unveiling'  or  'revelation.'  This  does  not 
mean  here  the  unveiling  of  Christ  at  His 
Coming,  as  in  1  Cor  1 7  2  Th  1 M  Pet  1  7, 13  4 13, 
but  the  Revelation  given  by  Christ.  The 
book  is,  at  the  same  time,  a  prophecy  (cp.  v.  3), 
because  divinely  communicated,  and  because 
of  its  exhortations  which  must  be  kept.  It  is, 
also,  in  the  form  of  a  letter:  cp.  1^2221. 
Notice  in  this  section  the  threefold  arrangement 
of  ideas,  so  common  in  the  book. 

1,  Of]  i.e.  Christ  is  the  real  author. 
Shortly]  the  events  were  in  the  near  future. 

2.  Record]  RV  '  witness.'  Word  of  God] 
i.e.  the  revelation  which  God  gave  to  Jesus 
Christ  (v.  1).  Testimony  of  Jesus]  i.e.  the 
witness  which  Jesus  bore,  the  word  of  God 
which  Jesus  communicated:  cp.  6^  1217   191°. 

And  of  all]  RV  '  even  of  all.'  3.  Readeth] 
i.e.  aloud,  before  the  congregation.  Prophecy] 
The  writer  is  a  prophet,  i.e.  his  utterances 
proceed  from  the  illumination  of  the  Holy 
Spirit:  cp.  227,io  Acl3i  1  Cor  1228  132  143 
Eph  4  11.  An  Apostle  could  be  a  prophet  : 
cp.  Eph  3  3  f. 

4-8.  Salutation,  which  sounds  the  keynote 
of  the  book,  by  proclaiming  to  the  distressed 
Church  the  eternal  power  of  God,  the  omni- 
present and  penetrating  energy  of  the  Spirit, 
and  the  redeeming  Lordship  of  Christ,  who 
will  return  to  overcome  His  enemies. 

4.  John]  We  know  of  no  John,  except  the 
Apostle,  who  had  authority  to  address  seven 
Churches.     Seven]  the  number  which  signifies 
completeness.     These  seven    Churches   stand 
also  for  the  whole  Church  of  Christ.     Asia] 
i.e.  the  Roman  province  of  that  name,  which 
was  the  western  part  of  what  is  now  called 
Asia  Minor.     It  included  Mysia,  Lydia,  Caria, 
part  of  Phrygia,  and  islands  off  the  coast. 
Which  is,  etc.]  i.e.  the  Eternal  :  cp.  Ex3i4. 
Seven  Spirits]  i.e.  the  Holy   Spirit  in  His 
complete   working  :  cp.  4^  5^.     5.  Witness] 
cp.  v.  2,  31*  Ps8937  Jnl837.     First  begotten] 
RV   '  firstborn,'    i.e.  the   first  of  the  dead   to 
enter  life  :  cp.  Coll  is  Ps8927.     Washed]  RV 
'  loosed,'  i.e.  as  the  Redeemer  of  slaves.     In 
his  own]  RV  '  by  his.'     6.   Kings]  RV  '  to  be 
a  kingdom,'  i.e.  a  society  under  His  kingship  : 
cp.  Ex  19  6  1  Pet  2  9.     Priests]  to  offer  spiritual 
sacrifices  :  cp.  Heb  1 3  is  f-  1  Pet  2  5.     Unto  God, 
etc.]  i.e.  belonging  to  God  and  engaged  in  His 
service.     R V  '  unto  his  God  and  Father ' ;  spo- 
ken of  Christ  in  His  humanity  :  cp.  32(RV)  12 

1 


Mt2746  Jn20i7.     For  doxologies  addressed  to 
Christ,  cp.Ro  16 27  2  Tim4 18  Heb  1321  IPet 411. 

7.  Behold,  etc.]  from  Dan7i3.  Cometh] 
i.e.  at  the  Judgment  :  cp.  Mt2430  26^^^  Every 
eye,  etc.]  from  Zechl2iO:  cp.  Jnl937.  Kin- 
dreds, etc.]  RV  '  the  tribes  of  the  earth':  con- 
trasted with  the  '  saints,'  the  people  of  Christ. 

Wail  because  of]  RV  '  mourn  over.' 

8.  Alpha  and  Omega]  RV  '  the  Alpha  and  the 
Omega';  i.e.  the  Eternal  One:  cp.  21^  Isa  44*'. 
In  22 13  the  title  is  applied  to  Christ.  Alpha 
and  Omega  are  the  first  and  last  letters  of  the 
Gk.  alphabet.  Lord]  RV  '  Lord  God.'  The 
Almighty]  i.e.  He  who  rules  over  all.  The 
Gk.  word  is  the  LXX  rendering  of  '  God  of 
hosts,'  i.e.  God  of  the  universe  :  cp.  Am  413. 

9-20.  The  vision  John  received  of  Christ 
in  glory.  Christ  is  described  in  language 
which  is  drawn  from  the  OT.,  especially  from 
Daniel,  and  which  is  to  be  understood  figur- 
atively of  the  majesty  and  power  of  Christ. 
He  is  revealed  as  present,  though  unseen  by 
men,  in  the  midst  of  the  Churches.  His  triumph 
after  suffering  and  His  present  care  are  to 
nerve  them  to  endure  their  tribulation  vic- 
toriously. 

9.  Companion]  RV  '  partaker  with  you.' 
Tribulation,  etc.]   RV  '  the  tribulation  and 

kingdom  and  patience.'  Patience]  i.e.  brave 
endurance.  Of  Jesus  Christ]  RV  '  which  are 
in  Jesus.'  Tribulation,  kingdom,  and  patience 
are  all  found  in  union  with  Christ,  and  as  such 
are  to  St.  John  the  characteristic  elements  of 
the  life  of  the  Church.  Patmos]  a  small,  bare 
volcanic  island  in  the  ^Egean  Sea,  about  1  o  m. 
from  Ephesus.  For  the  word  of  God,  etc.]  i.e. 
probably  he  had  been  banished  in  punishment 
for  his  Christian  preaching.  '  It  was  the 
common  practice  to  send  exiles  to  the  most 
rocky  and  desolate  islands.'  10.  Spirit]  RV 
'  Spirit.'  John  was  in  a  prophetic  trance  :  cp. 
Ac  10 10  f- 2  Cor  12  2.  Lord's  day]  the  earliest 
known  use  of  the  term  for  '  Sunday '  :  cp. 
Ac  207  1  Cor  16  2. 

As  of  a  trumpet]  Archbp.  Benson  pointed 
out  ('  The  Apocalypse ')  that  this  voice  is  that 
of  the  herald  angel  who  called  St.  John  to 
his  work.  This  has  been  obscured  by  the  false 
reading  in  v.  11.  The  angel's  trumpet-voice 
is  recorded  again  in  4i.  The  angel  directs 
St.  John  by  his  voice  from  afar  in  the  first 
part  of  Rev.(cp.  10 4.8  111  1413),  but  after  17 1 
accompanies  him.  '  As  an  angel  of  the  Pre- 
sence (cp.  82  15i>^*-)i  ^®  is  called  Christ's  angel 
and  God's  angel  (cp.  li  226),  and  his  voice 
has  been  "  out  of  heaven."  '  This  angel  speaks 
in  199  215i>,9,  is  referred  to  in  2115  221,  and 
speaks  again  in  22  6, 10. 

Other  voices  to  be  noted  are,  the  '  great 
voice'  of  the  Almighty  (11 12  1617  213,5f.); 
the  voice  of  Christ,  '  as  the  voice  of  many 
waters '(vv.  15,1 7  f.,14  2 16 15 19  6  22  7, 12-15, 16, 20). 

072 


1. 11 


REVELATION 


2.1 


the  voice  of  the  living  creatures,  '  as  a  voice  of 
thunder  '  (G^  IB**)  ;  the  voice  of  the  elders, '  as 
the  voice  of  harpers  harping  with  their  harps ' 
(5^  142)  ;  and  the  voice  of  the  saints  before 
God's  throne,  '  as  it  were  the  voice  of  a  great 
multitude'  (79'-  191.6). 

II.  I .  .  last:  and]  RV  omits.  I2.  Candle- 
sticks] see  on  v.  20.  13.  The  Son]  RV  '  a 
son'  :  see  on  14 1^^  DanV^^.  To  the  foot]  i.e. 
of  kingly  or  priestly  dignity.  Girdle]  cp.  Dan 
10  5.  14.  White]  denoting  the  purity  and 
majesty  of  God  :  cp.  DanT^.  15.  Fine]  RV 
'burnished':  cp.  EzkH  DanlO«.  Waters] 
cp.  Ezkl24.  16.  stars]  see  on  V.  20.  Sword] 
A  comparison  with  Isa  11^2  Th  2  ^  shows  that 
this  probably  signifies  that  Christ  has  but  to 
'  speak  the  word '  and  His  enemies  will  be 
destroyed.     He  has  absolute  authority. 

18.  /  am  he  that,  etc.]  RV  '  and  the  Living 
one  ;  and  I  was  dead  '  ;  '  Living,'  i.e.  eternally, 
both  before  and  after  the  Incarnation  :  cp. 
Jnli.4,  and  OT.  phrase  'living  God.'  The 
persecuted  need  not  fear  death,  for  Christ  had 
died.  Hell  and  of  death]  RV  '  death  and  of 
Hades.'  '  Hades  '  =  OT.  '  Sheol,'  the  world 
of  the  dead,  not  the  place  of  punishment  :  cp. 
Isa  14  9  (RM)  3810  (RM)  MtlGis.  He  has  the 
'  keys '  because  the  time  and  manner  of  the 
death  of  each  person  are  imder  His  control. 
To  think  of  this  would  give  heart  to  the 
persecuted. 

19.  Hast  seen]  RV  '  sawest,'  i.e.  this  vision. 
Which  are]  i.e.  the  state  of  the  Churches- 
Be]  RV  '  come  to  pass.'     20.  The  mystery] 

i.e.  concerning  the  mystery  ;  '  mystery  '  =  a 
hidden  thing  now  revealed.  Stars]  i.e.  lights 
in  heaven. 

Candlesticks]  lights  on  earth.  The  Churches 
are  represented  by  candlesticks  (or  '  lamp- 
stands  '),  because  they  are  made  to  shed  the 
light  of  truth  and  goodness  derived  from 
Christ,  the  light  of  the  world,  upon  the  world 
around  them.  The  flame  is  supported  by  the 
oil  of  the  Holy  Spirit  :  cp.  Ex  25  31  Zech  42 
Mt.5i*f. 

Angels]  Each  letter  is  addressed  to  the 
'  angel,'  and  the  '  angel '  is  praised  or  blamed 
for  the  state  of  the  Church.  Many  have 
thought  '  angel  '  here  =  '  bishop,'  but  such  a 
meaning  is  unknown  elsewhere.  Its  '  angel ' 
is  to  each  '  church '  as  the  '  star '  is  to  the 
'  lamp,'  i.e.  its  heavenly  counterpart.  The 
angel,  therefore,  is  a  heavenly  existence,  corre- 
sponding to  the  Church  on  earth,  but  nearer 
to  God.  We  need  not  suppose  that  each 
Church  literally  has  such  a  being  in  connexion 
with  it.  St.  John  was  writing  in  symbols,  and 
using  symbols  which  he  found  ready  made. 
Translated  from  symbolic  language  into 
prose,  '  angel '  here  probably  means  '  that 
perfect  ideal  which  the  Church  imperfectly 
fulfils.' 


CHAPTER  2 

The  Epistles  to  the  Seven  Churches 

(21-322) 

Since  '  seven '  is  the  perfect  number,  the 
'  seven  churches  '  represent  all  the  Churches 
of  the  province  of  Asia.  At  the  same  time, 
the  special  circumstances  of  each  Church  are 
faithfully  pictured  in  each  epistle.  Ramsay 
points  out  that  St.  John  alludes,  as  well,  to 
the  special  circumstances  of  each  city.  He 
suggests  that  the  Churches  are  mentioned  in 
the  order  in  which  a  messenger  carrying  letters 
would  travel.  The  letters,  however,  were  not 
to  be  sent  separately  to  the  Churches.  The 
book  was  to  be  taken  as  a  whole.  St.  John 
adopted  the  familiar  form  of  an  '  apocalypse  ' 
through  which  to  deliver  his  message,  and 
added  to  that  the  equally  familiar  form  of 
'  letters.' 

In  every  epistle  Christ  is  described  under  an 
aspect,  mostly  drawn  from  112'-,  suited  to  the 
special  needs  of  the  Church  addressed.  Each 
Church  is  then  assured  that  Christ  knows  it, 
whether  for  praise  or  blame,  but  always  with 
love,  and  receives  the  exhortation  suited  to  it, 
followed  by  a  special  promise  with  a  special 
token. 

The  main  purpose  of  the  epistles  is  to  give 
courage  to  the  Church  to  pass  victoriously 
through  its  trials.  For  this  reason  it  is  told 
of  Christ's  presence  and  help,  and  bid  to  look 
forward  to  the  glory  that  Christ  will  soon 
give  to  those  who  overcome.  The  chief  trials 
of  the  Church  consist  in  persecution  from 
heathen  and  Jews,  and  in  corrupt  teaching 
within.  The  false  teaching  is  of  the  character 
denounced  in  2  Pet.  and  Jude.  It  seems  to 
have  desired  that  Christians  should  be  per- 
mitted to  take  part  in  the  clubs  and  organis- 
ations of  the  heathen  society  around  them,  and 
in  their  festivals,  permeated  though  they  were 
with  idolatrous  observances. 

1-7,  To  the  Church  in  Ephesus  Christ  speaks 
as  He  who  is  present  with  the  Churches  (v.  1). 
The  Church  is  praised  for  its  work  for  Christ, 
its  endurance  of  suffering,  and  its  faithfulness 
to  the  truth  (vv.  2,  3),  yet  it  is  blamed,  not 
because  of  its  deeds,  but  because  the  love 
which  used  to  animate  them  has  cooled  (v.  4). 
Even  for  this  fault  repentance  is  necessary  ;  a 
Church  without  love  must  perish  (v.  5).  To 
those  members  of  the  Church  who  pass  vic- 
toriously through  their  trials,  eternal  life  with 
God  is  promised  (v.  7). 

I.  Ephesus]  the  metropolis  and  great  com- 
mercial centre  of  the  province  of  Asia,  famous 
for  a  temple  to  Diana.  After  St.  Paul's  work 
in  Asia  was  ended,  Timothy  was  stationed 
there  for  a  time  (cp.  1  Tim  1 3),  with  general 
authority,  till  2  Tim  4  9.  Soon  afterwards  it 
became  the  home  of  St.  John.     After  R.oman 


68  - 


1073 


2.2 


REVELATION 


2.  12 


times,  the  harboui-  of  Ephesus,  3  m.  from  the 
sea,  silted  up,  and  the  place  decayed.  Except 
for  a  small  Tm-kish  village,  only  ruins  remain. 
2.  Apostles]  i.e.  travelling  envoys  represent- 
ative of  Christ,  in  a  sense  not  limited  to  the 
twelve  :  see  on  Ro  16'^.  The  title  was  claimed 
by  some  to  whom  it  was  not  due.  Hast .  .  liars] 
RV  '  didst  find  them  false  '  :  cp.  2Corll3.i3f. 
4.  First]  i.e.  at  the  beginning  of  their  Chris- 
tian course.  5.  First  works]  i.e.  such  as  those 
inspired  by  their  early  love.  I  will  come .  . 
quickly]  RV  'I  come  to  thee.'  Remove  thy 
candlestick]  If  the  flame  of  Christian  love  dies 
down,  the  candlestick  will  be  put  away  as 
useless,  i.e.  the  organised  Church  will  come  to 
an  end  :  cp.  JnlS^.  The  Church  in  Ephesus 
flourished  for  centuries,  so  we  may  presume 
that  it  did  repent. 

6.  Nicolaitanes]  Mentioned  again  in  the  letter 
to  Pergamum,  in  connexion  with  Balaam  (vv. 
14*-))  ^^^  probably  referred  to  in  the  letter  to 
Thyatira  (vv.  20  ^O-  I*  has  been  supposed, 
from  the  mention  of  Balaam,  that  they  were 
Antinomians,  i.e.  men  who  held  that  Christians 
were  not  bound  by  the  moral  law,  and  that  sin 
was  no  sin  for  those  who  had  faith  :  cp. 
lCor6i3f.  8^f-  102SGal5i3  2Pet2ifi"- Jude 
vv.  4,  1 1  f .  It  has  also  been  suggested  that  they 
may  have  claimed  the  authority  of  the  deacon 
Nicolas  (cp.  Ac  6  5)  ;  but  perhaps  St.  John  used 
the  term  '  Nicolaitan  '  as  a  G-reek  word  repre- 
senting the  Hebrew  '  Balaam.'  Ramsay  thinks 
that  the  '  Nicolaitans '  were  some  who  attempted 
to  effect  a  compromise  with  the  established 
usages  of  Grseco-Roman  society,  permeated 
with  luxury  and  tainted  with  idolatry  though 
these  were,  and  that  they  also  wished  to 
comply  with  the  State's  demand,  and  show 
their  loyalty  by  burning  incense  before  the 
emperor's  statue.  St.  John  saw,  as  St.  Paul 
did  in  1  Cor.,  that  the  Church  must  conquer 
the  imperial  idolatry,  or  be  itself  destroyed 
(Ramsay,  '  Letters  to  the  Seven  Churches,'  pp. 
299  f.).  By  115  a.d.  Ignatius  wrote  to  the 
Ephesians,  '  in  your  midst  no  heresy  has  its 
dwelling.' 

7.  He  that  hath,  etc.]  cp.  Christ's  words, 
Mt  1 1 15,  etc.  The  Spirit]  John  was  under  the 
influence  of  the  Spirit  :  cp.  1 10.  Overcometh] 
i.e.  continuously.  The  Christian  life  is  a 
continual  fight  against  sin  and  tribulation,  and 
this  book's  purpose  is  to  give  heart  to  overcome. 

To  eat  of,  etc.]  i.e.  he  shall  have  eternal  life  : 
cp.  22  2  Grn29.  Paradise]  a  Persian  word  for 
'  garden,'  used  in  LXX  for  the  garden  of  Eden. 
The  later  Jews  employed  the  word  to  denote 
various  ideas  of  heavenly  blessedness :  cp. 
Lk2343  2  Cor  12*.  Here  it  is  equivalent  to  the 
New  Jerusalem  of  chs.  21  f. 

8-1 1.  To  the  Church  in  Smyrna  Christ 
speaks  as  the  Eternal,  who  tasted  death,  and 
whose  death  ended  in  life  (v.  8).     There  is  no 


blame  for  this  Church.  It  is  praised  for  its 
endurance  of  tribulation  and  poverty,  and  for 
its  spiritual  condition  (v.  9).  More  persecution 
is  to  be  expected,  which  may  be  borne  without 
fear.  After  death  for  Christ,  nothing  but  life 
will  follow  (vv.  lOf.). 

8.  Smyrna]  about  50  m.  N.  of  Ephesus,  was 
a  wealthy  port  and  the  most  splendid  city  in 
the  province  of  Asia.  In  26  a.d.  a  temple 
was  founded  there  in  honour  of  Tiberius. 
Polycarp,  its  bishop,  was  martyred  155  a.d., 
when  he  had  served  Christ  86  years.  Smyrna 
was  the  last  stronghold  of  Christianity  in  Asia 
Minor,  and  even  now  is  called  by  the  Turks 
'  Infidel  Smyrna '  (HDB.).  Is  alive]  RY  '  lived 
again.'  9.  Works,  and]  RV  omits.  Rich] 
i.e.  spiritually  :  cp.  Mt  6 1^  Jas  2  °.  Blasphemy] 
RM  '  calumny,'  i.e.  which  thou  sufferest. 

Say  they  are  Jews]  i.e.  they  are  Jews  in 
name  only  :  cp.  3^  Ro229.  The  Apostle  uses 
the  name  as  an  honom-able  one,  equivalent  to 
'  those  who  are  not  Gentiles,  but  are  the  people 
of  God.'  By  their  enmity  to  God's  will  and 
word,  these  men,  Jews  by  race,  had  forfeited 
their  position  of  privilege,  and  had  become  as 
bad  as  Gentiles.  It  is  implied  that  it  is  the 
Christian  Church  in  Smyrna  which  has  succeeded 
to  the  privilege  :  cp.  Ro2*8f.  Jews  joined  in 
the  martyrdom  of  Polycarp.  Synagogue]  i.e. 
congregation  :  cp.  Nu20*  31 1*5.  Of  Satan]  i.e. 
they  called  themselves  God's,  but  were  serving 
Satan. 

10.  Devil]  Persecution,  is  prompted  by  the 
devil  :  cp.  1217  134  1  Pet  5  8'.  Prison]  i.e.  as 
a  prelude  to  execution.  Tried]  cp.  Jas  13,12 
1  Pet  17  412.  Ten  days]  not  lit.;  the  perse- 
cution would  be  short  and  sharp.  Faithful] 
Ramsay  suggests  that  here,  as  in  each  letter, 
St.  John  refers  to  the  local  history  of  the  city. 
Smyrna  was  honoured  for  its  faithfulness  to 
Rome,  Cicero  calling  it  '  the  most  faithful  of 
our  allies.'  It  was  also  proud  of  its  '  Crown,' 
which  was  '  the  garland  of  splendid  buildings 
encircling  the  rounded  hill  Pagos.'  A  crown] 
RV  '  the  crown,'  i.e.  eternal  life  will  crown 
your  victorious  death.  11,  Second  death]  a 
Jewish  phrase  for  the  final  condemnation  of 
sinners  :  cp.  206,14  218  MtlOSS. 

12-17.  To  the  Church  in  Pergamum  Christ 
speaks  as  He  who  destroys  the  wicked  (v.  12). 
The  Church  is  praised  for  faithfulness  during 
a  time  when  Christians  might  be  called  upon 
to  deny  Christ  and  worship  the  emperor. 
One  of  the  Church,  at  least,  had  confessed 
Christ  at  the  cost  of  his  life  (v.  13).  Yet  even 
this  Church  was  corrupted  by  immoral  teach- 
ing (vv.  14f.),  and  must  repent,  for  a  corrupt 
Church  will  suffer  Christ's  judgment  (v.  16). 
Those  who  live  victoriouly  are  promised 
heavenly  food,  and  knowledge  of  Christ  in 
their  secret  souls  (v.  17). 

12.   Pergamos]  RV  '  Pergamum,'  about  50 


1074 


2.  13 


REVELATION 


2.27 


m.  N.  of  Smyrna.  Under  the  Roman  empire 
it  was  resorted  to  by  mvalids,  who  attended 
for  healing  at  the  temple  of  ^sculapius. 
Until  the  2nd  cent.  A.D.  it  was  regarded  as 
the  capital  of  the  province  of  Asia.  Under 
Augustus  a  temple  was  built  at  Pergamum, 
probably  29  B.C.,  and  dedicated  to  Rome  and 
Augustus,  and  Pergamum  became  the  centre  of 
the  imperial  worship  and  '  Satan's  throne.' 
'  It  has  continued  to  be  a  place  of  some  con- 
sequence, preserving  the  ancient  name  Ber- 
gama,  down  to  the  present  day '  (HDB.). 

Sword]  As  the  centre  of  the  worship  of  the 
emperor,  Pergamum  must  have  been  the  seat 
of  authority,  and  the  sword  was  the  symbol  of 
the  highest  order  of  authority.  The  message 
is  that  in  the  city  in  which  the  Roman  pro- 
consul has  the  power  of  life  and  death,  Christ 
has  power  and  authority  greater  than  his 
(Ramsay). 

13.  Satan]  i.e.  the  official  authority  oppos- 
ing the  Church.  Seat]  RV  '  throne,'  in  the 
temple  at  Pergamum.  Name]  Christians  had 
to  conform  to  the  State  religion  or  sufEer 
death.  Even  in  those,  etc.]  RY  '  even  in  the 
days  of  Antipas  my  witness,  my  faithful  one.' 

14.  Cp.Nu26if-  31 1«  Acl528  ICorS^MO 
Judev.  11.  14,  15.  Them]  RV'some.'  Doc- 
trine] RV  'teaching.'  15.  Nicolaitanes]  RV 
'  Nicolaitans  in  like  manner,'  i.e.  the  Nico- 
laitans  held  the  teaching  of  Balaam  :  see  on 
2<5.  Which  thing  I  hate]  RV  omits.  16.  Re- 
pent] RV  '  Repent  therefore,'  i.e.  by  casting 
out  the  Nicolaitans. 

17.  To  eat]  RV  omits.  Hidden  manna] 
cp.  Ex  16  33  Heb94.  Jewish  tradition  held 
that  the  ark  and  its  contents,  including  the 
pot  of  manna,  were  hidden  by  Jeremiah,  and 
that  they  would  be  restored  when  the  Messiah 
came.  This  tradition  is  used  here  to  symbolise 
the  bread  of  life:  cp.  Jn63if. 

White  stone]  Ramsay  explains  this  as  a 
'  tessera,'  i.e.  a  little  cube  of  stone,  ivory,  or 
other  substance,  with  words  or  symbols  en- 
graved on  one  or  more  faces.  Here  the  '  stone ' 
is  simply  to  bear  the  name,  and  the  stress 
of  the  passage  is  on  the  name.  It  is  a  stone, 
imperishable,  because  that  which  is  to  last  is 
put  on  imperishable  material  ;  and  it  is  white, 
as  the  fortunate  colour. 

New  name]  A  new  name  implied  entrance 
on  a  new  life:  cp.  the  new  name  given  in  bap- 
tism. So  by  this  '  new  name  '  is  meant  that 
the  victorious  Christian  will  enter  upon  a  new 
and  higher  stage  of  existence.  But  the  name 
is  also  the  secret  name  of  God  (cp.  312),  and 
it  was  anciently  supposed  that  the  knowledge 
of  the  name  of  God  gave  power  over  spirits. 
So  the  Christian,  triumphant  over  persecution, 
will  enter  into  life,  and  have  new  knowledge  of 
God  and  new  power. 

18-29.  To  the  Church  in  Thyatira  Christ 


speaks  in  His  majesty  as  Son  of  God  (v.  18). 
The  Church  is  praised  for  its  increase  in 
love  and  faith  and  the  service  of  others, 
and  its  patience  under  trials  (v.  19).  Yet  it 
harbours  corrupt  teaching  (v.  20),  and  those 
who  follow  such  teaching  without  repent- 
ance must  suffer  under  Christ's  chastening 
hand.  Every  member  of  the  Church  must 
be  judged  by  what  he  himself  does  (vv. 
2 If.).  But  he  who  wins  the  victory  over 
the  temptations  of  the  enemies  of  Christ,  will 
share  in  Christ's  glorious  reign  in  light 
(vv.  241). 

18.  Thyatira]  a  busy  commercial  city  in  the 
northern  part  of  Lydia,  between  Pergamum 
and  Sardis.     Fine]  RV  '  burnished.' 

19.  Charity]  RV  'love.'  Service]  RV 
'ministry,'   i.e.  towards    men:    cp.  Mkl0'*3f. 

And  thy  works;  and,  etc.]  RV '  and  that  thy 
last  works  are  more  than  the  first,'  i.e.  the 
Church  was  even  more  faithful  and  earnest 
than  at  the  time  when  it  was  founded  :  see 
on  V.  4f.  20.  Notwithstanding',  etc.]  RV  'But 
I  have  this  against  thee,  that.' 

Jezebel]  probably  so  called  because  she  led 
astray  Christians,  as  the  wife  of  Ahab  had  led 
astray  Israel.  She  seems  to  have  been  a 
prophetess,  who  taught  that  it  was  possible  to 
be  a  Chi'istian  while  remaining  in  ordinary 
pagan  society  and  belonging  to  the  social  clubs 
which  were  characteristic  of  pagan  life. 
These  were  idolatrous  and  luxurious,  celebrat- 
ing in  a  corporate  manner  the  pagan  religion 
and  joining  in  common  banquets  carried  out 
with  revelry.  This  '  Jezebel  '  sanctioned. 
The  minority  of  the  Church  who  were  against 
this  teaching,  yet  tolerated  '  Jezebel '  ('  suf- 
ferest '):  see  on  26.  (See  HDB.)  To  teach, 
etc.]  RV  '  and  she  teacheth  and  seduceth.' 

22.  Bed]  i.e.  the  couch  of  the  feasts,  now 
changed  into  a  couch  of  tribulation.  Adul- 
tery] i.e.  unfaithfulness  to  God.  23.  Death] 
RM  '  pestilence,'  Reins,  etc.]  i.e.  the  inner 
thoughts  and  desires  :  cp.  Ps7^  JerlY^*^. 

24.  And  unto  the  rest]  RV  '  to  the  rest.' 
Doctrine]    RV     '  teaching.'      Depths]    RV 

'deep  things.'  Speak]  RV'say';  i.e.  these 
misguided  Christians  called  their  philosophical 
arguments  '  deep  things  of  God  '  (cp.  1  Cor 
2 1'^),  but  they  were  really  '  deep  things  of 
Satan '  :  cp.  2  9.  None  other  burden]  pro- 
bably a  reference  to  the  letter  from  Jeru- 
salem:  cp.  Ac  152s.  The  directions  of  that 
letter  would  guide  them  in  the  difficulties  as 
to  their  relations  with  pagan  society. 

25.  That  which  ye  have]  i.e.  the  faithful- 
ness, etc.:  cp.  V.  19.  Hold  fast]  because  the 
Deliverer  is  near. 

26.  Power]  RV  'authority':  cp.  Ps28f. 
Christ's  disciples  will  share  in  His  kingdom: 
cp.  20*'*^  225.  27.  Rule,  etc.]  quotation  from 
Ps  2  9.     A  figurative  description  of  the  victory 


1075 


2.  28 


REVELATION 


3.  14 


of  the  Messiah  in  which  His  people  would 
share.  At  this  time  '  Rome  was  the  only  Power 
on  earth  that  exercised  authority  over  the 
nations,  and  ruled  them  with  a  rod  of  iron, 
and  smashed  them  like  potsherds  '  (Ramsay). 
But  the  Christian,  victorious  through  death, 
will  be  stronger  than  Rome  and  conquer 
Rome.  Received]  cp.  JnlO^s.  28.  Morning 
star]  i.e.  the  glory  of  Christ,  who  brings  in 
the  perfect  day :  cp.  1 16,20  22 16  Nu  24 17  2  Pet  1 19. 

CHAPTER  3 

The  Epistles  to  the  Seven  Churches 
(concluded) 
1-6.  To  the  Church  in  Sardis  Christ 
speaks  as  He  who  gives  the  spirit  and  looks 
for  spiritual  life.  There  is  no  praise  for  this 
Church.  Its  life  is  without  spiritual  reality 
(v.  1).  Yet,  even  now,  awakening  is  within 
its  power.  But  if  it  continue  to  sleep,  Christ 
will  come  in  sudden  judgment  (vv.  2f.).  A 
few  individuals  have  remained  faithful.  To 
them,  and  to  all  such,  Christ  promises  gladness 
and  life,  and  that  He  will  acknowledge  them 
as  His  (vv.  3f.). 

1.  Sardis]  about  35  m.  S.  of  Thyatira. 
When  there  was  a  kingdom  of  Lydia,  before 
549  B.C.,  Sardis  was  its  capital.  It  was  still 
an  important  city  at  the  time  of  the  Apocalypse, 
but  is  now  only  a  ruin.     Spirits]  cp.  1  *  RoS^. 

Name]  i.e.  its  Christianity  was  nominal. 

2.  Not  found  thy  works  perfect]  RV  '  found 
no  works  of  thine  fulfilled,'  i.e.  up  to  the 
proper  standard.  3.  Received]  i.e.  the  gospel  : 
cp.  1  Th  2 13.  Heard]  RV  '  didst  hear ' ;  Christ 
appeals  to  the  memory  of  their  conversion  : 
cp.  Gal  31'.     As  a  thief]  cp.  1 6 1^  Mt  24  « *. 

4.  Names]  i.e.  persons  :  cp.  Acli^.  Have 
not  defiled]  RV  '  did  not  defile,'  i.e.  at  some 
crisis  of  persecution,  when  most  yielded  :  cp. 
7 14.  Walk]  i.e.  spend  their  life.  White]  the 
colour  of  victory  :  cp.  vv.  5,  18,  6II  7  9. 

5.  The  same  shall  be  clothed]  RV  'shall 
thus  be  arrayed  '  ;  '  thus  '  =  '  as  I  am  "  :  cp. 
1 13  f  Book  of  life]  i.e.  the  number  of  Christ's 
people:  cp.  138  178  2012.15  Ex3232  Lkl020 
Phil  4  3. 

7-13.  To  the  Church  in  Philadelphia  Christ 
speaks  as  He  by  whom  alone  comes  entrance 
into  the  Church,  the  spiritual  house  of  God 
(v.  7).  The  Church  is  praised  for  its  faith- 
fulness in  persecution.  Its  own  power  is 
small,  but  Christ  is  with  it,  and  He  is  giving  it 
an  opportunity  for  the  conversion  of  some  of 
those  Jews  who  have  aided  the  persecutors 
(vv.  8  *■).  The  Church  shall  be  brought  safely 
out  of  the  coming  trial  (v.  10).  Christ  will 
quickly  come,  therefore  let  the  Church  endure 
a  little  longer  (v.  11).  Those  who  'over- 
come '  shall  have  an  honourable  place  in  the 
heavenly  sanctuary  and  a  joyful  knowledge  of 
Christ  (v.  12). 


7,  Philadelphia]  28  m.  SE.  from  Sardis,  a 
rather  rich  and  powerful  city.  '  It  had  the 
most  glorious  history  of  all  the  cities  of  Asia 
Minor  in  the  long  struggles  against  the  Turks ' 
(Ramsay).    It  is  still  to  a  large  extent  Christian. 

Key  of  David]  a  reference  to  Isa  22  22.  As 
authority  over  the  royal  house  was  conferred 
upon  Eliakim,  so  Christ  has  authority  in  the 
Church,  above  all  earthly  ministers,  and  it  is 
really  He  who  admits  or  excludes,  who  gives 
the  'open  door'  of  vv.  8f.  :  cp.  JnlO^  146. 

8.  An  open  door]  i.e.  the  Church  shall  win 
converts:  cp.  ICorlG^  2 Cor 2 12  Col 4 3,  per- 
haps from  the  persecuting  Jews  (cp.  v.  9),  and 
perhaps  also  from  the  Phrygian  land  on  the 
road  to  which  Philadelphia  lay.  Hast  not 
denied]  RV  '  didst  not  deny,'  i.e.  in  a  time  of 
persecution.     9.   I  vnll  make]  RV  '  I  give.' 

Synagogue]  see  on  2^.  Evidently,  here, 
Jews  proud  of  their  national  privileges,  and 
powerful  in  numbers  and  in  wealth.  No 
doubt  they  despised  the  Jewish  Christians  as 
traitors.     Loved  thee]  cp.  Isa  43  4. 

10.  The  v7ord,  etc.]  i.e.  the  message  which 
sets  forth  '  patience,'  i.e.  steadfast  endurance, 
as  part  of  Christ's  life  and  of  the  life  of  His 
people.  Temptation]  RV  '  trial ' :  a  general 
persecution  is  foretold,  but  the  Philadelphian 
Church  will  be  so  kept  that,  though  they  may 
suffer  in  outward  matters,  their  life  in  Christ 
will  be  unharmed  :  cp.  Lk21i8f-  (RV).  12.  A 
pillar]  i.e.  he  shall  have  a  permanent  place  in 
the  '  temple,'  i.e.  the  Church,  here  the  glori- 
fied Church  :  cp.  IK721  Gal 2 9  Eph220f.  iPot 
2  5.  Temple]  cp.  lCor3i6^  Named,  etc.]  i.e. 
he  shall  receive  the  full  knowledge  and  bless- 
ing of  belonging  to  God,  to  the  kingdom  of 
Glory  and  to  Christ :  cp.  217  1912-I6. 

New  name]  Ramsay  points  out  that  about 
17  A.D.  Philadelphia  had  taken  the  name 
'  Neokaisareia,'  that  is,  city  of  young  Caesar, 
and  disused  its  own.  No  doubt  at  the  same 
time  a  shrine  of  the  young  Caesar,  with  priest 
and  ritual,  was  established.  Thus  it  wrote  on 
itself  the  name  of  this  imperial  god,  and  called 
itself  the  city  of  the  imperial  god.  "With  this 
St.  John  contrasts  what  Christ  will  do  for  His 
own.  There  will  be  a  name  written  on  the 
victorious  Christian,  which  will  be  the  name 
of  God  and  the  name  of  the  '  Church,'  and  the 
new  name  of  Christ :  see  on  2 1^. 

14-22.  To  the  Church  in  Laodicea  Christ 
speaks  as  He  through  whom  alone  comes  true 
life  with  its  riches  and  blessings  (v.  14).  The 
Church  is  blamed  for  lukewarmness,  self-satis- 
faction and  worldliness  (vv.  15f.).  Instead  of 
trusting  in  itself  let  it  turn  to  Christ  for  the 
true  riches  (v.  18).  He  chastens  the  Church 
because  He  loves  it.  What  it  needs  is  zeal 
(v.  19).  Even  in  this  proud  Church  Christ 
humbly  knocks  at  the  door  of  each  heart,  and 
is  ready  to  enter  with  blessing  (v.  20).     Those 


1076 


3.  14    ' 


REVELATION 


6.  1 


who  share  Christ's  victory  over  the  world  shall 
share  Christ's  honour  (v.  21). 

14.  Laodicea]  SE.  of  Philadelphia  and  E. 
of  Ephesus.  Its  site  is  now  utterly  deserted. 
In  60  A.D.  Laodicea  was  destroyed  by  an 
earthquake,  but  did  not  accept  help  from  the 
emperor  for  the  rebuilding,  as  many  cities  did. 
It  was  a  great  banking  centre.  It  was  also 
famous  for  the  glossy  black  wool  of  its  sheep, 
and  did  a  large  trade  in  the  garments  made 
from  the  wool :  cp.  vv.  17  f.  An  article  called 
'Phrygian  powder,'  used  to  cure  weakness  of 
the  eyes,  may  be  alluded  to  in  v.  18.  A  bishop 
of  Laodicea  was  martyred  166  a.d. 

14.  Amen]  i.e.  Truth  (cp.  Isa65i<5  RM) ; 
He  is  the  Reality  behind  all  passing  things ; 
His  life  is  the  life  which  is  life  indeed ;  His 
promises  are  sure  ;  He  can  be  trusted  utterly. 

Witness]  see  on  1^.  The  beginning,  etc.] 
i.e.  He  who  is  the  source  of  all  life  :  cp.  Col 
lis.  15.  Cp.  Mt213i.  16.  An  allusion  to  the 
nauseating  effect  of  lukewarm  water.  17.  Cp. 
Hosl28  Mt23i2  Lkl52  Jas2\'.  18.  Buy]  cp. 
Isa55i.  Raiment]  R V  ' garments ' :  cp.  vv.  4f. 
Mt22ii^  Anoint ..  eyesalve]  RV  '  eyesalve 
to  anoint  thine  eyes.'  See]  cp.JnO^o*.  19.  Cp. 
Prov  3 12  Heb  1 2  6.  20.  Knock]  cp.  Song  5  2  Lk 
1236.  Hear]  cp.  Jn  104,28.  Come  in]  cp.  Jn 
1423.  Sup]  The  blessings  which  Christ  gives, 
both  here  and  hereafter,  are  often  spoken  of 
under  the  figure  of  a  feast:  cp.  19^  Mt25i 
Lk2229f.     With  him.  .  me]  cp.  JnlS*  172if. 

21.   Cp.  Jnl633  1724. 

CHAPTER  4 
The  Glory  of  God 

The  Church  has  been  encouraged  in  the 
midst  of  her  tribulation  and  temptation  by 
the  vision  of  the  presence  and  support  of 
Christ.  Now  (chs.  4,  5)  a  further  series  of 
visions  begins,  in  which  are  shown,  under 
figures,  the  forces  by  which  the  life  of  the 
Church  is  affected,  or,  in  other  words,  those 
who  are  for  her  and  those  who  are  against 
her.  She  is  shown  God  and  the  Lamb,  and 
she  is  shown  the  devil,  the  beast,  the  false 
prophet,  and  the  apostate  city.  Then  she  is 
shown  the  victory  of  Christ,  and  the  eternal 
defeat  of  the  powers  of  evil. 

In  c.  4,  for  the  comfort  of  the  Church,  the 
greatness  and  majesty  of  God  the  Father  is 
shown  in  language  adapted  from  Isa6  and 
Ezkl,  10.  He  is  portrayed,  on  His  heavenly 
throne,  sitting  '  above  the  water  floods,'  sur- 
rounded by  beings  representative  of  the 
angelic  creation  and  of  the  Church.  These 
beings  ceaselessly  watch  Him  to  do  His  will, 
and  worship  Him  as  Creator. 

We  are  not  to  understand  the  imagery  as 
literally  descriptive  of  heaven,  but  as  pic- 
torial symbols  of  spiritual  things :  see  on 
55-?. 


I.   First  voice]  i.e.  the  voice  of  l^o. 

3.  Jasper]  i.e.  according  to  some,  the  dia- 
mond ;  but  according  to  Flinders  Petrie  (HDB. 
'  Stones,  Precious '),  the  green  jasper  :  cp.  21  n. 
The  diamond  would  be  emblematic  of  God's 
purity,  the  green  jasper  of  His  mercy.  Sardine 
stone]  RV  '  sardius,'  i.e.  according  to  F.  P., 
red  jasper  ;  emblematic  of  God's  judgments. 

Rainbow]  the  sign  of  mercy  :  cp.  Ezk  1 27. 

Emerald]  F.  P.  thinks  the  word  translated 
'  emerald '  means  rock  crystal,  which  could 
show  a  rainbow  of  prismatic  colours.  4.  Seats] 
RV  '  thrones.'  Elders]  either  representative 
of  the  Church  of  both  dispensations  (OT.  and 
NT.)  ;  or,  as  some  think,  angelic  beings  :  cp. 
Isa 24 23  Collie.  5.  Lightnings,  etc.]  signify- 
ing awe-inspiring  majesty  and  power  :  cp.  Ex 
19  le.     Seven  Spirits]  see  on  1*. 

6.  There  vms  a  sea  of  glass]  RV  '  as  it 
were  a  glassy  sea,'  perhaps  representing  the 
waters  that  were  above  the  firmament,  '^tu  1  ">. 
Over  this  the  throne  of  God  is  looked  upon 
as  set  :  cp.  Ezkl 22.  In  the  midst  of,  etc.]  '.e. 
probably,  supporting  the  throne.  Beasts]  RV 
'  living  creatures  '  :  cp.  Ezk  1  5*-  ;  in  Ezk  101-20 
identified  with  the  '  cherubim.'  The  '  cheru- 
bim '  seem  to  have  been  emblematic  of  the 
forces  of  nature,  especially  of  the  storm- 
cloud  :  cp.  Gn  3  2*  ('  sword  '  perhaps  =  '  light- 
ning'),Ps  18 10.  '  To  the  Heb.  poet  the  cherubim  , 
are  not  only  the  attendants  of  Jehovah,  but  / 
the    bearers   and   upholders   of    His   throne. 

The  thunderclouds  are  the  dark  wings  of  these 
ministers   of  God:    cp.  2 K 19 is  Pss80i    991 
Isa37i''.  .  .    In    later    Jewish    theology   the      ' 
cherubim  take  their  place  among  the  highest  / 
angels  of   heaven '    (HDB.).      Full   of  eyes^ 
symbolising  their  unceasing  watchfulness  :  ''' 
Ezk  10 12.  [ 

7.  Beast]  RV  'creature.'  The  four  <;^' 
tures  were  anciently  taken  as  emblems  '/f  ® 
four  evangelists.  8.  Beasts]  RV  '  living 
creatures.'  Rest  not]  RV  '  have  no  rest '  ;  cp. 
'  watchers  '  as  title  of  angels,  Dan  4 13.  Holy, 
etc.]  see  on  1*  and  1^  Isa63.  9.  Those 
beasts]  RV  '  the  living  creatures.'  Give]  RV 
'  shall  give,' i.e.  whenever  they  give.  11.  Hast 
created]  RV  '  didst  create.'  For  thy  pleasure] 
RV  '  because  of  thy  will.'  Are]  RV  '  were,' 
i.e.  existed  '  in  His  idea  from  all  eternity  ; 
and  when  the  appointed  moment  came,  they 

ere  created '  (Milligan). 

CHAPTER  5 

The  Glory  of  the  Lamb 

The  Church  is  shown  that  Christ  is  on  her 

side.     He  has  overcome  by  suffering.     Now 

the  future  is  for  Him  and  His  people,  and  He 

is  worshipped  with  the  Father. 

1-4.  A  roU  of  a  book,  covered  with  writing 
on  both  sides,  signifying  the  full  contents  of 
God's  purposes  for  the  future  (cp.  Ezk  2  9^-), 


1077 


5.5 


REVELATION 


6.1 


'  close  sealed '  (RY)  with  seven  seals,  i.e. 
completely  hidden  from  the  knowledge  of 
angels  and  men,  rests  on  the  outstretched 
right  hand  of  '  Him  that  sitteth  on  the  throne,' 
signifying  that  God  offers  His  will  to  be  made 
known  and  His  purposes  to  be  worked  out 
(v.  1).  But  no  created  being  (RV  '  no  one  ') 
is  fit  to  receive  so  high  a  mission  (vv.  2f.),  and 
St.  John  weeps,  fearing  lest  the  promise  of 
41  should  fail  (v.  4). 

5-7.  St.  John  is  told  that  the  victory  which 
Christ  has  won  has  fitted  Him  to  take  and 
open  the  book.  Christ  in  His  royal  power 
and  strength  is  spoken  of  as  '  the  Lion  that 
is  of  the  tribe  of  Judah '  (RV),  a  reference 
to  Gn499,  which  was  interpreted  by  the  Jews 
of  the  Messiah  (cp.  HebT^^),  and  as  the 
'  Root  of  David,'  i.e.  the  stem  or  '  Branch ' 
coming  from  the  root  (cp.  2216  Isall^'io  Jer 
235  ZechS^),  another  accepted  designation  of 
the  "lessianic  King  (v.  5).  St.  John  looks 
for  the  Lion  and  sees  a  Lamb  (cp.  Jn  1 29, 36)^ 
'  standing,  as  though  it  had  been  slain  '  (RV), 
i.e.  recently  slaughtered  or  sacrificed.  The 
reference  is  to  Isa53,  and  the  meaning  is  that 
it  was  by  His  sacrifice  that  Christ  had  won 
His  victory.  By  the  Cross,  the  devil  and  the 
world  were  already  essentially  overcome  (cp. 
Jnl23if.  1611.33  C0I215);  and  God's  purposes 
for  man,  which  depended  on  the  Atonement 
of  Christ,  could  now  be  carried  out.  It  is 
implied  that  the  persecuted  saints,  for  whom 
this  was  written,  were  not  to  fear  tribulation, 
because  it  was  for  them  also  the  appointed 
means  by  which  they  should  '  overcome.'  The 
Lamb  has  seven  horns  and  seven  eyes,  signify- 
'ng  the  complete  power  and  searching  insight 
'  the  Spirit  by  which  He  rules  His  people 

1  ov»3rthrows  His  enemies  and  carries  out 
divine  purpose  (v.  6)  :  see  on  1*  ;  cp.  4^. § 
S210  Dan  7  7, 20  Zech39.      Then   the    Lamb 
takes  the  book  (v.  7). 

"We  are  not  to  understand  that  Christ  liter- 
ally has  the  form  of  a  Lamb.  The  figures  of 
a  Lamb,  and  of  horns  and  eyes,  were  familiar 
to  all  students  of  the  OT.,  and  the  truth  about 
Christ  was  expressed  to  St.  John's  mind  in 
vision  under  this  familiar  imagery,  just  as  it 
might  have  been  expressed  solely  by  words. 
If  figures  and  words  were  equally  expressive 
of  spiritual  realities,  either  might  be  em- 
ployed. 

5.  Prevailed]  RV  '  overcome.'  6.  In  the 
midst]  i.e.  in  front  of  the  throne.  Beasts] 
RV  '  living  creatures.' 

8-14.  The  Church,  in  her  praise  and  prayer, 
sings  the  glory  of  the  conquering  Lamb.  All 
angels  and  all  creation  join  their  chorus. 

8.  Vials]  RV  '  bowls '  ;  as  used  in  the 
Temple  for  incense.  Odours]  RV  '  incense  ' : 
cp.  83  Psl412.  Saints]  RV  'the  saints,'  i.e. 
the  true  people  of  God.    9.  Sung]  RV  '  sing.' 


1078 


New]  because  belonging  to  the  '  new ' 
state  of  Redemption  :  see  on  21^  ;  cp.  143. 

Hast  redeemed,  etc.]  RV  'didst  purchase 
unto  God  with  thy  blood  men  of  every  tribe, 
and  tongue,'  etc.  :  cp.  Ac  20  28.  10.  Kings] 
RV  '  a  kingdom '  :  see  on  1  ^.  Reign]  i.e. 
have  power  over  tribulation  and  sin  :  cp. 
Eph26  1  Pet  2  9.  12.  Sevenfold  praise  is 
rendered.  13.  The  chorus  of  praise  becomes 
universal.     Creature]   RV  '  created  thing.' 

CHAPTER  6 

The  Six  Seals 

The  afflicted  Church  has  been  reminded  in 
chs.  4  f .  that  God  is  over  all,  and  that  the  future 
is  committed  to  the  Lamb.  Now  (chs.  6-8 1) 
she  is  shown  that  future,  unrolling  to  its  ap- 
pointed end,  i.e.  the  judgment  of  the  enemies 
of  God  and  the  triumph  of  those  who  '  over- 
come.' The  Lamb  opens  the  seven  seals.  Ap- 
parently we  are  to  understand  that,  as  each 
seal  is  opened,  a  portion  of  that  which  is 
written  in  the  book  is  revealed  pictorially.  C.  7 
contains  an  episode  between  seals  six  and 
seven. 

The  first  six  seals.  The  key  to  this  vision 
is  the  prophecy  of  Christ  in  Mt  24  3-31.  In  that 
prophecy,  vv.  4-14  foretell  the  signs  preced- 
ing the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  vv.  15-28 
the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  and  vv.  29-31 
the  signs  which  will  precede  the  coming  of 
Christ.  There  is  the  same  threefold  division 
in  this  c,  but  in  place  of  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem  is  the  appeal  of  the  martyrs  to  God, 
while  the  whole  looks  forward  to  the  coming 
of  Christ. 

St.  John  had,  doubtless,  thought  long  on 
the  prophecy  recorded  for  us  in  Mt  24.  It  was 
a  natural  effect  of  his  memory  that  the  vision 
should  follow  the  lines  of  that  prophecy ;  and, 
at  the  same  time,  our  Lord  saw  fit  to  make 
further  use  of  the  thoughts  already  implanted 
in  the  Apostle's  mind.  The  working  of  the 
same  prophecy  appears  in  the  visions  of  the 
trumpets  and  the  bowls. 

1-8.  Four  riders  are  summoned,  each  by  the 
word  '  come  '  (RV  omits  '  and  see  ')  ;  cp.  Zech 
61'-,  where  the  horses  stand  for  the  four  winds, 
symbolising  the  divine  judgments  (v.  1). 

The  white  horse  and  the  crown  of  the  first 
rider  are  symbols  of  victory,  and  for  the  bow 
cp.  Ps454^  The  victorious  progress  of  the 
gospel  is  perhaps  represented  (cp.  Mt24i4),  or, 
as  many  think,  Christ:  cp.  19 n  (v.  2). 

The  second  and  third  riders  represent  war 
and  famine  respectively  (vv.  3-5).  A  '  penny  ' 
(cp.  Mtl82s  RM)  was  the  wages  of  a  labourer 
for  a  day's  work  (cp.  Mt202f-)  ;  the  '  measure  ' 
contained  two  pints.  Judgment  is  tempered 
with  mercy,  for  the  wheat  and  the  barley  are 
not  to  be  wholly  destroyed,  and  the  oil  and 
the  wine  are  to  be  uninjured  (v.  6). 


6.9 


REVELATION 


8.6 


Then  Death  and  Hell  (RV  '  Hades,'  i.e.  the 
'  underworld '  of  the  dead)  come  to  claim  a 
fourth  part,  i.e.  not  the  whole,  of  the  ungodly, 
by  God's  fom-  judgments  of  sword,  famine, 
death  (i.e.  pestilence),  and  wild  beasts :  cp. 
Ezkl42i  (v.  8). 

9-1 1.  "The  opening  of  the  fifth  seal  reveals 
that  the  death  of  the  martyrs  is  not  unregarded 
by  God.  As  they  sacrificed  their  lives,  they 
are  represented  as  having  been  offered  on  a 
heavenly  altar,  at  the  foot  of  which  their  blood 
(or  'souls,'  or  'lives':  cp.  Lvl7ii)  has  been 
poured  out:  cp.  Ex 29 12  (v.  9).  Their  blood 
is  said  to  call  out  upon  God,  as  Abel's  did  (cp. 
Gn4iO),  and  as  every  crime  does,  for  punish- 
ment (v.  10).  God  is  not  unheeding,  but  the 
final  judgment  must  wait  till  the  number  of 
the  martyrs  is  fulfilled.  Meanwhile  these, 
having  overcome  (cp.  S**-),  are  given  robes  of 
victory  (v.  11). 

10.  Lord]  RV  '  Master.' 
12-17.  At  the  opening  of  the  sixth  seal  the 
day  of  the  wrath  of  God  and  of  the  Lamb  is 
impending.  The  description  is  founded  on  the 
words  of  Christ :  cp.  Mt2429f.  The  prophets 
had  expressed  the  awfulness  of  the  '  day  of  the 
Lord,'  by  associating  it  with  terrible  catastro- 
phes, and  these  are   heaped  together  in  this 


cp.  Ro  2  28  f .  The  tribe  of  Dan  is  not  mentioned, 
perhaps  because  of  a  Jewish  tradition  that 
Antichrist  was  to  come  from  that  tribe. 

9-17.  St.  John  sees,  in  another  vision,  how 
the  saints,  the  '  144,000,'  are  preserved.  They 
may  not  be  delivered /Vom  death,  but  they  will 
be  delivered  hy  death:  cp.  Lk21i''*.  Robes 
and  palms  of  victory  (vv.  9f.)  are  for  those 
who  '  overcome,'  and  they  are  enabled  to  over- 
come by  the  '  blood,'  i.e.  by  the  communicated 
power  of  the  sacrificed  life  of  the  Lamb  :  cp. 
1211  (v.  14).  Their  blessed  state  is  pictured  in 
sweet  imagery  drawn  from  the  OT.  (vv.  15-17). 

10.  Salvation]  i.e.  victory  :  cp.  Ps3^RM. 

11.  Beasts]  RV  '  living  creatures.' 

12.  Sevenfold  praise.  14.  Sir]  RV  'My 
lord.'  Great]  RV  '  the  great.'  Washed]  cp. 
2214RV.  15.  Dwell  among]  RV  '  spread  his 
tabernacle  over':cp.  LvlG'^  26ii  EzklO^'- 
372V.  16.  Cp.  Isa49io.  17.  Feed]  RV  '  be 
their  shepherd ' :  cp.  Ps  23 1  ^ •  Ezk  34  23.  Living 
fountains  of  waters]  RV  '  fountains  of  water^ 
of  life':  cp.  216  221.17  Jer2i3Jn4iO  737 

Wipe  away]  cp.  Isa258. 

CHAPTER   8 
The  Seventh  Seal.     The  Four  Trumpets 
I.   The    seventh    seal   is    opened.     Heaven 


passage  to  create  a  picture  of  fear  and  ruin,     waits  in  hushed  awe  for  a  brief  period. 


The  details  are  not  to  be  literally  understood  : 
cp.  Isa2iof-  344  503  Jer424  Am89  Nahl^f- 
Hag  2  6  f.  Lk2330Hebl226. 

The  picture  seems  to  be,  as  it  were,  fore- 
shortened to  the  Apostle,  so  that  he  is  not  able 
to  see  the  length  of  the  interval  which  separ- 
ates the  Fall  of  Jerusalem  from  the  conquest 
of  the  empire  by  Christianity,  nor  of  the  in- 


8  2-1 1 19.  The  Seven  Trumpets. 

2.  The  seven  angels,  regarded  in  later  Jew- 
ish belief  as  having  a  special  position  in  God's 
presence  (cp.  Tob  12 1^  Lk  1 19),  are  given  seven 
trumpets,  symbols  of  judgment:  cp.  Mt243i 
1  Cor  1552  1  Th4i6.  It  is  best  to  understand 
the  vision  of  the  trumpets  as  being  the  contents 
of  the  seventh  seal.     This  appears  from  tb 


terval  which  separates  that  conquest  from  the     character  of  the  events  belongmg  to  the  & 


Day  of  Judgment.     So  throughout  the  book, 
yet  see  the  '  thousand  years '  of  c.  20. 
17.  His]  RV  '  their.' 

CHAPTER  7 

The  Redeemed 

Two  visions  interposed  between  the  sixth 

and  seventh  seals.    There  are  similar  episodes 

between  the  sixth  and  seventh  trumpets  and 

bowls.  .      1      ,    i.u 

1-3.  Four  angels  are  holding  m  check  the 
four  winds  of  God's  judgments  (v.  \\  and  are 
ordered  not  to  release  them  until  God's  serv- 
ants are  sealed,  i.e.  marked  as  His  :  cp.  EzkQ* 
Ephli3  430  2  Tim  2 19  (vv.  2f.).  These  four 
winds  may  be  the  horsemen  of  6 1  *.  The  mean- 
ing is,  that  Christians  need  not  fear  the  judg- 
ments of  c.  6.  Not  a  hair  of  their  head  shall 
perish  (Lk  2 118). 

4-8.  The  complete  number  of  God's  people 
(see  on  2115*-),  and  that  a  large  one  (144,000 
is  the  square  of  12  a  thousandfold),  is  being 
gathered  together  for  everlasting  safety.  The 
Church  of  Christ  is  spoken  of  in  OT.  language  : 


four  trumpets,  which  spring  from  the  th.. 
division  of  Christ's  prophecy  (Mt2429f.  Lk 
2l25f.)^  and  are  parallel  with  the  sixth  se?!  : 
see  on  c.  6.  Therefore  the  trumpets  repre- 
sent the  judgments  on  the  heathen  world, 
especially  on  the  Roman  empire,  to  come  after 
the  Fall  of  Jerusalem.  It  will  be  noticed  that 
the  arrangement  of  the  trumpets  is  parallel  to 
that  of  the  seals,  and  that  there  is  an  episode 
of  two  visions  between  the  sixth  and  seventh 
trumpets  as  there  was  between  the  sixth  and 
seventh  seals 

3-5.  The  incense  of  the  prayer  of  heaven 
is  joined  to  the  Church's  prayer  that  Christ 
will  not  tarry,  cp.  6 10  Ro826  (vv.  3f.),  and,  in 
answer,  the  fire  of  God's  judgment  is  cast  on 
the  earth,  cp.  Ezkl0  2  (v.  5),  after  which  the 
sounding  of  the  trumpets  begins. 

3.  Offer  it  with]  RV  '  add  it  unto.' 

4.  Which  came]  RV  omits.  5.  Were]  RV 
'  followed.' 

6-13.  The  first  four  trumpets  announce 
convulsions  of  nature,  affecting  earth,  sea, 
rivers  and  the  heavenly  bodies.     The  language 


1079 


8.  7 


REVELATION 


10. 


is  in  part  borrowed  from  the  narrative  of  the 
plagues  of  Egypt,  but  the  whole  fourfold  vision 
looks  like  the  picture  of  a  volcanic  eruption. 
Destruction  comes  upon  one-third  only,  i.e. 
the  mercy  is  greater  than  the  judgment.  The 
details  are  not  to  be  pressed.  The  general 
idea  is  that  the  convulsions  of  nature  are  the 
shadow  cast  before  by  the  approach  of  the 
terrible  day  of  Christ  (vv.  6-12). 

After  the  fourth  trumpet,  an  eagle  (not 
'  angel,'  as  AV),  whose  swoop  upon  the  prey 
is  another  symbol  of  judgment  (cp.  HosS^ 
Mt2428),  announces  three  woes  upon  the  un- 
godly (v.  1 3).  Each  of  the  last  three  trumpets 
heralds  one  of  these  woes. 

7.  Hail  and  fire  mingled,  etc.]  RY  '  hail  and 
fire,  mingled,'  etc.  Upon  the  earth]  RV  adds, 
'  and  the  third  part  of  the  earth  was  burnt  up.' 

10.  As  it  were  a  lamp]  RV  '  as  a  torch.' 

13.  Angel]  RV  '  eagle.' 

CHAPTER   9 
The  Fifth  and  Sixth  Trumpets 

These  herald  woes  upon  the  ungodly  and 
idolatrous,  inflicted  both  by  demonic  and  by 
human  agency. 

1-12.  The  fifth  trumpet  initiates  the  first 
of  the  three  woes.  A  star  fallen  to  the  earth, 
i.e.  an  angel  who  has  descended  from  heaven 
(cp.  1  -%  not  necessarily  an  evil  angel  (v.  1), 
opens  the  pit  of  the  abyss.  The  '  abyss '  is 
the  abode  of  evil  spirits  or  demons,  and  the 
'  pit '  is  the  shaft  which  was  supposed  to 
lead  to  it.  St.  John  uses  this  Jewish  idea, 
which  may  have  been  derived  from  volcanoes, 
as  a  figure  of  spiritual  things.  At  the  open- 
ing of  the  pit  smoke  pours  forth  (v.  2),  and 
from  the  smoke  issue  evil  spirits  with  the  ap- 
pearance of  locusts  (V.  3).  They  are  not  to 
hurt  green  things,  for  they  are  not  really 
locusts  ;  but,  besides  being  like  locusts  in  their 
numbers  and  their  devastating  power,  they 
are  to  be  like  scorpions  in  that  they  give  pain 
to  men,  but  only  for  a  limited  period — a 
visitation  of  locusts  was  usually  limited  to 
five  months,  from  May  to  September.  They 
are  to  afilict  those  who  are  not  sealed  :  see  on 
71'-  (v.  4f.).  The  description  of  the  locusts 
is  partly  taken  from  Joel  1  ^  2 1  *.  No  special 
significance  need  be  sought  in  the  details, 
which  probably  are  only  meant  to  increase  the 
vivid  terror  of  the  picture  (vv.  7*-)-  Unlike 
the  locusts  of  Prov  30^7  they  have  a  king, 
Abaddon  or  Apollyon,  i.e.  'Destroyer'  (cp. 
Job 260  RV  Proviso  RV)  :  names  which  at 
first  signified  the  place  of  the  lost,  and  after- 
wards, as  here,  the  ruler  of  the  hosts  of  evil 
(v.  11).  This  vision  may  be  regarded  as  a 
picture  of  the  mental  and  spiritual  misery 
which  follows  sin.  It  is  a  contrast  to  the  fifth 
seal  ;  cp.  v.  6,  '  seek  death  and  in  no  wise  find 
it;  with  6",  'rest ':  cp.  Isa4822. 


I.  Fall  from  heaven  ]  RV  '  from  heaven 
fallen.'  i,  2.  Bottomless  pit]  RV  '  pit  of  the 
abyss.'     9.  RV  inserts  a  comma  after  chariots. 

10.  And  there  were  stings,  etc.]  RV  '  and 
stings  ;  and  in  their  tails  is  their  power  to 
hurt  men  five  months.'  11,  RV  '  They  have 
over  them  as  king  the  angel  of  the  abyss,'  etc. 

13-21.  The  sixth  trumpet  sounds,  and  a 
voice  from  the  altar  answers  the  prayers  of 
the  martyrs  crying  for  vengeance,  cp.  69*-  8 3 
(v.  13),  by  commanding  the  four  angels,  bound 
at  the  Euphrates,  to  be  loosed  (v.  14).  Im- 
mense armies  of  horsemen  issue  forth,  and 
kill  the  third  part,  i.e.  a  large  number,  but  not 
the  whole,  of  the  ungodly  :  cp.  vv.  20  f.  The 
Euphrates  is  the  river  of  Babylon,  and  Baby- 
lon in  this  book  represents  Rome.  Perhaps, 
therefore,  this  vision  speaks  of  devastation 
caused  by  Roman  armies,  possibly  in  the 
civil  wars  that  followed  the  death  of   Nero. 

In  the  '  four  angels  bound,'  St.  John  uses 
a  familiar  Jewish  apocalyptic  idea.  Each 
country  was  supposed  to  have  its  angel  or 
angels  (cp.  Danl0i3,20)^  'Prince  of  Persia,' 
'  Prince  of  Greece,'  and  see  on  1  20.  The  four 
angels  would  be  the  invisible  representatives 
of  the  hosts  of  '  Babylon,'  i.e.  Rome,  and 
their  '  binding '  or  '  loosing  '  would  represent 
the  spiritual  cause  of  the  restraint  or  letting 
loose  of  the  armies.  The  angels  were  held  in 
leash  until  the  exact  moment  foreordained  by 
God  (v.  15).  As  with  the  locusts,  the  details 
of  the  description  probably  have  no  special 
meaning. 

14.  In]  RV  '  at.'  15.  Were  prepared]  RV 
'  had  been  prepared.'  An  hour,  etc.]  RV  '  the 
hour  and  day  and  month  and  year.' 

17.  Jacinth]  RV  '  hyacinth,'  i.e.  smoky  blue. 

20.  Works  of  their  hands]  i.e.  idols  :  cp, 
Psll64Isal78Dan53f. 

CHAPTER  10 
The  Little  Book 

Between  the  sixth  and  seventh  trumpets, 
as  between  the  sixth  and  seventh  seals,  is  an 
episode  consisting  of  two  visions.  The  first 
vision  is  related  in  this  c. 

Another  mighty  angel  (cp.  5  2),  depicted  as 
clothed  with  God's  power  and  mercy,  which  he 
is  commissioned  to  minister,  comes  from  heaven 
(v.  1),  holding  a  little  book  open  in  his  hand. 
The  book  is  different  from  that  of  c.  5,  and  con- 
tains a  special  revelation  for  St.  John  to  make  : 
cp.  V.  11  (v.  2).  Seven  thunders  utter  their 
voices,  apparently  signifying  that  there  will  be 
a  cycle  of  judgments  not  included  in  the  seals, 
trumpets,  and  bowls  (v.  3),  but  these  St.  John 
is  forbidden  by  the  herald  angel  (cp.  1  lO)  to 
record  :  cp.  Dan  12  4  (v.  4).  The  angel  of  v.  1 
(v.  5)  now  declares  (cp.Dan  \2")  that  the  '  little 
time  '  of  6 11  shall  be  brought  to  an  end  (v.  6) 
in  the  days  of  the  seventh  trumpet,  when  God's 


1080 


10.  3 


REVELATION 


12. 


eternal  purpose  of  salvation,  the  revelation  of 
which  had  gladdened  the  prophets  of  both 
dispensations  (cp.  Dan  9  ^'  lo  Zech  1  ^  Ro  1 1), 
shall  be  fulfilled  (v.  7).  At  the  command  of 
the  herald-angel,  St.  .John  takes  the  book  (v.  8), 
and  eats  it.  It  is  sweet  in  his  mouth,  but 
bitter  in  his  belly  (cp.  Psll9i03  Ezk28f.  31*-). 
signifying  that  it  is  sweet  to  him  to  receive 
God's  revelation,  but  that  its  wrath  and  judg- 
ment fill  him  with  sorrow  (vv.  9^-).  The  two 
angels  bid  him  announce  the  contents  of  this 
new  revelation,  which  are,  probably,  to  be 
found  in  chs.  12f-  (v.  11). 

3.  Seven]  RV  '  the  seven.'  7.  Shall  begin] 
RV  'is  about.'  Mystery]  cp.  Rol625f.  As 
he  hath  declared]  RV  '  according  to  the  good 
tidings  which  he  declared.' 

CHAPTER  11 

The  Two  Witnesses.  The  Seventh 
Trumpet 

1-14.  Second  episode.  There  is  much  dif- 
ference of  opinion  as  to  the  meaning  of  this 
vision.  Perhaps  the  key  may  be  found  in  the 
parallelism  of  the  book.  There  were  two 
episodical  visions  after  the  sixth  seal  (see  on 
c.  7),  the  first  signifying  that  Christ's  people 
were  separated  and  preserved  from  God's 
judgments,  the  second  that  they  were  pre- 
served not  from  but  through  death.  The  same 
meaning  may  be  found  here. 

I,  2.  The  sanctuary  and  altar  of  Jerusalem, 
with  the  worshippers,  are  to  be  measured,  i.e. 
with  a  view  to  preservation  :  cp.  2S82Ezk 
40  3  f.  (v.  1).  But  the  court  of  the  Gentiles 
has  been  given  over,  with  the  rest  of  the  city,  to 
the  nations  (v.  2).  This  is  plainly  a  reference 
to,  or  prophecy  of,  the  siege  and  capture  of  Jeru- 
salem, 70  A.D.,  as  foretold  by  Christ  :  cp.  Lk 
21 2"^.  But  it  is  to  be  interpreted  symbolically. 
The  temple,  altar,  and  worshippers  signify  the 
Christian  Church  and  its  worship  (cp.  1  Cor 
3^^),  which  have  arisen  in  the  midst  of  Juda- 
ism, and  which  are  to  be  preserved,  although 
Judaism  is  doomed.  The  time  named,  42 
months,  i.e.  3|  years  (v.  2),  the  half  of  seven 
the  holy  number,  is  not  to  be  understood  liter- 
ally. It  was  the  duration  of  the  persecution 
of  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  and  signifies  a  period, 
of  whatever  extent,  in  which  evil  had  power  : 
cp.  V.  3,  126  135Dan726  127. 

3-14.  But  the  people  of  Christ,  although 
to  be  preserved,  will  be  preserved  through 
death.  They  are  represented  now  under  the 
figure  of  two  '  witnesses '  (cp.  Ac  1  ^),  pro- 
phesying during  the  period  of  evil  (v.  3). 
They  are  compared  to  the  olive  trees  and 
candlesticks  (Zerubbabel  and  Joshua)  of  Zech 
4,  because  they  give  forth  the  light  of  the 
truth  of  Christ  and  are  fed  with  the  oil  of 
divine  grace  (v.  4).  They  are  also  compared, 
in  language  which  is  meant  to  assure  them  of 


God's  special  favour  and  protection,  to  Elijah 
and  Moses  (vv.  5*).  Yet  God's  favour  will 
be  shown  in  preserving  them  not  from  but 
through  death.  The  '  beast,'  i.e.  the  Roman 
power  (cp.  131  note,  17^)  will  persecute  them 
to  the  death  (v.  7).  There  is,  perhaps,  an 
allusion  to  the  death  of  two  godly  men  in 
Jerusalem,  of  whom  James,  the  Lord's  brother, 
may  have  been  one.  As  their  dead  bodies 
were  treated  with  dishonour  by  the  Jews,  so, 
too,  will  the  heathen  dishonour  the  martyred 
Christians.  But  in  all  this  they  are  identified 
with  Christ  (vv.  8^-),  and  will  shaxe  His  life  with 
God  (vv.  1 1  f-).  In  the  judgment  which  falls 
upon  the  wicked  world,  of  which  Jerusalem, 
now  that  the  Christian  Church  has  been  separ- 
ated from  her  (  vv.  1^-),  has  become  a  figure 
('Sodom,'  'Egypt,' '  great  city ,' v.  8 ;  seeonl48), 
many  are  converted  :  cp.  Ac  2  23  37 f,  (yy  13*-). 

1.  The  angel  stood,  saying]  RV  'one  said.' 

2.  Out]  RV' without.'  3.  RV  And  I  will 
give  unto  my  two  witnesses,  and  they  sh?' 
prophesy' — a  Hebraism  for  'cause  the-., 
prophesy.'  5f.  Cp.  Ex7i9  lK17if-  2Kli^> 
Lk425.  5.  Will .  .  will]  RV  '  desireth  to  . . 
shall  desire  to.'  7.  Bottomless  pit]  R V '  abyss ' : 
see  on  92.  Cp.  Dan  7  3, 7  f.  21.  8.  Our]  RV 
'  their.'  9.  RV  'And  from  among  the  peoples 
and  tribes  and  tongues  and  nations  do  men 
look  upon  their  dead  bodies  .  .  and  suffer  not,' 
etc.     10.  They  .  .  earth]  i.e.  the  ungodly. 

II.  The  Spirit]  RV  'the  breath'  :  cp.  Ezk 
375,10  12.  A  great  voice]  i.e.  God's:  cp. 
2K211.     13.   Earthquake]  see  on  6 12. 

15-19.  The  seventh  trumpet  sounds.  This 
will  bring  about  the  consummation  (cp.  10"), 
and  therefore  the  rest  of  the  book  is  deve' 
oped  out  of  it.  Instead  of  a  silence  in  heav 
such  as  that  which  followed  the  openir.g 
the  seventh  seal,  St.  John  hears  a  heavenly 
chorus  anticipating  and  celebrating  the  victory 
of  the  Kingdom  which  the  seventh  trumpet  is 
to  bring,  and  which  is  related  in  chs.  12-20 
(vv.  15-18).  Now  is  opened  the  temple  of 
God  in  heaven,  and  in  it  is  seen  the  ark  of  the 
covenant  of  mercy,  and  from  it  proceed  light- 
nings and  thunderings  of  judgment  (cp.  8^ 
1618,  'seals'  and  'bowls')  (v.  15).  Of  this 
mercy  and  judgment  the  following  chs.  nar- 
rate the  exercise. 

15.  Kingdoms  of  this  v^orld]  RV  kingdom 
of  the  world':  cp.  Ps2  2.  16.  Seats]  RV 
'  thrones.'  17.  And  wast,  and  art  to  come] 
RV  '  and  which  wast.'     To  thee]  RV  omits. 

Hast  reigned]  RV  '  didst  reign.' 

18.  Angry]  RV  'wroth.'  Is  come]  RV 
'came.'     19.  Testament]  RV  '  covenant.' 

CHAPTER    12 

The  Woman  and  the  Man-Child. 
The  Dragon 
The    persecution   which   the    Church   had 


1081 


12.  1 


REVELATION 


13. 


already  suffered,  and  which  was  about  to 
burst  forth  again,  is  the  great  fact  which  un- 
derlies the  whole  '  Revelation.'  The  suffer- 
ings of  the  Church  and  its  members  have  been 
referred  to  again  and  again,  particularly  in 
1 1 1-13.  In  the  '  seals  '  and  the  '  trumpets  ' 
the  Church  has  been  assured,  in  a  broad  and 
general  manner,  that  G-od's  judgments  will 
fall  upon  the  world  of  wickedness,  and  that 
the  ungodly  will  bow  before  the  power  of 
the  Lamb.  In  the  remainder  of  the  book 
(chs.  12-22),  the  victory  of  Christ  and  His 
Church  is  foretold  in  more  definite  detail. 
The  great  enemies  of  Christ  are  brought  for- 
ward, under  the  personifications  of  the  Dragon 
(c.  12),  the  two  Beasts  (chs.  13*-),  and  the 
harlot  City  (c.  17).  Then  we  are  shown 
Christ's  battle  against  them,  and  the  complete 
overthrow  both  of  them  and  of  all  evil  (chs. 
18-20),  after  which  the  book  ends  with  the 
glorious   and   everlasting  blessedness  of   the 

w  Jerusalem  (chs.  21^-). 

^nc  first  great  enemy  of  Christ's  Church, 
the  cause  of  all  the  hostility  against  her,  is 
Satan.  Christ  suffered  his  enmity,  but  passed 
through  it  triumphantly  (vv.  1-6).  Satan  is 
already  conquered  in  principle  (vv.  7-9), 
though  for  a  short  time  the  Christian  Church 
experiences  his  malignity  (vv.  10-17). 

1-6.  The  Church,  of  both  the  OT.  and  NT. 
CO  enants,  is  shown  under  the  figure  of  a 
woman,  clothed  with  heavenly  glory  (v.  1) 
from  whom  the  Messiah  is  about  to  come  :  cp. 
Isa66i9  Mic4io.  She  is  opposed  by  the  devil 
(v.  9),  pictured  as  a  dragon,  red  with  the  blood 
of  the  saints:  cp.  17 3*-  (v.  3).  His  seven 
^-^ads  and  ten  horns  (cp.  D&nT^)  represent  the 
aan  emperors  through  whom  he  exercised 

power.  The  seven  crowned  heads  perhaps 
xgnify  the  seven  emperors,  from  Augustus  to 
Titus,  who  had  really  reigned.  The  ten  horns 
may  stand  for  the  same  emperors  with  the 
addition  of  Galba,  Otho,  and  Vitellius  :  cp. 
131  i7iOf.  (see  C.  A.  Scott,  'Century  Bible  : 
Revelation,'  p.  53).  The  dragon  waits  to 
attack  the  Messiah  (v.  4),  but  when  He  is  born 
(cp.  Ps28f-),  the  dragon  has  no  power  over 
Him,  and  He  is  exalted  to  God's  throne  :  cp. 
Phil  2  9  (v.  5).  The  Church  escapes  from  the 
dragon,  as  the  Church  of  Israel  escaped  from 
Pharaoh  into  the  wilderness,  to  be  kept  during 
a  time  of  trouble  :  see  on  1 1 2  (v.  6).  The 
reference  here  may  be  to  seasons  of  rest  which 
the  Palestinian  Church  experienced  during  the 
troubles  which  ended  in  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem  (cp.  Ac  9^1),  and  to  the  escape  of 
the  Christians  of  Jerusalem  to  Pella  before 
the  siege  :  cp.  Mt24i6. 

I,  3.  Wonder]  RV  'sign.'  3.  Crowns]  RY 
'diadems,'  i.e.  kingly  crowns.  4.  Tail,  etc.] 
i.e.  he  was  huge  and  mighty  :  cp.  Dan  8^0. 

6.  Feed]  RV  '  nourish.' 


7-9.  The  Christians  for  whom  St.  John 
wrote  were  beginning  to  experience  perse- 
cution :  cp.  2  3, 10  f.  13  3  4  note,  10.  Yet  their 
victory  is  assured.  This  is  symbolically  ex- 
pressed under  the  figure  of  a  war  in  heaven 
between  good  and  evil  angels  (v.  7)  in  which 
Satan  and  his  host  are  conquered  and  cast 
down  from  heaven  (vv.  8*-).  The  figure  is 
derived  from  Jewish  apocalyptic  ideas,  but  the 
meaning  for  Christians  is  that  in  the  Death 
and  Resurrection  and  Ascension  of  Christ, 
Satan  was  already  essentially  conquered  :  cp. 
Jnl23if.  1633. 

7.  Michael]  one  of  the  four  archangels  :  cp. 
Dan  1013  121  Jude  v.  9.     9.   Out]  RV  'down.' 

Serpent]  cp.  Gn3i.  Satan]  i.e. 'adversary' 
(Heb.),  or  'devil'  {diabolos,  Gk.)  :  cp.  Job  16 
Ps  1 09  6  Zech  3 1  ^ .     Deceiveth]  cp.  Jn  8  ^4. 

10-12.  Satan  being  already  potentially  con- 
quered, heaven  celebrates  in  anticipation  the 
victory  which  the  persecuted  saints  will  win 
because  Christ  died  for  them  and  gives  them 
strength  to  die. 

ID.  Accused]  cp.  ITimS^f.  11.  By]  RV 
'because  of  (twice).  Word  of,  etc.]  i.e.  the 
word  of  Christ  to  which  they  testify. 

13-17.  The  devil  is  not  able  to  hurt  a  section 
of  the  Church,  perhaps  the  Palestinian  Church 
at  Pella  is  meant,  for  God  protects  her.  God's 
protection  is  described  in  terms  of  the  deliver- 
ance of  the  exodus,  when  Israel  was  borne  by 
God  on  eagles'  wings,  cp.  Exl94  (v.  14),  and 
escaped  from  Pharaoh  into  the  wilderness, 
passing  safely  through  the  Red  Sea  ('  water  as 
a  river,'  vv.  15*-).  This  being  so,  Satan  turns 
against  the  Church  in  Gentile  lands  (v.  17). 

In  this  c.  St.  John  used  figures  which  were 
frequently  employed  in  Jewish  apocalypses. 
These  may  have  been  derived  originally  from 
the  ancient  myth  of  the  fight  between  the  sun 
and  darkness.  Whatever  was  their  original 
meaning,  here  they  are  symbolical  of  Christian 
truth  :  cp.  note,  c.  6,  on  St.  John's  use  of  the 
prophecy  in  Mt24. 

15.  Flood  .  .  flood]  RV  '  river  .  .  stream.' 

16.  Flood]  RV  'river.'  17.  Was]  RV 
'  waxed.'    Seed]  cp.  Gal  4  26.    Have]  RV  '  hold.' 

CHAPTER  13 
The  Two  Beasts 

Personification  of  the  two  powers  inspired 
by  the  devil  to  persecute  the  Church. 

i-io.  The  dragon  stands  by  the  sea  (i.e.  the 
^gean  Sea),  from  which  there  rises  to  maet 
him  a  '  beast,'  i.e.  something  inhuman  :  signi- 
fying the  Roman  empire,  which  came  to  the 
Province  of  Asia,  in  which  were  the  Churches 
addressed  in  Rev.,  from  the  sea.  The  beast 
has  ten  horns  and  seven  heads  :  cp.  Dan  7. 
On  the  horns  are  diadems  and  on  the  heads 
'  names  of  blasphemy,'  i.e.  blasphemous  titles  : 
cp.  173.     The  ten  horns  (see  on  123)  are  the 


1082 


13.  1 


^1 


ten  emperors  froy  ugustus  to  T". 
seven   horns  are   tLgg   ^„  "^  ''O  -iitus      yu 
reigned  long  enoug^r  -^^^^l'  *en   w^o  iad 
them,  I.e.  omitting  Qu     ^  ,?"^P  to  be  oaiVJ  + 
The  .  name,  ■  were^t^^O^ho,  and  ViS^l" 
'  Sebastos,  i.e.     revei^^^  /'   ^ugustus  '  or 
emperors  were  worsh"^^,'    ^Qder  which  ih 
note  (v.  1).  ""^  '■    cp.  vv.  jgf.  ^^J 

'  The  emperor  repres  _, 
wisdom,  and  the   benefic      "^  majesty  th 
he  was  in  many  cases  ac^^^^r  of  JJorne 
different  parts  of  the  em}.^  ^^P^esented  i 
of   the   god   worshipped  '  ^^  ""^^carnatio 
Domitian  . .  delighted  .  .  to  ^^^^    district 
Divine  Providence  in  humj^^ised  as   tb  ' 
recorded  that  Caligula,  DonSp  ;  and  it  j 
tian  were  the  three  empero^nd  Djocjg. 
to  be  styled  <7o//iiM«s  et  deus'  (\  ^^Ughterl 
in  Rom.  Empire,'  pp.  191,  275;,.    h   ■  ,^ 

The  monster  combines  the  poT^'^ 
four   beasts  in   Dan  7    (v.   2).     One  c  \^ 
smitten  unto  death,  but  th^   death    ad 
healed.      This  head  probably  ■■en- ^tr^ve  \ 
(54-68  A.D.),  of  whom  popular  i     s^V^  £ler<^^ 
he  was  not  dead,  or  that  if   de.  ^o*^  >^ 
return  to  life  (Tacitus,  '  Hist.'  ii.  8       ,^i 
'Nero,'  57):  cp.  17 s^     The  word'"^^  ^.i 
wounded,    RV    '  smitten,'    is   that   17^'J^ 
'  slain,'  of  the  Lamb,  5^.     It  is   im 
Nero,  both  as  the  head  of  the  world 


«J^veution 


^arth  and  h 


13.8 

begun 


etc  7  Tu 
*"^«ai   coun«.T  ""^^^'on.    etc  1  T^  '^^  ^n  3\ 


^"J-  man  is  f^^ 


3tc.  7 

''P-lPetlioi 


'■^-  ^n  God's 
10.   Ry 


^^J'  Dian  Shan  ,^"^^*y  is  bvr^   ?,^P*^^ity 

earth  r  "®ast  ' 

^rtVcontrast  V 

fi^«t  readers  ^It  ^^«  ^a 

""'t^ect  of  civT 
'  Procr- 


^P-Mt2652 
is  seen,     n  „     ' 

t  \    ,        •      -It  cor 


thi 
fya 


^^' 


S^ 


.ife,'  Awfe 
ngdom^.t, 


and  u  t 
;ain  of  Ii's 

81-96^ 
s  the  coT- 
)f  the  cm 
erpart  le 
Se,'  etc;h 
^pheme'd 
ch,  thel- 
tion  ofie 
ices  tcs- 


and  in  his  death  and  return  to   ] 
counterpart  of  Christ  in  God's  ki 
John  took  this  Nero  superstitioi 
to  symbolise  the  breaking  out  ag 
persecuting  spirit    in   Domitian, 
(v.  3).     As  Nero  is  represented 
part  of  Christ,  so  the  worshi- 
and  the  beast  is  the  evil  ct 
worship  of  God  :  cp.  '  who  is 
Ex  15 11  (v.  4).      The  beast 
and  His  tabernacle  (i.e.  the  C 
ing-place  of  God)  by  the  assu. 
honour  and  by  imputing  evil  prai;t 
tianity  :  cp.  1  Pet  2 12  (vv.  5*-)-    He  w'-^jg  ap>d 
(i.e.  by  God,  who  overrules  the  wo...jS^]^  jj 
men  to  His  glory)  to  war  against  the^'.^g  ' 
in  world-wide  power  (v.  7),  and  wo/^  jg 
offered  to  him  by  the  ungodly  (vv.  89.fhe 
description  of  the  beast  ends  with  a,  unc- 
tion to  the  saints  to  submit  to  Godill  jn 
unresisting  patience  (v.  10). 

I.   I  stood]  RV  'he  stood.'     Saw^  'I 
saw.'     Crowns]    RV    'diadems,'     itiigly 
crowns.     The  name]  RV  '  names.'     <hich 
gave  power]  RV  '  because  he  gave  hhor- 
ity.'     5.   Forty  and  two  months]  setlis 

6.  And  them,  etc.]  RV  '  even  themris- 
tians  are  themselves  God's  '  tabern:be- 
cause  He  is  '  in  the  midst  of  '  them  :  [  3 

Dwell]  Gk.  '  tabernacle.'  In  heavris- 
tians  are  here  said  to  dwell  in  heave luse 
they  belong  to  the  kingdom   of   hon 


Unp 
Gt)v 

restuieu  L 
will  act  in 

ti^e  'false  pTonhe?'"'',*^^^ 
P-ishment'^f^frefust  't'"  ''  '  '^''O  ^n. 
IS  death  (V.  15).  Uo  one  ??^P  ^^^^'^^e 
avowed  to  buy  or  sell  wK  *^'  ^^^^^^ce  is 
««rtf  cate,  under  Sl^"  ^^?«^  Produce  a 
^^^«  the  name  of  th?b?ast  ^"^  1'  *^^  ^^k, 
^e  has  loin^rl  .„  .u.   "^"^^h.  ^T),  showing  thai 


S^"K-:Sngt;r^fF^  emperor. 

.f  e  name  of  theSt  fe'of  tfT  ''''''  ^^-  ^^^O 
;«  given  as  66G  (y  18)  t,  \'°'^**e"W, 
the  numerical  value  of  tf/  deference  is  to 
and  Hebrew,  leSs  of  .?''';  ^«  ^oth  Greek 
as  numbers      jT l      k    ^^^  ^^Phabet  were  nS 

o?t:  '  h  ™"^"  in  He"Jrii^' ''  •^"™ 


twi2lir°'«'eiette„i3  6I6 


reading  of  some 


MSa     Soms 


which 


18 


"'<>  IS  the  orimnal  n«,T         """"^  h»W  that 
-nta  .Gaios'Sa    .1'e°^0',f  V  "  "P™ 


h 

le 

hoj 

ub^ 

:   of) 


upon  J 


/ 


12.  1 


13.  IS 

'the 


•  ( 


Contrast  ^^f  ^^ \n  Gk.  is  88»  ;.^g  U  tbat  the 
+o  this  interpi  ^.^  ot     ^"^       beyoncL  it. 

'^  ^'''^S  R^  '^^S""'  .v  of  Elijah-,  cp 
•  ^^°«^^'lL^s  a  travesty  _ot^   J.  ^^g 


tion 


-^r>^i;r  u;s|-^t?  !;::s  ■■ 


BV 


cp.  ^'^   • 

MBS 


14.  20 

o^VElA"^^^^  rsee  '1  175  18),  is  spoken 

Babylon,  i.e-^^«fieac    taken   place.      RV 
*    na   if   it   '^'^  .     -DabO"^  the   great,  which 
?Uueii,  fallen  ^^  ^%^2V^  Dan430.     The 
,    +V(  made,'  etc.  .     ^j  j  ^  ^j^^  wrath  of  God 
ovh  of  her  fornicaT^^ithfulness   to   God   in 
"^'curred    hy  ^^"^    I  :  cp.  17  ^  JerSl^. 
^  hich  they  had  s  ^^    jg   denounced   on   any 
jo.  God's  ^  the  Lamb  to  the  beast 
\^Q  fall  a"way  >  is  described  in  language 
7v  9)-      Theirs f.^  and  from  the  account  of 
A  awn  froni  Tj  Sodom  and  Gomorrah  (vv. 
+V\e  destriict'ith  of  God  is  more  terrible 
Tb  beast,  hence  the  endurance  of 


JtlDO- 


-leen 


A  il  \ 

+han  that  justified  (v.   12).      Therefore, 

the  '  sail  with  those  who  have  died  in 

igo  it  '1  the  faith  of  Christ  ;  for  while 

Yse^  no  rest  to  those  who  worship  the 

1^^.  V.  11),  the  death  of  the  saints  brings 

"tz  i  their  labours  and  sorrows  (v.  13). 

^     %  on  131"*,     10.   Poured  out  without 

Ho-^'     nto]     ^  v'^    '  prepared    unmixed   in,' 

-tire   1  '^  «rength  :  cp.  Ps758  Isa51i7. 


'^ 


''S 


K 


■/]  Jt  is  o 
a  ■3-  A    ■ 


'e~ '  H~2o 


e 

■re    Ofj 

a  Of 


"^f 


3    of 

the 
,._     iioth 
a    figurative 
«.1.ole   number   of    the 

.2)-     TbeBedXe^3,,aefil.d 


the  elders  (V.  i)-  described 

strain  (v.  ^)- J^^\  often  d^^^^^^^t^ch  - 
bV  idolatry,  ^"^^^^ '^„st  God,  and  vfhich 
"^  -  «.   adultery  against  v^         i^^purity  -, 


ture  as 


allied 


was 
as 
to 


S,    commonlyjUi^.u^^.  i 

following    the  .i^a«^°_,,^  to  God  (v.  4)  , 
glory  -, 


/  see  on  1  lo. 

i  John  sees  one  '  like  unto  a  son 

IV).      The  expression  is   derived 

man     ^^'  where  it  meant  one  in  human 

m  J  ontrasted  with  the  beasts.    The  title 

?     y'm  !     reted  of  the  Messiah,  and  the  Jewish 

t^^f  I  '  As  ir      '  Enoch  '    shows  that   under   it   the 

3/     ,;.  D„„  regarded  as  a  supernatural  person. 

significance  of   the  term  when 

ied  it  to  Himself,  and  He  joined 

eption  of  the  '  man  of  sorrows ' 

w,   after    His   sorrows,    He    is 

■  hite  cloud '  (representing  the 

).  Ex 4034  1K810  Mtl75  Mk 

ed  as  king:  cp.  19^2  (v.  14). 

tie  down  to  the  earth,  and  the 

ints  is  gathered  (vv.  15  f.). 

el  of  the  fire  on  God's  altar 

le  fire  of  God's  judgments  (cp. 

the  gathering  of  the  wicked  for 

of   God's  wrath:  cp.  19 1^  Isa 


B.>Softas: 
Th">  th- 
oui^d  appl: 
to  le  cono 
of  (3. 
thrtor  '^' 
glor  (P  q 
^46-^,)uni 

He  :^  li.^ 

barv  bla!.- 

T'hur 

(cp.  {np< 
85),  fot 
the 


^I'ess 


Q  a    ^ 

lying   idol  (gujl^-    ^ 


lie') 


blemish ')  sa' 


and  as  an  nn- 
.crifice,  perhaps 


1 

t. 

tr 

Je 

the 

the 

i» 
'diaa 
i.e.  ht 

6.   It 


BV 

his 


■iafed  (t--t..fj,;';rdelti  ot  *e  martyrs  : 

^.  Lookedl  RJ  pother's  "^f f^^^V  2.  A 
ilbe  Lamb.  '^^^  ^  ^is  bather.  -*•  ^ 
Ze,  and  *e  »m\^,i  the  'ojf  ^.°S,»Z' 
,oice]  see  <>■>  ?' ',  L^^i  was  as  *e  ™'f  Sy 

•  *->  ™-  **  "rUi.OOO.     Be«ts]^  BY 


They] 


7:?ei« 


J/l  ^7. 


S2;:d?o?*e  salvation 


for 


Af    Anangeiaii"----      ^     ^    j^bout  to  be 
"io  foarGod  to    fe^  His  oppressed 


those 
ma 
-.eople. 

^.  Heaven]  le- 


the   sky.     8. 


Tbe  Fall  of 


g3i{pel3i3'.  (vv.   17f.).      Those  who  are 
iudgS'.  19)  are  separated  from  the  heavenly 
statethe  redeemed  ('without  the  city,'  cp. 
Z,ech\io  Heb  1 3  ^  f-)-    The  awf  ulness  of  the 
•iudgA^s  described  in  language  similar  to 
that  o^scription  of  judgment  in  the  '  Book 
of  En(]  and  its  universality,  by  the  extent 
of   lawered    by   blood.     '  Four '    is    the 
numbabolical  of  the  earth,  and  1600  is  a 
thousanes  the  square  of  4  :  cp.  '  144,000,' 
the  nuBxpressing  the  people  of  God  (v.  20). 
15.  lie]    cp.    1119.     Crying' ..  to   him] 
i.e.  tht)f  the  Father  is  communicated  to 
Christust  in]   RV  '  send  forth '  (and  v. 
18).     Be]  RV  omits.     Ripe]  RV  '  over- 
ripe.' ).  Thrust  in]  RV  '  cast.' 

18.  RV  '  vintage.'     20.  By  the  space 
of]  Bar  as.' 


1084 


15.  1 


REVELATION 


16.  12 


CHAPTER  15 

The  Seven  Angels  of  the  Bowls 

The  crisis  of  the  book  is  drawing  near.  The 
enemies  of  Christ  and  His  Church — Satan, 
the  empire,  and  the  Provincial  Government — 
have  been  shown  in  their  power  and  cruelty. 
In  c.  14  these  were  left  standing  in  their 
might,  while  the  blessed  safety  of  the  people 
of  God  was  pictured.  In  this  c.  is  described 
the  approach  of  the  judgments  which  are  about 
to  fall  on  the  empire  and  on  the  heathen 
world. 

1-4.  Seven  angels  appear,  they  to  whom  are 
committed  the  '  plagues,'  i.e.  scourging  punish- 
ments, '  which  are  the  last '  (RV),  because  in 
them  the  temporal  judgments  of  God  are  fully 
carried  out  (RV  '  finished ').  But  yet  once 
more  there  is  a  pause,  as  if  the  safety  of  God's 
people  in  the  midst  of  all  this  sin  and  judgment 
could  not  be  insisted  on  sufficiently,  and  a 
vision  is  granted  of  the  blessedness  of  those 
who  by  faithfulness  even  unto  death  have  con- 
quered the  beast.  They  stand  by  the  '  glassy 
sea'  (RV),  i.e.  the  firmament  (see  on  4 '5), 
having  harps  of  God,  i.e.  harps  such  as  are 
suited  to  the  heavenly  worship  of  God  (v.  2). 
They  sing  '  the  song  of  Moses  and  the  song 
of  the  Lamb,'  i.e.  a  song  called  out  by  the 
deliverance  wrought  by  Christ,  as  the  song  of 
Ex  15  was  called  out  by  the  deliverance  from 
Egypt — a  song  in  praise  of  God  who  from 
the  time  of  Moses  to  the  time  of  Christ  has 
never  forgotten  His  oppressed  people  (vv.  3f.). 

3.  Cp.  Pss98i  111^  13914  I45I'  Jerl07. 
Saints]  RV  '  the  ages  '  :  cp.  1  Tim  1 17  (RM). 

4.  Cp.  Ps8fi9  Isa6623.  Judgments]  RV 
'righteous  act,5 ' :  cp.  Ps51'*  Rood's. 

5-8.  Again,  as  in  1 1 1^,  is  opened  the  sanctuary 
of  the  heavenli  ■  tabernacle,  by  which  is  symbol- 
ised that  presence  of  God  to  which  the  worship 
of  heaven  is  directed,  and  from  which  the 
actions  of  heaven  proceed,  and  which  was 
typified  on  earth  by  the  earthly  tabernacle. 
In  1 1 19  it  was  God's  mercy,  represented  by 
the  ark  of  the  covenant,  which  was  mani- 
fested ;  now  it  is  the  declaration  of  His  holy 
will,  represented  by  the  '  testimony,'  i.e.  the 
ten  commandments,  which  is  to  be  enforced 
(v.  5).  From  the  Divine  Presence  come  forth 
the  angels  of  the  plagues,  as  priests,  but  arrayed 
with  flashing  gems  (v.  6).  To  them  are  given 
golden  '  bowls '  (RV),  corresponding  to  the 
basons  used  by  the  priests  for  the  blood  in  the 
sacrificial  ritual  (cp.  Ex  27  3)  full  of  God's 
wrath  (v.  7).  The  Presence  of  God,  sanction- 
ing the  service,  is  manifested  by  the  smoke 
of  His  glory:  cp.  Ex 40 35  IKgio*-  IsaG^ 
(V.  8). 

6.  Clothed .  .  linen]  RV  '  arrayed  with  pre- 
cious stone,  pure  and  bright.'  7.  Beasts]  RV 
'  Uving  creatures.' 


CHAPTER    16 

The  Seven  Bowls 

In  the  last  c.  there  was  a  pause  of  suspense, 
during  which  the  angels  of  the  '  plagues  '  were 
seen  coming  forth  from  the  Presence  of  God 
to  pour  out  His  wrath.  In  this  c.  the  suspense 
is  ended,  and  the  angels  pour  out  God's  wrath 
into  the  earth. 

1-9.  The  vision  of  the  '  bowls '  (RV)  is  paral- 
lel with  that  of  the '  trumpets '  (chs.  8  f .).  In  each 
vision  there  are  four  preparatory  judgments, 
falling  upon  the  earth,  the  sea,  the  rivers  and 
fountains,  and  the  sun.  But,  in  the  '  trumpets,' 
it  is  the  '  third  part '  that  is  affected  ;  while  in 
the  '  bowls '  it  is  the  whole.  At  the  fourth 
trumpet,  the  third  part  of  the  heavenly  bodies 
are  darkened  ;  while  at  the  fourth  bowl,  the 
sun  blazes  out  with  scorching  heat.  These 
differences  are  in  harmony  with  the  figure  em- 
ployed. The  '  trumpets '  herald  the  judgments, 
and  give  anticipations  and  warnings  of  them 
by  calamities  which  foreshadow  others.  The 
first  four  trumpets  and  the  first  four  bowls  are 
parallel  with  the  sixth  seal  (6 1-  *•)  and  with  Mt 
24  29  f.  They  foretell  judgments  to  fall  upon 
the  heathen  world  of  the  Roman  empire  (cp. 
V.  2)  before,  and  leading  up  to,  the  destruction 
of  Rome.  As  in  the  '  trumpets,'  the  descrip- 
tion is  partly  derived  from  the  plagues  of 
Egypt.  It  is  to  be  understood,  not  literally, 
but  as  figuring  a  time  of  intense  calamity  and 
terror. 

I.  A  great  voice]  i.e.  God's  :  see  on  l^o. 
5.  Angel  of  the  waters]  As  Churches  (cp. 
120)^  and  nations  and  armies  (cp.  O^*^),  so  also 
the  elements  of  nature  (cp.  71  1418)  are  in 
Rev.  represented  as  having  a  spiritual  counter- 
part. The  exact  idea  occurs  nowhere  else  in 
the  Bible,  though  for  what,  possibly,  may  be 
approaches  to  it,  cp.  Job  4  is  25  3.  ^  Psl044  Isa 
242if.  Danl0i3,20f.  Mtl8io  Acl2i5  Hebl^ 
(RV).  In  so  poetical  a  book  as  Rev.,  it  is 
difficult  to  decide  whether  these  angels  of 
water,  fire,  etc.,  are  meant  to  be  understood 
as  real  beings  or  merely  as  poetical  personifica- 
tions. 7.  Another  out  of  the  altar]  RV  '  the 
altar'  :  cp.  69  83.  The  altar  is  personified  :  see 
previous  note.  9.  God,  which]  RV  '  the  God 
which.' 

10  f.  The  fifth  bowl  is  poured  in  judgment 
upon  the  city  of  Rome,  the  seat  of  empire. 
The  heathen  world  governed  by  Rome  becomes 
full  of  the  darkness  of  terror  and  rebellion 
at  God's  judgments.  This  is  parallel  to  the 
spiritual  torments  threatened  at  the  fifth 
trumpet:  cp.  91^.  It  is  in  contrast  to  the 
fifth  seal  (cp.  69*-),  where  the  martyrs,  who 
have  suffered,  call  on  God,  while  here  the  sub- 
jects of  the  beast  blaspheme  God  because  of 
their  pains.      10.   Seat]  RV  '  throne.' 

12-16.  The  sixth  bowl  is  poured  out  upoHj 


1085 


( 


16.  13 


REVELATION 


17.3 


the  Euphrates,  the  river  of  Babylon,  i.e.  Rome : 
see  on  17^.  At  the  sixth  trumpet  (9i3f.) 
armies  were  to  come  from  the  '  Euphrates.' 
Here  the  '  Euphrates '  is  to  be  dried  up,  to 
make  a  way  for  the  kings  from  the  sunrising, 
i.e.  that  they  may  be  able  to  capture  Rome ; 
see  on  17  ^^  (v.  12).  The  drying  up  of  the 
Euphrates  refers  to  the  manner  in  which  Cyrus 
took  the  literal  Babylon  by  diverting  the  course 
of  the  river.  The  capture  of  Rome  is  pre- 
paratory to  the  final  battle  of  the  '  kings  of 
the  world,'  i.e.  ungodly  nations,  against  the 
Lamb  at  Har-Magedon  (RV):  cp.  17i2f.  (vv. 
14-16).  Har-Magedon  probably  means  'the 
Mount  of  Megiddo,'  and  signifies  that  the  future 
battle  is  typified  by  the  defeat  of  the  kings  of 
Canaan  ( Jg  5 19  ;  cp.  Zech  1 2  n).  The  kings  of 
the  earth  are  stirred  up  to  fight  against  the 
Lamb  by  the  influence  of  the  Lamb's  three 
great  enemies:  cp.  IK 22 20.  Their  evil  influ- 
ence is  shown  under  the  figure  of  frogs  (cp. 
Ex  8  '^)i  because  it  was  by  producing  frogs  that 
the  magicians  deceived  Pharaoh  (vv.  13f.). 

13,  False  prophet,  i.e.  the  second  beast :  see 
on  1311.  15.  The  voice  of  Christ  breaks  in: 
cp.  22 ''>  12-15.  Keepeth  his  garments]  i.e.  let 
not  the  power  and  attractiveness  of  the  coming 
evil  rob  any  Christian  of  the  strict  purity  of 
his  Christian  life:  cp.  3 is  71*.  16.  He]  RV 
'  they,'  i.e.  the  frog-like  spirits. 

17-21.  The  seventh  bowl  is  poured  out,  and 
the  voice  of  God  announces  that  the  end  of 
the  preparatory  judgments  is  reached  (v.  17). 
With  the  lightnings  and  thunderings  and  voices 
which  close  each  vision  (cp.  8^  1119),  comes 
now  a  great  earthquake  (v.  18),  which  splits 
Babylon  (Rome)  into  three,  and  overthrows 
other  worldly  powers  (v.  19).  Some  have 
understood  this  as  a  literal  prediction  that 
Rome  was  to  be  destroyed  by  an  earthquake. 
More  probably  the  earthquake  represents  the 
shaking  of  all  earthly  institutions  when  God 
comes  to  judgment:  cp.  6 12  8^  11 1^.  The 
judgments  of  the  bowls  end  with  a  picture, 
expressed  in  physical  figures,  of  the  upheaval 
and  destruction  which  accompany  the  mani- 
festation of  the  wrath  of  God:  cp.  61^  Ili9 
2011  (vv.  20  f.).     The  cup]  see  on  148. 

CHAPTER  17 
Babylon  the  great  Harlot 
The  judgment  on  Rome,  which  had  been 
announced  before,  is  now  shown  in  detail. 
The  identification  of  '  Babylon '  with  Rome, 
here  and  elsewhere  in  Rev.,  is  supported 
(HDB.)  by  the  following  considerations  : — 
The  name  Babylon  in  17 ^  'is  described  as 
mystery,  i.e.  a  name  to  be  allegorically  inter- 
preted. .  .  B.  is  described  (1)  as  "  the  harlot"  ; 
the  supreme  antithesis  of  "  the  bride,"  "  the 
holy  city,"  "  the  new  Jerus."  ;  (2)  as  the  centre 
and  ruler  of  the  nations,  148  17 if.,  15, is  ;  (3) 


as  seated  on  "seven  mountains,"  17 9  ;  (4)  as 
the  source  of  idolatry  and  impurity,  17 2f-  182 
192..  .  (5)  as  a  great  trading  centre,  I83'ii-19  ; 
(6)  as  enervated  by  luxury,  187,  I2f. 22j  (7)  as 
the  arch-persecutor  of  the  saints  and  of  "  the 
witnesses  of  Jesus,"  17*'  192.'  Babylon,  as 
the  seat  of  world-empire,  and  the  ancient  and 
persistent  enemy  of  the  people  of  God,  was  a 
striking  type  of  Rome.  Many  think  Rome  is 
meant  in  1  Pet  51^. 

I  f .  Rome  is  spoken  of  by  the  herald  angel 
of  the  bowls  as  a  harlot,  cp.  Isa23io*-  (Tyre), 
Nah3'*  (Nineveh),  sitting  on  many  waters,  cp. 
Jer51i^  (Babylon),  which  signify  the  peoples 
over  whom  Rome  ruled,  cp.  v.  15.  i.  Vials] 
RV  '  bowls.' 

3-6.  St.  John  is  taken  to  a  wilderness  to 
see  the  harlot  city,  as  in  Isa21i  the  vision 
of  Babylon's  fall  was  declared  from  a  wilder- 
ness. She  is  sitting  on  a  beast,  i.e.  the  Roman 
empire  :  cp.  13 1*.  The  beast  is  scarlet, 
because  of  the  blood  shed  by  Rome.  It  is  full 
of  names  of  blasphemy  (e.g.  Sebastos  ;  see  on 
13 1),  for  in  coins  and  seals  and  statues  and 
temples  the  empire  was  full  of  such  names. 
It  has  seven  heads  and  ten  horns,  explained  in 
vv.  9,  12  (v.  3).  The  woman,  i.e.  the  city, 
is  clothed  with  luxury,  and  she  has  in  her 
hand  a  golden  cup,  signifying  debauchery  :  cp. 
148  Jer51'^  (v.  4).  On  her  forehead,  after  the 
custom  of  Roman  harlots,  is  a  label  with  her 
name  (v.  5).  She  is  drunken  with  the  blood 
shed  in  the  persecution  of  Nero.  St.  John 
wonders  at  her  iniquity  (v.  6).  6.  Admiration] 
RV  '  wonder.' 

For  some  description  of  the  condition  of 
Rome,  see  Intro.  Romans.  The  state  of  society 
at  Rome,  at  the  time  of  the  Rev.,  was  probably 
the  worst  the  world  had  ever  seen.  The 
aristocracy,  which  alone  had  any  voice  in 
public  affairs,  was,  with  few  exceptions,  utterly 
given  over  to  the  most  shameless  wickedness. 
Vast  wealth  was  in  their  hands,  which  was 
spent  in  unbridled  luxury  and  debauchery. 
Their  continual  craving  for  new  sensations 
was  ministered  to  by  foreign  parasites,  who 
introduced  new  vices  and  flagrant  superstitions. 
"With  no  feeling  for  others,  their  cruelty  was 
appalling.  With  their  appetite  for  life  jaded 
by  the  pursuit  of  pleasure,  suicide  became 
common.  The  herded  masses  of  the  people 
were  sunk  in  ignorance  and  pauperism.  The 
public  distribution  of  corn  confirmed  them  in 
idleness,  and  the  public  shows  helped  to  harden 
their  hearts  and  to  corrupt  their  feelings.  The 
State  religion  was  not  believed  in  by  the 
educated,  while  it  had  no  moral  teaching  to 
provide  for  those  who  did  believe  in  it,  and 
there  was  no  system  of  public  education. 

The  Christians  were  accused  of  having 
caused  the  great  fire  which  raged  in  Rome  for 
nine  days  (64  a.d.)     According  to  Tacitus,  a 


1086 


17.7 


REVELATION 


18.  12 


great  multitude  were  convicted,  not  only  of 
incendiarism,  but  of  hatred  of  mankind. 
Some  were  covered  with  the  hides  of  wild 
beasts  and  worried  to  death  by  dogs  ;  others 
were  covered  with  pitch  and  set  on  fire  at 
nightfall  to  illuminate  the  imperial  gardens. 
For  some  years  Christians  were  punished  on 
the  accusation  of  horrible  crimes.  Afterwards, 
certainly  by  the  time  of  Domitian,  the  mere 
profession  of  Chi-istianity  became  punishable. 

7-18.  The  angel  interprets  the  mystery 
(v.  7).  The  beast,  which  has  previously 
represented  the  empire,  now  stands  for  Nero, 
in  whom  the  cruelty  of  the  empire  had  been 
personified:  see  on  13 3.  He  shall  come  up 
out  of  the  'abyss'  (RV),  cp.  9^  note,  11 7,  i.e. 
return  to  life,  and  then  go  to  perdition  :  cp. 
1 9  20  Mt  7 13  (v.  8).  The  seven  heads  have  two 
significations.  They  represent  the  seven  hills 
of  Rome  on  which  the  city  sits  (v.  9).  They 
also  represent  seven  kings,  i.e.  probably 
Augustus  (27  B.C.-14  A.D.),  Tiberius  (14-37), 
Caligula  (37-41),  Claudius  (41-54),  Nero 
(54-68),  Vespasian  (69-79),  Titus  (79-81). 
Five  are  dead  ;  therefore,  apparently,  the 
prophecy  was  written  in  the  reign  of  Ves- 
pasian. Titus  is  about  to  come  (v.  10).  Then 
Domitian  (81-96)  will  reign.  Besides  being 
the  eighth  king,  he  will  be  '  Nero,'  because  in 
him  the  persecuting  spirit  of  Nero  will  have 
returned  (v.  11).  The  ten  horns  are  given  an 
interpretation  different  from  that  in  c.  13. 
Now  they  signify  '  the  kings  from  the  sun- 
rising'  of  16^2  (v.  12).  These  are  to  join 
with  the  beast  in  war  against  the  Lamb,  and 
the  Lamb  will  overcome  them  :  cp.  16i'5  19 19'- 
(vv.  13f.).  In  one  sense,  the  Lamb  overcame 
them  when  not  even  death  could  make  Christ's 
people  unfaithful  to  Him  ;  in  another  sense, 
when  the  empire  became  converted  to  Christ. 
The  kings  of  the  earth,  joined  to  the  beast, 
will  turn  against  the  city,  and  destroy  and 
burn  her.  In  v.  16  use  is  made  of  the  common 
expectations  that  Nero,  returned  to  life,  and 
in  alliance  with  the  Parthians,  would  take 
signal  vengeance  on  Rome  for  her  rebellion 
against  him  (vv.  16f.).  In  v.  18  the  city  is 
identified  with  Rome.  It  is  clear  that  the 
prophecy  of  the  destruction  of  Rome,  of 
which  this  c.  forms  part,  has  not  been  ful- 
filled. It  has  been  suggested  that  the  rapid 
spread  of  Christianity  in  Rome  altered  the 
character  of  the  city,  and  that,  for  this  reason, 
God  withheld  the  threatened  judgment  :  cp. 
Gnl82«f.  (Sodom),  Jon  3 10  (Nineveh). 

8.  That  was]  RV  '  how  that  he  was.'  Yet 
is]  RV  '  shall  come.'  9.  Here  is  the  mind, 
etc.]  i.e.  a  wise  man  will  be  able  to  under- 
stand that  which  follows.  The  expression 
challenges  the  reader's  attention  :  cp.  13^. 

10.  There]  RV'they.'  lof.  Hemustcon- 
tinue,  etc.]   With  a  different  punctuation  of 


1087 


the  Greek  this  might  be  rendered,  '  he  must 
continue  a  little  while,  and  (so  must)  the 
beast  which  was  and  is  not.  And  he  himself 
is  also  an  eighth,'  etc.  With  this  rendering, 
the  beast  is  not  identified  with  one  of  his 
horns.  11.  Even  he  is  the  eighth]  RV  'is 
himself  also  an  eighth.'  12.  One  hour]  i.e.  a 
very  short  time.  14.  And  they  .  .  called]  RV 
'  and  they  also  shall  overcome  that  are  with 
him,  called.'     16.   Upon]   RV'and.' 

CHAPTER  18 
The  Fall  of  Babylon 

In  the  last  c,  the  fall  of  Rome,  and  the 
manner  of  its  fall,  were  prophetically  an- 
nounced. In  this  c,  the  greatness  of  the 
tragedy  is  shown  by  songs  of  thanksgiving 
and  of  lamentation  which  it  calls  forth. 

As  was  suggested  on  c.  17,  we  may  believe 
that  the  songs  of  the  joy  of  angels  over  sin- 
ners that  repent  have  taken  the  place  of  these 
songs.  Yet  they  serve  their  purpose  in  en- 
couraging God's  people  to  faith  and  endurance 
when  at  any  time  wickedness  and  worldliness 
seem  to  be  triumphant. 

The  language  of  the  prophets  of  the  OT.  is 
freely  used.  From  the  human  side,  we  may 
say  that  the  mind  of  the  writer  was  so  satur- 
ated with  the  old  Scriptures  that  he  naturally 
employed  their  language.  From  the  divine 
side,  we  are  to  learn  that  '  no  prophecy  .  .  is 
of  any  private  interpretation,'  2  Pet  1 20^  and 
that  God  looks  on  worldly  wickedness  at  any 
time  according  to  the  same  principles  with 
which  he  regarded  Babylon  and  Tyre  of  old. 

1-3.  Proclamation  of  the  Fall  of  Rome. 

2.  Fallen]  cp.  148  Isa219.  Habitation]  cp. 
Isal32i34i3f.     Cage]   RV  '  hold,' i.e.  prison. 

3.  RV  '  For  by  the  wine  of  .  .  all  the  nations 
are  fallen'  :  cp.  14 s  17 2.  Abundance  of  her 
delicacies]   RV  '  power  of  her  wantonness.' 

4-8.  God's  people  are  commanded  to  come 
out  of  Babylon  as,  before,  they  were  warned 
to  quit  Jerusalem  :  cp.  JerSl*^  Mt24i6.  So, 
spiritually,  God's  people  are  to  take  care  that 
the  pleasures  of  wickedness  do  not  entice  them 
to  have  fellowship  with  it. 

5.  ftemembered]  cp.  16 1^.  6.  Reward  her] 
RV  '  Render  unto  her '  :  a  command  to  the 
ministers  of  God's  wrath.  Rewarded  you]  RV 
'rendered':  cp.  Psl378.  Double]  i.e.  very 
great  sin  calls  forth  very  great  punishment  : 
cp.  Jer  16 18.  7.  Lived  deliciously]  RV  '  waxed 
wanton.'     Saith]  cp.  Isa475f. 

9-20.  Dirge  of  those  who  loved  the  wicked 
city.  The  writer  evidently  had  in  his  mind 
Ezek26f-  (of  Tyre).  The  dirge  is  suddenly 
overmastered  (v.  20)  by  the  exultation  of 
those  she  has  oppressed. 

9.  Deliciously]  RV  '  wantonly.'  11.  Rome 
was  not  a  trading  city,  but  must  have  been  a 
great  buyer  of  luxuries.     12.  Thyine   wood] 


f 


18.  13 


REVELATION 


19.19 


a  very  hard,  fragrant  wood,  specially  valued 
by  the  Greeks  and  Romans  as  a  material  for 

tables  (HDB.). 

13.  Cinnamon]  RV  'cinnamon,  and  spice.' 
Odours]  RV  '  incense.'     Beasts]  RV  '  cattle.' 

14.  Goodly]  RV  '  sumptuous.'  20.  Fe  holy 
apostles]  RV  'ye  saints,  and  ye  apostles,' — 
SS.  Peter  and  Paul  were  put  to  death  at  Rome. 

Avenged  you]   RV  '  judged  your  judgment.' 

21-24.   An  angel  compares  the  casting  down 

of  Babylon  to  the  casting  down  of  a  millstone 

into  the  sea,  i.e.  it  shall  be  sudden,  and  '  with 

no  restoration  in  the  future  '  (Benson). 

CHAPTER  19 

Christ  and  His  Armies  conquer  the 
Beast  and  his  Prophet 

The  harlot  city  having  been  destroyed,  the 
marriage  of  the  Lamb  with  the  glorified  Church 
is  announced.  But  before  this  can  take  place, 
the  other  enemies  of  the  Lamb  must  be  over- 
come, and  St.  John  sees  in  a  vision  the  over- 
throw of  the  beast  and  of  the  false  prophet. 

1-4.  The  great  multitude  of  the  saints  in 
heaven  (see  on  1  lO)  praises  God  (v.  1)  because 
the  wicked  city,  which  corrupted  the  earth, 
and  shed  the  blood  of  God's  servants,  is  judged 
(vv.  2  '•).  The  living  creatures  aud  the  elders 
join  in  the  worship  and  praise  (v.  4). 

I.  Alleluia]  RV  '  Hallelujah,'  lit.  '  praise  ye 
the  Lord.'  The  word,  which  occurs  only  here 
in  the  NT.,  is  common  in  the  Psalms. 

5-10.  A  voice  calls  on  all  God's  servants  to 
praise  Him  (v.  5).  In  response,  a  vast  hymn 
of  praise  from  Christ,  the  living  creatures,  and 
the  saints  (see  on  1 1^)  is  heard,  announcing  the 
marriage  of  the  Lamb  (vv.  6*).  In  this  way, 
as  so  often,  the  writer  brings  forward  a  new 
thought,  which  is  to  be  developed  later  (see 
on  211*).  The  bride,  the  New  Jerusalem,  is 
to  be  arrayed  in  the  pure  linen  of  righteous 
acts,  in  contrast  to  the  harlot's  red  garment  of 
sin  :  cp.  18  ^  (v.  8).  The  herald  angel  declares 
the  blessedness  of  those  who  are  called  (RV 
'  bidden ')  to  the  marriage  supper  :  cp.  3  20  17  u 
Mt223*.  Lkl4i5  (v.  9).  Of  course,  except  in 
idea,  'the  bride'  and  those  'called,'  i.e.  the 
Chiu-ch  and  its  members,  are  identical.  Filled 
with  wonder  and  joy,  St.  John  falls  down  to 
worship  the  angel  :  cp.  22  s'-  But  the  angel 
checks  him,  saying  that  worship  is  for  God 
alone  (cp.  Col2i8),  and  that  the  fact  that  the 
testimony  of  Jesus,  i.e.  probably  the  Revelation 
made  by  Jesus,  is  ministered  both  by  the  angel 
and  by  Christian  prophets  and  saints,  is  a  sign 
that  they  are  fellow-servants  (v.  10). 

5.  Out  of]  RV  '  forth  from.'  The  voice 
does  not  seem  to  be  God's.  Perhaps  it  is  the 
throne  which  speaks  :  see  on  16  7.  Servants, 
and  ye]  RV  '  servants,  ye.'  8.  Be  arrayed] 
RV  '  array  herself.'  Clean  and  white]  RV 
'bright  and  pure.'  Righteousness]  RV  'right- 


eous acts.'    These  '  righteous  acts '  are  not  the 
cause  of  salvation,  but  its  consequence. 

ID.  For  the  testimony,  etc.]  probably  a 
comment  made  by  St.  John.  Spirit  of  pro- 
phecy] i.e.  the  inspiring  force  of  all  prophecy. 
11-16.  Before  the  fulfilment  of  the  mar- 
riage, the  Lamb's  enemies  must  be  overcome. 
Christ  comes  forth  as  a  warrior  (cp.  Ps453f), 
riding  the  white  horse  of  victory.  His  crowns 
show  Him  to  be  King  of  kings  :  cp.  v.  16. 
He  alone  knows  His  name,  i.e.  He  is  greater 
than  any  one  can  say  or  understand  :  cp.  2^' 
3 12  Mt  1 1 27.  Yet,  as  coming  forth  from  the 
Father,  He  is  called  the  Word  of  God  (cp. 
Jn  1,  1  Jn  1)  ;  and  when  He  conquers  and  rules 
the  nations  He  is  called  King  of  kings  and 
Lord  of  lords  :  cp.  17 1*.  His  garments  are 
sprinkled  with  blood,  i.e.  His  enemies  perish 
before  Him:  cp.  Isa63i*-  (vv.  11-13).  The 
heavenly  hosts  of  angels  (cp.  1 K  22 19)  follow 
Him,  but  no  blood  is  on  their  garments,  for 
He  alone  overcomes  the  enemies,  cp.  v.  21 
(v.  14),  which  He  does  by  the  word  of  His 
mouth  :  cp.  1 16  2i2  Isall^  Jnl248  Heb4i2. 
He  treads  God's  enemies  in  the  winepress  of 
God's  anger  (a  change  of  figure)  :  cp.  14i9f. 
Isa633  (v.  15). 

II.  Heaven]  RV  'the  heaven,'  i.e.  the  sky. 
White  horse]  cp.  62.  12.  Crowns]  RV 
'diadems.'  13.  Dipped  in]  RV  'sprinkled 
with.'  14.  Clean]  RV  '  pure.'  15.  Rule]  cp. 
2  27  125  Ps29.  Fierceness  and  wrath]  RV 
'  fierceness  of  the  wrath.' 

17  f.  The  greatness  of  the  coming  victory  is 
foretold  by  a  cry  to  birds  of  prey  to  eat  the 
flesh  of  the  slain  :  cp.  Ezk39i7f. 

17.  In  the  sun]  i.e.  in  mid  heaven  ;  a  central 
station  to  call  to  the  vultures.  Fowls]  RV 
'  birds.'  The  supper,  etc.]  RV  '  the  great 
supper  of  God,'  i.e.  the  supper  which  God  has 
prepared. 

19-21.  The  persecuting  empire  gathers  all 
its  forces  to  overcome  Christ,  cp.lG^^'^^note, 
17i2f.  (v.  19),  but  is  itself  overcome,  together 
with  the  Asian  Emperor-  worship,  figured  by  the 
beast  and  the  false  prophet  or  second  beast :  cp. 
1311*-  note,  1613.  Both  empire  and  Emperor- 
worship  are  cast  into  the  lake  of  fire  (v.  20). 
The  'lake  of  fire'  (cp.  20 10. i*. is  218)  is  Ge- 
henna, cp.  Mtl89(RM)Mk9'*3(RM),  etc.,  i.e. 
'  the  valley  of  Hinnom.'  This  is  a  valley  out- 
side Jerusalem,  and  was  the  place  of  idolatrous 
sacrifices  to  Molech :  cp.  2K163  21^  Jer73l'• 
19ll.  It  came  to  be  regarded  as  a  figure  of 
the  place  of  punishment  of  the  wicked  :  cp. 
Isa6624  2Esdr736f.  Mt529  (RM)  1028 
(RM)  :  see  HDB.  Evidently  the  casting 
of  empire  and  idolatry  into  such  a  place 
can  only  be  a  figure  for  the  complete  destruc- 
tion of  the  persecuting  and  wicked  systems. 
The  '  rest '  (RV),  i.e.  the  kings  of  the  earth 
and  their  armies,  were  killed  with  the  sword 


1088 


19.  20 


REVELATION 


20.  11 


of  Christ's  mouth  (v.  21).  The  distinction 
between  their  fate  and  that  of  the  two  beasts 
appears  to  have  been  made,  partly  because 
destruction  by  the  lake  of  fire  could  not  be 
the  end  of  any  human  being  before  the  Judg- 
ment, partly  because  the  slaughter  is  sym- 
bolical. Christ  overcomes  men  who  are  His 
enemies,  in  one  way  by  strengthening  His 
people  to  endure  their  assaults,  in  another 
way  by  converting  them.  But  it  is  not  so 
much  individuals  who  are  spoken  of  here,  as 
the  systems  and  principles  of  evil  which  suc- 
ceeding generations  of  individuals  nourish  and 
carry  out.  It  is  those  systems  and  principles 
which  .are  conquered  by  Christ.  The  weapons 
which  they  turn  against  Him  and  His  people 
are  persecution,  '  the  lust  of  the  flesh,  the  lust 
of  the  eye,  and  the  pride  of  life,'  the  spirit  of 
materialism,  etc.  This  spirit  of  the  world  is 
conquered  by  the  preaching  of  the  gospel  of 
Christ,  and  by  the  Spirit  of  Christ  in  the 
hearts  of  men.  This  is  the  battle  of  Har- 
Magedon. 

20.  Miracles]  RV  '  the  signs,'  i.e.  those 
spoken  of  in  13 1^*-,  where  see  notes. 

CHAPTER  20 

Satan  conquered.     The  Last 

Judgment 

In  this  c.  the  visions  of  the  overthrow  of 
Christ's  enemies  are  continued.  The  devil  is 
bound  for  1,000  years  (vv.  1-3)  ;  the  martyrs 
reign  with  Christ  for  1,000  years  (vv.  4-6). 
It  is  foretold  that,  at  the  end  of  the  1,000 
years,  Satan  will  be  loosed,  and  will  make  a 
last  assault  against  the  saints,  after  which  he 
is  cast  into  the  lake  of  fire  (vv.  7-10).  A 
vision  of  the  Last  Judgment  follows  (vv. 
11-15). 

The  binding  of  Satan  and  the  reign  of  the 
saints  with  Christ,  both  for  1,000  years,  is 
known  as  '  the  Millennium.'  Many  of  the 
later  Jews  expected  that  the  Messianic  king- 
dom, of  which  the  prophets  spoke,  would 
come  in  the  present  age,  and  they  distin- 
guished it  from  the  Final  Judgment  and  new 
heaven  of  righteousness  which  would  follow. 
By  some  it  was  said  that  the  Messianic  king- 
dom would  last  1,000  years,  though  other 
periods  were  also  named. 

It  is  plain  that  St.  John  made  use  of  this 
Jewish  expectation  in  his  prophecy.  But  it 
does  not  follow  that  he  meant  it  to  be  un- 
derstood literally.  It  is  more  in  harmony 
with  the  character  of  the  book  to  suppose 
that  he  meant  this  Jewish  apocalyptic  ex- 
pectation to-  be  understood  spiritually.  The 
same  conclusion  seems  probable  from  the 
general  circumstances.  The  Clu-istians  had  just 
ibeen  told  that  the  persecuting  city  and 
empire  would  be  overcome.     They  might  ask 


whether    the 
I  69 


devil,  the    author  of    all  evil, 


would  not  raise  up  fresh  enemies  against 
them. 

1-3.  For  a  thousand  years  the  devil  will  be 
bound  and  shut  up  in  the  abode  of  spiritual 
evil  (the  'abyss,'  see  on  9^,  not  '  the  lake  of 
fire,'  which  is  the  place  of  final  punishment, 
see  on  19^0).  The  meaning  is,  that  for  '  1,000 
years '  the  power  of  evil  would  not  be  able 
to  gather  itself  into  an  organised  attack 
upon  Christianity.  The  '  1,000  years  '  are  not 
to  be  understood  numerically,  but  as  a  period 
of  rest  and  happiness.  For  1,000  is  a  multiple 
of  10,  which  was  regarded  as  a  sacred  number 
because  the  commandments  are  10  ;  and  it  is 
the  number  which  was  considered  to  stand  for 
the  sabbath  in  the  history  of  the  world,  1,000 
years'  rest  coming  after  6,000  years'  toil :  cp. 
Ps904. 

4-6.  The  Christians  for  whom  St.  John 
wrote  would  ask  what  share  they  had  in  these 
joyful  tidings.  Although  generations  to  come 
would  enjoy  rest  and  peace,  it  was  not  to  be 
in  their  day,  and  many  of  them  must  suffer 
death.  So  they  are  told  that  good  things  are 
in  store  for  them.  Although  they  die,  yet 
their  souls  will  live  and  reign  with  Christ 
(v.  4).  '  The  rest  of  the  dead,'  i.e.  the  ungodly 
dead,  the  men  of  the  earth,  '  lived  not,'  i.e. 
did  not  share  in  the  presence  of  Christ,  but 
remained  for  the  Judgment :  cp.  v.  1 1 .  The 
life  of  the  saints  with  Christ  is  called  '  the 
first  resurrection '  (cp.  Jn  5  ^5)^  because  it  de- 
pends upon  the  resurrection  from  the  death  of 
sin  to  the  life  of  righteousness.  As  such,  it 
belongs  to  all  who  are  Christ's,  whether  on 
earth  or  in  paradise  (v.  5).  Over  them  '  the 
second  death'  (cp.  v.  14,  21 8)  has  no  power, 
because  they  'have  passed  from  death  unto 
life,'  lJn3i4(v.  6). 

7-10.  After  the  time  of  rest,  and  when 
the  Final  Judgment  is  near,  the  power  of  evil 
will  gather  force  again  (v.  7).  Gog  and 
Magog,  i.e.  the  world  hostile  to  God's  people, 
cp.  Ezk38f.  (v.  8),  will  assail  the  Church  (the 
'  camp  of  the  saints  and  the  beloved  city,'  i.e. 
the  spiritual  Jerusalem).  But  God  will  over- 
throw these  last  enemies  (v.  9),  and  the 
devil  will  be  cast  into  the  lake  of  fire, 
i.e.  the  power  of  evil  will  be  destroyed  for 
ever  (v.  10). 

11-15.  God  sits  on  a  '  great  white  throne,' 
i.e.  in  glory  and  purity  (v.  11),  to  judge  the 
wicked  dead.  They  are  not  written  '  in  the 
book  of  life'  (cp.  3^  138  178  2127),  and  they 
are  judged  according  to  their  works.(vv.  12f.), 
and  '  cast  into  the  lake  of  fire.'  Into  the  lake 
of  fire.  Death  and  Hades  (i.e.  the  abode  of  the 
dead)  are  also  cast,  for  '  the  last  enemy  that 
shall  be  destroyed  is  death'  (ICor-^-*^;  cp. 
214).  This  is  the  'second death,'  for  it  is  the 
final  separation  from  eternal  life  (vv.  14f.). 
This   judgment   does    not   apply  to    Ciu'ist's 


1089 


20.  1 


REVELATION 


21.9, 


people  :  cp.  JnS^*.  They  are  in  the  book  of 
life.  They  already '  live '  (cp.  v.  4),  and,  there- 
fore, are  not  reckoned  among  the  '  dead ' 
ofv.  11. 

It  is  plain  that  St.  John's  view  is,  as  it 
were,  foreshortened.  He  sees  the  overthrow 
of  the  anti-Christian  persecution.  He  sees, 
farther  on,  the  Last  Judgment.  But  he  does 
not  specify  the  length  of  the  time  of  rest  and 
then  of  conflict  for  the  Church  which  lies 
between. 

I,  3.  Bottomless  pit]  RV  '  abyss.'  3.  Him 
up]  E,V  '  it.'  Set  a  seal  upon  him]  KY 
'  sealed  it  over  him.'  Deceive]  i.e.  into  attack- 
ingthe Church:  cp.  vv.  8, 10, 1920Gn2  Jn8i2,44. 

Fulfilled]   RV   'finished.' 

4.  Thrones]  cp.  Dan  7 9. 22  Mtl92S.  They] 
i.e.  the  martyrs. 

Witness]  RV  '  testimony,'  i.e.  the  revela- 
tion made  by  Christ,  '  the  faithful  witness ' : 
cp.  1-5,9  1217  1910.  Mark]  cp.  ISi-i^  Reigned] 
The  saints  share  Christ's  triumph  over  sin 
and  death,  and  also,  in  ways  which  we  know 
not,  share  the  glories  of  His  kingdom  :  cp. 
510  Ro  8 17. 

6.  Priests]  cp.  1^  note,  510.  8.  Deceive] 
see  on  v.  3.  10.  Shall  be]  RV  'they  shall 
be.'     II.   Throne]  cp.  Isa 6 1  Dan 7 9. 

12.  The  books]  RV  'books  '  :  cp.  Dan 7 10. 

Works]  cp.  Mtl627  Ro26. 
'      13,  14.  Hell]  RV  'Hades.' 

14.  The  second  death]  RV  'the  second 
death,  even  the  lake  of  fire  '  :  cp.  2ii  Mt254i. 

CHAPTER  21 
The  Holy  City 

The  enemies  of  the  Lamb  have  been  con- 
quered. The  Judgment  is  over.  The  old  con- 
dition of  things  has  passed  away:  cp.  20 n. 
Now  St.  John  sees  in  a  vision  the  blissful  glory 
of  heaven,  in  which  the  Lamb's  redeemed 
people  will  dwell  for  ever. 

1-8.  The  eternal  dwelling-place  prepared  for 
the  redeemed  is  seen  from  a  distance  (vv.  1  f .), 
and  the  voice  of  God  declares  what  it  means 
(vv.  3-6),  and  for  whom  its  glories  are  (vv.  7  f .). 

Three  points  come  out  in  the  description. 
(1)  The  Presence  of  God  with  the  Jew,  sym- 
bolised by  the  tabernacle  in  the  wilderness, 
will  now  be  perfected  by  His  dwelling  ('dwell,' 
lit.  '  tabernacle,'  v.  3  ;  cp.  Jn  1 1*  RM)  with  the 
redeemed  of  all  races  ('men,'  v.  3).  The 
'  peoples,'  i.e.  Gentiles,  have  become  '  His 
peoples '  (v.  3  RV),  and  He  their  Emmanuel 
(■  God  .  .  with  them,'  v.  3) :  cp.  Isa7i-i  Mtl23. 
He  will  take  from  them,  and  keep  from  them, 
all  sorrow,  pain,  and  death  (cp.  7i7  Isa258  35 10 
65 1*5 f-),  because  these  belonged  to  the  first  dis- 
pensation, while  now,  (2)  all  things  are  new. 
There  is  a  new  heaven,  i.e.  sky,  and  a  new 
earth  (cp.  Isa65i7  6622),  from  which  the  sea, 
emblem  of  unrest  and  of  separation,  has  de- 


parted (v.  1);  there  is  a  new  society,  'new 
Jerusalem '  (v.  2)  ;  and  '  all  things,'  i.e.  all 
ways  and  thoughts  and  circumstances  of  exist- 
ence, are  new  :  cp.  2  Cor  5 17  (v.  5).  The  word 
translated  '  new  '  does  not  signify  '  that  which 
has  never  existed  before,'  but  'fresh,'  'that 
which  has  not  been  used  or  worn ' ;  so  it  may 
be  taken  as  meaning  '  undimmed,'  '  unspoilt.' 
The  term  '  new  Jerusalem  '  is  used  figuratively, 
for  the  divine  society  of  the  redeemed  in  glory, 
as  '  Jerusalem '  represents  the  society  of  the 
redeemed  on  earth  :  cp.  20  ^  Gal  4  26.  It  is  a 
'  city  '  in  the  sense  of  being  an  organised  com- 
munity :  cp.  Eph  2 19  Heb  1 1 16.  The  New  Jeru- 
salem is  compared  to  a  bride  (vv.  2-9  ;  contrast 
171"^),  to  denote  that  the  happiness  of  the  re- 
deemed springs  from  their  union  with  Christ : 
cp.Isa61iof-62if-Mt22325iOLkl236Eph525f. 
(3)  Those  for  whom  these  blessed  things  are 
in  store :  those  who  thirst  for,  i.e.  intensely 
desire,  God,  righteousness,  and  eternal  life,  cp. 
Isa55i  Mt56  Jn737  Ro27  (v.  6),  and  who 
'  overcome  '  (v.  7).  Thus  the  chief  purpose  of 
the  book,  in  encouraging  the  tempted  and 
persecuted  to  overcome  by  resistance  unto 
death,  is  maintained  to  the  end.  The  '  city ' 
is  not  for  those  who  are  too  cowardly  to  en- 
dure, who  fall  from  faith  and  join  in  heathen 
abominations  (v.  8). 

3.  A  great  voice]  i.e.  God's.  Heaven]  RV 
'the  throne':  cp.  19 5. 

4.  Former]  RV  '  first.' 

5.  He  said]  i.e.  the  herald  angel.  6.  He 
said]  i.e.  God.  It  is  done]  RV  '  They  are 
come  to  pass  ' ;  '  they  '  = '  these  words  '  (v.  5). 

7.  All]  RV '  these.' 

8.  Abominable]  i.e.  those  who  join  in  heathen 
debaucheries:  cp.  17'^. 

Sorcerers]  lit.  'poisoners':  cp.  1823  22 1^ 
Gal  5  20  R  V.  There  was  much  magic  in  heathen- 
ism, and  it  dealt  in  philtres  and  poisons.  The 
lake]   see  on  19  20.    Second  death]  see  on  20  6. 

9-27.  Further  description  of  the  city.  St. 
John  has  seen  the  city  descending  in  the  dis- 
tance. Now  it  is  shown  him  in  full  view  by 
one  of  the  angels  of  the  bowls  (vv.  9  f .),  prob- 
ably the  herald  angel:  cp.  I71,  see  on  lio. 
The  visible  cloud  of  God's  glory  is  in  the  city 
(cp.  vv.  3,  23  Ezk432f-  Heb  9  5),  and  causes  her 
to  shine  with  glory  as  she  descends  (v.  11). 
Her  walls  represent  her  beauty  and  security, 
and,  with  the  gates  and  foundations  (cp.  Nu  2 
Ezk48  Eph  2  20),  signify  also  that  she  is  the 
home  of  the  Church  of  both  OT.  and  NT.  The  i 
twelve  Apostles  are  mentioned  as  a  body,  so  ■ 
that  we  need  not  ask  whether  the  twelfth  was 
Matthias  or  Paul  (vv.  12-14).  The  city  is 
measured,  but  as  the  city  is  figurative,  so  are 
the  measurements.  All  the  dimensions  are 
compounded  of  12,  the  number  of  the  OT.  and 
the  NT.  (cp.  7*f-),  the  number  which  signifies 
that  God  is  in  the  midst  of  His  people  :  see  on 


1090 


21.  9 


REVELATION 


22.  6 


V.  12.  The  city  is  a  cube,  which,  taken  liter- 
ally, would  be  monstrous,  but  in  its  symbolical 
meaning  says  that  the  whole  city  is  a  sanctuary 
like  the  Holy  of  Holies  in  the  Tabernacle  (vv. 
15-17).  The  magnificence  of  the  city  is  figured 
by  the  most  beautiful  and  precious  things  (vv. 
18-21).  Her  spiritual  perfection  is  such  that 
no  special  sanctuary  is  needed:  cp.  Jn42i. 
There  is  no  one  in  the  city  who  is  not  at  one 
with  God.  All  her  people  are  united  in  His 
service.  Thus  '  there  is  no  temple,  because 
the  city  is  all  temple '  (C.  A.  Scott)  (v.  22). 
Earthly  light  and  knowledge,  which  are  im- 
perfect and  partial,  have  vanished  in  the  full 
light  and  knowledge  of  God  :  cp.  Isa  60  ^^  Jn 
812  1  Corl39f-  (v.  23).  The  prophecies  of  the 
gathering  in  of  the  Gentiles  (cp.  Isa  60  3)  are 
fulfilled  (v.  24),  and  redeemed  humanity  wor- 
ships God  within  the  open  gates  of  the  city 
(cp.  Isa  60 11)  in  perpetual  light  and  security 
(vv.  2.5  f .)  ;  those  only  being  shut  out  who  are 
unclean  through  their  separation  from  God  to 
the  service  of  the  devil's  agents  (v.  27). 

9.  Vials]  RV  '  bowls.'  Full  of]  RV  '  Who 
were  laden  with.'  10.  Spirit]  RV  '  Spirit '  : 
cp.  173.     Mountain]  cp.  Ezk402f-  Mt48. 

11.  Jasper]  see  on  4 3. 

12.  Twelve  gates]  ^  Four  is  the  number 
which  is  the  symbol  of  the  world,  three  that 
of  God.  Twelve^  therefore,  is  the  signature 
of  the  covenant  people  among  whom  God 
dwells.  The  enclosure  of  the  Tabernacle 
was  a  square  space,  three  tribes  being  over 
against  each  of  the  four  sides.  Thus  we  have 
a  square  with  the  Tabernacle  in  the  midst, 
expressive  of  God  in  the  midst  of  His 
people  '  (Currey). 

15.  Cp.  Ezk403f.  17.  The  wall]  i.e.  the 
thickness  of  the  wall  :  cp.  JerSl^^.  The 
angel]  RV  '  an  angel,'  i.e.  the  angelic  cubit 
was  of  the  same  length  as  a  human  cubit. 

19  f.  The  stones  are,  with  exceptions,  the 
same  as  those  in  the  high  priest's  breastplate 
(cp.Ex28i7f-  39iOf.),  and  those  ascribed  to  the 
king  of  Tyre  (Ezk28i3).  Flinders  Petrie 
(HDB.)  says  that  precious  stones  were  not  so 
exactly  distinguished  from  one  another  in 
ancient  days  as  they  are  how.  '  Jasper '  was, 
according  to  him,  gi-een  jasper  ;  the  '  sapphire  ' 
was  our  lapis-lazuli  ;  the  '  chalcedony '  was 
dioptase  (silicate  of  copper)  ;  the  '  emerald  ' 
should  be  rock-crystal,  cp. 43note  ;  'sardonyx' 
was  the  red  and  white  onyx  ;  the  '  sardius ' 
was  red  jasper  ;  the  '  chrysolite  '  in  St.  John's 
time  was  the  present  topaz  ;  the  '  beryl '  was 
either  beryl,  i.e.  an  opaque  emerald,  or  green 
felspar  ;  the  '  topaz  '  was  peridot  ;  the  '  chry- 
soprasus  '  was,  probably,  the  green  chalcedony ; 
the  'jacinth'  was  the  sapphire  ;  the  'amethyst' 
was  the  modern  amethyst. 

24.  Of  them  -which  are  saved]  RV  omits. 

27.  That  defileth]   RV  '  unclean,'  lit.  '  com-     '  the 


mon':    cp.   v.   8  Isa  521   Ezk449.     Worketh, 
etc.]   RV  '  maketh  an  abomination  and  a  lie.' 
Book  of  life]  cp.  35  138  2012. 


The  Vision 


CHAPTER  22 

ENDED.     The 
Hand 


Lord  is  at 


1091 


The  inner  life  of  the  heavenly  Jerusalem 
is  described.  Then  the  '  Revelation '  closes 
with  the  repeated  assurance  that  Christ  is  at 
hand,  and  with  the  yearnings  of  the  Church 
and  of  St.  John  for  the  joy  of  His  advent. 

1-5.  In  the  New  Jerusalem,  the  blessed  life 
of  Eden  is  more  than  restored.  There  is 
a  river  of  life  (cp.  Gn2i0),  i.e.  the  Holy 
Spirit:  cp.  Jn4H  737.  Cp.  also  Ezk47i 
Joel  3 18  Zechl48,  in  which  prophecies  the 
waters  come  from  the  Temple :  here  there 
is  no  Temple,  and  the  waters  flow  from 
the  throne  of  God,  i.e.  they  are  the  result  of 
God's  immediate  presence,  and  of  His  fully 
accepted  government  (v.  1).  On  either  side 
of  the  river  as  it  flows  in  the  midst  of  the 
street  is  a  grove  of  trees,  the  tree  of  life  : 
cp.  Gn29  Ezk47i2.  The  fruit  is  always 
available,  for  there  is  a  fresh  crop  every  month: 
cp.  the  manna,  Jn63if.  The  leaves  healed 
the  sin  of  the  '  nations '  within  the  city,  and 
the  fruit  nourishes  their  life.  In  the  tree  we 
see  the  cross  on  which  Christ  hung  as  precious 
fruit  (v.  2).  Now,  too,  as  He  became  '  a  curse 
for  us'  (Gal 3 13),  the  curse  of  Eden  (cp.  Gn 
3i7,22f. )  is  taken  away:  cp.  Zechl4ii.  Over 
the  '  sweet  societies '  of  the  Redeemed,  God 
and  the  Lamb  reign  for  ever.  The  Redeemed 
offer  up  worship  face  to  face  with  God  (the 
'beatific  vision')  (cp.  Ps  17i5Mt58,  1  Cor  13 12 
1  Jn32)  and  receive  His  Name,  i.e.  are  marked 
as  His  (see  on  73  and  14 1),  and  transformed 
into  His  likeness  (vv.  3f.).  And  as  His  glory 
thus  shines  upon  and  enters  into  them,  they 
'  reign,'  i.e.  their  life  can  develop  and  expand 
to  its  fullest  powers,  there  being  no  evil 
('curse,'  V.  3)  in  them  to  be  restrained,  nor 
hindering  circumstances  without  to  restrain 
them  (v.  5). 

I.  Clear]  RV  'bright.'  if.  And  of  the 
Lamb.  In  the  midst  of  the  street .  .  river] 
RV  '  and  of  the  Lamb,  in  the  midst  of  the 
street  thereof.  And  on  this  side  of  the  river 
and  on  that.'     2.   Manner']  RM  '  crops.' 

5.  Candle]  RV  '  light  of  lamp.' 
6-9.   Affirmation  of  the  truth  of  the  vision 

which  is  now  concluded,  and  of  the  near 
approach  of  that  of  which  it  tells  (vv.  6,  7). 
St.  John,  knowing  the  angel  has  finished  his 
task  and  is  about  to  leave  him,  falls  before 
him  in  worship,  as  in  19 10,  but  is  again  charged 
to  worship  God  alone  (vv.  8  f .). 

6.  The  Lord  God  of  the  holy  prophets]  RV 
Lord,    the    God   of   the    spirits    of    the 


22.  7 


REVELATION 


22.  20 


prophets':  cp.  lCorl432.  The  meaning  is 
that  the  words  of  the  Christian  prophets  do  not 
speak  their  own  mind,  but  God's.  7.  Christ's 
voice  breaks  in  :  cp.  IG^^. 

8.  RV  '  And  I  John  am  he  that  heard  and 
saw  these  things.' 

10-15.  The  vision  is  not  to  be  sealed,  as 
was  Daniel's  (cp.  Dan  124),  because  it  is  for 
immediate  use  (v.  10).  Those  who  'will  not 
turn  and  repent  because  of  the  Revelation 
which  Christ  has  now  completed,  will  not, 
cannot  have  any  greater  power  brought  to 
bear  on  them  before  He  comes  again  :  cp.  Lk 
1631 '  (Benson)  (vv.  11-1.3).  Happy  are  they 
who  are  purified,  thi-ough  faith,  by  His  blood 
(cp.  7 1*),  for  the  life  and  joy  of  the  city  are  for 
them(vv.  14  f.). 

10.  Seal  not]  RV  '  seal  not  up' :  cp.  10^. 

11.  Cp.  Ezk327  2039  Dan  12 10.  Unjust] 
RV  'unrighteous.'  Be  unjust]  RV  '-do  un- 
righteousness.' Be  filthy]  RV  'be  made 
filthy.'     Be  righteous]  RV  '  do  righteousness.' 

Be  holy]  RV  '  be  made  holy.' 

12-15.   Spokeu  by  Christ :  cp,  v.  7,  16^5. 


14.  Do  his  commandments]  RV  '  wash 
their  robes.'     Right]   RV  '  the  right  to  come.' 

16  f.  The  Messiah  attests  the  Revelation 
(v.  16).  The  Holy  Spirit  in  the  Church  (cp. 
R08I6),  and  the  Church  herself,  hearing  His 
voice,  call  for  His  advent,  and,  at  the  same 
time,  invite  all  who  will  to  take  part  with  the 
Church  in  this  joyful  expectation  (v.  17). 

16.  The  root,  etc.]  The  reference  is  to  the 
Messiahship  of  our  Lord,  as  son  of  David,  and 
as  the  '  star  '  of  Balaam's  prophecy  :  cp.  2  -S 
55  Nu24i'  Isalli.io  Mtli  22^2.  17.  Bride] 
see  on  212.  Heareth]  see  on  13.  Athirst]  cp. 
21 6.     Freely]   cp.  Isa55i. 

18  f.  A  warning  that  the  book  is  not  to  be 
falsified  by  addition  or  excision:  cp.  Dt42 
1232.     19.   Book  of  life]   RV  '  tree  of  life.' 

And  from  the  things]  RV  omits. 

20  f .  Christ  sums  up  the  book  by  announcing 
His  speedy  advent,  and  St.  John  prays  for  it 
(v.  20).  The  book,  and  with  it  the  Bible, 
closes  in  prayer  for  that  in  which  all  its  bless- 
ings are  contained, 'the  grace,'  i.e.  the  mani- 
fested love,  '  of  the  Lord  Jesus  '  (v.  21). 


THE  END 


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Scale 


I — I   I — II — '  I  -I  I  I  — I  _  ... 

10  0  10  20  30  40  so  Cubits 

GROUND    PLAN    OF    SOLOMON'S   TEMPLE. 

B  and  J  =  Boa2  and  Jachin — the  pillars.  P  =  the  porch.  H  =  the  hSkdl  or  Holy  Place.  I)  =  the  debir  or 
Most  Holy  Place.  T  =  the  table  of  shewbread.  S  =  the  stairway  to  the  upper  chambers.  E  =  the  entrance  to 
the  chambers.     1-30  =  the  chambers  after  Bzekiel's  temple. 


Reproduced  by  permission  of  Messrs  T.  <i-  T.  Clark  from  Dr.  Hastings' "  Dictionary  of  Ike  Bible." 


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